/ Ce ~ ’ “Vu Dogs FEV N = % > \ a nein - = - ‘ : x ‘ : » a : N PAPERS NE ‘ * oa 7 N . | i : , 7 : es - ee eee PES ate ‘ HSE EE SES EE EE an MEMOIRES ET COMPTES RENDUS DE LA SOCIETE ROYALE DU De Sh ey bo. SECONDE SERIE-TOME II SEANCE DE MAI 1896 EN VENTE CHEZ JOHN DURIE ET FILS, OTTAWA; LA CIE COPP-CLARK, TORONTO; - BERNARD QUARITCH, LONDRES, ANGLETERRE 1896 BROCE ER DIN.GS AND TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY | QE LA { A OF [93 > CANADA \&p | SECOND. SERIES-VOLUME Il MEETING OF MAY, 1896 HEROLELBRARY 0 SEO Vike … un. PUBLIC-ETBRARY | NEC. DUPLICATE ——- LD” Q). 842597 a FOR SALE BY : JOHN DURIE & SON, OTTAWA; THE COPP-CLARK CO., TORONTO BERNARD QUARITCH, LONDON, ENGLAND By! ellie 1896 DT D ev Tr 1 PRINTED BY THE GAZETTE PRINTING COMPANY, MONTREAL, ieee Ooh CO NE NETS : PROCEEDINGS. J ST (Of MLCMUETS DNESENT Se cancedes ices acaetuseinecesen-bec oct see I AE Pot D AO DD AO USe ER TEMRE OPEN abate s+ sie aad ee awes "a yanene se IT Printing Of LPANSACTIONS. NN. net ae name ares at II Pre AG OOUINGS acco’ cai Reel c ie OR QE LEP ste op Gaede my SaaS tae AGE EL RNOLD EURO OT PER PRE OT RER OR EEE =e = PL APE MMA VI TOUTE SMS CRD US aa soe cmene ceane «22 Se 2s errant ee de eee dat WE Diem Peles NO PIVOT AT IONS RARE PS TT ee aed cas er ao sain ear oes Vil Gur FOGramale Of IE GDETS JON MMCCULG UN EE VII MAP opular Lecture on The” Eh ISNETLCS RSR a0» stk = apenas VII SR AMOR AANCE Of MCMDETS essa: cna nas nerge ner amer et ame eee de eee eenee Vit DPIC CEASE Ofs WACTRD ERS Eee doe tee sos tania dean enemele senem en ce VIII Re PP tOmONEM M EMbErS Re Nr Re rer en «eee pig D: MTS PCI Ed MS PME an Deer ‘ate cuts. awenehed ais pions boc sac ices IX 12. Meeting of the British Association ..…............ .........,...... XI 13. Survey of Tides and Currents in Canadian Waters: Sum- TOTO) EAROOROSS SES NUE nan de DT PE MER MERE ee XI ML * ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCIAUTE Su. tdi eue ire espece XIX DANONE PILED SEVRES nan donne aan h etai esnse te deel tesa XX OU EURO UMP RSR PR ETUI RIT metre eee XXII PP FOPOSCUNG BUOT MO CLCOTULLONG LS 22 dan dada vw anne one tans ee ere XXII ÉCRITES One OUI Uererst cant sale at Splat neo a a vom aslenie Semon dune der XXVIII GENERAL BUSINESS. The Cabot Celebration: Report of Committee on... XXIX Reports of Associated Societies : I. American Folk-Lore Society, Montreal Branch... XXXII IT. Higin Historical and Scientific Institute... XXXII DDE windy s Lane: Historical Society. ner. ELMAR AE XXXIV IV. Numismatic and Antiquarian Society, Montreal (Illustra- WON OF Che ACA ANCE CY) Re ne Perses evene XXXV Ne Nova Sivptian institute Of. SerenGeincer tans sotetost.ceesvetees XXXVII AMEE CHRTULOMMASSOCLOULION nas XLI 31868 IT VIL. IX. x.- XI. XI. XIIT. XIV. ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA DATI ON ATEN une idee rate esc ere D XLI Doianital Clu Of Canada cos svensjaseonasavestoccasss terres LIT Natural History Society of New Brunswick... scceee ANUS CURE The Astronomical and Physical Society of Toronto...... LXV Dar rela Naturalists’ Club cc... ie ee LXXI Obama Literary and ScientifienSociety.. RS Suse ee LXXV Phe SVentworth Historical SOCiEbp sn r ne at e sass LXXVII Presidential Address by Dr. Selwyn, O.M.G., F.R.S., “ On the Origin and Evolution of Archean Rocks, etc.”.. .UXX VIII REPORTS OF SECTIONS. PE MELON san Sas rase oswisd facets «ees osc de se su esn se seats Deanetiaes C BECOME AOL ete ae Sant ant et seen vend ys genres es ao De SE neue CL TES A CTO ee oe s/c twig MR Re RU or RUE te CIIT pe M ICCTA SR van doe dp one con tools vee RER ERREUR TO CIV BEIM ORCL DT 1906-07 dni ctnaddi RE dede + one tea eee CVI D URSS US alse as inde Sunline somme sante 22 ke strates eecens re CVI APPENDICES TO PROCEEDINGS. LA Appendix A: Memorandum on the Unification of Time at Sea. A-3 Appendix B : Memoir of the late Professor Lawson. By Dr. De MM ACRAY: Ca por brait) SE: ne B-1 MNT, IB POTD ÈS CPR RE PE res nes Ste RE ET CIX CLOS TS TE OT PE ee ent 0 à dus due ss des En CXI ETC ENS LOS D 1A ada aaa cs nde à a ne ed 0 oo ee DES E CXIIT I. L'Organisation militaire du Canada (1636-1648). Par M. | DEN TA NOUN SE GE ae aad Re ete LR ea ale II. Quelques observations à propos du voyage du P. le Jeune au Canada en 1660, et du prétendu voyage de M. de Queylus en 1644. Par M. PABBA GOSSELIN..........00. ccesesceerence II. Un Soldat de Frontenac, devenu Récollet. Par M. l'ABBé COBSE LIN Nitec so, MR ae ue cake ea de ave ann IV. Le Gentilhomme francais et la Colonisation du Canada. Par ME ONG GR RENE MR AS sab oo darian se Re SR ene Wa" Was -Ridicules. (Par, Mi; Bj-G.) MARCHAND :.).sr0<0 4 Re 50 “« 20— “ oe Lalita seh MS PE eaters 1 05 “ 23— « Kt FL Qheheer ses AA ti J a 45 Mar. 9— “ fé . Otlawiasact Bets Arte 70 “ 11— “ Packing and shipping 32 vols. to Dr. Bourinot. 2 00 “. 16— ‘ Express charges to Newfoundland........... “RER 1 35 ed Insurance On rovds in DINGING "#20. ees 13 00 Apr. 27— “ of Fs WArCHOUSÉS 2... nanas 16 00 “ 23— “ Express charges to St. Stephen, N.B................ 45 “ 30— “ Binding 40 copies Cape Breton, + cloth............ 12 50 Carried forward .......00 seeeudas inet oyneis One Ser ee $ 155 47 IV 1895. May [4 4 «ce (14 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA PraghtsforDard; es SR RD TN een ck Sue: $ 155 47 10—To Express charges to Ottawa.................,........ 45 16— “ 5s à A (STD Rp PURE 5 40 15— “ + 1 Levis APRES acne voce hats 2 65 22— 4 FL St. JOPOEN TRE RES eee 80 22— $$ | ONE RER RER LE 50 30" 4 LÉ TE Ne En PETER RE MATE 1 00 31— “ 100 members papers, Jos. Royal, and cover....... 2 75 31— * 100 pe R. W. Ells, and cover....... 2 25 31— “ 100 i g Archb. O’Brien, and cover 2 75 31— ‘“ 150 “ SE T. W. Mills, and cover... 4 75 31— “ 100 is se Mgr. Laflamme, and cover 2 25 31— “ 100 se fs Sir W. Dawson, and cover 2 75 31— ‘ 100 à Ss Bishop Howley, and cover 3 25 31— ‘ 100 se a F. T. Shutt, and cover...... 2 25 31— “ 200 4 a‘ Hi. Roy; and cover..." 10 00 31— “ 100 à rs G. T, Matthews, and cover 2 75 DIR 7200 de & W. Saunders, and cover... 4 50 31— “ 100 4 rs S. H. Scudder, and cover.. 2 25 31— ‘ 120 Bibliography, sewed and bound, stiff cover. 7 00 i= Storage to CNP MR AMENER RS «amass 3 173 8— “ Express charges to Ottawa..........cccecscsesseussess 45 26— ge SLO shone ps PGOE LS | cae aioe 45 28— “FM. Com'l.senvelopes 22m tre eee 80: 28— “ Insurance on volumes in bindery ....- .............. 9 78 8— * Packing and shipping 1 parcel to Cornell Univ. 40 31— ‘ 200 members papers, L. M. Lambe................…. 8 75 31— ‘ 100 de fe Jan Memainer ri esse 2 25 31— “ 664 vols. Royal Society Proceedings, vol. xii., bound full cloth, ape Eee 298 80 31— “ 434 vols. Royal Society Proceedings, vol. xii. PAPEr COVERS, Zab Gere eres cases coter manacemvense 101 99 31— “ 1 vol. bound, ut morocco, monogram inlaid..... 15 00 31— “ 8 vols. bound, 4 morocco, $2.25........,....,....... 18 00 31— “ 185 vols. a collated, packed and sent to Warehouse, "2562: cscs sule> _ 1 PROCEEDINGS FOR 1896 X XXIII The officers for the present year are as follow : President, Prof. D. P. Penhallow. First Vice-President, Mrs. Robert Reid. Second Vice-President, Mr, McLaren. Secretary, Miss C. M. Derick. Treasurer, Mr. Mulock. Ladies’ Committee—Miss Blanche Macdonnell, Mrs. K. Boissevain, Mrs. Deacon, Mrs. Stroud and Miss Derick. Il—From The Elgin Historical and Scientific Institute, through Dr. J. G. BouriNor, C.M.G. The past year has borne fruit with us in important historical work. Since our last report the first volume of our transactions has appeared, entitled ‘“ Historical Sketches of the County of Elgin.” This consists of three general sketches of our history under the sub-titles : (a) “' The Country of the Neutrals,” being a sketch of exploration from Champlain to Talbot, by James H. Coyne, B.A. (b) “ The Talbot Settlement,” being a sketch of its founder, and his plan of settlement, by C. O. Ermatinger, Q.C., junior judge of the County of Elgin. (c) “The Development of the County of Elgin,” being a municipal history, by K. W. McKay, county clerk. The articles are accompanied by reprints of Galinee’s map of 1670, and of the map of the county of Elgin; portraits of the Hon. Thomas Talbot, founder of the settlement, and Thomas Locker, first warden of the county, and by other historical memoranda. The cost of printing and binding was generously defrayed by the county council, whose example may well be followed by others through- out the province and dominion. After the publication of the general history it was considered advis- able by the council of the institute to publish short histories of sections of the county, so as to preserve as complete a record of the pioneers as is practicable. With a public spirit and liberality worthy of emulation, Mr. James 8, Brierley, editor and proprietor of the St. Thomas Evening Journal, at once proposed to the society to present prizes, at his expense, for the best local histories ; a silver medal for each school section (more than 100 in number), and a gold medal for each township. The prizes are awarded by the council of the institute, and the papers published in Mr. Brierley’s newspaper. Mr. Brierley has added to the institute’s obligation by printing off, in book form, a number of copies of each paper for the use of the institute. The papers are illustrated by a large num- ber of portraits of the pioneers and early settlers, and outline maps of early settlements. More than seventy papers have already been sent in ; Proc. 1896. c. XXXIV ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA a large number have already appeared in print, and sufficient will be forthcoming to furnish an interesting article weekly for two or three years to come. When completed and bound in book form, these papers will form a most valuable collection of material for future historians. A number of leading officials of the county have taken a prominent part in the institute’s work. Its successive presidents, Mr. James H. Coyne, B.A., registrar; C. O. Ermatinger, Q.C., junior judge; K. W. McKay, county clerk, and W. Atkin, county inspector of schools, have exerted themselves to popularize the study of the early records, with the result that the county council, the public school teachers and the pupils are very extensively interested and the general public are taking an increasing interest from year to year in the objects of the institute. Mr. Atkin, the president, in his official visits to the school sections, is zealous and active in stimulating the teachers and students to collect and record the reminiscences of the early settlers before it is too late. The attention of the officers of the institute being largely engrossed with these local histories during the past year, only one paper was read by a member of the institute, ‘The First Exploration of Lake Krie,” being a topographical paper on Galinée and Dollier de Casson’s route along the north shore in 1669-70, identifying the important places men- tioned by the former in his narrative, by James H. Coyne, B.A. The officers of the institute for the year 1896-97 are as follow : President, W. Atkin, inspector of schools. Vice-President, James A. Bell, county and city engineer. Secretary and Treasurer, W. H. Murch. Curator and Librarian, J. W. Stewart. Editor, Judge Ermatinger. Council—James H. Coyne, B.A., Judge Hughes, K. W. McKay, J. S. Brierley, M. A. Gilbert, J. Wilkinson, M. D. Carder, Dr. H. H. Way. The first pioneer in the county of Elgin having settled in Aldborough in 1796, it is proposed to commemorate the event in a suitable manner. II—From The Lundy's Lane Historical Society, through Capt. CRUIKSHANK. This society is one of several similar organizations which have sprung up into vigour and usefulness in Ontario within the last few years. Its proceedings at anniversaries have been regarded with lively interest by very large assemblies of people, and have been fully reported by the press of Ontario and of New York state. The records of the L. L. H. 8. show a large amount of money expended in printing historical literature; also on two recent occasions of military re-interments, besides the restoration of burial trenches of July 25, 1814, and the general care of the honoured cemetery. PROCEEDINGS FOR 1896 XXXV The L.L.H.S. boasts of a vigorous, active membership. The erection of a fine and worthy monument last year, by the Parliament of Canada, on the old battle field, may be regarded, in a measure, as an outcome of the society’s exertions, while it fully attests the desire felt by the people of Canada for many years, in honour and gratitude due to the memory of brave defenders of the country who fell in the final and decisive battle of the war of 1812 and 14. The society has now another manuscript from Capt. Cruikshank, in the printer's hands, relating to Documentary Papers of early date, never before published ; they are of great, importance to students of history. The printed pages will be about 300. The society possesses yet another manuscript—‘ The Annals of Niagara” for a period of nearly 3001years, from the pen of William Kirby, Esq., F.R.S.C. of Niagara. It will be, in printed form, about 340 pages. Arrangements will very shortly be completed for its issue. Two such volumes published in one year by the society indicate its work and labour of love in promoting the study and cultivation of Canadian historical literature. IV.—From The Numismatic and Antiquarian Society, Montreal, through Mr. 1. W. Sicorrs: In reporting on the original work done during the past year, I shall confine myself mainly to what has been accomplished in the direction of establishing an Antiquarian Museum in the Chateaude Ramezay. When the society reported a year ago, an entrance into the building had oniy just been secured. Since then, its energies have been coficentrated towards bringing together a choice collection of antiquities relating to the history of Canada, Many mére could be secured did the state of the society's funds permit. And here let me ask the members of your society to help in this noble work, by contributing such Canadian antiquities, objects of historical interest, books, pamphlets and manuscripts as may come in their way, and also copies of their works with their dedicatory autographs; as it is the purpose of the Numismatic and Antiquarian Society to make this a thoroughly representative Canadian historical museum. The library has grown, in the meantime, from less than a thousand volumes and pamphlets to something more than ten thousand, many of them rare Canadian works. But it is sorely deficient in Can- adian history and travel, although a number of fine collections are under offer of sale, but so far the means to purchase have not been forthcoming. A national portrait gallery (on the lines of the gallery at South Kensington) of personages celebrated in the annals of Canada has been commenced and is already assuming fair proportions. Forty portraits in oil have been secured, twenty of which are originals, the balance copies XXXVI ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA from originals in possession of some of our older families. Among these are Champlain, Talon, Imbert, Lord Gosford, Lord Dorchester, General Christie and Lord Sydenham, the latter a recent gift from a Montreal merchant in whose office it had hung, unrecognized, for years. There are also thirty engravings giving representations of many of our states- men and governors. Among the latter are portraits of the Earl of Dufferin and the Earl of Aberdeen, presented by themselves. The gallery will contain a series of the governors from the beginning as far as they can be obtained, and THE CHATEAU DE RAMEZAY. of our prominent statesmen, litterateurs and others. In this connection, a series Of portraits of the members of the Royal Society might well be formed, therefore, let me here suggest that each of its members present his portrait to the gallery, either in oil or an engraving. The gallery also contains a series of the arms of the Governors of Canada and a large number of old engravings representing Canadian scenery and other objects. Owing to the time devoted to work upon the museum, only four papers have been read. They are as follow :— 1.—** Le Rocher Mohawk,” by Lucien Huot. PROCEEDINGS FOR 1896 XXXVII 2.— The first contract for building the Chateau de Ramezay,’ by de Lery Macdonald. 3.— Obituary notice of the late W. L. Bastian,’ by W. W. Mc- Lachlan. 4.— The discovery of America by the Norsemen,” by Emanuel Ohlen. In April last, the public inauguration of the museum was held, to which a large number of invitations were issued. Over twelve hundred availed themselves of this opportunity to visit the Chateau, nearly all of whom expressed their pleasure and surprise at the progress made in one year. In his inaugural address, the Honourable Mr. Justice Baby, the president, gave a history of the society, and told the story of the struggles and successes of its members in founding the museum. The mayor, representing the council, officially declared the Chateau de Ramezay to be open free to the public. Dr. L. H. Fréchette, on behalf of Miss Barry, presented the Louisbourg bell—that historic relic of the old regime. Addressess commending the work of the society were also delivered by Chief Justice Sir Alexandre Lacoste, Sir William Dawson, L’ Abbé Verreau, George Hague, and the Rev. J. Edgar Hill. The society has issued an appeal to the citizens of Montreal, asking their help in defraying the cost of founding this new enterprise, also in providing a sufficient sum annually for its efficient maintenance. Besides this, plans have been prepared showing what restorations and repairs are necessary to bring the Chateau back to its original condition after the alterations and barbarities to which it has been subjected during the two centuries of its existence. These funds the society contidently expect the citizens to furnish. In conclusion, let me thank the Royal Society on behalf of the Numismatic and Antiquarian Society, first for the volumes of transactions just received, also for this opportunity to thus publicly explain the work commenced and carried on in the Chateau de Ramezay, and at the same time extend a welcome to its members when in Montreal, to visit this venerable and historic building. V.—From The Nova Scotian Institute of Science, through Mr. C. F. HALL. The Nova Scotian Institute of Science begs to submit to the Royal Society of Canada through its delegate, a report of its proceedings during the past session, which is the thirty-fourth since its foundation. Just before the opening of the session the lamented death occurred of the president of the institute, Professor George Lawson,! one of the oldest members and one of its most energetic supporters. At the opening meeting an account of his life and work was read by the corresponding 1 See Appendix B to the Proceedings. XXX VIII ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA secretary. As an original fellow and as an ex-president he was so well known to the Royal Society that no reference to his work need be made in this report. It may be well to state, however, that during his membership of the institute he had communicated to it in all fifteen papers, including five, which at the time of his death, had not been finally prepared for publication, and which, owing to the fact that the manuscript copies of them have not been found, we fear may never be published. In the early years of his connection with the institute he published but few papers in its Transactions, owing to the fact that at that time the institute had made little effort to distribute its publications among scientific societies. In later years, however, he had felt able to use the institute’s Transactions as a medium of publication and shortly before his death he had begun a valuable series of papers on the Flora of Nova Scotia, which however he has not lived to complete. The treasurer’s report presented at the annual meeting showed the finances of the institute, largely through the continued liberality of the provincial legislature, to be in a healthy state. The librarian’s report showed that the Transactions were being distributed to 735 scientific societies, government scientific departments, museums, libraries, &c., and that exchanges were being received from 415 institutions of various kinds. The Transactions are sent regularly to all libraries which intimate their desire to receive them, whether they have any publications to send in return or not. We regret to report that the institute is still without a local habitation, difficulties having arisen in connection with the provision of a building to accommodate the Provincial Museum, the Legislative Library and the Libraries of the Institute and of the Nova Scotia Historical Society, for which the sum of $50,000 was voted by the legislature of Nova Scotia two years ago. We still hope that this project may be accomplished, Meantime, through the courtesy of the Dominion Govern- ment and of Dalhousie College, the institute’s rapidly growing library is accommodated partly in the post office building and partly in the college, and through the courtesy of the Honourable R. Boak, president of the legislative council, the meetings of the institute are held in the legislative council chamber. The following are the members of the council of the institute for the year 1896, elected at the council meeting :— President—Edward Gilpin, Jr., Esq., LL.D., F.R.S.C., FR.MS. Ist Vice-President—Alexander McKay, Esq. 2nd Vice-President—A. H. Mackay, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S.C. Treasurer—W., C. Silver, Esq. Corresponding Secretary—Prof. J. G. MacGregor, D.Sc. tecording Secretary— Harry Piers, Esq. Labrarian—Maynard Bowman, Esq. PROCEEDINGS FOR 1896 XXXIX Other members of Council—Martin Murphy, Esq., D.Sc. ; Watson L. Bishop, Esq.; William McKerron, Esq.; John Somers, Esq., M.D. ; F. W. W. Doane, Esq., C.E. ; Roderick McColl, Esq., C.E.; S. A. Morton, Esq., M.A. The following papers have been communicated to the institute during the year just ended :— 1.—“ On a Variation in the Plumage of the Canadian Ruffed Grouse or Birch Partridge” (Bonasa umbellus togata) by John Somers, Esq., M.D. 2.—* On the calculation of the Electrical Conductivity of Mixtures of Salt Solutions,” by Prof. J. G. MacGregor, D.Se. 3.—‘ On the Superficial Geology of King’s County, N.S.,” by Prof. A. KE, Coldwell. 4.—“ Note on Newton’s Third Law of Motion,” by Prof. J. G. MacGregor, D.Sc. 5.—“ Remarks ona Flag of Sandstone, from St. Mary’s Bay, with Manganese Dendritic Markings,’ by A. H. Mackay, Esq., ED E Ras.G. 6.—“ On the Undeveloped Coal Fields of Nova Scotia,’ by Edwin Gilpin; Ji, Msgs. di, DFE SC; 7.— “Some Illustrations of Dynamical Geology in Southwestern Nova Scotia,” by Prof. L. W. Bailey, M.A., Ph.D. 8.— Preliminary Notes on the Orthoptera of Nova Scotia,” by Harry Piers, Esq. 9.—“ Notes on the Newt (D, viridescens) and on the Ringed-Necked and Garter Snakes (D. punctatus and LE. sirtalis)” by A. H. Mackay, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S.C. 10.— On the Calculation of the Conductivity of Mixtures of Aqueous Solutions of Electrolytes having a common ion,” by D. McIntosh, Esq., Physical Laboratory, Daihousie College. 11.—“ Notes on the Geology of Newfoundland,” by T. C. Weston, Esq., F.G.S.A. 12.—*‘ Phenological Observations for 1895,” by A. H. Mackay, Esq., LD, A RS: 13.—“ Glacial Succession in Central Lunenburg, NS. by W. H. Prest, Esq. 14.—““On the Flora of Newfoundland, No.3,’ by Rev. Arthur C. Waghorne. 15.—* Notes on Nova Saotian Zoology, No. 4,” by Harry Piers, Esq. 16.—‘‘ The Water Supply of the Towns of Nova Scotia,” by Prof. W. R. Butler, M.E. 17.—* On the Broad Cove Coal Field,” by W. H. Ross, Esq. An address was also delivered before the institute by Rev. G. Pat- terson, D.D., LL.D., F.R.S.C., on ‘The Folk-Speech of Newfoundland,” by invitation of the council. XL ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Part I. of volume IX. (being vol. II. of the second series) of the proceedings and transactions is now ready for distribution, and some progress has been made in the printing of part II, which will contain the papers communicated during the season just ended, VI—From The Hamilton Association, through Mr. H. B. SMALL. During the year seven meetings of the general association were held, at which the followiag papers were read and discussed : 1895. Nov. 7—‘ Inaugural Address,” President A. T. Neill. 7— Acetylene Gas,” George Black. Dec. 5—‘ China, Past and Future,” S. A. Morgan. 1896. Jan. 16—“The New Ontario,’ Archibald Blue. Feb. 6—“ Opposing Forces,” H. B. Small. & 6—“ Biological Notes,” Wm. Yates. March 6—“ Neglected Methods of Education,” T. W. Reynolds. April 2—‘Our Local Museum,” A. Alexander. May 7—“ Biological Notes,” Wm. Yates. “« 7“ Our Educational System,” J. H. Smith. i In addition to these general meetings, each section had meetings of its own. The biological, camera, and the geological section were par- ticularly active, not only in the matter of papers prepared and read, but also in original work. The museum has been visited by a large number of persons, and various additions have been made, both to the natural history specimens and to the curiosities. The association has good ground for believing that, during the coming session, very valuable additions are to be made to the museum collection. The number of members is now over 200, showing «a slight increase for the past year. Financially the association is in a good condition, the balance on hand over and above all indebtedness being about $250.00. The officers for the session were as follow : President—A. T. Neill. First Vice-President—T. W. Reynolds. Second Vice-President—A. E. Walker. Corresponding Secretary—J. H. Long. tecording Secretary—S. A. Morgan. Treasurer—J. M. Burns. Curator—-Alex. Gaviller. Assistant Secretary and Curator—Walter Chapman. PROCEEDINGS FOR 1896 X LI Council—P. L. Scriven, J. E. P. Aldous, W. H. Elliott, Thomas Morris, jr., H. McLaren. Auditors—H. P. Bonney, F. Hansel. VIIL—From The Nova Scotia Historical Society, through Dr. Mackay. In June, 1895, the society had the pleasure of receiving a delegation of the Society of Colonial Wars in the Province Building, at Halifax. The said delegation was subsequently accompanied by representatives of our society to Louisbourg in Cape Breton, where a monument com- memorative of the first siege was inaugurated on the 17th of the month in the presence of the Lieutenant-Governor of Nova Scotia, the United States Consul-General and many distinguished visitors. The following papers were read before the society during the past season : 1. “ Early Life in Halifax,’ by W. M. Brown, December 17th, 1895. 2. “ French Protestants in Nova Scotia,’ by George Patterson, D.D., February 11th, 1896. 3. ‘ Historical Gleanings ” (relating to the Micmacs, ete.), by H. Y. Hind, D.C.L., April 23rd, 1896. ’ VIIL—From The Canadian Institute, through Dr. Bourtnor, C.M.G. (Forty-seventh Annual Report.) The council of the Canadian Institute has the honour to lay before its members its forty-seventh annual report : During the past year six ordinary and twenty associate members were elected, while seven members resigned, and one died. There were twenty-four meetings of the institute, at which thirty- eight papers were read. A great increase in attendance on the part of the general public as well as of the members over that of last session, was a marked feature of the meetings. Owing to the increased attendance it has been found advisable to hold the meetings in the library, on account of which it was necessary to remove the cases of archæological specimens, which were accommodated in the library, to the museum room in the third story. There were twelve meetings of the biological section, at which nine papers were read. The geological and mining section held six meetings, and at these five papers were submitted and read. The historical section held several meetings, at which interesting papers were read. The institute has, with the Astronomical and Physical Society, again made representations to the Imperial Government in regard to the unifi- cation of civil, astronomical and nautical time, and it is hoped that these XLII ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA representations will be favourably received, and that the unification pro- posed will go into effect at the beginning of the next century. The invitation extended to the British Association for the Advance- ment of Science, to meet in Toronto next year, was again presented to the general committee, at the meeting of the association held at Ipswich in September of Jast year, by Sir Charles Tupper, the Canadian High Com- missioner, and was accepted by the committee. Preparations are now being made for the occasion, a number of committees having charge of all the local arrangements. The local executive committee has secured promises of financial aid from the Dominion and Provincial governments and from the city of Toronto, the total sum so far promised amounting to $22,500. It is hoped that the representations made to the Dominion government will result in an increase of at least $5,000 to this amount. The reports of the treasurer, librarian, and of the sections are given in detail in the appendices All of which is respectfully submitted. A. B. MAcALLUM, President. ALAN MACDOUGALL, Secretary. 58 Richmond street, East. Toronto. ' PROCEEDINGS FOR 1896 APPENDIX I. FINANCIAL STATEMENT. XLIII James Bain, jr., treasurer, in account with for the year ending March 31st, 1896, the Canadian Institute Building and ground $15,000. 00 ab raryasare eee rico ie 7,000 00 | SPECIMENS NÉE de eee 6,000 00 | Personal property.............. 1,000 00 | 529,000 00 | Receipts. Expenditure. 1895. 1896. April 1st—To balance in Im- | April lst, By Salaries ......... $ 467 00 perial Bank... . .$ 31 34 oe Sa Enimtin gee eee 876 81 se Cash in hand ....... 18 86 dE ‘ Printing for bio- 1896. | ; à Re section. a Ee April 1st—Annualsubscriptions 606 50 2 RS HAE we AU él A ANTIAL OR EEE 6 32 e RETURN ES 21 Où we de 5 RE > RépAirs ces 27 05 us Government grant. 1,000 00 * HAE 35 60 aed eee nee Oe Re Een “Electric light... 15 62 periodicals sold... 62 12 a Pe * à NN ADET ER 8 02 A BOOKS ISOLER 79 40 ec iy STE RER ; É Periodicals... ... 229 27 se Intereston deposits. 0 20 - 3 À f a | House cleaning . 75 80 Borrowed from ce “ Fuel 111 35 Building Fund.... 166 32 | be eo ays Une teat e 7 a 666 22 nterest on mort- | gage ee Noses 200 00 F4 ‘ Typewriting ..... 9 48 fs ‘* City Directory ... 5 00 is i) Momrmibune. te. - 2 25 | se HINSUTANCE sae 35 65 | oY Was Be AGAL Ss ete 21 09 = ‘© Refund building account wes. ECE 200 00 ; ‘* Balance in Im- perial Bank.... 53 98 Fe ‘ Cash in hand..... 27 70 se “ Due Building Mun Grn gate a 666 32 $2,652 06 $2,652 06 ASSETS AND LIABILITIES, 1895-96. Assets. Liabilities. Mortgage due 1896 $ 4,000 00 Balance in favour of the Insti- $29,000 00 XLIV ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA THE TREASURER IN ACUOUNT WITH THE ONTARIO ARCHÆOLOGICAL GRANT FOR THE YEAR ENDING MARCH 31ST, 1896. Receipts. Expenditure. 1895. | 1895. April Ist. To Balance..........$ 549 32 | April 1. By Balance and speci- June 6th. Governme’t grant 1,000 00 | MEN EC PE $ 265 84 Interest. 7-7... 8 24 4 Salaries 7. LR TRES 650 00 Travelling expenses 1896. in connection with Mar. 31st. Interest eue 2 88 the Museum...... 363 75 CASBS ORNE er 88 32 INSUTANCE. ssa 19 00 | Balance in bank... 173 53 $ 1,560 44 $ 1,560 44 THE TREASURER IN ACCOUNT WITH THE BINDING FUND FOR THE YEAR ENDING MARCH 3151, 1896, > Receipts. Expenditure. \ 1895. 1895. Abrililst: To Balance "#0" $ 632 73 | June 24.By Clerical assistance...f$ 50 00 Interest verre 10 00 | Nov. 1. Binding, Brown Bros. 300 00 Insurance at binders. 7 20 1896. 1896. Mar. 31st. Interest Ai Nse 800); March sl Balance FPE 293 53 $ 650 73 $ 650 73 THE TREASURER IN ACCOUNT WITH THE BUILDING FUND FOR THE YEAR ENDING MARCH 31ST, 1896. Receipts. Expenditure. 1895. 1896. April 1. To Balance in bank....$ 102 00 | Mar. 31.By Loan ordinary funds.$ 166 32 1896. Interest $2 plus $10. 12 00 Balance due on loan. 666 32 Refund from ordin- “in bank..... 147 68 Ary, LUNGS eee eae 200 00 Amount loaned to ordinary funds.... 666 32 $ 980 32 $ 980 32 We, the undersigned, hereby certify that we have examined the accounts and vouchers of the Canadian Institute for the year ending 31st March, 1896, and have found the same correct. W. A. DouGLass, 28th April, 1896. L. J. CLARK. PROCEEDINGS FOR 1896 XLV REPORT OF LIBRARIAN, To the President and Council of the Canadian Institute : GENTLEMEN,— The librarian has to report a slight falling off in the number of exchanges as well as in the number of books and periodicals borrowed by members. The total number of exchanges received was 2,408, and of donations and purchases 897. Books and periodicals were lent to the number of 1,273. Particulars will be found in appendix to librarian’s report. The chief work of the year has resulted from the accession to the library of the 1,023 volumes which had been prepared for binding in the summer of 1894, and which have now been placed on the shelves. The labour of doing this has been greatly increased by the lack of shelf room, which has made it impossible to get all the sets together. In order to facilitate reference while a catalogue is being completed, your librarian intends to put up a finding list to the periodicals and exchanges. All of which is respectfully submitted, DOR IGENS, Librarian. Liprary STATISTICS FROM APRIL Ist, 1895, ro APRIL Ist, 1896. Books and periodicals obtained by purchase, different pinblicabions. EEE" ee PS a PAPER DER ETES a 3 Separate numbers of these received .............. MR Bee 708 Won ations, RM IL SRE RANCE it A HAR ee CRE AE RE 189 Exchanges received from about 550 societies : Canada PET EL AR AE tr CRIER PE PER ame RE M AE RE QU Dnited'States 27100 A MAN AE eat 498 Mein. te SFR SoA ORE eue OAc tals AY Ne im ee 26 South Ameriea 22.47 102 NE SA RE PRET ay SR) ; 50 Woestilinclies esse aban asain ne gece ee À Great Britain andulpelandy Ais te ann se Er act 423 PA RE AE EL DEA à NRC EN SI A SE eid. ee atts SNS See 151 BOSNIE RE te Le ds eu PART UN PAS 25 Dénmark secs. tec LAPS LU CREER ME OT ha 9 RACONTER See SP Moe e A ee Po CRAN SES ON OMR Ne AT Re ps AIN SRE RER en LEE re RE RE PC PEN AT 174 Netherlands :.:.-.#: PR ANRT A ake eu ME Dee Le 30 NOT WHY: 0e PARTS MÉReR ere tc obtd teen in AS are dae ts 17 POTTUE AIS. SR EE Mice ST Et A ee 23 XLVI ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA BONMANIASS ck PNR den thas ees 0c et noe SC ER 2 | PSE TT a el at A Ae Le se A LL, STORE SRE 76 SPAIN -----.... Ween, Ce BAAR ERE eh Soca 17 SET GIN tea eae T SUA «cic, c one are NRA 29 SIAN 6219 010 RTE ON PR RE OP CRAN ET tease LC Là ne 20 SUT GUE CLs ba oe ges anne ose od oes LR CN ONE 33 JANET ET TOR ne Oa US RTS SOLE PÉTER 14 VATU ES ARE ETES ER RE RARE OR 15 ATI RENE ME Th Ssh Chae ok ech SOO ee 4 ag (St: Se ee SN RTE ES RE RE eS SS 20 ASTRA RE LE MR ek Ok nek AN te See ere 3B Motalexc anges cha. RER TEE 2,408 Donations and purchases ............... ee 897 3,305 Books and periodicals borrowed by members roe April 166, 1895. to7April Ist, /LS96) 22e RS mares 1,273 Papers Reap DURING THE SESSION, 1895-96. 1895. Noy. 2—Inaugural Address by the President, Prof. A. B. Macallum ADS Pha: Various tanta connected with the interests of the Institute referred to, and the visit of the British Association for the Advancement of Science ; afterwards a paper on “The Origin of Certain Structures in the Cell,” illustrated by photographs and diagrams. Nov. 9—* A Root-Tubercle Fungus i in the Prothallium of Botrychium Virginianum,’ with lanter nillustrations, E.C. Jeffrey, B.A. Nov. 16— The Socialism of To-day,” Hampden Burnham, M.A., of Peterborough. Nov. 23— Some Views and Theories as to the Nature and Objects of Government,” Edward Meek, Barrister. Noy. 30—* How can Legislatures best encourage the fine Arts, and to what extent should they do so ?” T. Mower Martin, R.C.A. Dec. 7—%* Applied Science in Metal Founding,” T. Doherty, of Sarnia. Dec. 14—* A Page from English History,” Rev. H. H. Woude. Dec. 21—‘ The Ice Age and Lake Levels at Toronto,” Prof. A. P. Coleman, Ph.D. 1896. Jan. 11—* The Action of Light on Bacteria,” J. J. Mackenzie, B.A. Jan, 11—* The Origin of the Earth’s Atmosphere,” Prof, A. B. Macal- lum, Ph.D. PROCEEDINGS FOR 1896 XLVII 1896. Jan. 18—‘ The Under-Currents of History,’ Miss Mary Agnes Fitz- Gibbon. Jan. 18—“ Sun Spots,” G. G. Pursey. Jan, 25—“ The Forests and Trees of Canada,” Robert Bell, LL.D., M.D, Feb. 1—‘ Wales and its Literature,” Rev. Neil MacNish, B.D.L.; read by Dr. Kennedy. Feb. 1—“ The Celt in Ancient Egypt and Babylonia,’ Rev. Prof. Campbell, LL.D. ; read by the secretary. Feb. 8—*‘ The Intestinal Absorption of Iron,” 'T. W. G. Mackay, M.B. Feb. 8—‘‘'The New Photography ” or “The properties of the Roentgen X-Rays,” F. J. Smale, Ph.D. Veb. 15—“ The New Ontario,” Archibald Blue. Feb. 15—“ The French Language of Lower Canada,” Prof. M. L, Queneau, Feb. 22—‘ The Evolution of 'Teeth,” illustrated by lantern slides, Prof. R. Ramsay Wright, M.A., B.Sc? Feb. 22—" Lake Levels,” R. F. Stupart: Feb. 29—‘ The Algonkin Park,’ W. Houston, M.A. March 7—Meeting in the University Chemical Laboratory. “Theory of Gas Batteries, F. J. Smale, B.A., Ph.D. ; ‘The Electric Spark in High Vacua,” “On the New Photography,” copiously illustrated by experiments and photographs, J. C. McLennan, B.A. March 14—“ Cession of Canadian Territory and Fisheries by the Treaty of Independence, 1783,” Thomas Hodgins, M.A., Q.C. March 21—* Experimental Phonetics,” with exhibitions and demonstra- tions, by Rousselot’s Apparatus,” Prof. H. Schmidt-Warten- berg, Ph.D., of the University of Chicago. March 28—“ The Cabots,” Prof. G. M. Wrong, M.A. March 28—‘“ The Seasons in Hudson’s Straits,” F. F. Payne. April 4—“ A Slave Rescue in Niagara Sixty Years Ago,” Miss Janet Carnochan. April 4—‘ The Development of Personal Liberty under British Law,’ J.C. Hamilton, M.A., LL.B. April 11—* The Blackfoot Language,” Part I., Rev. John Maclean, Ph.D.; read by Mr. Jas. Bain, jr. April 11—* Recent Doings in Gaelic Literature,’ Rev. Neil Mac Nish, LL.D. ; read by the president. April 18—“ Some Modern Views of the Ego and Non-Ego,’ Prof. D. Clark, M.D. April 18—* The History of the Development of our Knowledge of the Nervous System,” iliustrated by the lantern, Prof. A. Primrose, M.B. XLVIII ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA April 25—‘ A Popular Observatory,” G. E, Lumsden. April 25—“ Notes on the Discovery and Exploration of Lake Erie,” James H. Coyne, B.\. ; read by Mr. James Bain, jr. Total number of papers read at the meetings of the Institute during the session of 1895-96, thirty-eight, which may be classified as follows : A StrOBOMY EE... est ee Pec See ror eric La sie NA Biology .....…. Taek Ee ES VEE pat RE ede thee ceo 6 Chemical Physics ....... Bree as ae errr dont 4: POLO e MARÉES LOU OC PPT 2 LEE Sept sins co ool ESP FEAT. 2,600 Le Re ERP E PERS hone EE Forestry .......< se ut esac ent de ee ah ee ee GeOGTAPh TE Rte msc aetna Seu sb Sara death lentes ANR IPOLO OW TER cee ST PA REP anges ROUE AU PE SRES History Daomnlo issues etes lasers SABA BASS atts Re ae NE RAÉGFAEUTC,. LUE ES RE ere Re ee vs ne ee CRI PRES Meteoroloe Er ser nee SIENNE oatk Ayer canaries En eet Metallüroyt tains. 22222620 PT RP PO AD Ce | Miscellaneous xt LM RNA SES of Je ne OL De cetera ST Philology ..... fie ie inca Pd Weed a RON LIRE CONTES ok PME DANCE ME PORCELAINE VE 2e BRAG PE PAT TV Ae ee TT | Political Economy x"... fa PR CL N ES RATE heme AD Raycholo ET PARA LR SR SR baleen ee te BER Ss | Social Science .............. PRIE Re ee aera NA TES EN Totale de À DRE ER te AA PR ET Read at the meetings of the Biological section.............5 9 si k of the Geological and Miningsection. 5 a si i> -Histoneal sections. \.: 1000 A Weis: erent AME a Aria 6A 7 PER Ru à 55 ePORT OF THE NATURAL History Socrery (BIOLOGICAL SECTION OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE) FOR SESSION 1895-96. To the President and Members of the Canadian Institute : It is with a feeling of considerable pleasure that we are enabled to report to you on what has been to us a most profitable and entertaining session. Profitable, because of the lessons as to management, etc., which have been derived ; entertaining, as a result of the elaborate communi- cations laid before us, Twelve meetings in all have been held, which on an average have been fairly well attended. The council met on four occasions for the transaction of business. The plan of devoting every alternate meeting to PROCEEDINGS FOR 1896 XLIX microscopical work and subjects was adopted this session, but we are sorry to be under the necessity of stating that the result being indifferent hardly justifies the continuance of same. The subjects treated of in the communications submitted at our meetings are remarkable from the fact of their being to a great extent original, and while in a technical sense exhaustive, yet intelligible and interesting. As may be seen from the following list the subjects treated of were varied and comprehensive : Chairman’s Address, ‘“‘ Rare Bird Visitors,” John Maughan, Te: “The Development of the Microscope,’ Robert Dewar. “ Origin of Seeds,” E. C. Jeftrey, B.A. “Some New Views of the White Corpuscles of the Blood.” G. G. Pursey. “ Role of Bacteria in Soils,” J. J. Mackenzie, B.A. * Microscopical Objects,” Messrs. Mills and C. Armstrong, sr. “The Prototype in Evolution,” Robert Dewar. “ Microscopical Photography,” Charles Armstrong, sr. “The Walrus and the Seal ; their habits and economic value.” W. D. Stark. Subjects outside of the foregoing list were introduced and discussed at various meetings which were participated in with considerable interest by those present. The new provincial game warden having been present at several meetings, expressed himself as desirous of obtaining the co-operation of the society in matters pertaining to his office ; the society and section has in the meantime furnished several suggestions. The society (and section) will cnter upon the incoming session with renewed vigour and intelligence in the prosecution and discharge of the matters pertaining to its objects, under the direction of the following officers : Chairman—John Maughan, sr. First Vice-Chairman—G. G. Pursey. Second Vice-Chairman—C, Armstrong, sr. Third Vice-President—Arthur Harvey. Curator—C. Armstrong, sr. Secretary-Treasurer—Robert Dewar. Council—E. C. Jeffrey, B.A., William Spry, Dr. George Musson. Some four field-days were held last summer when the Don Valley, Black Creek, Hogs Hollow, and Mount Dennis were visited with profit and pleasure. It is the intention to hold a similar series of field-days this summer, due notice of which will be furnished by means of printed post cards and notices through the press. Proc. 1896. D. L ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA The museum has received several donations during the past session, a list of which will be found in the curator’s report appended hereto. All of which is respectfully submitted. J. MAUGHAN, Chairman. Rosert Dewar, Secretary. REPORT OF CURATOR OF THE BIOLOGICAL SECTION. Mr. Chairman and Gentlemen : When I entered upon my duties as curator last May, I found I had no light task before me. Moth and dermestia were in full possession ; some valuable skins destroyed beyond redemption, some that can not be replaced. Tam thankful to say the insect plague is now over, and although we may never be able to say they are entirely banished (because of the lack of mithtight cases}, yet I trust they will be very scarce. During the year I have gone over all the specimens thoroughly, some often. I have mounted some Corals, Gorgonian and Sponges which were boxed up out of sight, and which I am pleased to say have met, with your approval. The rooms have been made much more attractive by the loan of a large number of cases of stuffed birds, by Mr. Maughan and another gentleman. The last gift of the season is that of ninety-seven plants from the Northwest, given by Miss Alice Hollingsworth, of Beatrice, Muskoka, one of our corresponding members. 1 cannot close this report without an earnest appeal to each member to collect all they can this summer, in order that we may make some show at the great meeting next year, and that if any of our visitors should wish any exchanges, we may be able to give them frecly. All of which is respectfully submitted, C. ARMSTRONG, Curator. Report OF THE GEOLOGICAL AND MINING SECTION OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE, SESSION 1895-96. To the President and Members of the Canadian Institute : It is again the pleasant duty of this section to report and thus put on record the progress that has been made during the past session. Six meetings in all have been held during the session, at which five papers were read on the following subjects : “ Ontario as a Mining Country,” Prof, A. P. Coleman, Ph.D. (Open- ing address). PROCEEDINGS FOR 1896 LI “ Exploratory Work with the Government Diamond Drill,” Thomas W. Gibson, “ Progress in Mineralogical Science,’ W. A. Parkes, B.A, ‘ What is a Metal?” Robert Dewar. “Ontario along the 48th Parallel,” Archibald Biue, Director, Bureau of Mines. While the attendance has not been all that we might desire it has still kept up to the average of the past six years. One field-day was held during last summer up to the Don Valley, which was attended by an unusually large number of members and friends. During the past session of the institute, the president, at one of the regular mectings, suggested that as it had occurred to several of the officers and members of the institute, that the system of sections, as recognized in and’ by the Canadian Institute, is a cause of considerable weakness to the institute proper on account of the division of attendance, which results from the specialization of subjects treated of in said sections, that the sections be desired to abolish their right of executive and indi- vidual existence, and thus augment the numberattending mectings of the institute proper, concentrating all ability and energy in the furtherance of the success of its meetings. On the matter being brought to the notice of this section, it was decided that although the section had been in existence for some ten years during which it had been the most active section of the institute, introducing or taking the initiative in many reforms in mining and other matters which had eventually become law, and although the other sections of the institute which were organized at the same time as this section (the architectural, philological and others) had since lapsed and become defunct : that a meeting would be held on the 30th of April, 1896, to consider the proposal of the president of the institute, not as a recog- nition of the impairment of power, decline of influence, lack of interest or failure in any particular which would constitute a cause for the dissolv- ing of the section, but as the result of a strong desire for the welfare and advancement of the institute. The result of this meeting was that after a serious consideration of every phase of the subject, it was decided that as the meeting was not fairly representative of the section, the discussion of the matter should be adjourned until next session. ’ LII ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA [X.—From The Botanical Club of Canada, through Dr. Mackay. During the past year the Botanical Club of Canada has done more than average work : Manitoba and the adjacent west reporting the most vigorous advance of the season, Some of this work will be alluded to in the latter portion of this report. The club has to deplore the great loss sustained in the death of its chief founder and only president since the organization of the club in 1891, Professor George Lawson, Ph.D., LL.D., who was also a president of the Royal Society, the sixth on its roll. He was also the originator and mainstay of the ‘ Botanical Society of Canada,” whose proceed- ings and transactions were published at Kingston, Ontario, between the years 1858, when he came to Queen’s University from Edinburgh, until 1863, when he accepted a professorship in the University of Dal- housie, at Halifax, Nova Scotia. His services in the interests of science and his adopted country will be elsewhere recorded. He died, after a brief illness (paralysis), at his home in Halifax, on the 10th of November, 1895, leaving behind him a record of one of the most active and useful lives, and the memory of a most accomplished, graceful and lovable personality. At the annual meeting of the club, which has just been held, the following were elected officers for the coming year : President, John Macoun, M.A., F.L.8., Ottawa, Ontario. General Secretary-Treasurer, A. H. Mackay, LL.D., Halifax, N.S. Secretaries for the Provinces. Newfoundland—Rey. A. C. Waghorne, St. John’s. Prince Edward Island— Principal John McSwain, Charlottetown. Nova Scotia—Dr. A, H. Mackay (Gen. Sec.-Treas.), Halifax. New Brunswick—Principai G. U. Hay, M.A., Ph.B., St. John. Quebec— Prof, D. P. Penhallow, B.Sc., McGill University, Montreal. Ontario—Vice-Prin. William Scott, B.A., Normal School, Toronto. Manitoba—Rev. W. A. Burman, B.D., Winnipeg. Assiniboia—Thomas R. Donnelly, Esq., Pheasant Forks. Alberta—T. N. Willing, Esq., Olds. Saskatchewan—Rev. C. W. Bryden, Battleford. British Columbia (mainland)—Albert J. Hill, M.A., Westminster. (Vancouver Isl’d)—A. J. Pineo, B.A., High School, Victoria. Reports, and lists of plants, and phenological observations from members in the various provinces were presented and discussed. In addition to the general objects of the club referred to in the original draft of the constitution, the following lines of work were strongly re- commended to the attention of all members : PROCEEDINGS FOR 1896 LIII 1. The formation of complete provincial herbaria at least in one central locality in each province, then as many local herbaria as may be desirable. By means of free exchanges the Dominion Herbarium at Ottawa could very effectively assist such institutions. The principal or most active university in each province would form a very convenient locus for each provincial herbarium. If the authorities of one institution did not make an effort, those of another would no doubt be ready to do so. 2. The observation of the complete flora of each locality ; the report- ing of the same as previously suggested in bulletins of the club; the free exchange, for purposes of determination, of species and varieties, with the ‘‘ Curator of the Herbarium of the Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa (the Dominion Herbarium),” as indicated in bulletins, and the formation of local herbaria in all academies or high schools of good standing. 3. Phenological observations as indicated in bulletins, and in the fol- lowing summary of those made during the last year. The exact dates of the (first) flowering of plants in spring, leafing of trees, ripening of fruits, migration of birds, and the more common meteorological phenomena should be recorded systematically, not only by individual members, but by every school in the country possible. There, teachers would find it one of the most convenient means for the stimulation of pupils in observ- ing all natural phenomena when going to and from the school, some of the pupils radiating as far as two miles from the school-room. The “nature study,” under such circumstances, would be mainly under- taken at a very convenient time, without encroaching on school hours ; while, on the other hand, it would tend to break up the monotony of school travel, and fill an idle and wearisome hour with interest and one of the most valuable forms of educational discipline. The eyes of a whole school daily passing over a whole school district would let very little escape notice, especially if the first observer of each annual recur- ring phenomenon would have his or her name recorded in the “ Nature Record” book of the school as the first observer of the phenomenon for that year. The observations would be accurate as the facts would have to be demonstrated by the most undoubted evidence such as the bringing of the specimens to the school when possible or desirable. To all observers the following most important, most essential prin- ciples of recording are emphasized. Better no date, no record, than a wrong one or a doubtful one. Sports out of season due to very local conditions not common to at least a small field should not be recorded except parenthetically. The date to be recorded for the pur- poses of compilations with those of other localities should be the first of the many of its kind flowering immediately after, &e. For instance, a butterfly emerging from its chrysalis in a sheltered cranny by a southern window in January would not be an indication of the general climate, LIV ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA but of the peculiarly heated nook in which the chrysalis was sheltered ; nor would a flower in a semi-artificial, warm shelter give the date re- quired, When these sports out of season occur, they may also be re- corded, but within a parenthesis to indicate the peculiarity of some of the conditions affecting their early appearance. During the last year, members of the club not only made botanical. observations, but also observed some common meteorological and zoëlogi- cal phenomena, which is very desirable when possible. To stimulate more complete and more numerous observations in the future, those of the last year are given here in detail, the dates being given for the sake of com- pactness as the number of the day of the year counted from the first of January. For the facility of reduction the day of the year corresponding to the last of each month is given on each table. This form of dating lends itself very conveniently to all arithmetical processes such as averaging. SCHEDULE. Nore.—Names in Capitals are common to all provinces of Canada. (E) Common to Eastern provinces. (C) Common to central provinces. (W) Common to western provinces of the Dominion. BOTANICAL. . ALDER (Alnus incana). Catkins shedding pollen .................. : saps A (Populus tremuloides). Catkins shedding pollen........ Len se - Lenin evouto at = heise vas eer . Spring Anemone (A. patens, var. Nuttalliana). Flowering. (C & W) . Red Maple (Acer rubrum). Flowering. (H)........:...-.6,..+..----- . Hepatica (Hepatica & H. triloba-acutiloba). Flowering.( E &C)... . Adder’s-tongue Lily (Erythronium Americanum). Flowering. (E) 8. Mayflower (Epigaea repens). Flowering. (E).....:...:.......:...., 9. DANDELION (Taraxacum officinale). Flowering................... 10. Fes perry (fie spectabilis). Flowering. (W).........:-:...:. 11. = Ripe truite MAS sea 12. Ash-leaved Maple (Acer negundo). Flowering. (C & W)............ 13. oo RRY (WILD) (Fr AL Gla Virginica & Chilensis). Flow’g 14. oS a Ss Ripe fruit 15. Wild Plum (Prunus Americana). Flowering. (E) 16. a MON" Flowering ILE Ripe rite 2 IC RU RES NS eee eee 18. WILD RED CHERRY (Prunus Pennsylvanica & emar: natal Flg 19. INDIAN PEAR.JUNE-BERRY (Amelanchier Canaden & alnifolia). PO wernt sic as MER, RE apes RE OP NC EEE 20. INDIAN PEAR, JUNE- BERRY (A melanchier Canaden & alnifolia). Ripe Bruits ise. Se ms PER clad cleo ap at tented elt ema el a fees 21. BLACKBERRY (Rubus occidentalis & ee Flowering... 22 APPLE. (CULTIVATED)" Rlowerlng. 2 MNT POELE eee RSA 23. Western Dog-wood (Cornus Nuttallii). True flowers open. (W).... 24. OAKS (RED, BLACK or WHITE). Flowering 25. HAWTHORN (Crataegus). Flowering.::......21,..0% cece eens 26. LILAC (CULTIVATED) (Syringa vulgaris). Flowering............. 27. RASPBERRY (WILD) Firstiripe AUDE ENTER ee LEE eee Dow w ND -] PROCEEDINGS FOR 1896 LV DIE SD (VIN TER) EADS, SOWING S.-i 28 as ET nee 29, he ef DEN pvp MEET sean ne ry oni A Nonrsmahals see DIE oh tah 30. ¥ of CHINES DRE EU RP aM anit enh) RE ha oe 31. = ISBN Gry ITS O VITO AE LE M D dire erelese 32. f Le MOVIE Peers ant ea) CR NRA PE RARE LR RS se 33. > a ÉTÉ JR OR eta starseve tes aly «Shiota haloes & METEOROLOGICAL. 34. LAST SPRING FROST, date, with note Pons paren ARTE 35. FIRST AUTUMN FROST, PA SUP CNT AC NE DRE OCT EN CN ca DE TOR 36. OPENING OF LAKES DEVOID OF LIRE IN SPRING, date. 37. CLOSING “3 oe FAIT Y 41. 50. . OPENING OF RIVERS IN SPRING, date . CLOSING OF RIVERS IN FALL, date . NUMBER OF THUNDER-STORMS IN YE "AR (with dates of each) . Song Sparrow (Melospiza fasciata). First appearance. (E & C) . Sparrow (M. montana, guttata and rufina). First appearance. (W) . Robin (Merula migratorius). (E & C) . Blue Bird (Sialia sialis). (E & C) . Junco (J. hiemalis). (E & C) James he eee 1s] ope ape eae tay a MATE es aE ee PA 0 Noe sak ccs se IT ea yi oe, NE ra RC ss otae sh = one UNI pee Eee de MDL YAS Le ia itn ies Pe DE Le chee Ree oe WNT EEE RE ee. 2) 9) 1 Se a OS ASS pee Opt INOW Rete re eee oe OC Aes cise nest nelle DATES AND DURATIONS OF DROUGHTS AFFECTING VEGE ARUN 1) CO) a cic See cet a eo SNP are Se Lm PAL are aS tie oe ee Le ZOOLOGICAL. ce (M. propinqua). (W) (S. artica and Mex.) (C & W) ee Cranrectens angrOnregorius). (NI) LEA cee eee ee RED-WINGED BLACKBIRD (Agelaius Pheniceus)........... .. ee SPOTTED SANDPIPER (Actitis macwlaria) sc... 2. 2224s. 48s ; . SWALLOW (TACHYCINETA BICOLOR) . Meadowlark (Sturnella magna). (E) . KINGFISHER (Ceryle Alcyon) dp. Hummingbird (Zrochilus cotubris). (FE & C).. ...:......2....-6---s- 56, + (Eos opssand, Calliope (ND RER EE a 57. Nighthawk (Chordeiles Virginianus). (E & C)..........:........... 58. ee (CPL ER NU 1) aN) ae ate tes eye Se Pee ae tte ee earedte a DV EL DED WC KS —Nirst Dire ene kee Scania cee Se 60. se 2 Birst- HOCK. 22 aie sae La oe SA ee QU RE Mar eee 61. 4 a Mocksimicratingssoubiens ERA eee bee Beran = 62. sf EC ast binds. Rese see abso pe crises te UP Aer En x San WEED. Ge PS B—— BIPSGVOITGS ARR RE AU a eee eee eae eee 64, a ss inst flocksss ter ase ates deat ft OE ARR ALT Te 65. Se SS Flocks migrating/southward::7.".. "0000... 66. a Fa Nastbinds PR PPT ARRECINEN ERqRE er oh Re tae hata a 67. FIRST DATE AT WHICH ‘‘ FROGS” ARE HE: ARD WHISTLING. LVI ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA TABLE A. YEAR 1895. PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, | Last dav of Jan., 31 of year. re is a. | is ne nn | pe | 28 8a] 4 Ee Ji se Tale] jalslas@eye| | | 14 Das om ds ee Sa heures an En Al Phere BE PS a ANA AN cea el 2 el LE BOTANICAL. | | | pe 1 | Alder, pollen ........... 102 104! 98 |] 101-1 102) 111. 106°5 2) xepen, pollen i. =: 2. 532|25- 2-50 124) 122 . | 123°0 111 113}... 112°0 3 | MON ilenberie se sce es 139] 143... 141:0 131 i 140 | 133-0 4 Anemone, Sita MATE cael te eel Chee yal eee ees DR ea ea 5 | Red Maple, fl..........| 125|....| 123] 126... 124-7 126| 123) 120) 123-0 6: l'Hépatieas Woe! RE CE ARTE ee ee eee ae 127-0 ZA Ao eD abil A à FORGE PR Sale ac Pest ees ee Reel ee fon Gere 125) 2 celanee 125°0 8 | Mayflower, 4... 61) 102 105] 111| 114) 112) 100-9 125! 110, 114) 116! 116-2 9 | Dandelion, fl.......... 119 103| 129]....} 129} 130) 125-0| 126) 120) 133) 124] 125-7 10 Salmon berry ile: PLIS | SE | NE PEN ER LAS er | LE 11 “ SPA Aas Note ae: pace tte ee Rerped eae weal EUR | 1QueNecundo mails soe e eee per eee | oe SPS Sales LME à || |e eS AN 13 | Strawberry, fl.......... 124) 129| 126 124] 130) 134)) 127-9), 134] 129] 130) 124] 129-2 14 | xe Be ne 158) 159 159) 156). 158°0), 179] 161 154|| 164°6 16 | Wild Plum) fas 20 eles lnk | MALE lage ces aan epee PI ior. 16 | Cherry (Cult), fl......../....| 130) 131) 136)... 139 0) 144] 133] 138) 197| 134-2 17 Gia HEPA SALI yg) MERS Slee au | 193)....| 187 190°0 18 | Wild Red Cherry, fl....} 145) 151| 132 143) 144) 130! 142-3 ....| 136 135! 141!) 134-0 19 | Indian Pear, fl... ..... 144....| 128) 1341 197]... | 135°7, 157| 131)....| 135|| 14170 20 £ FAIT eee EU OR tae a | 196)51'78) ee 187°0 21 | Blackberry, fl......... 169. ...} 163) 164. 165°3|| 172| 164|....|.... 1680 D Applet. 2 PARTS 133) 156) 143 149 | 150 146-2) 150) 139) 131) 145) 141°2 23 | Western Dogwood, fl...|....|....).... Pl Pl EEE le NE EAU EEE NA l'O AM PA UMR) ll 149} 166, 149-0))....| 130. 130°0 25 | Hawthorne, fl.......... | 161)....| 148) 160,....| 161] 157°5||....] 140). 140'0 6} TD 7 RU | 161 159) 147) 152 153, 161] 155 5] 156] 147. 151:5 27 | Raspberry, fr......... | 169 185, 180) 197. 1827) 196). 196-0 81 | Spring Sowing, 1st.../. 0). 2) else Oeil) tae + cea | ete EIRE) RCI PR) PERS 33 | “7?” (Harvest, 1st. 2.27 See nee eee Been need EPP | Benn |e been been linen DERSES PROCEEDINGS FOR 1896 TABLE A.—Oontinued. PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, YEAR 1895. LVII 5 : E 8 ë EE £ é Ee BSE (Seis sisi 2 ee lels fl geleleisialg | 3 = Uae eet broil MEN LR SL s|E|S|$SO|S|Ee || ls 2 AAO Solo ln MI |4 1216018414 | Fle lalole là 1 124) 108) 103] 110]....]....]....] 107°0]| 107) 105| 111] 1077)... cele VEAL Me | 61 P7271 PE ey A EE AA 102 114 108-0) 114 105 111) 110-0. cates 124 124) 124-0 iMag eee 130 121)... | 122 124-3 Ale. ee IST Oneal 121-0) 100, 102/105] 97 101-0 5)... .|| 180) 118] 119)....|....] 126| 123-2) 111) 109] 126] 115-3\|....]....]...]...- eee 6l....| 1 21 RSA PR LOL EG Ames OS La Bll oat lee tec a aaa GE | 124) 120|....|....| 122°0| ul 14112512: re RARE © eo ne Brute hee a Le A TT nea A ME 9| 139] 126! 197 130] 139) 132) 131-0) 111. 126 118-5) 123) 123)...| 143) 129-7| 99 LUE ANS ote (Ba ok Or PERS PRE I Aish pss RR eee ee EN Earl ent Dies 82 Fi tee ailing AR ES RS aulliey cl aha ee es Wy Sel EP lige, We eee à 154 1211 NE Se RE eal fae 127 119 123-0] 112! 105 108°5 13] 139] 124) 128) 124) 117) 142] 126) 126-8 _.| 126! 126-0| 128) 130)...) 136! 131:3/110 14}... || 163) 157] 171/....|....] 166| 164-2 165 165°0|| 158) 166|...| 172) 165-3)|159 15). ; AE Pat 2 139]... .| 135) 137-0 + 16... | 135 A A Pees ae 149189011248 EIRE: LOA OU TIRE MIS het 1112 TT [eae BREST LR re Ite MAS EE 5 20 PR AR A a og DEEE |. 174 18} 145|....|...| 138)... | 141|....| 139°5 130| 126) 128-0|| 128]..…..|...|. 128-0124 19)....|| 136 130) 191) 134-— | 133 132°8| 126! 129 126 127°5|| 130 125). .| 137! 130-7 1) 22 PA NI EEE LS RNA | eae . 207, 207-0 FIN VE | PP D ORR Ke | 160 1600l Re ee Fa ne 22}... .|| 155) 135). | 145, 145) 145:0| 129). 129-0l|....| 198)...].... 128-0 23). LA Peel ee aa eh 126 126°0))....| 145). 145-0/|123 Re alo lace a Ra 14 TEA ONE US Wie AIM ote do EE 127-0 25) 158)....|....|....]-...| 149] 158) 1495). |... 139, 189-0} 140) 135 137°5||146 26)... .| 150| 150) 150-0) 139 136 ....| 137:5] 140) 132)...].... 136°0||,95 27 LA NaI ale SSE i antes pt RM PAST eam Silesia am ae ek, AE | ADS) TAB LC) Lal ie Ne 94| 95) 96 94) 94:7 53) SCRA eee: de let 52 CP) ie PR ER PRE OS 234|....| 234-0 LVIII ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA TABLE B. PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, YEAR 1895. | Last day ofJan., 3lof year. = >, Ë à OU ne an “6 | E 5 ‘ LE] ar., € LE ; | < a nals aon Pee RIT SE] © ME See CNT : ; |ISE| à NN Tone, LA S| = à Ay Seo Es ; EE DE 1e A LORS ES Mo TE AE ho le eda Pe du in EXC eee Aum TE SOA EC Pac Le é Ot ONE 3 Sels EN itu Bape ET (00 11 E Je oe Spe EN ENS RIRE Bo ue, tae Geter DE vire LE | esas! SE EE SE 2 Nov., 334 bi, | Bas jahene el aceeriey © EE Ier Ie MAR = i a eee eens METEOROLOGICAL, | 34 | Spring frost, last...... coe NTSC |e cierto: Mie end Sao Ce | ena Core 30) SAMUI PRPSby saad | el 2 Pa SM 4a 7 Ot are Val SEE 294 | 276 | 283 DON WaAkes? OPCDS 7.0 RIRE IAA DO ARS ESS NI ONE 110 a Lakes Close. oe as nis ARE et er on op fel PR EN ARTS 347 BS | RIVES OPEL. eee Saleen = erectile ARE PART EN PARC SOS LO PE RER ¥ cnc 30) Rivers: close! cale ciate shee PR PA ER Pace Rae [eee | See 103. CJanss 0 RNA Cae eee AE RE Etes 22 CE ne ; = APE AR RE MON PE RAIS ‘ | April |. MSA NN TS 119 | 130 | 130 May: ll (a0 me el | ee 138 | 130 |, 131 | 150) Une Sie earl tere EN need enr SNA LAON RER fale = 40 | Thunderstorms 4 | i oso to | ae eG ly a Mees SIA (eb ne RACE DV fo See a Re UTE rte JE Ieee LOG rs RSS AIRE DOTE Up PIRE ER EEE 206 | | A sit en AA RE ee QOBAIE, 2 | Aug | PEN be eaten SU RUE PEAR RS nee Oot 232 |.... | DA" |L M AI RE IEEE 233 | 233 | | | Sept..|....| 224] 268 | 269 273 269 | p AREA 269 - IT loss. Al aie (se Reet |e Shei, woe Get wen TER ale anes BOI edt 278 | 298 | 208 | 298 (Novel BOS Hct elle cee allah ALES los ee Berl ed OT PT CS L Déc RSS 04 ar NI NN ES Me SA RE En PRE i CPL Bee Ris Yo PS | or Gatos { T52q ne f Heil ~ CRIE) OO S/T (Se MMle tm epee OCT 177 Fup cece | Le tete i 1 0 # | Droughts............ fed es Wath! LE eer Ue Wey Cea le y | 182 AN SEN ES PRISE Es APPEL al | ene l LOR esha ESS | LOT | 41 PROCEEDINGS FOR 1896 TABLE B.—Continued. PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, YEAR 1895. ss eS ARE | © STE a So weer eb) es + mae | le iol se lalel 3 Boke enr ey EE eases eee | Conn) card 51/6, n |\ala] & 120 ps] 154 272 288 257 ble Fa en el eae AE REA A ET ee SCT 100 ier | Pi eee RE fied ee cee | 151 As hare Sieh alee ree | free NE CNET 664 AR SR RER es | BOO hoe. AG inc ab | 27 an EN." PRES i DBAS ee et Eole Re NT PO bee Pc 22220) a EN PORN CRU EP PA EC CNE AA DE TN SN SE i eC i ons San Sees | LIX | | A | a : . Eu = Æ 2 FA = cd iss ie | es rte Ae = ees RE = 2, EI = 0 CG AS ie A ERREUR a wo} æ | ww = el = x iS oe fal oe asl eo Ke = = T =: AN er Neue | Beets Ba Mh ye hes 154 || 141). PATE wr 147 | 159 | 164 | 3 CAISSE) EN be” 7 DES 251 | 227 | 226 ROBE RÉAL RER ET Een PR MERS | 7K PATENT | AN es ee SAF A Ae aa te alee 3021 805: [22722 PEUR AREA Tr OUT DATE CE. à | | 123 ||. Vi D Lo PR An ee tah |. LIS iste ft) OA: MT Le 146 |... 150 ||. TET Vesey (Sane eee See lie | os Aiea MIRA A, ea Er 156 ||. | IAS ES AL Die 161 | Le TA eee DNS ECS 162 | LATIN GG NES 163 163 TON TIR RARE 164 165 | iB D ees an RE 166 AT PE eee 168 ME AE RC Ter 3 170 EE MR Per AU ec a 174 7213 by SAME ARE 181 | 183 204 TS Be 190 | 194 ran | 202) LISE EPA 200 | 200 207 | She RE ANR AT OG DGS |e Asan PR PARA out PEER 207 vb ip babes Ale 2 lane, 2h AS IEW 209 CA UE ETES re MI egal en, LENS 215 DDG RL er: DOS VSS vale ee eee 224 233 PEN p.25 À ÉRIC) RON 232 ee ELA ADN RER EE PS PAU ES LS Se Fay liens) 2 eae Ny ca aon Nae a RARE 72| Es MON D PO CO RES PERTE EE Sc [a cisth ET 7225) DE | Pe Vek eel RE NO 1 Va ae 4 254 | bas oth leh JOB) Nie airs BO REM SHO) Et De RS a Vie abe bate 165 | | Ta «| { Sr A EEE AE ON CRE 209 | TSO, (eet Foals Sew Le elec oe 216 LX | Number. fer) te | | | 65 | | ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA TABLE C PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, YEAR 1895, Last day of sa gt of your. ë £ A 2 eo Boa |g |g 32] 22 | + 25 cou, fat lala| [als las) * zg an Nov., 334 “ | | | sis a bs PAU Pos ZOOLOGICAL. | Song Sparrow, arrived || | OT SPS ter 95:3|| 98 98°0 Mt. - Nt QUE AE REP di) cl bncis tae Robin, i 94] 94)....]....1) 95°0| 95| 105 111) 103-6 Western RODE Pec aii | EL EEE ae alice ll RE ERA RS Sec Bi acres eee One Blue Bird, Eee |e acl Maes CRIER ese ee corel] RENTE ris Re Western B. Bird ‘‘ A |p od ER | ae ae ote | eet Junco, rs 102} 100).... HOM One AE no Western JubCo Ne | RCA RER ACE REA EE Eee) [leery | ; SACS Red-Winged B.B. “ | pe RAVEN! Beebe 5 URS ea al I tae A CN lan | Sandpiper, - 122) 149). 1855] IE RES) Er Swallow, Ge [ete 22/7 119°5 132), ...|| 1382°0 | Meadowlark, e Le ie Sa | Kingfisher, Coa 128) 127 a A ees blac Hummingbird, Le |: 137| 144). 140:5|| 140) 124)....| 138|| 134°0 Westérn, Bb. 2 er et ere elle Set ee C|ÉECTIEPPEL)EEEECE Night Hawk, + 147| 153|....| | 150" 0) 182]....|....| 110] 146°0 Western N. H., ES AA AIRE | Re keep he bi dl lle diet AE Se) ONE SITES Wild Duck, 1st B...... eh ee: ARR EPL PT IE Ê 76| 76 0 ¢ Erg ay Bs gl 56|....|....]| 70°0 | 225) RL Sep ë y ME PES DEN DA SE SL EDR DO EE PO ES baa ra ee À AE iiss ARN Vl 9 LR ON PEUT NOR Tea meme BS Wild Meese, A8 BS sie <. [inc a alieeeeva oie a LATE PART |e eae | alé 1; area “ Ie M A EL A Til sce tees 71:0 | 85 85°0 4 OSs tas PA PL LEE. lasers cae | 305], 305-0 “ 15 ah ea PL RE. ee DER te LS EEE 334] 334-0 FrosWhistle""-7"22 | 109). 110) 113|....|| 110°6 in). 110), 110°5 | | / PROCEEDINGS FOR 1896 LXI TABLE C.—Continued. PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, YEAR 1895. | | | | : n || ; A | 2 | | | Ce = 5 nl | ET © 1= a ri g | 3 LE alles AIRE le > | ei Slal & | 23 Suileae eect ells se | © | nm | a S 3 || 3 ARE 2 RARE MIE CUT 0) RES als 2. ele = | RPC Mec ten 2 | 5 e{/Simi/Sigisi El of > AMEN Nee nl [eat gl ete ECS AI ARE S | = ds) 8 | 2) mo. | 8 | & | 6 | We | 2] a] à | 4 | ae | 3 None See bin hele eee he RO RSS ele toon |e Wl E es ES |SIAMIE 1a] oe | S| s |e] 5 SES lg DE = 5 Et Role = |. > = = > EU SAS > Ce Zloloauan lé ia |Zl/Sisi4 |EIBlaAlSl- > | | ; 7 A OC ri. MN E 82-0| 83 RS AU CRE PAPA IE (i | BAPE PS NE A ARE ert pale tete Ju ue ed weal Pose CS 91| -91-0ll..... 44 | 103] 81 98|..|..| 108} 98] 96-2) 91/....| 98) 920)... Pare à | | | IE A Seles Ste PU ol Nae NO Es Ihe Let PR RAI re eg 96! 110) 100} 91) 99:21... MG Waal Solace Halt Aeees (be: feat IRE ee ead 97°0 alll acs MGs oN seal ANA vig bea RAR 2 Pere TE PEN PAR ET EE IR BSA TOS Wee I PEER Re cee. à [eta AE | | MOM reset Mi AP ath A ES ASS ant 94 KM SE Eaten SRE | ES ER EN SR RARES 106 | 106-0| 102 95 97:5|..... ig EE | A (epee (eA ET OL OS 123 || 123-0 hee ene Ne 52 | 132\| tos}...|..1..|.... MAO ON MEN Sle: Us os ESS Nea lara | J | FE | aga” RNA SES LA) || CRE 1 ee Patel Wn fm (a) D AE 7 ORAN ENS ET te Banh, LE RL HO TE OA OT fe Le OT A Tea Ne oa ees ESA EM ae EAN 1381 138-0) 128), | 128 Ole sl ue ee Bath, Sl) be LEA nes rate À 7 À TE PEL A A A PRE le à 57 | 203. |. BANG A PAR Le Re OA PR ca Re | SE ES A ayo | ee PART; adele oligo. Beene har AA 0 PE RE ETS g3|....|....|| 83-01 89... 88 6 BIT 60 | 110)....|. Re ee ee l'a.) 830! 95...) 92}... gars. Fa pee M nds | Eee | Sue eee See | SR | SF lO 24921 | a ee 2088 6-2] 9820]). 83). 22). 20.1 88208 178) saat Tobe 79:0|. ::-. 64| 85} 85] 96)..1.. 103)....|] 94-6] 83........| 830) o1 127) 90 90] 905)... ee A QE WOES | RE Let log Be Ae 280)....|....| 314] 297-0}... .. (oy) 0 à 1S) eel ase as ..| 117} 123|| 120°0 102,....| 111 106°5|| 95) 90 98)....) 94°3 ‘““W ” above = winters, LXII ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA STATIONS AND OBSERVERS, 1895. Nova Scotia. Yarmouth—Miss Antoinette Forbes, B.A. Miss Beth Lovitt. Berwick—Miss Ida Parker. Halifax—Mr. Harry Piers, Stanyan. Mr. Johnstone MacKay, 32 Morris Street. Musquodoboit Harbour—Rey. James Rosborough. Port Hawkesbury —Mrs. Louise Paint Forsyth. Pictou—Mr. Charles B. Robinson, B.A., Academy. Wallace—Miss Mary E. Charman. Amherst—Grades VIII. and IX., Public Schools. Prince Edward Island. Charlottetown— Mr. John MacSwain, Principal Public Schools. New Brunswick. Grand Harbour—Mr. Henry F, Perkins, Grand Manan. St. Stephen—Mr. J. Vroom. St. John—Students, Victoria High School. Hammond River—Miss Edith Darling. Kingston—Miss Mary F. McLean. Richibucto—Miss Isabella J. Caie. Ontario. Niagara Falls Park—Mr. Roderick Cameron. r Ottawa—James Fletcher, LL.D., KF.R.S.C. Muskoka—Miss Alice Hollingsworth, Beatrice P.O. Manitoba. Winnipeg—Rey. W. B. Burman, B.D. + Mr. E. A. Garratt. Assiniboia. Pheasant Forks—Mr. Thomas R. Donnelly. Alberta. Olds—Mr. T. N. Willing. British Columbia. Vancouver—Mr. J. K. Henry, B.A., High School. PROCEEDINGS FOR 1896 LXIIl Constitution, &c., of the Club. The Botanical Club of Canada was organized by a committee of section four of the Royal Society of Canada at its meeting in Montreal, May 29th, 1891. The object is to adopt means, by concerted local efforts and other- wise, to promote the exploration of the flora of every portion of British America, to publish complete lists of the same in local papers as the work goes on, and to have these lists collected and carefully examined in order to arrive at a correct knowledge of the precise character of our flora and its geographical distribution, a to aid in phenological observations. The method is to Sa eee with the least possible paraphernalia of constitution or rules, increased activity in our botanists in each locality, to create a corps of collecting botanists wherever there may be few or none at present, to encourage the formation of field clubs, to publish lists of local floras in the local press, ete.; for which purposes the secretaries for the provinces may appoint secretaries for counties or districts, who will be expected, in like manner, to transmit the same impetus to as many as possible within their own sphere of action. Members and secretaries, while carrying out plans of operation which they may find to be promising of success in their particular dis- tricts, will report as frequently as possible to the officer under whom they may be immediately acting. Before the end of January at the latest, reports of the work done within the various provinces during the year ended December 31st previous, should be made by the provincial secretaries to the general secretary, from which the annual report to the Royal Society shall be principally compiled. By the Ist of January, therefore, the annual reports of county secretaries and members should be sent in to the pro- vincial secretaries, To cover expenses of official printing and postage, a nominal fee of twenty-five cents per annum is expected for membership (or one dollar for five years in advance, or five dollars for life membership). Provincial secretaries in remitting the amount of fees from members to the general treasurer are authorized to deduct the necessary expenses for provincial office work, transmitting vouchers for the same with the balance. X.—From The Natural History Society of New Brunswick, through Mr. W. J. WILson. The Natural History Society of New Brunswick find much en- couragement in the year which has elapsed since the members of the Royal Society of Canada last met together. ip LXIV ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA creased considerably. Many of the meetings were very largely attended, and the average attendance was better than in former years. The following papers were read at the regular monthly meetings : 1895. June 4th—‘“ An outline of phytobiology, with special reference to the study of its problems by local botanists, and suggestions for a biological survey of Acadian plants”; 2nd, Paper ‘On adaptation of plants to locomotion,” by Prof. W. F. Ganong. Oct. 9th.—Report of summer camp held at Lepreaux : (1) ‘‘Geology of the region,” Dr. Geo. F, Matthew. (2) “ Botany of the region,” G. U. Hay, M.A. (3) “ Zoülogy of the region,” Prof. W. F. Ganong. (4) “ Note on the origin of the name of Lepreaux,” by Prof. W. F. Ganong. Noy. 5th.—(1) ‘On the unsuitability of the Bay of Fundy for the culti- vation of oysters,” by Samuel W. Kain. (2) “The chemical and microscopic examination of blood,” by W. F. Best. 1896. Jan. 7th.—‘ Note on the occurrence, near St. John, of the long-billed marsh-wren,” by John Brittain. (2) “Note on gun reports heard upon our coasts,” by Prof. W. F. Ganong. (3) “ Trinidad : its history, products and people,” by John V. Ellis, jr. Feb. 4th.—* The old Meductie fort and its surroundings,” by Rev. W. O. Raymond. March 3rd.—* Some of the results of the Challenger expedition,” by Dr. Geo. F. Matthew. April 7th.—(1) “ Life of Abraham Gesner,” by John F. Gesner, of New York. (2) “ The Tantramar marsh,” by Geo. J. Trueman. May 5th.—“ Notes on two fishes and two shrews new to New Bruns- wick,” by Dr. Philip Cox. In addition to the above, the following elementary lectures were de- livered : December, 1895.—“ The Archeology and Ethnology of Egypt,” three lectures by Mrs. E. C, Fiske. February, 1896.—‘ The microscope : its construction and management,” three lectures by W. W. White, M.D. March, 1896.—“The characteristics of New Brunswick plants,” three lectures by Geo. U. Hay, M.A. April, 1896.—“ On Birds,” two lectures by Dr. Philip Cox. PROCEEDINGS FOR 1896 LXV The library has grown rapidly in consequence of a large exchange list, which includes many of the leading scientific societies, both American and European. The society was enabled by this means to provide its members with the latest results of scientific research. The museum was open to the public twice in each week, and attracted many visitors. In the month of July last a most successful summer camp was held at Lepreaux Basin, distant about twenty-five miles from St. John. Thirty persons took advantage of the opportunity for an outing, among whom were Prof. L. W. Bailey, Prof. W. F. Ganong, Prof. A. Wilmer Duff, Dr. G. EF, Matthew and G, U. Hay. Daily excursions were made to various points of interest along the coast, and the evenings were devoted to lectures on the natural history of the district. The researches of Pro- fessor Ganong in connection with the peat bogs of Lepreaux have been embodied in a paper which will be read before section four of the Royal Society at this session. The geological problems were carefully investi- gated by Dr. Matthew, and the results, which are of considerable im- portance, will be published in the near future. The society has been fortunate in securing many valuable donations. Rev. Professor James Fowler gave the valuable collection of plants (about 1,000 species) which were described and enumerated in bulletin No. 4 of our series. Our library has been enriched by the gift from the British Govern- ment of the Challenger reports—fifty volumes of great value—presented in recognition of the original work done by the society. The following are the officers for the current year : President, Geo. U. Hay, M.A., F.R.S.C. Vice-Presidents, H. Geo. Addy, M.D.; Wm. Murdoch, C.E. Treasurer, Samuel W. Kain. Secretary, Percy G. Hall. Curators, F. E. Holman, J. V. Ellis, jr., and Thomas Stothart. Members of Council (additional) —Gen. D. B. Warner, J. Roy Camp- bell and Geo. F. Matthew, D.Sc., F.R.S.C., ete. X1.—From The Astronomical and Physical Society of Toronto, through Mr. Geo. E. Lumspen. The sixth annual meeting of the Society was held in the rooms, Technical School building, Toronto, on January 7th, 1896. Accommoda- tion for the society had been kindly provided by the board of manage- ment of the school in September, 1895, and the removal from the former meeting-place, in the Young Women’s Christian Guild building, effected in October, Proc 1896. E. LXVI ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA The following officers were elected by acclamation : Hon. President, Hon. G. W. Ross, LL.D., Minister of Education. President, John A. Paterson, M.A. Vice-Presidents, Arthur Harvey, F.R.S.C. R. F. Stupart, Director Toronto Observatory. Treasurer, James Todhunter. Cor. Secretary, Geo. E. Lumsden. Rec. Secretary, Chas. P. Sparling. Asst. Secretary and Editor, Thos. Lindsay. Librarian, W. B. Musson. Librarian’s Assistant, Miss Jeane Pursey. Foreign Correspondent, John A. Copland. The following is a brief review of the work done by the members in 1895, and of papers published in full, or in abstract, in vol. vi. of the Transactions : « Notes on Star Clusters and Nebulæ,” by Mrs. Savigny, Mr. Arthur Harvey and Mr. Thos. Lindsay. “The Spectra of the Nebulæ ” was the subject of a concise résumé, by Mr. A. F. Miller, of the work of the great spectroscopists in this field of research. Prior to the presentation of the paper, Mr. Miller was engaged in a comparison of the lines in the nebular spectra with those in the newly discovered element—argon ; the result was that remarkable coincidences were noted in the positions. The chief nebular-hne, at wave-length 5067°05, completely coincided with a line in the blue argon-spectrum ; while the second nebular line, at wave-length 4959-02, corresponded very nearly with another line in the argon at 4965°5. Lines in the red argon- spectrum corresponded also with nebular lines, but, with one exception, the latter were already matched with the blue spectrum. Mr. Miller reached the conclusion that the temperature of the nebulæ is much higher than has hitherto been assumed, taking into consideration, in the investi- gation, the different conditions under which the blue and the red spectra are produced. The lunar eclipse of March 10th was very widely observed by the members and correspondents of the society. The reports were marked by close descriptions of detail in regard to colour of the moon’s disc, the occultations of faint stars and other phenomena. During the year many special reports of telescopic work were re- ceived from various members, including Dr. J. C. Donaldson, of Fergus, and Dr. J. J. Wadsworth, of Simcoe. The latter forwarded a drawing of Saturn made in July, at his 124 inch reflector, by Miss Eva M. Brook, of Simcoe, and showing a concave outline of the shadow of the planet upon the ring. This drawing was subsequently reproduced to serve as the frontispiece to the Transactions for 1895. The drawing was carefully s tudied by Mr. A. Harvey, and an analysis presented by him of the PROCEEDINGS FOR 1896 LXVII geometric shape of a section of Saturn’s ring, if the surface were such as to show a concave outline of the shadow. Mr. Harvey showed that the section must be either lenticular or elliptical. “ Notes on Steel making” were read by Dr. E. A. Meredith, who had had an opportunity of investigating the Doherty process at Sarnia. The advantages of this method over the Bessemer system were clearly shown. The successful introduction of the new process was regarded as heralding the incoming of a great industry into Canada. ‘A history of the Greenwich Nautical Almanac ” was the subject of a paper by Mr. Thos. Lindsay, who read the introductory chapter, in which were outlined the advances which had been made in science since 1767, the date of the institution of the almanac. Mr. T. 8S. H. Shearman, of Brantford, presented a paper on the ‘ Oblique Cassegrain Telescope,” and described his experiments with this method of constructing instruments made as long ago as 1878. Although it has since been made to appear that the method was in use in Europe prior to the date named, Mr. Shearman had no information on this point when he devised his experiments. A paper on “Earthquakes and Volcanic Phenomena” was read by Mr. A. Elvins, who sought to trace these phenomena directly to their source by illustrations derived from the necessary effects of solar heat. Mr. David E. Hadden, of Alta, Iowa, contributed an exhaustive paper on solar observations, to which he appended a daily record for the period of (1890-95) five years, during which he was engaged in reporting to the lowa Weather Service Bureau. E Mr. Arthur Harvey read some notes on the “ Behaviour of Minerals at very high Temperatures,” and described the results of several experi- ments with a Barton electrical furnace, which, it was stated, reproduced in some measure the conditions to which aerolites are exposed on entering the atmosphere of the earth. The text of the address to the legislative assembly by the Hon. Dr. Ross, minister of education and honorary president of the society, on moving for a grant to assist in the suitable reception of the British Associa- tion at Toronto in 1897, was, by permission, published in the Transactions of the society, which appointed a special committee with instructions to aid in every possible manner the work of the general committee having in charge the arrangements in respect of the visit of the association. “ Auroral Displays” formed the subject of a paper by Mr. J. Van Sommer, who brought to bear on the question of the origin of auroræ the results of some experiments with vacuum-tubes conducted in the laboratory of Toronto University. Notes on auroral observations were received from Right Rev. J. A. Newnham, D.D., Bishop of Moosenee, a corresponding member of the society, who, in his far northern station, has specially fine opportunities LXVIII ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA for noting these phenomena. His lordship expressed his intention to experiment in the direction of photographing the landscape by means of the auroral light. , The work of popularizing telescopic work among the senior pupils of the public schools was deputed to Miss A. A. Gray, and during the summer months several telescopes, belonging to members, were placed at the service of the students. Under Miss Gray’s direction, several pleasant and profitable evenings were spent in the observation of celestial objects selected for the purpose. Miss Gray, and those who assisted her, ex- pressed themselves as satisfied with the results and with the degree of interest aroused among the pupils. Throughout the year the members of the society frequently had occasion to inspect the results of Mr. Z. M. Collins’s labours and skill in constructing reflecting telescopes. The credit for introducing this in- dustry into Canada the society claims as directly due to its efforts to popularize astronomy and to secure the manufacture of good telescopes at reasonable prices. The very general satisfaction given by reflecting telescopes, which are not nearly so expensive as refractors, has led many persons to think this form the more suitable for popular work, especially when such work consists of lunar and planetary observation, and not of the measurements of close stellar systems. For such objects of common interest as the moon and the major planets, reflectors do very well indeed. Mr. Collins has been deservedly congratulated upon his success, which is due entirely to his own studies and experiments in optics. He is now manufacturing, for sale, reflecting telescopes of all apertures from four to ten inches, Systematic observations of the Perseid meteors were made in August by Mr. W. B. Balfour and others, and sketches of the solar disc, drawn by Mr. G. G. Pursey on every observing day throughout the year, were presented at the end of each quarter. Mr, Pursey employs the method of projecting the image. The work of the lunar section, formed the previous year, was carried on, and proved to be both successful and encouraging. Two of the senior members prepared special papers, which were intended as an introduction to the systematic study, object by object, of the moon’s disc, as contrasted with the general and, therefore, but too ‘little useful work for amateurs. They also reviewed the various theories held regarding the origin and history of the moon. In one of them, Mr. A. Elvins dealt with “The present condition of the moon,” and in the other Mr. Arthur Harvey ex- haustively treated “The contrast between lunar and terrestrial features.” In a paper, entitled “The rings of Saturn and the nebular hypo- thesis,” Mr, J. Phillips disputed the correctness of La Place’s theory, and rested his case chiefly on the new discovery that the inner ring revolves more rapidly than the planet rotates. It was held that had this been PROCEEDINGS FOR 1896 LXIX known to La Place, that illustrious astronomer would not have formu- lated his well known hypothesis. Mr, Phillips based his elements for the revolution of the rings upon the discoveries of Professor J, KE, Keeler, of Allegheny, Pa., an honorary member of the society, who has recently determined by the spectroscopic method the velocities of different parts of the Saturnian system, Considerable discussion followed the paper, and objection was taken by several members to the views it contained. A paper on “ Celestial Photography” was read by Mr. G. E. Lums- den, in which the progress of this great aid to astronomy was sketched, beginning with the first efforts of Daguerre, following up the discoveries made, and concluding with descriptions of the methods adopted at several observatories in practical work. Information on the latter points had willingly been furnished by the directors of the Greenwich, Lick, Paris and Toronto observatories, Notes on the “Canals of Mars” were read by Mr. John A. Copland, who supported the views taken by Mr. Percival Lowell regarding the interesting question of the habitability of the planet. The third of a very successful series of popular lectures on physics was delivered by Mr. C. A. Chant, B.A., lecturer in University College, Toronto, in the physical room of the university, having, as on previous occasions, been placed at the service of the society by President Loudon. Mr. Chant’s subject was “ Electrical Radiation.” Several of the classic experiments of Hertz and Prof. Lodge were repeated for the first time in Toronto. Some of the apparatus had to be designed, and was specially constructed under Mr. Chant’s direction. The phenomena of reflection, refraction and polarization of electric waves were most successfully shown, and proved highly instructive and interesting to a very large audience— the public having been invited. An essay on “Theories of Gravitation” was read by Mr. J. R. Collins, who reviewed exhaustively all the views which have been advanced since the earliest times to account for the’ mystery of gravity. Without advancing any theory, or modification, of his own, Mr. Collins combated the statement that gravity must be instantaneous in its action, at least, in so far as this view has been held to be sustained by observed phenomena. He was of the opinion that the result would be the same whether gravity was propagated in time or not, and that there would be no ‘“ aberration ” effect corresponding to the aberration of light. He held, further, that the assumption that gravity must act instantaneously was a stumbling- block in the way of investigation into the cause of the mystery. At the annual meeting, a report of the work of the earth current committee was presented by Mr. R. F. Stupart, director of the Toronto Observatory. Mr. Stupart announced that he had regularly received throughout:the year reports of disturbances noted at the Canso, NS, station of the Commercial Cable Company, which had accepted the invi- LXX ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA tation of the society to assist in settling, if possible, some vexed questions respecting the cause of these and of some other phenomena, which, by some investigators, have been referred to a common origin. Mr. Stupart stated that he had tabulated and charted these reports for the purposes of comparison with the magnetic disturbances as recorded at the Toronto observatory ; that he had found the subject a most interesting one, and that he hoped, at an early day, to be able to make some announcement as the result of his discussions of the data which were on hand and which he was carefully collecting. In the Transactions of the society may be found a reference to the work of the joint committee on the unification of time, a subject which has been receiving attention for some years. The replies to its despatches on this question received by the British Government, show that there is practically but one dissenting voice of commanding influence in the scientific world. It is to be regretted that this should be the voice of one so distinguished as Professor Simon Newcomb, who, however, has con- sistently opposed all time-reform, and who, but temporarily it is to be hoped, has been able to move his government to adopt an attitude of in- difference, though most of the reforms accomplished in this field owe, in no inconsiderable degree, their successful promotion to the United States. In view of the fact, however, that various scientific bodies of high rank in that country have expressed themselves unreservedly in favour of a change in the present made of reckoning the astronomical day, and are urging a reconsideration of the question at Washington, it cannot, and it isnot to be held, that Professor Newcomb, in any sense, represents settled American opinion on this subject. This point is set forth in the third report of the joint committee forwarded to the Home authorities through the office of His Excellency the Governor-General, September 26th, 1895. A valuable paper on the “ Unification of Time” was pre- pared for the society by Mr. W. Nelson Greenwood, of Lancaster, Eng., himself a publisher of a nautical almanac, in which the proposed time is used with the approval of his readers. ‘faking a deep interest in assist- ing in the promotion of the reform referred to, Mr. Greenwood has been at the trouble of sending out to every captain and ship-master a circular in which he asks for answers to,questions not unlike those distributed by the joint committee of the Canadian Institute and of this society to astro- nomers. Based upon several hundred replies from really representative seamen, Mr. Greenwood has been able to collect data of a most timely and useful character. Upon these data has been founded a fourth report of the joint committee, which, with copious extracts from Mr. Greenwood’s tables, has been transmitted to His Excellency, in the hope that they will be laid before the Home government, as they reveal a remarkable unani- mity of opinion in favour of the reform among those men who are, indeed, much more interested in its successful prosecution than astrono- PROCEEDINGS FOR 1896 LXXI mers can possibly be, An abstract of Mr. Greenwood’s paper may be seen in the Transactions of the society ; the full text has been placed at the disposal of Dr. Sandford Fleming, C.M.G., chairman of the joint com- mittee, now en route to England. A special meeting of the society was held on January 21st, 1896, when, following the usual custom, the President, Mr. John A. Paterson, M.A., delivered his annual address, and reviewed and described the work which had been accomplished in astronomical research, and referred to the improvements in instrumental equipment at various observatories. Karly in 1896, and immediately after the announcement of Professor Roentgen’s discoveries, experimental work was undertaken and some very satisfactory radiographs were taken by means of the so-called X rays. On the suggestion of a member of the society, bromide sheets were used instead of dry plates, and several very sharp pictures were thus taken at once, and for the first time in this country. About the same date, how- ever, as it afterwards appeared by scientific publications, this experiment, then new in America, was being conducted independently in Paris. The appendix to the Transactions of the society contains a sketch of the work of the Meaford Astronomical Society, which is affiliated with the Toronto society. XU.—From The Ottawa Field Naturalists’ Club, through Mr. RY EL SauDT. On behalf of the counci! and members of the Ottawa Field Natural- ists’ Club, I have the honour to present to the Royal Society the following report : The club, now in its seventeenth year, has for its chief object the encouragement of the practical study of natural history. Towards this end the means are : (1) a winter course of lectures ; (2) field-days or excursions during the summer months, and (3) “The Ottawa Naturalist ” —the organ of the club—published monthly. Course of Lectures. A new departure during the past year has been the amalgamation of the lecture courses of the club and of the Ottawa Literary and Scientific Society. This arrangement has proved most satisfactory and successful. The lectures throughout were well attended, and from opinions expressed by many, it is evident that they were highly appreciated. In plotting out the course, the council sought to make the lectures, as far as possible, helpful to those studying the various branches of natural history. Ad- mission to the lectures has been open to all, gratis, and thus it may be said that the club is doing useful work outside of its own membership—a LXXII ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA work that has proved itself of particular interest and value to the normal school students and other scholars of the city. Through the kind offices of Dr. MacCabe, F.R.S.C., principal of the Normal School, the use of the assembly hall.of the Normal School has been granted us by the Educational Department of the Ontario Govern- ment for the lecture course. The combined lecture course was as follows : 1895. | Noy. 2—Conversazione. Exhibition of Microscopical Objects and Natural History Specimens. Addresses by Dr. MacCabe, F.R.S.C., principal, Normal School ; Dr. R. W. Ells, F.R.S.C., president, Literary and Scien- tific Society ; Mr. F. T. Shutt, M.A., president, Ottawa Field Naturalists’ Club. Dec. 5—‘ The Value of Botany in Agriculture,” Prof. Macoun, F.R.S.C. “« A Naturalist in British Columbia,’ Mr. J. Fletcher, F.R.S.C. Dec. 12—‘ A Greek Tragedy,’ Rev. Prof. McNaughton, M.A. (Queen’s University.) 1896. Jan. 9—“ Longfellow,’ Hon. Dr. Montague, Secretary of State. Jan, 23—‘“ Extinct Monsters,” Dr. H. M. Ami, M.A. (limelight illus- trations.) Jan. 30—* Recent Explorations in Labrador,” Mr. A. P. Low, B.Ap.Se. (limelight illustrations.) Feb. 6—“ How to Study Botany,” Dr. T. J. Burgess, F.R.S.C. (Mont- real.) Feb. 20—“ Pompeii : A Roman City of the First Century,” Dr. F. D. Adams (limelight illustrations.) “ Eggs and Nests of Fishes,’ Prof. E. E, Prince, B.A. (Com- missioner of Fisheries.) “ Bacteria; their Functions in Nature,” Mr. F.'T. Shutt, M.A. March 5 General and Sub-excursions. The first general excursion was held in May to Chelsea, on the Gatineau, during the session of the Royal Society. It was largely attended, and several Fellows of the Royal Society were present as guests of the club. 'The second general excursion was held in June to Galetta, on the Mississippi, a tributary of the Ottawa River, and the third in September to Paugan Falle—a very beautiful spot, about thirty miles from the city on the Gatineau River. The sub-excursions to points within easy reach have been held on Saturday afternoons, and many members and their friends availed them- selves of these opportunities for the collection and study of natural history objects. PROCEEDINGS FOR 1896 LXXIII The club’s excursions are always attended by the leaders of the several branches. These gentlemen have rendered great assistance in the identification and classification of specimens collected during the day and by their addresses, given before the return home, on the special features of the district visited. The Ottawa Naturalist has appeared regularly throughout the past year. It has been under the able editorship of Dr. Henry M. Amiyassisted by a staff of associate editors. Several improvements have recently been made in the appear- ance of the “ Naturalist,’ which have commended themselves to all our readers. It is now one of the most presentable magazines on natural history published in Canada. The volume for 1895-96 comprises 272 pages, some of the chief contributions that there appear being as follows : In Zoology. “ Cilia,” by Prof. E. E. Prince, B.A., F.LS., ete., Dominion Commis- sioner of Fisheries ; “ Colourless Blood in Animals,” by the same author ; ‘“ A Morning Among Moose,” by the same author ; “ Hunting the Barren Ground Caribou,’ by Frank Russell ; “ Phyllopods from Ottawa,” by Andrew Halkett ; notes on “The Bushy-tailed Wood-rat,” by C. de Blois Green ; notes on ‘ Canadian Shrews,” by Dr. C. Hart Merriam. In Botany. “ The Flora of Ontario,” by Prof. Macoun, M.A., F.L.S., ete. ; “ List of Native Trees and Shrubs at the Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa,’ by Wm. T. Macoun ; “ Notes on the Study of Botany,” by Dr. T. J. W. Burgess, F.R.S.C., ete., etc. ; “On Rare Manitoban Plants,” by James Fletcher, LL.D., F.R.S.C. In Ornithology. “ Winter Birds,” by A. G. Kingston ; “A Well Marked Bird Wave,” by the same author ; A New Bird for Eastern Ontario,” by the same author ; “ Town Birds,” by W. A. D. Lees ; “Observations on Bird Life at Pictou, NS.” by W. A. Hickman ; “Keen Sight of Birds” and “ Blue Bird and Dickcissel,” by W. E. Saunders. In Geology, Including Mineralogy and Petrography. “ How Rocks are Formed,” by Dr. R. W. Ells, LL.D., F.B.S.C., ete. ; “ Notes on the Stratigraphy of the Cambro-Silurian Rocks of Eastern Manitoba,” by D. B. Dowling, B.A.Sc. ; “ Fossil Insects from the Leda Clays of Ottawa and Vicinity,” by Dr. H. M. Ami, M.A., F.G.S. ; “ Notes on Some Fossils from the Trenton of Highgate Springs,” by the same LXXIV ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA author ; “ Erythrite, Stilpnomelane, var. Chalcodite, Crystallized Mona- zite, and Pleochroic Apatite from Canada,” by W. F. Ferrier, B.A Sc. ; ‘ Crystals,” by the same author; “ On Some Dykes containing Huronite,” by A. E. Barlow, M.A., F.G.S.A., etc. In Chemistry. “The Air at Ottawa,” by F. T. Shutt, M.A., F.I.C., etc. ; “Acetylene, the New Illuminant,” by H. 8. Marsh, A.I.C. ; “ Argon, a Newly Dis- covered Constituent of the Atmosphere,” by F. T. Shutt, M.A., F.1.C., ete. In Conchology. “ Ottawa and Casselman’s Shells,’ by Frank R. Latchford, B.A. ; “ Recent Mollusca from the Headwaters of the Ottawa,” by J. F. White- aves, F.G.S., ete., ete.; “ The Land and Freshwater Shells of Alberta,” by Rev. G. W. Taylor, M.A. In Entomology. “ Erebia Discoidalis” and “Sphinx Luscitiosa,” notes by James. Fletcher, LL.D., F.R S.C. ; ‘ Unusual Abundance of Meléid Larve,” by W. H. Harrington, F.R.S.C. General. “The Relation of the Atmosphere to Agriculture,’ by F. T. Shutt, M.A., F.1.C., ete. ; “ Reports of the Entomological and Geological Sec- tions of the Club,” for 1894-95. Also notes on and reviews of work in all branches of research in science, whether in America or Europe, but especially as affects British North American researches. The affairs of the club, | am happy to state, are in an exceedingly satisfactory condition. The membership roll numbers 260 persons and the interest evinced by all is evidence that the society is prosperous and doing good work. Although unassisted by government or other aid, the funds of the club (entirely derived from members’ subscriptions) have. been sufficient to maintain the “ Naturalist’ and carry on the work of the club generally. For the further extension of our field of work by the enlargement of the “ Naturalist,” more money is required, and we trust that towards that end the Ontario Government may in the near future see its way clear to assist us. The library continues to increase ; many valuable volumes, among which I have to acknowledge with thanks the Proceedings of the Royal Society, having been received during the past year. At the annual meeting held in March last the following officers were elected for the season 1896-97. PROCEEDINGS FOR 1896 LXXV Patron—The Right Honourable the Earl of Aberdeen, governor- general of Canada. President— Mr. F. T. Shutt, M.A., F.1.C.,"F.C.S., etc. Vice-Presidents—Dr. H. M. Ami, M.A.,"F.G.S.; W. Hague Har- rington, F.R.S.C. Librarian—Mr. 8. B. Sinclair, B.A. (Normal School.) Secretary—Mr. Andrew Halkett (Marine & Fisheries Department). Treasurer—Mr. D. B. Dowling, B.A.Sc. (Geo. Surv. Dept.) Committee—Prof. E. E. Prince, B.A., F.L.S., ete.; Dr. Jas. Fletcher, E-RS.C.,. FLL.S..: Mr. H. B. Small ; Miss A. Shenick, B.Sc. ;, Miss. G. Harmer ; Miss Marion Whyte. Standing Committees of Council. Publishing—Dr. Ami, Prof. Prince, Mr. Harrington, Mr. H. B. Small, Mr. Dowling, Miss Marion Whyte. ns Excursions—Dr. Ami, Dr. J. Fletcher, Mr. Small, Mr. Sinclair, Miss Harmer, Miss Shenick. Soirées—Prof. Prince, Mr. Sinclair, Dr. Fletcher, Mr. Halkett. Leaders. Geology—Dr., Ells, Mr. Ferrier, Dr, Ami. Botany—Mr. R. B. Whyte, Mr. J. M. Macoun, Mr. J. Craig. Entomology—Dr. Fletcher, Mr. Harrington, Mr. W. Simpson. Ornithology—Mr, Kingston, Miss Harmer, Mr. Lees. Conchology—Mr, Latchford, Mr. Halkett, Mr. O’Brien. Zoblogy—Prof. Prince, Prof. Macoun, Mr. H. B. Small. XIII—From The Ottawa Literary and Scientific Society, through DrrO:Krorz. As representative or delegate of the Ottawa Literary and Scientific Society I have the honour to make the following report of the proceed- ings of the society during the year ending March 31st last. The membersbip remains about the same as in the preceding year 260. The receipts, including the Ontario Government grant of $400, were $1,079.11 ; the balance on hand is $86.85. Our lecture course was during the past winter for ‘the first time amalgamated with that of the Ottawa Field Naturalists’ Club. ‘There were together eight lectures delivered, all free to the public. This the society and club were enabled to do through the liberality of the Honour- able the Minister of Education for Ontario, who, on the request of Dr. MacCabe, principal of the Normal School here, kindly placed at our disposal the hall of the Normal School. ‘The course was opened by a conversazione with numerous microscopes and slides, natural history LXXVI ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA specimens, spectroscopic exhibition, vocal and instrumental selections, and short addresses by the presidents of the society and of the club. The following is a list of the lectures delivered. They were all very well attended, and well received. There can be no question as to their stimulating and educational influence. The amalgamation has proved such a marked success that it is proposed to give a similar series of lectures the coming winter. 1895. Noy. 26—Conversazione. Dec. 5—* The relation of Botany to Agriculture,” Prof. Macoun. “ Insects of the Rocky Mountains,” Dr. J. Fletcher. Dec. 12—“ A Greek Tragedy,” by Prof. McNaughton of Queen’s. 1896. Jan. 23—‘ Extinct Monsters,” by Dr. H. M. Ami, with limelight illus- trations. Jan, 30—* Recent explorations in Labrador, with limelight views,” by Mr. A. P. Low. Feb. 6—* How to study Botany,” by Dr. T. J. W. Burgess. Feb. 20—“ Pompeii,’ by Dr. F. D. Adams, of McGill. March 5—* Eggs and nests of Fishes,” by Prof. E. E. Prince. “ Bacteria, their functions in nature,” by Mr. F. T. Shutt. Owing to the fact that but few new books have been added to the library during the year, the number of issues is considerably less than that reported last year. The total number issued was 5,001, distributed in different classes as follows : History and biography ....... sige Res SEARS SAA 5e 89 Travels ..... Re oA en Ss PLACE oes RE 50 Fiction ....:. Jem pasiats aoc er ubes ane Siva dote Ste listen FE 080 Por y An A CP A LE sense nes id. General teratune i, osqosupss cael core am TE a 60 COLO SY. sete syncs woreete ethene wer sient che CCS 2 Chemistry and natural history ............ RP Ent 3 Astronomy and mathematics... Mines serrer de 11 Science and art. 2-2 meet Pre Lt Pate Des caeo ee 30 Bound'magdzines:.#2/77 etre oremccr-iRen.t pda pees 159 The number of persons who took out these books was 259. The abnormally large percentage of fiction is admittedly not satisfactory. To enter into a discussion of the cause or causes thereof is outside of this report. The reading room is supplied with the leading papers and the best of current literature. It continues to be much used. It seems proper to refer to the great interest that was manifested by a large section of the community during the past year in the scheme of a free library, supported by municipal taxation, Although a very large PROCEEDINGS FOR 1896 LXXVII vote was polled in favour of the by-law for the creation of a free library, yet the by-law was defeated. While the question was before the public, considerable prominence was given by the press to the good work having been and being done by the Literary and Scientific Society, so that the council of the society have reason to look forward to a liberal support from the public, and to hope that some public-spirited and generous citizen will donate a building as was offered for establishing a free library. The society is undoubtedly a constant educational factor as well as an elevating influence in the community. At the recent annual meeting the following officers were elected : President—Otto J. Klotz. First Vice-President—W. D. LeSueur. Second Vice-President—Dr. Saunders. Secretary—O. J. Jolliffe. Treasurer—W. J. Barrett. Members of Council—J. Ballantyne, Dr. Ells, L. J. Alexander. Curator—J. Bronskill. XIV.—From The Wentworth Historical Society, through Hon. Senator MACINNESs. The annual meeting of the society, held on the 6th of June, 1896, was marked by a particularly large and representative attendance. The officers’ reports for the year were presented and adopted. Among them was one from the ladies’ branch of the society, reciting the organi- zation as completed, The following officers were elected : President—Geo. H. Mills, Esq. First Vice-President—F. W. Fearman, Esq. Second Vice-President— Hon. Judge Muir. Third Vice-President—Mrs. John Calder. Secretary-Treasurer—John H. Land. . Corresponding Secretary—Justus A. Griffin. Executive Council—Hon. D. MacInnes, Adam Brown, Esq., Hugh C. Baker, Hon. J. M. Gibson, W. F. Burton, Esq., J. W. Jones, LL.B., Major Hy. McLaren, Alex. McKay, M.P., John Pottinger, Esq., and Mesdames John Hendry, J. V. Teetzel, Edward Martin, M. Leggat, T. H. Pratt, G. Papps and Arthur Gates. The thanks of the society were tendered to the secretary of the Royal Society for the volume of its Proceedings for 1894. Also to the Dominion Archivist and Clerk of the House of Commons, for copies of the report on the Archives, and the Votes and Proceedings of Parliament. At the conclusion of the business a very valuable and scholarly LXXVIII ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA paper was read by the Rey. E. J. Fessenden on “ Niagara from Queenston to Chippewa, on the Canadian shore.” An historical “ Military Encampment ” was held by the ladies’ com- mittee of the society, in the drill hall, lasting from November 25th to December 2nd,and a very handsome sum was realized. A very interesting collection of relics and trophies was exhibited in a log cabin by the members of the society and their friends. 4 The encampment was opened by His Honour the Lieutenant-Governor of Ontario, who delivered an address replete with patriotic sentiments. At the invitation of the executive committee having charge of the arrangements for the historical exhibition to be held in 1897, the society subscribed for a number of shares of the guarantee stock, issued to pro- vide for the expenses, the exhibition to be in commemoration of the dis- covery of Canada by Cabot. With the assistance of the Canadian Club, the leading citizens were canvassed for similar subscriptions. The society has sustained a serious loss in the death of the Rev. E, J. Fessenden, rector of Ancaster, who died in January last. On an invitation of Capt. Brown Wallis, of Ottawa, who inclosed forms of petitions, asking for the repatriation of the 100th ‘ Royal Cana- dian ” Regiment, the executive council directed that the petition should be signed by the officers, after which it was circulated in the city, and as large a number of names secured as the limited time allowed. Steps were taken to provide for the annual meeting of the Provincial Pioneers and Historical Association of Ontario, to be held in this city on the 3rd of June, at which it is expected that there will be a large repre- sentation of the historical societies, and many valuable papers read. SESSION IL (May 19th.) PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. The Royal Society and delegates held a public meeting at 8 o’clock in the Assembly Hall, and the president, Dr. Selwyn, C.M.G., F.RBS., delivered an address on the following subject : ON THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION or ARCHÆAN Rocks, with REMARKS AND OPINIONS ON OTHER GEOLOGICAL SUBJECTS ; BEING THE RESULT OF PERSONAL WORK IN BOTH HEMISPHERES FROM 1845 To 1895. I shall commence my address this evening by a few remarks on the somewhat vague, erratic, sometimes contradictory manner in which geo- logical writers use certain terms. I refer especially to terms commonly used in connection with the processes of the making and forming of rocks and rock formations or “terranes.” It must be remembered that while the result of the process is almost identical, the process itself is PROCEEDINGS FOR 1896 LXXIX almost as often entirely different. It is, therefore. essential that the writer or observer should in all cases state clearly his view of the nature of the process by which the result has been attained. The terms deposited, erupted, irrupted, formed, igneous, stratified, stratiform, crystalline, metamorphic, trap, grauwacke, slate, shale, are all terms of the class referred to; and when used without discrimination and explanation, as they often are, scarcely tend to enlighten the geolo- gist, much less the ordinary reader. As regards the terms metamorphic, pseudomorphic, endomorphic, etc., there have been many learned discussions, and a variety of opinions have been expressed by such eminent authorities as Naumann, Sheerer, De la Béche, Dana, Lyell, Hunt, and a host of other writers. Less learned persons may, however, I think, be content to accept the Anglo-Saxon term altered or changed as expressing the truth; and it may, I hold, be believed as a further truth, that there are no rocks at the present day, except perhaps some of the very youngest, to which the term, in its simple and original meaning, is not more or less applicable, especially in all regions of intense dynamic action. Whether the change is one of form, of composition, or of texture, or of all three, is a matter of detail rather of local than of geognostical import. The manner in which the change has been brought about is certainly interesting, but is also a mat- ter of detail that may well be left to the chemist and the microscopist to determine and to theorize upon. But there is, I think, as much truth as poetry in the statement, not generally believed, that “stones grow.” That, like plants and animals, they do so, however, is certain. It is plainly illustrated in concretions, in crystals, and in crystallizations. None more beautiful or more easily observed than those of water on a window pane ; or in what may be called the sporadic manner, in which a surface of water becomes ice, and which, | believe, is closely analogous to the metamorphic action which results in the formation of granite in situ from pre-existing either stratified or massive rocks. The inquirer on these matters, however, cannot do better than make use, as | have myself, with immense advantage, of the wonderful store of research and personal knowledge of geogony, in all its branches, recently (1895) made available by Sir Archibald Geike, the present director- general of the British Geological Survey, in the second edition of his “Text-book of Geclogy.” This work is a truly imperial dictionary of geology. It is a concise history and review of geological work and literature, in both of which its author has taken so large and so important a share. It stands, and will stand, unrivalled. No working geologist or ‘student should be without it. ARCHÆAN Rocks. In considering this subject, it will be well first to define precisely the meaning of the term and its restriction, so far as my remarks on it are LXXX ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA concerned. The term was, I believe, first proposed and used by the late Professor Dana, in his Manual,” to supersede the terms primary, prim- itive, protozoic, azoic and eozoic. Its obvious advantage is, that, except. age, it indicates no theory or theoretical assumption. It is, therefore, the best word yet coined to denote those cryptogenous rock-masses which in Canada constitute what are known as the Laurentian and Huronian sys- tems. or, as I should call them, the older and younger Archean. The names Laurentian and Huronian, first given by Logan and Hunt, have now been adopted in many other countries; but in none of these are the recognized Archæan rocks exposed to observation as continuously and over as enormous areas as they are in Canada. For these reasons alone, the names are appropriate,,and should be retained, As the evidence now stands, no new names are needed to designate this great and closely united Archean system. The name Algonkian should be rejected ; it has been invented and adopted in the United States on an entire misconception, misrepresent- ation and want of knowledge of Huronian, due in part, it must be con- fessed, to contradictory statements that have occurred in the publications of our own Geological Survey. These, however, cannot alter facts. And a revision of statements is now alone required to make the Canadian Archean system consistent and intelligible. But above all we must reject the—as I have elsewhere pointed out—entirely erroneous, but oft- repeated, statement of nonconformity between the Laurentian and Huronian. Wherever their history is complete, and the record -has not been destroyed, dislocated, or otherwise concealed, the lower and upper Archean rocks pass into, and more or less mingle with, each other, and the then slowly changing conditions of evolution, to which I shall again refer, are clearly demonstrated. Many subdivisions may, and doubtless will, be worked out in the future; but these are matters of stratigraphical detail, and will not affect the broader conclusions. Two such subdivisions have already been recorded by Lawson, late of the Geological Survey of Canada,—the Coutchiching and the Keewatin, in the districts of the Lake of the Woods and Rainy Lake. To base broad and regional conclusions, however, on observations over such limited districts is neither safe nor philosophical ; and especially is this so when dealing with Archean rocks in which dips, depths, strikes and thicknesses are always more or less problematical and uncertain. Theory doubtless has its advantages, but it has also one very serious disadvantage, viz., that its author is very apt to seek and to record the facts which seem to support his theory, while he overlooks, or gives but little prominence to others, equally marked and important, but that have an Opposite tendency. This, together with personal and party consider- ations, bas been in the past, and will probably continue in the future to be, a serious hindrance to the progress of geological knowledge and truth PROCEEDINGS FOR 1896 LXXXI Lyell remarks of the rival factions of the Vulcanists and Neptunists : “Their contentions were carried to such a height that the names had become terms of reproach ; and the two parties had been less occupied in searching for truth than for such arguments as might strengthen their own cause or serve to discredit their antagonists. But out of evil good arose in the formation of a new school, who cared neither for Werner nor Hutton, but who resolved diligently to devote their labour to obser- vation. . . . Speculative views were discountenanced, and in the fear of exposing themselves to the suspicion of a bias towards the dogmas of a party, some geologists became anxious to entertain no opinion whatever on the causes of phenomena, and were inclined to scepticism even where observed facts scarcely admitted of reasonable doubt. No measure could be more salutary than a suspension of all attempts to form theories of the earth. A great body of new data was required, and the Geological Society of London, founded in 1807, conduced greatly to the attainment of this end. To multiply and record observations and patiently to await the result at some future period, was the object proposed by them ; and it was their favourite maxim, that all must be content for many years to be exclusively engaged in furnishing materials for future generalizations.” The contention is still active, though under somewhat different designations, but the moral and the maxim are, unfortunately, for the most part forgotten or ignored. It is, however, and I believe correctly, said that ‘truth will prevail ;” but the battle it has to fight is often very protracted, often a very unequal and wavering one, and it has happened that hasty and not well-considered theory has prevailed against facts which had long before been patiently and carefully examined and cor- rectly interpreted. One of these battles still continues; it is over the Archean system and its most important and largest member, granite, on which latter I propose to give some details and some almost historical but unpublished correspondence. As some of my hearers are aware, I have been a geological workman on behalf of her Majesty for fifty years. Twenty-five years of that time has been spent in conducting the Geological Survey of Canada, the history of which was given in the Presidential address of 1894, though in it my long connection with the Survey as its director has been inadvert- ently omitted. During this, as human life is reckoned, somewhat lengthy period, and being conscious of my lack of oratorical or scriptorial quali- fications, I have rarely been induced either to talk or to write for pub- lication, or I may have been like Werner, who, we are told, “had an antipathy to the mechanical labour of writing.” However this may be, the result was that I had more time for observation, by which I certainly gained and probably no one else lost anything ; because whenever | made out, or thought I had made out, a fact having a practical bearing, Proc. 1896. F. LXXXII ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA it was at once communicated to the persons who were immediately and directly interested and could practically test the correctness, or otherwise, of the observation. Two of the most notable and important of these conclusions, in early days, were the permanence and the depth to which the auriferous veins of Australia could, and probably would, be profitably worked. The second was the extension of the auriferous deposits beneath the overlying tertiary lavas of the plains. The first test of this observation is recorded in Wathen’s Golden Colony, page 234, where we read: “But these indirect proofs are verified by a very recent letter from Mr. Selwyn, who states that the diggers are now actually in one place sinking shafts through the lava down to the auriferous drift beneath.” | [ have no record of this letter, but it must have been written early in 1854, and both predictions have since been amply verified. As, however, this address will be the close of my geological labours, [ may perhaps be excused if in it, and in the quotations and references which seem desirable for the clear elucidation and vindication of the opinions I am about to express on some of the subjects treated of, I refer : to personal records, published or otherwise, more fully than under other circumstances would be either desirable or requisite. The publications, books, journals, magazines, addresses, papers and pamphlets are now so numerous and voluminous, that one feels inclined to exclaim with Goethe— * Mich ängstigt das Verfängliche Im widrigen Geschwätz Wo nichts verrharret, Allesflieht, Wo schon verschwunden was man sieht.” Which may be translated thus : I weary with the tangle Of the opposing chatter, Where all is transient : nothing lasts Where already what one sees is past. You will, however, thus see how impossible it is for me to bring for- ward any thing new, or that has not been more or less exhaustively and ably treated in one or other of the publications referred to, The facts are mostly well known and recorded. My remarks will, therefore, deal rather with the interpretation of the facts, than with the facts them- selves. And my excuse for occupying your attention is my desire to place on record, through the medium of the Royal Society of Canada, my own views on the interesting and obscure subject of Archean rocks. Geike says (“Text-book of Geology,” 1895): “The mode of origin of the Archwan crystalline schists is a problem which cannot yet be satis- factorily solved.” Professor Bonney, in an address to his students on a PROCEEDINGS FOR 1896 LXXXIII recent occasion, December, 1895, referring to metamorphic rocks, SAYS : “T began about 1881 with the Alps and ever since then I have been trying to decipher the history of the crystalline schists and gneisses in this chain and in other lands—perhaps | have been chasing an /gnis fatuus—that time must show.” I have been exactly fifty years at the same work, and now propose in the following remaks to briefly record my conclusions—whether erroneous or otherwise, time must show. De la Béche said in 1839: “ We would scarcely expect that there would not be a mass of erystalline rocks produced at first which, how- ever they may vary in minor points, should still preserve a general char- acter and aspect, the result of the first changes of fluid into solid matter, crystalline and subcrystalline substances prevailing.” This is exactly what the Archæan rocks themselves teach us, whether massive or schistose, granite or gneiss. This small speck of the universe which we call Earth, so important to us as being that on which we temporarily “live and move and have our being,” may be regarded as consisting of a triune sphere : 1. The Lithosphere. 2. The Atmosphere. 3. The Hydrosphere. The above is obviously the order of its genesis. We may now inquire to what extent, and how, during the millions of years of its refrigeration, did the lithosphere contribute of its elements to the atmosphere ; and the latter, during the further millions of years of its evolution. slowly liberate them, some, perhaps, to be returned to the lithosphere, and others to be used in the production of the then unborn hydrosphere. These are questions which, though closely connected with my text, “The Origin and Evolution of Archean Rocks,” I had best leave to the physical and chemical geologists to discuss and to explain. In any case, the three generations above outlined certainly entered into a “combine,” with their plant, material and labour, and thence for- ward—unlike, I fear, the combines about which we now hear so much— honestly, vigorously and incessantly worked on the further evolution of the planet, with ‘the marvellous and glorious results recorded for our observation and instruction in the triune kingdom—mineral, vegetable and animal—of the book of nature. This numerically small but physically gigantic, thoroughly honest, unselfish and industrious “combine” has undoubtedly been operating for millions of centuries, quietly, uniformly and peaceably, without strikes, riots, revolutions, cataclysms or wars. Now, when we pause to consider the age of even the youngest member of this oldest “combine,” we find it, as recently tabulated from the opinions of nineteen different writers, to vary from 28 millions to LXXXIV ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 240 millions of years; while other authorities state that the lithosphere, to cool from a temperature of 2000° to 400°, might have taken from 350 millions to 1,400 millions of years; and Professor Perry gives 9,600 millions of years.’ There could not, it seems to me, be a more convincing proof of our complete ignorance on this question. We may as profitably, or unprofit- ably, theorize on the age of the universe as on that of this little spot within it. There is, however, no reason for doubting that the ‘combine ” would have effected but little in the evolutionary work on which it was engaged, but for the energetic, and all important aid of its youngest member. Without it there could have been no life, either animal or vegetable, and there would have been little, if any, material available for further evolution and construction. On page 637 of Geike’s “'Text-book” we read: ‘ Archean rocks everywhere present the same general characters, and the gneiss shades off into a non-foliated rock which occurs with it in alternating bands, but is in structure a true granite. Occasionally bands of the granite wander across the foliation of the gneiss, but they evidently belong to the period and processes of the gneiss formation, and cannot be classed as later intrusive eruptions.” That the foregoing is an excellent and accurate description of these granitoid Archæan rocks I can testify from personal examination of them in situ, in Britain, in Australia, in South America, and over very large areas in North America, as also of specimens of them from many other parts of the world. Unlike all newer rocks, whether clastic, pyroclastic, igneous or crys- talline, they are absolutely alike, and, further, they are universal in their terrestrial distribution, upwards from the level of the ocean to the sum- mits of some at least of the highest mountains, and not unlikely down to the fioor of the deepest oceans. In the quotations I have made above from pages 485 to 937 of Geike’s “ Text-book,” I find the, to me, doubtful and contradictory terms intrusive and erupted, and also the words deposited and ocean. Now, in view of the axiom from which we started, viz., an incan- descent, perhaps molten, but cooling lithosphere, these words formulate an impossible theory, viz., the primitive existence of the hydrosphere. It is a theory for which neither nature nor the character and composition of what are everywhere recognized as the oldest rocks of the lithosphere, that have never anywhere been penetrated, afford a single particle of evi- dence, Not only are we compelled to theorize an impossible ocean, but we have also theorized animal life to people it. Salamanders are nothing to Eozoon ; that minute pseudo-organism must have lived and died and been entombed amidst the hottest of rocks and waters. 1“ Page 383 ‘‘ American Geologist,” June, 1895. PROCEEDINGS FOR 1896 LXXXV And here we come upon one of the protracted battles | have referred to. It has been waged with varying success by biological and chemical forces, singly or combined, but seems still undecided. On the 17th January, 1871, Professor (now Sir Frederick) McCoy wrote me as follows respecting it: ‘I have never been satisfied of the organic nature of eozoon, and if I had seen the specimens for the first time I should have looked on them as imitation growths of the mineral developed by metamorphic action in the mass.” The late Mr. Billings did not believe in it, though, so far as I am aware, he never publicly expressed his opinion. There is little doubt that the consensus of opinion at the present day is against it as being a form of life.’ The view I take of it, however, is wholly independent of either biological, mineralogical or chemical considerations. And, apart from these, I have no hesitation in recording my belief, whether right or wrong, that neither the theoretical Archean ocean nor the theoretical sediments therein had any demonstrable or probable existence during the early evolution and refrigeration of the lithosphere, when this creature is supposed to have existed. I fail to understand why geologists have persistently, from the earliest times, mixed and intermingled the opera- tions of those early Archean days with those of the obviously—as I have endeavoured to show—non-existent hydrosphere; or why the rocks of the original lithosphere should be essentially different from what they became after the evolution of its two important partners, the atmosphere and the hydrosphere. The materials were certainly all there from the beginning, and that the product should be something dif- ferent from anything now known to us in the solid crust seems unreason- able, The whole scheme is doubtless based on theoretical orthodoxy ; and much plausible and able advocacy has supported it. It is, I consider, inconsistent, contradictory and retrogressive. In the interests of truth and of facts, unmistakably exhibited in the Archæan lithosphere itself, it should be abandoned ; together with the pernicious theory which has arisen largely from the mistaken notion that stratification or parallel structure and fragmentation could only be produced, and were in them- selves proofs of aqueous abrasion and sedimentation. It is as objection- able as is that other latterly much used fallacy of so-called “ basal con- glomerates” as being evidence of breaks and unconformity, instead of, as such beds much more often are, as being the result of mere local change in the conditions of deposition. It also ignores or overlooks the possibility of both being largely due to subaërial deposition of ejected igneous matter on to the first formed solid crust, and the subsequent action on this matter of dynamic forces, including crystallization. These are quite competent to produce one and all of the phenomena observed in the Archean rocks, 1 Am. Geologist,” vol. II., 1888, pp. 175. LXXXVI ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Every geologist admits the absolute necessity of such a primary rock-foundation or solid crust, but none, or very few, seem yet willing to admit the possibility of the crystalline granitoid, granitic and schistose rocks, which we call Laurentian and Huronian, being veritable portions of that ancient crust. That it has been modified by the additional mat- ter which, during the millions of years of its cooling and evolution, it has been able to absorb from the atmosphere by slowly coming into contact with the substances which were then being liberated, or condensed to form that hydrosphere which we call ocean, may well be supposed and admitted. But I must reiterate my firm belief that, apart from ingenious theories and plausible suppositions of what may have been in the past,— all of which are ably and exhaustively referred to in Books I. and II. of Geike’s ‘‘ Text-book,” 1895, and also in Dana’s “ Manual,” 1874,—there is nothing whatever to be found in the rocks themselves to warrant the assumption or necessitate the belief that they are not the rocks of the original Archean foundation. Divisional planes or parallel structures called bedding, stratification, Jamination or cleavage, the occurrence of associated layers of calcite, graphite, lime-phosphate and many other minerals, or the fact that similar granitic or granitoid compounds were formed in later ages, can- not be taken to disprove this; while their universal distribution and uniform mineral characters, already referred to, indicating, as they almost certainly do, a thermal or igneo-crystalline and not an aqueous sedimentary origin, are wholly and all in favour of the contention I am advocating respecting the Archean rocks. It seems remarkable that neither by Dana in his “ Manual,’ nor by Geike in his “Text-book,” are the views of either Naumann or Sheerer in relation to Archæan or “primitive” rocks referred to. They are, however, I hold, thoroughly philosophic, consistent and progressive views of the subject, and are in every respect in accordance with the teachings of the rocks themselves. / Elie de Beaumont considers the following minerals to be found in granite: Potassium, lithium, sodium, calcinum, magnesium, yttrium, glu- cinum, aluminium, zirconium, thorium, cerium, lanthanum, didymium, uranium, manganese, iron, cobalt, zinc, tin, lead, bismuth, copper, silver, paladium, osmium, hydrogen, silicon, carbon, boron, titanium, tantalum, mobium, pelopium, tungsten, molybdenum, chromium, arsenic, phos- phorus, sulphur, oxygen, chlorine, and fluorine.’ Substances enough to form, when ‘in due proportion duly mixed,” as Nature, in her chemical and physical laboratories, clearly knew how, with the ample time at her command, to form all and every kind of rock and mineral for the use and development of her animal and vegetable kingdoms. 1 Bull. de la Soc. Géo. de France, 2™ ser., tome IV. PROCEEDINGS FOR 1596 LXXX VII The important influence and the energetic work of the youngest member of the “combine” in the building up of the lithosphere has already been referred to, and we may now add the not less important work of pulling down also. Destruction and construction is a natural law. It is universally adopted and practised by man ; but whether he opposes it or aids it, the law is there, and will be inevitably carried out in that circular form which symbolizes all nature, and has, so far as we are con- cerned, like the circle itself, no beginning and no end. Nothing is de- stroyed, but change or metamorphism is continuous, however slow and, to our defective senses, inappreciable it may be. I shall now make some further remarks on what appear to me to have been the direct effects of the work referred to. We must bear in mind, in this matter of evolution or building up, the primary necessity of materials; and the question at once arises, whence came these needed materials ? The answer is, primarily from the solid and perhaps still hot crust of the lithosphere, and, secondarily, from the continual decay, dis- integration and transposition of matter by the internal and external action of the then slowly developing hydrosphere. And here I may record my opinion that to those actions may be ascribed the commencement of vol- canic activity, and that neither it, nor its important results are in any degree due to central heat, as is still, | believe, held by many, and half a century ago was regarded as a geological axiom, though Lyell about that time wrote: “There appears no sound objection to the doctrine that chemical changes, going on at various depths in the earth, may be the cause of volcanic action.” In accordance with the foregoing ideas of the evolution we are tracing, it is in the records that are left us of the Upper Archean or Huronian rocks that we look for, and we certainly find, the first unmis- takable evidences of the combined action of oceanic and volcanic, or erup- tive and irruptive, and aqueous abrasive and sedimentary forces. Far too large a share of the work of providing constructive materials has, however, in the past been credited to the ocean and far too little to the atmosphere and to the volcano. Its muds, its ashes, its lavas, its breccias, its conglomerates, its waters and its gases, except in British geology, have scarcely been recognized, especially those of Archean and Paleozoic times. Dana says, “ Volcanic eruptions have added a little to the supply.”' But, then, it is only since 1872 that volcanic ejectamenta of Paleozoic and pre-Palæozoic times have been recognized as such by United States geologists. I can best illustrate this by the two following unpublished letters, the one addressed to the late Professor Dana in 1879, and the other to the late Professor G. H. Williams in 1891. They are now somewhat historical in this connection. 1 Manual 18. LXXXVIII ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA “MonTREAL, 9th December, 1879. “My Dear Proressor Dana,—l have just read your remarks (Am. Journal of Sci., vol. xviii.) in reference to what | have ventured to call the volcanic group of the Quebec series of Sir W. Logan. As regards the volcanic question, I should like very much to know what your views on the subject are, and hope at some future time to hear them from your- self personally. In the meantime I would make a few explanatory re- marks on the points you refer to in my paper. You say the evidence of the general volcanic character of the second group is not stated, and the -kind of rocks mentioned make a remarkable assemblage to be spoken of as ‘these volcanic rocks.’ This would seem as if I had meant to assert that all the rocks mentioned as constituting the group were of volcanic origin. I might certainly have made the matter plainer had I specified those rocks in the group which there were reasons for supposing to be of voleanic origin. It never occurred to me, however, that in giving a de- scription of a group of strata of mixed volcanic and ordinary sedimentary origin it would be necessary to do so. ‘ As regards the evidence of volcanic origin, I can only say now that it is of precisely the same kind as that which, in respect of similar British strata, has been considered to be conclusive by almost every British geo- logist of note, including De la Bèche, Lyell, Sedgewick, Murchison, Jukes, Ramsay, Scrope, and a host of others now living. Further, that these conclusions, first arrived at by the most careful and minute geological investigation and mapping of the stratigraphy, have been or are supposed to be entirely confirmed by the comparatively recent microscopical and chemical investigations of these same rocks. ‘Tt is now rather more than thirty years since I took an active part, under the geologist first named, in working out in all their intricate de- tails the great Lower Silurian volcanic series of North Wales. Since then I have had abundant and world-wide opportunities of studying volcanic formations of all ages, recent, Tertiary, Mesozoic and Paleozoic; and I may say it is on the result of this world-wide geological investigation, and not on the occurrence of labradorite or any other particular mineral, that I have come to the conclusion that we have in Canada, as in Britain and elsewhere, good evidence of the existence of volcanic strata, and conse- quently of volcanoes, in Silurian, Cambrian and pre-Cambrian epochs. I am quite aware that most of the peculiar rocks which, in common with a majority of British and some American geologists, I hold to be of vol- canic origin have heretofore been generally, and doubtless quite correctly, described simply as crystalline metamorphic rocks ; but this, it seems to me, does not refer so much to the question of their origin as it does to their present condition and character. And if we carefully study their stratigraphical relations in the field, and their microscopic and physical characters, we at once find—at least that has been my experience—that PROCEEDINGS FOR 1896 LXXXIX #ome other explanation of their origin and associations is required besides that of their being ordinary sedimentary deposits in a metamorphic con- dition. Indeed, your own and Mr. Hawe’s careful and admirable investi- gations of the chloritic formations in the Newhaven region seems to me to demonstrate the entire probability—to say the least—of the igneous and volcanic origin of the rocks you describe. It is, I believe, generally admitted that rocks having the mineral and physical peculiarities charac- teristic of many volcanic products would be more easily affected by meta- morphic agencies than those which are of ordinary and unmixed sedi- mentary origin, and that these old volcanic rocks should have assumed these metamorphic characters is what might be expected, and their having done so certainly does not negative the supposition of their volcanic origin. “Tt seems to me that the a priori probability of the existence of vol- canoes in Eozoic and Paleozoic epochs is very strong, and that those who oppose any such idea should be prepared, like those who hold the opposite Opinion, to state some good reason for their views, and also the particu- lar geological epoch when, in their opinion, volcanic outbursts first com- menced, If, on the other hand, the existence of volcanoes in these early geological epochs is admitted, then we may very naturally expect to find their products associated with the ordinary sedimentary rocks of the period, in the same manner as we do those of the volcanoes of recent and Tertiary times. This is what British geologists claim to have done. “I have no wish to dogmatise on this question, and only desire the truth, whatever that may be. But at present I cannot help feeling that if | am in error, I am so in very excellent company, and that the views of such eminent geologists as I have named, based as I know them to have been from intimate personal acquaintance both with the men and with the country to which they were applied, on precisely similar evidence as is to be found in Canada, are at least entitled to be regarded as something more than ‘fancy sketches.’ “Tam, my dear Professor Dana, “Very truly yours, : ‘CALFRED R, C. SELWYN.” Twelve years later | wrote to the late Professor G. H. Williams as follows : “ Orrawa, 19th February, 1891. “My Dear Sir,—I have read with much interest your excellent description of the Sudbury rocks. You will perhaps excuse me if I make one criticism on the last paragraph where you observe ; ‘The rarity of such rocks,’ etc. If, by this you mean the rarity of what I should call ancient volcanic or eruptive ejectamenta, then I think you should rather say: The very recent recognition of such rocks by United States geolo- gists. It is now more than half a century since they were recognized in these ancient formations by British geologists. XC ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA “Tt seems to me that the real reason of their not having been more generally recognized in America lies in the fact that Dana neither recog- nized nor made any mention in his ‘Manual’ (ed. 1874) of Paleozoic or Archean voleanoes or their products ; but page 716 refers to all such rocks as ‘non-volcanic eruptions,’ and instances the clearly volcanic eruptions of ‘Western Great Britain, Wales, etc.,’ as examples of such rocks. I first wrote about the volcanic rocks in Canada, group 2 of my paper,’ of February, 1879, which, I said, ‘is locally made up of altered volcanic products, intrusive and interstratified, the latter being clearly of contemporaneous origin with the associated sandstones, slates, schists, etc. And it was stated that the age of the whole series was either Huronian or Lower Cambrian. Our Huronian, about which there has been recently so much discus- sion and so little investigation in the field, is often largely made up of volcanic matter, originally—like those of recent times—molten, muddy and fragmentary, but now, unlike those of recent times—all more or less metamorphic. “The fact has been recognized and stated years ago in Canada, and it is gratifying to me to find that the microscope, in the skilful hands of yourself and others, is confirming conclusions which were then based on purely stratigraphical and physical considerations, and which, it seemed to me, were the only possible explanation of the manner in which crystal- line and non-crystalline strata were to be found associated ; a possibility apparently not recognized by Dana when he criticized the remarks I then made, and wrote as if I had stated that the occurrence of lime- felspar was proof of volcanic origin, and as if I had referred the rocks mentioned to that origin without geological investigation. “ However, all I then wrote wider experience has amply confirmed, At that time (1879) Dana clearly did not recognize what was evidence of the existence of volcanic action, and consequently of volcanoes. It was certainly not the presence of labradorite or of any other particular min- | eral. Now, Ï fancy, Dana no longer regards my announcements as ‘belonging to fancy sketches.’ His statement that these rocks are ‘not igneous but metamorphic in origin’ elicited my remarks on page 15a of the Geological Survey Report for 1877-78. I inclose you a copy of my letter to Dana on the subject, 9th December, 1879. It was never acknow- ledged or answered in any way, but has some interest in this connection. I have just been glancing over A. Winchell’s ‘ Last Word with the Huron- ian.’ His views are to me utterly unintelligible, especially the last two paragraphs, in which he compares things wholly incomparable, and wants to make more new systems. Taconic and Huronian neither have nor ever had any connection. Taconic can only be compared with the Quebec group, and, like it, has now been resolved into its elements, which were very 1“ Canadian Naturalist.” PROCEEDINGS FOR 1896 XCI heterogeneous, embracing Silurian, Cambrian and Archean. Huronian and its boundaries, so far as ascertained, have been indicated on published maps, but, unlike Quebec or Taconic, it has never been considered or been shown by any Canadian geologist to do otherwise than occupy the posi- tion, or fill the gap, between Laurentian and Lower Cambrian. It does so still, but its subdivisions are being gradually worked out and defined. Two of these are Coutchiching and Keewatin. But they are not systems, and mean no more than do the subdivisions Trenton, Calciferous and Potsdam. “ Yours sincerely, ‘ALFRED R. C. SELWYN.” Archean volcanic rocks are now, however, no longer in the domain of “fancy sketches,” nor is it now held that certain Archean rocks have ‘no resemblance to lava or igneous ejections,” and were all “once sediment- ary beds.” By the aid of the microscope these old volcanic ejectamenta are being recognized and descanted on from Maine to the Rockies.’ And I venture to predict that the same useful instrument will very shortly put an end to prevailing theories of deposition respecting Archean rocks and their origin. But as my old friend and colleague, Sir A. Ramsay, said, “I do not believe in looking at a mountain. with a microscope.” ? The purely theoretical dogma that continents have always been con- tinents, and oceans have always been oceans, is to me much more like a “fancy sketch ;” especially when it is admitted that they, orportions of them—why not the whoje ?—may have been submerged some thousands of feet; and it becomes still more fanciful when we are told that accu- mulation of sediment is the cause of depression, This seems to be a com- plete transposition of cause and effect, and is certainly not supported by anything presented by the rocks themselves or in their structure. Practical experience, apart from theory, tells us that if we want to secure the accumulation of materials by unaided natural causes, a depression is essential, and is a precursor, not a consequence, of accumulation, and it at once secures the effect. Plausible and ingenious theories are here cer- tainly in conflict with actual and well known facts. The greatest depression of the lithosphere is that of the ocean floor. It constitutes three-fifths or thereabouts of the whole surface. We know but little of its hills and valleys, its plains and its rivers. “There is a river in the ocean,” writes Maury; but we do know something of its peaks and mountain summits; and we find that in structure and com- position they correspond very closely with those of the continents. They have been built up like those on land by the internal and external agencies I have spoken of as operating on the contingnts in destruction and con- 1 Pre-Cambrian Volcanoes in Soutnern Wisconsin. Hobbs. Vol. Vile Geo. Soc. of Am., 1895. ? Page 343, Geike’s Memoirs of Sir A. C. Ramsay. XCII ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA struction. Why, then, | would ask, the purely theoretical assumption that no part of this wide but now concealed ocean floor was ever contin- ental land ; and why may not its rocks be as diverse and conceal as many biological treasures as do those which we can examine on the land? Theory alone must be looked to for an answer. Rocks and facts, how- ever, all tend to show that during the millions of years of evolution referred to, the ocean and the land have been, and still are, continuously changing places; and that the actual truth, as it is in nature and as I hoid it, cannot be more graphically expressed than we find it in Tenny- ? sons “In Memoriam”: ‘ There rolls the deep where grew the tree ; O, Earth, what changes hast thou seen ! There, where the long street roars, hath been The stillness of the central sea. ‘ The hills are shadows, and they flow From form to form, and nothing stands, They melt like mists; the solid lands Like clouds they shape themselves and go.” In the above we touch upon the construction and destruction of all the newer formations which are not included in my text; but as granite and granitoid compounds constitute such enormous areas of continental lands, though in a progressively diminishing extent since Archean times, I propose to make a few remarks connected with my view of its origin. ORIGIN OF GRANITE. In 1853, forty-three years ago, i commenced to study and trace out in the field the boundaries of the great granite areas depicted on the geological map of the province of Victoria, Australia, which you see before you. Scale, eight miles to one inch. Up to that time my ideas of granite were simply those orthodox doc- trines of fusion, intrusion, central heat, upheaval and disturbance. In 1854 I called the attention of Professor McCoy, then lately arrived in Victoria, to the remarkable, and up to that time, I believe, unrecognized, certainly undepicted and undescribed, relations of the granite to certain stratitied rocks. oO So The relations as then accepted are shown in Jukes's “Manual,” pp. 310 and 311, 1862, and express the theory of intrusion and its obvious consequence, upheaval. The observations made in Australia showed plainly, however, the entire absence of the consequences that ought to have been there, and therefore some defect in the doctrine. Later, similar facts were observed in Ireland, and metamorphism was availed of in order to recontile the theories with the facts. Prior to 1862 we find no mention of metamorphic granite, or any localities cited where it had been distinctly shown to be so, without the PROCEEDINGS FOR 1886 NOMI \ matter composing it being supposed to have been in some mysterious manner taken down to the central fire, and then again brought up to within a few feet of the surface. This double displacement of the solid matter of the lithosphere is wholly unexplained. On the 26th July, 1865, the following letter was written to the editor of some journal in Europe whose name I have not recorded : “| have to acknowledge the receipt and to thank you for your letter of 25th March last. Also for the very favourable opinion you do me the honour to express respecting my labours in this colony. I only regret that the map is not more worthy of the distinction which you propose to confer on it—that of reproducing it in a reduced form in your widely circulated journal. LES PRES Grane oe. “Whilst you were writing me in March, I was engaged making a cursory examination of the eastern corner of the colony. Nearly the whole of it is covered with thick and in places impenetrable forests, with- out a road or track of any kind. It is generally mountainous and inter- sected by deep valleys and ravines, with rapid and constantly flowing brooks and rivers. Neither the grazier nor the gold-miner has as yet occupied it, though to the latter it offers many favourable indications. “ Geologically it presents one very interesting feature. which, I think, clearly points to the probable purely metamorphic origin of the granite masses associated with the Silurian or older rocks of our gold-fields. In it I found that the tops of all the hills were composed of the ordinary shales and sandstones, with quartz-veins, of our gold-fields, but that the beds of the streams and bottoms of valleys and ravines were all granite. XCIV ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA “The abrupt way in which the beds end on and against the granite seems to me to preclude any other supposition than that the granite represents what was once the downward extension of the Silurian strata. “T know of no instance here where the granite has clearly upheaved and thrown off the stratified rocks. Large areas of granite appear at the surface in all parts of the colony, but the ordinary dip and strike of the stratified rocks is in no case either deflected or otherwise influenced. Along the margins, however, the granite and the stratified rocks are more or less interlaced, and the evidence of metamorphism gradually diminishes as you recede from the granite. The exposure of the granite is clearly due to the removal by denudation of the once superincumbent strata.” At that time (1867) I was corresponding with Jukes, the director of the Geological Survey of Ireland, on the subject of granite ; and in a let- ter from him, 28th July, 1867, two years after the letter above quoted was written, I find the following: “ As to granite, there are two kinds ; one merely an extreme form of gneiss ‘made in situ. It is clearly an intrusive mass, and alters the rocks it cuts into, and is sometimes com- pletely altered by them, I believe that the clearly intrusive granites of Leinster and of Devon and Cornwall form an undulating floor which cuts off all the superincumbent rocks which dip down and end abruptly against it, as you say it does in Victoria.” Jukes then referred to the granite of the Mourne Mountains, sending me a rough sketch illustrating the facts. This very section is reproduced on page 542 of Geike’s “ Text- book,” 1895, and is there referred to as “this remarkable structure.” Jukes continues: “ Nevertheless I believe that the granite slowly worked its way upwards as an original molten mass, constantly eating into and absorbing some of the overlying rocks. I quite agree with you that the intrusion did not affect the strike of the rocks or disturb them at all.” Jukes’s views on this subject are fully giyen in chapter xvii. of his ‘ Manual,” 1862. Ramsay, in his address to Section C of the British Association, 1866, as also in the several editions of his “ Physical Geology and Geography of Great Britain,” 1864 to 1868, held similar views. In the latter, referring to Sorby, on granite, he writes: “If the above views be correct, though many granites, having been completely fused, have been in- jected amongst strata, and are thus to be classed as intrusive rocks ; yet, in the main, so far from the intrusion of granite having produced many moun- tains by mere upheaval, both gneiss and granite would rather seem to be often the results of the forces that formed certain mountain chains. Pos- sibly the result was connected with the contraction of the earth’s crust, and the heat produced by the intense lateral pressure that, with much movement of parts, produced the contortion of vast masses of strata, parts of which, now exposed by denudation, were then deep under- PROCEEDINGS FOR 1896 XCV ground, and already acted on by the internal heat of the earth in a degree proportionate to their depth.” Now if we omit from the foregoing the purely theoretical doctrines of fusion, injection, intrusion and central heat, we have a perfectly con- sistent and easily understood theory and explanation of the facts con- nected with the origin and formation of granite, In 1866° I wrote: “In the steep, hilly country east of the Snowy River, Victoria, Australia, the relation of the granite to the older rocks is well exhibited. The beds of the creeks and the bottoms of the valleys are all granite, and the tops of the ranges vertical Silurian slates and sandstones, so that an accurately constructed geological map of the dis- trict the boundaries between granite and slate would present contour lines much the same as in deeply eroded oolitic or other nearly horizontal strata. Occasionally the strata dip at angles off the granite; but, so far as I have observed, this relation is purely accidental, and occurs only when the line of strike happens to coincide with the more or less meri- dional strike of the stratified rocks. Quite as often the dip is either directly on to, or against the granite, or the beds are vertical and end abruptly along a granite boundary that runs at right angles to the strike of the Silurian strata. And it appears as if the origin of the granite had no influence in determining the direction or the amount of the disturb- ances that have affected the older rocks. This, I conceive, could hardly be the case had it been intruded or irrupted, whether in a fluid, gaseous or solid state, in such large masses as exist in all parts of Victoria.” “There is, however, often seen along the contact-lines of the granite and the stratified rocks a considerable breaking up and crushing of the latter, and this has been held to indicate and be the result of the intru- sion of the granite. It appears to me to be mainly due to the unequal resistance that the two rock-masses have offered to the disturbing forces of upheaval, depressions and consequent pressure, which have repeatedly affected them long after the formation of the granite. The effect thus produced is analogous to that which occurs when the forces producing cleavage encounter interstratified hard layers of saadstone, when the elsewhere perfectly regular and parallel cleavage planes are immediately crushed, crumpled and deflected.” In 1879* I wrote respecting the granites of Nova Scotia: “It has been customary and orthodox to regard these granites as intrusive, and they are so designated by Logan. I hold there is absolutely no proof of this being so, either in the Eastern Townships of Canada, in Nova Scotia orin Australia. All the phenomena connected with them may be more rationally explained and understood if we regard them as completely: metamorphosed portions of the strata which now surround them; while 1 ‘ Notes on the Geology and Mineralogy of Victoria.” 2 “ Geological Survey of Canada,” 1879-80, pp. 5-6. XCVI ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA the mere displacement of strata involved in the intrusive theory, in view of the enormous areas now occupied by the granite, seems wholly inex- plicable, as does also the manner in which the surrounding strata dip down against, and on to the granite, and show no signs of having been deflected or otherwise affected as regards strike or dip by this supposed intrusion.” Sorby holds that granite and gneiss were formed approximately under similar circumstances, and that there are only two types of igneous rocks, granitic and voleanic. Of past British geologists whose views we may, I think, deem most worthy of consideration are Maculloch, De la Bèche, Lyell, Boase, Ram- say, Jukes, Sorby and Ward. My reason for mentioning these names and for calling attention to their minute and instructive descriptions arises, perhaps, from my personal acquaintance with most of the men, and with their methods of field work and observation, and because they were in those days almost the only geologists who carried out their inves- tigations and. observations in the field on the then supposed old crystal- line rocks over comparatively wide areas. Their conclusions were, for the most part, based not on theory or authority but on personally ascer- tained facts. In Canada our associate, Macfarlane, has, as long ago as 1862, in vol. vii. of the “Canadian Naturalist,’ and in vol. ili., new series, ably diagnosed and recorded, from his own observations in Scandinavia and in Canada, and from those of Logan, De la Bèche and Naumann, whose views he has translated, pretty much all the facts, as well as the then prevalent theories, respecting the “ primitive” formations, including gran- ite. More attention might perhaps with advantage have been paid to these early views. But geology, like theology, has been much hinderea and hampered by authority and orthodoxy, or the tendency of humanity to accept what it has been told, without intelligent thought, inquiry and examination. Thus “erupted ” is one of those orthodox beliefs respectin warranted or supported by the teachings of the rocks. Everywhere, from Britain to Australia and America, the facts cor- respond ; but the reasoning from them is, I hold, inconsistent and contra- dictory. Granite, like all other rocks, must have been formed—not necessarily erupted or irrupted-—out of some pre existing material, and that it has been so formed, locally and at intervals, in all geological ages, is admitted. Igneous geology, except as regards the products of Tertiary and recent volcanoes, offered few attractions, and the study of granite and gneissic formations was regarded as an unprofitable pursuit. Gran- ite was granite, a crystalline compound of quartz, felspar and mica, long ago supposed to be ancient, but now, as stated, supposed to be of all g granite not PROCEEDINGS FOR 1896 XCVII geological ages, though still in this year, 1896, regarded as in all cases a fused or molten mass, erupted or irrupted, all of which terms are still prevalent in connection with its description. And yet all the facts I have referred to, and numberless others that are recorded, are absolutely opposed to the idea of upheaval and intrusion, which imply great mechan- ical force, high temperature, and the pushing aside, or the bodily lifting up, and removal of the matter which occupied the space now occupied by the granite. Supporters of the intrusive theory should explain what, and whence derived, is the material that has filled the void that must have been occa- sioned by the upheaval and irruption of the granite; or, in the case of the stratified rocks that went down to central heat to get altered, what became of the solid material of the lithosphere they must have displaced in doing so. In no case that has come under my notice is there any reliable evidence of such forces, or transposition of matter, having oper- ated in the transaction. This unorthodox but now admitted fact could only be explained by metamorphism, which is undoubtedly true ; but the dogmas of intrusion, upheaval and central heat remain. All writers agree in regarding granite and gneiss as practically ident- ical in mineral composition—igneous and intrusive when massive; when schistose or gneissic, metamorphic after and from pre-existing stratified deposits, by a roundabout and unnecessary jack-in-the-box process of which and for which the rocks themselves afford no evidence. All the facts can be rationally explained without this retrogressive recurrence to central heat. Contraction, as suggested by Ramsay, and referred to previously together with ejection and denudation, have done more than upheaval and intrusion in moulding the form and out- line of the lithosphere. They are themselves adequate to account for all the phenomena it presents, including the recurrent local formation of granite, as well as the analogous recurrent ejection of volcanic matter, which does not essentially differ from granite, though produced by dif- ferent processes and under different surroundings and conditions. Inasmuch as it is impossible to produce artificially either the condi- tions, or the surroundings, which prevailed either in the early or in the later stages of the formation of granite and granitoid crystalline rocks, especially that most important one, time, and its accompanying slow and continuous dynamic and thermo-chemical action, so, many of the con- clusions, based on experiments and investigations in which these important factors are necessarily absent, must themselves be regarded as more or less interesting speculations as to what may have been in the past. But when the conclusions are plainly negatived by careful investigation of the rocks, we are certainly justified in rejecting them. Such a one, the writer holds, is the upheaval and intrusion of hundreds of square miles of granite. Proc., 1896. G. XCVIIL ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA In regard to the solid sphere, however, its inequalities are absolutely insignificant. From the summits of the Himalayas and the Andes to the floors of the deepest oceans, they are all included in a mere skin. This skin, in proportion to the lithosphere. is no thicker than is that of an apple or an orange to its interior, or that of an animal to its body. The processes and the results in both cases are analogous—an exterior skin becoming ridged and corrugated through seeking to accommodate itself to a slowly desiccating and diminishing interior. The simile is old and often used, but it seems to me it has not been followed out to its ultimate conclu- sion—that in it lies the primary cause of both elevation and depression, or ridges and furrows, hills and valleys. The wrinkles on the animal or vegetable cuticle are large in proportion as compared with those of the lithosphere, and the comparison may be aptly enlarged to include the pimples, the boils and the blisters which represent—due allowance being made for the difference between organic or living and inorganic or dead matter—the volcanic emanations of the lithosphere. If in the foregoing remarks I have by chance given rise in the minds of some of my hearers to a new idea, of which an eminent writer stated there was “nothing so painful,” or if I have hurt anybody’s feelings, I must apologize to those who feel it so; my only excuse must be my con- viction of its truth. As regards feelings, my old colleague, Jules, once wrote to a friend : “T must say I do not fully understand and appreciate men having feel- ings on such points. It is the oddest and most inexplicable thing to me that any one should be annoyed or feel hurt as if it were a personal injury to himself. Surely any man who is above a spoilt child in such a matter would be more glad that the truth should be arrived at than sorry that he himself should be shown to have fallen involuntarily into error.’ I cordially agree in these sentiments. In seeking truth, which should be the only aim of science, author- ity, orthodoxy, jealousy, partizanship, expediency, power, profit, pay and feelings should be rigidly excluded. Such considerations belong to the arena of politics and pink pills. They are all legitimate in politi- cal and mercantile matters, but are quite out of place and unworthy when introduced into the domain of science. In the foregoing my desire, as already stated, has not been to advance any new theory, but to record my own views on the theories of others, and to state how far these seem to agree or to disagree with the facts, which can be seen and studied and interpreted, not under the wholly insufficient though highly useful aid of the microscope and of the chem- ical laboratory, alone or together, but chiefly by the rocks themselves, as exposed in all quarters of the earth, in mountain, hill and dale, river, cliff and precipice, where truth alone is to be found, and of which my friend Jukes’s biographer wrote : PROCEEDINGS FOR 1896 XCIX “Truth was, in fact, his idol. A want of it in others, or anything mean or underhand, was the one fault for which he had no toleration, This absolute worship of truth is apt to be termed imprudence ; would that it prevailed more universally. For surely it is not from the impru- dence of speaking the truth that the world has so long suffered, but from the greater imprudence of concealing it. Must we still exclaim Iago : with ‘Take note, take note, O world! To be direct and honest is not safe.’ Let us rather say with Pope : ‘An honest man’s the noblest work of God.’ ” My conclusions may be briefly summarized thus : 1. No ocean or hydrosphere in early or Lower Archean ages ; con- sequently no life. 2. First evidence of oceanic or aqueous and eruptive volcanic action in Upper Archean or Huronian formations. | 3. Stratiform structure is not in itself evidence of aqueous deposition. 4. Original igneo-crystalline and non-aqueo-sedimentary character of all Lower Archean rocks. 5. Granite, like its congener, lava or trap, was formed at many geolo- gical periods by forces operating at limited depths within the lithosphere, giving rise to gaseous and thermo-chemical solu- tion, fusion and crystallization. 6. Granite is rarely, if ever, intrusive, and never, unless of Archean age, eruptive, 7. Neither the formation of granite nor volcanic eruptions are the result of, or are influenced by, central heat. 8. Land and water, or oceans and continents, have repeatedly changed places in the millions of years during which this tri- une sphere has been developing itself; always in a progres- sive, never in a retrogressive, manner, as is implied by the recurrence to central heat, from which we started, And, in conclusion, I may again quote Tennyson and say : ‘ But in my spirit will I dwell, And dream my dream, and hold it true But though my lips will breath adieu, I cannot think the thing farewell.” C ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA SESSION III. (May 21st.) REPORTS OF SECTIONS. The society assembled in general meeting at 2.30 p.m., and the president called upon the four sections to make their usual reports, which are as follow : Rapport de la Section I. Membres présents : Monsignor Tanguay, MM. Fréchette, Marchand, DeCelles, Royal, Sulte, Messieurs les abbés Gosselin et Verreau. Travaux lus et acceptés pour le prochain volume : M. Sulte—* Organisation Militaire du Canada, 1636-48.” M. Sulte—“ La rivière dite des Trois-Rivières.” M. Gosselin—* Voyage du Père LeJeune en Canada, 1660 ; voyage apocryphe de M. de Queylus en Canada. 1644.” M. Gosselin —“ Joseph Deniau, soldat de Frontenac, devenu récollet.” M. Verreau— La suppression des Relations des Jésuites.” M. Verreau—* Lois et coutumes maritimes au temps de Jacques- Cartier.” M. Fréchette—“ La Savoie à vol d'oiseau.” M. Verreau dépose le manuscrit de son travail intitulé JZ. de Muisonneuve était-il gouverneur de Montréal, quand il arriva en Canada ? reçu en 1894 pour être inséré dans notre volume et qui prendra place dans le volume de la présente année. M. Léon Gérin (par M. Sulte) dépose le manuscrit de son travail intitulé Les Gentilshommes francais et la colonisation du Canada, reçu en 1893 pour être inséré dans notre volume et qui prendra place dans le volume de la présente année. M. Marchand lit une pièce de vers sur “ Nos petits péchés capitaux.” Acceptée pour le prochain volume. A part les travaux ci-dessus, les messieurs suivants ont lu : Monsignor Tanguay—“* Légende et histoire du palais Maroni, à Rome.” M. Fréchette— Veronica—ler acte d’un drame en vers, non achevé encore, M. Sulte— La mort de Cavelier de la Salle n’est pas imputable aux Canadiens.” Le soir du 20 la section a donné une séance littéraire dans la grande salle de lPEcole normale où il y avait un nombreux public, sous la présidence de M. Royal. Lady Aberdeen était présente, En cette occasion M. Gosselin a lu des notes prises au cours de son voyage à Edimbourg. M. Royal a Ju une fantaisie humoristique sur le droit des femmes. M. Sulte a parlé de l’uniformité du langage chez les PROCEEDINGS FOR 1896 CI Français du Canada. M. Marchand a lu une pièce de vers intitulé Vos petits péchés capitaux. M. Fréchette a lu une monographie sur Gilles de Retz. M. Sulte a été nommé membre du comité qui vient d’être formé par l'assemblée générale pour choisir les officiers de la societé. La section recommende que M. Edouard Richard et M. Nérée Beauchemin, soient nommés membres actifs de la Société Royale dans la première section. Les officiers élus par la section pour l’année 1896-97, sont : M. Gosselin— Président. M. Roy—Vice-président. M. Sulte—Secrétaire. BENJAMIN SULTE, A. H. GosseLiN, Ptre. Secrétaire. Président. Ottawa, 21 mai, 1896. . Report of Section IT. The following papers were read before the section : 1.— Further remarks upon the voyages of the Cabots and the land- fall of 1497,” by Dr. S. E. Dawson. In this paper the author endeavours to notice such publications as have appeared since the date of his previous paper, and to discuss any new points which have been raised in relation to the Cabot Voyages—a subject of special interest at the present time, when the Royal Society propose to have a celebration at Halifax in 1897. 2.—‘ The Ancient Literature of America,” by John Campbell, LL.D. It is not generally known that the American Indian was in full possession of the art of letters many centuries prior to his discovery by the Spaniard; nor is the average anthropologist on American soil aware of the extensive literature, in prose and in verse, didactic, lyric, and dramatic, that still survives, either in the original tongue or in a Spanish dress, to bear witness to‘much ancient intellectual activity on the part of the aborigines. By materials, some of which are the writer's own, but mostly gathered from various sources, more or less accessible, he has given proofs of the existence of ideographic and syllabie writings in ancient America ; and has given specimens of compositions, ranging from Canada to Peru, that are most worthy of attention as illustrating the peculiar genius of the native author. Special attention has been paid to the rich field presented in Mexico and Central America, while the orally transmitted compositions of tribes inhabiting more northern regions have not been on that account neglected. 3.—‘ The Story of Canada,” by Dr. Bourinot, C.M.G. This paper contains an abstract of an historical work of the author about to be published in London and New York, showing the picturesque features of Canadian history from the Discovery of Canada until Confederation, and dealing mainly with epoch-making events. 4.—* Constitutional Studies: The Legislative Council of Nova Scotia,” by the same. This paper gives an historical review of the origin and development of the Upper House of the legislature of the province of Nova Scotia, and shows the legal and constitutional conditions under which its members hold their oftice. The subject is CIL ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA one of considerable interest and importance on account of the agitation that has been going on for some years in the direction of abolishing this branch of the legislative power, and of the differences of opinion that have arisen as to the exact nature of the tenure of the office of councillor and their rights and privileges under their commission from the Crown. The discussion of this question necessarily involves the tenure of the office of legislative councillors in other provinces as well as for senators. 5.— A Monograph of the Place-Nomenclature of the Province of New Brunswick.” (Contributions to the History of the Province of New Brunswick, No. IL), by William EF. Ganong ; Communicated by Dr. George Stewart, F.R.G.S. This paper isan attempt to study philosophically and exhaustively the place- nomenclature of a limited district. The subject thus treated is not a collection of curious derivations, but a problem in evolution, in which racial characteristics, topography and history are the chief factors. In addition to the value of such studies in scientific history, and the light they actually throw upon local events, there are brought out certain more practical utilities—as utilization in primary education, since they deal with the connecting links between history and geography —further, their value in establishing a basis for uniformity in nomenclature by showing which is the correct form where usage is divided, and finally by suggesting appropriate nomenclature for the future. The paper consists of three parts. Part I.—An essay towards an understanding of the principles of place-nomen- clature.—A study of the principles which underlie the giving, changing, persisting and extinction of place-names ; the psychological and other principles involved ; correct modes of investigation ; characters of place-names. Part II.—The evolution of the place-nomenclature of a limited district—The Province of New Brunswick.—The place-nomenclature of the successive periods of exploration and occupation—Indian, early explorers, French Period, New England Period, Loyalists, Post-Loyalist Immigrants. Characters of names given by each— their relations to topography—their changes from one period to another—their present correct forms. Part III.—A Lexicon of New Brunswick Place-Names.—An alphabetically arranged list giving in synopsis the history of the names individually. The paper contains much original and unpublished matter, particularly relating to the Indian Period. It is necessarily long, but will be condensed as much as possible. 6.—* A New Suggestion for a Psychological Basis of Belief,’ by Prof. Ed. E. Prince ; Communicated by Dr. Bourinot. The Ego and the Non-ego are not given in the primary act of consciousness. The apprehension of the sensible world is gradual. It developes from the primitive sensation, not, as is generally suppesed, of resistance to voluntary movement, but of non-resistance (i. e., space), and of duration (7. e., time). The consciousness of voluntary power affords the original ground to which is added the consciousness of space and time as the true psychological basis of belief. 7.— Sense-Deception a Secondary Acquirement,” by Prof. Ed. E. Prince; communicated by Dr. Bourinot. A study of the exercise of the senses in animals and young infants shows that the reports of the senses are normally true; but that an intellectual element is added by education and secondary conditions, and sensations originally simple and true, become complex and false. ‘The sensations of a trained organism are thus found to involve not only sensory perception but intellectual judgment, hence sense- deception arises. PROCEEDINGS FOR 1896 CI 8.—* Death of Sir Humphrey Gilbert,” by Douglas Brymner, LL.D. Early navigators. The search for a Northwest passage to China. Drake’s voyage round the world. Power given to Gilbert to take possession of and colonize the land he might discover. The extensive nature of his authority. Ditliculties in fitting out the vessels for the expedition. The dangers of the voyage. The piratical attacks of the ‘ Swallow ” one of the vessels. Arrival at St. John’s, New- foundland, and taking possession. Supposed discovery of silver. The return voyage ; loss of the “ Delight” on Sable Island ; the abortive attempt to get to the South ; the return to England; loss of the ‘‘ Squirrel” with Sir Humphrey Gilbert. 9.—‘ Heavysege.” An essay ; by Mr. Wilfrid W. Campbell. Three meetings of the section were held ; the attendance, owing to unavoidable circumstances, however, not being quite as large as usual. The Hon. George W. Ross, LL.D., of Toronto, was unanimously elected by this section a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada, on motion of Drs. MacCabe and Stewart, and that fact was duly communi- cated to the Royal Society, and ratified, The printing committee is composed of Dr. Bourinot, Dr. $. EK. Dawson and Dr. George Stewart. Dr. Stewart was elected the representative of this section for the nomination of officers of the Royal Society, for the coming year. The office-bearers for the ensuing year are : President—Most Rev. Dr. O’Brien, archbishop of Halifax. Vice-President—-Dr. Samuel E. Dawson. Secretary—Dr. George Stewart, F.R.G.S. GEORGE STEWART, Secretary. Report of Section LIT. Section three reports having held five meetings at which eight important papers were read ; interesting discussions and remarks fol- lowed. The section has to record with regret the death of the Rev. Dr. Williamson, late vice-principal of Queen’s University, and for about fifty years an active professor on the staff of that university. Dr. Williamson belonged to the old school of natural philosophers. Widely read in both science and literature, he combined an ardent love of outdoor nature with a deep interest in the scientific problems of the day. His advanced age when he became a fellow of the Royal Society accounts sufficiently for his absence from our mectings and the fewness of his contributions to our proceedings. His best monument is the larger and purer man- hood of those Canadians who knew and loved him. The section has also lost the services of Rev. P. de Foville, who has tendered his resignation owing to his permanent residence outside of Canada. CLV ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA The officers elected for the ensuing year are : President—Prof. Dupuis. Vice-president—Mr. Keefer. Secretary—Mr. Deville. The section consists of twenty-one members, of whom twelve were present at the meeting. Herewith is a list of the papers read. 1.—* On the efficiency of & inch jets from circular orifices, impinging upon surfaces of different forms,” by John T. Farmer, Royal Commissioners’ scholar ; Communicated by Prof. Bovey. 2.—“ An investigation as to the relative thermal and plant efficiencies of compound, triple and quadruple expansion engines,” by Alex. L. Mellanby, Royal Commissioners’ scholar; Communicated by Prof. Bovey. 3.—“ The periodicity of aerolites,” by Arthur Harvey, F.L.S. 4.—“ Measurements of the temperature of the river water opposite Montreal, made during the winter with a differential platinum thermometer,” by Howard T. Barnes, M.A.Sc.; Communicated by Prof. Callendar. 5.—‘ Mechanism for describing conic sections,” by Prof. Guest ; Communicated by Prof. McLeod. 6.— ‘Some experiments with X-rays,” by Prof. Callendar, in con- junction with Prof. Cox. 7.—*“ Continuation of observations on soil temperatures,” presented last year by Prof. Callendar, in conjunction with Prof, C. H. McLeod. 8.— On the calculation of the conductivity of mixtures of electro- lytes,” by Prof. J. G. MacGregor. | EK. DEVILLE, Secretary. Report of Section IV. Section four has the honour to report a mostsuccessful session. The attendance of members was large, being no less than sixteen, while the papers presented were interesting and of much scientific value. Four meetings were held, at which fifteen papers were presented. The papers were in the majority of cases followed by important discus- sions, Owing to the absence, due to serious accident, of the president, Prof. Mills, the vice-president, Professor Penhallow, acted as chairman throughout the session. The appointment of a representative from the Royal Society of Canada upon the advisory board recommended by Dr. C. W, Stiles, re his vote in the International Zoélogical Congress, having been referred by PROCEEDINGS FOR 1896 CV the council to this section, Professor Ramsay Wright was unanimously elected to fill that important position. The committee re the establishment of a Marine Biological Station in Canada would recommend to the general society the adoption of the following report : “The Royal Society of Canada fully appreciating the great advan- tayes of an economic and scientific character to be derived from the maintenance of a marine biological station, desire to recognize the importance of the report on this subject presented by the Commissioner of Fisheries in 1894, and to urge upon the government the desirability of taking steps at an early date to bring those recommendations into force. ‘“ D. P PENHALLOW. “Tt. J. W. BURGESS. “J. F. WHITEAVES.” An expression of regret at the death of Professor Lawson was passed by the section, and Dr. Mackay was deputed to convey the same to the family of their late fellow member. The publication committee report a recommendation to publish the following papers of those submitted to them : “Coal Mining in Pictou County, N.S.,” by E. Gilpin, Jr., LL.D. ‘Generic Characters of the North American Taxaceæ and Conifer,” by Prof. Penhallow. * Additional Notes on Fossil Sponges and other Organic Remains from the Quebec Group at Little Metis,” by Sir Wm. Dawson. “On the Sequence of Strata comprised in the Southwest Quarter- Sheet Map of the Eastern Townships of the Province of Quebec,” by H. M. Ami, M.A., D.Sc. ‘Some observations tending to show the occurrence of Secular Climatic Changes in British Columbia,’ by Dr. G. M. Dawson. “Further observations on Trophoclasts in Fishes’ Eggs,” by Sir James Grant and Professor Prince. “A Study of the Pelvic Girdle of the Pike,’ by Professor Prince. “The Spawning Habits, Coloration and Form of the Sockeye Salmon of British Columbia,” by Professor Prince. “ Cortical Cerebral Localization,” by Professor Mills. “The Functional Development of the Cerebral Cortex in Different Groups of Animals,” by Professor Mills. ‘The Psychic Development of Young Animals,” by Prof. Mills. “ Paleozoic Outliers of the Ottawa River Basin,” by Dr. Ells, with Appendix, by Dr. H. M. Ami. “Contributions to the Pleistocene Flora of Canada,” by Prof. Pen- hallow. «Past Experiences and Future Prospects of Fruit Growing in the Canadian Northwest,” by Dr. Saunders. a CVI ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA “Catalogue of the Phytophagus and Parasitic Hymenoptera of Vancouver Island,” by W. H. Harrington. “A Contribution to our Knowledge of the Canadian Fresh-water Fauna,” by Prof. Ramsay Wright. “A Theory of the Morphology of Stellar Structures,’ by E. C. Jeffrey, B.A. The officers elected for the ensuing year are : President—Prof. D. P. Penhallow. ‘ Vice-president—Dr. T. J. W. Burgess. Secretary—Dr. A. H. Mackay. T. J. W. Buragss, Secretary. OFFICERS OF SOCIETY FOR 1896-97. The Honorary Secretary communicated to the society the report of _, the committee appointed to recommend names of officers of the society for 1896-97. “20th May, 1896. “The nominating committee recommends to the council that the following be the officers of the Royal Society of Canada for the ensuing year : * For President—Archbishop O’Brien, D.D. ‘For Vice-President—F. G. Marchand, D. és L. “ For Secretary—Dr. Bourinot, C.M.G. “ For Treasurer—Dr. Fletcher. ‘ B. SULTE, “ Henry T. Bovey, “GEORGE M. Dawson, ‘ ALFRED R. C. SELWYN, (TEORGE STEWART.” The report of the foregoing committee was unanimously adopted and the gentlemen named therein were declared duly elected officers of the society for 1896-97. (TENERAL BUSINESS. Mr. Deville communicated the following resolution adopted by section three on the 20th May : “That this section would respectfully suggest to the society that the council be requested to consider and recommend such change in article six of the constitution that it may be unnecessary in future to suspend it, as has been done at almost every annual meeting.” . PROCEEDINGS FOR 1896 CVII Mr. Deville also communicated the following resolution adopted by section three on the 21st May, 1896 : ‘That section three request the society to appoint a committee to inquire into the number of cases of poisoning occurring throughout the country from the inhalation of gas supplied to the towns, the amount of water gas contained in the different gas supplies and to report at the next annual meeting, with a view of ascertaining to what extent the use of water gas may be employed and to suggest means for ensuring the safety of the public against this cause of accident and other matters relating to the subject.” It was accordingly resolved by the society, on motion of Dr. John- son, seconded by Dr. Hoffmann, “ Resolved, that Dr. Girdwood, Montreal ; Mr. Thos. MacFarlane (Chief Public Analyst), Ottawa ; Dr. Ellis (Public Analyst), Toronto, and Dr. Ruttan, Montreal, be a committee, with power to add to their numbers, for the purpose of carrying out the objects of the resolution, and that Dr. Girdwood. be chairman of the committee.” Drs. Adams and Ruttan, new fellows of the society, were presented and took their seats. The following motions were submitted and agreed to, as follows : (1) “ Resolved, That Rule 6 be suspended, and that Hon. G. W. Ross, LL.D., be elected a member of section two, in the place of the late Sir John Schultz, for his services to literature and education, in accordance with the unanimous recommendation of said section.” (On motion of Dr. George Stewart, seconded by Colonel Denison.) (2) ‘ Résolu, Que M. Nerée Beauchemin soit élu membre de cette société.” (Proposé par M. Fréchette, secondé par M. Sulte.) (3) “ Résolu, Que M. Edouard Richard soit élu membre de cette société.” (Proposé par Monsignor Tanguay, secondé par M. DeCelles.) (4) ‘ Resolved, That in accordance with the resolution of the Council, the next meeting of the Royal Society be held at Halifax, on the 24th June, 1897.” (On motion of Colonel Denison, seconded by Rev. Dr. Bethune.) (5) “ Resolved, That the resolution of section four relative to the establishment of a marine biological station be adopted and transmitted to the Minister of Marine and Fisheries for such action as may be possible.” (On motion of Dr. Burgess, seconded by Mr. W. H. Harrington.) (6) ‘ Resolved, That the Royal Society of Canada express their hearty appreciation of the hospitality extended to the Fellows and dele- gates by their Excellencies the Governor-General and the Countess of Aberdeen,” (On motion of Dr. Stewart, seconded by Dr. Johnson.) (7) “ Resolved, That the Royal Society of Canada desire to express their thanks to the citizens of Ottawa for the hospitality extended to the CVIII ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA members during the present session.” (On motion of Professor Pen- hallow, seconded by Dr. Mackay.) (8) “ Resolved, “ That the Royal Society of Canada express their obligations to Dr. MacCabe for the facilities he has given to its members in the Normal School building on the occasion of the present meeting.” (On motion of Dr. Ells, seconded by Mr. W. H. Harrington.) The fifteenth general meeting of the Royal Society then adjourned. Pipe kOvAl SOCIRLY sor CANADA. FOUNDER: THE RIGHT HONOURABLE THE MARQUESS OF LORNE. ORBICERS HORA1SI6-97. HONORARY PRESIDENT: HIS EXCELLENCY THE RT. HON. THE EARL OF ABERDEEN. PRESIDENT—MOST REV. ARCHBISHOP O’BRIEN, D.D. Vice-PRESIDENT—F. G. MARCHAND, D. és L. OFFICERS OF SECTIONS: SEC. I— French Literature, History, and Allied Subjects. PRESIDENT, Be a 4: ao L'ABBÉ GOSSELIN. VICE-PRESIDENT, ae re i Ai, 184 TOG SECRETARY, .. te & Le BENJAMIN SULTE. SEC. II. — English Literature, History, and Allied Subjects. PRESIDENT, = Pe LE ARCHBISHOP O'BRIEN, D.D. VICE-PRESIDENT, * x S. E. DAWSON, Lit. D. SECRETARY, .. ee se De GEO. STEWART, Jun., D.C.L., LL.D. SEC, III.— Mathematical, Physical, and Chemical Sciences. PRESIDENT, Fe LE Ae _ PROF. DUPUIS. VICE-PRESIDENT, ua ne ce T.C. KEEFER, C.M.G., C.E. SECRETARY, ae LE a E. DEVILLE. SEC. IV.—Geological and Biological Sciences. PRESIDENT, Be ae sÀ ce PROF. D. P. PENHALLOW. VICE-PRESIDENT, a A re DR. BURGESS. SECRETARY, .. A 2: hy AMEHOMEN CREATED; HONORARY SECRETARY, .. CE J. G. BOURINOT, C.M.G., LL.D., D.C.L., L.D. HONORARY TREASURER, .. he JAMES FLETCHER, LL.D., F.L.S. ADDITIONAL MEMBERS OF COUNCIL: 1! ABBE J. C. K. LAFLAMME, D.D. SIR J. W. DAWSON, C.M.G., F.R.S. DR. G. M. DAWSON, C.M.G., F.R.S. SIR J. M. LEMOINE. DR. A. R. C. SELWYN, C.M.G. [1 1The Council for 189697 comprises the President and Vice-President of the Society, the Presidents, Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections, the Honorary Treasurer, besides ex-Presidents of the Society (Rule 7) during three years from the date of their retirement, and any four members of the Society who have formerly served on the Council, if the Council should elect them every year. Pree ROVAT, SOCIYaOr CANADA. LIST OF MEMBERS, 1896-97. I.—LITTERATURE FRANCAISE, HISTOIRE, ARCHEOLOGIE, ETC. BEAUCHEMIN, NÉRÉE, M.D., Yainachiche, P.Q. Brain, Mer L.-N., Archevéque de Cyrene, Québec. CASGRAIN, L’ABBE H.-R., docteur és lettres, Québec (ancien président). Cuoag, L’ ABBE, Oka, P.Q. Davin, L.-0., Montréal. DECAZES, PAUL, docteur ès lettres, Québec. DECELLES, A.-D., docteur ès lettres, Ottawa. DIONNE, N.-E., Québec. FABRE, HECTOR, compagnon de l’ordre des SS. Michel et George, Paris, France. FAUCHER DE SAINT-MAURICE, N., docteur ès lettres, chevalier de la légion d'honneur, Québec. FRECHETTE, Louis, docteur en droit, docteur es lettres, chevalier de la legion @honneur, Montréal. GOSSELIN, L’ABBE AUGUSTE, docteur és lettres, St-Charles de Bellechasse, P.Q. LEGENDRE, NAPOLEON, docteur es lettres, Québec. LEMAY, PAMPHILE, docteur es lettres, Québec. LEMOINE, Str J.-M., ancien président, Québec. MARCHAND, F.-G., docteur és lettres, Saint-Jean, P.Q. Potsson, ADOLPHE, Arthabaskaville, P.Q. RICHARD, EbOUARD, Arthabaskaville, P.Q. ROUTHIER, A.-B., docteur en droit et ès lettres, Québec. Roy, JosepH-EDMOND, Lévis, P.Q. ROYAL, JOSEPH, rue St-Denis, Montréal. SULTE, BENJAMIN, Ottawa. TANGUAY, MGR CYPRIEN, docteur és lettres, Ottawa. VERREAU, LW’ ABBE Hospice, docteur ès lettres, Montréal. II ENGLISH LITERATURE, HISTORY, ARCHÆOLOG Y, ETC. BOURINOT, JOHN GEORGE, C.M.G., LL.D., D.C.L., D.L. (Laval), Ottawa (ex- President). BRYMNER, DouGLaAs, LL.D., Dominion Archivist, Oftawa. CAMPBELL, REV. JOHN, LL.D., Presbyterian College, Montreal. CAMPBELL, W. WILFRED, Department of the Secretary of State, Ottawa. CLARK, REv. W., D.C.L., LL.D., Trinity University, Toronto. DAWSON, SAMUEL E., Lit.D., Ottawa. DENISON, Lt.-Cou. G. T., B.C.L., Toronto. GRANT, VERY Rey. G. M., D.D., Principal of Queen’s University, Kingston (ex- President). Harvey, ARTHUR, Toronto. HARVEY, REV. Moses, F.R.G.S., LL.D., St. John's, Newfoundland. LAMPMAN, ARCHIBALD, Ottawa. KINGSFORD, WILLIAM, LL.D., Ottawa. CXII ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA MACCABE, J. A., LL.D., Principal of Normal School, Ottawa. Marr, CHARLES, Kelowna, B.C. Murray, GEORGE, B.A., Montreal. Murray, Rev. J. CLARK, LL.D., McGill University, Montreal. O'BRIEN, Most Rev. Dr., Archbishop of Halifax, Halifax, N.S. PATTERSON, REV. GEORGE, D.D., New Glasgow, N.S. READE, JOHN, F.R.S.L., Montreal. RoBERTS, CHARLES G. D., M.A., King’s College, Windsor, N.S. Ross, Hon. Geo. W., LL.D,, Minister of Education, Toronto. STEWART, GEORGE, D.C.L., LL.D., D.L., F.R.G.S., Quebec. WATSON, J., M.A., LL.D., Queen's University, Kingston. WirHrow, REY. W. H., D.D., Toronto. IIIL—MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL SCIENCES. BAILLAIRGÉ, C., C.E., Quebec. Bovey, H. T., M.A., C.E., McGill University, Montreal. CALLENDAR, HUGH L., M.A., (Cantab.), F.R.S., McGill University, Montreal. CHAPMAN, E. J., Ph.B., LL.D., University of Toronto, Toronto. Dawson, W. BELL, Ottawa. DEVILLE, E., Surveyor-General, Ottawa. Dupuis, N. F., M.A., F.R.S.E., Queen’s University, Kingston. Exuis, W. H., M.D., Toronto University, Toronto. FLEMING, SANDFORD, C.M.G., LL.D., C.E., Ottawa (ex-President). GirpDwoop, G. P., M.D., McGill University, Montreal. Goopwin, W. L., D.Sc., Queen's University, Kingston. HAMEL, MONSIGNOR, M.A., Laval University, Quebec (ex-President). HARRINGTON, B. J., B.A., Ph.D., McGill University, Montreal. HOFFMANN, G. C., F. Inst. Chem., LL.D., Geological Survey, Ottawa. JOHNSON, A., LL.D., McGill University, Montreal. KEEFER, T. C., C.M.G., C.E., Ottawa. Loupon, J. T., M.A., LL.D., President of University of Toronto, Toronto. MACFARLANE, T., M.E., Chief Analyst, Ottawa. MACGREGOR, J. G., M.A., D.Se., F.R.S.E., Dalhousie University, Halifax. McLeop, C. H., M.E., McGill University, Montreal. Rutran, R. F., M.D., C.M., McGill University, Montreal. IV.