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SECON DE SERIE-TOME VIII
SEANCE DE MAI 1902
EN VENTE CHEZ
JAS. HOPE ET FILS, OTTAWA; LA CIE COPP-CLARK (LIMITÉE), TORONTO
BERNARD QUARITCH, LONDRES, ANGLETERRE
1902
PWwOCE EY DINGS
AND
| TRANSACTIONS
OF THE
RO VA ESOC IREM
OF
CANADA a ae
SECOND SERIES-VOLUME VIII
MEETING OF MAY, 1902
. THE NEW YORK
MERCI IERARY: PO TIENTR:
NEWYORK DUPLICATE
SOLD
FOR SALE BY
JAMES HOPE & SON, OTTAWA ; THE COPP-CLARK CO. (LimrrED), TORONTO
BERNARD QUARITCH, LONDON, ENGLAND
1902
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Officers of the Society for 1902-1903... L
List of Fellows and Corresponding Members ....................... 2-4
no Deceased Res RE NE nana te socesdeanesesees 5
MRO fe TES S 2... nu tete n Shae ss osee cutee ene eanenualdsetaens=s 6
PROCEEDINGS.
List of Fellows present at May meeting... I
TOT ORI Of COUMOIE ES st seach es RS RS aries EE
i Lhe Work of the Royal Society.-...-.-.20. einen eee IT
2. Printing of Transactions...…...........mns coonesseceres LV
WECCOMNE Scop coca do ctae eee Sec aacnes danspelcui=dananeessossiasesence IN
3. Decease of Fellows—Abbé Cuog, Rev. Moses Harvey, Abbé
Tanguay and Rev. Principal Grant (with portraits) d'a
4. Election of New Fellows...................ss sense VIE
5. Diploma of Fellowship .......00cssesoee secssesoseasccnsenees cesse NAPE
6 Form of Nomination Paper........aerereoeemnenss sense VITE
7. Preparation and Publication of Annual Bibliographies by
the Pour SCOR SR RE ER en nenenessnsances IX
SEA SSOCIALEH: OCIELIES |. Se encens LEE A PER ARR IX
9. The Visit of their Royal Highnesses the Duke and Duchess
Of COPMIBO UL ANG MOR ler. 22 oe. can cn ee ate semer casses === x
10. Tribute to Sir Daniel Wilson... ses XI
11. Preservation of Places of Scenic and Historic Interest... XIT
AE RIDESS Savona: tons een Scene = een dense near esse tesuees XIII
13. A System of Triangulation along the 98th Meridian......... XIV
14. Ethnological Work in Canada... ARR M TR ETES XIV
15. International Congress of Americanists ses. vessie CV TEE
16. The Montgomery Memorial ................. ......, ss XIX
17. Survey of Tides and Currents in Canadian Waters... XIX
18. Marine Biological Station of Canada... XXIII
19. Monument to Lieutenant-Governor Simcoe ........ seeesreeeee- XXVIII
PUMIMIPCLESS Telegraphy use. Piadesuasne Manatees XXIX
II ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
GENERAL BUSINESS.
RÉSOLUTIONS UAOPLEA Less cents cone eee ns eave TE APR RE XXIX
Reports of Associated Societies...... PEER par ERA DAS SE XXIX
Presidential Address by Principal Loudon..…...............……. is XXX
tileciion of Members to’ Section WIP SERA Re XXXI
Committee on Triangulation Survey appointed... XXXI
Poet's Evening— Reading from their own works... XXXII
Élection. of “General OMICERS « 252 RS ce RSR RS XXXIT
General Business 4 RSR END PAPERS ARE aes XL
Committee on Ethnological Work named... : XL
Committee on the Nomenclature of Geological Formations to
CONTINUE INQUITY....+000 OO core ect no na ot XLI
Electionsof Memberto Section DV RER EE RER X LI
Election of Members to Section II ........ Fld chin sia ae ends ber CIE ee XLI
Resolution passed concerning work of Marine Biological Station XLI
Hon. Mr. Poirier's address on the site of Louisbourg... BAN ee XLII
Votes of Thanks to Toronto University and various ne XLIV
REPORTS OF SECTIONS.
Of First Section Le NON PA TIRANT RRRNS DÉCO
Of Second Section ...... LE AR ANR SR EEE EE AR RE EXO Vi
OPT hire Sections sts eae A ON MON Sie AI FU AE LRU X XVI
OF Hourth Section: se OAI ANNE ARE DIRE RSR ER CURE XXRIX
APPENDICES.
A.—PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
The Universities in Relation to’ Research... Me. XII
B.—REPORTS FROM ASSOCIATED LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES
IN CANADA.
I. The Natural History Society of Montreal............. LXIIl
Il. La Société de Numismatique et d'Archéologie de
MONTTÉR Lien sedan sees ea NCA ten RS tame aes LXV
Ill. The Literary and Historical Society of Quebec ...... LXVII
LV .. 1 Institut, Candadien.de Québec one re Re 0re ; LXX
V. The Ottawa Literary and Scientific Society .........… LXXI
VI The'Ottawa Pield Naturdlists Club. AE PERS EX XIDE
TABLE OF CONTENTS III
VII. The Hamilton Scientific Association for the Promo-
CLOM Of LALCHALUTE) ISCLENRCE QNAUATT. ee dar dersecee LXXVI
VIII. The Entomological Society of Ontario ........ Lhe LXXVII
BA Lire Cana an ins HTuLe CT OF ONO: er ira etre enesce LXXXII
X. The Natural History Society of New Brunswick ... LXXXIV
Mle PheVoua Scotian Institute of IS CTenCe, rc enhares LXXX VIT
MAT he Nova Scotia Historical Socvety soc... .s0esse LXXXVIII
XIII. The Natural History Society of British Columbia... LXXXIX
RIVE The Wentworth Historical, Soctety. ss.) XC
XV. The Elgin Historical and Scientific Institute ......... XCI
XVI. The Historical and Scientific Society of Manitoba. . XCIII
XVII. The Toronto Astronomical Society........ eastoaie sass cute XCVI
EN LEO ULATIO ELISLOTiGGl. ISOCICLY ee sna ves cee onesies: C
XX. TheWomen’s Canadian Historical Society of Toronto CI
DOG, Whe Niagara: LCStori cal SOCieby) .. acess woxecsees cee teee CIII
XXII The United Empire Loyalists’ Association of Ontario CIV
XXIII. The Women’s Wentworth Historical Society.....-.... CVT
XXIV. The Miramichi Natural History Association ......... ; CVIII
XXV. The Canadian Forestry Association... CXIII
XXVI. The Women’s Canadian Historical Society of Ottawa CXV
VIE The Botanical Club, of Canada usine CXVIII
TRANSACTIONS.
SECTION I.
LITTÉRATURE FRANÇAISE, HISTOIRE, ARCHÉOLOGIE, ETC.
I. Historique de la Bibliothèque du Parlement à Québec, 1792-
T8920 Par EE DIONNE, MOD ME DEN LE 3
IT. Etude ethnographique des éléments qui constituent la popula-
tion du Canada—Origine de la population canadienne.
Par Sir JAMES McPHERsON LEMoine, D.C.L.......... 15
Ill. Le Régiment de Carignan (avec carte). Par B. SuLTE... 25
IV. Louisbourg en 1902. (Illustré) Par l'honorable Pasoan
RORRIBRY PER eme lens RAR OU DOI RENE ARE 97
V. L’Abbé Cuog— Notice biographique. Par A, F......... . ceee 127
SECTION II.
ENGLISH HISTORY, LITERATURE, ARCH AOLOGY, ETO.
I. Modern Public Libraries and their Methods. By Law-
HENOM I MOUREN Kiescsm ons cuterat RME 3
II, The Underground Railway. By Rev. Dr. Wirurow.......-- 49
IV
III.
yells
LLY.
Ly.
MIT
wilt,
ix.
X.
XI.
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
The Old Basque Tombstones of Placentia. (Illustrated.)
By Rt. Rev. Bishop How .evy........ CARRE LAN: eae
. The First Legislators of Upper Canada. By C. C. Jamzs,
Toronto. sisi save sles rssemesesee eee eee SE EE
. Family Memoirs of the McCollom Family—U. E. Loyalists.
By W. A. McCottom, Tilsonburg........ SLR sudeanees
. Dochet (St. Croix) Islan1. (Illustrated.) By W. F. Ganona,
MA, PhD 5 Ne EEE ere
A Canadian Bibliography of the Year 1901. By LAWRENCE
J. BURPEE ss. scene dde ee ee eee eee
SECTION III.
MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL SCIENCES.
. On the Stresses Developed in Beams Loaded Transversely.
(With plates.) By Henry Bovey, ERS... .6. cscs.
. Correlation of the Curve of the Second Order and the Sheaf
of Rays of the Second Order in Geometry of Position.
(With diagrams.) By Professor ALFRED BAKER,
M.A., of University of Doroutor. etes
On the Determination of Moisture in Honey. (With plate.)
By Frank T. Saurt, M.A., F.LC., F.C.S., and A. T.
CHABBON, M.A SR RE ER nee
An Experimental Investigation of the Conditions Determining
the Oxidation of Ferrous Chloride. By A. McGtzz,
. Researches in Physical Chemistry carried out in the Univer-
sity of Toronto uring the Past Year. By Professor
W. Lasse Miner sce bh cosesse ssn cake eeshe cr ae sane
. On the Use of Wheatstone Stereoscope in Photographic
Surveying. (dllustrated.) By E. DEVILLE............-
Excited Radioactivity produced from Atmospheric Air.
(Illustrated.) By S. J. ALLAN, MSc., McGill Uni-
VELBILY sun ave den nr en Tete ee eee ie seen aerate
The Existence of Bodies Smaller than Atoms. By E. Rutu-
ERFORD, M.A., D.Sc., McGill University...
On an Improved Method of Producing Concentrated Manure
from Human Refuse. (With plan.) By THomas
MACFARLANE iiihs.iscend cate bo. nee tee cine ee eee Re
On Excited Radioactivity. (Illustrated.) By R. M.
STEWART, Toronto 08. ESP ERA ER
The Specific Heats of Organic Liquids and their Heats of
Solution in Organic Solvents. (With lithographed
plate.) By J. WazLAcE WALKER, M.A., Ph.D., and
James HENDERSON, B.Sc., Ph.D...................20 ALES
29
35
47
61
63
87
97
105
TABLE OF CONTENTS
XII. Oudemans Law and the Influence of Dilution on the Molecu-
lar Rotation of Mandelic Acid and its Salts. By J.
MWarraoeWAaLEeER MA" PhD...
XIII. An Abnormal Result in the Hydrolysis of Amygdaline. By
J. WALLACE WaLker, M.A. Ph.D., and W. S.
ÉUTCHINSON MES Gh sactechedeisisereess coe axe scot ncesesiccs sincere
XIV. On the Specific Heat of Water of Crystallization. By Neviz
NORTON BiWAIWS MESO? sc eee cccieanss ssc ees sae tresidncinccose
XV. The Variation in the Density of Ice. (Lllustrated.) By H.
Lester CooKke, B.A., McGill University........,.......
XVI. The Fall of Potential Metnod as applied to the Measure-
ment of the Resistance of an Electrolyte in Motion.
(Illustrated.) By H. T. Barnes, M.ASc., D.Sc.,
and J. Guy W. Jounson, B.A., McGill University
XVII. On the Absolute Value of the Mechanical Equivalent of
Heat. By H. T. Barnes, M.ASc, D.Sc., McGill
LORS ES LE APRES ER EE NT PEU EE En Es
XVIII. On the Density of Ice. (Illustrated.) By H. T. BARNES,
M.A.Se., D.Sc., and H. Lester Cooks, B.A., McGill
imi OTST re ee CLR Mae ebe cemeremenc ee
XIX. On a Theorem regarding Determinants with Polynomial
Elements. By W. H. Merzuer, B.A., Ph.D., F.R.S.E.,
SV PACUSE MUMIV CEST UW o. et Le ose sues. tas cactnseewesh sec silaicrlss
XX. On the Potential Difference required to produce Electric
Discharge in Gases at Low Pressures—An Extension
of Paschen’s Law. (Illustrated.) By W. R. Carr, B.A.
SECTION IV.