—GEOLOGICAL AND BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES. ADAMS, FRANK, M.E., Pu. D., McGill University, Montreal. BaiLey, L. W., M.A., Ph.D., University of New Brunswick, Fredericton. BELL, ROBERT, B.Ap.Sc., M.D., LL.D., F.G.S., Geological Survey, Ottawa. BETHUNE, REv. C. J. S., M.A., D.C.L., Port Hope, O. BURGESS, T. J. W., M.D., Montreal. Dawson, G. M., C.M.G., D.Sc., F.R.S., A.R.S.M., F.G.S., Director of Geological Survey, Offawa. DAwson, Sir J. WILLIAM, C.M.G., LL.D., F.R.S., Montreal. Ets, R. W., LL.D., F.G.S.A., Geological Survey, Ottawa. FLETCHER, JAMES, LL.D., F.L.S., Dominion Entomologist, Ottawa. FOWLER, JAMES, M.A., Queen’s University, Kingston. GILPIN, EDWIN, M.A., F.G.S., Inspector of Mines, Halifax. GRANT, SIR J. A., K.C.M.G., M.D., F.G.S., Ottawa. Hay, G. U., St. John, N.B. HARRINGTON, W. HAGUE, P. O. Department, Ottawa. LAFLAMME, ABBE J. C. K,, D.D., M.A., Laval University, Quebec. M ACOUN, J., M.A., F.L.S., Geological Survey, Ottawa. MATTHEW, G. F., M.A., D.Sc., St. John, N.B, LIST OF MEMBERS CXIII Mackay, A. H., LL.D., B.Sc., Halifax. Miuts, T. WEsLeY, M.A., M.D., McGill University, Montreal. PENHALLOW, D. P., B.Sc., McGill University, Montreal. SAUNDERS, W., LL.D., Director Dominion Experimental Farms, Offawa. SELWYN, A. R. C., C.M.G., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., late Director of the Geological Survey, Ottawa. TAYLOR, REV. G. W., Nanaimo, B.C. WHITEAVES, J. F., F.G.S., Geological Survey, Oftawa. WRIGHT, R. RAMSAY, M.A., B.Sc., University of Toronto, Toronto. CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. THE MARQUESS OF LORNE. Bonney, T. G., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., London, England. Bryce, Rr. Hon. JAMES, M.P., D.C.L., London, England. CLARETIE, JULES, de l'Académie française, Paris, France. GRAVIER, GABRIEL, Rouen, France. HECTOR, Sir JAMES, K.C.M.G., F.R.S., Wellington, New Zealand. LE Roy, ALPHONSE, professeur de philosophie à l’université de Liège, et membre de l’Académie royale de Belgique, Liège, Belgium. RAMEAU DE SAINT-PÈRE, EDME, D. L., Adon, Loiret, France. SCUDDER, Dr. S. H., Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A. Winsor, Justin, LL.D., F.R.G.S., Librarian to Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A. RETIRED MEMBERS. (See RULE 7.) Bourassa, NAPOLEON, St. Hyacinthe, P.Q. Kirpy, W., Niagara, Ont. OSLER, W., M.D., Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. MacCozrz, Evan, Toronto. CHERRIMAN, J. B., M.A., Ryde, Isle of Wight. HAANEL, E., Ph.D., Syracuse University, Syracuse, N.Y. LIis Tf OF PRESIDE NaS: 1882-83 1883-84 1884-85 1885-86 1886-87 1887-88 1888-89 1889-90 189091 1891—92 1892-93 1893-94 1894-95 1895—96 1896-97 Sir J. W. DAWSON. I/,HONORABLE P. J. O. CHAUVEAU. Dr. T. STERRY HUNT. SIR DANIEL WILSON. MONSIGNOR HAMEL. Dr. G. LAWSON. DR. SANDFORD FLEMING. L’ABBE CASGRAIN. PRINCIPAL GRANT. L’ABBÉ LAFLAMME. Dr. J. G. BOURINOT. Dr. G. M. Dawson. SIR J. MACPHERSON LEMOINE. Dr. A. R. C. SELWYN. Most REV. ARCHBISHOP O'BRIEN. eGo oa) ag ae DR MEMORANDUM THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA UNIFICATION OF TIME AT SEA APP HINT iis PROCEEDINGS—APPENDIX A A-3 THE UNIFICATION OF TIME AT SEA. MEMORANDUM (with Appendices.) t0YAL SOCIETY OF CANADA, < Orrawa, October 14th, 1896. 1. While the unification of time at sea will specially confer benefits upon practical navigation, it has an intimate relationship with the broad question of reckoning time throughout the world by a defined common standard. 2. It is but a few years back since every place on the surface of the globe followed an independent reckoning of time ; the consequence was the development of complications, as the twin agencies of human progress, steam and electricity, were gradually apphed to rapid transit by sea and land. To obviate the difficulties which had arisen and were every day becoming more serious, a movement was made to reform time-reckoning. It had its origin on the American continent from the circumstance that the confusion incident to many independent reckonings had been ex- perienced to the greatest extent in the United States and Canada. This fact will be easily understood when it is stated that so late as fourteen years ago, there were, between the Atlantic and the Pacific, no less than seventy different standards of time referred to in the working of the different railways. These various standards were unrelated to, and inde- pendent of each other, and it can be readily seen that no trifling confu- sion and inconvenience resulted. 3. The investigation of the subject suggested the conclusion, that the same difficulty would sooner or later be experienced not only through- out America, but likewise on the European continent, in Asia, in Australia and eventually in Africa; consequently it was the common interest of the human family to attain by international agreement a system of reckoning to minimize the difficulties alluded to, which could generally be followed. The Congress of the United States recognizing the importance of the principle of uniformity and simplicity in reckoning, passed a joint resolution, with a view to obtaining such an international agreement. Soon afterwards the President of the United States invited the governments of all civilized nations to send representatives to Wash- ington to consider the subject in its various ramifications, and generally to establish the course most advisable to follow. Representatives of twenty-five nations met in Washington in 1884 and after a conference extending over a month, reached conclusions of great importance. Seven A-4 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA. resolutions were passed with substantial unanimity, all of which have generally been received as both expedient and wise. Although not in all cases formally adopted, the resolutions of the Washington Conference are being gradually accepted throughout the whole world, not simply in Europe and America, but likewise in Japan, China, India, Australia and South Africa, There is a question of urgency in respect to the sixth resolution which demands explanation, This resolution reads as follows : “VIJ.—That the conference expresses the hope that as soon as may be practicable, the astronomical and nautical days will be arranged every- where to begin at mean midnight.” 4, In the opinion of the Council of this society, strong reasons present themselves for dealing with this resolution without delay. The adoption of the principle advocated, implies the substitution of civil reckoning for astronomical and nautical time, with their practical aboli- tion at sea. Nautical time is already to a large extent fallen into disuse, and the principal change would be with respect to astronomical time. While astronomers individually have not been in perfect accord, the evi- dence referred to in the appended papers goes to show that as a class they are in favour of the change, provided it be made at a time-epoch which would be easily remembered ; it has been apprehended that unless so made, the change might give rise to error in astronomical calculations in after years. On this theory, there is a consensus of opinion that the most fitting time for the sixth resolution of the Washington Conference to take effect is at the change of the century. 5. Whenever the change may be made it will exact modifications in the Nautical Almanac, that publication so indispensable to navigators. As the Nautical Almanac is usually prepared and published nearly four years in advance, and as the 19th century passes into the 20th, in little more than four years from the present time, it is obvious that a final determination is now indispensable. 1t will be a matter of profound regret if this opportunity, which will not recur until a hundred years from this date, should be allowed to pass without definite action being taken. It would be deeply to be deplored if in this progressive age a principle in science which affects the merchani-marine of the world, and is fraught with posi- tive benefit, should fail to obtain the permanent recognition it justly demands. 6. The merits of the subject are set forth in sufficient detail in the accompanying papers, viz. : (1.) Memorial to His Excellency the Governor-General, from the toyal Society of Canada (April 27th, 1896). (2.) Communication to His Excellency the Governor-General from the Canadian Institute and the Astronomical and Physical Society of Toronto (April 9th, 1896). PROCEEDINGS—APPENDIX A A-5 (3.) Second Report of the Joint Committee of the Canadian Institute and the Astronomical and Physical Society of Toronto (May 10th, 1894). (4.) Third Report of the Joint Committee of the Canadian Institute and the Astronomical and Physical Society of Toronto (Sept. 21st, 1895), (5.) Paper, submitting the opinion of British and foreign shipmas- ters in respect to the proposed reform in time-reckoning at sea (April, 1896). (6.) Letter to the Governor-General from the Canadian Institute and the Astronomical and Physical Society of Toronto, submitting additional list of shipmasters in favour of unification (April 25rd, 1896). (7.) Summary of shipmasters heard from, up to July 25th, 1896, who have expressed their opinions on the unification of time at sea. The facts to be gathered from these several documents are : (a.) That the unification of time at sea has long been advocated— that the illustrious astronomer, Sir John Herschell, strongly favoured it ; that at the Washington International Conference of 1884, it was intro- duced and supported by all the representatives of the United States, comprising Rear-Admiral Rodgers, U.S. N., the distinguished astronomer Rutherford, and likewise by the head of the United States Naval Obser- vatory, Commodore Franklin ; that at the same conference it was sup- ported by all the representatives of Great Britain, comprising the chief hydrographer of the Admiralty, Sir Frederick Evans, the illustrious astronomer, Professor Adams, of Cambridge, General Strachey, of the Council of India, and the delegate from Canada ; further, that it received the unanimous approval of the representatives of the twenty-five nations constituting the conference. (b.) That astronomers as a class are in favour of the sixth resolution of the Washington Conference, provided a determination be reached sutti- ciently early to give effect to the proposal on the first day of the 20th century, (c.) That representative shipmasters in the British and foreign merchant marine are practically unanimous in favour of the unification of time at sea, (d.) That the Lords Commissioners of the British Admiralty offer no objection to the principle of unification of time-reckoning at sea, and are willing to adapt the Nautical Almanac to the proposed change, beginning with the first year of the new century, provided all nations publishing ephemerides are prepared to take the same course. (e.) That the nations publishing ephemerides are (including Great Britain) nine in number —that these nations have been applied to for an expression of their views, and that the majority of them have been heard from. The British Admiralty, however, hesitates to adopt the change unless and until complete unanimity on the part of the nine nations has been obtained. (Admiralty letters of July 9th, 1896, and December 12th, 1895.) A-6 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA, 7. On behalf of the Royal Society of Canada I am directed respectfully to point out (1) that possibly complete unanimity, unencumbered by con- ditions, in a matter of this kind, is scarcely attainable; (2) that in the appended document, No. 4, evidence is presented which establishes that seven of the nine ephemerides publishing nations may be considered assenting parties to the proposed change, that the remaining two have in no way expressed dissent, and that their silence after sufficient lapse of time may fairly be taken as equivalent to concurrence ; (3) that what- ever action Great Britain may take will undoubtedly be followed by similar action on the part of all other maritime nations. 8. Itis known that since the date of the memorial of the Royal Society of Canada to His Excellency the Governor-General, on April 9th last, additional lists of shipmasters have been received ; some of which will be found in Appendices Nos. 6 and 7. Advices go to show that the lists are being continually increased. On September 4th, 1896, there were 458 shipmasters, active and retired, who had been heard from; of these 446, or 97 per cent-of the whole, had given expression to their opinion, in favour of the unification of time at sea. Among these, there are +12 master mariners in active employment on British, colonial and foreign steam and sailing ships, representing 522,082 shipping tons of the carry- ing steam and sailing tonnage of the mercantile marine. These men are thoroughly representative of the class to which they belong, and their decided opinion on the subject establishes beyond all question that ship- masters generally are practically unanimous in favour of a reform which affects them, as navigators, infinitely more than any other class of men. 9. Under the circumstances above briefly set forth, and more fully explained in the documents appended, the Royal Society of Canada respectfully appeals to societies and associations of the mother country interested in science, shipping, navigation or commerce, for an expression of their sympathy with the proposed unification of time-reckoning, and in the strong hope that they will be pleased to take such steps as they may deem advisable to influence the Home authorities in respect to its adoption, so that it may come into force on the first day of the new century. On behalf of and in the name of the Royal Society of Canada, JOHN GEORGE BOURINOT, Honorary Secretary. PROCEEDINGS—APPENDIX A A-7 APPENDIX I. Memorial to His Excellency the Governor General from the Royal Society of Canada. (April 27th, 1896.) To His Excellency the Earl of Aberdeen, Governor-General of Canada. The memorial of the Royal Society of Canada HUMBLY SHEWETH : That the Royal Society of Canada has repeatedly had under consideration the unification of the nautical, astronomical and civil days, so that all may be in agreement and begin everywhere at midnight, as contemplated by the sixth resolution of the International Prime Meridian Conference held at Washington in the year 1884. That for many years Canadian scientific societies have taken a leading part in the general movement for reforming the system of time- reckoning throughout the world. That the Canadian Institute was the first society to promulgate the system of Standard Time-reckoning which has been adopted in whole or in part in various countries in each of the continents. That the International Conference of 1884 is an outcome of efforts, in which Canada took part, to establish a time-zero which would be common to all nations. That the sixth resolution of the International Conference of 1884 has not yet been adopted, and its adoption would be of advantage to navigation and commerce in all future generations. That astronomers in all parts of the world have been consulted by circular sent out by the Canadian societies, and it has been learned that a majority of astronomers heard from in the following countries are in favour of unification being carried into effect on the first day of January, 1901, viz., in Austria, Australia, Belgium, Canada, Colombia, England, France, Greece, Italy, Ireland, West Indies, Madagascar Mexico, Roumania, Russia, Scotland, Spain and the United States. That the shipping of these countries embraces 85 per cent of the tonnage of the world’s marine. That nautical almanacs are prepared several years in advance and as they would be somewhat affected by the adoption of the sixth resolution referred to, in order that it may take effect at the change of the century, it will be necessary so to determine without much further delay. A-8 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA. That there is evidence to show that shipmasters of merchant ships, both British and foreign, are almost unanimously in favour of the unifi- cation of time at sea. That Canada, as a maritime country and an important division of the British Empire is peculiarly interested in the reform, and from the first has taken a prominent part in promoting the change. That for all these reasons, the Royal Society of Canada respectfully prays your Excellency to take such steps as may seem best calculated to secure the adoption by Her Majesty’s Government of the sixth resolution of the International Prime Meridian Conference of 1884, so that it may take effect on the first day of the new century. And your memorialists will ever pray. ALFRED R, C, SELWYN, C.M.G.,, President, Royal Society of Canada. Jno. Geo. BOURINOT, Hon. Sec., Royal Society of Canada. Orrawa, April 27th, 1896. PROCEEDINGS-—APPENDIX A A-9 APPENDIX II. Communication to His Excellency the Governor-General, from the Canadian Institute and the Astronomical and Physical Society of Toronto. Toronto, April 9th, 1896. To the Secretary of His Excellency the Governor-General of Canada. Sir,— We have the honour, on behalf of the Canadian Institute and the Astronomical and Physical Society of Toronto, to refer to your letter of January 6th, 1896, inclosing a despatch from the Right Honourable the Secretary of State for the Colonies, on the subject of the Unification of Astronomical, Civil and Nautical Time. Since we had the honour of addressing you on September 21st of last year, information has come to the knowledge of the societies we represent which we beg leave to communicate to His Excellency, with the respectful request that it may be forwarded to the Home Author- ities, in the hope that the subject of the Unification of Time may be reconsidered. The information we here desire to submit is, in part embraced in a communication recently received from Mr. W. Nelson Greenwood, of Lancaster, England, an extract from which is appended hereto. This communication will be found to throw additional light on a subject to which we attach increasing importance, concerning as it does, all maritime nations for all future time. That Canada is especially interested in the subject, as an important maritime division of the Empire, will be obvious, from the following narrative of facts which we respectfully desire to submit. The movement to effect a reform in the time-reckoning of all nations took its origin in Canada twenty years ago (1876). The Canadian Institute was, probably, the first scientific society in any part of theworld to give the subject earnest consideration. At the meetings of this society held in February, 1879, the reckoning of time and the establishment of a prime meridian as a general time-zero, to be common to all nations was fully discussed. In May and July of the same year, and again in May, 1830, the Governor-General of Canada brought the views promulgated by the Canadian Institute to the notice of the Imperial Government, and, through the Imperial Gevernment, the attention of Foreign Powers and scientific societies in all parts of Europe was directed to them. A-10 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA. At a meeting of the American Society of Civil Engineers held in Montreal in 1881, a Canadian member of that society submitted certain principles respecting the reckoning and unification of time. That society at once initiated steps to bring those principles into practice, and has ever since taken a prominent and successful part in advancing the movement of reckoning time by one standard everywhere. The geographical circumstances of Canada, extending as 1t does over so many degrees of longitude, invested the question with peculiar interest to the people of the Dominion. The Canadian Institute, accord- ingly, sent a delegate to Venice to attend the International Geographical Congress, held in September, 1881; his special object was to advocate the advisability of establishing a first, or prime meridian to be common to all nations as a time-zero. The Canadian delegate, among other things, suggested that an International Conference should be specially convened to determine upon such a zero-meridian, and, in co-operation with delegates from the United States, he proposed that such a confer- ence should be held at Washington. As an outcome of these efforts, an international Conference was held at Washington in 1884, at which Canada was represented, along with twenty-five other nations. The Washington Conference adopted a series of resolutions substan- tially in accord with the principles set forth in the proceedings of the Canadian Institute published in 1879 and these resolutions have been fruitful of results of high importance. The first five resolutions of the Washington Conference have been practically and generally accepted, the sixth is still under consideration, and it is with respect thereto that we again venture to appeal to His Excellency. The adoption of the sixth resolution involves a change which affects mariners, as it would supersede the old system of reckoning by astro- nomical and nautical days ; it would bring both into agreement with the civil day ; it would complete the unification of time at sea, and, forever remove all ambiguity and difficulty which under the present system prevails. The sixth resolution was supported at the Washington Conference by the several distinguished astronomers present and was passed without, a dissenting voice. As some objections had been raised by other astro- nomers, it was desirable to ascertain how far these objections extended. The Canadian Institute and the Astronomical and Physical Society of Toronto accordingly assumed the duty of inquiry. These societies appointed a joint committee for the special purpose of communicating with individual astronomers throughout the world, in order to obtain the widest expression of opinion, The result of the inquiry is given in detail in the report of the joint committee of May 10th, 1894, appended hereto. his report establishes that while some astronomers object to PROCEEDINGS—APPENDIX A A-11 the proposed change, the large majority of all heard from are in favour of it, and that they are quite prepared to submit to a slight temporary inconvenience in view of the benefits which would result to far wider interests than those connected with their special work. Such being the case, it may be assumed that astronomers, as a class, are not unfavour- able to the proposal to change the astronomical day. It is more difficult to obtain an expression of opinion from navi- gators. Astronomers, for the most part, are attached to observatories, and their addresses are known, but ship-captains actively engaged in their profession, are at sea during much of their time, and when they reach land, are, during their general brief stay on shore, pre-occupied with many engagements, so that they have few opportunities of mutual consultation on matters of this character. It by no means follows, however, that they are indifferent to a subject which so- much concerns their life and occupation. Thanks to the public spirit and scientific enterprise of the gentleman already named, the publisher of Greenwood’s Nautical Almanac, we are not left in doubt. Mr. Greenwood assumed the somewhat difficult task of obtaining an expression of opinion from practical navigators. Following the ex- ample of the Canadian Institute and the Astronomical and Physical Society of Toronto, he instituted a special inquiry. He took means to consult the various shipmasters as they arrived from sea at the larger seaports of the United Kingdom in July and August last, placing before them certain questions and receiving replies in writing. Mr. Green- wood left each individual sea captain to state his unbiassed opinion, and he believes that the replies received may be considered to fairly represent the views of shipmasters generally. Full details of this interesting inquiry will be found in the extract from Mr. Greenwood’s communication appended hereto. In the tables attached are given the name of each shipmaster consulted, the name of the vessel of which he is captain, whether steam or sailing ship, its port of registration, its tonnage and other particulars. The following is a summary of the answers received to the question : ‘ Are you in favour of the Unification of Time as applied to the Civil, Nautical and Astronomical Days, and is it desirable in the interests of all concerned that such days should commence at mean midnight ?”’ Shipmasters in active service—196 yeas, 5 nays, 2 doubtful. Shipmasters not in active service—37 yeas, 4 nays, 1 doubtful. Thus, it appears, that of 243 representative shipmasters taken at random, no less than 96 per cent are in favour of the unification of time at sea and only four per cent take an opposite view. Moreover, it is noteworthy, that of the shipmasters in active service, obviously the younger generation of sea captains, the number in favour of the prin- ciple of unification is still more marked ; of this class, those in favour A-12 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA. of the proposed change equal ninety-eight and one-half per cent of the whole number consulted. We respectfully submit that the evidence referred to herein, added to that already laid before His Excellency, is conclusive ; we, therefore, feel it a public duty in the interests of science and of the seamen of Canada and the Empire, indeed, of all civilized nations, to make this further appeal. We beg that His Excellency will take steps to bring the subject to the attention of the scientific advisers of Her Majesty’s Government with a view to the adoption of the change recommended, so that it may go into effect on the first day of the approaching new century. We have the honour to be, sir, (Signed) ALAN MACDOUGALL, Secretary, the Canadian Institute. (Signed) G,. EK. Lumspen, Corresponding Secretary, the Astronomical and Physical Society of Toronto. PROCEEDINGS—APPENDIX A A-13 APPENDEXS ELT. UNIFICATION OF THE ASTRONOMICAL, CIVIL AND NauticaL Days, Second Report of the Joint Committee of the Canadian Institute and the Astronomical and Physical Society of Toronto. (May 10th, 1894.) CommitrEE,—Sandford Fleming, C.M.G., LL.D. C.E., Chairman ; Arthur Harvey, Esq., George Kennedy, M.A., LL.D., Alan Macdougall, M. Inst. C.E., Charles Carpmael, M.A., F.R.A.S., John A. Paterson, M.A., G. E. Lumsden, Esq. SECOND REPORT. The Joint Committee, appointed by the Canadian Institute and the Astronomical and Physical Society of Toronto, have the honour to report on that branch of the subject of Time-reckoning specially referred to them. * The unification of the reckoning of the day has long been under consideration, Sir John Herschell, in his “ Outlines of Astronomy,” alluded to the advantages which would result from bringing into agree- ment the civil. the astronomical, and the nautical days. He pointed out that the adoption of the civil day for astronomical purposes would but slightly inconvenience astronomers, and that in a question which concerns all other classes of men, astronomers should resolve to act on general principles and cheerfully submit to a small inconvenience in view of the far wider interests which would be benefited. “ Uni- formity,” he said, “in nomenclature and mode of reckoning in all matters relating to time, space, weight, measures, etc., is of such vast and paramount importance in every relation of life as to outweigh every consideration of technical convenience or custom.” The civil day begins at midnight and ends at the midnight fol- lowing. The astronomical day begins at noon of the civil day and continues until the following noon. The nautical day concludes at noon of the civil day, having commenced at the preceding noon, It is obvious that any given date extends over, or into, three difierent days. Take for example, Wednesday, June 13th. By astron- omical and nautical reckonings, only half of this date in each case is on Wednesday ; the first haif of June 15th, according to nautical reckoning, ison Tuesday, June 12th, while the second half of the same date (June A-14 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA. 13th), according to astronomical reckoning, is on Thursday, June 14th, civil time. In this we have the element of confusion, and it is not surprising that the Washington International Conference of 1884 recommended that the civil day should take the place of the astronomical and nautical days for all purposes. The recommendations of the Washington Confer- ence must be held to carry weight, as this assembly comprised represent- atives of science from twenty-five nations specially called together to consider questions of Time-reckoning. Among them, were astrono- mers of world-wide fame, as well as men who held high rank as navi- gators. They were unanimous in the opinion that as soon as practicable the astronomical and nautical days should be arranged everywhere to coincide with the civil day. The civil day is the reckoning used by the generality of mankind. It is the exact mean between the astronomical and nautical days, and differs precisely twelve hours from both. To effect a complete coinci- dence, it is only necessary to shift astronomical and nautical days each twelve hours, and this shifting will bring both to the civil day. Many ships have already abandoned nautical time and date their logs according to civil reckoning ; all ships would use the one reckoning only, if the Nautical Almanac and Ephemerides generally were arranged for civil time. There can be no doubt whatever that the marine of all nations would benetit by the change. | If we consider the subject simply in its relation to the Nautical Almanac and navigation, the Unification of Time-reckoning would simplify the calculations of mariners and reduce the chances of error. One correspondent (Dr. Johnson of McGill University) points ont very truly “that the omission of even a single step in an oft-repeated process of calculation has an obvious advantage; when the simplification removes at the same time that most dangerous source of error, an ambig- uous expression, it becomes a great gain.’ He says that the subject resolves itself into a question of practical utility, viz, what is the greatest good of the greatest number? The Nautical Almanac, as its name implies, is for the use primarily of navigators, who are very numerous and yearly increasing. Compared with the men who guide the floating tonnage of the world, astronomers are extremely few in number, and astronomers as a Class are skilled calculators ; moreover, astronomers can make their calculations under the most favourable circumstances, consequently with the least liability to error, as they are removed from the disturbing influences to which seamen are frequently exposed. The Joint Committee considered it important to ascertain how far astronomers generally would support the proposal which would practi- cally abolish the astronomical day. On April 21st, 1893, a circular was PROCEEDINGS—APPENDIX A A-18 issued to astronomers of all nations, inviting replies to the following question, viz.: “Is it desirable, all interests considered, that on and after the first day of January, 1901, the astronomical day should every- where begin at Mean Midnight?” The circular was ‘sent to every astronomer whose name appears in the general list of observatories and astronomers prepared by Mr. Lancaster, of the Royal Observatory of Brussels, with the following result : 171 replies in all have been received, a complete list of which is appended ; of these, 108 are in favour and 63 are not in favour of the proposed change. Many of the former are strongly and earnestly in favour of the adoption of the civil day for astronomical purposes, while the writers of some of the latter seem to have been under a misapprehension, They object to the adoption of the civil day on the ground that its division into two series of twelve hours, designated A.M., and P.M., would be inconvenient for astronomers. It is obvious that this objection has no weight, as the twenty-four hour- notation would remain associated with astronomical reckonings as at present ; ‘moreover, indications are not wanting that the astronomical practice of counting the hours in a single series from 1 to 24, will gradu- ally win its way into general favour in civil life. The twenty-four hour- notation has already been introduced into use over wide districts in Canada, in the whole of Italy, and throughout the Indian Empire, and there is a movement in Europe, in Australia, as well as in the United States of America, especially among railway men, to bring this mode of reckoning the hours into general use. In classifying the replies from astronomers according to the coun- tries from which they have been received, the votes for or against the change, stand as follows :— In Favour OF THE CHANGE. Austria, Australia, Belgium, Canada, Colombia, England, France, Greece, Italy, Treland, Jamaica, Madagascar, Mexico, Roumania, Russia, Scotland, Spain, United States. UNFAVOURABLE TO THE CHANGE. Germany, Holland, Norway, Portugal. According to this classification of the astronomers heard from, those of eighteen countries are in favour, and those of four are against, the adoption of the recommendations of the Washington International Conference of 1884 with respect to the astronomical and nautical days. 1-16 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA. If we compare the shipping of the countries thus classitied (and the shipping has an important relation to the Nautical Almanac), we find that the first list, that is to say, the countries in favour of adopting the civil day for astronomical purposes, represents seventeen-twentieths, or 85 per cent of the tonnage of the world’s marine. Thus, it appears that there is a preponderating weight of opinion among astronomers themselves, that a change should be made in the astronomical day. The Joint Committee, thereto es feel warranted in recommending that the Home Authorities be informed of the facts and that a respectful appeal be made to have the Nautical Almanac adapted to the change proposed to take effect at the beginning of the coming century. The Joint Committee are of opinion that the proper course is to lay before His Excellency the Governor General a respectful memorial asking His Excellency to bring the whole matter to the attention of the Imperial Government in order that some common international under- standing may be reached, by which all nations shall assent to the change; and in order that the Nautical Almanac which has to be prepared four or five years in advance may be made conformable to the change. All of which is respectfully submitted. SANDFORD FLEMING, Chairman of the Joint Committee of the Canadian Institute and the Astronomical and Physical Society of Toronto. Toronto, 10th May, 1894. PROCEEDINGS—APPENDIX A A-17 Repuies RECEIVED TO THE FOLLOWING QUESTION SENT APRIL ?1$sr, 1893, TO THE ASTRONOMERS OF ALL NATIONS : @ ‘Is it desirable, all interests considered, that on and after the first day of January, 1901, the Astronomical Day should everywhere begin at Mean Midnight ?” NAME. OBSERVATORY, ETC. Abbe, Cleveland... Anguiano, Angel.. Anton, Dr. MUNDO re Arcimus, À. F Ashley, Miss Mary. Auwers, Dr. A Backhouse, F. W.. Bacon, Chas. A .... Bardwell, Elizabeth Barnes, Willis S... Bauschinger, Dr. J. Becker, Prof. Dr. E. Boe, A. de Borgen, Prof. Dr. C. Braun, Dr. Chas... IBrowimer Mie. Wass sc8 BrUnB IDR Ie Sy oe Burckhalter, Chas. Ferdi- Carpmael, Chas.... Chambers, G. F.... Chree, Chas....... Christie, W. H. M. Cobb, John N Colton, A. L Combe Be Pie os. Comstock, Geo. C.. Contarino, Fran- Honituss Dr, d’'Engelhardt, Dr. Baron A en Epstein, Dr. Th.... Esmond, Darwin Ewell, Marshall D. LENE yO ay AE PL ae Fergoler, Em Folie, F Fuss, V Galle, Dr. Andreas Galle, Dr. J. G U. S. Weather Bureau.... National Astronomical Observatory ase see Marine Observatory...... Meteorological Institute. . Private Observatory..... Academy of Science. PLACE. Private Observatory Smith Observatory....... Mount Holyoke College Observatory sae ee Private Observatory...... Royal Bogenhausen...... University Observatory .. Private Observatory.... Marine Observatory Kalocsa Observatory...... McKim Observatory .... University Observatory... Chabot Observatory The Observatory.......... Northfield Grange Obser- vatory Kew Observatory......... Royal Observatory Royal Observatory. ...... Washburn Observatory... Capo di Monte University Observatory... Surveyor General. . Royal Observatory........ d'Engelhardt Observatory Private Observatory...... Geraldine Observatory.... Private Observatory Haynald Observatory .|Capo di Monte Observa- LOL 36 UTC eee Washburn Observatory... Royal Observatory .| University Observatory... School for Pilots Royal Institute of Geology University Observatory .. .|Antwerp Wilhelmshaven.... Germany Kalocso, Hungary. Austria COUNTRY. United States. | Washington ...,... | Macubayo ee a. MEXICO REC HÉTeSTe cree oe (Austria leon. 2. IMAC Aiea eee [Saltese ee Bachata ene. England …...... Berlin 42665 tess ore iGermany...... Sunderland ........ England...... ‘Beloit; Wish. rt [United States. S. Hadley, Mass.... Charlestown, Ind.. Munich, Bavaria... STAs OU oo ARE Greencastle, Ind... LEIP Zier near... Suns Madison, Wis...... Naples... resd ener Er Er Frankfort, A. M... Newburgh, N. Y.. .|Greece United States. | .|United States. .|Germany Germany Belgium United States. Germany United States. Canada England England England..... Re United States. United States. Madagascar... United States. Germany Canada Germany .|Germany. .|United States. S. Evanston, Ill....|United States. Kalocsa, Hungary..|Austria .. NADIES FES eRe tee hballivg ees s Madison. Wis...... United States. Uccle ous Belgium. .... University, Miss...|United States. Ironstadte 0°. RuUSSIa =. ÉOLSdAMe Germany...... Sreslatien ei. AE Germany...... 2 Z © A-18 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA. Repiies RECEIVED.—Continued. + - —= = — NAME. OBSERVATORY, ETC. PLACE COUNTRY. | ANS. Gaudibert, C. M.... Private Observatory..... IWiaiSOn.ccke eee Hrance!. 2... Yes Gautier be ni ae: 2 - Geneva Observatory...... Geneva) cee Switzerland...|No Gedenow, D........|/ Astro-Physical Observa- (TO) MR AS Sn accent Tashkendir ET Erees RUESSId cee Wes Geelmuyden, Dr. H. University Obervatory.... Christiania ........ INOrWaly. to. +-o- No Giacomelli, Dr. Fr.. Capitol Observatory ...... ROME RE LEE CCE valve ce acts (Yes Giovannozzi, Dr. G. Ximenian Observatory... |Florence ........... Male ere Yes Glauser vee... =. Railway Engineer ........ iT Chigte ENS Switzerland...|Yes Gogow, Prof. Cons. University Observatory...|/Bueharest....... .. Roumania..... Yes Gonzales, José M... Flammarion Observatory.|Bagota.. ... ...... Colombia...... Yes Gore, J. Ellard.. Private Observatory...... Ballysodare........ Ireland." Yes Gruss, Prof. Dr. eK Imperial Observatory..... Prague oser Bohemia... ..|No Hadden, David E../ Private Observatory...... ATÉGEATO NA ERP ETES United States.| Yes Hall, Maxwell ..... Government Meteorolo- rey ct AOE Ae Gd ace re ae Montego Bay....... JAMAICA.-. "0. Yes Hance Drs... Hamburg Observatory....| Hamburg ........ Germany ...... No Hartwi ig, Dr.Ernest|C. Rameis Observatory. . .|Bamberg, Bavaria.|Germany...... No Harzer, Prof. Dr. Paule en Tire ‘Ducal Observatory....... Gotham sess ace Germany... No Hastings, Chas..... Yale University Observa- RO SE EE RSR ater New Haven, Conn.|United States.|Yes Haywood, John... Otter bein University Ob- lc S@rvauoOryiener to = 8-55. Westerville, Ohio..| United States.) Yes ess. Hee Aen sone a Private Observatory..... Fort Dodge, Iowa..| United States.) Yes Holden, Dr. E. S.../Lick Observatory......... Mount Hamilton, GAL ANR ee tee United States.|No Hopkins, B. J..... |Private Observatory...... ond Oni gece te England ...... Yes Horr, Dr''Asa, Private Observatory...... Dubuque, Iowa ....| United States.) Yes Hoxie, Capt. R. L..|Field Observatory......... |Willets Pt., N. Y...|United States.) Yes Jacoby, Harold.....|Columbia College Obser-/New York ......... United States.|No VALOBY Oe goes anaes Johnson, Rev. S. J./Private Observatory...... BDADOLD ise ae England ...... Yes Johnston, Alex..... McGill University........ Montreall;2.. (2222 Camadanmaenr- Yes Kammesman, A.../Geneva Observatory...... Gêénevar. . Switzerland ..|No Kirk, Ed. Bruce...|Private Observatory...... Barrhead on eee Scotland ...... Yes Knobel, Ed. B..... Late President Royal As- tronomical Society..... Éondonr- et... England....... Yes Knopf, Dr. Otto....|Grand Ducal Observatory. Jena, Saxe Weimar Germany...... Yes Kobold, Dr. H. ....|University Observatory...|/Strasburg..... Germany.:.... No KOrbAZZL Je. Naval Observatory........ INICOl AC «1. RUSSATE NE Yes Kreutz, Prof. Dr. H.|Royal Observatory........ OT RARE MAPS Germany... .. No Krone, Herman... .|Royal Technical School...|/Dresden........-.. Germany...... Yes Krueger, Prof. Dr. VU able Ae aie Royal Observatory. seer HSU cr rete ree Germany...... No Kiistner, Dr. F..... Royal Observatory........ (Bonn. 22.6 eens Germany...... No Laughton, J. K....|Royal Naval College Ob- BCLVADOLY LL Greenwich......... England....... Yes Ledger, Rev. E. ...|Gresham College Observa- COLY) fee hie London vee naeee England... .. Yes Legge, Dr. Alf. di. .|Capitol Observ atory. Hates Rome re 0m Mayen cots sce. oe Yes Lehmann, P....... Royal Observatory........ Rerlinte ee ro .|Germany...... No Leite, Duarte ...... Polytechnical Academy...|Porto .............. Portugal: No Lenahan, Henry A.|Sydney Observatory...... SyOneyi-k Mere Australia...... Yes Lewis, Thomasi... .|Roy al Observatory........ Greenwich ......... England....... Yes Lindelof, Dr. L.....|Counsellor of State....... Helsingfors, Fin- LANG erect EE UURSSIAy cre eer Yes TODSE OO: fon... Astro-Physical Observa- tOry.ifck eee eee Potsdam. "7.777. Germany...... Yes Lorentzen, Dr.G...|Rameis Observatory.... |Bamberg.... ...... Germany...... No PROCEEDINGS—APPENDIX A A-19 REePLIES RecetveD.—Continued. NAME. OBSERVATORY, ETC. | PLACE. COUNTRY ANS | Mayer, Lt. Chas....|Private Observatory......| |Parenzo............ Austria ....... No Mazelle, Edouard. .|Marine Observatory...... DÉTESTE RE CEE l Austria ....... Yes Micknick Re. University Observatory. : Breslau MSA AR ERIC LE |Germany...... No Monnichmeyer, Dr. | (D'ASILE SRE University Observatory. -| Bonn aE PLE at las Germany...... No Naccari, Prof. Dr. | Josep hes . Naval Observatory ....... WMENICE acer Mealy sates ace. Yes Niesl, Prof. G. Von.|Technical University Ob- | SELVALOL Ye or nee |Briinn, Moravia....| Austria’. ....., No Niesten plan 2271" Royal Observatory........ HUCCIE TEE AA TEE |Belgium...... Yes INODIVE PAG EAN Capo di Monte Observa- COPY ret eras eee Naples este: iballiyes: cette No Noble, Capt. Wm ..|Private Observatory...... Mansfeld! U kfeidl England ...... Yes Numsen, W. H..... Denmore Observatory... : Baltimore, Inde United States .| Yes INymien, Me Imperial Observatory... BUIKOVA EMEA RUSSIAR ELEC No Oppenheim, Prof. | 1D oot a SERA Private Observatory...... Berlin. capers ee |Germany...... Yes Oudemans, Prof. J. | Rose ste University Observatory.. Utrecht. ...........| Holland ......|No Parkhurst, Hy. M.|Private Observatory... Brooklyn, Nene ee United States.| Yes Pasquier, Prof. Dr. MES Nella geokeiaic Royal Observatory........ DOWNES So TRE Belgium ...... Yes Pavey, Henry A....|Private Observatory...... Hillsboro’, Ohio....| United States.| Yes Penrose. HC 1" 3. _.|Coleby Field Observatory Wimbledon ........ England ...... Yes - Peter, Bed te University Observatory...|Leipzig............. Germany...... No Rae Prof.C.F.W. University Observatory.. |Koenigsberg........ Germany...... No LACS Vo lee BASSES Private Observatory...... Belmont, Ont ...... |\Canada....... Yes Pittei, Or. Constan- DINE. so ee Royal del Museo.......... Hlorenceien eee italy: tose Yes Rrassman, Je. Professor of Astronomy..| Warendorf, West DATA SEE ECS Germany...... No Pluvinel, Ay de la Baume. oF ence Meudon Observatory..... Paris ss Brance cer so- Yes ondbulits ChasieHe7|Navyewardes- aera oe Mare Island, Cali FOCNIA AE EEE United States.| Yes EOrrONEMAUEee AUMIVErSICYE ERTRNREe AE UE re THEN RARE Yes Pritchett, H. See Washington University Observatonyecceee eee St. Louis, Mo...... United States.|No Quimby, Alden W./Private Observatory...... Philadelphia....... United States.) Yes Quintana, — ....... National Astronomical Observatory... MaculbayOr sass Mexico "#5 Yes Rambaut, Prof.A.A Dunsink Observatory..... DUbIIn EEE Ireland" Yes Rechenberg, G ..... University Observatory..|Breslau ........... Germany...... No IRDA eee Ae Ae ae Imperial Observatory..... Pulkova............ RWSSIajee meee No Rep Eo Res ae: National Astronomical Observatory............ RaGUDayOo Mexico". Yes Rien bac, Prof. | EUR AS Bernoulliam Observatory Basle. .............|Switzerland...| Yes Riggs, Joseph...... Creighton Observatory... Omaha, Neb. .....|United States.! Yes IHIvVero, He LD) sa National Astronomical | Observatoryen eee ee Macupayomreee see. Mexico 7." Yes Rizzo, Dr. J. B ....| University Observatory..| Turin .............. RENE RE EE Yes Roberts, Isaac...... Private Observatory...... |Crowborough ..... England...... Yes Rockwell, Chas....|Private Observatory...... Tarrytown, N. Y...| United States.|No Romberg, Hermann Imperial Observatory. .... AUTONET ee Russia "7... No Safarik, Dr A2" Bohemian University Ob- SCEVAUOLY rs. sc eee ae Prague etre AUSOLID.- 0. No Scherbner, Prof. Dr Abate a meee Professor of Mathematics) Leipzig ............|Germany......|No ‘ A-20 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA. RepuiEs REcEIVED.—Continued. NAME. OBSERVATORY, ETc. PLACE. COUNTRY. | ANS Schiaparelli, J. V..,Royal de Brera........... Milan 24e eases MG By ares ares fe tha No Schorr, Dr. Richard Hamburg Observatory ...| Hamburg .......... Germany...... No Schur, Prof. Dr. W. Royal Observatory........ Gottingen---7 Germany...... No Searle, G. M....... Catholic University Ob- SELVALOLY 2 eee keer eee Washington....... |United States.) Yes Serviss, sie nett P. Private Observatory...... Brooklyn... "#2 United States.| Yes Seyboth,; J ...-... Imperial Observatory..... Pullkovare. CEE EVULS Saint oa see No Sidgreav # Walter Jesuit College Observa- TONY SIN Étui Stonyhurst........ England....... No SmithevHealie-). 2:4. Hobart College Observa- ROLY 2 eee oe eee DT Geneva, Ne, Yieeer ee United States.) Yes Solar Physics Com- mittee, per Capt. INE Yee Rem ses South Kensington Depart- ment of Science..-.... London." England ...... Yes Stechert, Dr. C..... Hamburg Observatory....| Hamburg .......... Germany...... No Sternock, Lt.-Col. AVE eae Military Institute ........ Vienna sea-ice Austria....... Yes Stockw ell, John... Private Observatory...... Cleveland, Ohio....| United States.|No Stone, E. 2 ae Radcliff Observatory..... Oxford ees England ...... No Stoney, G. John- | SON sso ices .Formerly Assistant to HarloftROSSe FE sc Dublin etre ete Ireland" Yes Stroobant, Dr. P... Royal Observatory.. ..... DCCle se Secrest Belgium ...... Yes Struvé, Otto........l Ancien Directeur” Pul- | kova Observatory....... St. Petersburg..... Russia.. .. ..| Yes Swift, Lewis....... Warner Observatory ..... Rochester, N. Y....| United States. Yes Tatlock, John. ...... BEAR aac ae icine A TL New Works. ...chice United States. Yes Tennant, Lt.-Gen. | | RER mr. Private Observatory...... Mondon\es- eee |England...... No 4b oyna (ott, Uae Se oF Jesuit Observatory. ..... JUOUWALN eset (Belgium ...... Yes Tillo, Gen. Alexis Clete tg Manor ‘Corresponding Member | pe of Science, | Paris Men. St. Petersburg..... RUSSIa eerie Yes Trouvelot, E.L.... Astro: Phy sical Observa- RENE nis one Teche git MeTdOD acer ee La Cea CES Turner EE eae us = Observatory........ Greenwich.........|England...... Yes Walle Hs a scr liad National Astronomicai i Observatoryece oon (HACUDAVO EE EEE MEXICO AT. Yes Veeder, Dr. A. M...|Private Observatory...... DyouswNey Ver eeeee United States.) Yes Very, Frank W....|Alleghany Observatory... Alleghany.......... United States. Yes WANIOES tells tsi, ster fee se Astro- Physical Observa- li *bORY SERRES ees tal ‘Paris. RTE RME eue France m7 Yes Vogel, Prof. Dr. H.C.|Astro- Physical Observa- LORY East me er Potsdam..." Germany...... No Wanach, Dr. B..... University Observatory ..|Strasburg.......... Germany...... No Weinek, Dr. L...... Imperial and Royal Ob- servatory......-. . Prague, Bohemia...| Austria ....... Yes Weyer, Dr. G. D. E.| University Observatory... Kiel. cee aie ei Germany...... No White, E. J. Melbourne Observatory... Melbourne......... Australia...... Yes W illiamson, Prof.J . Kingston Observatory.... Kingston........... Canada .......|Yes Wilson, Wm. E....\|Private Observatory...... VRathowens: cece Ireland sce... Yes Wittram,Prof.Dr.T, [Imperial Observatory....|Pulkova............ RUSSIA cee ee No Wittstein, Dr. A.../Private Observatory...... Leipzig vee EEE Germany...... No Wolf, Dr. Max..... University Observatory ..|Heidelberg......... Germany......| Yes Wendell. ges 9) 4.1 Private Observatory..... ‘Dorchester, Mass. .| United States.| No Zenger, Chas. Venc. Polytechnic School Ob- SCrvatony..ss-e ae eee Pracueyce caer AUSLTIA = 20 2. Yes Zelor DE Karl 7°" Private Observatory. .... | Brinn PPS rer AUSITIA. ce No PROCEEDINGS—APPENDIX A REPLIES. A-21 Classified according to the Countries from which they have been received. 9 : Totals. AUS Bec n A core TR ke fee PACTS TA AE En eects D a Be Belgium...... Le TEE GLS ONE Canada ÉCAE ieee ee A GIOMMOIAM a ET Dy rel a codes IBSEN die. 20 es RE eis IMP AN CON Mees oie els ue ARTE ENTRE CeRMANVAE SN. Soins peered ate TOR COR sr ut RE ÉOGUAD AE Eee PERTE IOINeSE na EM i SE RER ee TEA ERP PRE CRAN eo AA ICRA RODS Bt ee. LORS Ea. 8, Sey Madarascar....-. 3225: JR ee NEXT COMME OR. Are DAT ee INGEN; ob ee meee eS omee Ihe peepee ES onGuealon. ey eqs es LP BR ys ete ROUMANIE se siete aes [ee cee ESS TA tel oie ee onu 1 Eee ep Scouand reese SAR fee RTE NS) OCHO es ne ee Sa a Deere ler diarate SWitzerlande Eee ARS TE er United States......... BOM SVT TOLAIS ER 22 LR Oe ee ee arent In In favour Majorities. favour favour favour favour favour favour favour ss... favour favour favour favour favour Against. Against. favour favour favour 18 PROCEEDINGS—APPENDIX A A-23 APPENDIX IV. UNIFICATION OF ASTRONOMICAL, CIVIL AND NAUTICAL TIME. Third Report of the Joint Committee of the Canadian Institute and of the Astronomical and Physical Society of Toronto. Toronto, September 21st, 1895. The Joint Committee of the Canadian Institute and of the Astro- nomical and Physical Society of Toronto on the Unification of Astro- nomical, Civil and Nautical Time, as recommended by the Washington Conference, 1884, respectfully reports : The several communications on this subject which have been trans- mitted by the Home Government to the Governor-General of Canada and by His Excellency submitted to the Institute and to the Astro- nomical and Physical Society, have been referred by them for an expression of opinion by the Joint Committee. The fundamental object of the international conference summoned by the Government of the United States in 1884, was to consider and to recommend a more satisfactory mode of reckoning time, and to endeavour to establish an international system for its unification on a broad and scientific basis. The correspondence before the Joint Committee has direct reference to that branch of the general system of Time-reform which forms the subject of the sixth resolution of the Washington Conference of 1884. It has been generally recognized that mariners, together with the interests of commerce which they represent, would especially benefit by the adoption of the sixth resolution of the Washington Conference. In considering the subject on previous occasions, the Joint Committee therefore assumed that mariners the world over would favour the adaptation of the Nautical Almanac to one uniform reckoning of time at sea, and that it would be in all respects advantageous to have the time reckoning at sea in complete harmony with the time reckoning on land. It was only with respect to the views that astronomers might entertain that the Joint Committee had doubts, inasmuch as the universal adoption of the recommendation of the Washington Confer- ence in all matters relating to navigation would practically abolish ‘ Astronomical Time ” as it is now defined. In order to obtain the views of astronomers on this point, the Joint Committee sent circulars to every known astronomer in all parts of the world whose address could A-24 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA. be found. Nearly one thousand circulars were so forwarded, and replies were asked to the following question : “Ts it desirable, all interests considered. that on and after the first day of January, 1901, the Astronomical Day should everywhere begin at mean midnight ? ” The replies received, classified according to countries, were to the following effect :—Austria, Australia, Belgium, Canada, Colombia, Eng- land, France, Greece, Italy, Ireland, Jamaica, Madagascar, Mexico, Roumania, Russia, Scotland, Spain and the United States of America, eighteen countries in all, were in favour of the proposal; Germany, Holland, Norway and Portugal, four countries in all, were unfavourable to the change. The replies received were not so numerous as the Joint Committee expected, and it is difficult for the committee to determine whether those who did not reply were influenced by indifference, or were pre- pared to acquiesce in the change recommended by the Washington Conference. It is, perhaps, not unreasonable to infer that all who were strongly opposed to the proposed change would have embraced the opportunity presented them of giving expression to their views. From the large number appealed to, 171 replies were received, 108 in favour of and 63 against the proposal. The result of this appeal to astronomers was referred to in the Second Report of the Joint Committee, dated 10th May, 1894. This Report was communicated to His Excellency the Governor-General for transmission to the British Government, by whom it was referred to the Science and Art Department, South Kensington, and, finally, to the Admiralty. The Lords Commissioners of the Admi- ‘alty, under whose supervision the Nautical Almanac is published , expressed their willingness to sanction such alterations as may be neces- sary to effect the change at the beginning of the new century, provided other nations who publish astronomical ephemerides are prepared to take the same action. The British Government thereupon instructed Her Majesty’s representatives to ascertain the views of the foreign governments to which each was accredited, with regard to the proposed change. The nations publishing ephemerides are, including Great Britain, nine in number, viz., Austria, Brazil, France, Germany, Great Britain, Mexico, Portugal, Spain and the United States of America. Of these nine Powers, six have formally given their assent to the proposed change. The remaining three, while they have not signified assent, have not expressed dissent. The six nations formally assenting to the adoption of the recom- mendation of the Washington Conference on the first of January, 1901, are :—Austria, Brazil, France, Great Britain, Mexico and Spain. Of the remaining three, Germany and Portugal have not, so far as is known, PROCEEDINGS—APPENDIX A A-25 sent any reply. A brief communication has been received from the Secretary of State at Washington, simply stating “that the members of the United States Naval Observatory are adverse to the ‘Canadian proposition,’” as they see fit to term it, and, at the same time, he sends a copy of the adverse report. This is the only report of a negative character which bas been received, and it is the more surprising as this report is entirely at variance with the position taken by the United States throughout the movement for reforming the time-reckoning of the world during the last fifteen years. The United States have, indeed, taken a prominent part in the movement. Two societies, com- prising in their ranks some of the most eminent scientists of the country, have actively promoted it from the commencement — the American Meteorological Society and the American Society of Civil Engineers. Moreover, both Houses of Congress have taken joint action in the matter. It was under the provision of an Act of Congress that the President assembled the International Conference of 1884. At that conference, it was the five distinguished delegates nominated by the Government of the United States who introduced the proposal respecting the Astronomical Day, a proposal which was carried without a dissenting voice by the representatives of the twenty-five nations constituting the conference. It is to the United States we trace some of the first steps taken to establish an acceptable system of reform in the reckoning of time adaptable to the whole world. It is certainly to them that we owe the first national recognition of the movement and its first application to every-day life, that is to say, the joint-resolution passed by Congress in July, 1882, and the action of the gathering of railway man- agers in Chicago, which resulted in the Hour Zone system of time-reckon- ing going into force throughout North America on November 18th, 1883. With all the facts before us, it is impossible to consider that the adverse report signed by three officials of the United States Naval Observatory, fairly represents the mind of the United States Govern- ment, of Congress, or of the people of the United States. The object- ions brought forward in this report are of old date and at various times have been answered—by the Bureau des Longitudes of France in an official report (vide Cosmos, February 3rd, 1895) endorsed by the French Government, May 6th, 1895—by the reports of the Joint Committee of April 21st, 1893, and May 10th, 1894, copies of which have been trans- mitted to the Home Authorities ; by the Astronomer Royal in a report to the trustees of Greenwich Observatory which points out that the proposal can be easily introduced and with decided advantage to obser- vers; by a former superintendent of the United States Naval Obser- vatory, Commodore Franklin, December 11th, 1884, in a communication transmitted to Congress with other documents by the Secretary of State for the Navy, February 17th, 1885. A-26 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA. These several documents amply refute all the objections to the proposal and render any discussion of them in this report unnecessary. Their best answer isin the fact that the governments of six ephemerides publishing nations, comprising some of the most conservative countries in the world, have, under the advice of their ablest men, recognized the advantages of the proposal and have assented to it being carried into effect. The attitude assumed by the United States Naval Observatory is so decidedly different from that of a few years back that the sole explanation which can be made is that the personnel of the observatory has changed. Immediately after the Washington Conference of 1884, Commodore Franklin, the head of the United States Naval Observatory, desiring to give effect, without delay, to the resolutions passed, issued instructions to the observatories of the United States to bring Astronomical Time into agreement with Civil Time. This officer was supported by three-fourths of the leading astronomers of the United States, who, doubtless, felt with him that it would be becoming on the part of the nation which had assembled the conference to be the first to accept and give practical effect to its wise recommendations, There was one exception, however, Professor Simon Newcomb, who raised strong objections to any departure from the old system. This gentleman, whose name is attached to the adverse report of recent date, as Professor of Mathematics, U.S. N., and Director of the Nautical Almanac, did not, in objecting to the instructions of Commodore Franklin, express his adverse opinion on the general question for the first time. ‘In 1882, two years before the Washington Conference, the American Society of Civil Engineers form- ulated a scheme of Time-reform, which, in its essential features, has come into use not only throughout the North American Continent, but also over large parts of Europe, Asia and Australia. In order to ascer- tain the views of scientific and practical men, this society sent out circulars asking an expression of opinion respecting the proposed measure. A series of questions were drawn up and answers to them were respectfully invited. Among the many replies received and placed on record in the publications of that society there is one from Mr. Simon Newcomb, whose words read strangely in the general record of assent and approval with which the measure was welcomed throughout the United States and Canada. They are given in the appendix to this report. The publications of the American Society of Civil Engineers affirm that replies were received from all parts of the United States and Canada and that 99 per cent expressed opinions diametrically opposed to those of Mr. Newcomb. The unanimity of opinion was indeed remarkable. In one respect, Mr. Newcomb stood alone in his antag- onism to this scientific reform. In marked contrast to his objections, PROCEEDINGS--APPENDIX A A-27 \ we have the breadth of view and general enlightenment of the members of the societies named, and of the managers of the great lines of trans- portation by land and water throughout the United States, the men who in 1883 adopted the Standard Time System. We have in still more marked contrast to the views of Prof. Newcomb the spirit which moved the highest constituted authorities, the Senate and the House of Repre- sentatives, in passing a joint-resolution requesting the President of the United States to assemble representatives from every civilized nation to consider the very questions which find so little favour with Mr. New- comb. These remarks go to prove that this gentleman holds conser- vative views in the matter of Time-reform peculiarly his own and that it is impossible to accept a report expressing his opinions on this question as representing the voice of the United States. The evidence shows that the United States stands in the front rank in support of this important movement, and with respect to the proposed change in the Astronomical Day, a letter from the Secretary of the Navy to Congress, dated February 17th, 1885, brings out the fact that although the execu- tion of the order was subsequently deferred until a general agreement could be reached, a general order was actually issued on December 4th, 1884, by the head of the Naval Observatory, to begin the Astronomical Day at midnight in accordance with the recommendation of the Washing- ton Conference of that year. Moreover, it may be added that the recom- mendations of the Washington Conference were endorsed by the President of the United States in his message to Congress of January 9th, 1883. In view of the facts narrated, the Joint Committee respectfully conceives that it is fully warranted in the opinion that the United States, as a nation, may be truly considered to be one of the nine ephem- erides publishing nations in favour of the proposal to bring the Astro- nomical Day into agreement with the Civil Day. In a question of this kind, perfect unanimity is scarcely to be hoped for, nevertheless the Joint Committee submits that the evidence estab- lishes that there is so general an agreement among the nations as will admit of concerted action in regard to the introduction of the change proposed in the sixth resolution of the Washington Conference. The Joint Committee, in conclusion, respectfully expresses the hope that in accordance with the 11th paragraph of the letter of the Admi- ralty of January 5th, 1886, the Lords Commissioners will be pleased to sanction such alterations in the Nautical Almanac as may be necessary to establish the change to the new reckoning, on the first day of the coming century. It is scarcely necessary to add that as the Nautical Almanac is usually prepared four or five years in advance, it is important that a definite decision should not be long delayed. All of which is respectfully submitted on behalf of the Joint Committee. SANDFORD FLEMING, Chairman. A-28 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA. Appended to the Third Report of the Joint Committee of the Canadian Institute and the Astronomical and Physical Society of Toronto. Replies of Mr. Simon Newcomb, Washington, to queries issued by the Special Committee on Standard Time of the American Society of Civil Engineers, 1882 : EXTRACT FROM THE PUBLICATIONS OF THE SOCIETY. Question 3.—Do you consider it advisable to secure a Time System for this country (the United States), which would commend itself to other nations and be adopted by them ultimately ? Answer (by Mr. Newcomb).—No. We don't care for other nations ; can't help them, and they can’t help us. Question 4.—Does it (the scheme for regulating Time), seem to possess any features which generally commend themselves to your judg- ment ? Answer (by Mr. Simon Newcomb).—A capital plan for use during the millennium. Too perfect for the present state of humanity. See no more reason for considering Europe in the matter than for considering the inhabitants of the planet Mars. PROCEEDINGS—APPENDIX A A-29 APPENDIX. V. Paper Submitting the Opinions of British and Foreign Shipmasters in Respect to Reform in Time Reckoning at Sea. THE UNIFICATION OF TIME. By Mr. W. NELSON GREENWOOD, OF LANCASTER, ENGLAND. EXTRACTS. In order to test the feeling in regard to the proposed change from Astronomical to Civil Time and the adoption of one prime meridian, four questions have been addressed to shipmasters in active employ- ment, and their fellows holding responsible and representative appoint- ments on shore, It waS particularly requested that the unfavourable as well as the favourable should give their opinions on the four questions under consideration. The questions are considered to be sufficiently far reaching, and the replies speak for themselves. In submitting the four questions to shipmasters it was thought advisable to abstain from express- ing any opinion, or to offer any explanation of the advantages or other- wise of the contemplated change, other than what is contained in the circular letter, thus leaving it to each person to form an unbiassed judgment on “ Unification of Time,” and its relationship to their own particular science or profession. In two cases, which form the exception, and the only cases where short explanatory letters were written, in answer to inquiries, the result was the means of obtaining some dozen answers which otherwise would not have been given. The fact seems to point conclusively to the ide: that shipmasters are fully alive to anything that is to their advantage when it is put plainly before them, although for want of time, possibly they are inclined to look askance. The following is the circular letter and questions referred to : “ DEAR Str,—Having been asked by the Astronomical and Physical Society of Toronto to write a short paper on ‘The Unitication of Time,’ giving my views and those of shipmasters, I feel that I am not in a position to do this without taking them into my. confidence. My views are favourable and my answer ‘ Yes’ to all four questions; but I should like to obtain the opinion of shipmasters who are still following A-30 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA. their profession. Will you kindly, therefore, place the questions before masters with whom you may come in contact during the next few weeks, and ask their signatures to the inclosed form, that I may cor- rectly express their feelings on the subject, and oblige. “Tam, yours faithfully, (Signed) “W. N. GREENWOOD.” “QUESTIONS PUT TO SHIPMASTERS. ‘Please give an answer ‘ Yes’ or ‘No,’ signing your name, with the name of your vessel and her employment, foreign or home trade, to the four following questions : “1. Are you in favour of the Greenwich Meridian being universally recognized as the Prime or First Meridian by all maritime nations ? 2. Are you in favour of the Unification of Time as reckoned from such Prime Meridian and extended to all nations irrespectively ? “3. Are you in favour of the Unification of Time as applied to the Civil, Nautical and Astronomical Days, and is it desirable in the inter- ests of all concerned that such days should commence at Mean Mid- night ? | “4, Are you in favour of reckoning the days by the twenty-four hours system, counting the hours for each Civil, Nautical and Astro- nomical Day from Mean Midnight throughout the twenty-four hours to midnight again? This will do away with the old a. m. and p. m., but will make Mean Noon the twelfth hour for all three systems of time- reckoning alike.” ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS. The above circular letter and query form were distributed through- out the larger seaports of the United Kingdom in July and August last. The replies received may be considered fairly representative of the general opinion of shipmasters on the questions at issue. Of the 243 individual replies received, the yeas are 237, 234, 233 and 223; and the nays, 5, 3, 7 and 19; with 1, 1, 3, and 1, questionable or doubtful answers to the queries 1, 2,3, and 4, respectively. Subdi- vided the replies stand as follows :— Out of 111 British steam shipmasters in active service and repre- senting 186,252 gross tons of shipping, the yeas are 110, 108, 106 and 201; and the nays 1, 3, 3, and 10 to the four questions in their order, whilst to question 3, two have no answer to give. Of the thirty-two British sailing shipmasters, the reply is in the affirmative to all the four questions excepting one dissentient to No. 4; they represent 36,467 gross tons of our mercantile marine. Fourteen masters employed in our home coasting trade have also signed all in the affirmative; they represent a shipping tonnage of 1,676 gross tons. In PROCEEDINGS—APPENDIX A A-31 addition to the foregoing 44 masters of vessels under foreign flags have signified by their signatures their adhesion to the changes proposed. representing 25,117 gross tons of shipping ; their opinion on all four questions is given in the affirmative with the exception of one who has no opinion to offer on question No. 4. Of shipmasters not following their profession and others interested in shipping, 42 in number, the yeas are 37, 36, 37 and 35; and the nays, 4,5, 4, and 7, respectively, with one doubtful on the first three questions. If we discard the 42 shipmasters and others who reside on shore, 201 shipmasters in active employment and representing 249,512 gross tons of the mercantile marine, British and foreign, declare themselves favourable to the change proposed; 200 in favour of question No. i; 198 for No. 2, 196 for No. 3, and 188 for No. 4; and against the change, 1, 3, 5, and 13 respectively. It will thus be seen that from the inquiry so far as it has up to the present been affected, the whole weight of the opinion given is favourable to the change advocated. So far as the masters in active employment are concerned :— To question No. 1, out of 201, there is only one negative reply ; the percentage of favourable opinion is 99} per cent. To question No. 2, 99 per cent; No. 3, 98 per cent, and No. 4, 94 per cent, Whilst of the signers, 55 per cent are masters of British steamships; 16 per cent masters of British sailing ships; 7 per cent masters of British vessels employed in the coast trade, and 22 per cent masters of foreign sail and steam vessels employed in the over sea trade. The inquiry is still in progress, but the difficulty of addressing the shipmasters and particularly the steam shipmasters individually, stands in the way. Their stay is so short in port; their time is so much occu- pied with other and more pressing duties while they are in port, that they have little leisure and less inclination to study out the questions for themselves, particularly when it is brought, as it were suddenly before them ; their general wish is to have nothing to do with it, and refuse an opinion that otherwise they would readily express. However, this may be, considering the very short time that the questions have been placed in circular form, the inquiry may be taken as a success. When the remainder of the replies come to hand, it is expected that the number of signers will be very largely increased, though it is scarcely possible for the shipmasters to give an opinion more favourable to the proposed reform than the foregoing is calculated to convey. A-32 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA. LIST OF SHIPMASTERS OF BRITISH STEAM VESSELS, CHIEFLY IN THE FOREIGN TRADE, who replied to the four questions submitted to Ship- masters in general on ‘ Unification of Time,” with the name of their respective vessels, port of registration, tonnage and employment, and the answer given. Port OF Ton- QUPETIOQNE MASTER. | NAME OF VESSEL. REGISTRATION. |. NAGE. | 1 | 9 | 3 | 4 E. H. Gregory ..... Earl of Roseberry ...|Cardiff .......... 1162, Yes} Yes| Yes|No fe GCollinsonre-ce \Trafalgar........... London" 1589 Yes| Yes| Yes} Yes A Ve aise) ann Fell Lancashire|Sea Fisheries.... 85] Yes| Yes Yes} Yes Wm. Whiting ..... Erasmus Wilson ....|London.......... 751| Yes| Yes| Yes] Yes John G. Turney ...|Alne Holme......... Maryport........ 1036] Y es| Yes] Yes] Yes Andrew: lrving+-..|Lhistle 5 72-esom-- au. Dublin see 496) Yes| Yes| Yes} Yes Geir yee ee IBONA RER eee ce eee Liverpool......: 2427| Yes| Yes| Yes] Yes F. W. Wilson ..... Regulus tas: aoe eee AO Aes doe 3036] Yes) Yes| Yes] Yes really: 5-2 ANT Clematis FREE W. Hartlepool .. 1234] Yes} Yes| Yes] Yes Wile lee Wiviaolpees 685 < Coventry) -. EN do 1702) Yes} Yes} Yes) Yes Ree Harrison)... .|Moggie pants, RE ee ee do 1110) Yes} Yes} Yes| Yes John Sargent ...... ATIOND racers chee ode do 2900) Yes} Yes} Yes| Yes WDisney. 47. 2%! APIES A. NÉE do 3040 Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes Wiest: er ES ILaveraock "#00 Card eee 2360 Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes H. H. Godwin..... | IBOOK aaceoodce< BIVECDOOIR EEE 3537] Yes| Yes| Yes| Yes Wm. G Chater Daniels. seereee Ce Belfast" 212%5|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes R'eTOppen ser te Cousins Arbib MONdONMPEATETEEE 2163 Yes) Yes} Yes] Yes J AvMoses LEE EUTHON EC st aso tracer OLN siren cease 1134 Yes] Yes] Yes] Yes Gd, Rooke =)4.-/-. - Ewo Le AR ARE AO 423 | Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes W. Horman....... Maryland dG A TENTE RE 2773] Y es| Yes| Yes| Yes Onna aSe very Helbridge "11" Oy PACE eer 2066] Yes| Yes| Yes| Yes WiteaG PAIS ocr ae sinc County Down ....... Belfastri rat : 2210) Yes| Yes| Yes} Yes - R. Townsend......|Elmfield ........... Stockbonve.. een. 1811| Yes| Yes) Yes| Yes CRETE 220 l'A PSITONSE RER Carditive TENTE 1168 Y es| Yes} Yes] Yes H. S. Blackburne Air RE ENS IMalwa:.". tt rine Greenock ....... 2957|Yes|No INo [No John James ....... England ve er Gardiftx rer 1027/Yes|Yes|Yes| Yes CHDyer EE ec Lucerne 70-25-77 Liverpool........ 3242/Yes|Yes|Yes| Yes PROCEEDINGS—APPENDIX A A-33 List of SHIPMASTERS.— Continued. PorT OF Ton- es One MASTER. NAME OF VESSEL. | "ST | REGISTRATION, | NAGE. | 1 | 9 | 3 | 4 a) eel | | APRES G Aye nice ICVCS RITES 243 SPSHIElASEE saree 1354|Yes/Yes| Yes Yes leoNiecholSones se... mam: .3 2... Liverpool ...... 2557| Yes| Yes Yes| Ves W.S. Watson..... James Barrass ON AOF ese 1547 Yes| Yes Yes|Yes NAGA to yok ete IVE Gasp Riche, ton eee Ne whieldseererr 1486) Yes| Yes| Yes Yes Henry Bryant..... Susannah Kelly ..'...|Belfast .......... 283] Yes| Yes} Yes| Yes James, Hall" Imelebyy. yee se tae Middlesbro ....., 1786) Y es) Yes} Yes| Yes James Fettes..... WORSCUMsca ME". ee ondonvees eee 2638 Yes) Yes Wea C. W. Jordan...... MON ewer omer a: wae Stockton) "7" 303|Yes|Yes|..../Yes A. Wallace...... IBITAVAITE MEET RE W. Hartlepool... 1394) Yes| Yes Yes Yes WÉASS mit 7 JamesMlunper "IN SHE LS eee 1706 Yes| Yes| Yes Yes I. Mitchell...¢..... OMio MEME ole Sunderland...... 2389] Y es| Yes} Yes| Yes Geo: Main .......:... (Cr AME Bios queries meee Middlesbro ...... 595) Y es| Y es| Yes| Yes: I. W. Watson (late) Beechville ..... .... Sunderland." 1747 Yes| Yes Yes| Yes D'ANVEDSTEr ter CE Rosenvillle ee doy 4 Se 1624) Yes} Yes Yes| Yes Geo. M. Rau (late).|\Coventry ............ W. Hartlepool... 1715 Yes| Yes Yes| Yes. JAMES RAR ct Macedonia .......... do 1766) Yes| Yes Yes) Yes ily (Give AEE ASE ONAMISS EEE ECC Grangemouth ... 1082| Y es| Yes| Yes| Yes G. W. Shuelfertt ..| Winston ….......... W. Hartlepool. 7 1119/Yes| Yes Yes| Yes. R. I. Blackline(late) Minnesota....... ... Mondoniers sense 3216| Yes| Yes) Yes| Yes EVV ASOM ct: Hatfield :....-. .. ..|W. Hartlepool... 1857| Yes| Yes| Yes) Yes. AG Purvis. «23%; HGpelowiniee essere SET PEAR 2048 Yes Yes Yes} Yes: Wm. Bryant....... ESS. sais nae helo ee W. Hartlepool. . 1925) Yes Yes|Yes| Yes - Samuel Strickland. Hartington - 3... do 2060) Y es} Yes| Yes| Yes Peter Ruster...... Hopedale) 2. 2... 3: Sunderland..... 1746 Y es| Yes) Yes| Yes. FBurnett. 4... Hornby Grange.... |London.......... 2473] Y es| Yes| Yes|No eNOS EE. Connaughty eee Dublin sees ee 1695] Yes| Yes| Yes| Yes: Tho. Thomson ..... Mums Gersaa. cnr COMM ETC cree 1750 Yes| Yes| Yes| Yes Ben Smith... BGabriGelier 6 nee COM DR ETS 304| Yes} Yes| Yes) Yes E. Elgis Corner....|Black Prince ....... N. Shields... À mn 1480 Yes|Yes| Yes} Yes. LAN alker2%: 000 Clan Alpine.......... GIASLOMPRCERCEEE 2080 Yes|Yes|Yes| Yes AOC AMP os BufOon- ee: TEE: Iiverpools. a=). 2355! Yes| Yes! Yes! Yes. A-34 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA. List oF SHIPMASTERS.—Continued. Ses Nos QUESTIONS. MASTER. NAME OF VESSEL. | | REGISTRATION. | NAGE. | 4 | 9 | 3 | 4 | Edwin Cassman. .|/Swedish Prince...... HOndOn ere ete 1636 Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes AW: Wade:s 27e Cynthionarrescs-n sce Glasgow? re 2933] Y es| Yes| Yes|No Douglas Campbell.|Barcilona... ........ Dundee. fi. 4252.2: 1802) Yes| Yes} Yes) Yes G. W. Dearmed....|Merchant Prince ....|N. Shields....... 1669 Yes| Yes] Yes| Yes H. C. Valentine... ./Navigator. ..... ...../Glasgow....:.... 1558 Yes| Yes| Yes| Yes Wiles; "Eee PRINCESS MAC MET es Sunderland...... 2094| Y es| Yes| Yes! Yes Henry Burke, Lt. NERO AICDOT Wrst tiene APE IVe POOIEE ee 1600 Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes Geo. Metcalfe...... Telegraphic..-".74 Beliasti ee ser 648) Yes Yes| Yes| Yes Rag erin lessee eee Turkish Princes... Newcastle...... 1986) Yes} Yes} Yes) Yes Geo. Wallis...) |Afean Prince. te SCATDONO Me eee 1219 Yes| Yes} Yes| Yes Rs WWihalleycse.)-*)- Andalusiavn. years Neweastle. .... 1298) Y es} Yes| Yes} Yes We Müller sr ere IMoidamtenareee eer cre Glasgow ......... 1293 Yes Yes| Yes| Yes DN Jackson +. Hecootield ee" ESS PEER 2237| Yes Yes|Yes| Yes John Hore... ..-.< ACTE ne Middlesbro ...... 1611 Yes Yes Yes) Yes Jonn'Ir'Stagpot-- |Black Prince 17 Ne Shields)... 1480] Y es! Yes] Yes| Yes S. W. Wilkinson...|Highland Prince..... dome 9510| Yes Yes|Yes| Yes DS VMoOrnis. 7276 hiatal saree ce ona Gondoneeenerree 1589 Y es} Yes] Yes|No Ge Corley=. 1e Éeptarchy der ere Liverpool: "1%" 180 Yes| Yes| Yes|No Ic Moores: eso Terrarar ve ee Teibhe er ete 1162/Yes|Yes|Yes| Yes GRRPANIGEE TEE NIDTIGIA ER CE waste iver poole. EEE 2477| Yes) Yes| Yes| Yes Ae Watson ree see Norphistar: te heithy; tans eke 611) Yes| Yes| Yes|No AR. Hénderson!. Penelope... GO: es eee 1202 Yes|/No |No |No Alex. McCoy....... Renvennsin.. ec. Glasgow eee 2280} Yes} Yes] Yes] Yes James Knox....... Ail SETIANEE RENE do: 4)!" SERRES 4510) Yes|Yes|Yes| Yes Ninian Nicolls -##IBorterer er Pre Liverpool..." 4740 Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes Jos. Maddison..... liddoner eme do: NME 2846 Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes Jas, Kileallon Westwind. 25727 N. Shields. ..... 1641) Yes} Yes} Yes] Yes James Bogh...... Salisbury: . see Gov, “Websters 1958] Yes| Yes| Yes| Yes WS 00S Bo rp en Ardanbhan ses essere Glasgow seers 1132] Yes} Yes} Yes} Yes W. Buchanan ..... Brunswick "re W. Hartlepool... 1389 Yes! Yes] Yes| Yes PROCEEDINGS—APPENDIX A A-35 List oF SHipMAsTERS.—Continued. / Pow on Ton. QUESTIONS. MASTER. NAME OF VESSEL. REGISTRATION. | NAGE. I PER Ales ë ] Dan. C. Stevens....|Brunswick.......... Liverpool........ 1171) Yes} Yes| Yes| Yes Je buchanan. .::2. IVIIIMEN Valea ee ae ae Glaszowiesdssceee 696] Yes} Yes| Yes Yes Jas INICholls san COENUDIAR EEE PER Penzance... 3. J..- 205) Yes| Yes Yes! Yes Wm. T. McPhail ..|Skerryvore .......... Gas LOWER 940) Yes Yes| Yes| Yes Alex. Morland..... HAUTS AT ne doses do ATEN TS 1185) Yes| Yes Yes Yes Vinee aebera se) Quimby. © sos! 22 Less CORAN 1274| Yes! Yes Yes! Yes A. Macdonald ..... ast Ale "AS TRE GOT NATURE 1202/No |No INo [No AS ONE PTE CASSEL Te Éondons sana sae 448) Yes| Yes) Yes| Yes WG Vinee ette-1s:2 see African Princes DSCALDOTO PE 1219) Yes| Yes| Yes! Yes W. Robertson ..... MUCH AMEL aceon Dundee: 471 386] Yes] Yes! Yes! Yes Chas Albert=.. see ESS CL MR TETE iverpoolhets see 1901) Yes| Yes! Yes! Yes A. Mathison....... IMMO ZT: Giese MATIN LE GO tat eee 1994| Yes} Yes} Yes| Yes Wallace so. Saxon Prince........ INGE Shield ses see ( 862) Yes! Yes! Yes! Yes Philip Coombess: = |liassel’ss= a. .25-_..- 2. (Liverpool RER ee 1955/Yes| Yes Yes Yes Geo. Brown ....... BTUNSWICKS ER To Ar 1594 Y es} Yes} Yes Yes CR andere voce S16) NES Men OLA. RE 1308} Y es} Yes Yes| Yes HAS Rice. Le CYAN ANR AE Glasgow .:....... 1635] Yes| Yes| Yes| Yes Jobn Cameron..... Sully est eee oe Pondon +7 1325| Yes|Yes|Yes| Yes Gs Chalmers: :'... ..- Braganza...... OT ate Glasgow......... 1168) Yes| Yes) Yes) Yes Robt, Turner... Danish Prince.,..... Neweastle........ 1571| Yes| Yes] Yes! Yes PS Daviessti. 0 (Gwenllian Thomas ..|Cardiff.... ... .. 1082] Yes] Yes! Yes| Yes CAC Porn er James Speic......... AO TAN ee 395) Yes Yes\Yes|Yes Minrebtion saan.) (IMOlMCYys.7. 1. > sr Wiverpooleee cee. 361) Yes| Yes! Yes|No OAV CAST PEM lee nes R ee car aoe leita arate ete te ASS ESRI CRE Dar 110} 108! 106! 101 MOTAMAVS eee NT do Selon A NN teres a | PTE LS OS PO INCH COPS UNTO p28 ES PES TOUL ARR TR ANS Ce RO IC eee ea ER RUN 2]. 111 masters of steamships, representing a gross tonnage of 186,252, )]). skh A-36 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA. MASTERS OF BRITISH SAILING SHIPS ENGAGED IN FOREIGN TRADE. MASTER. James Davidson... TAG. Martine «2s Wm. Mathers..... Wim. Jones”. -"" Owen Owens Jas. Hodgson...... Fred. W. Weeks .. W. I. Dermotty.... Wis te Kid dee J'ANGIOVER pees W. EF. Fish J. Adamson Wn. Sibbald...... ase bo, Henry". Evan Evans ....... Je AM hon ere Wm. Bewan John Wilson C. W. Grafton..... H. Olsen James Murphy.... G. C. R. Taylor.... FeHrasers FÉES Jas. Hughes(late).. Richard Willis..... RME Davey... 7 John Williams.... Francis Glasson J. McDonald...... David Thomas..... I. Conlan With BLY COs. saith Total yeas..... Total nays PoRT OF NAME OF VESSEL. | | REGISTRATION. er oi OT PTT NT = Be 2 Lo ee (Tanvenlane woes ese Glasvowioe. one och! Maye. ieee so COM ec rT Ballumbie zee rer W. Hartlepool. Gravel. Soe esac centre Greenock .......- Elizabeth Charlott...|Carnarvon.... labs velop des ameres see Southampton Gertrudes cree enr Liverpool........ Highland Forest..... GAS LOWER AÉOIIDWOUNdEE EEE Liverpool........ Celestina ee ans Portsmouth ... Falls of Afton....... Glasgow......<:.- Balconhursti. os et On don Eee Windermere .. .... AO Ao. wee Harold hic ere AW KGOP aa. Seer Rose of Torridge ....|St. John’s, N.F.. Senavoleu. sess ore Maitland, N.S.... Aberlemno..... tos |SWaDSea.-.. - ae Thistlebank ......... Glasgow... A, AURA Shc EE RER iverpool re "ree Mountstuart......... Glass Om. NE Dumbartonshire .... GOT pets: Glen lin er ere see Liverpool........ Bankfelds’..-":..14; TO MEL apes Arthurstone......... Dundee... aes HHATA SEE ee EEe Plymouth. Er AICEMSCOL. er Jo) at Ko) AMATIOENS LE RedeRosem seca bre Halmouth "7 Carrie L. Smith...... SION INA PATAMALOL EE ee a2,0 do EMA ENT .|\Swansea......... County Antrim... Liverpool........ Castle Holme........ Marypont.ns. "7" Total tonnage, 36,467. UESTIONS. TON- Q NAGE. 1 to uo a 795| Yes| Yes] Yes 1250] Yes 1074| Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes] Yes Yes} Yes 1516) Yes 116) Yes 848] Yes Yes Yes} Yes] Yes 950) Yes} Yes| Yes} Yes 1040} Yes| Yes] Yes] Yes 2673) Y es| Yes| Yes| Yes 115/Yes 1974) Yes 2043] Y es Yes| Yes| Yes Yes|Yes| Yes Yes|Yes|Yes 3053| Yes} Yes Yes Yes Yes| Yes Yes 1376) Yes 114) Yes 1510/ Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 7711 Yes Yes| Yes Yes|Yes Yes|Yes s|Yes].... Yes] Yes] Yes Yes|Yes| Yes Yes|Ye:|Yes Yes] Yes} Yes Yes/Yes| Yes Yes|Yes| Yes 156) Yes} Yes| Yes| Yes 656] Y es| Y es| Yes|No 967| Yes| Yes| Yes| Yes 630] Y es| Yes] Yes|No 1241} Yes} Yes] Yes| Yes 1042] Ye~| Yes| Yes] Yes 2430) Yes 1413] Yes 1273] Yes 972|Yes 1894) Yes 359] Yes 1228) Yes 227/Yes 264) Yes 32 | 32 | 30 PN PEO Oren tere ae ryan Le bisgo.cign (dee dre | ne 2 PROCEEDINGS—APPENDIX A A-37 BRITISH SHIPMASTERS EMPLOYED IN THE HOME AND COASTING TRADES. PORT OF | TON | QUESTIONS. MASTER. NAME OF VESSEL. = REGISTRATION. | NAGE. | | | 9! a | 4 M ACANUVE TE Ocean Wave......... HOWE yeaa eos 148] Yes] Yes] Yes| Yes Geo. Brown........|Hephzibah..... ..... Plymouth ....... 105] Y es] Yes} Yes| Yes AIS ALAN ose ye 2 TIRE IEW eC ho ena Cee cero eee Padstow...... 1e 112|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes Geo» Barnecuth.5-.| Hannah: = +0. "1. Ilan elves 158] Yes| Yes} Yes| Yes James Jones....... Bnglishman 35.7... - WancaStele EEE 144/Yes|Yes| Yes] Yes Richard Hosker....|I. H. Barrow ........ CKO Arie ts 130/Y es| Yes} Yes] Yes C. McBurney..:... Princess Louise ..... BATCOWEE SET 66|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes Ralph Ravenscroft |Saxon Maid.......... Fleetwood....... 148] Yes| Yes| Yes] Yes Edward Howells...| Water Bird.......... ÉVerpoul ENT 103|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes William Cox....... PEL Da wists eee Brestons. iris 89/ Yes] Yes} Yes} Yes PohmpWiees. ta. 2 MUI ZZAC). rene Et OMIS TION 64} Yes] Yes} Yes} Yes Wind-sPollardyems =| Chases: ccc. IMO Wey re ane 140] Yes} Yes] Yes} Yes Peter ial. 22. - .[Lancashire Lad...... Fleetwood....... 151] Yes] Yes} Yes} Yes Joseph Waters ....|Mary Waters........ Padstow. -- < 108) Yes} Yes} Yes| Yes ILENTASLETS srl mice tener yas ‘... [Gross Tonnage. . 1,676 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 FOREIGN SHIPMASTERS. | QUESTIONS. MASTER NAME OF VESSEL. COUNTRY. Le LR Seat } 1} 2) 3) 4 Al eins sees 2. /Amnal@aspernnean ss: Denmark" 612 Yes Yes| Yes} Yes Beewer: Lt’: Charles Kahl........ Germany": 343) Yes} Yes} Yes] Yes Wie Miasure.: 3.8... Korniein Elizabeth : Louise Pere SRE RER 485| Yes} Yes} Yes} Yes Whelmo Jomey ...|/Die Gesdiwister..... ISS hanes pace oe oy: 175 Yes} Yes} Yes| Yes awash: Obsem >. 5|OG it "1" ee INGEWAY tac. estes ie 644] Yes} Yes] Yes} Yes Pe NICISenres,. 21-5. Chs-Knudsen-reetre OM TES 552] Yes} Yes] Yes/ Yes F. Fredriksen ..... LOT at iisisseace hee eae JO LE | 456| Yes! Yes| Yes| Yes A-88 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA. FOREIGN SHIPMASTERS.—Continued. JE vS. MASTER. NAME OF VESSEL. COUNTRY. a, i ae NAGE. | 1 2 34 G. Johannsen ..... (TANIA -ereeete sree NOtway:. cceaccoee 303] Yes| Yes} Yes} Yes S. Svendsen ....... Skjoldmioen ....... doy HR 266] Yes] Yes} Yes} Yes AC Jensen reset RAbAlR ER SAS dow tye Rate 567| Yes} Yes| Yes} Yes Olaisboyns > ss... Syma ee ease ee eer COMP MS EEE 328] Yes} Yes] Yes] Yes ROSE AUOT ET APT COM) eerie 654 Y es! Yes] Yes| Yes de Me Johnson... 2: ATO” leche meee Sweden pecs. 702) Yes} Yes] Yes] Yes ACSRtSMmuUSSeMe. = =.) SOIShY bene NOLWAYE- UC 875) Yes| Yes} Yes} Yes O. Pederson ...... Mint ee eee eer TOME EE 12H\Ves|Yes| Yes] Yes K. T. Toryusen....|Senorita .. 3 Brat GOL eres ae 345) Yes} Yes| Yes| Yes M*Hansen pe eur: Odin 2a. terre COW Ree see 524| Yes] Yes} Yes} Yes Tho. Thomesen ....|Galathea ............: dig! ere 664) Yes} Yes} Yes] Yes N. Jacobsen ...... Wranos) pies weet OO Léereree 515) Yes} Yes} Yes| Yes HH. A-1OIsene:--. Ingomar... sesso: QO. eae 1011) Yes} Yes| Yes} Yes EH Jobnsen es ss RADAR ee sere ee AD seen 499] Y es| Yes! Yes] Yes TALarsen etre. Kon me Sverniveee eee GO Wats 491} Yes] Yes| Yes} Yes J-Palorrensen ss |HIora ee here eee LOMME ETES 839 Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes Oscar Aveson 11% [Lima eee Gow Mester 723) Y es} Yes| Yes} Yes TA OISen arts is ss Paulus) scie ese: TOMATE RENE 438) Yes! Yes] Yes| Yes H. Danielsen ...... NMamng RE RENTE Cho Pea AG Ade 559} Yes] Yes| Yes] Yes A. Ellefsen .....:.. Gunenen see GOs Fab ese 181| Yes| Yes| Yes} Yes G. C. Eckman ..... Engelbrekh ......... Sweden es 690} Y es| Yes} Yes] Yes G. Reinertsen ..... Morgenery =... scr dO" rh Sen 611|/Yes] Yes} Yes] Yes RASATSERE ES Ferre DIANA PEER A Norwalyuce keene 374! Yes| Yes} Yes} Yes He Anderson ty wee ees eee ee GOs sates 376] Y es] Yes} Yes| Yes J. Danielsen..... ISaraEUMES as dO). 9:2 eee 380} Y es] Yes] Yes} Yes Karl Hallmen ..... USKO ROSES seis Hinlande rer 471| Yes} Yes|Y es] Yes EL Hansen”. Norse 25552 PA PIN OEW AN 420|Yes|Yes|Yes|Yes Hraid'O]lsén 2.» =. Basto snes ieee eee dO.) hut tee 821] Yes] Y es] Yes] Yes Neils Meelsen ..... iby bese ont ane OBOE at do! Sasso tee 495) Yes] Yes} Yes| Yes PeVielbery ar song. GTA RER sess do dre 781 Yes|Yes|Yes|.... ER Nielsen... Bishop Brun? near dons 547/Y es| Yes| Yes! Yes PROCEEDINGS—APPENDIX A A-39 FOREIGN SHIPMASTERS.—Continued. Ton QUESTIONS. MASTER. NAME OF VESSEL, COUNTRY. NAGE. | | | > |3l4 ET — 2 we EE _ (i Muller. "3." SATUPAUS EEE PTE NOLWAY 7... 911} Yes} Yes Yes| Yes V. Cammerata ....;|Anna & Maria....... Geneva tre 1081] Yes| Yes] Yes} Yes J Jardin Soabooe WGemiableee tne cae ser NOM AVE TERRES EE 599] Y es} Yes| Yes} Yes EMOISen donee Erling Skjalsen ..... Gon fee : 572) Yes| Yes] Yes] Yes Je Jacobsen- s---/-)-: GATAREN ysis eee dou LA SR 695] Yes} Yes| Yes| Yes ENS larsens i HIS AMAR ER INR AOF NE 353] Yes|Yes|Yes| Yes 4U\ Toy HDISAT MaRS eT IS 65 ET eee ce Gross tonnage...| 25,117) 44) 44) 44) 45 BRITISH SHIPMASTERS, NOT FOLLOWING THEIR PROFESSION, AND OTHERS VARIOUSLY INTERESTED IN AND CONNECTED WITH SHIPPING. QUESTIONS. SIGNER, AND OFFICIAL POSITION OR OCCUPATION. Sir Alfred I. Loftus, Commander (late hydrographer to King of Siam)| Yes} Yes} Yes|No W. E. Plummer, F.R.A.S., astronomer in charge ot Dock Board Observatory, Liverpool" MTS CU i Er SAT AIN ARTE Yes} Yes} Yes| Yes Reir Admiral J. B. Barnett, R.N. (retired), Harbour Master, Bar- TOV net UT 1 Ie oe RE PA Peis RE Re RER TR to cdo 4 Yes| Yes| Yes} Yes Commander E. Scobett Clapp, R.N. (retired), Queen’s Harbour Mas- tertHlolyhead "ie dise A RAR a ceva EU PL oes eee Yes} Yes| Yes] Yes Capt. Thos. Mackenzie, F.R.A.S,, of Committee of Management, Shipmasters’ Society, London as Auer Colerain Yes} Yes} Yes| Yes A. G. Froud, Lieutenant R.N.R., Secretary, Shipmasters’ Society, MOROCCO eet SERRE LOS PR RARE Yes} Yes Yes| Yes Jos. Simpson, Commander R.N.R., Marine Superintendent Anchor MWimersreamshipss lalverpOols EN MR een UE Yes| Yes Yes/No John Dixon, Esq., Marine Superintendent L. & S. W. Railway, SOUL OM Een she. vo aes) a oye thvclan one Ut Ce te tee No |No |Yes|Yes Wim. Chapman, Master Mariner, Superintendent R. M. Steam BaCkcie Os SO Ubh ami bOM EE LR eee PE eee ees No |No |No |No ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA. SHIPMASTERS NOT FOLLOWING THEIR PROFESSION.—Continued. SIGNER, AND OFFICIAL POSITION OR OCCUPATION. QUESTIONS. A. McLean Wait, Master Mariner, Superintendent Union Line SLeamships, SOUbMaAMpbOn -e. s.-< saees Lier eee oe ee ee ee N. G. Glins, Master Mariner, Superintendent British India Steam- Ship) Company, LONdON. 2. secs. os C. P. Green, Master Mariner, Superintendent Pacific S. N. Com- pany, London Geo. Smith, Master Mariner, Nautical Assessor, Manchester....... F. Hood, Master Mariner, Harbour Master, Middlesbro............ W. Watson, Master Mariner, Harbour Master, West Hartlepool... Geo. Graves, Master Mariner, Harbour Master, Dublin........ mete A. Russell, Master Mariner, Harbour Master, Lancaster ....... RE R. Nicholson, Shipowner, Glasson Dock, Lancaster................. J. McBride, Esq., Secretary Harbour Commissioner, Westport, Ireland Thos. Smith, Esq., Secretary Lough Commissioner, Greenore, Ire- land enr C. Bird, Master Mariner (retired), Manchester...................... R. Williams, Master Mariner (retired), Manchester................. Hy. Dunn, Master Mariner (retired), Manchester................... Jos. J. Camaron, Master Mariner (retired), Glasgow................ John Robertson, Master Mariner (retired), Gourock ............... Jas. MacNamara, Master Mariner (retired), Gourock............... F. M. Moore, Esq., Nautical Optician, Belfast and Dublin.......... And. Christie, Esq,, Nautical Optician, Glasgow................. : T. W. Woodhill, Master Mariner, Manchester........... -........ Henry Toynbee, F.R.A.S., Master Mariner (retired, after 33 years’ sea service, followed by 22 years in the London Meteorological Once). su Re EA aceite bs ohn tee re erate awe Aine nee eee En à E. T. Jones, Master Mariner, Union Steamship Company, South- ATPL OO: Jat. :- 12e Deer Cher siren Eli Sowerbutts, F.R.G.S., Secretary Manchester Geographical So- GIOEY screen no Re Se he clic Bremer Ses tito arene M. Tallagsen, Master Mariner, foreign, Norway (retired)........... M. G. Eriksen, Master Mariner, foreign, Norway (retired).......... David Brodie, Master Mariner, employ of L. N. W. & L. & Y. Joint Railway Company: "rennes ste sone ea ere ERE ELE Yes! Yes Yes! Yes No INo |No Yes| Yes Yes Yes|/ Yes Yes! Yes Yes/Yes| Yes Yes] Yes] Yes Yes| Yes Yes] Yes] Yes Yes} Yes| Yes Yes| Yes es Yes} Yes|No No s| Yes] Yes} Yes Yes| Yes} Yes s| Yes} Yes] Yes Yes| Yes] Yes Yes} Yes] Yes Yes| Yes Yes/ Yes] Yes Yes|Yes Yes Yes| Yes} Yes Yes Yes Yes} Yes] Yes Yes| Yes] Yes Yes! Yes PROCEEDINGS—APPENDIX A A-41 SHIPMASTERS NOT FOLLOWING THEIR PROFESSION.—Continued. QUESTIONS. SIGNER, AND OFFICIAL POSITION OR OCCUPATION. Pie ae 1 2 | 3 | 4 Thos. Noakes, Master Mariner, Liverpool (retired) ................. Yes} Yes} Yes] Yes John Brough, Master Mariner, Maryport (retired).................. Yes| Yes} Yes} Yes Myles Kirkpatrick, Master Mariner, Maryport (retired)............ Yes| Yes} Yes| Yes G. Davey, Master Mariner, Marine Superintendent Messrs. Rankin, Gril OTE Sie CO ENT le ne Re Ree ee aol hone adi tice fes Yes| Yes| Yes John E. Jackson, Master Mariner, Harbour Master, Fleetwood ....| Yes} Yes} Yes| Yes Benj. Nelson, Master Mariner, Harbour Master, Maryport......... Yes} Yes| Yes| Yes Alfred E. Hine, yacht ‘‘ Ceymene,” steamship owner, Maryport....|Yes| Yes} Yes] Yes DORA VERS. Zoe oye ee Re clea eacare wrehe 37 | 36 | 37 | 35 AO GAUL MAY S502 ck es PRN ee) En Sie ae. ot bese ea A Dyes Questionableior doubler te eee eee ce eet 1, La ak SUMMARY OF REPLIES TO QUESTIONS. YEAS, QUESTIONS|NAYS, QUESTIONS RIRES) Ag TIRE ESA EE Masters of 111 British steamships. :...--..-..-... | 110} 108} 104) 106; 1) 3 3) 10 Masters of 32 British sailing ships in foreign trade, 32) 32] 32} 30....|.... 2 Masters of 14 British ships in home trade......... 14; 14; 14) 14)....).... Masters of 44 foreign ships, sail and steam........ AAAS | eA Al isd OS A [rate eal ote 42 British shipmasters (and others) not following thein profession: = + ates BN Te si oe 3i|) 36) Bi] isa) 4 5) 4 NT, TANG ET eran OO Seen IEN ib 2 2 dio oran oo Poe Zoi 204 | 2e0|| 223/55) 18 a) 19 Questionable or doubttulaeeee see cee eerie cellos clin cee ll) fale eet al In all 201 shipmasters in active service ; also 42 not following their profession. Gross tonnage of ships, 249,512. Mars eld § Le ita bay a! Bae aed ft ri af i 1. ieee # Fr ol PROCEEDINGS—APPENDIX A A-43 APPENDIX VI. Letter to the Governor-General from the Canadian Institute and the Astronomical and Physical Society of Toronto, submitting additional list of shipmasters for or against unification. Toronto, April 23rd, 1896. To the Secretary of His Excellency the Governor-General of Canada. Srr,—We have the honour, on behalf of the Canadian Institute and of the Astronomieal and Physical Society of Toronto, in continuation of our communication of the 9th instant, again to address His Excellency. A recent mail has brought further evidence which may prove useful to the scientific advisers of Her Majesty’s Government in considering the advisability of carrying into effect the recommendation contained in the sixth resolution of the Washington International Conference of 1884. Mr. W. N. Greenwood, of Glasson Dock, Lancaster, England, writes, under date April 8th, 1896, as follows on the subject of reform in time- reckoning at sea: ‘I inclose the names of a few more good represent- ‘“ ative adherents, from a nautical point of view. You will see amongst “them a fair proportion of colonial shipmasters, also foreign masters, ‘ but the bulk are captains of our large ‘tramp’ steamers, and their “opinions are, I think, the most valuable; a hard-worked class of men, “ they know what it is to economize time, and the practical necessity of ‘ minimizing the chances of making mistakes, particularly in time, nau- “tically applied to longitude. . . I can get the signatures of any “ number of coasting masters, but do not, as a rule, ask for them ; those “ [ give are voluntary and from their own choice. Foreign masters give ‘in their adhesion very readily. “f notice that the official United States tide-tables for 1896 appear in the 24-hour notation.” The following is a summary of the additional list of shipmasters who reply in the affirmative to the question, ‘“ Are you in favour of the uni- “ fication of time as applied to the civil, nautical and astronomical days ; “and is it desirable, in the interests of all concerned, that such days “ should commence at mean midnight ?”: British steamships in the foreign trade.......... 27 yeas, 0 nays. Britishysteamships in the home’ trade... 37..7 oan On British sailing-ships in the foreign trade....... Lit ha Oi A British sailing-ships in the-home:trades 2 CT Oe ROLE SAMIML OS -SHIPS ....>. ca¥e> aoa ewer earencans OO MIO) NE Shipmasters not following their profession...... 3 “ OQ © ‘ A-44 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA. A total number of seventy-four shipmasters, representing a tonnage of 84,300, every one of whom is in favour of the proposed change. We beg leave to append the supplementary list of British and foreign shipmasters who have responded to the question placed before them by Mr. Greenwood, The letters received by that gentleman go to show that the proposed unification of time-reckoning would be accepted with unan- imity by shipmasters in the mercantile marine service. We have the honour to be, sir, Your obedient servants, (Signed) (Signed) ALAN MACDOUGALL, Secretary, The Canadian Institute. G. E. LUMSDEN, Corresponding Secretary, The Astronomical and Physical Society of Toronto. SUPPLEMENTARY LIST, APRIL, 1896—‘‘ UNIFICATION OF TIME.” BRITISH STEAMSHIP MASTERS IN THE FOREIGN TRADE. | | POSE Ton. | QUESTIONS, SIGNER. VESSEI I REGISTRATION. NAGE:| 11. eee] LA HABaker 2. ean ss. King Cadwallon.|London ........... 2380) Yes] Yes| Yes) Yes 1D 5 144 6 0 Fp eesti “ Drummond ease erp OO lei. ee |. 2382) Yes} Yes] Yes} Yes W. Anderson...... Sty BRO Cr eee cee ÉOndOnR PP 3270|Yes| Yes Yes| Yes WedBoswell) .o-..4| (i (Casos ence aoe biverpoolien )-— se: 2240 Yes| Yes Yes} Yes John Merrix. SS Uns RITES TA TES NUE RENE EE 1589 Yes Yes! Yes| Yes H. Brown ..... “CMP ribtagial a EN Sunderland........ 3260 Yes] Yes| Yes| Yes EAÉOOK "7-0. ve Sha" r; Alliernwss-e- meee Storehamer se. 2279 Yes| Yes Yes| Yes John Goodall...... + CUNIEHIA EEE Re 4. ‘Liverpool ESS 3101 Yes) Yes Yes| Yes J.P. Cunningham.) ‘ C. of Hamburg... Dublin Bote a WAR gas AAA 1219 Yes Yes| Yes| Yes Chas:-earkham ...|#""Mobasco 2-20 lsuntletiand ER 5025| Yes) Yes Yes| Yes John Williams ....| ““ Maling........... W. Hartlepool..... 3075| Yes, Yes Yes| Yes DOME. mon ‘“ Vebena doy CURE TS 2364 Yes Yes Yes|Yes A. H. Coldworthy.| ‘‘ Thornaby ....... AOL NES 1730 Yes Yes Yes|Yes Thos. Stubbs ...... E PAV OCCU: areas ee Cork. 22550000 1097) Yes Yes Yes) Yes John E. Blakey....| ‘“ Victoria ......... Sunderland........ 2354 Yes Yes Yes Yes DavidiDye: 7... ‘“* Dilson Castle....|London. "7%" 1603 Yes Yes|Yes Yes PROCEEDINGS—APPENDIX A SUPPLEMENTARY LIST.—Continued. BRITISH STEAMSHIP MASTERS IN THE FOREIGN TRADE.—Continued. PORT OF Ton- | QUESTIONS. SIGNER. | VESSEL. Le | REGISTRATION. NAGE| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 Johnson". SS. Cereday A snes. SSHiellsEes-r 2e 2350] Yes Yes Meshes Joe UNIT Sa sah. ee MJESMONA 2er London 1430 Yes Yes|Yes|Yes ÉéGuthrie:: 7° et SILOLECC]. etre Rotterdam ........ 2554) Yes Yes|Yes|Yes W. W. Lyon....... CAT i. Scns Whitby........... 1854/Yes Yes|Yes| Yes {Grea (Gaaiiedsy Se eae MOEATTOLALER EE W. Hartlepool .... 1866|Yes'Yes|Yes Yes Robt. McAulay....| ‘* Chellerton ....... (ond one eee ser 2550 Yes Yes) Yes|No _L. Fields 8 JerAuaMb UNS caus Bac Sunderland........ 1152/ Yes Yes Yes| Yes DEAN AIS Dee aloe ieee Se OTOL Maver OO) IO to line Pre 1168 Yes Yes) Yes) Yes Mal. FMC: .of Bristol 27e) dole 5 RENNES 1293 Yes Yes Yes Yes AGE CI Migs ce ele. « ** C. of Rotterdam. | dO? § MATE 718 heat Yes! Yes Samasoltome | El Dorado... 4... UT TERRES 1511 Yes Yes Yes Yes MU ne Li SRE 55,695) 27 | 27 | 27 | 26 BRITISH STEAMSHIP MASTERS IN THE HOME TRADE. NEV GRAY: ie NT, Sow Ambrim) 225-6. ss Beliastiaaeteeer ce 492|Yes| Yes| Yes Yes ve Cochrane 2.2. - seein ev Elin ACT O RE PERRET 409 Yes Yes Yes Yes D. Ferguson..... ay Ace EN OLS iat seer 291 Yes| Yes Yes Yes ike Me dier LA RAS dE SAPARMOT 0e doje A Le 273) Yes| Yes West Ves A. Irving.... NDS DIE EE ere DUDILN IEEE EEE" 496) Yes Yes Yes Yes Thos. Hughes ..... |) dskyaduryeacore page Whitehaven....... 361 Yes Yes|Yes Yes Thos. Faulkner....| ‘* Holme Wood ....| Workington ...... 258) Yes|Yes Yes Yes George Fenn .: ... MEMATIEV- 1DUDINE EEE 798 Yes Yes Yes Yes nos Em 3228): MARATREENN YA EEE Beltastijsansee mee 417; Yes Yes Yes Yes DANONE o 2). 2 ** Staghound... LOS 496) Yes Yes Yes Yes HACrOSS RS soc A OULD PISCE IBALLOWs ce sen ee 245|Yes Yes Yes Yes Dos aWullams 2% |) Dinomic’e.4-.5.. Carnar vont" 330 Yes Yes Yes Yes Hohe Ones! eh, Spinel ere GAS SOMME 309 Yes Yes Yes Yes Herbert Ellis...... Js eAcrd Glinisiee eee Aberdeeny,..5 seer 164 Yes Yes Yes| Yes IRF Sees Te RE RSR EN AE CSP PRE PEE ie Sid “4 es A-46 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA. SUPPLEMENTARY LIST.—Continued. BRITISH SAILING-SHIP MASTERS IN FOREIGN TRADE. | PORT OF SIGNER. | VESSEL. | | REGISTRATION. | HOw Fancy 5" |Aeronaut ee op hEAD eerie Bonnet te NASA O. W. Smith ...... Flora P. Stofford .... Windsor, N.S... BGG. She tees. Skoda : 2.2208. 200 | doy Hope Be Viebureess =| Warnica,.-- j.-- =< ee dos, Gaeta: R. McDougall ..... Strathmuir -...-.-:. Maitland, INES ieee J.J. Fleet......... Cedar Croft... ... St. John, N.B....... LH Lockhart..../Kelvin ...-.. 22.22: dol! ty Cree ter M. MeGibbon.... . Drumfriesshire .... . Glasgow EL ra AS BVanSi 2s es. Cambrian Hills [Liverpool FL ME RE | Wm. Griffith ..... \Carnarvon Bay...... | JD RL J. O: Griffiths ..... Vigi Avice, MAR UE Swansea. on seieeee | Thos. England MCE Cranbtre rer Hav erpool reer cree John Jones........ Dalblain. ATEN ENT . Glasgow ots Sheet Wm. Higham ..... Annie Parkes ....... BALLON LORS David Thomas..... TIMANLER EEE EC ETEE [SWansea:- ere Francis Classon ...|Carrie L. Smith ..... Sidon NB John McDonald... Paramatta .......... do Her eh | Totals te 72e | Due OCR ete me ER |e AE yb Lee Cr EE HS HOPAIT, EL... SE NOCOLU ree eee Wa Marbin 1/7" 4|Nelson RE PR oarece W. Hughes NISADelIA Marne seu Ae or Ed. Charnley......\. ) Jo Barro Wee ee Wm. Pritchard....|My. Armstead....... John Iddon........ Fanny Crossfield .... John Davies....... Edith Crossfield ..... DOGGY 2e 0 le LEE UREDAECTE ee mms ToNn- NAGE. 1 1123 Yes 1127/Yes 2565 Yes| Yes Yes | 1 1760 Yes 1932) Yes 550) Yes 772| Yes| 1630) Yes 214 Yes| | bo Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes! Yes Yes Yes Yes 967 Yes|/Yes | Yes Yes Yes { Yes! | Yes Yes! Yes [Ye s! ioe eal Yes! Yes QUESTIONS. Yes Yes Yes 630 Yes Yes Yes) 657 Yes Yes Yes do: T7, Se tener 19,174) 17 172| Yes) 17 | Yes ily Yes Yes! | Yes! Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes s Yes Yes s| Yes PROCEEDINGS—APPENDIX A A-47 SUPPLEMENTARY LIST.—Continued. FOREIGN SHIPMASTERS. Doan aye QUESTIONS. SIGNER. VESSEL. Re REGISTRATION. |NAGE. 112 | 3 | 4 Be Be VMoun'e ss... INMD Osea 3. oases BeltastiMie "tree 884 Yes| Yes|Yes Yes SPROMAINE FES @ortesiay)cessaeeee Lraparde sconce 400 Yes} Yes| Yes Yes OME ansen cc ae aere PUIG Ae ete aes Atte Christianiae ee 399 Yes|Yes|Yes Yes H. Simondson..... DATNGTIGR e280 sss nee Fredrickslad ...... 49 Yes Yes| Yes Yes Andres Berg...... SENS Ee er Seer oS or Brevis fash neni 497 Yes! Yes} Yes Yes Headed Eellum--|Gambetta "1. Sv. ehvd ase eee 312 Yes Yes| Yes Yes Tate A eee ee | 2,901! 6| 6| 6| 6 ; SHIPMASTERS NOT FOLLOWING THEIR PROFESSION. * QUESTIONS. SIGNER. OFFICIAL POSITION. LOCALITY. 1 eral tees at: John E. Jackson...... Harbour Master....... Fleetwood .......... Yes Yes Yes Yes Ben. Nelson ......... COMBA MERE Marysport .......... Yes Yes} Yes} Yes Juno IME NAS (log Yor een Whitehaven.. ...... Yes Yes|Yes Yes DOCS Re es ee ee Loe et eee Meret ae SOc PU EE 34] Bi) Bie SUMMARY. ne | QUESTIONS. NAGE| y | 9 | 3 | 4 3 Shipmasters not following their profession...............|....... Silane 3] . 3 27 Masters British foreign trade steamships.... ............ 55,695 27 27 27 26 toast Home Lt CAE MR tar ne 5545| 14| 14] 14) 14 : | 17 oe Fe foreign trade sailing vessels .......... ..| 19,174) 17 17) 17 17 ee “ home “ « RE Dee 10 ee ena ae 6 SS fOTEIS MES ALL VESSCIS RE tae epee eter 2961; 6) 6 6 6 | 74 or 71 masters—representing shipping tons................ 84,300} 74) 74) 74| 73 | == | ING SS, ah eerie see Phe deco) libre FA AR eae ES | 1! ee fh L, 1: Dé ee TPE. et er | eee m4 « AT Fur rs Lis - ae LA | . a “ bs ae : > : » ee À Ps te = F } 4 LA 7 a oy . ZT E J =’ “ Vigne “1 . Pall 0 j wi Lf a ty Le L 0 oe i | 5 ‘ co ke po, DER q ‘ : 7 1 4 RS. E . L “as: De Ce Tr - \ A. 27 “ == ES » on RS cA ~ : : agi Ca LA a pare wi D, PPS _ } L | ü a pt ‘ } ' 4 <> fe ie : ? LA n > PROCEEDINGS—APPENDIX A APPENDIX. VI I. A-49 SUMMARY OF SHIPMASTERS HEARD FROM UP TO JULY 25TH, 1896, WHO HAVE EXPRESSED THEIR OPINION ON THE UNIFICATION OF TIME AT SEA. YES TO No To I QUESTIONS. QUESTIONS. M UE DEN DR PURE | 194 Masters of steam vessels, representing 331,107 | (KOS. Ss Gao ce DURE auras ECS LI ba as 194| 193} 188} 180). LANG 14: 93 Masters of sailing vessels, representing 74,569) | CONS TR EE re A wo eee Me aes 93| 93| 93! 91). lif 202 76 Masters of foreign sailing vessels, represent- NOLO MAO D DOM Stet sin sissy. al theron re tee CGT COs TK a SRT) OL eels Roc ols oe oie 363 Masters of vessels representing 455,810 tons...) 363) 362) 357) 347|....1....|....!.... 46 Masters not following their profession.........| 42) 41} 42) 40) 4) 5 4 6 LVI gt 9. eae ee cue 405) 403) 399| 387) 4] 6] 10) 22 The shipmasters who have replied to the inquiry represent the fol- lowing ports and in the following proportions as to numbers and tonnage : STEAM. | SAILING. FOREIGN. | No. |Tonnage.| No. | Tonnage.| No. | Tonnage. CAS SOMME RE UTC ( 30 59,922 14 DTG ep | ery er PER ee nade yo ee A, K-20) “| 57,980 a alana ea ee ees, eke DE On yes ctv. cia ees: 26 56,496 | 14 20; 950 M Eee HAS TICOARS DR RAR ki ke he se 28 51,799 1 THOMA SOR acaes (eva EE 2 ALN OVER EN RE En Li | 24 CRE AI LE ER Eee HAE LOUE DE TR Er a PE BristoNChanne enr ee 11 12,438 | 6 Zh SO melee allege eee ea SOA Pere es bares. | 11 11,144 1 11222 pills a EE IBALTOWS ER ES Re | 3 9,424 eens eens Rennes beeen Sain a ea HT TERRA Rte ITA ARE Us Nr 1 | 22 20,363 4 COTE Paria EE re Colon Eee cos. His... ANSE] RL ate ee 14 BTS SN NES AR Se JDA eue. RE MNT A fe fo eres rece = (he PRESSE PEN RATES 76 50,140 | ROIS PP er cui | 194 | 331,107 | 93 74,569 | 76 50,140 Total Masters in active service, 353, representing total tonnage, 455,816; add 46 Masters not on active service—in all 409 Shipmasters heard from, up to July 25th, W. N. GREENWOOD. 1896. PROCEEDINGS—APPENDIX B. B-1 ACP Pall INGEN eit MEMOIR OF THE LATE PROFESSOR LAWSON, By A. H. Mackay, LL.D., Halifax. Professor George Lawson, Ph.D., LL.D. F.LC., past president of the Royal Society of Canada, was born at Newport, parish of Forgan, Fifeshire, Scotland, on the 12th day of October, 1827. He was the son of Alex. Lawson, and his wife Margaret McEwen, daughter of Colin McEwen, of Dundee. He died at-his home in Halifax, Nov: Scotia, in the sixty-ninth year of his age, from a stroke of paralysis, on the 10th day of November, 1895. He remained until a few months before his death in the discharge of the functions of more public duties than fall to the lot of most public men. On account of premonitory symptoms of failing health he had but a short time before pressed his resignation of the professorship of chemistry and mineralogy in Dalhousie on the governors, with the purpose of still carrying on his usual course in botany in the University and Halifax Medical College. He was also at this time secretary for agriculture for the province of Nova Scotia, which important position he had been filling for many years, publishing an agricultural journal and annual crop reports, directing and stimulating agricultural societies and exhibitions, and establishing and managing the Provincial School of Agriculture. The following brief review of his career and work professes to indicate only the more salient points of an outline sketch. As a student, George Lawson’s intention at first was to enter upon the legal profession. But his studies in law gave place to those in natural science ; and his ten years in the University of Edinburgh developed his literary and scientific powers to such an extent that he became curator of the herbarium and demonstrator in botany under J. H. Balfour. In this department he was one of the first to develop the modern biological methods of embryologi- cal and histological investigation with the microscope. His literary skill at this time also marked him out as the proper person to prepare the catalogue of the library of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, a work which was a model of its kind. He was also in demand as secretary for several scientific societies, in one of which, the Royal Physical Society, B-2 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA his colleague, was the late Sir Wyville Thomson. When in 1858 he accepted the professorship of chemistry and natural history in Queen’s University at Kingston, Canada, it was not surprising that he received the most flattering public testimonials of esteem from his eminent colleagues in the famous Scottish University. He was thirty-one years of age when he thus came to Queen’s, where for five years he developed with success his botanical methods, and in chemistry organized a system of laboratory teaching as Wilson and Macadam were doing in Edinburgh. He was the originator and organizer of the Botanical Society of Canada, which for the brief space of his ineumbency flourished at Kingston and resulted in the publication of the Bulletin, a complete series of which forms a not inconsiderable volume and can be seen in the library of the University of Dalhousie at Halifax. When in 1863 he accepted the professorship of chemistry and mineralogy in Dalhousie, this society disappeared in Kingston, but reappeared under his presidency and the auspices of section four of the oyal Society at Ottawa in 1891, under the form of the Botanical Club of Canada. He was thirty-six years of age when he came to Halifax, and the very next year after assuming charge of his university department with practically that of botany and zoology thrown in, he also became secretary of the Provincial Board of Agriculture, and on the abolition of the Board be became secretary of a sub-department of the Provincial Government—the Department of Agriculture so called. He was thus for thirty two years the chemist and biologist of the university, and for thirty-one of them was also the practical head of the Agriculture Depart- ment of Nova Scotia. A list of his published works shows about 94 articles in botany varying from the short notice of a new habitat or rare form to the extensive monograph of a large order such as the Ranunculacee, or the Ericaceæ, ox the Ferns of Canada; 5 in zoology, 6 in chemistry, 40 reports and addresses on agriculture, two volumes of over 500 pages each of the * Journal of Agriculture,” edited by him from 1865 to 1877, and the following books, (abbreviated titles being given) : The Royal Water Lily of South America and the Water Lilies of Britain, 100 pages, two coloured plates, 1849, Edinburgh ; Catalogue of the Library of the Royal Society of Edinburgh; British Agriculture, 1858, Edinburgh ; the Botanical Descriptions of Mrs. Miller’s Drawings of the Wild Flowers of Nova Scotia, 2nd and 3rd series; Introduction to Tanner’s Agricultural Chemistry for the schools of Nova Scotia; The Fern Flora of Canada with Gray’s How Plants Grow, for the schools of Nova Scotia, and the Nova Scotia Register of Thoroughbred Cattle. But this list by no means indicates the extent of his work of this kind, some of which have not been published. In 1858 he bad prepared a work on the British PROCEEDINGS—APPENDIX B B-3 Mosses illustrated by the nature-printing process, which remained un- published on account of the death of a member of the firm acquiring the copyright. He had also been collecting material for a Flora of Canada, and began a series of papers on the Flora of Nova Scotia in the Proc. 1886. x. B-4 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Transactions of the Nova Scotian Institute of Science, which was cut short by his premature decease, His herbarium is said on very high authority to be the finest and most extensive private herbarium in Canada. It has become the property of the University of Mount Allison in New Brunswick, while his botanical library was presented by his two surviving children, Sara M. and Jessie W., the latter Mrs. W. F. MacCoy, to the University of Dalhousie, His work and influence can not be measured by his publications alone, numerous as they are, for the incessant occupation of his time in his various public capacities did not permit him to throw into final form the matter accumulating for some of his projected pubhcations. And then his greatest work was the influence of his personality and teaching over his students and the public. The magnitude of this influence in the domain of botany is indicated by the impetus given to this subject in Canada, beginning in 1858 and marked at Kingston by the organization of the Botanical Society of Canada, and later at Ottawa, by its successor the Botanical Club of Canada, and by the number of Canadian botanists whose scientific bias was determined directly or indirectly by his enthu- siasm ; in chemistry. by the numerous students who became useful in the industrial and professional fields, and by some who already have become eminent as scholars and investigators ; in agriculture and horticulture by his thirty years’ contact with the local leaders of these industries, his publie lectures, published papers and reports, exhibitions, local and provincial, and his own example in his extensive model stock farm, which he also found time’to direct, by the existence of the Provincial School of Agriculture at Truro, and the School of Horticulture at Wolfville, and the stress laid on the objective study of nature in the public school system as a stimulus to the industrial sentiment of the pupils as well as the foundation of a true scientific training for all. While all these results cannot be traced to any one personality, to none do so many of the'lines of influence converge for their source as to the subject of this sketch. While he was thus unceasingly employed he exercised the most remarkable equableness of temper which was ‘never disturbed by any sign of impatience, or neglect of the most courteous attention to the student or inquirer. In the words of an eminent student, later a colleague : ‘As a man he had in large measure the characteristics which make it possible by personal contact to gain the confidence of, and to influence large bodies of men. He was kindly, sympathetic, courteous, patient, careful of the feelings of others, and always willing to serve others from the rich stores of his wider knowledge. It was these beauties of character, far more deeply, marked in him than in most men. which gained for him the warm affection of, those who studied under him, and the well-grounded esteem of the farmers of Nova Scotia who for so long a periol have been largely guided by his advice.” ‘an PROCEEDINGS—APPENDIX B B-5 His superior literary training and skill gave him an advantage over the majority of writers in the presentation of scientific subjects, and he began to write at an early age. From 1846 to 1848 he published seven- teen articles in the London Phytologist, dealing generally with the discovery of interesting cases of the distribution of plants in Scotland, rare or abnormal forms, and the functions of peculiar organs. Also during his pre-Canadian career he published as many as twenty-three papers in the proceedings or transactions of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh out of a total of thirty-eight contributions, some of which were large monographs of families or orders. To thesame period belong a paper in the proceedings of the Dundee Naturalists’ Association in 1848, a paper in the Zoologist in 1847, one in the Naturalist in 1851, one in Henfry’s Botanical Gazette in 1849, one in the Annals of Natural History in 1854, and another in 1858, in the Journal of Microscopy in 1856 and 1857, and a British Association report in 1854. Also to this period belong his first two books already referred to. To his five years at Kingston belong the Annals of the Botanical Society of Canada, a paper in the New York Horticulturist, an address in the Canadian Agriculturist, an article on Aphis avene in the Canadian Naturalist, and five papers in the transactions of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh. To his thirty-two years in Halifax are to be credited ten papers in the transactions of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, five in the Canadian Naturalist, three in the Chemical News, one in the Botanical Centralblatt, one in the Canadian Record of Science, five in the transac- tions of the Royal Society of Canada, and about twenty in the proceedings and transactions of the Nova Scotian Institute of Science. He was also a frequent contributor to the public press on all subjects of local or special interest, as well as to such Jiterary magazines as “ Chambers’s Edinburgh Journal.” He edited and rewrote a portion of one of the editions of “Chambers’s Information for the People.’ But while his published works indicate extraordinary activity and are valuable contri- butions to scientific knowledge, his unpublished work is greater and will place him among the few men who have done much to stimulate the scientific development of Canada during his time. Although a retiring worker far removed from the great centres of scientific endowments for research, he has, nevertheless, had many recog- nitions of his eminent ability. The University of Giessen, Germany, conferred on him the degree of Ph.D.; McGill University the degree of LL.D. He was made a fellow of the Botanical Society and the Royal Physical Society of Edinburgh, and of the Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain, an honorary member of the Edinburgh Geological and of the Scottish Arboricultural Societies, a corresponding member of the Royal Horticultural Society of London, and of the Society of the Natural B-6 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Sciences of Cherbourg, France. He was one of the original fellows and a president of the Royal Society of Canada, and a member of various other learned societies at home and abroad. And at the time of his death he was the president of the Botanical Club of Canada, and of the Nova Scotian Institute of Science, of which he was an active member and supporter for thirty-one years. SOCIMEE. ROYALE DU. CAN AIHA MÉMOIRES SECTION I LITTÉRATURE FRANÇAISE, HISTOIRE, ARCHÉOLOGIF, ETC, ANNÉE 1896 Section I, 1896 [3] Mémorress S. R. C. L—Z Organisation militaire du Canada, 1636-1648, Par M. BENJAMIN SULTE. (Lu le 19 mai 1896) Il est généralement entendu que la milice de la colonie fut organisée en 1665, lorsque le régiment de Carignan arriva pour mettre fin à la guerre des Iroquois ; c’est, en effet, à partir de cette date et surtout à compter de 1674-75, que nos forces militaires figurent dans l’histoire écrite. Mais j'ai cru bien faire en recherchant les origines mêmes de cette situation, et en allant prendre le premier soldat, avec le premier fusil, à une époque de trente ans antérieure à la soi-disant apparition de nos milices. En histoire, les moindres faits ont encore de la valeur. Je lisais l’autre jour dans un grand journal un aperçu de l’état de notre milice actuelle commençant par ces mots : ‘ Avant la Confédération (1867) nous n’avions pas d'organisation militaire”. C’était reléguer aux limbes les corps qui ont existé de 1836 4 1866 et méme auparavant, car il nous reste au moins deux compagnies datant des premières années du siècle. Si done on oublie déjà des choses que nos vieillards ont vues, il n’est pas étonnant que les miliciens de 1636 a 1666 soient entiérement négligés des écrivains. L'histoire des anciennes milices du Canada français peut se retrouver par bribes dans une centaine de volumes, si l’on prend la peine d’en faire l'analyse, mais le lecteur n’a pas cette patience et, de plus, il manque de bibliothèque. Je vais suppléer, dans la mesure de mes moyens, à la pénurie des renseignements. ‘“ On le peut, je l’essaie, qu'un plus savant le fasse.” Mes notes ne sont pas riches, le sujet étant pauvre; elles seront, toutefois, assez claires pour servir à retracer le relief des faits notables. Il n’est pas hors de propos d'examiner cette partie de notre histoire, puisque, d’année en année, l’on nous pose la même question ; à savoir, quelle était notre situation militaire dans les premiers temps des Français ? Réponse ci-dessous : Rendons-nous bien compte d’abord que, de 1608 à 1632, la colonie existait à peine et ne dépassait pas trois ou quatre ménages. Dans ses plus belles années, elle renfermait de 30 à 40 hommes, uniquement employés à la traite des fourrures et aux missions évangéliques parmi les Sauvages. Le 15 août 1635, Champlain, écrivant au cardinal de Richelieu au sujet des besoins de la colonie, demandait cent vingt hommes armés à la légère pour co-opérer avec deux ou trois mille Sauvages hurons et algonquins 4 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA contre les Iroquois, afin d'amener une paix durable sur le cours du Saint-Laurent et des grands lacs.’ Les Iroquois ne constituaient pas encore la ligue formidable qui leur a valu une si large place dans l’histoire de ce continent. Les Hurons et les Algonquins annongaient une valeur militaire bien au-dessus de ce que l’on pouvait attendre des Iroquois. Aucun des Sauvages de l'Amérique du Nord ne possédait d’armes à feu, rien non plus des outils que les Européens leur firent connaître plus tard. Toute chose étant done dans l'état primitif, il était impossible de prévoir que les Iroquois, par suite de leurs aptitudes naturelles, se transformeraient au contact des Hollandais, des Anglais et des Francais au point de jouer ici un rôle analogue à celui de la première République romaine en Italie. Champlain n’a fait aucune guerre proprement dite. Quelques coups. d’arquebuse tirés sur les Iroquois qui lui barraient le chemin, en 1609 et en 1611, et d’autres qu'il alla leur distribuer jusque dans leur pays en 1615, en suivant l'armée huronne dans l’une de ses expéditions, voilà tout ce qu'il fit en ce genre. On sait qu'il n'avait pas un seul soldat avec lui mais seu- lement trois ou quatre compagnons qui s’employaient à la traite des fourrures et à la découverte de ces vastes contrées. En 1629, le poste de Québec se rendit aux Anglais sans la moindre résistance. Cette occu- pation étrangère dura trois ans. Lorsque les Iroquois devinrent incom- modes par les embuscades qu'ils dressaient sur le fleuve, on éleva un petit fort de bois à Trois-Rivières (1634), gardé par quelques hommes à peine, que la compagnie des Cent-Associés entretenait à ses frais, et qui pro- tégeaient son magasin de traite. Albany, qui se formait alors et qui n’était pas dans des conditions beaucoup meilleures, se décida bientôt à vendre des fusils aux indigènes, ce qui doubla du coup l'audace des Iroquois dans leurs attaques contre les Sauvages amis des Français. Ceci devenait très grave, à cause de nos colons exposés entre deux feux dans ce conflit imprévu, car, depuis 1632, quel- ques familles du Perche et de la Normandie s'étaient établies autour de Québec et de Trois-Rivières, sur des terres qu’elles cultivaient avec une habileté hors ligne. La perspective de fonder une colonie agricole stable électrisait Champlain, tout accablé qu'il fût alors sous le poids de la ma- ladie qui devait l'emporter. II sollicitait de l’aide contre le seul ennemi qu'il eût à craindre : l’Iroquois, et en cela, il ne se trompait point, puisque l'assurance de n'être exposée à aucun des maux de la guerre pouvait quin- tupler rapidement notre population rurale, cette base de la prospérité d’une colonie. Juste en ce moment (1635), la compagnie des Cent-Associés songeait à abandonner le Canada en raison des pertes subies par elle, sur mer et sur terre, pendant les sept dernières années. De plus, Champlain se 1 Œuvres de Champlain, p. 1448.—Documents relatifs à la Nouvelle-France, Québec, 1883, I, 113. [suLre] L'ORGANISATION MILITAIRE DU CANADA, 1636-1648 5 mourait à Québec. Cette situation difficile se trouva réglée de la manière suivante, durant l’hiver de 1635-1636. Les Cent-Associés devaient rester proprictaires en seigneurie de la Nouvelle-France, et pouvoir continuer d’y faire du commerce et distribuer des terres aux colons, mais ne se char- geraient plus d’administrer la colonie, vu que les chevaliers de Malte! offraient de faire ce service. I] va sans dire que le coût et l’entretien dune force armée furent réglés, du moins en principe, comme devant être supportés par les Cent-Associés. Sur cette entente, M. de Montmagny devint gouverneur du Canada, par décision du 15 janvier 1636, ou méme un peu avant cette date. Il était possible, au début de la colonie, de donner de la contenance aux habitants par une organisation de milice, et en les couvrant d’une bonne troupe prête à garder les avant-postes, les avenues de l'ennemi, et tenir ce dernier sur l’alerte, de façon à lui rendre le métier de maraudeur assez désagréable pour qu'il l’abandonnat. Mais les Cent-Associés, quasi en état de banqueroute, n’exécutèrent point leur part du contrat; ils n'y songèrent même pas un instant, puisqu'ils cédèrent le droit du commerce de la colonie à un syndicat qui devait virtuellement les remplacer. Le directeur de ce nouveau groupe était Jean Rozée, marchand de Rouen, et Antoine Cheffault de la Regnar- dière, avocat de Paris, en était secrétaire. Les six autres membres se nommaient Jacques Castillon, bourgeois de Paris, Jacques Berruyer ou Beruhier, seigneur de Manselmont, Jacques Duhamel, marchand de Rouen, le conseiller Fouquet, Jean de Lauzon (qui devint notre gouverneur en 1651) et Noél Juchereau des Chastelets, marchand du Canada, le seul qui résidât dans la colonie.” Voila comment, de 1636 à 1645, la partie la plus active et la plus visible des Cent-Associés fut la compagnie Rozée, Chef- fault, des Chastelets, qu’on peut appeler un comité des Cent-Associés. M. Aubert de la Chénaye, marchand de Québee, écrivait en 1676, rappelant ce qui s'était passé de 1632 à 1645 : “Ceux de la compagnie des Cent, qui étaient des personnes de dignité et de considération, résidant à Paris, jugèrent à propos de laisser le soin et les avantages du commerce pour le Canada aux marchands de Rouen et de Dieppe, auxquels quelques- uns de ceux de Paris se joignirent. Ils furent chargés de payer les appointements du gouverneur, de lui fournir sa nourriture, d'entretenir les garnisons de Québec et de Trois-Rivières... fournir les choses néces- saires pour la guerre, de se payer sur les produits et de rendre compte du surplus au corps de la compagnie (les Cent) en son bureau à Paris.” Charles-Jacques Huault de Montmagny, chevalier de Saint-Jean de 1 Voir L'Ordre de Malte en Amérique, par J.-Edmond Roy, et mes Pages d’ His- toire du Canada. ? Ferland, Cours d'Histoire du Canada, I, 222, 284, 298. — Mémoires de la Société royale, 1882, p. 55; 1883, p. 132-3.—Histoire des Canadiens-Francais, II, 31-3, 45-6, 66-7, 108; III, 28-31. 6 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA Jérusalem, successeur de Champlain, qui, arrivé le 11 juin 1636,) paraît avoir amené des soldats avec lui, puisque, durant l'été de 1636, il fit reconstruire plus en grand le fort de Québec, donna aussi de l'extension à celui de Trois-Rivières, y ajoutant une batterie de canons. Au mois d'août de la même année, le père Paul le Jeune écrivait de Québec : “# Nous avons nombre de très honnêtes gentilshommes,* nombre de soldats de façon et de résolution ; c’est un plaisir de leur voir faire les exer- cices de la guerre dans la douceur de la paix, de n’entendre le bruit des mousquetades et des canons que par réjouissance ; nos grands bois et nos montagnes répondent à ces coups par des échos roulants, comme des ton- nerres innocents qui n’ont ni foudres ni éclairs. La diane nous réveille tous les matins ; nous voyons poser les sentinelles. Le corps de garde est toujours bien muni; chaque escouade a ses jours de faction; en un mot, notre forteresse de Kébec est gardée dans la paix comme une place d’im- portance dans l’ardeur de la guerre. ” * Le pére le Jeune venait d’apprendre la prise de Corbie (Picardie) par les Espagnols, et savait que Richelieu tremblait pour la sûreté de Paris. On était au milieu de la guerre de trente ans— tout cela explique “ les douceurs de la paix... les tonnerres innocents...” qui touchent si vivement le bon missionnaire dans sa résidence de Québec. Le recrutement des colons en France se faisait par les relations que les familles de cultivateurs établies à Québec et à Trois-Rivières entre- tenaient avec leurs parents de la mère-patrie. Les seigneurs auxquels on avait accordé de vastes espaces de terre dans le but de les peupler, n'étaient ni riches ni susceptibles d'entraîner sur leurs pas un contingent tel que l'exigeaient les circonstances ; aussi nous expliquons-nous les len- teurs de cette colonisation, qu'on peut à peine qualifier de développement. [1 semble que l’on ne tenait aucun compte du danger des Iroquois dans les réunions des Cent-Associés, à Paris. Pourtant la question vitale était là toute entière. Jusqu'à 1665, on peut affirmer qu'il n'y eut pas de colonie en Canada, mais seulement des comptoirs de traite. L'idée primitive des établissements français en Canada ne comportait, il est vrai, ni guerre ni conquête. Même chose chez les Anglais de la Nou- velle-Angleterre. Nous ne ressemblions pas aux Espagnols qui se jetaient sur l'Amérique pour tout écraser et tout prendre. Les Anglais voulaient cultiver la terre et fonder des provinces; les Français recherchaient la traite des pelleteries et les mines. De ces deux derniers projets, il résulte que nous ne songions pas à combattre à main armée contre les Sauvages 1 Non pas en septembre, comme il est dit, à la page 249 du tome I des Documents sur la Nouvelle-France, publiés à Québec, 1883. 2 Voir mes Pages d'Histoire du Canada, p. 226. Nous expliquerons plus loin ce que venaient faire en Canada ces gentilshommes. 3 Relation de 1636, p. 42. [suLTE] L'ORGANISATION MILITAIRE DU CANADA, 1636-1648 a ou les Européens, ni même à cultiver le sol pour donner vie à nos entre- prises. La question militaire primait tout, en réalité, mais elle n’était pas comprise. Quelques soldats, utiles au maintien du bon ordre dans deux ou trois postes de traite, ne constituaient aucune garantie de tranquillité pour l’habitant exposé sans cesse aux surprises des assassins, car les Tro- quois n’ont fait que la maraude accompagnée d’assassinats, jamais la guerre. Les chaloupes et les brigantins de la compagnie Rozée, Cheffault, etc., qui faisaient le service entre Québec et Trois-Rivières, portaient des petits canons de fonte appelés pierriers et espoirs, ce qui suppose des artilleurs ou des gens aptes à les manœuvrer. Plusieurs de ces armes se chargeaient par la culasse, au moyen d’une ouverture pratiquée au fond du tonnerre et que l’on refermait après y avoir introduit la gargousse* La petite colonie de Québec n’était pas sans inquiétude concernant cette situation ; les quelques habitants de Trois-Rivières non plus. Sous prétexte de ‘ tuer l’Algonquin ”, les Iroquois rédaient, continuellement à nos portes et commettaient des déprédations, parfois des meurtres ; con- naissant notre faiblesse, ils nous bravaient avec insolence, Leurs bandes se tenaient à l’affût dans les bois, sur les rivières, l’hiver comme l'été, puis, aussitôt que l’une d’elles avait fait un coup, les quinze ou vingt hommes qui la composaient retournaient à leur village pour célébrer, au milieu de réjouissances bruyantes, les exploits de cette course. Ceux que l’on ren- contrait ainsi le plus souvent autour de nous, portaient le nom d’Agniers (Mohawks) dans la fédération iroquoise ; plus tard, les autres tribus, situées plus au sud, côté est du lac Ontario, reçurent de nous la dési- gnation d’Iroquois qui, véritablement, appartient à l’ensemble de leurs groupes. Les Agniers, ayant leur habitat près des sources de la rivière Chambly, descendaient au lac Saint-Pierre et ravageaient les campements des Algonquins côté nord du fleuve, sur une étendue de territoire qui em- brasse à présent toute la longueur de la province de Québec. Henri IV, Louis XIII, leurs ministres, Sully et Richelieu, de 1608 à 1640, n’ont pas accordé la moindre attention aux Français qui trafi- quaient sur le Saint-Laurent. Le souverain n’était pas obligé de défendre la Nouvelle-France; c'était le devoir de la compagnie des Cent-Associés ; mais en cela, comme dans tout le reste, ces seigneurs indifférents négli- geaient de remplir leurs obligations. Le roi leur disait : “ Payez-moi redevance pour le privilège de la traite ; quant au reste, dépétrez-vous comme vous le pourrez.” De 1641 à 1661, avec Mazarin, ce fut la même chose. Colbert, de 1662 à 1670, nous envoya des troupes; après leur départ, Frontenac, en 1673, organisa la milice. Nous étions en paix alors. IL arriva quatre ou cinq compagnies régulières en 1684-1685, à cause de la nouvelle guerre des Iroquois. De 1673 à 1760, nos forts étaient occupés 5 Voir mes Mélanges d'Histoire, 1876, p. 369-372. 8 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA par des petits détachements aux gages du ministre de la marine et des colonies ; on les appelait, à cause de cela “troupes de la marine”, bien qu'ils ne fussent pas des marins. Le Canada français! n'a jamais possédé qu'un fantôme d'armée. Miles en latin, soldat en français, sont les termes que les registres em- ployent pour désigner nos plus anciens militaires. Cela signifie qu'ils étaient de la profession des armes, à la solde des Cent-Associés, et com- mandés par le gouverneur; ne les confondons pas avec les troupes royales, dont les premières ne vinrent ici qu'en 1662. Et que faisaient les chevaliers de Malte en 1636-1638 ? Rien. Leurs projets concernant le Canada et lAcadie se trouvaient dissipés, aban- donnés; M. de Montmagny occupait la même position précaire qu'avait eue Champlain, dépendant de quelques traiteurs de pelleteries, assez mal inspirés envers les colons du Canada. Les ursulines et les hospitalières, arrivées à Québec en 1639, avaient fait connaître à leurs amis de France l’état de la colonie. Une association rangélique se forma pour établir un poste à Montréal ; mais ni le roi, ni les Cent-Associés n'y prirent la moindre part. M. de Maisonneuve, qui commandait l'expédition, débarqua à Québec, l’automne de 1641, avec quarante-cinq hommes et quatre femmes.” Cette recrue n'avait rien de militaire; elle n'était pas non plus adonnée aux travaux des champs, de sorte qu'un renfort si mal choisi et si mal posté ne pouvait que faire naître des embarras nouveaux. En 1640, la population française de la colonie s'élevait à 360 âmes, y compris une quarantaine d'hommes, missionnaires et employés de la traite, qui se trouvaient fréquemment éloignés de Québec et de Trois- rivières. La population stable, les vrais “ habitants”, selon le mot dès lors adopté, comptait 274 âmes réparties de la manière suivante : ° Hommes mariés nés en France.....…..:.................... 64 Femmes mariées nées en France.............. ee roe eh ne ome ~ Che “Sen Canada... AARC? hs hoa A EL. Veuf né.en>Prance.. nr Per STARS HIT Re Mesa eee et Lil Veuves nées en France...........- Greate wot: ne RENE 2 En Uae Hommes non mariés nés en France............ FR pee eta Rb) Jeunes garçons nés en trance mec SD Sob tins 8 Boe 28 (CE enn CAMAGAcscsee Beets Bers Eee eee OÙ aes filles nées en France.......... Ps PRADA Bethea | Ke de CO AAMAS: syst ants «die Baa asa Beware oe tes VA 27 | En 1637 on trouve Ja mention d'un soldat appelé Jolicceur, de la garnison de Québec. Tel est bien le nom du troupier français, nom de guerre, va sans dire; on connaît de tout temps Bellepointe, Laparade, Sansfaçon, Bellehumeur, Lecocq, Lamoureux, Vadeboncœur, Belavance, Lafleur, Bienvenu, Portelance. 2 Faillon, Histoire de la Colonie, I, 414, 418, 420.—Belmont, Histoire du Canada, p. 2.—Dollier, Histoire du Montréal, 20, 40. * Pour plus de détails, voir mon Histoire des Canadiens-Francais, I, 91-2, 146. [suLTp] L'ORGANISATION MILITAIRE DU CANADA, 1636-1648 S Près dès deux tiers de ces personnes, soit 155, venaient du nord du royaume : Perche, 68; Normandie, 62; Paris, 10; Picardie, 8 : Beauce, 7. Chacune d'elles recrutait des colons dans ces pays, sans l’aide des seigneurs. M. Dollier de Casson, qui arriva dans la colonie vingt-cinq ans plus tard, dit que, à la fin de l’année 1641,“ le pays ne contenait pas plus de deux cents Européens, y renfermant les deux sexes, comme aussi les reli- gieux et religieuses”. Ce chiffre est évidemment beaucoup trop faible, puisque le recensement que J'ai dressé porte trois cent soixante noms, et il faut bien croire que je n’ai pas énuméré toute cette population sans omettre un seul individu. Une quarantaine d'hommes que M. de Maisonneuve amenait en 1641, tous recrutés du côté droit de l'embouchure de la Loire, venaient s'ajouter à ce nombre restreint. “ Les affaires de la foi sont traversées aux Trois-Rivières, où les Iro- quois font une guerre mortelle à nos Sauvages, comme aussi à ceux qui sont au-delà jusqu'aux Hurons. “ S'ils osaient, ils viendraient jusqu'à Québec, mais il n’y ferait pas bon pour eux, c’est pourquoi ils s’en éloignent. Dans un combat qu'ils ont livré proche des Trois-Rivières, Monsieur notre Gouverneur et nos Français ont donné dessus, les ont défuits et chassés. Dans cette déroute, néanmoins, ils ont pris quantité de Hurons, d’Algonquins et d’Algon- quines. Ces derniers, voulant se venger, sont allés furtivement en leur pays, sont entrés dans leurs cabanes, ont tué plusieurs femmes et enfants et ont pris la fuite. Mais les autres, s’en étant aperçus, les ont poursuivis et en ont pris cing qui sont peut-être déjà mangés, car on ne sait ce qu’ils sont devenus. Enfin, tous les Sauvages des Trois-Rivières ont quitté ; plu- sieurs sont allés en leur pays et les autres se sont réfugiés à Québec. Tous nos nouveaux chrétiens (Sauvages) ont beaucoup souffert de la part des [roquois, qui leur ont déclaré la guerre, comme aussi à nos Français.” ! I] n’est pas possible que cette situation déplorable n’ait pas été connue des Cent-Associés, des personnes charitables qui s’occupaient du Canada, et de la cour même. Richelieu avait en ce moment huit corps d’armée luttant contre les Espagnols et les Allemands. C'était plus de cent cinquante mille hommes. que la Vallette, Turenne et Condé fagonnaient de manière à en faire les premiers soldats du monde. Il n’y en avait pas pour nous ; on les des- tinait à l’accroissement de la puissance française en Europe. A partir de 1640, même dès 1637, nous eûmes les Iroquois sur les bras. C'était une guerre d'embuscades, de surprises, une suite d’assassinats que nous aurions vite arrêtés en allant brûler les villages de nos agresseurs ; mais nous ne pouvions mettre aucune troupe en campagne. Chaque habi- tant devint son propre défenseur. “ Le gouverneur se voyait témoin passif de la lutte des Sauvages, exposé souvent à leurs insultes, sans pou- 1 Marie de l’'Incarnation, Lettres, du 14 et du 16 septembre 1641. 19 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA voir faire respecter son drapeau, qu'ils venaient braver jusque sous le canon des forts. ” ! Il a été dit un mot ci-dessus du projet de fonder une colonie dans l’île de Montréal. Pourquoi la compagnie des Cent-Associés s’est-elle empressée de concéder cette île (à des particuliers) dès 1635 ?.... L'île n'avait, en 1635, que peu de valeur comme station commerciale, et elle en avait encore moins au point de vue stratégique... Une garnison et des canons à Montréal n'auraient en rien gêné les courses des Iroquois, qui venaient s’embusquer sur l'Outaouais, ou qui descendaient le Richelieu pour se rendre dans le lac Saint-Pierre. Il est inutile d’insister sur ce point, peut-être plus évi- dent alors qu'aujourd'hui... L'Histoire de la Colonie française (Faillon) t. I, p. 400, fait dire à l’auteur des Véritables Motifs... de la Société de Montréal: “ Ainsi Dieu... semble avoir choisi cette île agréable et utile “non seulement pour la conservation de Québec, mais encore pour y assem- “bler un peuple.” ? Et il part de là pour affirmer (t. I, p. 379) que les Associés de Montréal se proposaient de bâtir une ville fortifiée qui put être tout à la fois “un rempart contre les incursions des Iroquois et une sauvegarde assurée pour la colonie chancelante de Québec ”.* Si telles avaient été les intentions—un peu ambitieuses, il faut l’avouer—des Aes- sieurs et Dames, ces intentions n'auraient pas été justifiées par les évé- nements. Mais la phrase, telle que citée, n’existe pas dans le texte: on a mis conservation là où il y a subsistance. En rétablissant le texte, toute la théorie s'écroule. De plus, la Société des Messieurs de Montréal, ne donne nullement à entendre, dans son mémoire, qu'elle eût l'intention de bâtir une ville à Montréal. Elle ne se proposait que d’y réunir les Sauvages pour les instruire, comme nous le lisons dans les articles soumis par la nou- velle société à la grande compagnie (les Cent-Associés)”. Il est facile de voir, par la liste des premiers colons de Montréal, * que l'élément militaire n'y comptait pour rien et, par conséquent, les qua- rante-cing hommes aventurés à soixante lieues de Québec aggravaient, par les dangers qu'ils allaient courir, la situation déjà si précaire des habitants du Canada. Pendant que M. de Maisonneuve se rendait au Canada (1641), M™ la duchesse d’Aiguillon, nièce du cardinal de Richelieu, se chargea d’expli- l Garneau, Histoire du Canada, 1882, I, 132. 2 Voici le texte des Véritables Motifs, imprimés à Paris en 1643: “ Ainsi Dieu grand amateur du salut des hommes qui n’a pas seulement la science des temps : mais des lieux commodes au bien de ses créatures semble avoir choisi cette situation agréable de Monréal, non seulement pour la subsistance de Québec dont elle dépend, mais propre pour yassembler un peuple composé de Francais et de Sauvages qui seront convertis pour les rendre sédentaires....” 3 M. Faillon dit tout cela sans sourciller, et il indique, comme fond de rensei- gnements, le passage des Motifs qui vient d’être mis sous nos yeux. 4 M. Vabbé Verreau, Mémoires de la Société royale du Canada, 1887, p. 149. 5 Les Véritables Motifs, réimprimés par la Société historique de Montréal, 1880, p. 76.—Article de M. l'abbé Verreau, Mémoires de la Société royale du Canada 1882, p. 99. [sucre] L'ORGANISATION MILITAIRE DU CANADA, 1636-1648 11 quer à celui-ci la situation véritable des établissements de Québec et des Trois-Rivières. “Ce qui lui succéda (réussit) si heureusement qu'elle obtint un puissant secours contre nos ennemis”, raconte le père Barthé- lemy Vimont. La nouvelle en parvint à Québec vers l’automne 1641, et M. de Montmagny “ fit aussitôt disposer la charpente d’une maison, devant même que les vaisseaux qui devaient apporter les ouvriers eussent paru, se doutant bien que, si on attendait leur venue, ils ne pourraient loger durant l'hiver au lieu où l’on désire poser les fortifications...... La joie que les Français et les Sauvages ont senti à la venue de ce secours n’est pas concevable. La crainte qu'on avait des Iroquois avait tellement abattu les cœurs qu'on ne vivait que dans les appréhensions de la mort ; mais sitôt que la nouvelle fut venue que l’on allait dresser des forufi- cations sur les avenues des Iroquois, toute crainte cessa, chacun reprit courage et commença à marcher tête levée avec autant d'assurance que si le fort eût déjà été bâti.” ! Le fort dont il est question ici devait être élevé bientôt à l'endroit appelé Sorel à présent, et non pas, comme le texte le ferait croire, à Québec ou à Trois-Rivières, ou à Montréal. Le secours promis n’était d’ailleurs ni imposant ni durable. Tout ce qu’on pouvait espérer se limi- tait à la construction d’un fort au-dessus de Trois-Rivières, de même que, en 1634, on avait établi le fort de Trois-Rivières au-dessus de Québec, pour aller au devant des canots de traite du Haut-Canada. Au mois de mai 1642, M. de Maisonneuve partit de Québec, où il avait hiverné avec son monde, pour commencer l'établissement de Montréal. Les Iroquois ne connurent l'existence de ce poste que l’année suivante. M. de Montmagny se rendait compte de la nécessité d’un fort sur le lac Saint-Pierre pour gêner les courses de ces maraudeurs, qui descendaient de leur pays par la rivière Richelieu (dite aussi des Iroquois), et surpre- naient nos canots de traite dans les iles du lac Saint-Pierre. Un poste d'observation, d’où l’on pourrait lancer des patrouilles, devenait indispen- sable. La clef de toutes les communications sur le fleuve se trouvait au lac et non pas à Montréal. En juin ou juillet 1642 il dut arriver de France une ou deux compagnies de soldats, puisque le projet du fort Richelieu fut exécuté au mois d'août de cette année. Répétons toujours que ces soldats ne sortaient point en droite ligne des régiments de France, mais avaient peut-être servi dans quelques corps avant que de s’enrôler pour le Canada. Les Cent-Associés, Richelieu, Anne d'Autriche, affectant quelques sommes d'argent pour la force armée de Ja colonie, ne nous envoyaient aucun ‘corps régulier, selon que certaines personnes ont voulu le croire, mais seulement le moyen de recruter des hommes pour le service militaire. En 1642, les vaisseaux de France arrivèrent à Québec “ plus tôt qu'à l'ordinaire, n'ayant été que deux mois à leur voyage ”” 1 Relation de 1642, page 2. ? Marie de l'Incarnation, Lettres, 29 septembre 1642. 12 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA Les nouveaux soldats s'étant reposés à Québec, M. de Montmagny les fit avancer d'abord jusqu’à Trois-Rivières, où un vent contraire retint ses trois barques avec un brigantin et une centaine d'hommes armés, durant les derniers jours de juillet. Le 2 août, douze canots de Hurons, avec des missionnaires, partirent seuls de Trois-Rivières, mais les Iroquois les enle- vèrent dans les îles du lac Saint-Pierre. Le gouverneur n’arriva avec sa troupe que le 13 août à la rivière Richelieu (ou des Iroquois, à présent rivière Chambly). Sans perdre de temps, le fort Richelieu fut commencé. Le pére Vimont écrivait cette année : “ Ces fortifications ne tranchent point le mal par la racine; les barbares font la guerre 4 la maniére des Scythes et des Parthes ; la porte ne sera point pleinement ouverte à Jésus- Christ, et les dangers ne s’éloigneront point de notre colonie, jusqu’à ce qu'on ait ou gagné ou exterminé les [Iroquois ”. Telle était la vérité: on ne la comprit qu’aprés un quart de siécle de dévastations, d’horreurs et de souffrances inouïes. Ce fut la gloire de Colbert de mettre fin à ces maux. D’après un manuscrit de la bibliothèque du Louvre, le père F. Martin ? écrit cette note se rapportant à 1642 : “ La force armée de la colonie était alors de quinze soldats formant la garnison de Québec, et coûtait au trésor 12,180 livres. Trois-Rivières en avait soixante-dix, et Montréal autant.” Il est bien certain que “autant ” se rapporte à Québec. En tout, cela formait cent hommes, savoir : 15 à Québec, 15 à Montréal, 70 à Trois- Rivières. Ce dernier poste était, par sa situation géographique et par la principale traite du pays, qui s’y faisait, tout désigné d'avance aux attaques de l'ennemi; de là le surcroît de troupes qu'on y entretenait. Nulle ten- tative de culture n’y était possible hors de la portée des armes à feu du poste et de la surveillance des patrouilles. Jusqu'à 1641, il me paraît évi- dent que la garnison de Trois-Rivières ne dépassait pas quinze ou vingt hommes, mais le renfort arrivé en 1642 avait permis d'augmenter cette garnison, Comme le manuscrit cité plus haut ne parle pas du fort Riche- lieu, cela signifie que Trois-Rivières fournissait le nombre de soldats em- ployés dans ce lieu. Les quinze soldats entretenus à Montréal aux frais du trésor, montreraient que Louis XTIT s'était décidé à faire quelque chose pour le nouvel établissement. Au taux de 12,180 francs pour quinze soldats, la force armée du Canada étant composée de cent hommes, devait coûter 81,200 francs par année, soit 65,000 dollars de notre argent, puisque l'argent valait alors quatre fois plus qu'aujourd'hui. La palissade de Montréal étant achevée, on y placa du canon le 19 mars 1643. Il pouvait y avoir alors 40 personnes dans le fort ainsi complété. Le 27 mai, M. de Montmagny chargea le soldat Pierre Caumont dit la Roche, de la garnison de Québec, de partir avec la barque Louise, 1 Voir Relation de 1642, pages 44, 50. 2? Le R. P. Isaac Jogues, 1873, p. 129. [sucre] L'ORGANISATION MILITAIRE DU CANADA, 1636-1648 13 équipée de cing matelots et montée par quatre soldats, de faire une patrouille active entre Trois-Riviéres et le lac Saint-Pierre, mais son ser- vice eût été bien plus efficace sur le lac même. Le 12 juin, quarante Iro- quois mirent pied à terre à la Pointe-du-Lac, sans être aperçus par la Roche. Une autre bande allait et venait sur le lac, capturant les canots de traite. On disait que sept cents Iroquois étaient en marche pour tout saccager dans la colonie. Le gouverneur général partit de Québec con- duisant quatre chaloupes, fit une battue entre Trois-Rivières et le fort Richelieu, sans avoir rencontré un ennemi rusé et agile, dont la tactique consistait à ne point se montrer. Le 15 août, un bâtiment fut aperçu à Québec portant des secours destinés à Montréal. Le principal personnage qui le montait se nommait Louis d’Ailleboust de Coulonges. C’est alors, probablement, que l’on apprit la mort du cardinal de Richelieu, survenue le 4 décembre 1642, et, peut-être aussi, celle du roi Louis XIII, arrivée le 14 mai 1643. Bientôt après, l’on sut que le duc d’Enghien (Condé) avait anéanti la fleur des troupes espagnoles à Rocroi. A la fin d'août, M. de Montmagny escorta jusqu'à Montréal M. d’Ail- leboust et les trente ou quarante personnes qu’il amenait. Les Iroquois venaient de découvrir l'établissement des Français ; M. d’Ailleboust fit ses calculs pour en augmenter les fortifications et, dès l’année suivante, il° exécutait ce plan. La reine Anne d'Autriche étant devenue régente du royaume, on s'adressa à elle pour obtenir de nouveaux renforts. Elle accorda 100,000 francs pour l’entretien d’une compagnie de soixante soldats levés en France, l'hiver de 1643-1644 Au printemps-de 1644, les Iroquois lancèrent dix bandes de guerriers sur le fleuve. Le danger des embuscades était continuel. A Trois-Rivières et à Montréal, toute sortie se faisait dans l’ordre militaire, avec mille pré- cautions. Comme la flotille huronne devait retourner dans le Haut- Janada, il fut jugé convenable de munir les Sauvages qui la composaient d'armes à feu, pour le cas où ils seraient attaqués en route. Ces Hurons avaient passé l'hiver à Trois-Rivières. Le père Bressani s'embarqua avec eux le 27 avril ; le 29, par le travers des rivières Machiche, ils furent sur- pris et amenés prisonniers, à part quelques-uns assommés sur place ou qui échappèrent. Durant l'été, il arriva de France ‘ nombre de gens, partie desquels était une compagnie de soixante soldats qui sont distribués dans différents postes”. Le capitaine se nommait la Barre, Les 100,000 francs ci-dessus mentionnés paraissent avoir été confiés au baron de Renty, tout dévoué à la compagnie de Montréal, et qui fut un certain temps direc- teur de cette compagnie. La reine avait donné pour Montréal deux petites pièces de fonte abandonnées depuis longtemps dans les rues de la Rochelle. 14 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA Au mois d'août, M. de Montmagny allant à Trois-Rivières tenir une assemblée de toutes les nations, y compris les Iroquois, se fit accompagner d’un détachement de soldats dont la vue impressionna vivement ces peuples, et, quelques jours après, lorsque la flottille huronne et les missionnaires partirent pour le Haut-Canada, vingt-deux militaires leur servirent d’escorte, La perspective d’une paix générale que faisaient entrevoir les Iroquois, avait été imaginée par eux afin de gagner du temps et s'assurer, pardessus tout. si la France allait continuer ses envois de troupes, auquel cas il valait mieux pour ces barbares se tenir tranquilles et nouer des relations amicales avec les Français. Des changements se préparaient, d'autre part, dans l'administration de la colonie. Faute d’avoir vu exécuter les projets militaires et autres conçus en 1635-1636 pour le bien général, nous étions restés sans aide, ce que les Iroquois avaient fini par comprendre. Nous devenions la proie de ces avides destructeurs. Une idée de réformes germa dans la tête de quelques Français ; mais, comme cela arrive bien souvent, il y avait en dessous un désir de s'emparer du pouvoir et de contrôler les affaires com- merciales du pays. Nous entrons ici dans une nouvelle période. Six ou sept familles d’un certain rang, mais pauvres, sollicitérent M. de Montmagny de s'entendre avec elles pour exploiter le commerce du Canada. Le gouverneur avait toujours refusé la proposition, mais en 1644, voyant le peu d'espoir d’être secouru de quelque façon que ce fût par les Cent- Associés, et renonçant à quêter encore les secours du roi, il se déclara favo- ‘able à un arrangement par lequel les gens du pays auraient la gérance de leurs propres affaires. Hélas! M. de Montmagny, qui ne comptait sur aucun bénéfice personnel, se trouva cependant trompé, car les gentils- hommes jouèrent les “ habitants ” et le gouverneur. Je ne vois que dans un seul auteur, tout récent, l'explication de ce qui se passa à cet égard de 1644 à 1648. Aussi vais-je en faire le sujet de cette seconde partie de mon étude. La défense de la colonie s'y trouve intéressée au premier chef. “Le groupe des gentilshommes québecquois, mécontents de l’adminis- tration des marchands, expulsa ces derniers, grâce à l'appui de l'État, et sempara des revenus de la traite pour en disposer à son profit. Cela se passait dans l'automne de 1644 et au commencement de 1645. Or, préci- sément à cette époque, les chefs de ia colonie de Montréal commengaient à ressentir les premières atteintes de la faim; ils ne recevaient plus de renforts de France, etjils durent être tentés de prêter main-forte à ceux qui montaient à l'assaut du trésor public. Le firent-ils? Leur historien nous le donne à entendre, sans le dire formellement! I] est probable que les jésuites, de leur côté, se mélérent de cette affaire: le Journal, page 3, dit que la traite fut cédée aux habitants agente regina et nobis impellentibus.” * 1 Voir Faillon, Colonie francaise, I, 473. 2 Léon Gérin, dans La Science sociale, Paris, 1891, p. 562. [sure] L'ORGANISATION MILITAIRE DU CANADA, 1636-1648 15 Notons, en passant, la marche de notre diplomatie envers les Lroquois. Au commencement de juillet 1645, M. de Saneterre, commandant au fort Richelieu, reçut la visite de quelques-uns de ces Sauvages qui venaient pro- poser la paix entre toutes les nations. Le 12 juillet, avec le plus de pompe possible, M. de Montmagny ouvrait, sur le platon de Trois-Riviéres, des conférences qui durèrent deux ou trois jours et qui mirent d’accord les “hautes parties contractantes ”, selon le langage d’aujourd’hui. De- puis la convention de 1624, tenue au méme lieu, on n’en avait pas vue d'aussi importante dans le pays. En septembre, autre réunion pour ratifier le traité solennel ; il y avait plus de quatre cents Sauvages, y compris les Hurons qui venaient à la traite. Les soldats jouaient un rôle marquant dans les diverses cérémonies de ces deux congrès, qui nous sont racontées en détail par les écrivains du temps. Cette année si remarquable le devint encore davantage par l'abandon que firent les Cent-Associés d’une partie de leur commerce entre les mains d'une compagnie dite des Habitants. Les causes déjà signalées qui ame- nèrent ce changement se rattachent en bonne partie à la situation militaire du Canada; c'est pourquoi il convient d’en dire un mot. Le pays comptait de cent vingt à cent vingt-sept colons, mais sur ce nombre il n’en était venu que dix-neuf ou vingt durant les années 1641- 1644, à cause de la guerre des Iroquois. La population blanche de toute la colonie ne devait pas dépasser 500 âmes. Il y avait bien vingt- cinq seigneuries de concédées sur le papier, mais quatre ou cinq à peine commengaient à recevoir des colons. Beauport en avait une vingtaine. Par l'entente du 6 mars 1645, la compagnie dite des Habitants obte- nait la liberté du commerce pour son compte, sans remplacer toutefois l’an- cienne organisation des Cent-Associés; mais en retour du privilège qui leur était octroyé, les Habitants devaient entretenir le gouverneur général, ses officiers, les soldats des forts et habitations, les nourrir, les solder, payer leurs appointements, réparer les forts ‘ ainsi que les Cent-Associés ont fait gi-devant ”, et tenir au moins cent hommes dans les garnisons. Les canons, boulets, armes, munitions de guerre actuellement dans les forts et appar- tenant à l'ancienne compagnie seront utilisés par les Habitants qui devront les remplacer à fur et à mesure de leur consommation, sauf les pièces d’ar- tillerie envoyées par M. de Lauzon, avec qui les Habitants devront s'entendre à ce sujet. Les négociations, de la part des Habitants, avaient été conduites, à Paris, au mois de janvier 1645, par Pierre le Gardeur de Repentigny et Jean-Paul Godefroy, à titre de délégués du Canada, comme ils se qualifiaient.! M. de Lauzon était avec eux contra Rozée et Ci, Avant d'aller plus loin, disons qu’il y avait dans le pays deux classes d'habitants. La plus nombreuse se composait de gens établis comme colons, par conséquent tout à fait distincts des commerçants, des em- ' Correspondance des gouverneurs, 2° série, volume I, p. 152, Bibliothèque fédé- rale, Ottawa.—EÆdits et Ordonnances, I, 28.—Faillon, Histoire dela Colonie, I, 492. 16 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA ployés de la traite, fonctionnaires, gentilshommes sans fortune, hommes de professions libérales, matelots, soldats, missionnaires. Ils étaient essen- tiellement attachés au sol; c'est pourquoi ils se qualifiaient entre eux d'habitants. L'autre classe se recrutait parmi les gentilshommes, les commerçants, les fonctionnaires qui viennent d'être mentionnés, lesquels passaient, aux yeux des Français de France, pour des “habitants du Canada”, puisque, effectivement, ils habitaient ce pays. Le mot comporte done ici double sens, ce qui fait qu'il a souvent prêté à la confusion, et il faut se garder de confondre l'habitant avec le gentilhomme. La compagnie dite des Habitants, assez correctement nommée par opposition à celle des Cent-Associés, qui était composée de gens résidant en France, ne renfer- mait cependant aucun habitant dans le sens local du mot. Elle était formée de six ou sept familles qui ne voulaient pas cultiver la terre, pré- férant exercer des fonctions publiques et jouer ici le rôle si peu digne de la noblesse française, ruinée, vivant des faveurs du roi, accapareuse et fière. Ce n’est pas avec un pareil élément que l’on fait prospérer une colonie. La suite le prouva douloureusement, comme on sait. En première ligne de cette dernière catégorie d'habitants, venaient les personnages suivants, qui furent les premiers seigneurs du Canada sur le papier : Pierre le Gardeur de Repentigny, arrivé de Normandie en 1636 avec sa femme et ses enfants, s’occupait du commerce uniquement. Il se fit accorder en 1647 les fiefs Cournoyer et Repentigny, mais n’eut pas le temps d’y travailler, car il mourut l’année suivante, dans l’un de ses voyages en France. Charles le Gardeur de Tilly, frère du premier, qu'il secondait dans ses opérations sur terre et sur mer. Jacqués Leneuf de la Poterie, beau-frère des précédents, arrivé avec eux. se fit donner le fief de Portneuf, où il avait un établissement en 1645. I] prit des terres à Trois-Rivières, peu après ; néanmoins sa principale occupation paraît avoir été la traite des fourrures. Michel Leneuf du Hérisson, frère de Jacques, était veuf, avait une fille qui épousa Jean Godefroy, et tous trois vécurent à Trois-Rivières. Jean-Paul Godefroy ne fit toujours que du commerce. Il épousa, en 1646, une fille de Pierre le Gardeur de Repentigny. René Robineau de Bécancour, arrivé de Paris vers 1644, Kinon quel- ques années auparavant, était aussi un négociant. En 1647, il se fit accorder la seigneurie de Bécancour, mais la garda en forêt. Vers 1650, il épousa une fille de Jacques Leneuf de la Poterie, laquelle lui apporta le fief de Portneuf, où il fixa plus tard sa résidence. François de Chavigny sieur de Berchereau, arrivé en 1640, avec sa femme Éléonore de Grandmaison, possédait le titre du fief de Cha- vigny (Deschambault en partie). Il ne colonisa guère, si toutefois il tenta aucun défrichement. C’est lui qui suppléait M. de Montmagny durant ses absences de Québec. Je crois qu'il appartenait à la famille de [sure] L'ORGANISATION MILITAIRE DU CANADA, 1636-1648 157 Chavigny, fort en faveur auprès de la cour en 1640. I] mourut dans un voyage en France, vers 1652. Jean Juchereau de Maure, de la Beauce, arrivé en 1634, avec sa femme et ses enfants, avait un moulin à Québec, et faisait le commerce, Son frère, Noël Juchereau des Chastelets, licencié-en-droit, venu en 1632, sinon avant, ne se maria point ; il avait reçu des terres qui devinrent en partie la propriété de Jean, lorsqu'il mourut, en France, au cours de son voyage de 1647. Entre 1632 et 1644 il paraît avoir été associé des Cent-Associés ou de la compagnie Rozée, Cheffault, ce qui revient au même. En 1645, il fut nommé commis général de la compagnie des Habitants. Il légua son fief Saint-Michel à Charles le Gardeur de Tilly, marié en 1648 à sa nièce, Geneviève Juchereau. ‘ Olivier le Tardif, trés probablement de la Normandie, était inter- prète à Québec en 1621, sous-commis en 1626, interprète des Cent-Associés en 1633; il épousa, 1637, Louise Couillard, et, avec son beau-frere, Jean Nicolet, aussi interprète, posséda la terre des plaines d’Abraham, où est à présent Spencer Grange, résidence de notre collègue, J.-M. Lemoine. En 1641, M. Jean de Ré sieur de Gand, commis général, étant décédé, le Tardif le remplaça. Il paraît avoir été au service de la compagnie Rozée, Chef- fault, et être allé en France dans les intérêts de ces derniers, l’automne de 1645 ; nous en reparlerons. En 1648,il épousa Barbe Aymart en secondes noces. Nous le retrouvons en 1650 procureur de la compagnie Rozée. Il mourut en 1665. Il fut peut-être celui qui lutta le plus contre la com- pagnie des Habitants, dont les le Gardeur, les Leneuf et les Juchereau étaient les chefs, ainsi que Godefroy, Robineau et Chavigny. Guillaume Tronquet, secrétaire de M. de Montmagny, était à Québec en cette qualité, l'automne de 1638 et jusqu’à 1646, où il retourna en France. En 1644-1646, il fit des actes comme notaire. Il était intéressé dans la traite des pelleteries, puisque, en 1645, avec Repentigny et Giffard, il prit part aux démarches dirigées contre les Cent-Associés. Ce qui est curieux c'est que, rendu en France, l'hiver de 1646-47, il se décida à y rester, bien qu'il eût récemment obtenu une terre sur le chemin du Cap-Rouge; on suppose qu'il comprit que M. de Montmagny, son protecteur, allait être rappelé.” Jean Bourdon, ingénieur, arpenteur, navigateur, commerçant, pro- cureur, arrivé en 1634, obtint plusieurs concessions de terre qu'il ne défricha point. Il vécut dans les fonctions indiquées ci-haut. Ce qui paraît certain c'est que, jusqu’à 1648. il fut d'accord avec M. de Montmagny, et que, par la suite, il combattit les Cent-Associés. Fonctionnaire public toute sa vie, homme d’action, il a figuré trente ans dans les affaires du pays. 1 Journal des jésuites, p. 128. ? Journal des jésuites, pp. 20, 47, 68.—J.-Edmond Roy, Le Canada-francais, 1890, p. 720.—-B. Sulte, Histoire des Canadiens-Francais, II, 82; III, 6,—Ferland, Notes sur les Registres, p. 65. Sec. I., 1896. 2. 18 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA Le docteur Robert Giffard, venu du Perche avant 1627, fut le plus marquant de nos seigneurs colonisateurs, par son fief de Beauport. I] ne laissait pas de s'occuper du trafic en général. En 1645, sa fille Françoise épousa Jean, fils de Jean Juchereau, ci-dessus nommé. . Ainsi, de 1627 à 1635, les Cent-Associés avaient fait de pauvres affaires ; de 1636 à 1644, ils étaient représentés par la combinaison Rozée, Cheffault, etc., et, de 1645 à 1663, il y eut en sus la coalition des gentils- hommes du Canada appelée compagnie des Habitants. Le nouvel état de chose, en ce qui concerne le commerce, fut procla- mé à Trois-Rivières, au mois d'août 1645, et à Québec, le 26 novembre suivant. I] était expressément stipulé que la compagnie dite des Habi- tants supporterait le coût des garnisons et des choses militaires ; mais elle ne fit pas mieux que les Cent-Associés. Les vingt-deux soldats partis en 1644 pour la contrée des Hurons, revinrent en septembre 1645, rapportant, pour leur compte personnel, la valeur de 30,000 à 40,000 francs de peaux de castor. ‘sur quoi, dit le Journal des jésuites, y ayant eu dispute entre les habitants’, mis nou- vellement en possession de la traite, et messieurs de la compagnie générale (les Cent-Associés), ils s’accordérent d'employer le provenu à bâtir une église et presbytére”. D’aprés la convention nouvellement promulguée, les soldats devaient livrer le quart de leurs pelleteries aux Habitants, lesquels recevaient ainsi le revenu des droits, parcequ'ils se chargeaient des frais d'administration de la colonie. Le Journal dit que les soldats versè- rent 6,000 francs. I] ajoute que la nourriture, le logement et les soins donnés à ces vingt-deux hommes par les jésuites valaient bien 200 francs par tête, soit 4,400 francs, mais qu’on ne leur accorda que 30 écus par tête ou 1,980 francs. Nous n'avons pas à régler cette dispute. La nécessité d’avoir des soldats en nombre efficace pour assurer la tranquillité des colons, et augmenter aussi par là les bénéfices du commerce, était comprise de tout le monde, depuis plus de dix ans, mais les Cent-Associés et leurs agents de Dieppe et de Rouen, faute d'esprit d'entreprise, n'y avaient rien vu dans le passé et, maintenant que le commerce allait à des gens sans ressources, il ne fallait pas espérer voir faire à ceux-ci des dépenses d'argent un peu élevées. Les vrais habitants ne pouvaient commercer qu'avec la compagnie. Il y à apparence que le capitaine de la Barre avait séjourné quelque temps à Montréal, car M. Dollier dit que M. de Maisonneuve, obligé de faire un voyage en France (octobre 1645), “ ne voulut point partir sans renvoyer auparavant le sieur de la Barre, qu'il avait reconnu pour n’avoir rien de saint que son chapelet et sa mine trompeuse”. M. de Belmont dit: “ M, de la Barre, grand hypocrite”. L’historien Faillon (II, 30, 37) nous édifie également sur le compte du personnage. Lisons : les gentilshommes, {sutre] L'ORGANISATION MILITAIRE DU CANADA, 1636-1648 19 M. de Maisonneuve eut la douleur de perdre son père, et aussitôt il repassa en France pour régler ses intérêts domestiques.’ L'automne de 1645, le fort de Richelieu fut presque abandonné ; il n'y resta plus que huit ou dix soldats, sous les ordres de Jacques Babelin dit la Crapaudière ; les pères Dendemare et Dupéron en partirent vers la fin de septembre avec le capitaine Saneterre. Les missionnaires de Trois- Rivières se chargeaient de visiter cette petite garnison durant l'hiver. En février 1646, le père de Nouë périt de misère sur la glace du fleuve, au cours de l’une de ces missions. Voici un certain nombre de petits faits isolés qui se rattachent à notre sujet, et que j'ai réunis en un seul passage, afin de ne pas couper à tout moment le fil du récit : Pierre Boucher, revenant du pays des Hurons, en 1641, s'engage soldat dans la garnison de Québec; il était âgé de dix-neuf ans. Il appartenait encore à la garnison de Québec lorsque, en 1645, il fut envoyé, en qualité de soldat et d’interpréte, à Trois-Rivières, où il devait passer vingt ans de sa vie et illustrer son nom dans les armes. Le 5 octobre 1642, au registre de Trois-Rivières, on voit les noms des soldats Sevestre, Desvittets, Joli, Laharpinière, parrains de Sauvages. En 1644, 1645, Martin Duclos, soldat, figure au registre des baptêmes de Trois-Rivières. Le 24 octobre, les navires partant pour la France avec 30,000 livres pesant de castor, on les salua de plusieurs coups de canons. Faillon, t.II, p. 98. 70 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA Quant aux petits gentilshommes qui, moins favorisés de la fortune que les fondateurs pieux, durent en personne se transporter dans la colo- mie, la vie des camps et les chicanes du palais ne les avaient certes pas préparés à tirer parti par la culture et l’industrie des richesses du sol. C'est ce que témoignent l'embarras et la détresse de ceux qui tentèrent, comme Saint-Ours, de se transformer en paysans, ou comme la Salle, de faire de la grande culture. | Tel était le type social des gentilshommes français colonisateurs. |]. — LA MONARCHIE MILITAIRE, INSTABLE ET DÉSORGANISÉE. Une relation étroite existait entre la monarchie française et la classe de gentilshommes qui l'avait fondée et qui était son plus ferme support : elle était essentiellement militaire. Ce caractère primordial en détermi- nait plusieurs autres. Notons au premier rang, l'instabilité ; instabilité d'une double nature: celle, d'abord, résultant du mode même d’existence, des hasards journaliers de la guerre, de la bonne ou mauvaise fortune des armes, de la trempe plus ou moins forte, des aptitudes plus ou moins remarquables, du roi ou de son ministre ; celle, en second lieu, résultant des phases que parcourt nécessairement un pouvoir ainsi constitué, comme nous allons le voir. A l’époque de François I", le pouvoir royal n’était pas encore pleine- ment reconnu en France, Son organisation était fort incomplète. Un fait qui le montre bien c'est que cet Etat essentiellement militaire n'avait pas d'infanterie nationale, Toute la force de l’armée française résidait dans ses gens d'armes, dans sa cavalerie recrutée parmi les gentilshommes, auxquels on adjoignait des mercenaires suisses ou allemands. L’organisa- tion de la marine n’était pas plus régulière ; la piraterie était florissante? L'organisation financière était particulièrement défectueuse. Nous voyons François I", presque chaque année, et pendant toute la durée de son règne, recourir, dans ses détresses d'argent, aux moyens les plus arbi- traires, comme la vente des offices publics, l’aliénation irrégulière de por- tions du demaine royal, la confiscation des biens de ses financiers et de ses officiers. Il était à la fois faible, pauvre et très instable. Les expéditions transatlantiques du roi chevalier reflétèrent exacte- ment ces conditions. Le voyage de Vérazzano, entrepris dans l'automne de 1523, comme Bonnivet, à la tête de la brillante armée du roi, entrait en Lombardie, n’eut pas de suite. En effet, lorsque le navigateur floren- tin, au bout d'une navigation de sept mois, vint rendre compte à la cour du succès de son voyage, François 1‘ ne pouvait plus l'écouter. Prosper | Sulte, t. V, pp., 106.107. — Faillon, t. III, pp. 287-288. 2 Sismondi, Histoire des Francais, t. XVI, pp. 109, 110, 143-147, 436-439 ; t. X VII, pp. 166-167, 178-9. — Ordonnance de François Ier sur le Fait de la Marine, 1517, Ordon- nances et Instructions royales, Paris, Galliot et Dupré, 1530. [aztrry] LE GENTILHOMME FRANÇAIS ET LA COLONISATION wi Colonna avait chassé Bonnivet de l’Italie et le roi de France lui-même. affaibli par la révolte du connétable de Bourbon, battu sous les murs de Pavie, tombait aux mains des Impériaux (1525). Dix années semées de guerres et d’aventures se passèrent avant qu'il pût reprendre ses projets de colonisation. Les explorations de Cartier, poursuivies dans le golfe et le fleuve Saint-Laurent pendant les années 1534 et 1535, furent brusquement inter- rompues par la guerre. C’est le 25 juillet 1536, quelques jours seulement après le retour de Cartier à Saint-Malo, que Charles-Quint passa le Var et envahit la Provence. A la suite de la paix de Nice, la tentative de colo- nisation de Roberval ne fit que mettre en plus vive lumière le vice orga- nique de cette monarchie naissante. L'expédition, composée en grande partie de criminels tirés des prisons du royaume, sous la conduite de chefs jaloux l’un de l’autre, après avoir langui un an ou deux sur les bords du Saint-Laurent fut en bloc rappelée en France. Lescarbot nous donne l’explication de ce retour prématuré: c'est que “le roi étant occupé à de grandes affaires qui pressaient la France ‘pour lors, ledit Roberval fut mandé pour servir le roi par deça ? 5 Les faibles successeurs de François 1% se montrèrent encore moins capables que lui de mener à bonne fin de telles entreprises. La ruine prompte des établissements fondés avec l’aide de l'amiral de Coligny au Brésil (1556) et en Floride (1562), nous fournit un nouvel aspect de l’im- puissance de ce gouvernement formé alors par l'alliance boiteuse d’un roi catholique et d’un ministre huguenot, armés l’un contre l’autre. Le pouvoir royal sous des chefs médiocres, ébranlé par les guerres religieuses, ou agité par les factions, fut contraint de renoncer à tout pro- jet @agrandissement pour ne songer qu'à sa propre conservation. Hors d'état de coloniser directement, il se déchargea de ce soin sur des mar- chands ou des gentilshommes à qui il cédait le privilège exclusif du com- merce des fourrures en retour de promesses de colonisation. Mais telle était sa faiblesse, qu'il ne parvint pas, d'une part, à assurer aux cession- naires la jouissance paisible et durable de ce privilège, et d'autre part, à obtenir d’eux l’accomplissement de leurs obligations. Le privilège accordé aux neveux de Cartier, Noël et Chaton, fut révoqué presque aussitôt, sur les instances de leurs concurrents. La Roche, en 1599. se vit enlever son privilège “par Chauvin et Pontgravé. Par suite des intrigues des Malouins et des autres, de Monts fut dépouillé de son mono- pole sur la côte d’Acadie en 1606, dans le bassin du Saint-Laurent en 1609. Sous le gouvernement débile de Marie de Médicis et de ses trois vieux ministres, les marchands associés, en dépit des efforts héroiques de Champlain, exploitèrent le pays sans remplir aucun de leurs enga- | Histoire de la Nouvelle-France, t. II, p. 391. 72 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA gemerts, au point que la colonie finit par tomber aux mains des Anglais, qui la gardérent trois ans.! A ce moment apparaît Richelieu, dont le génie militaire, dans les- pace de quinze années, courba grands seigneurs et huguenots sous le joug royal, éleva la monarchie, du bas-fonds de la Régence, à une hauteur qu'elle n'avait pas encore connue, et plaga la France à la tête de l’Europe. Du même coup il intervint dans les affaires coloniales, s’attribua la surin- tendance de la navigation et du commerce, abolit, dans la Nouvelle- France, le régime des vice-rois et la compagnie “de Caen ”, pour lui substituer une association plus vaste et plus puissante dont il se déclara le chef, et enfin força Charles [® d’ Angleterre à restituer Québec. Ainsi la monarchie était devenue forte. Mais elle était restée pauvre. Quand Richelieu arriva au pouvoir le plus grand désordre régnait dans les finances, et ce n’est que dix années plus tard, vers la fin de son admi- nistration qu'il put remédier quelque peu à cet état de choses.” La com- pagnie de la Nouvelle-France reçut de lui, en retour des lourdes charges de colonisation qu'il lui imposa, la jouissance assurée d'importants privi- lèges, mais point d'aide pécuniaire. Du reste, ce que Richelieu put faire faillit se perdre sous le ministère plus faible de Mazarin. La colonie, à peine débarrassée de l'exploitation odieuse des marchands, se vit menacée de destruction par les Iroquois. Enfin, Louis XIV reprit l’œuvre de Richelieu et la compléta. Il.cen- tralisa entre les mains de ses ministres, ou plutôt entre les siennes, les différents services dans les moindres détails, et les réforma tous, à com- mencer par les finances. On sait avec quelle dextérité Colbert changea la face des choses; comment il arriva, dès la première année, à doubler le revenu disponible du roi. Jusqu'à la fin de son administration le progrès ne fit que s’accentuer. Kn 1683, de 116 millions d’impositions, il en entrait net plus de 92 millions et demi au Trésor, une augmentation de 70 millions sur le revenu de l’année 1661. L'organisation financière se régularisa en même temps de toute façon, comme le témoignent la sup- pression des affaires extraordinaires et l'augmentation des revenus ordi- naires.” La centralisation du pouvoir et le rétablissement des finances royales signalent donc les débuts du gouvernement personnel de Louis XIV. Nous ne serons pas surpris dès lors, s’il fait preuve, à l'égard des colo- nisateurs, de plus de libéralité que, jadis, Richelieu. Louis XIV accorda à la compagnie des Indes occidentales des privilèges aussi vastes que ceux attribués naguère aux Cent-Associés ; mais, de plus, il la subventionna généreusement. Ce n’est pas tout; le roi contribua directement à l’éta- | La Science sociale, t. XI, pp. 341, 526 et suivantes. 2 La Science sociale, t. XII, p. 163 et suiv. — Sismondi, t. X XIII, pp. 32-3, 304-5. ' Sismondi, t. XXV, pp. 40-1, 42-3, 64, 81, 95-6. — Joubleau, Etudes sur Colbert, t. I, pp. 18, 19, 219. : ([cerrms] LE GENTILHOMME FRANÇAIS ET LA COLONISATION 73 _blissement de la colonie. I] y fit transporter nombre de paysans et de gentilshommes. A partir de 1659, nous pouvons retracer à l’aide des mé- moires du temps, l’arrivée en Canada chaque année, sans compter les soldats, de 300 ou 400 hommes et de 100 à 150 femmes ou filles. En outre: de 1667 à 1672, près de mille soldats y furent licenciés. Aux colons pau- vres, le roi fit des avances d'argent, les plaça à salaire chez les habitants déjà établis, leur fit faire des distributions de hardes et de vivres. Il favo- risa l'établissement des jeunes filles qu'il avait fait envoyer dans la colonie, en dotant chacune d'elles suivant sa condition. Les nouveaux mariés recevaient souvent une habitation .et des vivres pour huit mois. Des gra- tifications furent accordées pour encourager les mariages hâtifs et les familles nombreuses. Chaque soldat qui consentit à se fixer dans le pays reçut une concession de terre et une somme d'argent. Quant aux officiers, ils furent mis en possession de domaines beaucoup plus vastes, investis de droits seigneuriaux sur les terres des paysans, et reçurent en même temps des gratifications beaucoup plus considérables. Louis XIV fit distribuer dans la colonie des troupeaux d'animaux domestiques, surtout des mou- tons et des chevaux. Enfin, il voulut lui-même donner l’exemple, en faisant entreprendre à son compte des défrichements dans le voisinage de Québec. “C’est étonnant, écrivait Marie de l’Incarnation, de voir com- ment le pays se peuple et se multiplie. Aussi, dit-on que le roi n’y veut rien épargner.” ' Toutefois, même arrivée à ce point le plus haut de sa puissance et de sa richesse, la monarchie militaire de la France demeurait instable. La guerre de Hollande (1672) mit fin tout à coup à ce mouvement de colo- nisation administrative. Le roi ne prit plus désormais le même intérêt aux affaires de la Nouvelle-France : il ne s’occupa plus d'elle qu’à de longs intervalles, et ne lassista plus qu'avec parcimonie. A ce moment la mo- narchie française cesse de croître. La paix de Nimégue, en 1678, marque le terme de sa grandeur. ” : Bientôt, par l’enchainement naturel des choses, la décadence se pro- duit. En même temps que les ressources du pays s’épuisent de plus en plus complètement par la succion qu'exerce l’organisme central, démesu- rément grossi, les puissances étrangères, en nombre croissant, se lèvent contre la France. Après la triple alliance de 1668, c’est la grande alliance de 1673, c’est la redoutable ligue d’Augsbourg de 1686, c'est l'alliance générale de 1701. A partir de 1683, le désordre s’introduit de nouveau dans les finances ; sous le Pelletier, Pontchartrain, Desmarets et le régent, on revient aux vieux errements, aux expédients arbitraires et ridicules, 1 Lettres de Marie de l’Incarnation, pp. 313, 269, 274, 289, 352.—Jugements et Déli- bérations, t. I, pp. 18-19, 31, 190, 208. — Faillon, Colonie francaise, t. ILI, p. 203. — Parkman, Old Regime, pp. 215-6. 2 Sismondi, t. X XV, p. 386. 74 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA sans parvenir à corriger la détresse du Trésor. Les succès mihtaires de- viennent plus rares et plus épuisants.' Puis, la chute se précipite. En 1692, c'est la destruction de la flotte française ; à partir de 1704, c'est l'écrasement de l’armée de terre à Blenheim, Ramillies, Turin, Oudenarde, Malplaquet, Dettingen. La monarchie re- fait en sens inverse le chemin parcouru, et en peu d’années, retombe au pied de cette pente qu’elle à mis tant de siècles à gravir L’énorme machine administrative construite par Louis XIV subsiste cependant ; elle continue toujours de fonctionner, mais elle fonctionne désormais sans contrôle et sans effet utile. Dans la succession des désas- tres domestiques, les secours ne cessent pas de venir de la métropole. Celle-ci, en temps de guerre surtout, dépense beaucoup plus dans la colonie qu'elle n’en retire en impositions.* Mais la grande partie de ces fonds, absorbée en expéditions militaires infructueuses ou détournée par des administrateurs infidèles, ne profite pas au pays. En 1713, la monarchie française avait perdu l’Acadie, cinquante ans plus tard, elle fit le sacrifice du Canada; sa propre ruine était imminente. III. — LA NOUVELLE-FRANCE : LA STAGNATION DE L'AGRICULTURE ET DE L'INDUSTRIE COLONIALES. Nous venons de faire l'analyse des deux facteurs principaux, diri- geants de la colonisation, fournis par la métropole : une gentilhommerie militariste, bureaucratique, besogneuse et sans aptitudes pratiques ; un pouvoir central militaire, envahissant, mais très instable et finalement désorganisé. Voyons, maintenant, d’une manière rapide, quelles con- ditions, physiques et sociales, ces éléments rencontrèrent dans la Nouvelle- France, Le bassin laurentien forme, au nord-est de l'Amérique septentrionale, une vallée longue, de largeur variable, bordant les rives d’un grand fleuve, et flanquée à l’intérieur, de chaque côté, par les croupes arrondies de massifs de montagnes basses. Les sols, dérivés des formations géologiques les plus diverses, alluvions récentes ou anciennes de la vallée, détritus lau- rentiens de la région montagneuse du nord, détritus dévoniens et siluriens de la région montagneuse du sud, s'y présentent dans toutes les conditions de profondeur, de conformation et de composition chimique. Mais presque partout, ils sont, à l’état de nature, bien pourvus des éléments 1 Sismondi, t. XX V, pp. 528, 532-3; t. XX VI, pp. 8, 28, 29, 46, 69, 104, 111-3, 175-6, 185-6, 217, 302, 310, 409-12, 435. * Sismondi, t. XX VII, pp. 3,4, 6,7, 8, 44, 54, 71, 85-7, 171, 219, 255, 398, 401, 483 ; t. XX VIII, p. 281. * Mémoires d’Iberville, Documents, t. 11, 348. — Mémoire de Raudot, cité par Charlevoix, Histoire, p. 390. — Collection Société historique de Québec, Mémoire de 1758, pp. 7 et 27. [GériN] LE GENTILHOMME FRANCAIS ET LA COLONISATION 75 de la fertilité, suffisamment riches en calcaire et en humus. Le pays est, aussi, abondamment coupé de lacs et de rivières. Le sous-sol, riche en minéraux et métaux usuels, difficiles d'extraction, tels que le fer et le cuivre, est, au contraire, assez pauvre en métaux et minéraux précieux et d'extraction relativement facile, comme l'or, les diamants, et même l'argent. La houille y fait complètement défaut. Ouvert au nord-est et au sud-ouest, c’est à dire aux deux extrémités de la tranchée du fleuve, et d'autre part, mal abrité, sur les côtés, par le faible mamelonnement du sol, le pays se trouve à la merci des influences climatériques qui se dégagent tour à tour des grandes surfaces avoisi- nantes: influence bumide et fraiche de l’océan Atlantique, à l’est et au nord ; influence froide des plaines boréales, au nord et à l’ouest ; influence sèche, et parfois très chaude, des prairies intérieures, à l’ouest et au sud. De ce fait, le climat laurentien est variable à l'extrême ; il présente des périodes alternantes, et souvent des successions brusques, de froids per- gants et de chaleurs excessives, de pluies torrentielles et de sécheresses persistantes. Mais, dans l'ensemble, la prépondérance est au froid et à Phumidité- Il est facile de se rendre compte comment les phénomènes que nous venons de décrire ont concouru à déterminer la flore et la faune caracté- ristiques de la Nouvelle-France. L’humiditéa produit la végétation arbo- rescente ; la diversité des sols et la chaleur des étés ont donné la multi- plicité des essences, la richesse de la végétation ; enfin, la rigueur des hivers a assuré la prédominance aux espèces végétales et animales les mieux conformées pour résister au froid. Et nous avons la forêt lauren- tienne, couvrant la vallée et les vallons d’ormes et de frênes, de tilleuls et de noyers, d’érables et de bouleaux, de hétres et de chênes, de mélèzes et de sapins, et d’une sous-végétation luxuriante de vignes et d’arbrisseaux fruitiers ; puis, sur les hauteurs, au nord et au nord-ouest, bientôt réduite aux conifères et aux bouleaux, allant se perdre dans la plaine froide de la zône boréale, Dans toute cette région, le wapiti, l’orignal, le caribou et le chevreuil, les ours et les renards de tous poils, le lowp-cervier, le chat sauvage, le rat musqué, le glouton, le porc-épic, la bête puante, l’hermine, le vison, la loutre, la martre et le castor pullulaient ; * espèces toutes de petite taille (à l'exception des trois premières mentionnées), toutes de capture facile, et toutes remarquables, sous ce climat rigoureux, pour l’excellence et l'abondance de leurs fourrures, La population indigène avait pour seul moyen d’existence la chasse, supplémentée par la pêche et la cueillette. Les Algonquins du bas Saint- 1 Logan, Géologie du Canada, 1863. — Sterry Hunt, T'opographical Description of Canada. — Chapman, Minerals and Geology of Ontario and Quebec. 2 Champlain, t. III, pp. 143, 168, 180, 189, 244, 295; t. IV, p. 20. — Relations des jésuites, 1636, p. 65; 1637, p. 75; 1654, pp. 12,19; 1656, p. 8; 1658, p. 21; 1663, pp. 26, 27, 28; 1665, p. 11; 1672, p. 36. 76 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA Laurent, ou Montagnais, ne connaissaient pas ces rudiments de culture pratiqués par les Iroquois et méme par certaines peuplades algonquines. [ls étaient purement chasseurs, et qui plus est, chasseurs de petit gibier. Cette poursuite du petit gibier, qui ne pouvait se faire avec succés que par de trés petits partis, avait rompu presque complétement chez eux, l'ancienne cohésion de la tribu et de la famille communautaire, et les colons français ne trouvèrent dans leur voisinage que de tout petits groupes instables, menant une existence précaire, des primitifs sans insti- tutions, et inaptes au travail agricole. La Nouvelle-France se présentait donc sous un double aspect : 1° à l’état primitif, c'était un pays, physiquement et socialement adapté à la production et à l'exploitation de la pelleterie, richesse naturelie, principale, unique, pour ainsi dire. Nous verrons bientôt les con- séquences de ce fait, 2° C’était un pays offrant à tout autre genre d'exploitation, à la culture, au travail des mines et à l’industrie, certaines conditions favorables, il est vrai, mais aussi, des obstacles réels, comme la longueur des hivers, la présence de la forêt et l’état social des naturels. Moins heureux que les conquistadors du Mexique et du Pérou, nos gentilshommes n'avaient pas devant eux, au Canada, de riches populations indigènes à dépouiller, des trésors à mettre au pillage, l'or et l'argent accu- mulés. Moins favorisés que les planteurs de la Nouvelle-Espagne, ils n'avaient pas affaire à cette nature tropicale, prête, au moindre effort de l'homme, à lui offrir les denrées de la plus g ‘ande valeur, café, canne à sucre, banane, chocolat, vanille. Ils n'avaient pas sous la main, des naturels sédentaires, susceptibles d’être réduits en esclavage et pliés, pour le profit du vainqueur, aux travaux des champs. La Nouvelle-France, pays où tout encore était à faire, et les moyens de faire clairsemés et dis- pendieux ; pays pénible de défrichement, à cause de ses épaisses forêts ; pays à climat variable et rigoureux, ne se prêtant pas aux cultures riches des Antilles, et imposant la construction de bâtiments vastes et bien clos, la Nouvelle-France ne rendait ses produits, du moins ne les rendait en abondance, qu'en retour d'une forte mise de fonds, d’un travail opiniâtre et bien entendu. Or, nous savons que nos gentilshommes manquaient de capitaux et d’expérience. Nous ne serons done pas surpris de les voir faillir complètement dans leur rôle de colonisateurs. Passons par-dessus la longue suite des tentatives infructueuses et des désastres du début, et examinons ce qui s’est fait à partir du jour où, grâce à Richelieu. les Français purent prendre pied plus fermement sur la terre canadienne. Les gentilshommes fonctionnaires qui formaient la masse des Cent-Associés, commencèrent par laisser à un syndicat de marchands, conduit par Jean Rosée, de Rouen, le soin des opérations commerciales et la gestion des finances de la compagnie. De leur côté, sous la direction de Jean de Lauson, président au grand conseil, ils se chargèrent d’une ma- nière plus spéciale de voir au peuplement et à l'établissement agricole de [GériN] LE GENTILHOMME FRANCAIS ET LA COLONISATION TT la Nouvelle-France. Dans ce butils instituèrent une tenure seigneuriale des terres, imitée de l’ancien régime féodal. Ils détachérent du vaste domaine colonial de grandes étendues qu’ils concédèrent à des particuliers à charge seulement de défricher sans retard ces seigneuries, et d’y transporter des colons. Lauson, l'âme dirigeante de cette compagnie, fut aussi le principal concessionnaire durant cette période. Tant au nom de son fils, qui venait de naitre, que par le moyen de préte-noms, seul ou de concert avec quel- ques-uns des directeurs, Fouquet, Berruyer, Castillon, Cheffault, il s’attri- bua, sur divers points de la vallée laurentienne, de vastes seigneuries : la Citiére, l’île de Montréal, la côte de Lauson, la côte de Beaupré. La Citiére, à elle seule, couvrait 25 lieues au fleuve Saint-Laurent, rive sud, et s étendait à 60 lieues en profondeur, jusque dans les Etats-Unis actuels, Mais les directeurs, tout en se faisant la part du lion, se montrérent trés généreux pour tous les petits gentilshommes ou bourgeois qui se présentérent à eux. De 1634 en avant, Giffard, la Poterie, Bourdon, Godefroy, Chavigny, Montmagny, Champflour, Repentigny, Robineau, du Hérisson, obtinrent des seigneuries sur le bord du fleuve, variant en étendue de 1 lieue à 25 lieues carrées.! Analysons leur œuvre. Nombre de ces concessionnaires, Berruyer, Fouquet, Cheffault, Castillon, ne vinrent jamais au Canada et renoncèrent bientôt à leurs intérêts dans les seigneuries. D’autres, comme Montmagny, Champfiour, Lauson, ne vinrent dans la colonie qu'en passant, pour y exercer des charges publiques, et à l'expiration de leurs termes d'office, ou même avant, quittèrent le pays, laissant leurs concessions à peu près tout en forêt. Enfin, nous avons quelques seigneurs plus sérieux, ou du moins plus sincères, Giffard, Bourdon, la Poterie, Godefroy, Chavigny, Robi- neau, et quelques autres. Ceux-là se rendirent dans la colonie avec l’in- tention de s’y fixer ; la plupart y ont fait souche de familles canadiennes, et tous se montrèrent à l'origine disposés à bien jouer leur rôle de patrons agricoles. Mais en somme qu’ont-ils accompli ? De prime abord, ils comprirent que, pauvres comme ils étaient, ils ne devaient pas songer à exploiter directement leurs vastes seigneuries de forêt vierge. Ils résolurent, tout en se réservant pour eux-mêmes un domaine d’assez grande dimension, de sous-concéder la plus grande portion, en terres de petite étendue, à des paysans qu’ils recruteraient en France. La tâche, même à ce point simplifiée, restait encore pour eux difficile d'exécution. Il leur fallait mettre en valeur leurs propres réserves, recruter et transporter un grand nombre de colons et pourvoir à leurs premiers frais d'établissement. Ont-ils fait tout cela ? Nous ies voyons tous, dès les premiers jours, s'emparer des rares Tenure seigneuriale, passim. 78 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA emplois publies qui existaient dans cette colonie naissante et chercher a vivre de toute autre manière que de lexploitation de leurs domaines, Quelques-uns eurent même la précaution, en même temps qu'ils se faisaient accorder un fief rural, de demander en outre un terrain de ville “pour y faire un logement avec un jardinage où ils puissent se retirer avec leurs familles. ' Malgré tout, Chavigny, dès 1651, abandonne son entreprise à peine ébau- chée et retourne mourir en France. Quelque soixante ans après la con- cession faite à Robineau de la seigneurie de Bécancour, Charlevoix cons- tate qu'elle n'est encore qu'un vaste terrain de chasse” Les autres n’ont certes pas accompli beaucoup. Pendant cette première période, le peuple- ment de la colonie se fit avec une extrême lenteur. L'arrivée de France, dans l’année, de quinze ou vingt nouveaux colons, était l’occasion de grandes réjouissances, La plupart de ces colons furent amenés par les communautés religieuses, ou par la société Notre-Dame de Montréal, ou vinrent à leurs propres frais ; et parmi les seigneurs individuels, un seul contribua à diriger vers la Nouvelle-France un courant d’émigration de quelque importance : c'est Robert Giffard. Ce Giffard était un simple médecin originaire du Perche, et son influence sur ses compatriotes fut assez forte pouren déterminer un grand nombre à le suivre en Canada. Mais qu'on le remarque bien, l’action de ce seigneur, le plus effectif des seigneurs de l’époque, resta, autant qu’on peut en juger, purement morale. Qu'on lise le contrat de métayage conclu entre lui et deux de ses censitaires pour la mise en valeur de sa réserve à Beauport. Guyon et Cloutier devaient lui aider à cultiver sa terre et l'approvisionner de bois de chauffage pendant trois ans; le seigneur s'obligeait, de son côté, à leur donner à chacun 1,000 arpents de terre en bois et une partie des récoltes? Ce mode d'exploitation aussi économique que peu intensif, s'imposait naturellement au seigneur beso- eneux et préoccupé d’autres soins ; sans rien débourser, il s’assurait ainsi une certaine somme de main-d'œuvre, en échange de terres qui ne lui avaient rien coûté et qui ne prenaient de valeur que par le travail du paysan. D'autre part, nous voyons ces colons du Perche s'entendre entre eux, s'associer en vue du transport en Amérique de leurs familles et de leur mobilier Rien ne nous permet de supposer que leur seigneur ait pourvu aux frais de la traversée et de leur établissement sur ses domaines. Toutes les indications que nous possédons sont dans le sens contraire. Sous Louis XTV, le résultat ne fut pas meilleur” Pas plus que dans la période précédente, les seigneurs ne transportèrent de colons sur leurs terres. Ceci se manifeste bien par la faible croissance de la population 1 Tenure seigneuriale, t. 1, pp. 375, 387, 344. 2 Tenure seigneuriale, t. 1, p. 378. — Charlevoix, Journal, p. 109. 3 Ferland, Notes sur les Registres de Notre-Dame de Québec, p. 64. 4 Ferland, Notes sur les Registres de Québec, pp. 59, 60. 