GEOLOGICAL AND BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
I. Osmundites skidegatensis, n. sp. (Illustrated.) By D. P.
EAN ETAT LO Wil ctcas CE nctalsh actaeie states oa nee da etcsatennceioa cia
IT. Notes on Cretaceous and Tertiary Plants of Canada. (Illus-
trated.) \ By DD. PL PENHALLOW.. Set Soe eee
III. Notes on Cambrian Faunas. (With plate.) By G. F.
NAHE yee NGO Deseo CR A En M nel
IV. Further Experiments in Plant Breeding at the Experimental
Farms. (Illustrated.) By Wm. SAUNDERS ...........-
V. Some Features of the Flora of Northern New Brunswick.
15) 7 2 AN JOIE POS AA D SEP RRORER casas clepactumnetcaannsa recess set
VI. The Classification of the Archæan. By Pror, A. P. Coze-
MUNG MMA, MED PRESENT QE D PR PART RSR
VII. Bibliography of Canadian Zoology for 1900, exclusive of
Entomology—Supplement. By J. F. WHITEAVES......
v
135
141
143
157
161
VI ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
VIII. Bibliography of Canadian Zoology for 1901, exclusive of
Entomology. By J. F. WHITEAVES........................ 151
IX. Botanical Bibliography of Canada for 1901. By A. H.
MAOH AY. Lili. D....:... esnccsnsenseenneaset tite ele aetna 157
X. Bibliography of Canadian Entomoloqy for the year 1901.
By the Rev: C. J. S. BEreuNE D'OMERE ER 161
XI. Bibliography of Canadian Geology and Paleontology for the
year 1901. By Dr. H. M. Amt, of the Geological
DULVOY saccsonsns csccos ces DCE PEPs en Arte ec 169
XII. George Mercer Dawson. By B. J. HARRINGTON ..…............. 183
Bibliography of Dr. G. M. Dawoon. By H. M. Amt.......... 192
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
PROCEEDINGS.
Portraits of Deceased Fellows—Abbé Cuoq, Rev. Moses Har-
vey, LL.D., Mgr. C. Tanguay, Principal G. M. Grant,
| 1 b SEAS ei PRES EREDR Sana eee ne nes IV et seg
Three illustrations to accompany Botanical Club’s report ...... CXXXIII
SECTION I.
Map to accompany Mr. Sulte’s paper on “ Régiment de Carig-
MAR “oc ccs seen asasense ve 02008 De teen visera states 25
Ten photographic plates to illustrate Hon. Mr. Poirier’s paper
on ‘* Louisbourg en 1902"... sessesesonsue re 97 et seq.
SECTION II.
Six illustrations to accompany Rt. Rev. Bishop Howley’s
paper on “ Old Basque Tombstones at Placentia”’....... 80 et seq.
Fourteen maps and ten photographic plates to accompany
Prof. Ganong's paper on “ Dochet (St. Croix) Island” 127 et seq.
SECTION III.
Twenty-eight diagrams and one photographic plate to accom-
pany Dr. Bovey’s paper on “Stresses in Beams loaded
Sransversely ” ....0csccsssceccsesna teens 00 NEED TNT TUE 3 et seq.
Three diagrams to illustrate Prof, Baker’s paper on “‘ Correla-
tion of Curve of the Second Order ”’....... ce 29 et seq.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
One photographic plate to illustrate Messrs. Shutt and Char-
rons paper on “Moisture in tHoney:2..... 0.4.0...
Four diagrams to accompany Mr. Deville’s paper on “ Wheat-
SLONE ShercOSCOPe LD SULVECVING M esse cecesesesres o¢0) saenses
Five diagrams to illustrate Mr. Allan’s paper on “ Radio-
activity trom: AtmospheniG Air’) s.c<¢..s.cessscesencen teases
One large plate to accompany Mr. Macfarlane’s paper on
“ Method of producing manure ”..........................2.
One diagram to accompany Mr. Stewart’s paper on ‘ Excited
a OT Vins a dadeea kes cans ce CU PEL ARE COOPER
One lithographed diagram for Messrs. Walker and Hender-
son’s paper on “Specific Heats of Organic Liquids”’...
Three illustrations in text to accompany Mr. Cooke’s paper on
SS Varialioliny Density Of [C67 ss.c<. sector tacdencotasesauesens:
Two diagrams to accompany Messrs. Barnes and Johnson’s
paper on “ Fall of Potential Method ” ......................
Five diagrams to illustrate Messrs. Barnes and Cooke’s paper
onus DonsityrOt (Ger) cosas seas ose dae sci eee
Eight diagrams to accompany Mr. Carr’s paper on “ An Ex-
tension of Paschon’s) Waw \o..cc.dsecccsccc cdeoescousecsecceases
SECTION IV.