5 La Science sociale, t. XIII, p. 519 et suivantes [ezrin] LE GENTILHOMME FRANCAIS ET LA COLONISATION 79 dès que Louis XIV eut cessé d’y envoyer lui-même des colons ou d'y licencier des troupes. Le roi avait transporté au Canada, 5,000 à 6,000 hommes et femmes, ce qui, ajouté au groupe des anciens habitants, devait former au moins 7,000 âmes en 1672. Pourtant, sept ans plus tard, en 1679, on y comptait pas même 10,000 habitants. En 1687, l'augmentation n'était que de 2,000 âmes ; et plus de trente jannées s’écoulerent à partir de cette dernière date, avant que la population eût doublé." Des statis- tiques générales données ci-dessus, si l’on retranche, d’abord, le chiffre des émigrations administratives, puis un second chiffre correspondant à la croissance normale de la population, il ne reste rien, ou presque rien pour représenter l’action personnelle des seigneurs. Pour ce qui est du défrichement et de la culture des terres, l’inaction des seigneurs fut tout aussi remarquable. Louis XIV, à plusieurs reprises, en exprime son mécontentement. Hn 1672, par arrêt du conseil d'État, il réduit de moitié l'étendue des seigneuries, ayant été “informé que tous ses sujets qui ont passé de l’ancienne dans la nouvelle France ont obtenu des concessions d’une très grande étendue de terre, le long des rivières du pays, lesquelles ils n’ont pu défricher à cause de leur trop grande étendue”. Le même document établit qu'il ne se trouve de cultivé à cette époque “ qu’une partie des terres le long des rivières, le reste ne l’étant point et ne le pou- vaut être à cause de la trop grande étendue des dites concessions et de la faiblesse des propriétaires d'icelles ”. Trois années plus tard, il réitère cette déclaration. En 1679, il renouvelle la même ordonnance, se basant cette fois sur la déclaration de lintendant Duchesneau. Aux termes de cette déclaration, la plus grande partie des concessions faites en Canada était “ demeurée inutile aux propriétaires faute d'hommes et de bestiaux pour les défricher et les mettre en valeur”. Encore en 1711, le roi se plaignait de ce que “ dans les terres que sa Mujesté a bien voulu accorder et concéder en seigneurie à ses sujets en la Nouvelle-France, il y en a une partie qui ne sont pas entièrement habitées, et d’autres où il n’y a aucun habitant d’établi pour les mettre en valeur, et sur lesquelles aussi ceux à qui elles ont été concédées en seigneurie ‘n’ont pas encore commencé d’en défricher pour y établir leurs domaines ” Les remontrances du roi étaient du reste bien justifiées par l’événe- ment. En 1679, après quarante années de régime seigneurial, doublées de quinze années d'intervention directe de l'État, il n'y avait encore que 22,000 arpents de terre en culture ;* quarante-deux ans plus tard, en 1721, on ne pouvait ajouter à ce premier chiffre que 52,000 arpents, soit une misérable augmentation moyenne de 1,200 arpents par année. * Encore faut-il reconnaitre que la presque totalité de ce travail était 1 Garneau, t. II, p. 100. Edits et Ordonnances, t. I, pp. 70, 82, 234, 324. 5 C’est à peine ce que renferme une de nos bonnes paroisses d’aujourd hui. 4 Garneau, t. II., p. 100. tw 80 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA le fait, non du seigneur, mais de l'habitant. Charlevoix, qui a visité le pays vers 1704, nous le dit clairement. ‘Le Canada, écrit-il dans son Journal, n était qu'une grande forêt quand les Français ont commencé de s'y établir. Ceux à qui l’on donna des seigneuries n'étaient pas des gens à les mettre par eux-mêmes en valeur; c’étaient des officiers, des gentils- hommes, des communautés, qui n'avaient pas des fonds assez considérables pour y loger assez d'ouvriers pour cela. I] a donc fallu qu'ils y établissent des habitants qui, avant de pouvoir recueillir de quoi subsister, ont été obligés de tra railler beaucoup et de faire même toutes les avances.” C’est ce qui explique l'extrême modicité des cens et rentes, caractère général des tenures au Canada. C’est parce que l'habitant ne recevait de son seigneur aucune assistance matérielle, qu'il ne s’engageait à lui payer qu’une redevance nominale. Non seulement les seigneurs n'assistèrent pas les habitants dans le défrichement et la culture de leurs terres, mais ils se montrèrent incapables même de mettre en valeur leurs propres réserves. Le seigneur de Lon- eueuil et celui de la Riviére-Ouelle ont été cités comme modèles. Or, le seigneur de Longueuil, vingt ans après avoir reçu sa concession, et au moins neuf ou dix ans après en avoir commencé l'exploitation, n’avait que 30 arpents en valeur sur sa réserve de 12 arpents de largeur et 2 lieues de profondeur. A l’autre extrémité du pays le seigneur de la Rivière- Ouelle, après neuf années d'exploitation, n’avait encore que 15 arpents de défrichés et 12 bêtes à cornes. Trois ou quatre de ses censitaires étaient tout aussi avancés que lui.’ De la même manière, les seigneurs se dispensérent d'accomplir les obligations qui leur avaient été imposées accessoirement : construction de moulins banaux, établissement de justices locales. En 1690, on informe le roi que ‘la plupart des seigneurs qui possèdent des fiefs en son pays de la Nouvelle-France négligent de bâtir les moulins banaux nécessaires pour la subsistance des habitants”. Le roi leur enjoint en conséquence de cons- truire ces moulins dans le délai d’une année sous peine d’être déchus du droit de banalité. Cet édit dut être publié de nouveau en 1707. Les habitants dans plusieurs seigneuries bâtirent le moulin à leurs frais, et obtinrent ainsi la banalité.’ A plus forte raison, les seigneurs n’établirent-ils pas d'industries nou- velles, Les bois du Canada auraient trouvé un facile débouché en France, à ce moment où Colbert restaurait la marine et demandait aux pays du nord de l’Europe des matériaux pour les grandes constructions de l'État. A cette époque encore la France consommait pour 2 ou 3 millions de soude et de potasse, qui lui venaient de la Russie, en passant par la 1 Jodoin et Vincent, Histoire de Longueuil, pp. 59-60. — L'abbé Casgrain, Une Paroisse canadienne au XvVr° siècle, p. 27 et suiv. 2 Edits et Ordonnances, t. I., pp. 255-256. 3 Joubleau, t. IL, p. 56. [etry] LE GENTILHOMME FRANÇAIS ET LA COLONISATION 81 Hollande et par l'Espagne, et qu'elle aurait aussi bien tirées de l’immense domaine forestier du Canada. Enfin, les pêcheries de la Nouvelle-Angle- terre, nullement supérieures à celles du Canada, enrichissaient rapidement les marchands de Boston. Le roi de France stimuia de diverses manières les entreprises de cette nature au Canada. Mais tout fut en vain: rien ou 1 presque rien ne se fit dans ce sens.” Les seigneurs échouèrent sur toute la ligne.’ IV. — LE DEVELOPPEMENT SIMULTANE DE LA TRAITE DES FOURRURES ET DU MÉCANISME ADMINISTRATIF. Les gentilshommes, hors d'état de tirer de leurs seigneuries un revenu appréciable, devaient forcément se chercher ailleurs un moyen d'existence. Tous ne pouvaient songer à retourner en France, où l’armée, le palais, les bureaux étaient déjà encombrés, où la cour verrait revenir d’un mauvais œil ces pseudo-colonisateurs si promptement rebutés. I] ne fallait pas songer davantage à créer de plain-pied, dans la colonie même, des commande- ments et des emplois pour toute cette gentilhommerie. Les compagnies marchandes, tant qu’elles durérent, étaient trop intéressées, le gouverne- ment de la métropole trop absorbé par sa politique européenne et trop ébranlé par ses guerres, les colons, de leur côté, trop clairsemés et trop pauvres encore, pour supporter directement de telles charges. 1 Documents de la Nouvelle-France, t. I., pp. 300, 318, 347, 349; t. IL., p. 68. 2? Jinsiste sur ces faits, car la vérité à cet égard est généralement méconnue. Une notion tres enracinée chez notre classe instruite, c'est que ce sont les gentilshommes, par le moyen du régime seigneurial, qui ont opéré le développement agricole de la Nouvelle-France. Cette vue erronée paraît avoir été prise dans le livre de M. Ra- meau, Une Colonie féodale en Amérique. L'auteur, encore tout pénétré des écrits de M. Léopold Delisle, qui réhabilitaient les institutions féodales du moyen âge, crut retrouver ces mêmes institutions, ravivées après deux cents ans, en œuvre dans la colonie acadienne du xvite siecle ; et il se fit le panégyriste ardent de celle-ci. Mais il faut reconnaître que sa sympathie l’a entraîné trop loin. Une analyse plus rigoureuse lui aurait fait voir: 1° que l'institution féodale en France, quelle qu'ait été sa vitalité au x11° siècle, était déjà, à l'époque de la découverte et du peuplement de l'Amérique, fort décrépite et incapable de se répandre au dehors ; 2° que l'institution féodale, en Acadie, comme dans la Nouvelle-France, exista principalement sur le parchemin, et que le projet, par suite de l'insuffisance même des gentilshommes-sei- gneurs, et de la défaveur des circonstances, ne reçut jamais qu'un semblant d’exé- cution ; enfin, 3° que l’Acadie ne fut pas une colonie prospère, et que son exemple ne peut être invoqué à l'appui d'aucune thèse. Il y a plus: nombre des écrivains qui, chez nous, ont traité de la matière, ont accepté a priori les conclusions de M. Rameau, et se sont plu à nous représenter les gentilshommes détenteurs de fiefs dans la vallée laurentienne, sous les traits de grands agriculteurs colonisants. Leur argu- mentation sans base et sans charpente, ne tient pas debout d'elle-même, Le lecteur, désireux de fixer ses idées sur le sujet, fera bien de lire ces ouvrages avec circons- pection, mettant de côté tout ce qui n’est que simple affirmation générale ou descrip- tion imaginative, pour s’en tenir aux faits précis et avérés. Il verra, alors, à sa sur- prise, que les faits (assez rares, du reste) mis de l’avant par ces panégyristes, loin de soutenir leur prétention, la renversent de fond en comble. Sec. I, 1896. 6. SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA © 19 La position était difficile ; elle n'était pourtant pas sans issue. En effet, le Canada, nous l'avons vu il y a un instant, avait sa richesse parti- culière : la bête à fourrure, et c'est sur ce simple fait, — caractère, à pre- mière vue sans importance, de la faune du pays, — que toute la situation tourna, et que se fit l’organisation sociale de la Nouvelle-France. Les gentilshommes résolurent de s'emparer de la traite des fourrures. Dès le début des entreprises coloniales, les chefs s'étaient rendu compte de la valeur de la fourrure. Jacques Cartier ne put découvrir sur les bords du Saint-Laurent l'or et l'argent qu'il mit tant d’ardeur à y rechercher, mais en 1534, à la baie des Chaleurs, il échangea des haches, des couteaux, des chapelets contre les peaux apportées par les naturels ; et ses neveux, Noël et Chaton, continuèrent après lui le trafic. La Roche, de Chastes, de Monts, Poutrincourt, d’Aulnay, firent tous reposer leurs entreprises de colonisation sur l'exploitation dé la fourrure. Les voyages pénibles et répétés de Champlain vers le haut Ottawa avaient pour grand objet l’éta- blissement de relations suivies avec les peuplades du nord et de l’ouest, pourvoyeuses de pelleteries.! Et maintenant, nous allons voir, au temps de Richelieu et de Mazarin, les petits gentilshommes et bourgeois, conces- sionnaires de seigneuries dans la vallée laurentienne, à bout de ressources, se coaliser pour déposséder à leur profit le syndicat des marchands de son privilège de traite (1644). Précisément, la traite des fourrures constituait une industrie que méme des gens aussi peu expérimentés, aussi mal préparés que nos gentils- hommes, pouvaient exercer avec quelque succès. C'était, en premier lieu, un commerce simple, facile, attrayant. Il reposait sur-un travail de sim- ple récolte : il n'y avait qu’à recueillir les pelleteries en abattant ou dé- pouillant un gibier de facile capture ; ou encore, plus souvent, on trouvait les pelleteries toutes préparées aux mains des naturels. Le transport en était également simple. C'était une marchandise peu encombrante, d’une grande valeur sous un faible volume. Parfois les Algonquins, ou les Hurons, venaient l'offrir en vente sur les marchés de traite, aux ports d'embarquement. Dans tous les cas, pour opérer soi-même le transport, il suffisait de savoir conduire un canot d’écorce. D'après Lahontan, un canot-monté par trois hommes portait 20 quintaux, c’est-à-dire quarante paquets de castor, valant 100 écus chacun? Ce commerce était facile: il n’exigeait ni de forts capitaux, ni d’habi- leté spéciale. La simplicité même de son mode de production, de prépa- ration et de transport rendait la pelleterie accessible à toutes les bourses ; l'exploitation pouvait s'en faire sur une petite, aussi bien que sur une grande échelle. J] n’était pas nécessaire d'être très madré, puisqu'on avait à trafiquer avec les naturels, peu versés dans les roueries du com- Merce, et qui attribuaient volontiers une valeur exagérée aux verroteries ' Champlain, t. IV, p. 141. — La Science sociale, t. XI, p. 537. 2 Voyages dans l'Amérique septentrionale, t. I, pp. 31, 41, 76. [aérn] LE GENTILHOMME FRANÇAIS ET LA COLONISATION 83 et menus objets de fabrication que les Français faisaient venir d'outre-mer. Ye commerce était même attrayant. A ces hommes qui répugnaient à l'effort prolongé, continu, qu’exigent les entreprises de culture et de fabri- cation, il offrait, outre l’attrait des travaux de simple récolte, le charme de la vie des bois, la perspective de brillantes aventures et d'un enrichis- sement rapide. Le commerce des fourrures se recommandait aux gentilshommes par tout un autre ordre de considérations : c’est qu’il se prétait, par sa sim- plicité et sa facilité mêmes, à l’action coopérative et à l'ingérence gouver- nementale. D'une part, cela allait permettre aux gentilshommes de se procurer en vue de la traite, à d'excellentes conditions, les services des fils d'habitants que la nécessité contraignait à se chercher ailleurs que sur leurs terres à peine ouvertes un supplément de ressources. Le mode d’en- gagement le plus ordinaire paraît avoir été celui-ci : le gentilhomme, ou le marchand, fournissait la cargaison, les marchandises destinées aux sau- vages ; les coureurs des bois, de leur côté, équipaient leurs canots, pour- voyaient à leur propre entretien le long de la route, supportaient toutes ies fatigues de l'expédition, et, au retour de leur voyage, qui durait parfois une année, ils recevaient pour tout salaire la moitié des fourrures qu'ils avaient amassées.' Lahontan nous dit encore qu'il suffisait de 1,000 écus pour équiper deux canots en marchandises françaises, et cela permettait de rapporter pour 8,000 écus de pelleteries. On conçoit quelle position avantageuse était faite à l’armateur.’ i D'autre part, ce que la petite association, ainsi établie entre lui et les coureurs de bois, était incapable d’accomplir par elle-méme, le gen- tilhomme allait pouvoir s’en décharger sur la collectivité plus vaste formée par l’ensemble des populations métropolitaines et coloniales repré- sentées par leurs gouvernements respectifs. Le gouvernement de la métropole fut d'abord appelé à intervenir pour déposséder les marchands associés ‘au profit des colons (1644). Sur les instances de Godefroy et de Repentigny, délégués de la colonie, et sous la pression des jésuites,’ le gouvernement de la reine fit acte d’auto- rité, et la compagnie de la Nouvelle-France céda à la communauté des Habitants son monopole en retour d’une rente annuelle d’un millier pesant de castor. Vingt ans plus tard, lorsque Louis XIV établit la compagnie des Indes occidentales, on put croire un instant que les marchands allaient 1 On ne peut prendre pour type les entreprises de caractère exceptionnel comme celles de la Salle, à partir de 1670, ou de la Vérendrye, soixante ans plus tard : orga- nisations faites principalement en vue des découvertes, opérant sur une assez grande échelle, à l’aide de salariés, et qui du reste, au point de vue financier, ne furent pas heureuses. 2 Mémoires de Nicolas Perrot (édition Tailhan), extrait du Mémoire anonyme, note I, du ch. xx1. 5 “Agente regina et nobis impellentibus ”, écrit le P, Jérôme Lallemant, Journal, Deck; 84 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA reprendre le dessus, mais il n’en fut rien. La compagnie des Indes occi- dentales fut dépouillée plus prestement encore que celle qui l'avait pre- cédée, et cela grâce à la guerre que lui fit l’agent même du roi, l'intendant Talon. Dès la première année, la compagnie capitula et admit les habitants à faire le commerce en même temps quelle, sur un pied d'égalité. Au bout de quelques années elle disparut complètement. Diverses orga- nisations lui succédèrent et exercèrent le commerce extérieur ; mais le commerce intérieur, la traite, resta toujours, de droit ou de fait, aux mains des colons, ou plus exactement, aux mains des classes dirigeantes de la colonie. C’est encore le gouvernement de la métropole qui se chargea de réprimer les agressions des Iroquois, et de rétablir la liberté des commu- nications. Je mentionne pour mémoire l'envoi du marquis de Tracy et du régiment de Carignan, les trois expéditions dirigées contre les Agniers, et la construction de forts aux points stratégiques sur la riviére Richelieu. Il est un fait extrêmement curieux, quoique fort peu remarqué : en même temps que se concentrait aux mains des gentilshommes canadiens la direction du commerce des fourrures, le rouage administratif prenait forme dans la colonie, et tous deux, commerce des fourrures, rouage gouver- nemental, se développèrent simultanément s ‘appuyant l’un sur l’autre. A peine les Cent-Associés eurent-ils renoncé à leur privilège, que l’on créa toute une organisation mi-commerciale, mi-politique en vue à la fois de contrôler les opérations de la traite et d’administrer les affaires publiques. Dans les villes, ou bourgs de commerce, on élit des syndics, qui eurent leurs adjoints dans les campagnes circonvoisines, tous relevant du gouverneur de Québec et de son conseil. Pour alimenter ce mécanisme administratif et les charges qui en dépendaient, on décida de retenir le dixième des peaux d’orignaux, et le quart des peaux de castor portées aux bureaux publics.’ Le régime inauguré en 1663 ne modifia pas sensiblement cet ordre de choses. Le rouage central se compliqua quelque peu. Il] y eut désormais un intendant chargé spécialement d’entraver le gouverneur et les mem- bres du conseil ; es charges et les formalités se multiplièrent ; un contrôle plus jaloux fut exercé par la métropole ; il fallut que tout émanat de Paris ou de Versailles. Mais le fait essentiel ne fut pas changé : l’administration coloniale continua à vivre, dans une mesure importante, des impositions prélevées sur le commerce des fourrures? De son côté, l'administration coloniale plus ou moins contrôlée, plus ou moins supplémentée dans son action par le gouvernement de la mère- patrie, se chargea de pourvoir aux intérêts généraux de la traite. Elle s'occupa, par des traités de paix, notamment en 1645 et en 1653, et par de fréquentes distributions de présents, de se concilier les Iroquois tout en se conservant le bon vouloir des Algonquins et des Hurons. Après 1665, une L ioe ce Le eut pp. 7, 8, 30, 67-69, 185.—Ferland, t. L, pp. 348 et suiv., 364-5. 2 Documents de la Nouvelle-France, t. 1, pp. 233-5, 262. [ctr] LE GENTILHOMME FRANÇAIS ET LA COLONISATION 85 fois que les Iroquois eurent été réprimés par la force, l'administration s’attacha à pousser les voyages dans toutes les directions en vue de décou- vrir de nouveaux pays à fourrures, de renouer les anciennes alliances avec les tribus, d'en conclure de nouvelles, et d'engager les sauvages à reprendre leurs expéditions vers le Saint-Laurent. L’administration publique pour- vut aussi dans certains cas à la construction et à la garde des forts ou postes avancés, dont l’objet principal était de servir d’entrepôts au com- merce, mais qui étaient censés en même temps pouvoir être utiles pour la défense du pays. En somme, le commerce des fourrures, tei qu'on le pratiquait géné- ralement dans la Nouvelle-France, se réduisait à un travail attrayant, de simple récolte, s’exergant, par le procédé facile, semi-communautaire, du métayage, avec l’assistance et sous la tutelle gouvernementale.? C’étaient là d'excellentes conditions de succès pour nos gentilshommes. De leur côté, ils déployérent certaines qualités. Leur éducation commencée dans le milieu sympathique de la famille française, et terminée dans les camps, avait développé en eux un esprit de camaraderie et de vaillance fort appréciés des naturels et très utile dans le genre de vie que leur imposait la traite des fourrures. Il n'est pas étonnant, dès lors, qu'ils se soient jetés avec ardeur dans ce commerce et qu'ils aient réussi à lui donner un sérieux élan. Lartraite ne tarda pas à devenir la grande pourvoyeuse de toutes les classes de la colonie. Elle était le seul moyen d’existence des coureurs de bois, qui se recrutaient pour la plupart chez les habitants, chez les défri- cheurs du sol; des marchands, qui s’enrichissaient rapidement par son moyen, et de nombreux gentilshommes ou chefs de traite, Le nombre de ceux qui en vivaient indirectement n’était pas moins important. Nous avons vu que le premier soin de nos gentilshommes lorsqu'ils se furent emparés de la direction du commerce des fourrures, avait été de le faire servir à l’alimen- tation du trésor public. Bientôt, sous prétexte de réprimer les abus de la traite, le gouverneur ou l’intendant la réglementèrent à leur profit et au profit de leurs amis: les commandements, les charges lucratives, les gratifications aux communautés religieuses et aux diverses institutions se multiplièrent. De cette manière, toute la colonie arriva à vivre directement ou indirectement de la traite, et Lahontan, vers 1680, pouvait écrire en toute exactitude : ‘ Le Canada ne subsiste que par le grand commerce des pelleteries.” 1 Documents, t. I, pp. 256-9.—Ferland, t. II, pp. 77-8, 80. 2 Tl est intéressant de rapprocher ce régime des petites associations de celui des grandes compagnies indépendantes inauguré par les colons anglais apres la cession du Canada a la Grande-Bretagne. 86 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA V.—L’EXPANSION RAPIDE, MAIS SUPERFICIELLE, DE LA COLONIE. Nous sommes arrivés au point central de notre étude : jusqu’à présent nous avons vu les phénomènes sociaux, dans leur enchainement rigoureux de cause à effet, converger tous vers un grand résultat : le développement du commerce des fourrures. Nous allons voir maintenant, ce méme com- merce des fourrures, devenu l’industrie nourricière de la colonie, réagir sur l’ordre social tout entier. La première conséquence du développement de la traite, fut l’ex- pansion soudaine, mais superficielle, de la colonie. Cette expansion résultait nécessairement du mode d’approvisionnement des pelleteries qui s'imposait sous l’effet de la triple concurrence des particuliers, des factions politiques et des étrangers. A l’origine, les traitants attendaient dans les villes l’arrivée des partis de sauvages et de leurs chargements de fourrures. Mais à peine la répression des Iroquois eut-elle pour un temps rétabli la sécurité dans les campagnes et la liberté des communications, que les colons les plus résolus entreprirent d'aller à la rencontre des naturels dans les bois, sur les rivières, et même les relancèrent jusque dans leurs bourgades lointaines.' C’est ainsi que Ja simple concurrence entre parti- culiers suffit pour déterminer la course des bois. Les fonctionnaires de la colonie ne tardèrent pas à intervenir, défen- dirent aux colons, sous les peines les plus sévères, d’aller au devant des sauvages, où à la chasse dans les bois, sans un congé, ou permission spéciale. Ils limitèrent le nombre de ces congés et s’en réservèrent la distribution. La traite et la course des bois ne cessèrent pas pour cela, mais elles ne se firent plus désormais qu’au bénéfice de la faction politique dominante. Les gentilshommes et les marchands exclus des faveurs admi- nistratives cherchèrent par tous les moyens à contrecarrer la tentative d’accaparement de leurs adversaires. De cette façon se produisit la com- pétition entre clans politiques, sous l'influence de laquelle on commença à recourir au second procédé du développement de la traite : l'établissement de postes lointains. Ces forts qui permettaient d’accumuler à de grandes distances les approvisionnements, les munitions, les marchandises et les pelleteries reculèrent indéfiniment les limites possibles de la course des bois, On connaît les circonstances de la querelle retentissante du gou- verneur Frontenac avec son subalterne Perrot, commandant de Montréal. Celui-ci profitait de la position très favorable de son gouvernement, et surtout de sa seigneurie, au confluent de POttawa et du Saint-Laurent, pour mener, de concert avec quelques seigneurs du voisinage, un grand négoce par le moyen des coureurs de bois. Frontenac, dont les intérêts étaient liés à ceux de la Salle, ne se contenta pas de faire arrêter et pendre les coureurs de bois de son rival Perrot, de s'emparer de celui-ci et de l'envoyer subir son procès en France, mais encore, il diminua de beaucoup 1 Jugements et Délibérations, t. 1, pp. 535, 558, 634-5. * [cérx] LE GENTILHOMME FRANÇAIS ET LA COLONISATION 87 l'importance de Montréal comme poste de traite, en établissant, soixante lieues en amont sur le fleuve, le fort de Cataracoui. La Salle acquit la propriété de ce fort, puis s’enfongant dans l’intérieur, construisit suc- cessivement les forts de Niagara, de Miamis, de Crèvecœur, de Saint-Louis et de Prudhomme. Pendant ce temps, Duluth, qu’on dit également avoir été Vassocié de Frontenac, établissait des postes sur les lacs Supérieur et Huron. Plus tard, lorsque la faction opposée, où figuraient Duchesneau, le Ber, Boucher, le Moyne, Varennes, la Chénaie, fut parvenue, grâce au rappel de Frontenac, et à l'intérvention de son successeur, la Barre, à déposséder la Salle, à lui enlever ses forts de Cataracoui et des Illinois, la Salle chercha sa revanche en poussant, avec la protection de la cour, ses expéditions jusqu’à l'embouchure du Mississipi, et en fondant de nouveaux établissements dans le Texas.” Mais une troisième influence, encore plus active vint étendre davan- tage le champ ouvert au commerce des fourrures : ce fut la compétition étrangère. Quelques marchands anglais de la Nouvelle-York entreprirent d'enlever aux Français la clientèle des nations sauvages du nord et de l'ouest. Or, dans cette tentative, les Anglais avaient sur leurs rivaux un double avantage. D'abord ils étaient en état d'offrir pour les pellete- ries un prix beaucoup plus élevé ; puis, les marchandises qu'ils offraient en échange de ces pelleteries étaient bien supérieures aux marchandises françaises, et ils les cédaïent à bien meilleur marché Ces conditions avaient même fini par déterminer un commerce clandestin des postes français vers la Nouvelle-York. Toutefois, sur un point, les Anglais restaient décidément inférieurs aux Français. S'ils pouvaient sur place payer les fourrures plus cher, s'ils pouvaient donner en échange, des marchandises à meilleur compte, et de meilleure qualité, ils étaient loin d'être aussi bien organisés que les Français pour aller chercher les fourrures à de grandes distances. Chez eux, les fils des cultivateurs trouvaient un emploi rémunérateur sur les terres et n'avaient pas été tentés de s'engager dans la course des bois, où les fils de nos habitants étaient devenus si habiles. Les marchands anglais manquaient donc de coureurs de bois, et devaient se contenter des services assez précaires des Iroquois ou des déserteurs français® Les Français mirent done tout leur espoir dans l’avantage qu'ils possédaient de ce chef sur leurs concurrents. Chaque année il leur fallut découvrir quelque tribu nouvelle qui fût dans l'ignorance du bon marché des Anglais, ou ! Faillon, Colonie francaise, t. III, pp. 456-88. — Gravier, Découvertes et Eta- blissements de Cavelier de la Salle, passim. 2 Documents, t. I, pp. 275, 333, 344. — Edits et Ordonnances, t. TI, pp. 96, 98-9. — Lahontan, t. I, pp. 75, 125-6. — Garneau, t. II, p. 147. — La Science sociale, t. XIII, pp. 542-3. 3 Documents, t. I, pp. 175, 255, 266, 275-6, 347-9. — Lahontan, t. I, p. 36; t. II, pp. 27-28. 88 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA trop éloignée de ceux-ci pour pouvoir en profiter. Chaque année, il leur fallut entrer plus avant dans les solitudes du nord, du sud et de l'ouest. C'est en vain que le gouvernement de la métropole, effrayé parfois de la rapide croissance de ses possessions d'Amérique, exhortait les fonc- tionnaires coloniaux à peupler les parties déjà occupées au lieu de faire sans cesse de nouvelles acquisitions ; un courant irrésistible entraînait les Canadiens à travers |’ Amérique. Après vingt années de ce régime, ils atteignaient d'un côté la baie d'Hudson, de l’autre le golfe du Mexique, et Lahontan estimait aussi grande que l'Europe cette partie du continent “sur laquelle les Fran- çais font trafic des castors avec les sauvages, et où ils ont des forts, des magasins, des missions et de petits établissements”. A l'aube du dix-huitième siècle, ils s’établissaient à l'embouchure du Mississipi ; un peu plus tard, ils touchaient aux montagnes Rocheuses. Enfin, en 1754, alors que les Anglais n'avaient pas un seul fort à l’ouest des Alléghanys, et n’occupaient qu'une bande étroite sur les rivages de l'Atlantique, les colons du Canada avaient acquis à la France presque toute la partie restante de l'Amérique septentrionale. : Mais cette immense colonie ne reposait sur rien. En dehors d’une petite étendue de terre située dans la basse vallée du Saint-Laurent, les établissements français en Amérique ne consistaient qu’en forts et postes de traite, Chacun de ces forts avait son commandant, sa garnison, son contingent de coureurs de bois; sous les canons, les tribus sauvages venaient dresser leurs cabanes ; et c’était tout. Même dans cette partie du bassin laurentien plus sérieusement colonisée, l'étendue en culture était restreinte. Le commerce des fourrures n'avait pas modifié dans le sens agricole les classes dirigeantes du Canada. Ceux d’entre les gentils- hommes qui n'étaient pas devenus chefs d'établissements ou d’expéditions de traite à leur compte personnel, avaient obtenu des charges, des com- mandements militaires, créés à la suite de Ja réorganisation administra- tive de la traite. Vivant directement, ou indirectement du commerce des fourrures, ils avaient le même intérêt que jadis les marchands à ne pas restreindre par des établissements de cultureles vastes forêts et plaines nécessaires à la chasse. Réalisant d'énormes profits sur les entreprises de fournitures que leur confiait le roi pour l’approvisionnement des postes et places fortes, ils n'étaient aucunement enclins à favoriser l'installation d’une immigration rurale qui aurait été bientôt en état de se suffire à elle- même” Quant à eux ils se transportaient d'un poste à l’autre au gré du gouverneur, aujourd'hui en Canada, demain en Acadie, à Terre-Neuve ou à la Louisiane, En un mot, le commerce des fourrures avait fait du gentil- homme un aventurier, ou l’avait laissé ce qu'il était déjà avant de quitter la France, un fonctionnaire. 1 Winsor, Narrative and Critical History of America, t. I, p. 310. 2 Documents, t. III, p. 469; t. IV, pp. 154, 226. [aériN] LE GENTILHOMME FRANÇAIS ET LA COLONISATION 89 L'habitant était le seul facteur du développement agricole de la colonie ; si ses fils quittaient souvent les terres pour courir les bois et mener pendant de longues années une vie errante et vagabonde, du moins il en sortait une élite qui finissait par se fixer au sol. Mais étant donné la faiblesse des moyens dont disposaient les habitants, ce mouvement agricole ne pouvait être très rapide ; il ne pouvait suivre surtout l’expansion pro- digieuse que le commerce des fourrures donnait à la colonie, Celle-ci se trouvait ainsi manquer de la solidité qu’assurent seules à l’occupation du territoire, les établissements agricoles. VI.—LA GUERRE INCESSANTE ET LA CHUTE DE LA DOMINATION FRANÇAISE. Le second ordre de conséquences produit par le commerce des four- rures fut la guerre en permanence, et la conquête du pays parles Anglais. La traite des fourrures comprend deux opérations : la chasse qui procure les pelleteries, le commerce qui les écoule. Or, la chasse, entre gens qui en font un moyen d'existence, est l’occasion perpétuelle d’hostilités ; et le commerce ne tend aucunement à mettre fin à l’état de guerre ainsi déve- loppé. Au contraire, en donnant une nouvelle valeur à la fourrure, le commerce ne fait qu'intensifier la lutte. Aussi, voyons-nous, dès que les Français eurent fait des pelleteries un article profitable de trafic, la guerre entre les nations sauvages du Canada, sévir avec une ardeur redoublée, et se transformer bientôt, de guerre d'escarmouche, en guerre d’exter mination. Les colons venus d'Europe n’échappérent pas plus que les naturels à cette influence néfaste. Qu'on se rappelle la guerre cruelle et longue que se firent au commencement du dix-septième siècle ces deux seigneurs d’Acadie, Latour et d’Aulnay, au sujet des limites de leurs terri- toires de traite ; et même, dans notre dix-neuvième siècle, les rixes sanglantes qui signalèrent dans le Nord-Ouest canadien la lutte des compagnies anglaises rivales.” C’est là le fait général: la traite des fourrures pousse à la guerre. Mais au dix-septième et au dix-huitième siècles, cette influence se trouvait agir sur nos colons français dans des conditions particulières, de nature à en accroître singulièrement l'intensité. Nous avons vu que toutes les classes de la colonie, à un degré quelconque, directement ou indirectement, comptaient pour vivre sur la traite des fourrures. Dès lors, tous les phé- nomènes qui découlaient de celle-ci affectaient la population tout entière. Lorsque la traite multipliait les ruptures et les violences, la colonie en bloc se trouvait intéressée, entraînée, c'était une guerre nationale. De plus, comme nous le savons, l’organisation du commerce des four- rures faite sous la tutelle administrative, et l’organisation sociale même des — 1 Documents, t. I11, p. 142 et passim. — Mémoire de Raudot, cité par Charlevoix, Histoire, t. I, p. 389. ? L.-R. Masson, Les Bourgeois du Nord-Ouest, t. I, p. 77. 90 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA Français, mettaient la direction de cette guerre entièrement aux mains des gentilshommes, fonctionnaires, militaires surtout. Or, ceux-ci, par goût, par éducation et par nécessité, se trouvaient déjà d'eux-mêmes très portés vers la guerre, qui était leur moyen d'existence, qui, bien plus, était un moyen d'avancement rapide. Ainsi la formation sociale de la classe diri- geante venait aggraver le danger de guerre résultant du commerce des. fourrures, des conditions d'existence de la population coloniale. Pour nous rendre pleinement compte de l'effet produit par le jeu de cet ensemble de causes, il nous faut considérer successivement deux périodes, Dans la première période, les colons français ont pour concur- rents dans le commerce des fourrures les Iroquois (seuls ou faiblement soutenus par les Hollandais), et ils possèdent sur eux l'avantage au point de vue social et économique. En effet, les Français, dès leur arrivée en Canada, s'étaient déclarés les alliés des Hurons et des Algonquins, grands fournisseurs de pelleteries à cette époque, et à l'encontre des Iroquois ils. jouissaient de leur amitié. Puis, en échange des pelleteries, les Français. pouvaient offrir divers objets manufacturés avidement recherchés des. sauvages, et que les lroquois n'auraient guère été en état de leur fournir. Ceux-ci cherchèrent à compenser leur infériorité sociale et économique par le seul procédé à leur disposition : la violence. On sait avec quel acharnement ils s’attaquérent à Ja fois aux Français et aux tribus qui les approvisionnaient de fourrures, comment ils harcelèrent les partis de traite, pillérent les canots et les habitations. Dans cette première période, les Français ne furent donc pas les fauteurs de la guerre ; ils ne firent que se tenir sur la défensive. Mais la formation exclusivement militaire de leur classe dirigeante fit que la guerre inutilement traîna en longueur. A tout instant on est surpris de voir des expéditions organisées à grands frais, se terminer brusquement à la suite de quelque petit succès ; jamais de coup décisif. Ces gentilshommes, qui ne souffraient pas au même degré que les. habitants des déprédations des Iroquois, avaient, du reste, intérêt à ne terminer jamais la guerre, à multipler les expéditions, afin de multiplier: les occasions de triomphes faciles, de promotions rapides.' L'entrée en scène des marchands anglais ouvre la seconde période. Ceux-ci, grâce à la supériorité de leur organisation sociale fondée sur l’ini- tiative individuelle, étaient en état d'évincer pacifiquement les Français du commerce des fourrures, puisqu'ils pouvaient offrir aux sauvages du nord un plus haut prix pour leurs pelleteries, des marchandises à meilleur compte et de meilleure qualité. La supériorité économique se trouvait dès lors acquise à la ligue anglo-iroquoise, et un grave problème se posait pour les. colons français : Comment garder la clientèle du sauvage ? Comme jadis les Iroquois, les Français crurent trouver la solution de cette difficulté dans la guerre. Voyant les fournisseurs de pelleteries leur échapper sur- ' La Science sociale, t. XIV, pp. 377 et suiv. [cern] LE GENTILHOMME FRANÇAIS ET LA COLONISATION 91 le terrain des échanges, ils cherchérent à se les conserver, en fomentant leurs vieilles haines contre les Iroquois, en les lançant au pillage des colo- nies anglaises. Ils voulurent, par la force, éloigner les Anglais des ‘pays den haut”. En un mot les Français devinrent les agresseurs.' Les bandes iroquoises n’avaient pas encore fini de dévaster les campagnes de la Nouvelle-France, que de nombreux partis de Canadiens et de Sauvages mettaient la Nouvelle-Angleterre à feu et à sang. Montréal encore tout ému du massacre de Lachine, voyait d’Iberville revenir triomphant de la baie d'Hudson. Ils poussèrent leurs agressions si loin, qu'ils finirent par soulever contre la Nouvelle-France toute la population des colonies anglaises. Cette population coloniale de la Nouvelie-Angleterre, surtout composée de “ farmers”, était, — laissée à elle-même, — de dispositions très pacifiques. Dès 1648, elle avait envoyé à Québec une délégation ‘chargée de proposer une alliance éternelle entre les deux colonies, indépendamment de toute rupture qui pourrait survenir entre les deux couronnes ”, proposition que les fonctionnaires français rejetèrent, du reste? L’aversion des colons anglais pour la guerre, leur ignorance profonde et leur inhabileté en cette matière étaient de notoriété publique dans les deux colonies ; leurs alliés les [roquois, leur en faisaient de fréquents reproches, et les Français en avaient conçu pour eux le plus parfait mépris” A l'origine, il n’y avait chez eux d’intéressé à la guerre que le petit groupe de leurs marchands de fourrures, dont les Français brûlaient les postes ou surprenaient les partis de traite, et les armateurs et pêcheurs de Boston que les fonctionnaires français s’efforçaient de tenir éloignés des côtes de l’Acadie, Ce ne fut que plus tard, à l’arrivée des fonctionnaires anglais, lorsque les délégués des Stuarts, après avoir pris possession de la Nouvelle-Hollande, eurent réussi à se faire reconnaître momentanément par les colonies du nord, que le parti de la guerre prit quelque consistance dans la Nouvelle-Angleterre. Ces fonctionnaires des colonies anglaises firent preuve des prédispositions agressives que nous avons vues manifestées par ceux de la Nouvelle- France, et fomentèrent les hostilités avec uné égale ardeur. Mais pendant longtemps la masse de leurs administrés reconnut à peine l’autorité de ces émissaires de la Grande-Bretagne, et refusa absolument de se prêter à tout projet de conquête. Par malheur, des colons canadiens furent assez téméraires pour engager de vive force dans la lutte ces paisibles “ farmers ? qui ne dési- raient autre chose que la tranquillité requise pour l'exploitation de leurs 1 Le ministre Pontchartrain écrivait : ‘Je sais que les Anglais souhaitent la paix...., les Français ont toujours commencé les hostilités au Canada.” Ferland. t. IT, p. 349. — Voir aussi, l’intendant Hocquart, cité par Ferland, t. I, p. 488.—La- hontan, t. II, p. 91. — Documents, t. ill, pp. 5 et 6; t. IV, p. 68. 2 Charlevoix: Histoire, t. I, pp. 286-9. 3 Documents, t. II, p. 381.—Ferland, t. II, pp. 256, 270, 275, 477. 4 Documents, t. III, p. 214.— Bancroft, History of the United States, t. I. ch. XII. 92 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA domaines. Vers la dernière décade du dix-septième siècle, les chefs de la colonie française prirent pour tactique “la petite guerre”: c’est à dire que chaque année, ils organisaient plusieurs partis composés chacun d’un petit nombre de Canadiens et de naturels, qui, des rivages du Saint-Laurent ou des côtes de l’Acadie, tombaient à l’improviste sur les bourgs et les habitations isolées dans les colonies anglaises, massacrant et brûlant tout ce qu'ils y trouvaient." La population anglaise des campagnes commença alors à souffrir cruellement des hostilités. La guerre entre les deux nations devint sa guerre, comme elle avait été jusque-là celle des mar- chands et des fonctionnaires. Et, fait remarquable, c’est lorsque cet élément très pacifique se fut mis de la partie que la lutte prit un caractère décisif; et à mesure qu'il s'y engagea davantage, la colonie française subit des échecs de plus en plus sérieux. En 1690, Phipps et les armateurs de Boston, soutenus à demi seulement par le sentiment populaire, avaient échoué sous les murs de Québec ; vingt ans plus tard un mouvement plus général assurait aux Anglais la possession de Terre-Neuve et de l’Acadie ; en 1745, les milices de la Nouvelle-Angleterre, aussi remarquables par leur courage que par leur mépris de toute règle militaire, emportaient d’assaut la place forte de Louisbourg et s'emparaient une première fois du Cap-Breton. Enfin en 1759, l’action concertée de la Grande-Bretagne et de ses colonies déter- minait la prise du Canada et l’écroulement de la puissance française en Amérique. La guerre des Iroquois avait été un obstacle des plus sérieux au progrès de la Nouvelle-France; la guerre contre les Anglais la livra à l'étranger. Du moment, en effet, que la lutte s'engageait décisive entre les deux colonies, chacune soutenue par sa métropole, l'issue ne pouvait être dou- teuse, I] existait en faveur des Anglo-américains une énorme dispropor- tion de forces; ils l'emportaient sur les Franco-canadiens à la fois par le nombre et par la richesse. En 1755, la population du Canada, du Cap- Breton et de la Louisiane était de 75,000 à 80,000 âmes ; celle des colonies anglaises s'élevait à 1,200,000. Celles-ci pouvaient done mettre sur pied des forces incomparablement plus grandes.’ Le progrès agricole, com- mercial et même industriel, des colonies anglaises, en regard de l’état sta- gnant de la colonie française, est un thème qui revient fréquemment dans les récits des voyageurs et la correspondance des fonctionnaires français de la première moitié du dix-huitiéme siècle. Par le fait de la formation 1 Documents, t. 1, pp. 496-7, 579, 590-1; t. II, pp. 167, 502, 524, 530 ; t. III, pp. 288, 291-2, 302, 304, 313, 331,337-8, 341, 403, 405, 409, 411-2, 414-5, 492, 495, 505, 515 ; t. IV, pp. 27, 33, 48-9, 154-5, 158. 2 Garneaw, t. II, p. 219-20.—Montcalm au ministre, Documents, t. IV, p. 225. # Voir, notamment, Charlevoix, Journal, p. 80: Histoire, p. 389-90: Analyse du Mémoire de Raudot.—Documents de la Nouvelle-France, passim. — Considérations sur l'Etat présent du Canada (1758), collection de la Société historique de Québec, p. 29. [aérn] LE GENTILHOMME FRANCAIS ET LA COLONISATION 93 première défectueuse de sa classe dirigeante, la Nouvelle-France n'avait à proprement parler qu’un seul moyen d'existence : la traite des fourrures, laquelle, sous un régime d’exploitation peu intensive, se rapprochait singu- lièrement des travaux faciles et précaires de simple récolte. Cette industrie, tout en étendant démésurément les frontières de la colonie, avait retardé le défrichement de ses terres et contrecarré la croissance de sa population. Elle avait maintenu le pays dans un état de guerre perpétuelle, sans lui donner les moyens d’en supporter le fardeau. D’un autre côté, la monarchie française, sur laquelle le Canada comptait pour sortir sain et sauf de la lutte, la monarchie militaire et centralisée de la mère-patrie, après avoir absorbé à son profit toutes les forces vives de la race, se trou- vait elle-même fatalement à bout de ressources. Et tandis que l’Angle- terre pouvait appliquer deux milliards de francs à la conquête du Canada, les millions que la France, en temps de guerre, sacrifiait péniblement pour la conservation de sa colonie, détournés par des officiers concussionnaires, n’arrivaient pas à destination. En somme deux types sociaux étaient aux prises: la France et ses annexes, à développement exagéré des pouvoirs publics et de la vie militaire. l'Angleterre et ses colonies, à prédominance de l'initiative privée et des arts usuels, et le jeu inexorable des lois sociales assurait finalement le triomphe du type individualiste. Et maintenant, récapitulons en peu de mots. Nous avons commencé par bien fixer le caractère social du gentilhomme français colonisateur. Pour cela, nous avons recherché auels étaient ses moyens d'existence, et des faits nombreux et précis nous ont indiqué qu'il était essentiellement un militaire ou fonctionnaire pauvre et sans aptitudes pour les arts usuels. Puis, nous avons examiné dans quelles circonstances s’est exercée son action : la monarchie militaire de la France, fondée sur la guerre, faible et informe à l’origine, désorganisée et corrompue vers la fin, quelque temps riche et puissante, mais toujours très instable et, en somme, peu capable de fournir une assistance effective et suivie ; le milieu physique et social de la Nouvelle-France, pays rude et neuf, susceptible de donner de bons rendements à la culture, à l’industrie et au grand commerce, mais à la condition d’un travail opiniâtre et éclairé et d’une forte mise de fonds ; ne renfermant qu'une population de chasseurs de petit gibier, nomades et sans cohésion, et n'offrant qu’une seule production naturelle de quelque importance, la fourrure. Dès lors, par la simple réaction, les uns sur les autres, de ces facteurs premiers, nous avons vu se produire, en succession ininterrompue, la stagnation de l’agriculture et de l’industrie coloniales, le développement de la traite des pelleteries, expansion rapide, mais 1 Dussieux : Le Canada sous la Domination française, pp. 240 et suiv.; Lettre de Chesterfield (1762), note p. 240.— Documents, t. III, p. 484 ; t. IV, Montreuil au mi- nistre, p. 31; Montcalm au ministre, pp. 154, 226. 94 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA superficielle, de la colonie, et la guerre en permanence, aboutissant à la conquête du pays par les Anglais. On voit que la méthode d’observation sociale n’est pas fructueuse seulement lorsqu’on l’applique à l’analyse des phénomènes actuels, mais quelle peut projeter une vive lumière sur les faits historiques. Section I, 1896. [95] Mévorrss S. R. C. V.—WNos Ridicules, Par M. F.-G. MARCHAND. Pièce lue par l’auteur à la séance publique de la Société royale du Canada, le 20 mai 1896.) Dans la foule, parfois, je m’arréte, et j'écoute Ce que tous ces passants ont à se dire en route. Les uns, préoccupés, l'œil fixé, lair songeur, Semblent d’un noir complot sonder la profondeur, Et, se communiquant des soupçons réciproques, Donnent libre carrière à leurs sombres colloques. Les autres, tout gonflés, haletants, tapageurs, Se livrent bruyamment à des propos rageurs, Et d’un jet continu, sur leurs pas, cette rage Se répand en jurons à travers leur langage. Ceux-ci, d’une voix lente et sur un ton mielleux, Exhalent des hélas et des soupirs fielleux, Et ceux-là, ricanant et pressés de tout dire, Eparpillent les mots dans un éclat de rire... Pendant que, devant moi, ces types variés Passent, tantôt railleurs, tantôt contrariés, Je prête à leurs propos une oreille attentive — Et découvre à regret que la voix collective, Invariablement et d'un commun entrain, Ne traite qu’un sujet : les défauts du prochain. Le prochain ! Oui, voilà l’éternelle victime Pour qui l'humanité, sur ce point unanime, Paraît inaccessible aux cris de la pitié ; La justice, l'honneur, les droits de l'amitié, Tout, en un mot, tout cède au besoin de médire. Puisque, sur ce terrain, l’occasion m'attire, J'en profite, un instant, pour venger le prochain En médisant pour lui de tout le genre humain. Le thème est abondant ; dans mon esprit se range Des vulgaires délits la nombreuse phalange ; Je n'aurais, sur ce point, que l'embarras du choix. Mais le crime a son frein dans la rigueur des lois. Donc, pour l’homme, oubliant les sévères formules, Au lieu de ses méfaits, peignons ses ridicules. Chez nous, le ridicule et les menus défauts Sont très proches parents des péchés capitaux ; 96 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA I] suffit que chacun de près les examine Pour découvrir en eux la commune origine. Voyons un peu. D'abord, commençons par l'ORGUEIL. Pour nous, faibles mortels, voilà le grand écueil ! Que d’esprits enlevés par ses attraits stériles, Que d’airs prétentieux, de démarches futiles, De superbes projets, d’extravagants propos, De jours pleins d’amertume et de nuits sans repos, Dont cette passion capitale est la cause ! Ici, le sot pédant dans sa morgue se pose, Et, de l'air satisfait d'un génie incompris, Promène autour de soi des regards de mépris. Quelle que soit la bourde énorme qu'il débite, Jamais il ne permet qu’elle soit contredite ; Et dès que, par faveur, il consent à parler, L’auditeur n'a qu'un choix... se taire, ou s’en aller. La,. cet autre, cédant à ses penchants frivoles, Et follement épris de vaines glorioles, S'exhibe avec éclat, dans ses pompeux apprêts, En messager du chic, et de tous ses progrès. Uniquement épris du soin de son physique, A l’art de figurer tout son être s'applique. Et, poussant à l'excès cette excentricité Qui le pose en objet de curiosité, Il devient, par l'effet de sa mise savante, Pour son rusé tailleur une affiche vivante. De la mode, en un mot, il promulgue les lois. La badine qu'il tourne avec art dans ses doigts, Sa coiffure, ses gants et ses bottes vernies Que jamais, à ses pieds, la fange n’a ternies, Son cigare au parfum prisé des connaisseurs, Tout s'étale au profit de ses vingt fournisseurs. Mais le contraste, ici, se met de la partie ; Tout modèle, en ce monde, a sa contre-partie, Sans quoi le genre humain paraitrait incomplet. Notre homme a pour émule un type qui se plaît A mépriser les soins de commune décence, Trouvant que la tenue est une extravagance Que sa pédanterie évite avec dédain. Rien n’égale pour lui le supplice du bain. L'être à plaindre, à ses yeux, c’est celui qui se lave ; Et le simple bon goût lui paraît une entrave ‘atale au sentiment hideux du négligé Qu'il a, dans son audace, en doctrine érigé. [MARCHAND] NOS RIDICULES 97 A lorgueil, fréquemment, se mêle l AVARICE, Ce travers, compliqué d’absurde et d’artifice, Qui prône opulent de haillons revêtu, Fait du sot égoisme une sombre vertu, Et brave avec aplomb même le ridicule, L’opprobre, le dédain, — pourvu qu'il accumule. La LuxURE, au contraire, extravagante en toul, Prodigue ses attraits aux dépens du bon goût ; Les expose aux regards de la foule banale, Et fait des dons du ciel un objet de scandale ; Tandis que l’'ENVIEUX, jaloux de tels appas, S'irrite insensément des charmes qu'il n’a pas, Kt, dans les noirs sentiers où son dépit l’entraîne, Le cœur empoisonné d’amertume et de haine, Il grimace, égratigne et mord à belles dents, Lançant autour de lui ses venins abondants, Moins sotte, et bonne enfant toujours, la GOURMANDISE Se délecte au parfum de mainte friandise, Et calcule avec art mille combinaisons Pour donner aux primeurs de toutes les saisons La teinte appétissante et la saveur suprême Qui des maîtres gourmets sont l'éternel problème. Mais autant le gourmet, dans ses œoûts délicats, Se fait un vrai bonheur des douceurs d’ici-bas, Autant l’affreux gourmand, dans sa rage gloutonne, Aux vulgaires instincts sottement s’abandonne, Quand, d’un ample repas ayant subi l’effort, Ii s'engourdit, semblable au boa-constrictor, Et, dans l’affaissement de ce reptile immonde, Dormant, inconscient des tumultes du monde, Dans un sommeil malsain, bruyant, désordonné, Il tombe, lourd, inerte et congestionné, Aux mains du plus sournois des démons : la PARESSE. De celui-là fuyez la perfide caresse ! C’est un diable indolent, dont le charme trompeur, En pénétrant nos sens d’une molle torpeur, Ralentit les élans de l’immortelle sève Qui stimule nos cœurs et vers Dieu les élève. C’est un lent séducteur de notre volonté, Qui nous fait abdiquer cette noble fierté, Ce germe de grandeur, déposé dans notre âme Pour y nourrir l’ardeur de la céleste flamme Dont le cœur s’alimente aux jours des grands combats. Sec. I, 1896. 7 98 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA La paresse, en un mot, est sans but, sans appas. Mieux valent les excés de la sotte CoLERE, Dont les trépignements et les coups de tonnerre Eclatent dans l’espace en bruits étourdissants, Répétés par la voix des échos impuissants, Et s’éteignent bientôt, ainsi qu’une fusée Qui s'élève bruyante et retombe épuisée. Or, la conclusion à tirer de mes vers, C’est qu'ici-bas tout vice a son joyeux revers ; Mais, au-dessus du mal, les grands sentiments règnent, Et la vertu ne fuit que ceux qui la dédaignent. Donc, les vilains péchés qu’on nomme capitaux, Escortés de travers et de méchants défauts, Ont, pour contre-partie à leurs trames fatales, Un vigoureux essaim de vertus capitales, Dont la saine influence et le ferme soutien Assurent sur le mal le triomphe du bien. Section I, 1896. [ 99 ] Mévorrss, S. R. C. VI.— Pierre Boucher et son livre, Par M. BENJAMIN SULTE. I.—BIOGRAPHIE. L'auteur de I’ Histoire véritable et naturelle des Mœurs et Productions du Pays de la Nouvelle-France n'est pas un de ces personnages effacés qui échappent aux regards des curieux parce qu'ils ont vécu dans l’ombre de la vie bourgeoise, même en écrivant des pages à la fois remarquables et utiles. Sa vie a été toute en dehors, sous les rayons de la pleine lumière. Aussi n’efit-il pas fait son livre, qu’il occuperait encore une place dans les annales canadiennes. Les biographes ont-ils suffisamment expliqué le concours de circons- tances qui à fait naitre ce petit livre si précieux par les renseignements qu'il renferme ? C’est toute une page de notre histoire qu'il faut mettre devant le lecteur, afin de donner la mesure des choses du temps et ren- dre les textes de Boucher plus explicites. Une simple reproduction de l'écrit ne suffit plus à présent; c'est pourquoi la Société royale croit faire une œuvre patriotique en chargeant quelqu'un d’annoter l'ouvrage le plus copieusement possible. Voyons d’abord les origines de l’auteur et sa for- mation à la vie publique. Gaspard Boucher, cultivateur, de Lagny, au Perche, diocèse de Mor- tagne, était aussi menuisier, c’est-à-dire que, à l'instar des habitants de cette région, il ne se contentait pas du bénéfice de sestravaux des champs, mais possédait un métier accessoire qui lui permettait de gagner quelque argent pour supplémenter les revenus de sa terre. Au Perche, cette pra- tique est assez commune ; les femmes elles-mêmes exercent des métiers ou se livrent à des industries profitables, de manière à préserver le ménage d’une foule de dépenses qui vont d'ordinaire au profit des villes ou des gros bourgs. Ces femmes savent toutes lire et écrire ; ce sont elles qui tiennent les comptes et les correspondances de la famille. Elles ont brillé également sous ce rapport, en Canada, au dix-septième siècle. La tradi- tion de cet état de choses remonte à une époque très éloignée ; elle s’est continuée sur les bords du Saint-Laurent. La femme était la maîtresse d'école de la famille. Si Pierre Boucher a su lire et écrire, c’est sans doute à sa mère qu'il le devait, puisque, de son temps, un garçon n'avait guère de chance de s’instruire autrement que par les leçons maternelles. ‘Gaspard Boucher signait au moins son nom, car j'ai vu son coup de plume sur des documents conservés à Trois-Rivières. Il avait épousé, en 1619, Nicole Lemaire, et en avait cinq enfants lorsque, en 1634, il se détermina à partir pour la Nouvelle-France : Pierre 1622, Nicolas 1627, Marie 1630, Madeleine 1633, Marguerite 1634. ’était le moment où 100 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA commençait la toute petite colonie agricole de Québec, qui devait rester trente ans sur ses débuts, par suite des fausses manœuvres des autorités. De 1633 à 1636, il y eut tout d'abord un élan, une sorte d'enthousiasme vers le Canada; on faisait appel à certaines influences qui répondaient aux vœux de Champlain, si souvent exprimés depuis plus d’un quart de siècle. L'année 1634 marque la date principale de ce mouvement, qui se fit sentir surtout dans le Perche, d’où il vint des colons qui s’établirent à Beauport, Les jésuites avaient des terres dans le voisinage de cette seigneurie, ils s'assurèrent les services de Gaspard Boucher en qualité de métayer. Quatre ou cinq ans après, le jeune Pierre sengagea aux pères à son tour et partit pour les missions de la baie Georgienne. On était alors (1639) dans une situation déplorable autour de Québec et de Trois-Rivières. La guerre des Lroquois faisait rage; il n’y avait pas de troupes pour rassurer les habitants ; les Cent-Associés, affaiblis par des pertes financières, avaient cédé le trafic du Canada à une compagnie de huit marchands de France, qui exploitaient le commerce de fourrures sans s'occuper des obligations qu'ils devaient remplir à l’égard de la colonie sous le rapport de sa défense aussi bien que de son administration générale. Jamais enfant ne fut élevé dans un état de crise publique plus intense que le jeune Pierre Boucher. I] semble que l'impression lui en soit restée toute sa vie, et qu'elle lait amené à devenir l’homme initiative et de justes conceptions que ses œuvres nous font connaître, Kn tous cas, il n’était ni d'une trempe ordinaire ni d’un tempérament à servir les intérêts d'autrui, En attendant l’âge qui devait lui révéler sa carrière, il s’exergait à se rendre utile eu apprenant les langues sauvages, et, revenu à Québec en 1641, il entrait comme soldat dans la petite garnison du fort. Vers l'automne de 1645, comme le poste de Trois-Rivières devenait plus impor- tant que jamais, on y envoya des interprétes, parmi lesquels Charles Lemoine et Pierre Boucher, dont les deux sœurs (mariées).résidaient déjà dans ce lieu. L'année suivante, Gaspard et sa femme abandonnèrent la ferme des jésuites, près de Québec, pour se fixer à Trois-Rivières ; ils y vécurent encore une douzaine d'années. Nicolas y mourut en 1649. Francois Marguerie, interprète en chef de Trois-Rivières, s'étant noyé en 1648, on donna son emploi à Pierre Boucher, et celui-ci, la même année, épousa Marie-Madeleine Chrétienne, sauvagesse élevée par les ur- sulines de Québec. Le seul enfant issu de ce mariage mourut au berceau. Les sœurs de Boucher, son père, sa mère et certaines parentés, for- maient dix-huit personnes de sa famille, à Trois-Rivières, sur une popu- lation de 100 âmes. L'heure allait sonner où l'attention publique devait s'attacher à lui. [] était commis général du magasin de Trois-Rivières, le plus important comptoir de traite de la colonie, A la création d’une église paroissiale, le 13 mai 1651, il fut élu marguillier. Le 6 juin suivant, il devint capitaine de la milice locale, une institution nouvelle, le début de nos milices, quoi- [suLTB] PIERRE BOUCHER ET SON LIVRE 101 que l'histoire n’ait pas enregistré ce fait important. Etant devenu veuf, il se remaria, le 9 juillet 1652, avec Jeanne Crevier, d'une famille de Rouen établie au Canada depuis treize ou quatorze ans. La guerre devenait plus terrible que jamais. Tout le Haut-Canada était aux mains des Iroquois. Chaque jour de l’année les colons de Mont- réal et de Trois-Rivières se voyaient en butte aux attaques des bandes qui infestaient les abords du fleuve. Il était plus souvent question de retourner en France en abandonnant le Canada que de chercher à repren- dre les territoires perdus. Les habitants de tout le Canada ne dépassaient pas le chiffre de 600 âmes, pour la bonne moitié victimes des trompe- ries des Cent-Associés, puis de la compagnie marchande Cheffault-Rosée, de France, enfin trompés encore par le syndicat canadien qui avait arra- ché (1644) aux deux sociétés en question presque tout le monopole du commerce de la colonie. Nous n'avions pas de troupes pour protéger les habitants ou les magasins. Il ne venait plus d’immigrants. Les Relations des jésuites répandaient en France des descriptions d’un Canada désolé par la guerre, inhabitable à cause de son climat, sans ressources par lui- même, bon tout au plus pour des sauvages. C’est à peine s'il y avait soixante familles cultivant chacune un peu de terre. Voilà sous quels auspices Pierre Boucher, à l’âge de trente ans, con- tractait un second mariage et fondait ses espérances en l’avenir. Cinq semaines plus tard, le 19 août 1652, les habitants de Trois- Rivières perdirent quinze hommes et leur gouverneur (Guillaume Du- plessis-Kerbodot) dans un combat contre les [roquois. Boucher prit le commandement du poste et le garda jusqu’au 8 septembre, alors qu'il fut remplacé par Jacques Leneuf de la Poterie. Ce dernier, principale- ment adonné au commerce, s'absentait sans cesse, et alors Boucher lui servait de substitut, ce qui produisait un cumul d’emplois assez curieux, ainsi que le montre une pièce du 16 juillet 1653, dans laquelle Boucher agit comme gouverneur, Juge de la juridiction, capitaine de milice et commis du magasin des Cent-Associés. On pouvait dire que Trois-Rivières, c'était lui. Sur 153 âmes que renfermait la bourgade, il y en avait vingt-sept de sa parenté. Jean Godefroy de Tonnancour était le chef d’ane famille à peu près aussi nombreuse, de sorte que toutes les affaires de la petite ville se trouvaient aux mains de ces deux hommes. M. de la Poterie était beau-frère de Godefroy. Les deux premiers Canadiens annoblis furent Boucher et ce même Godefroy. Le siège de Trois-Rivières en 1653 est raconté dans divers ouvrages ; c'est pourquoi nous ne ferons que le mentionner. Les mois de juillet et août ne furent qu'une série d’escarmouches qui se terminérent le 22 août, par un assaut à la place, mais Boucher (qui agissait alors comme substitut de la Poterie) et ses quarante-six soldats et miliciens firent subir de telles pertes aux Iroquois que ceux-ci, bien qu'au nombre de cing ou six cents, s’écartèrent complètement d’un voisinage aussi dangereux. 102 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA M. de la Poterie se retirant pour vaquer à ses affaires personnelles, M. Jean de Lauzon, alors gouverneur général, fit dire à M. Boucher de garder le commandement du district de Trois-Rivières. Il le conserva cing ans et fut une seconde fois remplacé, en juillet 1658, par Jacques Leneuf de la Poterie, Souvenons-nous que le Bas-Canada était alors divisé en trois provinces, avec un gouverneur et un juge dans chacune d'elles. Le gouvernement de Trois-Rivières avait plus d'importance que celui de Montréal. | Un acte du 9 février 1655 cite Pierre Boucher avec la double qualité de juge et de gouverneur. Jusque-la, il est partout nommé “le sieur Boucher”, même dans la concession de l’île Saint-Joseph que M. de Lauzon accorde, le 20 octobre 1655, “au sieur Boucher, gouverneur des Trois-Rivières ” ; mais le 31 juillet suivant, il se désigne lui-même avec un nouveau nom, celui de Grosbois: ‘ Nous, Pierre Boucher, escuyer, sieur de Grosbois, gouverneur des Trois-Rivières, leutenant-général civil et criminel de Monsieur le grand sénéchal de la Nouvelle-France, en vertu du pouvoir à nous donné...” Dans cette pièce, il accorde à Jean Sau- vaget la seigneurie de la Pointe-du-Lac. Huit jours plus tard, M. de Lauzon concède un fief dans la banlieue de Trois-Rivières à Pierre (âgé de trois ans), fils de Pierre Boucher, gouverneur des Trois-Rivières. C’est le fief Boucherville, qui porte encore ce nom. Il se trouvait, sur le plateau où la ville est située, une étendue de terre appartenant à M. de Champflour, ancien gouverneur de Trois- Rivières, repassé en France, et que celui-ci avait vendu à Jacques Leneuf de la Poterie en 1649 ; M. Boucher l’acheta de ce dernier par acte du 7 avril 1660, et, depuis ce moment jusque vers 1880, ce fief Champflour ou Niverville est resté dans la famille Boucher. Vers 1730, on y construisit une grande maison de p'eire encore aujourd’hui très solide, située entre les rues des Champs et Bonaventure, assez près de l’église paroissiale. Urbain Baudry dit Lamarche, taillandier, vendit, le 7 novembre 1652, à son beau-frère Pierre Boucher, “commis au magasin”, une terre qu'il possédait au cap de la Madeleine ; Boucher revendit cette propriété, le 20 mai 1656, à Pierre Lefebvre (mon ancêtre maternel), qui, plus tard, la donna à léglise de la paroisse à charge de dire des messes pour le repos de son âme. Considérons maintenant quelle était la situation du pays à cette époque. S'il fallait prendre à la lettre certains passages des Relations des jésuites et des écrits de la mère de l’Incarnation, on serait porté à croire que le Canada, de 1650 à 1663, subsistait du bénéfice de la traite des four- rures, et cette fausse impression est visible dans plus d’un ouvrage rédigé de notre temps. La vérité est que les habitants vivaient fort bien de l’agriculture, ne faisaient aucun commerce, et se passaient de presque tous les articles que Europe aurait pu leur fournir. La situation n'avait rien de lamentable: loin de la! Mais la guerre des Iroquois gâtait tout. [suzre] PIERRE BOUCHER ET SON LIVRE 103 Jusqu'à 1665, il a manqué à la colonie une force armée suffisante pour empêcher ces énergiques sauvages de faire la maraude et de commettre des massacres dans le Bas-Canada. A qui la faute? Aux trois com- pagnies qui vivaient de la traite, qui s'étaient engagées à donner de la sûreté aux colons, et qui ne voulurent jamais encourir la dépense néces- saire à cette fin. Or, ces hommes de mauvaise foi furent punis par où ils avaient péché ; car leur avarice amena la guerre qui ruina la traite, et, vers 1655, les six ou sept familles qui exploitaient ainsi le Canada à son détriment se voyaient tomber dans la banqueroute et la misère, Ce groupe s'était affublé d’un singulier nom: il s'appelait Compagnie des Habitants, parce que ses membres demeuraient dans la colonie ; mais pas un seul d’entre eux n'avait qualité dhabitant, c’est-a dire de culti- vateur. Les écrivains ont cru, en voyant ce nom, que nos défricheurs et nos fermiers jouissaient du privilège de la traite et que, en fin de compte, c'était bien leur faute s'ils ne faisaient pas venir des soldats pour se protéger contre l'ennemi. Hélas! les prétendus Habitants travaillaient à l'encontre de l'habitant véritable, Les Relations, le Journal des jésuites, les lettres de la mère de l’In- carnation, tout ce qui s'est écrit avant 1660, constitue à cet égard un chapitre embrouillé comme à dessein. Personne n’y a vu clair, ni en ce temps-là, ni par la suite. Je comprends bien que ceux des vrais habitants qui ont eu connaissance des Relations ne prenaient pas des vessies pour des lanternes ; mais, que pouvaient-ils faire pour arrêter le mal ? Ce n’est qu’en 1661 que M. Boucher eut occasion d’en parler au roi, ce qui amena un sérieux examen de toutes les affaires du pays, et le changement de régime qui eut lieu en 1662-65 régla la situation. Le malentendu dans lequel les historiens sont tombés s'explique d’une certaine manière. Presque toujours les jésuites et les ursulines peignent l’état de leurs communautés comme S'il s'agissait du pays tout entier, et lorsque, d’un autre côté, il est question de la colonie, on croirait entendre l’écho de leurs communautés. Aïnsi, ils diront que la nourri- ture va manquer et qu'il faudra mourir de faim ou retourner en France ; mais cette phrase est mêlée à celles qui parlent de la guerre des Iroquois, et par conséquent elle semble dépeindre la pénurie de vivres dans laquelle se trouve la population rurale, tandis quelle a trait uniquement aux ursu- lines. Ailleurs, on déclare que les habitants sont mécontents des modifi- cations apportées à la vente des pelleteries, tandis que les vrais habitants n’y sont pour rien, puisqu'il s'agit de la compagnie dite des Habitants, dont jai indiqué le rôle il y a un instant. M. Parkman, appuyé sur ces textes incompris, n'hésite pas à écrire au sujet de cette époque (1650- 1663) : “Le pays qui, jusque là, s'était soutenu avec le castor, se trouva privé de cette ressource, son seul moyen d'existence, et il s’en allait mou- rant depuis que la guerre avait commencé”. Ce qui dépérissait, on le voit bien, ¢’était le groupe composé des marchands et des religieux, tous gens 104 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA nourris par le commerce. Si la situation de l’habitant cultivateur était critique de son côté, il fallait s'en prendre à la guerre, que ces mêmes mar- chands s'étaient engagés à faire cesser et qui manquaient à leur promesse. Les communautés religieuses avaient d’abord calculé que les personnes charitables de la France subviendraient à leurs besoins ; mais on s’aperçut bientôt que cela n’irait pas loin, et le syndicat des marchands devint à peu près la seule ressource de ces institutions à partir de 1644 et même 1640. Le syndicat, périclitant par suite de sa rapacité, entrainait dans la gêne les communautés, en même temps qu'il livrait les colons sans défense à la férocité des Lroquois. La puissance des Iroquois n’a paru grande qu'à cause del'absolu dénue- ment où nous étions de toute force militaire, en dépit des engagements solennels des marchands qui devaient nous fournir des troupes. Les hommes qui voyaient clair dans la situation ne demandaient que soixante soldats, tout au plus cent, pour contenir les bandes de pillards et de mas- sacreurs dont on parle à tout moment dans les écrits de ces jours néfastes. Si, parfois, on a vu se jeter sur Trois-Rivières jusqu’à cing ou six cents de ces barbares, c’était pour porter un coup final que l'impunité des attaques antérieures les encourageait à entreprendre. Nous leur tenions en quelque sorte le chemin ouvert. Il eût fallu les punir sévère- ment en deux ou trois occasions; cela pouvait les arrêter à jamais. On a dit que l'habitant était soldat et savait se battre ; c’est absolument faux. Les Canadiens de cette époque n’entendaient rier au fait des armes, n'étaient point munis de ce qu'il fallait pour combattre, étaient forcés de rester sur leurs terres; et d’ailleurs, ils n'étaient pas venus ici pour faire la guerre, mais bien pour cultiver le sol et s'y créer une patrie nouvelle sous la protection des lois et des troupes des Compagnies. Cette falsification persistante de toutes les données véritables est une des tristes curiosités que présente notre histoire écrite. La vérité faisait horreur : on l’a voilée. Que personne ne soit done plus complice d’un faux aussi condamnable. Nous n'avions pas de colons, mais seulement des victimes offertes aux coups des Iroquois. Pour cinq ou six Jésuites tués par ces sauvages, et dont on parle toujours, nous avons eu deux ou trois cents Français pris et torturés par ces derniers. N’est-il pas temps de le dire et de blâmer qui de droit ? Au milieu de cette grande crise, voyons ce qu'était devenu M. Boucher. I] était toujours juge de Trois-Rivières et cultivait probablement quelque coin ‘le terre, tout en se préparant à faire mieux lorsque la guerre serait terminée, Je le soupçonne aussi d’avoir traité du castor, car outre ses antécédents au magasin des Compagnies, qui lui avaient procuré l’expé- rience de la chose, nous savons que, plus tard, à Boucherville, il eut des intérêts dans ce commerce, En 1683, il est mentionné au nombre des six ou sept traiteurs qui envoyaient des canots sur les grands lacs à la re- cherche des pelleteries. {suzre] PIERRE BOUCHER ET SON LIVRE 105 M. de Lauzon étant retourné en France (1657), et voyant en 1659 que M. Boucher n'était plus au gouvernement de Trois-Rivières, il voulut faire reconnaître les services d’un homme de si grand mérite ; c’est pour- quoi il s’adressa au marquis Isaac de Pas de Feuquiéres, vice-roi de l'Amérique française, lequel obtint des lettres de noblesse et les envoya à M. Boucher en 1661, accompagnées d’une missive flatteuse. Louis XIV prenait en main, cette même année, la conduite des affaires du royaume et des colonies ; ce fut son acte de début en faveur du Canada. L’honneur d’être le premier Canadien anobli désignait tout naturelle - ment M. Boucher pour une mission qui se préparait depuis quelques mois dans l’esprit de bien des personnes. La paix signée avec toute |’ Eu- rope, Mazarin disparu de la scène, les Cent-Associés réduits à néant, les faux habitants perdus de dettes, les démélés du gouverneur et de M“ de Taval, la guerre des Iroquois, formaient autant de sujets de méditation. Un homme d'énergie et de haute intelligence pouvait espérer d’être en- tendu à la cour en exposant l'état de la colonie. Quand on sut que l’ancien gouverneur de Trois-Rivières allait à Paris, il y eut, cela va sans dire, cabale et démarches pour nuire à sa mission. Les conflits d'intérêts personnels ou de communautés existeront: toujours en ce monde. A quel parti appartenait donc M. Boucher? Au parti des vrais habitants, d’après tout ce que nous voyons de lui. Il y en avait deux autres: les marchands qui espéraient tirer avantage d’une refonte du système commercial, et les jésuites, dont la politique est sans cesse en éveil pour profiter des changements qui surviennent. M. Boucher n’était l'homme ni de l’une ni de l’autre de ces deux combinai- sons. Depuis longtemps déjà, les jésuites lui témoignaient leur senti- ment en parlant de lui dans les Relations, mais sans jamais le nommer. Les marchands savaient parfaitement que les projets de colonisation et d'industrie du délégué des vrais habitants, amèneraient l’abolition des monopoles sur les pelleteries et les marchandises. Pour la première fois un Canadien allait se faire ouvrir la porte du ministre des colonies. Ll y a cinquante ans, nous faisions des efforts pour obtenir la même faveur en Angleterre afin de mettre un terme aux abus de l'administration. L'histoire se répète, on le sait. M. d'Avaugour, gouverneur général, écrivit un rapport très remar- quable sur la défense de la colonie et l’ensemble de ses affaires. M. Boucher, qui avait toute sa confiance, se chargea de plaider cette cause en haut lieu. M. d’Avaugour demandait trois mille soldats pour en finir avec les Iroquois. Il est malheureux que ce projet n'ait pas été exécuté dans son ensemble. M. Boucher aurait voulu pouvoir transporter aux frais du roi six cents colons qu'il savait être en état de trouver parmi les bons cultivateurs du Perche. Tous deux avaient raison et se montraient plutôt modérés qu’extravagants dans leurs calculs ; néanmoins, ils ne gagnérent pas la moitié de ce qu'ils demandaient, et ce fut Boucher qui emporta le plus gros morceau. 106 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA Il trouva la France glorieuse, se reposant dans la paix depuis quelques mois, après une série de guerres qui avaient duré trente-quatre ans. On fétait la naissance du premier enfant de Louis XIV. Mazarin venait de mourir, ce qui, tout grand ministre qu’il eût été, ne causait aucun chagrin au Canada. Le changement de ministère qui en résulta fut pour le mieux, en ce qui nous concernait, Le roi prenait en main la conduite des affaires, et, à vingt-deux ans, se révélait digne d’une aussi noble tâche. Colbert, l’un de ses conseillers, esprit vaste, préparé de longue main aux grandes œuvres du gouvernement, tenait déjà une place marquante auprès de lui. Les anciens abus financiers que le pompeux Nicolas Fouquet personnifiait encore sous Mazarin, étaient attaqués de front par Colbert, qui, en cette année 1661, abattit Fouquet et lui imposa une prison perpétuelle. Un esprit souveau soufilait autour du trône; l'ère des réformes commençait; le moment était donc propice à la tentative qu'allait faire Penvoyé de M. d’Avaugour, dans l'espoir d'obtenir du souverain quelque protection pour le Canada. Depuis vingt-huit ans que la colonie comptait un certain nombre d'habitants stables, elle n'avait en quelque sorte été connue ni du pouvoir, ni de la cour, ni de la ville, parce que, livrée a des marchands qui formaient le cercle autour d'elle, la con- naissance de sa situation et de ses ressources était systématiquement reléguée dans l'ombre. Seules les Relations des jésuites circulaient libre- ment en France, déroulant le tableau des horreurs de la température, des grandes forêts et des guerres sauvages de cette contrée perdue au delà des mers, C’était un autre Fouquet à détruire. Le roi écouta M. Boucher avec une curiosité sympathique. I] mani- festa du chagrin en apprenant qu'un pays très propre à devenir une belle et riche province avait pu être si longtemps négligé. Ces révélations lui inspirèrent l’idée de ne point perdre de vue désormais ce qui se passerait sur le Saint-Laurent, et, comme lenvoyé parlait des besoins de la colonie, de ce qu'elle pourrait rendre en échange de l’aide qu'elle recevrait, de l'excellent esprit qui animait les habitants, de l'honneur de la couronne, de l'avantage d'occuper cette belle portion de l'Amérique du Nord, il en conclut qu'il devait prêter main-forte à cette entreprise. La science, la sagacité, le patriotisme du Canadien avait touché l'esprit de ce monarque qui fut si remarquable par sa vaste ambition, et qui entrevoyait le déve- loppement de son pouvoir à mesure que, par l'imagination, il remontait avec l’orateur le cours du fleuve et les grands lacs sur les bords desquels se dresserait un jour un nouvel empire français. Cette décision entrainait l'envoi d’une force armée pour contenir les Cing-Nations, puis la retraite des Cent-Associés, de la compagnie de iouen et du syndicat dit des Habitants, afin de laisser la place libre au pouvoir royal. Par suite le recrutement des colons pouvait commencer en France. Ces trois sujets importants une fois expliqués et entendus, le roi demanda à M. Boucher d'écrire un livre exposant les ressources natu- [svLTH] PIERRE BOUCHER ET SON LIVRE 107 relles du Canada, pour aider aux opérations qui allaient avoir lieu, en donnant au public un aperçu de la Nouvelle-France absolument vrai. Durant l'hiver 1661-62, M. Boucher engagea cent colons à partir avec lui pour le Canada. D'autres personnes en trouvèrent une centaine dans le Poitou et vers la Rochelle. Le roi donna ordre d’embarquer cent soldats au printemps, et promit d’en envoyer trois cents l’année suivante. On entama des négociations avec les Cent-Associés dans le but d’abolir leur privilège et de rendre à la couronne les terres du Canada. Avant que de quitter Paris, M. Boucher prit des arrangements avec M. de Lauzon pour se faire mettre en possession de la seigneurie de Saint- François-du-Lac et Yamaska, dont ii reçut le titre le 20 avril 1662. Ceci montrerait que, dans le cas où la guerre des Iroquois se terminerait, il aurait voulu s'établir à proximité du lac Saint-Pierre. L'heure de partir étant arrivée, deux vaisseaux prirent les deux cents colons et les cent soldats. Si l’on songe que toute la population blan- che du Canada ne dépassait guère 2,000 âmes, colons, traiteurs, engagés, religieux et religieuses compris, on peut se faire une idée de la valeur de ce secours. Malheureusement, il n’y avait à bord des vaisseaux, des provisions que pour deux mois; la traversée dura du milieu de juin au milieu d'octobre 1662, quatre mois, pendant lesquels quarante personnes moururent de ma- ladie et de misère. En passant à Terre-Neuve, M. Dumont, commissaire du roi, ayant la surveillance de l'expédition, y laissa un ecclésiastique et trente soldats, pour la protection des pêcheries, ce qui réduisit d'autant le nombre de bras dont le Canada avait besoin. MM. Dumont et Boucher arrivèrent à Québec le 27 octobre, après avoir été retenus à Tadoussac par les difficultés de la navigation. Malgré ces contretemps, cet envoi fit renaître l'espoir dans le pays, surtout lorsque l’on sut que le roi entendait continuer son aide, et que la compagnie des Cent-Associés allait remettre ses privilèges pour faire place à une administration plus appropriée aux besoins du moment. Tout un monde nouveau s'ouvrait aux yeux des Canadiens. Dans sa séance du 17 octobre de l’année suivante (1663), le Conseil souverain de Québec, examinant les papiers de cette expédition, trouve que sur les cent hommes amenés de France en 1662 par le sieur Pierre Boucher, il en est décédé trente-trois, soit dans le passage, soit dans les douze premiers mois après leur débarquement. Le Conseil déclare que si le roi ne rembourse pas le sieur Boucher des dépenses encourues pour ceux-ci, la compagnie des Cent-Associés devra le faire. . Quant aux soix- ante et sept autres, les habitants qui les ont pris à gage devront acquitter la part de chacun de ces hommes. Je cite ces faits pour montrer à peu près comment débuta le nouvel état de choses, en ce qui concerne les immigrants. Sur les deux navires de 1662 vinrent Louis Garneau, du Poitou, et 108 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA Marie Mazoué, de la Rochelle, c'est à dire pays voisins ; leur mariage eut lieu à Québec l’année suivante. Garneau était cultivateur. Je me de- mande si cet ancêtre de notre historien national avait été personnellement induit par Boucher à partir pour le Canada. Quoi qu'il en soit, ce dernier fut l'âme de l’entreprise en question, laquelle marque un point de départ absolument nouveau dans l'administration de la colonie et je me plais, vu la circonstance, à rapprocher deux noms si bien faits pour aller ensemble. Parlant de M. Dumont, la mère de l'Incarnation dit : “ Après que ce gentilhomme eut examiné toutes choses, il est tombé d’accord sur tout ce que M. le gouverneur (d’Avaugour) avait mandé au roi, et que M. Boucher lui avait confirmé de bouche, que l’on peut faire en ce pays un royaume plus grand et plus beau que celui de France. C’est le sentiment de ceux qui disent s’y connaitre ”. Il n'y a pas de trace d’un arrivage de troupes ou de colons en 1663, avant le 15 septembre de cette année, jour où monseigneur de Laval revint de France amenant le nouveau gouverneur, M. Saffray de Mézy, et M. Gaudais Dupont, commissaire chargé par le roi de s’enquérir de l'état des affaires du pays. Avec ces personnages étaient cent familles et quelques officiers, tant militaires que civils. Aussitôt revenu de France, l'automne de 1662, M. Boucher fut rétabli dans sa charge de gouverneur de Trois-Rivières, et c’est de ce lieu que, le 8 octobre 1663, il signe la préface de son Histoire naturelle de la Nou- velle-France. Le 24 octobre 1664, il se démet de sa charge de juge qui passe à Michel Leneuf du Hérisson, puis, au mois de septembre 1667, il aban- donne son poste de gouverneur de Trois-Rivières pour aller se fixer à Boucherville. I] venait de marier sa fille ainée à René Gauthier de Varennes, officier du régiment de Carignan, qui lui succéda et conserva le gouvernement de Trois-Rivières jusqu’à 1689, date de sa mort. De l'union que je viens de mentionner naquit Pierre Gauthier de Varennes sieur de la Vérendrye, découvreur du Nord-Ouest. La famille de M. Boucher se composait en 1667 de six garçons et trois filles ; elle atteignit le chiffre de quinze enfants en 1676; sur ce nombre il y eut deux prêtres, une religieuse, quatre filles mariées et cinq chefs de famille, trois seigneurs et militaires. Ces derniers, ainsi que leurs descendants, ont porté les noms de Boucherville, Grandpré, Grosbois, Labroquerie, Labruyére, Laperrière, Montbrun, Montarville, Monti- zambert, Niverville et Verchères, dont plusieurs subsistent de nos jours. On les rencontre dans les voyages, la guerre, la littérature, la politique, sans interruption depuis deux siècles. Pour son fils aîné, M. de Boucherville, comme on l’appelait, se fit concéder en 1672 la seigneurie de Grosbois ou Machiche. En 1673, il passa les terres de Saint-Frangois-du-Lac à son beau-frère, Jean Crevier, [suLTE] PIERRE BOUCHER ET SON LIVRE 109 qui, sans retard, y attira des colons de Trois-Riviéres et mit ces pro- priétés en valeur, En 1673 également, M. Boucher vendit à Michel Leneuf de la Vallière la seigneurie d’Yamaska, qui fut encore de longues années sans recevoir de colons. La seigneurie de Boucherville se recruta, comme Saint-François, des colons de Trois-Rivières, Au recensement de 1681, on voit que les travaux avaient marché avec une certaine rapidité, si on les compare aux autres domaines du district de Montréal. Par exemple, M. de Sorel possédait 150 arpents de terre mis en valeur ; mais il en tenait une bonne partie du roi, qui avait fait opérer des défrichements par les soldats avant que de donner la seigneurie à cet officier. Ensuite viennent MM. de Repen- tigny et de Boucherville avec chacun 100 arpents en valeur, puis M. de Contrecceur avec 80; les autres tombent dans les 40 et 30 arpents. Après 1681, M. Boucher vécut encore trente-six ans sur ses terres, conservant ses facultés mentales, comme le prouve le recueil d’avis et recommandations qu'il adresse à sa famille durant les derniers mois de son existence, et qu'il intitule ses Adieux. Ayant vécu vingt ans sous Louis XIII, soixante-treize ans sous Lows XIV, il dépassa ce dernier règne de deux ans, et mourut sous Louis XV, âgé de quatre-vingt-quinze ans, l'année 1717 ; son épouse le suivit dans la tombe en 1727, âgée de quatre-vingt-seize ans, ayant vu son petit-fils devenir grand-père. Les trois hommes les plus remarquables qu’ait produits le Canada au dix-septième siècle, sont peut-être Boucher, d’Iberville et la Véren- drye : un colonisateur, un officier de marine, un découvreur. Boucher contribue puissamment à l'abolition d'un régime qui tenait la colonie dans les langes, et il préche ensuite d'exemple lorsqu'il s'agit de se mettre à l’œuvre pour établir le pays. Ainsi, outre le rôle politique qu'il joue, on le trouve parmi les trois ou quatre plus grands cultivateurs de la période de Colbert. D'Iberville promène sur les côtes de l'Amérique du Nord son pavillon victorieux, et balance à lui seul la fortune militaire dans les postes de la baie d'Hudson, Terre-Neuve, l’Acadie, le Maine. Il prépare des plans d'action qui pouvaient livrer tout le continent à la France, s'ils eussent été suivis par le roi. Il découvre les bouches du Mississipi et fonde la colonie de la Louisiane. ) La Vérendrye gagne ses éperons par une conduite héroique dans les batailles de l’Europe, revient au Canada, s'enfonce dans l'Ouest, devine le Nord-Ouest, le parcourt en vingt années de voyages inouis, place des forts dans la moitié de ces territoires, nous révèle les Montagnes-Ro- cheuses et l'étendue du continent dans sa largeur. La Vérendrye était le petit-fils de Boucher, et Boucher était le parrain de d’Iberville et de la Vérendrye. Cette double coïncidence est digne d’une mention dans l’histoire. 110 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA Il.—NoricE BIBLIOGRAPHIQUE, La présente édition du livre de M. Boucher est la cinquième qui s'imprime, comme nous allons voir : Le fac-simile de la page de titre de la première édition reproduit avec cette notice parle par lui-même. Ce volume renferme 168 pages, à part 24 pages comprenant le titre, une épitre à Colbert, un avant-propos et une table des chapitres, le tout sur papier commun, bonne encre, beau aractère, format petit in-12. En tête de chaque page, au verso, on lit Histoire Naturelle et au recto, en regard, de Canadas. Dans le texte on ne voit qu’une seule fois Canada avec un s. Le livre devait avoir ses ennemis, dès qu'il peignait sous des couleurs favorables l’entreprise lointaine du Canada que, de leur côté, les exploi- teurs représentaient tout en noir. Le moyen que prennent d'ordinaire les gens incapables de répondre à la vérité consiste à faire acheter le plus d'exemplaires possible de l'ouvrage et de les brûler. C’est ce qui eut lieu ; aussi, le petit livre devint-il presque aussitôt après sa sortie des presses, d'une rareté extrême. Aujourd'hui, les cing ou six exemplaires connus qui en restent se vendent au delà de 100 piastres. Il y en a un à la bibliothèque fédérale qui a appartenu à Charles Gayarré, l'historien de la Louisiane, et un autre qui porte l'ex-libris de la fameuse Sunderland Library, Blenheim- Palace, en très bon état de conservation, avec reliure du temps en cuir brun fort. C’est la propriété du docteur J. G. Bourinot, notre digne collègue à la Société royale et travailleur infatigable. 11 m’a permis de copier l'ouvrage ; c’est grâce à lui par conséquent que je le ‘donne au public. Il y a cinquante ans, l’éditeur de / Album du Canadien de Québec réso- lut de populariser ce travail méritoire tombé dans l’oubli. I le publia tout entier en feuilleton, l’année 1849, mais, faute de renseignements historiques à sa disposition, il se contenta d’y ajouter une courte notice empruntée au Catalogue d'ouvrages sur l'Histoire de l'Amérique et en par- ticulier sur celle du Canada, de la Louisiane, de ? Acadie et autres lieux connus sous le nom de Nouvelle-France, imprimé à Québec en 1837 par George-Barthélemi Faribault, de qui on peut dire qu'il fit ce catalogue et devint un grand homme sans beaucoup de peine. Cette seconde édition renferme 73 pages sur papier commun mesurant 84 pouces par 53, imprimées d’une encre pâle. L’épellation des mots est moderne, ce qui rend Ja lecture plus facile. Voici la notice en question : “ L'auteur de ce petit ouvrage n’est pas le père Pierre Boucher, jésuite, comme l’ont cru le père Le Long et M. l’abbé Lenglet, mais le sieur Boucher qui a été gouverneur des Trois-Rivières et un des premiers habitants de la Nouvelle-France : 1] est mort âgé de près de cent ans. II avait été député à la cour pour représenter les besoins de la colonie, et ce fut lors de ce voyage en France qu'il fit imprimer cette relation, qui ne {suLTE] PIERRE BOUCHER ET SON LIVRE 111 comprend qu’une notice assez superficielle, mais, fidèle, du Canada, dit le père Charlevoix.” (M. de Fontette.) Examinons ces quelques lignes : Jacques Lelong érudit, né à Paris en 1665, mort en 1721, bibliothé- caire de la congrégation de l’Oratoire, fut un grand travailleur, qui publia ses ouvrages après l'âge de quarante-cinq ans. Dans sa Bibliothèque historique il confond notre Pierre Boucher avec un religieux français du même nom. Nicolas Lenglet du Fresnoy, né en 1674, mort en 1755, quitta la théo- logie pour l’histoire et la politique, eut une vie agitée et publia de nom- breux ouvrages. Il était savant, malin, franc gaulois, pas toujours de bonne foi, indépendant, et grand tireur de ficelles, comme on dit aujour- d'hui. Charles-Marie Fevret de Fontette, né à Dijon en 1710, fut conseiller au parlement de Bourgogne dès 1736 et consacra ses loisirs à préparer une nouvelle édition de la Bibliothèque historique de la France du père Lelong ; il mourut en 1772. Son ouvrage fut terminé par J.-L. Barbeau de la Bruyère, 5 volumes in-fol. Fontette avait aussi formé une collection d’estampes qui est aujourd’hui à la bibliothèque nationale de Paris. Le livre de Boucher, écrit à Trois-Rivières en 1663 fut imprimé à Paris en 1664, et non pas au cours du voyage de l’auteur en France, puisque ce voyage avait eu lieu en 1661-62. On voit maintenant ce que signifie la notice de Fontette. Eh bien ! elle n’est pas de lui. Il a copié Charlevoix, qui avait dit, en 1744, parlant du même livre: “ L'auteur de ce petit ouvrage n’est pas le père Pierre Boucher, jésuite, comme l'a cru M. l'abbé Lenglet du Fresnoy, mais le sieur Pierre Boucher, gouverneur des Trois-Rivières, un des premiers habitants de la Nouvelle-France où, imitateur de la simplicité et de la piété des patriarches, il a participé aux bénédictions que Dieu a répandues sur eux, ayant vu sa nombreuse et florissante postérité jusqu’à la cin- quième génération. Il est mort âgé de près de cent ans et sa veuve, qui lui a survécu de quelques années, a vu les petits-fils de ses petits-fils. Il avait été député à la cour pour représenter les besoins spirituels et tem- porels de la colonie et ce fut dans ce voyage qu'il fit imprimer la petite relation dont il s’agit, et qui ne comprend qu’une notice assez superfi- cielle, mais fort fidèle du Canada.” Charlevoix avait connu Boucher vers 1705 à Boucherville. Le dictionnaire Larousse est superbe: ‘‘ Pierre Boucher, historien français du xvii‘ siècle. Il se rendit au Canada, alors appelé Nouvelle- France, et fut gouverneur des Trois-Rivières. I] a publié sur ce pays un ouvrage intitulé......in-12, en 1665.” L'ouvrage reparut une troisième fois en 1882, par ies soins de Godefroy Coffin, chez Bastien & Ci, Montréal. C’est une brochure de 6 pouces sur 4%, renfermant 164 pages d'un papier commun, encre 112 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA pâle et caractère typographique assez frais. L’épellation primitive est conservée. Les deux pages d'introduction ne disent absolument rien, sauf que la première édition date ‘de 1663” et qu'elle eut ‘“ un beau succès ”, tandis qu’elle est de 1664 et quelle fut supprimée sans retard par la cabale qui avait intérêt à la faire disparaître. Une quatrième fois, en 1883, chez George Desbarats, à Montréal, le petit livre fut réimprimé sous un format de 8 pouces par 5, avec belle encre et bon papier, et un excellent portrait de Pierre Boucher que l'on dit très authentique. C’est une traduction en anglais faite par Edward Louis Montizambert, rédacteur des lois au Sénat. Le tout comprend 85 pages avec table. En deux pages, le traducteur y donne une biogra- phie aussi exacte que possible de l’auteur de ce livre, qui est son ancêtre. Il ajoute (est-ce une erreur typographique ?) que, en 1661, Niverville de Montizambert s'embarqua à la Rochelle pour le Canada, ce qui produit une confusion regrettable puisque en 1661, aucun des jeunes enfants de Pierre Boucher ne portait encore les noms de Niverville ou de Montizam- bert. Le chevalier Boucher de Niverville et de Montizambert était passé en France l'automne de 1760; il revint en 1761 avec la croix de Saint- Louis. Ceci corrigé, disons que le traducteur utilise à son tour la notice de Fontette sans y changer un mot. Les éditeurs de ces quatre éditions ont négligé d’y joindre des notes explicatives du texte même, Je vais tâcher de remplir cette lacune. Reste à examiner ici d’autres considérations d’un ordre plus élevé. Le livre n’ayant pas été contredit par d’autres publications, mais supprimé subrepticement, on peut dire qu'il ne rendit aucun service à la colonie. Toutefois, ce qu’il cherchait à faire comprendre était déjà entré dans la politique de Louis XIV, de Colbert et de Talon : les résultats ne se firent pas attendre. Les plus perdants dans cette affaire, furent les udversaires du livre, car ils durent bientôt abandonner la trop large part qu'ils étaient parvenus à prendre dans la direction du pays. Tout d’abord, le roi retira aux marchands syndiqués le monopole du commerce ; tous les terrains non concédés en seigneuries retournèrent à la couronne ; un régiment fut envoyé pour mettre fin à la guerre des Iroquois ; grand nombre de colons arrivèrent de France ; enfin les Relations des jésuites cessérent de paraître. De 1663 à 1673, tout cela eut lieu, tant et si bien que la colonie devint une importante possession française, en place d’un simple comptoir de traite qu'elle était auparavant. Dans cette notice bibliographique pourquoi ne pas parler des Xela- lions, puisque le sujet s'en présente si à propos? Le lecteur entendra bien mieux maintenant ce que nous avons à en dire que si la chose était rattachée à une étude distincte de celle du livre de Boucher. Les Canadiens se montraient, depuis des années, mécontents des Rela- lions, dans lesquelles les faits étaient presque toujours dénaturés. M. Fran- cois d’Allet, prêtre de Montréal, qui avait habité le pays de 1657 à 1664, [suLTE] PIERRE BOUCHER ET SON LIVRE 113 et qui revint de France en 1668, raconte que: ‘‘ Dès que ces Relations étaient imprimées en France, on (des amis du séminaire de Saint-Sulpice) avait soin de les envoyer aux ecclésiastiques qui étaient à Montréal, et ils gémissaient de voir que les choses étaient rapportées tout autrement qu’elles n'étaient dans la vérité. M. de Courcelles en ayant donné avis à la cour, on donna ordre aux pères jésuites de ne plus faire de Relations.” Il faut noter, toutefois, que, avant la plainte du gouverneur général, des défenses avaient été formulées, et que, en 1664, déjà ne figure plus sur ces imprimés l'approbation des jésuites de France. Ceci coincide singu- lièrement avec les résultats connus du voyage de Pierre Boucher et i’ap- parition du livre de celui-ci. De 1664 à 1669, Sébastien Cramoisy, l’édi- teur de ces feuilles depuis 1632, publie sous son nom, joint à celui de son neveu. En 1670, par suite de la mort de Sébastien, arrivée l’année précé- dente, on ne voit plus que le nom du neveu. Remarquons bien que, si l'approbation du père provincial n'apparaît plus, ces écrits n’en sont pas moins mis en circulation, ce qui n'est pas d’une obéissance exemplaire aux ordres du roi. Ces ouvrages étaient écrits d’après un calcul politique facile à com- prendre, afin de ne pas gêner les marchands français et d'assurer la domi- nation des jésuites sur la colonie, L’exclusivisme qui règne dans ces narrations et que certains fervents ont voulu excuser sous prétexte qu’elles sont consacrées aux affaires religieuses, n’est que trop réel et, par suite, condamnable. Elles nous font souvenir des rapports que les marchands de bois répandaient dans la presse publique et qu'ils faisaient insérer dans les annuaires du gouver- nement canadien, il y a moins de cent ans, pour faire croire que les vallées du Saguenay et de l’Ottawa ne répondraient jamais aux espérances de ceux qui seraient tentés d’y introduire la colonisation. Ces livres noirs préchent dans l'intérêt des gens qui les écrivent. Les jésuites savaient bien ce qu'ils faisaient en colorant d’une teinte lamentable les choses du Canada, puisqu'ils détournaient d’autres influences de l'idée d’y prendre part. Ce n’est point que les jésuites n'aient renfermé dans ces lettres annuelles de précieux renseignements sur l’histoire de la colonie. A titre de pièces de ce genre, elles sont de toute valeur, seulement il faut les lire avec précautions et contrôler les faits. Le parti pris de n’envisager le Canada que comme un pays de missions évangéliques trompe le lecteur. Et puis, il y a des sous-entendus nuisibles aux personnes. Par exemple, on y mentionne ceux qui ne veulent pas le bien de l'Eglise; ceux qui sont opposés à la vérité; ceux que l'esprit d’insubordination inspire ; ceux qui résistent aux ministres du Seigneur. Qui sont ceux-là? De mauvaises gens. On ne les désigne pas autrement. Nous savons qu'il s'agit de ceux qui défendaient leurs intérêts contre un ordre de choses cent fois repréhensible. Sous le couvert de la religion ce pays fut exploité Sec. I., 1896. 8. 114 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA jusqu'au temps de M. d’Avaugour et même jusquà dix années plus tard. Le fait est patent: il n’y a pas d’injure qui puisse le renverser ; cependant, lorsque nous signalons ces abus on nous répond avec des gros mots et même en proférant des menaces ! Qui ne se moquerait, comme l’a fait le père le Clereq, récollet, de ce nombre prodigieux de sauvages convertis qui ont disparu du moment où les Relations ne furent plus admises en France ! Relativement à la population stable du Canada, il y avait eu, de 1640 à 1660, dix hommes de l’ordre des jésuites (serviteurs compris) pour trente âmes, I] est vrai que les missions sauvages en réclamaient une forte partie et que l'habitant n’était pas le préféré de ces pasteurs nomades. De 1665 à 1730 il n’y eut pas de jésuites à Montréal. En 1670, ils quittérent pour toujours le district de Trois-Rivières. Cette dernière année les récollets revinrent, protégés par Courcelles et Talon. I] paraitrait que M. de Courcelles fut celui qui porta les plus rudes coups au systeme de falsification des lettres des missionnaires jésuites. Rome avait déjà reçu des plaintes de plus d’une colonie asiatique ou autres, touchant des Relations analogues. Le 6 avril 1673 une mesure générale confirma les défenses antérieurement promulguées à cet égard, et il n’y eut plus d’équivoque possible car il y était dit que la publication de telles lettres devait cesser ‘“ même celles des jésuites ”. I] fallut se soumettre. Une fois frappés par les mots: “ même celles des jésuites ”, ceux-ci rendirent les armes. La critique n’en continua pas moins à s'exercer sur leur compte, car les Relations existaient toujours. Plus d’une fois des écrivains se sont vu qualifier dames peu charitables pour avoir averti leurs lecteurs de se tenir en garde contre les tableaux des conversions des sauvages et autres descriptions fallacieuses dont ces livres sont bourrés ; mais les jésuites, au temps de leur puissance, étaient-ils justes envers les hommes qu'ils attaquaient et le pays qu'ils dénigraient ! N'ayant pas voulu souffrir que d’autres eussent le même droit qu'eux dans la colonie, ils doivent s'attendre à voir le jour se faire sur leur conduite passée. D'ailleurs, leurs récriminations n’attendrissent que les badauds, puisque les jésuites sont libres comme nous, et qu'ils ne se génent pas de publier, d’an- née en année, des volumes remplis de phrases coléres contre les critiques en question, témoin cet étrange plaidoyer que j'ai sous les yeux, tout fraichement imprimé et qui porte pour titre: Les Jésuites et la Nou- velle-France au XvVn° siècle, par le père Camille de Rochemonteix,—une thèse où l’auteur commence par écarter comme indignes d’attention ceux qui n'ont pas approuvé tout ce qu'ont fait les jésuites. Cela promet beaucoup de vérité! C’est dans cet ouvrage que le père de Rochemonteix, me taxant d'ignorance, raconte, avec plus de détails que je ne l'avais osé: dans mon Aistoire des Canadiens-Francais (IV, 107) que les mission- naires de l'Orient, de l’Asie, de l'Afrique et de l'Amérique du Sud, mêlant à leurs Relations des inexactitudes dommageables, le souverain pontife [sure] PIERRE BOUCHER ET SON LIVRE 115 supprima d’un seul coup toutes ces publications en 1673. Je savais fort bien tout cela, mais, comme je l’ai dit, je n’en demandais pas tant. Deux noirs ne feront jamais un blanc. Les affaires du Canada suffisent pour prouver ce que je dis. Mais c'est le vieil esprit de l'intimidation qui inspire encore le père de Rochemonteix. A lui le bénéfice de sa sortie, car la religion qu'il compromet le laissera seul responsable d'un pareil acte. Après avoir dit que je dépasse la limite du vrai, il prouve que je suis resté de beaucoup en dedans. J.-C. Taché avait pilé sur cette herbe en 1883 : quelqu'un l'a arrêté à temps, car j'allais raconter au publie ce que le père de Rochemonteix, lui, divulgue aujourd’hui dans sa candeur naïve. On s’est étonné qu’un si petit nombre d'exemplaires de ces livres aient été retrouvés dans notre pays : selon toutes les apparences, on ne les y répandait pas, dans la crainte de soulever de justes réclamations. L'objectif des pères c'était la France, ou plutôt cette classe du peuple fran- çais disposée à subventionner les missionnaires. A ce compte, le moins il était fait mention de la colonie agricole, le mieux valait. Svixante et douze ans après 1673, le père Charlevoix, jésuite, publia son Histoire de la Nouvelle-France, qui va jusqu'à 1720, et dans laquelle il verse à pleines mains les textes des Relations. De la est sortie la légende des ‘“ jésuites bienfaiteurs du Canada”, et Dieu sait si elle a été faite et refaite avec adresse depuis lors, afin d'amener les Canadiens à admirer ce que leurs pères auraient volontiers fait disparaître comme obstacle majeur à la prospérité du pays. Sans faire le moindre tort aux jésuites, ou pourrait tirer de leurs Relations un gros volume composé des passages purement historiques, en ayant le soin d’annoter les phrases vagues, et ce livre leur ferait honneur /aux yeux des hommes instruits aussi bien que chez le menu peuple, car, je le répète, il s'y trouve des renseignements uniques dont l’histoire doit ürer parti! Même chose pour les lettres de la mère de l’Incarnation, pour La Hontan et Bacqueville de la Potherie. BENJAMIN SULTE. 1 On imprime en ce moment aux Etats-Unis une édition de grand luxe ren- fermant, outre les Relations des jésuites publiées à Québec en 1858, d’autres lettres des mêmes sources et des écrits du temps par divers auteurs, tels que Lescarbot, les pièces de la série Carayon, celles réunies par O’Callaghan, etc, Le tout est éclairé de notes savantes qui en augmentent la valeur. 116 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA HISTOIRE VERITABLE ET NATVRELLE DEVS MOEVRS ET PRODVCTIONS DNV) OP ASS D E LA NOVVELLEFRANCE, VVLGAIREMENT DITE CANADA hez FLORENTIN LAMBERT, fue Saint lacques, vis à vis Saint Yues, à l'Image Saint Paul. M : DCO CR Anec Permiffion, — A Monseignevr COLBERT, Conseiller du Roy en fon Confeil Royal, Intendant des Finances, & Sur-Intendant des Baftimens de fa Majefté, Baron de Seignelay, &c. Monseignevr, Ayant fait vne Hiftoire Naturelle fuccinte,;mais veritable, de la Nouuelle France, qui eft arrosée du grand Fleuue S. Laurens, & des Lacs & Riuieres qui s’y vont rendre ; i’ay creu que cét Ouurage; vous [suLTE] PIERRE BOUCHER ET SON LIVRE 117 eftoit deu, Dieu vous:ayant donné pour ce pays vn amour particulier, qui sans doute ira croiffant, lors que vous aurez efté plus amplement informé de la bonté & de la beauté de toutes nos contrées. C’est le senti- ment commun de tous ceux qui vous connoiffent, que l’vnique chofe qui ayt pouuoir fur voftre efprit, eft de vous faire bien connoiftre, qu'il y va de la gloire du Roy, et des interefts de la France ; & qu’en fuite l’on peut tout fe promettre de vos foins & de voftre credit. Cela eftant, i’ay creu, Monseignevr, que ce narré pourroit contribuer quelque chofe aux inclina- tions que vous auez déja, de faire fleurir noftre Nouuelle France, & d’en faire vn monde nouueau : lors que vous verrez dans la fimplicité de mon ftile, qui eft fans artifice, que vrayment elle merite d’eftre peuplée, & qu'elle peut aisémeñt receuoir les décharges de l’ancienne France, qui eft fi abondante en homes, que les Royaumes et les Colonies eftrangeres s’en peuplent de iour en iour. Ne vaut-il pas mieux que le Roy conferue fes fujets, les faifant paffer dans la Nouuelle France, & que le nom François foit également floriffant en l’vn & en l’autre Monde, dans l'Amerique & dans l’Europe. Taurois fujet de craindre que cét Ouurage ne fuft pas bien receu de ceux qui recherchent les ornemens de noftre Langue, fi ie ne me reffouuenois qu'ayant eu l'honneur l'année derniere de parler à fa Majefté, & de luy répondre à plufieurs queftions qu’il me faifoit fur le Pays de la Nouuelle France; tant s’en faut qu'il fe rebutaft de mes reponfes fimples & naïues, qu'au contraire il eut la bonté d’en témoigner de l’agréement ; Pay creu, Monseignvr, que vous n’auriez pas moins de bonté pour moy, & que receuant ce petit prefent, que ie vous offre d’vn grand cœur, vous le protegerez, & vous me permettrez de me dire, Monseignevr, De la Ville des Trois- Voftre tres-humble & Riuieres, en la Nouvelle tres-obeiffant feruiteur, France, le 8. Octob. 1663. Pierre Bovcher. AV ANT-PROPOS. Mon cher Lecteur, vous fçaurez que deux raifons m’ont porté à faire ce petit Traité. La premiere eft, que i y ay efté engagé par quantité @honeftes gens," que i’ay eu l'honneur d'entretenir pendant que i’ay efté? en France, & qui ont pris vn grand plaifir d’entendre parler de ce pays SS SSS SSS EEE 1 Hommes de bien, qui ont du mérite et de la probité ; hommes exerçant de l’in- fluence dans leurs cercles : gens de bonne société, de maniéres polies et d'esprit cultivé. Aujourd'hui, être honnête c’est être probe et vertueux. ? La plus ancienne coutume consistait à ajouter la lettre s après une lettre qui devait être accentuée, les caractères appelés accents n’existant pas alors. Ainsi: estait pour était, mesme pour méme, fresne pour fréne. Du temps de M. Boucher il y avait progres ; au lieu d’écrire: eftes pour été, on se servait d’un accent dans la dernière syllabe de ce mot, néanmoins la première syllabe suivait encore la vieille routine. 118 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA icy, & de fe voir defabufez de quantité de mauuaifes opinions qu’ils en auoient conceu: ! en fuite dequoy ils m'ont prié de leur enuoyer vne petite Relation du Pays de la Nouuelle France, c’eft à dire ce que c’eft du Pays, & ce qui s'y trouue, afin de le faire fçauoir à leurs amis.” Le nombre de ceux qui m’en ont prié eftant grand, ie n’aurois pi que malaifément y fatisfaire ; c’eft pourquoy ie me fuis refolu de faire imprimer la prefente Defcription, & les prier d’y auoir recours. La feconde raifon, ceft qu'ayant veu l'affection que fa Majefté témoignoit auoir pour fa Nouuelle France, & la refolution qu'il a prife de détruire les Iroquois nos ennemis, & de peupler ce pays icy; i’ay péfé ? que Vobligerois beaucoup de monde, de ceux qui auroient quelques deffeins d’y venir, ou d’y faire venir quelques-vns de leurs alliez, de leur pouuoir faire connoiftre le pays auant que d’y venir. Il y a longtemps que i’auois cette penfée, & Vattendois toûjours que quelqu’vn mift la main à la plume pour cét effet : mais voyant que per- fonne ne s’en eft mis en deuoir, ie me fuis refolu de faire la prefente defcription, en attendant que quelqu’autre la faffe dans vn plus beau ftile: car pour moy, ie me fuis contenté de vous d'écrire fimplement les chofes, fans y rechercher le beau langage; mais bien de vous dire la vérité auec le plus de naïueté qu'il m’eft poffible, & le plus briévement que faire fe peut ; obmettant tout ce que ie crois eftre fuperflu, & ce qui ne feruiroit qu'à embellir le difcours. le ne vous diray quafi rien qui n’aye déja efté dit par cy-deuant, & que vous ne puiffiez trouuer dans les Relations des RR. PP. Iesuites, ou dans les Voyages du Sieur de Champlain: mais comme cela n'eft pas ramaffé dans vn feul Liure, & qu’il faudroit lire toutes les Relations, pour trouuer ce que i’ay mis icy ;* ce vous fera une facilité, fur tout pour ceux qui n’ont autre deffein que de connoiftre ce que c’eft du pays de la Nouuelle France, & qui ne fe mettent pas en peine de ce qui s’y eft paffé, ny de ce qui sy paffe. C’eft la raifon pour laquelle ie n’en parleray point, quoy qu’il y ayt eu quelque chofe cetteannée de bien extraordinaire, dont ie n’auois rien veu de femblable, depuis enuiron trente ans qu'il y a que ie fuis dans ce Pays icy ; qui eft vn tremble-terre qui a duré plus de fept mois, fur tout vers Tadouffac, où il s’eft fait fentir extraordinairement ; il s’eft fait là des remuémens admirables. Nous en auons eu dans les 1 I] n’en pouvait être autrement puisque, sauf Champlain, tous ceux qui écri- vaient ou parlaient du Canada étaient intéressés à le noircir. ; 2 En France, on pensait que le Canada était un pays d'animaux à fourrures pour le bénéfice des marchands, et qu'il s’y trouvait aussi des Sauvages à convertir a la foi chrétienne. On ne savait rien de plus. * Ceci n’est pas une faute du typographe mais simplement une abréviation très commune autrefois. Le mot ‘ pefé ” doit se lire ‘ penfé ” ou plutôt ‘ pensé.” 4 Ceci est tellement vrai que si l’on détachait des Relations des jésuites ce qui concerne seulement l'histoire naturelle et les ressources du Canada, on en ferait à peine un chapitre. [SULTE] PIERRE BOUCHER ET SON LIVRE 119 comencemens des atteintes aux Trois-Riuieres, & mefme iufques au Mont- Royal. Mais ce qui eft de plus aymable en tous ces bouleuerfemens, & ces fecouffes épouvantables ; ! c’eft que Dieu nous a tellement conferué, que pas uve feule perfonne n’en a receu la moindre incommodité. le n'en diray pas dauantage, les Peres Jefuites en font la Defcription, auec tous les effets qu'il a produit, dans leur Relation, que vous pourez voir auec bien plus de plaifir, le tout y eftant mieux d’écrit que ie ne le pourois pas faire. Vous verrez cy-apres les auantages que l’on peut tirer de ves pays pour le temporel, ie veux dire pour les biens de la terre. Pour le Spirituel, l’on ne peut rien defirer de plus. Nous avons vn Euefque dont le zele & la vertu font au delà de ce que ren puis dire: il eft tout à tous, il fe fait pauure pour enrichir les pauures, et reffemble aux Euefques de la primitiue Eglife. Il eft affisté de plufieurs Preftres feculiers, gens de grande vertu ; car il n’en peut fouffrir d'autres. Les Peres Iefuites fecondent fes deffeins, trauaillant dans leur zele ordinaire infatigablement pour le falut des François & des Sauvages. En vn mot, les gens de bien peuuent viure icy bien contens ; mais non pas les mefchans, veu qu'ils y font éclairez de trop prés : c’eft pour- quoy ie ne leur confeille pas d’y venir; car ils pourroient bien en eftre chaftez, & du moins eftre obligez de s’en retirer, comme plufieurs ont déja fait : & ce font ceux-là proprement qui décrient fort le Pays, n’y ayans pas rencontré ce qu'ils penfoient. ” Je ne doute pas que ces gens-là, qui ont efté le rebut de la Nouuelle France, quand ils entendront lire cette mienne Defcription, ne difent que jaioufte à la verité : & peut-eftre encore quelques autres perfonnes diront le mefme, non pas par malice, mais par ignorance : Ie vous affeure, mon cher Lecteur, que iay veu la plus grande partie de tout ce que ie dis, & le refte ie le fçay par des perfonnes tres-dignes de foy. Ie fçay bien que vous trouuerez d’autres fautes, & quantité mefme contre l’ordre de la narration ; mais ie crois que vous me les pardonnerez bien volontiers, quand vous confidererez que ce n’eft pas mon meftier de compofer; que d’ailleurs ie n’ay fait ce petit abregé de la Nouuelle France, que pour obliger diuerfes perfonnes, en attendant que quelque meilleure plume le faffe plus exactement & dans vn plus beau ftile ; c’eft en partie pour cela que lay obmis quantité de belles chofes dignes d'un Lecteur curieux, & n’ay cherché qu’à eftre le plus bref poffible, & cepen- dant donner à connoiftre ce qui eft abfolument neceffaire. 1 Le point-virgule et la simple virgule semblent avoir une valeur identique aux yeux de M. Boucher, et on peut dire la même chose de tous les hommes de son temps. 2 Ceci montre combien, jusque-là, on avait surveillé la conduite des immigrants. 120 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA TABLE DES CHAPITRES. Chap. I. De la Nouuelle France en general. Chap. II. Briefue defcription de Quebec, & de quelques autres lieux. Chap. III. Defcription des terres dont nous auons connoiffance. Chap. IV. Des Arbres qui croiffent dans la Nouuelle France. Chap. V. Noms des Animaux qui fe rencontrent au Pays de la Nouuelle France. Chap. VI. Noms des Oyfeaux qui fe voyent en la Nouuelle France. Chap. VII. Noms des Poiffons qui se trouuent dans le grand Fleuue faint Laurens, & dans les Lacs & Riuieres qui defcendent, dont nous auons connoiffance. Chap. VIII. Noms des Bleds & autres grains apportez d'Europe, qui croiffent en ce pays. Chap. IX. Des Sauuages de la Nouuelle France, & de leur façon de viure. Chap. X. Continuation fur le mefme fujet. Chap. XI. La maniere que les Sauuages font la guerre. Chap. XII. De la façon qu'ils traitent les Prifonniers de guerre. Shap. XIII. Réponfes aux queftions qui ont efté faites à l’Autheur lors- qu'il eftoit en France. Chap. XIV. Suite du mefme fujet. Chap. XV. Remarques qui ont efté obmifes aux Chapitres precedens. HISTOIRE NATVRELLE DE CANADAS. De la Nouuelle-France en general, Chapitre premier. Parlant de la Nouuelle-France en general, ie peux dire que c’eft vn bon Pays, & qui contient en foy vne bonne partie de ce que l’on peut defirer. La terre y eft tres-bonne, y produit à merueille, & n’eft point ingratte ; Nous en auons l'experience. Le Pays eft couuert de tres-belles & épaiffes forefts, lefquelles font peuplées de quantité d’Animaux, & de diuerfes efpeces ; & ce qui eft encor plus confiderable, c’eft que lefdites forefts font entre-coupées de grandes & petites riuieres de tres-bonnes aux, auec quantité de fources & belles fontaines ; de grands & petits lacs, bordez auffi-bien que les riuieres de belles & grandes prairies, qui pro- duifent d’auffi bonnes herbes qu’en France: Dans ces lacs & riuieres, il [SULTE] PIERRE BOUCHER ET SON LIVRE 121 s’y trouue grand nombre de toutes fortes de Poiffons, tres-bons & delicats ; Il s'y rencontre auffi grande quantité de Gibier de riuiere: le Pays eft fort fain; les Animaux qu’on amene de France fe nouriffent fort bien ; on y void plufieurs plantes rares qui ne fe trouuent point en France ; il y a peu de plantes qui foient nuifibles à l’homme ; & au contraire, il y a beaucoup de fimples qui ont des effets merueilleux. I] y auffi peu d’Animaux mal-faisans ; on a découuert des fontaines d’eau falée, dont l'on peut tirer de tres-bons fel, & d'autres qui font Mineralles. Il y en a vne au Pays des Iroquois, qui jette vne eau graffe, qui eft comme de l'huile, et dont on fe fert en beaucoup de chofes au lieu d'huile.” Ilya aussi plufieurs mines, à ce que l’on dit; ce dont ie fuis affeuré, c’eft qu'il y en a de fer & de cuiure en plufieurs endroits ; diuerfes perfonnes dignes de foy m'ont affeuré qu'il y en a vne de plomb fort abondance, * & qui n’eft pas bien loin de nous: mais comme c’eft fur le chemin par où paffent nos Ennemis, on n’a encore ozé y aller pour en faire la découuerte : Les climats y font differens felon les lieux ; mais ie puis toufiours dire en gros, qu'aux lieux les plus froids, l’Hyuer y eft plus guay qu’en France. Te donneray vne plus parfaite connaiffance, quand ie traitteray de chaque chofe en particulier, comme j'efpere faire pour la fatisfaction du Lecteur. La Nouuelle-France eft vn tres-grand Pays, qui eft coupé en deux par un grand fleuue nommé le Fleuue saint Laurens: Son emboucheure commence à Gafpé, & a cinquante lieués* de large: pour fa longueur, nous n’en sçauons autre chofe, finon qu'il prend fon origine du lac des Hurons, autrement appelé la Mer-douce, que l'on tient auoir enuiron trois cents lieuës de contour: de forte qu'il fe trouue que depuis Gafpé jufques audit lac, il y a prés de cinq cens lieués, par le circuit qu’elle fait. Dans cedit lac ou mer-douce, fe décharge yn autre lac appelé le lac Superieur, lequel ne lui cede gueres, felon le rapport qui nous en a efté fait par les Sauuages de ces Pays-la, & mefme par des François qui en font venus depuis peu f. Tout ce grand Pays nous demeure inconnu, à caufe de la guerre des Troquois*, qui nous empefchent d’en faire la découuerte, comme il feroit fouhaitable. 1 C'est du pétrole. 2 En 1613 on connaissait les mines de cuivre du lac Supérieur ; en 1621 on mon- trait à Québec des échantillons de cuivre et de plomb du pays; en 1660 les mines de fer de Batiscan étaient signalées ; en 1662 la mère de l’Incarnation parle de mines ‘qui se rencontrent en divers endroits. 3 Pourquoi un tréma sur l’e dans le mot “‘lieue”? Ce signe ne répond à aucun besoin de prononciation. 4 Radisson et son beau-frère Chouart des Groseilliers. 5 Par la vallée de l'Ohio les Iroquois étaient parvenus, avant 1663, à terroriser le pays des Illinois; par le lac Huron ils allaient frapper coup dans le Wisconsin. Tout le Haut-Canada était en leur pouvoir. Ils envoyaient des bandes ravager les campements sauvages entre la rivière Ottawa et le lac Saint-Jean, au Saguenay, sans compter leurs pointes sur Montréal, Trois-Rivières et aux environs de Québec. 122 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA Il eft vray que ce Pays de la Nouuelle-France a quelque chofe d’affreux à fon abord : car à voir l’Ifle de Terre-neufve, où eft Plaifance, les Ifles Saint Pierre, le Cap de Baye, l’Ifle Saint Paul, & les autres Terres de l'entrée du Golfe, tout cela donne plus deffroy et d’ennuie de s’en éloigner, que de defir d’y vouloir habituer’; c'eft pourquoi ie ne m'eftonne pas fi ce Pays a demeuré fi long-temps fans eftre habitué”. Te trouue, apres tout confideré, qu'il ne lui manque que des Habitans. C’eft la raifon qui m'a obligé à faire ce petit Traité ?, pour informer auec verité tous ceux qui auroient de l'inclination pour le Pays de la Nouuelle- France, & qui auroient quelques volontez de s'y venir habituer, & pour ofter { la mauuaife opinion que le vulgaire en a, & que mal-à-propos on menace d’enuoyer les garnemens en Canadas® comme par punition ; vous affeurant tout au contraire, il y a peu de perfonnes de ceux qui y font venus, qui ayent aucun deffein de retourner en France, fi des affaires de grande importance ne les y appellent ; & ie vous diray fans déguifement, que pendant mon séjour à Paris & ailleurs! l’année précédente jay fait rencontre de plufieurs perfonnes affez à leur aife, qui auroient efté par cy-devant Habitants de noftre Canada, & qui s’en eftoient retirez à cause de la guerre’, lefquels m'ont affeuré qu'ils eftoient dans vne grande impatience d'y reuenir: tant il eft vray que la Nouvelle-France a quelque chofe d’attrayant pour ceux qui en fçauent goufter les douceurs. Pour vous rendre la fuitte de ce Traitté plus intelligible, ie vous diray la diftance qui fe trouue de lieux à autres qui font habitez, ou qui font remarquables pour leur* Havres, ou pour autres chofes. Nous lairons * donc toute l'entrée du Golfe, dont j’ay parlé cy-deffus, comme d'vn Pays qui ne vaut pas la peine qu’on en écriue rien; Nous dirons feulement que depuis l’Ifle Percée jufques à Gafpé, il y a fept lieuës, de Gafpé à Tadouffac quatre-vingt-trois lieuës ; de Tadouffac iufques à Quebec, trente lieués; de Quebec iufques aux trois Riuieres 1 Habituer se disait alors pour habiter. 2 Personne, si ce n'est Champlain, n'avait cherché a faire comprendre ce que valait le Canada, pour des colons sédentaires, une fois la porte du golfe Saint- Laurent franchie. M. Boucher connaissait fort bien les manœuvres qui étaient constamment employées dans le but d’en gêner la colonisation, mais il préfère, évidemment, n’en rien dire. 2 3 Voilà la clef du livre : faire venir des cultivateurs. 4 Oter. 5 Est-ce M. Boucher ou Vimprimeur qui écrivait ‘‘Canadas” au lieu de ‘Canada ” ? 6 L'hiver de 1651-62. Outre son séjour a Paris, Boucher avait dû en effet visiter la province, le Perche notamment, son lieu de naissance, puisqu'il recrata cent colons ponr sa part, tandis que d’autres personnes en engageaient cent également qui me paraissent étre venus du Poitou et de la Rochelle. 7 La mere de l’Inearnation, vers 1653, laisse entendre que certaines personnes voulaient retourner en France a cause de la guerre des Iroquois. 8 Sic. 9 L'auteur avait dû mettre “ laifferons”. [SULTE] PIERRE BOUCHER ET SON LIVRE 128 trente lieuës, des trois Riuieres au mont-Royal trente lieuës, des trois Riuieres iufques aux Iroquois d’en-bas, nommez Anieronnons |, qui font proche de la Nouvelle-Hollande, il y a enuiron quatre-vingt lieuës ; du mont-Royal iufques aux Troquois du milieu, nommez Onnontagueronnons, il y a pareillement euuiron quatre-vingt lieuës : du mont-Royal iufques au Pays où demeuroient autrefois les Hurons ?; il y a deux cens lieues: tout ce grand fleuue & ces grands lacs font remplis de belles ifles de toute forte de grandeurs. La grande Riuiere vient du Couchant au Leuant. L'eau en eft falée * iufques au Cap ! ourmente, qui eft fept lieuës au deffous de Quebec ; l'on compte de Quebec fur le grand Banc de Terre-neufve, où l’on va pefcher les Molués*, trois cens lieuës. Aux enuirons de I’Ifle Percée”, il fe trouue grand nombre d’huitres en écailles, qui font parfaitement bonnes. Il y a auffi en ces quartiers-là vn cofteau de charbon de terre°; il y a pareillement vn peu plus deca vne Platriére ; il me refte à vous dire par quelle hauteur font nos habita- tions, pour vous rendre le tout plus intelligible. Vous feaurez donc que Gafpé eft par les quarante-neuf degrez & dix minuttes ; Tadouffac par les quarante-huit degrez & vn tiers ; Quebec par les quarante-fix trois quarts; les trois Riuieres par les quarante-fix ; Mont-Royal par les quarante-cing ; les Irroquois du Milieu, où on auoit habitué cy-deuant’, nommez Onnontagueronnons, par les quarante-deux & vn quart. Briefue defcription de Quebec, & de quelques-autres lieux. Chapitre second, Comme ie feray obligé dans la fuitte de mon difcours, de parler fouuent de Quebec, qui eft la principale habitation que nous ayons en la Nouuelle-France, & le lieu qui a efté le premier habité par les François ; Pay creu qu'il eftoit à propos que j'en fiffe dés le commencement vne groffiere defcription, afin de donner plus d'intelligence au Lecteur. Quebec est donc la principale habitation où refide le Gouuerneur General de tout le Pays, il y a vne bonne fortereffe et vne bonne gar- ! Les Agniers ou Mohawks dont les villages étaient assez près d’Albany, poste hollandais alors nommé Orange. ? A la baie Georgienne, au lac Simcoe ou Toronto et à Penetanguishine. 3 Salée depuis la mer jusqu’au cap Tourmente. 4 Morhua et molua, disent les dictionnaires. Jusqu'au xvirI* siècle nous disions ‘‘molue”; ensuite on a adopté “morue”. Le nom scientifique est encore morrhua. 5 Au large de Gaspé. $ On connaissait les dépôts de charbon du cap Breton des cette époque. 7 En 1656. Cette tentative de former une mission et une colonie chez les Onnon- tagués n’avait pas réussi. C'était à peu près où est la ville de Syracuse. 124 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA nison : comme auffi vne belle Eglife qui fert de Paroiffe, & qui eft comme la Cathedrale de tout le Pays: le Seruice s’y fait auec les mefmes cere- monies que dans les meilleures paroiffes de France’; c’eft auffi dans ce lieu que refide l'Euefque. Il y a vn College de Iefuites, un Monaftere d’Vrfelines qui inftruifent toutes les petites filles, ce qui fait beaucoup de bien au Pays; auffi bien que le College des Iefuites pour l’inftruction de toute la jeuneffe dans ce Pays naiffant. I] y a pareillement vn Conuent? d'Hofpitalieres*®, qui eft vn grand foulagement pour les pauures malades. C'eft dommage qu’elles n’ont dauantage de reuenu. Quebec eft fitué fur le bord du grand fleuue faint Laurens, qui a enuiron vne petite lieué de large en cet endroit-la, & qui coule entre deux grandes terres éleuées ; cette fortereffe, les Eglifes & les Monafteres, & les plus belles maifons, font bafties fur le haut ; plusieurs maifons & magazins font baftis au pied du cofteau, fur le bord du grand Fleuue, à l’occafion des Nauires qui viennent jufques-la; car c’eft là le terme de la Nauigation pour les Nauires ; l’on ne croit pas qu'ils puiffent paffer plus auant fans rifque. Vne lieuë au deffous de Quebec la riuiere fe fepare en deux, & forme vne belle Ifle, qu'on appelle l’'Ifle d’Orleans,* qui a enuiron dix-huit lieuës de tour, dans laquelle il y a plufieurs Habitans : les terres y font fort bonnes ; il y a auffi quantité de prairies le long des bords. Quebec eft bafty fur le roc ; & en creufant les caues, on tire de la pierre dequoy faire les logis; toutesfois cette pierre n’eft pas bien bonne, & elle ne prend pas le mortier: ceft vn efpece de marbre noir; mais à vne lieuë de la, foit au deffus ou au deffous, on en trouue qui eft parfai- tement bonne fur le bord du dit fleuue, qui fe taille fort bien, On trouue dans Quebec de la pierre à chaux, & de la terre graffe pour faire de la brique, paué, thuile, & autres chofes femblables, quatre ou cinq cens pas au deffous de la fortereffe, la terre eft coupée par vne belle riuiere nom- mée la riuiere faint Charles, qui a près d’vne lieuë de large en fa décharge dans la grande riuiere, quand la marée eft haute; car de marée baffe, elle eft prefque toute à fec, ce qui eft vne belle commodité pour bien prendre du poiffon, qui eft vn bon rafraîchiffement aux Habitans de ce lieu-là ; fur tout, le Printemps qu'il s’y pefche vne infinité d’alozes. Au deffous de cette riuiere, le pays deuient plat, & eft habité jufques à fept lieuës en bas; ° les marées y font parfaitement reglées, elles defcendent ! Le décorum suivi de tout temps dans les églises et chapelles du Bas-Canada est digne de remarque. En 1819, Ms" Plessis, voyageant en France et en Italie, dé- plorait la mauvaise tenue des personnes et l'allure banale de toutes les choses du culte dans ces contrées ; il ajoutait que le Canada serait, sous ce rapport, un modèle avantageux pour l’Europe. 2 Faute typographique : il faut lire ‘ Couuent”. # Le college des jésuites date de 1637; les établissements des ursulines et des hos- pitalières sont de 1639. 4 La colonisation y était commencée depuis 1648. En 1665 on y comptait 452 âmes réparties en 96 ménages. 5 C'est la côte de Beaupré qui renfermait 718 âmes en 1665, y compris Beauport. [SULTE] PIERRE BOUCHER ET SON LIVRE 125 fept heures, & montent cing, & chaque fois retardent de trois quarts d'heure. Quebec eft fitué du cofté du Nort, & eft habitué affez auant dans les terres, qui s’y font trouuées bonnes: Il eft habitué auffi trois lieues en montant ; mais les terres n’y font pas fi bonnes : comme pareillement du cofté du Sud,’ les terres quoy que bonnes, y femblent vn peu plus ingrates. La pefche eft abondante en tout ces quartiers-là de quantité de fortes poiffons, comme Efturgeons, Saumons, Barbués, Bar, Alozes, & plufieurs autres; mais je ne puis obmettre vne pefche d’anguille qui fe fait en Automne, qui eft fi abondante, que cela eft incroyable à ceux qui ne l'ont pas veu. I] y a tel homme qui en a pris plus de cinquante milliers pour fa part. Elles font groffes & grandes, & d’vn fort bon gouft, meilleures qu'en France de beaucoup, on en fale pour toute l’année qui fe con- feruent parfaitement bien, & font d’vne excellente nourriture pour les gens de trauail. La chaffe n’eft pas fi abondante à prefent proche de Quebec, comme elle a efté : le Gibier s’eft retiré à dix ou douze lieuës de là. Il refte feulement des Tourterelles ou des Bifeaux qui font icy en abondance tous. les Eftez, il s'en tué jufques dans les Iardins de Quebec, & des autres habitations ; elles durent feulement quatre mois de l’année. On y feme de toutes fortes de chofes, tant dans les champs que dans. les jardins, tout y venant fort bien, comme ie diray cy-apres, nonobftant la longueur de l’'Hyuer. | Puifque ie fuis tombé fur |’Hyuer, ie diray vn petit mot en paffant des Saifons : on n’en compte proprement que deux, car nous paffons tout d’vn coup d’vn grand froid à vn grand chaud, & d’vn grand chaud à vn grand froid ; c'eft pourquoy on ne parle que par Hyuer & Efté; l’Hyuer commence incontinent apres la Touffaints ;* c'eft à dire les gelées, & quelque-temps apres les neiges viennent, qui demeurent fur la terre Jufques enuiron le quinziéme d’Auril pour l'ordinaire; car quelquesfois elles font fondués pluftoft, quelquesfois auffi plus tard ; mais d'ordinaire, c’eft dans le feiziéme que la terre fe trouue libre & en eftat de pouffer les plantes & d’eftre labourée, Dés le commencement de May, les chaleurs font extrémement grandes, & on ne diroit pas que nous fortons d'vn grand Hyuer: cela fait que tout auance, & que l’on void en moins de rien la terre parée d’vn beau verd : & en effet, cela eft admirable, de voir que le bled qu'on feme dans la fin d’Auril, & jufques au vingtiéme de May, s’y recueille dans le mois RQ OR Pin ARR PS ae An CUT ER te Le So 1 Le recensement de 1665 donne à Québec 547 âmes, aux côtes Saint-Jean, Saint- François et Saint-Michel, 153, à Sillery, 140, à Notre-Dame des Anges, rivière Saint- Charles et Charlesbourg, 112. ? Du côté du sud du fleuve il n’y avait point d'habitants, sauf deux ou trois mé- nages à Lauzon. 3 Tout ceci est pour Québec et Trois-Rivières. 126 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA de Septembre, & eft parfaitement beau & bon: & ainfi toutes les autres chofes auancent à proportion; car nous voyons que les choux pommez, qui fe fement icy au commencement de May, fe replantent dans le vingt ou vingt-quatriéme de Iuin, se recueillent à la fin d’Octobre, & ont des pommes qui pezent des quinze à feize liures. Pour l'Hyuer, quoy qu'il dure cinq mois, & que la terre y foit cou- uerte de neiges, et que pendät ce temps le froid y foit vn peu afpre, il n’eft pas toutesfois defagreable : c’eft vn froid qui eft guay, & la plufpart du temps ce font des iours beaux & ferains, & on ne sen trouue aucune- ment incommodé : on fe promene par tout fur les neiges, par le moyen de certaines chauffures faites par les Sauuages, qu’on appelle Raquettes, * qui font fort commodes. En verité, les neiges font icy moins importunes, que ne font les bouës en France. Les Saifons ne font pas égales par tout le Pays: aux trois Riuieres il y a prés d’vn mois moins d'Hyuer :* au mont-Royal enuiron fix semaines, & chez les Iroquois il n’y a qu’enuiron vn mois d’Hyuer. Quebec, quoy que moins fauorable pour les faisons & pour l'afpect du lieu qui n'a pas tant d'agrément, a toutefois vn tres-grand auantage à caufe du nombre d’Habitans. & qu'il eft !abord des Nauires qui viennent de France. Tadouffac, eft vn lieu où les Nauires abordoient autrefois, & où ils faifoient leurs décharges auant qu'on ozaft les faire monter jufques à Québec : tout ce qu'il y a de confiderable, c’eft vne belle anfe en cul de fac, où les Nauires font bien à l’abry, l’anfe y eftant profonde & de bon ancrage. Il y a vne belle riuiere nommée le Saguené, qui paffe tout à trauers : on y fait baftir vne Chapelle, vn Magazin, & vne petite Fortereffe, à l’oc- afion de plufieurs Sauuages qui y pafset l'Efté: mais il n'y a perfonne qui y habite, le Pays n’eftant pas propre, tant pour les terres que pour la faison, quoy que la pefche y foit fort bonne. Mais difons vn mot de l'habitation des trois Riuieres : * c’eft vn fort beau Pays à voir, vn Pays plat, point montagneux, qui a de fort beaux bois : plufieurs riuieres & lacs entrecoupent fes terres, qui font toutes bordées de belles prairies ; ce qui fait qu'il y a quantité d’Animaux, & fur tout des Klans, Caribous, & Caftors, & tres-grand nombre de Gibier & de Poiffon. | Parce qu’elles imitent la raquette du volant, un jeu très répandu en France lors- que. le Canada fut découvert. 2 L'hiver est le même, à peu près, à Trois-Rivières et à Québec. Boucher a voulu dire que, à Trois-Rivières, cette saison dure trois semaines de moins qu’à Québec, et à Montréal trois semaines de moins qu'à Trois-Rivières. L’imprimeur a dû sauter une ligne de son manuscrit. Dans le pays des Iroquois il n'y a qu'un mois d'hiver en tout ; c’est la région d’Albany, Oswégo et Syracuse. * Depuis Batiscan jusqu'au cap de la Madeleine il y avait quelques habitants, lesquels, joints à ceux de la bourgade de Trois-Rivières, formaient en 1665 une popu- lation de 455 dines comprenant 69 ménages. C'était un mince résultat après trente ans de fondation. [suLTH] PIERRE BOUCHER ET SON LIVRE 127 Les terres que l’on a commencé à deferter font fablonneufes, mais qui ne laiffent pas de produire à merueille, eftant vn fable gras au deffus. On s’eft bafty feulement du cofté du Nort.' Il y a comme deux habitations feparées par vne grosse riuiere, on l'appelle les Trois-Riuieres, à caufe qu'eftant entrecoupée par des Liles, elle fait comme trois riuieres en ce lieu-là, qui vient de dedans les terres du cofté du Nort. Mont-Royal, qui eft la derniere de nos habitations Francoifes, eft plus auancée dans les terres Elle eft fituée dans vne belle grande Ifle nommée l’Ifle du môt-Royal, les terres y font fort bonnes. C’eft terre noire ou pierreufe, qui produit du grain en abondance : tout y vient parfaitement bien ; mais fut tout les melons & les oignons : la pefche et la chaffe y eft tres-bonne : tout le Pays d’alentour eft parfaitement beau, & tant plus l’on monte en haut du cofté des Irroquois, plus le Pays y eft agreable : c'eft vn Pays plat, vne foreft où les arbres font gros & hauts extraordinairement : ce qui monftre la bonté de la terre, ils y font clairs & point embaraffez de petits bois : ce feroit vn Pays tout propre à courir le Cerf, dont il y a abondance, s’il y auoit en ce Pays des Habitans qui euffent des cheuaux pour cela,’ & que l’Iroquois euft efté vn peu humilié, ou pour mieux dire dompté: la plufpart de ces arbres font des chefnes. Mais ne nous amufons pas fi long-temps fur les chemins, & entrons tout d’vn coup dans le grand lac des Iroquois’, apres auoir paffé au trauers de plus de deux cens Ifles qui sont à l’entrée®, dont les deux tiers ne font que prairies, & l’autre tiers, des rochers en pain de fucre. Laiffons à droite & à gauche, & dans les Ifles, vn grand nombre de beftes qu'on y rencontre, qui font quelquesfois plus de cing cens tout d’vne bande. Ce Pays des Iroquois’ dont ie veux parler, & qui eft fur le bord de 1 Au nord du Saint-Laurent. 2 C’est-a-dire le fort du Platon, portant le nom de Trois-Rivières, et quelques colons placés au cap de la Madelaine, côté nord de l'embouchure de la rivière dite des Trois-Rivières, laquelle porte le nom de Saint-Maurice depuis 1720 à peu près. 3 Entre Trois-Rivieres et Montréal il n’y avait aucun colon, soit au nord soit au sud du fleuve. 4 Les premiers chevaux sont venus en 1665. 5 Le lac Ontario. Il a porté quelque temps le nom de Frontenac. Champlain, 1615, l'appelle Enthouhonorons et le baptise du nom de Saint-Louis. Vers 1650 le père Ducreux écrit Ouentaronius parce que sa coutume était de latiniser les noms. II est évident que “Ontario ”, ou quelque terme approchant, était dans la circulation com- mune pour désigner ce lac. Hennepin, en 1680, met ‘ Kanadario”. Les Entouhoronons (Tsonnontouans et Ouentouoronons), l’une des cing nations iroquoises, ont toujours été regardés comme ayant donné leur nom à cette nappe d’eau. 6 C’est la plus ancienne mention que je connaisse des Mille-Iles. Champlain, en 1615, dit seulement qu'il y a de belles îles en cet endroit. 7 Tout le littoral est du lac Ontario. Les Hollandais étaient établis sur la rivière Hudson depuis Orange jusqu’à Manhattan. En 1666 la contrée passa aux Anglais qui firent d'Orange Albany et de Manhattan New-York. Cela ne dérangeait en rien les Iroquois qui continuaient de se tenir dans le voisinage du lac Ontario. 128 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA noftre grand Fleuue, puifqu’il paffe au trauers de leur grand lac, eft vn fort bon Pais & bien agreable : la terre en est parfaitement bonne, & la meilleure que l’on puiffe rencontrer; ainfi qu’on peut juger par les arbres. I] ne s'y rencontre quafi point de fapinieres, mais au contraire rien que beaux bois, qui font chefnes, chaftagniez, noyers, heftres, bois bläc, meuriers, & quantité d’autres beaux arbres dont nous n’auons point de conoiffance en ces quartiers’, ce qui eft caufe que ie n'en fçay point les noms ; Les arbres fruitiers font plus en abondance. Comme auffi la chaffe des beftes fauues, & du Gibier. [l y a plufieurs fontaines d’eau falée *, dont l’on fait de tres-beau & bon fel. La quantité des prairies eft admirable: & les quatre Saifons y font comme en France, finon que l'Hyuer n’y eft pas fi long; la pefche y eft abondante, fur tout de Saumon, Efturgeon, Barbué, & Anguille, dont il y a des quantitez prodi- gieufes : tous ces grands Pays-là font de mefme. Je ne parleray point du pays des Hurons, puifqu’il eft abandonné *, tant des François que des Sauuages, qui ont efté obligez de le quitter, à aufe des Iroquois: le Pays eft tres-beau & bon, prefque tout deferté * comme en France, fitué fur le bord du grand Lac, qui a trois cens lieuës de circuit, & qui eft remply d’vn nombre infiny d’Ifles de toutes façons, beau bois, bonne terre, abondance de chaffe et de pefche en toute faifon, l'Hyuer y dure quatre mois. l’y ai veu * une pefche qui eft fort agreable, qui fe fait auffi-bien l'Hyuer fous les glaces, que pendant |’ Efté ; c’eft celle du Haran dont il y a abondance. Ce qui eft encore de beau à voir en ce Pays-la, ce font plufieurs petits lacs d’vne lieué & de deux lieuës de tour, qui fe voyent au milieu de ces terres deffrichées’, bordées de prairies tout à l’entour, & en fuitte d’vn petit bois, d’ou fortent quantité de Cerfs qui viennent paiftre ; de forte qu’allant à laffuft, on ne peut. manquer de faire coup ; & à la faifon vous les voyez tous chargez de Gibier de riuiere. Les Coqs-d’Indes et autres oyfeaux fe trouuent dans les champs. Mais ie veux & ie ne puis pas faire le defcription de tous les beaux lieux de ces Pays-là, ny des commoditez qui s’y rencontrent, & eftre bref comme ie pretens. 1 C'est-à-dire à Québec ou à Trois-Rivières. 2 Voir Relations des jésuites, 1657, p. 33. 3 Depuis 1649-50, comme aussi toute la rivière des Algonquins (à présent l’Ottawa) à la même date. 4 Mis en désert, défriché. 5 Le nord du lac Huron. 6 Tl y était allé en 1639. 7 Les Hurons, comme les iroquois, cultivaient la terre et avaient des villages infiniment mieux bâtis que ceux des Algonquins du Bas-Canada, gens nomades vivant surtout de chasse et de pêche et sans aucune forme de gouvernement. Les Hurons et les Iroquois étaient, relativement aux Algonquins répandus depuis le Saguenay jusqu'au lac Nipissing, des gens civilisés. [SULTE] PIERRE BOUCHER ET SON LIVRE 129 Defcription des Terres dont nous auons connoiffance. Chapitre III. Te crois qu'il n'eft pas hors de propos de vous faire icy vne petite defcription des Terres dot nous auons connoiffance, comme elles font dif- ferentes en diuers lieux, foit pour la forme, la bonté & la nature de la terre. fe ne vous parleray point des premieres qu’on rencontre venant de France, puis qu’elles ne valent pas la peine que l’on en parle, en compa- raifon des autres : à proprement parler, ce ne sont pas des terres, mais de grands rochers horribles à voir. Depuis l’Ifle Percée, qui eft l’emboucheure du fleuue, jufques vis-à- vis de Tadouffac du cofté du Sud, que les Nauires frequentent quand ils montent à Quebec, toutes les terres paroiffent hautes, & la plufpart grandes montagnes : c’eft ce qui a donné le nom aux Monts Notre-Dame, qui tiennét vne partie de ce chemin-la; & l’on dit qu'ils ne font quafi iamais découuerts de neige, & par confequent inhabitables: ce n’eft pas qu'il n’y ait entre lefdites Montagnes & le bord du grand Fleuue, quatre, cing, & quelquefois huit lieués de plat-pays, & que tout ce pays ne foit coupé d’efpace en efpace par de belles riuieres. Je le juge toutefois fort mal-propre pour eftre habité, finon Gafpé que j’eftime fort propre à faire vne habitation ; c'eft une Baye qui entre dans les terres affez auant, & qui fait vn baffin propre à mettre des Nauires à l’abry. Dans le fond de la Baye, les terres paroiffent fort propres 4 habiter. D'ailleurs, il y a grande pefche de Moluë en ces quartiers-la. Il y a auffi trois autres beaux Havres dix ou douze lieués au-deffous ; feavoir l’Ifle Percée, Bonauenture, & Mifcou, où toutes les années des Nauires vont à la pefche de la Molué en tous ces Havres. Ce feroit vn lieu tres propre pour auoir correfpondance auec Quebec, puis qu’on y va facilement auec des Barques et des Chalouppes. La au droit fe voit l’Ifle d’ Anticofti, dont ie ne vous parleray pas n’y ayant point efté, feulement ay-je ouy dire que c’eftoit une fort belle terre, auffi-bien que la cofte du Nort, depuis Tadouffac defcendant en bas, dans laquelle on rencontre quantité de belles riuieres, bien profondes & grande- ment poiffonneufes; mais fur tout, abddantes en Saumons ; il y en a des quantitez prodigieufes, felon le rapport que m’en ont fait ceux qui y ont efté. Depuis Tadouffac jufques à sept lieuës proche de Quebec, que l’on nomme le Cap-Tourmente, le Pays est tout à fait inhabitable, eftant trop haut, & tout de roche, & tout à fait efcarpé. Te n’y ay remarqué qu'vn seul endroit, qui eft la Baye faint Paul, enuiron fur la moitié du chemin, & vis-à-vis l’Ifla aux Coudres, qui paroift fort belle lors qu’on y paffe, ë Sec. L., 1896. 9. 130 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA auffi-bien que toutes les Ifles qui fe trouueut depuis Tadouffac jufques à Quebec, lefquelles font toutes propres à eftre habitées. Ie n’en fais point de defcription en particulier, n'ayant deffein que de vous donner vne briefue connoiffance de tout le Pays, & de quelques lieux principaux. La cofte du Sud depuis Tadouffac jufques à Quebec eft fort belle, & vne terre plus baffe & qui paroift par les arbres dont elle eft chargée, eftre fort bonne. Il y a plufieurs belles riuieres toutes remplies de poiffons et de gibier dans la faifon : il fe trouue de belles prairies le long de la cofte, ce qui fait qu'il y a quantité de beftes fauues. Depuis Quebec jufques aux trois-Riuieres du mefme cofté du Sud’, les terres font affez belles, & il y a d’affez beau bois, mais elles font eleuées jufques à fix ou fept lieuës au deffous des trois-Riuieres, où elles commencent à eftre baffes, vnies: & cela continuë jufques dans le pays des Iroquois. Ces terres font parfaitement bonnes, entrecoupées de riuieres, garnies de lacs par endrois. Quantité de prairies fe rencontrent non feulement le long du fleuue, à l’entour des lacs dans ces petites riuieres, mais encore dans les terres: ce qui fait que la chasse y eft abondante, tant d’Oyfeaux que d’Animaux. Du cofté du Nort depuis le Cap-Tourmente, qui eft fept lieués plus bas que Quebec, jufques au Cap Rouge, qui eft trois lieuës au deffus ; cela eft habité le long du grand Fleuue : depuis le Cap Rouge jufques à la riuiere fainte Anne, qui font enuiron dix-fept lieués de pays en mon- tant, les terres y font affez belles ; mais l’abord n’en eft pas fi agreable, à caufe que la plufpart de la cofte eft pierreufe. I] ne laiffe pas de sy trouuer de belles riuieres, & des prairies par endroits. Depuis la riuiere fainte Anne jufques aux Trois-Riuieres, qui contient enuiron dix lieués de pays, les terres y font tres-belles & baffes ; le bordage le long du grand Fleuue eft fable ou prairies; les forefts y font tres-belles & bien-aisées à défricher. Depuis Quebec lufques aux trois-riuieres, il n’y a point d’Ifles, finon deux petites d’enuiron vne lieuë de tour chacune, & qui font proche de la terre ferme du cofté du Nort; elles fe nomment l’Ifle fainte Anne, & l'Ifle faint Eloy.’ Depuis les trois-Riuieres jufques au mont-Royal, il y en a quantité & de fort belles, & la plufpart n’ont pas encore de noms; quelques-vnes des principales s'appellent l'Ifle faint Ignace, auprés de laquelie il y ena | La rive sud du Saint-Laurent était encore sans colons depuis la pointe Lévis jusqu'au lac Saint-François. Quelques chasseurs algonquins s'y montraient quel- quefois au-dessous du lac Saint-Pierre, mais n'y demeuraient pas longtemps. Les Iroquois infestaient tout le territoire compris entre le lac Champlain, le lac Saint- François et le lac Saint-Pierre. 2 L'ile Sainte-Anne me paraît avoir imposé son nom à la rivière et à la seigneurie de Sainte-Anne de la Pérade. En 1603, Champlain mentionne l’île Saint-Eloy. Vers 1680, Jacques le Marchand demeurait vis-à-vis, sur la terre ferme, et ce lieu est appelé Saint-Eloy ; c'est là que fut construite l'église de Batiscan. [sure] PIERRE BOUCHER ET SON LIVRE 131 prés d’vne vingtaine, que l’on appelle les Ifles de Richelieu. Ie ne diray rien de leur beautez, ny de la grande chaffe & pefche qui s’y rencontre : je ferois trop long fi à tous les endroits j'en voulois faire vne deduction ; ie me contenteray feulement de dire que les prairies font abondantes, 11 croift dans les bois vne quantité prodigieufe d’ortyes propres à faire du chanvre; les Sauuages, Hurons & Iroquois s’en feruent pour faire diuers ouurages, comme des facs, rets, colliers & armures ; il s’en trouue grande quantité en beaucoup d’endroits de ce Pays icy. En fuite fe void d’autres Ifles, qu'on nomme les Ifles Bouchard ; ! plus haut font les Ifles faint Jean, en fuite les Ifles Percées,? l’Ifle de sainte Therefe,* l’Ifle faint Paul * & plufieurs autres qui n’ont point encore de nom, toutes tres-belles & bien commodes pour eïtre habitées, & qui d’ailleurs font abondates en chaffe, pefche, & prairies. Suiuant la cofte du Nort, le Pays eft tres beau, & tout le long du fleuue fe font prairies ; beaucoup de petites riuieres arroufent ces terres. La riuiere des Prairies eft vne grande riuiere qui fe joint au fleuue faint Laurent fix lieuës au deffous de Phabitation de mont-Royal vingt- quatre lieuës au deffus des trois Riuieres ; l’on prend cette riuiere pour aller au pays des Hurons, quoy que le chemin en foit beaucoup plus long & plus mal aisé que l’autre, pour euiter les Iroquois qui habitent fur le bord du grand lac qu'on appelle le lac des Iroquois, par où paffe cette grande riuiere.° le ne feray point la defcription des Terres qui fe rencontrent des deux coftez de cette riuiere ” qui tire au Nort, veu qu'il eft mal-aisé d’y pouuoir habiter à caufe des fauts ou cafcades d'eaux qui s’y rencontrent, aui empefchent la riuiere d’eftre nauigable à d’autres baftimens qu'aux petits Vaiffeaux dont fe feruent nos Sauuages, qui peuuent eftre trans- portez d’vn lieu à vn autre, fans autres machine que les épaules d’vn home, ou de deux au plus. C’eft bien dommage ; car il y a de trés-beaux 1 Entre Verchères et Contrecceur. Elles doivent probablement leur nom au chi- rurgien Etienne Bouchard, né a Paris mais demeurant à Epernon, qui s'établit à Montréal en 1653, s'y maria en 1657 et y mourut en 1676. 2 Iles de Boucherville. 5 En bas de Vile de Montréal. 4 Vis-à-vis Montréal. 5 Le bras de la rivière Ottawa qui passe au nord de Montréal et entoure l’île Jésus a porté le nom de Saint-Jean à cause de l'interprète Jean. Nicolet. Un homme appelé Des Prairies s’y noya vers 1615, et depuis lors on trouve la “rivière des Prairies ” ainsi désignée jusque vers le Long-Sault en remontant l'Ottawa. ° Il faut lire : ‘par où passe le fleuve Saint-Laurent”, car c'est lui qui sort du lac des Iroquois (l'Ontario), et non pas l’Ottawa. 7 L'Ottawa, nommée “ rivière des Algonquins” jusqu’à 1650, où cette nation en fut chassée par les Iroquois. Les Outaouais de la Grande baie (Grand-Bay ensuite, puis Green-Bay par corruption et baie Verte par traduction) du lac Michigan étant venus apres cela traiter à Montréal, on prit l'habitude, vers 1668, de dire: “le chemin des Outaouais ”, ou bien “la rivière des Outaouais”, nom qui est resté, bien que ces sauvages n’aient jamais habité les bords de cette rivière, 132 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA Pays, & qui meriteroient bien d’être habitez : mais fur tout, vn endroit appellé la petite Nation,’ qui eft enuiron vingt ou trente lieuës au deffus du mont-Royal, & qui contient prefque vingt lieuës de pays le long du fleuue, * le plus beau qui fe puiffe voir pour un Pays non-habité ; car les Troquois en ont chafsé les Sauuages qui y habitoient. C’eft un beau bois remply de petits lacs & de prairies, auec vn fort grand nombre de petites riuieres : tout cela fi plain de chaffe & de pefche, qu’il n’eft pas croyable, mais ce qui eft le plus admirable, c'est le grand nombre de beftes fauues qui s'y rencontre ; car ie feay qu'il y a eu de nos Francois qui en defcen- dant des Hurons, ont fait rencontre de bandes de ces animaux, qu’on appelle icy Vaches fauuages, qui font proprement de grands Cerfs, où ils eftimoient qu'il y en auoit bien huit à neuf cens, fans parler des vrais Cerfs, des Ours, Elans, Caftors, Loutres, Rats mufquez, & plufieurs autres fortes d'animaux : mais la porte en eft fermée, par vn grand fault qui a pour le moins trois lieues de long :* quand je dis fermée, c’eft pour le prefent ; car quand le Pays fera habité, & que les Iroquois feront foubmis, on trouuera bien l’inuention de s’en rendre l’entrée facile: & puis on ne maqüe pas de beaux lieux à habiter, qui ne peuuent pas eftre occupez d’icy à bien long-temps. En voila ce me femble affez pour conoiftre le Pays; difont feulement vn petit mot du terroir : ‘ ils’ y trouue de la terre-glaife par endroits. La terre eft noire, fablonneufe, rouge, pierreufe en d’autres endroits ; mais toutes font affez' fertiles: & pour preuue de cela, ie feray le Chapitre fuiuant des arbres qu’elle produit. Des Arbres qui croiffent dans la Nouuelle-France. Chapitre IV. Te vois bien que le Lecteur curieux demande defia * quels fortes d’ar- bres croiffent dans ces grades forefts, & fi ce font toufiours les mefmes par tout ; à quoy font-ils bons? S'en peut-on feruir à quelques chofes ? Sont-ils gros? Sont-ils hauts? Le bois eft-il fain? A toutes ces quef- tions, mon cher Lecteur, ie vous y répondray, vous en faifant la defcrip- ‘Groupe algonquin de beaucoup moins nombreux que celui de l’île des Allu- mettes, appelé les Grands-Algonquins. 2 Rivière des Algonquins, à présent l’Ottawa. * Le Long-Sault, que l’on évite aujourd'hui en passant par le canal Grenville et d’autres écluses. Au pied du saut, à l'endroit appelé à présent Carillon, avait eu lieu, en 1660, le fameux siège soutenu par Dollard et ses compagnons. L'endroit ne portait alors aucun nom qui nous soit connu. Vers la fin du siècle, on le trouve désigné comme ‘‘ Carillon”, probablement d’après un traiteur du nom de Carrion, qui le fréquentait en 1675. # Du terroir du Canada en général. 5 Defia, desia, déjà. 5 Ailleurs il écrit ‘ toujours ”. [suzre] PIERRE BOUCHER ET SON LIVRE 133 tion la plus naïfve que ie pourray, & auec toute la fincerité poffible, tâchant de fuyr toutes exagerations, comme j’ay fait, & comme j’efpere de faire dans tout le refte de mon difcours: en fuitte vous jugerez à quoy ils font propres, & ce qu’on en pourra faire. Je n’y garderay point d’ordre : je les nommeray comme ils me viendront en la memoire ; ie commenceray par vn, qui eft le plus vtile icy, que l’on nomme Pin, qui n’apporte pas de fruit comme ceux de l’Europe ; il y en ade toutes groffeurs& grandeurs ; ils viennent ordinairement de la hauteur de cinquante à foixante pieds, fans branches: l’on s'en fert pour faire de la planche, qui eft fort belle & bonne ; & l’on dit que ces arbres feroient bien propre à faire des mafts de Nauires. Il s'en trouue d’affez menu & haut pour cét effet : ces arbres font fort droits : il y a de grands Pays qui n’en portent point, mais les lieux où ils naiffent font appellez Pinieres. Ces arbres rendent quantité de gomme ; les Sauuages s’en feruent pour brayer leurs canots, & on s’en fert heureufement pour les playes, où cette gomme eft fort fouueraine. Il croift auffi des Cédres, le bois en eft fort tendre, il a la feuille platte, et le bois eft quafi comme incorruptible: c’eft pourquoy on s’en fert icy pour faire les cloftures des jardins! & les poutres des caues : il fent affez bon ; mais d'ordinaire les arbres ne sot pas fains: cependant il s’en trouue plufieurs gros qui pourroient fervir à faire du meuble : il rend vne gomme, qui eftant brûlée, a vne tres-bonne odeur comme de l’encent. Ie ne fgache pas qu’elle aye d’autre qualité. Il y a des fapins comme en France: toute la difference que j’y trouue, c’eft qu'à la plufpart il y vient des bubons à l'écorce, qui font remplis d’vne certaine gomme liquide qui eft aromatique, dont on fe fert pour les playes comme de baûmes, & n’a pas gueres moins de vertu, felon le raport de ceux qui ont fait l'experience : on en dit plufieurs autres chofes, mais ie laiffe cela aux Medecins. Il y a vne autre efpece d’arbre, qu'on nomme Epinette: c’eft quafi comme du fapin, finon qu'il eft plus propre à faire des mafts de petits Vaiffeaux, comme de chalouppes & barques, eftant plus fort que le fapin. Ie parle de l’Efpinette verte: car il y a en deux fortes ; l’vne verte, & l’autre rouge. L’Epinette rouge est d’vn bois plus ferme & plus pefant, & fort propre à baftir; elle fe dépouille de fes feuilles en Automne, & les reprend au Printemps: ce qui n’arriue point aux autres fapinages. L’efcorce en eft rouge; il ne rend point quafi de gomme, tout au con- traire de l’Epinette verte qui en a quantité. I] y en a encore vne autre efpece que l’on appelle Pruffe; ce font ordinairement de gros arbres qui ont trente ou quarante pieds de haut fans branches : ils ont vne groffe écorce & rouge : ce bois ne pourrit pas 1 Est-ce que les champs en culture n'étaient point clôturés à cette époque en Canada ? 134 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA fi facilement que les autres; c’eft pourquoy on s’en fert ordinairement pour baftir. Ce qu'il y de mal dans ce bois, ceft qu'il s'en trouue quantité de roüillé, ce qui le fait rebuter. De celuy-la il en vient par tout, en bonne et mauuaise terre ; il ne produit point de gomme. I] faut remarquer que tous les fapinages ne croiffent que duns des lieux humides, à la referue des Pins et Pruffes, qui viennent auffi bien aux lieux fecs qu’aux lieux humides. Il y a vne autre efpece d’arbre, qu'on appelle Herable, qui vient fort gros & haut: le bois en eft fort beau, nonobftant quoy on ne s’en fert à rien qu’à brûler, ou pour emmancher des outils, à quoy il eft tres-propre, à cause qu'il eft extremémét doux & fort. Quand on entaille ces Herables au Printeps, il en degoute quantité d’eau, qui eft plus douce que de l'eau détempée dans du fucre ; du moins plus agreable à boire’. L’arbre appellé Merifer, deuient gros & haut, bien droit. Son bois fert à faire du meuble, & à monter des armes. Il est rouge dedans, & eft Je plus beau pour les ouurages qu'il y ait en ces quartiers. I] ne porte aucun fruit. On l’a nommé Merisier, parce que fon écorce eft semblable aux Merifier de France. Il y a auffi du bois de heftre, fort beau & bon, qui porte de la fayne comme en France: mais l’on ne s'en fert qu'à brûler. Il fe trouue de deux fortes de chefnes : l’vn est plus poreux que l'autre. Le poreux eft propre pour faire du meuble, & autre trauail de menuzerie & de charpente : l’autre eft propre à faire des vaiffeaux pour aller fur l’eau : ces arbres viennent hauts, gros, & droits, & fur tout vers le Mont-Royal. Il y a auffi de deux fortes de Fresne, l’vn appellé franc-Frefne, & l’autre Frefne baftard : Ces arbres viennent bien hauts & bien droits, le bois en eft fort beau & bon. Il y a des Ormes qui viennent fort gros et hauts, le bois en eft excellent, & les Charrons de ce Pays s'en feruent fort. Il y a des Noyers de deux fortes, qui apportent des noix : les vns les apportent groffes & dures ; mais le bois de l’arbre eft fort tendre, & l’on ne s’en fert point, finon à faire des fabots, à quoy il eft fort propre: de celuy-là il y en a vers Quebec, & les trois-Riuieres en quantité : mais peu en montant plus haut ; l’autre forte de Noyers apporte des petites noix rondes, qui ont l’écale tendre comme celles de France; mais le bois de l'arbre eft fort dur, & rouge dedans : on commence d’en trouver au Mont-Royal, et il y en a quantité dans le pays des Iroquois. Les Sauuages mefme fe feruent des Noix à faire de l'huile, laquelle eft excellente. 1 Les sauvages étaient trop ignorants pour s’aviser de faire bouillir l’eau d'érable afin de recueillir la substance sucrée qu'elle renferme. Les Français eux- mêmes ne commencèrent à faire de la trempette et du sucre solide que vers 1695, probablement sous la direction du docteur Michel Sarrasin. [SULTE] PIERRE BOUCHER ET SON LIVRE 135 Vne autre efpece d’arbre, que l’on appelle de la Plaine, eft quafi comme |’ Herable, mais vn peu plus tendre, qui fert à brufler. Il ya du Boulleau, dont les arbres viennent fort gros & hauts ; nos Sauuages fe feruent de l’écorce pour faire leurs canots, & pour couurir leurs cabanes portatiues ; cela fe roulant comme vn tableau, on le déroule & on l’étëd fur deux ou trois perches plantées en terre, & on fe met à Vabry là deffous, comme on feroit fous vne tente ; ! les Sauuages en font encore des plats & autres petits vaiffeaux à leurs vfages ; le bois en eft fort beau & bien fain, mais on ne s’en fert à rien icy. Il fe trouue auffi du Tremble de toutes façons; c’eft à dire, gros & petit, qui fert à la nourriture des Caftors, qui en ayment fort l'écorce. Il y a d’autres arbres appellez Bois blanc, que quelques-vns appellent Tillot ; le bois en eft blanc & bien tendre, qui pourrit facilement à l’eau : l’efcorce fert à nos Sauuages en beaucoup d’vfages; car celle des plus gros arbres leur fert à faire vne efpece de tonneau, dans lequel ils mettent leurs grains & autres chofes. L’efcorce des petits leur sert à lier & mefme ils en font vn chanvre, duquel ils fe feruent pour faire des cordages. Il y a des Chatagniers & des Meuriers, qui fe trouuent feulement dans le pays des Iroquois: pour les Chattagniers, il y en a en abondance, & qui raportent du fruit auffi bon que ceux de France; les arbres en font beaucoup plus gros & plus grands. Il fe void quantité d’autres arbres au dit pays des Iroquois, qui ne font point icy dans nos cartiers, & dont ie ne feay pas le nom ; feulement fçay-je bien qu'il y en a qui ont le bois rouge & font propre à faire du meuble. Il y a auffi en ces quartiers * abondance de Coudriers, qui raportent force noifettes, fureau, épine blanche, qui apportent des fruits plus gros que ceux de France, & d’vn bien meilleur gouft ; Pruniers qui apportent des prunes rouges de la groffeur du Damas, & qui font d’vn affez bon gouft; mais non pas toutesfois fi bon que celles de France. Il y a des Saules & des Aulnes en abondance, Il s'y trouue des grofeliers qui apportent des grofeilles de deux fortes ; les vnes comme en France, les autres toutes plaines de picquerons. Il y a des gadeliers ou grofeilles rouges. Il y a de petits arbres que l’on appelle Merifiers, qui apportent de deux ou trois fortes de petits fruits: le gouft n’en eft pas defagreable ; mais ils font bien petits; les arbres ne deuiennent iamais gros. Il y a encore d’autres petits fruitiers femblables, qui ne valent pas la peine d’en parler, pour n’eftre pas confiderables. 1 C’est la hutte de l’Algonquin qui, toujours rôdant d’un lieu à un autre, n'avait pas d'habitation fixe. Les Hurons et les Iroquois habitaient de véritables maisons alignées avec ordre autour d’une place publique. 2 Dans le Bas-Canada. 136 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA Puifque ie fuis fur les fruitiers, ie n’obmettray pas à vous parler des framboifiers & fraifiers, qui font dans tout ce Pays en fi grande abddanee, qu'il n'eft pas croyable ; toutes les terres en font remplies, & cela vient par dépit : cependant, ils produifent vne fi grande quantité de fruits, que dans la faifon on ne les peut épuifer: elles viennent plus groffes & de meilleur gouft qu'en France. Il fe trouue d’yne autre forte de petits fruits, gros comme de gros pois, ils s’appellent Bluets, & font d’vn excellent gouft: l’arbre qui les produits n'a pas plus d’yn pied de haut: ils ne croiffent pas partout ; mais il y a des endroits où il y en a grande quantité. Les ronces de ce Pays produisent vn fruit qui eft quafi d’auffi bon gouft que nos meures de France ; il n’eft pas fi gros. Il y a quantité de petits fruits dont ie ne fçay pas les noms, & qui ne font pas beaucoup exquis, mais fe mangent faute d’autres. ll y a auffi abondance de vignes fauuages qui portent des raifins: le grain n'en eft pas fi gros que celuy de nos vignes de France, ny les grapes fi fournies: mais ie croy que fi elles eftoient cultiuées, elles ne differeroient en rien : le raifin en eft vn peu acre, & fait de gros vin, qui tache beaucoup, & qui d'ordinaire eft meilleur vn an apres, que l’année qu'il eft fait. Quelques particuliers ont planté quelques pieds de Vigne venué de France dans leurs jardins, qui ont rapporté de fort beaux & bons raifins. On n’a point encore planté icy d'arbres de France, finon quelques pommiers! qui rapportent de fort bonnes pommes & en quantité, mais il y a bien peu de ces arbres. Noms des Animaux qui fe rencontrent au Pays de la Nouuelle-France. Chapitre V. Pour fatisfaire à la promeffe que j’ay faite dans mon premier Cha- pitre, de traiter de chaque chofe en particulier: Ie vous feray ce Chapitre du nom des Animaux, & des lieux ot ils fe rencontrent d’ordinaire ; car comme vous fçauez, toutes les chofes ne font pas en vn mefme endroit. Par ce moyen, ie vous ofteray la confufion qu’on peut auoir dans l’efprit, prenant les chofes en gros ou en general. Commençons done par le plus commun & le plus vniuerfel de tous les Animaux de ce Pays, qui eft l’ Elan, qu’on appelle en ces quartiers icy Original ; * ils font plus grands d’ordinaire que de grands mulets, & ont à 1 En 1608, le sieur de Monts avait envoyé à Québec des plants d’arbres fruitiers de la Normandie. Louis Hébert, arrivant en 1617, apporta quelques tiges de pommiers. 2 Je pense bien que M. Boucher avait écrit ‘ orignal”, mais l’imprimeur a pris sur lui de le corriger. ‘“ Orignac” est un mot basque qui désigne un grand cerf. Les premiers Canadiens en ont fait ‘‘ orignal”. [sucre] PIERRE BOUCHER ET SON LIVRE 137 peu prés la tefte faite de mefme. La difference qu'il y a, c’eft que les mafles portent des bois fourchus comme celuy des cerfs, finon qu'ils font plats. Ils leur tombent tous les ans, & croiffent tous les ans d’un four- chon. La chair en eft bonne & legere, & ne fait iamais de mal. La peau fe porte en France pour la faire paffer en buffle, la mouëlle eft medeci- nale contre les douleurs de nerfs. L’on dit que le corne du pied gauche eft bonne pour le mal caduc ; c’est vn animal bien haut fur jambe & bien difpos : il a le pied fendu ; il eft fans queué ; il fe deffend des pieds de deuant comme les cerfs. Le Caribou eft vn animal de la hauteur d’un Afne, mais qui eft fort difpos. Le mafle a le pied fourchu, & l’ouure fi largement en courant, qu'il n’enfonce point ’Hyuer dans les neiges quelques hautes qu'elles puiffent eftre. Il porte vn bois fourchu, rond & bien pointu. La chair en eft bonne à manger, et delicate. L’Ours eft de couleur noire, & n'y en a point de blancs en ces quar- tiers. La peau des petits eft eftimée pour faire des manchons. Ils ne font point mal-faifans si on ne les irrite : la viande en eft bonne à man- ger: la graiffe fondué deuient comme de l'huile, & eft bonne contre les humeurs froides : il eft fix mois fans fortir des lieux où il fe tient caché : il fe retire dans des creux d’arbres pour l'ordinaire : il ayme beaucoup le gland; de là vient qu'il y en a fi grande abondance allant au pays des Iroquois : il eft carnacier, tuë les cochons pour les manger quand il en attrape à l'écart. Les Animaux qu’on appelle icy Vaches fauuages, font efpece de cerfs ; les mafles portent des bois tout femblables, & quittent leurs bois tous les ans: ils ont le pied fourchu; ils font grands comme de grands Cerfs, la viande en eft delicate, & ces Animaux vont ordinairement par bandes, & ne fe rencontrent pas partout. On n'en void point au deffous des trois-Riuieres, mais bien au deffus; plus on monte én haut vers les Troquois, & plus il y en a. Il y auffi des Animaux qu’on appelle Cerfs, qui font de la mefme façon que ceux de France, à la referue qu'ils font plus petits, & d’vn poil plus blanchaftre. De ceux-là il ne s’en trouue pas au deffous du Mont- Royal, mais bien au deffus ; montant plus haut, il y en a fans nombre. Quand eft des Animaux que l’on appelle Bufles, il ne s’en trouue que dans le pays des Outaouax,! environ à quatre ou cinq cens lieuës de Quebec, tirant vers l'Occident et le Septentrion. Il y a des Loups de deux fortes, les vns s’appellét Loups Ceruiers, dont la peau eft excellente à faire des fourures. Ces Animaux abondent du cofté du Nort, & il s’en trouue peu proche nos habitatios ; les autres font Loups Communs, qui ne font pas du tout fi grands que ceux de 1 En 1663, les Outaouais habitaient la Grande baie du lac Michigan et les envi- rons du saut Sainte-Marie. Ces mêmes sauvages qui, en 1615, demeuraient sur l’île 138 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA France, ny fi malins, & ont la peau plus belle: ils ne laiffent pas d’eftre carnaciers, & font la guerre aux Animaux dans les bois; & quand ils trouuent de nos petits chiens à l’écart, ils les mangent. Il yen a peu vers Quebec. Ils font plus communs à mefure que l’on monte en haut. Il ya auffi quantité de Renards par tout le Pays: Comme ie ne trouue point qu'il y ait de difference auec ceux de France, ie n’en parleray point ; finon qu'il s’en trouue quelquesfois de noirs, mais bien rarement, Il y a vne forte d'animal, plus petit qu’vn renard, qui monte fur les arbres: on l'appelle Enfant du Diable ;* il eft extremément carnacier, & il a Pinduftrie de tuer des Elans: la chair en eft bonne. Il y a auffi quantité de Martres ; mais elles font toutes routfes, & il ne sen void point de noires. Il y a d’autres Animaux que l’on appelle des Chats fauuages, quoy qu'ils ne reffemblent gueres aux autres Chats; mais c’eft à caufe qu'ils grimpent aux arbres ; ils font plus gros beaucoup que les noftres : ils font d'ordinaire extremément gras, la viande en eft bonne: les Sauuages fe feruent de la peau pour en faire des robes. Tl y a des Porcs-Epics. Les Sauuages fe feruent du poil qui eft fort gros, creux & pointu par les deux bouts, pour faire diuers petits ouurages qui leur feruent d’ornemens, parmy eux, comme les passemens parmy nous : la viande de cet animal eft bonne. Il y a vn autre animal vn peu plus petit, qu'on nomme Sifleur : il loge en terre, & fait vne taniere comme le renard : la viande en eft auffi bonne. Il y a quantité de Liévres, ils ne font pas fi grands que ceux de France : Ce qui eft remarquable, c’eft qu'en Efté ils font gris, & l’'Hyuer ils font blancs : ainfi ils changent deux fois de couleur l’année. Il y a d’autres animaux que l’on appelle Befte puante. Cét animal ne court pas vifte : quand il fe void pourfuiuy, il vrine : mais cette vrine eft fi puante, qu'elle infecte tout le voifinage, & plus de quinze iours ou trois femaines apres, on fent encor l’odeur approchant du lieu. Cét animal étrangle les poules quand il les peut atraper. Il y en a vne autre efpece d'animaux qui leur font la guerre, qui font beaucoup plus petits, que l’on nomme Pefcheurs, parce qu'ils vont dans le fond de l’eau comme a terre. Il y a quatre fortes d’Efcurieux, les vns font roux comme ceux de France ; d’autres font plus petits, & ont deux barres blanches & noires tout le long du dos; on les nomme Efcurieux Suiffes : il y en a d'vne iroifiéme forte, qui font gros & cendrez, qu'on appelle Efcurieux Volans, parce qu'ils volent en effet d’vn arbre fur l’autre, par le moyen de cer- taines peaux qui s’eftendent lors qu'ils ouurét les pates: ils ne volent jamais en montant comme les oyfeaux, mais droit ou en defcendant; ils font beaux & mignons : la quatriéme efpece font des Efcurieux noirs : 1 C’est évidemment le carcajou [SULTB] PIERRE BOUCHER ET SON LIVRE 139 ils font plus gros que tous les autres: la peau en eft tres-belle, & les Sauuages s’en feruent à faire des robes: cét animal eft joly & curieux ; mais il ne s’en trouue que dans le pays des Iroquois. Apres cela, nous parlerons des animaux Amphibies, qui viuent & dans l’eau & fur terre, comme Caftor, Loutre, & Rat mufqué. Le Caftor ou Biévre eft vn animal qei a les jambes fort courtes, vit dans l’eau & fur terre: il a vne grande queué platte, dont la peau eft en façon d’écaille : vous feauez que le poil fert à faire des chapeaux, & c’eft le grand traffic de ce Pays-icy. Ces animaux multiplient beaucoup, la chair en eft delicate comme celle du mouton ; les tefticules font recherchez par les Apoticaires. Cét animal tout groffier qu'il eft, a vne merueilleufe induftrie, non feulement à fe loger dans l’eau & dans terre, mais fur tout à baftir des digues : car ils ont l’adreffe d’arrefter de petites riuieres, & de faire des chaufsées que l’eau ne peut rompre, & font par ce moyen noyer vn grand Pays, qui leur fert d’Eftag pour fe jouér, & pour y faire leur demeure. Les Sauuages qui vont à la chaffe, ont toutes les peines du monde à rompre ces digues. Les Caftors qui font du cofté du Nort valent bien mieux, & le poil en eft plus excellent que de ceux du cofté du Sud. Pour les Loutres, ils fe trouuent d'ordinaire dans les lacs ; il y ena quelques-vns qui ont la peau affez belle. Le Rat mufqué eft vn animal qui vit dans l’eau, & qui eft affeuré- ment eftimé pour les tefticules, qui fentent le mufc pendant deux mois, qui eft le temps qu'il font en chaleur, fçauoir Auril & May: leur peau reffemble à celle d’vn Lapin, tant par la couleur que pour la grandeur; la chair en eft bonne. Il y a auffi des Belettes, Mulots, Taupes, & Souris : Voila pour ce qui eft des animaux du Pays. Voicy le nom de ceux que l’on amene de France, des Boeufs & des Vaches : les boeufs feruent à labourer la terre, & à traîner du bois l’'Hyuer fur les neiges. Des cochons en grand nombre : des Moutons il y en a peu: des Chitns, des Chats, & des Rats. Voila les animaux que l’on nous a amené de France, qui font bonne fin en ce Pays-icy. . Apres auoir parlé de tous les animaux qui font dans le Pays, difons vn mot des Reptiles qui s’y trouuent. Il s’y void des Couleuures de plufieurs fortes : il y en a qui ont la peau émaillé de blanc & de noir; d’autres de jaune et de verd: elles ne font pas malfaifantes, du moins on ne s’en eft pas encore apperceu: les plus longues font enuiron d’vn aulne ; mais il y en a peu de fi longues. Plus on va en haut, plus il y en a. Dans le pays des Iroquois, il y en a d’vne autre forte qu’on appelle des Couleuures à fonnettes: celles li font dangereutes, elles mordent quelques- fois les Sauuages, qui en mourroient en peu de temps, n’eftoit la connoif- fance d’une herbe qu'ils ont, laquelle croift en ce pays, qui eftant appli- quée fur la bleffure en forme ce cataplafme, en tire tout le venin. 140 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA Il y à des Lezards et autres petits animaux femblables : des Crapaux ; mais ie n’en ay iamais veu de fi gros en France. Il y a des Grenoiiilles de plufieurs fortes ; j’en ay vu de trois, fçauoir les vnes auffi groffe que le pied d’vn cheual, qui font vertes, & fe trouuent fur le bord du grand Fleuve ; elles meuglent le foir comme yn Bœuf, & plufieurs de nos noueaux venus y ont efté trompez, croyans entendre des Vaches fauuages: ils ne le vouloient pas croire quand on . leur difoit que c’eftoit des grenoüilles, on les entend d’vne grande lieuë. Les Sauuages, Hurons, les mangent, et disent qu’elles font fort bonnes. Il y en a d’autree femblables à celles de France, & c’eft de celles-la qu'il y en a plus grand nombre. Ten ay veu d’vne troifiéme forte, qui font toutes comme les gre- noiiilles communes, finon qu'elles ont vne queué: je n’ay iamais veu de celles-là qu’en un seul endroit, le long d’vne petite riuiere ; mais j'en vis plus d’un cent. Noms des Oyfeaux qui fe voyent en la Nouuelle-France. Chapitre VI. En vous mettant le nom des oyfeaux qui font dans ce Pais, ie ne vous parleray point de ceux qui fe rencontrent à l’entrée du Golfe, comme Cormorans, Tangueux, Fauquets, Poules d’eau, Grifeaux, & une infinité d’autres, qui font pluftoft oyfeaux de mer que de terre: mais ie vous nommeray feulement ceux qui font proche de nous, & que l’on tuë tous les iours, comme Cygnes, Outardes, Brenefches, Oyes fauuages, Grués, Canards, Cercelles, Plongeons de plus de dix fortes, Huarts, Butors, Herons, Becaffes, Becaffines, Cheualiers, Pluuiers, Piroüys, Alloüettes de mer: car il n’y en a point des champs. Tous les noms cy-deffus font oyfeaux de riuieres ; veu que s'ils ne se trouuent dedans, ils fe trouuent le long des bords. Tout ce Pays eft remply de ce Gibier dans la faifon, qui eft le Printemps & l'Automne. Comme Loutarde n’est pas vn oyfeau commun en France, j’en feray vne petite defcription, à caufe que c’eft le Gibier de riuiere le plus commun (icy : elle eft faite toute comme vne Oye grize, mais beaucoup plus groffe, elle n’a pas la chair fi delicate que celle des Oyes que nous voyons icy en Canada ; qui en paffant font toutes blanches, à la referue du bout des ailes & de la queué quieft noire : car pour la chair des oyes de France, il s’en faut beaucoup qu’elles approchent du gouft de celuy de nos outardes. Le nom des autres oyfeaux font, l’Aigle, le Cocq-d’Inde, des Oyfeaux de proye font plus de quinze fortes, dont ie ne fçay pas les noms, finon de |’Eperuier & de |’Emerillon. [suLTH] PIERRE BOUCHER ET SON LIVRE 141 La femelle de l’Aigle a la tefte & la queué blanche, on |’appelle Nonnette. Pour le Cocq-d’Inde fauuage, il ne s’en trouve point ny à Quebec, ny aux trois-Riuieres, ny à Monreal: * mais dans le pays des Iroquois, & dans le Pays où demeuroient autresfois les Hurons, il y en a des quantitez, & dont la chair eft bien plus delicate, que des Cocqs-d’Inde domeftiques. Il y a trois fortes de Perdrix ; les vnes font blanches, & elles ne fe trouuent que l’Hyuer, elles ont de la plume jufques fur les argots, elles font fort belles, & plus groffes que celles de France, la chair en eft delicate. 11 y a d’autres Perdrix qui font toutes noires, qui ont des yeux rouges : elles font plus petites que celles de France, la chair n’en eft pas fi bonne à manger; mais c’eft un bel oyfeau, & elles ne font pas bien communes. Il y a auffi des Perdrix grifes, qui font groffes comme des poules : celles-la font fort communes & bien-aisées à tuer; car elles ne s’enfuyent quasi pas du monde: la chair eft extremément blanche & feiche. Il y ad’vne autre forte d’oyfeaux, qui fe nomment Tourtes ou Tourte- relles, (comme vous voudrez:) elles font presque groffes comme des pigeons, & d’vn plumage cendré: les mafles ont la gorge rouge, & font d’vn excellent gouft. 11 y en a des quantitez prodigieufes ; l’on en tué des quarante & quarante-cing d’un coup de fufil: ce n’eft pas que cela fe faffe d'ordinaire ; mais pour en tuer huit, dix ou douze, cela eft com- mun ; elles viennent d’ordinaire au mois de May, & s'en retournent au mois de Septembre; il s’en trouue vniuerfellement ‘par tout ce Pays-cy. Les Iroquois les prennent à la pafsée auec des rets ; ils en prennent quel- quesfois des trois et quatre cens d’vn coup. Il y a auffi grand nombre d'Etourneaux qui s’'abandent en Septembre & Octobre: quantité de Griues, Merles, Horlotans, & vn nombre infiny d’autres petits oyfeaux dont ie ne feay pas les noms. Il y a des Hirondelles, Martinets, Geays, Pies, mais elles ne font pas comme celles de France : car elles font cendrées & mal-bâties. Il fe void des Hibous & Chats-huans : des Corbeaux & Corneilles, des Piuerts, & autres fortes que l’on appelle Picquebois: de petits oyfeaux qui font tout rouges comme du feu: d’autres font rouges & noirs: d’autres font tout jaunes, & d’autres tout bleus. Les Oyfeaux mouches, qui font les plus petits de tous, font quafi tout verds, à la referue des mafles qui ont la gorge rouge. Les oyfeaux qu'on a apporté de France, font Poules, Poules-d’Indes, & des Pigeon. 1 C’est la seule fois que Boucher met Monreal ou lieu de Mont-Royal. 142 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA Noms des Poiffons qui fe trouuent dans le grand Fleuue §. Laurens, & dans les lacs & riuieres qui descendent, dont nous auons connoiffance, Chapitre VII. A l'entrée du Fleuue, il s’y void des Baleneaux, & l’on dit mefme qu'il y a de groffes Baleines. Il y a quantité de Molués, & l’on en pefche jufques à dix lieues de Tadouffac. Depuis là jufques au Mont-Royal, fe trouve grande quantité de Marfoins blancs, propres à faire de l’hnile, fi on les pouuoit attraper. On en void des quantitez admirables, depuis Tadouffac jufques à Quebec, qui bondiffent fur la riuiere. Ils font extremément grands & gros; & l’on peut efperer du moins vne barique d'huile de chacun, ainfi qu'on a expe- rimenté de quelques-vns qu'on a trouué echoiiez. Il y a auffi quantité de Loups-marins vers Tadouffac, & defcendant plus bas ; l’huile en eft excellente, non feulement à brûler ; mais à beau- coup d’autres chofes : ils font fort aisez à attraper, la peau fert à beau- coup d’vfages. Il y a quantité de Saulmons & Truites, depuis l'entrée du Golfe jufques à Quebec: il ne s'en trouue point aux trois-Riuieres, ny au Mont- Royal: mais quantité dans le pays des Iroquois. Il y a abondance de Maquereaux ; mais ils ne fe trouuent qu'à l'Ifle Percée. Le Haran donne en plufieurs endroits : à l'Ifle Percée, Tadouffac, & autres riuieres, il va par bandes comme en Europe. L'Efturgeon fe prend depuis Quebec en montant en haut, & dans tous ces grands lacs, où il y en a grande quantitez : il s'en void bien peu de petits, mais tous grads Efturgeons de quatre, de fix, & de huit pieds de long: jay veu qu'il s'en pefchoit en abondance deuant habitation du Mont-Royal, pendant qu'ils auoient des hommes affectionnez à la pefche : il eft parfaitement bon falé, & fe garde bien long-temps : j'en ay mangé qu'il y auoit deux ans qui eftoit falé, qui eftoit auffi bon que quatre iours apres la prife. L’Aloze eft plus abondante à Quebec qu’en aucun lieu ; il y en a des quantitez prodigieufes au Printemps, qui eft la faifon qu’on la pefche. Le Bar eft vn poiffon d’eau douce : on en pefche quantité à Quebec & aux trois-Riuieres: je n’ay point ouy dire qu'on en prift à Tadouffac, ny au Mont-Royal: c’eft vn poiffon dont la chair eft excellente, & où il y a peu d’arrétes. La Barbué commune en tout ce Pays, & qui abonde par tout, eft vn poiffon sans écaille, qui a la tefte plus groffe que le refte du corps, n’a que la groffe arrefte : la chair en eft blanche & delicate, pour eftre- vn [SULTE] PIERRE BOUCHER ET SON LIVRE 143 des plus gras de ce Pays-icy : elle a d’ordinaire vn pied & demy ou deux pieds de long : elle fe prend à l’amecon : elle eft fort bonne faléc. Il y a auffi abondance d’Eplan durant PAutonne, tant a Quebec qu'à Tadouffac. Il fe trouue des Loches à Tadouffac, & quantité d'autre forte de Poiffons que j’obmets pour n’en fçauoir les noms. L'Anguille fe pefche à Quebec, en plus grande abondance qu'en aucun lieu, dans le mois de Septembre & au commencement d'Octobre : elle eft plus groffe & de beaucoup meilleur gouft que celle qui fe voit en France. Ten ay veu d’auffi groffe que la jambe d’vn homme : elie eft ‘delicate: elle fe garde fort bien falée : elle fe prend auec des naffes : on en prend fi grande quantité, que cel n’eft pas conceuable à moins que de l’auoir veu. Les Poiffons qui fe trouuent dans les petits lacs & les petites riuieres, font Brochets, Carpes de plufieurs fortes ; Perches, Braimes, petites Truites, Poiffons dorez, Ouchigans, vne autre forte de Poiffon plat qui n'a point de nom François, non plus que le precedent, qui eft petit, mais excellent, & vn autre nommé le Poiffon blanc; Voila les plus communs qui fe rencontrent par tout. Les Brochets y font ordinairement bien grands. Les Carpes de quelque nature qu’elles foient, ne font pas bien excellentes, à moins que deftre frites à l'huile : elles ont la chair molaffe. De tous ces poiffons, il y a abondance dans tous les petits lacs & petites riuieres. Dans ces grands lacs, il y a quantité de beaux & grands poiffons, & de diuerfes efpeces, qui n’ont point encore de nom parmy nous autres François, qui cependant font des mangers delicieux. Ie n’en feray point la defcription, ils font encore trop éloignez de nous. Il feroit bien difficile de dire les noms de tous les Poiffons qui fe prennent dans vn grand Pays comme ceftuy-ey. De temps en temps il s’en prend quelques-vns dont on n’en a point encore veu de femblabies. On trouue auffi des Efcreuiffes dans les petites riuieres. Toubliois à vous faire la defcription d’vn poiffon, qu'on appelle Poiffon armé : il a enuiron deux pieds & demy de long, & mefme trois pieds ; il eft tout rond, & a fix ou huit poulces de tour ; il eft quafi éga- lement gros par tout: il a vne écaille extremément dure, & qu'on ne fcauroit auoir percé d’yn coup d'épée; fon bec a enuiron huit poulces de long, & eft dur comme de l'os ; armé de trois rangées de dents de chaque cofté, qui tont pointués comme des alefnes : la chair ne vaut pas grand chofe à manger. Il eft fort facile à prendre, mais il eft rare. 144 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA Noms des Bleds & autres grains aportez d'Europe, qui croiffent en ce Pays. Chapitre VIII. Dans mon voyage de France, ie rencontray quantité de perfonnes qui me demandoient fi le bled* venoit en la Nouuelle-France, & fi l’on y mangeoit du pain. C’eft ce qui m'a obligé à faire ce Chapitre, pour defabufer ceux qui croyent que l'on ne vit dans ce Pays-icy que de racines, comme on fait aux Ifles Saint Chriftophle. Ils fçauront donc que le bled froment y vient tres-bien ; & on y fait du pain auffi beau & auffi blanc qu'en France. Les feigles y viennent plus que l’on ne veut : toute forte d'orges & de pois y croiffent fort beaux, & l'on ne void point de ces pois verreux plains de coffon, comme on en void en France ; les lentilles, la voiffe, l’auoine, & mil, y viennent parfaitement bien ; les groffes febves y viennent bien auffi ; mais il y a de certaines années qu'il y a de groffes mouches qui les mangent, quand elles font en fleur. Le bled Sarazin y vient auffi ; mais il arriue quelquefois que la gelée le furprend auant qu’il foit meur. Le chanvre & le lin y viennent plus beaux & plus hauts qu'en France. | Les grains que cultiuent les Sauuages, & qu'ils auoient auant que nous vinffions dans ce Pays, ce font gros Mil ou Bled d’Inde, Faizoles ou Arricots, Citroüilles d’vne autre efpece que celles de France; elles font plus petites, & ne font pas fi creufes; ont la chair plus ferme & moins aqueufe, & d’vn meilleur gouft. Du Tournefol, de la graine duquel ils font de l'huile qui eft fort delicate, & de tres-bon gouft. De Vherbe à la Reyne, ou Petun, dont ils font leur Tabac; car les Sauuages font grands fumeurs, & ne fe peuuent paffer du petun. Voila en quoy confifte la culture des Sauuages. Toutes fortes de Naueaux & Rabioles, Bettes-raues, Carottes, Panais, Cercifis, & autres racines, viennent parfaitement, & bien groffes. Toute forte de Choux y viennent auffi en leur perfection, à la referue des Choux à fleur que ie n’y ay point encore veu. Pour des herbes, Lozeille, Cardes de toutes facons, Afperges, Efpinars, Laittuës de toute forte, Cerfüeil, Percil, Cicorée, Pimprenelle, Oignons, Porreaux, |’ Ail, les Ciues, Hyfopes, Bouroche, Buglofe, & generalement toutes fortes d’herbes qui croiffent dans les jardins de France ; les Melons, les Cocombres, les Melons d’eau & Callebaces y viennent tres-bien. Pour des fleurs, on n’en a pas encore beaucoup apporté de France, finon des Rofes, des Oeillets, Tulipes, Lys blancs, Paffes-rofes, Anemones & Pas-d’alouette qui font tout comme en France. ; 1 En 1634, le pére le Jeune disait que le blé récolté en Canada était comparable au plus beau de France. [suzre] PIERRE BOUCHER ET SON LIVRE 145 Pour les herbes fauuages, ie n’entreprendray pas de vous en décrire icy les noms, finon de quelques-vnes les plus communes qui fe rencontrent icy dans les bois. Je Cerfüeil a la feuille plus large que celuy de France, a la tige beaucoup plus groffe, & eft d’auffi bon gouft. L’Ail eft plus petit que celuy de France : il y croift force petits Oignons façon de Ciues le long du grand Fleuue. Il y a de la Paffe-pierre & du Percil fauuage, qui reffemble tout à fait au percil de Macedoine : il y a de l’Angelique dans les prairies, & le Pourpier vient naturellement dans les terres defertées fans y eftre femé : mais il n’eft pas fi beau que celuy que nous cultiuons - il fe trouue das les prairies d’vne herbe qu’on appelle Voifferon, qui fait d’excellent foin, auffi bien qu’vne autre qu'on appelle Pois fauuages : il n’y ! en a plus vers les Trois-Riuieres & Mont-Royal, où il n'y a point de reflux, que vers Quebec. Le Houbelon y vient auffi naturel- lement, & on en fait de tres-bonne biere. La Cicuë y croift à merueille, auffi-bien que l’Elebore : le Capilaire y croift en abondance : il fe trouue de plufieurs fortes de Fougere, des Ortyes dont on fait du fil & de tres- bons cordages, du Melilot*, des Rofeaux & Iones, le long des riuieres. Il y à auffi quantité de fortes de fleurs, dont les plus confiderables font celles-cy, des Martagons qui font jaunes ; des Rofes fauuages qui ne font point doubles; vne autre fleur rouge qu’on nomme Cardinalle, vne efpece de Lys, du Muguet, des Violettes timples & qui ne fentent rien. Te ne feay point le nom des autres; mais ceux qui ont efté aux Iroquois * m'ont dit, que c’eft chofe admirable de voir la quantité & la diuerfité des belles fleurs qui s’y trouuent. Des Sauuages de la Nouuelle-France, & de leur façon de viure. Chapitre IX. Tovs les Sauuages de la Nouuelle-France, font quafi tous les vns comme les autres, particulierement pour les habillemens & leurs couftumes : mais comme ils font differens en leurs façons de vie & en leurs langages, nous les diftinguerons en deux, à quoy fe rapportent toures ‘ les Nations de ces pays icy: fçauoir l’Algonquins & la Huronne ; toutes les nations qui habitent le cofté du Nort, tant bas que haut, font tous Algonquins, & ne different pas beaucoup de langage, finon comme le Poiteuin differe du Prouencal ou du Gafcon. Du cofté du Sud il y a encore les A bnaquiois, 1 Ne faudrait-il pas ‘ Il y ena plus” ? 2 Sorte de plante légumineuse. %’ Le soin que l’auteur a toujours d’englober le pays des Iroquois dans ses descriptions, montre bien que les Français du Bas-Canada le regardaient comme formant partie de la Nouvelle-France. 4 Toutes. Sec. I, 189 . 10. 146 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA les Acadiens, les Socoquiois & toute la nation du Loup,’ qui tiennent plus de Algonquin que du Huron. En haut les Outaoüac les Nez percez,’ & toutes ces autres grandes nations parlent presque tous Algonquin. D'autre cofté la nation du Petun,* la nation neutre,® tous les Iroquois, les Andaftoé,? parlent la langue Huronne, quoy que les Dialectes foient beaucoup differens, comme l’Efpagnol, l'Italien, le Francois different du Latin. Mais entre la langue Huronne & l’Algonquine, il y a autant de difference que du Grec au Latin. Les Algonquins font errans, & ne viuent que de chaffe & de pefche, ne feauent ce que c’eft de cultiuer des terres ; & vniuerfellement toutes les nations qui ont rapport à la langue Algonquine. Au contraires les” Hurons, Iroquois, & toutes les nations qui ont rapport à la langue Huronne, font fedentaires, ont des bourgades, font des champs, cultiuent la terre, trafiquent chez Jes autres nations, font plus policez, ont comme des Officiers parmy eux pour toutes fortes de chofes. Faifons la defcription de la vie des Algonquins, apres quoy nous parlerons de celle des Hurons. L’ Algonquin, comme ivay dit, eft errant, & vit de chaffe & de pefche ; & pour cét effet ils ont de petits vaiffeaux, que l’on appelle icy canots, faits d’efcorce de bouleau, & renforcez par dedas de demy-cercles de bois de Cedre: cela eft fait fi proprement qu'un homme feul porte aifement vn de ces petits vaiffeaux, quand il eft queftion de trauerfer les bois pour aller d’vne riuiere à vne autre ; & cependant il s'y embarque, luy fa femme & fes enfans, fes armes, fa maifon, & le refte de fon bagage. Il y a des canots de deux, de trois, de quatre, & de cinq braffes. Leurs maifons confiftent d'ordinaire en trois efcorces de bouleau, qui ont enuiron chacune vne aulne de large, & trois à quatre aulnes de long, qui fe plient comme fait vn tableau quand il fort de chez vn Peintre : ils eftendent ces écorces le foir quand ils font arriuez, fur trois ou quatre perches en rond, qui vont en pointe vers le haut, en forte que la cabane est ronde, large par en bas, & retreffiffant par le haut. C’eft d’ordinaire la femme qui fait la cabane, qui defcharge le canot, allume le feu, & | Les Mohicans. Jl est bien certain que les nations du Nouveau-Brunswick, de la Nouvelle-Ecosse et du Maine étaient algonquines de langue, de genre de vie, de manieres, et différaient en tout cela des Iroquois et des Hurons. 2 Après avoir habité l’île Manitoualin jusq'à 1650, les Outaouais étaient allés se placer dans la Grande baie du lac Michigan. 3 Les Amikoués ou nation du Castor demeuraient sur la terre ferme, au nord du lac Huron, dans le district d’ Algoma aujourd’hui. 4 Dans le comté de Huron, où se trouvent la ville et le port de Goderich. 5 Andastes, nation de la Porcelaine, placée sur les bords de la Susquehannah. 6 Dans les comtés de Middlesex et Elgin, où sont les villes de London et Saint- Thomas. En 1663, les Neutres et les Pétuneux n’étaient pas nombreux dans ces parages, car les Iroquois leur avaient fait de terribles guerres au cours des quinze derniers années. (suLrE] PIERRE BOUCHER ET SON LIVRE 147 difpose le fouper, pendant que l’homme allant faire vn tour dans le bois, va voir s'il ne trouuera rien à tuer. La femme doit auffi difposer le lit, allant couper là proche vn paquet de branche de fapin, qu'elles ! eftendent fur la terre pour fe coucher ; c’eft elle qui doit couper & apporter tout le bois neceffaire pour la maifon. Quand les hommes ont tué quelque animal, c'eft aux femmes à aller querir la viande : car elles leur feruent comme de porte-faix, elles écorchent les animaux, elles en eftendent & font fecher les peaux, elles les paffent apres pour s'en couurir ; car nos Sauuages ne vont pas nuds, comme font ceux qui font du cofté des Ifles faint Chriftophle,* feulement ils ne fe couurent point les bras, finon quand il fait grand froid. Les Sauuages generalement parlant, tant hommes que femmes, font fort bien-faits ; & on en voit fort peu parmy eux qui ayent des defauts de nature, comme d'eftre louches, boffus, baiteux,’ à moins qu'il ne leur foit arriué par accident. Is font bazanez, les enfans qui naiffent font blancs comme des Francois, & cette couleur bazanée ne leur vient qu’auec l’aage. Les hom- mes n'ont point de barbe, ils ont tous les cheueux noirs & gros, tant hommes que femmes, fe les graiffent fort fouuent. Les Algonquins les portent d'ordinaire fort longs. Ils font naturellement timides, crueis, diffimulez, complaifans, in- grats, fur tout les Algonquins, hardis demandeurs : mais le plus grand mal que iy vois, c’eft quils font extremement vindicatifs, & garderont vingt ans le deffein de se vanger, fans le faire paroiftre ; cependant cherchent toufiours l’occafion d’auoir quelque pretexte qui les mette à couvert. Ce n’eft point leur couftume de faire paroiftre leurs rancunes ouuertement, comme de fe battre à la rencontre, ou feul à feul, comme on fait en Europe. Vn homme feroit odieux parmy eux qui l’auroit fait; & comme ils font heureux d’auoir occafion de faire piece à leurs ennemis & eftre à couvert, C’eft vne des caufes qui les rend fi paffionnez pour senyurer, eftimans que quand ils ont frappé ou tué quelqu’vn dans 1 Sie. * Les îles Saint-Christophe, qui reviennent plus d'une fois sous la plume de M. Boucher, sont à 30 lieues au nord-ouest de la Guadeloupe. Elles appartiennent à l’Angleterre depuis 1713 et dépendent du gouvernement d’Antigoa. L'île Saint- Christophe proprement dite se nomme à présent Saint-Kitts. Du temps de M. Bou- cher, les gouverneurs de ce groupe diles furent, entre autres, M. de Poincy et M. de Montmagny, tous deux parents, et les premiers colons du Canada avaient connaissance de ce qui se passait dans ces lieux lointains par les rapports qui arrivaient au gouverneur de Québec. En France, il semble qu’il existait une grande confusion dans les idées au sujet ‘‘ des Iles”, selon le terme usité; on les prenait souvent pour le Canada, aussi M. Boucher a-t-il le soin d'expliquer en quoi les deux colonies diffèrent l’une de l’autre, mais la lumière se fait lentement dans cet ordre de choses, de sorte que les écrivains français n’ont pas cessé de parler des [les comme si c'était le Canada et du Canada comme si c'était les Iles. Il en est résulté de graves malentendus parmi les lecteurs. # Faute typographique : boiteux. 148 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA leur yureffe, cela ne leur eft point à deshonneur, difans que c’eft ‘la boisson qui l'a fait, & non pas eux; cependant ils volent de joye dans leurs cœurs de s’eftre vangez: de-là vient que les Sauuages ne boiuent quafi iamais que pour s’enyurer, & en fuite faire piece à quelqu’vn qui leur aura rendu quelque déplaifir, ou pour affouuir quelque-autre passion brutale, comme de violer vne fille ou femme. C’eft ce qu'à fort bien reconnu Monfieur noftre Euefque, & ce qui l’a rendu fi zelé à s’oppofer à ceux qui donnoient de la boiffon aux Sauuages, dot ils s’enyuroient in- ceffamment, & d'où naiffoient des defordes funeftes, que la pieté des gens de bien ne pouuait fupporter : Car il eft tres-certain, que les Sauuages ne boivent point par delicateffe, ny par neceffité ; mais toufiours pour quelque mauuais deffein : & cela eft tellement vray—qu’on n’auoit iamais veu, ny entendu parler parmy les Sauuages, des maux qui fe font faits depuis qu'on leur a donné de ces boiffons enyurantes : car les Sauuages de leur naturel ne font point capables de grandes malices, comme font les Europeens ; ils ne fçauent ce que c’eft que de jurer. Quoy qu'il y en ait parmy eux quelques-vns qui foient larrons, ils ne dérobent iamais auec effronterie, ny mefme auec adreffe, du moins les Algonquins, quoy qu'ils ne manquent pas d’efprit. Ordinairement tous les Sauuages ont l’efprit bon, & il eft bien rare de voir parmy eux de ces efprits bufes & groffiers, comme nous en voyons en France parmy nos payfans: Ils craignent plus vne fimple reprimande de leurs parens ou de leurs Capitaines, que l’on ne fait en Europe les roués. & les gibets : car vous ne voyez point de defordre parmy eux, quoy que les peres et les meres n’ayent point de chaftiment pour leurs enfans, nonplus que leurs chefs pour leurs inferieurs, que des paroles de reprimande ; & i'en ay veu qui fe font empoifonnez ; d’autres qui se font pendus, ou pour auoir receu, ou de peur de receuoir vne correction de leurs parens, ou de leurs Capitaines, & cela pour quelques petites fautes qu'ils auoient fait. C’eft dou vient que quand il s'eft fait vn meurtre, on ne s'en prend point à celuy qui la fait, mais aux Capitaines, qui font obligez de fatisfaire aux parens du defunt; & comme la fatis- faction eft confiderable, &@ que cela donne de la peine au Capitaine, cela donne vne telle confufion à ceiuy qui a fait le mal, que quoy qu'on ne luy dife rien, il fe bannit ordinairement le refte de fes iours, & cela retient tous les autres en bride. Ils refpectent beaucoup leurs Capitaines, & leur obeyffent promp- tement, fur tout quand ils ne font point vicieux: car quand ils le font, ils les méprifent fort, difans, qu’vn homme qui ne peut pas fe commander foy-mefme, eft incapable de commander autruy. Ils ne font point d'ordinaire auaricieux; cela vient de ce qu'ils ne fe foucient pas de rien amaffer (particulierement les Algonquins) qui viuent au jour la iournée : ils n’ont point de foin. La liberalité parmy eux eft eftimée ; c'eft d’où vient que les Capi- taines font ordinairement plus pauures que les autres: car quand ils [SULTE] PIERRE BOUCHER ET SON LIVRE 149 commencent à paroiftre, ils donnent tout. pour attirer l'affection de leurs gens, qui par apres leur font plufieurs prefens, & les nourriffent quand ils commencent à vieillir. Ils ne font point plus braues les vns que .les autres, les meilleurs chaffeurs font les mieux accommodez. Ils ne feauent ce que ceft de fe faire feruir, chacun fe fert foy- mefme. Le meftier des hommes Algonquins, c'eft d'aller à la chaffe, à la pefche & à la guerre, en traitte aux Nations efloignées, & d’efcorter les femmes quand elles vont en des lieux dangereux, faire les canots, & voila tout ; pour le refte ce font les femmes qui le doiuent faire. Quand ils font en voyage, & que leurs femmes vont auec eux, la femme nage dans le canot auffi bien que l’homme, En voila affez dit des Algonquins. Venons maintenant à vne vie & des couftumes bien differentes qu'ont les Nations de la langue Huronne, tels que font tous les cantons des Iro- quois. Ils font fedentaires, comme iay déja dit, & baftitfent des bour- gades. Ce font les hommes qui font les paliffades & les cabanes, qu'ils font en forme de berceau, fort haut & large; couuert depuis le haut iufques au le Maiftre du festin chante toû-" bas de groffe écorce de Frefne ou d’Orme: les meilleures de ces cabanes font couuertes d’écorces de Cedre, mais elles font plus rares. Ils abbatent du bois, & defertent pour faire des champs. Quand le bois en eft bruflé, c’eft aux femmes à les enfemencer; car ce font les femmes qui font toutes les femences, cerclent le bled & en font la recolte : ce font elles qui le moulent, autrement le pilent : car les Sauuages n’ont iamais eu l’vfage des Moulins; l’ayant reduit en farine, elles en font du pain, ou vne efpece de boüillié auec de l’eau & quelque affaifonnement, lors qu'ils en ont, ce qu'ils appellent Sagamité : car les femmes font les Cuifinieres & les Boulangeres. Les hommes trauaillent encore à faire des canots, des armures & des rets ; mais ce font les femmes qui filent le fil: les hommes tiennent les Confeils, deliberent des affaires, c’eft à dire ceux qui font de naiffance pour cela ; car les Capitaines viennent de peres en fils, & entrent au Confeil lors qu'ils font en aage meur, & qu'ils ont montré auoir l’efprit bien fait. : Ce font les hommes qui vont à la chaffe, à la pefche, & à la guerre: les Iroquois ne vont point en traitte chez les autres nations Sauuages, car ils font hais de tous: les Hurons y alloient fort, & trafiquoient quafi par tout le pays.’ 1 Ces mots: ‘tle Maiftre du festin chante toû-” appartiennent à un endroit que nous signalerons plus loin. 2 Les Hurons obtenaient par les Andastes de la Pennsylvanie ou autres peuples, du tabac de la Virginie. Ils allaient sur l’Ottawa rencontrer les Sauvages du nord avec lesquels ils échangeaient les produits de leur culture. 150 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA Les hommes s'occupent encore à faire des plats & des cuilleres de bois. C'eft auffi eux qui font les champs de tabac, & les calumets ou pipes qui leur feruent à fumer: les femmes font les pots de terre, comme auffi quantité de petits ouurages propres à leurs vfages, que ie ne d’écriray point pour n’eftre connus en France. Elles feruent de porte-faix, & il faut que ce foit elles qui portent tout ce qu'il y a à porter. Tay appris depuis peu que les Iroquois & Iroquoifes fe font feruir par leurs Efclaues, qu'ils ont en grand nombre,’ tant d'hommes que de femmes. Continuation fur le mefme fujet, concernant le Mariage des Sauuages. . Chapitre X. Difons vn petit mot de leurs Mariages. Lors qu’vn garçon à deffein d’époufer vne fille, il l’a va voir, il la careffe, mais iamais auec indecence, ce feroit vn crime parmy eux: il luy parle en particulier, & quand il la enfin gagnée, il lui fait des prefens de ce qu'ils ont de plus rare ; & quand tout eft d’accord, il va demeurer dans la cabane de la fille, car la femme ne va point demeurer chez le mary, mais le mary chez la femme. Parmy les Hurons vn mariage n’eft pas tenu pour veritable mariage, mais pluftoft pour débauche, fi les pere & mere . u jeune homme n'ont efté demander aux parens de la fille celle qu’ils defirent auoir pour femme à leurs enfans ; ce qui fe fait donnant quelque riche prefent aux parens de la fille. Ils demeurent quelquesfois long-temps enfemble deuant que de con- fommer le mariage : & l’on dit vne chofe admirable des Algonquins, qui eft, que fouuent ils demeurent vn an & dauantage enfemble, auant que le confommer : il ne fe paffe rien parmy eux qui ne foit dans l'honnefteté, & rien de diffolus dans ces rencontres, quoy qu'ils foient naturellement grands railleurs, & qu'ils ayent plufieurs mots à double entente, mais ils ne s'en feruent pas dans ces rencontres, Quoy que la polygamie ne foit pas deffendué parmy eux, rarement voyez-vous vn homme auoir deux femmes, fur tout parmy les Hurons & les Iroquois: car cela fe rencontre quelquesfois chez les Algonquins. Le diuorce n’eft point vne chose odieufe chez les Sauuages, vn homme pouuant repudier facilement fa femme, & la femme fon mary (ientends parler de ceux qui ne font point Chreftiens) cela fe fait fans bruit: car quand: la femme repudie fon mary, elle n’a qu’à luy dire qu'il forte de fa maison, & il s’en va fans rien dire autre chofe, & y laiffe tout ce qu'il y a apporté, à la referue de fes habits. Tout de mefme, fi le 3 Les conquêtes étonnantes des Iroquois depuis seize ans permettaient à M. Boucher de mentionner le grand nombre d'esclaves que ce peuple possédait en 1663. [SULTE] PIERRE BOUCHER ET SON LIVRE 151 mary veut repudier fa femme, il fe retire, apres luy auoir declaré qu'il la quitte : s'ils ont des enfans ils demeurent tous à la femme. Ces diuorces arrivent rarementm parce que chacun eft fur fes gardes, s'empefchant de de donner du mécontentement à fa partie, crainte de l'obliger à la feparation. | Ils ne font pas beaucoup fujets à la ialoufie, fur tout les Iroquois. Is ont des jeux parmy eux de diuerfes fortes, les plus communs font les jeux de paille, & le jeu du plat, & vn troifiéme qu'ils nomment paqueffen. Ce jeu de paille fe fait en effet auec de petites pailles qui font faites exprés, & qui fe partagent en trois, comme au hazard, fort inégalement. Nos Francois ne l’ont pû encore bien apprendre, il eft plein d’efprit ; & ces pailles font parmy eux, ce que les cartes font parmy nous. Le ieu du plat font neuf petits os plats & ronds comme des noyaux de pefche, que l’on auroit liffez & applatis, qui font noirs d’vn cofté, & blancs de l’autre, que l’on remuë & que l’on fait fauter dans vn grand plat de bois, qu’enfin on arrefte en frappant la terre, le tenant auec les denx mains: la perte ou le gain dépend d’vn certain nombre qui fe trouue tout d’vne couleur. Le jeu paqueffen eft presque la mefme chofe, finon qu’on iette ces petits os en l’air auec la main, retombans fur vne robe eftenduë en terre, qui fert comme de tapis ; le nombre tout d’vne couleur fait la perte ou le gain. Ils fe feftinent auffi les vns les autres, la facon eft telle. Celuy qui veut faire feftin fait mettre vne grande chaudiere fur le feu, ou deux, ou trois, felon le monde qu'il veut traiter : dans lefquelles chaudieres on met de la viande ou du poiffon, & en fuite de la farine de bled d’Inde: quand cela eft cuit, celuy qui fait le feftin enuoye conuier ceux qu'il defire qui y foient : ils y viennent auec vn plat & vne cuillere. Ils entrent dans la cabane fans dire mot, & s’arrangent fur leurs derrieres comme des guenons: cependant le Maiftre du feftin chante toûjours ! iufques à ce que tous les conuiez foient entrez, car il ne leur fait aucune ceremonie : alors il prend la parole, & dit, Ie fais feftin : que s'il defire gratifier & faire honneur à fon fils ou à quelqu'autre, il le declarera, difant, c’eft vn tel qui fait feftin : alors tous lcs affiftans répondent vn certain hd, qui eft çomme vn efpece de remerciment: il continué & dit, il y a tant de chaudieres, felon le nombre qu'il y aura: on lui répond encore hé: c'eft d’vne telle viande, & tuée par vn tel: à chaque article on fait toufiours la mefme réponfe 16: & ainsi confecutiuement il declare tout ce quil y ¢ dans le feftin, & on répond toufiours la mefme chofe, h6, ho. En fuite il dit, [le fouhaitte qu’vn tel nombre de vous autres chante, vn tel, vn tel, & vn tel: & fouuent il commence le premier à chanter, & les vns apres les autres chantent iufques au nombre qu'il a fouhaité. 1 Ces mots: “le Maiftre du festin chante toû- ” ont déjà figuré dans un endroit que nous signalons plus haut. 152 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA La perfonne qui chante fe leue, faifant diuerfes poftures & geftes en chantant. Cette fagon de chanter n’eft point harmonieufe, auec douceur, mais elle eft comme de gens qui s'excitent à la colere, & mefme ils font quelquesfois des fignes de fraper : ils raconteront dans ces chanfons mar- tiales leurs proiieffes, & les hommes qu'ils ont tué en guerre, ou les deffeins qu'ils ont d'aller en guerre pour vanger la mort de quelqu’vn de leurs parens, ou de quelque homme confiderable. Ce qui les y engage par honneur; & fouuent ceux qui fuiuent à chanter, s'engagent en chantant de les fuiure à la guerre, & mourir auec eux.! Apres que tous ont chanté on dreffe la chaudiere, c’eft à dire qu’on prend les plats d’vn chacun, & on met de la fagamité dedans; s'il y a de la viande on en diftribuë à chacun de ceux qu'on defire honorer & gra- tifier vn morceau : les morceaux les plus delicats font pour les Capitaines ; celuy qui fait feftin ne mange point, mais il chante pendant que les autres mangent. Si ce font des Algonquins, ils peuuent emporter leurs plats de fagamité chez eux; mais chez les Iroquois & Hurons, cela n’eft pas permis, il faut tout manger ce qui vous eft feruy ; c’eft d’où vient qu'ils portent des plats fort petits: car on n'ofe pas fortir de la cabane auant d'auoir vuidé fon plat, à moins que de faire quelque petit prefent au Maiftre du feftin, vn coufteau, vne alefne, vn pain de petun. Les femmes y font moins appellées que les hommes, fur tout chez les Iroquois & Hurons. Il fe fait quelquesfois parmy eux des feftins bien confiderables : il sen fit vn du temps que ieftois aux Hurons, de la chair de cinquante cerfs, dans cinquante chaudieres.” : Ils ont auffi des danfes parmy eux, qui ne reffemblent en rien aux noftres, car elles ne confiftent qu’à vne certaine façon de fe fecouer le corps, frapans des pieds contre terre, & faifans beaucoup d'autres pof- tures auec reigle, & à la cadence d’vn petit tambour, ou autre inftrument, qui fait vn petit bruit fourd : ils vont fi bien à la cadence, qu'on ne voit point de confufion ny de defordre, quoy qu'ils foient quelquesfois plus de deux cens à danfer enfemble ; ils frappent tous du pied en mefme temps, & fi à propos, que l’on diroit qu'il n’y a qu’vne perfonne qui danfe. Ces danfes fe font ordinairement pour quelques réjoüiffances pu- bliques, comme feroit quelques victoires remportées fur l’ennemy, ou vn ' Ainsi, un personnage habile donnait festin, attirant les chefs qu’il voulait engager à former une expédition, et l’affaire se décidait à table—car c'est par des diners qu’on gouverne les hommes, a dit Boileau. * Ces chaudières étaient de provenance française. Avant que d’en avoir l'usage, on faisait bouillir l'eau en plaçant dans le cassot d’écorce qui la contenait force cailloux rougis au feu que l’on retirait des qu'ils avaient communiqué leur calorique au liquide. De cette manière on faisait cuire du poisson, des légumes et même de la viande, déchiquetée préalablement, mais ce bouilli des Sauvages devait être pitoy- able. L'apparition des chaudières de métal a dû produire une joie immense depuis Québec jusqu'au saut Sainte-Marie. [suLTE] PIERRE BOUCHER ET SON LIVRE 153 traité de paix nouuellement conclu ; il s'en fait bien auffi quelquesfois chez des particuliers entre amis ; mais cela n’est pas bien ordinaire. Les peuples fedentaires' ont des Officiers pour toute forte de chofes, qu'ils appellent Capitaines ou gens confiderables ; les principaux font pour la police, les autres pour la guerre; il y en a d’autres qui ne font que pour auertir, & qui feruent comme de tambours & de trompettes : les vas vont crier par les rués du bourg le foir, ou le matin, le nom de ceux qui font morts, ou le iour ou la nuit ;? d’autres ont foin de faire les pre- paratifs pour brufler les prifonniers ; d’autres ont ordre d’auertir de fe trouuer au Confeil quand il fe doit tenir: quelques autres ont charge d’auertir par le bourg quand on doit faire quelques réjoüiffances ou danfes publiques, ainfi de tout le refte, & tout cela fans confufion ny defordre. Ils n’ont point de Religion, mais ils font fort fuperftitieux, & ajouf- tent foy a leurs fonges: c’eft ce qui donne plus de peine aux Peres Tefuites qui les inftruifent. Ils croyent l’immortalité de Ame, & difent qu’elle va apres la mort dans vn beau pays, que deuant que d’y arriuer, il faut paffer vne riuiere où il y a vn certain qui perce la tefte à tous les paffans, & leur arrache la ceruelle, ce qui fait qu'ils ne fe fouuiennent plus de rien. Ils ont quantité de fables qwils racontent, & en toutes on y remarque toufiours quelque chofe qui a du rapport 4 quelques-vnes des hiftoires de l’ancien Teftament. Ils ont connoiffance des Efprits, ont vne grande auerfion des Sor- ciers ; & quand quelqu’vyn en eft accufé, & qu'on croit qu'il le foit, il eft auffi-toft tué ou bruflé comme vn ennemy. Ils font fort aumofniers, & logent facilement les Eftrangers & Voya- geurs, fans efperance d’aucun falaire, & il y en a plufieurs qui quittent leurs lits, ou pour mieux dire, la place où ils couchent, ieur donnant à manger ce qu'ils ont de meilleur, & cela affez fouuent à vn homme qu'ils n'ont iamais veu, & quils ne verront peut-eftre iamais, & qui s’en ira fans leur dire grand-mercy, cela eft particulierement dans les Nations fedentaires. Quand il y a quelque famille qui eft tombée en neceffité de vivres, il y a des Capitaines qui vont par le Bourg ramaffer du bled pour la fubfif- tance de ces pauures gens, chacun donne, qui plus, qui moins, felon fon pouuoir. Ils ne font pas vilains les vns enuers les autres ; quand ils ont tué ou 1 Andastes, Iroquois, Neutres, Pétuneux, Hurons, ayant des bourgades fortifiées et cultivant une banlieue située dans le voisinage immédiat. A peu pres tous les trente ans, le sol ne produisant plus que de maigres récoltes, on recourait à des terres nouvelles et la bourgade se déplaçait en conséquence. 2 La pratique du cri public existait aussi chez les Algonquins lorsqu'un certain nombre de cabanes se trouvaient réunies, comme la chose se vit à Trois-Rivières lorsque Piescaret annonça qu’il se ferait baptiser. 1354 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA pefché, ils en font des largeffes, foit en faifant feftin, ou en enuoyant chez les particuliers. Ils font pitoyables, & fe portent compaffion les vns aux autres. Ils ayment fort leurs parens & les pleurent long-temps apres qu'ils font morts: quand ils les enterrent, ils mettent auec eux ce qu'ils aymoient le plus pendant leur vie, & ce qu'ils eftiment de plus precieux parmy leurs meubles. ; Ils ont prefque tous le fens commun affez bon, & raifonnent fort bien ; cela se void dans leurs confeils, & dans leurs harangues qu'ils font fouvent en toutes fortes d’occafions. Tous les Sauuages qui font proche des Europeans’ deuiennent yuronenes, & cela fait bien tort aux noftres’: car de quantité qui eftoient fort bons Chreftiens, plufieurs fe font relafchez. Les Peres lefuites ont fait ce qu'ils ont pû pour empefcher ce mal: car les Sauuages ne boiuent que pour s’enyurer; et quand ils ont commencé à boire, ils donneroient tout ce que l’on voudroit pour vne bouteille d'eau de vie, afin d’acheuer de s’enyurer. La guerre qu'ils fe font les vns aux autres, ne fe fait point pour conquerir des terres, ny pour deuenir plus grands Seigneurs, ny mefme pour lintereft, mais par pure vangeance : auffi ne parlent-ils point autre- ment; car ils difent, ie m'en vay en guerre pour vanger la mort d’vn tel, & c’est d’où vient qu'ils traitent fi cruellement leurs prifonniers, & ne vifent iamais qu'à détruire & faire perir vne Nation toute entiere. La maniere que les Sauuages font la guerre. Chapitre XI. Ceux qui vont en guerre ne font fouldoyez de perfonne ; chacun y va à fes dépens, & fe doit fournir d’armes, de viures, de munitions, & autres chofes neceffaires pour la guerre. La façon qu'ils font les leuées, la voicy : Vn Capitaine fait feftin, (on appelle cela pendre la Chaudicre) il inuite à fon feftin tous les jeunes gens de fon bourg, il leur declare qu'il a deffein d’aller en guerre pour vanger la mort d’yn tel ou d’vne telle : il exhorte ceux qui font fes amis de ’accompagner: apres qu'il a dit le mieux qu'il a pû là deffus, & que le feftin eft mangé, chacun s’en va; apres quoy ceux qui ont enuie de l’ac- compagner viennent les vns apres les autres luy faire offre de leurs fervices, en luy difant, vn tel mon oncle (car ceft comme ils traitent | En 1663, les Sauvages qui étaient près des Européens, c’est-à-dire des postes d’ Albany et du New-Jersey, ne pouvaient être que les Iroquois. Il s’agit peut-être en même temps des Sauvages du Maine. 2 Nos Sauvages : ceux qui fréquentent les Français. =" [SULTE] PIERRE BOUCHER ET SON LIVRE 155 d’ordinaire ceux qu'ils eftiment plus qu'eux) ou bien mon frere (s'ils font égaux) 1e viens te dire que ie veux rifquer auec toy en ton deffein de la guerre. En mefme temps chacun fait difpofer fes viure , & on fe tient preft pour le iour affigné du depart. Quand ils ont de grandes entreprifes à faire, cela fe delibere long- temps auparauant dans le Confeil des anciens & des principaux Capi- taines; & l’affaire eftant vne fois conclué, & qu'on a choifi celuy à qui on veut donner la conduite de l’expedition, vn Officier va crier par le Bourg, que l’on va à la guerre, & que l’on exhorte toute la ieunesse à aller dans l’armée. Les Capitaines de tous les Villages qui ont affifté au Confeil en font faire autant chez eux : à mefure que les ieunes gens fe deliberent, ils en auertiffent le Capitaine qui eft Chef de l’entreprife. Apres cela on enuoye des Deputez auec des prefens chez tous les Alliez les plus proches, pour le prier de les affifter dans leurs deffeins. Ils tiennent Confeil là dessus, ils voyent ce qu'ils peuuent donner de monde, ou plutoft ils exhortent leur ieuneffe à aller ioindre le gros. Quand ils font tous affemblez, & qu'ils marchent, ils ont toûjours des decouureurs qui vont deuant ; chaque Village qui a fourny du monde, a des Capitaines qui les commandent ; & tous ces Capitaines là s’affemblent fouuent pour tenir confeil fur toutes fortes de chfes : car ils ne negli- gent rien. Ils exhortent fouuent leurs foldats à tenir bon à l’occasion, & ne point senfuyr, leur reprefentant que les gens de cœur et de courage ne s’enfuyent iamais. Il n’y a point de chaftiment chez eux pour ceux qui fe font enfuys, finon qu’on les qualitie de poltron, mais encore tout bas. Quand ils rencontrent l'Ennemy & qu'on eft aux prifes, les Capitaines feruent de tambours & de trompettes, & crient fans ceffe, Courage jeuneffe, courage, ils font à nous, que perfonne ne fuye: cela les anime beaucoup ; car ils refpectent fort leurs Capitaines. Ils font adroits à furprendre, & à dreffer vne embufcade ; ils ne fe prennent pas mal à faire vne retraite honorable, quand ils fe voyent preffez : ils nous l'ont fait voir par experience. Ils font vigoureux d’abord, mais ils ne font pas de longue refiftance. Ce ne font pas auffi gens à fe battre en raze campagne. Ils ne commen- cent iamais de combats qu'ils ne faffent auparauant vn cry tous ensemble pour étonner leurs Ennemis d’abord. Ils font adroits à manier les armes à feu, tirent fort bien vn coup de fufil. Ils ont des fimples parmi eux, qui font excellens pour guarir les blessures ; fur tout d’armes a feu. Us font de grande fatigue & bien difpos : ils font fort bien du pied, & ont une adreffe toute particuliere à se reconnoiftré dans les bois, & ne s’y perdent quafi iamais. 156 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA . De la façon qu'ils traitent les Prisonniers de Guerre. Chapitre XII. QVand ils ont pris des prifonniers, ils leurs coupent quelques doigts d’abord : ils les lient par les bras & par les jambes auec des cordes: finon que lors qu'il faut marcher, ils leur laiffent les jambes libres. Le foir quand ils cabanent, ils font coucher les prifonniers fur le dos contre terre, & ils plantent de petits pieux en terre, au droit des pieds, des mains, du col, & de la tefte: en fuite ils lient le prifonnier à ces pieux, de forte qu'il ne peut remuer: ce qui est vne peine plus grande que l’on ne pourroit croire, principalement l'Efté, à caufe des Maringoins qui les mangent, car ils sont nuds. Arrivant à l’entrée des Bourgades, tout le peuple vient au deuant ; il eft libre à vn chacun de leur faire tout le mal qu’ils voudront, à la referue de les tuer : alors vous y voyez les vns armez de coufteaux, foit pour couper des doigts, ou pour faire des incifions le long des bras, du dos, & autres parties charnuës, le prifonnier eftant tout nud; d’autres ont des baftons dequoy ils le baftonnent. Il y en a qui ont des verges, des ronces et des bouts de corde. Auec tous ces inftrumens, on le careffe à fon entrée ; car c'eft leur façon de parler. Il faut pendant tout ce temps-là que le prifonnier chante, s'il veut paroiftre homme de coeur & de courage. Et en effet, les Sauuages ne manquent iamais de chanter pendant tout le temps qu'on les tourmente ; (mais ce chant eft vn chant lugubre.) Apres qu'ils font entrez dans le Bourg, on les mene de cabane en cabane, chez les principaux, & par tout là il faut qu'ils chantent. Apres vn iour ou deux qui fe font passez dans ces triftes preludes, les Capitaines tiennent Confeil pour le condamner à la mort, ou luy donner la vie: sil eft condamné à la mort, celuy-là à qui il a efté donné (car c'est leur couftume de les donner pour quelqu’vn qui eft mort en guerre.) Celuy là dis-je fait feftin ; & quand tous les conuiez font affemblez, il leur dit; Voila mon fils ou mon neveu, (felon le degré de parenté que luy eftoit celuy pour qui Je prifonnier a efté donné,) qui vous fait fon feftin d’ Adieu. C'eft leur couftume quand ils entreprennent quelque grand voyage, de faire feftin auparauuant que de partir, qu'ils appellent feftin d’Adieu: en fuite le prifonnier chante, & apres luy vne partie des conuiez chantent auffi. Apres que l’on eft retiré, on difpofe vne cabane pour brûler le pri- fonnier : on y fait quantité de feux ; on aduertit par le Bourg de l'heure que l’on doit commencer à le brufler, afin qu’on s’y trouue. Quand l'heure eftvenuë, on y mene le pauure patient; il a les bras liez au corps au deffus du coude, & vne corde aux jambes enuiron de [suLTE ] PIERRE BOUCHER ET SON LIVRE 157 deux pieds de long, afin qu'il ne puiffe faire de plus grandes éjambées, Tous ces gens font arrangez des deux coftez de la cabane : Vous fçaurez en paffant, qu'ils ne fçavent ce que c’eft que de cheminée, & qu'ils font le feu au milieu de la place. Ils laiffent done vn petit chemin entre les feux qui font allumez au milieu de la cabane tout au long, d’efpace en efpace, & entre les hommes qui font rangez des deux coftez, affis sur le cul comme des Singes ; & c'eft par où doit courir le prifonnier. Chacun a vn tifon bien embrasé, ou vn morceau de fer tout rouge de feu: quand tout eft difposé, quelques Capitaines qui font au bout de la cabane auec le prifonnier, crient tout haut; Voilà le prifonnier qui va partir, que chacun fe difpofe à bien faire; mais qu’on ne le brufle que jufques à la ceinture. En fuite on luy fait commandement de partir: ce qu'il fait courant, ou pour mieux dire trotinant le plus vifte qu’il peut, entre le feu & fes bourreaux, qui tous le bruflent en paffant ; les vns aux jambes, les autres aux cuiffes: mais cela auec vne barbarie qui n'appartient qu’à eux. Ie vous auouë que c’eft vne vraie reprefentation d’Enfer ; car vous voyez vne grande cabane pleine par le milieu de feu, & toute remplie de fumée, où l’on ne voit goute ; car c’eft d'ordinaire la nuit que cela fe fait : vous y voyez paroiftre vne multitude de monde; les vns font affis, les autres debout; les vns feruent de bourreaux, les autres de fpectateurs, qui se mocquent et se rient du pauure patient. Parmy tout cela, vous voyez vn pauure miferable tout nud, et tout grillé, abandonné à la rage de ces barbares. Apres qu'ils luy ont fait faire le nombre de tours de cabane qui a efté ordonné par les Anciens, qui eft d’ordinaire de dix ou de douze; la nuit eftant prefque pafsée, tout le monde fe retire, à la referue de quel- ques vns qui demeurent pour garder le prifonnier jufques au matin, que fe doit faire le refte de l’execution. Pendant ce temps-là, il eft attaché à vn poteau, & pas bien loin d’vn grand feu, dans lequel rougiffent des haches, dont on fe fert pour le brufler, l’interrogeant de temps en temps de l’eftat de fon Pays, & des chofes qu'ils defirent fçauoir : & s'ils voyent qu'il leur diffimule quelque chofe, ils luy redoublent fes tourmens ; c’eft à quoy fe paffe le refte de la nuit. Le iour eftant venu, enuiron le Soleil leuant, on aduertit les femmes d’aller faire des feux dans la place ot eft drefsé l’Echafaut. loubliais à dire que dés qu’vn prifonnier eft arrivé, on luy en dresse vn ; foit qu'on le veüille faire mourir, ou non, fur lequel échafaut on le fait monter plufieurs fois le iour, pour eftre exposé à la veuë du peuple. Quand tous ces feux font faits, l'on conduit le patient fur cét échafaut, au milieu duquel on à planté une grande perche, ou pluftoft vn pieu fort haut; on luy fait embraffer ce pieu, luy liant les deux mains 188 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA ensemble. La corde pareillement qui luy lië les deux jambes, fait vn cercle autour de ce mefme pieu; de forte qu’il peut tourner tout à l'entour de ce pieu. Il est là exposé tout nud ; il y a quatre échelles aux quatre coftez de l’échafaut ; & pour lors, il eft libre à vn chacun de monter fur l’écha- faut pour le tourmenter. On ne manque pas de bourreaux, car ilyena affez: Nous auons remarqué que les plus cruels, sont certains poltrons qui ne vont iamais en guerre. Us‘ie montent done fur l'échafaut, & ils le bruflent auee des tisons ; mais auec autant de froideur, que fi c’eftoit vn morceau de bois, Apres deux ou trois heures qu'ils ont tourmenté de la forte, & qu'il ne reffemble qu'à vn charbon, ils luy écorchent la tefte, pour luy leuer la cheuelure: c’eft ce qu'ils font à tous ceux qu'ils tuënt en guerre, ou qu'ils bruflent chez eux. En fuite s'il refte de la vie au patient, ils luy coupent le col auec vn coufteau, luy, fendent la poitrine, & lui en tirent le cœur; & fi ¢’a efté vn homme courageux, qui n'ait fait aucun cry pendant qu'on l’a tourmenté, il y ena qui boiuent de fon sang, pour s’in- corporer fon courage. in fuite on le coupe par quartiers, & on le jette à la voirie; ou quel- quesfois ils le font cuire, & le mangent par rage. Quand les Capitaines ont refolu de donner la vie au prifonnier, & que celuy à qui il a efté donné y confent (car il y peut plus que pas vn autre) on va auffi-toft le délier, on le publie par le Bourg, & pour lors on le traite bien, perfonne n'oferoit plus luy faire de mal, quoy qu'on ne laisse pas de le regarder comme yn efclaue, & il eft obligé de feuir celuy à qui il a efté donné en cette qualité là Il eft en feureté pour la vie, pourueu qu'il ne foit pas foupgonné de fe vouloir fauuer, & quil ne defobeiffe point à ce qu'on luy commande; que s'il eft foupçonné de fe vouloir fauuer, auffi-toft on lui fend la tefte auec vne hache: on luy en fait tout autant quand il fait difficulté d’obeyr. Si Dieu nous fait la grace d’eftre vn iour les Maiftres, il fera aisé de leur ofter ces Barbares couftumes, & de les rendre plus policez: car comme j’ay defia dit, ils ont le fens commun fort bon, & il fe laiffent affez facilement gagner à la raiso; & quand ils font vne fois conuaincus d'vne chofe, ils ont peine d’en démordre; témoins ces pauures mife- rables Hurons & Huronnes, qui ont efté faits captifs par les Iroquois, & qui auoient efté inftruits & baptifez par les Peres Iefuites, qui gardent auec tant de fermeté & de confiance leur Religion, au milieu de leurs Ennemis, & qui font honte à beaucoup de libertins François, qui ne fe font pas comportez fi Religieufement parmy les Ennemis, comme ces pauures gens, qui volent de joye quand ils peuuent rencontrer vn Pere lefuite, pour fe confeffer & receuoirs leurs Sacramens. {SULTE] PIERRE BOUCHER ET SON LIVRE 159 Réponfes aux queftions qui ont efté faites à l'Autheur lors qu'il eftoit en France. Chapitre XLII. Pendant mon fejour en France, il m'a efté fait diuerfes queftions par plufieurs honneftes gens, concernant le pays de la Nouuelle France. Pay creu que robligerois le Lecteur curieux de les mettre icy, & d’en faire vn Chapitre exprés, auec les réponses, qui donneront beaucoup d'in- telligence et de connoiffance à ceux qui ont de laffection pour ce pays icy, ou qui fouhaiteroient d’y venir. Ie commenceray done par vne affez commune, qui eft, fi la vigne y vient bien. Lai déja dit que les vignes fauuages y font en abondance, & que mefme on en a éprouué de celle de France, qui y vient affez bien. Mais pourquoy ne faites-vous donc pas des vignes ? Ie répons à cela, qu'il faut manger auant que de boire ; & par ainfi qu'il faut fonger à faire du bled auant que de planter de la vigne : on fe paffe mieux de vin que de pain; c’eft tout ce qu’on a pa faire que de défricher des terres pour faire des grains, & non autre chofe. Le vin y eft-il cher? Ie répons, qu'il y vaut dix fols la pinte ; l'eau de vie y vaut trente fols la pinte, & le vin d’Efpagne y vaut autant: la mefure eft femblable à celle de Paris. Le bled y eft-il cher? Le froment y vaut cent fols le minot, pefant foixante liures : & quelquesfois il vaut fix francs. Les pois y valent vn écu le minot, & quelquesfois iufques à quatre francs. Les iournées des hommes y font-elles cheres? Vingt fols eftant nourris pendant l’hyuer, & trente fols eftant nourris pendant lEfté. Y a-il des cheuaux dans le pays? Ie répons que non. N'y a-il pas des prairies pour faire du foin ? l’auoine n’y vient-elle pas bien ? parfaitement bien, & il y a de tres-belles prairies: mais il eft affez dangereux d’auoir le foin, tant que les Iroquois nous ferons la guerre, & fur tout aux habitations des Trois-Riuieres & du Mont-Royal : car les faucheurs & les feneurs font toûjours en danger d'eftre tuez par ces Iroquois. Voila la raifon pourquoy on fait moins de foin, quoy que nous ayons de belles & grandes prairies, où il y a de tres-bonne herbe propre à ce faire. Mais il y a encore vne autre raifon qui empefche d’auoir des cheuaux, c'eft qu'il couteroit beaucoup à les faire venir de France : il y a peu de perfonnes qui ayent dequoy faire ces dépenses ; & d’ailleurs l’on craint qu’eftans venus les Iroquois ne les tuent, comme ils font nos autres beftiaux, ce qui feroit bien fafcheux à celuy qui auroit fait la dépenfe de les faire venir. Et puis on efpere toûjours que noftre 160 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA bon Roy affiftera ce pays icy, & qu'il fera deftruire cette canaille d'Iroquois !. Y ail bien des habitans ? A cela ie ne peux rien répondre d’affeuré, finon que l’on m’a dit qu'il y en auoit huit cent cens à Quebec, pour les autres habitations il n'y en a pas tant. Les habitans ont-ils bien des enfans ? Ouy, qui viennent bien-faits, grands & robuftes, auffi bien les filles que les garçons : ils ont communé- ment l’efprit affez bon, mais vn peu libertins, c’eft à dire qu'on a de la peine à les captiuer pour les eftudes. Pourquoy ne fait-on pas quantité de chanvres puis qu'il vient fi bien? La mefme raifon que i’ay apporté pour la vigne, ie l’apporte pour le chanvre, fçauoir que nous n’auons fongé qu’au bled iusques à maintenant, comme le plus neceffaire. Vajoute feulement que nous fommes trop peu de monde : car apres la defaite de Iroquois, il ne man- quera que des habitans icy, pour y auvir tout ce que l’on y peut fouhaiter. Quelle boiffon boit-on à l'ordinaire? Du vin dans les meilleures maifons, de la biere * dans d’autres: vn autre breuvage qu’on appelle du bouillon”, qui fe boit communément dans toutes les maifons; les plus pauures boivent de l’eau, qui eft fort bonne & commune en ce pays icy. De quoy font bafties les maifons? Les vnes font bafties toutes de pierre, & couuertes de planche ou aix de pin; les autres font bafties de: collombage ou charpente, & maffonnées entre les deux: d'autres font bafties tout à fait de bois : & toutes lefdites maifons fe couurent comme dit eft, de planches, Le chaud en Efté y eft-il bien grand? Il y eft enuiron comme dans … > le pays d’Aunis. Les froids y font-ils grands l'Hyuer ? Il y a quelques iournées qui font bien rudes, mais cela n’empefche point que l’on ne faffe ce que l’on a à faire; on s'habille vn peu plus qu'à l'ordinaire; on fe couure les mains de certaines moufles, appellées en ce pays icy des mitaines : l’on fait bon feu das les maifons, car le bois ne coufte rien icy qu'à bûcher & a ap- porter au feu. On fe fert de bœufs pour le charrier, fur certaines machines qu'on appelle des traifnes: cela gliffe fur la neige, & vn bœuf feul en mene autant que deux bœufs feroient en Efté dans vne charette. 1 Tel était le cri général des colons depuis plus de vingt ans. Les Cent-Associés, obligés par leur charte de pourvoir le pays d'une force armée suffisante, n'en faisaient rien et laissaient tout aller en ruine, même leurs propres affaires. * Aussi du cidre, lequel était nécessairement importé comme le vin. Quant à la biere on en fabriquait à Québec et à Trois-Rivières des les années 1636-7. * Dans l'inventaire des meubles et marchandises de Jacques Hertel, en 1651, il y a un item de ‘cinq barriques de bouillon”. Ce breuvage, qui n’est plus connu en Canada, était au dix-septième siècle très répandu parmi le bas peuple de la Picardie. Le dictionnaire de Trévoux dit qu'il avait beaucoup de rapport avec le chousset des Turcs, lequel est fait de pâte crue mais levée: on cuit cette pâte dans un chaudron plein d’eau et, quand elle est rassise puis séchée, on en prend la grosseur d’un œuf que l’on jette dans l’eau pour boire. [ SULTE] PIERRE BOUCHER ET SON LIVRE 161 Et comme i’ay déja dit, la plufpart des iours font extrémement ferains, & il pleut fort peu pendant l'Hyuer. Ce que i’y trouue de plus importun, c'eft qu'il faut nourrir les beftiaux à l’eftable plus de quatre mois, à caufe que la terre eft couuerte de neige pendant ce temps-là : fila neige nous caufe cette incommodité, elle nous rend d’vn autre cofté vn grand feruice, qui eft qu’elle nous donne vne facilité de tirer les bois des forefts, dont nous auons befoin pour les baftimens, tant de terre que d’eau, & pour autres chofes. Nous tirons tout ce bois de la foreft, par le moyen de ces traifnes dont j’ay parlé, auec grande facilité, & bien plus commodément, & à beaucoup moins de frais, que fi c’eftoit en Efté par Charette. Lair y eft extremément fain en tout temps: mais fur tout l’'Hyuer; on voit rarement des maladies en ces Pays-icy; il eft peu fujet aux bruines & aux brouillards; l’air y eft extremément subtil. A l’entrée du Gulfe & du Fleuve, les bruines y font frequentes, à caufe du voisinage de la mer: on y voit fort peu d’orages. Mais quel profit peut-on faire 14? Qu’en peut-on tirer ? C’eft vne queftion qui m’a efté faite fouuente-fois, & qui me donnoit enuie de rire, toutes les fois qu’or me ta faifoit : il me fembloit voir des gens qui deman- doient à faire récolte auant que d'auoir femé. Apres auoir dit que le Pays eft bon, capable de produire toutes fortes de chofes comme en France, qu'on s’y porte bien, qu'il ne manque que du monde !, que le Pays eft extre- mément grand, & qu'infailliblement il y a de grandes richeffes que nous n’auons pas peu découurir, parce que nous auons vn ennemy qui nous tient refferré dans vn petit coin, & nous empefche de nous écarter pour faire aucune découuerte: Ainfi li faudroit qu'il fuft détruit, qu'il vint beaucoup de monde en ce Pays-icy, & puis on connoiftroit la richeffe du Pays: mais pour faire cela, il faut que quelqu’vn en faffe la dépence : mais qui la fera, fi ce n’eft notre bon Roy? Il a témoigné le vouloir faire, Dieu luy veuille continuer fa bonne volonté. Les Anglois nos voifins ont fait d’abord de grandes dépenfes pour les habitations là où ils fe font placez ; ils y ont jetté force monde, & l’on y compte à préfent cinquante mil hommes portans les armes: c'est meruille que de voir leur Pays à prefent ; l’on y trouue toutes fortes de chofes comme en Europe, & à la moitié meilleur marché. Ils y baftiffent quantité de Vaiffeaux de toutes facons : ils y font valoir les mines de fer: ils ont de belles Villes : il y a Meffagerie & Pofte de l’vne à l’autre : ils ont des Carosses comme en France: ceux qui ont fait les auances trouuent bien à prefent leurs comptes : ce Pays-là n’est pas autre que le noftre : ce qui fe fait là, fe peut faire icy.* 1 L'auteur porte uniquement son attention sur la culture du sol, et laisse de côté à dessein le commerce des pelleteries, dont le Canada avait plutôt souffert qne béné- ficié jusque-là. 2 Toute l’histoire du Bas-Canada sous le régime français est résumée dans cette comparaison avec les colonies anglaises. Ici, ’imprévoyance et la chasse aux pelle- teries ; là-bas, de solides établissements qui bientôt se suffisent à eux-mêmes, Sec. J.. 1896. 11, 162 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA Cela n’empefchera pas que ie ne vous dife ce que ie crois que l’on peut faire, & dont l’on peut tirer beaucoup de profit: premierement la pefche de la Moluë, qui eft abondante à l’entrée du Fleuve, aux enuirons de Gatpé. Secondement les huiles, tant de Loups-marins, que de Marfoins, dont il y a abondance dans le fleuue Saint Laurens, comme j’ay defia dit. Il eft vray qu'il y a quelque dépenfe à faire pour ceia mais elle ne feroit pas confiderable, à ’égal du grand profit qu'on en peut efperer. Il y a des mines de fer, de cuiure, d’eftain, d’antimoine, & de plomb; plufieurs croyent qu'il y a auffi des fouffrieres. Vay parlé à vn faifeur de falpétre, qui m'a dit qu'on en trouueroit icy d'auffi bon, qu’en aucun lieu du monde & en quantité. Pour le charbon de bois de Cedre, il eft fans comparaifon beaucoup meilleur qu'aucun, dans la compofition de la poudre & des artifices. De plus, les bois qui font icy en fi grande abondance, ne peuuent-ils pas jetter vn grand profit, foit pour les baftiments de mer, ou autres ouurages, 4 quoy ils peuuent eftre vtiles. La terre eftant bonne, ne peut-eile pas donner vn grand profit, non feulement pour toute forte de grains, qu'on en pourroit tirer abondam- ment ; mais pour les chanvres & lins, qui venans bien, on en peut faire en abondance, & en faire par confequent grand profit. Ie ne parle point de l’abondance des Animaux qui sy peuuent nourrir, comme de beaucoup d’autres chofes que vous voyez auffi bien que moy, apres la defcription que je vous ay faite. Toutes les Riuieres font-elles nauigables ? le répons que oiiy, auec les canots sauuages ; mais non pas auec nos baftimens. Les Nauires ne peuuent pas paffer Quebec, à ce que l’on croit, les Barques & Chaloupes ne peuuent pas aller plus loin que Mont-Royal; du Mont-Royal jufques dans le lac des Iroquois, il se trouve quarante lieués de rapides, que l’on no peut pas monter qu'auec des canots, & des bateaux plats: encore les faut-il tirer, comme on tire les bateaux en montant le long de la Sene, Apres quoy dans tous ces grands lacs, on y peut aller auec barques & chaloupes. Ce qui empefche nos Riuieres d’eftre nauigables, fe font des cheutes d’eau qui fe rencontrent par endroits, ou des rapides: & cela aux vnes plus qu’autres ; car à la riuiere du Saguené, on va jufques à quarante ou cinquante lieués auec vne double chaloupe; & au contraire, dans la riuiere des Trois-Riuieres, l’on n’y va pas plus de quatre lieués: Si ce Pays-icy eftoit habité, ie ne doute pas que l’on ne rendift nauigable plufieurs riuieres qui ne le font point, & cela à peu de frais: car ily a telle riuiere, où il n'y a qu’vn rapide d’vn quart de lieuë, apres lequel on pourrait aller bien loin: cependant, cela la rend inacceffible à nos baftiments. Il me femble que j'entends quelqu’vn qui dit, Vous nous auez beau- coup dit de bien de la Nouuelle-France, mais vous ne nous en faites point, [suLTE] PIERRE BOUCHER ET SON LIVRE 163 voir les maux, ny les-incommoditez: cependant, nous feavons bien qu'il n’y a point de Pays au monde, quelque bon qu'il puiffe eftre, où ilene fe rencontre quelque chofe de facheux. Ie vous répons que vous auez raifon: ¢’a efté auffi mon deffein dans tout mon difcours, de vous en donner la connoiffance: mais afin de vous les faire mieux conceuoir, ie mettray icy en détail ce que ie juge de plus incommode ou importun, que ic reduiray à quatre ou cing chefs. Le premier font les Iroquois nos Ennemis, qui nous tiennent refferrez de fi pres, quils nous empefchent de jouyr des commoditez du Pays: on ne peut aller à la chaffe, ny à la pefche, qu'en crainte d’eftre tué, ou pris de ces coquins-la: & mefme on ne peut labourer les champs, & encore bien moins faire les foins, qu’en continuelle rifque: car ils dreffent des embufcades de tous coftez, & il ne faut qu’vn petit buiffon pour mettre fix ou fept de ces barbares à l’abry, ou pour mieux dire à l’afuft, qui fe jettent fur vous à l’improuifte, foit que vous foyez à vôtre trauail, ou que vous y alliez. Ils n’attaquent iamais qu'ils ne fe voyent les plus forts; s'ils font les plus foibles, ils ne difent mot: fi par hazard ils font décou- uerts, ils quittent tout, & s’enfuyent ; & comme ils vont bien du pied, il eft mal-aisé de les attraper: ainfi vous voyez que l’on eft toufiours en crainte, & qu’vn pauure homme ne trauaille point en feureté, s’il s’écarte vn peu au loin. Vne femme eft toufiours dans l'inquiétude que fon mary, qui eft party le matin pour fon trauail, ne foit tué ou pris, & que iamais elle ne le reuoye : c'eft la caufe que la plufpart des Habitans font pauures, non feulement pour la raifon que ie viens de dire, qu’on ne peut pas jouyr des commoditez du Pays; mais parce qu'ils tuént fouuent le beftail; empefchent quelques-fois de faire les recoltes, bruflent et pillent d’autres fois les maifons quand ils les peuuent furprendre. Ce mal eft grand, mais il n’eft pas fans remede, & nous l’attendons de la charité de noftre bon Roy, qui m’a dit qu'il nous en vouloit de- liurer. Ce n’eft pas vne chose bien mal-aisée, puis qu'ils ne font pas plus de huit à neuf cens hommes portant les armes. Il eft vray qu’ils font foldats, & bien adroits dans les bois; ils ont fait voir à nos Capitaines venus de France’, qui les méprifoient : les vns y font demeurez, & les autres ont efté contraints d’auoiier qu’il ne faut point fe negliger, quand on va à la guerre contre-eux ; qu'ils entendent le meftier, & qu'ils ne font point barbares en ce point ; mais apres tout, mille ou douze cens hommes bien conduits, feroient dire ; ils ont efté, mais ne font plus: cela mettroit la reputation des Francois bien haut dans tout le Pays de la Nouuelle- France, d’auoir exterminé vne Nation qui en a fait tant perir d’autres, & qui eft la terreur de tous ces Pays-icy. 1 Les quelques escouades d'hommes armés venus de France entre 1636 et 1662 n'étaient pas des troupes royales, mais seulement des engagés de la compagnie des Cent-Associés, laquelle avait contracté l'obligation de défendre la colonie et ne le fit jamais. Les Cent-Associés sont coupables de toutes Jes horreurs commises par les Iroquois durant les ‘ temps héroïques ”. a 164 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA La feconde incommodité que ie trouve icy, font des Maringoits, autrement appelez Coufins, qui sont en grande abondance dans les forefts, pendant trois mois de l’Efté : il s’en trouve peu dans les campagnes, à raifon qu’ils ne peuuent refifter au vent; car le moindre petit vent les emporte: mais dans les bois, où ils font à l’abry, ils y font eftrangemét importuns ; & fur tout le soir & le matin, & picquent plus viuement quand ils fentent de la pluye, qu'en vn autre temps. II] s’eft trouué des perfonnes qui en auoient le vifage extremément enflé ; mais cela ne dure pas, ear au bout de vingt-quatre heures, il n’y paroift quafi plus, la fumée les fait fuyr; c'eft pourquoy on fait toufiours du feu & de la fumée proche de foy, quand on couche dans le bois. La troifiéme incommodité que ie rencontre, c’eft la longueur de l'Hyuer, fur tout deuers Quebec. Je n’en parleray pas dauantage, veu que j'en ay dit affez cy-deffus: Te diray feulement que les neiges y font de trois à quatre pieds de haut, ie dis à Québec: car aux autres habita- tions, il y en a beaucoup moins, comme j’ay defia dit. Dans le pays des Iroquois, s’y trouuent de certaines couleuures, qu’on appelle des Serpens 4 fonnettes, qui font dangereufes pour leur morfures ; jen ay defia parlé, ainfi ie n’en diray rien dauantage, finon qu'il n’y en a point dans ces quartiers-icy : Voila les plus grandes incom- moditez dont jay connaiffance. Voicy encore vne question qui m'a efté faite, feavoir comme on vit en ce Pays-icy ; fi la luftice s’y rend; s’il n’y a point bien du libertinage, veu qu'il y paffe, dit-on, quantité de garnemens, & des filles mal-viuantes. Ty répondray à tous les points l’vn apres l’autre, & ie commencerai par le dernier. I] n’eft pas vray qu'il vienne icy de ces fortes de filles, & ceux qui en parlent de la facon fe font grandement mépris, & ont pris les Ifles de Saint Chriftophle & la Martinique pour la Nouuelle-France : sil y en vient icy on ne les connoift point pour telles ; car auant que de les embarquer, il faut qu'il y aye quelques-vns de leur parens ou amis, qui affeurent qu'elles ont toufiours efté fages : fi par hazard il s’en trouue quelques-vns de celles qui viennent, qui foient décriées, ou que pendant la trauerfée elles ayent eu le bruit de fe mal-comporter, on les r’enuoye en France '. Pour ce qui eft des garnemens, s'il y en paffe, c’eft qu’on ne les connoift pas; & quand ils font dans le Pays, ils font obligez de viure en honneftes gens, autrement Il n'y auroit pas de jeu pour eux: on fgait auffi-bien pendre en ce pays-icy qu’ailleurs, & on l’a fait voir à quelques- vas, qui n’ont pas efté fages. Pour la Iuftice, elle fe rend icy; il y a des Iuges; & quand on ne fe trouue content, on en appelle deuant le (rouuerneur, & vn Confeil Souue- rain eftably par le Roy à Quebec. 1 La toute petite population qui peuplait le Bas-Canada s'était recrutée par elle- même, et appartenait à un monde où le sentiment religieux dominait les moindres actions. {suLTp] PIERRE BOUCHER ET SON LIVRE 165 lufques à cette heure on a vefcu affez doucement, parce que Dieu nous a fait la grace d’auoir toufiours des Gouuerneurs qui ont efté gens de bien, & d’ailleurs nous auons icy les Peres Iefuites qui prennent un grand foin d’inftruire le monde: de forte que tout y va paifiblement ; on y vit beaucoup dans la crainte de Dieu, & il ne fe pañfe rien de feandaleux qu'on n'y apporte auffi-toft remede : la deuotion eft grande en tout le Pays.’ Suite du mefme fujet. Chapitre XIV. Plufieurs perfonnes qui apres auoir entendu difcourir de la Nouuelle- France, foit qu'il leur prit enuie d’y venir, ou non, faisoient cette queftion : Penfez-vous que ie fuffe propre pour ce pays-là ? que faudroit- il faire pour y aller habiter ? fi i’y portois quatre ou cinq mille francs, pourrois je auec cela m’y accommoder honreftement? & en fuitte beau- coup d’autres queftions que ie mettray les vnes apres les autres, apres auoir répondu à celle-cy. Vous me demandez premierement fi vous eftes propre pour ce pays ? La réponfe que ie vous fais, c’eft que ce pays icy n’eft pas encore propre pour les perfonnes de condition qui font extrémement riches, parce qu'ils n’y rencontreroient pas toutes les douceurs qu'ils font en France : il faut attendre qu'il foit plus habité, à moins que ce ne fuffent des perfonnes qui vouluffent se retirer du monde, pour mener vne vie plus douce & plus tranquille, hors de ’embaras: ou quelqu'vn qui euft enuie de s’immor- talifer par la baftiffe de quelques Villes, ou autres chofes de confiderable dans ce nouueau monde. Les perfonnes qui font bonnes en ce pays icy, font des gens qui met- tent la main à l’œuure, foit pour faire, ou pour faire faire leurs habita- tions, baftimens & autres choses : car comme les iournées des hommes font extrémement cheres icy, vn homme qui ne prendroit pas foin, & qui n’uferait pas d'œconomie fe ruineroit; mais pour bien faire il faut tou- iours commencer par le défrichement des terres, & faire vne bonne métairie, & par apres on songe à autres chofes; & ne pas faire comme quelques-vns que i’ay veu, qui ont dépenfé tous leurs biens à faire faire de beaux baftimens, qu’ils ont efté contraints de vendre apres, à beaucoup moins qu'ils ne leur auoient coufté. Ie fuppofe que ie parle à des perfonnes qui ne viennét seftablir dans le pays 4 un autre deffein que pour y faire vn reuenu, & non pas pour y faire marchandise. 1 Sans blâmer en rien cette dévotion, M. Boucher aurait pu dire que la colonie ressemblait à un couvent, ce qui ne suppose pas une réunion de gens de mauvaises mœurs, tant s’en faut. 166 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA Il feroit bon qu’vn homme qui viendroit pour habiter, apportaft des viures du moins pour un an ou deux, fi faire fe peut ; fur tout de la farine, qu'il aura à meilleur marché en France, & mefme n’eft pas affeuré d'en trouuer touiours icy pour fon argent ; car s'il venoit grand nombre de France fans en apporter, & qu'il arriuaft vne mauvaise année pour les grains, comme Dieu nous en garde, ils fe trouueroient bien empefchez. I] eft bon auffi de fe fournir de hardes, car elles vallent icy le double qu’en France. L'argent y est auffi plus cher, il y a hauffe du quart, en forte qu’vne piece de quinze fols en vaut vingt: ainfi à proportion du refte. Vn homme qui auroit de quoy, ie luy confeillerois d'amener icy deux bons hommes de trauail, pour défricher les terres, ou dauantage mefme, s'il a le moyen: c’est pour répondre à la queftion, fi vne perfonne qui employeroit trois ou quatre mille francs, pourroit faire quelque chose ; il fe mettroit en trois ou quatre ans bien à son aife, pourueu qu'il veüille ufer d‘ceconomie, comme i/ay déja dit. La plufpart de nos habitans qui font icy, font des gens qui font venus en qualité de feruiteurs, & apres auoir feruy trois ans chez vn Maiftre’, fe mettent à eux; ils n'ont pas trauaillé plus d’vne année qu'ils ont défriché des terres, et qu'ils recueillent du grain plus qu'il n’en faut pour les nourrir, Quand ils fe mettent à eux, d'ordinaire ils ont peu de: chofe, ils fe marient en fuite à vne femme qui n’en a pas dauantage ; cependant en moins de quatre ou cinq ans vous les voyez à leur aife, s'ils font un peu gens de trauail, & bien ajustez pour des gens de leur condition. ; Tous les pauvres gens feroient bien mieux icy qu’en France, pourueu qu'ils ne fuffent pas pareffeux : ils ne manqueroient pas icy d’employ, & ne pourroient pas dire ce qu'ils difent en France, qu'ils font obligez de chercher leur vie, parce qu'ils ne trouuent perfonne qui leur veiiille donner de la befongne; en yn mot, il ne faut perfonne icy, tant homme que femme, qui ne foit propre à mettre la main à l’œuure, à moins que d’eftre bien riche, Le trauail des femmes confifte dans le foin de leurs ménages, a nourrir & à penfer leurs beftiaux ; car il y a peu de feruantes icy : ainfi les femmes font contraintes de faire leurs ménages elles-mefmes : toutes- fois ceux qui ont dequoy prennent des valets, qui font ce que feroit vne feruante, 1 Le réglement du conseil Souverain de cette année, 1663, prescrit que les nouveaux venus devront servir trois ans chez un cultivateur de la colonie avant que d'obtenir une terre à leur compte. Ce n’était pas une innovation, puisque M. Boucher en parle comme d’une chose déjà mise en pratique. [suLTE] PIERRE BOUCHER ET SON LIVRE 167 Remarques qui ont efté obmifes aux Chapitres precedens. Chapitre XIT?. PVifqu'il me reste encore vn peu de temps, ie feray ce Chapitre de diuerfes chofes que j’ay obmifes dans les precedens, qui ne feront pas defagreables au Lecteur curieux. Cette Fontaine dont j’ay parlé cy-deuant, qui eft dans le pays des Troquois, & dont ils fe feruent comme d'huile ; quand on la remué auec vn bafton, elle jette comme des flammes ; mais j’ay defia dit, elle n’eft point bonne à brufler ny à manger, mais fimplement à graiffer. Cette Mine de plomb, dont j’ay parlé, qui n’eft pas bien loin d'icy, rend foixante & quinze pour cent; & les Iroquois coupent de ce rocher, auec leurs haches, & en font de petits baftons quarrez qu'ils coupent de longueur, pour s'en feruir à tirer quand ils vont en guerre, lors que les balles leur manquent. Dans le lac Superieur, il y a vne grande Ifle, qui a enuiron cinquäte lieuës de tour, dans laquelle il y a vne fort belle mine de cuiure rouge ; il s’en trouue en diuers endroits de gros morceaux tout rafinez. Il y a d’autres endroits en ces quartiers-là, où il y a de pareilles mines, ainfi que j’ay appris de quatre ou cinq François, qui en font revenus depuis peu, qui eftoient allez là en la compagnie d’vn Pere Tefuite, qui y eftoit allé en Mission, & qui y eft mort”. Ils y ont paffé trois ans, auant que de trouuer occafion de s’en reuenir: ils m'ont dit qu'ils ont veu vn lingot de Cuiure tout rafiné, qui eft le long d’vne cofte, & qui peze plus de huit cens liures, felon leur eftime: ils difent que les Sauuages en paffant, font du feu deffus, apres quoy ils en coupent des morceaux auec leurs haches; vn d’entre-eux en voulut faire de memfe, il y caffa toute fa hache : le chemin ne ferait pas mal-aisé, fi nous eftions les Maiftres des Iroquois, & qu’on peuft paffer pardeuant leur grand Lac. Is m'ont appris de plus, qu'il fe trouve là de belles pierres bleuës, qu'on croit eftre des Turquoifes. Il fe trouue auffi des pierres vertes, comme des Emeraudes. Il y auffi des Diamans ; mais ie ne feay pas s'ils font fins: Ils n’ont peu aller jufques au lieu où ces pierres font, les Sauuages ne les y voulant pas conduire sans recompenfe, veu qu'il y auait un peu loin: eux fe trouuans dans la neceftité, n’oferent en faire la dépenfe, ne s'y connoiffans pas affez pour fçavoir fi elles eftoient bonnes, ou non. Il fe trouue auffi des pierres rouges de deux fortes ; les vnes de rouge d’écarlate, & les autres d’vn rouge de fang de boeuf; les Sauuages s’en 1 XV, d’apres la table placée en tête du livre. 2 Le père Ménard. 168 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA feruent ! pour faire des calumets ou pipes, pour prendre leur tabac, dont ils font bien de leftat. Il fe rencontre auffi des teintures, de toutes fortes de couleurs, dont les Sauuages fe feruent; defquelles ie ne feray pas une grande defcrip- tion, pour n'en auoir pas vne parfaite connaiffance, finon d’vne petite racine de bois, dont ils fe feruent pour teindre en couleur de feu, qui a la couleur bien viue. Pour les autres couleurs, ils fe feruent d’herbes, de pierres et de terre. Tout ce que ie puis dire, c’eft que la plufpart de leurs couleurs me femblent bien belles, & bien viues: ie leur ay veu du bleu femblable à noftre azur, & ie ne feay pas fi ce n’en eft point. Dans le pays des Iroquois, fçauoir aux Onontagué, il se trouue vne pierre de craye blanche, dont les Hollandois en ont efté quelquefois querir, & dont ont dit aux Sauuages que c’eftoit pour blanchir leurs linges. Au lac Saint François, qui eft enuiron quatorze ou quinze lieues au deffus du Mont-Royal, il fe trouue vne des belles Chenayes qui foit dans le monde, tant pour la beauté des arbres, que pour fa grandeur: elle a plus de vingt lieués de long, & l’on ne fçait combien elle en a de large.’ FIN. 1 C’est de Vobsidienne. 2 Après avoir usé de tant de précautions oratoires pour entamer ses récits, l'auteur s'arrête brusquement dans un endroit où il n’avait pas dû penser à finir. Il faut donc qu'il ait été interrompu par le départ du vaisseau qui devait porter son manuscri en France. : ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Ae AN SAC bOINS SEC PION EL: ENGLISH IISTORY, LITERATURE, ARCH OLOGY, Erc. PAPERS: (FOR. 1896. Sec. IT., 1896. LS Trans. R. S. C. I—The Voyages of the Cabots in 1497 and 1498—A sequel to a paper in the “ Transactions” of 1894. By Samuer, Epwarp Dawson, Lit. D. (Laval.) (Read May 19, 1896.) At the suggestion of one of its fellows—the Rev. Moses Harvey—the Council of the Royal Society of Canada, in its report published in the “ Proceedings” of May, 1894, called attention to the near approach of the year 1897, and to the fact that it was the four hundredth anniversary of the discovery of the continent of America by John Cabot; and in the “Transactions” of that same year is a paper discussing the landfalls of the Cabot voyages, together with other kindred questions. The paper was written at some length and with much detail, and was illustrated by facsimiles of early maps. A few copies were published separately, and were sent to those (so far as their addresses could be ascertained) who had made a study of the subject. Various reviews and notices of this paper appeared from time to time, and letters, generally commendatory, were received from scholars who had devoted years to the solution of the question. One notice, however, may with propriety be reproduced, be- cause it is by a fellow of this society, and that one who had first drawn the attention of the society to the approaching anniversary—it is by the Rey. Moses Harvey—a scholar who has made a lifelong study of this and of cognate subjects, whose works on the history of Newfoundland are of high authority, and whose writings upon the geography and natural his- tory of that island appear not only in many separate volumes but as con- tributions in many standard works of importance. Of the paper Dr. -Harvey said : * “This admirable monograph on ‘The Voyages of the Cabots’ is “ peculiarly timely, and will help to awaken attention to the projected “commemoration. It is incomparably the best thing ever written on “the subject. It discovers great industry in research and rare skill in “the treatment of his materials. I have read and written a great deal “on this subject, but we must all doff our caps to Dr. Dawson’s exhaus- “tive monograph. It appears to me he has settled the long disputed ‘question of Cabot’s lahdfall. The weight of evidence he has accumu- “ lated in favour of the Cape Breton theory will set aside all other claims. “That in favour of Bonavista, Newfoundland, rests on vague tradition, “and is sustained by no substantial evidence whatever.” This testimony comes with very great weight from a scholar of such authority on those questions, and a resident, moreover, of Newfoundland. 4 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA The monograph, however, attracted very little attention at the time it was read in May, 1894; and the subject appeared to excite little inter- est in the public mind. All the discussion of fifty years, so profoundly interesting to Humboldt, Biddle, Kohl, Harrisse, Justin Winsor, Kretsch- mer, Kunstmann, D’Avezac, Deane, Henry Stevens, Fiske, Brevoort, and many others, had taken place, for the most part, outside of Canada. The Abbé Beaudoin, in Le Canada Francais for October, 1888, did indeed con- tribute a valuable paper upon the question, and it was incidentally treated by Laverdiére* and Ferland? but they did not devote any special atten- tion to it. Our honorary secretary, in his exhaustive monograph on Cape Breton, published in 1892, paused to consider it in some of its aspects, but, while apparently inclining to the Cape Breton landfall, he | did not diverge from his main theme to follow the details of what was then to him a side issue. Another of our members, Mr. Sulte, in his Histoire des Canadiens Francais, mentions the Cabots, without stopping to discuss their achievements; but the scholars who have taken up the Cabot voyages for their main theme and have elaborated special studies upon them, were almost all not resident in Canada. In January, 1895, Mr. O. A. Howland contributed to the Canadian Magazine an article upon this question, and took the year 1497 as his starting-point for Cana- dian history. He has taken up the subject of a commemoration with great vigour and earnestness, and is the leader of a movement for a his- torical exposition in Toronto in the year 1897, planned on a broad, national scale. The monograph of 1894 had two principal objects. Its main motive was to establish the landfall of 1497; but another motive, scarcely less in the writer’s mind, was to dispel, before it was too late, the fog that was gathering around our early geographical history in the shape of a theory that Cabot had entered the gulf and discovered Prince Edward Island and had named it the Island of St. John. This utterly baseless notion was creeping into all the books, as one writer would repeat from another, and it had got at last into the railway guide-books and began to crop out: in advertising pamphlets. Whatever may be said about the landfall, this last theory may be considered as effectually disposed of. The landfall advocated in the monograph has not passed without challenge and the present paper is intended to consider such objections as have come under the writer’s notice since its publication. Not such objections as are continually appearing in the shape of letters to newspapers written by persons who would seem to have recently heard of the matter for the first time ; but objections made by scholars and students who recognize the difficulties surrounding the inquiry ; who know and can weigh the original authorities, who take a real interest in the subject, and who are prepared to give to it the time and the attention necessary in all matters of historical research. [s. E. DAWSON | THE VOYAGES OF THE CABOTS 5 In the first rank of that class of estimable scholars must be reckoned Mr. Justice Prowse, whose valuable and exhaustive history of Newfound- land appeared in the year 1895. In a note at page 30 he refers to the monograph in courteous terms and gives the reasons why he holds to the theory that Cape Bonavista in Newfoundland was Cabot’s landfall. These reasons are set forth concisely in his text at page 10 as follows : “In this colony an unbroken tradition points to Cape Bonavista, ‘“ Newfoundland, as the first land seen. This tradition is confirmed by an “English map of Newfoundland made by John Mason, a distinguished “ captain in the Royal Navy of England about 1616. Opposite to Cape “ Bonavista he writes these words, probably copying the wording of an “older map: First found by Cabot, A Cabote primum reperta. On this ground and for other reasons as a Newfoundlander, I claim for Cape “ Bonavista the honour of being the first land seen in North America. “ Tn all probability St. John’s was also discovered either on Cabot’s first or “ second voyage.” This is practically all which can be urged in favour of Newfoundland ; because if the “ other reasons” were of weight they would find their ap- propriate place there. Judge Prowse is no doubt referring to the reasons he urges against other theories, but the above are the reasons in favour of his own—the positive and substantial reasons—in short, the only reasons. That the learned judge is a Newfoundlander is irrelevant as a reason. If indeed, it had any bearing upon the discussion it might be thought to obscure that impartial clearness of vision so essential in estimating evi- dence. Moreover, Newfoundlanders are not all in accord with Judge Prowse. Mr. J. P. Howley, the director of the Geological Survey of Newfoundland, is the advocate of a landfall at Labrador, and the Rev. Dr. Harvey, also of Newfoundland, is an advocate of a landfall at Cape Breton. There is no more dangerous snare in the investigation of such questions than national or local feeling. The student of history must eliminate from his reasoning all such “‘idols of the tribe””—to borrow a phrase from Lord Bacon. The present writer came to this inquiry with the belief that Newfoundland was the landfall and was astonished to find on investigation no substantial evidence for it. Judge Prowse’s second reason, viz., the unbroken tradition of the coast, cannot possibly have weight because there were no inhabitants on the coast by whom a tradi- tion could be preserved. A tradition pre-supposes settlers on the coast to hand it down. But there were no settlers for a hundred years after Cabot. The charter for the first settlement was for Guy’s colony in 1610 and that was the first colony. Judge Prowse himself calls the century previous to that date the chaotic period and describes the island as a veritable no-man’s-land, without law, religion or government, the resort alike of English and foreign fishermen. Even the Indians all perished—their only 6 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA relations to the rough fishermen who thronged the harbours in summer and to the settlers who came in 1610 were relations of hatred and aversion. The Beothiks of Newfoundland were exterminated and made no sign— their language perished with them, excepting the scanty vocabularies of doubtful value which Dr. Patterson { tells us were got from John August, Mary March and Shanandithit, the only three individuals who fell alive into the hands of the white men. Then, those lawless fishermen of every nation who alone for 110 years frequented the coast in the fishing season, they were not such people as inquire into or perpetuate traditions. All that can be said is that the English based their claims to the American continent on Cabot’s discovery and his sailing along the coast, not spec- ially of Newfoundland but of Nova Scotia and of the American colonies as far south as Florida as well. There is positive evidence of some kind for Labrador and more still for Cape Breton but none for Bonavista until John Mason’s map of 1616. As regards Mason’s map it is, comparatively, of recent date. The supposition that he borrowed from an older map the words which indicate Bonavista as the landfall is a supposition and no more. The name Bona- vista may have originally suggested in later years the kindred but differ- ent idea of prima vista, for no previous map bas been found which contains a similar statement. Cabot’s discovery was in 1497 and this map was published one hundred and nineteen years after, in 1616. Very many maps were made and were engraved and published in the interim but none until Mason’s contained such a legend. His map has therefore not the authority of the earlier maps to support it. Judge Prowse evidently feels the difficulty that Bonavista is not Italian, but Portuguese ; to which another may be added that Cabot, in an English ship, with an English crew, and under an English royal charter, would not be likely to give any but an English name to his land- fall. As repeatedly pointed out by the writerin 1894, and previously by the Rey. Dr. Patterson in the “Transactions” of this society for 1890, the east coast of Newfoundland was named by the Portuguese.® Bonavista is a Portuguese word, and the fact is moreover strongly antagonistic to Judge Prowse’s theory that it is not laid down on any map until Gaspar Viegas’ in 1534, that is for thirty-seven years after Cabot’s discovery. Although the whole east coast before that year was studded with names that one is absent. This peculiar difficulty seems to have suggested Judge Prowse’s remark that Cabot may not have named it, though he dis- covered it. If so, it is a unique instance of a discoverer not naming his landfall. Again, Judge Prowse observes that Viegas must have got the name from sailors on the coast, and not from the geographers. Viegas was himself a geographer, and it could only be from sailors to the coast that any information could be had about the coast. He says Viegas translated [s. B. DAWSON | THE VOYAGES OF THE CABOTS Z the original Italian into Portuguese, but he does not show that there ever was an original Italian. He assumes that there must have been one, which is the very thing to be proved. He says Viegas gives the name as Boavista, but he has not noticed that in Portuguese, after the vowel, the n is sounded, though not written, as on that very map, do Breto for Breton, and, on Reinel’s map, Joha for Johan and Boaventura for Bonaventura. The tilde over the vowel may be omitted, but the n is sounded all the same. I venture to think, therefore, that Judge Prowse has not proved his thesis. Beyond doubt there was, in the uncritical time before Biddle wrote in 1833, a general assumption that Newfoundland was the landfall, and the effects of this are still felt in general literature ; and on looking at a map one is led to think that Cabot would have steered for New- foundland, without remembering that the whole ocean was to him a perfect blank, a veil behind which lay he knew not what. And here again, in this most natural supposition, is another of Lord Bacon’s “idols of the tribe.’ The thing which looks so plausible on our modern maps, with all our modern knowledge, is not likeiy to have happened to a ship feeling her way over an unknown and unquiet ocean. As Pasqualigo describes the voyage from Cabot’s own lips, ‘he wandered about for a long time, and at length hit upon land” ; but we sit down to an atlas and trace the shortest course, as if Cabot, knowing where he was going, made a course, as the crow flies, straight to an objective point. Such evidence from presumptions and probabilities cannot weigh against the positive evidence adduced for Cape Breton. During the last few months Mr. Henry Harrisse’ has published a new work on the Cabots, and although, in his first book, Jean et Sebastien Cabot, he advocated Cape Breton, he adheres to his second theory of the landfall and places it in Labrador at or near Cape Chidley. I cannot sufficiently express my obligations to Mr. Harrisse, for he has made these studies possible to me by his industry and research, and by republishing so many original documents. I have had all the advantages of Mr. Har- risse’s learning and labour; but the adventitious circumstance of having been born among the localities under discussion, and therefore familiar with them from boyhood, compels me to see that Mr. Harrisse’s judgment upon his materials is misled by the absence of a personal knowledge of the northeast coast of America. The monograph of 1894 pointed out some of the misconceptions which led him astray. This last book affords other instances. Mr. Ganong’s paper in the “Transactions” of this society for 1889, set him right, as he frankly admits, about Prince Edward Island, but in going to Cape Chidley he has fallen into a new set of errors, and in discussing these the Labrador theory must be incidentally discussed. (See Appendix A, Labrador.) Mr. Harrisse, in attempting to disprove his earlier theory of the Cape 8 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Breton landfall, says that in June and July navigation all round New- foundland and the Gulf of St. Lawrence is impeded by fogs, icebergs and undercurrents ; therefore Cabot could not have reached Cape Breton at the time stated. Addressing Canadians, it is not necessary to waste time on this astonishing error; but the more wonderful part of it is that therefore Mr. Harrisse thinks that northern Labrador was the landfall, as if. while the St. Lawrence was blocked, that coast was free from ice at that season, whereas, while the ports of Quebec and Montreal are crowded with ocean vessels, there is there a procession of icebergs and field-ice 1,000 miles long coming down the Arctic current from the north. This is so well known here that in 1886 the Minister of Marine did not send sailing instructions to Capt. Gordon until June 22nd, and the steamship “ Alert” did not leave Halifax for Labrador until June 24th. He re- ported ® that the season was unusually early. He left Blane Sablon, in the Strait of Belle Isle, on the 29th of June, and steamed along the coast. On the 30th he met large numbers of small icebergs; on July Ist he passed a number of large bergs, one being 170 feet high. On July 2nd he got into field-ice, and had to lie on the outer edge of it until the weather cleared. On that day he saw many more bergs, some very close to the ship. He was then sixty miles south of Cape Mugford, north of which point Mr. Harrisse places Cabot’s landfall in 1497. He found there heavy field-ice, which extended all along the coast to Cape Chidley, packed tight for fifteen miles off the shore, with a “ bordage ” of slack ice ten miles further out. That was an early season, and it was July 2nd; but John Cabot told Raimondo di Soncino that “the land he found was excellent, “ and the climate temperate, suggesting that brazil wood and silk grow “ there,” and that on June 24th. Mr. Harrisse has not distinguished sufficiently between the two voy- ages,’ and makes 1497 to be the year of the long coasting voyage, but so little does he realize what the coast of Labrador is, that in order to get Cabot back in London on the 10th of August (where he, in fact, was), he thinks the landfall must have been earlier. That is to say, this landfall, impos- sible on the 2nd of July in an exceptionally early season, he thinks was made much earlier than June 24th ; and if, as he supposes, Cabot made in 1497 the long coasting voyage to Florida, his landfall must indeed have been very much earlier than June 24th, because, beyond all cavil, he was present in London on August 10th, 1497." Among the causes which Mr. Harrisse assigns as contributing to delay Cabot’s progress is the supposed fact that ‘in those days, particu- “arly when coasting in unknown regions, anchor was cast at sundown, ‘and sailing renewed again only with daylight the next morning.” The impossibility of a vessel coasting along northern Labrador and anchoring out every night on a coast where field-ice and enormous bergs are sweep- ing down with the Arctic current, is evident. No doubt vessels have to [s. B. DAWSON ] THE VOYAGES OF THE CABOTS 9 run into a harbour or under the lee of an island every night to get shel- ter, and sometimes they have to make fast to a piece of ice ; but this very nacessity is another indication of where the landfall could not have been, for there is no trace of such expedients in the records of the first voyage. Another note of the landfall is John Cabot’s statement to Pasqualigo, immediately after his return, that he saw “two islands” ; whereas there the whole coast is fringed by an archipelago of barren and rocky islands, where trees do not grow. These are shown only on the large charts, and writers not conversant with the coast are misled by the small scale maps in atlases. The coast line is, moreover, 1,000 to 4,000 feet high, steep and precipitous, with a swell which in calm weather (see Appendix A, p. 20) breaks over islands thirty feet high. This formidable and rugged coast, ice-encumbered and frequently lashed with the heaviest sea known to sailors, cannot, in our view, be the land ‘ with an excellent and temperate “climate,” where silk and dye-woods grow, as described by Cabot ; but Mr. Harrisse dismisses the difficulty by quoting from the “ Eneyclo- pædia Britannica” the short but graphic phrase, “In Labrador summer “is brief but lovely.” (See Appendix A, Labrador.) Mr. Harrisse has read books on Labrador but the want of local knowledge still obscures his conclusions. He finds another proof of the Labrador landfall in the abundance of fish reported by Cabot. This leads him to remark that “ however plentiful codfish may be on the banks “of Newfoundland the quantity is surpassed near the entrance of “ Hudson’s Strait. Modern explorers report that there cod and salmon “form in many places a living mass, a vast ocean of living slime, which “ accumulates on the banks of Northern Labrador and the spot noted for “its amazing quantity of tish is the vicinity of Cape Chidleigh, which as “the above details and other reasons seem to indicate as the place visited “ by John Cabot in 1497.” This is a curious misconception. Mr. Harrisse is doubtless alluding to Prof. Hind as “the modern explorer,” but neither Prof. Hind nor any one who borrows his graphic phrase applies the expression ‘ living slime” to the salmon and cod, but to the infusoria and other minute organisms with which the Arctic current abounds, and which constitute the food of the immense number of fish in those waters and the attraction which draws them there. (See Appendix B, Living Slime). The Arctic current there and off Newfoundland is the great feeding ground for whales and also for the small fish upon which the cod feed. The fishermen are now pushing their operations further north on the Labrador coasts as the cod begin to be less plentiful in the bays of Newfoundland, and in a few years may follow the fish as far as Cape Chidley, where the fishing season is very much later, but the cod fishing until recently was solely east and south of Newfoundland. Again, in dwelling upon the amazing quantity of codfish as a crucial indication of the true landfall, Mr. Harrisse has 10 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA conclusively disproved his main thesis; for the codfish do not arrive at Cape Chidley, until August 15th, five days after John Cabot is known to have been in London. In fact, the codfish do not approach any part of Northern Labrador before July 20th. In Appendix G is given a table of the movement of the fish along the coast, extracted from Prof. Hind’s evidence before the Fishery Commission of the Treaty of Washington. This disposes of the whole of Labrador as a probable landfall. Such errors as these are palpable to most Canadians, but they mis- lead other people ; and even some of our own people, reading in the cur- sory manner now in vogue, do not notice them, but accept Mr. Harrisse’s conclusions without stopping to examine the foundations on which they are built. In pointing them out, I have incidentally indicated the reasons which compel me to reject Labrador as the landfall of 1497. As to Newfoundland and Bonavista, Mr. Harrisse does not even mention, still less discuss them, so far, in his opinion, are they out of the question ; and the same may be said of all the students, excepting Judge Prowse and Bishop Howley, who since biddle have been examining the subject in any detailed way. I shall not again go over the ground of the monograph of 1894. Since that was written 1 have not found anything to shake the conclusions then adopted, and the positive arguments in favour of Cape Breton are therein fully set forth. Those conclusions were not to any considerable extent novel. Very little which is new could, at this late period of the discussion, be added, seeing that the subject has been the battlefield of fifty years of controversy. The voluminous references !! indicated the materials upon which the conclusions were founded. In the “ Trans- actions” of this society Professor Ganong” had shown that the large island in the Gulf of St. Lawrence drawn on the old maps could not have been Prince Edward Island, and Mr. Joseph Pope, in his Jacques Cartier (published 1890), had followed him. Dr, Patterson had published, in the same “ Transactions” (1890), a valuable monograph upon the Portuguese discoveries on the northeast coast of America, and Dr, Bourinot “ in 1892 had treated of the Cabot voyages in his monograph on Cape Breton. The European, as well as the American authorities who argued for a landfall on the island of Cape Breton placed it at Cape North, excepting only Mr. Harrisse, who, in his first book, Jean et Sébastien Cabot, decided for Cape Percy ; and, if Mr. Harrisse had adhered to that opinion, there would have been little practical difference between his conclusions and those of the writer, but in his later books he transferred the landfall to Labrador, and, lastly, to the absolutely impossible Cape Chidley. All the writers who have hitherto advocated the claims of Cape Breton have done so under the influence of the map of 1544; and those who have argued for Labrador appear to me to have been unduly influenced by statements concerning the voyages of 1498 found in Peter Martyr, Ramusio, Gomara and others who wrote long subsequently to the date of the discovery. [s. B. DAWSON] THE VOYAGES OF THE CABOTS 11 The contour of the island of Cape Breton on the map of 1544 is exceedingly inaccurate ; in fact it is not shown to be an island ; but the prima vista marked on it is yet at its easternmost point as Mr. Harrisse correctly noticed in his first book (see Appendix C, Cape North). The writer, in advocating Cape Breton rather than Cape Percy, was guided by the fact that Cape Breton is not only the easternmost point, but is a name which appears on all the oid maps and is found in all the old writers from 1514 down to the present day. Excepting Cape Race there is no name so persistent and, when it is considered how tenaciously names given in early days cling to localities, even under the changing corrup- tions of widely different languages, ' it will appear that the oldest and the only invariably persistent name on the coast is far more likely to be the landfall, seeing that it also conforms to all other conditions and that so many other circumstances point to it. The distance in a direct line between Cape Breton and Cape Percy is only fifteen miles, and, though Cape Breton extends further to the east, there is not much to choose be- tween them, were it not that Cape Percy is a new and recent name and that the ancient name must indicate the ancient landmark. But the conclusive argument in the writer's mind was from actual observation, that in sailing into the Gulf either the high land of Newfoundland will be seen on the right or the high land of Cape Enfumé on the left before Cape North will be seen at all. It is like sailing into an acute angle, either one side or the other wiil be seen before the apex. While pointing out a few of the writers from whom I have derived the most assistance I should especially repeat my obligations to Mr. Clements R. Markham’s introduction to the volume of the Hakluyt Society for 1893, and, quite recently, an article by the same writer in the Journal of : the Royal Geographical Society for 1892 has fallen into my hands. These seem to me to be the most fruitful contributions to the elucidation of this vexed question. Mr.Markham concurs with M. D’Avezac in dwell- ing on the cardinal importance of the map of Juan de La Cosa in the con- troversy ; for in that most precious of all cartographical relics we have beyond reasonable doubt, as Markham observes, a transcript of John Cabot's own map. A reference to the monograph of 1894 will show how strongly my argument leans upon that contemporary authority. While thus again acknowledging some of the sources from whence my conclusions have mainly been gathered, I would also remark that all who have reviewed or noticed my monograph of 1894 have overlooked one or two points init which I take the opportunity of again emphasizing, and I do so because it is really in these wherein my method of investiga- tion differs from that of every predecessor. I did not, and do not now, as some persons assume, build my conclusions on the so-called Cabot map of 1544. I arrived at my conclusions in a way which, strange though it be, was not in this question followed before. I adopted the principle, so 12 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA familiar in New Testament criticism, of first studying the contemporary documents solely, and apart from all comments and later documents and, in that’ way, what was before obscure became clear. I then took the map of La Cosa (Appendix D, La Cosa’s map), and made it the pivot of my studies, and thus I happened to notice first the bearing of the name Cavo descubierto. Having, therefore, built my foundation upon these contemporary documents, I was ready to accept from any other quarter confirmatory evidence ; from the map of 1544 as well as from any other map. I think it essential to point this out ; because, in my view, if there be any merit or any originality in the monograph of 1894, it is in these particulars chiefly that it must reside. Before closing my paper I would like to dwell for a moment upon a singular misconception which has arisen in the minds of some of our French fellow-countrymen, and which has found expression in news- papers under the heading of “Cartier versus Cabot”; as if these studies and conclusions in the least degree derogated from Cartier’s fame as the discoverer of Canada. The monograph of 1894 did the very reverse; for it set out to demonstrate the falsity of the theory that Cabot had entered the gulf. It proved by the maps that, until Cartier sailed into the gulf, it was not known at all; and that the so-called Cabot map of 1544 em- bodied Cartier's discoveries ; and, moreover, that, whatever the fishermen may have known, previous to that time Newfoundland was supposed by the cartographers and geographers to be a part of the main continent. Thus it vindicated for Cartier what many other writers had been under- mining, and it aimed to correct those false views of history which, to the detriment of Cartier’s fame, were insidiously creeping into the text-books. But while to Cartier must be awarded the discovery of the Gulf and River St. Lawrence, he did not discover any portion of the sea coast of America. No writer claims that for him. That Cabot discovered the northeast coast is as much beyond question as any historical fact can be. That is not open to dispute, though whether the landfall was at Cape Breton, Labrador or Newfoundland may be yet a fair ground for discus- sion. Cabot’s discovery is not an English and French question ; for it is impossible for any writer to be more French than Champlain, Charle- voix, Ferland and Laverdiére. They assign to John Cabot the discovery of Labrador in 1497. Who can, in our community, be more French than D'Avezac—the learned and profound scholar of the Geographical Society of Paris ?—yet he maintained that Cabot’s Island of St. John was Prince Edward Island. Le Canada Francais is surely a French publication— and Canadian as well,—and yet the Abbé Beaudoin, in October, 1888, maintained in much detail the thesis that Prince Edward Island was dis- covered by Cabot in 1497, and named St. John by him. If so, Cabot, and not Cartier, was the discoverer of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and of Canada in a sense that no member of this society has ever held. These [s. E. DAWSON ] THE VOYAGES OF THE CABOTS 13 are all French authorities. We may dispute their theses, but not their nationality ; and I wish particularly to insist on the fact that D'Avezac— a Frenchman to the innermost core—accepts in the fullest degree the authenticity of the so-called Cabot map of 1544, which I, as well as many others who have written upon the subject, could not accept to the same extent. Again, Cartier did not discover Cape Breton, nor Newfoundland, nor Labrador. They were discovered thirty-five years before he came on the coast. He came to a coast mapped and named. He first touched at Bonavista and although he named a few places not (Appendix E, Jacques Cartier) on the maps, he found the coast named on his course as far, at least, as Old Fort Bay on the Canadian Labrador. The Strait of Belle- Isle was then, and for 200 years after, known as La Grande Baie; and Old Fort Bay (Esquimaux Bay on some maps) was a port frequented by French and Basque fishermen. It was known to Jacques Cartier, as well as to all sailors of that day, as Brest, and after he had touched there on his first voyage inwards he says himself that on proceeding further inwards, he found at Shecatica a vessel from LaRochelle looking for the port of Brest, her destined harbour, which she had oversailed in the night. Cartier expresses no surprise at meeting her as if it were anything un- common. Then again Cartier did not discover Cape Breton, for, as early as 1504, Bretons, and Basques, and Portuguese fishermen began to swarm all along these shores. On his first voyage Caruer sailed in and out by Belle-Isle. On his second he sailed in by Belle-Isle but he sailed out by St. Paul’s and when he arrived at St. Pierre Miquelon he simply remarks that he found many fishing vessels there. These are Cartier’s own statements and surely he must be permitted to know more about the matter than any one else, nor can we doubt either his nationality or his patriotism. Three localities of first discovery are alone before us, Labrador, New- foundland and Cape Breton, and no person ever asserted that Cartier dis- covered any one of them. The fact is patent that the whole east coast of North America was well known long before Cartier. Putting aside all the work of the Corte Reals and other Portuguese mariners, Verrazano sailed along it in 1524 and the mappe monde of Hieronimus de Verrazano of 1529 still exists in the Museo Borgiano at Rome. That map shows the whole coast with a closed line. There is no Gulf of St. Lawrence, but there is the cape of Cape Breton, named and in its right place. Then there was Estevan Gomez in 1525—beyond all doubt he sailed along the coast and saw Cape Breton and he followed along the coast of the islaud and saw Cape Enfumé, with its smoke like mists rising, as now, up the face of the cliffs, a sight never to be mistaken for anything else ; and he crossed the strait, supposing it to be a bay, from St. Paul to Cape Ray, and sailed along the south shore of Newfoundland homewards. All these 14 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA things and many more Cartier could not help knowing. He had probably been out on the coast before or he would not have been chosen as captain. If then, any one, a member of this society or not, should claim Cape Breton as the landfall of John Cabot, let it not be thought to derogate from the merit of Jacques Cartier but rather to establish it. SUMMARY. As the commemoration of John Cabot’s achievement is a subject now present in the public mind and, inasmuch as the monograph to which this paper is a sequel was published two years ago and in the first or quarto series of Transactions of this Society, it may not be amiss to recapitulate shortly the various lines of reasoning which led the writer to advocate the Cape Breton landfall. These lines are convergent and are not dependent one upon another, so that the refutation of one will not involve a rejection of the result. Each argument is good pro tanto and when a number of independent lines of thought lead to one result the correctness of that result attains to a very high degree of probability. The question is the landfall of the first of two voyages admitted to have been made in 1497 and 1498 ; and three localities have been put for- ward as entitled to the distinction of being the place where (putting aside the Northmen) Europeans first landed on this continent, These are (1) some point on the Labrador coast, and specially Cape Chidley ; (2) Bona- vista, on the coast of Newfoundland; and (3) Cape North, or Cape Breton, on Cape Breton Island. It was shown that a separate study of the contemporary documents revealed the fact that the first voyage was on a western course and to a landfall in a pleasant and temperate climate; and a separate study of the later documents proved that they were concerned only with a voyage on a northern and northwestern course, by way of Iceland, to a region of ice and continual daylight. The striking contrasts between the two voyages were set forth in detail, and it was shown that Labrador corresponded with the conditions of the second voyage alone. The landfall of the first voyage had been described on December 18th, 1497, from the lips of John Cabot himself by a distinguished Italian envoy in a letter to his master, the Duke of Milan, as follows: “ They say “that there the land is excellent and the climate temperate, suggesting “that brasil and silk grow there.” This excluded Labrador (see Appen- dix A) from the question. Furthermore, upon these representations a large expedition sailed in the following year, 1498, with a view to trade and settlement, and reached a region of frost and ice. It was argued that any one who had once seen the coast of Labrador would not have taken an expedition of 300 men there to settle and trade on the coast. Labrador being excluded, La Cosa’s map (see Appendix D) was taken and its easternmost named point was shown to be our Cape Race. [s. B. DAWSON | THE VOYAGES OF THE CABOTS 15 That point was shown to be the key of the question, and pains were taken to make it clear to anyone who has been upon the coast, or who would attentively study a chart of the North Atlantie in connection with La Cosa’s map. In that way it became evident that the coast named and marked out by English flags could be none other than the south coast of Newfoundland and the adjacent coast to the southwest. Attention was then called to the fact that the coast line north of Cape Race (that is the east coast of Newfoundland) had neither name nor flag—that the coast line there was drawn with a firm line and was totally different from the remarkably indented eastern outline of New- foundland discovered by Corte Real and shown upon the Portuguese maps continuously from the year 1501, that the line could not be the line of a discovered coast and nothing in North America corresponded to it. It was explained by a theory, not original with the writer, that the lines of unvisited territory were taken from Toscanelli’s map of Asia on which ‘Columbus had sailed ; for at that time America was not known save as the western coast of Asia and La Cosa’s map was a mapa mundi, or a representation of all the geographical knowledge of the time. In this way Bonavista and the whole east coast of Newfoundland was excluded as well as Labrador. Dealing then with La Cosa’s map as one of the south coast of New- foundland, the methods of the old map-makers were inquired into, and in an appendix, a long extract from the works of Samuel de Champlain was given, setting forth the whole subject in detail and showing that the old cartographers invariably drew their charts upon a magnetic meridian. Champlain had illustrated his thesis by two maps of these very same regions ; one upon a true meridian, as we draw maps now, and one upon a magnetic meridian, as drawn then for the use of sailors. Sketches from these two maps were given, confined to the coast-line in question, and it was shown that the bearing of Cape Breton from Cape Race was west, as on La Cosa’s map, but west-southwest on maps like ours, as in truth it is. The question of the magnetic variation was also considered, and the fact that it had been first observed by Columbus, only five years before, when sailing on a parallel where the variation was slight. Attention was directed to the fact that in the latitudes of Cabot's course the vari- ation was very much greater and, at a point in mid-ocean, increased rapidly, and also that a steady and strong current (the Arctic current) set to the south, with a high probability of thick weather ; all of which would tend to throw a sailor, feeling his way over an unknown sea, to the south in any westerly course, Studying La Cosa’s map, it was noticed that the line of names on the coast commenced with Cape Race (Cavo de Ynglaterra) and terminated with Cavo Descubierto. The latter name itself, it was argued, indicated 16 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA the landfall—it was the prima tierra vista—there was no other meaning to the name than the discovered cape ; and as this map of La Cosa’s was, beyond reasonable doubt, based on John Cabot’s own map which Pedro de Ayala the Spanish ambassador had from him and promised, in July, 1498, to send to King Ferdinand, we have here John Cabot indicating his own landfall in a Spanish translation. The so-called “Sebastian Cabot map” of 1544 then became of inter- est, for it placed the prima tierra vista on the northeasternmost point of Cape Breton, and, in the printed legend, this point was further identified by an island called St. John. It was then shown, by the whole sequence of maps, that Cape Breton was a persistent and continuous name on the, maps from the earliest times and that it was always attended by an island of St. John, which island was always on the Atlantic coast in close proximity. The island itself was shown to be on Pedro Reinel’s map of 1505, and it was of a unique triangular shape, corresponding to that of Scatari Island, near Cape Breton. À These were the main lines of reasoning, and they were reinforced in very many ways and illustrated by tracings. Much space was also given to answers to possible objections and demonstrations of the untenability of conflicting theories. To go over these again would be to rewrite the monograph. In closing this paper it is necessary to state that the Royal Society of Canada has very properly not committed itself to an opinion upon the place of the landfall in deciding to commemorate Cabot’s great achieve- ment. The position of the society is laid down in the report, and will be found at length in the published Proceedings. The opinion advocated is, no doubt, held by many of the members, but it is open to others to hold to any landfall they may think more probable; and it is not likely that there will be absolute uniformity of opinion upon this point, any more than there is upon the identity of the island, Guanahani, which was the landfall of the great admiral.” a cV> Me Ü « ANS. 2 RS Leg œruvg mr? cy2UvIm TIALD ‘apiaA À ‘TG 1OSUS Q ‘OZ ‘ "21JSITOU + "BILAL SUK OP OAD “GT ‘OWNUSIT AP 9 : “BAGRURISL] À “OT "RIZNT & : ‘UO15% ‘JT ' suf : “UvYO* “GF 9p VAUT) “OT *SB[ODLNN G ‘GT "BIZNT G ap “VEplaaly Vl op VI[L “FT “LoyUe *OSUOT OÙ ‘ET ‘10J08®[ “aJuO} ‘ZI ‘28 0f G apg “USA “TT *0JI91QN9S2P OAD) mi CN où HS S ‘S289)0UX Lod ouarqnosap AY “ISV OL LSHM WOUA ONIGVAY SANVN Oo pad X NC Va oO tom Sees Er de 2 mocrfcubiertapormole ° S.nicolas Na belatren dat Sluya T delifarte lagofor T 8e-Jorge er Cauo defy bierto vate ~ Cauote ynglaterra Méehilire *[BULSIIO ON} , a/gaitr { luguer | regie ) cP 5.9 Pa UL OJO V SHIUUI Svp PIIU} oy} IUOU oulyyno pozop eu], “OUBOST A OIUOJUY Aq UOIJATIOSOP V YIM JOULBIT, *JOIT puw Of9ITU A SBAOUBD JOUSIS Aq ‘plipeyy JU ZG8I Ut poysiqnd ‘SINO]OO [BULSIIO OY} Ul OJIUIISOU} OY} WOIy Aqdu1s#0o7oqd 4q poonpor pue ‘pool, sea YouoHs siyy—aLoN ‘00ST *Œ'V ‘dVW &.VSOO WT Ad NYA APPENDIX A. THE ATLANTIC COAST OF LABRADOR. John Cabot, within five months after his return from his first voyage, and before he had started on the second, stated that the land he had dis- covered was excellent and the climate temperate such as gave promise of producing silk and dye-woods. The following catena of authorities will show that Labrador could not have been the coast which was the subject of John Cabot’s eulogy. In weighing the evidence the fact must be taken into account that ice and icebergs were novelties to sailors whose exper- iences were limited to the seas then known and that no one, even now, will enter the Labrador ice pack without anxiety ; how much more then would a sight so unaccustomed have impressed the sailors of those days! Yet in none of the contemporary documents is there any allusion to ice or any mention which suggests it; but when we take up the later accounts, derived from Sebastian. Cabot, we find special stress laid upon the gigantic ‘ pieces of ice found swimming in the sea,” as of something new and unusual. Lest it may be conjectured that some change in climate has occurred to modify the physical conditions of Labrador, extracts from the reports of the earliest sailors are included. Jacques Cartier’s experience was in the milder regions of southern Labrador. This is his opinion of the “excellent soil,’ reported by Cabot as giving promise of silk and dye- woods : JACQUES CARTIER’S First VOYAGE, 1534. From HAKLUYT. “If the soile were as good as the harboroughes are, it were a great commoditee ; but it is not to be called the new land, but rather stones ‘and wilde cragges, and a place fit for wilde beastes, for in all the North Island I did not see a cart-load of good earth; yet went I on shoare in many places, and in the Island of White Sand there is nothing else but ‘mosse and small thornes, scattered here and there, withered and dry. To be short, I believe that this was the land that God allotted to Caine.”’ The candid sailor expresses himself strongly. It is not ‘“soile,” and should not be called “land,” but rather “ stones and wildé cragges.” Captain Luke Fox’s experiences of Cape Chidley in 1631 are as fol- lows: He made the cape on June 22nd, * which to do I stood over as “ neere as I could for ice that was at least six leagues off.” He was try- ing to enter Hudson’s Strait, but he never thought of anchoring, as Mr. Harrisse thinks pilots always did in those days, and perhaps they did in southern seas. He adopted the usual course, ‘ We made fast to a piece “of ice.” Fox found the strait blocked, but pushed into the ice, and drifted with it in the ebb and flow of the tide. He got clear about July 3rd, and on the 8th he weathered out a gale by again making fast to a piece of ice. In the same year, 1631, Captain James was attempting at the same time to enter the strait. He sighted Cape Chidley on June 24th, while fast beset in the ice, “not being able to see an acre of sea from top- “mast head.” It was not until the 20th of July that he got into a little open water, and began to make way westward. ‘The experiences of Davis and Baffin and Frobisher around Cape Chidley were similar. Sec. II., 1896. 2. Ca . 18 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Further down the coast the Moravian Brethren have had settlements for 120 years. There are now five, at intervals along the coast, where they carry on missions to the Eskimo. These are some oftheir experi- ences, extracted from their published reports : In 1770 their vessel arrived on July 24th ; in 1771 the date of arrival was August 9th. “During the latter part of ‘the voyage they were often ‘ obliged to run into bays, “between numberless islands and sunken rocks, “and | being surrounded at times by vast mountains of ice and ice-fields, “ threatening momentary destruction to the vessel.” In 1816, “on reach- “ing the drift ice, on the 16th of J uly, Captain Fraser found it to extend “to a distance of full 200 miles from the coast, and after attempting in “ vain to find a passage through it, first to Hopedale, then to Nain, and * lastly to Okak, he found himself by degrees completely enclosed by the “ice.” On August 30th of the same year “ the whole coast was entirely ‘** choked up by the ice.” The following year the vessel got into the ice on July 7th, and on July 14th they saw land sixty miles south of Hope- dale, but could not penetrate the pack, and had to make fast to an ice- field until the 18th, but soon after had to make fast to another field. Then a fearful storm came on, and they drifted helpless in the pack. They arrived on August 9th. In the year 1819 the “ Harmony” could not reach Okak until August 20th, ‘the coast was everywhere choked up with ice.” In 1826 the ice extended 400 miles from the land. In 1832 the vessel reached the ice on July 6th and got through to Hopedale on July 24th after some thrilling experiences. In 1836 the “Harmony” encountered the ice on June 24th, and it was August 4th when she reached Hopedale, where the captain learned that the ice had moved away only two days before. These are a few of many experiences reported, and it should be remembered that the vessels of the mission are built to encounter ice and manned by crews familiar with ice navigation. It is stated by experi- enced pilots who, for thirty years have navigated that coast, that if a vessel can get through the ice-pack and reach “ the inside track,” as they call it, that is the open belt of water between the land and ice, it is possible on that part of the coast south of Cape Harrison to get along the shore about the 20th June. Beyond Cape Harrison on northern Labrador navigation is not possible until July 20th. It is in crossing the drifting ice that the Moravian ships were delayed, and the same cause would have prevented the little “ Matthew” from making a land- fall at Labrador. Professor Packard in his Journal of Two Summer Cruises to the Labrador Coast, relates that on July 4th they were blocked for days, ice- bound in Square Harbour, not far from the Strait of Belle Isle. He says, ‘we could easily walk ashore over the floe-ice ; some of the floes were ‘ higher than our vessel’s rail, it being next to impossible to force our boat . through the too narrow leads between the cakes.” They got out of “ their ice prison on July 15th. Sailing further up the coast in the inner track he says that the ice belt was a few miles away “thick enough to walk upon.” Theice had been running down the coast from 22nd June to August 22nd to their personal knowledge, and it began earlier and con- tinued later, and from the hills behind Hopedale they could see the ice- belt ten miles out to sea but bergs were visible all along the coast. The ~ ice-field was eighty-five miles wide. - Dr. Grenfell of the Labrador Mission [s. B. DAWSON] THE VOYAGES OF THE CABOTS 19 describes the coast in his “ Vikings of To-day” as follows. By quoting the “ Encyclopedia Britannica” he adopts the opinion given: “Sterile and forbidding it lies among fogs and icebergs, famous “ only besides for dogs and cod. ‘God made this country last’ says an ¢ old navigator.” “ As a permanent abode for civilized man, says the ‘ Encyclopedia « Britannica,’ Labrador is on the whole one of the most uninviting spots “on the face of the earth. The Atlantic coast is the edge of a vast “ solitude of rocky hills, split and blasted by frost and beaten by waves. ‘ Headlands grim and naked, tower over the waters—often fantastic and “ picturesque in shape, while miles and miles of rocky precipices or tame “ monotonous slopes alternate with stony valleys, winding away among “ the blue hills of the interior.” On July 13th Dr. Grenfell crossed the Strait of Belle Isle. He _ thus describes it: “As we rounded Cape Bauld a most magnificent “ erimson light lit up the whole horizon. Against it stood out many ** stately icebergs, rising weird and ghostly from the deep purple of the “sea. One of immense height looked like some gigantic cathedral. As “we brought the hills and | steep cliffs of Labrador into view we found “there was still much snow in the gulfs and crevices, while it was “necessary carefully to thread our way among the numbers of icebergs “ which up to this very week had been blocking the straits.’ The following is from the “ Newfoundland and Labrador Pilot.” published by the British Admiralty (Cape St. Lewis to Cape Chidley), page 381: “The northeast coast of Labrador is extremely barren and rug- “ged. * * The hills fall steeply to the sea, often in cliffs with ragged, “ rocky points, the exception being the strand on each side of Cape “ Porcupine, the only sandy beach of any extent on the whole coast as “ far as Nain.” “ The climate on the outer coast is rigorous in the extreme, so that “ vegetables are only raised with great difficulty and rarely reach matur- ity. Frost may occur at any time of the year, and snow was experi- “enced in the neighbourhood of Indian Harbour in July, August and “ September of 1875. * * * Large patches of snow, five or six feet “ deep, were lying in the valleys along the whole coast in the middle of “ July, 1875, and some of them had not t disappeared when the first large “ fall of snow occurred in September.” “ Field ice remains in the vicinity of Greedy Harbour until about “the middle of July, soon after which the fishing fleet are enabled to sail “northward. * * * Iceber gs may be encountered all the year round, “ but are most numerous from June till August.” The strength of this argument is not affected by the fact that New- foundland and Dundee sealers go into the ice in spring after seals. They are fitted for it and strengthened specially, and for many years have been propelled by steam. The seals are killed on the i ice, and where there is no ice there are no seals. Cabot knew none of those things. He could never have seen an iceberg or sailed among ice, and his little vessel was unfitted forsuch work. If Labrador had been his landfall he would necessarily have made novel and startling experiences and could not have failed to record them. Such experiences were encountered and recorded on the second voyage. It is simply incredible that if John Cabot had ever seen the coast of Labrador he would have taken out an expedition 20 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA of three hundred souls and steered tothe north and northwest with them. It was because he knew nothing of the Labrador ice-pack that he steered to make a northwest passage. What they found then is recorded in Peter Martyr and Gomara. The following description of the coast is from Mr. A. P. Low's report to the Director of the Geological Survey, 1896 : “ Along the Atlantic coast the land rises abruptly inland, almost “everywhere to altitudes varying from 1,000 feet to 1,500 feet, from the “ Straits of Belle Isle to the vicinity of Nain. To the northward of Nain “ the coast range is much higher, and in the neighbourhood of Nachvak “ Bay, ranges of sharp, unglaciated mountains rise abruptly from the “sea, to heights varying from 2,500 feet to 4,000 feet; while farther “north they are reported to culminate in peaks of 6,000 feet, a few miles “inland. With a slight decrease in height, this range continues north- “ ward, to the barren islands at Cape Chudleigh.” This is not such a coast as a sailor would care to anchor alongside of, © if indeed such places have anchorages ; but Admiral Bayfield’s descrip- tion of the swell on the Labrador coast completes the picture. It is taken from “ Hatton and Harvey’s Newfoundland,” p. 384 : ‘ [ never saw anything more grand and wildly beautiful than the ‘tremendous swell which often comes in without wind, rolling slowly s ne. irresistibly in from the sea, as if moved by some unseen power, “ rearing itself up like a wall of water as it approaches the scraggy sides “ of the islands, moving on faster and faster as it nears the shore, until at “last it bursts with fury over islets thirty feet high, or sends up foam “and spray, sparkling in the sunbeams, fifty feet up the sides of the pre- cipices. I can compare the roar of the surf in a calm night to nothing less than the falls of Niagara.” Summer is indeed, as Mr. Harrisse says, “ brief but lovely ’—lovely, when the field ice is gone, with the deep “purple of the sea and with the rose and violet sheen of the stately bergs and with the black beetling precipices and the foam of the breakers combing over the rocky islets— a stern and solemn loveliness, yet tender at rare moments in its delicate tints of colour; but John Cabot was a practical person, not in search of pictorial effects. He said the soil was good and the climate temperate, and gave promise of the growth of silk and brazil-wood. APPENDIX B. LIVING SLIME.” It is probably Professor Hind who originated this somewhat dis- agreeably graphic phrase. It has been taken À up by succeeding writers to express the teeming microscopic life of the Arctic current, and Mr, Har- risse has tripped over it. He can hardly be blamed, for the metaphor is a little strong. The following passage from “ Hatton and Harvey’s New- foundland ” explains it thoroughly (p. 352) : ‘ The icy current flowing | from the Arctic seas is in many places ‘a ‘“* living mass, a vast ocean of living slime,’ and this slime, which accom- ‘ panies ÿ the icebergs and floes , accumulates on the banks of northern & abr ador, and renders the existence possible there of all those forms of “ marine life—from the diatom to the minute crustacean, from the min- [s. B. DAWSON] THE VOYAGES OF THE CABOTS 21 “ute crustacean to the prawn and crab, together with the molluscous ‘ animals and starfish in vast profusion which contribute to the support “of the great schools of cod which also find their home there. The same “current which brings the slime and multitudes of minute crustaceans “ also carries on its bosom innumerable cod ova, and distributes them far “and wide.” There is no need to go to Cape Chidley for abundance of cod, for the fishermen of Labrador have not yet extended their operations so far north. The Arctic current sweeps down along the east coast of New- foundland and along the coasts of Nova Scotia and New England. The Americans have fished out their waters, and the myriads of fish which swarm into every bay round Newfoundland show signs of diminution, but the old writers speak of the cod on these coasts as being so numer- ous as almost to stop the vessels. For three hundred years the cod-fishery on the banks of Newfoundland has been the annual resort of the fisher- men not only of the colonies but of western Europe, and no signs of exhaustion are yet apparent. The simple fact is that the Labrador fish- eries are newer ground, and the Newfoundlanders are creeping up the coast, and have got at present as far as Nain. Moreover—and this is conclusive—the cod do not reach Cape Chidley until August. APPENDIX GC. CAPE NoRTH ON THE Map or 1544. An inspection of the 1544 map will show how correctly Mr. Harrisse read the meaning of the Prima Vista in his first book ; for the two points at the north cannot be Cape St. Lawrence and Cape North on a map so small in scale, but are Cape North and Cape Breton. The real fact is that Cape St. Lawrence and Cape North are only seven geographical miles apart, and the indentation which separates them is not more than two and a half miles deep, so that they were long taken as one headland. The whole question is exhaustively discussed by Dr. Bourinot in Appen- dix VII. of his monograph on Cape Breton, It is one of great difficulty, and it would introduce new subject matter to go over ground which Bourinot, Ganong, Pope and Bishop Howley have discussed at length. It is sufficient here to say that the Cap Loraine of Cartier must be the Cap Loran of Champlain’s map of 1612 and Cap St. Laurens of his map of 1632, and also the Cap de Nort of Denys in 1672. The wnole island of Cape Breton was called the island of “ Sainct Laurens” before and up to Champlain’s time, although the name of the long known Cape Breton was then being extended over the island. Cham- plain says the island isin the “shape of a tri- angle :” that is, one point to the north—Cape St. Lawrence, one to the northeast—Cape Bre- Ge ton, and one to the southwest at the Strait of or Canso. Denys’s map is given in Dr. Bourinot’s fi ‘“ Cape Breton,” and he, like Champlain, makes one headland at the north, but calls it “ Le Cap - de Nort.” The annexed tracing, reduced from are- py; o0ior outline of Ca a cent map, will show the triangular shape of Breton Island. the island. 22 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Thévet is not a writer to be trusted implicitly, but he throws some light upon the subject, and he says he had his information from Cartier in person. He locates Cap Lorraine very precisely by saying that be- tween it and Newfoundland is a pretty large island, about four leagues in circumference, evidently referring to St. Paul’s Island. This corroborates the view that the old writers counted but one headland at the north. The bearing of all this upon the present question is that the map of 1544, in its distorted shape of the land, shows two points to the north, the most easterly of which is Cape Breton, not Cape North, and that the eastern point is marked as the Prima Vista, so that the map of 1544 is not antagonistic to the theory of the landfall at the easternmost point of the Acadian land. ~ alg SO IE oc, “A [ | | Mita, Co Go : Neato he LAT AV oe A En î U | Famine CL 0%: O ivy 7 SIND + 1 = | 0 v, A = 4 eur”, res : y CL maa 5G eae EE Die NES Tracing from a photograph of the Original Map of 1544. The preceding cut is an exact tracing from one of twelve full-sized photographs of the map of 1544, made at the instance of the late Dr. Deane. It is in the Lenox library at New York. This may be con- sidered for the present purpose as equivalent to the map itself. The out- line is carefully traced, and all the lettering has been purposely omitted, excepting the words prima tierra vista, as confusing the present issue ; besides, a reference to the facsimile in the previous paper may be made, or to the facsimiles in many other books. This tracing has been made because it was found that the facsimiles had often been copied, one from another, and little differences existed. It would unduly strain the argu- ment to attach too much importance to the little projections at the ex- treme northeast end of the land; but, so far as they go, they indicate a broken coast-line, with deep indentations, such as exist on the coast between Cape Breton and Cape North. The map will be seen at once to be very imperfect. The Bay of Fundy is not shown, and the island of [s. B. DAWSON] THE VOYAGES OF THE CABOTS 23 Cape Breton is not separated. The coast-line is continuous from the prima vista far to the southwest. The following is a cut of the outline of a recent map of the same portion of the coast, reduced by photography to bring it as near as possible to the same scale as the map of 1544. Outline of the Acadian Coast. APPENDIX D. JUAN DE La Cosa’s Map. So much importance has been given in the present paper, as well as in the monograph to which it forms a sequel, to the map of La Cosa that it is desirable to collect the chief notices of the map and its author and present them in a condensed form. Juan de La Cosa was born about the year 1460, at Santoña (Puerto de Santa Maria) a seaport in the north of Spain, eighteen miles east of the better known Santander, and near to the border of the Basque provinces—a part of Spain noted for its hardy and daring sailors and, at that time, the centre of the whaling fleet then extending their voyages farther and farther into the hidden mysteries of the western ocean. The natural career of a Spaniard born on that coast at that period was upon the ocean, and La Cosa made voyages along the west coast of Africa in the tracks of the Portuguese discoverers, as well as to Flanders and the north of Europe. In this way he became the captain and owner of a good vessel, the “ Santa Maria,” of 100 tons burden. When Columbus was preparing his expedition for the discovery of the new world he found, at Palos, the vessel of La Cosa and chartered it, hoisting upon it his own flag as admiral, for it was the largest of his three ships, and engaging its owner to go with him as master. The ship was lost on the island of Hispaniola and Columbus in his private journal throws blame on La Cosa but, as the ship was La Cosa’s property, he can scarcely have had any object in wrecking it and the admiral was, beyond doubt, a little jealous of those who might be supposed to share the credit of his achievements. Dr. Justin Winsor, in his life of Columbus, may be consulted on this point, and itis not necessary here to enter into the minor defects of a man so great as Columbus. It is sufficient to say that, whatever he wrote in his private diary, he made no public complaint and that the Spanish sovereigns re-imbursed La Cosa for the vessel he had lost and if any blame had attached to him that certainly would not have been done. On the contrary, so highly was his skill as a navigator rated that Columbus urged him to go with him in 1494 on his second voyage 24 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA and gave him command of the “ Nia,” with the additional rank of mas- ter chart-maker. It is very remarkable that Columbus adhered until his death to the opinion that Cuba was a promontory of Asia, but La Cosa on his map portrayed it as an island. On this second voyage La Cosa with the other masters and pilots of the expedition was compelled by Columbus to sign a solemn notarial declaration that Cuba was part of the main continent, an unusual proceeding and one suggestive of the existence of doubt. La Cosa returned to Spain in 1496, and for a short time resumed his former life as a sailor and shipowner. In 1499, Alonzo Ojeda obtained permission to fit out an expedition of discovery, and he at once secured La Cosa as chief pilot. Amerigo Vespucci was on this expedition as chief cosmographer and Herrera claims for La Cosa the honour of being, rather than Vespucci, the true discoverer of the mainland of America, which discovery he says was really made on this expedition, although it is now known that the admiral discovered the coast of Venezuela in August, 1498, on his third voyage. By a grim irony of fate the new world has received its name not from Columbus, nor from Cabot, nor from La Cosa, nor even from any professional sailor or veritable discoverer, but from Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine merchant and contractor, who became an amateur sailor in middle life under the stimulus of the achievements of the great navigators whom he associated with during bis residence in Seville. The expedition of Ojeda returned to Spain in 1500, and in the autumn of that year La Cosa made, for their Catholic Majesties of Castile and Aragon, the map now so celebrated. In the following year (1501) he sailed again to America with a trading expedition, having been engaged, as Herrera says, as ‘being the best pilot in existence for “those seas, and one who had been trained by the admiral.” On the return voyage many ships of the fleet were lost, but he escaped ship- wreck. In 1504 he sailed as captain-general of four ships sent by royal orders to America, and, after many adventures, returned to Spain in 1506, where the government employed him in matters of geography and navigation, and in 1507 Ferdinand summoned him to court at Burgos, together with Juan Diez Solis, Vincente Pinzon and Amerigo Vespucci, to a council, at which new expeditions were decided on. Pinzon and Solis sailed first, and, later on, in 1507, La Cosa sailed; but before sailing he made what ras called the padron, or standard chart, for the marine department at Seville, on which all discoveries were entered as they were reported. From this expedition he returned in 1508. In 1509 he sailed on his seventh and last expedition, with the rank of lieutenant for the king. It was a disastrous attempt to settle a colony on the mainland, and La Cosa was killed by Indians on the coast of Venezuela. His reputation as a navigator, cosmographer and map-maker stood second only to that of the great admiral. He was a favourite of the Spanish monarchs, and the Spanish historians often mention him as a great pilot. Peter Martyr says his charts were esteemed before all others, and Las Casas calls him the best of pilots. Fonseca, bishop of Burgos, who had been president of the marine board of trade (Casa de Contra- tacion), had one of his maps—spoken of by Peter Martyr, in 1514, as very beautiful. The more sanguine would faim think that this is the same map, but there is no proof either way. [S. B. DAWSON ] THE VOYAGES OF THE CABOTS 23 La Cosa’s map had no influence upon the cartography of the time. It was, like other maps, jealously guarded in the royal library, or in the archives of the marine board and of the council of the Indies, and disap- peared for a long time, until it turned up in Paris, having probably been carried away among the plunder of the French troops. It was bought by the Baron von Walkenaer, ambassador of Holland, who freely com- municated it to scholars, and to Humboldt among others. Walkenaer died in 1853, and the Spanish government secured it, at the sale of his library, as a national treasure. All the maps of Columbus have disap- peared. and this is a contemporary map of his discoveries, also made by one of his chief companions. The map is on parchment, and is mounted on a skin of Russia leather, and preserved under glass and in a costly oak frame in the naval museum at Madrid. It is a marine chart, and in the interior countries it is adorned with figures which express the current beliefs of the time. It is a graphic summary of all the geographical knowledge of the age, for it is a mapa mundi, mappe monde, or world map. The continent of Asia is shown a little beyond the Ganges, on the right, and on the left is the new world, taken to be the eastern coast-line of Asia. There can be very little doubt but that La Cosa had before him the map of the first voyage made by John Cabot, which Pedro de Ayala sent to the King of Spain. The coast-line to the south, where it meets the Spanish dis- coveries, was either drawn from information brought by the return of the second Cabot expedition, or, as might well happen, is an Asiatic coast-line drawn from Toscanellis maf} and founded on Marco Polo’s information and that of other travellers. There are no Asiatic names upon it, however. On that unknown part of the coast which Columbus and others were then searching, in order to find an opening through to the west, La Cosa has drawn a picture of St. Christopher carrying the Infant Jesus on his shoulders across the sea. Fancy has imagined a por- trait of the admiral in the face of the saint, but it is probably merely an adaptation of the beautiful legend to give expression to the religious zeal of the modern Christopher. Facsimiles of the American portion of this important map have been published by Humboldt, Jomard, Harrisse, Winsor, Markham, Kohl, and other scholars. The tracing given in the writer’s monograph of 1594, and now reproduced, was reduced from a facsimile published at Madrid in 1892, in commemoration of the fourth centenary of the dis- covery by Columbus. It is of the full size of the original and in all the brilliant colours and with all the quaint designs and illustrations which make it so interesting to students. It was produced by lithography under the care of Signor Canovas Vallejo and Professor Traynor of Madrid. The descriptive book is by Antonio Vascano, whose name on the tracing sketch in the monograph of 1894 is alone given, although it would have been more proper to have given precedence to the two other names. The importance of this map in the present controversy cannot be overrated. The Cavo de Ynglaterra cannot be taken for any other than that characteristic headland of northeast America, which for almost four hundred years has appeared on the maps under one name in the various forms of Cape Raz, Rase, Razzo, or Race, a name derived from the Latin rasus—smooth shaven or flat. That the name is expressive and ap- propriate will be seen from the following engraving from a photograph 26 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA taken for the Department of Marine of Canada, which has the care and maintenance of the lighthouse upon this historic landmark of the high- way between the old and the new worlds Cape Race, from the Ocean. APPENDIX E. JACQUES CARTIER AND HIS DISCOVERIES. Some apology is required for alluding to facts so elementary as these, inasmuch as they are obvious to all students, and they have been elucidated in minute detail by a band of French Canadian scholars whose contributions to the history of this continent have won respectful attention in the old world as well as in the new. No such question as “Cartier vs. Cabot” was raised in the Royal Society of Canada, the first section of which includes many French writers whose researches have thrown light on the obscurer portions of our history and who are adepts in such inquiries as these. It became advisable to notice the cry of “Cartier vs. Cabot” put forth by some correspondents of newspapers, not for the sake of the society, but for the sake of the general public. Cape Breton is a part of the province of Nova Scotia which did not, until 1867, become part of the Dominion of Canada. It was never Canada before that date, and it is therefore misleading to call Cabot the discoverer of Canada as it would be misleading to speak of Ponce de Leon as the discoverer of the United States. The persons who felt called upon to rush to the defence of Jacques Cartier, about whom nobody was thinking, did not stop to consider the logical result of their inconsiderate zeal. For if it be true, as Humboldt and his followers maintain, that Cabot struck the coast of Labrador and followed it down in the way they think indicated by La Cosa’s map—if it [s. E. DAWSON] THE VOYAGES OF THE CABOTS DZ be true that the named coastline on that map is the southern coast of Labrador, then it is also true that, in the strictest sense of the words, John Cabot was the discoverer of Canada, and Cartier followed along a coast where the English flag had been planted thirty-seven years before. The coast of southern Labrador was an integral part of old French Canada; it was claimed up to latitude 55° N., and concessions were made by the Government at Quebec and were occupied and worked, beyond the Strait of Belle Isle, as fishing stations, under licenses from the French Crown and, to the present day, the coast of Labrador as far east as Blanc Sablon forms part of the province of Quebec. To a simple student of history the landfall is a matter of indifference, saving as a fact to be ascertained, but those who have imported national feeling into the matter and who, without due consideration, are defending the renown of Jacques Cartier, which no one has impugned, are, in pressing their arguments for Labrador, unconsciously betraying the very cause they fancy themselves to be supporting. The Transactions of this society contain many original and very valuable papers upon Jacques Cartier’s voyages. In relation to the present discussion it has only to be noted that Cartier did not commence to give names to the places he visited until he had passed Brest ; a port in the Strait of Belle Isle well known to fishermen. He left his ships there for awhile and explored further westward in his boats and it was then he met the ship from Rochelle. He says: if “ Estans en ce fleuve nous advisasmes une grande Nave qui estoit de “la Rochelle, laquelle avoit la nuict precedante passé outre le port de “ Brest, où ils pensoyent aller pour pescher, mais les mariniers en sgavoy- “ent ou estait le lieu. Nous nous accostames d’eux, et nous mismes “ ensemble en un autre port, qui est plus vers Ouest,” * * * * * It should be observed here that Brest was undoubtedly within the present limits of the province of Quebec. and yet it was a place frequent- ed by French fishermen ; from that point Cartier’s discoveries commence ; all farther west was new. In like manner when, on his second voyage, he returned home south of Newfoundland he speaks of Cape Lorraine, the north point of Cape Breton. He remained for some days at St. Pierre Miquelon where he found some French fishing vessels. Cartier’s simple and unassuming narrative convinces every reader that all the country inside, from Esqui- maux Bay on the Canadian Labrador round to Cape North in Cape Breton, was explored first by him, and all the coast outside of these two points, that is outside the Gulf of St. Lawrence, was well known before him. APPENDIX F. LirurGicAL METHOD or TRACING DISCOVERIES ALONG A COAST. This ingenious method, suggested first by Mr. Harrisse, will not work out satisfactorily in practice. Beyond question, when a discovery was made on any important festival it was frequently named in commemo- ration of the day ; but, although ‘usually religious men, these early explorers were sailors and not ecclesiastics with the Breviary constantly in their hands. They had sweethearts and wives, like the sailors of our day, and remembered them in the same human way. Thus Cartier 28 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA named one of the islands he found in the Strait of Belle Isle, St. Kathe- rine. That was on the 27th of May ; but April 30 is the day of St. Katherine of Siena and November 25 that of St. Katherine of Alexandria. Neither day will suit the liturgical theory, and the conclusion is irre- sistible that Cartier was thinking of his wife Katherine des Gran ges, who was probably named after the earlier saint and martyr of Alexandria, as St. Katherine of Siena was not canonized until 1461. She had not in the north the veneration she had in Italy. Judge Prowse, in reviewing my monograph on the Cabots, thinks that this liturgical test upsets my theory that Cabot sailed, as shown by La Cosa’s map, from west to east along the coast of Newfoundland. He says “the author ignores the fact that the old pilots in naming the coast « followed the calendar. The position of Cape St. Jorge (April 23) and “©, St. Lucia (December 13), west of St. Nicholas (December 6) show “ conclusively that the navigator whose voyage La Cosa’s map records “ sailed from east to west.” I venture to think that the very dates Judge Prowse quotes explode conclusively the whole liturgical theory ; for it is very certain that before the year 1500 neither on December 6, or December 13, in the depth of winter could there have been any vessels on that coast, nor would any vessel be likely to have been there as early in the spring as April 23 ; and, again, any navigator along the coast would have made a quicker passage between Cape St. Jorge and C ape St. Lucia than from April 23 to December 13, whichever way he sailed. APPENDIX G. The following table is taken from a statement prepared by Professor Henry Youle Hind, M.A., and laid before the Commission on the Fishery lauses of the Treaty of Washington, which met at Halifax in 1877. TABLE SHOWING THE APPROXIMATE MEAN DATE OF ARRIVAL OF Cop IN NORTH- EASTERN NEWFOUNLAND, SOUTHERN AND NORTHERN LABRADOR. Lat. LOCALITY. Mere oF c NEWFOUNDLAND. AT 20 CONCEDLIONS BAYER cate he ae REC EE CP 1st June. ASP D VB ODA VISTA DAY’. me RER rene Diet El CONTI ONE 10th “ 48°30 | Notre Dame Bay... ..:..:..L.,,:0 Lee nn .| 20th“ 50° Cape St JO TO PAL Couey... SE RULES EE IP nee 206h ** 49°30 | White Bay.................................................. 10ph es 51: | Cape Rouge Harbour........ .... MAMAS EE RS Vo 8 CT DS 10th * 51°30 care Bauld to'CapeyOniouhe.: 250 0 OR EE Cr A6. 200, Over four degrees of latitude. [S. E. DAWSON] THE VOYAGES OF THE CABOTS 29 TABLE SHOWING THE APPROXIMATE MEAN DATE OF ARRIVAL OF COD IN NORTH- EASTERN DANSE CN DRAND SOUTHERN AND NORTHERN LABRADOR.—Continued. Lat. LOCALITY. ete aE o SOUTHERN LABRADOR, S24 Oba RCHALCAM Bay: AU AU UT PME TEEN lk an Re AE 20th June. Do ADD AUERS sie isch eens, CS are, eet cae eee ees ae Ree ea 12th July. DO indian Harbour? AVES. Ne EU TA CS CIE DE DER TS ERRNE DA bor lt CapevHarrisom. RETOUR A CA: l8th ee; Over three degrees of latitude. NORTHERN LABRADOR. DORE PAM Sr. AN TE AE PA CPR E RS PRE TR Tee 20th July. Seo MIS POKO Kets ] PY = ) ‘ S Je me f'rai faire une selle Avec tous ses atours ; Et j'irai de ville en ville Toujours à son nom.*4 Then we have a whole complainte, Marianson, breathing the very spirit of the Middle Age; and, beside these, there are many other vestiges of the age of chivalry remaining, sometimes in a phrase and sometimes only in a single word; but, perhaps, enough has been said to show that, in [woop] FOOTNOTES TO CANADIAN FOLKSONGS 93 the songs of New France, there still remains much of the picturesqueness of the Old. There are very few songs in Mr. Gagnon’s collection, apart from those connected with fétes and ceremonial customs, which contain any important remnants of popular myths, The dancing of the sun at Easter is not mentioned, nor are some other beliefs still, or up to quite recent times, current in the country. But Marianne, when her donkey has been eaten by a wolf, tries to pass off the one given her by the miller as the old one with a new skin, for, in accordance with time-honoured custom, all good asses changed their skin at Michaelmas.” Then, in Dique Dindaine.” the sheep dance on the green in the most approved fashion ; and Pinson and Cendrouille,” when at their wit's end to furnish a wedding feast, are helped out of their difficulty by the dog, the crow and the rat, each animal bringing some suitable dish with him. There is no lack of talking birds ; sometimes to tell inconvenient gossip—bilingual gossip, too, both in French and Latin—as in Cécilia ; ® sometimes to recommend matrimony, like “le rossignolet” in J'ai cueilli la belle Rose ; ® and sometimes to help the weaker sex to abuse the stronger, like the quail in Mon beau ruban gris.” The old belief in the materiality of the soul is satirically alluded to in the compendious Malbroucke : On vit voler son âme A travers les lauriers ; 71 and metempsychosis of a sort is pressed into the service of love in Si tu te mets anguille® and J'ai fait une maîtresse. The voyageur who sings “bon soir, lutin” “* may think twice before encountering the powers of woblindom, and, perhaps, some fishermen of the Lower St. Lawrence may have more than a suspicion that, in singing “blanc, blanc loup- marin,” © they are referring to mermaids or other uncanny beings far more dangerous than the timid seal. In Hn roulant ma boule™ there is the wonderful bird producing jewels from its eyes and gold and silver from its beak, just as mythical beasts do in all other countries ; and we can hardly attribute the prodigious convulsion of Nature produced by a carpenter’s sitting down to purely natural causes— En s’asseyant il fit un bond ; Qui fit trembler mer et poissons, Et les cailloux qui sont au fond.” Then there is the miller, who tricked the Devil into a flour-sack, which was tied to the revolving mill wheel, much to his Satanic Majesty’s dis- comfort ; © but the only song the action of which turns entirely upon supernatural agency is that of the “plus savante” rival, whose power over the elements enables her to supplant “ la fille du roi” : Eli’ fait neiger, ell’ fait gréler, Ell fait le vent qui vente ; Ell fait reluire le soleil A minuit dans sa chambre. 79 94 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Turning to songs connected with Christian festivals, we are at once struck by the persistence with which both song and fête have kept the form of Pagan moulds. Usually, when a Pagan custom was too strong to be killed, it was adapted to Christian purposes ; and this practice became so universal, that Villemarqué’s saying that the cross was planted on the dolmen, is as applicable to the whole of Christendom as it is to 3rittany : he might have gone a step further, to say that the cross itself is almost as much Pagan as Christian. The mixture of the two beliefs in folksongs is very curious. No conversion to Christianity has ever suc- ceeded in preventing Paganism from living at least a legendary life, and often a life of real power, At the present day in Tinnevelly the Anglican missionaries cannot stamp out caste among the native Christians, nor prevent their wearing the tali, a golden wedding-token, with the cross on one side and a figure of Lakshmi, the Hindoo goddess of Fortune, on the other.” In a Portugese ballad the king hearing a lovely song asks “Ts it an angel in Heaven or a Siren in the sea?” Whole nations have adopted patron saints, not because of their sanctity, but from their real or imaginary likeness to popular heathen deities : no Northern folk would ever have had anything to do with St. George, if his fabled fight with the Dragon had not resembled that of the mighty Thor with the Midgard- Serpent.” | The adaptation of the old to the new is well seen in such songs as those till lately current in Canada in connection with La Guignolée. ” The Guignolée is of Druidic origin, and probably was in some way connected with the ceremony of cutting the sacred mistletoe at the winter solstice ; at all events, it was part of a very popular sacred custom, per- formed by the high priest of an immensely powerful class,” a class of immemorial antiquity even in the days of Cesar ; and it has come down to us in Canada, through centuries of Old-World change, with enough of its ancient form to remind us of its original office in the sacred forest rites. Among the superstitions alluded to in the songs of La Guignolée, is the curious belief in the efficacy of warming a woman’s feet to give her a good child-birth ; a practice which Mr. Gagnon thinks originated from propitiatory sacrifices, for he quotes“ from the “Soirées Canadiennes ” : “Tl est probable que ces vers étranges : ‘“ Nous prendrons la fille aînée, Nous y ferons chauffer les pieds !” sont un reste d’allusions aux sacrifices humains de l’ancien culte gaulois.” In Canada La Guignolée has always been connected with Christmas alms-giving, the singers making a “ quête ” in search of all sorts of things, money included, which they «afterwards distributed among the parish poor. Sometimes, if the “quéteurs” were unsuccessful at a house, they shouted uncomplimentary couplets, reflecting on the stinginess of the {woop ] FOOTNOTES TO CANADIAN FOLKSONGS 95 host and hostess ; but they never sang, I believe, as the unsuccessful May-day “ quéteurs” still do in Champagne—*° J’vous souhaitons autant d’enfants Qu’y a de pierrettes dans les champs ; but then the children of Old France were never worth a hundred acres a dozen ! ty The great religious round, // n'y a qu'un seul Dieu,” is even more interesting that La Guignolée. It is danced as well as sung—“ Les danseurs se comptent d'abord à haute voix, de façon à ce que chacun d'eux se trouve être désigné par un nombre pair ou impair. Le chant commence ensuite et la chaîne se met à tourner. On tourne ainsi con- stamment, tantôt à droite, tantôt à gauche ; mais quand les chanteurs en sont au sixième couplet, et chaque fois que ce sixième couplet se répète, tout le monde s'arrête, et, pendant que l’on chante : ‘Six urnes placées, remplies, les danseurs désignés par un nombre pair se tournent, d’abord à droite, puis à gauche, et font à leurs voisins de profonds saluts. Ceux que désigne un nombre impair font la même cérémonie en sens inverse : le tout avec la gravité d’une cérémonie religieuse. Puis lorsque l’on chante : ‘ A Cana, en Galilée, les danseurs recommencent à tourner.” This round is a French translation of a Latin imitation of a Druidic Series, used in the education of novices. The Christian round, as given by Mr. Gagnon, concludes thus : *” Il y a douze apôtres, Il y a onze cents mill’ vierges, Il y a dix commandements, Il y a neuf chœurs des anges, Il y a huit béatitudes, Il y a sept sacrements, Six urn’s placées, remplies, A Cana, en Galilée, Il y a cinq livr’s de Moise, Il y a quatre évangélistes, Il y a trois grands patriarches, Il y a deux Testaments, Il n’y a qu’un seul Dieu. The Druidic Series, as given by Villemarqué,* is summed up thus : Douze mois et douze signes, Onze prêtres armés, Dix vaisseaux ennemis, Neuf petites mains blanches, - Huit vents, Sept soleils, Six petits enfants de cire, Cing zones terrestres, Quatre pierres a aiguiser, Trois parties dans le monde, Deux bœufs, 96 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Pas de serie pour le nombre un ; La Nécessité unique, Le Trépas, pere de la Douleur ; Rien avant, rien de plus. “La Nécessité unique” is identified with Death—the Breton “ Ankou,” the forgetting of all, not unlike the Nirvana of the Buddhists. ‘Les deux bœufs ” are those of Hu-Gadaru, an ancient Breton god. In the “Quatre pierres à aiguiser’’ we have a Breton variant of the Welsh whetting-stone, which sharpened the swords of the brave, so that they killed an enemy with a single stroke, but reduced the swords of cowards to dust. The “Six enfants de cire” refer to the ancient and universal practice of witcheraft, not yet extinct, by which an enemy is made to fall sick and die through the melting of his waxen image. The connection of this with our modern habit of burning unpopular public characters in effigy is obvious. The number seven, like three and twelve, was peculiarly sacred : here we have seven elements, seven suns and seven moons ; three beginnings and three endings, alike for man and for the sacred oak ; twelve months in the year and twelve signs in the Zodiac. The “ Huit feux, avec le grand feu ” refer to the seven sacred fires perpetually burn- ing in the temples and to the great fire, the Bel-tan, which the ancient Irish lit in May in honour of the Sun-god. Here again we have a modern variant in the Feux de St. Jean, which were lit on the Island of Orleans as late as 1810. In the “ Dix vaisseaux ennemis” and the “ onze prêtres armés” we may have a reference to the naval war in Armorica, when Cæsar put the Senators and Druids to the sword.” The respective ages of these two rounds cannot be determined ; but the Christian must be later than the conversion of Armorica in the sixth century, and the Druidic somewhat earlier, and both must have their origin in a Pagan past so dimly remote that we cannot now discern a single feature of it clearly. I give Villemarqué’s notes as they stand for what they are worth, not supposing it necessary to warn my readers that the Barzaz-Breiz has. fallen from its high estate of authenticity. If we want authentic Breton folksongs, we must go to the Gwerziou and Sonniou of M. Luzel, where we shall find a scrupulous exactitude, not excelled even in Professor Child’s monumental collection of the English and Scottish ballads. The Barzaz- Breiz is something quite different from these : it is not a faithful col- lection of folksongs edited from unpublished manuscripts ; still less one that is faithful to oral tradition, for the Bretons repudiate all knowledge of its texts; nor yet is it a trustworthy literary history. But it is not to be thrown aside as completely useless, because it is no longer found to be what it was once taken for by everyone. It is a store-house of infor- mation, picturesquely rearranged for literary effect; in fact, a sort of historical novel on a large scale—belonging to the same class of Celtic [woop] FOOTNOTES TO CANADIAN FOLKSONGS 97 literature as the works of “ Ossian” Macpherson and Sir Samuel Ferguson —and, if it had only been published in its true guise, like Ferguson’s poems, instead of in a false one, like Macpherson’s, its real value as an interesting and stimulating version of the genuine spirit of old Celtic poetry would never have been called in question. Vi CHRISTIANITY. Christianity, pure and simple, counts for very little in folklore of any kind, and, perhaps, for less in verse than in prose : the noéls are non- popular and the songs connected with Christian fétes and ceremonies have come down strongly imbued with Paganism and cast in Pagan moulds. Mr. Gagnon gives us, besides the noël D'où viens-tu bergère the two complaintes, Adam et Eve” and Le Juif Errant,’ and Cadieux’s death-song;" the first and last of which are inspired by Christianity throughout ; Cadieux’s song, with its heroic ring and fervent piety, being just what we might expect from that age of Christian martyrs, “sans peur et sans reproche.” The legend of the Wandering Jew, with its many variants, has a folklore history almost as strange as the adventures themselves ; but we cannot enter upon it here, Beside these we may place two voyageur songs, as given by Dr. Larue: Le chantier d’ Abacis, a strain of Christian resignation and thanksgiving ; and the song of the Christian voyageur ® in which the singer points his morals in a way which would be highly diverting if it was not so transparently sincere. Beginning with a caution against the dangers besetting the way of the voyageur, he breaks off to tell us that even Christians sometimes use strong language : Mille fois il maudit son sort Dans le cours du voyage. After this comes a warning against the wiles of the Evil One : Quand tu seras’sur ces traverses . . . . . . Tu es ici pres du démon Qui guette ta pauvre ame ; and then a moral, drawn from the likeness of mosquitoes to the Powers of Darkness, which all good anglers ought to thoroughiy appreciate : Si les maringouins te réveillent De leurs chansons, Ou te chatouillent l’oreille De leurs aiguillons, Apprends, cher voyageur, alors, Que c’est le Diale Qui chante tout autour de ton corps Pour avoir ta pauvre Ame. Sec. II., 1896. 7. 98 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Next comes an exhortation to prayer : Quand tu seras dans ces rapides, Tres dangereux, Ah! prie la Vierge Marie, Fais-lui des vœux ; Alors lance-toi dans ces flots Avec hardiesse, Et puis dirige ton canot Avec beaucoup d'adresse. Excellent advice ; which reminds us of that given by Oliver Cromwell to the soldiers of the New Model, when they were about to ford a river in presence of the enemy : “Trust in the Lord—and keep your powder dry.” Prayer is again recommended at the end of the song, as the only talisman against the perils of flood and field : Ami, veux-tu marcher par terre Dans ces grands bois ; Les sauvages te feront la guerre En vrai sournois. Si tu veux braver leur fureur, r Sans plus attendre, Prie alors de tout ton cceur, Ton ange de te défendre. Thus we can see for ourselves that there really is a class of purely Christian folksongs, and that Canada has produced some fine examples of it. But these very Canadian examples serve to prove how sterile this class has always been, even under the most favouring conditions ; for, though Mr. Gagnon and Dr. Larue are the last collectors in the world to neglect a folksong of Christian origin, though they have collected in a country conspicuous for the religious character of its foundation and famous, throughout its entire history, for the extraordinary zeal, devotion, discipline and wide-spread influence of an omnipresent priesthood, yet, in spite of all these advantages, the specimens they give us are few in number and of no great intrinsic value. ‘‘ Le nombre de nos chansons populaires est incalculable” ; in Normandy the songs were as plentiful as the apples ; and, in all English speaking countries, the Borders have long been cele- brated as the land of song ; yet, neither in the French tongue nor in the English, neither in the Old World nor in the New, neither by priest nor by puritan has the folksong ever been converted. If a universal collection of folksongs were made, and the different classes placed in order of genuine popularity, it would probably be found, that in the class of purely Christian origin, Canada stood an undisputed first; but it is quite certain that this class itself would be the very last of all. [woop] FOOTNOTES TO CANADIAN FOLKSONGS 99 VI. Humour. There is another influence beside those already mentioned which greatly affects the characteristic tone of Canadian folksongs and which, if misunderstood, makes many of them the veriest ‘ caviare.’ This is that blending of a witty humour with a natural turn for satire, so peculiarly French that we must give up trying to find an English name for it and call it simply gauloiserie. Not that we are wholly without descriptions of some such kind of humour. Ina delightful little preface to Mr. Locker’s volume of society verse, Mr. Austin Dobson gives us a very good idea of the British variant of this peculiar natural trait—but, variants are variants, and are apt to have elusively subtle distinctions about them : Apollo made, one April day, A new thing in the rhyming way ; Its turn was neat, its wit was clear, It wavered ’twixt a smile and tear ; Then Momus gave a touch satiric, And it became a ‘‘ London Lyric.” And then, if we take this refrain of de Rougemont’s we may get still nearer to an insight into the true ‘“ raison d'être” of gauloiserie— Dans cette vie Ou tout varie, Où chaque pas mène au tombeau, Portons gaiment notre fardeau ; %7 but let us stop here ; if we go on trying to get an insight into what gauloiserie really is, by taking it to pieces and examining its component parts, we shall defeat our own object ; for its essence does not depend upon the nature of its parts, but upon the way in which they are blent together into a living whole. Just as a joke that has to be explained is no joke at all, so gauloiserie is no real influence except to those whose sense of humour enables them to see and feel it in their studies from the life. And in making a study from the life we have to remember another characteristic French trait—the social quality, which is so strongly developed in the whole nation and which, with its great power of assimi- lation, has gained for France, through her men of letters, the title of the Interpreter of Europe. All the world acknowledges the social virtues of French song—even perfidious Albion takes pleasure in “the gay French refrain,’ as she generally calls it. And there is yet another point to note here—that we must speak of gauloiserie only with reference to the French language, for wherever a different tongue has survived within the borders of France, there the sad tone may still be heard above all others. The Breton fisherman can feel a passion akin to that of the wild, mysterious Flamenco songs of 100 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Spain, and a Breton maiden can sympathize with her love-forsaken Sicilian sister who pined away and died after being serenaded with dispetti and sfide, songs of challenging suspicion, affront and ridicule.” The Flemish lover sings his song because he cannot rest until he has done it, although he knows beforehand the pain that the singing of it will surely cost him : Ik vinde my bedwongen dat ik zingen moet, Ja, dat ik zingen moet, Een liedeken van minne die my treuren doet, Ja, die my treuren doet.‘* The French themselves—les vieux Gaulois—take things differently. The Franks of Chlodion were so intent upon enjoying the songs and dances at the marriage-feast of one of their great chiefs, that they never discovered the approach of Ætius till his legionaries charged down on them ; and so the Romans won their first battle in Gaui." It has been said : Toujours content et sans souci, C’est l’ordre de Crambambuli ; and of this jolly order are the gaulois songs of Canada, One might. suppose that in love, at all events, there would be little enough of the “sans souci.” But the French and Canadian Cupids are rarely blind. I do not mean to say that either French or Canadian love-songs are strangers to melancholy altogether—Perrette '' knows only too well that sometimes Les enfants sans souci Ils sont bien loin d'ici ; much less do I mean to say that they are strangers to the faithfulness of lovers—does not the princess scout the idea that love can hang upon the issue of the fight, and is only to be given to the victors : S'ils gagnent la bataille 2 Ils auront nos amours. —** Qu'ils perdent ou qu'ils gagnent Ils les auront toujours.” 102 But I do believe that there is little, if any, exaggeration in M. Tiersot’s remarks upon the general influence of gauloiserie. “La satire est tellement au fond de notre esprit national quelle étend son influence jusque sur nos chansons d’amour. Rarement on trouvera dans ces der- niéres, une déclaration d'amour vraiment sincère et sans arrière-pensée, un accord absolu de deux cœurs qui s'aiment.” However unwelcome to the lover of poetry when it comes in as an intruder, gauloiserie is unrivalled in its proper sphere, whether in Canada or in France. Native Canadian yauloiserie is very little behind the French ; witness the amusing account of how Dans l’comté de Rimouski, A l'élection nouvelle, Jacquot Hug’s s'est présenté.19 [woop] FOOTNOTES TO CANADIAN FOLKSONGS 101 A sharper flavour is to be found in Quand le mari s’en vint du bois,!” and Mon mari est ben malade ; 105 but the quintessence of gauloiserie is in Malbroucke.” Malbroucke himself, like his predecessor the Duc de Guise, is burnt in effigy with all the mock-heroics possible. The “beau page” tells“ Madame” how the great man was followed to his grave by ‘“ quatre-z-officiers ” : L’un portait sa cuirasse, L’autre son bouclier, L'un portait son grand sabre, L'autre ne portait rien ; and French illustrators have not left us in any doubt as to how the chief mourners carried their burdens—" but Malbroucke is not to be appre- ciated in extracts. | To be gay and Gallic and to sing Malbroucke with gusto ought to be enough to prove Canadians true heirs of the singers of the “gay refrain,” who, in their turn, are heirs of the Gallic legionarics that, in the time of Julius Cesar, are said to have borne the lark upon their helmets as the distinctive emblem of their race.” But there is a reverse to all this. The Gallic funeral ceremonies of Malbroucke seem very like a modern variant of the medieval Dance of Death. Both old and new owe their popularity to the same cause ; and he who runs may read the moral of both; which is, that the great King Death will mete out equal justice to all alike, to high and low, to rich and poor, to victor and to vanquished. What a satisfaction to be able to rejoice in the foreknow- ledge of this common doom! Professor Pellegrini tells us" that this guiding inscription appears upon the wall on the road to the cemetery of Galliate : “Via al vero comunismo.” And Malbroucke, for all it does it with a smiling face, points out the self-same way ; so, perhaps, gau- loiserie may be somewhat grimmer than it seems, and its refrains not, after all, so very gay. AA LULLABIES. Having briefly noted the general characteristics of the songs as found in our texts, let us now turn to a few particular classes of them. To begin at the beginning, the /u/labies must be considered first ; then the nursery rhymes of childhood, followed by the love-songs of youth: and lastly, we must by no means forget to notice the most typically Canadian class of all—the songs of the voyageurs. The Lullaby has all the form and rhythm of a natural simplicity, its . burden is made soothing with onomatopæic and reduplicated words, and 102 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA the names the nurses give it in every tongue breathe the very spirit of rest and sleep—né-né in Dauphiné, no-no in the South, Jo-/o among the Basques are some of the many variants of the universal French do-do. Monotony, calm and an ebbing flow of sound are universal : in Berry™ the nurse begins with Dodo, berline, Sainte Cathérine, in Dauphiné '” with Néné petite, Sainte Marguerite, in Canada! with an invocation to the same saint— Sainte Marguerite, Veillez ma petite ; and all French nurses sing Do, do, l’enfant do, L'enfant dormira tantôt ; and in every case we hope their singing is attended by the same good fortune Et l'enfant qui dort Fait des rêves d’or. Monotonous, too, are the variations on the simplest themes ; variations ad infinitum, or rather so far as the nurse’s memory and fancy can carry her. All Canadians have been sung to sleep by the chanted story of C’est la Poulette grise Qui pond dans l’église, C’est la Poulette blanche Qui pond dans les branches ; 1H and so on with “ Poulettes ” of innumerable hues, many seen only in the land of dreams. Assonance plays a great part in cradle songs, and makes even stranger bed-fellows than politics. Its whims and caprices make Aisatian “bonnes” mix bitter things with sweet in curious fashion ; in the very same song,’ where little girls are put to bed in Heaven itself, we find that little boys are first well whipped and then stuffed into a sack full of toads : Riga, Riigii, tropfe, d’Buiwe muass ma klopfe, d’Maidli kummen is Himmels bett, d'Buäwa kummen id Groddä seck. And it is just as full of freaks in Canada : Il est midi.—Qui-c’ qui l’a dit ? C'est la souris.—Où est-elle ? Dans la chapelle. —Que fait-elle ? De la dentelle. —Pour qui ? Pour ces demoiselles.—Combien la vend-elle ? Trois quarts de sel. TANT I &r [woop] FOOTNOTES TO CANADIAN FOLKSONGS 103 This constant mention of animals shows us what nursery favourites they have always been: witness, Le Chat à Jeannette, La Petit poul grise; Le Bal des Souris and Les Noces du Papillon for France,” and for Canada the wedding of Pinson avec Cendrouille"® and the unending enumerative which begins with Une Perdriole." It is strange that Mr. Gagnon gives us no lullabies of the Virgin, unless we can take D'où viens-tu, bergère, as -one ; for they form an important class apart, and are met with in many countries. They are, however, somewhat like the noéls in tone, and often had a common non- popular origin. The famous one with the refrain Millies tibi laudes canimus Mille, mille, millies,!”° could hardly have been of popular composition, even if it had been in some vernacular ; but another Latin one”! might well have been a folk- song: 5 Dormi Jesu, mater ridet, Que tam dulcem somnum videt, Dormi Jesu blandule. Si non dormis, mater plorat, Inter fila cantans orat : Blande, veni Somnule. The last line reminds us that lullabies are long-lived beyond most other folksongs and trace their descent from Pagan times. ‘“ Blande, veni Somnule” is at least a reminiscence of the direct invocation to Sleep, still common among many folk. The vavvapiouata of Modern Greece have many such invocations ; so have the som-soms of Languedoc and Auvergne, like the one beginning, Som-som, beni, beni, beni ; 12? and so, too, have the sou/n-souins of La Bresse : ™ Le poupon voudrait bien domir ; Le Souin-souin ne veut pas venir. Souin-souin, vené, vené, vené ; Souin-souin, vené, vene, donc ! There are no heathen invocations in our Canadian lullabies, but when a habitante calls upon Sainte-Marguerite,™ she is invoking a favourite saint in the White Paternoster,” and, as the White Paternoster was in- vented as a charm against the Evil spirits which could be conjured with a Black Paternoster or other magical formula, the connection with a survival of Pagan beliefs is not far to seck. It is curious to observe the number of Christian customs which the folk has pressed into the service of White Magic ; even the ‘Angelus’ has not escaped, the Pro- vençals believing that it was instituted to scare away the evil spirits who might be tempted out by the approach of night ! 104 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA But, whether of Christian or of Pagan origin, whether in Canada or in other lands, the simple Berceuse has all the intimate pathetic charm of one of “ Nature's old felicities” ; for there is nothing that can take us back to our own first twilight fancies, and to the very infancy of time itself, like a crooning lullaby, whispering of all the little immemorial mysteries of cradleland. WALT: »Norsery tHYMES. Though Nursery rhymes belong to a later age of childhood than lullabies, they are really a still simpler form of verse, in fact, a mere jingling accompaniment to the action and air of some sort of game, and never make the slightest pretensions to poetry. Assonance is, of course, most important, and generally plays its pranks to the admiration of all concerned ; sometimes, however, opinions differ. To Ride a cock-horse to Banbury Cross, or to be 126 A cheval, à cheval, sur la queue d’un orignal, or to go A Paris, à Paris, sur la queue d’un p’tit cheval gris, or A Rouen, à Rouen, sur la queue d'un p’tit cheval blanc, is all very well ; but, perhaps, Quebecers might rather remain forever unknown to nursery fame, than be immortalized in the couplet A Québec, à Québec, sur la queue d’une belette ! 127 As they have so much in common with lullabies, it is natural enough that nursery rhymes with a suitable rhythm should enjoy an equal popularity in either form ; J'ai tant d'enfants à marier, Ah! qui marierons- ? C'est le bon vin qui danse, C'est la plus belie de céans and many other simple rhymes are sung beside the cradle as well as in the play-room,” NOUS : The main feature of interest in all nursery rhymes is the wonderful fidelity with which both words and action have been handed down from generation to generation. A Canadian girl or boy singing C’est le bon vin qui danse ici,!”" ? reminds us at once, by the single word “vin,” that this rhyme originally came from France—whence, indeed, all our nursery rhymes have come. When we hear a reference to “Je pont de Nantes” ™ or to the more famous “ pont d’Avignon”’™ we know they are singing of France in the olden time. The mention of “l’assemblé’ d'amour” takes us back to the medieval Courts of Love ; in Le premier jour de Mai we have a reminiscence of the fétes for the rite of May ; and the couplet J'ai trouvé le nique du lièvre, Mais le lievre n'y était pas, [woop] FOOTNOTES TO CANADIAN FOLKSONGS 105 now sung in fun by children, might once have been sung in real earnest by some of their ancestors who lived by the chase. Turn where we may, we find ourselves in what has been well called the old curiosity shop of customary lore. English children singing Eeny, meeny, miny, mo, are using a variant of Eene, meene, mieken, miiken, ! in which German children still ask their play-fellows to join them in the Teutonic conquest of Celtic Britain : Kumm will’n beid’ na England gan ! It is easy enough to go back still further. In “Buck, buck, how many horns do I hold up?” we have the lineal descendant of an old Roman game, as described by Petronius Arbiter in the time of Nero: “ Tri- malchio . . . . . . bade the boy get on his back. The boy climbed up and slapped him on the shoulders with his hand, laughing and calling out, “ Bucca, Bucca, quot sunt hic? We can go beyond even this; but probably no one is disposed to deny the claims of the nursery rhyme to, at least, a very respectable pedigree. LX LOVE-SONGS. Everyone turns to Nature herself for the origin of the Zove-song ; but, to fully appreciate the influences which have moulded it into the form it has taken in Canada, we must remember that the natural tones of love have been modified, first by the pervading gauloiserie of France, then by the customs and ideals of medieval chivalry, and lastly by the peculiarities of Canadian life. Now Nature, of course, needs no discus: sion, and, as the three modifying influences have been discussed before, we take Canadian love-songs exactly as we find them in Mr. Gagnon’s texts and, noting that there they may be somewhat exclusively addressed virginibus puerisque, we shall venture to characterize them generally as an almost perfect blend of Nature, chivalry, gauloiserie and, what we may, perhaps, be allowed to call for the occasion, Canadiennerie. The Chanson des Regrets has no place in Mr. Gagnon There is no Péronnelle* no Young Heiduck to woo and win and ride away, no Canadian wife to yield to the wiles of the Demon Lover,’ no Canadian Launcelot and no Canadian Guinevere. The Canadian maiden makes no such confession of the power of love as her Bressian sister : ’s book. Que veux-tu que je te donne ? Je t'ai déjà trop donné : Je t'ai donné une rose, La plus belle de mes roses Que j'avais sur mon rosier.l# 106 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Neither does she sing her regrets at having found that power irresistible, like her Scotch sister : But had I wist, before I kist, That Love had been so ill to win, I'd lock'd my heart in a case of goud And pinn’d it wi a siller pin.™! But the Chanson de Galanterie is allowed in, though only on sufferance, and during good behaviour. Of course, Le Comte Ory’ and all his fellows are shut out, so are the gay T'am-lins,# the Sire Garins # and all the other gallants whose motto is Quand tu tenais la caille, Il fallait la plumer.!” Mr. Gagnon’s Canadian galanterie is of a very harmless kind. In French folksong the very popular pastorals beginning with L’autre jour m'allais promener, or words to that effect, and recounting the adventures of a lord with a shepherdess, almost always end in one of four ways : “Si Pinterlocuteur est un berger, il sera heureux ; si c'est un seigneur, il est renvoyé à son château ; ou bien lui-même est témoin des tendres confidences de la bergère et du berger. Un quatrième cas peut se présenter : celui où le seigneur à affaire à une femme mariée : il est alors sûr du succès." # In Canadian variants the fourth case does not occur ; but the second is well represented : Le roi prit la plus jeune, Dans la dans’ l’a menée ; A chaque tour de danse I] voulait l’embrasser : the youngest of the three “Hills à marier,” rejects his advances as a matter of course— Allez, allez, beau prince, Allez plus loin chercher.!7 And Petite Jeanneton is just as virtuous : Mon petit cœur en gage, N'est pas pour un baron.l# The romantic professions find plenty of willing victims : Je voudrais bien d’un officier. Je marcherais à pas carrés, 4? sings one young girl who has dismissed habitants, labourers, colporteurs, notaries, doctors and lawyers as one and all unworthy of her attention ; and another relates that, having been sent to sea with a gallant sailor, I] devint amoureux de moi. Ma mignonnette, embrassez-moi. Nenni, Monsieur, je n’oserais : Car si mon papa le,savait .°. \.0 7%, 1° | [woop] FOOTNOTES TO CANADIAN FOLKSONGS 107 A third damsel will not descend to particulars : Ma fille promettez-moi done De n’jamais aimer les garçons. —J’estim’rais mieux que la maison Serait en cendre et en charbons, Et vous mon per’ sur le pignon : Vous vous chaufferiez les talons. Le beau temps s’en va, Le mauvais revient ; Je nai pas Ge barbe au menton Mais il m'en vient.l1 A comparison between the French and Canadian variants of Marianne sen va-t-au moulin’ or, still better, Petite Jeanneton,” will at once show where the line is drawn in the different countries. F The gauloiserie which turns the love-song into a chanson de galanterie is seen in Papillon, tu es volage !** and some others; but, as we saw in examining the influence of humour, there really are some Canadian Chansons d'amour, which may be truly classed as love-songs, pure and simple. These have little of the sympathetic imagery of the Italian songs or the fiery and rather sententious passion of the Spanish, and they can hardly give us anything so touching in its artless simplicity as this : Y a ben sept ans que ze se amoureusa D’on bravou labori : Rien que d’y va son labourazou Me fa ben plasi.15 They are generally coloured by a lighter fancy and sung with a more lilting measure ; but they have as true a sincerity of their own as many of a greater intensity. In the metamorphosis’® the lovers delight in toying with the risks by the way, because they feel that the end is certain, and in A la Claire Fontaine we know they will be all the more in love afterwards for having fallen out over the “ bouquet de roses.” The lover Au bois du rossignolet ** may be trifling a little, and so may the soldier who makes the not unusual military promise : … Adieu, belle Françoise, Adieu, belle Françoise ! Je vous épouserai, Au retour de la guerre, Si j'y suis respecté.l ? Perhaps, too, it may be the “love that is too hot and strong” which “runneth soon to waste.” that drives “le fils du roi’ to exclaim— Bergère on non je veux la voir Ou que mon cheval crève ! 160 108 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA But there can be no doubt about the intense longing in this pathetic appeal : " Amant, que j’t’ai donc fait Qui puiss’ tant te déplaire ? Est-c'que j’t’ai pas aimé Comm tu l'as mérité ? Je tai aimé, je t'aime, Je taimerai toujours. Pour toi mon cœur soupire Toujours. Nor can we doubt that Versailles, Paris et St. Denis,” would willingly be given in ransom for the prisoner of war in Holland,if his mistress had them to give. And we have only to turn to Le Pommier Doux™ to find, in the “ Trois filles dun prince,” the very embodiment of unchang- ing love. sn SONGS OF THE VOYAGEURS. The Voyageur, like all other workers, takes whatever comes to his hand, and is always equally ready, either to sing a spinning-chorus, like Je le mène bien mon dévidoi’ ox to make up a canoeing variant of his own, like Fringue, fringue sur la riviere, Fringue, fringue sur l'aviron,!® which is an adaptation of Va, va, va, p'tit bonnet, grand bonnet.” But the most interesting songs in his repertory are naturally those connected with his own mode of life. Love, war, religion and the hardships of his calling are their principal themes ; and it is especially noteworthy how much the religious tone is deepened by the sense of ever-present danger —the voyageur at work, like the soldier on active service, being a living proof that godliness is commoner in the field than in barracks. ‘adieux’s song, Le Chantier d Abacis,™ the Christian Voyageur and Pierriche Falcon’s Songs of the “ Bois-Bralés,’™° already mentioned in connection with war and religion, are all true Voyageur songs. We are indebted to Dr. Larue “' for several other specimens of this class. Voici l'hiver arrivé has admirable local colour : the free-and-easy shanty- man, paid on the abominable truck system, 3 travail ben tout l'hiver ; Au printemps on se trouve clair ! And so he sings with hearty good will— Que l'diable emport’ les chantiers ; but, for all that, he goes back to them again the following year. A Bytown c'est un joli place *? is a song of parting— Nous n’irons plus voir nos blondes ; | woop} FOOTNOTES TO CANADIAN FOLKSONGS 109 Parmi les voyageurs™ and Salut à mon pays™ are songs of return. Sometimes the “ blondes” forget their voyageurs— A présent m'y voila En arrière des autres ; 176 and sometimes, when they do so, they get paid back in their own coin— A présent j'en ai-t-une autre Qui y est ben plus à mon gré,!7 Among voyageurs, as among soldiers and sailors all the world over, there are always some careless adventurers, who, wandering about for years in parts unknown, find, on their return home, that their families have given them up for lost and their wives have married again. Such a dramatic situation is never thrown away upon folksingers, who everywhere have innumerable variants on this single theme ; the Canadian one being Voila les voyageurs qwarrivent,“* which ends without telling us what becomes of the two husbands : J’ai donc reçu de fausses lettres Que vous étiez mort, enterré, Aussi, je me suis mariée. It is a great pity to find this disappointing baldness here, as the same theme has often been so effectively treated in folksong ; sometimes with almost the artistic finish of Tennyson’s “ Enoch Arden,” and sometimes with the insight and fine reserve of Guy de Maupassant’s short story ‘He Retour.” XL VARIANTS. Variants begin at home ; and, though the local ones are often apparently of the most trifling importance, they are never to be neglected on that account. In a variant of Hn roulant™ the word “mitan” occurs : Derrier’ chez nous ya-t-un étang, Et la rivier’ passe au mitan.!*! This in itself is a small thing; but the use of the word acquires a good deal of importance when we find that it is frequent in the Côte de Beaupré, the Isle of Orleans and the Côte du Sud in Canada,.™ that it occurs in the songs of Picardy *’ and that we know from what provinces many of the “colons” of the seventeenth century originally came. As a matter of fact, the word ‘mitan” is used instead of the standard ‘milieu ” in other provinces besides Picardy, and the habitants of the parts of Canada just mentioned are by no means all descended from Picards; but, all the same, this serves to show that no local variant should be overlooked, even when it is only a philological one. Some local 110 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA variants are made simply by the freakish misunderstanding of the traditional words : for instance the old round-— C’est la plus belle de céans, C’est par la main je vous la prends, is perverted into C’est la plus belle de Sion, C'est par la main nous la tenons.!* Other variants of a minor kind have more to justify their existence. It is more natural for a St. Lawrence fisherman to sing Dans les prisons de Londres than Dans les prisons de Nantes,!*6 and the mixed geography of Il est dans la Hollande, Les Irlandais l’ont pris,!*” is not without sufficient reasons of its own. Variant refrains abound ; Mr. Gagnon gives us six for Hn roulant alone. Popular humorous songs, which so easily lend themselves to improvisation, are peculiarly subject to variations: the inevitable Malbroucke’ has two Canadian variants ™ touched with Indian local colour, one beginning C'était un vieux sauvage, Tout noir, tout barbouilla, Avec sa vieill’ couverte Et son sac a tabac, and both ending in much the same way : Quatre vieux sauvages Portaient les coins du drap, Et deux vieilles sauvagesses Chantaient le libéra. There are plenty of variations of all kinds, besides these, many made up on the spur of the moment and as quickly forgotten, and others flitting about in oral tradition with more or less fixity of form. The voyageurs have their variants like the rest of the world ; a good instance being the purely Canadian Death-song of Cadieux,™! which begins in the original version— Petit rocher de la haute montagne, Je viens finir ici cette campagne,!? and in that of the Red River Settlement— Petits oiseaux, dedans vos charmants nids, Vous qui chantez pendant que je gémis, Si j'avais des ailes comme vous, Je vivrais content avant qu'il fut jour.!” It is easy enough to see that nearly all Canadian folksongs are variants from the French, somewhat remote in a few instances, but very [woop] FOOTNOTES TO CANADIAN FOLKSONGS 111 close in most. All nursery rhymes and lullabies may be taken as of purely French origin : so may all songs of the type of Cécilia," Le maumarié and La maumariée,” Je ne veux pas d'un habitant, En roulant,” Au jardin de mon père un oranger lui-ya,"’ Dans les prisons de Nantes,’ Marianne au moulin," Perrette est bien malade and others too numerous to mention. The peculiar restrictions which pre- vented many Canadian variants from attainmg a too luxuriant growth are well described by Mr. Gagnon.” We may see how powerful these restrictions were, by taking such a typical theme as Le retour du mari and comparing Dr. Larue’s version’ with M. Fleury’s four Lower Norman variants," or with those of Spain and Portugal which are the most romantic ones of all. The Canadian variant of Au jardin de mon père un oranger lui-ya*® breaks off suddenly, whilst Fleury’s Norman variants tell the whole story, like those of Bartsch,” Bujeaud,** Legrand” and others. It is a noticeable fact in folk-history that the Norman “ Coucou” has never been acclimatized in Canada, Mon père a fait bâtir maison is sung in Saintonge and Aunis, J'ai cueilli la belle rose in Angoumois, Cambrésis, Artois and Le Niver- nais, Au bois du rossignolet in Franche-Comté and Switzerland, Ga le rosier and J’ai trop grand peur des loups in Poitou, Cécilia and Isabeau sy promène in Champagne, A St-Malo, beau port de mer in French Brittany, A la Claire Fontaine in Normandy and a dozen other provinces, and Quand j'étais chez mon père, petite Jeanneton all over France." It is interesting to observe how folksongs which have wandered from their native home often retain their more ancient forms in an outlying colony. This was the case with Greek songs, so it is said ; and it certainly was with the Anglo-Saxon songs, for Beowulf is the oldest Teutonic epic ; the Icelandic songs preserved much of the folklore of the Old Norse, and some of the finest Portuguese ballads have been collected in the Azores : and in Canada we have versions of A la Claire Fontaine, *° Le Pommier Doux, and other songs which are older, and often more poetical, than most of the variants now current in France. The number of French folksongs represented by Canadian variants in our texts is certainly remarkable ; but, to give a just view of the relationship between the collections of the two countries, we must not forget to mention that no trace is to be found in either Mr. Gagnon or Dr. Larue of many of the most popular and typical songs of France. Of course, it must be borne in mind that those two gentlemen were not col- lecting for folklorists, but for the general public and the public has rarely been better served—but it is, at least, noteworth y from every point of view, that they have given us no specimens of the following types : Le mari benêt/® Elle a choisi le vieux? La fille perdue’® Le moine blanc,’ La chanson des regrets," Les trois tambours La fille engagée auregiment,’ La courte paille, L'amant qui tue sa maîtresse," Martin,” 112 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Les tisserands,” L'occasion manquée—ou saisie”! Les trois enfants res- suscités par Saint-Nicolas La mère ressuscitée,”” L'enfant au berceau dénonce un crime Renaud,” La fille qui fait la morte,”’ L'amant noyé®? and La Pernette. All these are found in M. Rolland’s collection, which is only the beginning of a great work, and is by no means exhaustive even so far as it has gone already. Looking further afield, we find that our texts do not carry us quite so far as we might hope among the folksongs of the world at large. We have no Canadian versions of the adventures of Bluebeard or of May Colven, whilst there are innumerable variants in French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, English, Dutch, Flemish, High and Low German, Norse, Swedish, Icelandic, Polish, Bohemian, Magyar, Servian and scores of other languages. To see what could be done with Teutonic folklore, I went through the two thousand volkslieder of Erlach’s collection ;*” but only found about twenty which had any direct affinity with those in our texts. Of course, among the twenty were variants of the misadventures. ot Petite Jeanneton, who instead of being sent : a la fontaine Pour pêcher du poisson 28 woes of her own accord, Wollt geh’n in den Wald, Wollt Brombeer’ brocken ab,?4 and does so with very “variant” results. Equally of course, were. stories of the loves of lords of high degree for rustic maids, and the spirited answers of girls whom their parents ask to promise De n’jamais aimer les garçons.” The Weltkind’s anwer is even more fiery than la Canadiennes : Meine Glut ist nicht zu dimpfen, . Bis ich einstens werde kämpfen Mit dem Amor, bis auf’s Blut.2%6 Petite Jeanneton is one of those folksongs which seem to be native to every soil; and an even greater vogue is enjoyed by the woeful Mau- mariés. If a world wide celebrity were any compensation for the miseries of married life. P'tit Jean would get some consolation from the know- ledge that, even in far Cathay, he has fellow-sufferers ; for there the “ Hotung Lioness”? makes her better half quake at every roar.”° The story of the prisoner and'the gaoler’s daughter is known everywhere and is always a most popular theme, whether the hero is simply “* un prisonnier,” as he is in Canada, or a peer of the realm, as he is in the Loving Ballad of Lord Bateman. The tragic history of Marianson”” is common to many countries, more particularly to Spain and Portugal, where the famous ballad of Helena* has always been held in especial [woop] FOOTNOTES TO CANADIAN FOLKSONGS 113 honour. The variants of the Metamorphoses of Love have spread from the East over the whole world, and are so universal that it would be difficult to find any language in which they are quite unknown. In Mr. Gagnon’s two variants“ the lover has to follow his mistress through her changes into an eel, a lark, a nun and so forth. Some other lovers, even when they belong to the weaker sex, are much more severely tried. In the Border ballad of Tamlane* the hero warns his love : They'll turn me in your arms, lady, Into an ask and adder ; They'll turn me to a bear sae grim And then a lion bold. And last they'll turn me in your arms Into the burning gleed ; Then thrbw me into the well-water, O throw me in with speed ; And then I'll be your own true love, Tl turn a naked knight. In Penda Baloa, a negro ballad of Senegambia, the Fairy Lover turns into a crocodile, when once he has carried the girl into his enchanted kingdom. In Al/son Gross a bewitched knight is restored to himself on Hallowe’en “when the seely Court was riding by.” The dipping of Tanlane in water is a variant process of similar acts in an Indian tale called Surya Bai, in a Hottentot story, in one of von Hahn’s Albanian folk-tales, and in the ancient Egyptian story of the Two Brothers. The classical versions, especially the story of Proteus in the fourth book of the Odyssey, hardly need mention.” The metamorphos/s affords us à striking illustration of the wonderful diffusion of identical themes : Romuic folksong which had been taken down from oral tradition in the but, when we hear of Chenier’s translating a highlands of Greece, and which proved to be the same as Ophelia’s song, which Shakespeare learnt from some English crowder, we are even more struck by the wonderful diffusion of identical variants.*# And any- one who might wish to make Canada his starting point and thence study the diffusion of theme and variants together on a universal scale, may be recommended to begin with Voila les voyageurs quwarrivent;*® for, wherever soldiers, sailors and songs are known, there we are sure of finding versions of Le retour du mari. XIT. POETRY. As the Canadian folksongs have been considered in the foregoing notes mainly as an interesting subject of folklore study, the question naturally follows whether they are worthy of attention from the point of view of poetry alone? I think if may be made ciear that they are worth some study from the point of view of art, though it is equally Sec. II., 1896. 8. 114 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA clear that our admiration must be discriminating, for it is only within certain narrow limits that they rise into real poetry. One limitation to their range ought to be specially noticed : it is the total lack of all genuine “natural magic.” When the princess in the Pommier Doux wakes her sister with : Ma sceur, voila le jour, and is answered Non, ce n’est qu'une étoile Qu'éclaire nos amours, we get, indeed, a fine poetic touch ; but without any of the sympathy with Nature which we see in this little Czech poem : Star, bright star! Thou art from love’s fetters free ; Hadst thou a heart, my golden star, A shower of sparks thou wouldest weep for me. The language of flowers is purely conventional and has nothing what- ever of the Celtic glamour in it. The Spanish gipsy can find his mistress fairer than the white carnation as it opens to the morning sun ; but it never occurs to the Canadian habitant to use any simile of this kind. He sings glibly enough of “le bouquet de roses” and “ mon joli cceur de rose”; but it would be quite alien to his genius to employ the rose in a description of a girl asleep : Blinded alike from sunshine and from rain, As though a rose should shut and be a bud again. He tells us very pleasingly of the apple tree, that Les feuilles en sont vertes, but this is a mere generality, quite devoid of the peculiar charm of Chaucer’s “glad light-green.” In a land of falling waters, the best description of their beauty is only another general remark— J'ai trouvé l’eau si belle, though Nature is assuredly not less lavish in providing her similes in Canada than in Roumania, where they sing— And through his slumbers, murmuring on, their watch the waters keep ; O! happy waters that may sing and lull him in his sleep ! The Canadian folksinger would never think of ascribing royal honours to the sunset, like the Greek Calabrians who call it “o iglio vasiléggui”— 6 HAtos Baoihever. Nor could he appreciate the golden promise of some rare, quiet, sunlit afternoon in our early March, when Winter, slumbering in the open air, Wears on his smiling face a dream of Spring. No. the Canadian folksinger has never consciously felt the joy of being “ made one with Nature.” But surprise him unawares, and you find that [woop] FOOTNOTES TO CANADIAN FOLKSONGS ,. 115 his is itself one of Nature’s voices. I shall never forget one occasion, during a cruise up the Saguenay. when I heard the folksong in absolute perfection. It was a calm, warm night in the beginning of July ; a cloudless full moon silvered the vast, still waters of the river and lit up the innermost recess of Eternity Bay, where the yacht lay swinging gently at her anchor—at rest, like all else around her, in that scene of beauty hushed in awe. I had been below for some time, trying to get to sleep, when I thought I heard someone calling. Going up on deck quietly, I found that my man had paddled ashore and was there singing to himself, hidden away somewhere in the darkness: he had left his heart behind him, and here was his solace. As his far-off chanted strains on the eternal theme of love, coming from out an impenetrable shadow, rose and fell upon my ear, they seemed, in their complete unconscious. ness, to be as much a part of surrounding Nature as the cry of the lonely night-bird, the deep pulsation of the tide or the silent, everlasting hills themselves, Entering the limits of our texts in search of poetry, we find that we may justify our affirmative answer in at least three different classes of songs ; the popular noël, the complainte and, of course, the love-song. D'où viens-tu, bergère ? is perfect as a children’s picture-poem. The form of question and answer at once arouses the childish interest, and the simple descriptive touches, all borrowed from the child’s own little world. are strikingly dramatic to his wondering imagination : Qu’as-tu vu, bergère ? Un petit enfant Sur la paille fraiche Mis bien tendrement. Ya le bœuf et l’âne Qui sont par devant, Avec leur haleine Réchauffent l'enfant. Rien de plus, bergére, Rien de plus ? —Ya trois petits anges, Descendus du ciel, Chantant les louanges Du Pere eternel. “ La belle complainte de Marianson”’ is the finest piece of poetry in Canadian folksong. It does not begin with an attempt at preparing its hearers to see things from the proper point of view, nor does it ever turn aside to explain its purport by the way, for the folksong always takes its hearers’ intelligent sympathy for granted ; but, with true dramatic in- sight, it sings the burden of its song as shortly and directly as it may. 116 ; ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA And so it is, that, as a tale of fated woe, an echo from the days “ of tour- neys and great challenges of knights,” terse, tragic and of an infinite pathos, it has come down to us, stripped of all poetic trappings, and glorious in all the grand simplicity of naked strength. In her innocence -Marianson has lent her golden rings to the false friend who, having had them copied, goes out to meet her husband on his return from the war : Marianson, dame jolie, Ell’ m'a été fidele assez? Oui, je le crois, je le décrois : Voilà les anneaux de ses doigts ! Ah ! maman, montre-lui son fils : Ca lui réjouira l'esprit. A pris l'enfant par le maillot, Trois fois par terre il l’a jeté. Marianson, par les cheveux, A son cheval l’a-t-attachée. Marianson, dame jolie, Où sont les anneaux de tes doigts ? Ils sont dans l’coffre, au pied du lit ; Ah ! prends les clefs et va les qu’ri’. I] n'eut pas fait trois tours de clef, Ses trois anneaux d’or a trouvés. Marianson, dame jolie, Quel bon chirurgien vous faut-il ? Le bon chirurgien qu'il me faut, C'est un bon drap pour m'ensev'lir. Marianson, dame jolie, Votre mort m’est-elle pardonnée ? Oui, ma mort vous est pardonnée, Non pas la cell’ du nouveau-né. The typical love-song of Canada is A la claire fontaine : everyone knows it, everyone sings it and everyone can see how well it holds the mirror up to French-Canadian nature, Some of the French versions have a poetic turn of thought wanting in the Canadian : Au milieu de la rose Mon cœur est enchaîné ; N'y a serrurier en France Qui puisse le déchainer, Sinon mon ami Pierre Qui en a pris la clef. {woop ] FOOTNOTES TO CANADIAN FOLKSONGS 117 On the other hand the Norman verse— Chante beau rossignol, Toi qui as l’cœur tant gai ; Je ne suis pas de même, Je suis bien affligé, will not bear comparison with the Canadian-— Chante, rossignol, chante, Toi qui as le cœur gai ; Tu as le cœur à rire, Moi je l’ai-t-à pleurer. And then we look in vain among the current variants of France for the touching refrain — Lui-ya longtemps que je t'aime, Jamais je ne t’oublierai. A deeper note is struck by the intense fidelity of the princess’s love in Le Pommier Doux— Sils gagnent la bataille Ils auront nos amours, Qu'ils perdent ou qu'ils gagnent, Ils les auront toujours— and by the self-sacrifice of the sailor in Zsabeau S'y promène— De la troisieme plonge Le galant s’est noyé— and a far greater passion breathes in every word of the “ fils du roi” when, Hier, sur le pont d Avignon, he heard the shepherdess— Elle chantait d’un ton si doux Comme une demoiselle— and her singing wrought in him A dream of fire, All his hours ensnaring, Burns the boy past bearing— The dream that girls inspire. Though these few citations may be enough to show that our texts really contain some poetry, there is one more song which tells the story of, the lover’s varying moods so well that L cannot forbear to quote it, too. It begins with such an airy, gaulois charm : Jai perdu mon amant Et je m’en souci guère ; Le regret que j'en ai Sera bientôt passé. Je porterai le deuille D'un habit de satin ; Je verserai des larmes De vin. 118 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA But the tone soon changes; and, at the last, there comes the “long regret "— Si j'étais hirondelle, Vers toi, bell’ demoiselle, Par derriér’ ces rochers J’irais prendr’ ma volée. Sur votre main, la belle, J’irais me reposer, Pour raconter la peine Que j'ai. There may be a suspicion of lettered workmanship about all this ; yet in Maskinongé, the only part of Canada where it is known, it is truly popular ; and, taken as the folksong expression of yearning for an absent lover, it will almost bear comparison with even this delightful snatch of Old-World grace : Celui que mon cœur aime tant, Il est dessus la mer jolie. Petit oiseau, tu peux lui dire, Petit oiseau, tu lui diras, Que je suis sa fidéle amie Et que vers lui je tend les bras. But, whether poetical or not, the Canadian folksong, in its proper home, is never without its own peculiar charm ; and we have already seen where it does and where it does not make its home : not within the shadow of the Church, though it has caught the Christian tone better than all others have; not in any moonlit fairyland, though it can tread a fairy measure well enough; not among mysterious forest-aisles, for it has no wild-wood fancy of its own ; nor among “ enchantments drear,” for it has long since lost the thrill of fearful joy ; nor yet with Nature, for it cannot see her beauties : but, at every season of the year, with the nurse at the cradle, the children at their play, the spinners at the wheel and the guests at the marriage-feast, and everywhere and always with lovers when apart ; in summer time with the habitant out in the open fields and the knitters in the sun awaiting his return, or away with the voy- ageur in camp or in canoe ; and in winter, when nights are long and cold, within the easeful farm-house circle, or far-off, amid the silent snows and beneath great sleeping pines, with a cabinful of careless shantymen gathered around their evening fire. [woop] FOOTNOTES TO CANADIAN FOLKSONGS 119 BIBLIOGRAPHY. Gagnon—Chansons Populaires du Canada, Québec, 1865. Gagnon—Chansons Populaires du Canada, Québec, 1880. 3. Gagnon—Charsons Populaires du Canada, Québec, 1894. 4. Larue—Les Chansons Populaires du Canada, ‘“ Foyer Canadien,” 1863, pp. 321-384, 5. Bibliothèque Nationale—Poésies Populaires de la France, MSS. Nouvelles Acquisitions, N°5 3338-3343. 6. Rolland—Recueil de Chansons Populaires, 5 vols., 1883-7. 7. Dumersan et Ségur—Chansons Nationales et Populaires de la France, 1866. 8. Andrew Lang—The Folklore of France, ‘‘ Folklore Record,” vol. i. 9. Tiersot—Histoire de la Chanson Populaire en France, Paris, 1889, Plon. 10. ‘‘ Annuaire des Traditions Populaires.” 11. ‘‘ Almanach des Traditions Populaires.” 12. G. Vicaire—La Poésie des Paysans, ‘‘ Revue Politique et Littéraire,” 1883, p. 54. 13. Leroux de Lincy—Recueil de Chants historiques français. 14. L'Histoire littéraire de la France, contributions of Méril, Lenormant, Kunholtz, Nisard and others. 15. Nisard—Histoire des livres populaires ou de la littérature du Colportage. 16. Rolland—Faune populaire de la France : Noms vulgaires, dictons, proverbes, légendes, contes et superstitions, 6 vols., 1877-83. 17. Rolland—Rimes et jeux de l'enfance. 18. Ballard—Les Rondes, Chansons à danser, ete. 19. Chansonnier Huguenot, réimprimé par Bordier. bo 20. La Grande Bible des Noéls anciens et nouveaux. Epinal, chez Pellerin. 21. Noéls de Saboly. Avignon, 1856. 2la. Janvier—Christmas in Provence. Century Magazine, December, 1896. 2. Vieux Noéls. Nantes. Libaros, 1871. 22a. Gagnon—Cantiques de Noël. Québec, 1896. Basselin—Vaux de Vire. Bibliophile Jacob. . Collé dit Capelle—La clef du Caveau. Adrian de Launay—La fleur des Chansons amoureuses. Rouen, 1600. ‘ La Revue Critique.” ‘ Romania.” ‘ Mélusine.” 29. Fournier—Chansons de Gauthier Garguilles. . Gérard de Nerval—La Bohême galante. . Gaston Paris—La Poésie au Moyen-Age. . Bartsch—Romances et Pastourelles des Douzième et Treizieme siècles. . Gaston Paris—Chansons du Quinzieme siècle. Musique par Gevaert. . Sibilet—Art poétique français, 1576. . Anthologie Française. Paris, 1765. 3. Kastner—Essai Historique sur les chants militaires des Fran ¢ais. . Douen—Clément Marot et le psautier huguenot. . Villemarqué—Poemes Bretons du Moyen-Age. . Méril—Poésies Populaires Latines du Moyen-Age. 40. Champfleury et Weckerlin—Chansons Populaires des Provinces de France. . Kastner—Les Voix de Paris. . Tarbé—Romancero de Champagne. Ww we oe Wa Uewnwwwwnwnwonwnnnwnrnwne SHAT À IN © © D 21 © OH Sk = Æ Nr 120 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. Dl. 52. 53. o4. 55. a6. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. Beaurepaire—La Poésie populaire en Normandie. Fleury—Littérature Orale de la Basse-Normandie. Gaste—Chansons Normandes du Quinzième siècle. Carnoy—Littérature Orale de la Picardie. Bouillet—L’ Album Auvergnat. Montel et Lambert—Chants populaires du Languedoc. Arbaud—Chants Populaires de la Provence. Voceri de Corse—** Collection de Contes et Chansons Populaires,” vol. x., Nutt. Paul Bourde—En Corse. Vinson—Littérature Orale du Pays Basque. F. Michel—Le Pays Basque. Vinson—Notice Bibliographique sur le Folklore Basque. Salaberry—Chansons Basques. Santesteban—Collection de Chansons Basques. Lamazou—Chants Pyrénéens. Puymaigre—Chants populaires recueillis dans la Vallée d'Ossau, ‘‘ Romania,” iii. Blade—Poesies populaires de la Gascogne, 3 vols. Moncaut—Littérature populaire de la Gascogne. Bladé—Poésies populaires Françaises de l Armagnac et de l’Agenais. Histoires et Légendes du Pays de Châteaubriant. Fouquet Légendes, Contes, et Chansons populaires du Morbihan. Rathery— Article in *‘ Moniteur,” 15th June, 1853, La Vendée, etc. Villemarqué—La Légende Celtique et la Poésie des Cloîtres en Irlande, en Cambrie et en Bretagne. Villemarqué —Barzaz-Breiz. Sébillot— Littérature Orale de la Haute-Bretagne. E. Renan—-Poésie des Races Celtiques. ** La Revue Celtique.” Luzel—Gwerziou Breiz-[zel and Sonniou Breiz-Izel. . Quellien—Rapport sur une mission en Basse-Bretagne. Sebillot—Traditions de la Haute-Bretagne. Quellien—Chansons et Danses des Bretons. Bujeaud—Les Chants et Chansons populaires des Provinces de l'Ouest. 