Eight illustrations in text and ten photographic plates to illus-
trate Prof. Penhallow’s paper on ‘ Osmundites skidega-
TOTIRIRN 2 acces Descente Ce e0 ie see s ere ace
Eight illustrations in text and twenty photographic plates to
accompany Prof. Penhallow’s paper on ‘‘ Cretaceous
and Tertiary Plants of Canada”...... DOM CES
One plate of Fossils to accompany Dr. Matthew’s paper on
SCambrian WaUnas yo .csicesstsedeoseesesesacenaeansrssdscceaases
Six illustrations in text to illustrate Dr. Saunder’s paper on
MExperiments/in Plant Breeding? 22e... eee
WEE
Ge
aI
66 et seq.
72 et seq.
95
99
136 et seq.
148 et seq.
164 et seq.
6 et seq.
36 et seq.
112
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MERCANTILE LIBRARY,
NEW YORK.
Pie wkROvwvE SOCIETY OF CANADA.
FOUNDER: HIS GRACE THE DUKE OF ARGYLL, K.G., &c.,
(WHEN GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF CANADA IN 1882.)
OP RPICh RS HOR 1902-1908.
HONORARY PRESIDENT :
HIS EXCELLENCY THE RT. HON. THE EARL OF MINTO,
ao G:C OMG... Er
PRESIDENT—SIR JAMES A. GRANT, K C.M.G., M.D.
Vice-PrEsIDENT—LT.-COL. G. T. DENISON, B.C.L.
OFFICERS OF SECTIONS:
SEC. I— French Literature, History, and Allied Subjects.
PRESIDENT, ie; a hs 4a HON. PASCAL POIRIER
VICE-PRESIDENT, ee de Be DR. ADOLPHE POISSON
SECRETARY, .. de xe of DR. DIONNE.
SEC. II.—English Literature, History, and Allied Subjects.
PRESIDENT, A Ae yy Je D. CAMPBELL SCOTT.
VICE-PRESIDENT, ae a ae REV. DR. BRYCH#.
SECRETARY, .. as Ne se DR. GEO. STEWART.
SEC. III —Mathematical, Physical, and Chemical Sciences.
PRESIDENT, de 3 Ke ae PROF. GOODWIN.
VICE-PRESIDENT, A ae Ya DR. ELLIS.
SECRETARY, Le dé a E. DEVILLE.
SEC. IV.—Geological and Biological Sciences.
PRESIDENT, = & aS ay PROF. T. WESLEY MILLS.
VICE-PRESIDENT, As + ne DRE CAUMELASNE
SECRETARY, .. a a Ke PROF. A. P. COLEMAN,
ACTING HONORARY SECRETARY, .. DR. S. E. DAWSON.
HONORARY TREASURER, .. .. .. .. DR. JAMES FLETCHER.
ADDITIONAL MEMBERS OF COUNCIL :1
REV. PROFESSOR CLARK.
DR. FRECHETTE, C.M.G.
SIR S. FLEMING, K.C.M.G.
DR. S. E. DAWSON.
PRINCIPAL LOUDON.
DR. DECELLES
MR. T. C. KEEFER, C.M.G.
1The Council for 1902-1903 comprises the President and Vice-President of the
Society, the Presidents, Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections, the Honorary
Secretary and the Honorary Treasurer, besides ex-Presidents of the Society during
three years from the date of their retirement, and not more than four members
of the Society who have formerly served on the Council, elected by the Council.
THE: ROYAL SOCIETYMORMENNAD A:
LIST OF MEMBERS; 19021905
I.—LITTÉRATURE FRANCAISE, HISTOIRE, ARCHEOLOGIE, ETC.
BEAUCHEMIN, NEREE, M.D., Yamachiche, P.Q.
Brain, Mer L.-N., Archevéque de Québec, Québec.
BELLEMARE, RAPHAEL, docteur es lettres, Montréal.
BOURASSA, L’ABBE GUSTAVE, docteur és lettres, Montréal.
CASGRAIN, L'ABBÉ H.-R., docteur es lettres, Québec (ancien président).
CHAPAIS, L'HON. THOMAS, docteur ès lettres, chevalier de la légion d'honneur
de France, membre du conseil législatif, Québec.
CHARLAND, FRÈRE PAUL-V., Couvent des Dominicains, Lewiston, Me., U.S.A.