5. de Coussemaker—Flamands de France. Durieux et Bruyelle—Les Chants et Chansons populaires du Cambrésis. Max Buchon—Noéls et Chants populaires de la Franche-Comté. Jouve—Chansons en patois vosgien. Le Due—Chansons et lettres patoises Bressanes, Bugeysiennes et Dombistes. Guillon—Chansons populaires de I’ Ain. . Weckerlin--Chansons populaires de l'Alsace, 2 vols. . de Puymaigre -Chants et Chansons populaires recueillis dans le Pays Messin. Cortet— Poésies populaires de la Lorraine. . Cortet—Essai sur les Fêtes Religieuses et les traditions populaires qui s’y rat- tachent. Weckerlin—Fétes et Chansons populaires du printemps et de l'été. . Sébillot—Coutumes de la Haute-Bretagne. . Chants de Mai de la Haute-Bretagne. In ‘‘ Mélusine,” December, 1885. Havard-L’Aguilaneuf et les Noéls. In ‘‘ Monde Hebdomadaire,” 30th December, 1882, 13th and 20th January, 1883. tibault de Langaraiere. Les Noces de campagne en Berry. Laforest—Limoges au dix-septieme siècle. Langlois—Enervés de Jumièges. . de Coussemaker— Histoire de ! Harmonie au Moyen-Age. . de Coussemaker—Art harmonique aux douzième et treizieme siècles. . Gerbert—De Cantu et Musica sacra. Kiessewetter—Schicksal und Beschaffenheit des weltlichen Gesanges. [woop] FOOTNOTES TO CANADIAN FOLKSONGS 121 96. . Fétis—Histoire Générale de la Musique. . Compan—Dictionnaire de Danse, 1767. . Thoinot Arbeau—Orchésographie. 1589—Music, dancing singing, etc. . Recueil des plus beaux airs . . . . . Chançons à dancer, etc. Caen, 1615. . Vidal—Lou Tambourin. . Ballard—Brunettes, ou petits airs, avec les doubles et la basse continue, etc., rs oo bo Ro bo ky NO Ro No wb SSSNSSTESHE Fétis—Curiosités historiques de la Musique. 1703-11. Paris, 3 vols. . Ballard—La clef des Chansonniers, 1717. . Bottée de Toulmon—La Chanson musicale au Moyen-Age. . Lavoix—La Musique au siècle de St Louis. . Grosjean—Airs de Noëls Lorrains. . Bourgault-Ducoudray—Meélodies populaires de la Basse-Bretagne. . Villéhélio—Souvenir des Pyrénées ; douze airs Basques. . Tiersot—Dix Mélodies populaires des provinces de France. . Loquin—Mélodies populaires de la France. . Chouquet—Les Chants Nationaux de la France. “ L’Art Musical,” 24th October 1867. REFERENCES. . All quotations from Mr. Gagnon are to be found in his 2nd edition, No. 2 in the Bibliography. . No. 4 in the Bibliography. . Gagnon—Preface, vii. . See section on Collecting in Gomme’s Handbook of Folklore. London, Nutt, 1890. . London—Osgoode, McIlvaine & Co. Two series ; 1892 and 1894. . Bard of the Dimbovitza ; Introduction, v. . Gomme, 169. . Cesaresco—Essays in the Study of Folksongs. London, Redway, 1886. . Gagnon, 81. . Gagnon, 266. Also Bibliography 20 to 22a. . Gagnon, 6. . Gagnon, 290. . Gagnon, 174. . Gagnon, 213. 5. Gagnon, 144. . Early Ballads ; and Ballads and Songs of the English Peasantry. London, Bell, 1889, p. 382. . Masson—La Lyre Française, 1890, p. 146. . Lyre Francaise, 145. . Lyre Francaise, 146. . von Erlach—Die Volkslieder der Deutschen. Mannheim, 1834-5, vol. i., p. 2 . Tiersot, 216. See Bibliography, No. 9. . Gagnon ; Introduction, xv. . Gagnon, 291-4. . Gagnon, 189. . Villemarquée—Barzaz-Breiz. Sieme éd : p. 335. . Rolland, iv-64. See Bibliography, No. 6. . Gagnon, 80, 137. . Rolland, iv-29 to 33. 9. Gagnon, Introduction, x. 3. Gomme, 146-7. 48. 49. 50. . Gagnon, 161. ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Gagnon, 62. Gagnon, 148. . Gagnon, 279. . Gomme, 142. Leroux de Lincy, i-79. See Bibliography, No. 13. Gagnon, 199. Gagnon, 213. . Stopford Brooke—Early English Literature. Vol. i., p. 8. Gagnon ; Introduction, xiv. Tiersot, 6 et seq. Arbaud—Provencee, i-l. Poésies populaires dela France. See Bibliography, No. 5; also Tiersot, 7. . Gagnon, 157. . Mackenzie Wallace—Russia, 100. 5. Bard of the Dimbovitza, Preface. . Lootens et Feys—Chants populaires Flamands. Préface, v-vi Gagnon, 181. Gagnon, 31. Tiersot, 143. . Tiersot, 41. . Bladé—Gascogne, i-324. 3. Barzaz-Breiz, 156. . Gagnon, 168. Gagnon, 290. 56. Gagnon, 40. . Larue, 368-370. See Bibliography, No. 4. Tiersot, 184. Gagnon, 12. . Gagnon, 97. . Gagnon, 4. . Gagnon, 70. . Gagnon, 177. . Gagnon, 170. . Gagnon, 123. 3. Gagnon, 52. . Gagnon, 279. . Gagnon, 32. 9. Gagnon, 55. 70. Gagnon, 57. Gagnon, 254. Gagnon, 80. Gagnon, 137. Gagnon, 63 Gagnon, 10. 3. Gagnon, 14. . Gagnon, 61. Larue, 356. . Gagnon, 305. . The Guardian. London, 14th March, 1894, p. 460. col : 3. . Horn—Literature of the Scandinavian North, [18. . Gagnon, 238 ; Barzaz-Breiz, 445. . .Cxesar—De Bello Gallico. Comm. : vi., 13-14. . Gagnon, 241. . Tiersot, 193. 3. Gagnon, 306. [woop] . Gagnon, 314. . Barzaz-Breiz, 8. . Gagnon, 249. . Bello Gallico, iii, 7-16. . Gagnon, 266. 2. Gagnon, 161. . Gagnon, 131. . Gagnon, 200. . Larue, 366. . Larue, 372. . Dumersan et Ségur, ii-222. See Bibliography, No. 7. . Strettell—Spanish and Italian Folksongs. London, 1887. . de Coussemaker—Flamands de France, 367. . Tiersot ; Introduction, iv. . Gagnon, 290. . Gagnon, 6. . Tiersot, 84. . Gagnon, 272. . Larue, 361. . Larue, 361. . Gagnon, 254. . Dumersan et Ségur, i-141. . Lyre Française ; Introduction, vii. . Cesaresco, 248. . Gagnon, 258. . Montel et Lambert—Languedoc, 117. . Gagnon, 259, . Gagnon, 265. . Weckerlin—Alsace, ii-38. . Gagnon ; Introduction, x. . Bujeaud—Ouest, i-35 ef seq. . Gagnon, 279. . Gagnon, 82. . Cesaresco, 303 ; Strettell, 43. . Cesaresco, 308. . Annuaire des Traditions populaires, 1887, p. 33. . Cesaresco, 318. . Gagnon, 259. 5. Cesaresco, 203 et seq. . Larue, 384. . Larue, 584. . Gagnon, 225. . Gagnon, 222. . Gagnon, 226. . Gagnon, 99. . Gagnon, 151. . Gagnon, 82. . Gagnon, 153. . Erlach, iv-447. . Atheneum. 14th April, 1894, p. 470, col: 3. . Tiersot, 12. . Bard of the Dimbovitza, 129 note i. . Graham R. Tomson. Border Ballads, 28. . Tiersot, 87. . Border Ballads, 70. . Tiersot, 50. FOOTNOTES TO CANADIAN FOLKSONGS 123 Introduction, xvii. 124 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 145. Border Ballads, 6. 144. Tiersot, 44-45. 145, Tiersot, 52. 146. Tiersot, 78. 147. Gagnon, 177. 148. Gagnon, 70. 149. Gagnon, 270. 150. Gagnon, 32. 151. Gagnon, 192, 152. Gagnon, 122. 153. Gagnon, 70. 154. Gagnon, 187. 155. Tiersot, 88. 156. Gagnon, 80, 157. Gagnon, 2. 158. Gagnon, 109. 159. Gagnon, 9. 160. Gagnon, 97. 161. Gagnon, 196. 162. Gagnon, 42. 163. Gagnon, 5. 164. Gagnon, 181. 165. Gagnon, 62, 166, Gagnon, 59. 167. Gagnon, 200. 168. Larue, 366. 169. Larue, 372. 170. Larue, 368. Rolland, i-324 ; ii., 176, 181, 183. Rolland, i-1 to 29 ; ii-1 to 19. 140. Tiersot, 50. 171. Larue, 363-373. 172. Gagnon, 102, 173. Gagnon, 104, 174. Larue, 365. 175. Larue, 366. 1,6. Larue, 367. 177. Larue, 365, 178. Larue, 367. 179. See Tiersot, Rolland and Bibliography, Nos. 40 to 83. 180. Gagnon, 12. 181. Gagnon, 23. 152. Gagnon, 23. 183. Carnoy. 184, Feriand. 185. Gagnon, 185. Gagnon, 187. Gagnon, 188. Gagnon, 1897 Gagnon, 190. Gagnon, 191. Gagnon, 200. 192. Gagnon, 206. 193, Larue, 371, 194. Gagnon, 31. 195. Gagnon, 105, 196. Gagnon, 268, 219. 26. 40. 197. Gagnon, 12. 198. Gagnon, 44. Picardie, 375 Canada, lere Partie, 511-512. 12-23. 254. 125-6. Larue, 361. [woop] 199 200. 201. 202. 203. 204. 205. 206. 207. 208. 209. 210. 211. 212. 213. 214. 215. . Rolland, i-149 ; ii-104. . Rolland, i-135. Tiersot, 87. . Rolland, i-266. . Rolland, i-293. . Rolland, i-301. . Rolland, i-304 ; ii-17. . Rolland, i-305. . Rolland, i-309. . Rolland, i-23 ; ii-29. . Rolland, iii-1. . Rolland, iii-d. . Rolland, iii-10. . Rolland, iii-32. . Rolland, iii-58. . Rolland, iii-68 ; iv-1. . Rolland, iv-21. . Die Volkslieder der Deutschen, 5 vols. 3. Gagnon, 72. . Erlach, iii-58. . Gagnon, 191. . Erlach, iii-96. 7. Gagnon, 105. . Lockhart—Manual of Chinese Quotations. See Athenzeum, 1893, ii-223. . Gagnon, 157. . Puymaigre. Romanceiro : Choix de Vieux Chants Portugais. 1881. p. . Gagnon, 78 and 137. 2. Border Ballads, 6. 3. Border Ballads, 217. . Andrew Lang—Ballads ; in Encyclopædia Britannica. 5. Larue, 367. bo te (=) . Gagnon, 26. Gagnon, 121. Gagnon, 286. Gagnon ; Introduction, x. Larue, 367. Fleury. Basse-Normandie, 268. Gagnon, 44. Fleury, 331. Fleury, 337. Bujeaud. Ouest. i-248 and 250. Romania, x-385. Fleury, 345. Gagnon ; Introduction, xi. Larue, 330-334. Tiersot, 90. Rolland, i-70. Rolland, i-77. Rolland, i-137. FOOTNOTES TO CANADIAN FOLKSONGS 125 j AM ù 4 vas } - LL 1 ro 4 = ‘ eo . Fim oF ? A 4, Qu ¢ J + 4 ; di j te f at 7 PP is | j . yl ua . | + : APT | a4 vt { IL A >’ a 4 4 <4 cé A Ae . à 4 , PR M 4 atl: - ‘ ‘ 4 ae L ‘ id | ÿ ANT ie .¥ 7 CE Suction II., 1896. [127] Trans. R.S. C. VI. Last years of Charles de Biencourt. By Dr. Patrerson. (Read May 19, 1896.) We recently received from M. Dufosse, the well known bookseller in Paris, a document of some interest with reference to the first attempt at European settlement within the bounds of our Dominion. The original document has been reproduced by lithography and the following is a TRANSLATION. We, Charles de Biencourt, Sieur de Poutrincourt, in charge of the King’s Academy, acknowledge receipt in cash from Messire Raymon Phelypeaux, Sieur de Herbault, Counsellor of His Majesty in the Council of State and Treasurer of the King’s Treasury, the sum of three thousand livres, to us ordered for the pay and salary which His Majesty is pleased to give us during the present year, with which sum of three thousand livres we hold ourselves satistied and well paid and whereof we give quittance to the aforesaid Sieur de Herbault, Treasurer of the King’s Treasury for all claims in full. Witness our sign manual hereunto affixed on the last day of December, X VI*° twenty-one. C. pE Brencourt, Poutrincourt. At bottom in a different hand. Having charge of the Academy of our Lord the King with the pay of three thousand livres. On back. OL a Xa (No. 1766.) For receipt voucher for the Treasurer of the King’s Treasury, Messire Phelypeaux, of the sum of three thousand livres, as salary it is the pleasure of His Majesty to grant me on account of the office of Director of the King’s Academy during the present year. The above document is intrinsically of little or no value. It might be prized by the collector of antiques for its age and its calligraphy. It is only a receipt for his yearly salary of one of the thousands of persons holding offices of emolument under the French King. Still it is of some 128 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA importance as settling a question as to the concluding years of one, who ~ bore a part of some interest in the first attempted settlement on the shores of the northern parts of America, and thus throwing a little light on part of the history itself. That is Charles de Biencourt. He was the second son of the Sieur de Poutrincourt who had come in the first ex- pedition under De Monts for the settlement of Acadia in 1605, and who subsequently obtained a seigneury at Port Royal and took an active part in the establishing and advancing the infant colony there. The eldest son must have died young, for we tind Charles assuming his father’s title after the latter’s death, and he uses it in the above document. He is generally said to have come to Port Royal in 1610, but Champlain writ- ing in 1624, says he had been eighteen years in Acadia, according to which he must have come with the first colony in 1605. At all events the father returned to France in 1611, leaving Charles in command at Port Royal. M. Sulte (Transactions of Royal Society, IL (1) 33) asserts that the former was married in 1590, so that his second son could not at this time have been more than eighteen years of. age. But another document to be referred to presently, described him as born in 1583, which would make him at this time about twenty-eight. This we deem more likely. At all events his father never returned, having been killed in 1675, in the service of the King of France at the siege of Mery-sur- Seine, and the settlers were left to maintain themselves as best they might. In the year 1613 came the raid of Argall, by which it was supposed that the settlement was wiped out of existence. Biencourt and a few Frenchmen however continued to occupy the ground, and on the Ist September, 1618, he writes to the authorities of the City of Paris, a patriotic and earnest letter urging them to send out colonists and to adopt other measures for the advancement of French colonization and the Christian religion in these regions. This is the last definite infor- mation we have hitherto had of him. It has been supposed that he continued at Port Royal till his death and this is asserted by several writers. M. Sulte in the article already quoted, says that he died at Port Royal in 1623, posioned according to report. This is now proved to be incorrect. We have here a receipt signed by him and dated December, 1621, for three thousand livres, being his sulary as director of the Royal Academy of Paris. Champlain indeed speaks of him in 1624 as having lived in Acadia for eighteen years, as if he were still there. But as he had been away from that province for years he might naturally be unaware of his having left. At all events, this shows him to have left Port Royal for good as early as the year 1621, and to havesettled down in Paris, where he had influence enough to obtain an Office of respectability and emolument. This he seems to have held for about seventeen years or till his death, about 1638. At all events according to another manuscript document dated April of that year, [ PATTERSON | LAST YEARS OF CHARLES DE BIENCOURT 129 offered for sale by M. Dufosse, being ** Power granted to S’r de Vaux to administer certain of his properties” it appears that his death must have taken place shortly before that date. In regard to Acadia, this confirms the statement of Sir Wm, Alex- ander, that the few French settlers remaining at Port Royal, neglected and unrecognized by the French authorities and depending upon tran-. sient traders for supplies, agreed under Latour to submit to Sir William and the English King. Sec. II., 1896. 9. fpr J Or) Shue 3 492$ "on 7797 a er aah ly Be ee id Wyre L oA 5 SHUM II HIP = [ua —# tg Ly bom WK hie om, MANU : à ‘À oe : ae Aa —jas tt os uhein aga y Ne | Us 0 Ww 2749) on 5 a VY Baa CH wubadde ay PR ey | oF regi ee: ae ») ; aes ny Jp Re) vis ery) #4, AAA. 7? RP ae rua pad + UE PAC ee Ed 48 7 099339 fb. FA Ca DT rd gr epg moog 2 mye trom GAL) ava ka . Lo ne ous oy Her | 2 RE Be AT NOV ae wih io) BS 2; See ars LA < o~ aoe =) 25, € os. ; wena Ge HAE +g Se os; 487 7% jet Y TT Ul 7” ve he VAIL, MIA enone hee ) 24 or] ae Werner srayae- ré ay vy aS Tor py, DANONE = a9 LAW SM , rs 3 Se ee at ID O f / / ( Se a mean Ta x, C Le By ee 25 Pn a” ous Sui &: turtasin: GAL Ne D tise cn vo pause HH oly. . of ; È 4 7 = oe, HL Ca a8 outs. À Ry arr 2m. C MEL EK_ YO tor Cane tctne” patie L791. EL. 0 ET “~ Ont 4 d— “ DO pause une EDD. AU ie ca wt de J u" Quen, Riy new “ € g ANS @, Lh ares C: CAT EN a Cu. Sanne Secrron If., 1896. [131] BANS, RAC: VIL—The Philology of the Ouananiche. A plea for the Recognition of Priority of Nomenclature. By E. T. D. CHamBErs. Author of the ‘ Ouananiche and its Canadian Environment.” (Communicated by Dr. Geo. Stewart, F.R.G.S., and read May 19, 1895.) The introduction, in recent years, of large numbers of English-speak- . ing anglers to the fresh-water salmon of Lake St. John and other Labra- dor waters has produced variations most confusing in its nomenclature. The following are some of the many forms of spelling the name of the great game fish of northeastern Canada that have perplexed the readers of modern angling and other literature: S8ananiche, ouananiche, ouin- naniche, ouinaniche, ouananish, winninisch, winnonish, winanishe, winin- ish, wininnish, winninish, winnoniche, winnouiche, wananish, wananishe, Wannanish, wannanishe, wenanish, awenanish, ouininnish, ouininiche. ouaniche, winanis, wannoniche, owaninach, ouenanesh and ouinenish. Memory recalls some other remarkable attempts to reduce to writing the French and Indian pronunciation of this fish’s name, but I confine my- self in this paper to the mention of the forms for the use of which at present writing I can furnish authorities. Ouinaniche was employed in March, 1894, in a review of a new book in the columns of Z'Ævénement newspaper of Quebec and the Rev. Duncan Anderson uses it in “A Dominion Day Idyll.’ It also appears in the literature of the N. Y., N. H. and Hudson River RR., and is used incidentally, as a synonym, by Mr. J. G. Aylwin Creighton. It is one of the many forms of the name indiscriminately employed by Mr. J. M. Lemoine, F.R.S.C., who at page 263 of his Chasse et pêche au Canada, uses also the plural form “ouinaniches.”” At page 242 of the same work Mr. Lemoine writes it “ ouinnaniche,” for which spelling, however, I have found no other authority, and in the appendix he gives us * win- noniche,” employing still another form in a later work, as will be seen as we proceed. Mr. J. Edmond Roy, F.R.S.C., in his Voyage au pays de Tadoussac, uses * ouananish.” “ Winninisch” is employed by C. M. Palmer of Minneapolis at page 71 of Favorite Flies by Mary Orvis Marbury ; winnonish ” is the spelling found on a board nailed to a tree on the shore of Lake Tschotagama, over fifty miles up the Grand Peribonea River, and containing the record of a fishing experience there in July, 1891, by Messrs. E. J. Myers and A. W. Koehler of New York ; though in justice to Mr. Myers, it must be said that he invariably uses “ouananiche ” in his interesting contributions to the literature of the fish 132 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA and of the sport that it affords. ‘* Winanishe”’ is the orthography em- ployed by one of the earhest students and closest observers of the fish— Mr. J. G. A. Creighton—throughout his article in Scribner's Magazine for May, 1889, while * wananishe ” is that which the same author adopts, not only in the title of his monograph in Shield’s American Game Fishes, but generally throughout that carefully prepared paper. In Outing for August, 1890, Mr. Geo. R. Mosle writes “wininish,” and the spelling “winnouiche” is that adopted in Lovell’s Gazetteer of British North America. Mr. James Mackenzie of the old Northwest Company visited ~The Kings Posts” of the Saguenay and the Labrador coast in 1808, and in the journal of his canoe jaunt which has been printed by the Hon. L. R. Masson, he speaks of a fish resembling salmon, a foot and a half long, found in Lake St. John, and called by the Indians * winanis.” Mr: C. H. Farnham, in the course of his admirable story of the Canadian voyageurs in Harper's Magazine for March, 1888, employs the name “wannoniche.” The Marquis of Lorne has invented ‘“ ouaniche,’—if his. printer does him no injustice. This spelling appears at page 88 of Canadian Pictures, published by the Religious Tract Society. Both Mr. W. H. H. Murray and Mr. J. M. Lemoine—the former in his description of the Lake St. John region (Quebec edition, 1888) and the latter in his Historical and Sporting Notes on Quebec (edition of 1889)—employ the form ‘wananish.” So does Mr. Arthur Buies in his work on the Saguenay. The English pronunciation of this orthography resembles somewhat closely that of the Indian name of the fish but not so nearly as does the spelling already given from Mr. Creighton’s article in Ameri- can Game Fishes. A still closer approach to the proper sound is found in the English pronunciation of * wannanishe” which appears upon the permits to fish in his private waters in la grande décharge by Mr. W. A. Griffiths, one of the earliest English-speaking frequenters of these waters. Kit Clarke has adopted the name “ wininnish,” which is to be found both in The Practical Angler and in Where the Trout Hide, as well as in the many charming contributions of their author to the columns of con- temporary periodical literature. ‘ Wannanish”’ appeared above the signature of Myr. S. Webber in Forest and Stream on March 17th, 1894, * Wenanishe” is found in a report of a government exploratory survey of the Saguenay, prepared by Mr. Nixon of the 66th Regiment, about the year 1829, and Bouchette, in his Topographical Dictionary of Canada calls the fish “awenanish,” declaring that “the awenanish is said to be the most delicious fresh water fish in the world.” Rogers, in his Stada- cond, Depicta, follows the spelling of Bouchette. In his Sportsman's Gazetteer Mr. Charles Hallock gives us “ouininnish,” and in the Canadian Sportsman, of July 11th, 1890, I find “ ouininiche,” while exactly a week later the same paper spells it “owaninach.” Quebec dealers in the fish ’ have employed the names “ouenaneshe” and “ouinenish.” One of the [CHAMBERS ] THE PHILOLOGY OF THE OUANANICHE 133 many forms of the word that can claim to have been used by authorities of respectability is “winninish,” which appears at page 445 of Dr. Goode’s American Fishes and in the scientific paper upon the F’shes of Ontario by Dr. Ramsay Wright, F.R.S.C., professor in the Uni- versity of Toronto, published in 1892, with the report of the Ontario Fish and Game Commission. Of more importance still to orthograph- ers is the fact that “winninish” is the spelling adopted in Webster's Dictionary, where the name of the fish first figured in the edition of 1892, and also in the Century. One, at least, of the proprietors of the first- mentioned of these two eminent philological authorities—Mr. A. G. Merriam of Springfield—is an accomplished angler who has cultivated the acquaintance of the ouananiche in la grande décharge of Lake St. John. Webster gives the definition of * winninish” as follows : ~The land-locked variety of the common salmon (Canada).” It may appear presumptuous to criticise the professional work of so justly recognized an authority upon his favourite branch of science as Professor Addison E. Verrill of Yale University, who conducted the revision of the zoédlogical terms in the 1892 edition of Webster; but I have no hesitation in declar- ing that neither the orthography “winninish” nor his definition of the name is the best obtainable. Nor yet is either of the other forms for whose use I have thus far cited authorities. The fish to which these various names have been applied is not a “land-locked salmon” at all. A brief consideration of the ouananiche itself and of its habits is necessary toa correct appreciation of the definition of its name in Webster's, and this, it is hoped, will not be considered foreign to the subject matter of the present paper. First then, a few words as to the identity of the fish whose philology is under consideration. Professor Samuel Garman of the Museum of Comparative Zoülogy, Cambridge, Mass. to whom [| sent specimens for examination in September, 1893, wrote in reply: “I see nothing by which to distinguish the fish of Lake St. John from Salmo salar as represented by specimens: from New Brunswick and Maine, or other New England States. It may prevent misunderstanding if itis explained that I take the fresh water individuals, including of course those truly land-locked as commonly designated, to be the better representatives of the species S. salar.” He further states, that the fact that some individuals leave fresh water, where propagation occurs, fora time, being somewhat modified by so doing, neither gives rise to a ditferent species nor even a different variety. The italics are mine and show the result of Professor Garman’s examination of the fish to be in conflict with Professor Verrill’s definition of its name. Not only is the ouananiche not a distinct variety from the salmon that goes out to sea but it is not land-locked either. In all waters tributary to Lake St. John it has free access to the sea. Of this opportunity it is probable that it seldom avails itself, but individuals have been caught at the 134 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA mouth of the Marguerite in the lower Saguenay and also near Tadoussac. Thousands too, may annually be seen in the vicinity of Chicoutimi below all the rapids and falls of the river, but from the fact that many are found all winter in Lake St. John and that the usual colour of the flesh is not so red as that of the salmon that is known to visit the sea, due to the difference in the food supplies, it may safely be assumed that few if any of them regularly migrate to salt water. This isno more evidence how- ever, that they are land-locked, than were similar habits on the part of the salmon formerly so plentiful in Lake Ontario, or that the alewives introduced into the same lake in 1873, according to Dr. Bean, are equally land-locked because of the prevailing impression amongst the fishermen that they are now permanent inhabitants of the lake. If they are’so, it is from choice rather than necessity, there being no more obstruction to their descent to the sea than there is to that of the ouananiche from Lake St. John. The mistake of calling the latter a “land-locked ” salmon is a common one and nearly as old as the literature of the subject. And the supposition that if they do descend the Saguenay, the .ouananiche are unable to overcome the natural obstacles to their ascent of the discharge of Lake St. John is also erroneous, though recorded asa fact by Mr. McCarthy in “The Leaping Ouananiche.” The fact is that the fish over- comes greater obstacles in its ascent to its spawning grounds in some of the wild tributary waters of Lake St. John than any encountered by it in la grande décharge, and in the fall of the year may be seen in large numbers successfully leaping up the fifth fall of the Mistassini, the Salmon river chute of the Ashuapmouchouan and parts of the chute au diable and other cataracts of the Peribonca, often after the failure of many previous efforts. Webster's is therefore untrue to biological science in defining the fish whose name it spells “winninish ” to be “the land- locked variety of the common salmon (Canada).” And the erroneous statement occurring in the definition of the word stamps the blunder a philological as well as a biological one. ‘The fresh water salmon of Canada ” would have been a more correct definition of the name, though not likely to be nearly comprehensive enough for the wider range to be covered in the near future by the original form of the word “ ouananiche.” Of Canadian origin, there is promise of its general adoption, ere long, as the name of the fresh water salmon of the United States as well as for that of the Canadian fish. The two fish, though differing slightly in their habits, owing to the difference in the temperature of the water of their respective habitats are known to be identical in family classification ; and American writers on icthyological subjects are coming to see that there is no necessity for a different name in the United States for the ouananiche when it occurs in American waters, and the more so that the name “Jand-locked salmon” by which it has hitherto been known is as inappropriate and misleading, considering the condition of its habitat, as [CHAMBERS ] THE PHILOLOGY OF THE OUANANICHE 135 when applied to the Canadian fish. One of the leading American authorities on the subject, Mr. A. N. Cheney of Glen Falls, N.Y.. State Fish Culturist of New York, expresses his intention of hereafter writing of the fresh-water salmon as the ouananiche. no matter in what water it may be found. And it will be observed that he does not employ the form of the word given in Webster's. To Dr. Elliott Coues—a most eminent authority—was entrusted the supervision of the zoülogical terms in the Century, and he was assisted in ichthyology by the very capable Professor Theodore N. Gill. Yet in their use of the word ‘ winninish ” there would seem to be no justification for either the orthography or their definition of it. They term the * win- ninish ’—* the Schoodie trout,’ and upon turning up the word “* trout” with its various qualifying terms, the Schoodie trout is declared, by the same authorities, to be identical with ‘the great lake trout.” Now the great lake trout differs widely from the ouananiche, and is not a salmon of any kind, either land-locked or otherwise. It is salvelinus namaycush or amethystus,—the Mackinaw trout of the great lakes.—the queue fourchée of French Canada,—the togue and salmon trout of certain parts of the Northern States,—the kokomesh of the Montagnais Indians and the touladi of the country of the Micmacs and A benaquis. There are many reasons for preferring ‘ ouananiche” to all the other forms of the fish’s name. It is true that its orthography is French, but French was the original spelling of the written word. The name of the fish is Indian, but the various sounds of the spoken language of the Montagnais and Nascapee tribes were unrepresented in writing until the arrival of the French missionaries in Canada. These latter employed written characters for the use of their Indian converts and also reduced: the spoken language of the Indians to writing, using for the purpose: their own French alphabet and system of orthography. They trans- ferred to paper their etymology of the sound of this fish’s name, and their pictorial representation of the spoken Indian word remains to this day a perfect philological reflex of the musical vibrations produced by its pro- nunciation. English observers would probably have depicted the sound on paper by writing “whananishe” or ‘wannahnishe.” The French having no * w” employ “ ou’ to represent the sound, as in ow. For the sake of brevity and simplicity, the early French missionaries in Canada used the numeral “8” to represent not only huit or eight, but also the Indian sound ordinarily represented by the French oui or ou. no matter in what part of a word it occurred. Hence the origin of “ Sananiche,””— the first of the many forms of the word given in the commencement of the present paper. No English spelling represents the sound of the Indian name as well as does the orginal French form * ouananiche ” or “Sananiche.” It stands, too, the test of priority, being found printed in the oldest existing book of the Montagnais mission, which, according to 136 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Rev. Father Lacasse. O. M.I., is from the pen of the Rev. Father Massé, the eminent Jesuit missionary, who accompanied Champlain on his return to Canada in 1663, and died in 1646, after labouring earnestly amongst the aborigines and translating the Apostles’ Creed, the Lord’s Prayer, &e., into the Montagnais dialect. | * Ouananiche” is the orthography employed by the present French and Indian guides of Lake St. John. It is found in the best literature produced in the province of Quebec where the name originated, whether English or French, as well as in the officfal reports of the Crown Lands Department of the Provincial Government, in the officially promulgated game laws of the province, and in the voluminous mass of literature per- taining to the sporting resorts of this northern country. issued by the Quebec and Lake St. John Railway Company. Vandal linguists who have attempted to anglicize the appropriate and original orthography of the Indian sound, have only succeeded in creating confusion, as we have already seen, by erectinga Babel composed of a score or more of different spellings of the same word. Uniformity in the matter may never be looked for upon the basis of any one of the many anglicized forms of the name. In French-Canadian literature, as well as in the Provincial Government reports, * ouananiche” it is and * ouananiche”’ it will remain. The same is true of much of the best literary work done in recent years by those Enghsh-speaking sportsmen who have devoted any considerable attention to the fish and to the sport which it atfords the angler ; as for instance of the article in the May, 1893, Blackwood, by Lt.-Col. Andrew C. P. Haggard, D.S.O., brother of the well-known novelist, of that in Outing for October, 1893, by Eugene McCarthy of Syracuse, and of the same author’s Leaping Ouananiche, of papers in Shooting and Fishing, in the American Field and in Forest and Stream, by EK. J. Myers of New York, and of frequent contributions by Dr. George Stewart, F.R.S.C., F.R.G.S.. and others to recent periodical literature. The form of spelling adopted in Webster's Dictionary and the Century, has nothing whatever to recommend it beyond the fact that in recent years it has been occasionally used by writers upon ichthyological subjects, just as a number of others have been. Neither the English nor the French pronunciation of ‘ winninish” conveys anything like the sound of the Indian name, as all will readily testify who have heard the melodious “ wha-na’-nish ” glide like a note of natures music from the lips of a Montagnais hunter. Of all the anglicized forms of the word “ wannanishe ” comes nearest in pronunciation to the Indian sound, and yet I have never met with it but once. And even were it possible to secure for its use uniformity, there is certainly no warrant for substituting it for the original “ ouananiche ” and nothing to be gained by the change. The popular translation of the Montagnais “ ouananiche” is “little salmon.” It is true that che or ishe is a Montagnais diminutive, but the [CHAMBERS ! THE PHILOLOGY OF THE OUANANICHE 137 Montagnais name for saimon—the salmon of the sea—is not ovanan at all but ouchachoumac or ou-sha-shu mak, and this name is still often applied by the Indians to particularly dark-coloured and extra large specimens of the ouananiche found in certain northern lakes. To their ordinary fresh water salmon they applied a specific name, calling it “ ouanans” or the ach pronounced © wannan” or ‘“whonnan.” abbreviated * unans ” Originally, ‘“ouanans,” oddly enough, signified locality, especially the place where fish are found, according to some authorities. According to others it is a corruption of owen-a? (pronounced * when-na”)—a Montagnais interrogative. Used in the sense of ** What is that ?” it is not difficult to imagine how owen-a? or ouan-a ? uttered by Montagnais fishermen as they pointed to large fish seen feeding upon the flies on the scum-covered pools, came in time to be employed for the name of that particular variety which, more than any other in the territory in which it is found. is fond of disporting itself upon the surface of the water. The Rey. Pére Arnaud, the missionary to the Montagnais, suggests further to me that the partieular locality known as ‘‘ounans” or “ unans,” to the Montagnais, is the eddying water in the pools at the foot of rapid currents. In just such water as this the ouananiche are often seen sailing around with their dorsal fins protruding above their native element. It requires no stretch of imagination on the part of those acquainted with the Indians and their manners and the evolutions of their language, to admit the possibility of either ouanans or unans having been the original rot of ouananiche. Either is much more probable than the suggestion of Mr. Creighton at page 82 of Shield’s American Game Fishes, that the name of the fish ‘is probably derived from the Cree root * wan,’ to lose or mistake, applied either to the fish having lost itself or being taken for a salmon.” The diminutive form of the word ‘ ouanans”’ is now almost univers- ally employed in speaking of the fish, perhaps because the latter offers no exception to the angler’s general experiences that the big fish are few and far between. Or can it be that there is an element of truth in the Indian reports of the deterioration in size of their fresh-water salmon, and that in former ages these fish were so much larger, that all their descendants of the present day must be classed as little ouanans ? French- Canadian fishermen, settlers and guides in the land of the ouananiche call it le saumon (the salmon) perhaps oftener than they employ the Indian name, and from their petit saumon (little salmon), and the know- ledge that the Montagnais affix iche is a diminutive, may have originated the fashionable error of jumping to the conclusion that ‘ ouananiche ” is an Indian equivalent for ‘little salmon.’ Were it indeed so, the con- structors of the word would simply have builded better than they knew. And now that the original form, after an existence in French- Canadian literature of over two and a half centuries, has obtained such 138 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA widespread acceptance in English letters, does it not savour of literary barbarism to seek for a phonetic English spelling, by substituting for a poetically constructed word, a mongrel orthography, such as is found inclosed between parentheses in the pronouncing dictionaries? And the absurdity of the seeking is found in the variety of the grotesque results already indicated. As well, it seems to me, might we object ‘to the French form of our English word * champagne,” and insist upon writing it Shampain ” or ‘‘shampane,” as to persist in the anglicization of ouananiche. The lake trout,—forked tail.—lunge or fouladi is fortunate in the almost universal maintenance for the name of its variety, of the original French orthographical illustration of the Indian sound represented by the pronunciation of namaycush. But in the case of another North America fish,—esox nobilior,—whose popular title in its original form, like that of the ouananiche and namaycush, comes down to us, as correctly claimed by Mr. Fred. Mather, from its Indian nomenclature, an apparent desire to get away from French orthography has produced a somewhat similar confusion of language to that already described in the case of the ouananiche. The original spelling of the Indian name was undoubtedly “ maskinongé,” and such it is still called in the Statutes of Canada. According to Mgr. Lafléche, * maskinongé” is derived from mashk de- formed, and kinongé, a pike, and was applied to the esox nobilior by the Indians because it appeared to them a deformed or different kind of pike from that to which they had been accustomed. The river of the same name that flows into Lake St. Peter, which name was subsequently extended to the town since built at its mouth and to the county of which it is the chef lieu, was doubtless so called from the number of these fish taken in or near its estuary, and after their Indian name. And it is a singular corroboration of the absolute correctness of the French orthog- raphy ‘maskinongé,” that no less an authority than Dr. James A. Henshall, the author of the paper on this fish in American Game Fishes, following the nomenclature of Dr. Mitchil, and of DeKay in Fishes of New York, substitutes for nobilior, as the scientific name of this particular species —masquinongy,—which is about as near as it is possible for English orthography to go in representing the correct pronunciation of “maskinongé.” Yet Dr. Henshall claims that by common consent and custom the name is “ mascalonge ” amongst the majority of anglers and that mascalonge it will be for generations to come! Nor does this mongrel name, which Dr. Henshall himself employs for the title of his monograph on the fish, represent the full extent of the departure from the original name. He gives us himself amongst the various other forms,—muscalonge, muskellunge and mus- kallonge,—the second of which is the name employed to designate the species by Dr. C. Brown Goode in his American Fishes, and which is [CHAMBERS ] THE PHILOLOGY OF THE OUANANICHE 139 almost as far removed from the original name as winninish is from ouananiche. The revered author of The Complete Angler claims our admiration and respect by the purity of his language no less than by his intimacy with fish and fishing ; and from the refining influences of the gentle art and even from the refinement of nature that inspires the love of it, I am persuaded that one has only to point out to the angling community and to those who contribute to its literature, the claims of the original name—ouananiche,—to ensure, at the hands of so cultured a constituency, a due recognition of what Dr, Henshall so admirably terms, in discussing a cognate subject,—* the inflexible law of priority.” - Wy 7 vi rf 12 PS + ~ 7. a i Aie .- SECTION IL., 1896. [141] Trans. R.S. C. VILI.—Some Contributions to Canadian Constitutional History. I. THE ConstTITUTION OF THE LEGISLATIVE CouncIL oF Nova ScoriA. By J. G. Bourinor, C.M.G., LU.D., D.C.L., Lit.D. (Laval). (Read May 20th, 1896.) I. INTRODUCTION. I propose in this paper to give an historicat review of the origin and development of the oldest legislative body of Canada, the Legislative Council or upper house of the legislature of the province of Nova Scotia, and to show the legal and constitutional conditions under which its mem- bers hold their offices. The subject is one of considerable interest and importance on account of the agitation that has been going on for some years in the province for the abolition of this branch of the legislative power, and of the differences of opinion that have arisen as to the exact nature of the tenure of the office of councillor and its rights and privileges under the commission from the Crown. II. Cesston oF Nova ScoriA ro ENGLAND. By the twelfth article of the Treaty of Utrecht,’ which was signed by France in 1713, she ceded to England the province of Nova Scotia, which had been previously known as a portion of the ill-defined French dominion of Acadie. From that day to this Nova Scotia has remained a province of the British Empire. The island of Cape Breton did not, however, become a possession of England in 1713. It finally became an English colony by the Treaty of Paris in 1763,° when all the countries that now form the Dominion of Canada were formally transferred to England. III. GoveRnMEnT, 1713-1749. o For a few years the Government of Nova Scotia was vested solely in a governor, who had command of the garrison stationed at the fort of Annapolis, known as Port Royal in the days of the French regime.’ In 1719 a commission was issued to Governor Phillips, who was authorized to appoint a council of not less than twelve persons, all of whom held office during pleasure. As there were few English families in the pro- vince and French Acadians were the sole inhabitants of the cultivated 1 Houston’s “ Constitutional Documents,” p. 4. , 2 See Houston, p. 61. 3 Murdoch’s ‘‘ History of Nova Scotia,” I., p. 556-363, 142 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA tracts, the council at first was composed almost exclusively of the officers of the garrison and public officials, The governor, in his instructions,” was ordered “neither to augment nor diminish the number of the said council, nor suspend any of the members thereof, without good and sufficient cause,” which he was required ‘to signify to his Majesty and to his Commissioner of Trade and Plantations,’ who then had the administration of colonial affairs. In case of the absence of any one of them for twelve months without leave from the governor, or for two years without his Majesty’s leave, their places were to be vacated. They were also to be suspended in case of wilful absence from their official duties. In the absence of the governor or lieutenant-governor, the eldest councillor was directed to act as president of the council. This council had advisory and judicial functions, but its legislative authority was of a very limited scope. Their acts did not go beyond temporary regulations relative to trade in grain in the Bay of Fundy, or else local rules touching the people of the village of Annapolis. To preserve some form of govern- ment in the Acadian settlements, where the people had no acquaintance with English laws and customs, they were required to choose annually, in their several parishes, several deputies to act in their behalf, and to publish the orders of the governor. These’ deputies were authorized to act as arbitrators in small matters of controversy between the French Acadians, and from their decision an appeal was allowed to the governor- in-council, who sat for this purpose three times a year.’ IV. FounDATION OF HALIFAX AND ESTABLISHMENT OF New Civit GOVERNMENT. This system of government—merely provisional—lasted until 1749, when the city of Halifax was founded, and the imperial government decided to give special attention to the English settlement of the province. Encouragement was given to officers and men who were retired from the army and navy, and who were desirous to settle with or without families, in the province. Halifax henceforth became the seat of the new civil government.’ ‘ For the better administration of justice and the manage- ment of the affairs of the said province,” Governor Cornwallis, by his commission and instructions, had ‘full power and authority to choose, nominate and appoint such fitting and discreet persons as you shall either tind there [in the province] or carry along with you, not exceeding the number of 12, to be of our council in our said province.” All members of the council held office during pleasure. The governor had full power “ to suspend any of the members from sitting, voting and assisting” in the | Canada Sessional Papers, 1883, No. 70. 2 Haliburton’s ‘‘ History of Nova Scotia,” I., 96. 5 Selections from Nova Scotia Documents (Akins), 495. [BOURINOT ] CANADIAN CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY 143 council if he should “find just cause for so doing.”' In case there should be less than nine councillors residing in the province the governor was to have full power to choose “as many persons as will make up the full number of our said council to be nine and no more.” * The governor had also ‘full power and authority, with the advice and consent of our said council from time to time, as need shall require, to summon and call general assemblys of the Freeholders and Planters within your govern- ment, according to the usage of the rest of our colonies and plantations in America.” And the governor was “ with the advice and consent of our said council and assembly or the major part of them respectively to have full power and authority to make, constitute and ordain laws, statutes, and ordinances for the public peace, welfare and good government of our said province,—said laws, statutes and ordinances not to be repugnant, but as near as may be agreeable to the laws and statutes of this our King- dom of Great Britain.” The governor had “a negative voice in the pass- ing of all laws, statutes and ordinances.” All such laws were subject to disallowance by the imperial government. V. Tax Councit FRom 1749-1758. This council exercised legislative as well as executive functions, and in conjunction with the governor carried on the government of the pro- vince without the assistance of an assembly until 1758. During these nine years the council was called upon ‘to make as few laws and or- dinances as possible, and to pass merely such acts as were necessary for the preservation of the peace and the good order of the colony until the inhabitants should be sufficiently numerous to elect their own representa- tives.” The council, however, found it necessary to pass a number of laws, some of which imposed duties on trade to raise a revenue. The legality of their powers to pass such legislation was questioned by Chief Justice Belcher, and when the matter was referred to the law officers of the Crown of England, they gave the opinion “that the governor and council alone are not authorized by His Majesty to make laws. Till there can. be an assembly His Majesty has ordered* the government of the infant colony to be pursuant to his commission and instructions, and such further directions as he should give, under his sign manual, or by order- in-council.” * VI. SUMMONING AN ASSEMBLY. The result of this decision was the establishment of a representative assembly in 1758 on a plan matured by the governor-in-council and 1 See Nova Scotia Documents for copy of commission, ete. 2 Haliburton’s ‘ History of Nova Scotia,” I., 163. See above, paragraph iv. 4See N. S. Documents for all papers relating to the calling of an assembly. 5 See N. S. Documents, 718 et seq. 144 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA approved by the Lords of the Board of Trade, who were still at the head of colonial affairs. The first house of assembly of Nova Scotia, con- sisting of 22 members, met at Halifax on the 2nd of October, 1758, and duly organized by the election of a Speaker and the formalities necessary on such occasions by law and usage. VII. CoMMENCEMENT OF A NEW ERA IN THE CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY oF Nova SCOTIA. Consequently the year 1758 is the commencement of a new epoch in the constitutional history of Nova Scotia. We find then from that time a civil government duly organized as in the other English colonies of Amer- ica, generally known as provincial governments. We find (1)-a governor the head of the executive authority and a branch of the legislature, having a negative or affirmative voice in all legislation, appointed by the King and acting under the royal commission and instructions. (2) A council, appointed during the pleasure of the Crown, to act as an advisory body and also as an upper house of the legislature. (3) A house of assembly elected by the inhabitants of the province in accordance with law. Asin all the other colonies of the Crown of North America, these three branches, governor, council and assembly, passed such statutes and laws as were necessary for their internal regulation and were subject to the general control of the Queen-in-Council and the Parliament of Great Britain as the supreme executive and legislature of the whole British Empire. VIII. Constitution or Nova Scotia, WHENCE DERIVED. Previous to 1758 the Sovereign-in-Council exercised all powers of government through the exercise of the royal prerogative, as in the case of all ceded or conquered countries. The constitution of Nova Scotia has always been considered previous to 1867 as derived! from the terms of the royal commissions to the governors and lieutenant-governors, and from the instructions which accompanied the same, from imperial orders-in-council, from despatches from the imperial secretary of state conveying the will and wishes of the imperial government, from acts of the imperial parliament immediately applicable to the colony, and from acts of the local legislature approved by the Crown, and “the whole to some extent interpreted by uniform usage and custom in the colony.” IX. IMPORTANCE OF THE CONSTITUTIONAL CHANGE IN 1758. Previous to 1758 the governor and council, acting under royal in- structions, were practically supreme in the exercise of the powers of local 1 Lt.-Governor Archibald, Can. Sess. Papers, 1883, No. 70; Bourinot’s ‘‘ Manual of Constitutional Government of Canada,” p. 97. [BOURINOT | CANADIAN CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY 145 government, From that day, however, Nova Scotia was vested with large powers of self-government. It is a fundamental principle that although a sovereign has the right to legislate for a conquered country by virtue of his royal prerogative, yet he ceases to have that power after he has authorized and directed the summoning of a representative legis- lative assembly." By granting an assembly to Nova Scotia in 1758, he precluded himself from legislating directly for the colony by virtue of his royal prerogative and irrevocably granted to the people the con- stitutional right of exercising all subordinate legislation over the province by an assembly with the consent of the governor and council. In this system of government the Crown continued to exercise large powers of control since it was represented in the province by a governor having the right to negative all acts of the two other branches, and having in addition the appointment and supervision of the men constituting the upper house of the legislative power. With all its inherent defects- which were to show themselves in the course of the ensuing eighty years, the change in the system of government, however, was very much in. advance of the previous condition of things. From that time forward, there was an organized constitution solemnly granted by the Crown for’ legislative purposes. A governor, legislative council and an elected. assembly represented collectively a complete legislature. X. JupicrAL POWER OF THE COUNCIL. The council also for many years in the history of the provinee, exercised in conjunction with the governor certain judicial powers as a court of appeal in civil cases, and also as a court of marriage and divorce. XI. CoNSTITUTION OF THE CouNcIL, 1758-1838. It is not necessary for the purposes of this paper to go beyond the constitution of the council, or to deal with that of the assembly except when its proceedings may affect the former. Its members continued always to be appointed by the Crown during pleasure. The instructions. that accompanied the commission of Governor Wilmot in 1764, illustrate the powers the governors possessed as respects the council as constituted with executive and legislative powers in these and later times. He was not “to suspend any of the members thereof without good and sufficient. cause, nor without the consent of the majority of our said council, sig- nalized in council after due examination of the charge against such councillor, and his answer thereunto ; and in case of the suspension of any of them you are to cause your reasons for so doing, together with the charges and proofs against the said persons, and their answer thereto, to be duly entered upon the council books, and forthwith transmitted to 1 Lord Mansfield in the Grenada case. Sec. II., 1896. 10. 146 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA the commissioners for trade and plantations in order to be laid before us ; nevertheless, if it should happen that you should have reasons for suspend- ing any counciller not fit to be communicated to the council, you may in this case suspend such persons without their consent.” But in the latter case, also, the reasons of such suspension must be communicated to the Crown in England. Provision was always made in the instructions for ensuring the attendance of members, and regulations made for freedom of debate and vote in all matters of public concern. XII. THE AGITATION FOR A CHANGE IN THE CONSTITUTION OF THE COUNCIL. For nearly ninety years this system of government continued in force, Parliamentary government, in the modern sense of the term, never obtained, but the government of the country was virtually under the control of the council exercising executive, legislative and judicial powers. In the course of time a contest grew up between the irrespon- sible council and the people’s house for the management of all the public taxes and finances, for the separation of the executive and legislative functions of the council, and “ for the responsibility of the members of government to the assembly.” As a remedy for existing grievances, an address to the Queen, passed by the house of assembly in 1837, prayed that “Her Majesty should grant an elective legislative council,” or ‘should separate the executive from the legislative council ;”’ provide “for a just representation of all the great interests of the province in both ” ; introduce into the executive “some members of the popular branch,” and otherwise secure ‘responsibility to the Commons, and in that way confer upon the people of the province what they value above all other possessions, the blessings of the British constitution.” ? XIII. NEcESSITY FOR A CHANGE IN THE CONSTITUTION OF THE COUNCIL. Writing in 1829, Judge Haliburton* observes : “ By making the members of the council independent of the governor for their existence (for at present he has not only the power of nomination, but of suspension) and investing them with no other powers than those necessary to a branch of the legislature much weight would be added to administration, on the confidence and extent of interest that it would thereby obtain, a much more perfect and political distribution of power would be given to the legislature, and the strange anomaly avoided of the same persons passing a law and then sitting in judgment on their own acts, and advising the governor to assent to it.” 1 See J. Howe’s ‘‘ Speeches and Letters,” I., 139-142. 2? History of Nova Scotia, Il., 317. [BOURINOT] CANADIAN CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY 147 XIV. SEPARATION OF THE EXECUTIVE AND THE LEGISLATIVE POWERS OF THE COUNCIL. The result of the agitation was a separation of the executive and legislative powers of the council. An executive council was henceforth to be appointed as well as a legislative council, though it was in the power of the Crown to allow members of the former to sit in the latter— a power that has always been exercised to a greater or less extent. These changes were effected by the authority of the Crown alone. Members of both executive and legislative councils continued to hold their seats at the pleasure of the Crown. XV. RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT ESTABLISHED. While large concessions were made to the demands of the popular party by the changes in the constitution of the council, by giving com- plete control to the people’s representatives over the finances and taxes, and by increasing the responsibility of the executive councillors to the assembly, it took some years before the principles of ministerial respon- sibility were established on a firm and durable basis. Indeed it was not until 1848, when Lord Elgin became governor-general of all British North America that free parliamentary government can be said to be established beyond dispute! No act of parliament was necessary to effect the important change that took place in the government of the province from 1838 to 1848. It was impossible indeed to reduce into the form of a positive enactment the constitutional principles —in other words the conventions, understandings and usages that underlie and make up responsible government, The governors received from time to time the instructions necessary to carry out the new system in all its entirety, as a result of Lord Durham’s important mission to Canada.’ XVI. TENURE OF THE OFFICE OF LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL SINCE 1838, The instructions in 1838 to the Earl of Durham, “ governor in chief, in and over our province of Nova Scotia, or in his absence to the lieutenant- governor or officer administering the government of the said province ” for the time being, provided for an executive council and a legislative council “ hereafter to consist of such and so many members as shall for that purpose be nominated and appointed by us, under our royal sign manual and signet, or shall be provisionally appointed by you the said John George Earl of Durham, until our pleasure thereon shall be known.” The number of executive councillors was not to exceed nine, and the number of legislative councillors residing in the province was not to ex- | See Bourinot’s ‘‘ Manual of Constitutional History,” p. 9. 2 See next paragraph. 148 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA ceed fifteen. The clauses that appeared in the instructions to Governor Wilmot’ and other governors, with respect to suspension and attendance of members were repeated. Executive and legislative councillors were, as always, to hold oftice during pleasure. XVII. Commisston AND INSTRUCTIONS TO GOVERNOR-GENERAL AND LIEUTENANT-GOVERNOR. * It is well here to observe that during the early history of Nova Scotia, the commissions and instructions given to the various repre- sentatives of the Crown in the province gave them powers “as our captain-general and governor-in-chief in and over our province of Nova Scotia and the islands and territories thereunto belonging in America.” These commissions appear to have ceased to be given after the con- stitutional act of 1791, which formed the two provinces of Upper and Lower Canada. The governor-general of Canada from that time was commissioned as “our captain-general and governor-in-chief in and over our province of Nova Scotia, or in his absence to our lieutenant-governor or officer administering the government of our said province for the time being. Up to 1867 every commission to a leutenant-governor contained these words: ‘In case of the death or during the absence of our captain-general and governor-in-chief of our said province of Nova Scotia, now and for the time being, we do hereby authorize and require you to exercise and perform all and singular, the powers and directions contained in our commission to our captain-general and governor-in- chief, according to such instructions as he hath already received from us, and such further orders and instructions as he or you shall hereafter receive from us.” ‘The commission and instructions, therefore, though in form addressed to the governor-general,—as in Lord Durham’s case above—were really instructions to the lieutenant-governor, who in that ‘ase had all the powers and authorities which were conferred upon them. 29 2 XVIII. Errort OF THE LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL IN 1845 FoR CHANGES IN ITS CONSTITUTION. In 1845 the legislative council of Nova Scotia passed an address’ to Her Majesty complaining of certain difficulties that had arisen since the remodelling of the council on account of gentlemen residing in the rural districts being unwilling to accept the position of legislative coun- cillor “either from the want of a defined constitution or of a pecuniary provision for the expense of the attendance of the country members.” The address concluded with a prayer that the legislative council “might See above, paragraph xi. 2 See Lt.-Governor Archibald’s Memo., Leg. C. Jour., 1883, p. 100. [BOURINOT] CANADIAN CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY 149 be established on such a basis as might be compatible with the right, efficient and independent discharge of its high and important duties.” ! XIX. ANSWER oF LorRD STANLEY TO ADDRESS OF 1845 FOR CHANGE IN THE CONSTITUTION OF LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL oF Nova Scorta. The colonial secretary of the day, Lord Stanley—afterwards the Earl of Derby, premier of England—in a despatch to Lord Falkland, then lieutenant-governor, dated August 20th, 1845, assigned reasons why it was not possible to make pecuniary provision for the payment of the members, and then proceeded to discuss “ the second proposal, that the tenure of office of a legislative councillor should be during his life, and not during His Majesty’s pleasure.” No such “second proposal” in exact words, it is well to note, was made in the address of the legislative council, as may be seen by reference to the preceding paragraph No. 17.2. All that they asked for was a “ defined constitution.” Lieutenant- Governor Archibald,* discussing this matter in 1883, assumes with much reason that Lord Stanley must have been citing the language of Lord Falkland’s despatch which accompanied the address of the legislative council, and which was probably in the nature of one of those confidential communications that are not made public except on special occasions. In this despatch‘ of Lord Stanley, he did not consider the argument deduced from the Canadian constitution in favour of a life term as at all meeting the case—and this argument was obviously in Lord Falkland’s letter since it is not used in the address of the council, He pointed out that the tenure of the office of legislative councillor in Canada was “con: nected with and regulated by many other constitutional rules which are not in force in Nova Scotia, and of which the introduction into Nova Scotia might perhaps be found impossible.” But though he thus “hesi- tated to admit one of the arguinents urged in favour of this change,” he added that he did not “design to be understood as opposed to the change itself.” He then went on to refer to the fact that a question nearly con- nected with this, arose in New Brunswick in 1843, and he had, on the 11th of July and 30th December, in that year, addressed to Sir W. Cole- brooke, lieutenant-governor of that province, two despatches in which “he explained” the views of Her Majesty’s government on the question which has arisen in Nova Scotia. In the first despatch of the 11th July, he states that ‘ Her Majesty’s government had humbly submitted to the Queen their opinion that it would be proper to revise the instruments by which the legislative council of New Brunswick is constituted.” He had 1 See Legislative Council Journal, 1845. 2 See above, p. 148. * See below, paragraph xxiii. 4 See Legislative Council Journal, 1846, App. I. 5 See below, paragraph xxvii. 150 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA observed that the government “had recommended, that in that revision the number of legislative councillors should be increased to 21 | that of that number seven only should be persons holding offices at the pleasure of the Crown; and that the quorum should be fixed at 8.” Lord Stanley had also informed the lieutenant-governor of New Brunswick that the government had “further advised Her Majesty that provision should be made for vacating the seats of members, either in the case of bankruptcy or insolvency, or in any case where a member should be a defaulter or should be convicted of any of the crimes which, in the technical sense of the word, are distinguished as infamous, and that to these rules we had proposed that another should be added for rendering void the seat of any member absenting himself, whether with or without leave, after the lapse of a certain prescribed period.” In the later despatch of the 30th December, 1843, Lord Stanley had informed Sir W. Colebrooke that “on proceeding to execute the intention” set forth in the preceding para- graph, he had discovered that “it would be practicable to fulfil the pledges of the 11th of July, without incurring the inconvenience of intro- ducing any change in the royal commission and standing instructions under which he was acting.” These changes, continued Lord Stanley, in the despatch to Lord Falkland, were carried into effect. They were made, he pointed out “at the instance of the popular branch of the legislature and were suggested by that body with the apparent, or rather with the avowed design of rendering the legislative council more acces- sible to popular influences, and of bringing the two houses into a more habitual accord and harmony with each other.” More than that, it appeared to Her Majesty’s government that ‘the proposed changes would tend to elevate the character, and to increase the legitimate authority and influence of the legislative council and thus to give ad- ditional stability to the provincial constitution ” of New Brunswick. XX. CHANGES PROPOSED BY Lorp STANLEY IN CASE OF Nova SCOTIA. “ Adhering to that opinion,” concluded Lord Stanley in his despatch of 20th of August, 1845, to Lord Falkland, “ we think that the same or similar rules ought to be introduced into Nova Scotia, as a necessary ac- companiment of the proposed alteration in the tenure of the office of a legislative council. On these terms Your Lordship will understand that Her Majesty would be prepared to accede to the suggested change in that tenure.” As respects the suggestion, that “this innovation should be made by the authority of parliament,” he was not aware of any “reason for doubting the power of the Queen to effect the change permanently, in the unaided exercise of Her Majesty’s royal prerogative,” and he should regard “as improper and unconstitutional, an application to par- nee cE UE EEE DERE EEEIESEEE SEER | The italics are the present writer's. [BourINoT] CANADIAN CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY 151 liament for that purpose.” These conclusions respecting the changes in Nova Scotia were submitted by Lord Stanley to Her Majesty ‘who has been pleased to signify her sanction of them, and to command me to com- municate it to the legislative council, as comprising in substance the answer which Her Majesty is pleased to return to their loyal and dutiful address.” XXI. Answer OF LEGISLATIVE CounciLt oF Nova Scotia to Lorp STANLEY’S DESPATCH OF 20TH AUGUST, 1845. This despatch of Lord Stanley “ comprising in substance the answer of Her Majesty ” to the address in question, was communicated in due form to the legislative council of Nova Scotia on the 15th January, 1846. The council considered the despatch and came to the following resolutions which were embodied in an address to the lieutenant-governor, with the request that they be “submitted to Her Majesty’s government as the result of their deliberations upon the proposal contained in the said despatch : “ Resolved, That this house highly valuing the increased stability which Her Majesty has been pleased to confer upon the legislative council, and members of that body humbly express their thanks to Her Majesty for a measure so gratifying to them, and in their opinion so beneticial to the country. “ Resolved, That this house concurs in the necessity and propriety of the conditions attached to the concession of atenure for life to its members," viz.: That it shall consist ordinarily of twenty-one members,—that of that number seven only shall be persons holding office at the pleasure of the Crown—that if any member shall fail to give his attendance in the said legislative council without Her Majesty’s permission, or that of the lieutenant-governor, for such number of sessions as may be fixed by Her Majesty’s government, or shall become bankrupt or insolvent or make any general assignment of his effects for the benefit of his credi- tors, or take the benefit of any law relating to insolvent debtors, or become a public defaulter, or shall have committed, or shall commit, any treason or felony, or any crime technically denominated infamous, the seat of such legislative councillor shall thereby become vacant.” XXII. Despatcu or Mr. GLADSTONE AS COLONIAL SECRETARY ON THE SAME SUBJECT. These resolutions, which show clearly that the legislative council gratefully concurred in the changes sanctioned by the sovereign, were duly communicated by the lieutenant-governor to Mr. Gladstone, who had in the meantime become secretary of state for the colonial and war ! The italics are the present writer's. 152 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA department in themcew government led by Lord John Russell, who had succeeded Sir Robert Peel. In Mr. Gladstone’s answer! to Lord Falk- land, under date of the 4th May, 1846, he commences by simply acknow- ledying the receipt of the despatch inclosing ‘certain resolutions adopted on the 19th March last, by the legislative council of Nova Scotia, expressive of their satisfaction at the changes which Her Majesty thas been pleased to sanction in the constitution of that house.” He then goes on to say that © provision had been made in the commission to Earl Cathcart, as governor of Nova Scotia, for increasing the number of members of the legislative council of that province from 15 to 21 ;” but it was not “deemed necessary to insert in the royal instructions the rule restricting the number of councillors holding office,” but the lieutenant- governor was required in accordance with the intention of Mr. Glad- stone's predecessor, Lord Stanley—as stated in his despatch of August 20th. given above—* to observe the practice which subsists in the neigh- bouring province of New Brunswick,” and from his recommendations “in conformity with the Queen’s commands, that henceforth of the 21 members of the legislative council, 7 only shall be persons holding office at the pleasure of the Crown.” With respect ‘to the vacating of seats at the legislative council,” Mr. Gladstone had only to state “that if any member of that board, placed in the position described in my predeces- sor’s despatch of the 20th August, 1845,° shall not voluntarily resign his office” the heutenant-governor would * consider it his duty to resort to ? the measure of suspension.” XXIII. Lr.-Governor ARCHIBALD’S CONCLUSIONS FROM LoRD STANLEY'S DESPATCH AS TO THE LIFE TENURE OF A LEGISLATIVE COUNCILLOR. 1 have dwelt at length on this despatch of Lord Stanley of the 20th August, 1845, because of the importance given to it by Lieutenant- Governor Archibald in 1883, when he laid his views with respect to the tenure of legislative councillors before the legislative council of Nova Scotia. He drew the conclusion * that this despatch, taken in conjunction with that of Mr. Gladstone, * enlarged the tenure of a seat of a legislative councillor from being one of pleasure to that of life, subject only to be defeated by the occurrence of one of the events specified in the despatch and resolutions.? “This matter,” he added, “ was much in the nature of a compact between the Crown and the council, and the faith of the Crown was finally pledged to the enlarged tenure.” Governor Archibald, in coming to the conclusion, was largely influenced by the action which was taken in New Brunswick and on which Lord Stanley dwelt as form- 1 See Nova Scotia Leg. Jour., 1847, App. 4, p. 15. 2 See above, paragraphs xix., Xx. 3 See Leg. C. Jour., 1883, pp. 104-111. [BouRINOT] CANADIAN CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY 153 ing a precedent for a change in the constitution of the legislative council of Nova Scotia. Governor Archibald did not ignore the fact that the conclusion to which he had come was apparently contradicted by the fact that in several Commissions and instructions issued to governors of Nova Scotia, subsequent to the despatches in question, all appointments to the council continued to be made ‘“ during pleasure.’ He meets this objection—vital on the face of it—by the following statement : “It would have seemed the proper thing to revise the terms of the royal commission and instructions, so as to have made them conformable to the altered tenure, and this is the course which first suggested itself to the colonial secretary, as appears by his despatch of the 11th July, 1843, to Sir William Colebrooke, quoted above. But on further consideration Lord Stanley informed Sir W. Colebrooke, in another and later despatch ' of the 30th December, 1843, that, on proceeding to execute his intention in the form announced in the previous despatch, it had been gratifying to him to discover that it would be practicable to fulfil the pledges con- tained therein, without incurring the inconvenience of introducing any change in the royal commission and standing instructions under which he was acting.” So that it would appear “the life tenure had been in- troduced in the most solemn form into the constitution of the council in New Brunswick, without changing the wording of the royal commissions or instructions. Jf that were the case there [in New Brunswick] there can be no reason why it should not be so here [in Nova Scotia]. * XXIV. REVIEW oF THE CHANGES IN NEw BruNSWICK CONSTITUTION. As Governor Archibald appears to have fallen into an error in the foregoing statement it is important that we should now review the facts in New Brunswick, though I shall show at the close of this review, when I come to give my conclusions on the facts, that this error, too, does not impair the general argument of the lieutenant-governor in the opinion he formed on Lord Stanley’s despatch. XXV. Appress oF New BBUNSWICK ASSEMBLY WITH RESPECT TO LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL OF THAT PROVINCE. Now it appears from the journals * of the house of assembly of New Brunswick that in the session of 1843, that body passed an address to the Queen, praying that such changes should be made in the constitution of the legislative council as would make it ‘so free from official influences as to form a constitutional check as well as upon the executive, as the representative branch of the legislature.’ They proposed for Her 1 See above, p. 150. 2 The italics and words in brackets are mine. * See N.B. Ass. Jour., 1843, pp. 288-289. 154 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Majesty’s consideration “that each member of the council should be seized of a certain amount of unencumbered real estate; and that the seats of members should be vacated on their ceasing to be possessed of a substantial qualification, or on their becoming bankrupt, executing a composition deed, becoming a public defaulter, or neglecting to give their attendance for a given time, without leave of the lieutenant-governor.” The assembly dwelt on the fact that of the eighteen members that then composed the council, “a great proportion held offices at pleasure under the Crown, and the principal officers of the government generally form a majority of the members present ;’’ and that it was not possible that “a body so constituted can be supposed to legislate with the independence necessary to secure public confidence in their acts.” In the first settlement of the province, ‘it was necessary, from the paucity of qualified men. to appoint the principal officers of the provincial government to seats in the legislative council,” but as such necessity had ceased to exist, the assembly ‘‘humbly conceive that a more constitutional system should be established and that, so far as regards public officers, they should never exceed the number necessary to conduct the business of the government in that house.” In conclusion, the address implores Her Majesty “ either by the exercise of the royal prerogative, or otherwise, to establish such salutary provisions for the future, as may effectually secure the independence of that body.” XXVI. ANSWER OF LORD STANLEY TO ADDRESS OF LEGISLATIVE / CounciL oF NEW BRUNSWICK. It will be seen that in this address there is no reference to a life tenure, and consequently there is no mention of that subject in the des- patch of Lord Stanley of the 11th of July, 1843, in answer to that address. Certain changes were, however, made in accordance with the suggestion of the assembly, as was pointed out in the despatch of Lord Stanley to Lord Falkland in August, 1845—the most important being the limitation of office holders with seats in the council,' XXVII Lorp STANLEY’S PRECISE STATEMENT OF CHANGES IN NEW BRUNSWICK CONSTITUTION. In a later despatch of the 30th December, 1843, Lord Stanley pro- ceeds to show the nature of the changes in the constitution of New runswick, and the reasons why it was not necessary to change the commission and instructions. I draw special attention to his language as it is obvious that Lieutenant-Governor Archibald did not fully appreciate its significance. — —- | See above, p. 150. [BOURINOT ] CANADIAN CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY 155 “On proceeding to execute the intention which I had thus announc- ed, aided by your two last mentioned despatches, it has been gratifying to me to discover that it will be practicable to fulfil the pledges contained in my despatch of the 11th of July, without incurring the inconvenience of introducing. any change in the royal commission and standing instructions, under which you are acting. ~ 1. + The first change to be made is that of increasing, from fifteen to twenty-one, the total number of the members of the legislative council. In exercise of the power reserved to Her Majesty by the royal commission, the Queen has partially effected this alteration, by issuing, under the royal sign manual, the four accompanying warrants for the appointment of four of the additional councillors. 2. ‘ The rule, that of the twenty-one members of the legislative council, seven only should be persons holding office at the pleasure of the Crown, being a rule in restraint of the royal prerogative, and obligatory to the Crown itself. is as fully established, and is as binding when laid down in Her Majesty’s name, in pursuance of the commands which the Queen has been pleased to lay on me for that purpose, as if it were incor- porated in the royal instructions. 3. “That the quorum should be fixed at eight, is a rule, the repetition of which would be superfluous, as it is already to be found in the royal commission. 4. “ As the commission already authorizes you, on sufficient cause, to suspend any member of the legislative council, and as they all hold their offices at the Queen’s pleasure, the principle that every seat shall be vacated on proof that the holder has become bankrupt or insolvent, or a public defaulter, or guilty of any infamous crime, is a rule which, without any change in that commission, may be effectually established. If any such case should arise. you will immediately exercise the power of Suspension already vested in you, nor will the Queen hesitate to confirm any such suspension, by the final removal of the person affected by it, if the fact on which your original o#der may proceed, shall be substantiated. 5. ‘The last change contemplated in my despatch of the 11th of July, regards the effect of the unauthorized or protracted absence of members of the legislative council. On referring to your present in- structions, you will however see that all that is necessary for securing this object is close adherence to the provisions of them. * Whenever a change in the office of governor-general may render indispensable the issuing of a new commission and instructions, care will be taken that they should be framed in strict accordance with the views and intentions explained in my present despatch, and in that of the 11th of July. In the meantime you will find that there is nothing in the existing commission and instructions which could in any degree obstruct or interfere with the complete fulfilment of Her Majesty's gracious 156 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA purpose. For the more complete elucidation of them, you will com- municate this despatch, and my despatch of the 11th of July, to both houses of the provincial legislature, in compliance with my address for the production of them which they may present you.” A XXVIII. INFERENCE TO BE Drawn FROM ForEGOING DrEsPATtcH. It will be seen, therefore, that in the foregoing despatch there is no reference to a life tenure, but only to the specific changes to which the imperial government had agreed, and which did not necessarily involve any alteration of the commission and instructions of the governor. This despatch, indeed, by its specitic character, effectually disposes of Governor Archibald’s supposition that there was a reference toa change to life tenure in the intimation by Lord Stanley that no changes need be made in the commission and instructions. XXIX. Request or LEGISLATIVE CouNCcIL OF NEW BRUNSWICK FOR A MORE PERMANENT TENURE AFTER RECEIPT OF DESPATCHES IN QUESTION. But we have more evidence bearing on this question of a supposed life tenure of legislative councillors in New Brunswick. In the session of 1844. the legislative council of the province went into committee of the whole on Lord Stanley’s despatches of the 11th July and 30th December, 1845, mentioned above, and came to the following resolutions : ‘“ Deeply impressed with the opinion that the happiness and wel- fare of Your Majesty’s Loyal and Faithful Subjects, the People of New Brunswick, can only be maintained by securing to them the mixed form of government which has placed Your Majesty’s Kingdom foremost among the nations of the civilized world, we would respectfully solicit Your Majesty’s gracious consideration to the present position of the legislative council, as one branch of the provincial legislature, and humbly submit that it should be established upon a more permanent basis, and in closer analogy to the second branch of the imperial parliament. “Your Majesty will readily perceive that for a legislative body to hold office merely during pleasure, has a tendency to expose them not only to undue influence of the popular branch of the legislature, when- ever that branch happens to be dissatisfied with their proceedings ; and although in times of comparative tranquillity such influence may be rarely exerted, in cases of emergency, when vital questions are under discussion, the independence of the council intended as a great consti- tutional check to the other two branches, may be placed in peril, and the great object for which that middle branch was called into existence will either be fettered or rendered inefficient. [BouRINor ] CANADIAN CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY 157 ‘“ We beg humbly to represent that the weight and influence of the legislative council as an independent branch of the legislature, mainly depend upon its character for stability im the eyes of the country, and that it would be highly desirable that the tenure of office of the members of the legislative council should be during good behaviour, and should also be subject to the same disqualifications and mode of vacating the seats of the members by reason thereof, as are prescribed for the legis- lative council of Canada by the imperial parliament. * We therefore earnestly implore Your Majesty’s benign and favour- able consideration of the subject, and that Your Majesty will be graciously pleased to adopt such measures as will secure to this branch of the legislature those rights and privileges, so essential to the perfection of the colonial constitution of Your Majesty’s loyal province of New Brunswick.” XXX. ANSWER oF Lorp STANLEY REFUSING THE CHANGE SUGGESTED, Lire TENURE oR Goop BEHAVIOUR. In this address, the prayer was for a tenure during good behaviour, or in other words, constitutionally for life,’ as in the cases of judges in England and in all dependencies of the Crown. In his reply of the 23rd of August, 1844, Lord Stanley says : “T have laid before the Queen the address of the members of the legislative council of New Brunswick, (inclosed in your despatch of the 16th of last April,) recommending that their tenure of office should be during good behaviour ; and that they should be subject to the same disqualifications and mode of vacating their seats as have been prescribed for the legislative council of Canada by the imperial parliament. “ Having maturely weighed this address, and the despatches noted in the margin, which you have addressed to me in reference to it, L have to acquaint you that the grounds for effecting such a change in the con- stitution of this branch of the legislature, as is desired, have not appeared to me to be sufficient to justify me in advising the Queen to accede to the wishes of the legislative council. “I have accordingly to instruct you to inform the legislative council of New Brunswick, that though Her Majesty was pleased to receive their address very graciously, Her Majesty has not given me any commands in respect to it.” . XXXI. INFERENCE TO BE DRAWN FROM THE, History or New i BRUNSWICK IN THIS CASE, This summary of the history of the changes in the constitution of the legislative council of New Brunswick in 1843-4 makes it quite clear 1“ Appointments made during good behaviour create a life interest in the office, unless specifically made for a term of years.” Anson’s ‘‘ Law and Custom of the Constitution,” II., 204. 158 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA that Lieutenant-Governor Archibald had not accurately apprehended the case, and that the positive conclusions he drew with respect to the mean- ing of Lord Stanley’s despatch of the 20th August, 1845, as to the constitution of the legislative council of Nova Scotia were not justified by the facts in the former province, The two facts stand out clearly : 1. That the remarks made by Lord Stanley,’ that it was not necessary to make any changes in the royal commission and instructions in fulfil- ment of the pledges contained in his despatch of 11th July, 1843, referred to certain changes which he explained specifically in a later despatch ? of the 30th December, 1843, and not to a change of life tenure. 2. That it does not appear by these despatches, as assumed by Lieutenant-Governor Archibald * in 1883, that * the life tenure had been introduced in the most solemn form into the constitution of the council of New Brunswick,” but if there were any doubt on this point it is effectually dispelled by reference to the later despatch ‘ of Lord Stanley of the 23rd August, 1844, in answer to the address of the legislative coun- cil, asking for a tenure during good behaviour. Governor Archibald’s mistake (of which much was made by corre- spondents in the press during the controversy on the subject) was clearly in dwelling too strongly on the action in New Brunswick, as if it were conclusive as to the facts at issue in Nova Scotia; whereas the course pursued in the former province had been simply mentioned by Lord Stanley, in my opinion, as a precedent for changes in Nova Scotia, and not as showing all that was to be done in that province, but I shall refer fully to this point at a later stage of this argument, and shall not now break the continuity of this historical narrative, which is necessarily pre- cedent to the conclusions I have come to on the question at issue. XXXII. LEGISLATIVE COUNCILLORS HOLD DURING PLEASURE BY GOVERNOR'S COMMISSIONS SUBSEQUENT TO 1846. When we come to consult the commissions and instructions that were issued to governors-general under the royal sign manual and signet, subsequent to Lord Stanley’s despatch, which, in Lieutenant-Governor Archibald’s opinion, made so important a change in the constitution of Nova Scotia, we find that each and all made the appointments during pleasure and provided for a general power of suspension as in all previous commissions and instructions for a century anda half, Inthe Earl of Cathcart’s commission and instructions, issued on March 16th, 1846, it is specially provided that the number of members of the legislative council shall not exceed twenty-one in all and no other change was made in these 1 See above, paragraph xiv. 2 See above, paragraph xxvii. 3 See above, paragraph xxiii. 4 See above, paragraph xxx. [BouriNor] CANADIAN CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY 159 documents. As intimated by Mr. Gladstone' it was not necessary to make a change as to the number of councillors holding office at the pleasure of the Crown. The commission and instructions to the Earl of Elgin, 1848, to Sir Edmund Head in 1854, and to Lord Monck in 1861, were all to the same effect. The commission and instructions to the latter held good at the time Nova Scotia entered the union of 1867, and it is therefore useful to copy the paragraphs in these documents that refer to the council : * From the Commission. “V. And we do by these presents grant, provide and declare, that there shall be within our said province a council to be called ‘The Legislative Council’ of our said province, and that all and every, the powers and authorities heretofore vested in or exercised by the legislative council of our said province, shall continue to be exercised by our said council hereby re-established. “ VI. And we do hereby declare our pleasure to be that the said legis- lative council shall consist of such and so many members as have been or shall hereafter be from time to time for that purpose nominated and appointed by us under our sign manual and signet, or as shall be provisionally appointed by you until our will therein shall be known, all which members shall hold their places in the said council during our pleasure : Provided, nevertheless, and we do hereby declare our pleasure to be that the total number of the members of the said legislative council for the time being resident within our said province shall not at any time by any such provisional appointments be raised to a greater number in the whole than twenty-one. “VII. And we do further direct and appoint that eight members of our said legislative council shall be a quorum for the despatch of the business thereof, and that the senior member for the time being of the said council shall preside at all the deliberations thereof. “IX, And we do hereby give and grant unto you, so far as we law- fully may, full power and authority, upon sufficient cause to you appearing, to remove from his office, or to suspend from the exercise of the same, any person exercising any office or place within our said province or its dependencies, under or by virtue of any commission or warrant granted, or which may be granted by us, or in our name, or under our authority.” From the Instructions. “VJ. And whereas we have, by our said commission, declared our pleasure to be, that there shall be within our said province a council, to be called the legislative council of our said province, within certain 1 See Mr. Gladstone’s letter above, p. 152. ? See Ass. Jour. of N. S., 1848, App. 63 ; also 7b. 1859, App. 28. 160 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA powers and authorities therein mentioned, and have further declared our pleasure, to be that the said council shall consist of such and so many members as have been, or may thereafter for that purpose be, nominated and appointed by us under our royal sign manual and signet, or as should be previously appointed by you until our pleasure therein shall be known: Provided always that the total number of the members of the said legislative council resident within our said province, shall not at any time, by any such provisional appointment, be raised to a greater number in the whole than twenty-one: Now know you that we, reposing especial trust and confidence in the wisdom, prudence, and ability of the persons who are now members of the said legislative council, do, by these our instructions, re-constitute and re-appoint each and all of them to be legislative councillors for our said province during our pleasure. © « VIT. And we do especially require and enjoin that whenever you shall think fit in the exercise of the authority hereby vested in you, to appoint any person or persons provisionally as aforesaid to be a member or members of our said legislative council, you do in every such case forthwith transmit to us through one of our principal secretaries of state the names and the qualifications of the several members so provisionally appointed by you to be members of our said council to the intent that the said appointments may be either confirmed or disallowed, as we shall see occasion. “ IX. And it is our will and pleasure that if any of the members of our said council, residing in our said province, shall hereafter wilfully absent themselves from the said province, and continue absent above the space of six months together, without leave from you first obtained under our hand and seal, or shall remain absent for the space of one year with- out leave given them under our royal signature, his or their place or places in the said council shall immediately thereupon become void ; and if any of the members of our said council residing in our said province shall wilfully absent themselves hereafter from the said council when duly summoned by you, without good and sufficient cause, and shall per- sist in such absence, after being thereof admonished by you, you are to suspend such councillors absenting themselves, till our further pleasure be known thereon, giving immediate notice thereof to us, through one of our principal secretaries of state. And we do hereby will and require you that this our royal pleasure be signified to the several members of our said council, and that it be entered in the council books as a standing rule.” XXXIII Cases or Bankruproy IN 1861 AND 1883, AND COURSE FOLLOWED. In the session of 1883, the whole question of the tenure of a legislative councillor came up for consideration in the legislative council of Nova [BOURINOT ] CANADIAN CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY 161 Scotia in connection with a case of bankruptey.' The committee found. on investigation into the facts that one of the councillors—James S. Macdonald—was a bankrupt and reported it as in their opinion “ im- proper that any member of this house, being an insolvent or a defaulter,. should be permitted to retain or occupy a seat in the legislative council of this province unless authorized so to do by law.” The matter was referred to counsel learned in the law before final action was taken on the report, and two eminent gentlemen, J. N. Ritchie and Walter Graham, Esquires, Queen's counsel, at present on the bench of the Supreme Court of the province, gave it as their opinion that Mr. Macdonald could be- dismissed by the lieutenant-governor, since he, like all other members of the same body, held office “ during pleasure ” only. In their memoran-- dum on the subject they referred to Lord Stanley’s despatch? of 20th» August, 1845, which they say “was a reply to a petition from the legislative council to Her Majesty, asking, among other things, that the councillors hold office during life”—a mistake as respects the petition, or, more accurately speaking, address of the council, which, as I have- already shown,’ did not ask for such a change of tenure in precise words. . The counsel then go on to refer to the fact that Her Majesty was. pleased to assent to the “petition,” and cite the resolutions passed by the council in 1846,‘ “concurring in the necessity and propriety of the con- ditions attached to a concession of tenure for life to its members,” as set forth in those resolutions. The learned counsel, however, while appear- ing to agree that a question of life tenure was under consideration in 1845-46, and the change was assented to by the despatch of 20th August, 1845,. came to the conclusion, after reference to commissions issued to governors, that “itis evident that subsequent to 1846 the legislative councillors. were appointed during pleasure only,’ and could be dismissed by the lieutenant-governor. In accordance with their recommendation the whole matter of the insolvency of Mr. Macdonald was referred to the lieutenant-sovernor, who subsequently gave his views at length on the tenure of the office of a legislative councillor, as I have already ° shown above. In reply, however, to the address of the council calling his attention to a special case of insolvency, the lieutenant-governor stated that “having taken the steps which, in my judgment seemed best to carry out the desire of the council, Mr. Macdonald has forwarded to me a written resignation of his seat, and that I have duly accepted such resig- nation ; and consequently he is no longer a member of the legislative council.”° The course followed by Lieutenant-Governor Archibald in 1 See Leg. Jour., 1883, pp. 10-12. 2 See above, paragraphs xix., xx. # See above, paragraph xviii. 4 See above, paragraph xxi. 5 See above, paragraph xxiii. 6 Leg. Jour. 1883, p. 34. = See. IT., 1896. 11. 162 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA this case was perfectly in accord with that prescribed by Lord Stanley in a similar case in 1861. In a despatch' to Lord Falkland, he authorized his lordship ‘‘to call on Mr. Starr, and on any other member of the executive or legislative council who may now or hereafter be in the same predicament, to resign their seats, and in the event of non-compliance, it will be your duty to suspend any such councillor from his office.” In Mr. Gladstone’s despatch * of 1848, in answer to the address of the legislative council on the subject of the tenure of office, he instructed Lord Falkland “to resort to the measure of suspension” in case a bankrupt member of the council should “not voluntarily resign his office.” The office of councillor being held during pleasure under the royal instructions, the governor could always exercise the royal prerog- ative of dismissal in such cases as arose in 1883, when Lord Monck’s commission and instructions still formed a part of the constitutional law of Nova Scotia. XXXIV. ConstituTiIonAL Errect oF Brirish NORTH AMERICA ACT, 1867. I have now reviewed the constitutional history of the legislative council of Nova Scotia, from its origin in the early part of the eighteenth century down to the first of July, 1867, when, in accordance with the British North America Act of 1867, Nova Scotia became a province of the federal union known as the Dominion of Canada. This imperial act provides * that the lieutenant-governor shall be appointed by the governor- general of the Dominion ; that the constitution of the executive authority of Nova Scotia “shall, subject to the provisions of this act, continue as it exists at the union, until altered under the authority of this act ;” that the constitution of the legislature of the province of Nova Scotia, shall, “ subject to the provisions of this act, continue as it exists at the union until altered under the authority of this act.” In the ninety-second section, setting forth the subjects of exclusive provincial legislation, it is enacted that “in each province the legislature may exclusively make laws in relation to matters coming within the classes of subjects hereinafter enumerated ;”’ and the first subject so enumerated is “the amendment from time to time, notwithstanding anything in this act, of the con- stitution of the province, except as regards the office of lieutenant- governor ’—the governor-general in council alone having the power to appoint, dismiss, and instruct that functionary as respects his relations with the Dominion government. In the exercise of this power of amendment, the legislature of Nova Scotia is supreme.‘ 1 Ass. Jour. 1861, App. 48. 2 See above, paragraph xxii. 3 See B. N. A. Act, ss. 58-68-88. 3 See Judgment of Judicial Committee of Privy Council in Hodge vs. the Queen. App. Cas. 117. [BOURINOT] CANADIAN CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY 163 XXXV. LEGISLATION AFFECTING THE COUNCIL SINCE 1867. Before I proceed to state the opinions [ base on the facts set forth in the foregoing constitutional review with respect to the tenure of the office of legislative councillor and the powers of the Crown in their regard at the present time, it will be convenient to complete the historical summary by reference to legislation that has passed since 1867 relative to the legislative council. In the year previous to the coming into force of the British North America Act, the house of assembly of Nova Scotia proposed an address to the Queen praying for a limitation of the number of legislative councillors to eighteen, but it was not finally concurred in by the upper house! Since 1867, no legislation on the subject has been passed, and consequently the number remains at the maximum of twenty- one, as set forth in Lord Monck’s commission? Since 1872, an act? was passed providing that the “appointment of members of the legislative council of the province shall be vested in the lieutenant-governor who shall make such appointments in the Queen’s name, by instrument of the great seal of the province.” On the consolidation of the statutes, another section was added, providing that “any member of the legislative council, who shall be absent from his place therein for two sessions consecutively without the consent of the lieutenant-governor shall vacate his seat as such councillor ””—a legal enactment, in effect, of a clause that had always appeared in the commissions and instructions of governors before con- federation. - In 1876 the legislature passed another act, one of the sections of which provides that “in all matters and cases not specifically provided for by this act or by any other statute of this province, the legislative council of this province, the committees and members thereof shall at any time hold, enjoy, and exercise such and the like privileges, immunities and powers as shall be for the time being enjoyed and exercised by the Senate of the Dominion of Canada, and by the respective committees and members thereof.” The learned counsel who reported on the case of bankruptcy in 1883 were quite correct in stating‘ that this section “ does not affect in any way the tenure of office of the legislative councillors.’ But it does give them, in my opinion, the right to inquire into any matter affecting the conduct or character of a member and connected with the rights, privileges, dignity and honour of the body. In inquir- ing into the matter of Mr. Macdonald’s bankruptcy in 1883 they followed a course quite in accord with general parliamentary precedent and with the practice of the Senate itseif in analogous cases affecting the dignity and constitution of the house. It was their duty to inquire into and report on the facts, and to refer them to the lieutenant-governor, who alone 1 See Bourinot’s Const. Hist., p. 99. 2 See above, p. 159. . 5 See N.S. Rev. Stat. (5th ser.) c. 2. 4 See above, p. 161. 164 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA could give legal effect to the finding under the constitutional power vested in him as the representative of the Crown. Lieutenant-Governor Archi- bald appeared to think that “the council in the case referred to might and perhaps ought to have made the declaration of vacancy which naturally followed the finding of the facts.” No such power as vacating a seat, however, has ever been given to the council, even supposing) Lieutenant-Governor Archibald’s interpretation of Lord Stanley’s de- spatch of August 20th, 1845, to be correct ; the Crown reserved to itself alone the right to suspend or dismiss, as Mr. Gladstone’s and Lord Stanley’s despatches, as well as the commissions and instructions of the governors, show beyond dispute.’ XXXVI. ConcLusion: PRINCIPLES DEDUCED FROM HISTORICAL REVIEW. Having brought this historical review down to the latest date, I can now proceed to state the opinions I have formed from the commissions and instructions to different governors that specially relate to the legis- lative council. One thing is clear, that from 1719 to 1861—from Gover- nor Phillips until Governor-General Monck, whose commission and in- structions held good until 1867—the legislative councillors, as well as executive councillors, held office during the pleasure of the Crown. But while this is no doubt the strictly legal and technical interpretation to be given to the commission and instructions, it is necessary to consider that the constitution of England and of all her dependencies is largely gov- erned by conventions, understandings and usages which may not be law in an exact technical sense, but which, nevertheless, have the force of law in the operation of the system we possess. In coming to any conclusion with respect to the tenure of office of legislative councillor, these usages and understandings must have weight, and; therefore, I shall endeavour to deduce the principles that seem well established. From 1719 until 1867 there were three well defined periods in the constitutional history of the province. 1. From 1719 until 1758, when the governor and council, with execu- tive and legislative powers, alone carried on the governinent. 2. From 1758 until 1838, when the government was in the hands of à governor, a council with legislative and executive functions, and assembly elected by the people. 3. From 1838 until 1867, when the government was entrusted to a governor, an executive council, a legislative council, an assembly, and the province obtained the concession of responsible government. During the first and second epochs or periods, when the council had both legislative and executive functions, and the government was controlled by | See above, paragraph xxxii. [BourINOT| CANADIAN CONSTITULIONAL HISTORY 165 the governors under instructions from the imperial government, the Crown imposed limitations on the powers of the governors with respect to its council. Suspension or dismissal could not be arbitrary or without cause. I[n all cases the Crown required a report of reasons of suspension or dismissal. In Governor Durham’s instructions, as late as 1838, as well as in Governor Wilmot’s, as early as 1764, it is ordered that the governor is “neither to augment nor diminish the number of our said council as it is at present established, nor to suspend any of the members thereof without good and sufficient cause, nor without the consent of the major- ity of our said council.” In a special case of suspension, where the rea- sons could not be communicated to the council, those reasons also should be laid before the Crown for its approval or disapproval. These are limitations of the power of the governor to prevent arbitrary and unjust dismissals. A high authority,’ writing in 1783 of the constitutions of the American colonies, states the rule in these words: ‘Every member of the council is appointed during His Majesty’s pleasure only; and, with the consent of the council, may be suspended by the governor for misbe- haviour.” We find no examples during these periods of wholesale dis- missals or suspensions, but the Crown appears to have treated the office as one practically during good behaviour. The power of suspension or dismissal was in reserve, but only exercised for good and sufficient cause— misconduct, misbehaviour, or non-attendance on duties. The latter cause was a disqualification in all cases, from 1719 until the present time. The Crown, as in the case of all public servants holding office during pleasure, give value and importance to the office by giving it by custom a certain stability. In Lord John Russell’s famous despatch of October, 1839,' which led the way to responsible government, since it laid down the principle that various political offices should be vacated on certain politi- cal conditions, we find it expressly laid down: ‘I cannot learn that dur- ing the present or the two last reigns a single instance has occurred of a change in the subordinate or colonial officers, except in case of death or resignation, incapacity or misconduct.” Thus, he went on to say, the system had grown up ‘of converting a tenure at pleasure into a tenure for life.” Thereafter, however, he points out, “the tenure of colonial offices held during Her Majesty's pleasure will not be regarded as equi- valent to a tenure during good behaviour” in the case of officers whose duties involve the “character and policy of the government.” He refers especially to the executive council, ‘especially in those colonies in which the legislative and executive councils are distinct bodies.” In other words, he distinguished the legislative from the executive council as con- 1 See above, paragraph xi. 2 Stokes’s ‘ Const. of Brit. Colonies in N. A.,” p. 241. * See Can. Sess. Papers, 1883, No. 70; Bourinot's Const. Hist., p. 38. 166 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA stituted in Nova Scotia since 1838.’ It is impossible to suppose that he could do otherwise than make a distinction between political officers and members of a legislative body forming a branch of the legislature. Be that as it may, the rule that was applied to public officers appears to have also applied to legislative councillors, so far as I can find data on the subject. While the Crown controlled the legislative council, it cer- tainly did not ever act with respect to it in a capricious manner. but appears to have given it every possible guarantee that it should exercise its legislative powers free from any fear that its members would be sum- marily and unjustly dismissed. Now we come to the third period of Nova Scotia’s constitutional history, during which the province obtained from the Crown large rights of self-government—when the Crown no longer interfered in matters of purely local or internal concern, and the executive councillors became immediately responsible to the assembly and only held office as long as they retained the confidence of the people and their representatives in the legislature. The Crown, it will be seen, never yielded by so many words in any legal instrument its prerogative of appointing councillors during pleasure, and its incidental right of suspending or dismissing them. That was a prerogative always in reserve, but limited by usage to cases of positive misconduct. Mills, in his “ Colonial Constitution,” states, ‘that the members of the legislative council may be suspended by the governor for misconduct.” We find cases of resignation during this period, one for bankruptcy as a disqualifying cause, but none of arbitrary dismissal for political or other insufficient reasons. But while this was the case so far as the evidence before us goes, there had grown up a sentiment in the maritime provinces, with the desire for responsible and self-government, that legislative councils should have such guarantees of stability as had been given by statute to the members of the councils in Canada. This sentiment obtained ex- pression in an address of the Nova Scotia council to the imperial government ia 1845, of which I have already given the exact terms,” and a short history of all the subsequent proceedings. It does not appear that any complaint was made in the debate—and certainly not in the address—that the Crown had abused its powers by dismissals or by the arbitrary exercise of its prerogative right. The address, as I have shown, did not in distinct words ask for life tenure, but for other changes. It is to be regretted that we have not before us the text of Lord Falkland’s despatch forwarding the address but we may fairly assume, from the tenure of Lord Stanley’s reply to the council, that the governor referred to the system in Canada as a basis for a change in the constitution of ! See above, paragraph xvi. 2 Citing Clark’s *‘ Colonial Law,” p. 31. 3 See above, paragraph xviii. Canne CAND) CHRETTTU TADSEL ESTEE 9 Now: Semi Wee ie comme Gel et er ee a Se 1é- fom fat fer “2 dime? cements Ge Geer Gee Lert Sooke > CO pee" of the Bi Jae DMG om wae a eee Wee we the ates om: the pet a ew of 2 De tee ae Ge ee mani of due Queen ke co Ge ie eee Œ Le ie ssl se on de St us ty cl Re Grom Rie Ease dit om the Geet ac be ace sœur wee we the acto dm New Eoumswte wi respect Ge 1S eme coe ae head Sik ee an er See ee De Cee oS ees ee Pa self ap Lord Smiles > cer Lens Fale We dee mme ii Gemere - tet be wos ee Qe Go i whe ent eee @ be mile me the arrumenr abies’ Ie Lowi Faikamd present wi nespert i Commis - than be Slowed ap Gs epson & Be Gew ‘the saines fy mer te te ac Gus eee bee eae ke 2e Sew Gomewiek 2 sortir 2 beso ame oe Vox Sens - et de changes Drow SS DR Besser M nest them bee — wold ie ree coe” Te ee set Gees Wet es eS Ge 7 € We tank Siar ie seme a sum rules he Ga Be Guéret om Soo è En 6 Ey ee of ie pa eee en ee amare 6 Ge ace a à lesa cman =~ ae ee ese ns De at ~Ger Wages wool? be peepee’ ow accede Go ie see Game im thet maure os imgessiie 0 die Gee oe oe 2e OW TP MT RT OR CS Te te eee ees Ie els tat poeceailly a te temo we we be eet be Be Neer > emma sleet te de Tue Gai dow wR Teed © OSsqumiiicsm bey banbrigues come ani eeaemiseess:. ami we ae tome oS mm bodies res amer due Cros ami sitio ie cross We ent boewuawe [ eve ju gemed are amants The us hat de 168 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA council accepted the terms ! in clear emphatic language in an address to the Crown—‘“that this house concurs in the necessity and propriety of the conditions attached to the concession of a tenure for life to its members ’—shows the construction placed on the despatch by the council at the time. The terms were accepted, and the compact between the Crown and the council was to all intents and purposes settled. Mr. Gladstone, on behalf of the Crown, took no exception to this emphatic declaration of the council, but tacitly acquiesced in what had been done previously with the authority of the Crown. If there had been no such compact, assuredly he would have made some reference to the language of the council, accepting the terms as accompanying a change of tenure, instead of going on to make some remarks on other points that occurred to him in connection with the address. It is true no changes were made in the future commissions and instructions with respect to a life tenure or to the rules specifically stated by Lord Stanley to be “a necessary accompaniment of the proposed alteration in the tenure of the office of a legislative councillor,’ and no doubt, from a strictly technical legal point of view, the proposed change may be regarded by lawyers, who do not consider all the constitutional aspects of the case, as defective. But Lord Stanley has explained* why it was not necessary to make all these changes in the commission and instructions in the case of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia; and with respect to the “ proposed alteration in the tenure of the office of a legislative councillor,” to which the other changes or rules were a mere accompaniment, he says in distinct language that it was not necessary that this “innovation *—mark this word—* should be made by the authority of parliament ; 7? he was not aware of any reason “for doubting the power of the Queen to effect the change permanently, in the wnaided exercise of Her Majesty's royal prerogative.” In other words, the Queen, by a compact made in this despatch written by her command by the secretary of state and responsible councillor, pledged herself to allow the royal prerogative to remain in abeyance with respect to the legislative council of Nova Scotia, and to permit its members to hold office practically during good behaviour—the terms accompanying and limiting this new tenure being set forth clearly in Lord Stanley's despatch. ‘ Too much importance may be attached to the commissions and ‘instructions of governors, and too little to the despatches to the same instructing them as to their duties and responsibilities. The instructions that accompany the commissions are not under the great seal, with all the legal weight that attaches to documents to which that highest evidence of the royal will is affixed. The governors’ commissions and instructions in Nova Scotia, as in other colonies, have been always under the signet ! See above, paragraph xxi. 2 See above, p. 155. {BouRINOT] CANADIAN CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY 169 and sign manual. The instructions, in which the clauses respecting the tenure of councillors generally appeared, were never more then royal directions as to the manner in which the powers of the government were to be performed. They could not confer powers of themselves but were, as they were styled, “instructions” how to carry out the legal powers of governors.' A despatch giving the commands of the Sovereign, signed by a responsible minister, would have just as much weight with a gov- ernor and he would be just as much constitutionally bound to obey them as if they were “instructions” accompanying the commission. I draw special attention to the fact that it was correctly laid down by Lord Stanley in 1843,’ that any rule “in restraint of the royal pre- rogative, and obligatory on the Crown itself, is as fully established and is as binding when laid down in her majesty’s name, in pursuance of the com- mands which the Queen has been pleased to lay on me for that purpose, as if it were incorporated in the royal instructions.” The constitution of Nova Scotia and the provinces has been largely moulded by despatches. The whole system of responsible government which regulates the relations of the Crown and the ministry with parliament, and, in fact, has placed the prerogative in abeyance in important particulars, originated in such despatches as that of Lord Stanley on the 20th August, 1845. In no statute, passed with the consent of the Crown, is there an enactment that the royal prerogative to choose its ministers is to be guided by the fact that ministers can only be chosen when they have the confidence of the popular house, and that they must resign when they do not possess it.’ Where is there legal authority for limiting the royal prerogative with respect to public officers who hold office during pleasure ? On this point it is well observed by a high authority :* ‘It would be perfectly legal, though neither just or politic, for an incoming minister to obtain from the Crown as a proof of confidence the dismissal of every civil servant who holds his office during pleasure.” Another high authority * has truly said with respect to ‘what the Queen might do without consulting parliament,” simply by the exercise of prerogative rights which have never been expressly legislated away : “Not to mention other things she could disband the army (by law she cannot engage more than a certain number of men, but she is not obliged to engage any men) ; she could dismiss all the officers, from the general commander-in-chief downwards ; she could dismiss all the sailors, too ; she could sell off all our ships of war and all our naval stores ; she could ‘See Baron Maseres’s ‘‘Can. Freeholder,” vol. ii., p. 225. He was Attorney- General of Canada. 2 See above, paragraph, xxvii., p. 155. *See Todd’s “‘ Parl. Govt. in the Colonies,” 2nd ed., p. 74; Bourinot’s ‘ Cons. ISt.; = psag: $ + Anson’s “‘ Law of the Constitution,” ii., p. 203. > See Dicey’s “ Law of the Constitution ” p. 390, citing Bagehot. 170 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA make a peace by the sacrifice of Cornwall, and begin a war for the con- quest of Brittany. She could make every citizen in the United Kingdom, male or female, a peer; she could make every parish in the United King- dom a ‘university’; she could dismiss most of the civil servants ; she could pardon all offenders. In a word, the Queen could by prerogative upset all the action of civil government within the government, could disgrace the nation by a bad war or peace, and could, by disbanding our forces, whether land or sea, leave us defenceless against foreign nations.” But by conventions, understandings and usages that have grown up with parliamentary government since the Revolution, the sovereign’s prerogatives in these and other respects have been limited, qualified and even annulled in practice. In the same way the Crown’s prerogative in the government of the Canadian provinces has within a half century been modified and even annulled by the action of the principles of respon- sible government. All these conventions, understandings and usages might not be cited in a court of law, but they have just as much force in the operation of our political system as a statutory enactment, and are respected and carried out by the Crown and the political cabinet or execu- tive. Applying these well understood and commonly accepted principles to the question now immediately before us, we can well understand the argument that the exercise of the prerogative of the Crown with respect to the legislative council is now regulated by an understanding, laid down in the first place in distinct language in the despatch of the 20th August, 1845, under the express command of the Sovereign. The whole system of responsible government does not rest on a more legal or secure basis. The commission and instructions to Lord Monck do not disturb that basis. On the contrary, the modifications that therein appear, and the very general tenor of the clause with respect to suspension of persons appointed during pleasure, go to show the desire of the Crown to leave all questions affecting the self-government of the province to be regulated by law and usage under the new conditions of responsible government. The governor-in-council had large powers with respect to internal admin- istration under the old regime of an irresponsible executive, and a gov- ernor constantly acting under special instructions from the imperial authorities. Constitutionally the instructions contained in the despatch of the 20th August were always in force until repealed by other instruc- tions. Briefly summed up, the constitution of Nova Scotia in this parti- cular was in 1867 as follows, in my opinion : (a) The legislative council formed a nominated or upper house of a legislative body, the other branches of which were a lieutenant-governor, representing the Crown, and an assembly representing directly the people. (b) The council formed part of a system of legislative and constitu- tional government sanctioned by the Sovereign in 1758. This house had [BoURINOT] CANADIAN CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY 12 legislative functions co-ordinate with those of the assembly except as respects bills of revenue, expenditure and taxation, which it could not initiate or amend though it might reject them. (c) That in granting that constitution, and in conceding legislative rights to the people in 1758, the Sovereign gave up his rights to legis- late directly by prerogative, and the Crown in parliament, as the supreme legislative authority of the Empire, could alone legislate for the province- as for other dependencies of the Empire, in matters of imperial concern and necessity. (d) That the rights of legislation conceded to Nova Scotia were given to three branches, and not to one alone, and that the legislative council as a whole had absolute rights and responsibilities as a part of the legis- lative framework, and its place in that structure should not be disturbed by any arbitrary exercise of the royal prerogative. It is a question whether at any time after 1758 the Crown could constitutionally legislate it away as a whole body by the mere exercise of the royal prerogative, though it might increase and limit its membership and regulate the tenure of office, since a total abolition would seem to be an infringement of the constitution conceded to Canada in 1758. The Crown in parliament could alone suspend or legislate away the constitution of the province, after the Crown had once conceded the right of legislation and self-govern- ment by three branches, as was done in the case of Lower Canada in 1838 and proposed by Lord Melbourne in the case of Jamaica in 1839, (e) That while the Crown had not given up its theoretical right to appoint members of the council only during pleasure, it had by agree- ment and usage for many years previous to 1867 practically yielded its right, and conceded a tenure for life, subject to certain rules and con- ditions as set forth in the despatch of 20th August, 1845. (f) That consequently, in the opinion of the writer, the constitution of the council up to 1867 was unalterable except by the authority of the Crown in parliament, and its individual members were subject to certain conditions accompanying a tenure during good behaviour for life. (g) That since 1867 the constitution of the council remains as just set forth, subject to such amendments and alterations as have been made by the statutory authority vested by the British North America Act of 1867 in the legislature of the province. (h) That the lieutenant-governor of the province, as representing the Crown, may suspend or dismiss a legislative councillor, who falls within the conditions of the despatch' of August 20th, 1845, but he has no power to interfere with the constitution of the legislative council as a whole, or by the cancelling of the commissions and consequent dis- missal of members, one by one, to abolish the body, as that would be 1 See above, paragraphs xix., xx. . 172 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA clearly an illegal and unconstitutional act, in view of the fact that the British North America Act gives power over the constitution to the legislative authority alone. (7) That by the British North America Act of 1867 the legislature of Nova Scotia —.e., its three branches conjointly—can alone by statute abolish the legislative council as a branch of this legislative authority, and the Crown in the imperial parliament could not legislate in this direction except by a repeal of the clause in the union act of 1867, giving the provincial legislature the power to amend the provincial constitution except as respects the office of lieutenant-governor. In 1879 the council rejected a measure passed by, the assembly for the abolition of the upper house, and the assembly subsequently passed an address to the Queen, praying that the imperial parliament might pass an act empowering the lieutenant-governor to increase the number of legislative councillors so that the measure in question might be passed. The secretary of state for the colonies, in refusing the prayer of the address, called special attention to the fact that under sections 88 and 92 of the British North Americz Act of 1867 “ the power of amending the constitution of the province has been vested in the provincial legislature, and ‘the circumstances,’ as. placed before him did not lead him to conclude that ‘an alteration of the constitution has been proved to be necessary.’ ' Undoubtedly the Crown in council and Crown in parliament have, by the terms of the British North America Act, delegated all powers they had previous to 1867 to the legislature of Nova Scotia with respect to the amendment of the constitution. The Crown now possesses only such rights as it possessed previous to the passage of the British North America Act, but these are subject to amendment with respect to the tenure of oftice of legislative councillor, and the continuance of the council as à branch of the legis- lature. The parliament of Great Britain can now only intervene under conditions of provincial incapacity to discharge its legislative functions under the British North America Act, and the circumstances would have to be very exceptional and extraordinary that would entitle the provincial legislature to imperil intervention in a matter exclusively placed under its legislative jurisdiction as a matter immediately connected with the internal affairs of a self-governing province. I need only say in conclusion, it will be seen by my readers, that in treating this grave constitutional question, [ have taken into consideration not simply its purely legal aspect, but also necessarily all those principles, maxims and usages which enter into the working of the constitutional system of England and all her self-governing dependencies, which play 1 See also a later despatch of the Marquis of Ripon, 3rd December, 1894, in which he states that Her Majesty’s government ‘‘consider that as the province has the power to alter its constitution, if it sees fit to do so, a resort to in:perial legislation would be inexpedient except in circumstances of urgent necessity ” [BOURINOT] CANADIAN CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY 173 as important a part in the operation of the constitutional machinery as any statutes, which give at once flexibility and stability to the frame- work and enable it to work as a rule with remarkable effectiveness, and which cannot be rudely touched and broken without doing undeniable injury to the whole fabric of government in the Dominion and its provinces. Pee f * a ~ L : x,* re Meu: Pea x es si F. SECTION II., 1896. [175] TRANS: R: S.C IX.—A Monograph of the Place-nomenclature of the Province of New . Brunswick. (Contributions to the History of New Brunswick, No. 2.) de By WizzraM F. Ganone, M.A., Ph.D? (Presented by Dr. George Stewart, F.R.G.S., and read May 19, 1896.) CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION. PART Î.—AN ESSAY TOWARDS AN UNDERSTANDING OF THE PRINCIPLES OF PLAGE-NOMENCLATURE. 1. On the Qualities of Place-names. 2. How Place-names originate, change, and persist or become ex- tinct. 3. On the Investigation of Place-names. Part I].—Tue Historica, DEVELOPMENT OF THE PLACE-NOMENCLA- TURE OF NEW Brunswick. 1. Nomenclature of the Indian Period. : 2. Nomenclature of the Explorers—Norsemen to Champlain. 3. Nomenclature of the French Period. 4. Nomenclature of the New England Period. 5. Nomenclature of the Loyalist Period. 6. Nomenclature of the Post-Loyalist Period. 7. Present and Future of the Place-nomenclature of the Province. Part I1.—A DICTIONARY OF THE PLACE-NAMES OF NEw BRUNSWICK, APPENDIX.—Sources of Information. Bibliography. Cartography. INTRODUCTION. The scientific investigation of the principles and historical develop- ment of the place-nomenclature of particular countries is a study hardly yet in esteem among us. It is the custom to consider it, in this country at least, as an appropriate hobby for elderly men of leisure, but as hardly worthy the serious attention and exact methods of trained investigators. Tt is true, it does not represent the highest kind of historic research, which consists in the elucidation of movements and institutions; but it surely deserves a leading place among those antiquarian studies, whose function it is to throw side-lights upon history and supply it with details, but which, at the same time, constitute to most men the greatest charm of historical study. Sec. IT., 1896. 12. 176 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA The values of exact and exhaustive study of place-nomenclature in limited districts are as follows : First. It contributes to historical facts. It gives evidence of the presence of earlier or pre-historic races ; of their migrations ; in old countries, even of their habits and grade of civilization, and of the structure of their language. It locates exactly the sites of historical events, and makes the geography of old documents intelligible. It renders great service to cartography, with which indeed it is inseparably bound up. Second. It contributes to education in facilitating the study of history and geography, of which it is a connecting link. Place-names form a permanent register or index of the course and events of a country’s history ; they are the fossils exposed in the cross-section of that history, marking its successive periods; and so lusting are they that records in stone or brass are not to be compared with them for endurance. Scarcely a great event in a country’s life fails to leave evidence of its happening in some place-name, and the skilful teacher may use these to make the event seem more real, to arouse interest, tix attention and aid memory. Third. It contributes to desirable uniformity and relative stability in the use of place-names, and supplies data for appropriate nomenclature in the future. Where more than one form of a name is in use, reference to its origin and history will always show which should be adopted. The making known of pleasing and appropriate historic names, which have become obsolete, may suggest their revival as new ones are needed in the future—an obvious gain. Fourth and last, though not least, it has a subjective, or if one pleases, a hobby value, in that it offers to non-professional students a subject which calls forth the exercise of the best investigating faculties, with the accompanying pure and keen intellectual pleasures. To realize these values, at least the first three, the theory and history of place-nomenclature in the given country must be fully and accurately known, not merely as a collection of curious and interesting derivations, but philosophically, in the light of its evolution, The logical basis for such knowledge is a monograph, which shall treat in summary the abstract principles of the general subject, its historical development in the particular district, and the individual history of each name. Such a work not only renders present knowledge available to the historian, the teacher, the geographer, but it forms the best possible basis for further investigation. In this spirit the present work is offered to those whom it may interest. [GAnona] PLACE-NOMENCLATURE OF NEW BRUNSWICK 177 PART TL AN Essay TowARDS AN UNDERSTANDING OF THE PRINCIPLES OF PLACE- NOMENCLATURE. The place-nomenclature of any given region is the product of an evolution which is the resultant of the operation of many causes, which fall into two divisions of supreme importance. First, there are the prin- ciples which control the giving, changing and persisting of names in general ; these are not written, nor even, as a rule, consciously recognized, but are the result of the mode of working of the human mind ; in other words, they are psychological. They differ somewhat in different races, and especially with different grades or kinds of civilization, but in the main they are everywhere the same. Their influence may be compared with that of heredity in the evolution of organisms. Secondly, there is the actual history or sequence of movements and events in the discovery, exploration, settlement and subsequent progress of the given region, all influenced strongly by its physiography, and applicable, of course, to that particular region alone. Its influence is comparable to that of en- vironment in organic evolution. As in an organism, heredity gives the groundwork, leaving environment to mould the exact details of form, so in place-nomenclature the psychological composition of the race-mind de- termines how names shall arise and grow, while the history of the par- ticular place supplies their exact form. It is well to examine apart these two phases of the subject, since the first is of very wide application, while the second belongs in the present work to New Brunswick alone. To examine the general principles more exactly, it is convenient to inquire into, first, those qualities of place-names which give them their character ; second, how they arise, alter, persist or die out ; third, how they may best be investigated. 1. On the Qualities of Places Names. Names of places, or of anything else, are primarily mere symbols— conveniences for connecting, through the medium of sound, material objects with mental impressions. Their use depends entirely upon that co-operation of sound-perception and memory by which a certain sound, or set of sounds, can come to recall unconsciously an image of an associ- ated object before the mind ; and it is not in the least necessary that there shall be any relation or connection between sound and object other than that of habitual association. This is very plain in the case of the most important of all names, those of people. Nor for convenience in their 178 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA use does it matter in the least how that association originally came about, whether the sounds imitate a noise made by the object in case it be animal or audible phenomenon, or whether, as is most common, they describe some quality of it, or whether it arose in some other now for- gotten fashion,—association, and that only, is the leading attribute of a name. While, therefore, it is association which gives names their value, and some ancient circumstance which supplies the sounds, the exact forms which they have are controlled by a series of secondary principles, of which the greatest is that of convenience, which means in the main, economy of effort, mental and physical, and which is therefore physio- logical as well as psychological ; and the number and exact combinations of sounds used are thus fixed. All names of places do not appeal to us as equally pleasing, and the reasons for their differences are worthy of analysis. When, for the first time, we hear or read a new place-name, it may strike us in any one of several ways—as grand, sonorous, pretty, pathetic, uncouth or ludicrous. Our sensations in this case are, of course, in part personal or individual, and influenced by our own experiences ; names of places where we have suffered become hateful to us, and memories of a happy childhood may make pleasing the most uncouth of names; and feelings called up by these are extended to others which at all resemble them. But, in addition to the taste in names thus peculiar to each individual, he shares at the same time, to a greater or less extent, in the taste for names characteristic of the race or nation of which he isa member. That this national taste exists there is everywhere evidence. Thus, to the average American, most of the place-names of England seem dignified and pleasing—so that he has adopted very many of them ; those of Italy seem musical ; those of Arctic America often pathetic ; those of China awkward, and those of the newer west absurd. The origin of this race-taste is complex, but in general we may recognize that there has developed in any given people, as the aggregate result of the experiences of the past, a certain taste in such matters which forms a standard with which new experiences are unconsciously compared and tested, with the result that they fall into their proper categories as above. How widely the standards in place- names differ with different peoples speaking different languages, becomes plain on inspection of their maps. We have now to examine our own race-taste in place-names ; in other words, to learn what ones are among us considered as the best, and why? In general, no doubt, we give first place to those which, at the same time, are pleasing in sound, suggest no incongruous ideas, and involve no confusion of localities—that is, the best place-names are those which possess MELODY, Dieniry and INDIVIDUALITY. Mertopy.—This consists in a well-balanced succession of pleasing, easily-pronounced sounds. It is the vowels which give the musical note, [GANONG] PLACE-NOMENCLATURE OF NEW BRUNSWICK 179 but these alone wouid lack strength, which the consonants supply. In our language we prefer a fair balance of the two, and run neither so far to the one as do the Italians, nor to the other as the Germans. Thus America, Canada, Metapedia, Yosemite, are to us musical, though we are not averse to more consonants and greater strength, as in Oregon, Labra- dor, Restigouche, especially when they are sonorous. But strong gutterals and nasals are not so pleasing, especially when repeated, as Hong Kong, Pokiok, Skager Rack. The history of place-names shows that they always tend, in time, to become, if not more melodious, at least more simple and easy to pronounce, as will later be shown. If sounds difficult to pronounce in succession come accidentally together, alterations for greater ease follow by processes well understood by students of philology. Dianity.—This consists in freedom from incongruous associations, together with such a series of sounds as conveys to the mind somewhat the same impression that the place itself does. The very association of sound with object, which makes names possible at all, carries drawbacks with its advantages ; objects are numberless, while distinct sounds and easy combinations are few, so that we must use the same sound for different objects, and many are so alike as to be easily confounded, on which depends the existence of puns. Hence, in place-names, the sounds often suggest other and distinct ideas, and when these are, by contrast, incongruous or absurd, the name, as a whole, is spoiled and lacks dignity. Our best names contain ‘no such suggestions, but it is otherwise with Bagdad, Skowhegan, Pugwash, and many names of the new west. Con- nected with dignity is the charm of the unfamiliar, to be spoken of again. It is because they are usually unlike common words that aboriginal names are often so good. Again, though sound and object have no necessary connection except association, it is nevertheless true that certain sounds, or combinations, do of themselves convey distinct impressions— some of calm strength ; others of ruggedness; others of prettiness ; others of amusement; and when these sounds or names are applied to places which themselves convey the corresponding impressions, those names have dignity. Thus, through their sounds alone, Monadnock and Katahdin are dignified names for mountains ; Miagara for a great water- fall, and Minnehaha for a smaller one; Amazon for a great river, Mira- michi for a smaller; while Kalamazoo or Timbuctoo, no matter to what applied, make everybody smile. How important the mere sound is in conveying impressions every poet and novelist knows well ; and Milton, as often quoted, has marshalled splendidly some of the grandest of them in “ Paradise Lost.” . The length of place-names has something to do with their dignity. Those we recognize as best have oftenest three syllables, frequently four ; sometimes two and rarely one ; and, in general, the most pleasing names are somewhat longer than those less pleasant. The reason for this is no 180 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA doubt in part practical, since two or three-syllabled names are more easy to comprehend and less liable to confusion with others than are shorter ones; but aside from this, it seems to be true that a sense of greater importance and power is conveyed by longer words, and the chance for conveying by the sounds impressions of grandeur, wildness, etc., is certainly greater. When we pass in review the more important place-names, we find, as a rule, that they are dignified and pleasing. Indeed, it is difficult to find examples of displeasing or undignified names which apply to large geogra- phical features. This is true of the continents, oceans, great mountain ranges, most provinces, states and large cities. If we seek the reason for this two explanations occur: first, that long association with grand objects has made the names seem grand; second, that a process of modi- fication and selection has brought the names to a form that is pleasing. The second I hold to be mainly true, though with some help from the first, and it is borne out by the way in which we give to foreign names a form of our own. It implies in the race a certain rough poetry, an unconscious perception that large and dignified places should be appro- priately named. The trivial names which displease us in new countries are those of small places ; our western provinces and states are them- selves grandly named, and even the bad minor names disappear as civili- zation advances. No doubt advancing culture tends to eliminate bad names, as it does bad pictures and furniture. Most large places have at different times had different names, and itis usual to consider that accident has chiefly determined which one has survived ; but I think the cause of the final choice is to be found much more in the unconscious agreement among men as to which of them is most fitting to that place. Untquensss.—This consists chiefly in the application of a name to a single place, so that but a single idea is associated with it, That place- name is one of the best when no added word is necessary in order that it may be perfectly understood. We can say Amazon, Pyrenees, Chicago, Nova Scotia, and each conveys a single idea which no added words can make clearer; but Quebec, Ottawa, Washington, need added words for identification, and these delay and make less'pleasing the reception of the intended idea. Uniqueness may even make a name otherwise not good seem pleasing, as Medicine Hat, Burnt Church. No matter how excellent a name may be in itself, it is cheapened by extension to other places. In this analysis 1 have so far taken no account of another quality of place-names, often spoken of, their appropriateness in meaning to the place; but this is an incidental not an essential quality. It consists in either ; first, the sounds in the name may express accidentally (not etymo- logically) some attribute of the place, as Jutland [i.e., Juteland] ; or, second, the name when analysed etymologically is found to contain a word, or compound of words, of our own or a foreign language, describ- [GANONG | PLACE-NOMENCLATURE OF NEW BRUNSWICK 181 ing a peculiarity of the place, either a physical characteristic (Pacisic, Hau Claire), its position (North Cape, Transvaal), the occurrence of some object (Montana, Gold Coast), ownership (England), or some event (Newfoundland). When a name is otherwise good it certainly is an added advantage if it contains also a descriptive or otherwise appropriate meaning ; its association with the place is thereby the closer, and our sense of fitness is gratified. But no degree of fitness of meaning can compensate for lack of melody and dignity, at least from an æsthetic point of view, though for practical purposes it may. Indeed, by many people, principally the uneducated, descriptive names are preferred, no doubt because of their convenience, i.e., their economy both of language and ideas; but with advancing culture comes greater pleasure and pre- cision in words, and, hence, less adherence to common descriptive phrases. From the present point of view, place-names are of three classes : first, those in our own language whose meaning is at once clear; second, those in our own language whose meaning is obscured by changes ; third, those in a foreign language. Of these, as a rule, the second and third are better than the first, for the latter are likely to suffer in dignity from their very familiarity, but the others, while holding a meaning which brings pleasure in the discovery, have, with other good qualities, all of the charm of the unfamiliar or unknown. That there is charm in the unknown all experience shows, and the power of a ritual in a strange tongue, the call to fortune in a far-off land, the attractiveness of names left by forgotten races, all are phases of one principle. The very best of all names, then, I hold to be those which are melo- dious in sound, dignified in form, unique in application, and which, be- | neath an unfamiliar form, possess a meaning exactly appropriate to the place. 2. How place-names originate, change and persist, or become extinct. How THEY ORIGINATE.—This may occur in either of two ways: first, they spring up without intention as it were, spontaneously ; second, they are deliberately given by those in authority. In the former case they are for the most part originally descriptive, given by aboriginal peoples and by the more primitive class of civilized races, and apply to natural features. In the latter case they may be descriptive, but are oftener commemorative, and are given by explorers, by settlers after deliberation, or by legislators, and apply oftenest to artificial divisions. Of all place-names, those of descriptive origin are far the most numerous and important. There are some eight classes of them, expressing : 1. The common noun and article when the place is single, as the city, the river, etc., used precisely as proper nouns. 182 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 2. Physical features, as colour (Red Head), size (Big Brook), shape (Long Island), composition (Rocky Mountains), number (Three Islands). 3. Resemblance to well-known objects (Sugar Loaf, Old Friar). 4. Impressions made on“ the beholder, either pleasant (Mount Pleasant), or uncanny (Devil’s Slide). 5. Position, as to the compass (North Lake), on a stream (Upper Kingsclear). 6. Occurrence of some object there, as animals (Gannet Rock), plants (Birch Ridge). 7. Ownership, by a people (Jndian Village), or an individual. 8. An associated event, as the exploit of a man (Pike's Peak), a battle (Battle Hill), a conflagration (Burnt Church). Among aboriginal peoples names of the seventh class are, for small features, wanting, and those of the second most abundant. Their names apply only to features of importance in their mode of life, to rivers, lakes, mountains, etc., and where now applied to artificial features, that is sub- sequent and by white men. They need and have no generic names for countries ; these are always described by the name of the people in- habiting them. Among the more primitive classes of civilized peoples on the other hand, ownership names, for places limited enough to have a single owner, are commonest of all, of course on account of their convenience, and after them come the other classes is nearly equal proportions. One may find primitive names of these kinds, unaffected by legislation, in the verbal nomenclature of country people and sailors, and with particular perfec- tion in that of river-drivers. (See later under St. Croix.) In their very origin the names in all of these classes are simply descriptive phrases, common nouns and adjectives ; black point is at first only a shorter way of saying the point which is black, but gradually by use the name becomes so associated with the place that it recalls it by its very sound, without the intermediation of the descriptive idea, and when this occurs it has become a proper noun, has attained its majority and become a true place-name ; and when by alterations through use or change of language its original meaning is no longer prominent or even recognizable, it rises in rank among place-names. There are prevalent many erroneous origins for names of this class, as will be discussed later under the investigation of place-names. Of names deliberately given, there are three important classes : 1. Those of explorers. 3. Those of legislators. 2. Those of settlers. 4. Invented or fanciful names. The earliest explorations are usually hasty and of wide range ; names are given abundantly and while often descriptive are more often com- memorative of (a) some event of the voyage (Port Mouton), (b) sensations upon the discovery (Cape of Good Hope), (c) day of asaint (St. Lawrence), [GANONG ] PLACE-NOMENCLATURE OF NEW BRUNSWICK 183 (d) a patron of the voyage, (e) the reigning monarch. Cartier, forexample, gave many such. Sometimes the explorer’s name becomes attached to his discovery (Æudsons Bay). Names of this kind often persist, many remain long upon maps without other actual use, sometimes wandering about from place to place, but many disappear. Later, when exploration is more careful, if there is friendly intercourse with the natives manyeof their names are adopted, but if there is enmity from the start, few of these can be learned. New Brunswick and Nova Scotia where French and Indians long were friends are rich in native names, while New- foundland has hardly one. When as a result of official explorations, settlements are formed, the rulers at home give names usually to honour some royal person, or perhaps for political effect : such are Virginia, Carolina. For smaller places the new settlers themselves find names, adopting those of the natives, or in consultation together choosing that of the old home, of patron, friend, ruler, or often a biblical name. A people devoted to the church, as the French, give many names of Saints to their settlements, which is plain in Quebec ; and the presence of names of this kind is the greatest difference between our place-nomenclature and that of Europe, where most of the place-names go back to heathen times. Later the local legislators establish and name counties and townships, choosing names very commonly from the titles of prominent men in the old country ; it is thus that many English placenames have been adopted by us ; they were not given in remembrance of the places, but in honour of the Dukes, Karls and other Lords, who happened to have them in their titles. Later, when independence of the Mother Country is achieved, there awakens a local pride ; native or aboriginal names are revived, as in the newer States of the Union, and the fathers of the Republic are abundantly commemorated. If the supply from these two sources fails, they may again be brought from Europe, but this time not from the Mother Country, but from a classical region the common property of all, as has happened in New York State. Commemorative or other imported names lose their interest etymologically as soon as they are traced to another locality. Names are often deliberately invented, as in /ndianapolis, Collina, or are fanciful, as Cocagne,Utopia, and the results may be good, but when formed with the deliberate idea of poetry, as often about summer resorts, they are rarely successful. How THEY CHANGE.—Changes in place-names may be so complete that the extreme forms are no more alike than the infancy and age of a man, yet be the same individual. The chief cause of change is transfer from one language to another, which results in (1) changes in sound due to hearing wrongly the unfamiliar syllables ; (2) familiarization or alter- ation of the unfamiliar into the nearest familiar sounds ; the principles 184 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA controlling such changes have been fully worked out for other words by philologists and are given at length in their books, expressed sometimes as laws. Familiarization may go farther than change of sounds, and alter whole words to make them like familiar ones, which is one of the com- monest principles of nomenclature (Manawoganish in New Brunswick has become Mahogany.) Further, it may bring words really distinct in origin though somewhat alike in sound into an identical form, and probably it is for this reason that there is a Miramichi in New Brunswick and in Massachussetts, and a Madawaska in New Brunswick, in Ontario and in New York ; (3) translation though this is not common, (4) incorporation of articles or other words with the name, to form one word to which are sometimes added other words of similar import though in the familiar tongue, as occurs in several of the place-names of England. A second cause of change is simplification. There is a constant tendency, the physiological result of the operation of convenience or economy, to shorten words and eliminate hard or awkward sounds, or even easily pronounceable syllables if these are very numerous, This is especially plain in the nomenclature of old countries like England where the names have been worn so smooth by centuries of friction that they are for our tongues well-nigh ideal. In the names of a new country spelling and pronunciation usually correspond, but as they change it is pronunciation which takes the lead and spelling follows unwillingly, often lagging so far behind, especially in old countries, as England, that the two can scarcely be recognized as companions. Changes may also be caused by misprints in important documents or maps. It is possible that the accidental omission of an r in De Monts’ Commission of 1603 changed the ancient Larcadia to the modern Acadia. How THEY PERSIST OR BECOME EXTINCT.—The chief cause of per- sistence of place-names is inertia ; convenience is against changes, which require unwelcome effort, and usually it requires a great revolution of some kind to overcome a custom well fixed. Attachment to great natural features helps names to persist and in newly explored countries official maps have great influence in this direction. They become extinct in large numbers when there is a change of race with a different language, or again when a region is for a longer or shorter time abandoned as occurred in places in Acadia after the expulsion of the Acadians. Other causes of extinction are the repiacement of one name by another when a great event, such as a battle happens, and the unconscious or deliberate replace- ment as a place grows in importance and culture of a trivial name by one with dignity, as has already been explained. [ GANONG] PLACE-NOMENCLATURE OF NEW BRUNSWICK 185 3. On the Investigation of Place-Names. To find an origin for a place-name is usually easy, but to find the true origin is often difficult and sometimes impossible. The great leading principle in their investigation is this,—to trace them back through the documents to the very earliest discoverable form, if possible to the first written form. Often this gives the origin at once, particularly if it be a name given officially by explorers or legislators ; and where it is not at once plain, reference to contemporary history will usually show for what ruler, patron, or event it has been given. The most satisfactory of all origins to find are those where the author of a name tells us when and why he gave it (St. Lawrence, Cocagne). Names given by pioneers and early settlers are often explained by the earliest forms in contemporary documents written before they have had time to change materially. Aboriginal names are not thus explained, of course, but the earliest recorded form is usually much nearer to the true ab- original word than the modern and often greatly altered one. Having obtained the earliest form, if the origin is still obscure, the character of the document and its relation to contemporary history must be taken into account and the nature of the other place-names mentioned therein compared, and analogy will supply hints for further search. Next the aid of philology must be invoked, especially for native names which present the greatest difficulty. Where the native races still survive, one goes, of course, to the most intelligent individuals and by questioning them and comparing the independent answers of several can arrive at certainty in many points. But far better than the authority of the natives themselves is that of a trained philologist who knows their language and the localities, for he knows not only their words and how they apply them, but can correlate, compare and apply principles in a way they cannot. Here as elsewhere in human affairs, it is only the application of the greatest scientific skill, the most critical and judicial methods that can give the best results. ‘lhe speculations of early writers, before the period of critical investigation, about origins, are of little value, Thus Lescarbot’s speculation on the location of Cartier’s names are worthless, and those of Cooney and Gesner in New Brunswick cannot fully be trusted. In cases where the form of a word is plain but the cause of its ap- plication obscure, contemporary history must be searched, and where this fails, tradition may be consulted. But tradition is the least trustworthy of evidence, and in affairs beyond the memory of the narrator quite as likely to be wrong as right, while for affairs of ancient date it is worse than valueless. This is chiefly because the mind of man while craving an explanation for remarkable things is satisfied with a reasonable explanation and does not crave conviction as to its correctness. Hence 186 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA legends, guided chiefly by accidental resemblances between words, grow up to explain the origin of place-names whose real origin has been forgotten. Europe is full of such (Antwerp, Mouse Tower on the Rhine, etc.). But every region even in a new country must supply examples (T'ormentine, Midgic in New Brunswick), and they are com- mon among aboriginal peoples (Chignecto). Many of these stories, no doubt. are manufactured originally with no more intention of deception than fairy tales or Santa Claus legends, while others probably have grown by slight unconscious additions from different narrators. Such explana- tions always explain the name in its present form, and its history as traced in documents often shows it to be very different. Sometimes, however, tradition, and often would-be philologists, who can find no explanation in the present language, and more or less conscious of the great changes which names undergo, trace it back into another and fit the explanation to it there (Shepody from Chapeau Dieu), or it is sup- posed to arise from some expression said to be often repeated (as Canada from the Spanish Aca nada). Errors of these, or indeed of other kinds, once introduced are repeated without investigation by one author from another, especially in books of travel, etc., and often become widely believed. There is probably no subject in which there is wilder theorizing or more desire to upset received explanations than in this division of philology. For later events, however, tradition has its value, but always must be used with caution. It will be possible, I think, in time, for philologists to work out for the investigation of place-names a series not only of principles but of laws, which would be of the widest applicability and greatest usefulness. PAR TSI: Tue HtsrortcaL DEVELOPMENT OF THE PLACE-NOMENCLATURE OF New Brunswick. While the place-nomenclature of New Brunswick, like that of other new countries, lacks the charm and polish of antiquity, it has with them the advantage that its history is largely preserved in documents, and over many of them the advantage that the languages of its native tribes are still spoken. The history of its development, therefore, falls into periods answering exactly to the periods of its general history which for New 3runswick are as follows : 1. The Indian Period. 2. The Period of Exploration, the Norsemen to Champlain, 1000-1604. 3, The French Period, 1605-1760. 4. The New England Period, 1760-1783. 5. The Loyalist Period, 1783-1790. 6. The Post-Loyalist Period, 1790-1896. 7. Present and Future. [GANONG ] PLACE-NOMENCLATURE OF NEW BRUNSWICK 187 1. The Indian Period. The place-names of Indian origin in New Brunswick are as follows : In MALISEET TERRITORY. Madawaska Nashwaaksis Quisibis Nashwaak Siegas Napudagan W aagansis Budagan Aroostook Udenack Milnagec Cleuristic Milpagos Penniac Mamozekel Oromocto Nictau Rushagonis Gulquac Waasis Wapskehegan Maquapit Odelloch Jemseg Odell Grimross Pokiok Otnabog Muniac Washademoak Guisiguit Coak Munquart Nerepis Shikatehawk Milkish Becaguimec Kennebecasis Meduxnakeag Anagance Meductic A pohaqui Pocowogamis Ossekeag Sheogomoc Pickwaaket Pokiok Nauwigewauk Nacawicac Mispec Coac ; Pisarinco Mactaquac Manawoganish (Mahogany) Keswick And the obsolete, Woolastook Aucpaque Woolastookwo gamis Pascobac Ourangabena By familiarization, Patticake Swan Creek By translation, Spoon Island Moosepath (And possibly) Moosehorn Partridge Island Devils Back Long Island 188 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA The probably misapplied, Ouigoudi Probably, Troquois Magundy Possibly, Pokomoonshine Later made-up names, Saagumook Quispamsis Passekeag Yoho Musquash Sunpoke Penobsquis Plumweseep. In PASSAMAQUODDY TERRITORY. Chiputneticook (Chepedneck) Canoose Mohannes Waweig Passamaquoddy Chamcook Bocabec And the obsolete, Scoodic Possibly, Mascabin And the later made-up, Tomoowa Possibly by translation, Deer Island Digdeguash Magaguadavic Piskahegan Midgic Manan Popelogan Connosquamcook Maces Bay Peltoma In Micmac TERRITORY. Restigouche Waagan Gounamitz Kedgewick Patapedia Upsalquitch Nigadoo Tête-à-gauche Nepisiguit Pokeshaw Pokesudie Shippegan Alemek Napan Escuminae Kouchibouguac Kouchibouguacsis Richibucto Buctouche Aldouane Chockpish Mahalowodan Shediae Scadoue A boushagan Shemogue [GANONG] PLACE-NOMENCLATURE OF NEW BRUNSWICK 189 Miscou Tedish Pokemouche Tignish Mattempeck Misseguash Tracadie Westcock Maliget. Chignecto Tabusintac Midgic Eskedelloc Joggins Neguac Memramcook Tomogonops Petitcodiac Waubigut Shepody Winigut Quiddy Sevogle Quaco Semiwagan And the obsolete, Mistouche Chacodi Medisco Minaqua Probably, LaNim Waugh Antinouri Possibly, Caraquette Miramichi Vin (Bay du) Sabbies Imported, Popelogan There are certain others which, not directly of Indian but of much later origin, have been suggested by their presence. Such are Indiantown, Indian Point, Island, Village, Beach, ete., Squaw Cap, and yet others which have been given by the whites for Indians who have lived there, simple ownership names. Such are the rivers: Barnabys, Renous, Bartholomews, Cains, Taxis, Pollet, Tobique, probably Bartibog, perhaps Molus, Dennis. This list takes no account of the great number of names not on our maps, but in constant use by the Indians themselves, the more important of which may be found in the dictionary. — The length of the list shows how rich the province is in Indian names. This we owe chiefly to the French, whose close friendship with the Indians led to the adoption of so many of their names. Nearly all in the above list occur in French documents and maps. It will be noticed that with only three or four exceptions, they apply to rivers, lakes or harbours ; and this is because of the great importance of waterways in a heavily wooded country like New Brunswick, where they formed the aboriginal highways on which French and Indians travelled together. It is needful now to examine the construction of Maliseet and Micmac place names. In the absence of exact philological data, this must be 190 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA largely empirical, and my chief source of information is the questioning of the most intelligent Indians, further references to whom will be found in the Appendix. In some words all Indians agree as to the construc- tion and meaning; and give the roots, as in Tomogonops, Magaguadavic, Pocowogamis ; in others a majority agree upon one interpretation, but some dissent as in Sheogomoc, while about others there is the widest dit- ference of opinion as in Restigouche. It is only by gathering data from as many and reliable sources as possible, and carefully correlating all, that results of value can be obtained; single statements are almost worthless. There is much popular misunderstanding about Indian place-names ; they are supposed all to have a meaning exactly descriptive of the place and perfectly intelligible to every Indian. As a matter of fact a large proportion of their names are no more understood by the Indians than are the names of England by the average Englishman, and of those which are plain to them, many do not describe any quality of the place, but refer to some event supposed to have occurred there, while others are purely legendary. The question of constancy of Indian names is important and has three phases, (1) do they shift their positions from one place to another ? (2) is one name replaced by another for the same place? (3) does the form of the individual word change much in time? Of (1) I have found no case ; of (2) the only example I have met with is where the aboriginal name has gone out of use and been replaced by a translation of the English name, as in the case of Grand Lake. As to (3) most of their place-names have remained very constant for two hundred years as the following examples will show; allowance must be made for the French pronuncia- tion of the earlier forms, and they must be chosen from the most care- fully prepared documents. Happily we possess these in records left by deMeulles, St. Valier, Gyles, Jumeau : Present name. Present Muliseet Old forms. pronunciation. Meductic Me-dog’-teg Medoctet, 1684, d’'Amours Seigniory Medogtek, 1688, St. Vallier Medocktack, 1689, Gyles Madawask: Med-a-wes’-kak Medouaska, 1688, St. Vallier Medawescook, 1689, Gyles Salmon River Chee-min’-pic Chimenpy, 1686, deMeulles can Falls Chik-un-ik’-a-bik Checanekepeag, 1689, Gyles But almost equally good examples may be found in the dictionary under Restigouche, Richibucto, Longs Creek, Jacquet River, Tracadie, Nepisiguit, Shepody, Meduxnakeag, Nashwaak, Jemseg, and in most [GANONG ] PLACE-NOMENCLATURE OF NEW BRUNSWICK 191 other Indian names. On the other hand it is extremely difficult to find examples of great change, that is, authentic examples derived from the same documents as the cases above. By taking mis-spelled non-authori- tative forms it is easy enough to find differences, which would not be real. The best, almost the only marked example of change | have found is in Grimrose, which is given by deMeulles as Grimerasse, and is now called in Maliseet Æt-leem-lotch. The present Indian names, then, go back as a rule with little change for two hundred years, and how much further no one can say. From this we must infér that Indian place-names are very constant in form ; and if it be true, as is often said, that Indian languages are constantly and rapidly changing, their place-names must form their most conservative and stable element, in which respect aboriginal and civilized tongues are in agreement. Their constancy in a changing lan- guage helps to explain also why so many of them are now not understood by the Indians, and also shows how completely they have become proper names and have: lost the character of descriptive phrases. The tendency to stability in place-names (as well, indeed, as in other words) unaided by maps or records is illustrated also by the fact that the pronunciation used by country-people for Indian names is often nearer the Indian form than is that generally current among people who use books, and this also where there is no intercourse at present with the Indians. It is thus with Madawaska, Jemseg, Piskahegan (see the dictionary). I am inclined to think that the popular notion that languages are most stable which have a literature, and are very unstable without it, is not altogether true; at all events it does not hold for place-names. Three tribes of Indians live in New Brunswick, with about the same distribution as at its discovery, the Micmacs occupying the entire Gulf of St. Lawrence slope from the Restigouche to Nova Scotia, and the head of the Bay of Fundy ; the Maliseets in the St. John valley, and the Pas- samaquoddies upon the St. Croix and Passamaquoddy Bay. Their relationships as shown in their language have not been fully worked out, though Rand has supplied data from the Micmac tongue. Both are of course of Algonquin stock. Micmac and Maliseet with much in common are yet so distinct that members of one tribe cannot readily understand those of the other; Passamaquoddy and Maliseet are, however, identical or nearly so, and are very closely allied with the dialects of the New England tribes. The Micmacs on the other hand seem to be related to. the Algonquin tribes of Canada. Though so different in most features of their language, there is an exact resemblance in many of their place-names. This is shown both in similar terminations, etc., as will be discussed be!ow, and also in the fol- lowing resemblances : Sec. II., 1896. 13. 192 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Micmac territory. Maliseet territory. Midgic Midgic Nictau Nictau A-bay-guit (P. E. I.) A-bah-guict (Campobello) ; Bag- weet ? Wagweiik (St. Mary’s Bay) Wah-quah-eek (Oak Bay) Megadawik (Liscomb Harbor) Magaguadavic , Keeb-amk-ek (Bathurst Harbor) Keeb-amk-ek (at Lubee and Le- | preau Basin) Wel-a-mook-took (Cains River) Wel-a-mook-took (Oromocto) There is also some relationship between Wool-ahs-took or Oo-lahs-took (St. John) and Lus-took (Restigouche) ; perhaps they are the same word in which case the Restigouche, Miramichi, St. John and Aroostook have the same Indian name. In all cases except the first, which is uncertain, the meanings also are identical, proving them to be the same words; further particulars are in the dictionary which follows. These names are mostly on salt water, and it may be supposed in explanation that the Micmacs once held the entire territory and the Maliseets have driven them out adopting their names; this was strongly believed in by the late Edward Jack, at least for names of the lower St. John. But further examination does not sustain it, for there are many names repeated over and over in Maliseet and Penobscot territory, which are not in Micmac, and vice versa. Thus in the former are— Scoodic Digdeguash Kennebec Milnocket Coak Baskahegan Nashwaak Petkik (Paticake) Pokiok Pocowogamis Menascook (Gan- Wakasoon (Little Presquile) Mesgosguelk (Mus- net Rock) Madawaska quash Harbour) Klunquadik (Hardwood Creek) In the latter are Escuminac Tracadie Bedec (P.E.I. & N.S.) Wakmutk (Taxis) Nebeltook (Napan) Panacadie (Halls Creek) Causapscul Napan zut the questions thus raised, and many others, can be settled only by minute scientific study of their philology, and I question whether there is in eastern America a more inviting field in Indian philology than this. We turn next to the composition of Maliseet and Micmac place- names. The characteristic which they have most in common in their aboriginal form is the termination in a k sound, as ook, ik, ek, ak, (eaq), etc. This is the locative suffix which shows that the word signifies a {Ganon} PLACE-NOMENCLATURE OF NEW BRUNSWICK 193 place. I suppose the different forms have different shades of meaning, but I have not been able to distinguish them. The locative may be added to single common nouns making them true proper place-names, as Mun- aan, an island, but Mun-aan-ook' the (particular) island (as Grand Manan) ; and it may be added also to longer combinations as Mag-ee- caat-a-wik. When at the place, one may use the name without the locative, as Nay-goot or Nay-qgoot-cook (Tobique). Another important termina- tion is s/s (Maliseet, in Micmac, chich), which is the diminutive, express- ing ‘“‘little,” as Nashwaaksis, little Nashwaak. Of terminations with a distinct substantival meaning there are sev- eral. Thus tuk or took signifies a river as in Wool-ahs-took, Well-a-mook- took (Maliseet). Akadik (Micmac, in Maliseet, a-quah-dik), means place of occurrence or asa Maliseet once told me “ where you get ’em ;” thus Sequbun-a-kad-ik, Qn N.S.), place of ground-nuts ; Pes-kut-um-a-quah-dik (Passamaquoddy) place for pollock. In Maliseet, ah-gum signifies a lake, as Mag-ee-caat-aw-ah-qum, Magaguadavic Lake ; and ah-gum-is means a pond, as Poc-wah-qum-is, Mud Pond. Way-ik means point, as Mictau- way-ik, Nictau Point. Men-eek is an island, as Kchee-men-eek, big island. Ee-ok means a mouth or entrance as Pok-ee'-ok, narrow entrance, Quek seems to mean a branch, as Mag-te-quek, big branch. All of these suffixes are inseparable ; there are of course independent words for lake, river, point, etc., but these appear rarely if ever to be used in combination, at least in aboriginal words. Hence names now used by Indians in which quispem, lake, see-boo river, are combined with an adjectival part, as in Achee-quis-pem, Grand Lake, are probably not aboriginal, True prefixes appear not to be used unless the slight m and p sounds so often occurring there are such. In the interior of words, syllables are often added to express the idea of distance or removal from, and this could, I suppose, be called a distantive ; thus Wovi-ahs'-took is used when the speaker is beside or on it, but Wool-ahs-ta-gook’ when speaking of it at a distance, and similarly Quum-quaa'-took and Quum-quaa'-ta-gook (Green River), ete. Of a some- what different sort is the extra syllable ah-wee signifying the possessive Mik-um-ah-wee-wel-a-mook-took, Micmac his Oromocto (Cain’s River) Caat-ah-wee-see-book, Kel his river (Kel River), etc. Some of our Indian names, of course the shorter, consist of a single topographical substantive with a locative, Mun-aan-ook (Grand Manan), Wee-josk, the mountain (Curry’s mountain), Squa-so’'-dek, a landing place. Such are exactly equivalent to our “the Island,” “the Mountain” used as proper names, but they are not at all common. A full list of Maliseet and Micmac topographical terms is a desideratum. Usually Indian names contain (1) an adjective part, (2) a substantive part, which may be one of the terminations mentioned above, and (3) a locative. Of (1) 1 2 194 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA examples are mag, great; pok, narrow; wel, good; mil, many, ete. Of (2) examples are wops, rock; pet, bend ; med, rapid (?), amk, gravel, and others less common which may be found in the dictionary. They have no names for large stretches of country and the use of Miramichi, Scoodic, Restigouche for districts is purely European. There is often great difficulty in recording Indian words from the fact that for many of their sounds we have no equivalent. Thus a common consonant is one between k and g ; it is not Med-og-teg nor Med-ok-tek but between, not Shik-a-te-hawk nor Shig-a-te-hawg but between. Again there is a sound between k and / ; Klun-qua-dik or Tlun-qua-dik, and also between m and b, as Moannes or Boannes. They have also slight extra sounds or lengthening of sounds hardly distinet enough to be given as extra syllables, but too distinct to be neglected ; Nay-goot or Nay-goo-oot. The sounds 7 and f are wanting in both Mali- seet and Micmac. Tt is useless to attempt to interpret Indian names from the forms in which they are in use by us. How extremely these differ from the proper Indian form may be found by consulting the dictionary, and the true form must always be obtained from Indians or from authoritative documents as a preliminary to any thorough study. The reasons why our forms differ so much from their Indian originals may be briefly traced. They have come mostly through the French, hence suffering two sets of lingual alterations through familiarization and shortening. The French in adopting them, regularly altered certain sounds difficult of pronunciation to others more easy or pleasing and misunderstood some others ; and the English have added their set of alterations. ‘The details of the sound changes have not been worked out, but I have no doubt that they are as regular as they have been found to be elsewhere, and they can be expressed in a law as definite as Grimm’s is for the Indo-European and German. The shortening of words has been very marked, the Micmac Gool-wah-gah'-kwek was to the French Ariquaki, later Roquaque, now Quaco ; Noo-kam-keech-wuk is now Keswick. There are some puzzling cases in which it is difficult to say whether our name is a translation of the Indian or theirs a translation of ours, or whether the two may not be independently given ; thus Spoon Island is in Maliseet Am-quah'-nis, meaning a spoon, and the name seems to be descriptive of its shape like the bowl of a spoon. In some cases the Indians have adopted the English or French names familiarizing them more or less; Poos-hetk' for Boars head ; Welshpool; S’college for Sussex (where there was formerly an Indian college) ; See-dan for Sainte Anne (see Hart’s Island). Trowsers Lake they call Bel-ches-og-a-mook (i.e. breeches lake). Cases like Achee-men-eek' for Long Island and Kehee-quis- pem for Grand Lake are probably translations of the English names, though possibly they are aboriginal. It is probable that careful study [GANONG | PLACE-NOMENCLATURE OF NEW BRUNSWICK 195 would show that some names considered by us aboriginal are taken by them from the French, A very interesting phase of their place-nomenclature is its explan- ation by legends, which at the same time explain curious or striking features of the landscape. In fact there is hardly a marked topographical feature for which they have not an explanation, usually found in some act of their demi-God Glooscap, in whom centres an elaborate mythology. Of these stories some of the most interesting explain resemblances, which we call accidental, between topographical features and animals, Thus Moose Mountain, above Florenceville, is said by them to resemble a moose lying down, and they say it is the one which Glooscap slew when it became so large as to endanger the lives of men. The Old Friar at Campobello is Skee-ta-bess’-uk, the Witch. At the mouth of Keswick, and at other places as well, are clay banks from which concretions of remark- able shapes are washed out ; these are the counters with which the Oo-na- gess-ook play. (See also Little River, Kings). In some cases a single story explains several features at once, and one of the best of these is as follows : In old times Kennebecasis Bay was a big beaver-pond, flooded by a great dam which, now turned to stone, is the ridge at the falls (Achee-quah- beet-au-week-pa-he'-gan = the great beavers’dam). In the pond the great beavers had built their house which is now the Minister’s Face (Qua-beet- a-wo-sis -ek = the beavers’ nest). But the beavers by bad actions brought on them the wrath of Glooscap, and he came to destroy them. With a huge handspike he broke the dam, making thus the gorge at the falls. The rush of waters carried out a great piece which is now Partridge Island (Quak-m'kay'-qan-ik = a piece cut out), and his hand-spike which he dropped is Split Rock. As the water fell Glooscap seized Kchee- quah’-beet, the great beaver, and flung him to the foot of Kennebecasis island, where his blood still stains the rocks. But another escaped and fled away up the St. John so fast that Glooscap could not catch him. So he took two big rocks from the beach at Bay Shore, and threw them after the beaver, and they fell into the river, just below the Tobique (the “Tobique Rocks,” Haw-men-ops'-kok), but the beaver escaped into Temi- scouata and built himself a new house, which is now Mount Wissik (from Wo-sis-ek = a nest), opposite the Cabano. This story is here given only in barest outline ; it has many additions from individual narrators. It has, of course, arisen to explain the features it mentions, the remarkable ridge at the falls, the rock and islands, the rounded hills somewhat re- sembling beaver-houses at Minister’s Face and Mount Wissik, and the presence of the black slate rocks in the river at Tobique, which really do resemble those at the Fern Ledges in Carleton. Stories of this kind are often told of different localities, for instance this one is told also by the Passamaquoddies of Oak Bay ; and Cooksons Island was the Beaver’s house, and he fled up the Waweig. It appears as if sometimes both local- 196 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA ities are combined in one story. These stories are analogous to those so numerous among them, which explain the physical peculiarities of animals. Rand and Leland have studied their legends in general, but have scarcely noticed their place-stories. I have no doubt that a great deal of interesting matter in this line is still to be gained from them. Other stories pretend to be historical, and perhaps to some extent are. Thus Hardwood Creek is in Maliseet Xlun-quah'-dik = the “ treaty-place,” said by them to be where their last fight with the Mohawks took place and where a lasting peace was made with them, but it is more likely that the origin is different and unknown to them and the story has grown up to explain the name, which I suppose bears some resemblance (from this point of view accidental) to their word fora treaty. Of the same kind may be the legend so often told of the destruction of the canoes full of Mohawks, which were allowed by the Maliseet women guides to drift over the Grand Falls. The falls are called Chik-un-ik-a-bik, the destroyer. 2. The period of Exploration ; the Norseman to Champlain. (1000-1604). The place-names originating in this period are : Fundy Probably Acadia Chaleur Beaubassin St. John Miramichi St. Croix Possibly Tormentine The obsolete Baie Frangoise St. Lunario By translation, Red Head The voyages of the Norsemen to America about 1000 A.D. left no trace in place-names. It is a coincidence worth noting, however, that the studies of Bishop Howley, still unpublished, upon their route as told in the Sagas, led him to locate their “ Vinland” in Miramichi Bay ; and it was only after this that he noticed the occurrence there of the name Vin, the origin of which is altogether obscure. The many voyages of explorers on the Atlantic Coast from Cabot to the middle of the 16th century left many names on Newfoundland and some on Nova Scotia, but only Mundy and Acadia in which New Bruns- wick has a share. In 1534 the North Shore was explored by Cartier. He gave St. Lunario to the head of Northumberland Strait, Cap d’ Espérance to Point Miscou, and Bay Chaleur He probably used also Miramichi in an old form for it seems to occur on maps which record his voyages, and is probably European in origin. It is possible that his Cap des Sauvages given to North Cape, P.E.I., survives in Cape Tormentine. In 1604 De Monts and Champlain explored the Bay of Fundy, naming it Baie Francoise, and giving also St. Louis (Quaco), ©. Rouge (Red [Ganone] PLACE-NOMENCLATURE OF NEW BRUNSWICK 197 Head), St. John, C. de Mine (McCoys Head), Isles Lumelles (The Wolves), Port aux Coquilles (Head Harbour), Isle gravee (White Head (?) ) St. Croix, and Ouigoudi to the St. John. Beaubassin, perhaps originated at this time. It is noticeable how rarely Champlain uses native names. He was the last of the official explorers ; henceforth the geography of the province was made known by missionary priests and by traders. 3. The French Period. The place-names originating in this period are : IN THE ST. JOHN VALLEY. St. Francis Rivière des Chutes Rapide de Femme Presqu ile Bumfrau Belleisle By translation Grand River Musquash Islands Green River Oak Point Grand Falls Long Reach Upper Reach Grand Bay Grand Lake South Bay Long Island Partridge Island Devils Back Musquash Harbour In THE ST. Crorx VALLEY, Letete Grand in Grand Manan Letang Probably, St. Andrews Lepreau (Dochet is not French) DeLute On THE NORTH SHORE. Point Ensault : Point Quart Mizzenette Point Bay du Vin, Belle Dune Cocagne Portage Island Bay Verte Rivière du Cache Tormentine Point Cheval By translation, Eel River Blackiands Probably, Caraquette Gaspereau 198 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA At HEAD or Bay oF Funpy. Tantramar Cape Meringouin Aulac Cape Enragé Point de Bute Jolicceur By translation, Grindstone Island And the obsolete, Beauséjour Indirectly, French Lake Frenchman’s Creek French Village French Fort Cove (Shepody, Petitcodiac, Téte-A-Gauche are not French as commonly said, but are Indian.) In this period also, though of English origin, Wolves, Cumberland, Burnt Church. That names of French origin are not more numerous in New Bruns- wick is due to two causes, first, the French themselves used so many of Indian origin, and second, the contact of English and French was not friendly as one may believe when he recalls the expulsion. Without doubt Acadian place-names were numerous in New Brunswick ; we get one glimpse of them in Monckton’s map of 1758, but the conditions under which the English replaced the French in the province were not favour- able to the transfer of place-names. Most of these names of French origin are purely descriptive, and, indeed, it is possible that many of the names which we seem to have from them by translation as Grand Bay, South Bay, Long Reach, etc. were given again independently in the New England Period. It is pos- sible, but unlikely that Beauséjour and perhaps some others are family names and not descriptive. A minute study of the changes in Indian words in their adoption by the French would, no doubt, show a series of principles, or a law as defi- nite at Grimm’s; but the only one that needs mention here is the con- stant replacement of the Indian / by 7; thus Wel-a-mook-took, became Or-a-moc-to ; Nel-e-pitchk became Ner-e-pis, etc. Good examples of French familiarisations of Indian names are Bout-au-sac, for Pook-saak (Poke- shaw), Aux-pacques for Aucpac. In names which record contemporary events, this period is the poorest in our history. The many journeys and great influence of the early missionaries have left us only St. Francis. All of those recorded by St. Valier, Jumeau and others, such as Ste. Catherine, St. Claude, St. Joseph, Ste. Marie have vanished. The presence of Denys and his son on the north shore left us only Cocagne. It was, no doubt, [GANoxG] PLACE-NOMENCLATURE OF NEW BRUNSWICK 199 the Acadian settlers at Passamaquoddy between 1680 and 1704, who used the few French names there, and their persistence is doubtless due to the New England fishermen and pilots who visited the region continuously from the time of Church, in 1704, down to the New England period. Between 1679 and 1700 a great number of grants in seigniory including most of the best lands in the province were made by the government at Quebec in the effort to promote their settlement; but of the names of these sei- gniories not one has survived. It will be of interest here to note some of these names, which were usually those of their seigniors. On the St. John were Clignancourt, Bellefond, Vilrenard, Soulanges, Freneuse, St. Denis, Martignon, St. Castin, De Valence, DesGoutins, Breuil, DePlenne, and earlier LaTour. Around, Passamaquoddy were St. Aubin, Perigny, DeRazilly. On the North Shore were d’lberville, Esnault, Fronsac, DeChauffours, Duplessis, Linoville. St. Paul, La Valière. The locations of these may be found in the Dictionary. And there were others of less importance, and some which took Indian names. As new names are needed in the future, would it not be well to restore some of these ? Along the upper St. John the French names may belong to the later, perhaps even to the post-loyalist period. On the lower they were doubtless given by Acadian guides to Monckton and other leaders of expeditions, as is shown by the Monckton map of 1758. It is probable that after the departure of these expeditions the French lingered in the sheltered streams and lakes, originating the name French Lake, which occurs twice. About the head of the Bay of Fundy, the French were more numerous and their contact with the English more complete, and here their names are relatively numerous. Along the north shore, without doubt, straggling settlers were present continuously from the days of Denys down to the expulsion. ‘The expulsion itself left no trace in our place-names, but extinguished a great number which otherwise would now be in existence. In the absence of records it is impossible to distinguish the earlier from the later French names, and some which are placed in this list may belong later and vice versa. During this period, Acadia passed twice into possession of the Eng: lish, and from 1713 until 1759 the ownership of what is now New Bruns- wick was in doubt. Sir William Alexander received a grant of Nova Scotia in 1621 from King James I., and gave a new set of names; New Caledonia to the peninsula, New Alexandria to the mainland, Twede to the St. Croix, Clyde to the St. John, Forth to the Miramichi, Argal’s Bay to the Bay of Fundy. These reappeared only once or twice and are extinct. Between 1694 and 1704 there were expeditions led by Colonel Church against the French of the Bay of Fundy. To these were pro- bably due the names Wolves and some of the others now extinct, shown on Blackmore’s chart of 1713. An English expedition against the French at Miramichi in 1758 gave origin to the name Burnt Church. 200 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA At the head of the Bay of Fundy are several names to which a French origin of a fanciful character is commonly given ; these are Shepody, said to be a corruption of Chapeau Dieu, God’s hat; Petitcodiac, said to be Petit Coude, Little Elbow (alluding to the ‘“‘Bend” at Moncton); Minudie (in N. S.), Main-a-Dieu, God’s Hand ; Chignecto, Chignon du Col, Nape of the Neck, and Tête-à-Gauche, Head on the Right (in Glou- cester). But the history of these words perfectly disproves such an origin ; for though they occur often in French documents they never once have the French form which the theory requires nor anything like it, but have instead forms which point to an Indian origin, as is fully explained under each in the Dictionary. They contrast with names like Tantramar, Aulac,ete., which have a real French form in the documents, and are of true French origin. Certain topographical terms of Acadian origin occur upon our maps, as : Gully, from Goulet, the narrow entrance to a harbour. Dune, a sand beach, Barachois, a pond or Jagoon at mouth of a river. Anse, à cove. Perdu, a cove by a stream, sometimes pronounced Bedoo, Also directly or indirectly the use of Grand for Large, as Grand Lake, ete. 4. The New England Period. The place names originating in this period are : In THE St. JOHN VALLEY. Bear Island Kembles Manor Sunbury Brandy Point Maugerville Hammond River Burton Portland Gagetown Courtney Bay Maugers Island Cape Spencer Thatch Island Tobique Ox Island Catons Island Probably, The Mistake French Lake Darlings Island Sugar Island Possibly, Spoon Island (Swan Creek is Indian, as is Mahogany, and some others used in this period.) [GANONG] PLACE-NOMENCLATURE OF NEW BRUNSWICK 201 In THE St. CROIX VALLEY. Deer Island Mascarene Campobello Grand Harbor Head Harbor North Head Herring Cove Whale Cove Windmill Point Long Island Friars Bay Whitehead Island White Horse Green Islands Maces Bay Three Islands Wilsons Beach Wood Island Indian Island Murr Ledges Casco Bay Island Dennis Stream Beaver Harbor Probably, Oak Bay Possibly, St. Andrews (Wolves is earlier) AT THE HEAD oF THE Bay OF Funny. Salisbury Bay Tongues Island Hopewell Sackville Hillsborough Moncton Probably, Halls Creek Germantown Lake (Cumberland Fort is earlier. See p. 198.), On THE NORTH SHORE. Walkers Brook Middle Island Heron Island Beaubears Island Fox Island Northumberland Strait Sheldrake Island Probably, ; Bartibog Barnabys River Bartholomews River Cains River Taxis River Renous River (Burnt Church is earlier) During this period many Indian names were adopted with little change from the French, and no doubt many of our descriptive minor names, especially Mill Creek, etc., belong here also. The names of this period show a large proportion of those of a com- memorative character, a clear evidence of the coming of a people ac- customed to regulate even their smaller affairs by courts and councils. 202 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA After the capture of Quebec in 1759, the prospect of peace with the French and security from the Indians, led many New Englanders to look towards Nova Scotia, partly for trade, and partly for settlement on the rich lands left vacant by the expulsion of the French. Many traders and fishermen came to Passamaquoddy between 1760 and 1764, and with them doubtless originated the minor names of this period about Grand Manan and Passamaquoddy, such as Casco Bay Island, Indian Island, Beaver Harbor, Head Harbour, White Horse ; on the St. John, traders settled at the mouth of the river, who named Portland, and other settlers scattered themselves along it up to Maugerville, and with them originated the minor namés Maugers, Thatch and Ox Islands, Brandy Point, ete., and perhaps some of those which seem to be translations from the French. (See p. 198). About this time also, ie. from 1760 to 1770, large grants of land were made by the Government, often in whole townships, partly to retired officers of the royal service and partly to associations of settlers, and these were usually named for a leading grantee, or some one then prominent in England. Thus originated the townships and manors, some of which have survived as counties or parishes, as Sunbury, Maugerville, Burton, Gagetown on the St. John; Hopewell, Hillsborough, Sackville, Moncton at the head of the Bay of Fundy. Kembles Manor, Mascareen Campobello and Hammond River, also originated in these grants. Extinet townships and grants with distinct names on the St. John were Newton, Almeston (or Amesbury), Francfort (or Mac Nutts), Spryhampton, Mor- risania, Heatonville, Mount Pawlett, Conway, all of which may be found located in the Dictionary. One of the associations placed at Shepody a number of Germans from Pennsylvania, originating the name German- town Lake. In addition to the New Englanders, there were also settlers direct from England and Scotland. Captain Owen led English settlers to Campobello, originating that name and others about the island ; on the St. John a few were placed by the proprietors of townships ; on the North Shore Colonel Walker from 1770-77 had a trading establishment at Bathurst and a branch at Restigouche, whence Walkers Brook, and perhaps some names near Bathurst. | At Miramichi, a colony of Scotchmen settled and probably they gave the names to Beaubears, Middle and Sheldrake Islands, Bartibog, Barnabys and other rivers named for Indians who lived on them. The latter series of names is of great interest. That they did thus originate, tradition, both of Indians and whites, and the statements by Cooney all agree, though some of them may not have come into use until later. In 1772 a colony of Yorkshire men came to Cumberland Co., though no place- names of theirs are known, During this period careful surveys of the coasts of Nova Scotia were made by Wright (1772), and DesBarres (published 1776-1786), for the [GANONG] PLACE-NOMENCLATURE OF NEW BRUNSWICK 203 British Admiralty. Wright appears only to have recorded the names found by him in use among the fishermen, etc., but DesBarres gave new names in large numbers. These names were those of people, and in some cases we find in contemporary history the persons whom he probably intended to honour, and in other cases they were probably friends of his whose names are not preserved. Perhaps the petition from him and fifty-nine other officers in 1762 (Archives, 1894, 237) may explain some of the names. Most of them are extinct, but Courtney, Cape Spencer, Salisbury Bay, Fox Island, Northumberland Strait, all apparently given by him, survive ; and Waltham, applied to Portage Island, lingered for atime. Others of his names will be found in the Dictionary. Some of the names of this period show interesting changes in the transition from one language to another ; thus Mahogany is a familiari- zation from the Maliseet, Manawoganish or Meogenes, and Swan Creek of the Maliseet See-wan-kik. 5. The Loyalist Period. It is difficult to make a division between the names of this period and that which follows it, but the following are associated with the coming and settlement of the Loyalists. The Province, New Brunswick. The counties, with their parishes : Westmorland, Salisbury. Charlotte, St. George, St. Patrick, St. Stephen, St, David, Pennfield, West Isles. Northumberland, Neweastle, Alnwick. Kings, Westfield, Sussex, Springfield, Kingston. Queens, Wickham, Waterborough, Hampstead. York, Fredericton, Kingsclear, Prince William, Saint Marys, Queensbury. Lancaster, Saint Martins, Lincoln, Sheffield. Woodstock, Northampton. Dorchester. Also Lake Utopia, Carleton, Minister's Island, Springhill, prob- ably Lake George. A number of smaller streams took the names of their loyalist grantees or residents, as Bulls, Greers, Longs, Gardens, Wards Creeks, Menzies Stream ; Griffiths, Bliss, Pendletons Islands, and very many local names of points, etc. ; and, in particular, the names of streets in St. John, Fredericton and St. Andrews, all laid out at this time, have marked loyalist names. It is remarkable that there is no name in the list which directly recalls the loyalist movement itself, which, in this respect, is analogous to the expulsion of the Acadians. 204 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA The names of the original counties were given by the king’s council and enacted by royal letters patent in May, 1785. It is not remarkable, then, that they express attachment to the crown, as they do, except Westmorland and Northumberland, which seem to have been suggested by their nearness to Cumberland, as in England. The parishes were named in 1786 by Governor Carleton, the council and assembly. Of them, several are old township names (see p. 202) ; indeed, most of the townships which had been fairly settled were retained as parishes. Others express attachment to the crown, as Fredericton (named 1785), Kingsclear, Queensbury, Prince William and perhaps Sussex. Others seem to recall the former homes of the loyalist settlers, as Hampstead, Pennfield, St. Marys, and possibly others. Geographical position apparently determined some of them, as Westfield, West Isles and Northampton, then the northern parish of York, Near Northampton in England is Woodstock, which possibly suggested the name for the contiguous parish. Newcastle and Alnwick are the two chief places in Northumberland, England, whence, doubtless, the names of these two parishes. Lincoln is next to York in England, as in New Brunswick. The reasons for the assemblage of Saints in Charlotte is not obvious, but probably the pre-loyalist St. Andrews suggested the other patrons of the British Isles, St. George and St. Patrick; and to these, in a sort of clumsy joke, others were added. A somewhat similar collection occurs in Prince Edward Island. Others of lesser interest are explained in the dictionary, but to the origin of Wickham, Lancaster, St. Martins we have no clue. In general, this period did not greatly enrich our nomenclature. 6. The Post-Loyalist Period. The names of this period are so numerous, so familiar in form, and usually so plain in their origin, that no special list of them is necessary. The parish names are of much interest, for, given deliberately, as they are, they reflect clearly the sentiments of the people during this time. From the arrival of the Loyalists in 1783-1784 up to about 1819, there was very slow but steady growth in the province, with but little addition from without. The parish names of this time show the loyalist devotion to Great Britain, for they are mostly those of Englishmen then prominent, as Dorchester, friend of the loyalists, Wellington, Nelson, Chatham, Northesk, Glenelg, Brunswick, while others appear to be given in recollection of English places, as Morton, Greenwich, Hampton, Wakefield. The governor is honoured in Carleton, an administrator of the government in Ludlow, the speaker of the House of Assembly in {Ganonc] PLACE-NOMENCLATURE OF NEW BRUNSWICK 205 Botsford. The two latter were loyalists, and the first residents to be thus honoured, but it shows a dawning recognition of native rights ; and perhaps awakening local pride is shown also in the adoption as parish names of Campobello, Grand Manan. Salisbury is of doubtful origin. New settlements gave origin to Richmond, Jacksontown, Maryland, New Canaan, The Barony, and perhaps Geary. Loch Lomond originated at this time. At this time there came into use very many of our local descriptive names, particularly ownership names of brooks, points, coves, etc., and also, doubtless, the remarkable series of ownership names of rivers along Bay Chaleur, Charlo, Benjamin, Nashs, Louison, Jacquet and probably Peters Rivers. The origin of these names is not certain, but local tradition is probably correct in saying they record the names of residents more or less temporary, whose names, as pronounced by the Acadians, resulted in these forms. At this time, also, the Acadians were forming definite settlements along the North Shore and at Madawaska. They built churches, which were named, as their custom is, for saints, and these gave names to the missions of which they were the centres, and in at least one case, though much later, to a parish, as in St. Basil. The causes of the naming of the French parishes, so many of which bear the names of saints, are of interest. These parishes usually take the name of the church in them, and this is always chosen or approved by the Bishop of the Diocese. It may be suggested by various circum- stances, as the name of the saint whose feast most nearly coincides with the dedication of the church (St. Basile), the patron saint of the new settlers, or the name of a benefactor of the church, if it is the same asa saint recognized by the church (St. Hilaire), in honour of a bishop (St. Jacques), or the name of a river or other prominent place (St. Francis). How little voice the Acadians had in affairs at this time is shown by the English names given to the new parishes in Kent. During this time the International boundary was in dispute, and in connection with it careful surveys were made of the St. Croix and Magaguadavic in 1796-98. In 1786 the Restigouche had been surveyed for the Quebec government, and these surveys established the nomencla- clature of these rivers. To this period belong Richmond, Jacksontown, Marylamd, New Canaan, Geary, Barony, Loch Lomond. About 1819 extensive immigration began from Great Britain, and has continued with great fluctuations down to the present, giving us many names recalling the former homes of the settlers as English, Scotch and Irish Settlements, New Bandon, Cardigan, Tay, and much later many others. A few of these have given names to parishes, as in New Bandon. From 1819 up to about 1830, the parish names still show a strong admir- ation for eminent Englishmen, as Canning, Beresford, Bathurst, Dalhou- sie, Kent, Addington, Eldon, Dundas, Huskisson, Harcourt and perhaps 206 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Gloucester, and for English places as in Liverpool, and perhaps Coverdale, which seem to be from the English places. Douglas and Saumarez honour a governor and an administrator of the province, while Shediac, and in a way St. James, are the only ones with a native flavour. During this time also there was much activity in surveying for highway roads in the province, and these surveys established many of the minor nomenclature along their routes ; such were the St. John-St. Andrews road of 1816, the Nerepis—Fredericton road of 1826, the Fredericton—St. Andrews road of 1336, etc. After 1814 certain disbanded regiments were settled on the upper St. John, and one of these, the West India Rangers, gave name to Ranger Settlement. Probably at this time, too, originated the names of some of the Acadian settlements, from the family names of the settlers, as Gueyen, Belliveau, ete. Here also belongs Boiestown. About 1830 began the struggle for responsible government, which ended about 1850 ; it soon showed its effects in parish names. Blissjield, Blackville, Blissville, Chipman were no doubt given to honour those men as administrators of the province, as was Harvey for a governor, while others were honoured in the settlements of Campbellton, Colebrook (Grand Falls) and Edmundston. An appreciation of the labours of residents of the province, however, is shown in Simonds, Upham, Petersville, Johnston, and in another way in Studholm; increasing native pride is shown in the adoption of Madawaska, Restigouche, Caraquette,and the change of Liverpool to Richibucto. But admiration for Englishmen must have been less active, for aside from the county Albert, and Stanley given by an English land company, the only names of parishes not given for resi- dents of New Brunswick are for governors of Canada, Colborne and Durham. We could scarcely have a better illustration of the state of feeling towards the authorities in England at that time. But place- names of Great Britain were still musical to New Brunswick ears as Dumfries, Southampton, Andover, Perth, Wicklow, Weldford, Brighton all show. During this time many parts of the province were surveyed, for settlement, for lumber interests, in connection with the settlement of the international boundaries, for military roads and railroads, etc., and many country lines were run. Thus the Nepisiguit was surveyed in 1832, the Tobique in 1838, the upper Miramichi in 1831, and these surveys established the minor nomenclature. The due north line from the source of the St. Croix to above Grand Falis, had been run in 1819, and between 1830 and 1842 several expeditions sent out by the 3ritish Government and by the boundary commissioners explored the region in extension of that line to the highlands near the St. Lawrence. The nomenclature of the smaller streams in that region belongs doubt- less to that time, and between 1840 and 1860 many surveys were made to find a route for a land military road or railroad from Halifax to Quebec, including that by Alexander in 1844. The names of the Upper [GANONG ] PLACE-NOMENCLATURE OF NEW BRUNSWICK 207 Restigouche, appear to have been fixed by the military road surveys of 1843-44. The boundary line between Quebec and New Brunswick was surveyed in 1855. All of these surveys originated new minor names along their routes and helped to fix others. To this period belong many settlement and other names, which follow in their naming the analogy of the parishes ; such are : Hanwell, Gallo- way, New Jerusalem, Victoria, Baillie, Tryon, Harvey, Mechanics Settle- ment ; Kedron, Erina, Tiarks, lakes ; Cape Jourimain, Baker Brook, Mount Theobald. The minor names given by most of the surveyors were ordinary enough, but there are occasional exceptions, as in the names given by Deputy Mahood in Charlotte and vicinity, which are pleasing. Thus Victoria, Adelaide, are names given by him in 1837, of course for the Dowager Queen and Queen Victoria, who ascended the throne in that year. Rooskey and Coronary were for places in Ireland from near which he came, and Ormond for the Irish Earl; while T'omoowa, Peltoma, and many not now on the maps, as Zvicornia, etc., were given by him. Another interesting set of names of this period is that of the Inglewood Manor. In 1832 a grant of 32,000 acres on the Musquash River was made to Moses Perley, by whom it was named Inglewood Manor, and the various lakes in it, Robin Hood, Friar Tuck, Sherwood, Little John, all names taken from various novels of Scott’s then attracting great atten- tion. The usual statement that all are from Waverly is, of course, wrong. Several other names of the same series on the survey maps, but not on the general ones, Losthene Mere, Levinge, Knockdrin, Belvidere, Augur, Eger- ton, Rancliffe, have more or less of a Scotch or classical flavour. Loch Alva seems not to be in Scott. For a time the village at Musquash was called Ivanhoe. This is the largest series of fanciful names we have in New Brunswick. In 1832 the New Brunswick and Nova Scotia Land.Company was organized (incorporated 1834), and in 1835 obtained an immense grant of land in the northeast part of York County. By the company many settlers were brought out from Great Britain and placed on their tract, and thus originated the settlements of Stanley, Haynesville, Williamsburg, New Zealand, Temperance Vale, Campbell, Maple Creek, Cross Creek, and others in that region, The causes of the haming of these are mostly evident enough. From 1850 down to the present the nomenclature is easily traced. In the parish names there is a great proportional increase in the number of those expressing admiration for the leading men of England and Canada, thus contrasting strongly with the preceding years and showing, when causes of temporary irritation are removed, how deep the admi- ration for the Mother Country really is. Such are Clarendon, Derby, Gladstone, Palmerston, Aberdeen, Peel, Lorne, Bright, Cardwell, Hard- Sec. II., 1896. 14. 208 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA wicke, Elgin, Dufferin ; British victories are commemorated in Alma, Inkerman and Kars, and a victor in Havelock, a heroine in the settle- ment Florenceville; a royal visitor in Rothesay, and a royal Duke in Cambridge. Place-names of Great Britain are repeated in Dumbarton, Canterbury, Waterford, Southesk, and possibly Drummond. Governors of the province are honoured in Manners-Sutton and Gordon. But of names distinctively our own the list is even longer ; thus New Maryland, North- field, Acadieville, Wilmot, Rogerville, McAdam, Simonds, (Carleton), and the adoption as parishes of St. Croix, Lepreau, North Lake, Ship- pegan, Grand Falls, Hammond, and the settlement Gibson ; and as well the names of the French parishes, St. Louis, St. Mary, St. Isidore, St. Paul, St. Basil, St. Leonard, St. Anns, St. Jacques, St. Hilaire, St. Francis. Confederation, the most important event of the province’s recent history, has left no record in its place-nomenclature. At different times since 1850 the local Government has made vigorous efforts to promote immigration, and to that end has laid out large blocks of land for settlement, at the same time giving them names. Thus in 1856 the following were laid out : Balmoral, Clarendon, Campbell, Conneli, Peltoma, and also several of which the names have not survived, as Medisco, Breadalbane, Trafalgar, Monteagle, Bayfield and Blackwood ; the latter seems to survive in à lake in Albert. It is said at the Crown Land office that these names were largely suggested by Moses Perley, and if so, he has given more names that now survive in New Brunswick than any other man ; they are partly for men and events of the time in England, partly proper to New Brunswick. Their positions are shown upon Wilkinson’s map. Other settlements were established under the Labour Act of 1868, and again under the Free Grants Act of 1879 ; such were Colebrook (now Coldbrook), Sunnyside, Robertville, Millville, Pac- quetteville, St. Isidore, Pleasant Ridge, Acadieville, Adamsville, Beacons- field, Cloverdale, Beaufort, Chapmanville, Kintore, Kincardine, New Denmark, Red Rapids, Stonehaven, Tilley, Sisson Ridge, Commeau Ridge, Patrieville, and others which were never settled or of which the names have been changed. It will be noticed how very local these later settle- ment-names are ; the majority are named for men or families prominent in the vicinity only, though a few as Tilley, Colebrooke, Beaconsfield, are men of rote. Other settlements of this” period are Johnville, Glassville, Knowlesville, all three founded by clergymen, settled under their direction, and named for them. In addition to these many other small settlements have grown up and taken names for the most different reasons, as Arthuret, Hartland, and the made-up Collina and Grafton, but these are mostly too local for particular mention. The building of railroads since 1856, introduced a need for many names for stations ; these have been mostly local names, but often new [Ganone] PLACE-NOMENCLATURE OF NEW BRUNSWICK 209 ones have been introduced. A curious example of this is found in a series of names along the Intercolonial Railway, i.e. Quispamsis, Plum- weeseep, Penobsquis, Passekeag, all of which, though Indian in form, are simply translations into bad Maliseet of the local names Little Lake, Salmon River, Stones Brook, while Passekeag is a cross between two other words. These names are said to have been’made up by the sur- veyors with help of a friendly Indian, with the approval, perhaps by request of the president of the railroad commissioners, Mr. Jardine, and came into use about 1856. An important phase of local place-nomenclature is the consideration of its topographical names, for not only may any of these be used alone as proper names, but they enter into all kinds of combinations with other words to form the most distinctive place-names. A list of topographical terms actually used by the people of New Brunswick, excluding mere book names, is as follows : Aboideau.—In Westmorland for the dike or dam itself. Backwoods.—The dense forest; also “the woods”; forest never used except ‘forest fires.” Barachois.—Acadian, a lagoon at mouth of a river, From Barre 4 cheoir (Ferland). Barren.—The open plains and bogs covered with heath bushes. Bedoo or Pudoo.—( Doubtless French, perdu = lost.) A cul-de-sac or branch without outlet, of a stream. Used on the Miramichi. Bend.—A sharp turn in a river. Bogan.—A marshy cove by a stream; also “bogan-hole.” Brow.—A place for rolling logs into a stream. Canal, —For a thoroughfare in Charlotte. Channel.—The deepest part of a stream. Corner.—F or a settlement at cross roads. Creek.—Pronounced locally crick. For a sluggish stream, especially through meadows. Dale.—In combinations, imported. Deadwater.—A part of a stream with no perceptible current. Devil’s slide, ovens, back, etc.—Applied to various places with something uncanny about them. Dike.—In Westmorland for the marsh-lands reclaimed by dikes. Duck hole.—Sometimes for a reedy cove by a stream. Dugway,—A short artificial channel, as occasionally on the St. John. Dune.—Acadian, a sandy beach. Falls.—Sometimes used for rapids. Flat.—Same as intervale, and also short for mud-flats on tidal rivers. Follow.—A place in the woods newly burnt for cultivation. Forks.—Common for the place of branching of a river, 202 .\ ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Gulch.—On the Restigouche for the ravines by which the smaller brooks enter ; extended also to the brooks themselves, Gully.—(Doubtless French goulet, with the same meaning.) On the North Shore for narrow entrance to a lagoon. Head.—The points with cliffs and rounded tops along the Bay of Fundy. Heath (pr. hayth).—In Charlotte for the barrens. Horseback.—A narrow gravel ridge. Intervale (pr. interval).—The alluvial flats along rivers. Island.—Also high land in the midst of a marsh. Keyhole—On Grand Lake for a round harbour or cove with narrow entrance. . Lagoon.—On the North Shore for the lake-like mouths of rivers formed by the sandy islands. Perhaps only a map name. Marsh (pronounced often mash),—For both fresh and salt water. Mountain.—F or small hills, when largest in that vicinity. Neck.—A narrow isthmus. Nubble.—In Charlotte for a small detached mass of rock near a high shore. Oxbow.—A bend in a stream that turns completely back on itself. Passage.—A_ place between islands, navigable by vessels, on salt water. Plains.—About St. John for the blueberry barrens. Point (pronounced pint).—Also for projection of high land into a marsh. Pond.—Used only for very small lakes and rarely with any other word. Portage.—A road around a fall or between streams. Quickwater.—Sometimes used for water running rapidly but not broken by rapids. Rapids.—Where the water is broken, white and with some abrupt fall. Ravine.—Locally in Kings for the deep v-shaped valley of a small stream. teach. A straight stretch on a river on which sailing craft can make long tacks, Ridge.—Particularly in Charlotte for long glacial hills. Rips (sometimes ripplings).—Water less broken than in rapids, as when over gravel bars. Sea-wall.—A gravel or boulder ridge thrown up by the waves. Settlement.—Rarely village. Stillwater—(Now little used.) A smooth place in a stream which is usually rough. Stream.—Larger than brook, smaller than river. Swaie.—A low wooded place, through which at times water may flow. Thoroughfare.—A passage between lakes on the same level. Tickle.—At Miramichi. for a narrow passage between island and shore, Thrum or Thum-cap.—Like Nubble, but larger. Tote-road.—A road to a camp over which supplies are taken. Upland.—Higher land along a river ; to contrast with intervale. Vale.—In combinations, imported. [GANONG] PLACE-NOMENCLATURE OF NEW BRUNSWICK 211 River, lake, brook, cove, bluff, gorge, narrows, bog, cliff, valley, swamp, etc., in their ordinary sense. Certain compounds are favourites and repeated over and over again. Such are Bald Mountain, Mount Pleasant, Trout Brook, Long Island, Hog Island, and, among the French, Cross Point, Mal Baie, etc. Resem- blances to familiar objects give Sugar Loaf, Old Friar, repeated more than once. The word Folly is not rare, and probably expresses the opinion of neighbours on an unfortunate business venture, as Pope’s Folly, Folly Point, etc. Brothers is a favourite for groups of small islands and sisters for small brooks near one another. The nomenclature of the country people is of a primitive descriptive sort, homely enough, but not unpicturesque, particularly in that of the river drivers (see under St. Croix and Magaguadavic). 7. The Present and Future of the Place-nomenclature of New Brunswick. It will be of interest now to summarize the characteristics of our place-nomenclature as a whole, to point out what remains to be done in its study, and to draw from its past what lessons we can for use in the future. In the aggregate our place-nomenclature is certainly varied and attractive, probably more so than that of most new countries. It contains words from at least five languages, illustrates most of the known principles of the giving and changing of place-names, com- memorates nearly every important movement and most men prominent in provincial history, illustrates the geographical movements of popula- tion, reflects the phases of political feeling and growing local pride during the past century, and in general gives us a very satisfactory system of place-names. Its deficiencies consist in its lack of commemoration of many of the founders of the province, its failure to reflect certain of its historical events, and in the large number of very trivial names which have been recently given to settlements. To review more specificaily the more interesting features of our place-nomenclature, we must note first of all the great number of Indian names, many of which contain the qualities which mark the best place- names, and of them estigouche, Aroostook, Oromocto, Kennebecasis, Patapedia, Cleuristic are melodious, dignified and unique. It is true there are many much less pleasing ; in fact as concerns melody our Indian names asa whole are not as great a success as we could wish. Descriptive names of every sort occur for natural features, and commemorative names in abundance for artificial divisions. Very old names of European origin are Lundy, Chaleur, and probably Acadia and Miramichi. We have names of marked individuality in the made-up names Campobello, Collina, Erina Kingsclear, and a certain poetry in the Wolves. Cocagne and Utopia, 212 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA from two languages, mean the same thing, and it is remarkable to find them both in the same country. Fanciful names occur in the Inglewood series. Remarkable examples of changes due to the principle of famili- arization are found in Swan Creek, Mahogany, Bumfrau, Paticake, and probably Cains, and curious cases of familiarization into another tongue in Téte-a-Gauche, Dochet, and the popular explanations of Petitcodiac and Shepody. The shortening of names is illustrated by Quaco, once Gool-wa-ga-gek, by Buctouche from Chebuctouche, and by Fredericton (sometimes further shortened to Fredicton) once Fredericktown, and by the dropping of the New from Canaan and Galloway. Local peculiari- ties of pronunciation are found in Jemsey, Madawaska. Patapedia, Cape Demoiselle, Petit Rocher, Petitcodiac. Names whose form implies an origin not correct are Bonny River, Carleton (West End), and Coronary. Magaguadavic is a remarkable case of a word able to retain a cumber- some spelling with a simple pronunciation. Names which hide a yet unknown story are Riviére-du-Cache and perhaps Bay du Vin. Incidents of early days appear in Burnt Church, The Mistake, Deadmans Head. And there are many names of still unknown origin to reward study, of which a list will be given below. Remarkable examples of the arising of stories to explain names are found in many of those of the Indians, and also in Tormentine, Midgic, Point de Lute. The geographical distribution of the names of this period in relation to the earlier ones is of great interest. The Indian names apply natur- ally to watercourses and other natural features throughout the province, the exploration names to waterways navigable for ships, those of the French period to watercourses and localities along them. The New Eng- landers were the first to name artificial divisions which they did in their townships and with imported names. These townships were only on the St. John and at the head of the Bay of Fundy, with easy communica- tion with New England, never on the north shore. After the loyalists came the entire province was divided into artificial divisions, but only the most accessible places, especially the lower courses of the rivers, and particularly those accessible from the Bay of Fundy, were actually occupied and here it is that their numes are most abundant. The upper courses of the rivers, the higher lands back from their valleys and most of the north shore were left for later settlement. To these the French, who received scant courtesy at this time, had to retire, and thus came the great series of names of saints on the north shore, particularly in Kent county, and at Madawaska. The remainder of the north shore and especially its more remote parts, was thus left free for other settlement, and was actually settled later largely by immigrants from Europe to whom it is even more easily accessible than are the rivers emptying into the Bay of Fundy. Later settlers have taken also the upper courses of the rivers and the lands back from them, and here their names are to be [GANONG] PLACE-NOMENCLATURE OF NEW BRUNSWICK 213 found. One seeming exception to this distribution is the occurrence of the many saints’ names in Charlotte, suggesting the presence there of the French, but their occurrence is anomalous and no doubt represents a sort of clumsy joke. There is still much to be done in this investigation. This work does little more than open up the subject, and there is not a phase of it which will not repay more thorough investigation. There is not, I believe, much left for superficial study ; those who would carry the subject, or any division of it, much beyond this point must expect to devote to it the most critical scientific methods, but to these it will yield good returns. The parts needing more careful and minute work are: 1. The Indian names, to which the methods of comparative philology must be applied. This work should be done as soon as possible, for although the Indians are not dying out, they and their language are becoming much diluted by contact with the white race. 2. The plans, grants and licenses of survey in the Crown Land office for many of the minor names. These are in so well arranged a condition that their consultation is easy. 3. The study of the parish and settlement names in the light of contemporary history. J am certain there is far more in this subject than I have obtained from it. 4. The phonetic changes involved in the transfer from one language to another. 5. There are also many individual names whose origin is unknown, as Sunbury, Portobello, Jourimain, Maces Bay, Cara- quette, St. Andrews, Wickham, Palfrey, and, as the dictionary will show, a large number of others which are doubtful. It seems as if this subject of place-nomenclature ought to be one of which teachers could make much use in arousing interest in local history among their pupils. If teacher and pupils together would work up thoroughly the place-names of a limited district, such as their own county or parish, and publish the results in the local newspaper, it would prove a training of much value in investigation and in the application of critical methods, and, as well, a stimulus to local interest and even to patriotism. It is well now to ask whether the results of such studies as these can prove of any aid to present or benefit to future nomenclature. The laws controlling place-nomenclature are so deep seated in the nature of the human mind, so independent of reason and so far out of reach of argument, that any attempt to make great changes is entirely useless ; the most that can be done is, falling in with this leading prin- ciple of convenience, to suggest convenient ways for the future and the most convenient of the two ways when there is doubt. The practical value of uniformity in the spelling of place-names is evident and has been recognized officially by several governments. The United States, for example, has a “ Board of Geographic Names,” which attempts to secure a standard form for all place-names in that country, and these 214 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA forms are used in all of the government publications. This board does not attempt to alter any existing usage, but simply where several forms are in use to select the best, /.e., “that which is most appropriate and euphonious.” Its decisions are, of course, not binding on any one except the government bureaus, but no doubt the manifest advantage of con- formity to it will lead to wide acceptance. We have in New Brunswick many cases of irregular usage, such as Lepreau and Lepreaux ; Bay Chaleur, Baie des Chaleurs; Nepisiguit, Nepisiquit, Nipisiquit ; Meogones, Manawoganish ; Kennebecasis, Kennebeccasis, ete. ; North Esk, Northesk, and others. The application of the principles we have been considering will always show which of the forms should be preferred. Thus, other things being equal, a shorter form is preferable to a longer, partly because more convenient and partly because words are tending that way, and all surplus letters are better dropped. Æenebecasis and Mispec are better than the longer forms. The history of the word will often help ; thus, Nepisiguit, Lepreau and Chaleur are better than the other forms. All signs, as the apostrophe, hyphens, etc., are bétter dropped, as not only inconvenient to use, but also unnecessary in words which are no longer common nouns but proper place-names ; thus Maces, not Mace’s Bay, and Tétedygauche, not Téte-a-Gauche. Words run together are better thus than separated; thus, Belledune, not Belle Dune. In the dictionary I have tried to point out all such cases and to indicate the best forms, and thus, in some measure, to make it a standard list of our place-names. As to the names for the future all that can be done is to suggest some which would be both convenient and appropriate. The revival of Indian names is not easv on account of difficulties of pronunciation, but is possible, especially if the principles controlling the shortening and familiarization of the Indian names we now have could be codified and applied to new ones. The result would be, I am sure, a great number of dignified and melodious words; but this is a delightful task for some future student. But ready to our hands are many good names. There are all the beautiful seigniorial names of the French period ; none could be more pleasing, and if applied, as they should be, at or near their proper localities, none could be more appropriate or useful in illustration of the local history. Then there are some of the old township or grant names possessing good qualities. There are also those of the leading loyalists, the founders of New Brunswick. Some of them, but not all, are thus honoured as they should be; Edward Winslow is a conspicuous omission, There are also a number of extinct Indian names available, as Woolastook, Ourangabena, Meductic, Chacodi, Minaqua. It is surely better to revive these ancient names, part of our own history, pleasant sounding and distinctive as they are, than to adopt those which are the heritage of other countries, or those which, though our own, are but trivial. [GAnona] PLACE-NOMENCLATURE OF NEW BRUNSWICK 215 PART EL. A DICTIONARY OF THE PLACE-NAMES OF NEW BRUNSWICK. In this dictionary I aim to give the history of each place-name of any importance now or formerly in use in New Brunswick. It is difficult to decide what to exclude ; one knows that many details too trivial to seem worth notice now will be of the greatest interest in the future ; but even in a monograph one cannot include everything. In place-names there is every gradation from those of countries and great rivers down to those of the tiniest points and rocks, too local to appear even on detailed maps. The rule I have followed is this: every loyalist and earlier name, extinct or extant, known to me is included, but in this century only those of Special prominence. ; In the history of important words there is a constant temptation to attempt to refute the errors of other writers and also to give all of the very early known forms and recorded meanings, if for no other reason than to prevent future students from saying that one has overlooked them. Of important names like Aucpaque, Miramichi, ete., one cane collect a dozen forms. I have given only so many of these as seem to me to be necessary to show the true history of the word. The many allusions to place-names in books of travel which are often curious and generally incorrect, are, of course, omitted, as are mere misprints in other works. Next to being able to give the exact history of a name, it is import- ant to give its first recorded use, for this is a very long step towards find- ing its origin. In all cases I have given, in the original form, the first use I can find, and it is to be understood that the form given first after the name itself is the oldest known to me. The names of authors and of books and maps will be found repeated, with fuller information, at the end of this paper in the bibliography. The word “in’’ before an author’s name refers to a book or manuscript ; “on” refers toa map. Roman figures after an author’s name refer to his different works as listed in the bibliography. All plans mentioned are in the Crown Land office at Fredericton. Where no authority for a statement is given, it is to be understood as resting upon my own. In the Indian names, unless some other authority is given, | have obtained the names from the Indians them- selves, and I have used those obtained by myself wherever possible. The use of different systems of expressing sounds by Rand and others quoted, has made it necessary to reduce them all to one system, which I have done, but have indicated it by (alt.) to show I have had to alter their spelling. Where a statement is given without qualification, it means that 216 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA I am convinced of its truth ; degrees of doubt are expressed by “ doubt- less” (or “no doubt”’), “probably,” “ possibly,” etc. In the mode of spelling of names I have attempted to impose no system, but simply to reflect the best usage, and where this is divided to suggest which are the best forms. In the pronunciation I have used none of the special systems which have been invented, because it seems to me more convenient to those for whom this work is principally intended to use the more familiar sounds, a proceeding which I know well has, scientifically, great drawbacks. The sounds used are as follows: a asin far. ee as in meet. ah as in expression ah ! ei as in height. aw as in law. i asin tin. ay asin hay. oO as in not, e as in met. oo asin moon (at end of a syllable.) g always hard. oo as in cook (before a consonant. ch asin church. in same syllable). Every syllable is sounded as a distinct word. Other abbreviations as follows: = stands for “ means in English.” P. for Parish. T. for Township. C. for County. S. for Settlement. A date after any of these means the year of its legal establishment. pr. loc. means pronounced locally. “ Statutes ” are those of New Brunswick. “ Archives” are the annual volumes published by the Canadian Government. All names in the dictionary, unless extinct, or with locality given, may be found marked upon Loggie’s map or those of the Geological Survey. Extinct names are in italics. A. Aberdeen.—P. 1863. Doubtless in memory of the Earl of Aberdeen, Premier of England, 1852-1855. Died 1860. Aboushagan River.—Doubtless Micmac. Naboujagan, 1812, in Plessis. Acadian, TD Aboujagane. Acadia.—Origin not certain; descended from the Larcadia of maps of the 16th Century, and probably of European origin. It is usually said to come from the termination acadie, common in Mic- mac place-names (see Bourinot, Cape Breton, Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, IX. Sect. 11, p. 327); but not only is all analogy against this, but the his- tory of the word is opposed to it. Tracing it backward, it oceurs as La Cadie in DeMonts’ commission of 1603, the earliest known use without the r; Champlain, however, in the narrative of his 1603 voyage has always Arcadie, and in all earlier forms the r is always present. Thevet, in his “Cosmographie” of 1570, has Arcadie, and several earlier maps [GANONG ] PLACE-NOMENCLATURE OF NEW BRUNSWICK 217 have Larcadia (Gastaldi, 1548; Zaltieri, 1566, and others; see the Krets- chmer atlas), and it occurs upon them in its proper position; thus, Zaltieri has it between “R. Fondo” (Bay of Fundy) and ‘‘R. 8. Lorenzo ” (St. Lawrence), while a map of 1560, in Marcel’s atlas, places it on a peninsula about in its proper place. So much seems certain. Still earlier, however, on the N. Deslien’s map of 1541, appears E. of Rio de Fundo, les coudiers, which may be this, while Ribero, 1529, has ldrcales. Upon all of these maps it is associated with a series of names, along the Atlantic coast, which are altogether European, never native, and indeed the presence of the r, which does not occur in the Micmac dialect, is further evi- dence against a native origin. It occurs, usually covering a considerable territory, along with such names as Florida, Norumbega and Labrador, suggesting that it may have an origin analogous to theirs. Though unfortunately extinct as a place-name, it is still used at times, especially in scientific writings, as a convenient term to include the three maritime provinces. The obvious but groundless theory that it is from Arcadia, in Greece, is given in “ A Genuine Account of Nova Scotia,” London, 1750, repeated in Williamson, Maine, I., 188. Acadieville.—P. 1876. Doubtless by its Acadian settlers in affectionate memory of Acadie. Adams Island.—In Passamaquoddy, A-mog’-en-esk’ = fishing place (a-mog’-en = fishing, with locative). Addington.—P. 1826. Doubtless in honour of Henry Addington, Viscount Sid- mouth, English statesman, then prominent. Adelaide, Lake.—Doubtless in honour of Queen Adelaide, consort of George IV. By Mahood, in 1837 (p. 207). Albert.—C. 1845. In honour, no doubt, of the Prince Consort, who married Queen Victoria in 1840. Aldouane River.—Doubtless Micmac. A map of 1793, in the Crown Lands office, has “ Northwest River, by the Indians Aldouane.” Also as Ardouane. Alemek Bay.—Probably Micmac. Le Grand Amac (and Le Petit Amac) on plan of 1830. Acadian, Lamec. Alexander, Mownt.—(On Wilkinson, 1859.) Doubtless in honour of Sir James. Alexander, who explored for a military road from Petitcodiac to Tobique in 1844. (See his L’Acadie, vol. ii.) Alma.—P. 1855. In commemoration, of course, of the glorious victory in the preceding year. Almeston.—Y. 1765? Origin? Unknown elsewhere. Later Amesbury, now Kingston. Alnwick.—P. 1786. Probably for Alnwick in Northumberland, England (p. 204). Alston Point.—Origin ? On plan of 1830. Alwington Manor.—General Coffin’s estate at the mouth of Nerepis, named for the Coffin estate in Devon. On early maps. Amesbury.—T. No doubt for James Amesbury, merchant, of Halifax, a grantee. Earlier Almeston, now Kingston. Anagance River.—From the Maliseet Oo-ne-gunce’, = a portage. Andover.—P. 1633. Origin ? Occurs in Hampshire, England. Annabischamac.—On Bonnor, 1820; in Kent. Unknown. Antonio, Lake.—Said to be foralumberman. On plan of 1839. Pr. loc., Antony. Apohaqui.—R.R. Sta. From the Maliseet Ap-o-log’-a-neek, which is probably their name for Millstream, but possibly — junction of two streams. Our 218 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA form appears to be a corruption. by the R.R. surveyors (see p. 209), though one Indian gave me Ab-a-hahk’ as an old word. Archibald.—S. about 1836. Said to be for the family which first settled it. Aroostook River.—Exact origin uncertain; probably the Maliseet name for the St. John, Wool-ahs’-took (which see), transferred to this river, or perhaps a distinct though related word. In Maliseet it is Loos’-took (or Loos-ta-gook’); meaning unknown to them ; nor do they identify it with Wool-ahs’-took ; possibly it is not aboriginal, but only their pronunciation of the form Aroostook. Aroostook and Wool- ahs’-took are considered identical by several writers (Maurault, Hubbard, Laurent). It seems to occur first on DeRozier’s map of 1699 as Arassatuk, applied to a settlement on the St. John above the Aroostook; as Arestook on Purdy, 1814; Baillie, 1832, has “ Restook, called by the Americans Aroostic” ; on Holland, 1803, called Little Restigouche (see p. 192). Apparently called Riviere Jacques = James River, by the French; it is thus on Morris, 1784 (Jacquet in Munro, 1783); also on maps R. Chun and Machias. Arthurette.—S. 1862? Named by Governor Sir Arthur Hamilton Gordon before 1863, not for himself, but for the “little border village where Sir James Graham lies buried” (Wilderness Journeys, p. 45). This village is in Eng- land, eight miles north of Carlisle. Ashaboo, or Coal Point.—(Cooney). At the N.E. angle of Bathurst. Pos- sibly a corruption of Goulds Point, which it was earlier called for a grantee. Asphaltes, Lake.—Map name only; loc., White Sand Lake, descriptive. Plan of 1827 has Asphalta. Aucpaqgue.—Former Indian village at Springhill, near Fredericton. From the Maliseet Ek-pah’-hahk = tide-head or tide-level, which is descriptive, Pote, 1745, has Apog and Apoge; a treaty of before 1754 has Octpagh ; also as Ockpack, Ecoupay, Aux pacques, Oak Park, and many other forms; in Saint Valier, 1688, as Sainte Marie; later, Sainte Anne (see Hart’s Island). Aulac River.—French Au lac — at the lake. At first applied to a village on the lake at its head (Le Lac, Franquet, 1754); Oulac, on d’Anville, 1755. BS. Bagweet Island.—On plans for the island above Sugar Island; probably Maliseet and the same as Ah-bah/-quit (see Campobello). Baillie.—S. Said to be in honour of Thomas Baillie, surveyor-general of New Brunswick when it was founded. Bainbridge, Mount.—(On Wilkinson, 1859.) Said to be for an officer of the N. B. and N. 8. Land Co. before 1841. Baker Brook.—(Madawaska.) For John Baker, who once lived at its mouth; he was prominent in the New Brunswick courts in 1828-31 in connection with his uncertain citizenship and efforts to hold the “ Disputed Territory ” for Maine (see Remarks on Disputed Points of Boundary, St. John, 1839). A monument has recently been erected to his memory at Fort Fairfield, Me. In Maliseet, Ha-ma-lee-kee-nok-tay’-covk ; on Bouchette, 1831, Wariene- quamaticook ; others Meruimpticook, which persists on one of its lakes ; also Turtle River. Baker Brook.—(Sunbury.) For William Baker, a former owner; also Mill Creek. In Maliseet, Mes-eem-quips’-kek, which is doubtless the R. Nishampishack of the Peachey and other maps. [GANONG ] PLACE-NOMENCLATURE OF NEW BRUNSWICK 219 Bald, Cape.—Probably descriptive. DesBarres, 1781, has C. Scott, perhaps for an officer of that name in N.S. Bald Mountain.—Occurs several times in New Brunswick, and usually descrip- tive. That at Nictor Lake named Sagamook = mount of chiefs, by Governor Gordon before 1863 (Wilderness Journeys, p.54); also Ox Mountain (Baillie, I., 1832). Balmoral.—S. 1856 (p. 208). Origin? It is a place in Scotland. Barachois.—Acadian, = a pond. In Plessis, 1812 (p. 209). Bar Island.—(Charlotte.) Descriptive. Barr Island on Wright, 1772. Barnaby Head.—(Charlotte). Origin? Fox Point on Wright, 1772. Barnabys River.—No doubt for an Indian, probably a chief, who once lived on it (p. 189). On Micheau, 1785, as Barneby’s River ; in Micmac See-quah-/dik ; which on Jumeau, 1685, is Chicudi; on Bellin, 1744, as Chacodi. On these and later maps it gradually becomes exaggerated in size and removed to the westward until it is even mistaken for the S. W. Miramichi itself, and, finally, by a confusion of this river with the Restigouche, due to the likeness of their Indian names, it has even been transferred to the main Restigouche (maps of last century by Rhode and others). Jumeau names its branches. Barony.—$S. Given by Hon. John Simcoe Saunders to his large estate here, probably for his hope to develop it as a baronial estate. Occurs in 1795 (Raymond, 49). Bartholomews River.—Doubtless for an Indian who once lived on it (p. 189). First on Bonnor, i820. In Micmac Chich-a-de-gook’. Bartibog River.—Tradition derives it from the name of an Indian, Bartholomew, shortened to Bart., Le Bogue, who once lived there; thus given by Plessis, 1812. Possibly, however, it is a corruption of the Micmac name. In its present form in Marston’s diary, 1785. In Micmac Rand gives Nebeltook, = dead river; or perhaps ebeltook, = overlooked (see also Vin River); DuMeulles, 1686, has ibertou, the same with r for 7. Pr. loc. Bartibogue (as in rogue). Bass River.—(Gloucester). Doubtless descriptive. On plan, 1789. In Micmac Psee/-qun or Oo-see-gunk’. On recent map Achigan. On Jumeau, 1685, F. Godebois. Bastille.—On Descelier’s map of 1546, near Dalhousie. Probabiy one of Cartier’s names. Bathurst.—Named in 1826 in honour of Earl Bathurst, then Colonial Secretary of England. Earlier, St. Peters, which persists in the school district. The barbour in Micmac, Keeb-amk’-ek which (Rand) = stopped by a sand bar (compare Lepreau Basin). Bayfield. 8. In honour of Admiral Bayfield, who surveyed the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Bay du Vin.—See Vin. Bay Verte.—French, Baie Verte, = green bay. Perhaps for the salt water grasses “which in summer make it look like an immense meadow ” (Gesner II). On Franquelin’s map of 1684. In Miemac, Weg-wam-a-gwek’, which Rand translates, land’s end. Jumeau, 1685, has B. Verte ou de S. Claude. Beachey Island.—Between Fredericton and Meductic ; in Allen’s journal, 1777. Identity unknown. Beaconsfield.—S. 1878 (p. 208). In honour of Earl Beaconsfield. Beans Island.—In Passamaquoddy Mus-koo-sit/-kik (?) Bear Island.—(Near Coac). In Allen’s Journal, 1777. 220 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Beaubassin.—French, = beautiful basin, descriptive, though it is also a French family name. Seems to have been used as early as 1612 (Jesuit Rel. IT. 207); name of Seigniory of LaValiére, 1676; later restricted to vicinity of Fort Lawrence, called by Church and others Siganecto (see Chignecto); Pote, 1745, has Bon Basan. Beaubears Island.—For Boishébert, leader of the Acadians here in 1755-57. Beobares Island, in Grant of 1765; Beauheberts Id., in Statute of 1799. In Micmac Quo-o-men-ee’-gook = Pine Island, descriptive ; the passage between it and the point is the Tickle, which was used in Statute 1799. Beaufort.—S. 1880 (p. 208). For its founder, W. Beaufort Mills. Beauhebert Fort.—(On some ms. maps of last century. At Woodman’s Point, Mouth of Nerepis). For Pierre Boishébert, who commanded there (see above). Beauséjour.—French, — beautiful resort, descriptive, though possibly for a resi- dent of that name, as stated in ‘“ Memoires sur le Canada,” 1760 (not perfectly accurate work); la pointe de Beauséjour in 1678 (Le Tac, Hist. Chron. 191) ; afterwards applied to the fort built there in 1750, later Fort Cumberland. Beausoleil, Portage &.—(Portage between Petitcodiac and Canaan). On the 1757 map by Bellin. Pote’s Journal of 1745 suggests the origin, for he says that Bon Soleil occupied the last house on the Petitcodiac before reaching the portage. Beausoleil was the surname of one Brassard, a hero of the Acadians, about whom there is much in Casgrain’s ‘‘ Pélerinage.” Ina document of 1756, in Rameau II., p. 373, this portage is called Ouaigesmock, no doubt the same as Washademoak. Beaver Harbour.—On Wright, 1772, with Kastern Head at its entrance as Cape Beaver. A town for the loyalists was laid out here and named Belle View, bat neither town nor name have persisted. In Passamaquoddy said to be Sta-quen-sa’-ket. : Becaguimec.—In Maliseet, A-bek-u-gwim/-ek, — a salmon-bed, or perhaps, going up to the salmon-bed. (Gwimek is a place where salmon lie side by side in a smooth rapid, 4.e., at Hartland; a-bek-a = perhaps, on the way to.) Mr. Jack gives — coming down branch. Pegagomique on Morris, 1784. The island at its mouth is, in Maliseet, Tee-gan-ook/-tesk, and the bar below Hart- land, Am-mun-am-koo/-tuk. Belair.—" Belair vers Cocagne” in Abbé la Guerne’s letter of 1756. This place was six or seven miles up the Cocagne River on the north side (Gaudet). There was another near Port Royal. Belas Basin.—See Lepreau Basin. Belledune.—French, — beautiful beach, descriptive. In 1770 (Dom. Archives, 1894, p. 301) as Belldown; on Wyld, 1841, as Belle doune; as at present on Wilkinson, 1859. Compare Grand Dune. f In Micmac the point is Mes-kee-see-ge-ach’; Little Beldune Point is Peeg-e-aa-jeechk’, Pte. pepchidiachiche on imabast 1685, and others = Little Paspebiac (in Gaspé), which is on Jumeau as pepchidiak, and which it re- sembles on a small scale. Bellefond.—Seigniory, 1690. In Queensbury, Dumfries and Prince William. Belleisle Bay.—Doubtless French, and extended to the bay from the small grassy island at its mouth now called Hoy Island, but upon early plans Belle Isle. Occurs on Morris, 1775, as Belleisle River. Morris, 1784, names the island Belle Isle, and the bay Belle River. There is nothing to connect the name with Alexander LeBorgne, surnamed Belleisle, who was prominent in [GANONG] PLACE-NOMENCLATURE OF NEW BRUNSWICK 221 Acadian history. Probably the Belle Isle on Bellin, 1757, is this, though out of place. In Maliseet the bay is Pes-kay’-boc, commonly on plans as Pascobac. On Monckton, 1758, it is named À. au Gautier ; in 1680, one Gautier was a grantee of lands for a fishery on the St. John. Belliveau.—S. For an Acadian, its first settler, who lived to the age of 110 years (see Gesner II, p. 138). Near this village was that called in the last century Pierre 4 Michael (Gaudet). Belle View.—See Beaver Harbour. Benjamin, River.—Origin ? On plan of 1827. It appears to be the Holman’s River of the grant to Captain Hamond in 1776. In Micmac it is Wops- kay-ga-la-jeechk’ or Wops-kee-jee-de-la-jeechk’. Beresford.—P. 1814. No doubt in honour of Viscount Beresford, a British general, at that time prominent. Black Brook.—Tradition gives it = Blake’s Brook, from its first settler, who is said to have been the commander of the: vessel which destroyed Burnt Church and the French settlements about 1758. On Micheau, 1785, the house of widow Blake is at its mouth, though it is called by its present name. Blacklands.—(Northumberland.) Descriptive, caused by great beds of peat, which the sea is washing away, forming abrupt banks. On d’Anville, 1755, as Terre noire, = black land; our name may be a translation, or else given independently. Blacklands.—(Restigouche.) Descriptive; caused by great beds of peat. Black Point.—(Restigouche). Apparently descriptive. In Micmac Muk-tops/-tik (Flinne). Black River.—(Kent.) Probably descriptive. Plan of 1794 and others have Mescogones, probably the Micmac name. Black River—(Northumberland,) Said to be descriptive of its water. On plan or in a grant of 1786. In Micmac Mat-quan-ti-gook (Flinne). Blackville.—P. 1830. In honour, no doubt, of Hon. William Black, then admin- istrator of the Government of New Brunswick. Blackwood.—S. 1856 (p. 208.) Origin? Persists in Blackwood Lake. Blissfield.—P. 1830. In honour, no doubt, of Judge John Murray Bliss, of the Supreme Court, in 1824 administrator of the government. Bliss Island.—For Samuel Bliss, a loyalist, its grantee. On Wright, 1772, and later Etang Island. In Passamaquoddy, See-bes’-kook, = three peninsulas, because almost divided into three islands. (Related to See-by-ik, a peninsula the name for Pleasant Point, Me.) Blissville.—P. 1834. No doubt in honour of Judge John Murray Bliss, who died in that year. See Blissfield. Boar’s Head.—Descriptive. On Campbell, 1785. In Maliseet, Poos-hetk’, which is obviously the English name indianized. Bocabec.—From the Passamaquoddy Po-ka-besk’. In Boyd, 1763, as Boquabeck, and in 1764 (Mitchell’s Field Book) as Bookwebweck. It is perhaps the stream emptying Bocabec Lake, which Sullivan’s Maine, 1795, pp. 40-42, says is called by the Indians Makagambo. Boiestown.—For Thomas Boies, an energetic American, who settled there about 1822 (Cooney, p. 111). Bolands Brook, with Big Falls.—In Micmac Me-deeps-kechk. Bon Ami Point.—No doubt for Peter Bonamy, to whom land was granted there before 1798. The rocks at the point are called, locally, Bonami Rocks. On 222 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA a French chart of 1760, the larger is called Isle Ridge, descriptive; Jumeau, 1685, and de Meulles, 1686, nave pte. memehigan, Bonny River.— Probably for Joel Bonny, a pre-loyalist settler in this region. On the 1798 map, Muskacksis, the Passamaquoddy name, and the Oxbow at its mouth, Bad-kick. See Paticake. Boston Brook.—Origin? Wilkinson, 1859. Botsford.—P.1805. In honour, of course, of Amos Botsford, loyalist settler at Sackville, speaker of the House of Assembly, 1786-1812. Boundary Creek.—On plan of 1786. Doubtless because W. boundary of Moncton. Brandy Point.—Said locaily to be for the appearance of the water there, which rarely or never freezes. In a grant of 1765. Point au Ognonette (ognonet = summer pear) on Monckton, 1758. Breadalbane.—sS. 1856 (p 208). Bretons, Riviere des 6.—On the survey map, 1755, as R. demibreton and located distinctly at Bartibog; on d’Anville, 1755, it appears as R. des 6 Bretons and similarly located ; it becomes on Jeffereys, 1757, R. of 6 Britons, but does not appear again. It may originate in an incident given by Cooney (see Cache, R. du). Breuil.—Seigniory, 1689. In Rothesay and Hampton. Bright.—P. 1869. In honour, no doubt, of John Bright, English statesman, then prominent. Brighton.—P. 1830. Origin? There is a Brighton in Sussex, England. Brockway.—$. For Artemas Brockway, grantee at this place. Brothers.—See Salkelds Islands. Brothers.—(Three small islands near Millidgeville). Origin no doubt from their likeness and proximity. One of them appears to be in Maliseet Mo-ee-an- ee’-cook = bear island. Brule Cape,—French = Burnt Cape. Rand gives for what is apparently this point, Wospooïijiktook = seal hunt. This appears to be the cape called on Jumeau, 1685, C. au huan; de Meulles, 1686, Cap au Haran, and on later maps Hareng and Herring. Brundages Point.—On plan of 1826 as Brundige’s Point. Brunswick.—P. 1816. Probably in honour of the Duke of Brunswick, who fell at Waterloo the year before, and, perhaps, at the same time, in compliment to the reigning house in England. Bubenr.—In Wicklow Parish, on Wilkinson. 1859. Bubear is a common Carleton County name (see also Tay River). Buctouche.—By Rand, given as Micmac Chebooktoosk = a small big harbour; others connect it with bukiw, fire. The first syllable has been dropped. In the seigniorial grant to Sieur d’Amours, 1684, as Chibouctouche, and thus on most maps to 1831 ; doc. of 1760 (Col. Mass. Hist. Soc. X., 1809), has Bouetox (misprint), and the short form is in other early documents. Budagan Brook.—Related, no doubt to Napudagan, which see. Bulls Creek.—For Lieutenant George Bull, loyalist, who was grantee of land at its mouth (Raymond). In Maliseet Sig-a-hosk’ = fire-flint place, descriptive ; (The act of striking a flint is Sig-a-hahs). On D. Campbell, 1785, as Shuk- atahawk or Steel River. Bumfrau. —R. R. Sta. Said by Edward Jack to be an Indian corruption of the Acadian Bois franc, = hardwood, applied to Hardwood Creek (which see). Mr. Jack told me there was evidence of this on plans in the Crown Land office, but I could not find it. The region about the mouth of the creek was [GANONG] PLACE-NOMENCLATURE OF NEW BRUNSWICK 223 formerly called by the rivermen “ The Bumfrau.” Pr. loc. Bum-frow (as in now). Buonaparte Lake.—On a grant or plan of 1835. Burnt Church.—Doubtless from the burning of the Indian church there by the British when they were destroying the French settlements in 1758. Cooney gives a legend to explain it, with the date 1759, but he has probably con- founded it with another story (see R. du Cache). On Lockwood, 1826. In Micmac as given by Rand, Eskinwobudich = a lookout, or Es-kun-00-0b/-a-dich, as I have it. Skinnobundiche in St. Valier, 1688. On the survey map, 1755, the point is Pte. de Village. Burpees Brook.—(Burton in Sunbury). No doubt for Edward Burpee, pre- loyalist settler. (N.B. Hist. Coll. I., p. 107). Burton.—T. 1765, P. 1786. No doubt in honour of Brigadier-General Ralph Burton, friend and contemporary of Generals Gage and Haldimand. Buttermilk Brook.—Descriptive of its colour when full where it falls into the St. John. In Maliseet, MH ’lox- sis-ee-bo-ok’-sis == white like milk brook. Cc. Cache, Riviere du.—Origin uncertain. On d’Anville, 1755, as Vieux Caicri, and on the survey map of the same year as Amion (?) Caichi, and the latter locates it at Grand Dune Brook. Jeffreys, 1757, has Old Cuichi, followed by others. The Caichi is perhaps Caiche, = a boat (Quebec Docs. I. 429), in which case the name may be connected with Rivière des Seize Bretons (which see), and both may be connected with an incident related by Cooney (p.35), in which it is said that six sailors from an English ship, who were sent ashore for water wandered away from the boat and were slain by the Indians, in reprisal for which the Indian church was burnt, originating the name “ Burnt Church.” Cooney places the incident in 1759, which is pretty certainly an error, and it may be that the entire incident occurred before 1755, thus originating these names R. du Cache and R. des Seize Bretons (Britons (?) ), especially the latter. This is pure theory, and R. du Cache especially may have originated very differently. The local tradition derives it from its supposed use as a hiding place at the time of the expulsion, etc. In Micmac Oo-ses’-sischk (Flinne). Cains River.— ee 620) N as ae SL =e Meats Sy Ae LS =! a = \ SS wel SSS SSS È ze $ ers ii ee le ae Ss S 600 z UT Ta Te Ts td 12 14 fe le oto HEAD / FEET. Diagram I. the results given for rectangular orifices, it appears that the coefficient is greater the less the difference of head over the orifice. A curious excep- tion may be noted, however, in the case of the rectangle of sides in the ratio of 16 to 1, when both positions give the same coefficient for a head of 14 feet, and for greater heads the position in which the long side is vertical gives the greater value of coefficient. For the square orifice, the position, when the diagonals are horizontal and vertical, gives a higher value of the coefficient than the position in which the sides are horizontal and vertical. A description will now be given of a series of experiments made on the effect of the impact of a circular jet on different shaped vanes under various conditions. The experiments were carried out by means of a 54 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA special balance designed by Prof. Bovey to weigh the force of impact. This balance is used in connection with the jet from the tank. It should be mentioned, however, that a stand-pipe, with fittings for various ori- fices and nozzles, is connected with the high-level reservoir of the city, and is also arranged to be used in conjunction with the impact balance. By this means experiments can be made under heads ranging up to ‘280 feet. As the results derived from this arrangement are not easily comparable with those obtained from the tank, no observations were made in this series with heads higher than those which could be obtained with the tank. The impact balance consists of a yard-arm or beam, 4 feet long, sup- ported at the centre on a pair of knife-edges. At each end of the arm, supported on knife-edges, are two buckets, each capable of holding about 20 pounds of water, There is a vertical arm attached to this horizontal arm; this vertical arm has a vertical slot in it in which a rod can be fitted and secured. This rod is graduated in inches and decimal parts, so that it can be adjusted vertically to any desired height. This rod has at its lower end a circular slot, in which the piece which holds the vanes or buckets slides, and can be adjusted at any required angle by means of graduations in degrees, This piece was so designed that the centre of the bucket or point where the water strikes is coinci- dent with the centre of the circular slot, so that the adjustment of the angle of the slot does not affect the height of that point as determined by the vertical adjustment. Thus the two adjustments are rendered per- fectly independent. The frame on which are the two knife-edges on which the balance is carried is capable of a horizontal longitudinal motion in the direction of the path of the jet. A strong cast iron bracket is fastened at one end to the side of the tank above the orifice, and the other is supported by a tie-: rod attached to a beam above. The bracket has a plane straight guide, which is set horizontal, and on which the frame slides. The bracket is provided with graduations in feet, so that the frame, and consequently the centre of the bucket, can be set at any desired distance from the orifice. It was necessary previously to determine the deflection of the jet at the particular distances at which it was proposed to observe the torce of impact, and to calculate the angle of inclination of the path to. the hori- zontal. Then the vane had to be set vertically, so that the jet might strike it in the centre; and also at the correct angle, so that it might receive the jet symmetrically. The arm of the balance was provided with a pointer at one end, so that the balance might be always balanced in the same position, indi- cated by a mark on a scale on the frame, in which position the centre of the bucket is vertically below the knife-edges on which the arm is sup- ported. [FARMER] DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE 55 The balance is provided with long screws, on which large cast iron weights can be screwed, up or down, in order to raise or lower its centre of gravity, thus making it more or less sensitive. The centre of gravity of the balance is considerably altered, as the attachments holding the vane are raised or lowered to suit the requirements of an experiment. It is necessary to consider how the force of impact is balanced by a dead weight in one of the pans. 4 3 W { a en asuss- sete {le eae Diagram of Impact Balance. Suppose the water issues from the orifice of area S with theoretical velocity v, and coefficients of velocity and contraction ¢,, c,. When it reaches the centre of the bucket C it will be inclined at an angle a, and will be moving with velocity V say, whose horizontal component V cos a = v.c,. The theoretical force of impact will be MV ‘S Le (1 — cos @~) where @ is the angle through which the water is turned by the shape of the vane. The mass of water per unit time is PENSE, .. the force of impact is pc.Se,ve,v : J COS a ra es CE The actual force will probably be some fraction c, of this. = 2 22 CC PSV: vi ES dre eco D): ° The moment of this force about the knife-edge at D will be— RCE i CD'AcoS CCC pSV - DE Ie :0S -— cos q cos D . cos & (1 -— cos Pp). 56 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA This is balanced by a dead weight JV at the end of the arm DA. à a LCA HONDA Dr Va CD , cos a (1 — cos æ). Coefficient of discharge €; = ¢,¢,, £ | C,C,CapSv’ 3 NT ER ODA - CD. (1 — cos æ). Of these quantities the weight of water W is determined by weigh- ing; the distances between centres DA and CD are known; while the area of the orifice S, the theoretical velocity of eftlux of the water, the angle g through which the water is turned by the bucket, and the values of q and p are also known. It is difficult to obtain a fair value of the coefficient €, ; so the course has been taken of including it in a coefficient Cj, which is that given in the following results as the coefficient of impact. à DA 1 Wo UA Eee ODA A COR nC po gh if his the head of water in the tank. 1 yoy: i! Ww “i — CD (1 — cos @) | 2¢,0Sh. One object of the experiments described is to determine the com- parative effect of the impact.of the same jets of water on surfaces of dif- ferent shapes. To make this comparison, the forces of impact on the various vanes are compared with the effect on a flat plate, or the case ed “ =| =e e te Il bo 7 where Q = 5° This gives a further series of coefficients which may be known as the Comparative Coefficient of Impact. The formula from which they are derived is— ARS DA W Yh OD 6h In the case of the flat vanes the effect of the dead weight of the mass of water on the vane is considered, and the coefficients are given after eliminating this effect. This is not done for the curved vanes, as it would be a very difficult matter to estimate what the effect due to gravity would be; and, further, the gravity effect is always with and almost inseparable from the impact effect. The velocity has a considerable effect on the coefficient of impact, and so the velocity is given in each case in the tables of results. The first table given consists of the coefficients of impact for flat cir- cular plates of various sizes. It affords information as to how the area of flat surface and the velocity affect the actual force of impact. The effect [rarMER] DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE 57 due to gravity is here eliminated, and the results therefore apply to the effect due to impact alone. TABLE II—VALUES OF COEFFICIENT OF IMPACT C, FOR FLAT SURFACES. Head 20 ft. Head 16 ft. Head 12 ft. Head 8 ft. Diameter oa of | | Vane. |Dist.4ft.|Dist. 2 ft.|Dist. 4 ft.|Dist. 2 ft. Dist. 4 ft.|Dist. 2 ft.|Dist 4 ft.. Dist. 2ft. Vel. 35°5.|Vel. 35°4./Vel. 31°9.| Vel. 31°7./Vel. 27°8.|Vel. 27°5./ Vel. 23°1./ Vel. 22°5. 8°00” “9402 9425 9377 ‘9406 ‘9340 “9342 9324 *9304 10°51” ‘9250 ‘9294 ‘9220 ‘9239 ‘9200 ‘9200 9150 ‘9164 11°66” 9393 ‘9406 ‘9355 ‘9362 9345 | ‘9337 "9275 ‘9288 12°00” "9462 ‘9482 9433 9426 ‘9393 “9379 9525 9343 These results have been plotted in Diagrams IT.-V. Diagram II. has been plotted with a view of showing the variation of the coefficient with the velocity of the impinging jet, and the coeffi- cient of impact is therefore plotted as an ordinate upon a velocity base. It is evident that the curve obtained by inserting all the values obtained at both distances—two and four feet—would be a very inconsistent one, Owing to the different conditions of motion at different distances from the 9400 __ Se “9400 9200 NX 9100 Se NE OL ONE 40). 35 030 25 20 AC SES Ci VA VELociTr VELOCITY. Diagram II. Diagram III. orifice ; so the course is taken of plotting the values got at each distance in a separate table. It is not suggested that the conditions of varying velocity are exactly identical at the same distance from the orifice, what- ever be the head under which the jet is issuing ; but owing to the ab- sence of any reliable theory on this subject, that probably forms the best available standard of comparison. Diagram II. thus shows graphically the coefficient of impact as obtained from observations taken at a distance of two feet from the orifice, while Diagram ITI. illustrates the same thing for four foot distance. Sec. III., 1896. 5, 58 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA It will be noticed that in every case the actual force falls away con- siderably from the theoretical one. Even allowing a large value for the coefficient of velocity there still remains a loss of force amounting to three or four per cent of that given by theory. For this loss it seems difficult to account, as it would appear that the frictional and other effects of the vane would all act in a plane perpendicular to the path of the jet, and that all the momentum of the stream in the original direction, being completely destroyed, would have an exact counterpart only in the actual force produced upon the vane. Beyond this general fact it is evident from both diagrams that there is an increase in the coefficient as the velocity increases ; but the information acquired is not sufficient to lead to the formation of a law of variation. 9400 9300 9300 9200 -9200 9100 SE 9100 8.00" D/AMETER 105!" 166 BOO" D/ANETER 10.51" 1166" Diagram IV. Diagram V. It is also interesting to notice the variation of the coefficient as the diameter and consequently the area of the vane is increased. For this purpose Diagrams IV. and V. are given in which the diameters of the vane are taken as abscissæ and the coefficients as-ordinates. The coefficient of impact diminishes as the radius decreases from 12 to 10°51 inches, but does not continue to fall at the next observation ; on the contrary, the value for the 8” diameter is approximately equal to that for the 11°66” diameter. Besides the flat vanes experiments were made with curved vanes or buckets of different descriptions, These, like the flat vanes, were made of sheets of copper and were spun to the shape required. These vanes are each surfaces of revolution, the curves from which they are generated being parts of a circle, an ellipse, and a hyperbola. The principal dimen- sions of these curves are : Circle—Diameter 12” Ellipse—Semi-major axis 12” Semi-minor axis 6°93” 4,/3 inches Parabola—Latus rectum 6”. [FARMER] DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE 59 From each of these curves four different vanes are derived. These were got by cutting off the surfaces at sections distant approximately 14, 3, 44 and 6 inches from the apex of the curve. The total angles through which the water was turned before leaving the vane was in the several cases : Circular Elliptic Parabolic ee Section. Section. Section. Manet (deep NES re INR TEE 1323° 134° 1344° MER NO TS RME RE SRE A hae eee ee 151° 1494° 1453° rere eT ABUTS Oe OF err k hie cedars arrest SE 166° 154° 149 VEO OLIN, OR kl Pacts ois, cos crate cee perce 180° 1595° 1522 It will be noticed that the relative sizes of the vanes and of the im- pinging jets differed very considerably from those met with in practice. The effect due to friction was therefore very much exaggerated under the conditions obtaining in these experiments. Assuming that the water passed over the vane without being broken up, if the final velocity were equal to the initial, this would mean in some cases that the water would Fy oe ORM D ESE RE Te LL ANGLE \0; 2 20% SON NA D MS DR NC O w70le SOs) 90 HEAD 20 FEET Diagram VI. only form a sheet °005” thick on the surface of the vane. The frictional resistance on water moving with a considerable velocity under such eir- cumstances must be enormous and in the experiment it could be seen that the effect was to greatly reduce, and in some cases almost entirely destroy the initial velocity. In the following table the coefficients for flat plates are included for the sake of comparison, The coefficients in this table are those based on the total force acting under the conditions of the experiments ; no attempt was made as in the previous tables, to eliminate the effect of gravity or other effects, which must be small compared with the total amount. ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 60 TABLE III.—COEFFICIENT OF IMPACT C; UNDER VARIOUS CONDITIONS. FN PR ns ot ET IUT 1896. 8FLS. Zaye. 6ELE. OZLE. ta RE SES 910 010) ,9 wang MAS 8066. 6066. G16S. F96S. OL6S- OCGG. L009. £209. ne Peep ri Bary | ce OLED. GFr9. FLe9. LOF9- 1679. 1099: PSP9. GTS9. O0 © Wane steer dep BT'S ! u0199$ OTOL. E881: aOLL. COLL. OOLL- 9L8L. TOLL. T¢08. [sia eae eae ae ‘-doap 19.1 | oyjoqeavg uiece La 40 \s 6) 0!|\euwnel¢. Ds 9010-8 es... ICGC. Z19¢. gLce. I19¢. GREE. Z8CC. os. sue, + were ges doap 00.9 ) EAP BI ee IFLG. GOL. 08S. CSC. GFSC. LESC. SG8G. 9686. ft -deap ,o9.p | sexe-Twag LET9. 629. 9929. L629: OLZ9. PRE. FORD. TEE. rol) CR RC “doap 20.6 | uoroeg GOOL- GPPL. OSEL- OOPL- CLEL- OPFL. QTL. SSL: eek. |": FR RO SANS doop,19.1 / onda Vs ‘| 9ceg il? Blas: Farc. GIFS. LEP. IEFG. GIF. Hit "des 00:0 “WIP 21 RARE Z6PS- Gece. Logs. 0796. PIOC. 009€, TFC. (ce AO TE + ‘7777 deep ,09.F | 2119 LTGS- ZE6E- POGS £209. Lr09. 0609. 0809, 1019. £609. ae a daep ,£0-€ | uorseg C£09. 1269. 889. SOL: IFOL. ZP69. LEIL. 6889. 9089. ‘te de8p 19.1 J demon Rte 99€6- COEG- OTFG- OCFG. CPP LOF6- 88F6- PLYG. Fay ARC WIP ,00.8I PET SRE DS 186. 91EG. 986+ R686: LLE6- 8886. Z1F6- COTG. rt ep 99-11 | RL LIENS Dre 88TG- CRT6. L2z6. ShZ6. G76. OSZ6. 0086: 2976. MTL OD TO SSI eee OZEG- IGEG. £986: GLE. SIFG- 6686: IEP6: TRG ere a SRE ta “wer 00.8 / ‘9.91 ‘I8A/C28 “TA! T-£S “TPA!S-23 “TPAl'826 ‘IPAlLIE “TA\'6-18 “TAFE PAS. ‘PA 8 SIA H 8 ISIC) "I H SIA" 8 SIA NH H “ISIC 9 SISTA 4S F “ISTA|"IF 8 SION F ISI ‘auvA JO uordHosocy ‘puou “dy t "Peau “43 ZI ‘peo ‘1j OT ‘PU “II 0 [FARMER] DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE 61 From the Table of Coefficients of Impact it is evident that under the conditions which obtained in these experiments, theory gives a very incorrect value of the actual force. Diagrams have been drawn only for particular series, but the facts brought out by them are borne out by the results generally. Diagram VI, is plotted to show the variation of the coefficient with the angle through which the stream is deflected. The coefficients rapidly diminish as the angle of deflection increases. The diagram also indicates the interesting fact that, whereas with small deflections the parabolic arc gives the greatest coefficient, followed by the elliptic and the circular, when the deflections become larger this order is reversed. Diagrams VII. and VIII. illustrate the variation of the coefficient with the velocity for a vane of each pattern, giving approximately the CRCuLap ieee ee 5 YéLoc/Tr 35 30 25 20 15 ANGLE ABOUT 43° SES RS Diagram VII. Diagram VIII. same angle of deflection. Two cases are given; in Diagram VII. the angle of deflection is about 43° more than a right angle; in Diagram VIIT. it is about 62° more than a right angle. A fall in the value of the coefficients is noticeable as the velocity decreases. In the case of the vanes of circular and elliptic sections with the deflection of 42° there appears to be a maximum value of the coefficient for a velocity of about 30 feet per second. ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 62 TABLE IV.—COMPARATIVE COEFFICIENT OF IMPACT Cx FOR VARIOUS CONDITIONS. . CHOCO) CECI ACCRO OICNN ICO TTC ONCE | I£LO.T 680-1 CEI). T IF80.I COSO.I 6EL0- T see eee Seana 622) 0) 00-9 \ sees 2 6160.T | FL60-T | €860-T | ZLOT.T | ZSOT.I | OSOT-T | 9SIT-I | OGILI tt deep,8e.r | uoroes STORE | POLE |RGYPIT | ASOT.T | MeLLT | SLT | 268I.T | TGSIT | SeeLT | °°" “daap ,2L€ | ornoquaeg 566-1 | SOPET | OOIS-T | 9O1&-E | 8608-1 | L6SBT | IOge.T | s69eT | GT |" ‘doap 19.1 / = | LE ; : z sepia el eae ng SS | BGL0-T | 8980-1 | 8620-1 | 2980-1 | resort | rer |‘ "":""""""doop,00.0 \ Me 660.7 | GPOT-T | ISOL-T | GPII-T | G81 | SULIT | 9SILT | FIILI "deep ,09.F | uorpes OTPI-T | TOOT-T | ISOIT | 80LT-1 | GSor.T | 69LT-T | ezLxi NA CE Fa) 1) ce a Pa daap ,60.€ | dita OOGT-T” | OV9G-T | GLPST | SOGS.T | LIGZT | F921 | TOLZT | efcar | ezeat |" st er doop 19.1 / ARE TILO-1 7777] 9PL0-L | G6F80-T | S80-T | 280-1 | €980-T | 8880-1 A FPE eg ‘deep ,,00-9 eee | SI80-T | @160-T | 2060-1 | GLOI-T | GSOI-T | CEOLT | SITET | GLOL-1 deep 09.6 | woroag FEOL TS | SCE 27 1 GP 1 5 | GOPIRT ON ©) on NU ON TE ee daap ,60.€ | 1emnou EDIT | EST. | S69TT | SOE | FOI. | 820LT | YS6LT | OFar'T | geprr |": daap , 19.1 | = 9966: COEG6- LOFG- ESF6. | IFF6. LOG. SSFG- UPS PAT gaa RIP 00-21 ) Se ee Z1E6- 9186. 0986: GCEG. | LLE6. 8866: &IFG- CORES ER PRES WIP ,99.1T | Ana) Re S816: CRI6. PaG. CHG. | PST. OCZ. FORD aN ee?) Na a WIP 1-01 | OUI ae 0286: IS66. 0966: 9LE6- | STF6 6686. IEFG. LR RE “UP ,8 9.07 “TPA!'S-2e TPA) TSS ‘TPA/lSGLZ TPAlSLE 'IPAlLIE ‘IPAl'6TE PAlFSE ‘TPAlSCE ‘PA He CWSI)" SI SIA" 8 SIA F “ISIA|9F 8 “ISIC! F “ISIA) IFS “9Sta) 9 F ‘ASIA ‘Pro “A fF "peoy “43g “‘peoy “93 GI “peoy “4y OT ‘PEU 4} 0G ‘ouvA JO uoldwosoq OE ————…—…—————…—…—…————————————————————————————…—"———————…—…—…—…—…—…—…—…—….—…—…—…—….…—…—….…….".….. [raRMER] DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF DISCHARGE 63 As regards the comparative effects at different velocities of the impact on a particular form of vane, the second table gives precisely the same results as the first. It is for the comparison of the different forms of vane in their effi- ciency in converting the momentum of the stream into a force that the second table is useful. An instructive diagram is obtained by setting out the coefficients for various angles of deflection, as is done for the vanes of circular section in Diagram IX. From this diagram it is seen that the extra effect obtained by increasing the angle through which the water is deflected is, at each velocity at which experiments were made, counterbalanced by the reduc- tion of the final velocity, owing to friction and other resistances of the surface passed over. As it is known, however, that the value for a flat plate is a little below unity. it is evident that there must be a maximum 120 E LUN / REO XK (a Bae > ~ (Op CS Yo A ie NS oe / 77 MEN ESS. 4 \ \ ù / WAT, Nya PR / / \ NOR SE NN 1! / NES NS y! 7 RES Vyz / ts x N SZ TRES \ Mele LOL / à NRC à PARA S Oke, DE SE 8 I D SRE Ley) Note, ~ ters —3 "1 / Dre 7407 re / /7 JAMES 11 ! Los iv y / / jh / yt // 1 fy / Diagram IX. value of this coefficient between the values 0° and 43° of the angle. With the values known for various angles, and also knowing the value for the angle 0° to be approximately 1, it is possible to form an approx- imate idea of the curves which the values of the coefficient would trace, as indicated by the broken lines in the diagram. Having sketched the curves, the positions of the maximum values can be marked, and though the data are not sufficient to fix values for the angle and the coefficients at the maximum value of the coefficient, the following general results are indicated. (1) That the maximum value of the comparative coefficient of impact corresponds to a greater angle of deflection of the stream, the greater the velocity. © (2) That the maximum coefficient increases with the velocity up to « certain point, and after that point decreases, The velocity at which the 64 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA maximum value of the coefficient is itself a maximum appears to be in the present case between 31:7 and 27:5, or about 30 feet per second. The angle for this maximum appears to be about 40°. The same general result is arrived at from a consideration of the data obtained for the vanes of elliptical and parabolic section; but in those cases it is still more difficult with the data obtained to approximate to a numerical result. The maximum efficiency, however, probably oc- curs at a smaller angle of deflection and reaches a higher value for the elliptical, and higher still for the parabolic section. There is a phenomenon which is always more or less noticeable with these vanes which will be briefly described. The path of the water flow- ing off the vane is never tangential to the curve of the vane at the point where it leaves it, but is always slightly more inclined to the axis of revolution of the surface. This effect may be traced to the turning moment, acting on the freely moving stream, brought about by the fric- tion owing to the difterent velocities of different parts of the stream as it leaves the vane. The particles which have been nearest the surface of the vane have their velocity considerably reduced by friction on that surface: the outer layers of water have only been moving over other water, and consequently their velocity is less reduced. The effect on a stream of the friction of a faster stream on one side and a slower one on the other will be to deflect the direction of motion of the stream away from the faster-flowing stream; and this is the effect observed in the present case. These experiments merely touch upon the subject of the efficiency of vanes. By varying the relative sizes of the vane and jet, a great variety of results would be obtainable, many of which would more nearly repre- sent cases met with in practice than those given here. Further investi-. gation will probably throw some light on some of the peculiarities notice- able in the present results; and it is hoped that the experience and data gained in these results may be of use in any further research in the same subject. SECTION IIL., 1896. [65] Trans. R. $. C. V.—On the Calculation of the Conductivity of Electrolytes. By Prof. J. G. MacGregor, D.Sc., Dalhousie College, Halifax, N.S. (Read May 20, 1896.) According to the dissociation theory of electrolysis, it is possible to calculate the conductivity of complex solutions of electrolytes, provided we know the quantities of the electrolytes present in a given volume of the solution, their states of dissociation, and their specific molecular con- ductivities at infinite dilution. If v is the volume of a solution which contains N, N,, N,, etc. gramme-equivalents of the respective electro- lytes present, if a,, a, @,, etc., are their coefficients of dissociation or ionisation, and if Hop» Mo» Moo ete. are their specific conductivities per gramme-equivalent at infinite dilution, then, according to the above theory, the specific conductivity of the solution is equal to 1 2 z («x0 Carats Oe Nate ea og ete.) ; In order, therefore, to effect a calculation we must be able to deter- mine (1) the numbers of gramme-equivalents of the various electrolytes present, (2) their ionisation coefficients, and (3) the specific molecular conductivities of the electrolytes at infinite dilution in the circumstances in which they exist in the complex solution. With regard to (3), as but little change in the ionic velocities of one electrolyte in a solution can be produced by the presence of small quanti- ties of others, the value of the conductivity, at infinite dilution, of an elec- trolyte in a complex solution, may be taken to be the same as in a simple solution, provided the complex solution is sufficiently dilute. Hence, in calculating the conductivity of complex solutions which are dilute, the values of yy, Ho» etc. determined by experiments with simple solu- tions, may be employed. The error involved in employing such values, however, may be expected to increase with the concentration of the solutions. With regard to (1) and (2), it is the object of this paper to show how the numbers of gramme-equivalents of the electrolytes present in a solu- tion, and their coefficients of ionisation, may in all cases be determined, ideally at least, by the aid of observations on the conductivity of simple solutions only. According to the dissociation theory, any electrolyte in a solution is partially dissociated into its constituent ions, the state of dissociation being one of equilibrium, provided the frequency with which mole- 66 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA cules undergo dissociation is equal to the frequency with which free ions re-combine, The amount of an electrolyte which is dissociated when the equilibrium condition has been attained is, therefore, to be determined by the application. of the law of chemical equilibrium, which expresses the equality of the two frequencies just mentioned. As any electrolyte which is in dissociational equilibrium is to be regarded as being in this state not only throughout the whole volume of the solution, but also throughout, any finite part of it, the law of equili- brium may be applied to any such part. As each electrolyte in a complex solution, with its undissociated and dissociated parts, though disseminated throughout the whole volume, may be regarded as occupying a detinite portion of the volume, which we may speak of as its region, the law of equilibrium may be applied either to one such region or to the regions of two or more electrolytes which have ions in Common. We shall consider, first, solutions containing electrolytes which have all a common ion, and, next, the more complex cases of solutions contain- ing two or more electrolytes having no common ion. CASE I.—SOLUTIONS CONTAINING Two ELECTROLYTES WITH A COMMON LON. In such a case the two electrolytes added to the solvent, in preparing the solution, are the only electrolytes present. The numbers of gramme, equivalents (.V, and N,) in any given volume of the solution are thus known. Call the electrolytes 1 and 2, respectively. Let b,, b, be the numbers of undissociated, and /,, f, the numbers of dissociated gramme- equivalents of 1 and 2 in the given volume v of the solution, and let v,, ©, be the volumes of the regions occupied by them, respectively. Applying the law of equilibrium to electrolytes 1 and 2 throughout their own regions, respectively, we obtain : b ol pi LA Sai Sram chp eS ed peek 8 RE (1) Seige oe (2) : : f me Ge b, = fr, : LES Do Ur Dr where €, and ¢, are constants. Applying the law throughout the whole volume, we have : (3) ° . . . (LE b, fi wee fp, + iD py; ie hs ON nek ONES Da CL) cng S'en p Bb 0a WO Eee atey tenis [MACGREGOR | CONDUCTIVITY OF ELECTROLYTES 67 From (1) and (3) we obtain : DU TOME vy Cy b, fi + feo fy Di + Ve Hence en = Pin Pa | Ur Vi + Vo and Pr = Bs Vv; Vo If we combine (2) and (4), we obtain the same result. Hence the sole condition of equilibrium is that the numbers of dissociated gramme-equi- valents of the two electrolytes, per unit volume of the regions occupied by them, or the concentrations of the ions of the two electrolytes, shall be equal. Arrhenius has shown! (and the above is but a slightly modified form of his reasoning) that two simple solutions of electrolytes, having a com- mon ion, which undergo no change of volume on being mixed, will also undergo no change in their state of dissociation, provided the concen- trations of ions of the simple solutions were equal. The equations necessary for the determination of the ionisation co- efficients, a, and a,, may now be obtained, as follows :—From the defin- ition of a coefficient of ionisation we have: En a, N, ay a Oi ee Ne | vi/N, ye ae if the dilution of an electrolyte in the solution, /.e., the volume per gramme-equivalent, of the region occupied by it, be indicated by V. Similarly, : Hence we have (a) from the condition of equilibrium, ay do PTE A second equation is obtained from the equality of the volume of the solution to the sum of the volumes of the regions occupied by the elec- trolytes it contains. Hence, since v, = NV, V, and v, = N,V,, we have (b) from the volume relation, NV + W,V,= »v. Other two equations are furnished by our knowledge that, at a definite temperature, the ionisation coefficients depend upon dilution alone, and 1 Ztschr. f. physikal. Chemie, vol. ii., p. 284 (1888). 68 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA that, therefore, the concentrations of ions are functions of the dilution only. Hence we have (c) from the relation of dissociation to dilution, a Ja (Vi); Ce) What the functions involved in these equations are, may be determined from measurements of the specific molecular conductivity of sufficiently extended series of simple solutions of the respective electrolytes. We have thus four equations for determining the four unknown quantities involved, viz., ay, a, Vi, Vo. These equations may be most conveniently solved by a graphical process. Draw curves from the experimental data just referred to, having as abscissæ the concentrations of ions for simple solutions of 1 and 2, respectively, and as ordinates N, and J, times the corresponding values of the respective dilutions. Then select two points, one on each curve, which have the same abscissa, and which have ordinates the sum of which is equal tov. Multiply the values of the ordinates of these points, read off on the scale on which they would represent dilutions, by the common value of the abscissa, and we have the values of a, and ay. If the solution have been formed by the mixing of two simple solutions, and especially if the constituent solutions had equal volumes and were so dilute as to undergo no appreciable change of volume on mixing, the graphical process is very easily carried out.! Arrhenius” has shown that the conductivity of a complex solution, containing two electrolytes with one ion in common, may, be calculated by, first, making sufficiently extended series of observations to determine what simple solutions of the two electrolytes are isohydric with one an- other (7.e., do not change in their state of dissociation on being mixed), and, secondly, finding by the aid of these observations, and by a series of approximations, of what two isohydric solutions the complex solution might be formed by mixture. Isohydric solutions were recognized as such by the equality of the specific conductivity of a mixture of equal volumes of them, to the mean of their specific conductivities. The iso- hydric constituents of the complex solution having been determined, its conductivity was the mean of their conductivities. The method was ap- plicable only to solutions so dilute that there was no appreciable change of volume on mixing. Oo 5S ! For a detailed account of this graphical process see Trans. Nova Scotian Inst. SCL iVOl ck D 107: ? Wied. Ann., xxx., p. 73 (1887). [MACGREGOR] CONDUCTIVITY OF ELECTROLYTES 69 Case IJ.—SoLUTIONS CONTAINING ANY NUMBER OF ELECTROLYTES HAVING A Common Ion. In this case also the electrolytes added to the solvent in the prepar- ation of the solution are the only ones present in it, and the V’s are thus known. We may indicate the electrolytes in the solution by the TUMELAIS Leyak. D: Applying the law of equilibrium to the different electrolytes through- out the regions occupied by themselves only, and using the same symbols as above, we obtain a set of equations similar to (1) and (2) of Case I. Applying the law to the various electrolytes throughout the regions occu- pied by themselves and one other electrolyte, we obtain a set of equations similar to (3) and (4) of Case I. Combining these equations, as in that case, we find that they reduce to (5) SS SS SS If we now apply the law to each electrolyte throughout the region occu- pied by it and two other electrolytes, we obtain a series of equations, such as by Pit fot Ps fy 1 on : : Oy ae Uo 0; iene me ME Ce run C These equations, however, are not independent of those already obtained, For from (1) and (5) we have eee ney PDU EAU an le Cy Hence e e by Sia Osage ee f mr Po Æ Ug + 0g» Dit Veg + Uy Ui Vs EU, Similarly the equations obtained by applying the law to the various elec- trolytes throughout the regions occupied by themselves and other three, four, etc., electrolytes, may be deduced from such equations as those given above. Hence the sole condition of equilibrium is expressed in equations (5). For the determination of the coefficients of ionisation we have thus : (a) from the conditions of equilibrium, — = —< =. ... p— 1 equations. V, pe = q : (/) from the volume relation, NV ENG VsE ENV =v... s. Lequation, 70 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA (c) from the relation of dissociation to dilution, aa * 5 T Vi = fi (Vi), a. PAR oe JT ee me GUabIOnE, T= Jo (Qi) DF etc. in all 2p equations, for the determination of p a’s, and p Ps. As in the former case, these equations may be most readily solved by a graphical method, curves representing the relation between the con- centrations of ions, and ,, \,, ... V, times the dilutions, being drawn for the respective electrolytes from experimental data with regard to the conductivities of their simple solutions, and points being found on these curves, by inspection, having the same abscissa and having ordinates whose sum is equal to the volume of the solution. The common value of a/ V and the values of the dilution, V,, V2, etc., of the various electro- lytes in the complex solution are thus determined, and the values of the a’s may then be found by multiplication. Case III—SOLUTIONS CONTAINING Two ELECTROLYTES HAVING NO Common Ion. In this case there will in general be other electrolytes in the solution besides those added to the solvent in its preparation, these being formed by the process of double decomposition. Thus a solution prepared by the addition of sodium chloride and potassium bromide to water will con- tain also sodium bromide and potassium chloride. Let 1 and 2 be the electrolytes, with no common ion, from which the solution was prepayed 4 and let 3 and 4 be those formed by double decomposi- Nal | KCl | tion. Then one ion of 1 will be common to it and 3, (1) | (3) its other ion being common to it and 4; and simi- |— larly 2 will have one ion in common with 3 and the NaBr | KBr other in common with 4. It may assist the imagin- (4) (2) ation to represent the constitution of the solution by the diagram in the margin. The application of the law of equilibrium to electrolyte 1 throughout its own region gives : 2 b 5 5) (6) ; C É ° Cy = = pr ; Pr Vy Vy Vr as in Case I. A similar application to the other electrolytes gives three other similar equations. The application of the law to electrolyte 1 { MACGREGOR ] CONDUCTIVITY OF ELECTROLYTES TA ‘throughout the regions occupied by it and 3, and by it and 4, respec- tively, gives the equations, b, 25 fp, ae fps - fp, Vy + v, a Vy = Us Diet i by Eu Pi a7 Bp, Pp, Cy 1 = ; j Ur == Us Ur ar U4 Ur == Us and à similar application to the other electrolytes gives six other similar equations. These twelve equations may be reduced, as in Case I., to the C three independent equations, Ci) : : s ; Pi = Py 10 À py DM taste Us D, It is, therefore, a necessary condition of equilibrium that the concentra- tions of ions, in the regions occupied by the four electrolytes, respectively, shall be equal. We may obtain other equations of equilibrium by expressing the fact that each electrolyte is in equilibrium throughout the whole solution. Thus we obtain for electrolyte 1, | VE nn as C1 v and similar equations for 2,5 and 4. From (6) we have, p Cy), — an fy, and from (8), Pit fy) (A+ 6) 101 ; Hence ne (i + 3s) Bit 0,) Vi re Pw From the other equations similar to (6) and (8) we obtain: Pa _ (2+ fs) (Be + 6.) Up) fie fp, Æ (B; Se fi) (/, ate fx) 03 Pv ROC ETES vps F0 From these four equations and (7), we obtain : fo (fy + fs) (Pi + 69) = py (Po + fs) (fo + f,), Ps (Pi + Ps) i + Bi) = fi (8, + fr) (Bs + fr), fp, (fy a P3) (Si oh #5) = Pi CB, at fy) (fp, air Bo) : 72 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA and these three, when combined, reduce to Pips — 0: It is, therefore, also a necessary condition of equilibrium that the pro- ducts of the numbers of the dissociated gramme-equivalents of the two pairs of electrolytes having no common ion, shall be equal. This condition may be otherwise expressed. For, by (7), Pi Pa JE LA py Ur Va DUT (9) 4 RTE —' VSD, ie. for equilibrium, the products of the volumes of the regions occupied by the two pairs of electrolytes having no common ion, must be equal. In the case of a solution containing two electrolytes with no common ion, there are, therefore, four necessary conditions of equilibrium, ex- pressed in equations (7) and (9). Arrhenius! has shown that if a solution containing two electrolytes with no common ion have been prepared as a mixture of four simple solutions of these electrolytes and of the products of their double decom- position, if the simple solutions before mixture had equal concentrations of ions, had such volumes that the products of the volumes of the solu- tions containing electrolytes with no common ion were equal, and were so dilute that no change of volume occurs on mixing, and if no change occur in the state of dissociation on mixing, the mixture will satisfy the Hence, conditions of the equilibrium. For the determination of the coefficients of ionisation and the num- bers of gramme-equivalents of the four electrolytes in any volume v of the solution, we have, therefore, the following equations: (a) from the conditions of equilibrium, = = = ae ee side sh psy ae RES EQUALIONS, N Va = NV, ONY. oe aes MCTUA DRE (b) from the volume relation, NV +MV+N.V, + N,V, =v... . 1 equation; (c) from the relation of ionisation to dilution, a Ti Foy, Vi . 4 equations. etc. Although in this case we do not know the values of N,, N,, N,, N,, we do know the numbers of gramme-equivalents of 1 and 2 added to volume 1 Ztschr. f. physikal. Chemie, vol. ii., p. 284, (1888). [MACGREGOR] CONDUCTIVITY OF ELECTROLYTES 73 v of the solution in its preparation. Let these be n, and ny. Then it is obvious that we have, (d) from the law of the conservation of mass, applied to the process of double decomposition, Ny N, + vis 18 m= M+ N ne : Brett: - 3 independent equations, = IN, + NV, | N= IN, 4 IV: | since each of these four equations is deducible from the other three. We bave thus in all 12 equations for the determination of 12 un- known quantities, viz.. 4 a’s, 4 W’s, and 4 Ps. To solve these equations by a graphical method, we may first reduce the second, third and last three to two, by eliminating all but one of the Tv? / ls. We thus obtain: N Bu Vises Vin, po Vans LT PERRET + Vo) o£ VV, and NV, (5521) + NN, (my + Ng) = Ne. iVe Now draw curves for all four electrolytes, from experimental data ob- tained from observations on their simple solutions, with values of the concentration of ions as abscisse and the corresponding values of the dilution as ordinates. Select what seems a probable value of the common concentration of ions in the complex solution, and read off from the curves the corresponding values of Vi, Vs, V;, V, Determine JV, from the first of the last two equations by substituting these values in it, and see whether this value of J, is, first, a possible value, and, secondly, one that will satisfy the last equation. If not we must make another shot at the common value of the concentration of ions ; and so on until a value of NV, is obtained which does satisfy the last equation. Such a value having been found, the common value of a/V, and the values of V,, Va Va V, become known, and aj, a, a, a, may be determined by mul- tiplication. Also m, n, and N, being known, N,, N, and N, may be determined from equations (4) above. And thus all the data are avail- able for calculating the conductivity. The application of this method would require that the curves based on the observations on simple solu- tions should be very accurately drawn. For the denominator of the above expression for V, is the difference between the sums of two dilu- tions, and this difference may be small. Hence even a small error in their determination may lead to a great error in the value of N, which is found, If we wish not to calculate the conductivity of a given solution, but merely to test. the dissociation theory, by comparing the observed and Sec. IIL, 1896. 6. 74 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA calculated values of any solution, it might be better to proceed other- wise, viz., by determining the constitution of a complex solution of the electrolytes 1, 2, 3, 4 with a known common concentration of ions. For this purpose select any value of the concentration of ions and read off from the experimental curves referred to above the corresponding values of the dilutions Vy, Vo, V3, V4, of simple solutions of 1, 2, 3, 4, selecting a concentration of ions characteristic of dilute solutions so as to avoid the complication which would be introduced by change of volume on mixing. If simple solutions of these dilutions are mixed in proper proportions as to volume, there will be no change of ionisation on mixing. To find the proper proportions, select arbitrarily any value of v, the volume of the solution of 4 which is to be mixed with the others. It will contain N, = v,/ Vy gramme-equivalents of 4. From equations (d) above we must have V, = N,. Hence the volume of 3 to be mixed with the others will be v, = Vyv,/ Vy. Next select arbitrarily any value of v,. Then in order that there may be no change of ionisation on mixing we must have Vy = Vyl4/ Ve = Vivs/ Vivo The volumes of the simple solutions of dilutions Vj, V2, V;, Vs, which must be mixed in order to form a complex solution with the selected concen- tration of ions, are thus known. The solution may therefore be prepared and its conductivity experimentally determined. The conductivity may also be calculated. For the concentrations of the simple solutions and the volumes of them which are mixed being known, the W’s may be found ; and the common concentration of ions and the dilutions being known, the a’s may be found. If the densities of the simple solutions are known, either from the data of published tables or from preliminary experiments, the numbers, 7, %, of gramme-equivalents of 1 and 2 which must be added, say, toa kilogramme of water in order to produce the required complex solution, may be calculated, and the solution may thus be pre- pared by three weighings, the errors due to measurements of volume being thus avoided. Case IV.-—SOLUTIONS CONTAINING THREE HLECTROLYTES HAVING NO Common Ion. In this case there will in general be nine electrolytes in the solution, as illustrated in the diagram, in which the J i] 3 2 rs are given ray 10 2 sh: 1 nc wact | Hol | Kot | numbers are given by which we shall indicate (1) (4) | (6) | the various electrolytes. pa ea US PE be PS ty The application of the law of equilibrium | Nal HI | KI | to each electrolyte throughout its own region (5) (2) (8) gives nine equations, such as, NaBr| HBr | KBr | Pawel haem ECT TN EME à (3) | 0 Di Vy Applied to each electrolyte throughout the [MACGREGOR] CONDUCTIVITY OF ELECTROLYTES 73 region occupied by itself and one other electrolyte having a common ion, it gives thirty-six equations such as, by cs Pi 32 ep fy Gt ————._ > 5 — . V+ U UE U WU +, These forty-five equations, however, are not independent, but may be reduced to eight, viz. : (10) Bi _ Ps By Vo which are thus necessary conditions of equilibrium. Applied to each electrolyte throughout the region occupied by itself and two other electrolytes having a common ion, we obtain 18 equations, such as, € b Er Pi Pak Be Py DEN Gots wey Di Ula Oy ote Og =a These, however, as in Case III., may be deduced from those given above. Applied to each electrolyte throughout the region occupied by it, another electrolyte having no ion in common with it, and the products of their double decomposition, the equilibrium law gives 36 equations, such as, > by EBD 6) tutte (ibe +y, Eo) These equations, when combined, give 9 equations, such as, Vito = VWs, which, however, are not independent, but reduce to four, say, VV, = VW; VV, = VV 270 8-9? SEES DN ONE TER Vy = Val, VV, = Vi which thus form additional necessary conditions of equilibrium. Applied to each electrolyte throughout the whole volume of the solution, the equilibrium law gives 9 equations, such as dy py de py, + Fe i fy + He an Br pie v v which, however, may be deduced from the twelve equations (10) and (11). These twelve equations thus express the necessary conditions of equili- brium. 76 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA For the determination of the ionisation coefficients and the numbers of gramme-equivalents of the nine electrolytes in a solution of this com- plexity, we have, therefore, the following equations : (a) from the conditions of equilibrium, Re aa Ma MEN EMTAONE: 4 equations, (b) from the volume relation, MP Æ Ne +. NV, =v et 1 equation: (c) from the relation of ionisation to dilution, \ Qa : 7 = à (M), LT etc., * + 9 equations, (d) from the conservation of mass, m=M+N+N,)| mM=M+N+N, n = N,+ NV, + WX, nm, = N,+ N,+ WN, n, = NV, + NV, + W,, Case go teats © OU OMe bOm se 2 5 Ns = NN; + N, + IN since each of these last equations may be deduced from the other five. We have thus in all twenty-seven equations for the determination of nine a’s, nine V’s, and nine Vs. i The solution of these equations by the aid of the graphical process referred to above would, of course, be ideally possible; but it would probably be found impossible, with the data as to the conductivity of simple solutions at present at our disposal, to draw the requisite curves, showing the relation of concentration of ions to dilution, with sufficient accuracy for the purpose. [MACGREGOR ] CONDUCTIVITY OF ELECTROLYTES EE CasE V.—SOLUTIONS CONTAINING ANY NUMBER OF ELECTROLYTES WITH No Common Ion. If the solution is formed by the addition of p such electrolytes to the solvent, there will be p° elec Na! HCI KCl | trolytes in the solution, as is (1) (4) (6) | illustrated in the diagram, PES 4 It is unnecessary to write ET TT AE down the equations which may (5) (2) (8) be obtained from the application “NaBr HBr | KBr of the law of equilibrium to the (7) (9) (3) EU sleciroly tes throughout different regions of the solution For, as each electrolyte is in equilibrium in its own region, and each also in the region oc- cupied by it and every other electrolyte having one ion in common withit, we have, as in former cases, v1 Vo v forming a set of p* — 1 conditions of equilibrium. Also, as each electro- lyte is in equilibrium in the region occupied by itself, any other electro- lyte having no ion in common with it, and the products of their double decomposition, we have, Dale = VU Us = Vglg, etc. forming a set of (p — 1)’ conditions of equilibrium. These 2p (p — 1) conditions are also the only conditions. For if we apply the law of equilibrium to each electrolyte through the whole volume of the solution, we obtain p” equations, such as, b Bt B+ Bo tete. 6+ 6+ B, + ete. De i ee ace. v which, as in Case IV., will be found to be deducible from the equations given above. For determining the ionisation coefficients, and the numbers of gramme-equivalents of the various electrolytes present in the solution, we have therefore : € (a) from the conditions of equilibrium, LATE LR “say Poe P, — L-equations, M - N,V2= VV, - N,V, ete. | +++ (p — 1)? equations, 18 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA (b) from the volume relation, Ni Va NV + OC RE Se qUAtON (c) from the relation of ionisation to dilution, ; ia a 1047: ee ER. sk HER + : «+ p” equations, etc. ) (d) from the conservation of mass, m=N+N + N + etc. | m = N, + N, + N, + etc, | MORE 2p — 1 equations, etc., in all, therefore, 3p? equations for determining p’ a’s, p° N's, and p° V's. CASE VI.—SOLUTIONS CONTAINING ANY NUMBER OF ELECTROLYTES WITH NO COMMON JON, THE PRODUCTS OF THEIR DOUBLE DECOMPOSITION, AND ANY OTHER HLECTROLYTES. It is obvious that if in preparing such a solution there are added to the solvent, p electro- act | HG Kol |4MgCh lytes with no common “ay (4) (6) LE (10) ion and g other elec- - |__| trolytes, having each, Nal HI KI |\4Mol, therefore, one ion in | (5) (2) (8) AA) common with one of the | NaBr HBr KBr |4MgBr, p electrolytes, there will (7) (9) yom onde) er be pp + q) electrolytes oes ne ar. in the solution. Thus, if sodium chloride, hy- 4 | | drogen iodide, potas- sium bromide and mag- nesium chloride be dissolved in water, the solution will contain the elec- trolytes specified in the diagram. As in the last case, it is unnecessary to obtain the conditions of equili- brium. It will be obvious, on the grounds there specified, that we have, as such conditions, y PAC Va forming a set of (p (p + 7) — 1) equations, and Die = Vo DU = VVio) etc., forming a set of (p — 1) (p + ¢ — 1) equations. That the equations of this set are (p —1) (p + ¢ — 1) in number is obvious from the fact that if such equations be written down for each group of four electrolytes represented in the above diagram as occupying contiguous squares, of [MACGREGOR] CONDUCTIVITY OF ELECTROLYTES : 79 which there are (p —1) (p + q — 1), similar equations may then be deduced from them for all groups of the electrolytes consisting of two with no common ion and the products of their double decomposition. That the above 2p (p + ¢ — 1) — 4 equations form the only condi- tions may be shown by deducing from them the equations obtained by applying the law of equilibrium to each electrolyte throughout the whole volume, as, for example, 2 b ® Pi + Pa + Po + Fi +t ete. Pi + 6,+ 6+ He. v D v or, Without this trouble, by showing, as is done below, that these equa- tions are sufficient to determine the state of dissociation. Arrhenius! says with regard to this general case: “It is easy to sec that if we mix any number mn of combinations of m positive and n neg- ative ions, equilibrium will not be disturbed, provided these mn electro- lytes formed isohydric solutions among one another before the mixing, and the product of the active masses [7.¢., quantities of dissociated ions] of two electrolytes J,,J,, I,J, is equal to the product of the active masses of I,J, and I,J, This will be the case if the volumes of the isohydric solu- tions are related to one another as the surfaces in the annexed diagram,” in which diagram the surfaces, so far as the eye can judge, are equal. It is obvious that if the volumes occupied by the various electrolytes in the solutions were equal, the second set of equilibrium conditions would be satisfied ; but equality of volumes is not necessary for their satisfaction. For determining the quantities of the various electrolytes present in the solution, and their ionisation coefficients, we have the following equations : (a) from the equilibrium conditions, ay A à 4 Tree UT A AE Rept STE LUE noes p (p+) — 1 equations. 1 2 : N,V, : N,1 2 = NV; . Ne el RATE TER (p'+ 4 — ft) (p Le. 1) équations, etc. (b) from the volume relation, NE se Ve Vg Re ter mie RE ee ARS ET ANT fo CeQUaIOn, (c) from the relation of ionisation to dilution, a . . D = fi (M), | DS ao Sek SR a ES AO DE AO eq atone: ml etc. (d) from the conservation of mass, ny + ny + ete. = VN, + N, + ete. + N, + aa to = Mo + Mi + No + ete. .. (2p+q—1) eqns, etc in all 3p (p+ q) equations for determining p (p + q) a’s,p(p+q) N’s, und p (p+ q) V's. i Ztschr. f. ph ysikal. Chemie, vol. ii., p. 284 (1888). 80 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA The possibility of calculating the conductivity of complex solutions of electrolytes is probably of no practical value ; but it affords a means of subjecting the dissociation theory of electrolytes to severe tests, the greater the complexity of the solution the greater being the severity of the test. With the object of testing this theory, I have calculated’ the con- ductivities of a series of solutions containing sodium and potassium chlorides, the conductivities of which had been observed by Bender. The following table gives the results : Constituent solutions. | Gramme-equivalents | Conductivity of Mixture. per litre. | NaCl. | KCL served values Caleulated | Difference | (corrected). ze percent 0°5 071875 291 289°5 — 0°52 : 05 0375 370 373:1 + 0°84 0°5 05 430 426°] — 0-90 05 0:75 540 537°6 — 0°44 05 15 863 858:3 — 0°54 10 01875 459 461°4 + 0°52 10 . 0°375 541 540°6 — 0:07 1:0 0-75 703 7011 — 0°27 1-0 1-0 808 809-2 + O15 1-0 15 1015 1015°2 + 0°02 LD alt 0 1209 1200°6 — 0°69 20 0-1875 rc ane 773°9 +012 JO, ORD 1079 10863 + 0°68 20 ‘| 20 | 1445 1458 + 0°90 2-0 3-0 Lit RC — 0:79 30 | TO Be | 1324 + 0°23 30 2-0 1664 1660 | = ora. | 3°0 30 2007 | 19887 — 0-91 40 ‘ | 08% | 1345 1350°4 + 0°40 40 |e | 1858 * 18493 — 0°47 4°0 35 2303 TG DSM) > = Sore 40 | 40 2432 923453 | — 3.56 | | 1 Trans. Nova Scotian Inst. Sci., vol. ix., p. 101: and Phil. Mag. [5], 41, p. 276 (1896). [MACGREGOR ] CONDUCTIVITY OF ELECTROLYTES 81 Mr. D. McIntosh has made a series of observations, in my laboratory, of the conductivity of mixtures of solutions of sodium chloride and hydro- chlorie acid, and has also calculated their conductivities by the method given above. The following table gives the results : Constituent solutions. Gramme-equivalents Conductivity of mixture. per litre. ° HCl. Nacl Calculated. | Observed. Difference 5 | per cent. 2 2-02 3020 | 3008 + 04 2-5 2-02 34895 | 3456 | +10 ; 3-0 2-02 3885 | 3888 — 0:08 3-5 2-02 42335 | 4260 | 06 4-0 2-02 4622°3 4580 ee SAO 45 2-02 4944 4880 +13 1 1:04 1751 1752 — 0°005 15 1:04 2373 2332 ET 2:0 1-04 2928°3 © 2900 + 09 2°5 1:04 3428-5 3398 +09 30 1°04 3906 3872 +09 ~ 3°5 1:04 4340°7 4316 + 06 40 1-04 4715 4700 +03 45 1°04 5055 5036 + 0°4 “4 “607 829°8 838 st) 5 ‘607 983 "4 976 + 0°8 6 “607 1125°5 1116 + 08 7 ‘607 1255 1250 + 04 8 ‘607 1384:7 1388 SD 9 607 1524-6 1525 — 0-025 À 1:0 — *607 1658°6 1656 + 0°16 ital 607 1787°6 1784 + 02 1:2 607 19171 1913 + 02 — 1 Trans. Nova Scotian Inst. Sci., vol. ix., p. 120; and Phil. Mag. [5]. 41, p. 510 (1896). Co bo ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA It will be observed that in both the above series of comparisons the agreement between the observed and the calculated values is very satis- factory for the more dilute solutions. As pointed out above, the more concentrated the solutions, the more must the ionic velocities of each electrolyte be modified by the presence of other electrolytes in the solu- tion, and the greater, therefore, must be the error involved in taking the specific molecular conductivity at infinite dilution, determined by experi- ments on simple solutions as being its value when the electrolyte exists in it complex solution. I am engaged at present, with the assistance of students in my laboratory, on a series of observations and calculations of the conduc- tivity of solutions containing two electrolytes with no common ion. We hoped to have them ready in time to include the results in the present paper, but have been prevented from completing them at a sufficiently early date. SECTION III., 1896. [88 ] Trans. R. S. C. VI. The Unification of Civil, Nautical and Astronomical Time. By G. E. Lumspen, Toronto. Secretary of the Astronomical and Physical Society of Toronto. (Communicated by Dr. S. Fleming, and read May 19, 1895.) Several years ago, at the instance of Dr. Sandford Fleming, C. M.G., one of its honorary members, the Astronomical and Physical Society of Toronto began to address its especial attention to promoting a move- ment having for its object the unification of the Civil, the Nautical and the Astronomical Day. In 1893, the society secured the active co-oper- ation of the Canadian Institute, which had taken a very prominent part in bringing about the adoption of previous PÉDROP RE by Dr. Fleming for reforms in the reckoning of time. On the 21st of April, 1893, a circular-letter was addressed to astro- nomers of all nations, who were requested to answer the question : Is it desirable, all interests considered, that on and after the first day of Jan- uary, 1901, the Astronomical Day should everywhere begin at Mean Mid- night? The circular embodied the views of a specially appointed joint committee of the society and of the institute, of which committee Dr. Fleming was chairman, and included several pages filled with. extracts impartially selected from the writings of Sir John Herschell, M. Otto Struvé, Mr. W. H. M. Christie, the astronomer royal, Professor Simon Newcomb, Commodore Franklin, U.S. N., Professor Carpmael, president of the society, and Mr. Arthur Harvey, president of the institute. In the course of Mr. Carpmael’s paper and as an illustration of some of the very practical inconveniences which attend the present want of accord in reckoning the Civil, Nautical and Astronomical Days, it was stated that the writer had had occasion to investigate a storm which, in 1873, caused great destruction along the southeast coast of Nova Scotia. In this investigation, it became necessary to procure the logs, or copies of the logs, of the vessels which had been caught in the storm, and, for this purpose, material assistance was rendered by the late Sir Henry Lefroy, who, as governor, obtained the logs of the ships which put into the Ber- muda iene for repairs. The satisfactory examination of these logs was attended by great difficulty owing to a want of uniformity among the sea captains in making entries. For instance, many of the captains wrote up their logs at noon for the 24 hours. Some were accustomed to enter up events occurring, say, between noon of the 20th of the month and noon of the 21st, under date of the 20th ; that is, the astronomical (and nautical) day during which they happened, while others entered the same events under date of the 21st, or that upon which the entries 84 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA were made, so that in the absence of specific information, it was impos- sible to tell to which set of 24 hours any given event should be referred. Had the captains been in the habit of changing their dates at midnight, probably no such inconvenience would have happened. Also bearing testimony to the desirability of uniformity, Commodore Franklin, himself, of course, a practical sailor, on his part, said that he believed to all navi- gators, certainly to English speaking ones, the new method, which had some years betore received the sanction of the Washington International Meridian Conference, would prove to be decidedly advantageous as it would tend to remove, on the part of mariners not possessed of a mathe- matical education, a liability to confusion in the conversion of time due to the nautical day preceding the civil day by 12 hours and the astro- nomical day by 24 hours. The commodore explained that “the navi- gator is concerned, not with his longitude, but with his Greenwich time, having obtained which he can take from the Nautical Almanac the data he seeks, whether given for noon or midnight, and when the ephemerides shall have been made to conform to the new system, there will be one time in common use by all the world.” He further contended that among navigators the change, when made, would be attended by but little con- fusion, and that of a temporary character. To the question asked in the circular of the joint committee, 171 answers were received ; the last came in December, 1894, and was from the veteran Signor Denza, chief astronomer of the Vatican Observatory, who voted for the proposed change. Of the replies, 108 were in the affirmative and 63 in the negative. By countries, the astronomers voted as follows for the change : Austria, Australia, Belgium, Canada, Colombia, England, France, Greece, Italy, Ireland, Jamaica, Madagascar, Mexico, . Roumania, Russia, Scotland, Spain and the United States of America, eighteen in all, Against the change: Germany, Holland, Norway and Portugal, four in all. The eighteen countries in favour of a change represent 85 per cent of the tonnage of the world. Based upon these answers, the Astronomical and Physical Society and the Canadian Institute, in May, 1894, addressed a joint memorial to His Excellency the Governor-General, praying His Excellency to lay the matter before Her Majesty’s advisers with a view to such action being taken as appeared to be proper in the premises. The society has reason to believe that on the 26th of June, the Colonial Secretary forwarded the memorial to the Lords of the Committee of Council on Education, which referred the question for report to the committee, consisting of the as- tronomer royal, Lieutenant-General R. Strachey, RE, C.S8.L., FBS; Dr. Hind, FRS. the hydrographer of the navy, the president of the Royal Astronomical Society, A. M. W. Downing, Esq., M.A., D.Sc., and Major General Sir J. Donnelly, K.C.B., which was originally formed to consider the question of a uniform prime meridian and which has since [LUMSDEN ] UNIFICATION OF TIME 88 reported on that and cognate questions. The committee made its report on the 3rd of August, and, eventually on the 22nd of September, the Foreign Office issued to Her Majesty’s representatives in the countries which publish Astronomical Ephemerides, viz., France, Germany, the United States, Austria, Spain, Portugal, Brazil and Mexico, a circular, in which it was stated that while the Lords of the Admiralty “do not con- sider the change necessary, they are nevertheless prepared to carry it out in 1901, provided that other nations who publish astronomical ephemerides desire the change and will take the same action.” The representatives were instructed to bring the matter of the proposed unification of time to the notice of the governments to which they were accredited and to ascertain and report “their views with regard to the proposal.” So far as the Astronomical and Physical Society is aware, official replies have been received by the British Foreign Office from the gov- ernments of the United States, Austro-Hungary, Spain, Brazil and Mexico. The United States, so the British minister at Washington was informed in October, “are averse to the Canadian proposition.” The government appears to have adopted the unfavourable report of the superintendent of the Naval Observatory, the director of the Nautical Almanac and the astronomical director of the Naval Observatory. For Austro-Hungary, the minister of Foreign Affairs replied that the proposal had been referred to a committee appointed by the Imperial Academy of Sciences at Vienna, as experts, in whose opinion, from an astronomical point of view, the reform “does not seem specially expedient and would hardly afford any practical results.” The minister, however, “thinks it right to add that, according to the views expressed by the departments concerned, the Austro-Hungarian mercantile marine would raise no objec- tion to the suggested innovation, any more than would the Imperial and Royal Navy, as may be gathered from the accompanying copy of a note from the head of the Naval Section of the Imperial War Departments.” In his note, the Naval Head says : “The said establishments will. there- fore, conform to the mode of reckoning accepted by the majority of of nations whose principles they adopt as authoritative. It was of greater importance for the Naval Department to know the views of the Lords of the British Admiralty as to the plan of the Nautical Almanac from the year 1901, onwards, which are expressed in the Foreign Office circular, annexed to the note in question. With regard to this, I beg to state that the Imperial and Royal Hydrographical Office of Pola has, at my request, been in communication with the Meteorological Observatory at Trieste, as to which system of day reckoning would be employed in the Austrian Ephemerides for the year 1901, drawn up at that observatory, published by order of the Imperial and Royal Naval Authorities, and subsidized by the Marine Section of the Imperial and Royal War Department, and the answer is to the effect that the arrangement of the Nautical Almanac 86 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA will continue to be adopted in the Austrian Ephemerides. The example set by the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty in the Nautical Almanac would therefore he followed as regards the Hphemerides.” For Spain, the Minister of Marine replied that ‘ without, for his part, proposing or desiring the said change, he is quite prepared, for his Government, to accept the change in 1901, if, before 1896, it is shown that the majority of the Ephemerides offices, which regularly issue nautical almanacs, are in favour of it.’ For Mexico, the Minister of War and Marine stated “that as far as this department is concerned, no objection exists to the approval of the proposal for the said unification in the terms suggested, already approved by the majority of astronomers of the various nations of the world to take effect on the first day of the coming century.” For Brazil. the Minister of Foreign Affairs replied “that the Brazilian Gov- ernment have decided to adhere to the proposed arrangement, which they will adopt in all publications of a scientific or technical nature from the Ist of January, 1901.” From the other four countries no official reply has been received, but it would appear that Le Bureau des Lonyitudes, to which the subject was referred on the 19th of October, by the Minister of Public Instruction for France, has, after discussion, reported the fol- luwing resolution: ‘“ Le Bureau des Longitudes est favorable, en principe, à la réforme proposée par l'Institut Canadien pour le changement d'origine du jour astronomique. Le Bureau estime que cette réforme, comme l'ont fait observer les Lords de l’Amirauté, ne peut avoir d'efficacité que si une entente a lieu entre les gouvernements publiant les principales éphémé- rides. Enfin, considérant que l'unification ne sera vraiment complète que lorsque l'heure civile, à l'exemple de ce qui se fait en Italie, sera comptée de 0 à 24 heures, le Bureau émet le vœu que cette dernière réforme soit réalisée le plus tôt possible.” In other words, the Bureau has com- mitted itself to the principle involved and is favourable to its adoption in practice provided the countries issuing the more pretentious ephemerides take concerted action, a reservation made also in the cases of Great Britain and Spain. But the Bureau goes further in a very important matter.’ It officially expresses to the Minister of Public Instruction the decided opinion that to the reform in counting civil time in one series of twenty- four hours, commencing at midnight, as in Italy, effect should be given at the earliest possible moment, a reform which, by-the-way, has recently been legalized in the province of Ontario, where hereafter, unless other- wise specifically stated, the time referred to in any by-law, deed, or other legal instrument shall be held to be standard time, and where “the hours of the day may in any locality be numbered in one series up to twenty- four according to the ‘24-hour notation’ so-called,” which shall be equally valid with the old system of reckoning. 19 Having reference to the unification of time, the position of this important movement now appears to be practically this. The adoptior {LUMSDEN ] UNIFICATION OF TIME 87 of the reform, in 1901, is assured if Germany take action similar to that of Great Britain and France, the countries which, with the United States, publish the “ greater ephemerides.” The promoters of this movement in Canada-and elsewhere are, therefore, awaiting with some interest the reply that shall be sent to the British Government by that country. To these promoters, however, time is becoming an important factor. As is well known, astronomical ephemerides are prepared three years in advance, and as the issue for 1901 should be printed off in 1897, or 1898, at latest, and as the computers must have an interval in which to make necessary alterations and changes, there remains but a comparatively brief period within which to carry on effectually the discussion of the proposal with,a view to its universal adoption. The beginning of a new century makes admittedly the best time-point, for a departure of the kind suggested. The year date 1901is by far the best for the same purpose, because it can easily be fixed in the minds of future astronomers and computers whose investigations may require an examination of past records. As a date, it is certainly superior to those of the years in which the Gregorian system was substituted for the Julian, and when other changes took place of which note has to be taken by scientific investigators. The question is not a new one, but circumstances now exist which give it a prominence it never before possessed. It is said that Hipparchus “the father of Astronomy,” himself counted the hours from midnight to midnight. The practice of taking noon as the moment from which the hours were to be counted, originated with Ptolemy, not always a safe guide but, who, in this instance adopted, possibly, the system best suited to the means at his disposal. In 1804, La Place sent to Le Bureau des Longitudes, a letter in which he proposed to unify astronomical time with civil time, by counting the hours from midnight. After an ex- haustive discussion, the Bureau, by a vote of 7 to 5, adopted the proposal. Nevertheless, La Connaissance des Temps, which was and is published by the Bureau, continued to appear in the ancient manner of counting astronomical time. La Place, however, in La Méchanique Céleste and in the calculation of his Tables employed civil time and, in this, was imitated by the other French constructors of tables until Le Verrier reverted to the former system of reckoning. In 1884, 1885 and 3886, the question having again arisen as a result of the discussions which took place at the conferences at Washington and Geneva, M. Faye, the French astronomer, had his attention called more than once to the subject and was reminded that, under the influence of La Place, the Bureau had formerly calculated the Lunar and Planetary Tables for Paris mean mid- night, but in view of the probable opposition of the German astronomers, indicated by their attitude at Geneva, no decision was reached. Now, as we see, the Bureau has committed itself at a time when such an adhesion to the principle involved, marks a great step in advance. In this con- 88 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA nection, it is worth while to note that at Greenwich, since 1885, civil time, counted in one 24-hour series, has been used for spectroscopic, photographic, magnetic and meteorological observations, the astronomer royal being friendly to the reform. But. after all, what are the objections urged against the adoption of the proposition for the unification of time? Practically, there are but two: the convenience of astronomers and computers and the possible con- fusion that would, for a time, prevail at sea, The latter has been effectually answered by Commodore Franklin and others, who know whereof they speak. The former appears to be due to a deep-rooted prejudice to change in any form. And the question may be asked: Is the personal comfort and convenience of a certain sprinkling of astrono- mers, safely housed in their observatories, sustained, like themselves, as a public charge, to prevail over the interests of the thousands of sea-faring men labouring to make a livelihood? These gentlemen, who appeal to every phase of the question save the paramount one, seem to forget that they are simply a means to an end and that, officially, they were made for navigators, and not navigators for them. The establishment of national observatories and the publication of nautical almanacs had but one object, namely, to meet the exigencies of navigation ; or,in other words, ‘‘to perfect the art of navigation,” a fact which those official astronomers and computers who, for purely personal reasons, are not in sympathy with this movement might do well to bear in mind. The plea of inconvenience on the part of astronomers is very appropriately dealt with by a recent French writer in discussing the subject generally. Evidently, in a spirit of raillery, he exclaims that it is no doubt true that it would somewhat incommode an astronomer to change a date in his note-book, in the middle of a night’s observations, and that it is possible that he might sometimes forget to make the entry, which, of course, would cause errors, errors, however, that could afterwards be discovered and corrected. But this is an inconvenience which already exists under the present system of taking solar observations, and especially at sea where mariners find themselves continually (à chaque instant) in the presence of the very inconvenience which ‘‘affrights the astronomers.” Further, he says, the navigator, preoccupied by a thousand anxieties and obliged to use his time observations to decide upon his course, is more exposed to error than the astronomer ; error, too, which may be attended by grave consequences to life and property. To the charge of discon- tinuity in the records of observation, he answers that it cannot be greater than that caused by the introduction of the Gregorian system and the counting of the beginning of the year on the first day of January ; that the observations of the last two centuries will always be available und that, if the reform be adopted, a single correction will be sufficient to restore uniformity. To the further objection that unification would be L os 2 ee [LUMSDEN ] UNIFICATION OF TIME 89 a source of error, he urges that putting off the reform, which must come some day, will only tend to aggravate this condition, inasmuch as observ- ations, noted in astronomical time, will continue to accumulate without cessation. As for confusion, there is already plenty of incongruity in the various official publications, portions of which are given in astronomi- cal and other portions in civil time. All this confusion would be removed at one stroke of the official pen, were the astronomical and nautical days made to commence at the instant when the civil day begins. Still better would it be if time were counted in daily periods of 24, rather than in two periods of 12, hours. At present, we have the following anomalous state of time reckoning. There is the Civil Day which begins at mid-. night and ends at the midnight ensuing. There is the Astronomical Day which begins at noon and continues until the following noon. There is the Nautical Day which concludes at noon of the Civil Day, having com- menced at the preceding noon. From this, it is obvious that any given date extends over, or into, three different days. For an example (citing a previous publication on this subject) take Wednesday, June 13th, 1894. By Astronomical and Nautical reckonings, only half of this date, in each case, is on Wednesday; the first half of June 13th, according to Nautical reckoning, is on Tuesday, June 12th, while the second half of the same date (June 13th) according to Astronomical reckoning, is on Thursday, June 14th, Civil Time. In writing upon this subject, Sir John Herschell says: “This usage has its advantages and disadvantages, but the latter seem to preponderate ; and it would be well if, in consequence, it could be broken through, and the civil reckoning substituted. Uniformity in nomenclature and modes of reckoning in all matters relating to time, place, weight, measure, etc., is of such vast and paramount importance in every relation of life as to outweigh every consideration of technical convenience and custom.” The italics are Sir John’s. Taking everything into consideration, it is now sometimes a question with the Astronomical and Physical Society whether it would not have been wise to have ascertained the opinion of navigators rather than the opinion of astronomers as to the necessity of bringing about the reform to which it has addressed itself. So far as is known, the reform has the sympathy of all seamen, and it was for them, as has been pointed out, that national observatories and annual nautical publications were created and still exist. In the course of a twenty thousand mile voyage, in 1893, Dr. Fleming, who consulted them, did not meet with one captain or other navigating officer who was not ready to accept unified time. And it has recently come to the knowledge of the society, that, a year or so ago, when Captain W. Nelson Greenwood, the compiler and publisher of cer- tain Kludonometric or Tide Tables, issued at Manchester, England, pro- posed to discontinue the use of uniform time, which had been in use ten years, as it appeared to be injuring the local sale of his work, he was met by protests from navigators so emphatic that he abandoned his intention. Sec. III., 1896. 7. 90 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Having regard to the interests that are at stake, to the desirability of effecting the suggested reform and to the brevity of the period within which the movement may be discussed with a view to its adoption by 1897, and to its introduction into actual use in 1901, this society would commend to the favourable consideration of the Royal Society, represent- ing, as it does, all that is influential in Literature and Science in Canada, any proposition that may be laid before it, and would ask that it lend the weight of its name to the promotion of a proposition fraught with so much of good to a vast body of men engaged in the commerce and the defence of the nations to whose attention, through their governments, the subject has now been brought. Srcrron III., 1896. [91] Trans. R.S. C. VIIL—The Distribution of Aerolites in Space. By ARTHUR Harvey. (Read May 20, 1896.) The periodicity of swarms of shooting stars is now generally admitted. The great fall of the 11th and 12th November, 1799, was described by Humboldt and Bonpland, who were in South America and found that a similar display had been seen on the same days, thirty-three years before, In 1831, 1832 and 1833, at the same period of the year, there was an abundance of these meteors, and Arago was induced to write, in 1835, that “there exists a zone composed of millions of small bodies whose orbit cuts “the plane of the ecliptic at about the point which our earth annually ‘“ occupies between the 11th and 13th of November. A new planetary-world “is beginning to be revealed.” Olbers investigated the subject and found the period of revolution of these meteorites to be a little over thirty-three years, while the most numerous aggregation in the orbit was that through which the earth had passed in 1766, 1799 and 1832, and he predicted a} fine display for 1866. A brilliant shower was noted on the 13th and 14th November of that year, especially in England, and we may reasonably expect another in 1899. We see some of this swarm every year, but its orbit is not packed with equal thickness in all parts, and the numbers therefore vary. Necessarily, however, they seem to come from the same radiant point in the heavens, and as this is near y Leonis, they are called Leonids. Many other swarms are now recognized as periodical, each having its separate radiant and its special days, each as the Geminids from 6-12 December, the Lyrids from 20-26 April, the Perseids about the 10th of August. It was perceived about thirty years ago that the orbit of the Leonids is closely related to that of Tempel’s comet, seen in 1866. A swarm on November 27th has the same elements as Biela’s comet. The Perseids’ orbit agrees with that of the bright comet 1862 III. The new astronomy therefore holds that there is an intimate connection between comets and shooting stars, and it is thought that through some repulsive action, which is most violent near perihelion, the loosely aggregated materials of comets get scattered into a long trail, if not into a complete ring. The incandescence of these materials, by friction in our atmosphere, when the earth in its revolution swoops through their path, is thought to give rise to the phenomenon of shooting stars. Professor Newton, of Yale, calculates at seven and a half millions the number that daily fall, and the same astronomer has made another in- 92 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA teresting calculation based on the Bielids observed at Beyrout, Marseilles, and Montcalieri, in 1885. The number seen was some 75,000 an hour, and during that display the earth travelled 100,000 miles. This then was a very rich part of that meteor-stream. Even there, the calculation goes on to prove, and it is easy to repeat and check it, the meteors were on an average 20 miles apart. Shooting stars are, however, like others—many more can be seen with a telescope than without one—and it would in the present state of our knowledge be rash to fix a limit to their number, and though their bulk is very small, it is enough to form an important part of the material lying on the deep sea bottom, far from shore, and has been estimated to add 100 tons a day to the weight of the earth. The material found is a mere dust of iron oxide. They do not differ from one another in size alone. Some move much more rapidly than others, some have longer or broader trails, some trails appear to last longer, and they differ in colour too. In short, with a little experience, one may tell an Andromede from a Perseid, Leonid or Lyrid, without reference to its radiant. It may be here mentioned that the writer, availing himself of a Barton electric furnace, placed at his disposal, applied the intense heat of the electric arc to the surface of several kinds of minerals—chiefly quartz and spar containing particles of various metallic ores. They became incan- descent in a flash; numerous fragments splintered off at a white heat, showing how trails are formed and how their colours vary, also how the ‘crust’ on meteorites is formed. The wonder is how any meteors can reach the earth except as cosmic dust. The present writer, observing shooting stars in 1893, was surprised to find Perseids in July, continuing well into September. In 1894 they were fairly abundant during the last week in July, while on their special day they were very sparse. A similar observation was being made at Pultava, and it stands to reason that the ring, if formed from the materials of comets, must be enormously diffuse. The tails of these bodies are seen to flicker—to emit streams in several directions. There must be successive emissions, perhaps several at each perihelion passage, and the planets affect them and cause a direct motion of their perihelia and of the perihelia of their swarm rings. If we were to reduce the orbits of the various Perseids we encounter to one set of co-ordinates and place the eye at the nodal region, we should see their paths, diverging like brushes of rays, to cover an enormous extent in space. Prof. Newton says the disintegrating force must be in the plane of the earth’s orbit, but it seems to the writer that if it emanates from the sun, the earth does not at all control it—the materials would be thrown from the comet in the shape of a cone, whose apex is at the comet and whose base is enormously expanded. How full space now begins to seem; not an [A. HARVEY] THE DISTRIBUTION OF AEROLITES IN SPACE 93 empty void in which seven or eight planets pursue their solitary circlings, but a plenum, with numberless streams of matter circulating through it, each composed of countless bodies of all sizes. It takes the earth close upon two months to go through that part of its orbit crossed by the dis- integrated particles of comet 1862 ILI. These paragraphs lead to the proper consideration of the present inquiry—whether there is a periodicity among aerolites, and whether aerolites are connected with shooting stars and recognized comets. Many writers assume that bolides, aerolites and shooting stars are identical. The writer has come to believe that aerolites are not all the discards of comets, but rather small comets themselves. To arrive at a conclusion on this point, 357 have been classified according to the days they fell, and it would be difficult to distribute the supply more evenly throughout the months or the days of the year. January comes a little short, while May is unusually well supplied, but there seems no special reason for attaching weight to the differences, which are doubtless accidental. The whole list is appended, but the summary by months is sufficient to prove this statement : Jnuasye..2.. 24 My RTE 42 September... 31 February........ 28 SUMEH at serene ol October sss. 27 28 Maven. 28 July. . 26 Novemibers...-. 129 pre... 29 AUGUSt-2. 260.26 = 29 December's... <<.) 32 ANG TRAME LE 357 The next classification made refers to the hours of their fall. This important detail is not given in half the cases, but we find for these Between (6, 4m: ald: G7 pm.\ cote ae octet ee anse eeu 127 se 6p:miand Game ts sees ne 37 164 The reason for the difference is worth inquiring into, and it is to be hoped that the importance of the subject to the study of physical astronomy will cause more careful records to be kept of all nocturnal bolides as well as of diurnal aerolites. It is evident that as a general rule aerolites which strike us in the day time are on their way from the sun—these which fall at night on their way toit. If they were flying directly to or from it, they would be most numerous at. about noon or at about midnight, for at other hours, equal areas on the earth’s surface are obliquely inclined to the sun and present a smaller target to such missiles, But they are affected by. the attraction of the earth, and their paths become bent, generally so as to follow the earth in its course. Their velocity, we must remember, is enormous. À recent committee of the British Association reports that 94 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA “ fire balls appear at a height of between 20 and 130 miles and have a “ velocity of between 17 and 80 miles per second, averaging 34:4 miles per “ second.” The earth travels in its orbit 18°3 miles per second. Gravity, from the furthest confines of the sun’s power, would only account for half the velocity of the average meteor, so their proper motion may be from 30 to 40 miles per second in some cases, while in others it may be much less. We should therefore expect that the following of the earth would be very noticeable—that most diurnal meteorites would fall in the afternoon and most nocturnal ones after midnight. We find the table confirm this reasoning for the day observations, not for the others, but the numbers tabulated are scarcely enough to form a fair average, even in the former case. The table is given to show how much there is yet to do, and the work, which is difficult at a provincial centre, is easier where works of reference are more accessible. AEROLITES FALLING. From midnight to 1 a.m...... 0 From 11 p.m. to midnight....... 1 sh 1 a.m. AP A Ey adc 23 0 east US he DA ee 1 ce 2 ¢ [24 3 LÉ ETES 3 9 [12 74 10 ARC 2 S Di) ay RARES d's ee 2 SAT DE DS 8 + ca poe | «0 per Rely) oe 8:21 000 NE: DR diese 7 OV ss fee 8 ART HA Se 5 DO ND EURE GT 11 ce 7 ce ‘ 8 COR aan} i a4 4 (44 6c 5 18 Ber te À, ANR 7 DID TUE 4.514128 i, QUE AN EEE a tiene TO) Jesse 6 TOUTE ai ERNST 8 A NS Re 2 isSese 11 ve Li Wty 00070) 0 Are 8 ‘noon ‘ Js 4 16 164 We may further arrange them thus : Falling from midnight to 6 a.m. ....................... 12 4 DOME RUE tO NOON 2:40. aisles tasers 42 "i “noon CO 6 PMR. oo. cecsuccenveecsiensnave 85 4 ENG p.m. to MIMIC Htoiti eens. 55 eae 25 164 There is but one case known to the author of a meteorite falling during a display of shooting stars, viz., a stone that fell at Mazapil, Mexico, during a shower of Bielids. This was perhaps a coincidence, and is so considered by Stanislas Meunier, of the Paris Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, in a paper sent to the Scientific Society of Chili, on Chili meteorites. It is of interest to note the analogy between recently observed comets and some aerolites. The comets the writer has observed seem [a. HARVEY] THE DISTRIBUTION OF AEROLITES IN SPACE 95 to have a nebulous glimmer surrounding a softly shining but fairly defined luminous cloud, in which a somewhat more brilliant nucleus or several nuclei may be seen. Telescopic stars can be seen through them. Photographic representations represent a bladder or bubble containing or inclosing something, with a bright glow about the nucleus and some wisps of light to form the trail. They may well be assemblages of meteoric stones flying in aswarm, which would not obstruct the view of the heavens beyond. Such may have been the aerolites which fell at L’Aigle, in Normandy, reported on by Biot, 1803. They appeared like a ‘small rectangular cloud, and a vast number of stones weighing 10, 11 and even 17 lbs., fell to the ground,—two or three thousand of them, covering an elliptical area 7$ miles long by 3 miles broad. Such was probably the aerolite of 1876, which was seen in Texas, Kansas, Missouri, Illinois, Indiana and Ohio, and is described as ‘‘a fireball surpassing the moon in “apparent size, followed by a great number of smaller meteors, certainly “ 100 of them, many of which were larger than Venus or Jupiter.” One fell and was found near Bloomington, O., others may have fallen too. but the majority sailed away across Lake Erie “like a flock of wild “ geese, * * * moving with about the same velocity and grace of “regularity.” Such were the thousands that fell at Winnebago, Minn., and very many others. These bodies were probably too small to be emitting light of themselves (such light in the case of visible comets being perhaps due to heat caused by the clashing of their parts in concentration or in frequent collisions) or if luminous, too small to attract the attention of a comet seeker, but they nevertheless seem to have been small comets, whose career of growth or of disintegration was suddenly cut short by collision with our planet. A careful inspection of the table shows that in at least three cases two aerolites have fallen on the same day in places widely separated. Where they fall only a few miles apart, they may perhaps have been parts of one body, and the explosion may have caused the separation, also a change in the direction of flight, which the resistance of the air, acting on the changed shape of the missiles, may have increased. These reasons, however, do not account for such distances as between the two which fell on May 26th, 1826—one near Ajen in France, the other, near Eca- terineslaw in Russia—or the two of May 13th, 1895, one at Moestel Pank, Isle of Oesel, in the Baltic, the other at Gnarrenburg, Hanover. From the similarity of the analysis of some siderites that have been found in the United States, at considerable distances apart, Mr. G. F. Kunz has _ already inferred that they may have been parts of the same meteorite, which was broken up after entering the air. My table gives strength to that inference and leads much farther. When it is completed as to the past and has received the additions of another generation, it will perhaps be seen that aerolites do not always fly in single file or in closely packed 96 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA clusters, but that there are doubles and triples and double clusters, too, among them as well as among the stars, their relatives. Those which the little earth thus intercepts can, however, be both a smal] portion of the whole. All the other planets must receive their share, and the sun himself yet more. Perhaps almost all that are by the plan- ets (which deflect without catching them) imprisoned within the solar system, must ultimately fall into the sun, as a boat is swallowed by a whirlpool. Those, however, which with a high initial velocity come into the sun’s range and are not deflected by some planet, can have no resting place among our family of worlds. Like wandering Jews they can have no home, but must travel without ceasing. Whirling around or past the sun, they must move on and ever on, with retarded speed, in dim star- light and inconceivable cold, until they feel the incipient influence of another stellar mass. Then, like a canoe above Niagara, their rate of motion will increase, at first imperceptibly, but there can be no drawing back. Feeling the throb of a new life they must again be hurried on, and so thread their way from one star’s vicinity to another, adding perhaps a nodule here or some dust elsewhere. Time fades into nothingness on such journeys. Light, at 187,000 miles a second, takes years to travel from star to star, and almost an infinity must be consumed by the meteors, much of whose swiftness is lost in the struggle to get away from this to other systems. Perchance, however, some of them may grow, increasing until they have mass enough to crush all their particles within themselves into coherence, when they would melt with the fervent heat evolved, and at some such stage become self-luminous and join the celestial family as stars, as some of the new splendours yet lying in the womb of Cosmos. It is perhaps much to build so lofty a theory on a statistical table, which is as imperfect as the Carlisle tables of mortality, and, like them, needs to be extended over many years in many countries. Yet these figures lead directly to the inference, which is in line with other reason- ings and observations, that aerolites are evenly distributed throughout space, that they move at various angles with the plane of the ecliptic, that the universe is a plenum, in which change and therefore growth and dissolution must be going on. And this, while adding another proof of the universality and unity of Law, does allow some privileges to one who is tempted to gild the hard prose of fact with the poetry of imagination. [A. HARVEY] THE DISTRIBUTION OF AEROLITES IN SPACE 97 List OF AEROLITES, CLASSIFIED BY THE DATE OF THEIR FALL. January. Place of Fall. Hour. IS D869 ETS Hesslen. rt AURAS de RE Sweden er de 12.30 p.m I lhsisvie Bone Biel ses ee oe Karymitehoe 1... RUSS Sve see sehen le ee ne 2, 1825 AP OAZO} A ia anit tees ae eee INR 4 era > Bb ally teh cokes cern sek che oy ak stort’ DL EE oy Warrenton or. va. IMM SSOUMI Neral ee Wi SAR ANT ho ote verte ee LATE Bjelaya ...... ....... Zerkow........ fof sc A USSId aa eee) telle eee (i lke eee Toh Wie RE «cose uses. à England. lee CS 1884. Volhiymia ES EN eee BORE RUSSIE Re 9.30 a.m. LOR RER ER RER TL Ser Ge EE Devonshire "#7: Hine landia sneer eee | aay 19 1824 to... RINMAIZO eae mbes oncos c LASER eer aes: TRY Re 8.30 p.m 191869: .: Supuheeiz cesses GOruckKpur 0 En diary RER sa rere aee LOPUSC Tae - Kelve Griese tete Rajpootana........ eS ee Se rte 9.00 a.m. ZO SO ate. INOV ETD ai Amen dede OR ee AIS Satie: hic a IE NT APS PIRES TA ce. Decewsville.......... Ontario tres Canada) eee ee 23, 1814 Scholakoth...) Possibly some misprint. See previous date, February 18th, 1824. 100 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA List oF AEROLITES, CLASSIFIED BY THE DATE OF THEIR FALL. April. Place of Fall. Hour. ail Sy eos se SanmJosecns Oceanic ns wes ees Costa RICA LA IEEE DUT IS. 2k PaAUlLORA ME PE ce Oa LO ae ee RUSSIA 8 RER ESSOR AE: Ke te PO Mexico RP RE Ts HRZONLE AN hee Phillipine TASSE SRE fae te: 0" PA POSSI TA rat ee CLASP OW | .tacr eres Scotland ARE AMIE seers 6,180. Doroninske tee cee SIDE deers cr cea ae IRUSSTA PE PRES 5.00 p.m 6, 18685 "SEM Chan dpun er RER PC fon ok het India Amen) ENTER ET TIMISSTET CE LADA eee Nas ONE RER SR A RTE EAU c DRASS OR EC eee ates DB eLKShire nes eer Hine landieeee aeelecr eerie 0, 184s) asalleter Eee er Tyrone Feces. nee Ireland Re CREER 10," 1802: :: TOWOUSCh AMEN ore ese eee France he ha eee 1071818 Seti, chee tae RE AO ara ean eee RUSSIA AN eave ote SERRE 11, 1715 SCHELIN EE Sr ---- ETUSSIA ee ere CGeLMANYA FETE 4.00 p.m TZ ABIDE hae ToOUlOUSEWe eat ei Ab EPSON ee Net tent ÉranCe eee 1.30 p.m 121864 EE NET ARE Courlan dre Me RUSSIE eee 445 a.m IRS, "a oy bee Hirzlebeniey- sek oes AELUSSIG Me Acie mene Germany "ee 4.00 p.m TD ISAT ne Ka ba MERE Ro Austria-Hungary| 10.30 p.m 17, 1621 LANOTE yee ss Een eee ARE RS ER India HN Be am alB bonded « fis Spl ee | Gnuttterslobeerera TEE rUSSIA eae PRE PERS Germanye- rte 8.00 p.m 1818882020 | AKDUTDURE SES Le ee En er tenes Ihave bt wen Grate na dec y hac 2500 € 18-1809 Fe Niagara Falls 1 ......New York........ WS RAL CINE 2.00 a.m. 19, 1808 ... Borgois. Doninov.-) arma ween ee ITA Aaa AMccig 12.00 m. 25 018102 CPR OWIONE AS RTODSITER hee Bnelandiee seer 3.15 p.m. PAS TLS Dae hire NAGETIL PUS veer URE Coo SN INR ENTRE AE AIRE PART ENRE DOMIEUSETE Pigier Pr ON OLIN Civ re ETANCers rate 1.00 p.m. 26) 1842 700 | Pusinsko-Selo =. ---Crontia "EE Austria-Hungary 3.00 p.m. 21 18406 | RATIO peer de A hac A BEA RUSSIE 220 12.00 m. DOMISTI ate CURRENT eR, Eee a ts Sweden’ ...0. tee 3.30 p.m 29 18445 ~.).).| Kalleteme Per". Dyrone rte Irelande: ere PE CEE BOS eLS7oe seat L ROME: tester eee cat CPR RENE ALT RE er PTE 1 Lighted up the whole sky. Not seen to fall. ? Given elsewhere as of 9th May, 1880., Perhaps and new style accounts for difference. * Possibly wrong, see April 9th, supra. difference between old style [a. HARVEY] THE DISTRIBUTION OF AEROLITES IN SPACE 101 List or AEROLITES, CLASSIFIED BY THE DATE OF THEIR FALL. Place of Fall. 1 Given by Meunier as of the 12th May, 1875. 2 Probably connected with the same group as the next. 3 Seen and heard—not found. 4 Seen—not found. 5 Probably the same fall or collection as the next. 6 Given by Meunier as at 31st inst. 7 Probably the same as given at 30th March. Hour. May. 4 1860" New Concord........ ONE ed US SANS UNE 2, 1890..... Winnebago.......... MOV EUR te eet Secs sn ok ae eae Darl SOO saa Krahenberg ........- Bavaria ire ce cai ole Germanys ese MICLS bee PARIS RAR PER Re ANT AT de HrancCeN tree 8, 1829 HOTS y.bll eee ae Georcianteessssse ss WeSscAsr teense Sree lose ae Monte: Milone@sy Rene rs tinct fais here Dtalyit RP Shp Suara ser Dyalpurtee eee eee OUD ey aaa sot. Indian 2e OM S27 ass. INashwilleo ssn eee: MenNesse@ it WS As aes ee, JOMISTO NES théEvilIlTe 0er TOW Att yas ees SAN RO RAT DAB TAT TE: Se vEUkOro ee eee IOUT SRE eee Russia. 20 LAIT oe GOOtK A. eee renner Tata eS ie Fe Ina weet 12/1855". Moestel Pank ? ......I. of Oesel ........ RUSSIE IPNSIS5D PAT Gharrenbure#"%"° HANOVRE Germanys-E seen: ie lle, POITELS 2 LEE OR PR een FTADCER ARE 14, 1861... Canellas: si .c0c RARES ea NE A Spain re Ha LS SRE Orgueils 1128 IR CREER Pee: Brann yawns 14S ST4S acc Nash Cortes INS Carolincanae ere CÉSSAPANM ERA ae LOS rer. Harbour Graces RER PR EEE Newfoundland... 17 1830) 3205: Berti RES .iap eee ee a eee ne a E Scopland asst AMIS ener. TOUS Ge ee TAIVONA RESTE RUSSIAN eee oe We LS Gls =, + Heugent 1m Hesse) Sense Germany ete ARISTON 3. Gnadenftren "Re Silesiaive eee UE Pe PTS SEE a KS alte 010) TEE TON ONE EST ee eee at eae RES England se. VOSS AG scr. GARDIEN eee ASTON NN SA AE ÉTANCERS EEE 192182605077 Paulograde "1e Ecaterinoslaw ..... RUSSIE PEER OISE le IMC KOVA:..< <0. DER Eee sete mee PURE fy Austria-Hungary 7) he ko. t= EE. Castine res INTAIN Cle ae PER Wis St Are aces 20, 1874... MAR DAT Stine ete oth ee Mid diner anne DULKE YEARS 205 SBE 20. AV SIG Ars Wee eee Bergen snes INGA conaauroe DST IMSearSmort MERE Maine RARE TES AT EE MT PIEDS NE Stannernn 14" ho Moravian ere AUS ÉTIARE EE AÈEE Al tel Of fear Sommer Coos eee Cee eee UPS AMEN MTL Al 1868 7-0 DSIOAVELIC 1. Eee Agramyers:& fees dens Austria-Hungary Pera ihels eee ere KERNOUVEN acne Morbihan .........France...... atin: AR Lille DNA seri GOPAÏDUE EE ecco JeSSOTe re DAS E CARE 23 1860; -. Clarac, EEE Morbihan "mere France" née AA SOc. Cross tRoads- "7" NACarolinase ieee US SAAR mace 72.9) 17(53 Wee eae Etrad shina) secs cee Croatia . ..... Austria-Hungary 2021803572 Beaver Creek........ Ba Columbia... ss Canada. il SOO ue: ae. PORTA Er eset eee Buster AS FN India nas 4a. tir 2018667777 Soe Miesmumny "220 EPOVGS tee nae France ter "rer SU MISE tue Powder Mill Creek ..Tennessee ......... Uni RATE TRES 42 12.45 p.m" 9.30 a.m. ss... so... ss... ss... ss. ss... 102 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA List or AEROLITES, CLASSIFIED BY THE DATE OF THEIR FALL June. | Place of Fall. Hour 2, 1843..... | Utrecht ser ses eee eee betes eas eee Holland ieee see 8.00 p.m. PAPA ES Teen Scheikahr Statten...Courland ......... RUSSIA eee 7.30 a.m 3 182260 PAIN Ares AN RER ee RER OT Eee HANG ARE 8.30 p.m AT 1828) see Richmond" VAT OUI eee IAE LS PAU eye. eee 8.30 a.m As 1842). ER AMM TeTeSs ANR EN CAPES ren tale aa tae ÉTANCE Heese aloes LA GNT AE Chandakapur "7eme CRE RE TERRE India Aken. tee 12.00 m 3° ESS RER St: (DenisswWiesirem:.). 46s: Te RE BeloiumEe eee 7.45 p.m TMISTE TS VaAvUOvVKAM "020 Cherson@ eee cece RUSSIAS. Phase EN someones 91890720 KN VAIN yap reine. anc et ee ....-Austria-Hungary] 5.00 p.m. Ure! bs fat megane Madi Craiwereetnstesiote Sétiftkeceeataccecn ANCICLS ep REA 10.30 p.m MESISTS RTE Trai Charette rs LR TN aes ee Mexico serrer 11.30 a.m AIS ST Widen sae mit Brabant ere HOÏAN APE ee 10.30 a.m 12 TA Er Charnsallas®t "0 Delhi asie IAA EE EAN 8.00 a.m JAMIE Chateau tRenarA LÉ ARR France 1.30 p.m 19/2 ASIST ise Saint-Onge rie see ce ee oe eee bee BE cue fOr 6.00 a.m 13, 1850 1 LÉ du nin Ae ee RE Co TE A do G'S JAPAN eee dawn SNA Er LEA ae: NILVID AS AR ARR EEE ce Container Se Ree cree Hrancel "2." 3.30 p.m 16) I7OLNE SIGNAL age yacls ce M Net SEE eae IR UN AE SE 7.00 p.m 16-1800 Fst: Kasculi ...........................:..... Indian se tre 5.00 a.m 17, 1870: 1" Tbbenbühren-.-.:.… PrUSSIdARRE Len Germany "2%" 2.00 p.m 19/1088 IVIETONA Re Re MARS a eer Titally, 4.0 te Re ac PE AR 19, 1876.--... | Vavilovka ...........Kherson .......... RUSSIA Maite eee ere eee 22, 1723. | Ploschkowitz........ Bohemia... -..0% AUSTIN: TI oe ee ee 25. AO10 7%) EANSASACIDy Le se MISSOUPIPEC EEE WHS! Ag. eis | eee 25, 1890 Karmington . 7... Kansas ETS ng 12.55 p.m 26, 1864. ..... Dolgowla "1.74: Volhymart:-e7e RUSSIA Ett cue oe 7.00 a.m Peed bo AN Mikenskoi ? ......... Caucasuste 7 LE CNET N 7.00 p.m 28/1812. Tennasilm sco... - Esthonid #2". spe EP ere Bs 12.00 m. 28)" 187651. 2: Stalldalenteer yer ELLE acs bec ieee Sweden... 11.30 ie? 29 1BAS aire Mantes ami ee a eee me Dima. 2,0 tac el ee ere BO 1686.12 Nagaya Conception te." a5. 2000 DIDI Bot es PEACE SRE 31 1 Some authority gives this on the 9th ; Meunier gives the 2nd June. 2 Also reported from Grosnaya on 16th. Difference between old and new style ? fa. HARVEY] THE DISTRIBUTION OF AEROLITES IN SPACE 103 List oF AEROLITES, CLASSIFIED BY THE DATE OF THEIR FALL. July. Place of Fall. Hour. SNA ITS eae RÉPARER A poe Bohemia #4" AUSETIA a eee Geos | 8.00 p.m APISA2 NN. 5 Logrono!;.i ee RE een ea El à DD AIN, aioe AN ERA EEE A BAS NN | Marmandai: yao Merron aia toe Hrance S22 Sse algo ate Dy S25... Torrecilloside|\Campomuree eases Palas re sae oe ae Lees aes U4 ls Sat sees St Denis Westrens(@)eets se de. Belgium es. Veen SAISIE ES") Berlaneuillas PRE EE tere ee Spain Fe) 8.00 p.m CR Lot ARE Franklin Co...... = IKentTUCR Ye ES SYANSRE ae at |. ae some ee S682 Ornansys: tsar DOUDS aie ca France. alter a ee 128207 2. TEST ET CN ARR RS UD EN MIRE Sue EE ea ae RUSSIA EEE | 5.30 p.m 14, 1845......| La Vivionnere..... Manchest sateen MTrancevA.e ates 3.00 p.m. ARTS: 2 Brannauri rs PAM Cee Pee eee Germany ... 3.45 a.m 14591860; :.:. WM huirm sala. aa reser ee eee eee eee WAYSINE) Somes ecco 2.30 p.m ASIST Siva AMES OMNIA PERS Moraviass.c-cs.--. AUISUR an eee ee 1.45 p.m LORIE ER cee ee ee Ser ihn mmm es Aas France Miner ss SR ISO Ac. @eresetoi's ie coc aes Piedmont ee Italy 28. Sean oe 7.30 a.m LS LSS ert WOU GR aise RNA EN re Aan eee TAN Gey ute nice rl ose ee 1S MISE HCTEUSONIRENC CPE" N. Carolina....... WES HAS oe eae: 6.00 p.m LOT SOA ES" BOIO 21). seg sans der eee eee ee GEE COME tye cele ep eee sy deri aes ee Orr ae New Works, u. (URSS RS PS TONI VA AS 24111838 0.1 Monitlivailts > eee ene ÉTANCE AT PERLE EE Be Der 7 PRES PANCÉNE ESS MERS Orleans: rer bony de ek Mee 5.30 p.m ZENO. AT: BALE TE 0 Le gaye roe een ee ee at aise Rane 9.00 p.m. 72: Ae os eee Gross DIVINE eee Oe Austria-Hungary) 11.30 a.m Al SOF EL _ Lick Observatory +..California ......... CESR ARE AE area ae OLAITUSTE EC SHEPNESS don se airs NN ee England aca s|t ae eee Sls tsa eee | MOnbpreisi. "5" SLI eee AMISUEIA:, tien AIS RE RENE 26 (a) Given as 7th June by Meunier. 1 A fire ball seen over a large part of France. 2 Seen and heard, not found. 5 Seen over New York and the Central States. 4 Seen, heard, figured and described, not found. 104 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA List oF AEROLITES, CLASSIFIED BY THE DATE OF THEIR FALL. August. Place of Fall. Hour. | 1,1 Gees aa. Charlotte re tete Tennessee.......... WAS: AALS nal hee 1879222 RMNArAYA EE ER AE reheat can eee ee Argentinaie sway. cle cakes S626 ett Morlans ose ER Are cfc RARER EOE ran ce) ee| eee eee 2, LSB 2c as ee Paulovikal se perce EE AC NET ans ALCHREREC RUSSIA scale re 4.30 p.m. 4, 1835 Cirencester ee arene oes ce Tee Hinelan di etesee er 4.30 p.m. BST Zine tc Chantonnayi te... Vendée: France: .| 2.00 a.m. D:14180622.. OVIELO pupae EN SR RE EP Spain. Se ARE 3) wader ae D A185pS Petersburg epee ass: Tennessee..." LAS RASS rete 3.30 p.m. 7, 1823 Nobleboro’........... Maine 53 4e tne ea SSL OR co LE 4,30 p.m. 7, 1822 Radanahssct. set acs. A orate areca India vie nach heen eee 81803 727 Pillitstene eens ae TAVONIA WAM arose FUUSSlaeee eres 12.30 p.m. 10, 1818 SMOIENS RER MEANS FRE RAP eee NEC AE Te Po med ee vu 10-1863 77 DR EN A NES AE CSA QAR TU England RCE ARE RER LOS SG TRENSE CTOZACE PR OR SE ARR NE SELS Hrance}. 51 FAST AS res 1101859220 Bethlehem........... New MOrks ear USA EE ER EEE 1S SGA DER SAN RE rece seek Daccar. rene Endia rie IR eee 12, 1865 Dundrume te eye sone ecu veneer ert Irelande er ocr 7.00 p.m. 1S #18572 re Sidmouthi-.: os awe. chimes EC Ce CCR Hino land: ete Ne 14, 1829..... Deal PATENT ING J Crse yes ee Ws STAR RE 11.30 p.m. 145 218462 FES Cape Girardeau...... MISSOURI. re ce PTE D AN EDS à 3.00 p.m ihapy hey (ajar. es Heid=chair rene Ce Ba Calle ARR See Al ceria ecto: 12.00 m 1s hae Ws RS re he ne PRE ER SAN ae acd BuUrOpDe ren re ere ae 15 MIS7O EEE Cahezzo de Mayo....Murcia............ SPA 54 MMS eee ie cae ee 20; A804: cate Phaleruim:. 27 ESRI tee CN PERLE Greece es. nck lus II ANNEE 25, EBS. 2%: Ümimawars.- "Aer. Behar ee CecE Aes India FANS ARE 9.00 a.m 26, 1865. A'umale nes; BAe Ae rte AT Tite IN eq gp UE ere 11.00 a.m 20, V892 es Bathe tees: xc Dakota rss AS ALK: P Er 4.00 p.m. 0887: SE PDO Reese A rc Perte Te RUSSIA.: : 2 7 RIRES SL, MOUs are Orvinio/.57.:.. Rone.. = "ee D AE ARE SEC 5.15 a.m. 29 1 Seen—not found. 2 Throughout northwestern Europe—1,000 miles of a course. [a. HARVEY] THE DISTRIBUTION OF AEROLITES IN SPACE 105 List OF AEROLITES, CLASSIFIED BY THE DATE OF THEIR FALL. September Place of Fall. Hour. Se LSOS ene or UAV: Mile tee oy SiS eats 40 Bohémid Eee" Austria-Hungary| 3.30 p.m 471852... Mezi Madares....... Transylvania...... ¥ es 4.30 p.m 4, 1857 Korasnoslobodshkesaemanaesse cae sets vere E Russia 2 Seaside oe D, tod ee ea AP OMe ue Mea tiem een te aor nd bisves iranicem asset ee. 12.00 m. el oer emu: 4h ances PruSsid::-.- 60222: Germany, ere rec Oe DIS hohe ae ele Dandapur sce eee Gorunkpure4. er India mane ges Aen (Gas lr ira te Tesoro iponas Lea AUT ere Ne arme ETancerr mme 1.00 p.m TM TER Mudd oor: Jen RES eee ce seen ae Da Ie pense A eae an) teens Be 1868-28. 0: Sanguis St. Etienne.B. Pyrenées.......France .......... 2.30 a.m. OE SZ ON aye: Krasno])\W gale sete eee oe RUSSIA EEE 2.00 p.m. OMIS lee ZMOTLON aon tan ome Morale ar En Austria-Hungary| 3.30 p.m. TO UST SS 2-12: Inimenricke\); sce eee RE ree Re Irelande re" 6.00 a.m. OU ASLZS yeas - LHANCOUTL. AR eee nee INTATICE seers Seals ete se ne 15, 17e tome MUI CO RL He Rte ten DATE ER eee DE TA CHARTE 4.30 p.m. 19), 1822: ..... La Baffe, Epinal..... NIOS TES stra DM ART DRE 7.00 a.m. 13, 1858...... Rennes. Sha ore Re ee eee tee Rune Rion eee Gal ke ese eee Jl STs RS Cremars: ue 27 ee Ce Oe et es Ita ES ce ae M Ald ora ARABE. Hon ole: LC PSE PCR REC Sandwich Ids....!10.30 a.m. 15 edSi4y..... Pkaterineslaw.. ic oes ee ee Russie Ne 12.00 m. TGS AS Te Kleinwarden......:. PTUSSIA ASE ces 4: Germany "#71 4.30 p.m 10/1869" MAN ESS ater Pandanjau ........ Java eme re 9.00 p.m D OO UP eh cence Une EERE ce ore Enotani ere ER ARR 72 uci tate se Muddoora ie MEPAEUrE IMYSOTEN RATE India Re 7.00 a.m NU lo er eee Bhu-Honpip- "ter. Binkchank ..... t:COoChNCDINAr ER eee eee Sen M Tondon 211,8. fee Re eee eee Baelandi) Re rA oases, 2 OASIS Ne. NowolUreis <2 0... PeENZE ET eres ate RUSSIE cise loon 22, 1893...... PA OTOUIE © 7. 2.2. 6 nat VAL ee eee SU hola Wears Oe < Pex Se Eee 1k) nz yt OO UM aneieoe dea cc Moulltanttee seen): Tinian, 5 Cee el eet EU Le BAR 1864.2)... i eee Moultan "re India, Re à J NOLO. cee a ae Be a De SENS ANNE Oe Fe ETAGE seme eral. SRE PolitziGeraee sce) IReUSS c.count Germany. ...:./..- 9518092250 Moffat RE ce itty ot ae e Cu Scotland......... SES rca NRAWE RUES CRE RE ee AVAL LES 4. EST A RTE Des Ormes Nonne tree RTANCE an sere eee Ty EAN NAMUR Seo eis sic: ois ee obs gies oe ee Belgium re D'HIS0D F0 Jamiel EN. Ahmednue etre +n ave eet GTI821 0 Bray Stocks. NT CE Poland WS. ue cee cee RS CT EEE 6, 1869. 1G (Vita) 6) ab ee ee eae GeOLRiA rer TEA USA ee nae TRISGIE ES Klein Menow ....... Mecklenburg.......Germany........ SB) AS0Se eee SAUTER i556. IR AM ete ares SRE EE Hrance assets LON Bia oe ONADS hci haus Sock PE Transylvania... .. Austria-Hungary 13 01838 oe ali DUIDAT RE pom dase Kold Bokkeveld...C. of Good Hope. 13. Viste ee Reh arkove. 0 tiie sy Be ee eer eee ee RUSSIA 1 eee 131819 #11 PodEz EEE LR RE nn a GOL ER Germany °°" see BB an FGA Se s lode lt aA aap IO o ae JaiROEAY CO hoscroace Austria-Hungary 13 SO ice cee | Sarbanovie 2). cee saeco tar heap. ete DeLVIA a sh acaee 14, 18247 ste Fabrik... Pane eet Bohemia eve). Austria-Hungary 18h ebay. te ODOT Mere de ce fete Germany". 19:71863- R222 AbDenS PEAR EC ETC ee Greece vente 21, 18447 LAER Ny ee NE PT ee eee ÉTANCE weer ear 2111876 Goce Rochester.:....:..--- Indiana Te cere WA SMART ees 95: TROIE ee tee OO AEM MOREE ols At Ot, eo England 4........ DO LS REC Presigne tt zane site ECO ECC ARE Francer rer tre 30; 18837. IN AWA time ent ar ere CE AVAL CCE Ge 31, 1872 OrviNiOVes so. ce. Rome Air eens ITAlYE satiate = oe 31, 1849...... Monroe. N. Carolina........ UASMATORPRPRE 28 1 Meunier gives this date, elsewhere stated as the Ist. 2 Meunier gives same date in 1872. 3 Am. Journ. of Science gives 18th. 4 Seen over all England. Hour. 1.30 p.m. 10.00 a.m. 12 m. 9.00 a.m. 3.00 p.m. 8.00 a.m. [A. HARVEY ] THE DISTRIBUTION OF AEROLITES IN SPACE 107 List oF AEROLITES, CLASSIFIED BY THE DATE OF THEIR FALL. November. Place of Fall. Hour. Deal SSO cs « Maceo 27 Re R. del Norte....... BrAZi RS eee. AERS HS ET SUR Kalumiban. MENÉS SaINAL Act ee rh ads veers eo Pete tee a DIS IEER EE Nulles”::, 520 RAP Re Ari SPAIN AE NAN 5.30 p.m SUISIS a. Raka tk Caceres SUVI Ed ie Ro Eos 14s Ci Ee chy dea meal Ge sie saltobac (DE Role RER We Malte 3: 20 RPM A ERA 10e JDA EEE 5.00 a.m 1228180607. MrenZaNar os eee oma bard yar EE PC Lualliy. ARRETE 4.00 p.m 12, 1843.. Werkanet 3%. (MEN Tschirskaya....... RUSSIE Ps in nee Nene 116) a eS er: Bélmont,. 21" tee ee IPAM C Chea TS A ee eee PCR 1401825: 0 7 1 ETES E CARPE RQ ETS ACTE EE ee AS DCODIANA RAS RAM ees 15, 1860.. Denis ville rene INACTerS EYES nce US RATER TN RS (aris ES 16; 1492...... Bmsisheim' tre" ATSACE aerate Germany... / 4-2: 12.30 p.m HT TON 0 SS Ae eee Re earners oon ean 2 Treland! 223.4 ao: eae tee 17, 1793 GBA" NL SERRE CPP ie cm te SS Daye Beene ae 12.30 a.m NOP AISB ee aah. Gross) lieben thalie..Odessaiece ase ees RUSSIE serra 6.30 a.m Toe Oe 00 ren zanOrn tee eee Brescia sek ore DO rel deere cashes EE INR 20S eIG8 EE Mauerkirchen:....°..Bavaria......--..--- Germany" 4.00 p.m. 23 1810. Charsonville SEA ee yo eee eee Hrancenesaasa ee 1.30 p.m. 2401804 2. ee: SU OUIS PE O1OSL: 4 ce POP ES Mexico, ere stain ter wats oe 5S lke S ee. BPM ee aise Moraivial re scence Austria-Hungary) 6.30 p.m. 29 1807. : BlanKO PE enr ERNEST ar 43 AMEN eva AG EUR SITES TORRES OS ER Leone SCONES preys | OPA ES 26 BAG EEE. Schôünenberg ........ Bavarian. 020 Germany ........ 2.45 p.m. 26 STE. Fo... ESET NTS) eo een eee Cotes du Nord..... ANCE) Ent 10.30 a.m. 2 Otic 6 - Monte aisins: 2.5 3.2 ide sn ee eee oe a Ss SACO RA POELE Ai fy al oye Ua Prague! SRE Here es BOhe MIA ANT RS RNA RE me rele ee eae ete 2111808 2. Danville tt. #r0e Ala DANT ARE Te ESS: Aeterna 5.00 a.m ipl SSO ees se. DROITE NES 2 sect Kandels het ED a al AREA TE 6.00 p.m 30, 1822...... Allah a Dal 025.005 cee ee Meee oe allt NES eg à 6.00 p.m 0, 18002. Shallkars 2 53.55 35 see Ben pallets ere MOL Reet arn eae, 4,30 p.m 29 1 Given as the 8th in one account. 2 The whole of Ireland. 3 All the North of Scotland. 108 List OF AEROLITES, CLASSIFIED BY THE DATE OF THEIR FALL. ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA December. Place of Fall. Hour. De 1825). Berlin ee ye TTATR CIE ASTRA NS do oc Germany #./ 22+ Iconator 218527 Bustee 2 sister mates. as te hohe ae AM Gas 1594820 5, 1842..... Epinal Mi eee ack: ae ete vis anc catenins Krance "577428 DIULÈGS «ee Kast of Envlandtand Scotland" "PRE EEE ee etl eer HAS DOME ErANRIONTEE EEE" IAA DAMA NS ee eee LUÉN SANT. OR NT PERTE à GHALEGC EE Cangas de Onis””# "Santander... 72) Opalla.s. 2. lee Re 7, 1863.. ...| Touraine la Grosse .. Louvain ........... Belsiumiler se 11.00 a.m. SAISIE hex | SMidlande Gonnties’ +): 2. S029 e pate England: 77702) 60e 8, 1863... PH OMCLOM Serpico let chaca NES POAC AR Be uke ticic à ge DIS ae. Montrejeau ........ Haute Garonne....France!....:..... 7.30 a.m 10° 1863 Goes | Dany erences EE Mrebizond et" DULKEY . 324 3.200 Sete eee LOSMISTT os eee Band One ME... Je ete TN ee JAVA: SLR 1.30 p.m 1g Wee) ivf has | VEOM GOD Mee SAR MA EEE Re Enolandr ses D: Bubnevelodge sus Lost ee RUE Re PARAU ER. Ly Size ee Mowisville. 2... 2. Kentucky es ns sce cee ie NET motel heer RE SANTA MOoldCottage. AREA er Enolande--"2 2 3.30 p.m 135) L798 ae GE Nn S Er ee ere ER EU CE PEER India AN 8.00 p.m 13. 1813 ER Luotolaks ........... Lil, eet oe Be IRUSSI@. «)\.070- Oe ae eee 19, 2180s. eee St-wNicholas <<... -. Bavaria. sa cee Germania. 10.30 a.m. 13, 1852.... BOER UU ee Lu ant veo CPE Boo rere Austria Hungary|........... 13/1868 a7 eek FETUTGY ia: Sits s oid 2 e's ots IR mre ce England 22. seni ctr ieee LA LOOT 2 FIESTA LE Connecticut ...... US NAT ERP 6.30 a.m. 17>, 18522. So. DOVE RS nd oS ste ECT eter Enelandeeet-ter Lu 17241803 27 | Newcastle-on-Tyne....)....06% feehe cece s MAR ERA ET | LAON 19/1708 | BONATES, ee. sg CR ANR MRC APRES India. sa agechis «| Sethe Al ASID EEE Rochester 2..." Imdianar Terre re UP SNA ES AIR AO ER PEER B25 S635. Mamboom... ..... Bengalitin..2. ere, India: 2e 9.00 a.m DOT SBSH sae Motecka Nugla..... BHNTÉDUrES PE EEE A, M NE EME 24, 1858 MOfiRAR A 2. Murcia rer SPAIN 7: AE thee | bee eee 25, SOO ae re MOUTSOUR com. fic sen on ee eee Arabia. ice nel ee ee ee 21-1848 5% SOIENT NOTWAY NT O | TE RSENNS PA A SR PR The Channel oe css Uae ee ae England at) DAT PR Le TA - | QUENENNONETAAA MES Ne ce DEN ÉD: Le WA sina 2.30 a.m. 39 3 1 À white meteorite with pink grains. 2 Given at this date in October in Harvard catalogue. This is Meunier’s date. 3 Rochester meteor, 21st not included ; it was counted in October. SEcrion III., 1896. [109 ] Trans. R. S. C. VIII. Observations of Soil Temperatures with Electrical Resistance Thermometers. By Hucx L. CALLENDAR, M.A., F.R.S., F.RS.C. AND C. H. McLrop, Ma.E., F.R.S.C. (Read May 22, 1896). The following results are communicated in continuation of a report presented to Section IIT., in May, 1895, and published in the transactions. The instruments and the method of taking observations have already been described in the previous communication. There is little to add except that the insulation of the thermometers has remained practically perfect, and that we may now confidently expect them to give reliable results for many years to come. As the result of a series of observations extending over a period of more than a year and a half, and including two winters, we are now able to exhibit the complete annual curves for the different thermometers, and to deduce the yearly averages and ranges of temperature at different depths. We are also able to confirm many of the conclusions previously arrived at in a more certain manner and to compare the phenomena at different seasons of the year. ANNUAL CuRVES OF TEMPERATURE. (Fia. I.) The annual curves of temperature for the eight thermometers are exhibited on a uniform scale of one centimetre to four degrees Fahrenheit in Fig. I. The curve-marked “ Air Thermometer” gives the daily variations of the electrical thermometer exposed to the air in a screen at a height of four feet. These observations were taken at 12.30 p.m. each day. For comparison a curve showing the mean air temperature for the whole day has been plotted on the same scale from the observatory records. The variations of temperature from day to day are seen to extend to a depth of 20 inches in the soil. For the curves to this depth, a line representing the mean temperature for each period of ten days has accordingly been plotted as a guide to the eye in following the variations. With respect to the buried thermometers, the most remarkable feature of the curves is the extreme steadiness of the temperature throughout the winter. This is due to the protective effect of the snow covering, and is followed by an extremely rapid rise as soon as the snow disappears and the ground is thawed. The curves also illustrate very 110 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA clearly the smoothing out of the shorter oscillations, together with the diminution of range and the retardation of phase with increasing depth. The phenomenal heat waves commencing May 4th and Sept. 23rd, are traceable at a depth of 40 inches, but have practically disappeared at a depth of 66 inches. ANNUAL MEAN TEMPERATURE OF THE SOIL. The annual means for the different thermometers are as follows :— Depth : 108 in. 66 in. 40 in. 20 in. 10 in. 4 in. lin. Temp. : 46°82° 700° 47°00" 4717" 46°65 47:12 148° At first sight these are somewhat discordant, but the disagreement vanishes when we consider that the readings are taken once daily at Oh. 30m. p.m. At this time of day, the 20 inch thermometer is nearly at its diurnal maximum, the 10 in. nearly at its minimum, the 4 in. just above its mean temperature, and the one in, nearly at its maximum. The probable mean temperature at each depth is 47:0°F. The mean air temperature at 12:30 p.m. is 48°8°F. The annual mean air temperature of the whole day taken from the observatory records is 42°63°F, That the annual mean temperature of the soil is nearly 5°F. above the mean temperature of the air, is probably due to the protective effect of the snow during the winter months. We hope to work out and com- pare the values for the different seasons; the chief difficulty is to allow for the etlect of retardation of phase at different depths. In taking the annual mean the difference of phase is immaterial. It would appear not improbable that this difference of annual mean temperature may afford a convenient measure of the protective influence of the snow, and will be found to differ materially in different years. DESCRIPTION OF THE ISOTHERMAL DIAGRAM. The Isothermal Diagram, Fig. III., is a continuation of that given last year. It is plotted on the same scale, and includes the last two months of the previous diagram. (The description of the method of plotting may be here repeated). FE ; The abscissa of the diagram represents time, on the scale of one centimetre to one week. The ordinate represents depth, on the scale of one millimetre to one inch. The temperature, at any depth, at any time, is shown by drawing the isothermal lines for each degree Fahr, This is probably the most convenient way of showing the whole at one glance. The isothermal lines are plotted by drawing, from the observations for each day, the curve showing the variations of temperature with depth. From these curves it is easy to find the depth corresponding to each degree of temperature. [CALLENDAR & MLHOD] OBSERVATIONS OF SOIL TEMPERATURES 111 A curve giving the variations of daily mean temperature of the air above the ground, at the rate of one millimetre to 1° F., is also shown on the diagram, as well as the depth of snow lying (1 mm. to 1 inch), and the rainfall (1 em. to 1 inch). Following the very warm weather of May 6th to 11th of last year, there was a cold period extending to May 22nd, with rain on the 11th and 12th, which reversed the direction of the isotherms down to a depth of 40 inches, and retarded the penetration at lower depths. From May 22nd onwards, the temperature at all depths increased rapidly, the 10 inch thermometer reaching its maximum for the year of 70°6°F., on July 9th, and the 20 inch that of 66-6°F, on the same day. At greater depths the maxima were considerably retarded. The 40 inch thermometer reached a maximum of 61-0°F. on July 26th, the 66 inch 57:3°F on Sept. 16th, and the 108 inch 52 8°F. on Sept. 30th. The onset of winter is marked by the rapid and steady fall of the isotherms from Noy. 22nd onwards. The isotherm of 32°F. becomes established about the beginning of December, but the ground was not thoroughly frozen until the beginning of January. The remarkable absence of snow till Jan. 24th allowed the isotherm of 32°F. to penetrate to a depth of nearly 20 inches, but after that date the temperature of the surface soil rose considerably in spite of the very cold spell of Feb. 16th. The winter was remarkable for the lateness of the heavy snowfall, and for the rapidity of its disappearance. The snow had disappeared by April 17th, and the ground had thawed through at a depth of 10 inches on April 20th, the same date as last year. The rapidity of the thawing of the ground and of the disappearance of the isotherm of 40°F., which took place in 11 days from the final melting of the snow as compared with 30 days last year, is probably to be accounted for by the greater dryness of the soil and the smaller quantity of ice in the surface layers. EFFECT OF RAINFALL. The very rapid lowering of the temperature of the soil by rain, without material decrease in the air temperature, was exhibited several times during the summer. On July 30th, a rainfall of 1-2 inches lowered the average daily temperature of the 4 inch thermometer from 65:5 to 60°8°F, in 24 hours, and the 10 inch thermometer from 65:6° to 61 4°F. in 48 hours. Similar and even more extensive changes occurred after the heavy rainfalls of Aug. 17th and 18th, and Sept. 11th. The rains of Sept. 29th and 30th, followed by the colder autumn weather, produced a rapid decrease in the temperature of the soil down to the 66 inch line, and many of the higher isotherms did not again reach the 10 inch ther- 1For convenience of reproduction, the figures have been reduced to about half the scale of the originals. 112 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA mometer. Rain melting the snow on Noy. 26th, and on Dee. 22nd, produced a similarly rapid lowering of the soil temperature, but none that was quite so remarkable as that of Dec. 14th last year. Datty RANGE OF THE Four INCH THERMOMETER. We have not been able as yet to take any further observations of the diurnal curves of the upper thermometers, but we hope soon to be able to make the records automatic, which will remove the difficulty. We have however tabulated the daily range of the 4 inch thermometer for a number of days in May, June and July of last year for comparison with the hours of sunshine, the rainfall and the range of the air temperature. These observations illustrate in a remarkable manner the close depen- dence of the 4 inch thermometer on the sunshine. The effect of a dull rainy day is often to reverse the direction of the change, that of the air remaining the same as usual. The absence of sunshine appears however to have more effect than the quantity of the rainfall. RANGE oF 4” THERMOMETER COMPARED WITH SUNSHINE, RAINFALL, AND AIR-TEMPERATURE RANGE. tere € Hours |Rain- | Air Dee READINGS. a fall Th’rm.| REMARKS. 1895. Sun Min. | Time.| Max. | Time.|/R’nge|| Shine|Inches|Ran ge me | | | h.m. | h.m. April 19 | 34°44 | 7:30 | 42°73 | 18°15 | 8°29 10:2 | 0:00 | 27°2 rt 20 | 36°24 | 7°35 | 43°37 | 18°30 | 7°18 |) 11°5 | 0°00) 20:4 de 21 | 38-91 | .6-00 | 47:37 | 19-05 | 8-46 || 11:4] 0:00 | 240 “ 2 | 43-51 | 8-00 | 44°12 | 16-25 | 0-61 || 2-8) 0-37| 12-9 | 43:28 @ ie | | pures May 6 | 58-42 | 6-00 | 64:87 | 18:45 | 6:45 || 10-2 | 0-00 | 25°5 e 7 | 61°01 | 8:20 | 67:31 | 18°30 | 6:30 || 9:5 27 | 23:6 8 | 63-28 | 8-20 | 65-64 | 18:20 | 2°36 || 2-6 |Inapp| 12:2 “ 9 | 62°84 | 5°35 | 68:03 | 18°30 | 5:19 || 12°0| 0-00 | 20:7 | 68-24 @ 16°35 “ 10 | 63:00 | 7:00 | 68:47 | 18-25 | 5-47 || 11-21 0-0 | 21-2 “ 16 | 46:58 | 7:00 | 49°86 | 18 30 | 3-28 || 9-8 |Inapp| 15:6 “ 17 | 46-77 | 7-00 | 52-68 | 18-40 | 5-91 || 9:2 |Inappl 26°8 “ 18 | 48:55 | 7:00 | 55-70 | 18-30 | 7:15 || 11-2 | 0:00] 23-7 “ 20 | 52-34 | 18°30 | 52°88 | 7-00 105%) 26} o-o1] 11-4 Eee ce 21 | 48-08 | 7-00 | 49:47 | 18:45 | 1:39 || 2-0 [Inapp| 10°5 se 22 | 46-96! 7-00 | 5272 | 18-50 5-76 || 104] 0-00 | 20°3 [CALLENDAR & M’LEOD] OBSERVATIONS OF SOIL TEMPERATURES 113 RANGE or 4” THERMOMETER COMPARED WITH SUNSHINE, RAINFALL, AND AIR-TEMPERATURE RANGE Hours | | Darn. READINGS. = gees as 1895. Sun ee | Min. | Time.| Max. | Time.|R’nge|} Shine|Inches| Range es; i bem, 1 hun. ge J i May 23 | 49°46 | 7:00 | 53°73 | 18°25 | 4°27 6°3 |Inapp| 159 ne 24 | 50°79 | 7:00 | 56°97 | 17:35 | 6°18 11°8 | 0:00 | 18°4 x 25 | 52°65 | 7:00 | 60°44 | 18°30 | 7°79 || 11°0|Inapp| 33-4 à 28 | 56°14 | 7:00 | 56°75 | 18°30 | 0°61 0'‘0 | 0:53 | 12°8 29 | 56°14 | 7:00 | 62:13 | 18°45 | 5:99 DAE 0700.) 1627, is 30 | 59°95 | 7:00 | 67°62 | 18°40 | 7:67 OOCYMO:06 26e “ie 31 | 64°80 | 18°55 | 65°28 | 12:40 | 0°48 0-0 | 0.08 9°8 June 1 | 61°09 | 7:00 | 68:85 | 18°45 | 7°76 Sail OLOOK 2 0ize ss 3 | 65°50 | 7:00 | 66°28 | 18°10 | 0°78 0-8; 0:06 | 12-0 & 4 | 63°52 | 7:00 | 67:83 | 18:55 | 4.31 || 11:8 |Inapp.| 17-2 # 5 | 64°92 | 7:25 | 66°22 | 18:30 | 1:30 0‘0 | 0°43 Or] ss 6 | 63°36 | 7:00 | 65°66 | 18°40 | 2°30 8°6 |Inapp.| 10°2 os 7 | 60°52 | 7:00 | 66:31 | 18°55 | 5°79 12°0 | 0:00 | 19°71 te 8 | 6115 | 7:00 | 67°78 | 18:50 | 6:63 116 | 0:00 | 24-1 oe 10 | 66°71 | 7:00 | 72°31 | 18°35 | 5°60 8:8) 0:00"), 15:7 i 11 | 68°03 | 7:00 | 74°06 | 18°45 | 6:03 11°2| 0°00 | 244 te 12 | 69°27 | 7:00 | 74°32 | 18:35 | 5°05 2 NOM RATES “ 13 | 69°57 | 7:00 + 71:06 | 18°15 | 1°49 FO) 105495), 1279 ES 15 | 63°30 | 7:00 | 67°75 | 18:50 | 2°45 115 || .0;00 } 15-2 me 17 | 64°18 | 7:00 | 71°80 | 18°55 | 7°62 12°6 | 0:00 | 23:5 4 19 | 68°69 | 7:00 | 75°59 | 18°25 | 6°90 10°6 | 0°00 | 20°2 20 | 70°70 | 7:00 | 76.44 | 18°35 | 5°74 8:0; 0:00 | 16°2 a 21 | 71°40 | 7:00 | 69:68 | 18-30 | 1:72 O00) |) WS7Ab IE a: 22 | 67°80 | 7-00 | 70:14 | 18:35 | 2°34 || 4:3 |Inapp.| 13-0 ee 24 | 67 47 | 7:09 72°81 | 18°30) 5°34 || 11:1] 0:00 | 14:6 re 25 | 68°07 | 7:00 | 72°47 | 18°20 | 4:40 oe OZO0N PET de 26 | 68°11 | 7:00 | 73°43 | 18°35 | 5°32 11-2) |) (0:00) ||" 235 fe 27 | 69°59 | 7:00 | 68°75 | 18°30 | 0°84 0'‘0 | 0:99 ‘9 a 28 | 67°08 | 7:00 | 72°23 | 18°20 | 5°15 9°1 | 0°00 17-2 . 29 | 68°74 | 7:00 | 73°20 | 18°25 | 4:46 13°2 | 0‘00 | 14°4 REMARKS. | 99°80 @ 12°35 | (65°00 @ 7°00 || Ronge is neg. | | 64:92 @ 12°35 {ably prob- ably before 18°55, Reversed {te . & Min. Range Neg. j Max. & Min. + Reversed | Range Neg. 114 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA RANGE oF 4” THERMOMETER COMPARED WITH SUNSHINE, RAINFALL, AND AIR-TEMPERATURE RANGE. = 1 s Sans Hours Air DATE. READINGS. of Rain- fall |Th’rm | REMARKS. 1895. | | Sun Min. Time. Max. | Time. R'nge|| Shine mches Range h.m. | hem. | | July 2 | 64°09 | 7:00 | 68°94 | 18°30 | 4°85 11°8 | 0:00 | 19°4 | , 3 | 65°11 |- 7-00 | 69°61 | 18:10 | 4°50 || 6-6 | 0°00) 17-2 | # | | 66°42 | 7:00 | 72°18 | 18:15 | 5°76 F9 NO: PS AI ve 5 | F014 | 00 | 71:58 | 18°20 | 1°44 1261 0000 IE L 6 | 68-21 | 7-00 | 72°15 | 18:30 | 3-94 8°4 | 0:00 | 15°5 4 8 | 70:83 | 7:10 | 75:38 | 18 30 | 4°55 3°4 |Inapp.| 18°5 | | | 11 | 64:65 | 7:00 | 71:32 | 18°25 | 6°67 11°9 |: 0:00 | 19°6 à 12 | 65°62 | 7:00 | 67°28 | 17°25 | 1°66 (Oo). |) (Oats |p 7 Be 17 | 66-37 | 7-30 | 71-90 | 18-10 | 5:53 | 7-4 |Inapp.| 18 0 VALUE OF THE DIFFUSIVITY FROM THE ANNUAL RANGE. Having now a set of observations extending over 18 months, we are able to determine the annual range of temperature at the different depths, and to deduce a general average value of the diffusivity by com- paring the ranges. lt will be observed that except for the deepest thermometer, the curves of temperature are of a very peculiar type, and are very far from being simple harmonic. The curves were accordingly subjected to a graphic method of analysis to deduce the range of the annual simple harmonic components for each depth. The following results were obtained :— ANNUAL RANGE (SIMPLE DEPTH OF THERMOMETER | HARMONIC) IN DE- RANGE UNCORRECTED. IN INCHES. | GREES FAHRENHEIT. 20 28° 0° 34°3 40 21°4° 26°0 66 Te Oe 19°5 108 8°5° 11°0 : | —— ie Raa np Taking the above results in pairs, we deduce from any two of them the value k/c = ‘0036 for the diffusivity. The agreement of the differ- [CALLENDAR & M’LEOD] OBSERVATIONS OF SOIL TEMPERATURES 115 ent thermometers is so close that we think it must be partiy accidental. The uniformity of the soil, however, is such that samples of the sand from different depths cannot be distinguished, except in some cases by different degrees of wetness. The depth-temperature curves during the winter months indicate by the steeper gradient between 66 and 108 inches, a higher value of the conductivity in the lower stratum, We may naturally suppose that this is due to the greater wetness. During these months the diffusivity is very low, but has also a higher value in the lower stratum. In the yearly average this small difference disappears owing to the much greater effect of percolation at other seasons. It will be observed that the yearly average obtained by the direct method, is in fairly close agreement with that obtained from the annual range. VALUES OF THE THERMAL DIFFUSIVITY AT DIFFERENT DATES. In the last year’s communication, a direct method was described of determining the thermal diffusivity of the soil in different conditions at different seasons of the year. From the observations with the different thermometers at any date a curve may be drawn showing the variation of temperature at different depths for that epoch. A series of such curves, taken as samples from the observations, are shown in Fig. II. The area included between any two of these curves when multiplied by c, the thermal capacity of unit volume, gives the total quantity of heat absorbed per unit area by any stratum of the soil between the dates and depths for which the curves are taken. The quantity of heat per unit area which passes by conduc- tion into any stratum of the soil at a depth x, in any time, is equal to the product of the thermal conductivity 4 and the mean temperature gradient [A at the depth x, multiplied by ¢, the interval of time con- ies sidered. The quantity of heat absorbed by a stratum of soil between : : [dv dv the depths x, and x, is therefore equal to / | Ea ee | = | } X t. dv ; : The mean value of aa the temperature gradient at any depth, for any AX interval of time, is easily found by drawing tangents to the temperature- depth curves. By equating the two expressions for the quantity of heat Je ee PE absorbed, the value of the diffusivity — is found. c With the more complete series of observations at our disposal, we have been able to considerably extend the application of the method, and to deduce some results of general interest for different seasons of the year. A large number of typical depth-temperature curves have been 116 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA plotted for different dates, some of which are shown in Fig. II]. From these curves the following values of the diffusivity have been deduced between the dates and depths specified. TABLE OF THE THERMAL Drrrustviry AT DIFFERENT DEPTHS, DATES. AND SEASONS. PROD! No. DEPTHS INCLUDED. RAINFALL| TEMP. A : CHANGE 11. Days! 20” ro 60” 60” ro 100” | 20’—100" | Per Day.| Day. Dec. 12. 13, 1894........ i fo Beta | 0065 “0379 zy Labia We à à Jan. 1—April 1, 1895. ..| 90 0013 | ‘0023 “0015 “00” 0:02 May 23—June 3....... NAT 0073 | ‘0058 “0066 170” 0:54° June 4—Aug. 4........ 61 0033 | 0063 0045 095” 0-09 Sept. 30—Oct. 16....... 16 aS: ee 0047 018” 0:27 Oct. 17 Oct EN 12 “0086 0032 0061 “022” 0-27 Oct: 29-Nov. 4. 2... 6 0066 “0042 (0056 076” 0°38° Nov. 23—Dee. 9........ 16 | ‘0064 | -0990 0077 293” 022° Dec. 10—Jan. 1.5... 4 LEURS eae ee ee “0065 “096” 0°12° Jan. 6—April 9, 1896...) 94 | ‘0010 “(0022 “0015 “0007 002° April 25—May 9... ....) 14 | ‘0053 0056 “0054 “012” 0°45° With these we may include the results given last year :— Dec. 2-9, 1894.......... HA PARA | 10085 ; a4|2. LUS 003” 0:07° April 23—May 10, 1895.| 17 |........... errs ne 0060 “050” 0.35° The average value of k/c for the year 1896 as taken from the probable curve is +0043, a result which is in fair accord with the value ‘0036 obtained from the yearly curves. ; The results given in the preceding table exhibit several differences, which require some elucidation, As explained last year, the rate of diffusion of temperature varies considerably according to the condition of the soil, and in particular is very greatly increased by percolation of rain. It is our object to determine the nature and extent of these variations. This we were unable to do last year owing to lack of time and of suffi- cient observations, The value found for Dec. 13, 14, 1894, is the highest which we have yet obtained, being about ten times as great as the average yearly value. This exceptional result was entirely due to the rapid percolation of cold rain and melted snow through the upper layers of the soil. In striking [CALLENDAR & M’LEOoD] OBSERVATIONS OF SOIL TEMPERATURES 117 contrast is the value given next in the table, for the winter months, when the ground was covered with frozen snow, so that no water could possibly percolate. It will be observed that the same value ‘0015, which is less than half the yearly average, was obtained again in the beginning of 1896. The small diffusivity is doubtless due to the extreme dryness of the soil, under these conditions. * The variations of the diffusivity with the seasons of the year, are shown more clearly in the Thermal Difusivity Curve, Fig. IV. The ditfusivity is greatest in the spring and fall, when the temperature of the ground is changing most rapidly. In the summer when the soil is fairly dry, and the percolation is much diminished by evaporation, values are obtained which approach more nearly the annual average. We have also made an attempt to investigate the differences in the diffusivity at different depths on the same date. We find that the differ- ences are‘such as would correspond generally speaking with the state of wetness of the soil at different depths. In the summer when the surface is dried by evaporation, the diffusivity is much less in the upper layers. In the spring and fall, the reverse appears to be the case. In cases where the area included between the curves was too small, or the drawing of the tangents too uncertain, to give reliable results, the separate values of the diffusivity for the upper and lower strata have not both been given in the table. An obvious defect of both the methods above described for deter- mining the diffusivity, is that it is necessary to assume the diffusivity constant throughout a certain stratum of the soil, although the earth at different depths may be in very different conditions with regard to wetness. à On this account we are proposing shortly to put in operation a new and very simple method of measuring the diffusivity at any particular depth, irrespective of its value in other strata of the soil. By sending a measured electric current through any one of the thermometers, heat is locally generated at any convenient rate. The consequent rise in the temperature of the soil immediately surrounding the thermometer depends on the diffusivity, which is therefore readily measured at any time. Owing to the extreme delicacy of the ther- mometers, which can be read to a thousandth of a degree if desired, the current and the rise of temperature required for such a measurement are very slight, and would not appreciably interfere with the general meas- urements of soil temperatures. OR 2. at ar. 7 ’ k [CALLENDAR & M’LEOD | Trans. R. S. C., 1896. Sec. III. Prare 1. OBSERVATIONS OF SOIL TEMPERATURES fe) Wn 2 tee a -oenes Si DEPTH SCALE TEMPERATURE 2g + Oo ul QO ae | 2 ul a 2 FH x or us a Z ul + Li. O a O [= x= ua LE > ©) Z G <= J) un uJ > x =) O u UO Cc wu lig 5 fi Ww ines 4 PLarTe II. Sec. ITT. S. C., 1896. R. TRANS. [CALLENDAR & M'LEOD] OBSERVATIONS OF SOIL TEMPERATURES oS à ù K Q > © aw à x R à à S à NS Gon eee eter Wen iy Src er eae Coe eg le 9681 Ÿ N eal N so8i x ~ ù È S S N => ~ set! * S 468i SOO] NN KES | GS tt ET OM LU NN EURE ROIS WN. ANN Sl FR dae EL (HLSFITING LOS) OFYIAOD DOIH To = #0 FATWA IOWN FAY ANISTIYSTY SINIT YON —_ Lee OO/K Oe. NIFMLIG VIOS LOS THEI D OL PRE LENS À TONGS TAL ‘el ya ren as N 8 iS 2 FOFWIIWA JOYVINY JICVBO"S SLNISFYSTFY FHYTID GILLOG Qt OMI0HWD NO MONS SOHLSTID ANISISSIY SUITE OCFHILUYH g 7769 NI 4 ° SINIT 147 N ,900/ #09 a » a ” » » » e re) à MOT NIIMITE PUNHIS FWHS " ” ” 4 SHY XK A XN N x t "yg °t 2447 2708 fo 190 SAL Paes WS WWIE9 = /00-= ANS os D EE | ek iis ” ” =MONGS WY O/ ” ” 77 4401 J vy SI7THIS 121 t, "Ss Wale ice eo Hien kf Sec. III. Prarp iil. Trans. R. S. C., 1896. OBSERVATIONS OF SOIL TEMPERATURES [CALLENDAR & M'LEOD] (sa € + \ fe) lames eu ses ‘eB —' 9681 yady OY SGA U21PM —weadserq \EWAIYIOS\ S$31Vv90S ee ee ee ee 2h pre RECENSE EEE HE ES RARE RRRERE EUEERETE Rs Baus ERRNN EPEEPRE ROSES El | SEC EES ERAN ANCL EER SER ER SNS aes [IT eI ERAN TER ERNE TNS RENONCE RUES CHREEEEERRRERRNÈNTIEN EE EME ARR RE ARE mil PEER RSR AA REC Yas NYG ==) sl RRees2e sess s aN YA Has ee Savanigr S\shusaneue NS 2h El HSE SE on eer 7 7A | TUBERRR FETE Eee) BEE CRI IRRRERREE RER ey Ca Eee CC per CEA E ee SS ea a te EE Ue et re PA En ST Re ne oes RE PUR SELLE ANA UP PAPE A LE Ey 2 fd a EP LL En LS à a NS 2 ÿ ï RU C1 dea — 7109 aie svo.thoy u2 du2r “ a 23 1 THERMOMETER 20 TNERMOMETER 10 THERMOMETER 4 THERMOMETER 40 THERMOMETER METER THERM JO8 THERMOMETER regan & M'LEOD] : OBSERVATIONS OF SOIL TEMPERATURES Trans. R.S.C., 1896, Sec IIL PLare IV. Mar. Mo ca y Beg Cee mia nae ee tah eo M 1 HR BEES EEE CAR CEE CEE Z ASE Eeeeama aa Son DE Baws) D ROUES RP PE rte réserves ea eu CNE Ne AO PE NC CELTERCECCETELLEE Hemaeaeett CCE COMEPUNNTECLCLLrEELr LIT ane ne ae EE [HT a ID (eC mener a DÉENERUNE SS Ee wi RE | Mt CFD RAA ae Bena) Nr rT NES Me chew Rn ieee Lee BABBrTENTS Reeves fel Î | 4 sien: 1 Je DER EX : O INCH 40 D jai Es) — ne TT es NCH Le tel a 5 1 Wag al SN 7 It TANT SL LA ’ h + i Sxcrton III., 1896. [127] Trans. R.S§. C. IX.