Davip, L.-0., Montréal. ‘
DECAZES, PAUL, docteur és lettres, Québec.
DECELLEs, A.-D., docteur és lettres, LL.D., officier de l'instruction publique,
Ottawa.
DIONNE, N.-E., docteur és lettres, Québec.
FABRE, Hrctor, C.M.G., officier de la légion d'honneur, Paris, France.
FRECHETTE, Louis, C.M.G., docteur en droit, docteur ès lettres, chevalier de
la légion d'honneur, Montréal (ancien président).
GAGNON, ERNEST, docteur es lettres, officier de l'instruction publique, Québec.
GÉRIN, LÉON, Oftawa.
GOSSELIN, L'ABBÉ AUGUSTE, docteur es lettres, St-Charles de Bellechasse, P.Q.
LEGENDRE, NAPOLEON, docteur ès lettres, Québec.
LEMAY, PAMPHILE, docteur ès lettres, Québec.
LEMOIXE, Sir J.-M., Québec (ancien président).
PorrIER, Hon. PASCAL, officier de la légion d'honneur, Shediac, N.B.
Poisson, ADOLPHE, docteur es lettres, Arthabaskaville, P.Q.
RICHARD, EDOUARD, Arthabaskaville, P.Q.
ROUTHIER, JUGE A.-B., docteur en droit et ès lettres, Québec.
Roy, JosEPH-EDMOND, officier d'académie et docteur ès lettres, Lévis, P.Q.
SULTE, BENJAMIN, Ottawa.
II. —ENGLISH LITERATURE, HISTORY, ARCHÆOLOG Y, ETC.
BRYCE, REV. GEORGE, M.A., LL.D., Winnipeg, Man.
Burwasu, REV. NATHANIEL, S.T.D., LL.D., Chancellor of Victoria University,
Toronto.
CAMPBELL, REV. JOHN, LL.D., Presbyterian College, Montreal.
CAMPBELL, W. WILFRED, Privy Council Office, Ottawa.
CLARK, Rey. W., D.C.L., LL.D., Trinity University, Toronto (ex-president).
Dawson, S. E., Lit.D., Ottarca.
DENISON, Lr.-CoL. G. T., B.C.L., Toronto.
Droummonp, W. H., M.D., Montreal.
HARVEY, ARTHUR, Toronto.
How ey, Kicut Rev. BisHop M. F., D.D., St. John’s, Nfld.
LIGHTHALL, WILLIAM Douw, M.A., B.C.L., Montreal.
LONGLEY, Hon. J. W., LL.D., M.L.A., Halifax, N.S.
LIST OF MEMBERS 3
MCLENNAN, W., Montreal.
MuRRAY, GEORGE, B.A., Montreal.
Murray, Rev. J. CLARK, LL.D., McGill University, Montreal.
O’Brien, Most Rev. Dr., Archbishop of Halifax, Halifax, N.S., (ex-president).
PARKIN, G. R., C.M.G., LL.D., Toronto.
READE, JOHN, F.R.S.L., Montreal.
Ross, Hon. Gro. W., LL.D., Prime Minister of Ontario, Toronto.
Scorr, D. CAMPBELL, Department of Indian Affairs, Ottawa.
Scott, REV. FREDERICK GEORGE. Quebec.
STEWART, GEORGE, D.C.L., LL.D., D.L., F.R.G.S., Quebec.
WATSON, J., M.A., LL.D., Queen's University, Kingston.
WILLISON, JOHN S., Toronto.
WitHROW, Rev. W. H., D.D., Toronto.
IIILMATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL SCIENCES.
BAILLAIRGE, C., C.E., Quebec.
BAKER, ALFRED, M.A., University of Toronto, Toronto.
BARXNES, H. T., D.Se., McGill University, Montreal.
Bovey, H. T., M.A. (Cantab.), LL.D., D.C.L., M. Inst. C.E., F.R.S., McGill
University, Montreal.
Cox, JoHNn, M.A. (Cantab.), McGill Tea Montreal.
Dawson, W. BELL, D.Sc., Ma. E., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E., Ottawa.
DEVILLE, E., Surveyor-General, Giana
Dupuis, N. F., M.A., F.R.S.E., Queen’s University, Kingston.
Exuis, W. H., M.D., Toronto University, Toronto.