—An Investigation to Determine the Relative Efficiencies of Multiple- Expansion Engines. By A. L. MELLANBY, Royal (1851) Exhibition Scholar, Durham College of Science. (Communicated by Dr. Bovey, and read May 19, 1896.) Within late years several series of experiments have been made upon compound and triple expansion engines working under different conditions of initial pressure, number of expansions, and number of revolutions. Chief among these have been the experiments of the late Mr. Willans, carried out upon his well known type of central valve engine, and those by Professor Osborne Reynolds upon the experimental engines at Owen’s College, Manchester. As yet however, so far as the writer knows, none have been publish- ed including the quadruple-expansion engine in the series. It is hoped that the following account of trials made in the Engineering Laboratory, at McGill University, under the supervision of Professor Nicolson, will form an acceptable addition to the literature dealing with steam engine experimenting ; as they not only extend the series by including the quadruple-expansion engine but afford results from a type of engine somewhat different from those used by the above mentioned experimenters. The objects of the investigation may be classified as follows: 1. To ascertain the relative efficiencies of engines working with compound or triple expansion under the same conditions of initial pressure, revolutions and total number of expansions. . To ascertain the relative efficiencies of triple and quadruple-expansion engines, working under identical conditions. 3. To determine the effects upon economy, of varying the cylinder ratios in compound and triple-expansion engines working under identical conditions. 4. To determine the relative efficiencies of the same triple expansion engines, working at the same speed of revolution, but with different initial pressures and total number of expansions. bo These investigations have been carried out upon the experimental engine stationed in the McGill University Engineering Laboratory. By reference to (Fig. 1) it will be seen that the engine is of the vertical type and has four cylinders which will, for convenience during the remainder of this paper, be alluded to as cylinders 1, 2, 3 and 4. 128 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA The dimensions of the cylinders are :— NIG SND oa eee ae cect oa eee oe 65 inches diameter. INON2ER RE EEE PAST DES PL) i NO: 9.522 TA ance PAR S eae Sede hac «een wll a Waste ee? Earn A | RARE EEE 2 at A ARS Ey 2 The stroke of each engine is 15 inches. There are two cranks which, during these experiments, were placed opposite to each other, although it is possible to alter the angle between them by means of the coupling in the middle of the shaft. For convenience of experimenting the engine is so arranged that the piston rods of either or both of the top cylinders may be disconnected from those of the bottom ones, drawn up out of their way and fastened in that position. Great care has been exhibited in the design of the steam piping and it is possible to Jead the steam direct from the boiler into one cylinder, or into any two cylinders. This fact, united with that of being able to disconnect either of the top cylinders from the bottom ones, or of being able to disconnect by means of the coupling in the middle of the crank shaft the right hand from the left hand engine, affords a possibility of making a great range of ex- periments with varying cylinder ratios and grades of expansion. Each cylinder is capable of being jacketed at the top, bottom and sides. Cylinders 1 and 2 are fitted with steel liners, the space between the liner and the cylinder body being used for jacket space. Cylinders 3 and + have liners of cast iron. These are constructed with heat ribs as shown in Fig. 2 and are remarkably efficient. As will be seen from the results of the trials the difference between the powers developed by the engine was very considerable when working with or without the jacket steam. At the outlet from each jacket is fitted a brass mounting with cocks and a gauge glass, to allow the outflow of the water condensed in the jackets to be regulated. From thence, pipes lead down through a small condenser at the foot of the engine. By this means the condensed steam may be sufficiently cooled to prevent any re-evaporation when it gains access to the open air. It is thus possible to measure separately the water contained in the top, bottom or side of any special cylinder. A Willans’s coil is attached to cylinder No. 4 It has fittings similar to those of the jackets, to measure the amount of steam that is condensed in it. The sides and top of each cylinder are covered with cork asbestos non-conducting composition inclosed with sheet iron cleading. The condenser is separate from the engine, and the air pump attach- ed to it is worked by a special engine. Situated near to the hotwell discharge are two tanks each capable of holding 500 Ibs. and each supported upon a weighing machine. The discharge from the hotwell can be diverted into either of the tanks, so that whilst one is being emptied the other is being filled. Large cocks are attached to the bottom of each of the tanks to allow the water in them, after it has been weighed, to escape. [MELLANBY] EFFICIENCIES OF MULTIPLE-EXPANSION ENGINES 129 The condensing water is supplied direct from the city mains, and after passing through the condenser, it falls into either of two othertanks each upon a weighing machine, and capable of holding 2,500 Ibs. As with the hotwell discharging tanks, the water, after it has been weighed, is allowed to escape by means of cocks in the bottom of the tanks, Two water brakes of the Froude-Reynolds type are fitted, one at each end, to the engine, A full description of this type of brake is given in the Proceedings of the Institute of Civil Engineers, vol. xcix., page 168, so that it is not necessary to describe them here. It may however be mentioned that they are so designed as to give a constant torque whilst the engine is working. Too much cannot be said of the excellent working of these water brakes. Whilst the engine is running they would regulate the amount of water in themselves so as to always remain balanced even though the engine speed might be made to vary from 90 to 200 revolutions per minute. If it had not been desired to keep the speed of the engine as uniform as possible, to attain which the jockey weight on one of the brakes was altered throughout the trial, it would not have been necessary to attend to them at all during the trial, so easily will they regulate themselves as to be always balanced. The alteration of the jockey weight caused an increase or decrease in the torque, and so counteracted any tendency there might be of the engine to vary its speed, owing to slight changes in the boiler pressure and condenser vacuum. In some of the trials a rope brake was used in addition to the water brakes. Gauges are fitted to the steam chests of all the cylinders except to that of No, i, where it was not thought necessary to place one, as there was fitted a gauge to the steam pipe only a short distance away. A vacuum gauge is situated on the exhaust pipe, whilst to the condenser are fitted another vacuum gauge and a mercury column. Fittings are provided to place thermometers in the steam pipe just before No. 1 cylinder, in the pipes before cylinders 2 and 4 and also in the exhaust pipe. Thermometers are also fitted in the hotwell discharge pipes, and in the pipes for the circulation of water before reaching and after leaving the condenser. METHOD OF CONDUCTING THE TRIALS. The usual time occupied by each trial was about one hour; and although many people object to tests of so short a duration, yet it is hoped that with the precautions taken the results obtained are exceed- ingly reliable. It is open to doubt whether vigilance can be maintained throughout a long trial to the same extent as for one lasting only about one hour. With regard to the observers whose duty it is to measure the amount of feed water or hotwell discharge, the errors they are most likely to make are either that of omitting to close the cocks of the Sec. III. 1896. 9. 130 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA measuring tanks, or forgetting to record a tank full; both of which will go towards giving the engine a better record. It seems almost impossible that mistakes should be made which will credit the engine with using more water than it really does. As the amount of water used by the engine under the different conditions was one of the most important things to be ascertained, great care was taken to ensure its accurate measurement. Two observers were stationed at the hotwell discharge, one of whom kept the record sheet, whilst the other attended to the weighing machine. Before any observations were made the engine was allowed to run for, at least, half an hour to enable it to get into a steady condition. During this time the air pump was discharging the con- densed feed water into one of the tanks, the bottom cock of which was open, thus allowing the water to run away. Meanwhile the tare of the other tank had been obtained and its amount placed on the result sheet. When the trial was about to begin, a quarter of a minute’s warning was given by asharp blow on a whistle and fhe time for the actual commence- ment of the trial was given by a prolonged ring on an electric bell. At this signal the air pump discharge was switched over into the empty tank, and the time noted down by the man at the sheets. The other observer then put forward the weight on the lever of the scale to measure 50 lbs. When this amount had been discharged he signalled to his col- league who noted the time at which it took place. The weight was actually put forward at first to about 40 lbs. ; when the lever commenced to rise warning was given, it was then put to the 50 1b. mark, so that when it again rose the observer was in readiness to note the exact time. At the same moment another observer noted the engine counter reading. The tare of the other tank had been meanwhile obtained and immediately the first one was full, the discharge was switched over into it. The measurement of the circulating water was conducted by two other observers in much the same way, except that the amount dis- charged and the time were only taken as each tank became full. The men at the tanks also noted the temperatures of the hotwell discharge and circulating water every five minutes, One observer was stationed at the revolution counter throughout the trial. At the commencement of the trial he noted down the time and the number registered by the counter. All gauges and thermometers were read every five minutes and it was the duty of the man at the counter to give a quarter of a minute’s warning before the readings were: to be taken, by two short blows on a whistle, and the actual time to take them, by two long blows. At the same time he himself noted down the reading on the revolution counter. In the majority of the trials when- ever 50 lbs. of feed where discharged he also noted down the reading of the counter as above described. Indicator diagrams were taken every 10 minutes, commencing 5 minutes after the beginning of the trial. Two indicators were attached {[MELLANBY] EFFICIENCIES OF MULTIPLE-EXPANSION ENGINES 131 to each cylinder. The indicator cocks were screwed directly into the cylinder bosses, thus avoiding any intervening pipes and cocks, and the inaccuracies almost invariably connected with them, due to insufficient area, and condensation of the steam between the cylinder and the indicator. Crosby indicators were used on all the cylinders except on the low pressure, where Tabor indicators were used. One man was stationed at the indicators on each cylinder, and when the signal was given the cards from all the cylinders were taken as nearly as possible simultaneously. It was the duty of each of these observers, as soon as the cards were taken, to read the thermometer and pressure gauge on the steam chest of the cylinder at which he was working. One observer was told off to read every five minutes the gauge and thermometer on the steam pipe before the first cylinder, the vacuum gauge and thermometer on the exhaust pipe, and the vacuum gauges on the condenser. A tachometer which recorded the number of revolutions per minute at which the engine was running was attached near to one of the brakes. One man was stationed at the brake, whose duty it was to keep the speed of the engine constant by increasing or decreasing the load on the dynamometer as the tachometer showed the speed to be going above or below what was required. When any alteration of weight was made, the amount of it, and the time of alteration were noted down, so that the accurate average B.H.P. throughout the trial could be obtained. When in addition to the water brakes the rope brake was used, the weight shown by it was read every minute. The condensed jacket steam was allowed to run into tin vessels, and its amount obtained by weighing. In the early trials it ran into small tins each capable of holding two Ibs. Two observers were stationed to look after it, and as soon as each tin filled, . one observer signalled to the other, when, the cylinder it came from, and whether from the top, bottom or sides, as well as the time of filling, was noted down. In the later trials this method of measurement was abandoned. The water was allowed to run into larger vessels, and the amount that had flowed into them was weighed at the end of the trial. The former method has, however, the advantage that the rate of jacket drainage can be observed frequently and maintained uniformly at its best. At the beginning of the session 16 preliminary compound trials were made, chiefly with the object of allowing the 11 observers, who were composed of the fourth year class in mechanical engineering, to become accustomed to the method of making the observations. DESCRIPTION OF THE TRIALS. The notation used in designating the trials is that used by Willans in his papers on Engine Trials, read before the Civil Engineers’ Institute. Thus T 155-123 No. 26, indicates that the engine was working asa triple 132 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA expansion, with an intended mean absolute admission pressure of 155 Ibs. and with 123 expansions. No, 26 indicates the number of the trial. The following is a list of the trials to be described :— Trial Mark. Cylinders Used. Ratio of Cylinders used. 155 C= Nos 1718 19) 20 aoe ae DANCE Nr te UN Ons 7. 12°3 155 heme 7 No8.:21,22 590 SEPT DNS ATEN RENE iO SAGA) ate 12°3 155 C Nos; AD; 31.7. Eee and Ses IL 2 0°06 12°3 155 wk Nos: 40, 41542 4822 TeQramdta vera FRS EC MORTE 12°3 155 TN OS 28, 20 NE Gon see eee SIMINSTAD GMs ys ccc eerie 1 PORC 7 arr 12:3 205 7: INOS! 8361973188 90 ER 12 an Aso. ce aah eee LEO 247° 7. 22 205 Q— Nos. 32, 33, 34, d5...... PPS "and: eue A | pen LEE REC Bere Bo TE 22 With each of these cylinder ratios and initial pressures experiments have been made, with and without jacket steam on the trial cylinders,. and in most cases at two speeds. VALVE Leak TRIALS. In order to obtain the correct dryness fraction of the steam during expansion it was necessary to ascertain if there was any leak past the slide valve and if so to measure the amount of it. The experiments made in this connection were carried out, it is thought, in a manner approach- ing more closely the actual conditions under which the engine usually works than any that have yet been published. In all other cases of which the writer knows, steam has been let into the steam chest whilst the engine was standing, and the steam that leaked past the valves into the exhaust, collected and measured. It is quite certain that any results obtained by this method could not be said to give any accurate indi- cations of what really occurs whilst the engine is working. In these trials, the steam ports of the particular cylinder upon which the leak test was to be made, were filled with lead plugs, hammered and caulked so as to be steam tight. The exhaust pipe was taken off the cylinder, (MEtLANBY] EFFICIENCIES OF MULTIPLE-EXPANSION ENGINES 133 and a blank flange put in its place. A small pipe with a valve led from this flange, the end was perforated and passed into a vessel containing cold water. The steam piping was arranged so that steam could be let directly from the boiler into one of the other cylinders. This cylinder was used to drive the valves of the cylinder upon which the leak test was being made. Whilst the valves were moving, steam was admitted into the steam chest at the required pressure. Any steam that leaked past the valves into the exhaust would pass down the small pipe and be condensed in cold water. The amount could be ascertained by weighing the vessel before and after the experiment. Owing to lack of time, tests were made only upon cylinders 1 and 4. In cylinder No. 1 steam was admitted into the steam chest at a pressure of 100 lbs. (above atmosphere). Two half- hour experiments were made, one at 90 revolutions and the other at 150 revolutions per minute. In both cases the leak past amounted to 19 Ibs. in the half hour, or 38 Ibs. per hour. An experiment was commenced with the pressure at 150 lbs., but unfortunately the lead plug blew in. With cylinder No. 4 experiments were made at pressures 34 and 21 lbs. above the atmosphere ; in these cases the leak amounted to 41 and 29 Ibs. per hour respectively. The amount of leak past the other valves had to be inferred from these experiments. Unless there is a special oil- ing arrangement for directly lubricating the face of the valve, such experiments are -likely to give erroneous results owing to the rubbing away of the oil film between the valve and steam chest faces. In this case it will be necessary to start the experiment almost immediately the engine commences to run, and to take measurements at short intervals of time. A gradient can then be constructed and it will be readily seen “whether the rate of leak increases. It seems only fair that the slowest rate should be taken. In these experiments oil was let directly to the valve face of cylinder No. 1. Readings were taken at intervals of 5 minutes and were found to be almost constant. Cylinder No. 4 had no such oiling arrangement. Before the trial the face of the steam chest was well oiled, Readings taken every 3 minutes were found to show practically equal amounts of leak. In cylinder No. 4 steam was also let in whilst the valves were stationary. It was allowed to remain on with a pressure of 30 lbs. above atmosphere for 15 minutes during which time there was not the slightest indication of any leak. This affords satis- factory evidence that the valve may be perfectly steam tight when the engine is standing, but will allow steam to pass by it into the exhaust when the engine is running. METHOD OF WORKING OUT THE TRIALS. Before any of the indicator cards were worked out it has been the custom to put in a graphical form the readings given by the various observers. The steam pipe pressures, revolutions per minute, condenser 134 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA vacuum and lbs. of feed water discharged were all plotted out as ordi- nates on a time base. The lbs. of feed were also plotted out as ordinates on a base of revolutions. By this method it would have been possible to detect any inaccuracy of observations, especially with regard to the important one of the amount of feed water used. In all the trials how- ever it has been found that the points representing the lbs. of feed are remarkably near to being in a straight line, which affords satisfactory evidence, that if conducted with care, short trials may be made to yield at least as accurate results as long ones. The cards have all been measured by the ordinate method and the means of the results obtained were used in drawing the combined indicator cards shown in the plates. These cards however only represent the means from the diagrams taken from one end of the cylinder, as it was not thought advisable to obtain a mean of the cards from both ends of the cylinder and expand it. It has been assumed that the cylinder feed is divided equally between each end of the cylinder in making the dryness calculations. Although the various figures of dry- ness given may not be the correct absolute ones, yet it is thought that they truly represent the relative conditions of the steam throughout the various portions of the stroke. The diagrams were drawn because it was thought they show much more readily, than is done by simple numbers, the effects that the varying cylinder ratios, etc., have ‘upon the initial condensation of the steam and its changes in dryness throughout the different stages of its expansion. As there are so many different ways of showing combined cards, it may be advantageous to describe the manner in which these particular ones were drawn. It was first assumed that the steam at the beginning of compression was dry and saturated. The pressure at this stage could be obtained from the indicator diagram. The volume of the cushion steam was then the volume of the cylinder that the piston yet required to sweep out be- fore reaching the end of its stroke plus the clearance volume. By consulting steam tables its weight could be found, and also the volume it would occupy at the admission pressure of the cylinder. This was done for all the cylinders used in any particular trial. The line A B (Fig. 1, Plate 1) was then drawn. To the left of it were set off these calculated volumes and from the points thus obtained vertical lines were drawn. For the L.P. cylinder the line C D was drawn and similar ones for the other cylinders. This represented the amount of steam that remained permanently in each cylinder. To the right of C D, etc., were measured the respective clearance volumes of the different cylinders and from these points again were drawn vertical lines ; to the right of these last obtained lines were measured the cylinder volumes. It will be noticed that in some cases the card commences to the left and in others to the right of {mBLLANBY] EFFICIENCIES OF MULTIPLE-EXPANSION ENGINES 135 A B. If to the left it shows that the cushion steam at admission pressure would more than fill the clearance space, if to the right, that the cushion steam at admission pressure is insufficient to occupy the whole of the clearance. The weight of the hotwell discharge was then found, and divided by the total number of strokes made by the engine during the trial. This gives the weight of steam passing through the cylinder at each stroke, assuming as stated above that an equal amount of cylinder feed is taken by either end of the cylinder. The volume that this weight of saturated steam would occupy at admission pressure is then found and set off to the right of A B. A curve is then drawn, showing the volume of this steam, plus the amount of cushion steam at different pressures. This gives us for any pressure the volume that the weight of steam in the cylinder would occupy if it were dry and saturated. The volume that this steam does occupy at any pressure after cut off, is given by the indicator card, and the ratio of these two volumes gives us the dryness fraction of the steam for any particular point. A slight complication enters into these particular diagrams on account of the clearance space of any cylinder not being constant throughout the stroke. Thus during expansion the clearance is greater than during compression by the volume of the admission port in the main valve. The distance between A B and the line # F'on the L.P. cylinder represents the clearance volume during expansion, and in obtaining the dryness fraction of this cylinder the line E F has been taken as the ordinate of no volume. The extra amount of steam represented by the space between C D and HL F has of course been taken into account. The indicator diagrams of the jacketed and unjacketed quadruple expansion trials, working at 90 revolutions per minute, have, in addition to being shown as combined cards, been transferred to the temperature- entropy chart. In order to form a more ready means of comparing the action of the steam during expansion, in the two cases, both sets of cards have been shown on one diagram. The results of the experiments are given in three tables. Table No. 1 gives the record of the compound and triple series, working at 155 Ibs. absolute intended mean admission pres- sure, with cylinder No. 2 used as the H.P. cylinder and No. 3 as the M.P. cylinder in the triple trials, and No. 4 as the L.P. Table No. 2 gives the record of the compound and triple series work- ing at the same admission pressure, and with the same number of expansions as those in table No. 1, but using cylinder No. 1 as the H P., and with first 3 and 4, and then 2 and 4 as the M.P. and L.P. cylinders. Table No. 3 gives the results of the triple and quadruple series, working with an intended absolute mean admission pressure of 205 lbs., using cylinder No. 1 as the H.P. and 2 and +4 as the M.P. and L.P. cylinders for the triple trials. The various efficiencies have been worked out on the assumption that the steam enters the steam chest dry and saturated. A separator 136 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA was placed in the steam pipe a little in front of the steam chest of No. 1 cylinder, and during the trials only a few ounces of water were ever obtained from the drain pipe leading from the separator. Two calori- meters of the separating and throttling kind, placed after the sepaxator, showed to within the range of the instrument the steam to be practically dry. In line 46 of the tables is given the amount of steam used per I.H. P. per hour. A comparison made by this between the jacketed and unjacketed trials is scarcely fair to the former, as the Jacket steam gives up to the cylinder only its latent heat, whilst the remaining heat in it is available to raise the temperature of the feed water. Line 60 which gives the thermal units used per I. H. P. per minute reckoned from 110° F. for the cylinder feed, and including only the latent heat of the jacket steam, will afford, it is thought, a better means to compare all the trials, According to Elliott and Willans, it is useless, in a condensing engine, to allow the steam to expand after the temperature has reached about 110° F. This then fixed a lower limit of temperature for the perfect engine. For a perfect unjacketed engine, where no heat is allowed to pass either from or into the working cylinder, the expansion will be adiabatic. A pound of steam expanding adiabatically from a temperature 7, to a temperature T, ought to be capable of doing an amount of work express- ed in thermal units by the following formula : 19 ie ee ) (i+7) — T, log: = T, to T, being absolute temperatures measured in degrees Fahrenheit, and J, the latent heat of the steam at temperature 7,. The ratio of the work actually obtained to this ideal amount gives what is here called the Willans efficiency. With the jacketed trials, the amount of work due per lb. of steam used, is less than in the unjacketed trials, seeing that, as above stated, only the latent heat of the jacket steam is used. To ‘alculate the amount of work due per Ib. of steam in this case, the ratio of the cylinder feed and of the jacket feed to the total steam used has been found. The jacket feed fraction has then been multiplied by the ratio of the latent heat to the total heat in the steam at its temperature. This newly found fraction is then added to the cylinder feed fraction found before. This gives a multiplier, less than one, the product of which and the thermal units due from one pound of steam, calculated on the assumption just before mentioned, gives a new quantity representing the work due from a |b. of steam as supplied to the jacketed trials. Owing to the thermodynamic inefficiency of jacketed engines, due to the fact that all the heat supplied to the working substance is not supplied at the highest temperature, the result thus obtained will give a higher number of thermal units than could be obtained from that type of engine. It is however possible to imagine a motor, which could use steam contain- ing the same quantity of heat units, in the most advantageous way, that {MBLLANBY] EFFICIENCIES OF MULTIPLE-EXPANSION ENGINES 137 is by adiabatic expansion and which would be able to do the amount of work stated. This motor is then looked upon as the perfect type of engine for this case, and the efficiencies of the jacketed and unjacketed trials found in this manner, may be compared. With so large a number of trials, and so much important data obtained, it would be impossible to give all the deductions that can be drawn from them. It is hoped however that the results have been presented in such a form, that the members will be readily able to draw their own conclusions. A few important points may be noticed. The gain in economy of the triple-expansion engine over the compound is clearly shown by the results given in table No. 1. The economy effected by jacketing the cylinder, and by increased speed of revolution is also well marked, although it will be noticed that at the high speeds the mechanical efficiency of the engine decreases. In some cases the lowering of the brake horse power, more than counteracts any gain in economy made in reference to indicated horse power. The gain in economy of the quadruple expansion engine with an initial pressure of about 210 Ibs. absolute, over the triple expansion, with initial pressure of about 160 (tables 1 and 3) is very small, even when compared in terms of the thermal units used per I. H. P. per minute. Whether the slight gain in terms of the B. H. P. is worth the additional first cost, attending the extra cylinder, and the stronger type of boiler required, together with the extra trouble of maintenance, seems very open to doubt. It will be noticed that the triple expansion trials at 210 lbs. pressure have a greater consumption in terms of the I. H. P. than those at 160 lbs. pressure, and also that their mechanical efficiency is less. Trials 30 and 31 were carried out in view of the suggestions that have been made of late, to use cylinders with ratios of about 1 to 7 for compound engines. These trials are the least efficient of the series, showing that this ratio of cylinders is not atall adesirable one. The enormous drop after release in cylinder No. 1 is very apparent, and it may be mentioned that even by making the cut-off in the L.P. cylinder as early as possible, the pressure in the steam chest was only raised a few pounds, a considerable fraction of the area of the L. P. card being lost. The effect that the temperature range in the first cylinder has upon the consumption, due to the varying amounts of initial condensation is very marked, and presents an interesting study. In conclusion I have to acknowledge my deep indebtedness to Mr. W. A. Duff, B-A.Sc., for the great help he has rendered to me in working out the trials, and for his assistance in preparing the diagrams, ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 138 9.687 ©. Fr 1-82 £982 0.0F% 9.12 1-12 al EA RDS ri A. : dura} Surpuodsaro) | 71 8.8% 6.8 | 9.81 €.88 0.6% 9. 8F L.61 OCS es a se eanssedd ÿ “ON 35049 WRd4g | TT 9.622 l"""" Le Log + pe le. : 178% Sate ase x : ‘due Surpuodsaarog | of 0.6p lo. pop Ce pce foc ere ee “+++: oanssord g ‘on Jsouo urvayg | ç 0.29€ TIGE 0.796 6.196 8-F9§ L.G9€ L.G9€ p.198 Jog, : "dwue7 peatesgg | 8 036967) ae Se F.69§ 6-696 8.S9& G.69€ L.G96 Coin AL : ‘dtuez Surpuodsoxi09 | 2 CLOSE 0-091 9. L&T 0.9L 6-091 L.FOT GLS Ais es "** gaimssoid Z ‘ON JS2u9 tue) 9 F.SCE QU EVE DRE Se Re F-8&& 0-096 SHOE | GSS eee ees eg PeATosg (nic 1.198 9.168 ¢. £9 L.19€ 0-98 LRU PINS EN ES EC IN ne A ¢ dua Surpuodsarto9 | ÿ LOST 6-LEI 2-091 L.9ST F.{OT pére (ETS) 1 [tree " squ ‘sq] ‘oinssord odid ureayg | ¢ LL ‘$F ‘9.1 LL ‘6-1 | Lh ‘f-F ‘6-1 L.L ‘6-1 | LL ‘b-F ET L LÉO Dit 53) Oi ee ye; | ES ‘77717 s*pasn sdapulfso Jo o1gey | Z ‘8S LAN Fe‘ F ‘a FC‘ LA PEC LR AS D eed ee pasn saopurp{g9 | TI ‘PIMP JD4IUIT) 6-61 6-61 | ral €-61 §-6L €-6L €-2L | €-41 Go | tee 0 | alee Skee Os | Obie | Ola 0 hte a) 0 UL LULU GET SGT GGT GGT GGT GGT ccT gcT *poqexpov ys | *poqgeyor (uy) ‘p9)9%08 f *poqyeyoulay) ‘(GT SUOTJN[OADA popudguT ‘06 SUOTJN[OADL popusdqUyT ‘suoisupda sy &-61 ‘OINJOSQW ‘SQ1 GET IdN8SSadgd UoIssiupy UDOUL papuajuy + ON SIE Vib 139 CMBLLANBS] EFFICIENCIES OF MULTIPLE-EXPANSION ENGINES 0.89€ c9.96 16.96 9.TTT SGSIST T-9S0T L-OL 6-79 pre 6-6 ¢.F88 ¢.6FT G.0F GG09 68. FT 9.6 | 8-61 6. PST GP 0 9&6 ¢.1G6 OF - S01 89.98 9.061 GOP6T C.G9FT L'GIT 0.9861 ce -6F Ga -09 6866 FG-FI LL-& G.GFT 6. 1ST c8.€ &: £96 L.696 18-€6 16.96 ce G.cOFI F8-8hL 8G.T9 9916 99-41 EPFL | &-SII SGIT Gl. LP Guy 9FS9 FG-PI TE-& 9-€PL §-S06 10.76 GP. 96 6.601 OF LEQE 68 PL T. 896 8:66 L.9€ 8. LOT FPGLT OLTT CII 09 Fr 0.F066 68.68 09 O6ES Fa-PI G-& G.GFT 6: IST c8.€ L.ILG L.C96 L.66 10.16 F0.601 FScOT LOOT 68-68 68.19 ES 99.71 ca. € G. OFT O.GPI L.6 6.196 69.6 99.96 91.801 LOEET CPI tO. L. G&G ‘(potunsse) ulve4s yoxor pasuapuodog SS EE wt Ie “TUdeM 5 RE MOI AIO ars ‘pjoo J9J8M SUISU9PUO) osseuse . ae ‘2H1CU9SIP IP MIOH "S2AND40MU9 7, PR PES Sq] ‘P9Sn 19J82M SUISUOPUON CC sql ‘pasn mweo4s [e10], nn sal F ‘ON ahs = 7 SOL ‘g ‘ON LE] LE] een PAS sq ‘Z "ON U97S Jouer Das de rob APRN oe TT SQL ‘09 S.SUEIIL A bias der ‘sq ‘oSavyostp HMIOH FAURE AJUUIU tad SUOIJNIOA91 UV tt" soqnurt [RIT] Jo UOIJUIN(] DS [8119 SUHNP SUOIJNIOAOI [UJOT, °°: ‘SQL ‘aaqgouloaeg SITES sqe ‘SA ‘oanssead castapuoy Ponte re A. : dut09 paarosqo sy, : 'duray suipuodsear109 “---"sqe ‘sq ‘oanssoid odid ysneyxiy Bike Sie akg ie ars : “due P2ATSAO | O& FO-ST 9T-9T 86.ST F9. LT P-PI Gb. LT G-ST F6.6T |sqr'anou d'4'H'I ‘d pesn urvajs [uJo], 69ST LIFE LOET LOST PLOT OLIT 9L6 GRITS teense Imoy ted pesn wees [RIO], £7 eel € L “oz OL F g |... moy Jad [109 Ss, suURTIT A, Sid ‘tweags Jexov p 60ET Peel PET OGST IL3 P66 GLO | E17 i SQL ‘anoy tod asareyostp [9 MIOH G-&8 v6.69 91.69 10.19 12:66 F6. PS 9r-0S CET PRES RER AE 'd'H'4 esvr0ay 6-601 6-8 8P-68 L.98 66-6L L-L9 18-69 PEO ler RES ro à PONTS EST TRIOT a GL-&P 6-1 OP. 96 8-GP 6-66 L.IF 6-61 S665 ae hp CP ON 53 ” a OT A ue ee Sn: | AO UE AG €Z.1g |e AT A eae oe A Te Da ‘EON i 2. 3 89.66 L-¥& 6G: 9& 6-89 8-66 9.98 If. &@ DUCR se eee & ON 4PUTIAO ‘d'H'I = OT.ST 86-LT 16.6 SG-ST Fa-LT 86.68 8G-IT HÉLTA RES y ON ” ” » is 01e) PARA PRE tee 1 bag eee eg ak PA cy dal leat ROO CAFES: te a sie ON = 3 & Ê 90.LF 69.69 6-6S €8. F9 bg. PS EE. PY bL-9S (Bylo & ‘ON topurAg ‘eanssoad wea 2 *SJINSOY El _ a ——= — - > DA &.GI &.GI &-6L GL &.IT CI &.GI &.cI © HE ll, 06—— D Greece! 0) Bo ah (| pain) ©) Co LT re) AVL IL F4 GGT GST SCT ol SSI SST SCT GOT *poje ovr *pojyoxpoelu yy) “pogo ror f ‘pagexoelun ‘OST SUOIJNIOAQI popudjuy ‘06 SUOTQNLOADL popudquyT *SUOISUDALO &.eT 140 ‘21N)08QD ‘SQ) CET adnssaud Uoissimpy UPOUL papuajUy ‘panuipwog—T ‘ON ATIAVL OF oF 141 [MELLANBY] EFFICIENCIES OF MULTIPLE-EXPANSION ENGINES £66 6-691 O9PT.. O8-8T 6ST ¥.g F-681 96-76 69T TOIL 60-2 ISCT. L610: PSEL. P-06 LL. VS. OF -% GEST. F000. 66ST. 08-61 PLL. L08 . 09. IS: G. TE FES LITT €&-§ OZTS. Gao. Sr8T. 66-16 08. Gg. 886 6-11€ G-F9l 6.6 ¢.891 9.66 G0G 9.9TTT 86.4 LOST. L000 OST. 66-61 P-L 6- PEG &-GTTI GP-S SOTG. LTO0: 9806 - 99-66 ÉTAGE ES ‘ AOU9IOU9 [R2IUCU29 IN PRE certes: LOUOIOU SUBIT "SALOUIUVT aquurtu tad 4'H'I ted pasn sjiun 389 = Mand rietolee Cet Ol AO th OU “AD ‘uree4s jo ‘qt aod onp ÂfR21,9109q} 10 M ‘ODT ‘tees Jo ‘AL aod HIOM p9]JU9IpUT EE gay “aad tad ‘040 ‘uO1JUIpeI Aq 4SOT 89H @ fe axe (e Gp a,0e v6 fe 8) Die» sn ON" fatar SACL gt posy 4oputr4o Aq poqoofer Ju aL “aot tad YIOM OJUI PoyTOAUOD YRoFT Le) 6 (eevee ele ve fete esta lee ‘AL “Aer aod J2U8JSQNS SULYAO w AQ Ul UBYVI JU9H ET D? ‘p997 19pu1f49 Jo ‘QI a UT U9YJ IVOFT °1209Y fo Ssouuunn() “essay “aod JO 19JUM SaIsuepuog RANCE sq] ‘’A91 dod pasn was [8J0]7, CO) Chi each te Cet) ey see DÉCESCITMPAON tad [109 S SURITIM Snrd tueeJs Joxove RO LOT ent sql ADT aod p99} J9pPUITAN anoq dod ‘4'H'4 10d posn wives [RJ0T, gg tg 6 QG ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 142 8-9Fc 0-842 0-86 0.68 S-LIE ae 8-918 9.126 Ones 0.26 6.C98 ana L. P96 8. F98 PSE 8-291 D Tle Leb di AA PET gel g.2T ann ON nt a ca *paqoxpor (* DRE él IT ‘OCT ‘SA9I popuodquy ‘SUOISUDAXT EST ‘06 SUOIJNIOAQI papPUIIU] 8-LFe CRE 6.0/2 L.FVe $816 fg, : ‘dure Sarpuodser10p 8.8% G-&% 9.2 3-13 OT a ies SUR TRE tt ganssead F ‘ON JS949 Wea4g ae Ree eds beeen ee | ear d eg | ee EE IL, : “du Suipuodsouo9 ie Se = pig dre nee. agi TN adoup UIeAIG 2.028 lee. RES ge leche... sits gs ‘dtu9 poaresqg ere | a None ets del RL A | QE eg, : duo} Surpuodses109 ba | er PA LAS nés RE aaa Seen -ganssaad 7 “ON 4SayO LU0)S P. LOE ¢. cog FOE 9. G98 3-998 LT le Le ote PURE ‘LL, + ‘dure poatasqo 6-998 €.F98 9. £98 €. POE 6. G9 L-€98 oq. : duo] Surpuodsea10p L.GOT 6.191 ¢.09T 6-191 | L-€91 9.091 °° aynjosqu sq] eanssead odid wag LUN TT SLR DEP | ath Gaile. PRISE TE TN Se RS EE DE posn StPpul[#o Jo O1JeY A 6 ‘T Pals i zara | $8 Rooks eee ere ee eget pasn stapulyAp “DIDP JDAIUI1) €-21 8.8 A A 3. GI €-21 = 08 lt | i ele SO ae ol OR 0 SRB IUT CGT CGT CCT GCT CGT CGI *pajyoxpory *pojoyovluy ‘0]N]0SQF ‘SQ1 CCI adnssald uoissipp upaw papuajuy eo TENTE 143 INES ~ Ni {mMeLLANBy] EFFICIENCIES OF MULTIPLE-EXPANSION ENC &&.S9 OL ¢.9€ €P- GOL OOZET FPS 86-OST 99 .9§ §- SOE 6-68 9€ G. POI GG8GG €968 LEP 6-OFT €-9FT IF. 6-9F6 9.996 F9. FS G°96 LO. POT ¢.99 € c08 €6-68 09 96ES LL. PL CP -% 1-861 G-GYI S0.€ 6. 9F6 6. P9E 6.6L G.9§ P.66 GEL0G 09-01 ¢.0¢1 LOT ISPs bL- PL 8.896 10.8 L.9€ 9-801 (Lara 829€ 9C.PT Ze-€ F.GPI PST 10-4 8.89% 6. P9E EP. 78 LE .9§ 88: LOL IFGGT 96L 88L 66-06 09 9. S96 L.68 9-96 89.96 OGOFT ¢. STL TIL c9. 16 GS 99LT PL. PL p.696 9.98 9.96 6-801 FILST 9F.06 09 SGPC 9¢ V1 66.G F-GFI ¢. LVL 69-6 cette FL ‘WB99S Jexoel posuapuo ss... re LIU M a a RES as ** I. ‘plod 19J8M Suisuepuoy "A, ‘25418481 [2 MIO *S9ANIDAITU T, ASE Sq[ ‘posn 109VM SUHISUIPUON) HT aa *::::sq{ ‘pasn wiRa4s [UJOT, LE] F ‘ON LE] LE] LE] ‘€ ‘ON LE] LE] SAT ‘Z ‘ON 18998 7998 f° ae ch henna Hees say Jloo S.SURTTEAA ARE NO ANSE ‘aquuru tad SUOIJNIOAOL UBIN RAA SNS Soqnurtu [UI1} JO VOTING PRET ES à [RH SUHNP SWOTNOADL [UJOT, Pe Nera ae SURE O Ne sq “1979 tU018 “--9qnjosqe ‘sq] 24nSsa1d 19SU2PUOT Rio rt 7 : ‘du F9AI9SAO TRES tp, : ‘duo Suipuodsoxt09 ‘aqnposqe ‘sq eanssoad odid ysneyxiy I. : ‘due peadesqa GE LES 0€ 66 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 144 Gel II || LT 08% ect 8 OFZI SLIT Z08 0&8 ce6 88L P-2L 0.4¢ Onl apenas | ak SRE LF.c8 12-26 PI-OL 69.64 88. C9 Z9.L¢ C6 .8F IL-&F 19-12 0.8% 80-12 79.98 6.91 tan ace rere (Rers ete Bea Ag RE rately 8's 82.22 RE) areca deu Fe ne rade ee RE Fa.08 26-11 | 26-21 Z¢.91 0.1Z 0-81 €2-ST 69.6 | ge. OT gO.ST | GI-IG 91.6 AE Frs Re D ARRETE eo te D Pre 2 ives FA NN APT dires ane 11.96 £6. 6F Z8-66 8.cL £9.96 e109 HET €.21 €.21 6.21 el a ame Ui ce i SNES Pee ra lle Cr nn CS Ni ers i CGT ec] CCT GCT CGT cc] *pojexyovs ete i *paqyaspove ‘OCT ‘SAI popuoquy ‘06 SUOTIN[OAVL papuaqyuUyT ‘SUOISUDATT &.e] : BS rod qo sete tn 088 66 |’ SQ ‘anoy aed 9518981 [[9MIOH 12.66 | El cae S à Por d'A nOh à “ag 288104 98. TC gp fcc ee eee d'H'I peqog, AA 1 OS Sees eee VON peas ” gg le Sona Sea eee EON, n sv. = ne paie | sets sers tels a OO CO tee ON = aa 19.CT OR cree: 1 ON gopurpso ‘qc H'T SF.L LOSE ie “PON ” » ” OC.Fz re oalonedeut € ‘ON 2 = F Te A nr en ns SG te eme z'ON e x : AL 9.011 [se ES 1 (ON topurytso aunssaoid uvoyy | *SJINSON ra £.cI 84 L 0€ ro) AUBIN [VIL GCT SGT ‘pagoxoe lan ‘aINIOSGP ‘SQ] CGI adnssalg UOISSUPF UDOUL PIPUAJU #m105Q7 ‘SQ1 GOT 158! ‘panujjuog—'S ‘ON A IAVL 145 [MELLANBy] EFFICIENCIES OF MULTIPLE-EXPANSION ENGINES GFT G.OGTT 6L. Ogg. OFS 866 GET VG GOT t~ MN 916 QL. Ig. 866 Org 8ST 6-1 PFI 8:68 69T 8-081T 90.6 LOFT. GO00. G6FT 0.16 60-91 688 Fr.6 Esl. 6100. > AQUVIOUJO [RO1UBIPII RCE US LOE ORG ceeeee Aouatouye SUBIII AA *S910U9190) 4 ** egnurtu Bae HT ASL TI Pi pesn sJIun 99H N'L ‘vos fo ‘Ar ted onp A[[U219910949 10 M ‘Ay ‘tUv99s Jo ‘q[ aed HJAOM p9JRIIPUT D “aod tad ue ‘uo1qyeiIpes Aq JSO[ J89H CCC CCC CCC ECC CCE en Ss AOI tad pos} cares hq poqoofor 980H betes ene eeeeeeereres QI “Add Jad HIOM OJUI poqIaATlOD JU9 FH sise. Be Pe ASOT A CeA9DI aod asouRysqns SuryIoOM Aq Ul UWaeYP) Jeo bide a Tr ‘pooz xeput[49 Jo ‘q] tod Ur U2Y89 JU9H ‘100 JO Sauuunn() °°°" sqy ‘’A9I dod 1978AM SuISuapuo I I Tiger sq] ‘’A9I 494 pasn wes [UJOT vins ue ue ele B a) wl ele ee vote qu sal PAT Jed {109 SSUCITLA Sud wees joyorr Steer ens OUT sq] “vor aod poo} tapulpAg sq ‘moy aod LH q dod posn wieejs [UJOT, SORA GE CAO ee ake Si 0 sql ‘moy xod'4'H'I tod pasn wive4s [BOT THE sq] ‘tnoy tad pasn Lu97S [8407 69 69 10. Sec. III., 1896. ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 146 “pasn srepulpAp [eI] Jo 07%q 7 SI L.98 G.II G-SL CSI 6-96 FIL (ay A] IE STAR LE aanssoid F'ON JSau9 897$ g.gig foc p.goz (rte gg le egez Ce ce cer ‘oimqeroduug Surpuodsaarog gpl g9.F€ gp [reeset gue le fie aamssaud ¢ ‘ON 15000 tut97s 6-G1& 606 P-O1€ 8-&1& Org T-01€ ChPO ens aa et 7 SQanjetoduiey pearesqg IS 1.808 1-016 SITE 6-808 F.60€ 1.608 |" 4, ‘eangereduiay Surpuodsao) 6-6L 8.cL 1.81 PL G.I8 L.9L g.LL F.0L | ‘°°° "oanssoid 3 "ON JSeu2 WU9JS LS£ 8-986 8-S8& p.986 186 98g 1.18 GOS Ca ls vs Qangviedtiey paAI2S{() €.9R8& L-SS& 0.C8£ 9.E8& | 8.986 P. Gye §.L8¢ OF OSCAR ‘oxnqetodtue) sutpuodsat109 IT& 8-602 F-80 €.608 | ©.21Z 6.808 9.ST& 6-11Z | “egnqosqe ‘sq] ‘oinssord adid twuva7s GL PPC 6.2 ‘6-1 ‘E |6.L'F.F'G-L'I| 6-2 ‘6-1 T |6.L‘F.F'G-T'T| 6-L 6-1 ‘T 6-L°F-F'6-1'T| 6-2 GT T | poke a ‘posu SI2pUI[A? Jo OU Phe gt baal a bese oT Fe | FETTI Fair | carie ear Vie DR RD | ‘0]DpD 1D49U9+) "(10 YOAV) 492 ULUIN "10S WLP IN WILY] ace "90S WOMBAT) "ILE YOUN] "IOS ULV “YILT Pou) CR We +3 te ea ce ee | » ca _ & a a tee el or © A Em PL 0 2) em OS LB ek BIT [BMT COZ COZ COR CO | co OZ CO COZ a = | | =. = SS 197208 0 ‘pagoxoulun | *pageyoe f ‘pagoxoefun ‘OST SUOIYNOADL pepuoJuT ‘suoisunda TT ee ‘06 SUOTJNOAVA papudaquy 6 ON ‘H'TAVL SQ) GOG AdNSsad, UOISSUUPYF UPOUL PIPUIJU Hl 4 wR 147 {MELLANBY] EFFICIENCIES OF MULTIPLE-EXPANSION ENGINES 9.988 L.G88 p.c86 98€ 6-986 L.G8E G.L86 L.98E |" (pounsse) tuvoys Joxoul posuapuog | Ze C.c8 8.€8 8-18 66.98 L.I8 L.98 6-48 g.gg fn ‘M “WIR, » LES L-98 G.9§ | EL.9€ 9.9€ 96. LE G.9£ L.9£ 9.96 | "°°" D ‘ploo ‘xoquAM SuISU9pPUOY | DE Z-901 16-01 LOT €- 201 6-001 9. FOL &-01 GOT | te re ES AT. “2SIUUH9STP HOMO | 68 ‘SOANPDAICWUA TL, OTEFT OFOFE GTLET 90687 | ZOSOT SZEST GSOET ROU Ve ESS "Sql ‘pasn 199¥M SuIsuepuoyD | gz 8. Lg8 OTST G.99L 2907 | 966G 8.806 ¢. FIL GECOL ES EEE SES ‘Sql ‘posn tuva4s [VIO], | 23 oie moat oe Reece bs eer aes aie e pt lee BERN, ER Et . PON . 92 ggg [crete teeters NRA AE DS ne lo on sal Se 2 oS erent ee rer à ON à ce Fos seo etter © eee SERS nate ip ete eae, Vtttssseeress sant ont weais jour | Fz & I ¢.8 ii & CL.0 6 ÉLIRE to oo RUES ate OOS Sue TTEAN, PSG C.819 GoFILTS| Cu cac OCOT I9F 661 G.c0L OSh Lo" "res" Sql ‘eS184STP T9 MJOH | ga Ga SFT | |” ST-6FT 6-SPI GPT | 1.66 86.68 16 CF.I6 | °°°" “eqnurur ded suorjnpoaad Uva, | 1Z OF 09 FFF 09 OF 09 09 (RSR "SOINUIUL [UM Jo OUT | 0% 626¢ 1268 FI99 OFG6S FOS£ GLEG O9FS LPO eee [RLY SUHNP SUOIJNIOAOX [vO], | GI F.PI ES. FI TF.PI EC.FI FL 6G.FI P.FI (SERGE TIR ETES AE oe SAT “LPJOUOTUE | ST CF.a EL.T 16.2 8.6 6.8 L.3 16.8 60.6 | ‘apnosqu “sqy ‘oanssord tosuapuog | 2] L.L8T | &.TPI F681 S/R A EN EC L-OPT 9.01 TAGGH Neseat s "Wy, ‘einqetodutey partasqgQ | oT L-T¥1 F.SFI GPI T-SPL LET 8-681 GPT LP-GhL | "A “oanqeseduiey Surpuodsax10( | GT 10.8 £6.6 9.6 16.8 LG 68.8 G9.¢ 66.6 |‘eJnTosqe ‘sqy ‘otnssead sdid ysneyxG | FT 9.LT8 | 9-24 8-961 | 6. FIZ 2-618 L.1¥% L61 GPIG | °°" A, “oangerodura, paatasqoO | EI ©. £26 L.EFa 8.661 6. Gee 8.628 9.3% P.661 | 9.086 |", “edngedodutsy Surpuodsento) | ZI ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 148 892 9.10 S.TI IT 00& g.CLT ee ceil G.FITL L.£20T OCOT G.T69 G.SeL ai 9.69 1Z.¥8 10.87 oo RT RE tk F6 98.88 LG.SL OT .99 86. F9 G6 .GE 8-8 60-0F 86-1 88.61 09.67 LO -&% peg foe ss 02.61 AUX do RE à ; €-€1 LL-€% 19.91 OL.T& 26-6 LP-ST ca ca cF.68 8G.Fa IC.GT IF.GT 6-11 LO. FT 19.6 86.9 96.21 CO. FI le an le GPL set GG. GI PO.FE CE. FG @L-1€ I-12 GG. LE 10.99 18.69 L9.c9 89-89 10.89 OL.TL éd éd éd de éd de Fe OPERA DR INR EIT go> 68k COZ COZ C0 0% c0Z COZ *poqoxory *pojgoyor(u *poqoyor pe : Fred non este Enid umes oser | oy G.COL OEE PE Sq[ “Inou aed asreyostp HPMIOH | EF C.8€ 8L.FE PTE os “AHA 988RAV | Zp ce ne Dae A “ssp op eqog, | TF cris 19.e0 Le Soto FON APTE Queer lle. OURS ASIE ma ie Pr ee ee a Z'ON yg rae las 1-91 | @L-LT | TON pur d'H'I | LE &0.9 @-L PEON ss 1 7 LOE RCA A ae le eee SON k RATE £6. FZ Go 06 [80 SON : ;, ” ce re SI.FL 61.08 | TT I ‘ON dopuryAd ‘oinssaid ro | ee "SAINS | |: 3 ee D | Le re) UN [URI COZ coe *pagaxorluy | ‘O£T SUOTJNIOA9I popudzUy *SUOISUDALT 8e ‘06 SUOIJNIOAQI PIPUOIUT ‘21R108QV ‘SQ1 GOS alNSSalgd UOISSUUPY UDOUL PIPUIU] ‘panuyueog—S ‘ON AIA ViL 149 EFFICIENCIES OF MULTIPILE-EXPANSION ENGINES [MBLLANBY ] CA UE &- PCT 9GIT 15.2 OFFT 200. PPT. ST 9-§1 9861 SEL. Ge 6.6G 6.81 9. LETT 89-6 OLFT. Fec0- OPGL- 6.81 8-F1 9TET F0.c 9STT- 6100. Pri. GT GL.6T GEOT ~~ = 1Q IT.G S611. GI00- TSTT- Add §1-91 LOOT 9L.G LOST. PSE. GL-&1 ¢.168 {8.2 IG9T LGE0. 66.6 OTET.. 000. OGGL- ¢.81 FI G.PIL nor. sees "AOU9IOO [eoluvyooyy Siriaas) TN AO OP CRDI 0 HE . AU yye SUBI[I M "SOLOUIVOUTT AOL Presses tee onu wed ‘4 'H eu Jod posn sjiun JF ss... sae POO BOON HIG, uate TE yo ‘AT Fe onp ALTER 3[10 M Romus eo Bobi | “TL ‘899$ jo ‘A 10d aia peyeorpaL He Seana Th “Add tod “d}0 One Aq 4SOT J89F Sos se € wd 6 (8 oy anes ele delete oe (ay? Th, SA OT rod pooy Are, Aq poqoofoer quorr Sr NT ae ce Lo n'x FAO Lod YLOM OJUI PIHIOAUOD 79H sie s el =telvle tree OPEN d CAO aod J2UVISQNS SUIYIOM a Ul UdIYLI JVOFT re Pneu ee “Ay, Spoey repurpso Jo ‘Q aed ur uayey yrozy “poay fo sarj1zUnn() “ors sqy “aor dod 1038. SUISU2PUOT Wasa cx sq] ‘Aor aod posn wees [UJOT, soso. oo ETUI SPP ERNEST SsA OL Tad [109 SSUVITLAM suid tuvoqs joxove RCA 3 sq[ ‘A9 rod poay topurpAg vote ‘sqt ‘mou tod ‘J'H'A dod posn tuv9)S [v0], °:*SQT ‘anoy tod ‘G'H'I tod posn wreojs [v0], ‘°°° say ‘anoy aed posn wes [UJOI, 69 a9) 9S OF cP Lu ete pi = mp md . ~~ es ‘ fi À hi > BA "7 v L L # (: |. RE CHIMIE Oe eo Pa ‘ “sal ox my A ray. bad 4 A ER! d m4 ea . « 4 dr ag a” +" [MELLANBY] EFFICIENCIES OF MULTIPLE-EXPANSION ENGINES 151 rc: ING LINERS FOR CYLINDERS 3 Ano 4. ue ae VAR a rc 153 S OF MULTIPLE-EXPANSION ENGINES [MELLANBY] EFFICIENCIE ‘pajexovluy 06 ‘SAY "68 "ON FEO SNOMLIVES SSTNAYT PAL AILOE 24 46988 JINVY FUNLVYTIN IL 16N YFONITAD ‘7 ‘DIA LALV te *poqoyovsp CG ‘SAOM "ce ON FO Vv) 0 SLE. oly A,LOE/%L I,0 0. : = [ JINVA TYNLVYTIN TL 02 BON YIQN/TKI LYS 0€ A S18801 46 SL TONY TYMLYY TAP ot EEN D TONITAD : à 06 J, 9 SL 09 FINVY FH, 7 CN d. 08 06 00! aes ol! or | f 4/06 = 02! SWOMIVYS SSINAYT SP 5L AGO 01 16580 FONVA FINLVYTINIL /oN WIND ‘T ‘DIA 7 sheryl 4 4% + 135 [matLaNBy] EFFICIENCIES OF MULTIPLE-EXPANSION ENGINES TRE NAT (CF PUB Z'SON) “poyoNOVL’ 06 “SACY JE cran ere 66 ON FI, "LE ‘ON ed : = = opt on — : ou ae ee ol ly | "277 ts 02 A 9 IQ S/IOHAY, TL A : | 4,6 FH) 04 J, 022 JINVY TUDLVYRIWEI. 0€ JINVY TÉPLE TAN 71 ip DEN YIOQNITAD | iM oN TONI - | op or | 06 | | 4 62 0s é | LEVEË 21 1)9008 | > rer bt pe | | 0 JINVH FUMLVITANIL 09 pave | T4NLVYIAN IL | |\ wu 20M YLONITAD à Er ee = ‘ 08 | 08 | | | 06 Le ie | 001 ior es a oo Sr = NB oil +05 — Ol ‘fou pee SG PS DA 4 tu vif #0 off Yan ia ogi US ral 166 SWOLLDVEY SSINAUG du i uo SNOMIVYS SSTINAYTD aH i. I sl I 1,38 091 2,952 LL 4966008 4,959 AT | nl JOUVE FOMLYSTIWIL 02) 7 VIOWILO | ogi eM YFONITAD i | cl 061 ol HK! 002 ol oles x I OL °Z ‘OLA 157 EFFICIENCIES OF MULTIPLE-EXPANSION ENGINES [MBLLANBY ] *pogoyorfuy 06 ‘SAY SNOILIVSS SSINAUC JéN YFICSTAI "2 “OL III ALV'Id 7% CF PAT HS, FôW FF PIE? TINY TUM VE TON IL mr 9 68 put £'SON) ‘P9)9H98/£ OG ‘SA9 *68 ‘ON SELL — = TeT T if "‘SWOMLIKES SSTNAYT S,229 AL 962° SP PIE TINVY TUNIVU TAN TL J6N YFONITAD ‘T Ola a Sis + SSE] SES A = = 159 [mezzaxsy] EFFICIENCIES OF MULTIPLE-EXPANSION ENGINES ENTER VAT “paqoxov(uy 06 *SAOU (FE pur Z SON) ‘PaJOMEL 06 ‘SAS Th ON “HTL ‘eh ON SHEL + io, à 108 x06 ‘SWOMLIVEY SSINAYO og —=- 1158 SNOMIVYS SSINAYO OLA S,0ZE % Fb LIF FJINVY FYNLVYIASWIL /6N YFONITAD Jo PR OF Fo 9 PIS 04 AGILE JINVY TU IVUTINTL /6N YFONITAD SSS SSE Ses 2 OL ‘T ‘Old 161 A ALV'Id “paqoyowfug 06 sAey (F'ON) “pozeHoRL 06 ‘SA9H TE ‘ON 440 ‘0g ‘ON 43840 [mezLaney] EFFICIENCIES OF MULTIPLE-EXPANSION ENGINES fi = D v) Of ] 3 [ +09 56 ‘a LPS/ 4 AS ; JINVY TOMLIN SAW I. | # BON YTONIVAD IF ott | let fost | ot #0 Sa i ohn eps CS ce ea at SNOLLIVEY SSINAYO SNOMLIVYS SSINAYO en ca | ont 001 U | OUT ' oll +06 60 | | Be W652 16 296 ory ef été j Less ap FINE TUMLVATINTL pale JIMNY FUMLVETIWIL | oct 16M YONITAD 1 : IGN YFONITAI OvitT Ov n | | osiiT| 0S! 3 os1 q (0 ~ LT ‘T DLA ~ a "Y LR NA 1 in, SE L J = fi Bee 1 tn" | Me A ey LC M p : wT ’ ; 4 PP. P ais ( K Fe a3 A | i 168 EFFICIENCIES OF MULTIPLE-EXPANSION ENGINES [MELLANBY | ‘poqoxoeluy) 06 ‘SAS "GG ON SEL ah o eZ ASE 4,5 $22, PONVY FUNLVIIAH T1 ÉôoN YIONITAP as NOMD¥YS SSII, 4,5 29 I,5 #82 01 4 195 JINVS ISNLVEIINIL 26M YFTON/ITAD 2 ‘OLA IA ALV Ie 1.9 06 SI 60/°L,000 FINYY THNLVUTIWIL BON SFONITAD CIV) *p99X98 £ 06 'SA9Y "08 ‘ON “S44 a Va TAN] SNOLLIVHS SSINAYG LE IL 4,680 01 4,99€ FINYY FANLVYISNIL CON YFION/TAD T ST > RACE PERS nes ite a * i A Ae 7 à My à Ba f si ita +) 4 7 À , pe ‘ ne 5 "4, mire) k mt" Pout ee Li ee Ten: à ’ , 1 sd +5 À Ore >. hs 163 [meczAngy] EFFICIENCIES OF MULTIPLE-EXPANSION ENGINES SINITOZLLOD SATHO6 OFLIVIV? SSTN TEE O SIM] Td SATE 06 OFLINIVINY ES ON 530 SWV4DVIG ADOYLNT -TUNLVYTIW TL et et a ft # # | Asi 5 a ba W SECTION IIL., 1896. 1671 Trans. R.S. C. X.—Symbolic Use of Demoivre’s Theorem. By Professor Duruts. (Read May 20, 1895.) At the meeting in 1891 of this society I presented a paper upon the Symbolic Use of Demoivre’s Theorem, with illustrations and examples. The present paper consists of additional illustrations of the application of this method of using the theorem. 1. To put (a + ib)°*+™ in the form A + iB. Let a +ib=rVf. Then (a+) (pp + 4 = ed yep. Viag, Bat 74 = ed _ Yair: and Vid = ed. Sf (pb) OA CHE) a where r = Je + b*, and cos f = i n k : 2. To sum the series 2 Sin “na, 1 2/ sin a = V— V" by separating the operative symbol. 1 1 Re Ke); PES F , 4 HUE Vit sia CR TE er EN RAT fa i | yen + 2 V2 y—2n—2 Fine a 2 mal GET a V?F—1 } which, being reduced and realized (see former article), gives n cos (n + ljasinna DUT 2 sin @ 3. To sum the series ne n . 2 sin na = 5 — 1 F4] n —= oo sin "¢ 2 — 5 cos (n + 1)8, and n = 0 : == OSS on Ale ne CE 1)6, n n= denote the generating function of the first by C, and of the second by S. Then 2e AREA 7 sV C+iS= Vita + opt... b= vel = Ve, 5 = CO sin 20 = ¢ Sn 0 cos 0 ig 1 sin 26} = 6500.08 0 Sos (6 + sin 26) + i gi in? = s isin (0 + sin 6)} 168 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA where ¢ stands for cos Gand s for sin 6. Then equating real and imagin- ary parts, CG = ¢ Sin 0 e089 oon (4 4 sin 20): S = ¢8in 8 cos sin (9 + sin 74). 4. To find the generating functions of the two complementary series, 7 = 09 ae HEC op D n cos nO cos 0 = © sin n@ cos 20 + Hand, 2 — ! ; ne n DE n | ) we have, adopting the ie notation, A Ve ile a C8 =6V ob ea ene 2 . me = Oo NON ie Ver = ie And equating real and imaginary parts, 24 : C =e ® ” cos (cos 6 sin 0) — 1, 2g À Se PF Seesimecos Pain 0). 5. In developing cos nf in powers of the cosine of 4 we have primarily the development, = A0) <= . eos nO: =e" MG RES Ce sae Ee in waich ¢ stands for cos 6 and s for sin 6. As the sines are all in even powers, the right-hand expression may be written rationally in terms of the powers of cos 6. The development as thus effected is, however, not only laborious but also impracticable. 1 Secondly, we may put x +—-= 2 cos 6, and expand the expression (: +22 ) (1 os =) = 1+ 2z cos 6+ 2. By taking logarithms of both sides of this identity, and picking out from the expansion of these logarithms the coefficient of 2" and equating, we obtain n—1 n n—3 n—2, , n(n —3) cos n6 = 2 cos, PV 1,2 COB Pt The picking out of the parts of the complex coefficient of 2” from the right-hand member is the laborious part of this process. Thirdly let a* + p, a? + q,a7*+7,07°+°..= 0 a’ + Fi PT a Ca oh ; pr? art + RER Mr a à br as + ee br—6 a n—4 Il {pururs] SYMBOLIC USE OF DEMOIVRE’S THEOREM 169 Then by elimination we obtain ==, ir OS eRe mei — \ b" 1 Pn—2 Tn—2 CO —4 2 (DE OUI Res De (0) 0 if Now let b = V+ V1 and let a = V"+ 7, Then since VV = 1, ee a PO ee eee Gh a Vis) oe =a Cia"? pCa Similarly pt at + Ou br — qn _— SOU + ew, Whence by substitution VE (aes i) Gs a ae) "CY "05 008 (V+ PEN aft F6 Lm OF Sy. CVS Ob ent ane Ce ET D Ne D Qu Or 2 cos nb = (2 cos 0)" (Arcos 0) AN (eos 4) 0 (2 cos D)" [= n(n—1) n (n —1) (n —2) .. D di 9 TS 1 0 (n—2) (n—8).. | 3! 2? _ which expresses the required relation in the form of a matrix. SECTION IIT., 1896. Dr] Trans. R. $S. C. XI. Some Experiments on the X-Rays. By Jonn Cox, M.A., anp HuGx L. CALLENDAR, M.A. Professors of Physics, McGill University. Montreal. (Read May 28, 1896.) A few days after the arrival of the news of Réntgen’s discovery, on Feb. 7th, the first application of the method to surgery in the McDonald Physics Building, was made by the photographie location of a bullet in the leg by Professor Cox. This photograph, together with another of a hand, taken by Messrs. King and Pitcher on the same day, has been described and figured in the Montreal Medical Journal for March, 1896. The tube used for taking this photograph was the phosphorescent lamp tube of Puluj, which has been widely used in Germany for the same purpose. Out of a collection of upwards of fifty Crookes tubes, obtained from Messrs. Geissler in 1894, this tube alone was found to retain a suffi- ciently perfect vacuum for the purpose of X-ray photography. The exposure required in the case of the hand was 45 minutes at a distance of 8 inches. Some of the other tubes were found to give faint results, but they were too weak to be of any practical use. Shortly afterwards we received a copy of Nature, of Jan. 23rd, containing an account of some experiments by Swinton, who stated that much better results could be obtained by the use of the Tesla coil oscil- lating discharge. On trying this method, we found that several of the tubes in which the vacuum was bad, gave much brighter fluorescence than with the Ruhmkorff discharge, but the definition of the shadows with any of the ordinary tubes was inferior owing to the double kathode. We also found that the oscillating discharge had a very marked tendency to perforate the tubes. Several of our Geissler tubes were temporarily damaged in this way, with the oscillating discharge, whereas we had no such mishap with the direct discharge, although using a ten-inch spark. With a view of overcoming these and other difficulties, upwards of 30 tubes of different patterns were devised and constructed by Professor Callendar, both for the direct and the oscillating discharge. Incidentally a number of anatomical and other photographs, including several surg- ical cases, were taken with these tubes, and most of the experiments of Rüntgen and other observers were repeated and verified. These obser- vations were interesting at a time when some physicists imagined that the rays proceeded from the anode, or that they could be concentrated and brought to a focus by a glass bell-jar, but the main facts with regard to the X-rays are now so firmly established as to need no further corro- 172 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA boration of this kind. We ultimately abandoned the use of the oscillat- ing discharge, as we found that with the direct discharge a greater amount of power could be employed, and more brilliant effects secured, without risk of perforating the tube. The one-electrode method of Tesla, though attended with less risk of perforation, appeared to require a very extravagant expenditure of power. The tubes in which the kathode rays were allowed to impinge on the glass walls were liable to a serious defect. If the X-radiating surface were large, as in the maltese cross tube of Crookes, a large volume of rays could be produced, giving brilliant effects, and readily visible through the human body, but permitting very poor definition. If on the other hand. the glass surface were made small, in order to secure good definition, very little power could be applied without melting the glass. Aluminum windows were tried, following Réntgen, but could not be made permanently air tight. Such devices as the use of a continuous air-blast, or of oil or water for cooling the tube, besides being trouble- some, were open to obvious objections. All these difficulties were met by the discovery of the “ Focus Tube.” Application of the Focus Tube.—The use of the focus tube represents the greatest practical advance which has been made on the method of Rontgen. The tube is one of the usual Crookes series, in which the kathode rays are concentrated by means of a concave electrode on a plate of platinum. It is generally used to illustrate the production of heat by the kathode rays. It was discovered that this focus was a very powerful source of X-rays, which proceeded in straight lines through the glass, and were capable of casting very sharp shadows, since they pro- ceeded from a very small focal point. We found the first application of this tube, as applied to X-ray work, in the British Medical Journal, of March 21, 1896. We were fortunate in possessing a very fine focus tube, with a bulb five inches in diameter, and a very large concave electrode. The tube was opened, and the platinum plate bent at a more convenient angle, and the tube then sealed and re-exhausted. The results were found to be far superior in clearness and density to any of those obtained with the glass tube. The original platinum plate, however, was so thin that a hole was melted through it. The tube was therefore again opened and a thicker plate substituted. The limit of power which can be applied to these tubes depends on the size and thickness of the platinum plate. The larger and thicker the plate, the greater the power that can be dissi- pated without overheating the plate and spoiling the tube. With our particular coil and tube, the limit appears to be between 60 and 70 watts on the primary. The stage of greatest X-ray efficiency is a little beyond the stage of greatest heat production, Method of Exhausting Tubes—The method which we adopted for exhausting the tubes may perhaps be worth mentioning, as we found it [cox & CALLENDAR] EXPERIMENTS ON THE X-RAYS 173 to be very expeditious, and it does not appear to be generally known or employed. On first exhausting a tube, the chief difficulty is generally to get rid of the last traces of gas from the electrodes and tbe walls of the tube, when high vacua are required for X-ray work. If this gas is not thoroughly removed, the vacuum is liable to subsequent deterioration. The method which we adopted for this purpose consisted in maintaining a continuous discharge through the tube, during the process of exhaus- tion, by means of an alternating current applied to the induction coil, the strength of the current being so regulated asto heat the electrodes of the tube as much as possible without melting them or causing a deposit on the glass. The effect of the current was simultaneously to heat the walls of the tube sufficiently to dry them very completely without any risk of cracking the glass, as may often happen if the tube is artificially heated by means of a Bunsen flame. Starting with a five inch bulb, wet and dirty from the blowpipe, we were able in this manner to raise it to an X-ray vacuum in from half an hour to an hour. The pump which we generally used for exhausting the tubes, was a five-fall Sprengel of German make, which had been fitted in the labora- tory with a vacuum trap for drying the mercury, and with an automatic arrangement for returning the mercury to the upper reservoir. At its maximum rate of working, this pump took only ten or fifteen minutes to raise a five inch bulb from one millimetre to a sparkless vacuum, if the electrodes had been previously freed from gas by the method above described. We found it preferable to the Geissler form of mercury pump, as it permitted the vacuum to be varied continuously, and to be maintained at any desired point. We also used, on several occasions, an automatic Geissler pump of the Max Stuhl pattern. Phenomena presented by the Focus Tube.—The phenomena presented by this tube in action, have frequently been described, but the published descriptions do not altogether agree with our experience. According to one account which we received, the kathode rays were regularly reflected in a small pencil from the platinum plate, and formed a minute focus point on the glass, from which the X-rays proceeded. On exhaust- ing our focus bulb for the first time, we found on the contrary that a whole hemisphere of the glass surface on the side exposed to the kathode rays reflected from the platinum, became brilliantly and almost uniformly phosphorescent. We further verified, by taking a pin-hole photograph, that practically the whole of the X-radiation came from the focus point on the platinum plate, and passed directly through the glass without further diffusion. According to a statement by Professor Lodge, which we observed at a subsequent date, the X-radiation is rendered more brilliant by connecting the platinum plate to the anode, and is diminished in inte: sity by allowing the plate to become red hot. We have not been able to observe these effects, and are inclined to attribute them to change in the vacuum, or to some other peculiarity in the tubes used by Lodge 174 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA We have found it a matter of great importance for obtaining clear and brilliant photographs, to remove the least trace of water vapour from the tube. The presence of water vapour has the effect of making the focus point much less sharp, and the sparking very irregular. The phos- phorescence of the glass is much less brilliant, with occasional sectorial flashes from the back of the kathode. Shadows of bones on the fluoros- cope are much less clearly defined, and appear to be nearly as transparent as the flesh. If much water vapour is present, the platinum plate appears to be more highly heated for the same power, than if the air in the tube is dry. The vacuum at the sparking limit, appears to be much higher, as measured by the McLeod gauge, 002 to ‘005 mm. as compared with -010 to ‘030 mm. for dry air, but these figures, owing to the extreme slowness of diffusion, and the absorption of water vapour by the phos- phoric anhydride in the pump, do not necessarily represent the actual vacuum existing in the tube. That these effects are to be attributed to the presence of water vapour, is rendered probable by the fact that they are always observed on exhausting a new tube, if precautions have not been taken to dry it, and that they disappear if a small quantity of dry air is admitted and the tube re-exhausted. The presence of water may also be verified by spectroscopic observations. We have observed these appearances in X-ray tubes of various makers. They have generally been explained by other observers as being due to X-rays of different kinds, or to different degrees of vacuum, or to different kinds of discharge. No doubt these explanations are often true. An increase in the vacuum certainly increases the relative trans- parency of the bones, and the effects are often considerably modified by any change in the character of the discharge. But so far as our exper- iments go, the presence of water vapour is a much more serious source of disturbance, and affords in many cases a much more likely explanation of the irregularities. Method of Operating—For the sake of more completely investi- eating the effects with different gases, and under different conditions, we have preferred to keep the tube permanently connected with the pump. Incidentally this method possesses the advantage that it is possible to work the tube continuously at its point of highest efficiency for any length of time. With a good vacuum and a powerful discharge, the air in the tube appears to get used up so rapidly that the spark soon refuses to pass otherwise than outside the tube. With a sealed tube, it is generally necessary to stop at intervals and warm the tube. We found it prefer- able, however, to supply small quantities of dry air occasionally through a tap connected with the pump. On one occasion, the tube was operated almost continuously in this manner for nearly two hours, including one exposure of over an hour without any intermission. The admission of air was so adjusted that the discharge took an alternative path by a six [cox & CALLENDAR] EXPERIMENTS ON THE X-RAYS 175 inch gap in air once in every five or ten discharges. It was not possible to keep the proportion quite constant, but a very fair average was main- tained. A little air was admitted every one or two minutes. The character of the discharge, and the X-radiation appeared to be nearly unchanged throughout. The intensity was, if anything, greater at the end of the exposure. At the end of the exposure, however, the pressure of the air in the tube was found to have increased to nearly the same extent as if the air admitted to the tube had all ace mulated in the tube, and had not been used up by the discharge or occluded by the walls as is generally supposed. This would appear to imply that the production of kathode rays is due in part at least to some change in the constitution of the gas in the tube, and is not merely a question of the degree of vacuum, After allowing the tube to rest for three hours, the vacuum was found to be almost unchanged, but no kathode rays were produced until the discharge had been passed for nearly a quarter of an hour. Similar phenomena were observed on other occasions after prolonged exposures. It is possible that the apparent increase of pressure may have been really due to the removal or decomposition of aqueous vapour by the discharge, but we could not find any direct evidence that this was the case. A similar increase of apparent resistance is observable in most tubes during the first few minutes of the passage of the discharge. In many cases the resistance ceases to increase after a short time, and the tubes will run continuously without change for half an hour or more. In the case of sealed tubes, if air-tight, the original state of the vacuum may be restored by heating, or by an alternating current. Anatomical Photographs.—With the focus tube, there is now no difficulty in taking photographs of any of the joints or extremities, which are capable of showing the nature of any injury due to fracture or dislo- cation or the presence of foreign bodies, just as clearly as if the bones themselves were exposed to view. In taking photographs through the thicker and more solid parts of the trunk, however, there are still diffi- culties, owing to the fact that the bones appear to be much less opaque as compared with the flesh when tested by rays of sufficient intensity to pass through a considerable thickness. Plenty of light gets through, and it is possible to obtain extremely dense negatives with an exposure of ten or fifteen minutes, but it appears that the rays undergo a kind of filtering process in passing through the upper layers, and that those which survive extinction longest, penetrate bone and flesh alike with more nearly equal facility. Itis fortunate, however, that bullets, buttons, and other metallic objects, are so much more opaque than bone or flesh as to be very readily distinguished in any part of the body. It is probable that many improvements remain to be made in this direction by the use of suitable fluorescent screens in conjunction with the photographic plate, or of suitably stained or loaded emulsions. 176 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA There is little evidence at present of any kind of selective absorption, but if any phenomenon of this nature exists, as in the case of ordinary light, it should be possible to find some fluorescent substance which was particularly sensitive to the rays which are specially absorbed by bone. We did not ourselves make any experiments worth mentioning in this direction, because it happened that the photographic plates which we first used, Stanley, sensitometer 50, appear to give results which from all accounts were at least equal to those which were obtained elsewhere with the aid of fluorescent screens. The following list, comprising the more difficult cases which we have attempted, will serve to illustrate the possible applications of the method. Bullet in brain of child, aged 12. The bullet and the hole by which it entered are clearly shown in a photograph with an exposure of nine minutes. The bullet was faintly visible on another plate with an exposure of three minutes. It was found to have settled down nearly in the centre of the brain. Broken hip joint. An exposure of fifteen minutes was allowed for this case, as the subject was a man of solid build. The head of the thigh bone was found to have been broken off and twisted round. The foramina and other details of the pelvis are clearly shown.” The nega- tive is so dense that it takes more than half an hour to print in bright sunshine. Drainage tube in lung. This was a case of a small drainage tube of ebonite, No. 9 catheter, which was lost in the lung eleven years ago. Owing to its thinness and to the comparative transparency of ebonite, the tube was a somewhat faint object, but was quite unmistakably visible in the negative. Fracture of skull. The subject had been gored by a bull two years previously, and had lost one eye and part of the bone of the orbit. He had lately become subject to fits. The negative showed a vague white shadow in the neighbourhood of the gap in the skull, which may have been due to a piece of displaced bone, or to some bony growth. The indications are too indefinite, however to be of much use in diagnosis. Pus cavity in lung. In this case the diagnosis from the ordinary methods was very uncertain. A cavity, however, was very clearly indi- cated as a dark shadow in the negative. If the cavity had been full of pus at the time, it would have been indicated as a lighter patch, the transparency of liquid being less than that of lung tissue when distended with air. Stone in kidney. Some of the typical symptoms were absent in this case. The X-ray negative showed a faint white patch in the region of the kidney. In addition to the above, which include the more difficult medical cases, a very large number of simpler cases of fractures, etc., of the . [cox & CALLENDAR| EXPERIMENTS ON THE X-RAYS 17/74 extremities were taken, as well as photographs of various parts of the healthy body including the skull and trunk. Exposure and Development—In taking photographs through the trunk, we found that little or nothing was gained by prolonging the exposure beyond ten minutes or a quarter of an hour. A longer expo- sure appeared to give a flat over-exposed result, in which the fainter differ- ences of transparency were, to a great extent, obliterated. For the same reason we found it best to use a fairly strong developer, in order to strengthen the contrast as much as possible. We generally used rodinal of strength 1/10, and continued the development for ten minutes on the average. In many cases the negatives were subsequently intensified with bichloride of mercury in order to heighten the effect. In some cases this method was found to bring out slight differences of density which were otherwise too faint to be appreciated. The X-ray photograph differs from that produced by ordinary light, in that the action of the X-rays extends through the whole thickness of the film, whereas that of ordinary light is confined to the surface. The photographic film is very opaque to the actinic rays of the spectrum, but is very transparent to the X-rays, which are capable of penetrating many successive films without apparent weakening. It is therefore necessary to continue the development until the action has extended through the whole thickness of the film. It is also evident that greater density may be obtained by using thick films, and that the time of expo- sure might be enormously reduced if it were possible to discover a sensi- tive film capable of absorbing the whole energy of the X-radiation in a single thickness. Some advertisers claim to have reduced the time to less than one-hundredth in this manner, but so far as we can discover their results do not appear to be in any way superior to those which we have obtained with ordinary plates. Stereoscopic X-Ray Photographs.—In locating a small object in the thicker parts of the body, it is often necessary to know the depth at which it is situated. Various more or less complicated methods have been proposed for accomplishing this. The majority of the proposed methods turn on securing a pair of photographs either taken in different directions, so that the coordinates of the object may be deduced, or else taken from slightly different points of view, so that they may be com- bined into a single stereoscopic picture. We have found that the same result may be more simply and accu- rately attained in a single photograph in the following manner. A pho- tograph is taken in the ordinary way but with a rather shorter exposure than usual. The tube is then moved through a carefully measured distance, generally one or two inches, and another exposure is taken on the same plate without moving either the plate or the patient. The distance of the focus point from the plate is also measured. On Sec. III., 1896. 11. 178 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA developing the plate, the shadows of the bones, etc., are found to be double. The distance of any object from the plate, when the photograph was being taken, may be very readily deduced by measuring the distance on the plate between the edges of the two corresponding shadows. We applied this method in the attempt to locate a pin which had been accidently swallowed by a schoolboy. As a reference mark, a small ring of No. 20 copper wire was placed over the umbilicus. Two expo- ures of ten minutes each were given on the same plate, and the tube was shifted an inch and a half between the two, in a horizontal direction. The patient was lying on his back on the plate, which was at a distance of about 20 inches from the focus. The shadows of the pelvis and other bones all show sharp and double edges. The shadows of the fine copper ring, cast through the viscera and spine, at a distance of eight inches from the plate, are so sharp that the diameter of the wire can be measured. The pin, however, was not found on the plate ; either because it was not there, or because it was kept moving by the respiration or the peristaltic action of the intestines. Magnetic Experiments.—The only certain point of difference in kind at present recognized as existing between the kathode rays asinvestigated by Lenard and the X-rays of Rüntgen, is that the latter are not deflected by a magnet to any appreciable extent. The Réntgen rays far surpass the Lenard rays in point of penetrative power, but the difference here is one of degree only. According to Lenard, kathode rays differing in inten- sity, according to the degree of vacuum, differ also in their penetrative power, and in the extent to which they are deflected by a magnet. It appeared, therefore, quite a tenable hypothesis that the X-rays were really of the same nature precisely as the kathode rays, but that they consisted of that part only of the kathode radiation which was able to survive reflection from the platinum plate and transmission through the glass, and were consequently less liable to subsequent absorption or deflection. With our focus tube (owing to the care taken in adjusting the platinum plate, and the consequent minuteness of the focus point, which was less than two milimetres in diameter), we were able to obtain ex- tremely sharp shadows at a considerable distance from the tube and the de casting the shadow. It was therefore easy to verify the statement { Réntgen to a high degree of accuracy. We also attempted to repro- ae the experiment of Lafay, who states that he obtained a deflection of the X-rays if they were passed through an electrified plate. We did not, however, succeed in obtaining any positive evidence of such an effect. It occurred to us that the X-re ays might be more amenable to magnetic deflection in a vacuum than in air outside the tube. With this idea we tried the effect of approaching the magnet very close to the tube with the direction of its lines of force tangential to the boundary of the [cox & CALLENDAR] EXPERIMENTS ON THE X-RAYS 179 intense green fluorescence covering one half of the walls of the tube on the side exposed to the reflection from the platinum plate. The boundary of this green fluorescence was observed to bulge in or out according to the direction in which the magnet was presented, precisely as if caused by rays having the same properties as ordinary kathode rays, although proceeding from the platinum plate, and not direct from the kathode. On making simultaneous observations with the fluoroscope and with the photographic plate, we found that the boundary of the X-radiation out- side the tube, which under ordinary conditions coincides exactly with the plane of the platinum plate, was also deflected by the magnet, but in the opposite direction to the boundary of the green fluorescence. This effect was veritied on several occasions in various ways, the deflection amounting in some cases to half an inch on the photographic plate at a distance of eight inches from the tube. We conclude from these observations that the rays causing the brilliant green fluorescence of the glass, were probably identical with ordinary kathode rays, and were reflected by the platinum according to the same law of diffuse reflection as the X-rays. This observation is of some interest as establishing a point of similarity between the X-rays and kathode rays. The other observation would however appear to show that the two are distinct. The fact that the boundary of the X-radi- ation appeared to be deflected, is probably to be explained by a slight shift of the focus point on the platinum plate, which was not perfectly plane. This explanation receives support from the fact that the shadow of the magnet itself as seen in the same photographs, is not perceptibly double. Further, the sharpness of the boundary both before and after deflection in each case, would appear to lend support to the view that the kathode and X-rays are of two distinct kinds, sharply separated in properties, rather than rays of the same kind, differing only in degree, and connected by a continuous series possessing intermediate properties in the way of penetration and magnetic refrangibility. Weight, there- fore, still suppose the kathode rays to be streams of radiant atoms, even if the X-rays were proved to be of the nature of a wave motion in the æther. Action of X-Rays on Selenium.—Among the negative results which we obtained, there are some perhaps which deserve mention. A selenium cell was prepared by Professor Cox, consisting of copper wire wound on a plate of mica, and annealed in the usual way. The resistance of the film, when measured with a megobm and a Thomson-Varley slide box, was found to be nearly ten megohms. This somewhat high value was probably due to the thickness and small size of the selenium film. It proved, however, to be very fairly sensitive to ordinary light, and, what was more important, to have an extremely constant resistance, and to return very quickly to the original value when the disturbing influence 180 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA was removed. With the galvanometer which we used, a light of one candle power at a distance of one metre was found to give a deflection of thirty scale divisions. The deflections were so consistent that the cell would have made a very fair photometer. The battery used was a single cell of a silver chloride testing battery, and the variations of resistance were observed by the bridge method using the slide box and wire megohm. The same selenium cell was exposed at a distance of three inches from the tube to the most powerful X-radiation which we could produce, but no effect whatever could be observed. The sensitiveness to light was tested both before and after exposure several times, but no change could be detected. It may be necessary to remark that the selenium was pro- tected from the light and from the electric discharge by a double thickness of one-mil aluminum foil, which though absolutely opaque to light, did not cast a perceptible shadow on the fluoroscope when tested by the X-_ rays. The screen of foil was connected to earth and to one pole of the galvanometer. It is necessary to emphasise these precautions as it appears that other observers have obtained positive results by neglecting them. The galvanometer which we used was adjusted to give a deflection of 1 scale division for 1 volt through 50,000 megohms. It had a resis- tance of 110,000 ohms, and a period of 15 seconds. Electrostatic effects of the X Rays—Within a short time of the publication of Réntgen’s discovery, it was shown by J. J. Thomson that the X-rays possessed the same properties as the kathode rays of Lenard, of discharging an electroscope, however, carefully insulated. He expressed this result by saying that any substance through which the X- rays passed, was rendered for the time a partial conductor. The beha- viour of paraffin wax in particular was given as an instance of this effect. The time of discharge of an electroscope or of a small condenser has been suggested as a means of measuring the intensity of the X-radiation at various distances and under various conditions. Some very surpris- ingly exact proofs of the law of the inverse square were obtained in this manner by some French physicists. It appeared from some of our photographs, that the X-rays were not diffused from the platinum plate according to the same law as obtains in the case of the diffuse reflection of ordinary light. We endeavoured to use the discharge method for measuring the intensity of the rays diffused in different directions. We found, however, that it was not possible to operate the tube at a perfectly constant intensity, and the rate of dis- charge itself did not appear to be always uniform even if there were no apparent change in the tube. It therefore occurred to us to try whether with a very sensitive galvanometer the leakage current itself might not be directly observed. For this purpose we constructed small condensers of very thin aluminium foil and paraffined paper. The foil was so thin {cox & CALLENDAR] EXPERIMENTS ON THE X-RAYS 181 that the X-rays were able to penetrate a thickness of a quarter of an inch of condenser with little absorption. We hoped in this manner to be able to obtain readings with greater rapidity and accuracy, and also to be able to use a balance method for comparing the intensities of the radiation in different directions simultaneously. The condensers thus made were inclosed in a screen of aluminium foil connected to earth, in order to protect the galvanometer from the direct effect of the electrification due to the discharge. Four condensers were made of difterent sizes and capacities. Some trouble was expe- rienced at first in making the leakage sufficiently small. When this difficulty was overcome, and a small condenser had been made of suitable capacity and sufficiently free from leakage, it was found that the effect to be observed, although measurable, was very transient. The X-rays apparently did not render the dielectric a conductor so long as they were passing through it, but produced only a temporary effect equivalent to an absorption current. We did not, however, determine whether the absorption were actually increased by the incidence of the rays, our main object being to test a method of measurement of the intensity of the rays, which the experiment proved to be impracticable, or at least to have no advantages over the electrometer method. Absorption of X-Rays by Liquids —We incidentally made a few experiments on the absorption of the X-rays by different liquids and solutions of different thicknesses. The liquids to be compared were inclosed in four vertical lead pipes with thin ebonite bottoms, which were filled with the liquids to the desired depths, and placed on a photo- graphic plate beneath the focus tube. It was not of course possible with a photographic plate to obtain accurate photometric measurements of the coefficients of absorption. The comparative results, however, would be correct, and might be expected to give valuable information with regard to the degree of penetration and the time of exposure required for taking anatomical cases. The object photographed in each case was a small hole in a Jead plate placed over the top of each tube. The shadow of this hole showed as a small and sharp circular spot on the plate. We found the opacity of water to be much greater than we had expected. Our expectation, however, was probably biassed by the great transparency of water to ordinary light. As a rough estimate, the coefficient of absorption of water for X-rays, appeared to be at least a hundred times greater than for light. It appeared to be much more opaque to the X-rays than paper, wood, leather, or other dry fibrous material of an organic nature. The absorption was considerably increased by the presence of acids or salts, in proportion to the strength of the solution. The opacity did not appear to depend upon the electrical conductivity, but rather on the atomic weight of the metallic constituent of the salt. For instance, a 182 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA weak solution of copper sulphate was much more opaque than a similar solution of sulphuric acid, although the conductivity of the copper sulphate was much less. In no case could we detect any evidence of any diffusion of the rays as by passage through a turbid medium. The kathode rays investigated by Lenard showed this effect of diffusion in a very marked manner in atmospheric air. Some observers have stated that they found the same effect with the X-rays. It is possible that an effect of this kind might be found in the case of a fluorescent liquid. The rays in their passage through the liquid, certainly appeared to undergo a kind of filtering process. In passing through the last milli- metre of the solution, a much smaller proportion of the surviving rays were absorbed than in the first millimetre. The weakening of the rays was, however, much more rapid than in simple proportion to the thick- ness. Doubling the thickness of the layer in all cases appeared to diminish the intensity by much more than half, but the ratio of reduction appeared to vary to some extent, according to the intensity of the source as well as the thickness of the layers considered. Velocity of the X-Rays. —We made some direct attempts to measure the velocity of the X-rays, thinking that if they really consisted of streams of electrified atoms, as some physicists imagine, the velocity might turn out to be of measurable magnitude. As it happens, we have only succeeded in establishing an inferior limit for the velocity, which is practically a negative result, like the result of so many other experi- ments on these rays, but it may be of value so far as it goes. Since the X-rays are not amenable to reflection or refraction, the problem is not capable of so complete a solution as in the case of light. The only property, in fact, which we were able to use for the purpose of the experiment, was that of absorption by a metallic screen. The method adopted was somewhat analogous to that used by Fizeau in the case of light, but with certain modifications necessitated by the different proper- ties of the rays. The rays were made to pass between the teeth of two rapidly revol- ving wheels fixed on a rigid axis at a distance of a metre apart. If the time occupied by the rays in traversing the distance between the wheels were an appreciable fraction of the time of one revolution of the wheels, certain aberration effects would evidently be introduced, the magnitude of which would depend upon the velocity of the rays. We were restricted to a distance of the order of a metre, both on account of the necessary lightness and rigidity of the connecting shaft, and because of the impossibility of obtaining a parallel beam of rays which could be transmitted over greater distances without too great a loss of intensity. The wheels were made nearly a metre in circumference, and we found it possible to drive them at a speed of 25 revolutions per second without [cox & CALLENDAR] EXPERIMENTS ON THE X-RAYS 183 appreciable vibration. Assuming that it would be possible to observe an aberration displacement of one-fifth of a millim. on the circumference, we might expect to obtain some effect provided that the velocity did not exceed 100 kilometres per second. Construction of the Apparatus —The wheels were made of brass one- sixteenth of an inch thick. The dises were flattened and turned true on a suitable hub, and were then soldered together at the edges so that the radial slots to be cut in the edges might exactly correspond. The slots were each a sixteenth of an inch wide, and half an inch deep, and num- bered one hundred. The metal left between the slots was nearly four times the width of a slot. This proportion of slot to space was necessary in order to secure a total eclipse, because the rays necessarily formed a conical pencil. When the slots had been cut, the discs were separated, and fixed on a brass tube axis, at a distance of a metre apart, with the corresponding slots in each on a line parallel to the axis of, rotation. This precaution was essential for the method which we proposed to adopt, because although the slots were cut on a very good milling machine, it is doubtful whether the accuracy of the division would have been suffi- cient to make each pair of slots give exactly similar effects unless they had been simultaneously cut. The brass tube carrying the discs, was fitted with steel pivots turning in suitable bearings in the end of a long wooden box, which was covered with tin plate and at the ends with thick sheet lead. The X-rays were admitted at one end of the box through a small tube fitted with a lead cap. After passing through a pair of corresponding slots in the two wheels, they were observed by means of a small fluoroscope, or by means of à small camera, each protected by a double thickness of aluminum foil, at the other end of the box. The adjustment and setting of the apparatus in each case could be very easily and exactly performed by the aid of common light. In this manner we tested the exact correspondence of the slots, which was found to be very satisfactory, and also the steadiness of the apparatus when driven at a high speed. With this apparatus it was possible to use three ditferent but closely related methods, for the attempt to measure the velocity. These methods may be called (1) the method of Aberration, (2) the method of Total Eclipse, and (3) the method of Partial Eclipse. The methods all gave the same result, but of the three the third method appeared to be the most satisfactory. (1) The Method of Aberration.—For the application of this method, the axis of observation was aligned by optical observation of the small red-hot focus point on the platinum plate, in such a manner that the focus point was just visible through a pair of corresponding slots when the latter were in the centre of the field of view. The distance from 184 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA the focus point to the nearer wheel was 50 cm., and the diam. of the focus point was about 16mm., being as nearly as could be judged the same as the width of one of the slots in the wheels. Under these con- ditions, it was plain that the appearance presented on the photographic plate, if the wheels were slowly rotated, should be that of an umbra 16 mm. in width, fringed on either side by a penumbra of the same extent. More exactly, if b is the width of a slot, and ¢ the diam. of the focus point, the width of the umbra should be 2b—c, and the total width of the band including penumbra 2b+c. This, in fact, proved to be the case. The effect of aberration should have been to shift the bands in the direction of rotation by a displacement equal to the distance turned through by the wheels during the time taken by the rays to traverse the interval between them. By means of a horizontal slot a little less than a quarter of an inch wide in a brass plate, it was possible to expose one half of the plate while the wheels were turning very slowly, and the other half at the highest speed. Exposures were made for one minute intervals alternately on the two halves in order to eliminate the effect of any possible change in the discharge, or in the relative positions of the focus tube and box. In general, each half was thus exposed for five minutes. No displacement could in any case be detected, using a circum- ferential velocity of 25 metres per second. (2) Method of Total Eclipse.—For the application of this method, a brass tube was fitted along the axis of observation between the two wheels. The ends of this tube were closed by discs having slots cut in them of the same width and size as those in the edges of the wheels. The slots in the ends of the tube were set very close to those on the wheels, and accurately parallel to them. The end of the tube nearest to the photographic plate, was provided with a screw adjustment, by which it could be shifted in a direction at right angles to the slots, while at the same time the parallelism of the slots was maintained as accurately as possible, If the position of the tube was adjusted so that any part of the slot. in the end of the tube nearest the X-ray focus, was open at the moment when a slot in the wheel coincided with the slot in the tube at the other end, the image obtained on the photographic plate was an exact outline of the whole width of the slot in the end of the brass tube nearest to the plate. By the aid of ordinary light it was very easy to make the adjust- ment so that one slot just began to open at the moment when the other closed, Uuder these conditions, the two slots were never open together, and the light was just totally eclipsed. A movement of a thousandth of an inch in the screw adjustment, was sufficient to restore a very appreci- able amount of light. It was therefore very necessary that the slots in the wheels should be cut to correspond as accurately as possible. For- tunately this had been foreseen, and the cutting of the slots was found to be sufficiently exact, when tested in this manner. [cox & CALLENDAR] EXPERIMENTS ON THE X-RAYS 185 The total eclipse having been adjusted in such a manner that the slot at the camera end was just on the point of opening at the moment when the other closed, five minute exposures were taken alternately as before at a low and high speed on the two halves of a plate for the space of more than an hour. Both halves of the plate developed perfectly clear. The setting was so fine that if the velocity of the rays had been less than 200 kilometres per second, some light must certainly have been restored by the rotation. (3) The Method of Partial Eclipse.—The method of total eclipse, if the setting were sufficiently fine, afforded perhaps the most delicate test of the velocity of the X-rays. At the same time, it was so far unsa- tisfactory that it gave only a perfectly clear plate showing no record whatever of the time and trouble spent in producing it. If the velocity had been measurably small, it could have been determined by this method, either by observing the width of the band of light restored at a given speed of rotation, or by observing the speed required to reproduce the total eclipse at the other side of the slot. To secure this latter result with our apparatus at a speed of 25 revolutions per second, the velocity of the X-rays must have been as low as 7 kilometres per second, or not more than about 20 times the velocity of sound. That we had succeeded. in reproducing the eclipse, was a possible, though not a likely, interpre- tation of our failure to secure any result by the total eclipse method. The intensity of the rays is of course excessively weakened by the dis- tance, and more particularly by the passage through so many fine slots. The failure to affect the plate might have been attributed to lack of intensity of the rays, or to want of proper alignment on the focus point. We therefore used the most powerful radiation which we could produce without melting the platinum plate, and we verified the setting of the axis on the focus point both before and after the exposure. ê In repeating the experiment on two subsequent occasions, we adopted the method of partial eclipse. The tube was set so that the near slot had already opened by about half a millimetre or one-third of its width at the moment when the far slot closed. The shadow of the slot obtained in this way on the plate, would be conclusive evidence with regard to the alignment and the sufficiency of the exposure. The velocity of the rays, if measurable small, could also be measured by the widening of the shadow. The method of partial eclipse was tried in this manner on two. occasions with exposures of upwards of half an hour. The photographic image obtained was a sharp narrow band half a millimetre wide, corres- ponding exactly with the setting of the slot. The two halves of the band, corresponding to the exposures at the high and low speed respec- tively, coincided so exactly that no break could be detected at the point where they met. The edge of the band was so well defined, and the Sec. III., 1896. 12. LI 186 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA band itself so narrow, that a widening of a quarter of a millimetre, corresponding to av X-ray velocity of 100 kilometres per second, could not fail of being readily detected. In fact, the lower limit of the velocity so far as may be judged from the evidence of these experiments, is in all probability not less than 200 kilometres per second. While these experiments cannot be regarded as proving that the X- ‘ays do not consist of electrified atoms, as some physicists supposed at the time when experiments were undertaken, they at least appear to render it more improbable than was at first supposed. Such a stream of atoms in air at atmospheric pressure, might be expected to suffer diffusion or absorption like the kathode or Lenard rays. The velocity found is so many times greater than ordinary molecular velocities, as to appear improbable even for an electrified atom. It is in the highest degree improbable that such atoms could penetrate solid bodies with the facility shown by the X-rays. The inference is either that the propagation of the X-rays is a process of exchange, if propagated by the aid of material particles, or much more probably that it is some kind of wave motion in the ether, of a frequency too great to suffer regular refraction or reflec- tion. It is interesting to compare the present result with the lower limit of 3144 kilometres per second given by Helmholtz in 1871 for the velo- city of propagation of electrical oscillations. The application of more refined methods to the X-rays, may succeed in showing that this velocity is the same as that of light. Physiological Effects of the X-Rays.—lt was natural to try whether the X-rays produced any effect upon the retina or the skin or parts of the body exposed to their action. Positive results have been claimed in many cases though not by any observers of much repute. As stated by Rüntgen, we could not detect that the retina was sensitive to the smallest extent to the most powerful X-radiation which we could produce. This shows that the pigment of the retina does not fluoresce appreciably under the influence of the X-rays, as it does under the influence of the ultra violet rays of the spectrum. The X-rays have also been credited with producing blisters and peeling of the skin, and falling out of the hair. We have not observed these effects in the most prolonged expo- sures. It is evident, however, that such effects might be produced by the electric sparks from the tube, if it were placed too close to the skin, as is sometimes done with the object of shortening the exposure. The direct light from the tube also contains a proportion of ultra-violet rays which are known to produce blistering if sufficiently intense. It was natural to imagine that the X-rays might possess germicidal properties similar to those of ultra-violet light. That this is not the case, however, has been shown by the agreement of the negative results of many competent observers. With the assistance of Dr. Wyatt Johnston, we submitted cultures of typical bacilli in jelly to the action of / [cox & CALLENDAR] EXPERIMENTS ON THE X-RAYS 187 the most intense X-radiation which we could produce for upwards of an hour at a distance of three inches from the tube. Parts of the cultures were shaded from the X-rays by slips of thick lead. The whole of the cultures were screened from the electrical discharge and from the ultra- violet rays by means of thin aluminium foil. It is not improbable that the neglect of this precaution, which is not generally mentioned, may account for some positive results which have been obtained. The cultures on which we experimented, developed in the normal manner without showing any trace of the action of the X-rays. 188 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. The accompanying illustrations refer to the case of the cavity in the lung mentioned on page 174. By way of contrast, a similar photograph of a healthy lung is given in Plate II. Both photographs are reduced about two-thirds from the original negatives. The cavity in Plate I is bounded above and below by the shadows of the ribs, and on the outer side by the shadow of the scapula. On the inner side its margin is less sharply defined. The cavity is shown by an extremely dense black patch in the original negative, and remains white after most of the other detail bas vanished in the printing. The differences of density in the negative are, in fact, so great, that it is practically impossible to reproduce them by any process of printing. In printing these negatives sufficiently to show the cavity, the fainter detail of the spinal column is wholly lost, and, yet, the cavity is far less clearly shown than in the original. In reducing the plates it was necessary, first, to print them on ordinary silver paper, then to obtain a reduced negative by the wet process, which was printed on the zine plate. Since it is possible to obtain X-ray nega- tives of almost any degree of density, it is very likely that it will be found possible to print direct from the original negative in many cases, - and thus to avoid the excessive loss of detail incidental to repeated copying. x ‘aac - ie Lei É tré of os 8 Ex DK pi 190 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA PLATE I,—CAVITY IN LUN EN 4 [COX & CALI or} A Pp = D (an = a 4 ey iy | A = at Bi Ay eee a _ Le. Fr a 4 nl bt NL... À nr Cote votes oe ROYAL: SOCIO ne Aun Aa TRANS AC LEON S SECTION OV: GHhOLOGICAL AND BLOLOGLC A Sel NC HS PAPERS FOR 1896 SEC, LV., 1896. RS Trans. R. $S. C. I—The Functional Development of the Cerebral Cortex in Different Groups of Animals. By WesLey Mitts, M.A., MD. F.RS.C., Professor of Physiology in McGill University, Montreal. (Read May 20, 1896.) In connection with my investigations on the psychic development o young animals,’ it seemed important, in regard to the question of physical correlation, to ascertain, in so far as that is possible by experimental methods, at what period the cortex of the brain becomes functionally -active. Nothing, to-my knowledge, has been done of late years on this subject. I determined, therefore, to give it as complete an investigation as possible ; accordingly I have lost no opportunity during the past two to three years to secure the newly-born young of several groups of animals, being those usually kept in confinement or inhabiting our dwellings. Real- izing that breadth of investigation was important, as well as thorough- ness, the experiments have not been confined to one or two groups of animals but cover several. This, together with the desire to report only what was thoroughly well determined, has extended these investigations over a long period and involved much labour. METHODS. Only those individual animals have been used the exact age of which was known, and, as a matter of fact, most of them were born and kept under my own observation, so that their exact age and, in many cases, their breeding, etc., were known. ANESTHETICS, Anesthetics were used in all cases, and invariably by inhalation, as by this method alone can nice gradations in the depth of the anesthesia be made in young animals. The young animals of all the species that have been the subjects of my experiments have taken anesthetics well— much better, in fact, as a rule, than the adults of the same groups. Throughout, ether has been used, as the most satisfactory, for sev- eral reasons. It is safer, though in the case of the young animal this applies with less force than for older ones But it is, to my mind, the most desirable, chiefly because the degree of anesthesia can be so quickly 1 Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, 1894 and 1895. 4 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA varied. This is a matter of great moment, seeing how sensitive the cor- tex is to injury from exposure to the air, loss of blood, etc. It is unfor- tunate that ether favours hemorrhage perhaps more than some other anesthetics, but I think the advantage just referred to outweighs all its disadvantages. Objections to other methods of producing narcosis will be considered later. Experience alone determines that degree of anesthesia in each ani- mal which is most favourable for the experiment. During a certain depth of anesthesia it is impossible to get any response by electrical excitation by any reasonable strength of current ; on the other hand, all my experience is against placing any reliance on results obtained from animals when not under the influence of an anwsthetic to some extent, the degree, as before mentioned, being determined by experience. If there be a reaction from one part of the cortex, one may assume, of course, as a general rule, that the rest of the cortex is in an equally favourable condition to respond, if it be natural for it to do so. OPERATIVE PROCEDURE. It matters little, it has been found, how the brain is laid bare, pro- vided it be not injured. I have generally opened the skull over a cer- tain area with a trephine, and then proceeded to remove a sufliciency of bone with a small bone forceps. In the case of very small and young animals a sharp knife and a dressing forceps were the only instruments found necessary. METHODS or EXAMINATION. In a few cases the area usually responsive to electrical excitation has been removed, the wound carefully closed with regard to antisepsis, and the young one returned to its mother. Reference will be made to this subject again. In by far the greater number of cases electrical excitation of the cortex was the sole method employed to determine the question of its functional activity. Of necessity, this can reveal only the presence or absence of motor centres in a functionally active condition. While such centres are known to be confined in the mature animal to certain definite regions of the cortex, in practice it was not found wise to limit explora- tions to such areas, and, as a matter of fact, almost, if not quite, the whole cortical surface of the cerebrum was made the subject of examination. APPARATUS USED. Only the rapidly interrupted current of a Du Bois-Reymond induc- torium was employed. Electrodes ending in small blunt points (knobs), {mitts} FUNCTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF CEREBRAL CORTEX 5 and with a distance between their extremities varying with the size of the brain to be stimulated—this distance never being greater than a few millimetres—were used to convey the stimulus to the brain. It was found desirable to use about four different strengths of current : (1) A current felt distinctly on the tongue, but easily tolerated ; (2) a current readily felt on the lips, but tolerable ; (3) a current not to be borne on the lips without inconvenience ; (4) a current too strong to be borne on the lips at all without positive pain. These will be desig- nated currents A, B, C, D, respectively. Occasionally a current stronger still was employed, such as could not be borne on the skin anywhere. This will be designated ~ strongest current,” as it was the strongest to be obtained by the use of one Daniell’s cell or its equivalent. Such a current is generally useless, however, in brain work, on account of the readiness with which it passes beyond the area of stimulation; nevertheless, as will appear later, it has sometimes served a good purpose. DIFFICULTIES. So delicate, ill-organized, unstable are the motor centres of the very young animal that it requires great care to get at the exact state of affairs and avoid fallacies. In my experience, hemorrhage is the greatest difficulty and source of fallacy. Sometimes a very moderate loss of blood seems to suffice to ruin the activity of a centre ; at other times the centre remains function- ally active in spite of hemorrhage, exposure to the air, ete. In some cases a few stimulations seem to exhaust, if not to déstroy, the centre, even when very moderate currents are used. Naturally, the younger the animal the greater the difficulties and the more carefully the source of fallacy must be guarded. The longer I continued my researches the more I became impressed with this, as well as with the wide margin of individual difference in animals, and this accounts in part for the large number of experiments I have been obliged to make to satisfy myself as to the correctness of my results. In not a few cases no positive conclusions could be drawn at all. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS. Tan Doc A number of puppies, some of them pure-bred St. Bernards (bitches), others cross-bred, were tested when very young, viz., from 36 hours up to the 8th day. The result, no matter what strength of current was used, was absolutely negative as regards both the cortex and the white matter beneath, except in one case, to which I now refer in detail. the opposite side in all cases. CASE day ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Unless otherwise stated, the movements will be understood to be on I.—Cross-bred puppy ; 6th day of tife.—Eyes not open. Ether. Right side of brain exposed. With any but the strongest current no movement. One movement of the hind-leg with strongest current. The same result for the other side of brain. There is also one movement when sharp-pointed electrodes are pushed into the brain to the depth of 3-6 mm. After this no positive result to be obtained. The result for stimulation of the white matter is inno wise more marked than in the case of the cortex. Though no one of these very young animals had reached the eighth of life, the results were absolutely negative for both cortex and ? 5 medulla (white matter) with any strength of current. CASE CASE CASE CASE CASE CASE The result of testing older dogs will now be given. Il.—Mongrel puppy ; 10 days old.—Eyes slightly opened. Ether. Only the strongest current applied to cortex gave any positive result, but with such a current the hind-leg and the head moved, the latter to the opposite side. This applies to both sides of the brain. The surface of the brain over the area stimulated with the above result, together with considerably more, is sliced away. On one side no result on stimulation with any strength of current, \ On Sinking the electrodes into the brain to the depth of one-half inch, the fore-leg, both hind-legs and the head move. IIll.—Mongrel bitch puppy; 11 days old.—Eyes partly open. Ether. With current C get movement of hind-leg alone when deeply under ether. Later, when slightly anesthetized, get movement of head, fore-leg and hind- leg, by stimulation of the areas which in the main correspond to those of the mature dog; but by using a somewhat stronger current over any one of these areas movements of all the three parts mentioned occur ; witha slightly weaker current both the fore-leg and the hind-leg are moved. It is impossible to decide that one leg is made to move more readily than the other. The advance in one day in a puppy of the same litter seems to be well illus- trated in this case. IV.—Cross-bred bitch puppy; 11th day.—Eyes open. Ether. Considerable hemorrhage. Stimulation on right side with current B produces only movement of hind- leg; on opposite side the same result, aiso movement of the fore-leg once. Medulla (white matter), negative. V.—Cross-bred bitch puppy ; 10th day.—Eyes not open. Ether. Negative to stimulation of cortex on both sides till current C used, when the hind-leg is moved ; result the same when the medulla is stimulated. No real localization with moderate currents. VI.—Cross-bred dog puppy of same litter ; 12th day.—Eyes half open. Ether. Can get no positive results with B and C, but with D get the following: Hind-leg, head and fore-leg (once) movements. There is in this case localiza- tion, though apparently the head movement is the most perfect. VIL—Cross-bred dog puppy of same litter; 15th day.—Eyes well open. Ether. With current B movement of the hind-leg; with C, of both fore-leg and hind-leg on stimulating adjacent areas ; head movements with only the strong- est current. [mis] FUNCTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF CEREBRAL CORTEX ee In this case there seemed to be rough localization, though a very strong current is required ; the hind-leg responds most readily ; in fact, the fore-leg is uncertain. Case VIII.—Cross-bred dog puppy of same litter ; 17th day.—Ether. With current B get decided movement of fore-leg and head, but can not get these repeated; hind-leg movement distinct. Remove cortex over one motor area (and more) thoroughly, then, on stimulation with the same current, get movement of fore-leg twice, but after these it is impossible to get move- ment with any strength of current. The wound is closed by sutures and with some regard to antisepsis. These the dam removes the same evening. There ‘is later some suppuration and granulations appear. The puppy couid suck, lap milk, and never at any time manifested signs of paralysis, etc. It seemed to move as usual. Four days later (7. e., when 21 days old), the skull is again opened, when, on stimulated over the motor area of the till now intact side, movements of the fore-limb and head are readily produced, but of the hind- limb somewhat indifferently. These movements may be more fully described thus: 1. With current B head is moved upward (or backwards), and, of course, to the opposite side. This results with this strength of current over an area extending in a curve around the outer extremity of the crucial sulcus. 2. Movements of the fore-leg, both extension and flexion of the paw, 7. e., sometimes one and sometimes the other, when an area a little more extensive than the original one is stimulated. 3. To get movement of the hind-leg in this case a stronger current is required, and the result follows whether the stimulus be applied to the crucial sulcus itself or behind it and as near the middle line as the centre for the fore-limb. CASE IX.—Mongrel puppy ; 10th day.—-Eyes not open. Ether. No reaction to any strength of current applied over the greater part of the ‘ cortex of both sides. On removal of the cortex over the motor area very freely movements of the hind-leg are produced by stimulation on three successive trials ; after this, no result of a positive kind. Case X.—Mongrel puppy of the same litter; 12th day.—Eyes open. With current B, movement of the hind-leg; no other movements with any strength of current and none when the cortex removed. The animal, however, was then considerably depressed. CASE XI.—Mongrel puppy of same litter as last ; 15h day.—Kyes open. ‘Ether. With current © get movements of the hind-leg, but no others till the cortex is removed ; then hind-leg movements were again produced, and movements of the toes of the fore-leg. On trying the opposite side (cortex), with the same rather strong current applied to adjacent areas, movements of both the fore-leg and the hind-leg follow. In this case the movements are equally good for both legs at first, but they persist longest for the hind-leg. CASE XII.—Mongrel puppy ; 14th day.—Eyes open. Ether. With current B, movement of the hind leg; the same result on stimulat- ing the opposite side of the brain; after a few stimulations, no movement. The cortex is removed ; movement of the hind-leg is then produced. Ata point more forward get movement of the head to the opposite side; and further to one side, movement of the fore-leg. CASE XIII.—Mongrel puppy ; 20th day.—Ether. Much hemorrhage when attempting to reach the right side of the cortex. This side refractory to stimulation. Then quickly exposed the left side; brain is very pale; can get movement of the hind-leg only. No result on sinking the electrodes into the white matter through the cortex. 8 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Cask XIV.—St. Bernard puppy ; 15th day.—Eyes open. Ether. Negative to any strength of current: this applies to both cortex and medulla; both sides of brain tested. Case XV.—St. Bernard puppy, same litter ; 28th day.—Ether. With current C get movements of head, of fore-leg and of hind-leg when different areas are stimulated. The order given serves to indicate the readi- ness and perfection of the different movements in this case. Case XVIL—Gordon Setter bitch-puppy ; 22nd day.—Ether. With current B, movement of the fore-legs; with a slightly stronger cur- rent, movement of the hind-leg ; where the strongest current used, both legs at times move together, and the head is also moved (to the opposite side). GENERAL REMARKS ON THE EXPERIMENTS ON Dos. In these and cases of other animals used, only those have been reported in which the conditions were favourable, unless it has been otherwise stated. Results, or the lack of positive results, are, as before mentioned, of no moment when hemorrhage is excessive, when the narcosis is very profound, or when all but absent, speaking generally. Occasionally I have noticed that movements may be obtained in spite of severe hæmor- rhage, prolonged exposure of the brain, frequent stimulation, etc., and while such results are highly instructive, they do not bear so directly on the questions—At what period is there first cortical localization of any kind? and In what order are the centres functionally developed ?— which were the main problems of this research. | The experiments reported are against any sort of cortical localization before about the tenth to the thirteenth day, though Case I. seems to be an exception, unless we assume that the result was owing to the condue- tion of the current to the white matter beneath. This subject will be considered later. Case II. seems to show an advance in the cortex. The result on sinking the electrodes deeply into the brain is one to which I should hesi- tate to attach much importance as indicating the superior functional activity of the medulla at this period, considering the strength of the current. Case IIT. is interesting in illustrating the advance made in a single day. It also seems to indicate that some of the results are due to dif- fusion of the current. The medulla giving a negative reaction in this case is to be explained, I think, wholly on the ground of unfavourable conditions, such as hemor- rhage, trial after the brain had been exposed for some time, etc. From such a case as V., taken by itself, it is impossible to come to any conclusion as to localization; for the movement resulting from stimulation seemed to be in no wise better when the medulla was in ques- tion than when the cortex was tested. Case IV. includes both an advance and fairly distinct localization ; {mitts} FUNCTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF CEREBRAL CORTEX 9 but the fact that so strong a current is necessary to get the result in this and other very young animals is suggestive. Case VI. falls under the same remarks as the last, but seems to be an instance in which the hind-leg centre is not clearly in advance of the head. This is so rare that it is likely not actually so, but owing in this case to some peculiar conditions of the moment. The very next case (VII.) appears to bear out this view. It also seems to indicate that the hind-leg centre is the first developed in this particular animal. Case VIII. is especially instructive. There is clearly a well-defined cortical localization in this animal on the seventeenth day, and, notwith- standing unfavourable circumstances, this localization is preserved. It is noteworthy that ablation of the area around the crucial sulcus produces no paralysis, and, so far as can be readily observed, no change whatever in the movements of the animal, though it must be remembered that a puppy's movements at this age are still but moderately well co- ordinated ; nevertheless paralysis would undoubtedly be shown by the leg bending under, etc., were it present even in moderate degree. Case IX. is apparently clearly in favour of the earlier functional development of the medulla. Case X. speaks for an earlier development of the centre for the hind limb. Case XI. is clearly one in which the centre for the hind-limb is best - developed. This case also points to an earlier development of the medulla. Case XII. is in favour of the earlier activity of the centre for the hind-limb. Case XIII. I consider important, not only because it illustrates per- fectly the disastrous effect of haemorrhage, but because it seems to show clearly that at an early period the centre for the hind-leg is the best organized. Case XIV. is an example of my experience with St. Bernard puppies. The motor cortical centres seem to develop later, which is in harmony with the generally slower somatic and psychic development of the larger breeds of dogs. ; Case XVI. is apparently one in which the centre for the hind-leg was not in advance of that for the fore-limb. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. The following conclusions seem to be warrantly based on the fore- going : There is no proper functional cortical development in dogs before the eyes open, ?. e., before about the tenth to the thirteenth day of life. An advance in development is sometimes to be observed in a single day. 10 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA In by far the greater number of cases examined the cortical centre for the hind-leg was functionally active at a somewhat earlier date than that for the fore-limb. The centres for movements of the head as a whole and of its various parts are developed later than those for the limbs. In the case of large breeds of dogs the cortical motor centres become functionally active at a later date than in small breeds or in mongrels. All the principal motor centres are functionally active within about the first thirty days of life ; most of them earlier. Removal of those parts of the cortex producing movements when electrically excited does not prevent those movements being cattsed by the animal itself, such movements being executed about as well as before the cortical ablation, even when that involves an area more extensive than that marked out by stimulation. The medulla is functionally active in most instances somewhat earlier than the cortex, but never at birth nor for several days afterwards. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS. TL TAF CAT Case I.—Kitten of 4 to § hours.—Ether. All conditions favourable. Results negative as regards both cortex and medulla to any strength of current. CASE II.—Kitten ; 6th day.—Eyes closed. Ether. With current C, movement of fore-leg ; this is very distinct and is repeated half a dozen times. The same result on the opposite side, though there is considerable loss of blood on that side. Removal of cortex over the motor aren on the side first opened and stimulation in the same manner results in movements of both fore-leg and hind-leg. CASE Il].—Kitten ; 5th day.—Eyes closed. Ether. With current B, on stimulating two areas adjacent to each other, move- ments in the one case of the fore-leg, in the other of the hind-leg. When th : electrodes are placed between these areas there is a tendency to movement in both legs. The same applies to the opposite side. On cutting away the cortex, get movements of both legs with best localization for hind-leg. CASE 1V.—Kitten ; 7th day.—Eyes unopened. Ether. With current B, get movements of fore-leg by stimulation of each side of the brain; soon leads to exhaustion; not very well localized, but is best marked when a certain limited area, adjoining the crucial sulcus, and not far from the middle line, is stimulated. In this case both areas for some distance around the crucial sulcus removed deeply and the wound closed. Case V.—- Kitten; 7th day.—Eyes unopened. Ether. With strongest current get movement of the fore-leg, but no other. Case VI.—-Kitten; 7th to 8th day.—Eyes beginning to open. Ether. With current B get movement of fore-leg and both hind-legs. Case VII.— Kitten ; 8th day.—Eyes open. Ether. On stimulating different brain areas with current B get the movement of both the fore-leg and the hind-leg, but the former responds distinctly better, and [mis] FUNCTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF CEREBRAL CORTEX 11 in this case all the conditions are favourable for a clear judgment. The cortex is removed over a large area around the crucial sulcus. On using the same current the movements are produced more readily than when the cortex is stimulated. When the current is increased in strength there is a tendency to movement of both fore-legs. Can get only three distinct movements of the fore-legs before exhaustion sets in ; the same applies to the hind-leg. Case VIII.—Kitten ; Sth to 9th day.—Eyes unopened. Ether. With current C get on stimulation of definite regions around the crucial sulcus movements of the fore-leg and the hind-leg. In this case there seems to be distinct localization. On cutting away the cortex in this region get similar results. These results are very transient, exhaustion soon setting in. Case [X.—Kitten; 9th day.—EKyes unopened. Ether. No certain positive results with any current. The same applies to the medulla, though I get the impression that movements are incipient, so to speak. CASE X.—Kitten ; 9th day.—Eyes opening. Ether. With current C get movement of both fore-legs. Later, with current B, one only moves, but most distinctly. After removal of the cortex around the crucial sulcus for some considerable distance, stimulation results in the same movement. In this case the wound is closed ; some antiseptic precautions. Movements on recovery from anesthesia much, if not quite, as before; no clear evidence of any unilateral weakness. Case XI.—Kitten ; 10th to 11th day,—Eyes open. Ether. With currents B, C and D movement of the fore-leg, and somewhat better with the stronger currents. On removal of the cortex, the movements of the fore-leg are very marked, of the hind-limb less so. Case XII.—Kitten; 11th day.—Eyes open. Ether. With current B movement of the fore-leg; with current C get movement of the hind-leg and both fore-legs, but the movement on the opposite side is much more pronounced. A distinct advance in the character of the fore-leg movement as compared with any yet noticed ; the response is more prompt and the movement more elaborate and perfect in every way. Case XIII.— Kitten ; 1th or 14th day.—Eyes open. Ether. With current B, movement of the fore-leg and later of the hind-leg on stimulation of different areas ; with current C, botli fore- and hind-legs move together: but there is localization, and the area for the fore-leg seems to be more readily roused to action and the most resisting. Case XIV.—Kitten ; 14th or 15th day.—Eyes open. Ether. Get movement of fore-leg with much weaker current than hitherto gave positive results, viz., with current A. To get movement of the hind-leg a stronger current must be used. On using a very strong current (D), get move- ment of both fore-legs. REMARKS ON THE EXPERIMENTS ON Carts. The first case is given as an example of what I have invariably found—that in very young cats both cortex and medulla are absolutely inexcitable, no matter what the strength of the current employed. In Case If. though the cat is only six days old and the eyes un- opened. with a strong current movements of the fore-leg are produced, and these are repeated a good many times—in fact, a great number, 12 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA considering how young the animal is ; and such a case contrasts strongly with the rapid exhaustion in the young dog. It is noteworthy that movements of the hind-leg can be induced only after removal of the cortex. Case IIT. seems to be better pronounced still as an example of very arly cortical development—in fact, of localization. In this case also the medulla seems to be in advance of the cortex. Case IV. points to the presence of an indistinctly defined motor area for the fore-limb. Case V.is in favour of primary development of the centre for the fore-limb. Case VI. is one of a class not very readily explained, and will be discussed later. Case VIT. is especially valuable, as it points clearly not only to local- ization but to the better development of the centre for the fore-limb at this age. This case also seems to be distinctly in favour of an earlier functional development of the white matter of the brain. Case VIII. is an example of fairly definite localization of motor areas for both limbs. Case IX. and Case IIT. illustrate the great difference in individuals. Case ILI. is one of very early and Case IX. of a somewhat delayed cortical development. In Case X. we get an illustration of the great difference in results according to the strength of current used. Removal of the motor area, as in the case of the puppies, did not give rise to paralysis. Case XI, illustrates the earlier development of the centre for the fore-limbs and also of the medulla. Case XII. shows that in a very short time there may be a distinct advance in the development of a centre. Case XIII. points to distinct localization and to the more advanced development of the centre for the fore-limb. Case XIV. is an example of the same features as Case XIII. ConcLusions.—THE Dog AND THE CAT COMPARED. At birth and for several days after the cortex does not respond to electrical stimulation ; but in the cat the cortex usually responds at an earlier date than in the dog, and is functionally active in some cases before the eyes open. The centre for the fore-limb is responsive earlier than that for the hind-limb. 4 Head movements, as in the case of the dog, can be induced only at a later date than movements of the limbs. [mitts] FUNCTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF CEREBRAL CORTEX 15 The white matter lying beneath the cortex is usually responsive earlic than the cortex, and this has been more clearly marked in the case of the cat. The functional activity of the brain of the very young cat persists longer under the ordinary conditions of experiment than in the doe. The same remarks as to distinct advance in a very short period, and neg- ative results of ablation of the cortex, hold for the cat equally with the dog. Upon the whole the motor centres in the cat are developed somewhat earlier than in the dog. EXPERIMENTAU;: RESULTS: III—Tax RAgzrr. Case I.—Belgian Hare rabbit; 7th or Sth day.—Eyes unopened. Ether. The most that can be said is that with a very strong current (D), there is the suspicion of incipient movement of the fore-leg. Case Il.—Belgian Hare rabbit of same litter ; 10th day.—Ether. With a very strong current no distinct localized movement. The medulla seems to be somewhat more responsive than the cortex, but no very definite statements can be made. CASE III.—Belgian Hare rabbit of same litter ; 13th day.—Eyes open. Ether. With current B, get movement of fore-leg and mouth parts; on increasing the strength of current, grinding of the teeth is produced. On the opposite side, get fore-leg and head movement (to opposite side). These movements are all distinct and follow on stimulation of ditferent parts of the cortex—a clear case of localization. Similar results follow on stimulating the medulla. In neither case are there movements of the hind-leg. Case IV.—Rabbit ; Wth day.—Ether. No movement with any strength of current. Cortex removed over a large area. With current B, get movement of the fore leg and head to opposite side, but with no very clear localization. Case V.—Rabbit ; 12th day.—Eyes open. Ether. Both sides of the brain exposed with but little loss of blood. Strong cur rent (C), used on both sides of the brain with negative results so far as the limbs are concerned, but with slight turning of the head to the opposite side on stimulating each side of the brain. On removal of the cortex and stimulating with the same strength of cur- rent, the same result follows, and, in addition, chewing movements. CASE VI.—Rabbit ; 15th day.—Ether. With current B, only movement that of head to opposite side : with some- what stronger current, get, in addition, chewing movements and movement of the fore-leg. The cortex is now excised. The movements are more marked, especially as regards the fore-limb. No movement of the hind-limbs under any circumstances. BEX PERIMENTAL RESULTS. IV.—Tue Cavy (GuIngA-pra). As is well known, the cavy is born in an advnnced condition of de- velopment. In a few hours it can run about, eat, etc. Its eyes are open at birth, and it sees and hears well; if not then, at least in a few hours. 14 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA in getting movements of both the fore-limb and the hind-limb with a cur- rent of very moderate intensity. In a cavy eight days old, movements of the limbs, head (to opposite side) and eyes almost, if not quite, as perfect as in older specimens. In a cavy, twenty-six to thirty hours after birth, I had no difficulty V.—Tue Rat AND THE Mouse. I have been able to make but few experiments on young rats and mice, but, so far as they go, they point clearly to the same conditions as in the rabbit, 7. e., while their eyes are unopened the cortex is inexcitable, but very soon after the reverse. Rats, mice and rabbits are born naked (comparatively hairless), and with closed eyes, but both develop rapidly, physically and psychically when the eyes do open. REMARKS ON THE EXPERIMENTS MADE ON RABBITS. Cases I. and I. show that it is some time before there is any distinct reaction to stimulation of either the cortex or the medulla. Case III. seems to be a clear instance of cortical localization, and that head (neck) and face movements should be induced thus early is noteworthy. Case LY. points to earlier development in the medulla. Case VY. illustrates the late development of the cortex and indicates that in this case also the white matter is somewhat in advance. Case VI. seems to indicate an earlier development of the centre for movement of the head and advance in the medulla over the cortex. Neither in these nor in older rabbits have I been able to get move: ments of the hind-leg on stimulation of the cortex under the same circum- stances as those under which the centres for other movements reacted. ?2EMARKS ON THE EXPERIMENTS MADE ON OTHER RODENTS. The Cavy.—There is little additional to be said. It is plain, from the sample experiments reported, that the motor centres in this animal, at all events the principal ones, are practically functionally active at birth, though there is a progressive development of a kind reaching a high degree of perfection when the animal is but a few days old. ~ Rats and Mice.—They seem, so far as the brain is concerned, to develop in the same way as the rabbit, all three groups contrasting strongly with the cavy. ConcLustons REGARDING RopENTS.— COMPARISONS. In rabbits, rats and mice the cerebral cortex is not functionally active at birth, nor long, if at all, before the eyes open. The early development of the cortical centres presiding over the movements of the head, as a whole, and of its different muscles, is a [mitts] FUNCTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF CEREBRAL CORTEX 15 feature contrasting in the rabbit very strongly with the condition in the dog and the cat. These movements in the rabbit occur at a date almost, if not quite, as early as those of the fore-limbs. Equally noteworthy is the fact that in very young rabbits in which the movements referred to above occur, movements for the hind-limbs cannot be induced under similar circumstances. The cavy contrasts strongly with the rodents mentioned above, as well as with the dog and the cat, by the fact that there is good cortical localization at or within a few hours after birth. EXAMINATION OF THE WORK OF OTHERS, ETC. When my own investigation was well advanced, and I had obtained results unbiassed by the conclusion of others, I undertook a careful exam- ination of the important research of Soltmann, which is about the oldest and best on this subject. This investigator experimented on dogs and rabbits. He tried chloroform and ether as anesthetics, but abandoned them for subcutane- ous injections of morphia. As he points out, the first two, as compared with the latter, are open to the objection of favouring hemorrhage. - Morphia, however, seems to me to be very unsatisfactory, as it is difficult to produce by it the exact degree of narcosis required, and in all experi- ments of this kind it is important to be able to vary the depth of the narcosis. With a certain degree of narcosis it is impossible, as has been the experience of many workers on the brain, to get a reaction with any strength of current. There is a definite degree of anæsthesia which is essential to enable one to draw correct conclusions. I place no reliance on results obtained without anesthesia, and experience enables one to determine when reactions are reliable. 1 have in all cases used ether, because by it the depth of the narcosis can be rapidly and nicely varied — a most important matter, as before stated, when one has to deal with the brain of a very young animal, so readily is it exhausted or in some way injured. As previously indicated, many experiments have been re- jected as unreliable from hemorrhage, etc. Nevertheless my results in a large degree are in accord with those of Soltmann, as I shall now pro- ceed to show. He found that in dogs the cortex was not excitable in the ‘‘newly-born,” but that the fibres of the internal capsule were; that the fore-limb was the first to respond to electrical excitation of the cortex, then the hind-limb, and later the face. If it be true that morphia heightens the excitability of the white fibres, as some affirm,’ this may explain the greater readiness of Soltmann to claim a much earlier activity 1 Jahr. f. Kinderheilkunde u. Phys., Erziehung, 1876. 2 Bubnoff and Heidenhain, Pflüger's Archiv. f. Physiologie, 1881. 16 ROYAL SOCIETY O¥ CANADA for them. My experiments show that in dogs, cats and rabbits the cor- tex is inexcitable at birth and for some days afterwards ; that the same applies to the white matter, so that if by ‘“‘newly-born” Soltmann means animals just born or only a few days (two to four) old, I cannot agree with him; but he is correct in stating that the white matter is, asa rule, earlier functionally active than the cortex. To these remarks, as I have shown, the cavy is an exception, as its cortex responds to stimulation at or a few hours after birth. While in the rabbit and the cat my experiments show already that the centre for the fore-limb is responsive before that for the hind-limb, this does not apply to my experiments on dogs. It can scarcely be an experimental coincidence that in by far the greater number of my cases the hind-limb in dogs was the first to react. It may, however, be that this divergence from Soltmann’s results is to be explained by individual ditferences. {am very glad to find Soltmann recognizing differences for ‘ indi- viduals and races” as regards the exact site of early localization. Iam certain that this individually applies not only to this point, but also to the date at which the centres first became functionally active, etc., and I strongly suspect that in dogs there is no fixed rule as to which limb tirst responds to electrical excitation of the cortex. It must be borne in mind that the fore-limb is much more and much earlier used well by the rabbit and the cat than by the dog. My results are also in entire agreement with those of Soltmann, in that they show that the centres for the face and neck are of later development than those for the limbs, though in the case of the rabbit there is very little, if any, difference as regards the face and the fore- limb. Soltmann’s work on ablation of the cortex, carried out under great (difficulties, as I well know from experience (for. as he points out, the mother interferes in a most troublesome way with the wound), are quite in accord with my results as far as they go, 7. e., ablation of the cortex does not lead to paralysis or any decided alterations in the movements of very young animals. Soltmann is also correct in stating that localization is at first some- what indefinite, but gradually gets better defined. [ have also found, as he states, that stimulation of an area lying between, say that for the fore-leg and that for the hind-limb, gives rise to movements of both legs. This is not, however, a very frequent result with weak currents and is still rarer in animals in which the localization is well defined, In some cases in my experience, as noted in using a strong current, both limbs move together and perhaps also the head. No doubt, differ- ence of current may explain some of these gases. Occasionally both {[mitits] FUNCTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF CEREBRAL CORTEX 174 fore-limbs move on stimulating one side of the brain. It is more difficult to explain this by diffusion from the use of any moderate current. The advance in the readiness with which a centre can be stimulated noticed in my record of cases seems to me to indicate in the clearest way that there is a process of development in the brain cortex. When the centre is less developed it requires a stronger stimulus, in some instances a very strong one, and it is not satisfactory to assume that when on stimulating the cortex no result follows till a strong current has been used that the result is owing to diffusion of current unless it can be shown that in the same subject the white matter reacts easier, and as this has not been my experience in many instances on very young animals, I have been strongly impressed with this gradual development of centres, rapid as it is. The difficulties in the cases just referred to will not be entirely removed until the histological development of the brain is better worked out. As Dr. Ferrier’s work" is so well known, I quote in part the para- graph which bears on this subject of the early condition of the cortex : “It is not until after the opening of the eyes—usually about the eighth day in dogs—that the limbs can be excited to action by electrical stimulation of the sigmoid gyrus. Generally the cortical centres do not react till about the tenth day, the centres for the fore-limb becoming excitable hefore those of the posterior limb. Similar conditions obtain in rabbits and guinea-pigs.” Opening of the eyes on the eighth day in dogs must be of the rarest. It seldom occurs before the tenth to the thirteenth day. It is, however, quite correct that in dogs the cortex is rarely, if ever, excitable before the eyes do open. I, as already stated, have not found that in dogs the centre for the fore-limb is the first to develop, so that this statement must be modified. The guinea-pig (cavy) must also be excluded from Ferrier’s generalization. I think my researches are the only ones carried out in connection with an extensive study of the psychic’ development of the same creatures, and that more groups of animals have been compared than by any previous investigator. I give below the conclusions that I believe may be relied on as: regards the functional development of the brain in the dog, the cat, the rabbit and the cavy. As to rats and mice I must express myself with more hesitation. Though I have made a series of experiments on the domestic fowl and the pigeon, chiefly the latter, I have never been able to get move- ments of any part (the eyes excepted) on stimulating the cortex in mature animals, consequently did not try young ones. I believe the 1 The Functions of the Brain, second edition. London, 1886. 2 See these Transactions for 1894 and 1895. Sec. IV., 1896. 2. 18 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA statements of Ferrier’ to the effect that the cortex of the pigeon is excitable to be erroneous. The brain of the bird will be further referred to in another paper. ? GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. In the dog, cat, rabbit (and in so far as the writer’s experiments go in the rat and the mouse) neither the brain cortex nor the underlying white matter is excitable by electrical stimulation at birth or for some days afterwards, The cortex is usually not excitable till about the period when the eyes open, though there are exceptions to this rule, most frequent in the writer's experience in the cat, in favour of an earlier date. The white matter of the brain just beneath the cortex is generally excitable either at an earlier date than the cortex, or with a weaker stim- ulus. The reaction for the limb movements is obtainable invariably some- what earlier in the dog and the cat, and generally so in the rabbit, than those for the neck, face, etc. Localization for the cortex and still more for the white matter is at first ill-defined, but gradually, though rapidly, becomes more definite. In the cavy (guinea-pig) the cortex and the white matter beneath are electrically excitable «either at birth or a few hours afterwards, and perfection of reaction and localization is reached in a few days. Before the brain cortex responds to electrical excitation, ablation of the motor area (centres) leads to no appreciable interference with move- ments. The younger the animal the stronger the current required to produce reaction up to the time that localization is well established, 7.e., the weak- ness of the current required to cause a movement is an indication of the degree of development of the centre in question. Differences for breeds and individuals exist and constitute to some extent exceptions to the above general statements. In the above ‘“ cortex ” refers to the gray matter in or near the motor area and “ white matter” to the brain substance immediately beneath. ! The Functions of the Brain, second edition, London, 1886, p. 262. 2 These Transactions, 1896. Sec. IV., 1896. [19] Trans. R.S. C. Il—The Psychic Development of Young Animals and its Physical (Somatic) Correlation with Special Reference to the Brain. By WesteEy Mitts, M.A., MD. F.R.S.C. Professor of Physiology in McGill University, Montreal. (Read May 20, 1896.) It seemed to me important that psychic and somatic development should be traced contemporaneously, so closely are they related, and in the six papers printed in these Transactions for 1894 and 1895, an attempt was made to realize, to some extent, this ideal, but as my researches on the brain were not completed till after the publication of these investiga- tions I thought it better not to attempt to utilize them at the time. The investigation bearing on the functional development of the cerebral cortex. with special regard to the motor centres, extends to all the groups of animals falling under my studies in psychic development, and is pre- sented in the present volume of the Transactions, so that it is now possible to deal with the most important part of the somatic correlation. viz., with the brain. Naturally I shall draw chiefly from the latter paper and from those on psychic development for the facts, ete., on which reliance will be placed in attempting further progress in regard to a more complete correlation of the somatic with the psychic. No attempt will be made in this paper to discuss somatic correlation in general as that subject has been treated in the papers previously pub- lished in these Transactions. It would be quite correct to speak of the relations as anatomical and physiological correlation, but as movements are so bound up with the psychic developments of animals I think it will be more instructive to consider the subject from this point of view, and in doing so the psychic will be first taken into account. I.—TxHE Doc. As soon as a puppy is born, it is capable of cries, crawling and suck- ing, and if we except those concerned with the vital or vegetative func- tions, these about cover all its possible movements. Up to the period when the eyes open, there are no new movements. Every one of these can be produced experimentally as reflexes, and the question is, are they naturally of this character. They improve from day to day, but that is a feature of all reflexes, even the best organized (as swallowing) though it has hardly been adequately recognized. 20 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA As pointed out in my paper on the functional development of the cerebral cortex, the latter is absolutely inexcitable at birth and for a good many days after, indeed not till about the period of the opening of the eyes, and as I find the white matter also inexcitable at birth there seems to be no other view possible of these movements than that they are reflex and that when the brain is called into action parts lower than the cortex or even the underlying medulla in the youngest puppies must function. Nevertheless the animal at this period is progressing, for tbe improve- ment of these reflexes implies the more perfect organization of a neuro- muscular mechanism which is probably availed of later in all voluntary movements. In adult life our own movements are often carried out with a perfec- tion in proportion to the degree in which they are reflex or according to the facility with which higher centres use lower ones and thus economise psychic energy. But even so early as the twelfth to the fifteenth day new move- ments are possible. The eyes have opened, the ears also, and both eyes and ears move, rather reflexly at first beyond doubt, but very soon the puppy moves both eyes and ears voluntarily at times, and still later he fixes the eyes, which is clearly a voluntary act. It is obvious that there is now an approach to walking (instead of crawling). There are tail movements by the seventeenth day, and the scratching reflex is excitable. The tail movements are at this period almost certainly reflex. Voluntary movements of the tail do not seem to be possible till a good deal later, which corresponds with the well- established fact that the cortical centre for tail movements is not developed till comparatively late. The barking of the nineteenth day was probably a reflex, much simpler than such as results later. At this stage puppies often bark in their sleep, not a common occurrence with mature dogs, though it does take place in dreaming. By the twenty-third day the puppies stand with the paws on the edges of the boards constituting the walls of their pen. This act may be reflex at times possibly, but on other occasions it ‘is clearly voluntary, and, as they try to get out, we are left in no doubt: that they are capable of willed movements, so that by this time, and probably before, there are undoubted voluntary movements. Correspond- ing with this advance, I have found before the twentieth day very distinct cortical localization for the limbs, head and face. Later than this improvement in reflexes is noticeab.e, but still more the rapid development of older and the introduction of new voluntary movements, involving more and more complex co-ordinations, and from the psychic aspect the manifest possession of the power to use the machinery of the nervous system and muscles in a way that implies the existence of a growing intelligence and will ; and the careful observation ~ {mixs] THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT, OF YOUNG ANIMALS 21 of a litter of puppies, as shown in my paper on the dog (these Trans- actions, 1894), will impress both the physiologist and the psychologist with the rapidly increasing complexity of the life of a young dog, a com- plexity in which reflex and voluntary movements, instincts, intelligence, emotions and will blend in varying but ever augmenting degrees of intricacy, with all of which the rapidly developing cortex is correlated, and, as I have endeavoured to show in earlier papers, there is a large amount of somatic correlation over and above that of the brain, which is constant as to period of development, but with variations for indivi- duals and breeds. The rapidity of psychic development of a terrier as compared with a St. Bernard is very striking, even within the first six weeks of life, but persists to maturity ; and this, I have found, is correlated with a decidedly slower functional development of the cerebral cortex in the St. Bernard ; the difference in the motor co-ordinations in the latter and the terrier is so striking within the first six or eight weeks of life as to be ludicrous. II.—Tuer Cat. Tat Doc AND THE CAT COMPARED. Nearly all that has been said of the reflexes of the dog applies, of course, to the cat. There are, however, as would be expected, some that are peculiar to the cat, as hissing, which manifests itself at a surprisingly early date in the kitten, long before the eyes open. As pointed out in my paper on the cat, there is a general and more speedy development in this animal as compared with the dog, and this holds even for reflexes, /. e., they reach perfection more rapidly ; in fact, speaking generally, the cat develops faster than even the smaller varieties of dogs as terriers. 3y the sixteenth day the kitten specially observed by me licked its paw. This, under the circumstances, can scarcely be regarded as a pure reflex ; certainly dogs do nothing comparable to this at so early a date. It also scratched its head with the hind leg on the sixteenth day. Whether this be regarded as voluntary or reflex, it indicates that the cat is in advance of the dog. Nothing could better demonstrate the more rapid pyschic develop- ment of the cat than the earlier date at which it steadily follows a moving object with the eyes or fixes them for some time on a stationary one. In fact, the kitten does this at a time when it is still doubtful if the puppy sees objects as such distinctly. k On the eighteenth day the kitten climbed up the side of its box and tried to get out. Nothing comparable to this occurs in the puppy till a good deal later. It may be said that the history of the cat during the first six weeks of its life contrasts strongly with that of the dog as regards the more rapid development of reflex movemeuts, the earlier appearance 22 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA of voluntary movements and the speedier perfection attained by each, together with the more ready and complete utilization of experience, the early intelligence, the strength of the will and the power of attention. All this is correlated with that earlier development of the cerebral cortex which I have shown occurs in the cat, and there is probably a greater difference than can be made manifest by our crude methods of experiment. A very marked feature in the psychic development of the cat is the early appearance of the play instinct’ and the perfection of the fore-limb in carrying out the movements necessary for its manifesta- tions. The cat has incomparably better use of the fore-limb at an early date. I have recorded observations on play (with use of the paws), as early as the twenty-second day, and, as is well known, the kitten and the older cat have a variety and perfection of movement of the fore-limbs never acquired by the dog. This is distinctly correlated with brain development, for, as I have pointed out, movements of the fore-limb are in the cat the first that can be induced by electrical excitation of ‘the cortex, and to this observation my experience leads me to believe there are practically no exceptions, while the case is very different for the dog. Some investigators have expressed the opinion that the fore-limb is also the first to respond in the dog, but this does not accord entirely with my experience. It has occasionally been so in the puppies on which I experimented, but in the large majority the hind-leg responded first. Mongrelsand pure-bred animals of different varieties were used. I do not, therefore, believe that the statement that the fore-leg in the dog is always the first to respond to electrical excitation can any longer be maintained as a sound generalization ; but it may be as I have suggested in my paper on the brain that the truth is that sometimes the one and sometimes the other limb is the first to react, and that large allowance must be made in any general statement for individual and breed differences, T1J,—Tue Rasstr. Such a creature as the rabbit contrasts in the most marked manner with the dog and the cat. A rabbit to the last is much more a creature of instincts and reflexes pure and simple with relatively but little intelligence, all of which is in harmony with its simple modes of existence. Its food is in the wild state usually abundant, and as its escape from enemies is accomplished by swiftness in flight or by taking refuge in its burrow, there is little in its environment to develop intelligence. With the carnivora it is quite otherwise. They obtain their food by cunning, stealth, stratagem—it may be concerted action, as in the case of wolves, hyenas, wild dogs, ete. 1 The whole subject of play in animals is exhaustively treated by Dr. Karl Groos in his ‘“‘ Die Spiele der Thiere.” Gustav Fischer, Jena, 1896. [ms] THE PSYCHIC DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ANIMALS 23 The ease with which reflex actions are excited on the very first day of existence in the rabbit is striking and remains a very distinct peculi- arity ; and on the same day the paws were used to wipe away an offend- ing substance placed in the mouth. On the third day scratching of a surface was observed, an act which has no small part in the burrowing life of rabbits. By the fifteenth day they eat,and from this date onwards they progress rapidly to perfection of reflex and voluntary action. The early and rapid development of chewing or eating movements soon associ ated with the use of the paws to hold food contrasts in the most decided way with the slowness of the development of good eating movements in the dog and still more so in the cat. The rabbit’s cortex is inexcitable till about the period of the opening of the eyes on the ninth to the twelfth day, and the movements in which the head and face parts are concerned can be induced by electrical stimulation about this time, It is to be specially noted that these movements can be produced in the rabbit experimentally almost as soon as those of the fore-limb, in fact, I question whether in some cases at least they are not excitable earlier and with greater facility, 7. e., with a weaker current. With the hind-legs the case is altogether different ; in fact, my investigations would lead me to infer that the hind-legs are never related to the cortex in the same way as the fore-limbs. In no case have I been able to establish to my satisfaction the existence of a cortical centre for the hind-legs of the same nature (to put the matter cautiously) as those for the fore-limbs, head, face, etc. The relation between the early and all but simultaneous development of the cortical centre for the fore-limbs and head (and face) parts and the physiological and psychic manifestations of the young rabbit afford one of the most beautiful and striking illustrations of correlation known to me. IV.—Tue Cavy or Guinea-Pia. The cavy comes into the world able to take care of itself. It can in a few hours, if not at once, run about quite well, eat, etc. It is at the outset as far on in the path of development as a rabbit some days after its eyes open, though in the end there is little difference between these two rodents physically or otherwise. Corresponding with this advanced physiological and psychic develop- ment, the cortex is, as I have shown, excitable at or soon after birth, so that here again there is rendered evident by experiment a close correla- tion of the kind considered throughout this paper. V.—Brrps. One learns how large a proportion of the possibilities, physiological if not psychic, in the pigeon are not dependent on the cerebral cortex, or even the entire cerebrum, by ablation of the latter. Movements, though 24 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA not spontaneous, are nearly as perfect afterwards as before, and much light is thrown on the nature of reflexes. I have, after careful investigation, been unable to find any motor cortical centres whatever. The whole cerebral cortex appears to be absolutely inexcitable, except, perhaps, as concerns certain eye move- ments, and as for these a strong stimulus is required, it is doubtful if they are of cortical origin in the usual sense of the term. Nevertheless, unless we deny the existence of voluntary movements to the bird—an extreme position—we are landed in physiological diffi- culties, inasmuch as it has been assumed by nearly all physiologists that the cortex is essential to voluntary movements. The case of the bird seems to me to show that we have much to learn as to the nervous mechanism of voluntary movements, notwithstanding all the investiga- tion that has been given to this subject. CONCLUSIONS. In the dog and the cat there is a period extending from birth to about the time of the opening of the eyes characterized by reflex move- ments, the sway of instincts and the absence of intelligence. During this time the cerebral cortex is inexcitable by electrical stimulation, so that the psychic condition during the blind period is correlated with an undeveloped state of the motor centres of the cortex of the cerebrum. The advance in movements, first of the limbs and later of the head and face parts, together with the psychic progress associated with this is correlated with the rapid development of the cortical centres for the limbs in the first instance, and later for the head and face in the period immediately following the blind stage. This is more rapid and more pronounced in the cat than in the dog, and is correlated with the greater control in the cat over the fore-limbs and with certain physiological and psychic developments characteristic of the cat. Similar conclusions apply to the rabbit, except that the difference in the rapidity of development of head and face movements is correlated with an carlier organization of the corresponding cortical centres, and that there is a greater difference between the fore-limb and the hind- limb, with all of which there are special psychic correlations bound up with certain peculiarities of the rabbit’s modes of life. The vast difference in physiological and psychic development of the cavy at birth is correlated with the presence of cortical cerebral centres readily excited by artificial stimuli, centres which in a few days reach a practically perfect state of development. The psychic manifestations of the pigeon and the fowl have not the same sort of cerebral cortical correlates as the animals referred to above. Sec. LY., 1896. [25 ] Trans. R. S. C. Il.—Cortical Cerebral Localization, with Special Reference to Rodents and Birds. By WesLey Mitts, M.A., M.D., F.R.S.C., Professor of Physiology in McGill University, Montreal. (Read May 20, 1896.) During the course of an investigation ! on the ‘‘ Functional Develop- ment of the Cerebral Cortex” in the Cat, the Dog, the Rabbit, the Cavy (Guinea-pig), etc., the question of the completeness and accuracy of the published researches on localization was often forced upon my notice, and never having found a cortical cerebral centre for the hind-limb in young rabbits, I was led to investigate this subject in the mature animal, and being unable to discover such a centre, it occurred to me that the whole subject of cerebral cortical localization in animals below the carni- vora, at all events, was worthy of further study. Accordingly I have subjected the rabbit, the cavy, the rat, the mouse and the bird to experi- ments in order to determine the correctness and adequacy of existing views on localization. I turned naturally to the classical work of Ferrier,’ which gives this writer’s views in a clear and concise form. This investigator defines a centre for movements of the hind-limb in the rabbit near the middle line and immediately behind that for the fore-limb. While my own work was in progress, Gustav Mann published a research on cortical localiza- tion,’ in which he attempted to deal with the subject in a manner more exact and complete than had hitherto been done. He also gives an ac- count of the work previously accomplished by Ferrier and others. Apart from Ferrier’s distinct statement, there does not seem to be very clear evidence in the literature of the location of a well-defined centre for the hind-limb. Mann himself locates a centre for the hind-limb posterior to that for the neck and arm and near the middle line. Speaking of his methods, Dr. Mann says: “ As regards the experi- mental part of my research, the hedgehogs and vats were kept anæs- thetized during the whole period of the experiment, while the rabbits were anæsthetized to render the preliminary operation painless, and then allowed to regain consciousness.” 4 1 Published in these Transactions for the current year. 2 “The Functions of the Brain,” 2nd ed., London, 1886. * ‘On the Homoplasty of the Brain of Rodents, Insectivores and Carnivores,” Journ. of Anat. and Phys., October, 1895. 4 Loc. cit., p. 225. 26 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA He kept the experimental room at 75° F., and exposed both hemi- spheres fully, keeping the brain covered with absorbent cotton-wool when not being stimulated. The only clue [ can find to the reason for this difference in the method of treating the cat and the rabbit occurs in a sentence in which the work of another is referred to (p. 24): ‘‘I failed to produce acceler- ated breathing in non-anæsthetized animals.” Ferrier, speaking of stimulation, says: ‘Though it is obviously advisable to use no stronger current than is sufficient to produce a defin- ite result, the measure of the intensity of the stimulus to be employed in each case is the degree of definite and decided localization of effects uniformly attainable.” He also says: “That (current) which will cause intense and indefin- ite action in an animal non-narcotized, will excite only moderate and definite action in an animal sufficiently narcotized to abolish all sense of pain, and no effect at all on an animal deeply anesthetized.” I do not find that Ferrier anywhere recommends experimenting on non-narcotized animals, and from the last quotation I should suppose that he would be sceptical, to say the least, of results obtained in non- anesthetized animals. From a large experience in experimenting on the brains of animals, I can fully endorse all that is expressed in the quotations from Ferrier, Only experience can determine what degree of anesthesia and what strength of current suit best. My own methods in the determination of cerebral localization have been described in my paper on “The Functional Development of the Cerebral Cortex,”! so that only a brief reference need be made to them here. The animals used, of whatever kind, were given ether. When fully under its influence the brain was exposed as rapidly and with regard to as little loss of blood, exposure to the air and other unfavourable condi- tions as possible, It is true, as has been pointed out by Fiirstner,? and quoted by Mann, that some movements may be induced by weaker currents than others, but following Ferrier’s dictum, already quoted in regara to cur- rent, one centre may be compared with another under the same or very similar conditions without any danger of fallacy. Mann states that he left his rabbits thirty to sixty minutes for the ether narcosis to pass off. Ether narcosis, as everyone knows, is com- paratively transient, and it is because of this that I have used it invariably when conducting localization researches on the brain. Very frequently —. 1 These Transactions for the current year. 2“ Exper. Beitrag, z. Electrisch. Reiz. d. Hirnrinde.” Arch f. Psych. vi. pp 719-732. [MILL | CORTICAL CEREBRAL LOCALIZATION 27 the animal is sufficiently from under its influence soon after the main operative procedure is over to allow of results being obtained at once. and unless the loss of blood be excessive I have always found it wise to pro- ceed at once before the brain suffers by exposure. However, after Dr. Mann’s paper met my eye I determined to test his results by his own methods as regards the centre for the hind-limb in the rabbit, which T had never been able to find. The result agreed pre- cisely with all my previous experience, to the effect that movements in an animal anesthetized inadequately or not at all anesthetized following on stimulation are hap-hazard. They may be in accord with those obtained under the use of an anesthetic or they may be utterly delusive. It counts nothing with me that the same movement may be called forth over and over again on stimulating the same spot, for I have pro- duced repeated movements of the hind-limb by stimulating the neck, aren, eve: Mann mentions that in one of his experiments on rabbits ‘ both hind-legs kick out as in ordinary locomotion.” (p. 26). Such a result in a mature rabbit should surely be viewed with grave suspicion, especi- ally by one who claims such exact localization as Dr. Mann. My own results on the rabbit may be thus briefly stated : I have without any difficulty been able to localize cortical centres for a variety of movements for the fore-limb, the neck, head and face ; with more difficulty, movements for the eyes and the ears; but in no single case when the animal has been properly under the influence of ether have I been able to get movements of the hind-limb by stimulation with any reasonable strength of current. A large number of animals of different breeding, some being cross-bred, some pure-bred, and some ordinary mongrels, and of varying age, have been employed. I can only explain the positive result that some other investigators report by the assumption that their animals were not at the moment properly under tbe influence of an anesthetic, and that a hap-hazard | movement was mistaken for a genuine one. Certainly it would be strange, after so much experience in this kind of work and after subject- ing this question of a centre for a hind-limb to special investigation with the use of so many animals of different breeding and age, that my results should be uniformly negative for this centre, but positive for all, or nearly all others found by experienced investigators, if I am in error. I can endorse what Fiirstner' has said with regard to the ease with which chewing movements may be obtained in rabbits, and I have pointed out in my paper” on the functional development of the cortex that these and such like movements appear far earlier in the rabbit than in 1‘ Exper. Beitrag, z. Electrisch. Reiz. d. Hirnrivde.” Archf. Psych. vi. pp. 719-732. 2 These Transactions for the current year. 28 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA the dog and the cat ; in fact, that they may be induced about as soon as those for the fore-limb. : To my mind it is perfectly clear that it cannot be maintained that the movements for the hind-limb are in the same relation to the cortex in the rabbit as are those for the fore-limb and the face. Whether the centre exists, but is too ill-organized to be susceptible to stimulation by our rough experimental methods, whether it is too readily disordered by operative procedure to allow of experimental determination I do not know, but I am satisfied that to represent such a centre as of the same kind and demonstrable in the same way as others in the rabbit is a mis- take. In some respects it would remove difficulties if such a centre could be demonstrated to exist, but on the other handit must be borne in mind that the method of locomotion in the rabbit is peculiar and is not com- parable to that of the rat, cavy (guinea-pig), ete. ie! As regards the cavy and the white rat I can confirm in general Ferrier’s localization. I have also examined the brown rat and the mouse and find that their cortical centres correspond in the main with those of the white rat and the cavy. I have made a sufficient number of experiments on mature cats and dogs to enable me to confirm in a general way the usually accepted localization. I wish, however, to point out that there is a certain degree of individuality as regards the exact position of the centres in the dog and the cat, and perhaps still more in the readiness with which they may be excited by electrical stimulation. The same may be said as to the effects of ablation. In regard to the latter, I do not find any functional defect of a kind that prevents the animal walking within a very short time after oper- ation. There is, however, a change in the animal’s movements—some- times at first a tendency in dogs and cats in the fore-limb to bend under and for both the fore and the hind limbs to slip and to scrape on the surface over which the creature walks. The latter was especially notice. able in cats from which the motor areas around the crucial sulcus on both sides were completely removed by one operation. Nevertheless, even in such cases, the animals rapidly improved. Soltmann’s' explan- ation—loss of muscular sense—in my opinion, goes a long way to explain this, though I would not deny that there is also some loss of muscular power. In rabbits and other rodents the localization is less definite than in the dog and the cat, and it seems to me a mistake to omit to state this in any work on cortical localization. In my experience the centres are not nearly so definitely marked off and are more variable in exact position. Certain movements, however, just as constantly and readily follow on | Jahr. f. Kinderheilkunde u. Phys. £rziehung, 1876. | MILLs | CORTICAL CEREBRAL LOCALIZATION 29 weak stimulation in the rabbit at all events as the corresponding ones in the dog and cat, if not more so. These are the very movements that are most frequently called into exercise by the life habits of the animals, and it seems to me important to recognize that all cortical centres are not equally well organized, as might be inferred from reading the accounts of some authors on this subject. This applies to the whole question of cortical localization and not to that of the rabbit alone, though, as I have shown, it is specially well illustrated in this animal. In my attempts to carry the investigation of cortical cerebral locali- zation downwards in the animal scale I naturally reached the bird. Upon turning to Ferrier’s account ' I found that he claimed that stimu- lation of an area in the upper parietal region caused “intense contrac- tion of the opposite pupil, occasionally associated with turning of the head to the opposite side.” He further says: “In a few cases I have also observed, from stimulation of the region below this, turning of the head to the opposite side without contraction of the pupil. Beyond these effects the results of stimulation were entirely negative.” I have made a thorough examination of this subject in the pigeon, and have investigated the case of the fowl sufficiently to convince me that there is no difference, at all events so far as the main results are concerned. The methods employed were the same as for other animals, and the results may be stated briefly as follows: Every part of the cortex is refractory to stimulation, so far as move- ments of the neck, head parts and limbs are concerned. This also applies to the white matter lying beneath the cortex. Stimulation of the cortex may give rise to contraction or to dilatation of the pupil, or produce little or no change in it in either eye. When a change occurs, it is usually greatest on the opposite side, and may be practically confined to that side. The result may be momentary or last for an appreciable time—may be a steady effect or oscillatory. Very rarely, if ever, can it be main- tained for any considerable period. As to whether contraction results or not seems to depend, to some extent, on the condition of the pupil at the time; for the result has been more frequent when the pupil has been already moderately dilated. Contraction has been more frequent than any other effect. I have not been able to demonstrate the conditions under which dilatation takes place, nor the one effect now, and the other again, as sometimes oc- curs. Both dilatation and contraction may occur during experiments made on the same bird. Apparently the conditions are complex and variable. 1** The Functions of the Brain,” 2nd Ed. London, 1886. 30 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA The most constant effect of stimulating the cerebral cortex in the pigeon I have found to be movements of the nictitating membrane. In all cases this structure has been drawn down over the eyeball to a greater or less extent, and if the current used be sufficiently strong, the mem- brane may be held over the eyeball for a brief period. The effect is greatest on the opposite side. but is not usually confined to that side. The eyelids are usually drawn more or less together at the same time, though this effect is much less constant and pronounced than that just noticed. The area of stimulation which produces these effects and those on the pupil is not a very well defined one, but corresponds fairly well with that indicated by Ferrier. I have frequently got more marked move- ments of the nictitating membrane on excitation of a point a little more forward and outward. The same results follow on stimulating the under- iving white matter of the cerebrum. I may say, finally, in regard to the pigeon, that it is very important that the bird be properly under the influence of an anesthetic, as even in birds not wholly under the influence of ether there may be movements of the head on applying an electrical current or a stream of water to the brain. The variability in the result as regards the pupil may be dependent in part on the degree of anesthesia and the varying manner in which the nervous mechanism of the eye is affected, and this is, I am inclined to think, a partial explanation of the unsteadiness of the results, though individual differences must also be recognized. For myself I have not been greatly surprised at this variability, considering the nature of the nervous mechanism of the eye, composed as it is of antagonistic elements, which probably vary a good deal functionally in individuals and during anesthesia. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. In the dog, cat, rabbit, cavy, rat and mouse, electrical stimulation of the cerebral cortex over definite regions produces regularly certain move- ments. These animals are, however, not on the same physiological plane with regard to this subject. The dog and the cat are more closely related, and fall into a physio- logical group by themselves ; the rabbit, the cavy, the rat and the mouse constitute another group. There are well defined differences for the cat and the dog. The same applies to the members of the other group. In the cat and the dog the motor areas are better defined than in the members of the other group. [MILLS] CORTICAL CEREBRAL LOCALIZATION 31 In the case of all these animals it has been clearly demonstrated that all motor centres are not functional equivalents — some respond more readily and produce better defined movements than others. They seem to be better organized. There appears to be all degrees of this functional variation down to zero. The rabbit is an especially good illustration of some phases of this principle. The cortical localization mapped out by Ferrier for the dog, cat, rabbit, cavy and rat is in the main confirmed by the present investigator, but considerable allowance must be made for individual differences, and it is important, as has been just pointed out, to recognize that all motor centres in the same animal are not functionally equivalent in the sense explained above. ; The removal of motor centres in the animals made the subject of this investigation does not lead to complete loss of the corresponding movements, and in some cases the difference between the intact animal and that operated on is, after a few days, relatively slight ; so that it is plain that motor centres in such animals are not strictly comparable with motor centres in the Primates. In other words, here again the question of degree of localization and functional organization (among others) must be considered. The bird is on a wholly different plane. None of the ordinarily recognized movements on stimulation of the cerebral cortex can be excited in the bird, On the other hand, certain eye movements, both intrinsic and extrinsic, follow as a result of stimulation of the cortex. eth TT M ee hi ea VE à mr V'TtpR LI ¥ , À ns, À rs. | Là CP stair dent à | Ex AE ON : | | RQ. EN d'art DATE ae. > or iE “ae na Mien} cs D MAR x | ha ie date Cp ne ie | RC MEN ia Gig ‘a, a 3 Raed Le ARR NEA CSN Fa die | rs 5, À | “ale a ee ae i | an a 14 TS We he iy rit ; ; OR a ORNE - NS DES NRA SO AE PR ERA aes CANNES CU Nr CARTER SE RATS, Suh MORE Uo | CARRE MES “ND: Lire VV TE A APS ND i 4 hy ts Au) ghar a NOM 2D at fied rey A AE à " mee He me A PA A faut DU it ERIER Hist a ks oe à k * > Ame TR LR M Na £ sd Ags tee Cou “ | Ma “7 - . SN ARE i Sa NO à TER Thy ie 160 di ae Rae Ne "LES Fe MN ie Ar 1 | TS PACE FA } Stat bn hae Lan ou. Re Bape ¢ À ae write | NAT UE A 4 en te AR via ar DO 7 SECTION LV., 1896. [33 ] Trans. R. S. C. IV.—The Generic Characters of the North American Taxacee and Coniferw. By D. P. PENHALLOW. (Read May 20, 1896.) In 1894 a preliminary paper on the ‘Classification of the North American Coniferz,” based upon the anatomical characters of the wood, was presented to this society, but reserved for future publication. Dur- ing the intervening two years extended opportunities for verification and comparison have been offered, and much labour has been expended in the revision of details and the elimination of possible sources of error. In the present paper it is designed to give an account of those characters upon which a differentiation of genera may be based, reserving a discus- sion of the specific characters for a future occasion, The present classification had its origin in 1880, and is, so far as I am aware, the first attempt of the kind as applied to the North American woods. The need of such a work was apparent, not only in the demands arising from an extensive and varied economic application of numerous kinds of woods, but in the requirements of the palæobotanist, who sought for some more exact means of defining species and of establishing the relations of fossil woods to those of recent origin, than are to be found in a merely general knowledge of structure. When it is recalled that fossil woods are commonly represented by the more durable parts of the fibro- vascular structure only—a structure from which many of the anatomical details may have been eliminated by the operation of decay or the subse- quent alterations attendant upon petrifaction, in consequence of which it becomes of the highest importance that the taxonomic value of such char- acters as are yet recognizable should be capable of exact estimation ; and that wood applied to economic purposes often requires to be recognized under conditions which render the ordinary means of distinction worth- less, it is clear that any system of classification which will admit of a pre- cise limitation of genera and species under all conditions, must possess a high degree of value. With respect to the application of such a classification to exist- ing species, ‘the view was heid, upon general grounds, that if species could be defined at all, it would be possible to recognize them under all conditions of growth and economic application. How far this view may prove to be correct will be demonstrated by the present treat- ise. With respect to fossil plants, experience shows that the conditions of preservation are extremely varied, so that while a lignite from the Sec. IV., 1896. 3. 34 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Pleistocene may have its structure perfectly preserved, another lignite from a much more recent deposit may show but few of those structural features upon which distinction of species may be supposed to rest. From this it follows that, assuming such a classification to be perfectly elabo- rated, its application to the determination of fossil plants must have very definite limitations, dependent upon the state of preservation of the ma- terial in hand. In accordance with these considerations, it was originally held that any such classification, to be most efficient for all purposes thus indicated, must permit conclusive deductions to be drawn, if possible, from sections of about one centimetre square, such as might be prepared in the ordin- ary way for microscopic purposes, since this alone would meet the aver- age requirements of material representing fossil plants. It is to be ob- served, however, that such limitations at once impose difficulties which, joined to those due to the fact that the wood alone furnishes the necessary data, might render the classification of inferior value in actual practice. The aim has, therefore, been to select if possible, those distinguishing characters which may be found in the structure of the woody parts of the stem as exposed in the usual planes of section—transverse, radial and tangential,—and to obtain conclusive proof as to their efficiency or ineffi- ciency for the purpose stated. The results so far reached seem to justify the conclusion that for genera the characters are well defined. In this connection we may cite the results already reached by Güppert,' and the fact that an extended examination of woods led Solereder’ to the conclu- sion that the characters to be met with are sufficiently constant to admit of distinguishing families, tribes, genera, and even species. With these thoughts in mind, attention was directed in the first instance, toward the accumulation of authentic material—a work of slow progress, now extended over a period of sixteen years, and, with respect to some of the angiosperms, not yet completed. Within recent date, however, all the various species and varieties of the Taxacew and Conifere north of the Mexican boundary have been brought together. This fact, joined to the pre-eminent position occupied by these plants with respect to their economic importance and paleontological relations, led to their being regarded as subjects best suited to immediate investigation. The present paper, therefore, which deals with the gymnosperms only, may be regarded as the first of a series of similar treatises on the classification of the North American woods as a whole. Incidentally to the present work, a number of foreign species have been studied, but it has been thought advisable to defer their consider- ation until opportunity offers for an exhaustive treatment of all exotic species. 1 Foss. Conif., Leiden, 1850. 2 Bot. Zeit., xliv., 1886, 506. [PENHALLOW] N. AMERICAN TAXACEZÆ AND CONIFER 35 The whole number of species and varieties included in our present studies is eighty-nine, representing fourteen genera. The present work involves no claim to originality beyond the method of working out the details. Fully twenty years ago, having due regard for the work already accomplished by various investigators, DeBary gave a clear exposition of the general basis upon which such a classification might be constructed, thereby summarizing the results already reached by Géppert, Hartig, Nordlinger and others.’ Notwithstanding the work already referred to, little interest appears to have centred in this line of investigation until 1880, when the Vienna Academy proposed as a subject for the Baumgartner prize of 1,000 florins “The microscopical investigation of the wood of living and fossil plants,” the special object of the investigation being to ascertain characters where- by it would be possible to determine the genus and species with certainty, from microscopical sections. Since then the literature of the subject has increased considerably, the various papers either dealing with the subject as a whole or treating of some special aspect of the question, and to these reference will be made as occasion requires. The Coniferw, as a whole, have been so well investigated, that the characteristic features of their various anatomical elements are well known, and require little or no special discussion at this time. Such considerations, therefore, do not properly constitute a part of the present paper, in which we are more directly concerned with the application of anatomical facts to questions of taxonomy. It naturally follows from this that, when anatomical elements possess no diagnostic value, they do not form an element of the present discussion. For purposes of comparison it has been held of importance that all measurements and drawings should be made under as nearly identical conditions as possible. All determinations of structure, therefore, with one exception to be noted in another place, have been made by means of Zeiss A and D objectives and ocular 4, All measurements have been made under identical conditions, while all the drawings, executed with the same combination and by means of a Zeiss camera, are upon a uniform scale of 280 diameters. In the preparation of material for examination, as also in the exam- ination itself, certain precautions have been observed, and to these it will be desirable to draw attention for the benefit of those who may have had but limited experience in this line of work. No complete diagnosis can be made from a single section. It is quite true that we may with cer- tainty, and from a simple examination of a tangential section, distinguish Douglas fir from all other woods, and that we may with equal certainty separate Pinus and Picea from one another and from nearly all other gen- 1Comp, Anat. of Phan. and Ferns. 36 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA era. It is also true that from a radial section we may with certainty distinguish Taxodium distichum from Sequoia and all other genera, and that we may also separate the two species of this latter genus from one another. But comparatively few woods are thus strongly characterized, while in the genus Pinus, Cupressus, Thuya, ete., the distinction between one species and another often involves a consideration of several charac- ters. Where species are thus separated by narrow lines, much judgment is needed for their differentiation, and a single section in any given direc- tion would be wholly inadequate to meet the requirements of the case. Furthermore, the complete aspects of structure are exhibited only when sections in three directions have been made and examined—one transverse and two longitudinal—of which latter one must be radial and the other tangential. Such sections should not exceed the one five-hundredth of an inch in thickness, when, under proper treatment, they become perfectly transparent and exhibit all the various details of structure in a very satisfactory manner. With respect to the cutting, great care should be taken that the plane of section is exactly transverse, radial or tangential as the case may be, otherwise distortions of structure are introduced and the proper details are lost. In the case of tangential sections, it is of first import- ance that they should represent as large an area as possible. In stems of small diameter, such as alone may be obtained in the case of Juniperus sabina procumbens, or in the case of small branches, such as often repre- sent the only available material of a fossil wood, where the total diameter is less than one inch and the curvature of the growth-rings is correspond- ingly short, it is often a difficult matter to secure sufficient area for a cor- rect diagnosis. In all such cases a number of sections should be prepared for examination, since the determination of such species as Abies nobilis, Abies bracteata and Larix occidentalis depends in large measure upon the structure thus displayed. For section cutting I have employed a King microtome, with a knife of heavy weight and special form, and found it to be fairly satisfactory, particularly when the material is fresh or properly softened. The sections are cut to the full size of the micro- tome-well, and average about one centimetre square. The sections having been properly cut, require to be exhausted of all air which they may contain. This is sometimes, especially in the spruces, a troublesome process, but it may be managed by means of the air-pump, or by the prolonged action of alcohol, when time is not an important ele- ment. The method employed in the present case has been based upon the dehydrating action of alcohol, in conjunction with the action of boil- ing water, since all the structures involved are of such a nature as to be subject to no alteration under such conditions. The usual procedure has been to place the sections in alcohol for ten or fifteen minutes ; they are then transferred directly to boiling water for about five minutes, after [PENHALLOW] N. AMERICAN TAXACE AND CONIFER 37 which they are returned to the alcohol. One such treatment is sufficient for most woods, but in some cases the process requires to be repeated sev- eral times before the air is fully dislodged. After thorough dehydration in alcohol, the sections require to be stained. My experience has been that there are very few woods that can be successfully studied in balsam- mounts without staining. These are the Sequoias, most of the Taxacea, and some of the junipers—in short, those woods which possess a natural pigment in sufficient quantity to give them a pronounced colour. In all other Coniferæ the effect of a highly refractive medium like balsam is to render many details of structure wholly invisible or recognizable with difficulty. The staim found best suited to the purpose is a strong alco- holic solution of Bismarck brown. It has the special advantage of dura- bility ; it is applied easily and rapidly ; any excess is easily reduced by the action of alcohol, and it is actinically opaque, thus making it of special value in photographic work. Some woods absorb the stain very rapidly, others but slowly, but an immersion of from three to five minutes is ample for most cases. The sections are somewhat overstained. They are then thoroughly washed in strong alcohol and cleared in carbolie acid, which serves to reduce the stain to the proper degree of intensity. I prefer carbolic acid to other clearing agents for hard tissues, since it clears more sharply and quickly, but it demands the subsequent use of chloroform balsam for mounting, instead of xylol balsam. In the latter case xylol would require to be used as the clearing agent, but as small quantities of alcohol do not dissolve in it with readiness, the subsequent mount is sure Lo come out cloudy. The only other precaution to be observed is that, before trans- ferring the section to balsam, all carbolic acid should be carefully drained off, since any excess will be sure to remain in the preparation, and after a time separate out in unsightly sphere-crystals. The mounts thus made require to be dried slowly for about three or four days, to avoid the formation of bubbles, but after that the drying may be carried on more rapidly. In determining material, the sections should in all cases be carefully prepared as directed. Any attempt to determine either genus or species from poorly prepared material will be sure to lead to confusion. Finally, with the sections properly mounted, a complete diagnosis should be made and carefully written out. This is then employed in the determination. Too much insistance cannot be laid upon the importance of observing this rule, until one has gained a very large amount of experienee, since it is a very difficult matter to correctly carry in the mind and accurately compare the large number of similar microscopic details required in the determination of a species. Nomenclature is not a leading element in the present paper, and I have considered that in adopting the “Index Kewensis” as a standard 38 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA all present requirements would be met in a satisfactory manner. When special questions have arisen, however, respecting the union or separation of genera or species, e. g., the separation of Cupressus and Chamecyparis, or the identity of Cupressus macrocarpa with OC. quadalupensis, as sug- gested by Masters,’ the nomenclature has been changed to meet the requirements of the particular case. In this connection I desire to record my deep appreciation of the very large measure of assistance which has been freely offered by a large number of correspondents. To my friend, Dr. G. L. Goodale, of Harvard University ; to Prof. C. S. Sargent, of the Arnold Arboretum ; Dr. Trelease, of the Missouri Botanic Gardens ; Dr. Douglass Campbell and Prof. Dudley, of the Leland Stanford, Jr., University; Prof. Lem- mon, of San Francisco; Dr. Charles Mohr, of Mobile, Alabama; Baron F. von Mueller and Mr. Walter Hill, of Australia; Prof. John Macoun, of the Geological Survey, Ottawa; Mr. B. E. Fernow, chief of the Divi- sion of Forestry of the United States Department of Agiculture ; Dr. A. W. Chapman and Dr. B. L. Robinson, curator of the Gray Herbarium of Harvard University, I am indebted for valuable assistance in securing authentic material and references. To Mr. Morrice K. Jesup, president, and Mr. Dill, secretary of the American Museum of Natural History, New York, I am under obligations for much courtesy in supplying a large amount of valuable material. To Mr. J. G. Jack, of the Arnold Arboretum, I desire to express my special acknowledgments of the assist- ance freely offered, and, often with much inconvenience to himself, in procuring material and supplying authentic specimens for control tests. To Miss C. M. Derick, lecturer in botany, McGill University, [ am also under obligations for much assistance in the prosecution of this work. The data for a differentiation of the Taxacew and Coniferæ are to be found in the occurrence of resin-passages, of isolated resin-cells and of medullary rays containing resin-passages, as also in the presence or absence of tracheids with spiral markings. The Coniferæ, as a whole, are distinguished by their more or less, often strongly resinous wood. This is found in some cases to be due to the presence of numerous large channels—the resin-passages-—which tra- verse the stem longitudinally for great distances, and such structures are always characteristic of Pseudotsuga, Larix, Picea and Pinus, more rarely appearing in an imperfectly organized form in Sequoia and Abies. On the other hand, the resinous matter is found to have its origin in iso- lated resin-cells, which are variously distributed either through the entire body of the growth-ring or localized along the outer face of the summer wood. In either case their presence may be at once determined by the peculiarly dark and resinous colour of the contents, or by the structure 1 “ Garden and Forest,” vii., 298. [PENHALLOW] N. AMERICAN TAXACEZ AND CONIFER 39 then show a coarsely pitted structure similar to that of a poorly formed sieve-plate. The general law of distribution shows that in those woods which have well defined resin-passages the resin-cells are wanting. Simi- larly, those woods which have an abundance of resin-cells show an ab- sence of resin-passages—the one replaces the other. Exceptions to this law naturally occur. Thus, in Pseudotsuga and Larix, genera which are distinguished by their prominent resin-passages, there are also well de- fined resin-cells. So also in Sequoia and Abies, genera conspicuous for their resin-cells, resin-passages sometimes occur. Our investigations show that in all genera having resin-passages in the wood there are also resin-passages traversing the stem in a radial direction and embraced in certain of the medullary rays, which have their general form and structure correspondingly altered. Under such circumstances the rays become, as a rule, much higher and always much broader than the ordinary rays. The modification, as exhibited in a tan- gential section, is such that, while the terminals above and below are acute or linear, the central tract is broadened out more or less abruptly, and then consists of one large resin-passage, and usually also of much reduced parenchymatous-cells, lying immediately external to the epithe- lial structure, thus forming the outer limits of the tract. Such rays, which, from their form, may be designated as fusiform, in order to read- ily distinguish them from those of the ordinary linear and uniseriate type, are always found in association with resin-passages, which traverse the stem longitudinally. So intimate is this relation that the presence of one may always be inferred from the other. All North American species of Taxaceæ, without exception, show a complete absence of all three of the élements so far considered—resin-cells, resin-passages and fusiform rays. It thus becomes possible, on these grounds alone, to definitely separate this family from all the Conifere. Among the latter the genus Pseudotsuga stands out prominently as an almost unique instance of a ease approaching the Taxacee in one of its most salient features. In all of the North American T'axaceæ, without exception, the tracheids are characterized by the presence of a double series of spiral bands. So dis- tinctive are these structural features that, with one exception, they in- variably point to a member of this family. In the genus Pseudotsuga similar spirals are to be met with as a constant element of structure, with this difference, however, that while in the Taxaceæ the spirals are a con- stant element of all the tracheids, in Pseudotsuga they are often entirely absent from the summer wood ; they are, nevertheless, always to be met with in the spring wood. Any confusion which might otherwise arise through the presence of such spirals is at once removed by the fact that whereas in Taxacew there are no resin-passages or fusiform rays, both of these structures are characteristic of Pseudotsuga. Occasionally other conifers manifest a tendency to the formation of spirals. Thus in Larix 40 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA americana the outer tracheids of the summer wood sometimes develop very distinct spirals ; also in some of the hard pines—notably P. taeda— there is a decided tendency in the same direction. But in none of these cases is the development carried so far as to involve confusion with respect to the law already stated. On the basis of these considerations it becomes obvious that, on anatomical grounds, there is good reason for regarding the Taracew and Coniferæ as distinct families, a conclusion which serves to materially strengthen similar deductions already derived from general morphological considerations.’ The Taxacee embraces only two genera within the limits of North America north of the Mexican boundary. These are Taxus and Torreya, and between them the principal differential feature is to be found in the shape and size of the ray-cells, as exposed in tangential section, and thus, to some extent also, the width of the ray. Thus in Taxus the cells are oblong and usually very narrow, and investigation confirms the belief that there is no essential deviation from this rule, since the most marked alteration of form occurs in those rays which become more or less two- seriate, when the cells are sometimes rather shorter and broader, and thus assume a more or less oval form. (Plate I, fig. 3.) In Torreya, on the other hand, the ray-cells are always much broader and larger and distinctly oval, more rarely oblong. (Plate I., fig. 5.) Supplementary differen- tiations also appear in the compactness of the tracheid spirals and in the general character of the transverse section. If the compact spirals of Taxus canadensis (Plate L., fig. 2) are compared with the somewhat dis- tant spirals of Torreya californica, the distinction between these two genera is at once apparent. Similar differences exist, in a more or less pronounced degree, between other species of these genera, and they be- come very obvious in a comparison of Taxus canadensis with Torreya taxifolia. (Plate I., fig. 4.) A third and much less reliable, although valuable supplementary character, is to be met with in the general aspect of the wood as exposed in transverse section. In the genus Taxus thé tracheids are chiefly small, thick-walled, variable in size, and with more or less conspicuously rounded lumens—the structure, as a whole, being rather compact. These characteristics apply with particular force to 7. canadensis and T. brevifolia, but are less applicable to 7’. floridana, since the structure in this species shows a distinct approach to the character- istics of the genus Torreya. In Torreya the tracheids are relatively large, the walls rather thin, the lumens are, as a rule, more distinctly squarish, while the structure, as a whole, is distinguishable by its rather open texture. While such differences may very correctly be associated with generic distinctions, it must be recalled that the aspect of structure in transverse section varies | Geol. Surv. of California, Botany, ii., 109; Jour. Lin. Soc., xxx., 1. [pennaLtow] N. AMERICAN TAXACEA AND CONIFER A 41 somewhat widely under different conditions of growth and even in differ- ent parts of the same tree, and these variations are of such a nature that it would be quite possible for the wood in a branch of Torreya to present much the same aspect as wood taken from a stem of T'axus. With these considerations in mind, it becomes possible to construct a differential key for these two genera, and this, together with a systematic diagnosis of the family and of each genus, will appear in the following pages. The Taxaceæ and Conifere possess a number of structural features in common. These are to be found first in the transverse section, in the usually regularly radial disposition of the tracheids. In the radial sec- tion the radial walls of the tracheids of both the spring and summer wooa are marked by the presence of conspicuous bordered pits. In the Taxa- cee these structures are relatively small, and always in ene row, generally occupying the full width of the narrow tracheids. In the Conifere, on the other hand, they are, with the exception of Juniperus, usually large and oval or round, and not infrequently two- or three-seriate. In both families bordered pits occur on the tangential walls of the summer wood, and in a very few cases on the tangential walls of the spring wood of certain Conifere. Apart from the details already considered as differentiating these two families, there are few anatomical features which belong distinctively to the Coniferw, and they are to be regarded as of subordinate value. Thus in transverse section the tracheids, except in Juniperus, are, as a rule, much larger, and there is often a more marked and abrupt contrast between the spring and summer woods. In the radial section the Con- iferæ commonly show Sanio’s bands, which are wholly wanting in the Taxacee,so far as it is possible to determine from our present investi- gations. Anatomical considerations show that the sequence of genera and also the limitations of those groups, as defined on the basis of general morphology, require some readjustment. It will, therefore, be desirable to consider somewhat in detail the various points of affinity which justify the arrangement embodied in the present treatise. The four genera Libocedrus, Cupressus, Thuya and Juniperus fall into a natural group, of which the common characteristics are the pre- sence of more or Jess numerous resin-cells, the chiefly simple pits on the lateral walls of the ray-cells, the thin or sparingly pitted terminal walls of the ray-cells, and the absence of resin-passages. A more critical examination of the distribution of the resin-cells shows that ZLibocedrus and Juniperus approach one another somewhat closely in the fact that these elements are disposed in tangential bands, while in both Thuya and Cupressus they are commonly scattering and often appear only in somewhat distant growth-rings. The affinity between the first two genera is also greatly strengthened by the great similarity of the terminal walls of the 42 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA ray-cells. There is an important point of divergence, however, in the fact that while in Libocedrus the pits on the lateral walls of the ray-cells are simple, in Juniperus they are more or less conspicuously bordered, a feature which tends strongly to give this latter genus a decided affinity with Yaxodium and Sequoia. The separation of these genera from Thuya and Cupressus thus rests upon well defined differences in the distribution of the resin-cells and the structure of the terminal walls of the ray-cells. On the other hand, while Libocedrus approaches them through the character of the pits on the lateral walls of the ray-cells, by the same character Juniperus is separable from both of these genera and finds its affinity with Sequoia and Taxodium. A critical comparison of the remaining generic characters will permit of more exact deductions as to the precise relations in which these genera stand to one another. LIBOCEDRUS. Transverse. Summer wood thin, rather dense, usually showing a median layer of more dense structure. Radial. The terminal walls of the ray-cells straight or somewhat curved, entire, locally thickened or even coarsely pitted; the pits on the lateral walls of the ray-cells small and simple. Pits on the tan- gential walls of the summer tracheids chiefly small and not very numerous. JUNIPERUS. Transverse. Summer wood thin but very dense. Radial. Terminal walls of the ray-cells thin and entire, more rarely somewhat pitted ; the pits on the lateral walls of the ray-cells often with a more or less obvious border. Pits on the tangential walls of the summer tracheids chiefly small and not very numerous. THUYA. Transverse. Summer wood thin, the structure rather dense. Radial. The terminal walls of the ray-cells thin and not pitted or locally thickened, usually much curved. Pits on the tangential walls of the summer tracheids small to medium. Tangential. Ordinary rays narrow, the cells oblong, often very narrow, more rarely oval. CUPRESSUS. Transverse. Summer wood very thin, often barely distinguishable, the structure open throughout. Radial. Terminal walls of the ray-cells commonly curved, thin and entire or often locally thickened. Pits on the tangential walls of the summer tracheids medium to large. Tangential. Ray-cells chiefly broad, oval, or even transversely oval, the rays often more or less two-seriate, [PENHALLOW] N. AMERICAN TAXACEÆ AND CONIFERÆ 43 The two genera, Thuya and Cupressus, are very closely connected, and for a long time morphologists have been unable to agree as to their precise limitations. The Thuya occidentalis of Linneus and 7’. gigantea of Nuttall, appear to have been referred to this genus without exception. Cupressus thyoides, of Linnæus, was referred by Spach to Chamæcyparis spheroidea, by Sprengel to Thuya spheroidea and by Richard to 7 spheroidalis, à name which has been adopted by the Index Kewensis as authoritative. Cupressus nutkensis of Hooker or C. nootkatensis of Lambert, was also referred to the same genus by Trautvetter under the species ©. americana. By Carriere it was referred to the genus Thuyopsis and at different times to 7. borealis and T. cupressoides. Both Spach and Walpers referred it to the genus Chamecyparis, and Fischer also recog- nized the same genus but applied the specific name of ©. excelsa. The most recent ruling, as embodied in the Index Kewensis, indicates that Lambert’s name of Cupressus nootkatensis is to be regarded as the authoritative one. Cupressus embraces five species which have been invariably referred to it, C. macrocarpa, C. Goveniana, C. Macnabiana, C. guadalupensis and C. arizonica. Cupressus Lawsoniana of Murray has been referred to the same genus by both Gordon and Kellogg, but it has been assigned to Chamecyparis by Parlatore, Carriere and Torrey. By the Index Kewensis, Murray’s name of Cupressus Lawsoniana is regarded as the one which holds the greatest claim to recognition. It thus appears that although recent writers, such as Sargent, have recognized Chamæcyparis as a distinct genus, the tendency has been to divide it up among T'huya and Cupressus. It thus becomes obvious that evidence derived from anatomical data, which may tend to throw its weight in favour of one or the other of these views, will be of special value. An examination of the characters already detailed for the genera under consideration will show that the essential distinction rests upon the shape of the ray-celis in tangential section, and upon the character of the terminal walls of the ray-cells. Thus in Thuya the ray-cells are distinctly oblong, often quite narrow, more rarely oval, while the terminal walls of the ray-cells are conspicuously devoid of pits or local thicken- ings. In Cupressus, on the other hand, the rays are distinctly broader, the cells are oval, or even transversely oval, rarely oblong. The walls are also much thicker as a rule. The terminal walls of the ray-cells are thin and often entire, but they also frequently show very obvious local thickenings. These characters are well defined, and, so far as a large amount of material will permit a definite conclusion, constant. These characters, therefore, may safely be taken as marking the limitations of the genera. On this basis, Chamæcyparis nutkænsis of Spach must be restored to the genus Cupressus under Lambert’s name of ©. nootkatensis. The genus Chamecyparis thus disappears altogether, a change which is AA ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA quite in accord with the tendency at present prevalent among morpholo- gists. It may also be pointed out in this connection that although char- acters derived from the aspect of the transverse section are not of leading importance, yet they may serve to confirm differentiations based — on other data. We thus find that in Z’huya as a whole the tracheids are distinguished by their large size, squarish forms and thin wails. In Cupressus, on the other hand, they are usually more rounded, somewhat smaller and generally thicker walled. These differences not only agree with the limitations already assigned to Thuya and Cupressus, but they show that the latter approaches the former through C. thyoides. It would thus appear that, on anatomical grounds, there is a very close relationship between Thuya and Cupressus, and that the limitations of the two are not marked by strongly defined characters. This becomes more apparent when it is recalled that Cupressus thyoides, on anatomical grounds alone, could safely be referred to Thuya, when it would become T. spheroidalis, but when we consider the weight of evidence to be derived from both the external and internal characters, it becomes clear that this species belongs to Cupressus. From a paper published since these conclusions were reached, it is interesting to note that Dr. Masters has arrived at the same results, but from data derived wholly from a study of the external characters.! With respect to the genus Cupressus as now constituted, it may be pointed out that it is separable into two distinct groups, the first of which may be designated as Chamecyparis, and the second as Cupressus proper.’ The former includes © thyoides, C. nootkatensis and C. Law- soniana. The distinguishing feature is to be found in the character of the pits on the tangential walls of the summer tracheids, which are nar- rowly lenticular and not very large. The second section embraces all the remaining species which have heretofore been recognized under this genus. The distinguishing feature is found in the conspicuously large and broadly lenticular pits on the tangential walls of the summer tracheids. Taxodium and Sequoia approach one another closely in the fact that the pits on the lateral walls of the ray-cells are conspicuously bordered, while the same element also serves as the basis of specific distinction. Thus in Taxodium the pits are round and the orifice is narrowly oblong, the border therefore broad ; while in Sequoia the pits are distinctly oval or elliptical and the orifice broadly oblong, the border thus becoming much narrower, and sometimes even obscure. These differences are very well defined and constant, and admit of no doubt as to the particular 1 Journ. Lin. Soc., xxi., 312. ? Dr. Masters’s results again accord with my own in the subdivision of the genus Cupressus, although, on anatomical grounds, I prefer to reverse the order. [pexnALLow] N. AMERICAN TAXACEÆ AND CONIFER 48 genus. Both of these genera approach Juniperus in the presence of pro- minent resin-cells, as well as in the fact that these elements are disposed in tangential bands. To this must also be added the fact, already pointed out, that a further affinity is based upon the occurrence in all three of bordered pits on the lateral walls of the ray-cells, and similarity of struc- ture in the terminal walls of the ray-cells. The occurrence of occasional resin-passages in Sequoia sempervirens, and à similar occurrence of imper- fectly formed resin-passages in Abies nobilis, point to the fact that there is a strong point of contact between these two genera. The relation between Sequoia and Abies thus indicated is greatly strengthened in other ways, as in the absence of resin-passages and fusi- form rays, together with the occurrence of isolated resin-cells. Abies, on the other hand, approaches the genus Tsuga, not only in a closer general resemblance of the structure as displayed in transverse section, but in the peculiar distribution of the resin-cells on the outer face of the summer wood, a character which is likewise common to Pseudotsuga and Larix. In this last character a certain affinity with P/cea is indicated, since in the latter the resin-cells are wholly wanting, while in Abies they have so far disappeared as to be very scattering and often rather obscure. Never- theless the weight of evidence shows that there is no direct relation with Picea, more especially when to the facts already stated we add those elements to be derived from the structure of the ray. In Sequoia and Taxodium there are no ray-tracheids. In V'suga, on the other hand, the tracheids constitute a very prominent feature in the composition of the medullary rays. In Abies, all the North American species, with the single exception of A. bdlsamea, as long since pointed out by DeBary,! are devoid of tracheids, and in this single species these structures are to be found but sparingly. The systematic position of this genus in relation to Sequoia on the one hand, and to Tsuga on the other, is thus a matter of well detined certainty. The three genera, Tsuga, Pseudotsuga and Larix, possess the com- mon characteristic of having their resin-cells scattering on the outer face of the summer wood, They are also joined by the presence of ray- tracheids. T'suga nevertheless stands apart, and finds alliance with Abies, Sequoia and others of that group, through the absence of resin-passages and fusiform rays, elements which are not only prominent in Pseudotsuga and Larix, but also in Picea and Pinus. Pseudotsuga, Larix and Picea are yet more closely related by reason of the great similarity of the fusi- form rays. These structures, within the limits of this group, are gener- ully distinguished by the rather abrupt contraction of the central tract into linear terminals, which often become much -prolonged. The cells are thick-walled, and the resin-passage is chiefly devoid of thyloses, while Com. Anat., 1884, p. 490. 46 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA the epithelium-cells are thick-walled and form a distinctly undulating outline to the central passage or space. om! —————————— 2s ss iss -H a | =] = 4 cH Peqf 2s lb ———— oe tHe TR ss (em eal F ee ——— Ss ii fi ) Pt css IES Th | | [ES | Sms! ro FH a2 tH i SSS | 4 | = ri Wu ti HER RE RE EE 79 ESSESS EE f S ff) ) | Sencha PY? F Abe: ETS a ee) So 9 0_ SR se El LIBAN TI = Wade Pees 1 LI Al NL FLY ; PL ORAN | SA "UE NE] v ly p eae ‘ a wer = 4 o>} ie? . * 5 4 L L 4 i Sec. IV. Prarn IL Trans. 1896, TAXACEÆ AND CONIFER. uo 0 lel cles [Tiers D Taal ALT Es or = Sectional view on the beach north of the church, represented in the (Length about 550 feet.) (A) Conglomerate. (B) Sandstone or quartzite. (C) Olive arenaceous shale. (D) Black shales, with some olive bands and thin layers of hard, arenaceous dolo- mite ; remains of sponges in a few layers. (£) Muddy shore: indications in places of soft, dark shale. (F) Hard, gray and olive shales, with bands of dolomite and sandstone. (G) Pleistocene sand and boulder clay. sketch-map. The whole of these beds have southerly and southwest dips, though in places they become vertical and contorted, These disturbances, how- 96 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA ever, so far as can be ascertained, are local, and do not affect the general ar- rangement, except in so faras slips parallel to the strike may repeat the beds. The layers holding fossil sponges, to be described in the sequel, are seen in low reefs or ledges of black and olive shale, extending along the south side of the bay from near the mouth of Little Metis River for about a furlong to the eastward, and are quite regular and undisturbed, though inclined at an angle of about 50°. The sandstone and conglomerate im- mediately overlying conformably this band of shales is capped with boulder-clay and sand, and forms the rising ground on which stands the Wesleyan church, indicated on the map. The section given on p. 95 shows the attitude and relation of these beds, and is drawn from the church to the northwestward. Before proceeding to describe the sponge-beds and their fossils, it may be well to notice the overlying sandstone and conglomerate, and similar beds in the vicinity, with the fossils they contain, and the rela- tions of these to other beds on the Lower St. Lawrence. The upper sandstone (B in the section) is so hard that it might be regarded as a quartzite, differing in this respect from some of the other beds in the vicinity, as, for instance, those of Mount Misery and the Lighthouse Point. It dips 8S. 20° W. magnetic, at an angle of about 50°, and is about sixty feet in thickness, though apparently thinning to the astward, Its lower side is remarkably flat and even, and has been undercut by the sea, owing to the softness of the shale below. On its strata planes are many fantastic, radiating forms indented on the weathered surfaces, and akin to those which in the Cambrian quartzites of Nova Scotia I have named Astropolithon.’ No other fossils have been observed in it. In tracing this bed to the eastward, it is seen to be over- laid by, and to pass into, a very coarse conglomerate, with an arenaceous paste and partly angular or rounded boulders, some of them more than two feet in diameter. Some are of a light gray limestone, others are quartzite, sandstone and indurated slate. Some of the limestone boulders hold fossils, and from one of these I obtained the following forms, kindly identified for me by Mr. Matthew : Olenellus Thompsoni, Emmons. Pleurotomaria ? Ptychoparia Metissica, Walcott.” Iphidea bella, Billings. P. (species). Hyolithes (species). Protypus senectus. Branching organism (possibly a sponge). Solenopleura (species). Fragments of various small Trilobites. Stenotheca rugosa, Walcott. These fossils are all, so far as determinable, of Lower Cambrian age, and must have been derived from limestones already undergcing waste ! Acadian Geology, Supplement, 1878, p. 82. 2 First found some years ago in a similar boulder from the Boule Rock. Along with it was found a small sponge, Trachyum vetustum, described and figured by Walcott in his memoir on the Lower Cambrian. [pawson] FOSSIL SPONGES AND OTHER ORGANIC REMAINS 97 at the time of the Quebec Group. Thus, though the conglomerate over- lies and is newer than the shales holding sponges, the limestone boulders contained in it are of much greater age, It has long been well known that similar appearances occur in nearly all the limestone conglomerates of the Quebec Group, and at first they led to serious difficulties as to the age of the formation, Sometimes they are very deceptive. I have seen in the conglomerate at St. Simon a slab of limestone, eight feet in length, which might readily, in a limited exposure, be mistaken for a bed in place, but which is really a Lower Cambrian boulder containing numer- ous fragments of Olenellus and other ancient Trilobites, and several species of Hyolithes. These great and irregular beds of conglomerate would appear te indi- cate ice-action in the Lower Paiæozoic sea, and it would seem that the boulders must have been denuded from reefs of older Cambrian rocks now mostly covered up or removed by denudation, while, unlike the condition of things at the time of the Pleistocene drift, no Laurentian material seems to have been accessible. Up to 1887 the beds in Little Metis Bay had been very unproductive of fossils. They had afforded to the late Mr. Richardson the little Lin- narssonia pretiosa, and I had found in the sandstones of Mount Misery and the Lighthouse Point a few fragments of a Retiolites, apparently A. ensiformis of Hall, and in the shales near the Lighthouse Point abun- dance of worm trails, some of the type of that described by the Swedish geologists as Arenicolites spiralis. In so far as these fossils afforded information, they tended to refer the whole series to the lower part of the Quebec Group, and, as it seemed to be an ascending one to the south- west, the impression conveyed to me was that the black shales near the upper part might belong to the base of the Levis series. As already stated, however, the new facts ascertained respecting the position and fossils of the Sillery series now tend to the conclusion that the whole belongs to this lower member. For detailed sections of the productive sponge-beds I may refer to my paper of 1889, merely remarking here that in a band of shale, with a few thin layers of dolomite, the whole more than 100 feet in thickness, only three or four layers, each from one to three inches in thickness, have been productive of fossils. IV.—GENERAL REMARKS ON THE FossiL SPONGES. The discovery of fossil sponges at Little Metis Bay was made by Dr. B. J. Harrington, F.G.S., in 1887, in examining loose pieces of black shale washed up on the penal On searching for these shales in situ, they were found in low reefs on the shore at about half-tide level, and diligent search disclosed the fact that in a few thin bands of shale sponge remains were abundant, though from the extreme delicacy of their spicu- 98 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA lar skeletons they were not easily recognized, except in a bright light and on the moistened surfaces of the shale. In that and subsequent years I undertook detailed collecting in these beds. The thin productive lay- ers being inclosed in ledges of compact shale, much material had to be quarried away in order to obtain access to them, and the work could be carried on only at low tide. The best method of proceeding was found to be to trace the fossiliferous layers along the ledges, and having quarried out as large slabs as possible, to convey these to where they could be split up and examined at leisure. By pursuing this method sufficient quantities of material could be obtained to enable satisfactory compari- sons to be made. The method, in short, was the same which I have pur- sued in collecting delicate fossil plants and the smaller animal remains from the Devonian and Coal formation, and which has enabled so many species of delicate vegetable organisms from Gaspé and Nova Scotia to be restored in their external forms. The facts observed up to 1889 were detailed in the paper of that date, in preparing which I was indebted to Dr, G. J. Hinde, F.R.S., the author of the British Museum Catalogue of fossil sponges, and of so many valuable papers on these organisms, for most important information as to the structure and probable affinities of the species. In addition to the notes of Dr. Hinde given in the previous paper, I am indebted to him for further important suggestions contained in these pages, and for the description of an additional species. Since 1889 excavations have been continued from time to time, with the view more particularly of discovering new species and of obtaining more perfect examples of those previously known. In noticing the results obtained, I shall first refer to certain points relating to mode of occurrence which have been more definitely settled, and shall then present a catalogue of the species, with short descriptions and figures. In regard to the figures, I may explain that those in the text are of two kinds: (1) Camera tracings, slightly enlarged, of the spicules, as seen under the microscope; (2) Restorations, mostly based on combining several more or less complete specimens. Those in the plates are produced from enlarged photographs taken usually from moistened surfaces under a bright light. These were printed and carefully retouched to render them more distinct, then reproduced in negatives of or near to the natural size, and copied from these for printing. Those which were sufficiently distinct for this, were reproduced without being touched. In the former paper, of 1889, Dr. Hinde ably discussed at some length the state of preservation of the specimens. He remarks that the skeletons of the greater number of the species were made up of delicate spicules, often cruciform, and arranged in such a manner as to form a thin Jattice-like framework inclosing a hollow space or sack, and support- ing the soft-animal membranes. In the meshes of this framework, and [pawson] FOSSIL SPONGES AND OTHER ORGANIC REMAINS 99 sometimes forming an external dermal coating, were minute spicules and delicate protective spines. The spicules, originally composed of amor- phous or colloidal silica, are now for the most part entirely replaced by pyrite, and not infrequently they are also encrusted with a delicate coating of minute crystals of the same mmeral, so as greatly to increase their apparent magnitude, though in most cases it is possible under the lens to distinguish the original spicule from its coating. The sponge thus appears as a delicate bronze-coloured framework or mass of spicules on the surfaces of the shale. In a few instances the spicules have retained their primitive siliceous material, and more rarely the material of the spicules has been entirely removed, leaving their impressions merely on the matrix. It sometimes happens, especially in the case of species with somewhat dense spicular walls, that the meshes included in the spicular framework are filled in with pyrite, so as to show merely the general form and faint indications of the spicular structure. Originally rooted in the soft ooze of the sea bottom, the specimens seem sometimes to have been buried in situ, so that when the shale is split they appear in transverse section or as round flattened discs; but in most cases they seem to have drifted from their anchorage, either with or without their anchoring-rods, and to have been flattened later- ally. When entire, they sometimes present, when the shale is split open, a surface of dermal spines, masking the skeleton proper. In other cases the dermal spines come away with the matrix, leaving the skeleton spicules exposed. Thus the same species may present very different appearances under different circumstances. In most cases the body of the sponge has been more or less disintegrated or reduced to patches of loose spicules, and some large surfaces are covered with a confused coat- ing of spicules and anchoring-rods belonging to several species. In some cases also the loose spicules, or fragments of them, seem to have been gathered in little oval or cylindrical piles and inclosed in pyrite. At first I was disposed to regard these as coprolitic ; but Dr. Hinde doubts this, and regards them as merely loose spicules drifted together into hollows or worm-burrows. All these differences of preservation and exposure present consider- able difficulties in discriminating the species; and these are sometimes increased by the association of specimens of different ages. It thus requires experience and abundant material to obtain definite results. Nevertheless Dr. Hinde, who has had very extensive acquaintance with fossil sponges in various conditions of preservation, makes the following remarks in reference to the specimens submitted to him: “The Metis specimens are specially interesting, since they throw much fresh light on the character of the earliest known forms of these organisms, and their discovery is the more opportune from the fact that our knowledge of the existing hexactinellid sponges—the group to which 100 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA all, or nearly all, these fossils belong—has been vastly increased by the work of Prof. F. E. Schulze, of Berlin, on the hexactinelled sponges dredged up by the Challenger Expedition, and thus we are now better enabled than hitherto to compare the fossil and the recent forms.” The conditions of accumulation of the Metis shales seem to have been very favourable to the pyritization of organic remains. The shells of Linnarssonia, small fragments of Trilobites and fronds of Alga, seem, ail alike, to have been amenable to this change, and cylinders and spirals of solid crystalline pyrite occupy the burrows of worms, while nodules of the mineral destitute of any organic form also occur. On the other hand, in some layers containing fossils, there is no trace of pyrite, but in these it is very difficult to see the spicules, owing to their similarity in colour and lustre to the slate. V.—NOTICES OF THE SEVERAL SPECIES. The arrangement of Paleozoic fossil sponges is still to some extent provisional, That adopted below is the one most current at present, and necessarily depends entirely on the material and structure of the skeleton. Viewed in this way, the whole of our Metis sponges, if we except a few uncertain forms to be mentioned in the sequel, belong to the order Silicea, including those which form their skeleton of siliceous needles or spicules. Under this are sponges with simple spicules (Monactinellids), and these seem to be the oldest of all, since the needles found in the Huronian cherts and those recognized by Mr. Matthew in the Laurentian appear to be mostly of this type. Others (Hexactinellids) present cruci- form spicules, or spicules with six rays, placed at right angles to each other. These are arranged so that the rays are joined by their points, forming very complex and beautiful frameworks, the variety of which is increased by the fact that the different rays may be unequally de- veloped, or some of them may be abortive, giving forms available for a great many beautiful constructive uses. We shall find that the com- plexity and diversity attainable by spicular forms, all based upon one general law, but admitting of countless differences and modifications, had already nearly reached its maximum in a very early geological period. The Hexactinellids may again be divided into two groups, according to the united or loose condition of the spicules. When these are firmly cemented together by siliceous matter, we have the group Dictyonina, and when they are united merely by animal matter, and consequently fall asunder on decay, they belong to the group Lyssakina. Under these we have families, genera and species. The following list is a revision, with important additions, of that given in 1889. {pawson] FOSSIL SPONGES AND OTHER ORGANIC REMAINS 101 ORDER SILICEA. Suborder HEXACTINELLIDA. Group Lyssakina. Family PRotTosPONGIDÆ, Hinde. Genus PROTOSPONGIA, Salter. This genus was established by the late Mr. Salter from some remains of lattice-like spicular bodies found in the Middle Cambrian of Wales, and which, though fragmentary and obscure, that eminent naturalist was able to refer to the group of Siliceous sponges. The genus includes several of the Metis species, which have enabled us to complete the characters of Salter’s genus. 1.—PROTOSPONGIA TETRANEMA, Dawson.' (Figs. 1 to 5. Pl. I. Figs. 1 and 4.) L J a Fie. 1.—Profospongia tetranema. Fic. 2.—Protospongia tetranema. Anchor- A small specimen restored. ing-spicules slightly enlarged. In the specimens in which the outline of the sponge has been pre- served, the body appears to have been rounded or broadly oval. There was an aperture or osculum at the summit, though it can be distin- guished only in a few specimens. The wall of the sponge appears to have consisted—as in the other species of this genus—of a single layer of cruciform spicules of various dimensions, disposed so as to form a frame- work of quadrate or oblong interspaces. The rays of the larger spicules con$titute the boundaries of the larger squares; but owing to decay ! The characters of this and several of the following species were given in ‘‘ Notes on Specimens in the Peter Redpath Museum,” and in the Transactions of the Royal Society, 1889, 102 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA and flattening the spicules are usually much displaced. Within these, secondary and smaller squares are marked out by smaller spicules, Judging by the length of the rays of the larger spicules, the larger squares would be about 4 mm. in diameter, whilst the smallest do not exceed "4 ae | FE Fic. 3.—Protospongia tetranema. Primary, secondary and tertiary cruciform spicules, 5. 1mm. The rays of the individual spicules seem to have been united merely by the animal matter, and not by a silicious cement, The osculum is protected by defensive spines (Hig. 4), and in young specimens these are often very numerous. The rays of the larger spicules are conical, gradually tapering from the cent ‘al node to the pointed extremity ; whilst the rays of the smaller spicules appear to be nearly cylindrical. From the base of the sponge, four slender, elongated, filiform rods project. They are approximately cylindrical, pointed at both ends, very slender, and from 50 to 70 mm, in length. Their proximal ends are inserted apparently in the basal part only of the sponge. In perfect specimens they are seen to approach and cross each other in the middle, and then to diverge, finally again approaching and forming a loop with a minute central point. So many examples of this structure have now Fees XG ee RAT Fic. 4.—Protospongia tetranema. Osculum enlarged and surrounded by minute spicules. Fic. 5.—Anchoring-rods. been found that there can be no doubt as to its true nature, though in a few instances the loop has broken asunder, leaving the rods free. Even in this case, however, they show their curved ends (Fig. 5). [pawson] FOSSIL SPONGES AND OTHER ORGANIC REMAINS 103 This is one of the most abundant species at Little Metis. There can be no hesitation in placing it in the genus Protospongia, since the same arrangement of the spicular mesh-work is present in it as in the type of this genus. In the earlier examples of the genus, however, the presence of anchoring-spicules was not recognized, owing, no doubt, to their imper- fect state of preservation, and this feature may now be reckoned as one of the generic characters. In the present species, however, these anchor- ing-spicules were very peculiar, and seem to be rays of a cruciform spicule, which were bent upward and lengthened, forming a stalk for the sponge. This would give a firm attachment, and adapt itself to the gradual rise of the bottom to which the sponge was attached. The mechanical properties of such an arrangement of spicula are obviously well suited to effect their purpose. Some further remarks on the lyssakine character of Protospongia will be found in the paper of 1889, and the more recent collections also show that the skeleton spicules, at first small in the young specimens, grew in length, by additions to the ends of the rays as the body increased in size. 2,—PROTOSPONGIA MONONEMA, Dawson. (Figs. 6, 7 and 8. PI. 1, Figs. 2 and 3.) #8, Sal NUL LE Fic. 6.—Protospongia Fic. 7.—Protospongia mononema. Cruciform and mononema. Restored. protective spicules, 5. General size about one inch in diameter, originally globular but now flattened. Body spicules cruciform and more slender than those of 104 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA P. tetranema. Superficial or defensive spicules very numerous and some- what long and slender, so as to give a hirsute appearance, and in flat- tened specimens often to obscure the body spicules. Root, single, stout, often three inches long, with two to four short, spreading branches at base. These terminal spicules are flattened at the extremities, The Fic. 8.—Protospongia mononema. Primary, secondary and tertiary spicules, x 5, anchoring-rod in this species is often increased in thickness by a crust or frosting of pyrite, and this would seem to indicate that it had, like the modern Hyalonema, animal matter as well as silica in its composition, or that foreign organic bodies attached themselves to it. Nearly as abundant as the preceding form, which it differs from in the character of the anchoring-rod, each of which may be regarded as a single elongated anchor-shaped spicule, with five rays. The skeleton spicules are also more slender and delicate, and their rays longer, and there is a greater development of protective dermal spines. The osculum is narrow and with many long defensive needles. (Plate I., Fig. 3) 3.—PROTOSPONGIA POLYNEMA. Dawson. (Figs. 9 and 10.) Fic. 9.—Protospongia polynema. Portion of base of large specimen. A large sponge in great shapeless flattened patches, several inches in diameter, though there are smaller individuals also. Body spicules fine and slender, making a very open mesh, At base numerous simple root [pawson] FOSSIL SPONGES AND OTHER ORGANIC REMAINS 105 spicules, short, and, in some cases, expanded at their extremities. Young individuals seem to have been globular and probably sessile, while large individuals had a flat base; but the general form is greatly obscured by crushing, especially in the larger specimens. Fic. 10.—Protospongia polynema. Primary, secondary and tertiary spicules, x 5. 4,—PROTOSPONGIA DELICATULA, Dawson. (Figs. 11 and 12.) Globular or oblong in form, 1 to 4 cm. in diameter. Body spicules cruciform, regular, forming a very dense mesh, about 1 mm. or less in the opening. Osculum probably wide, Defensive spicules very short and close. Several short anchoring-rods. Some indications of a double row of spicules in the body-wall. The density of the spicular body-wall causes it often to be encrusted and obscured by pyrites. a Fic. 11.—Protospongia delicatula. (a) Re- Fic. 12.— Primary, secondary and stored. (b) Portion of base enlarged. tertiary spicules, x 5. Rauff, in his monograph on fossil sponges, identifies this with Wal- cott’s Cyathophycus (Teganium) subsphericus of the Utica shale, but com- parison with specimens kindly furnished by Dr. Walcott shows that there 106 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA is no ground for this except a resemblance in general form. The struc- tures, so far as known, are quite different. Nore.—The two following species, having the rows of spicules diagon- ally arranged, as I remarked in describing them in 1889, have been placed by Rauffin a new genus Diagoniella. I doubt the expediency of this on the mere ground of divergence of the rows of meshes from horizontality. But there are other peculiarities of these species, which might fairly entitle them to constitute distinct sections of the genus. I therefore, place them by themselves, noting these differences : 5.—PROTOSPONGIA CORONATA, Dawson. (Figs. 13, 14 and 15. Pl. II. Figs. 5 and 6.) [=] Fic. 13.—Protospongia coro- Fic. 14.—Protospongia coronata. Primary, second- nata. Restored. ary and protective spicules, x 5, Body ovate, 2 em. long, but fragments indicate that it grew much larger ; spicules coarse and four-rayed, so connected as to give the appear- ance by their obliquity of a diagonal network of rhombic openings. This may possibly be the effect of flattening. Numerous small cruciform flesh spicules, Root spicules strong, short or broken off, 2 to 4. Osculum HAE. al 7 ei eG Seti Roly 4 FR x Fic. 15.—Protospongia coronata. Showing internal cavity. large, terminal, covered with a conical hood made up of curved spicules converging to a point, and 1 cm. in height, in the smaller specimens, in which alone I have seen them, the larger specimens being usually imper- fect. Short protective spicules visible at the sides. {pawson] FOSSIL SPONGES AND OTHER ORGANIC REMAINS 107 6.—PROTOSPONGIA CYATHIFORMIS, Dawson. Figs. 15 and 16. PI. IL, Figs. 7 and 8. 5 (=) \) 7 IST ©. lay, OD ~ = > is we. See ING Fie. 15.—Protospongia cyathi- Fie. 16.—Protospongia cyathiformis. Primary, formis. Restored. secondary and tertiary cruciform spicules, x 4. General form inverted conical. When mature about 3 em. wide at top and 5 cm. long, without the anchoring-spicules, which are sometimes very long. Top truncate as if with ‘a wide osculum, with defensive spicules on its margin, Primary spicules cruciform, with long rays, in some 2 to 3 mm. in length, placed diagonally, loosely attached or free, but forming large rhombic meshes; secondary and tertiary spicules numerous and delicate, with slender arms. Root spicules simple, some- times very long, five or more visible in the most perfect specimens, and passing up to the middle of the body. «Indications of many interior minute flesh spicules, often constituting a pyritized mass, obscuring the meshes. The oblique character of the transverse spicules deserves notice, but this may be the result of compression, though I think it more likely that it is an original feature. This species is well characterized by its form, and by its multitudes of very minute cruciform spicules. These, and the fact of the sponge being often represented by a dense, pyritous mass, indicate a thicker and more fleshy body-wall than in some other species. 108 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA GENus HYALOSTELIA, Hinde. 7.—HyaLosTELIA Merissica, Dawson. (Fig. 17. Pl. IIL, Fig. 10.) Fic. 17.—Hyalostelia Metissica. Spicules x 5. General form broad, with a large osculum and a number of stout anchoring-rods. Body-wall formed of single long slender rods, woven into a very loose mesh and supporting cruciform and other spicules of-varied form, attached only by the soft membranes, so that they are almost always found loose and disarranged. Up to 1889 I had seen the species only in this condition ; but was so fortunate in 1895 as to find a small specimen retaining its form, which I have figured in Plate III., Fig.10. The spiral anchoring-rods figured with this species in 1889 really belong to Palæo- saceus, Which at one time I was disposed to connect with Hyalostelia, but am now convinced that they are altogether distinct, though Hyalostelia may form a connecting link between the Protospongidæ and the Dictyo- spongidæ, its body-wall being formed not of cruciform spicules, but of long slender and single rods woven together into square or rhombic meshes. As to the use of the generic name Hyalostelia for this species, I am, by no means certain, since the sponges included previously in that genus are very imperfectly known to me. [pawson] FOSSIL SPONGES AND OTHER ORGANIC REMAINS 109 Family Dicryosponaip®, Hall. Genus CYATHOPHYCUS, Walcott. 8.—CYATHOPHYCUS QUEBECENSE, Dawson. (Figs. 18 and 19.) Fie. 18.—Cyathophycus Quebecense. Fic. 19.—Cyathophycus Quebecense. Restored. Base enlarged. Form elongated conical, composed apparently of numerous long, vertical spicules, crossed by horizontal or annular bars, and with a few cruciform spicules in the meshes. The vertical and transverse spicules may be cruciform spicules arranged vertically. The form terminates downward in a blunt point, with indications of a few short anchoring- spicules. This species closely resembles Cyathophycus reticulatum of Walcott from the Utica shale, but differs in detail, especially in the sim- plicity of the vertical rods and development of the transverse or circular bars. The largest specimens are 8 em. long by 3 wide at top. There are signs of minute lateral defensive spicules. The general form and struc- ture resemble those of the modern sponges of the genus Holascus. I changed the generic name to Cyathospongia in my paper of 1889, as the termination seemed incorrect; but this name seems to have been pre-occupied by Prof. Hall. I therefore leave it in the original form until amended by the author. The sponges of the genus Cyathophycus are not abundant in the Sec. IV., 1896. 7. 110 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA beds explored at Metis, and most of them have been much broken up. Only one specimen was obtained in a tolerable state of completeness. For further remarks on the structure and affinities of this sponge by Dr. Hinde, see the paper of 1889. Genus ACANTHODICTYA, Hinde. Sponges approximately subcylindrical in form, consisting of a skeletal mesh-work of longitudinal and transverse spicular strands or fibres. The longitudinal strands are composed of somewhat loosely arranged fascicles of elongated overlapping spicules, and the spicules of the slender trans- verse fibres are as a rule disposed in a single series, From the outer surface of the sponge, numerous spicular rays project outwards at right angles. The sponge appears to have been anchored by a basal prolong- ation of the longitudinal strands. Owing to the present compressed condition of the specimens it is difficult to determine the original form of the constituent spicules. Some of the elongated longitudinal spicules may be merely simple rod-like forms, others are clearly cruciform and their transverse rays form the cross-fibres. The spicular rays of the projecting bristles of the surface may be the free distal rays of normal hexactinellid spicules, but only these projecting rays can now be clearly distinguished ; the others are merged in the longitudinal fascicles. The general structure of the skeleton resembles that of Cyathophycus, Walcott, but it is characterized by the presence of the projecting surface rays. The mesh is also of a looser character than in Cyathophycus and its arrangement in quadrate areas is only faintly recognisable. \\ 9.—ACANTHODICTYA HISPIDA, Hinde. \ Gf À NZ (Figs. 20 and 21. PI. IIL, Fig. 11.) NUE d— NUE | ie NE | Zz NE À \ \A GA! i A Wh me Z NUE Z | NET NH Eur th \ Le ; Sd ! Fic. 21.—Acanthodictya hispida.—Portions enlarged x 5, showing framework and cruciform and protective spicules, A, SSI DT \\ ù Fic. 20.—Acanthodictya hispida. Restored. [pawsox] FOSSIL SPONGES AND OTHER ORGANIC REMAINS 111 The examples of this species were probably nearly eylindrical tubes from 30 to 50 mm. in length, and about 12 mm. in width. The longi- tudinal fascicles are about 1 mm. apart and the transverse fibres from 1 to 2 mm, distant from each other. The projecting spicular rays of the surfaces are only seen in these compressed sponges at the lateral margins as a sort of fringe. The free rays are somewhat thickly set ; they vary from 5 mm. to 3 mm. in length; the longer forms in some instances occur at regular intervals, probably at the angles of the mesh, and between these are the shorter rays. The extremities of many of the larger forms are slightly swollen or club-shaped, but it is uncertain whether this is an original feature or is due to an irregular deposition of the pyrites which has now in all cases replaced the silica. This species appears as ribband-like bands composed of vertical and parallel bundles of delicate spicules, with slender transverse spicules crossing them at intervals like the rounds of a ladder, It was probably originally cylindrical, but the extremities have not been seen, though fragments nearly three inches in length have been found. One of its most conspicuous characters is the possession of dense fringes of long protective spicules at the sides, and these seem to be based on a cortical structure of crutch-shaped or cruciform spicules, from which the defen- sive sp cules spring, Scattered cruciform spicules of small size appear also in the middle of the bands. The fascicles of longitudinal spicules are sometimes loosely twisted in a spiral manner. Hinde suggests that in some of our sponges this appearance may be caused by the accessory threads, indicated by Schulze as Comitalia.' Sponges of the above species are sometimes associated with the larger masses of Protospongia in such manner as to suggest a parasitic or commensal relation ; but this may be accidental, and may arise from the cortical spicules of Acanthodictya becoming entangled with the sur- face of neighbouring sponges. In one specimen I have the anchoring- rods of Protospongia tetranema, with a patch of pyrite inclosing some of the spicules at the top and apparently attached to this, and rising from it a specimen of Acanthodictya. This specimen certainly appears to suggest a commensal relation, Another specimen is attached laterally to the side of a fragment of Protospongia, and another is very long and much curved. It is possible that some of the spirally twisted anchoring-rods men- tioned below may have belonged to this species, but these have not been seen attached, and there are only faint indications of simple or loosely spiral roots. | The genus, no doubt, approaches to Cyathophycus, but is separated by its cylindrical form, the fascicled character of its longitudinal rods, and its cortical spicular arrangements. 1 Challenger Report, vol. xxi., page 17. 112 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Genus PALÆOSACCUS Hinde. (London Geological Magazine, February, 1893.) Cylindrical globular or sac-like sponges, with thin walls of rhombic meshes. The strands of the mesh-work consist of fascicles of slender rods, cruciform, and, perhaps, five-rayed spicules ; the interspaces are either open or covered with a thin layer of irregularly disposed rods and cruci- form spicules. No anchoring spicules have been found in immediate connection with the sponge, but there are with it on the same surfaces elongated anchoring-spicules with ornamented spiral ridges which may belong to it.! From Cyathophycus, Walcott, which appears to be nearest allied, this genus is distinguished by the rhombic character and large size of the mesh-work ; the generally similar structure both of the longitudinal and transverse strands of the mesh, and the greater development of rod-like spicules. The same features likewise differentiate it from Plectoderma, Hinde, and Phormosella, Hinde. 10.—PatL#osaccus Dawsont, Hinde. (Figs. 22 and 23. Pl. III., Fig. 9, Pl: TV.) eZ <> cS 7 a KES <= % Fic. 22.—Spiral anchoring-rods, Fie. 23,—Portion of anchoring- distal ends enlarged. rods, enlarged Sponge of large size, apparently cylindrical in its complete form ; the part preserved consists of a flattened portion of the wall-surface more than a foot in diameter ; both the upper and the basal portions of the sponge are wanting, The rhombic meshes of the wall vary from 14 to 20 mm. in width, the average width is nearly 17 mm. The strands of the mesh mostly consist of very slender rod-like threads apparently simple, which are loosely arranged, in strands of five or more, generally parallel with each other, At the angles of the mesh there are, very frequently, if not in all cases, stouter cruciform, or perhaps five-rayed 1 raatos, ancient ; caxkoc, coarse cloth, sack, strainer. : [pawson] FOSSIL SPONGES AND OTHER ORGANIC REMAINS 113 spicules, and slender cruciform spicules are likewise intermingied with the rods in the strands. In the interstices of the mesh-work, and apparently exterior to it, there is, in some portions of the sponge, a thin open layer, composed of slender rods and cruciform and other spicules, overlapping ach other without definite arrangement. It is probable that this layer formed the outer surface of the sponge, for the spicules are of the same character as those of the strands of the mesh. The manner in which the small spicules seem to have drifted to one side, shows that they probably formed the cortical layer covering the whole surface, but became disengaged on decay of the soft parts. Some uncertainty arises respecting the anchoring appendages of the sponge, since the basal portion is wanting, and no anchoring- spicules are found in immediate contact with the specimen, but on the surface of the same rock-beds in which it occurs there are many pecu- liarly ornamented spiral rods which may belong to this species. They appear as if they consisted of several very minute filaments spirally twisted together, like the strands of a rope. Each filament has a row of projecting tubercles, which in the rod are definitely arranged in quin- cunx, so that the general ornamentation is very striking, At the distal end the rods are slightly curved, and the raised lines are more straight, and assume more the aspect of distinct fibres. As with the other spicules, these anchoring-rods are now of pyrites. Later observations tend to connect these anchoring-rods almost cer- tainly with the present species. The rods are found almost exclusively on the same surfaces with this sponge. They do not appear to belong to any other form in these beds. Fragments of the base of the sponge show that the strands of the framework have there an imperfect spiral arrangement, though slender, and if several of them coalesced at the base they would as8ume the form of the spiral rods. So far as can be at present determined this sponge appears to have consisted simply of a delicate thin sack or cylinder of spicular strands forming a rhombic mesh, with a thin outer spicular layer. There is no evidence that the sack inclosed an inner spicular tissue, and probably this thin wall represents its entire skeleton. A similar condition seems to have been present in Protospongia, Cyathyphycus, and probably also in Dictyospongia and the genera allied to it, but in none of these do we find the structure on such a large scale as in the present form. 114 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Suborder MoNACTINELLIDA, or of doubtful affinity. Genus LASIOTHRIX, Hinde." Sponges small, depressed oval in outline, the outer surface covered by a layer of longitudinally arranged, apparently simple, acerate spicules ; beneath this is another layer of spicules disposed transversely. From the base of the sponge several simple elongated spicules extend, The peculiar arrangement of the surface spicules in this form indi- cates a probably new genus, but in its present condition one cannot tell with certainty whether it is monactinellid or hexactinellid. The outer surface seems to have been invested with a sheathing of regularl. ar- ranged acerate spicules, and beneath these other spicules, disposed trans- versely, can be distinguished, but whether these are really acerate or modified hexactinellid spicules there is no decisive evidence to show. In one or two instances the spicules appear to be cruciform, and the presence of the long, simple anchoring-spicules extending from the base of the sponge, precisely as in normal hexactinellids, is a further point in favour of its belonging to this division, 11.—_LasioTHRix CURVICOSTATA, Linde. (Fig. 24.) The type form is transversely oval, 8 mm, in height by 12 mm, in width, the anchoring-spicules can be traced to a length of 15 mm. from the body. The summit is rounded. There are some nodular elevations. of pyrites in the body portion, but it is doubtful whether they represent Fic. 24.—Lasiothrix curvicostata. Natural size and portion enlarged. aggregations of spicules or are merely due to the chemical deposition of the mineral, in connection with the presence of organic matter, This curious little sponge, of which few specimens were found, is remarkable for the strong curved spicules which support its sides, giving 1 British Fossil Sponges, Pal. Soc., 1888, Pl. i., fig. 3. [pawson] FOSSIL SPONGES AND OTHER ORGANIC REMAINS 115 the appearance of a rounded basket with strong vertical ribs and very slender horizontal bars, within which and at top were quantities of slender straight spicules, 12.—_LASIOTHRIX FLABELLATA, §. Nl. (Fig. 25.) Fic. 25.—Lasiothrix flabellata. Restored, and spicules x 5. I have some doubt as to the right of this species to be placed in Dr. Hinde’s new genus; but the specimens much resemble the former species, and may accompany it provisionally. The surface appears to be covered with small ovoid bundles of stout biacerate spicules, diverging from the centre and sometimes in fan-shaped tufts, The specimens show indications of an external membrane, and they had somewhat strong root spicules, much larger than those of the body. It seems uncertain whether the fan- shaped bundles are really such or flattened groups of radiating spicules surrounding small oscula. In some specimens the spicules are confusedly scattered in films of pyritous matter with little indication of radiating arrangement. Dr. Hinde remarks as to this form that ‘the spicules do not stand out definitely, as in the case of the hexactinellid sponge spicules, but appear to be imbedded in some membrane. In two instances, anchor- ing-spicules, like those of Protospongia, project from the base of the mass. I do not know of any monactinellid sponge furnished, as these appear to have been, with long anchoring-spicules.” The sponges of this genus are very rare in the Metis collections, and are obscure and difficult to make out as to their details. 116 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Genus HALICHONDRITES. Dn. 13.—HALICHONDRITES CONFUSUS. Dawson. (Fig. 26.) $ Fic. 26.—Halichondrites confusus. Spicules enlarged. Ovalfor irregular!masses of small simple spicules, imbedded in patches of pyrite, andjwithout any definite arrangement of ruot spicules, may indicate the presence of a halichondroid sponge. In the best preserved specimens the spicules appear to be biacerate and more slender and pointed than in the last, and they seem to be in two series, inclined at a very oblique angle to each other. In some specimens elongated spaces, with well-defined margins, are covered with thin films of pyrites, which may have resulted from the replacement or incrustation of a mass of minute spicules, of which traces remain in some places. It is to be observed in this connection that sponges having originally much keratose or other dense animal matter would naturally aggregate in and around themselves a greater quantity of pyrite than those of a more purely siliceous character, GENUS STEPHANELLA, Hinde. Established by Dr. Hinde, London Geological Magazine, 1891, p. 22, to contain some sponge remains discovered by Dr. Ami in the Utica shale at Ottawa, and consisting apparently of groups of very fine radiating spicules. S. sancta, Hinde, is the type species. Dr. Hinde regards them as basal spicules of a sponge to which other outer structures which have perished may have been attached. 14.—STEPHANELLA HINDII, s. n. (Figs. 27, 28 and 29.) Fic. 27.—Stephanella Hindii. Slightly enlarged. [pawson] FOSSIL SPONGES AND OTHER ORGANIC REMAINS 117 Many fragments of this species have been found from time to time, showing long stout tapering anchoring-rods with masses of long slender simple spicules near them ; but in 1895 for the first time nearly perfect specimens were observed. They consist of discs somewhat larger than those of S. sancta, made up of fine straight spicules radiating from a point near one side and rather coarser than those of S. sancta, and showing here and there a tendency to be aggregated more densely as if in bundles, but this is not very marked. At and toward the circumference there are occasionally a few very small cruciform spicules which, as they are not confined to one specimen, I regard as probably the remains of an outer or cortical layer. If they are accidental they must be the smaller spicules of disintegrated Protospongiæ entangled in the spicular surface of Ste- phanella. It seems more likely, however, that they are a part of its structure, in which case it furnishes an example of a sponge with a dense internal skeleton of radiating spicules. Fig. 27 represents a nearly / Fic. 28.—Stephanella Hindii. Fragment Fic. 29.—Stephanella ? Anchoring- with anchoring-rods. rods and part of the spicules, enlarged. complete specimen, and Figs. 28 and 29 disintegrated fragments with the anchoring-roots, which in some specimens are longer and more tapering than in others, though always very stout at the base. In Dr. Amis specimens from Ottawa, a few stout anchoring-rods and cruciform spicules are found in the same slabs with Stephanella, but none of them are seen to be attached. I think it not improbable, how- ever, that the former, at least, belong to Stephanella. 118 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA INCERTA SEDIS. 15. NoN-SPICULATE SPONGES.—Pyritous spots of indeterminate form, and showing under the lens only an obscure granular and flocculent ap- pearance are not infrequent on the surfaces of the Metis shales. In addition to these, however, there are two types of these objects of more definite shape, either triangular with a dark space in the centre or oval. The former seem to be flattened hollow cones, the latter possibly flattened sacs. Some of the former show sufficient traces of spicules to connect them. with Protospongia cyathiformis, while others may be entirely pyritized individuals of P. delicatula. In addition to these, however, there are others which, under the lens and when moistened, show indications of simple linear spicules, and more numerous examples which seem to be composed of indeterminate and interlaced fibres reminding one of the tissue of a corneous sponge. None of them have any indications of anchoring rods. For the present [ merely mention them as possibly indicating types of sponges distinct from any of those above described. 16. SPICULATE sacs.—Imbedded in the debris of the larger specimens of Hyalostelia, there are oval flattened patches made up of a dense mass of very small and apparently simple spicules, but presenting no aperture or anchoring-rods. Having found them only in connection with Hyalo- stelia, I at first imagined they might be some form of ovarian body ; but Dr. Hinde doubts this, and is inclined to regard them as distinct ‘anisms. One of them is represented in Fig. 30 of about the natural org Fia. 30.—Spiculate sac, found with Hyalostelia. size. If distinct sponges, there may have been some commensal relation between them and Hyalostelia. They are quite distinct from the little masses of broken spicules referred to above in Section IV, 17. MINUTE GLOBULAR OR CrrcuLAR BoDIEs. Surfaces of an inch or more in diameter are occasionally stippled with minute pyritous spots ; when magnified these appear perfectly round and of approximately uniform dimensions. They may either be inor- [pawson] FOSSIL SPONGES AND OTHER ORGANIC REMAINS 119 ganic discs of pyrite, or may represent flattened organic bodies. In the latter case, they may be germs or ova, or spores, or portions of some complex vegetable or animal organism They recall the little spherules described by Matthew as occurring in the Cambrian of New Brunswick, and named by him Monadites globularis. I have not been able, however, to detect any indications of connecting rods or stalks like those figured by Matthew." VI. OTHER ANIMAL REMAINS. The most important of these are the little brachiopods referred to above : OBOLELLA (LINNARSSONIA) PRETIOSA, Billings. Fic. 31.—Linnarssonia pretiosa, Billings. a, natural size of medium specimens, b, ventral, c, dorsal valve. These are very abundant on the same surfaces which hold the sponges. and are usually replaced by pyrite, though sometimes appearing as mere casts. They often show their interior structures as represented in Fig. 31. They afford for the present the best evidence in relation to the geo- logical age of the deposit, since the speciesis characteristic of the Sillery, and the genus is a Cambrian rather than Ordovician one in Europe. For this reason I quote here Dr. Hall’s description, based on Metis specimens submitted to him some years ago. I may add that Mr. Whiteaves, our best Canadian authority, concurs in referring these shells to Billings’s species O. pretiosa : “ Shell small, subcircular or elongate transversely. Valves subequally convex, the ventral beak erect, slightly projecting and perforated at its apex. External surface covered with fine concentric lines, fait radia- ting striæ being visible on the interstitial lamellae. The interior of the ventral valve bears a subtriangular or U-shaped ridge, the branches of which diverge anteriorly. The thickest portion of this ridge at the union of the branches is penetrated by the foraminal tube. In front of the foramen, and just within the cardinal line, on either side the axis of the shell is a conspicuous tubercle or boss. In the dorsal valve is a median ridge, extending half the length of the valve, and from this two short lateral ridges diverge, taking their origin at one-third the length of the median ridge from the posterior margin.” 4 1 Transactions Royal Society, 1889. 120 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA ANNELIDS. Trails and castings of worms are not infrequent in the shales holding thesponges. Some surfaces are covered with what seem to be very minute cylindrical smooth trails of worms, and larger worm-like bodies in pyrite seem to represent casts of burrows or of the bodies of worms. Some of these are a quarter of an inch in diameter and rudely annulated in an irregular manner. There are also a few casts in pyrite of spiral forms like the Areniceolites spiralis already mentioned. These burrows and trails are similar to those found in various places at and near Little Metis in the beds of the Quebee Group. MISCELLANEOUS FRAGMENTS. Minute fragments, possibly referable to Trilobites, Cystideans and Graptolites, are occasionally seen, though very rarely, and are quite indeterminable. ALG Ai. BUTHOTREPHIS PERGRACILIS, Dawson, Fic. 32.—Buthotrephis pergracilis. I have nothing to add to the description of this species in the paper of 1889, except that some of the specimens appear to be connected below with a network of slender filaments spread out on the shale, that some of the specimens show indications of a structure of elongated cells or fibres, and that at the extremities of some of the branches there are tufts of rounded masses of granular pyritous matter ; but whether these are [pawson] FOSSIL SPONGES AND OTHER ORGANIC REMAINS 121 remains of organs of fructification or attached animal structures, or merely inorganic aggregations, I have not been able to determine. CHONDRITES METISSICUS, 8. n. Flattened fronds, two to four millimetres broad and the largest eight to ten centimetres long. They are riband-like and smooth, with even edges and fork dichotomously at angles of 40° or more. They show traces of carbonaceous matter but no structure. In concluding this paper I think it proper to remark on the exuberance of sponge life, both in abundance of individuals and of generic and specifie forms on a limited area of muddy sea-bottom of the lower Ordovician or later Cambrian age, evidenced by the collections made at Little Metis, the account of which in this paper is presented as merely the result of recre- ative excursions in the summer vacation, in a field different from that in which the author is usually engaged. In a formation usually little productive of fossils, and in muddy deposits, which must have been laid down in water at a low temperature and in the intervals of conditions producing beds of a coarse mechanical character, this abundance of delicate organisms is very unexpected and surprising. We have to observe also that if the sponges in question were, like their modern allies, inhabitants of deep water, there must have been considerable oscillations of level at the time when they lived, as well as much deposition of earthy matters in circumstances unfavorable to marine life, as evidenced in the great thicknesses of barren material inter- vening between the sponge-bearing layers. Dr. Hinde has already mentioned the close alliance of many of these Paleozoic sponges with their successors in later formations and-in the modern seas, evidencing the great permanence of the siliceous sponges throughout geological time, and the fixation of the mechanical and vital laws of their structure and growth at a very remote period. More especially is this remarkable if we include with them the spicular forms which have been recognized in the Laurentian, Huronian and Early Cambrian rocks. The graptolites belonging to the oceanic waters of the Cambrian and Ordovician have already indicated the paramount im- portance of giving attention to the general oceanic fauna of these periods, as well as to that of the continental plateaus, and it is possible that in future the sponges may also prove of more value than heretofore in regard to questions of relative geological age. The results of these observations at Little Metis, in connection with the obscure and unobtrusive character of the fossils, also show how much is in the power of local collectors, having time and opportunity to follow up any discovery by excavation and continued collection. In this way beds for the most part unfossiliferous and presenting few attractions to a passing collector, may be made to yield unexpected scientific treasures. * N at A : 2 7 ae +e as x : . A van , Ve OR NET NL rs , | ‘ agra lnesete, \ 7 Pade Te ete Of ; LAN APM 7 : » À à , « t * iw LEE an ow. 5 , Trans. 1896. Sec. IV.—PLarp I. FOSSIL SPONGES [DAwson ] aes By Fig. 1.—Protospongia tetranema. Fig. 2.—P. mononema. Fig. 3.— Do Showing osculum, partly broken away. Fig. 4.—P. tetranema. Seen in section with root. (All natural size.) 123 ata tS. ont t/, AD PME + | , ~ ire CITE {DAWSON ] FOSSIL SPONGES ~— Trans. 1896. Sec. IV.— PLATE IT. FIG. 8. Fig. 5.—Crushed specimen of Protospongia coronata, encrusted with pyrite. (Natural size.) Fig. 6.—Smaller perfect specimen of the same. (Natural size.) Fig. 7.—P. cyathiformis. (Natural size.) Fig. 8.—The same. Young specimen enlarged. 125 [DAWSON | FOSSIL SPONGES TRANS. 1896. Sec. IV.—PLare. IIT. Fira. 10. Hig. 12: Fig. 9.—Portion of Palwosaccus Dawsoni. Fig. 10.—Slab with small specimen of Hyalostelia Metissica at (a). Protospongia cyathi- ormis at (b) and fragment of Cyathophycus at (c). Fig. 11.—Acanthodictya h ispida. Fragment of small specimen, partly encrusted with pyrite. Fig. 12.—Debris of Protospongia. (All natural size.) 127 SEC. IV.—PLATE 1V. TRANS. 1896. FOSSIL SPONGES [pAwsox] Fire. 13. Fig. 13.—Spiral anchoring-rods of Palæosaceus, enlarged. 129 Secrion IV., 1896. ge eS | Trans. R. 8. C. VII.—Past Experiences and Future Prospects of Fruit-growing in the Canadian Northwest. By Wm. SaunpErs, LL.D., F.L.S., F.CS., etc. Director of Dominion Experimental Farms. (Read May 22, 1896.) The Northwest plains of the Dominion, which have become so noted for their fertility and for the fine quality and abundance of the cereals they produce, have as yet contributed but little to the needs of the settlers in the way of fruits. The species native to the country are not very numerous, and while some of them are widely disseminated, others are comparatively limited in their distribution. The wild crab apple, Pyrus coronaria, has not been found anywhere in Manitoba or the Territories. Among the species of the genus Prunus which occur in that country, the wild plum, Prunus americana, is per- haps the most important. This occurs in different parts of Manitoba and is common in the valley of the Assiniboine River and in other river valleys in the southern parts of that province. The bird, or pin cherry, Prunus Pennsylvanica, is found all through the plains to the Rocky Mountains ; but in the bluffs and wooded regions in that country it is commonly a shrub and rarely grows higher than 8 to 10 feet. It bears an abundant crop, but the fruit is very small and the stone or pit disproportionately large. It is, however, collected and prized by the settlers, who convert it into a very palatable jelly for table use. The western choke cherry, Prunus demissa ?, is also found on the western plains ; but there it does not usually grow to greater dimensions than those of a large shrub. Macoun states “that this species extends across the entire continent, and is found as far north as Lat. 62 on the Mac- kenzie River.” He also says “that on the southern prairie, amongst sand and along river banks, it produces fruit which vies in sweetness with the far-famed ‘ Saskatoom’ berries of the Plains Indians.” The sand or dwarf cherry, Prunus pumila, is also a native of the far west. It is found in many parts of Manitoba, is common about the Lake of the Woods, and is said by Macoun to occur “on the prairies to about the 108th meridian and has been found as far north as Prince Albert.” As representing the genus Ribes, there are two forms of the wild black currant, one yellow flowering, R. floridum, and the other white flowering, Rk. Hudsonianum. These are both found in coulées and ravines in the prairie region and northward throughout most of the settled country. In similar localities there are also found two species of the small, smooth gooseberry, the fruit of which, in both cases, is black 132 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA when fully ripe. One of these, R. setosum, has very bristly or thorny stems; the other, À. oxyacanthoides, has the branches almost smooth. All these wild fruits are gathered and are much esteemed by the settlers. The June berry or Saskatoom, Amelanchier alnifolia, is found almost everywhere, on bluffs or in ravines and on the broken slopes of river banks and is largely used by the Indians on the plains as well as by the white settlers. While this fruit is best when consumed in a fresh con- dition, there are, in seasons of abundance, large quantities of the berries dried, and in this way they are preserved for use indefinitely. The Buffalo berry, Shepherdia argentea, which is very generally dis- tributed throughout Manitoba and the Territories, is another fruit worthy of mention. This isa bright red, acid berry, about the size of the com- mon barberry, and is found in the valleys of creeks and rivers, but not on the open plains. It grows as far north as the Peace River and probably further. The fruit in this case is not produced in bunches as in the barberry, but grows singly and is freely distributed all over the bush, In some localities a bright yellow variety is found, which—as well as the red berry—makes excellent jelly. The wild red raspberry, Rubus strigosus, occurs in the thickets of scrub and in wooded ravines everywhere on the plains from their eastern limits to and beyond the mountains. In some seasons this fruit is fairly abundant, but it is sometimes injured, and the yield greatly lessened, by spring frosts. The wild strawberry, Fragaria Virginiana, is also very generally dis- tributed, and in some districts, when the season is favourable, it bears abundantly. The fruit, however, is too small to be of much commercial value. Several species of blueberry, Vaccinium, are found in different sec- tions of the north-west country, in swampy or boggy districts ; also on sandy barrens and exposed shores on the northern lakes. These are gathered in considerable quantities by Indians and settlers, and forwarded to the towns and cities, where they meet with a ready sale. Besides these, there are two very useful species which extend all through the mountains, V. myrtilloides and V. ovalifolium. These grow in great abundance and produce fruit of fine quality near the summit of the Selkirks. Oneof the low bush cranberries, Oxycoccus vulgaris, is found in boggy places and on the margins of ponds and small lakelets throughout the northern parts of Manitoba and westward to the Saskatchewan country and north as far as the Mackenzie River. Two species of high bush cranberry, Viburnum opulus and V. pauci- florum, are found in the valleys of the Red River, the Assiniboine, and the Saskatchewan, and generally throughout the settled portions of the territories. ‘These also are used more or less by the settlers and are said to be very palatable both for jellies and pies. [SAUNDERS ] FRUIT-GROWING IN THE NORTHWEST 133 The wild frost grape, Vitis riparia, is found in Manitoba, but its distribution appears to be limited to the river valleys in the southern parts of the province, and the quantity of fruit yielded by it is small. While these various species of wild fruit are useful and very accept- able to the dwellers on the plains, they are not sufficient to satisfy their requirements and, with the earliest establishment of settlements, there was manifested a desire to introduce and test the different varieties of fruits which the settlers had been accustomed to cultivate in their former homes. This led to more or less extensive individual trials of many varieties of apples, pears, plums and cherries as well as many different sorts of small fruits. While most of the small fruits have usually been fairly successful, the test of a single winter has generally been sufficient to destroy the great part of the larger fruits, both root and branch, and to kill the -hardier sorts, which are often designated by thie nurserymen “jronclads,”’ to the snow line. But the settler in his loyalty to his new found home has usually been averse to attribute any part of his want of success to the severity or unsuitability of the climate; he would rather lay the blame on the nurseryman for not sending good trees, or take it on his own shoulders and attribute the failure to his own lack of knowl- edge of the proper methods of planting and treatment. As experience of this sort multiplied, some settlers, more easily discouraged, adopted the opposite view and would assert that no fruit of any value could be grown in that climate, and that it was a waste of time and money to make the attempt. During the winter of 1886 and the summer of 1887, my first visit was made to the western plains, with the object of gaining information as to the possibilities in that country, not only of agriculture, but also of horticulture. 1 found the widest differences of opinion among the settlers as to the capabilities of the country for fruit growing, although I nowhere saw any evidence of success resulting from any one of the many trial plantations which had been made. When the selection of a site for the branch experimental farm for Manitoba was made, the land chosen included a considerable area of light soil, with gravelly subsoil on the bluffs — just such land as is suitable for many varieties of fruit. These bluffs and ravines also supplied many spots well sheltered by growths of native scrub oak, cherry, hazel, dog- wood and other trees and shrubs, where the bearing of the question of shelter on this subject could be tested, as well as that of soil. For the other Northwest experimental farm, a site was chosen at Indian. Head, in Eastern Assiniboia, on a section of flat prairie land bare of all trees and shrubs, with one or two shallow ravines running through portions of it, in which water runs in the spring, but which are usually dry early in the summer, excepting in ee spots where artificial dams have been made to retain the water. Sec. IV., 1896. 8. 134 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA These variations in the character of the land chosen, as to situation, exposure and soil, were intended to afford opportunity for testing exam- ples of leading agricultural and horticultural products under the many conditions which surround settlement in different parts of the Canadian Northwest. It was thought best that one of these farms should possess special advantages of soil and shelter for horticultural work, while the other should have a position as open, bleak and flat as that of any settler on the plains. While agricultural undertakings claimed the larger part of attention at both of these farms, experiments were begun in hor- ticulture by sending to each large consignments of fruit trees and vines of all sorts. As time went on, all the varieties obtainable which are grown with success in the eastern parts of the Dominion, in the northern parts of the United States, and the northern countries of Europe, were tested. Full advantage was taken of the opportunities of securing the hardiest sorts of European fruits arising from the importation of scions by the U. 5. Department of Agriculture from the northern parts of Russia, in 1870. Jxamples were also obtained from the importations made by the late Charles Gibb, of Abbotsford, Quebec, and Professor J. L. Budd, of Ames, Iowa, who visited Russia together in 1878 with the express cbject of securing hardy varieties of fruit and other trees for test in the colder districts of this country. Direct importations have also been made from Siberia and other parts of Russia. Orchards including from four to five hundred of such varieties, were established at Ottawa and these were freely propagated by hundreds and, in some more promising instances, by thousands, and distributed for test, not only to the western Experi- mental Farms, but in smaller numbers to individual settlers, so that they might be tested under every condition as to soil, shelter, ete. All new seedlings for which special hardiness has been claimed have been included in the tests, which have been several times repeated with the same varie- ties in order to make them thoroughly complete and reliable. The quan- tities of trees, of each sort, sent for trial to the branch Farms have varied in number from 2, 3 or 4 trees te 10,20 and 25, and these have been tested in different soils and under varying conditions as to shelter. At Brandon, plantations were made on the open prairie land in the Assiniboine Valley, also in clearings made in the scrub on the lighter land on the blufts, where the trees had the advantage of such shelter as this natural growth afforded. Sites were chosen in this scrub, with different aspects, and half-acre plots cleared and devoted to the different kinds of large fruits. In these protected spots there was, at first, promise of some mea- sure of success, and on one occasion a Transcendant crab blossomed and bore a few specimens ; but after eight years of trial, including tests of over two hundred of the most promising varieties and of several thousand trees in all, not a tree remains to-day from which there is any reasonable hope of obtaining fruit in any considerable quantity. ae ot a [SAUNDERS] FRUIT-GROWING IN THE NORTHWEST 135 In a garden at Morden, in southern Manitoba, [ saw growing in the summer of 1895 several specimens of Transcendant crabs and of a small variety of apple which was probably a seedling. Transcendant crabs were also seen in the garden of Mr, A. P. Stevenson, of Nelson, near Morden ; but in both these localities protection and shelter of a most exceptional character was afforded by neighbouring woods. The height above sea level is also much less here than at Brandon, The Transcendant crab has also been ripened in gardens in Winnipeg. On the flat prairie farm at Indian Head, N.W.T., similar experiments to those at Brandon have been conducted—some of them on the exposed plain, others in the shelter of belts of young trees or hedges—and all these have likewise failed. The only variety of crab which has succeeded and endured the climate without injury, both at Brandon and Indian Head, is the berried Pyrus. Pyrus baccata, a very hardy species from Siberia, the fruit of which is very small, not much larger than a cherry. Efforts are now being made to improve this crab in size and quality, by cross-fertilizing it with the hardiest sorts of apples and the larger crabs. Nearly 200 of these cross-bred sorts have been produced, and have been planted in a closely set orchard at the Central Experimental Farm, for test. Judging from the experience which has been had with other cross-bred fruits, it is expected that, among these many varieties, some will be found with larger and improved fruit, likely to be hardy and of value to the settlers on the Northwest plains. This work is now being enlarged and many additional crosses with the hardiest sorts of apples obtainable have been made during the present year. The wild plum and the sand cherry are the most valuable and promis- ing of the native fruits belonging to the genus, Prunus, and efforts towards the improvement of both of these are in progress along similar lines. The three wild fruits named, all of which are quite hardy in Mani- toba and the Northwest Territories, are subject to a considerable amount of variation in regard to the size and quality of their fruit. The trees of Pyrus baccata aurantiaca as raised from seed, bear fruit varying in size from that of a large marrowfat pea to above that of a large cherry, and in colour, from yellow to bright red. , The wild plum also varies much in size, colour and quality, some trees producing red fruit and others yellow, and while some of the fruit possesses very little astringency, other samples are scarcely edible. The sand cherry is subject to similar variation, bushes being occasion- ally found with fruit of more than double the size of the ordinary form, with a larger proportion of pulp to stone and with a superior quality of flesh, Asa rule, the fruit is black, but occasional yellow varieties are found which possess fair quality. When fruits are thus subject to very free variations under natural conditions, we may expect still greater gradations in character where the 136 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA trees are brought under the influences attending higher cultivation and cross-fertilizing. It is believed that the future prospects in con- nection with the efforts now being made to improve the three fruits referred to, are hopeful and that they will in all probability in time result in giving the people of the Northwest useful fruits in these several classes, In the growing of small fruits good progress has already been made with raspberries, red and white, also with black currants, and goose- berries. The varieties of raspberries which have succeeded best are the Turner, Philadelphia, Sarah and Caroline. The cultivated varieties of strawberries have not succeeded well. Many of them have proved tender, and those that are hardy have usually failed, mainly, I think, for the reason that the ground is generally too dry on the surface during the summer to permit of the rooting of the runners, thus preventing the plants from multiplying. In some localities which admit of limited irrigation, it is possible that this difficulty may be overcome, Currants of all sorts are usually hardy— red, white, and black. Among gooseberries there are several hardy forms, notably Hough- ton’s Seedling and Smith’s Improved, both of which are of American origin. The English varieties are nearly all too tender to endure the climate in the Northwest. All the small fruits, not only the cultivated but the wild sorts also, are liable to injury from spring frosts, and occasionally, when the frosts. are very severe, the crop is almost destroyed. ; All attempts to grow the cultivated varieties of the grape have thus far failed, notwithstanding that all the hardier sorts have been tested, The wild grape, however, Vitis riparia, which has been referred to as growing in the river valleys in the southern parts of Manitoba, is now under test and it is hoped that useful and hardy sorts may eventually be obtained from this source. a Section IV., 1896. [ 137 ] Trans. R. S.C. VIII.— Palæozoic Outliers in the Ottawa River Basin. By R. W. Ezzs, LL.D. (Read May 21, 1896.) The presence of fossiliferous sediments at various points throughout the valley of the Ottawa has been known for many years, and some of these have been described in considerable detail in the earlier reports of the Geological Survey. Important and extensive collections of the con- tained fossils have been made from time to time, both by officers of the Survey and by others interested in the subject, and the horizon of most of these outliers has thus been ascertained. No regularly arranged tables of these fossils have, however, hitherto been made and published.’ The formations recognized embrace the whole range of the Cambro- Silurian (Ordovician) system from the Potsdam sandstone to the Lorraine shales, both inclusive, while certain areas of newer strata, found at widely separated points, show that the Medina and Niagara formations of the Upper Silurian are also represented. The basin of the Ottawa River, as determined by its tributaries, is extensive, the drainage area probably comprising not far from 130,000 square miles. The Ottawa itself follows a somewhat peculiar course, the upper part for nearly three hundred miles flowing westward from its source near the upper waters of the Gatineau, one of its principal tribu- taries from the north, to the head of Lake Temiscaming, while the lower portion flows in a nearly opposite or southeasterly direction to its junc- tion with the St. Lawrence, a distance in a direct line from the head of Temiscaming Lake of about four hundred and fifty miles. The height of land which separates the drainage basin of the Ottawa from that of James Bay is found a short distance to the north of the upper stretch of the river. That part of the basin between the main or lower portion of the Ottawa and the northern divide is occupied for the most part, in so far at least as is now known, by crystalline rocks com- prising limestones, gneisses, granites, etc., of Archean age, which have always been regarded as belonging to the Laurentian system. To the north of Ottawa city the height of land is about two hundred and thirty miles distant, and the eastern limit of the drainage area is marked by the River du Nord, which after a somewhat irregular course to the northwest of Montreal enters the Ottawa River about thirty miles west of its junction with the St. Lawrence. To the west of Lake Temiscaming, the line dividing the Ottawa waters from those of Lake Huron on the 1 The publication of these lists is for the present deferred, owing to the large amount of material therein contained. They will, however, shortly appear in the report of the Geological Survey on the areas adjacent to the Ottawa River. 138 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA south and James Bay on the north, is determined by the Montreal River and its tributaries, while from the head waters of this stream the height of land extends southeasterly in an irregularly curving line to the eastern end of Lake Nipissing. To the south of the Ottawa, the St. Lawrence water-shed, for nearly one hundred miles, keeps very close to the latter river, and in the vicinity of Prescott and Brockville it is scarcely more than three to four miles distant. Thence it curves northwesterly to the head of the Rideau chain of lakes in Bedford township, continuing northward through the centre of the county of Addington, and the northern portions of Hastings and Haliburton, and separating the waters of the Madawaska and Petawawa rivers on the north from those of the Muskoka on the south, continues on to meet that already described as reaching the east shore of Lake Nipissing from the Montreal River basin. The area to the north and south of the Ottawa is well watered, abounding in lakes, often of large size, with many tributary streams, so that the country is comparatively easy of access by canoes throughout the greater part of its extent. Much of this area, especially to the south, has long been opened up for settlement, the soil where underlaid by the Paleozoic formation being of very superior quality. The area to the north, being more rugged, has been settled principally along the valleys of its principal streams. North of the Ottawa the principal affluents are the Kippewa, Du Moine, Black, Coulonge and Gatineau, with its many branches, some of which have their source in lake expansions of great extent, in the vicinity of the upper stretch of the river, and the Lièvre, Nation, Rouge and du Nord. To the west and south the Montreal, Mattawa, Petawawa, Mada- waska, Bonnechère, Mississippi, Rideau and South Nation also drain a large expanse of country. Over this southern area the greater part also is occupied by the crystalline rocks of Laurentian and Huronian age, the Paleozoic areas apparently filling deeply eroded basins in these underly- ing rocks. — While much of the country, on both sides of the Ottawa, is greatly broken by mountain masses or strongly pronounced hill features, very large tracts, more particularly as we recede from the river itself, become comparatively level, presenting the aspect of great sandy plains, out of which hills of granitic and gneissic rock rise to considerable elevations. So marked is this feature of sand distribution, with its underlying bluish- gray clay, that one naturally infers the presence of water at some time, over the greater portion of the entire area, probably to the height of land itself. This sandy character is probably best seen on the several tribu- taries of the Ottawa from the north as well as along much of the Ottawa itself for nearly a hundred miles below its junction with the Mattawa, where for many miles the country is covered with a great thickness of [eus] PALAÆOZOIC OUTLIERS IN THE OTTAWA RIVER BASIN 139 sand, supporting at present a growth of small pine. As for much of the underlying clay its origin is doubtful. Shells are found only at rare intervals, but in character the sediments strongly resemble the marine clays of the lower Ottawa. Organic remains have, however, been found at widely separated points in the valley, up to elevations of over four hundred and fifty feet above sea level. The overlying deposits of sand and gravel are frequently well stratified, and excellent sections of these, as well as of the underlying clays, are presented along many of the streams which have cut deep channels in the drift. In these Saxicava and other forms are found, While there are no exact determinations as to the altitude of the height of land north of the Ottawa, several close approximations have been obtained by means of barometric observations. The elevation of the Troquois Chute (Labelle). on the Rouge River, has been fixed by the suryey of the railway from St. Jerome at 875 feet on the terrace level one hundred feet above the river, though the elevation of the ridge east of St. Faustin, which the railway crosses, is 1,520 feet. The elevation of the height ofland to the northeast between the head waters of the Rouge and the head of the -Mattawin, a branch of the St. Maurice, will not probably exceed three hundred feet more, as we enter upon a broad extent of plain sandy SR beyond the bend of the river near the Nominingue Lake and Creek, that the height of land in this direction would not be far from 1,050 À 1,100 feet. marines west, near the sources of the Gatineau and upper Ottawa, the height of land has been estimated, by Dr. Bell, at about the same figure, the elevation of Grand Lake being put at about 860 feet. From observations by A. E. Barlow, the height of the Abittibbi divide, north of Lake Temiscaming, is put at 923 feet, while that at the head of Montreal River is not far from 1,300 feet, the elevation of Lake Temis- caming being only 585 feet. Continuing round by the south the height of the divide at Lake Nipissing is only 642 feet, but this gradually rises till, at the head waters of the Muskoka and Petawawa, it is, according to Murray, about 1,400 feet. Near the source of the Madawaska River at Papineau Lake, the same authority gives the elevation at 1,121 feet. Murray also places the source of the Little Madawaska at 869 feet, and of Wahsuhze Lake at the head of the Maganetawan at 1,097. Further east the height of the divide at the head of the Rideau lakes, according to the Canal survey, has sunk to 417 feet. The principal area of fossiliferous sediments in the Ottawa valley, is that which extends up the lower part of the Ottawa River from its junc- tion with the St. Lawrence and is continuous with the great area which occupies the valley of the St. Lawrence for hundreds of square miles, Prior to the deposition of these sediments a deep depression must have extended northwestward from that river for many miles and the drainage basin of the Ottawa, even at that early time, was well established. The 140 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA sedimentary deposits along the north side of the lower Ottawa at present form a narrow margin along the stream which is continuous almost to the Chats Falls, nearly one hundred and fifty miles from its mouth. The area is bounded by ranges of hills which rise a short distance back from the river ; but to the south of the Ottawa the country is largely a level plain, and the sedimentary formations spread over a very considerable extent, whose western limit may be roughly bounded by a line drawn from Arnprior, forty miles west of Ottawa city, to Brockville, on the St. Lawrence, about one hundred and twenty-five miles west of Montreal, Several small outcrops of the underlying crystalline rocks appear, how- ever, from beneath these generally horizontal strata. The basal beds of this great series of fossiliferous sediments are fre- quently composed of the debris of the Laurentian gneiss and limestone, upon which these arkose strata rest, and these constitute the lowest member of the Potsdam sandstone which is now regarded as the base of Calciferous formation. The whole series along the lower Ottawa is of special interest from the geological and paleontological standpoint, from the fact that we have here, in unaltered form and undisturbed, a com plete series of strata which may be regarded as furnishing a typical section of the Cambro-Silurian system from the very bottom to the over- lying Silurian. While, however, several sections are found which enable us to measure the thicknesses of the various formations, this thickness is found to vary somewhat in different portions of the area; and though the strata, as a whole, are comparatively horizontal in attitude they are at many points affected by local faults, some of which are of considerable extent, so that the problem of the determination of the entire thickness is thereby somewhat complicated. In addition to the Cambro-Silurian formations which occur in this area, we find to the southeast of Ottawa city, in Osgoode and Russell townships, several outcrops of a reddish sandy shale, precisely similar to what have been described as occurring in the area east of the St. Law- rence, between Montreal and Quebec, and which have there been regarded as belonging to the Medina. Like the St. Lawrence outliers these newer red beds also appear to rest unconformably upon the Lorraine or Utica shales, while in the western part of the basin, on Lake Temiscaming, the geological section is still farther extended upward by the presence of several outliers of Silurian fossiliferous strata which represent the Niagara formation. It will thus be seen that the fossiliferous sediments of the old Ottawa basin have a very wide range, and that this area affords especially good facilities for the study of these early sedimentary strata. The Potsdam sandstone is readily recognized by its peculiar physical features wherever it occurs. It fills up depressions in the underlying crystalline rocks, is uniformly siliceous in composition and varies in colour from a gray to a deep red, the latter tint being apparently due to the [errs] PALÆOZOIC OUTLIERS IN THE OTTAWA RIVER BASIN 141 presence of a considerable percentage of iron (hematite) in its composi- tion. Its observed thickness, on the Ottawa, is no where more than fifty to sixty feet and in places is much less. In the upper stretches of the river it is entirely wanting, the upper formations such as Calciferous, Chazy or Trenton resting upon the Laurentian. In the development of the Potsdam sandstone and the Calciferous formations, as studied at many points, no line of separation is possible, the one passing into the other by insensible gradations through the addition of calcareous matter to the siliceous beds of the lower member. The typical Potsdam sandstone has not yet been recognized in the Ottawa River basin, much beyond the township of March or about twenty miles west of Ottawa city. At the Chats Falls and further west along the shore of the Chats Lake between Arnprior and the mouth of the Bonnechére, the Calciferous forms the lowest member of the series and fills up the inequalities in the Archean floor. It is succeeded directly by the greenish-gray shales and sandstones of the Chazy which pass upward by the development of calcareous bands into the upper or calcareous portion of that formation. The line of the Chats Falls, properly speak- ing, marks the western limit of the great lower Ottawa basin, though the sedimentary beds further west, around the lower part of the Chats Lake, were probably at one time continuous. There is, however, a marked break in the levels of the deposition of the Calciferous below and above the falls ; the Chats Lake beds being at a considerably higher level than those below. The great lower Ottawa basin is affected by several low undulations, though the inclination of the strata is at a low angle throughout the area. The lowest or Potsdam sandstone member is very regularly exposed along the western or Ontario margin, the highest members, viz., the Lorraine shales and the overlying Medina, being found nearer the northwestern angle of the basin but a short distance to the south and east of Ottawa city. Between the Calciferous and the Chazy a somewhat well defined change in the character of the strata is visible at various points. Thus the entire series of the former consists of limestones, somewhat siliceous, but generally highly dolomitic, with a well defined fauna. Occasionally somewhat thin arenaceous but dolomitic shales appear in the upper portion. À: peculiar feature of the limestone, and one by which the formation can be readily recognized, is the presence of geodes, holding yellowish-white cale-spar, though sometimes with quartz crystals or gypsum. This peculiarity is seen in the dolomites, from the most westerly outcrop on Allumette Island in the Ottawa, as well as in the beds east of the St. Lawrence ; and as a whole the strata composing this for- mation present a marked uniformity in texture and composition through- out their whole extent. 142 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA The second formation, viz., the Chazy, is separable into two portions, the lower of which is a shaly and sandy series, while the upper is largely calcareous. East of Ottawa, the lowest members can be well studied along the Grenville and Carillon Canal, while the upper portion is well developed in the area to the south. Excellent sections are also exposed in the vicinity of Ottawa city and along the shores of the Ottawa River at Aylmer, and on the southern bank in the townships of March and Fitzroy. The lowest beds of the Chazy at these places consist of a somewhat coarse greenish-gray grit or sandstone in places conglomeratic in char- acter, and in general aspect not unlike some of the gritty beds of the Sillery formation. These have a thickness of only a few feet and they graduate upwards into finer arenaceous beds of a light greenish-gray shade, with a considerable thickness of shales. Certain bands in this portion contain fossils and are fucoidal. Intercalated beds of limestone appear in the upper part, which gradually becomes more calcareous till the formation is essentially a limestone. At Aylmer the thickness of the lower portions of the Chazy, to the base of the limestones proper, is apparently not far from one hundred to one hundred and twenty feet. The thickness of the upper or calcareous portion varies greatly at different places, ranging from fifty to nearly one hundred feet. In its upper part the limestones become nodular, and certain beds of grayish colour are largely composed of Rhynconella plena.. The passage from the upper beds of the Chazy to the overlying beds of the Bird’s Eye and Black River, which lie between those just described and the main mass of the Trenton formation, appears to be gradual and to present no well defined break in the succession of the strata. The Black River, which in Canada includes the Bird’s Eye in its lower portion, consists of certain dark brown and black limestones often cherty, break- ing with a marked conchoidal fracture, and distinguished largely by the presence of Tetradium fibratum, which is in places so abundant as to con- stitute almost the entire mass of some of the beds. Certain other fossil forms, such as Columnaria Halli and Orthoceras Bigsbyi are particularly developed in the strata of this formation but from the difficulty of clearly distinguishing these limestones as a group from the Trenton at many places, they are now generally included in the latter formation. The thickness of the Bird’s Eye and Black River is given in the Geology of Canada! as only thirty-eight feet for the area in the lower Ottawa basin, near Montreal, but on the upper Ottawa, as at Eganville, Douglas, etc., this is increased to over one hundred feet, The Trenton is essentially a limestone formation throughout. The lower portion consists largely of grayish and black, often bituminous beds, holding an abundance of fossils, among which Stenopora fibrosa is very abundant ; the upper 350 to 400 feet are for the most part dark 1 Geology of Canada, 1863, p. 137. [ezzs] PALÆOZOIC OUTLIERS IN THE OTTAWA RIVER BASIN 143 coloured, bituminous and compact, with partings of dark brown or black argillaceous shale. This formation is particularly rich in organic remains, both of corals, shells and trilobites, and the area between the Ottawa and St. Lawrence, occupied by it, is estimated at over 600 square miles. The total thickness of this formation as developed in the lower Ottawa basin is not far from 650 to 700 feet. The Utica and Hudson River (Lorraine) formations constitute the upper members of the Cambro-Silurian system. While having their greatest development in the St. Lawrence valley, they also appear at several points in the Ottawa basin. The rocks of the lower division, or the Utica, are usually black brittle bituminous shales with thin bands of yellow-weathering limestone. The formation is thus lithologically distinct from the underlying Trenton, The thickness as given in the typical section at the Montmorency Falls, below Quebec, is 318 feet, but this thickness must be greatly reduced for the deposits in the Ottawa basin where it will probably not reach one hundred feet. There is no defined break between the strata of the Utica and those of the Lorraine, the passage being apparently continuous, through the replacement of the dark bituminous beds by grayish shales and sandstones and by an almost entire disappearance of calcareous matter. The thickness of the upper division is placed at 719 feet in the St. Lawrence section, but as in the ease of the Utica this must be also very largely reduced for the western area. The only known outlier of the Lorraine to the southeast of Ottawe is represented by a very thin series of beds, probably not more than thirty or forty feet in so far as yet observed. The formations just described for the lower Ottawa area complete the Cambro-Silurian series ; but as already intimated, in the townships 6f Osgoode and Russell, certain reddish shales and sandstones! occur which overlie the Lorraine, and presumably represent the Medina division of the Silurian. No fossils have yet been found in these newest outliers ; and owing to the great mantle of drift with which they are surrounded, and for the most part concealed, their thickness cannot be ascertained. In order to complete the series of Paleozoic formations which occur in the area now being discussed we may here refer to the peculiar outlier of Niagara rocks which occurs near the upper end of Lake Temiscaming. A description of these is given in the Geology of Canada, 1863, from which we learn that the formation lies unconformably upon the sand- stones (quartzites) of the Huronian of that district. The lower part of the outlier is generally arenaceous, and very often a conglomerate, con- taining large boulders of the underlying rock. Mr. A. E. Barlow, who has recently studied these rocks, describes them as occurring on both sides of the lake as well as on Chief’s Island and on several smaller islands near by. The base of the deposits is said to “ consist of vast boulders and 1 Geology of Canada, 1863, p. 219. 144 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA fragments of the underlying sandstone, in a calcareo-arenaceous fossilif- erous matrix ; some of the inclosed masses being nine feet in diameter. Near by are seen the Huronian sandstone strata, great cracks and worn fissures which are filled with the fossiliferous cement.”? The limestones which make up the bulk of this outlier are mostly buff or cream-coloured with thin interstratified shales. Some of the beds are hard and cherty, resembling lithographic stone, and the whole series contains an abundance of corals with other fossils which clearly indicate their horizon. | The thickness as exposed in the sections is stated to be about one hundred and fifty feet, and this is probably increased by the series of beds near the centre of the deposit, so that the whole thickness is estimated by Mr. Barlow as not more than three hundred feet. In regard to the several fossiliferous outliers which occur at often widely separated points throughout the basin of the Ottawa, it may be said that in none of these can the same succession of formations as we have just described be observed. Some are represented by but one, the others having been presumably removed by denudation of the overlying strata. ‘ On the north side of the Ottawa River, with the exception of the small fringe which is found between the Laurentian hills and the river itself, only two, or at most three, distinct areas of small size have yet been recognized. The most easterly of these is the small outlier of Calciferous strata lying to the east of the North River about seven miles northwest of St. Jerome to the north of Montreal, where characteristic fossils of this formation are found. Further west at the village of Lachute, a hill of Potsdam sandstone occurs just east of the village with an exposed thick- ness of about forty feet, and is directly overlaid by the Calciferous, which is seen in the bed of the North River at the crossing of the Canadian Pacific railway ; but these outcrops presumably represent the northern margin of the Ottawa and St. Lawrence basin. The succession of for-: mations seen in the city of Hull and thence to Aylmer and for several miles beyond, representing rocks of Calciferous, Chazy, Black River and Trenton age, also belong to the same basin, the northern margin of which is seen in thin strata of the Calciferous and Chazy near the village of Quyon, as well as in a small margin of the former on the north side of the river near the old village of Pontiac at the foot of the Chats Falls. The northern margin of the Arnprior and Sand Point outlier is also seen above the Chats, along the north shore of the Ottawa for several miles, as well as in several islands in the river below Bristol ; but on the roads, a mile or so east of Portage du Fort, isolated outcrops of dolomitic Calciferous strata occur which have been broken up and, in places, altered by the action of certain intrusive masses of greenstone which have cut 1 Geology of Canada, 1863, pp. 334-36. [ezzs] PALAOZOIC OUTLIERS IN THE OTTAWA RIVER BASIN 145 the underlying Laurentian limestone and associated gneiss. These out- liers are small in extent çovering only a few hundred square yards. With the exception of a narrow fringe of fossiliferous strata of Cal- ciferous and Chazy age along the shore of Coulonge Lake, which is an expansion of the Ottawa above the village of Fort Coulonge, and well seen at Sèche Point, as well as at the point above, no other deposits of sedimentary fossiliferous rocks were observed in this area, The Potsdam sandstones have evidently not been deposited along these upper stretches of the river basin, as the Calciferous and Chazy rest directly upon the crystalline rocks. The largest area of the Paleozoic strata in this direction is presumably that which occupies the greater part of Allumette Island and extends eastward across the channel of the Ottawa, comprising a very consider- able portion of the township of Westmeath. The formations here repre- sented are the Calciferous, on the west end of the island, Chazy and Black River, the latter of which has been particularly studied at Paquette’s Rapids near the junction of the south or Pembroke channel with that which continues down the north side of the island. The fossils occur in the usual dark-grayish limestone and are frequently silicified, causing them to stand out distinctly from the weathered or water worn surface of the containing rocks. The Chazy is represented by the lower greenish- gray shales and sandy beds and by the upper or limestone formations, the upper beds presenting the same nodular character as seen on the lower Ottawa. The western edge of this outlier shows a very narrow margin of Calciferous on the shore about four miles above the town of Pembroke, while the Chazy portion is represented in the town itself and for several miles to the southeast. The Westmeath area, which is the eastward extension of that on the island, shows but few outcrops of solid rock, the country being generally low and drift covered, but large masses of the characteristic Chazy and Black River limestone are seen at several points indicating the existence of the basin over a considerable area. The elevation of the Allumette Lake is about 370 feet above sea level which would be about the same as for the Chazy and Black River ridge at Sand Point near Arnprior. Another area of considerable size, but apparently separated from that just described, is seen to the south of the lower end of Muskrat Lake in the townships of Stafford and Bromley. The outlier embraces nearly twenty square miles and consists of the Chazy and Black River for- mations only, in so far as can be determined, the latter being particularly well exposed, Like other Paleozoic outcrops in this basin, the strata lie in a nearly or quite horizontal attitude, the inclinations observed being only from 1° to 3°, the principal area rising in a somewhat bold escarp- ment from the valley of the Muskrat River to a height of seventy-five or 146 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA eighty feet. The shaly beds of the Chazy do not appear in this direction, but the upper part of the plateau is occupied by the lower portion of the Trenton proper. ‘ A somewhat extensive and important outher is that found on the Bonnechére and extending on both sides of that stream for several miles. To the east of Lake Doré, a ridge of a hundred feet or so in height is thickly strewn with large blocks of Black River limestone and with boulders of Laurentian gneiss, the former holding characteristic fossils of the formation. Well defined ledges, however, rarely appear, though they are found at several points, rendering it probable that they underlie the area over a very considerable extent. These massive blocks of the Black River limestone form a peculiar feature, not only here but at several widely separated points and show that the Black River formation has had a very considerable development, being probably spread in a regular sheet at about the same elevation over long distances, throughout that part of the Ottawa basin above the Chats Falls in the vicinity of Arnprior, the beds near which place would seem to mark a second stage of elevation in the deposition of this formation. In the bed of the Bonnechére River near the village of Douglas, well defined ledges of the Chazy shales and sandstones are seen which dip at angles of 5° to 20° and these pass upward into the characteristic Chazy limestone which at the summit of the ridges to the north and south graduates into the Black River formation. What are regarded as Trenton beds are stated to occur at Jessup’s Rapids about seven miles west of Douglas and not far below the town of Eganville ; but as the lower Chazy occupies the bed of the stream at that place, dislocations must occur which have broken the regular succession of strata. The beds of the Black River are well exposed at this place, both along the stream and on the hills to the south, the thickness of the formation here being apparently not far from one hundred feet. Sections of the formations at these places on the Bonnechére were published by Murray in 1854. The elevation of the River Bonnechére at Douglas, is given by Murray at 383 feet The area along the stream is separated to the north by a ridge of crystalline limestone and gneiss, on which Douglas village is built, from a more extensive area which occupies a very considerable portion of the townships of Bromley and Wilberforce, and extends from the eastern side of Doré Lake for some fifteen miles in a southeast direction with an average breadth of from four to five miles. The upper beds of this outlier clearly belong to the Trenton formation, while to the south of the Bonnechére, Black River beds have a breadth of over one mile and extend for several miles eastward in a ridge along the south side of the stream, The two areas presumably connect in the flat-lying country to the east of Douglas. To the south of Eganville also an extension of the 1 Report of Progress, 1853-56, pp. 94-98, | pris] PALÆOZOIC OUTLIERS IN THE OTTAWA RIVER BASIN 147 upper Bonnechére outliers is seen with a breadth of more than a mile resting upon the Laurentian gneiss. Owing, however, to the very considerable extent of the drift deposits over much of this country, it is obviously very difficult to determine with accuracy the limits of these outcrops, since large areas are covered with blocks of the Black River formation, which rest presumably in many cases upon the underlying gneiss and granite. On the line of the Ottawa, Arnprior and Parry Sound railway, about three miles west of the station of Killaloe, which is near the southwest angle of Golden Lake, asmall outlier of grayish sandy-looking limestone, possibly à part of the Chazy formation, has been cut through. The exposed outcrop is only a few hundred yards in extent lying among the hills of gneiss and granite. The elevation of the spot on the railway was not ascertained, but is not far from 750 feet. To the south of this, on the southwest portion of Clear Lake, deposits of Trenton limestone are overlaid near the shore by typical Utica shales containing fossils characteristic of that formation. The elevation of Clear Lake is 745 feet above the se: , and this is the only observed out- crop of the Utica west of the city of Ottawa. Its elevation above the lake is about one hundred feet, but on the road which extends along the mountain at a further height of 500 feet or about 1,350 feet above the sea, great quantities of large blocks of the Black River limestone are scattered about. These do not, however, represent an outlier in place, the present position of the blocks being evidently due to ice action in some form. On the Opeongo road, however, about five miles east of this place, a large outlier of the Black River formation is seen. In the vicinity of Calabogie Lake, which has an elevation of 503 feet, outliers of Chazy and Black River rocks occur, both on the north and south side. The exposed outcrops are but small, much of the area being drift covered. Chazy blocks are also numerous on the Opeongo road about eight miles west of Renfrew, indicating a possible outlier of the formation in this direction. To the southwest of Clear Lake in the township of Lyndoch, an outlier of Silurian rock was also discovered by Dr. F. D. Adams in 1894. This is not far from the Madawaska River. but in the absence of fossils from this locality, its exact horizon cannot yet be stated. On the upper Ottawa an interesting outlier is seen on both sides of the river, at Deux Riviéres, about twenty miles below the mouth of the Mattawa. The exposure is seen along the stream for about three miles and consists for the most part of an impure limestone, which becomes more sandy in its lower portion. It is a buff gray in colour, and sufti- ciently siliceous to be used for grindstones. Throughout the entire thickness of the outlier orthoceratites and other fossils occur which fix its horizon as that of the Black River formation, though in lithological char- 148 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA acter the strata are quite different from those of the typical Black River of the lower Ottawa, These beds extend along the stream to L’Eveille Rapids, a distance of about three miles, and the elevation of this point is 480 feet above sea. Interesting outliers also occur on some of the islands in Lake Nipissing, at an elevation of 642 feet. These are also of Black river age, but like those last mentioned the strata differ in aspect from those of the lower Ottawa, though the contained fossils are similar. The formations recognized in all these Paleozoic outliers, are for the most part, highly fossiliferous, with the exception of the Potsdam sand- stone. In this, as developed in the lower Ottawa basin, the principal traces of organic remains are seen in the peculiar markings known as Scolithus, which, on weathered surfaces, present the form of nearly cylindrical holes from the twentieth to the eighth of one inch in diameter. Some of the strata are thickly studded with these markings which pene- trate the rock to a depth of several inches, sometimes in a direct course but frequently curved, and often irregularly contorted. The origin of these is, as yet, doubtful. Other peculiar markings found on the surfaces of certain beds of the sandstone have apparently been caused by the passage of some crustacean across them, of which, however, no trace has yet been found in the rock itself. These have received the name of Protichnites. As we approach the transition beds between the sandstones and the calcareous members of the Calciferous, however, several well defined forms of brachiopods, gasteropods and cephalopods occur, among which species of Lingula and Ophileta are recognized. These are well seen on the southern margin of the main Ottawa basin at Beverly, in the township of Bastard, not far from the head of the chain of the Rideau lakes, and these fossils may be held to mark the lowest well defined forms of organic life yet found in the Cambro-Silurian system of the Ottawa basin and that of the St. Lawrence basin adjacent. While the strata in all the areas described are for the most. part nearly horizontal, indications of faults are clearly visible at a number of points and tend to render uncertain the calculations made to determine the thickness of the several geological divisions. Several of these can be well seen about the city of Ottawa and in the country to the west between that place and Arnprior. Along the lower Ottawa also, about Hawkesbury and L’Orignal, several breaks can be observed which affect the strata of the Chazy and Black River formations. The presence of intrusive masses is also clearly seen at several points, among which may be mentioned the Potsdam area of Nepean, near the line of the township of March, where dykes cut the underlying Lau- rentian as well as the overlying Potsdam sandstone. These are particu- larly well seen in the cuttings of the Ottawa and Parry Sound railway ; while further west near Portage du Fort the Calciferous beds are also similarly affected. [æczs] PALÆOZOIC OUTLIERS IN THE OTTAWA RIVER BASIN 149 As already intimated very considerable collections of the contained organic remains have been made at various times. These have now been determined and have been properly classified and arranged under their respective localities by Dr. H. M. Ami and by Mr. L. M. Lambe. As these lists will be of great benefit for the purpose of determining exact horizons and for assisting in the future study of these interesting out- liers, a number of them have been prepared, which will shortly appear in the Geological Survey’s report on this area, now in course of publication. It may be remarked, however, that the fossiliferous sediments of the extreme western portion of the basin differ very considerably from those of the typical areas as developed along the lower Ottawa in lithological character ; and in this respect they approach somewhat the sediments found in the basins of Lake Ontario, Erie and Huron, where apparently somewhat different conditions of deposition have prevailed. The deposits are somewhat more sandy and dolomitie in their character, resembling the peculiar deposits of similar horizons seen in the valley of the- Red River in Manitoba ; so that those of the upper Ottawa apparently par- take of the character of both, or are intermediate between those of the two districts, so widely separated by distance. Those of the lower Ottawa are for the most part clearly due to conditions of deep water deposi- tion, while the western deposits are apparently more littoral in character or have been laid down in shallow waters. The evidence therefore seems fairly conclusive that over a very large portion of the Ottawa River basin the Paleozoic formations were at one time continuous over its greater part. The subsequent denudation must, however, have been enormous, since not only has the greater part of these been removed, the evidence of such removal being readily seen in the many bold escarpments at widely separated points throughout the area, but there are also great deposits of clays, sand and gravel, which constitute a marked feature over many portions of the basin itself. > Sec. IV., 1896. 9. SECTION IV., 1896. [151] Trans. R. S. C. IX.— Notes on some of the Fossil Organic Remains comprised in the Geological Formations and Outliers of the Ottawa Paleozoic Basin. By Henry M. Amt, M.A., D.Se., F.G.S., Etc. (Communicated by Dr. R. W. Ells, F.R.S.C.) (Read May 19, 1896.) That the old Paleozoic seas which had invaded the territory now occupied by the Ottawa Valley were teeming with life of various kinds is evinced by the fact that the sedimentary formations which now cover the old Archean floor in the various outliers referred to in Dr. Ells’s paper (vide supra) contain abundance of fossil organic remains of great interest. These fossil remains have received considerable attention on the part of the members of the Geological Survey of Canada since early in the fifties, and numerous reports and papers have appeared from time to time both in the ‘ Reports of Progress” published by the Geological Survey of Canada and in the ‘Canadian Naturalist and Geologist.” Sir Wm. Logan, E. Billings, James Richardson, J. W. Salter, Walter R. Billings, T. R. Jones and others besides the present writer, have con- tributed several reports and articles bearing upon the stratigraphy and paleontology of the district under consideration. It was the purpose of the present writer to prepare for the Trans- actions of the Royal Socievy an extensive series of classified lists of the fossil organic remains obtained from all the localities examined within the Ottawa Paleozoic Basin, from Montreal Island to Lake Temiscaming. These lists have been carefully prepared, but are deemed rather volu- minous, and accordingly a synopsis of the leading paleontological char- acters of the various formations included in the basin are presented, in the hope that they will serve to illustrate the faunas which existed in those old Paleozoic seas. It is by no means exhaustive, but will include the leading, best known and more truly characteristic species. The geological formations included in the term Ottawa Paleozoic Basin, from which fossil organic remains have been obtained, comprise the following, in ascending order :— I. Potsdam, IT. Calciferous, III. Chazy, 1V. Bird’s Eye and Black River, V. Trenton, VI. Utica, VII. Lorraine, or “ Hudson River” of some geologists. VIII. Niagara. 152 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Of these the Niagara formation is referable to the Silurian System and the remainder to the Ordovician or Cambro-Silurian System. THe Porspam SANDSTONE FORMATION. The characteristic fossils of the Potsdam formation in the Ottawe Palæozoic Basin comprise the following tracks or trails of marine organisms :—Climactichnites Wilsoni, Logan, Protichnites octo-notatus, Owen, P. lineatus, Owen, Scolithus Canadensis, Billmgs. Ophileta com- planata, Vanuxem. Lingulepis acuminata, Conrad sp., together with Palæophycus Beverleyensis, Billings, besides obscure remains of Orthoce- rata have also been found in beds of this age. No truly primordial fossils have as yet been recorded from the Potsdam sandstone formation of the Ottawa Paleozoic Basin such as have been found in the Potsdam of New York, Wisconsin and Minnesota. The Dikelocephalus and Conocephalites zones are not as yet known to exist anywhere in this basin. Tue CALCIFEROUS FORMATION. The Calciferous fossils of the Ottawa Paleozoic Basin are not numer- ous, but are of considerable interest and importance, and include the fol- lowing :—Metoptoma simplex, Billings, Pleurotomaria calcifera, Bill., P. Yanadensis, Bill., Hormotoma Anna, Bill, H. Artemisia, Bill., Turritoma Ada, Bill., Oxydiscus macer, Bill., Ophileta complanata, Vanuxem (= 0. compacta, Salter, of Can. Org. Rem., Decade EL), Ophileta disjuncta, Bill- ings, Maclurea abdita, Bill., Lituites Apollo, Billings, Orthoceras veterator, 3ill., O. Lamarcki, Bill., O. edax, Bill., O. Glaucus, Bill., Amphion Salter?, Bill, Bathyurus Cybele, Bill, Dolichometopus rarus, Billings, Ribeira calcifera, Bill., R. longiuscula, Bill. The best localities for collecting fossil organic remains in this basin are Lot 3, Con. IV., Oxford, Ont., near Merrickville, the counties of Leeds and Grenville, near Carillon, Que., and Lachute, Que. The fossil fauna of this formation in this basin is still very imperfectly known, Toe CHAZY FORMATION. The fauna of the Chazy is readily distinguished from that of the Calciferous formation, and corresponds to the nature and conditions of sedimentation in those early Ordovician times. The lower beds of the Chazy are arenaceous, and hold the characteristic fossil Scolithus, prob- ably a new form, in great abundance, also an extensive series of tracks and trails of marine organisms, some of which may have been made by gasteropoda, some by trilobites, others by annelids, and others by various other groups of molluscs. Most of these are undescribed. The form Rhynchotrema plena, Hall, so abundant at Montreal and in the Lower Ottawa Chazy, has been but sparingly found in the Chazy [amr] OUTLIERS OF THE OTTAWA PALÆOZOIC BASIN 153 of the Ottawa Valley above L’Orignal. Other brachiopoda which are eminently characteristic are these :—Lingula Belli, Billings, Orthis (He- bertella) borealis, Bill., O. imperator, Bill. ; then Cyrtodonta breviuscula, Bill., Modiolopsis parviuscula, Bill., amongst the lamellibranchiata ; Col- umnaria incerta, Billings, representing the corals; whilst Bolboporites Americanus, Billings, Blastoidocrinus carchariedens, Bill., Palwocystites tenuiradiatus, Hall, Malocystites Murchisoni, Bill., and M. Barrandei, Bill, characterize the echinoderms of this age. Bathyurus caudatus, Bill, B. Angelini, Bill., Zsochilina Ottawa, Jones, Prioniodus radicans, Hinde, and Serpulites, a species related to S. splendens, Billings, have also been recorded from the Ottawa Valley Chazy. Tne Brro’s Eve AND Bruack RIVER FORMATION. The most interesting and best preserved fossils from the Bird's Eye and Black River formation in the Ottawa Valley are those recorded from the limestones of Paquette’s Rapids, the Bonnechére River above Eganville, and from the Petite Chaudière above Ottawa. From these outliers Messrs. E. Billings and J. W. Salter obtained the large amount of material, from which they described the species to be found in the Can. Org. Rem., Dec. I., HI. and IV., and the Paleozoic Fossils, vol, I. Upwards of ninety species of fossils are recorded from the Black River formation of Paquette’s Rapidsalone. The following are among the most characteristic :—Receptaculites occidentalis, Salter, Stromatocerium rugosum, Hall, Tetradium fibratum, Safford, Calapæcia Canadensis, Bill., Columnaria Halli, Nicholson, Streptelasma profundum, Hall, Petraia aperta, Billings, Porambonites Ottawaensis, Bill., Solenopora compacta, v. Paquettiana, nobis, Hichwaldia subtrigonalis, Bill., Camarella Volborthi, Bill., C. Panderi, Bill., Dinobolus magnificus, Bill., Modiolopsis Nais, Bill. Ctenodonta astartæformis, Bill, C. gibberula, Salter, C. Logani, Salter, Conocardium immaturum, Billings, Cyrtodonta spinifera, Bill., C. Leucothea, Bill., Loronema Murrayanum, Salter, Straparollina asperostriata, Bill., S. Circe, Bill., S. Eurydice, B., Holopea Nereis, Billings, H. Pyrene, Billings, Cyclonema Hallianum, Salter, Eunema cerithioides, Salter, L. strigillatum, Salter. Solenospira pagoda, Salter, Helicotoma planulata, Salter, H. lar- vata, Salter, Raphistoma lapicidum, Salter, À. apertum, Salter, Hotomaria Dryope, Bill., Liospira Vitruvia, Bill., Plethospira ? Arachne, Bill., Omo- spira Alexandra, Bill., Lophospira helicteres, Salter, L. serrulata, Salter, Chiton Canadensis, Bill., Metoptoma Hrato, Billings, Scenella superba, B., Bellerophon Charon, B., Oxydiscus Argo, B., Maclurea Logani, Salter, Ac- tinoceras Allumettense, Bill., Actinoceras Bigsbyi, Bronn.,Orthoceras bilinea- tum, Hall, O. laqueatum, Hall, O. strigatum, Hall, O. arcuoliratum, Hall. O. hastatum, Billings, O. tenerum, Billings, Oncoceras constrictum, Hall, Cyrtoceras Billingsi, Salter, C. falx, Billings, C. regulare, Bill., Cyrtocerina 184 * ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA typica, Billings, Gonioceras anceps, Hall, Cytheropsis siliqua, Jones, Leperditia Canadensis, v. Paquetteana, Jones. All of the above were found at Paquette’s Rapids, near Westmeath, Ont., whilst the fossiliferous limestones of “ La Petite Chaudière,” near Ottawa, have yielded the following :—Strophomena incurvata, Shepard, Clathrospira subconica, Hall, Cyrtodonta subtruncata, Hall sp., Ortho- ceras decrescens, Billings, Gyroceras vagrans, Bill., Cyrtoceras sinuatum, Bill., Zllænus ovatus, Bill, Z Conradi, Bill. Bathyurus extans, Hall, Leperditia Louckiana, Jones, are also characteristic of the Black River formation in this basin. Lots 3 and 4, Concession II. of the river front, Tp. of Gloucester, Co. of Carleton, Ont., have yielded an abundant harvest of Black River fossils to Mr. W. R. Billings, and in 1885 the latter published’ an interesting article in which the forms there observed were listed. THe Trenton FORMATION. The numerous outcrops of this formation in the Ottawa Valley, from L’Orignal to Mattawa, have been classic ground to the students of geo- logy and paleontology ever since the publication of the memoirs by J. W. Salter and E. Billings in the ‘ Decades” and ‘ Paleozoic Fossils” of the Geological Survey of Canada. These contributions to our knowl- edge of the extinct and varied fauna of this formation, together with numerous writings by Mr. Billings in the “Canadian Naturalist and Geologist,’ form a mass of literature of unusual interest. The limestones and shales of this formation teem with fossil remains, and have yielded upwards of 400 species in the Ottawa Paleozoic Basin. The following represent some of the more conspicuous and characteristic fossils of the Trenton as developed in this basin :—Licrophycus Ottawa- énsis, Billings, L. minor, Bill., Palæophycus obscurus, Bill., are the most conspicuous fossil Anam; Astylospongia parvula, Billings, Steliella Bil- lingsi, Hinde, S. crassa, Hinde, Pasceolus globosus, Bill., Receptacul- ites Towensis, Bill., represent the Prorozoa ; a Climacograptus re- sembling C. typicalis, Hall, and a Dictyonema, probably a new species, together with Diplograptus amplexicaualis, Hall, include the Graptolites common to the Trenton; whereas the Pozypr or Corals are represented by Paleophyllum divaricans, Nicholson, Streptelasma corniculum, Hall, Protarea vetusta, Hall, Petraia Ottawaénsis, Billings, and a species of Columnaria as yet undescribed. The EcurnopeRMATA are of special interest, and abound in the more shaly and thin-bedded portions of the Lower Trenton of Hull and Ottawa. The Crinoidea include the following: — Archæocrinus lacunosus, Bill., A. marginatus, B., A. microbasalis, Bill., ‘A. pyriformis, B., Calceocrinus 1 Trans. Ottawa Field Nat. Club, vol. 2, No. II., 1885, p. 260. [amr] OUTLIERS OF THE OTTAWA PALÆOZOIC BASIN 155 articulosus, B., ©. inæqualis, B., Cleiocrinus magnificus, B., C. regius, B., Dendrocrinus gregarius, B., D. humilis, B., D. proboscidiatus, B., D. rusti- cus, B., D. similis, Bill., Glyptocrinus parvus, Bill., G. quinquepartitus, Bill.,, @. ramulosus, Bill., Heterocrinus Canadensis, Bill., H. tenuis, B., Hybocrinus conicus, Bill., Hf. tumidus, Bill., Locrinus subcrassus, Meek and Worthen, Taxocrinus elegans, Billings, T. levis, Bill, Palwocrinus angu- latus, Bill., P. pulchellus, B., P. rhombiferus, B., Periglyptocrinus Billings’, Wachsmuth, Porocrinus conicus, B., Reteocrinus stellaris, Bill. Of the CysrorpEA we note the following :—Amygdalocystites florealis, Billings, A. florealis, v. levis, W. R. Billings, A. radiatus, Bill., A. tenui- striatus, Bill., Ateleocystites Huxleyi, Bill., Comarocystites punctatus, Bill., Glyptocystites multiporus, B., Lichenocrinus crateriformis, Hall, Pleurocys- tites elegans, B., P. filitextus, B., L. squamosus, B., and Z. filitextus, Bill. The ASTEROIDEA comprise :—Agelacrinites Billingsi, Chapman, A. Dicksoni, Bill., Cyclocystoides Halli, Bill., Edrioaster Bigsby, Bill., Palas- - terina stellata, Bill, Petraster rigidus, Bill., Stenaster pulchellus, B., S. Salter, Bill., Tæniaster cylindricus, Bill. The Bryozoa are very abundant and comprise, probably, not less than 100 species. Of these some fifty have already been identified and recorded, and amongst others include :—Amplexopora discoidea, James sp., Arthroclema pulchellum, Bill., Asteroporites Ottawaénsis, Lambe, Batos- toma Ottawaénse, Foord, Constellaria florida, v. plana, Ulrich, C. anthe- loidea, Hall, Diplotrypa regularis, Foord, D. Whiteavesii, Nicholson, Heterotrypa solitaria, Ulrich, Homotrypa similis, Foord, Monctypella Trentonensis, Nich., Monticulipora Billingsi, Foord, M. Westoni, Foord, M. parasitica, Ulrich, Prasopora Selwyni, Nich., P. affinis, Foord, P. oculata, Foord, Pachydictya acuta, Hall, Ptilodictya falciformis, Nicholson, P. pavonia, d'Orbigny, Escharopora Trentonensis, Hall, Spa- tiopora areolata, Foord, Rhinidictya paupera, Ulrich, Solenopora compacta, Billings. BRACHIOPODA. These, for the most part very minute fossil remains, are very abundant throughout the Trenton formation, and besides the three eminently characteristic as well as prolific forms, viz.:—Orth/s (Dal- manella) testudinaria, Dalman, Leptæna (Plectambonites) sericea, Sower- by, and Strophomena (Rafinesquina) alternata, Conrad, we have the following forms of brachiopoda noticed and identified from various localities in the Ottawa Palæozoic Basin :—Orbiculo/dea lamellosa, Hall, (= Discina Circe, Billings), Schizotreta Pelopea, Billings sp., Lingula Philomela, Billings, L. (Glossina) riciniformis, Hall, L. attenuata, Hall, Trematis Ottawaénsis, Billings, Pholidops subtruncatus, Hall, Rafines- quina deltoidea, Con., Strophomena planumbona, Billings, S. Thalia, Bill- ings, Stroph. Billings, W. & S., (= S. recta, Bill.), Skenidium Merope, Billings, Orthis (Plæsiomys) Iphigenia, Bill., Orthis (Plesiomys) subquad- rata, Hall, Orthis (Hebertella) occidentalis, Hall, O. (H.) Laurentina, 156 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA ill. O. (AZ) insculpta, Hall, O. (Dinorthis) pectinella, Emmons, Para- strophia hemiplicata, Hall, Cyclospira bisulcata, Emmons, sp., Clitam- bonites diversa, Shaler, Rhynchotrema inæquivalris, Castelnau, Zygospira recurvirostra, Hall. | The LAMELLIBRANCHIATA are not very abundant in our Trenton formation in the Ottawa Valley, but deserve more careful study and attention than has been given to them heretofore. The following are some of the better-known species :—Ambonychia amygdalina, Hall, Modi- olopsis (Endodesma) Gesneri, Billings sp. Goniophora carinata, Bill. sp., Prolobella Trentonensis, Conrad, Ctenodonta gibbosa, Hall, C. levata, Hall. Of the Preropopa we have two species of which Conularia Trenton- ensis, Hall, is the more abundant and characteristic. The GasTERoPODA are eminently characteristic, and abound at cer- tain horizons in this formation. Cyclonema Montrealense, Billings, C. bilix, Hall, abound in the lower Trenton of Hull, Que., whereas Mur- chisonia (Hormotoma) bellicincta, Hall sp., Eccyliopterus Ottawaé ns/s, Bill- ings, Subulites (Fusispira) Richardson’, Billings, S. (Fusispira) subfusi- formis, Hall, occur more abundantly in the upper measures of the Trenton, Bucania (Tetranota) bidorsata, Hall, Bucania sulcatina, Emm., Æccu- liomphalus Trentonensis, Conrad sp., Pleurotomaria (Liospira) Progne, Billings, and Trochonema umbilicatum, Hall, are also found everywhere in the Trenton. : The CreHaLopopa. include :—Orthoceras Ottawaénse, Billings, O. Xiphias, Bill, O. Python, Bill. O. vulgatum, B., these are eminently characteristic species of this Ottawa Valley, and occur associated with the ubiquitous Cameroceras proteiforme, Hall, and Orthoceras amplicam- eratum, Hall. VERMES are represented by Conchicholites flexuosus, Hall, Serpulites dissolutas, Billings, and several obscure conodonts abound in a certain band of limestone in Hull. Tritopira, From the Ottawa Trenton beds was found the first trilobite which showed calcified arches or supports for limbs, and in 1861 Mr. Billings drew the attention of the geological world of that day to the fact. Jsotelus gigas, deKay ( = Asaphus platycephalus, Stokes), is eminently characteristic of the Trenton of the Ottawa Paleozoic Basin, as elsewhere. and with its contemporary, Culymmene senaria, Conrad, were rivals as far as numbers are concerned. Other species of trilobites in the Trenton of the Ottawa Paleozoic Basin were :—Bronteus lunatus, Billings, Ceraurus -pleurexanthemus, Green, Dalmanites Achates, Billings, D. Bebryx, Bill, Pterygometopus callicephalus, Green, Encrinurus vigilans, Hall, Harpina Ottawaénsis, Bill., H. Dentoni, Billings, IMaenus Americanus, Billings, I. Milleri, Bill- ings, J. Trentonensis, Emmons, Proétus parviusculus, Hall, besides numerous Ostracoda which require further study. ami] OUTLIERS OF THE OTTAWA PALÆOZOIC BASIN 157 Tue Urica Formation. Stephanella sancta, Hinde, characterizes the Middle Utica of the Ottawa Valley, and represents the PROTOZ04. A few GRAPTOLITES occur in this formation, prominent amongst which are :—Leptograptus flace‘dus, Hall, Orthograptus quadrimucrona- tus, Hall, Cimacograptus, like C. typical/s, H., and a Diplograptus, usually referred to D. pristis, Hisinger, possibly also D. Putilius. H. Bracuropopa abound in the lower measures of this formation. Leptobolus insignis, Hall, Schizambon fissus, var., Canadensis, Ami, Lingula Progne, Billings, Schizocrania filosa, Hall, are eminently char- acteristic of the Utica shales and associated limestones. Besides these, Dalmanella testudinaria. Dalman, Rafinesquina alternata, Emmons, and R. deltoidea, Conrad, together with Plectambonites sericea, Sowerby, Lingula elongata, Hall, L. Cobourgensis, Bill, L. quadrata, Kichwald, are also found at this horizon in the Ordovician System. The LAMELLIBRANCHIATA are represented here by Lyrodesma pul- chellum, Hall, Orthodesma parallelum, Hall, Pterinea insueta, Conrad, Prolobella Trentonensis, Conrad, and Modiolopsis modiolar/s, Hall, besides other rarer and less characteristic species. The Preropopa yield two species :—Conularia Trentonensis, Hall, and €, Hudsonia, Emmons. Of the GASTEROPODA the following have been recorded from the Utica of this basin :-—Bellerophon bilobatus, Sowerby, rather abund- ant, Clathrospira, Hall, less frequent, Trocholites ammonius, Conrad, most abundant, and Lophospira bicincta, Hall, rarely found. The class CEPHALOPODA have afforded innumerable shells of the genus Cumeroceras, probably © proteiforme, Hall, Orthoceras tenuis- triatum, Hall, Orthoceras amplicameratum, Hall, O. lamellosum, Hall, ete. The class ANNELIDA is represented by Serpulites dissolutus, Bill., and a pretty little Conodont as yet undescribed. The class TrrLopira has yielded the following species :—Triarthrus Becki, Green, T. spinosus, Bill., T. glaber, B., Ceraurus pleurexanthemus, Green, Asaphus latimarginatus, Hall (= A. Canadensis, Chapman), and Calymmene senaria, Conrad. SILURIAN. The Lake Temiscaming outlier of the Ottawa Palæozoic Basin con- sists for the most part of Silurian rocks. From collections made by the Geological Survey of Canada previous to 1863, and from collections made by Dr. Bell in 1887 and by Mr. A. E. Barlow in the years 1893 158 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA and 1894, both Cambro-Silurian (Ordovician)' and Silurian rocks were found to occur, as characterized by the fossil organic remains of these two distinct systems, The Silurian fossils are exceedingly numerous, and for the most part well preserved and silicified. The most abundant species are the chain coral Halysites catenulatus, Linnæus, the stromatoporoid Clathrodictyum fastigiatum, Nicholson, and the honey-comb coral, Favosites Gothlandicus, Lamarck. Syringopora verticillata, Goldfuss, is comparatively abundant, so also is Zaphrentis Stokesi, Edwards and Haime. Besides these, Mr. Lambe has recognized Alveolites Niagarens/s, Rominger, Limaria (Cenites) crassa, Rominger, Lyellia Americana, Edwards and Haime, and Helvol/tes afinis, Billings. The CRINOIDEA are not numerous, but require furthur study, but appear to be referable to the genera Thysanocrinus, Taxocrinus and Dendrocrinus. Of the Bryozoa, Lichenalia concentrica, Hall, Phenopora expansa, Hall, both appear to be represented. The Brachiopoda are very numerous, especially such forms as Atrypa reticularis, Linneeus, and Pentamerus oblongus, Sowerby. The GASTEROPODA are mostly referable to the genera Loxonema, Murchisonia and Euomphalus, whilst the CEPHALOPODA are represented by Discosorus conoideus, Hall, Orthoceras, cf. O. Cadmus, Billings, Actinoceras vertebratum, Hall, cf. A. Backi, Stokes, and Orthoceras virqulatum, Hall. The TrrLoprra are represented by a single species, the Calymmene Blumenbachi, Brongniart, which is probably identical with Calymmene Niagarensis, Hall, or C. tuberculata of European writers. 1 So far, the Ordovician fossils from this outlier were not found in place, but indicate conclusively that species of Trenton or Bird’s Eye and Black River age occur in the loose angular blocks of limestone examined, as noted by Sir Wm. Logan and Mr. A. E. Barlow. The following are the species recorded :—Rafines- quina alternata, Emmons, Maclurea cf., M. magna, Lesueur, M. Atlantica, Bill- ings, Gonioceras anceps, Hall, and Cameroceras proteiforme, Hall. As remarked in the Geol. of Canada, 1863, p. 335, ‘ the source of these fragments has not yet been ascertained.” SECTION [V., 1896. [159] Trans. R. £. C. X.— Some Observations Tending to show the Occurrence of Secular Climatic Changes in British Columbia. By G. M. Dawson, C.M.G., F.R.S., LL.D., Director of the Geological Survey of Canada. (Read May 20, 1896.) e In a report by the writer on a portion of the Rocky Mountains, proper, comprised between latitudes 49° and 51° 30’, the following remarks occur,’ referring particularly to the years 1883 and 1884 :— ‘ Evidence of a remarkable character has been found, which seems to show that a somewhat rapid increase in the total annual precipitation, has taken place during late years, and deserves to be recorded here. The evidence referred to is that afforded by the abnormal height of small lakes, without outlets, occurring in regions characterized by moraine hills. These serve as natural gauges, but instead of measuring the actual rainfall, give a result dependent on this and the counteracting effect of evaporation. The abnormal character of the rise of water in these lakes is shown by the fact that it has killed a belt of trees, some of large size and at least fifty years in age, along parts of the margins of some of these lakelets. Both the Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga Douglasii) and the yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa)—the latter never naturally growing even in damp soil—have been found in numbers thus killed. The condition of the trees shows that they have been killed within a few years, and their size indicates that the waters of the lakes in question have not been for any considerable time during a period of fifty years or more, at the present high level. These observations were made both in 1883 and 1884. The lakelets observed to be so affected were numerous, and scattered over a belt of country along the western part of the range for a length of about 140 miles ; three of the principal districts in which such facts were noted being the Tobacco Plains, the Kootanie Valley between the Lussier River and head of Columbia Lake, and the upper valley of the Kootanie, near the mouth of the Vermilion.” It was further recorded, that most of the small streams flowing westward from the Rocky Mountainsin the same region, showed signs of excessively heavy flood-water in the early part of the year 1884. “This evidence was of such a character in relation to trees of great age which had been undermined, and belts of wood through which the water had rushed with devastating force, that I was led to believe no such flood could have occurred for fifty or a hundred years previously.” ! Annual Report, Geol. Sury. Can., 1885, p. 32 B. 160 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA In the course of geological work carried on in the southern part of the Interior Plateau of British Columbia, particularly in the years 1888, 1889 and 1890, to the west of the region above alluded to, but in similar latitudes, much further evidence of the same kind and possessing a similar significance has been found. This, indeed, is so universally met with where circumstances favourable to its observation occur, that I will cite only a few of the more notable cases, in a general way, in order to render its character obvious. 1. In the angle between the main Thompson River and its north branch, not far from Kamloops, is a tract of rather low grass-covered hills, forming an excellent cattle range and containing in its hollows many small lakes and ponds without outlet. Several of these are fringed by . dead trees, comprising aspen poplars twenty years or more old and a few specimens of yellow pine forty or fifty years of age. The water was standing about their roots in October, 1888, and it was then estimated that the trees had been dead for five or six years. 2. The point of open plateau between Stump Lake and Douglas Lake, is somewhat similar in character to the last, though with fewer lakes and ponds. Very clear evidence of the same kind was here seen in a lake about three miles north of Douglas Lake, which is bordered by dead trees at least twenty years of age, together with many large, dead, willow bushes. The state of the dead wood led to the conclusion, as noted at the time, that these had not been killed more than ten or less than five years before. It also appeared that there was here some evidence to show that the water had, for a year or two, been again decreasing (30th July, 1889). 3. The Green Timber Plateau, with an elevation of about 4,000 feet, situated to the north of Clinton, consists partly of woodland and partly of natural meadows or prairies of small size, and is characterized by very numerous lakes and ponds, most of which have no outlets and are more or less distinctly saline. Many of these are bordered by zones of dead trees, killed by the rise of water in the lakes, as in the former cases, In October, 1889, it was noted that most of the trees appeared to have been dead for two, three or more years, while a few had been killed in the preceding year. Also that in these lakes the water had fallen to its old normal level, or nearly so, at the date above mentioned; the decrease from its highest point being in some instances as much as ten feet. 4. Lake to the east of Eight-mile Creek, in Pass Valley. This lake, without outlet, is again bordered by dead trees, some of which were estimated as being of forty years growth. The roots of these trees were observed to be still flooded in October, 1889, aithough it might be supposed that the water of the lakes generally should in that month be not far from its annual minimum. 5. One of the little lakes in the valley running northwestward from the head of Okanagan Lake was noted, in October, 1890, as exhibiting a [G. M. DAWSON | SECULAR CLIMATIC CHANGES 161 similar fringe of dead wood. At the date mentioned the water stood lower than the roots of the trees which had been killed. The above are only a few selected instances, in which the circum- stances seem to be quite unexceptionable, and such as to render the char- acter of the evidence met with clear. All the Jakes and pools above men- tioned have no outflow, and must be distinguished from numerous cases of lakes in which the natural outlet has been interfered with by beaver- dams, accumulations of drift-wood, or otherwise. Stump Lake, situated about thirty miles south of Kamloops, seems capable of affording some further evidence on the general question of climatic changes. This lake and its features are somewhat fully re- ferred to in my report of work done in 1877,’ and the main facts need therefore here alone be noted. The lake is about five miles in length, with a breadth of from half a mile to a mile, and is therefore larger than any of the lakes or ponds above referred to. It oceupies the bottom of one of the characteristic wide valleys by which this part of the Interior Plateau is traversed, with a height of about 2,450 feet above sea-level, and dis- charges at the present time by a small stream which reaches the north end of Nicola Lake. Its supply of water is derived in part from the immediately bordering slopes of the valley, but chiefly from two small brooks, which enter its northern end from the plateau to the eastward. The name of the lake, which appears on maps at least as long ago as 1859,” 1 Report of Progress, Geol. Surv. Can., 1877-78, p. 29 B. 2 Little information can unfortunately be gathered from the older maps of the region. An examination of some of these has afforded the following results : 1840. Map accompanying ‘*‘ Northwest Coast of North America,” R. Grenhow. Nothing definitely recognizable as Stump Lake. 1841. Map in U.S. Exploring Expedition volumes. Shows a lake which may be intended for Stump Lake, dis- charging to Nicola Lake. 1844. Not shown on Duflot du Morfras’ map. 1846. Ap- parently indicated on map accompanying “ L’Oregon” by M. Fedix; streams connect what may be Stump Lake both with the Thompson to the north and Nicola Lake to the south, but the indications are very uncertain. 1850. Not recognizable on Arrowsmith’s map of this date, but in this, as in the foregoing maps, the scale is too small and the geographical data for the region in question too inaccurate, to enable any definite conclusions to be drawn. 1859. Commander R. C. Mayne, R.N., in an account of a journey made by him in this year describes ‘‘Stump Lake or Lake Hamea as it is called by the Indians” (Journ. Royal Geog. Soc., vol. xxxi., p. 215) giving the dimensions as 6 miles long by 1 to 14 wide; a fairly correct approximation to its present size. 1861. Shown under its present name, and with outflow to Nicola Lake, on map facing page 213 Journ. Royal Geog. Soc., vol. xxxiii. 1862. Mayne on map accompanying his “ Four Years in British Columbia,” shows the lake as in the last-quoted map. Apparently shown, but not named, on map in ‘‘ Vancouver Island and British Columbia” by A. Rattray ; outflow to Nicola Lake. Shown under name of Chicot Lake, with outtlow to Nicola Lake, on map by Arrowsmith accompanying ** British Columbia and Vancouver Island” by D. G. F. Macdonald. 1864. Shown, without name, but with outflow to Nicola Lake, on map accompanying paper by Lieut. H. S. Palmer. Journ. Royal Geog. Soc., vol. xxxiv. 1865. Shown under name Stump Lake, but without outlet, on map in ‘ Vancouver Island and British Columbia” by M. Macfie. 1868. Shown, as in last case, on map accompanying paper by A. Waddington. Journ. Royal Geog. Soc., vol. x xxviii. 162 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA is derived from the fact that its borders and some part of its bed are characterized by anabundance of submerged stumps and prostrate trunks of trees, chiefly those of Pinus ponderosa. I was informed by Indians, in 1877, that some among them still living, could remember a time when no lake existed in this part of the valley. ‘The lower end of the lake is shallow and reedy, but is well rimmed round by bold mounds and ridges of drift material on all sides but that now giving issue to the stream, showing that no former channel in a different direction is pos- sible.’ The outlet had been shghtly deepened artificially a few years before the date of my first visit, at a time when the water (which is employed for purposes of irrigation in the lower valley) had for some reason ceased to flow. The existence of a ledge of hard rocks, however, rendered it impossible, without blasting, to deepen the outlet much. In 1890, I found, on again visiting the outlet, that an attempt had been made to dam the lake, but had been abandoned, and the dam was completely broken through. No evidence was found on either occasion of high- water marks, other than slight traces such as might be accounted for by annual seasonal changes, but in 1877 I satisfied myself that the existence of an outlet to the lake was a comparatively recent event, by the follow- ing observation :—‘ A short distance beyond the actual outlet of the lake, stumps of the ordinary yellow pine (P. ponderosa) are found in the bed of the brook, where the circumstances render any diversion of the stream | impossible. This tree never grows in damp ground, far less. with its roots surrounded by water, but is frequently found on hill-sides, rooting in the gullies down which a little water may run for a few days in the spring. The valley now carrying the brook must have been of this nature at the time the trees flourished, and this, in itself, would show either that the lake did not exist at the time or that no water flowed from it. The circumstances show that the natural diversion of the streams feeding the lake is not possible.” In my report above cited, and dealing with this as an isolated case, | suggested that the possible stoppage of some subterranean drainage- channel might explain the existence of the lake; but in view of the facts since observed and in the absence of any proof of such a channel, it now appears to me more probable that Stump Lake may be accepted as another instance of a general change in climatic conditions, The circumstances, it is true, are somewhat more complicated than those in the cases previously cited, and it would also appear that, if thus explained, the increase of humidity called for must date back to an earlier period by many years than that necessitated by the other observations. While none of the facts here cited possess numerical accuracy, and we are without such data as would allow of the satisfactory separation of the ordinary annual seasonal changes in level from those of a secular character, the general tenor of the evidence is sufficiently clear. It shows [G. M. Dawson] SECULAR CLIMATIC CHANGES ° 163 that since the year 1880, or possibly earlier, the water of many small lakes and ponds without outlet, throughout the whole southern part of British Columbia, has stood either permanently or for prolonged inter- vals at levels higher than those attained (except possibly for very brief periods) for forty, fifty or more years previous to that date. The period of continuous low water in these lakes is thus carried back from the above date, continuously, to about 1830 or 1240 at the least. If the evidence of Stump Lake be accepted, it would, however, tend to show that a gradual increase in humidity had been in progress for at least thirty years, of which the smaller lakes are found capable of registering only the later stages, many of these having possibly been entirely dry in earlier years. The observations show also a distinctly noticeable tendency towards a decline in the general water-level at the present time. If it be supposed that the indicated change in climatic conditions may be due to human agency, the partial removal of the naturally thick grassy covering of open tracts of country, and the destruction of forests by fire, are the two most obvious possible causes. It may be suggested that the first-mentioned circumstance might resuit in a freer drainage of the bordering slopes toward the natural reservoirs, but in the cases of the lakes referred to in the Report of 1885, and in that of those of the Green Timber Plateau, the adjacent country has not yet been employed for past- urage, or only to an insignificant extent, while the change in the condi- tions of Stump Lake antidates the stocking of any part of the country with cattle. Respecting the destruction of forests, which has been con- siderable, the only result which appears to have been proven to follow such destruction elsewhere is that of decreasing the natural humidity of the country, and it can therefore scarcely be called in to account here for change in an opposite sense. Again, the permanent occupation of any part of the inland portion of British Columbia did not begin before 1860, and the changes so far affected in any direction are very small compared to the entire area of the country. It appears thus to be more than probable that the observed facts point to some general climatic variation @f a secular kind, rather than to any change in conditions produced by man. It will be noted that al] the lakes and ponds referred to, lie within the area of the Cordillera, between the Rocky Mountains proper and the Coast Ranges, and that all are situated in the naturally more arid portions of the southern part of British Columbia. Numerous observations of change in level in lakes without outlet have been made in late years in the southern part of the Cordilleran region contained in the United States, but the most satisfactory and continuous of these refer to the Great Salt Lake in Utah. In his monograph on Lake Bonneville! Mr. G. K. Gilbert has collected and collated all the 1 Monograph of the U. S. Geological Survey, vol. i., 1890. 164 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA available data referring to that ancient lake, and gives a comprehensive discussion of the various facts bearing on the whole subject. On page 243 of this work, the fluctuations of the Great Salt Lake, which are known with tolerable certainty since 1840, and have been accurately determined in late years, are represented in a diagram, which affords a basis of com- parison for the more isolated facts noted in British Columbia. This dia- gram shows that the Great Salt Lake stood low and was affected by no very strongly marked variations in level, from 1840 (and probably much arlier) to about 1865, when a steady and continued rise began. This culminated in 1870, but the great height of the water was maintained to about 1877 with slight variation. It then began to decline, and in 1890 was not far above its approximate mean level for the period be- tween 1840 and 1865. The diagram thus shows a change of precisely the same kind with that which would explain the phenomena met with in southern British Columbia, but, so far as can be ascertained, the maxi- mum epoch of humidity was reached in British Columbia nearly ten years later than in Utah. It thus seems possible that the climatic change may have been of a progressive character, and that its effect was first rendered apparent in the more southern latitudes. It may be conjectured that a progressive change of this kind might result from modifications in position or size of the ruling anticyclonic areas of this part of the northern hemisphere. Thus the decrease in importance, or movement to the southward, of the permanent anticyclonic area of the adjacent North Pacific, would permit a greater rainfall and more humid conditions gen- erally in the southern part of British Columbia, tending to assimilate these to those now characteristic of the northern part of the province. Clarence King, writing in 1878, after referring to what had then been ascertained respecting the oscillations of Great Salt Lake, quotes other facts from the area of the 40th Parallel Survey, which led him to believe that a period of increased moisture and greater snowfall had been entered on in late years. He refers to the occurrence of avalanches in the Sierra Nevada which had ‘begun to pour down into the true forest belt and to sweep before their rush considerable areas of mature tree growth,” adding “it is obvious that no such avalanches could possibly have occurred during the germination and growth of this forest.” He also makes the following further statement which appears to favour a similar belief : — “On the summit of the Central Facific Pass are a considerable number of well grown coniferous trees. An examination of them during the construction of the Pacific Railroad [about 1867] showed that they were at that time being seriously damaged, and in some cases actually killed, by the drifting snow-crystals borne on the strong west winds during the winter storms, the notch or depression of the pass making a sort of funnel, through which the wind blew with unusual violence, concentrating its freight of sharp snow-crystals, which not only wore away some of the [G. M. DAWSON] SECULAR CLIMATIC CHANGES 165 foliage of the trees, but actually cut off the bark from exposed positions and sawed into the wood for several inches. An inspection of the branches thus cut showed that the annual rings had formerly perfected them- selves, and that the snow had worn off a considerable portion, often sev- eral inches, of the thickness of the wood, leaving a smooth polished sur- face, displaying the eut edges of the layers of annual growth.” From these observations, taken in connection with the age of the trees on the upper part of the mountains, he arrived at the conclusion that the “ ex- isting climatic oscillation began before the year 1870, and was the first of its (ae for over 250 years.” m3 This, it will be noted, agrees remarkably well with the evidence afforded by Gilbert’s diagram for the Great Salt Lake. Facts of a similar kind are not wanting in that part of the Cordillera comprised in British Columbia. Both in the Rocky Mountains and in the Selkirk ranges many recent cases of avalanches or “snow-slides” which have mowed their way through forests of large trees are found, and each such case must be accepted as showing the occurrence of long unpre- cedented accumulations of snow on the higher slopes. It must, however, be added that there are very many gorges and slopes where no trees appear to have grown at any time, in consequence of almost annually recurrent avalanches, and that the exceptional cases in which old trees have been destroyed, are in their nature so striking as to attract perhaps an undue degree of notice. It has also been noted, both by the writer and others, on the higher mountains of British Columbia, near the snow-line, that dead trunks and stumps of larger and better grown trees than any now found living in the same situations, frequently occur ; and that in places where the original growth of trees at altitudes approaching 6,000 feet has been destroyed by fire or by storms, it often shows no tendency to renew itself. Mr. J. McEvoy, whoassisted Mr. A. Bowman in his surveys of the Cariboo mining district in British Columbia, has furnished the following note on his obser- vations on the point in question in that district :— ‘On many of the higher parts of the mountains in the Cariboo district, the presence of large dead trees is noticeable, where the only living ones are of a very stunted character. These large trees have died long ago, as only the resinous parts remain. This state of things is most marked on the Goose Creek Mountains. The damp climate, with the fact that the Indians do not appear to have hunted in these mountains, make it less reasonable to suppose that fire has been the cause. Even if fire had killed the forest, sufficient time has elapsed for its renewal, and there appears to be enough soil to maintain such growth. A change in climate seems to be the only satisfactory explanation.” U.S. Geological Exploration of the 40th Parallel, vol. i., pp. 526-527. Sec. IV., 1896. 10. 166 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA It has further been remarked that, in many places within the dry ‘punch grass’ region of British Columbia, great numbers of young trees, particularly of the yellow pine, are now found springing up from seed where not many years before a few solitary old trees only stood. Observations of this kind are of course exceedingly indefinite in character, but taken in connection of those previously cited, they appear to deserve mention, and to tend, so far as they go, toward a like con- clusion. There is indeed, and necessarily, a lack of precision in the whole of the data presented here, but it has been thought worth while to place them upon record, if only as a plea for further and more satisfactory investigations. Having been able, in 1874, to show a. distinct though not perfectly commensurate connection between the levels held by the Great Lakes of the eastern part of the continent and the periodic changes in solar activity as indicated by the observations of sun-spots,’ it naturally occurred to me to compare the changes in respect to humidity of the western regions with these two classes of phenomena. It was found, however, that the data are insufficient to enable any definite conclusions to be reached, though such comparison as is possible, tends to show that there is no correspondence in high- and low-water periods between the Great Salt Lake and the Great Lakes, but rather some reason to believe that the changes may bear an inverse relation to each other in these two areas respectively. Nature, vol. ix., p. 504 ; Canadian Naturalist, November 1874, p. 310. Sxcrion IV., 1896. [167] Trans. R. 8. C. X1.—Coal Mining in Pictou County. By E. Griupin, Jr., LL.D., ‘Inspector of Mines, Nova Scotia. (Read May 21, 1896.) When the settlement of Halifax was decided on as the preliminary step to the pacification of Nova Scotia, and its future development by a ace of settlers more congenial to English rule than those relinquished by the French Government, the home authorities seem to have becn guided as to the ownership of the minerals by the conditions of those domains in England most directly vested in the Crown. This is noticeable in the short term leases at first granted for mining coal; and down toa few years ago in the granting of gold leases for a term of twenty-one years, equivalent to three of the customary leases of seven years each, and renew- able, as was the practice in the Duchy of Cornwall. It does not appear that the French engaged in any mining opera- tions in Nova Scotia, except in coal mining along the outcrops of the seams in Cape Breton, and a reported washing of the sands of the Avon River for gold. Owing to the natural exposures of the seams, the Cape Breton coal first attracted attention. From the Treaty of Paris in 1763 to 1784, several desultory leases were granted to mine coal, but were not sanc- tioned by the Lords of Trade. From this date until the annexation of Cape Breton to Nova Scotia in 1820, with the exception of a few short leases, the mines were worked on government account, and this state of affairs continued until the advent of the General Mining Association. It is stated that coal was first detected on the branch of the Middle River in Pictou county in the year 1795. This would probably be one of the outcrops of the Albion seams on McCullock’s Brook. In 1801, coal was mined in small quantities from the McGregor seam. In the year 1807, John McKay mined coal from a three feet seam on his father’s farm near New Glasgow ; the sales in the year 1815 amounting to 65v chaldrons. In this year a lease was granted him by Sir John Sherbrooke. Becoming indebted to Messrs. Hartshorn and Boggs, of Halifax, in the sum of three thousand pounds, they were obliged to take possession of his mine in 1817, and to seek an extension of his lease. About this time coal was found at several points in this coal field, and applications made for leases. Mr. E. Mortimer, of Pictou, finally secured a lease for twenty-one years to work the main seam on each side 168 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA of the East River, on the following terms, as given in a report to the Earl of Bathurst, June 12th, 1819: Royalty, 3s. per chaldron on all coal raised over 1,700 chaldrons on the west side of the river, in addition to an annual rent of £230; and a royalty of 3s. per chaldron on all coal raised over 700 chaldrons on the east side of the river, in addition to an annual rent of £110. The difference between the two rents being allowed on account of alleged inferiority of the coal on the eastern bank. On the death of Mortimer, shortly after, the leases were continued on the same terms to Messrs. Geo. Smith and Wm. Liddell, November ord, 1819. The eastern mine was on lands granted to James Turnbull, and the western on lands allotted to Wm. Grant. The mines were worked up to 1828 on this lease, and yielded about 23,325 chaldrons, from small openings along the crop of the main seam. Some of these early workings were recently entered, but presented no features of interest. After the close of the American war there were many applications for mining concessions in the colonies, ee persons who had been engaged on this side of the Atlantic in the service of the Crown, as well as from merchants and others who had made money in profitable shipping and other adventures during the continental wars. These applications for mineral grants were considered by the Treas- ury as recorded in a minute of March 26th, 1825. Among them was one by Mr. Adams on behalf of His Royal Highness Frederick, Duke of York and Albany, asking for the reconsideration and completion of the intention expressed by His Majesty’s Government in the year 1788 to recommend to His late Majesty to make a grant to the Duke of York of mines in Nova Scotia. Upon inquiry being made it was found that not only had such recommendation been made, but that the draft form of lease had been submitted for the approval of the Attorney-General in the year 1792, and had been substantially agreed upon, The grant was accordingly concurred in, and formally issued, as, proposed thirty-seven years before. An intimation of this proposed grant may have been connected with the brief and unsatisfactory leases secured by the early coal miners in Nova Scotia, and with the extended working of Cape Breton mines by the government, as already alluded to. By this lease the Duke secured all the mines and minerals not at its date included in any granted Crown lands, or under working lease from the representative of the Crown in Nova Scotia for the term of sixty years. This lease was executed August 26th, 1826,in pursuance of His Majesty’s command, given ire 11th, 1826, through the Earl of Liverpool. RTE the terms of this lease the Duke was required to pay a rent of one shilling sterling per ton, of two thousand six hundred and twenty pounds of coal sold. He was also to pay four pence for every ton of iron ore, and one-twentieth part of the value of the gold, silver, copper, lead, [GILPIN | COAL MINING IN PICTOU COUNTY 169 and all other ores and metals. At that time it was believed that the most valuable product of the grant would be copper ore, but no deposits of this metal were found of economic value, and at that date the gold deposits were unknown. The grants of Crown lands made prior to 1759 contain no reserva- tions of minerals. This would have the effect of reserving the royal metals, gold and silver, it being held that they pass only by special men- tion. From this date to 1809 the usual reservations expressed in the grants were gold and silver, copper, lead, coal, lapis lazuli, and in some cases, precious stones. There were, however, some large township grants in which gold, silver, and coals only are reserved. In 1809 iron ore was added to the list of reserved minerals. After the passing of the grant to the Duke of York in 1826 the Crown land grants necessarily reserved all the minerals, but in 1858, when the greater part of the General Mining Association’s monopoly was surrendered, an Act of the Provincial Legis- lature declared that the grantees of land since 1826 received all the minerals previously reserved excepting coal, silver, lead, tin, copper, coal, iron and precious stones. Those grantees receiving land prior to 1826, retained of course all the minerals already granted, and all others relin- quished by the government in 1858, and their possession of subsequently reserved minerals was confirmed. In the words of the Act “all other minerals, mines, ores and earths, including ironstones, limestones, slate stones, gypsum and clay” are now granted with the lands, At the present date a good deal of confusion exists as to the actual minerals held with the land in many of the large township grants. These grants were made usually in a block to a number of settlers, many of whom did not take up their lots. When these lots were settled on at a later date, the occupants in some cases had no title, in other cases new grants were issued with reservations differing from those in the original grant. One of the schemes of the General Mining Association was the smelt- ing of iron ore, but they found that the principal known deposits were included in the grants issued prior to 1809, in which iron ore was not reserved, and the idea was abandoned after the erection of a small test furnace. The Duke of York, however, did not propose to work the mines, and lost no time in arranging for a lease of his rights to the General Mining Association of London, a company formed to acquire and work mining properties in all parts of the world. They believed that valuable deposits of copper ore existed in Nova Scotia, but an examination showed that the coal deposits gave greater promise. The company found, on taking possession, that the Sydney mines and the best known exposures of the Pictou seams were already being worked under lease, and consequently were not transferable to them by 170 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA the Duke of York. However, the lease of the Sydney tract was on the point of expiration, and was secured by them January Ist, 1827. In the following year they purchased the Pictou leases already referred to, and became the sole lessees of all the mines.and minerals in the province except these previously granted with the Crown lands. Some years later it was pointed out that it was originally intended by the Crown to grant only the minerals in Nova Scotia proper, and that in the wording of the patent in 1826, Cape Breton having been annexed to Nova Scotia in 1820, the intention of the extended grant was not expressed. Following the custom of interpreting the grants in favour of the Crown, it was decided that the contention was well founded, and that the company held only the Sydney mines under the grant from the Gov- ernment of Nova Scotia, which in its turn became liable to a consideration of being ill-advised. However, this point was rectified by express declaration. The company did not take advantage of the neglect of many of the Crown land grantees to settle their lots, or to pay their rent, as their attention was practically confined to coal. When the new company obtained control of all the coal, the Govern- ment of Nova Scotia having issued a new lease of the Sydney mines and of the leases purchased in Pictou county, concurrent with that obtained from the Duke of York, it was agreed between the three parties inter- ested that upon the payment of a fixed rent of three thousand pounds a year, they should be allowed to sell 20,000 chaldrons (Neweastle), and that a royalty of 1s. 7d. sterling should be paid on every chaldron sold over that amount. In addition to this the company had an agreement with the Duke of York by which they were to pay him one-fourth of the net profits. On June 4th, 1827, Mr. Richard Smith informed the Lieutenant- Governor that he had arrived with a number of miners, mechanics, ete. and a large amount of tools and-machines preparatory to opening the Pictou coal seams on an extensive scale, and suggested that the initiation of the enterprise should be publicly marked. On June 11th, an order- in-council was issusd certifying that Mr. Smith was the agent of the General Mining Association, and calling upon all government officers, magistrates, and proprietors of land to afford every reasonable facility for the execution of the designs of the company. The proclamation did not have much effect upon the proprietors of land, as Mr. Smith complained of the exorbitant prices demanded, and of the determined hostility shown by many parties, especially by those connected with the former leases. Finally these land troubles were settled by an expenditure of £10,110 which secured for them ample space. A judicious site was chosen on the west side of the East River on the outcrop of the main seam, about half a mile from the head of tide water, —) [GILPIN] COAL MINING IN PICTOU COUNTY 171 and the first pit reached the coal in February, 1828. The plans show that eight pits were sunk in working this section of the seam, the deepest being 199 feet. The coal worked extended from the river along the crop for a distance of 1,300 yards and a width of 175 yards or over, about 48 acres. On December 29th, 1832, the coal was found to be on fire in these pits, and fourteen horses were burned to death. As the coal was found to have been on fire at widely separated points incendiarism was sus- pected. This view was confirmed by an investigation held on behalf of the government by Mr. C. R. Fairbanks, but the guilty parties were never discovered. It was believed that the fires had been started by persons who considered themselves aggrieved by the action of the gov- ernment in granting the lease to the company instead of to local parties. The pits were closed and water let in, and after nine months of pumping work was resumed. The expense of pumping and loss of material by this fire was estimated at $6,000. In 1857 an explosion of gas occurred at the east face of the workings by which three men were kiiled, and work interrupted for six months. In 1839 « more serious explosion occurred by which forty horses were killed. The loss by this fire was estimated at $25,000. This section of workings was then abandoned and allowed to fill with water up to the level of the river, but the fires continued to burn for several years in the upper workings. Prior to this, however, it had been decided that as the coal at each extremity of the workings had deteriorated fresh and deeper pits were needed. The company starting its operations in 1827 began in what may be called a wilderness. It is true that the district was well settled and pro- duced easily enough to support its population, but at that day the engineering development of the province showed little beyond a black- smith’s shop. They were compelled to build foundries, machine and repair shops, etc., in fact a self-supporting establishment. The first pre. liminary appears to have been a brickyard which was continued for a number of years. The foundry appears to bave received much attention, and it had a chain factory added to it, but the cost of labour led to the early abandoning of the latter. A small blast furnace was built and an attempt made to smelt iron ores brought down from Bridgeville, a few miles up the river. The experiment proved a failure, as the man brought out from England to take charge of the furnace was accustomed to smelting ores softer and more easily reduced than those they selected. The brickyard furnished a large supply of material for engine houses, residences, etc., but the imported prejudice against wood as a building material must have proved an unnecessary expense. 172 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA After nine years of development in 1836 there were 30,678 chaldrons raised. To effect this output there were employed : 1 Resident manager, 2 Sawyers, 48 Labourers, 6 Clerks and overmen, 1 Stable-keeper, 4 Wharfmen, 66 Colliers, 1 Woodman, 2 Farmers, 28 Drivers, 1 Saddler, 32 Brickmakers, 3 Engineers, 1 Groom, 28 Foundrymen, 8 Carpenters, 18 Surface drivers, 5 Sailors, . 7 Masons, 8 Bankhead men, 10 Ship carpenters, 3 Blacksmiths, 2 Pick carriers, 50 Shipping labourers. 335 For an economic output the proportion of colliers should have been one-half of the total number employed, instead of one-fifth. In 1838 the number of employés had increased to 619, the propor- tion of colliers being slightly larger, but the production was only 28,506 chaldrons, the cost per chaldron of screened coal being 12s. 2d. currency. When the first attempt was made to work coal systematically in 1818, a rough tramway was built from the mines to a point on the East River, a few hundred yards distant, which could be reached by barges at high tide. In 1827 when the association began to mine on a large scale, attention was directed to the necessity of improved shipping facili- . ties, and a wharf was built a short distance above New Glasgow which could be reached by boats at low water. A railway was built and horses used to draw the coals from the pits. Barges received the coal, and they were towed by a steamer to the harbour where their loads were trans- ferred to the vessels. About the year 1834 a further improvement was made by continuing the railroad to a point about one-half a mile below New Glasgow where a set of loading shoots were built, traces of which still remain. At this point vessels drawing seven feet of water could be loaded at any tide and pass the various barsin the river. Vessels of a larger draught were partly loaded at the wharfs, and received the remainder of their cargoes from lighters in the harbour. The necessity of deepening the channel of the river next engaged attention, and a bill for this purpose was introduced in the Provincial Legislature in 1836. This bill passed, but the dislike and jealousy with which the General Mining Association were viewed, led to the incorporation of a clause calling in question the wisdom of the grant to the Duke of York, and the Act was disallowed by the Imperial Government. ye “ee Yeah BL WHOI Library - Serials