FLEMING, SIR SANDFORD, K.C.M.G., LL.D., C.E., Ottawa (ex-president).
Girpwoop, G. P., M.D., McGill University, Montreal.
GLASHAN, J. C., LL.D., Insp’ector of Public Schools for City of Ottawa, Ottawa.
Goopwin, W. L., D.Sc., Queen’s University, Kingston.
HAMEL, Monsienor, M.A., Laval University, Quebec (ex-president).
HARRINGTON, B. J., B.A., Ph.D., McGill University, Montreal.
HorFMANN, G. C., F. Inst. Chem., LL.D., Geological Survey, Ottawa.
Jounson, A., LL.D., McGill University, Montreal.
KEEFER, T. C., C.M.G., C.E., Oftawa (ex-president).
Loupon, J. T., M.A., LL.D., President of University of Toronto, Toronto (ex-
president).
MACFARLANE, T., M.E., Chief Analyst, Ottawa.
MoG1LL, A., Assistant Analyst, Ottawa.
MILLER, W. LAsH, Ph.D., University of Toronto, Toronto.
McLeop, C. H., M.E., McGill University, Montreal.
Owens, R. B., M.Se., McGill University, Montreal.
RUTHERFORD, E., B.A. (Cantab), A.M., McGill University, Montreal.
RuTTAN. R. F., M.D., C.M., McGill University, Montreal.
SHUTT, F. T., M.A., F.I.C., F.C.S., Chemist, Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa.
STUPART, R. F., Superintendent, Meteorological Service, Toronto.
WALKER, J. WALLACE, M.A., Ph.D., McGill University, Montreal.
IV.—GEOLOGICAL AND BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
ADAMI, J. G., M.A., M.D. (Cantab. and McGill), LL.D., F.R.S.E., McGill Uni-
versity, Montreal.
ADAMS, FRANK, M.E., Pu. D., McGill University, Montreal.
Ami, HENRY M., M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S., Geological Survey, Ottawa.
BAILEY, L. W., M.A., Ph.D., University of New Brunswick, Fredericton.
BELL, Ropert, B.Ap.Se., M.D., LL.D., F.G.S., F.R.S., Geological Survey, Oltawa.
BETHUNE, REv. C. J. S., M.A., D.C.L., London, Ont.
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Burgess, T. J. W., M.D., Montreal.
CoLEMAN, A. P., M.A., Ph.D., University of Toronto, Toronto.
Ets, R. W., LL.D., F.G.S.A., Geological Survey, Ottawa.
FLETCHER, JAMES, LL.D., F.L.S., Dominion Entomologist, Ottawa.
FOWwLER, JAMES, M.A., Queen’s University, Kingston.
GILPIN, EDWIN, M.A., F.G.S., Inspector of Mines, Halifax.
GRANT, SIR J. A., K.C.M.G., M.D., F.G.S., Ottawa.
Hay, G. U., M.A., Ph.D., Sé. John, N.B.
HARRINGTON, W. HAGUE, P. O. Department, Ottawa.
LAFLAMME, ABBE J. C. K., D.D., M.A., chevalier de la légion d'honneur, Laval
University, Quebec (ex-president).
LAMBE, LAWRENCE M., F.G.S., Geological Survey, Ottawa.
MACALLUM, A. B., Ph.D., University of Toronto, Toronto.
Macoun, J., M.A., F.L.S., Geological Survey, Ottawa.
MacKay, A. H., LL.D., B.Sc., Superintendent of Education for Nova Scotia,
Halifax.
MATTHEW, G. F., M.A., D.Sc., St. John, N.B,
Mitts, T. Westey, M.A., M.D., McGill University, Montreal.
PENHALLOW, D. P., B.Sc., McGill University, Montreal.
PooLE, H. S., M.A., C.E., F.G.S., Assoc. Roy. Soc. of Mines, Halifax, Nova Scotia
PRINCE, E. E., B.A., F.L.S., Dominion Commissioner of Fisheries, Ottawa
SAUNDERS, W., LL.D., F.L.S., Director Dominion Experimental Farms, Ottawa
TAYLOR, REV. G. W., Nanaimo, B.C.
WHITEAVES, J. F., LL.D., F.G.S., Geological Survey, Ottawa.
Wrieut, R. RAMSAY, M.A., B.Sc., University of Toronto, Toronto.
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.
His GRACE THE DUKE OF ARGYLL, K.G., K.T.,,F.R.S., &c.
BERTHELOT, MARCELIN, Sénateur, Secrétaire Perpétuel de l’Académie des
Sciences, Professeur au Collége de France, Paris, France.
Bonney, T. G., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., London, England.
Bryce, Rr. Hon. JAMES, M.P., D.C.L., London, England.
CLARETIE, JULES, de l’Académie française, Paris, France.
GRAVIER, GABRIEL, Rouen, France.
HECTOR, Sir JAMES, K.C.M.G., F.R.S., Wellington, New Zealand.
H1GGINSON, THOMAS WENTWORTH, LL.D. (Harvard), Cambridge, Mass.
METZLER, W. H., Ph.D., F.R.S. Edin., Mathematical Professor, Syracuse
University, Syracuse, N. Y.
PARKER, SIR GILBERT, Kt., M.P., D.C.L., London, England.
SCUDDER, Dr. S. H., Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A.
RETIRED MEMBERS. (See RULE 7.)
Bourassa, NAPOLEON, St. Hyacinthe, P.Q.
CALLENDAR, HUGH L., M.A. (Cantab.), F.R.S., London, Eng.
CHAPMAN, E. J., Ph.B., LL.D., London, Eng.
CHERRIMAN, J. B., M.A., Ryde, Isle of Wight.
HAANEL, E., Ph.D., Superintendent of Mines, Ottawa.
Kirsy, W., Niagara, Ont.
MACGREGOR, J. G., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Edinburgh, Scotland.
Marr, CHARLES, Prince Albert, N.W.T.
OsLER, W., M.D., Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.
Roserts, C.G.D., M.A., New York.
DECEASED MEMBERS.
BAYNE, HERBERT A., M.A., Ph.D., Royal Military College.
BOURINOT, SIR JOHN GEORGE, K.C.M.G., LL.D., D.C.L., D.L. (Laval), Clerk of
the House of Commons.
BRYMNER, DOUGLAS, LL.D., Dominion Archivist.
Bucks, R. MAURICE, M.D.
CARPMAEL, C., M.A., Superintendent Meteorological Service.
CHAUVEAU, Hon. P. J. O., LL.D., L.D., Premier and Minister of Education
for Quebec.
Cuoag, L’ ABBE,
Dawson, REV. ÆNEAS McD., LL.D.
DAwson, Sir J WILLIAM, C.M.G., LL.D., F.R.S., President McGill University.
Dawson, Dr. Gro. M., C.M.G., D.Sc., F.R.S., A.RS.M., F.G.S., Director
Geological Survey.
DENT, J. C.
Dunn, Oscar, Secretary Department of Education for Quebec.
EDGAR, Sir JAMES, K.C.M.G., M.P., D.C.L., Speaker House of Commons.
FAUCHER DE St-MAURICE, docteur és lettres, chevalier de la légion d'honneur.
Fortin, Hon. P., M.D., Senator.
GILPIN, J. BERNARD, M.D.
GISBORNE, F. N., M.I.T.E.E., C.E., Superintendent of Dominion Telegraphs.
GRANT, VERY Rev. G. M., D.D., Principal of Queen's University.
HALE, Horatio, M.A. (Harvard).
HARVEY, REV. Mosss, F.R.G.S., LL.D.
HONEYMAN, REv. D., D.C.L.
Hunt, T. STERRY, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.
KINGSFORD, WILLIAM, LL.D.
LAMPMAN, ARCHIBALD.
LAwson, G., Ph.D., LL.D., Dalhousie University.
LESPERANCE, J. T.
LUSIGNAN, A.
LYALL, Rev. W., LL.D., Dalhousie University.
MacCass, J. A., LL.D., Principal of Ottawa Normal School.
MARCHAND, Hon. F. G., docteur es lettres, Premier of Quebec.
MARMETTE, JOSEPH, docteur és lettres, assistant archivist.
MURRAY, ALEXANDER, C.M.G., F.G.S., Director Geological Survey of Newfound-
land.
McCoLr,, EVAN.
PATTERSON, REV. GEo., D.D., LL.D.
PROVANCHER, ABBE. *
Roya, Hon. Josepu, Lieutenant-Governor of Northwest Territories.
SCHULTZ, SIR JOHN, LL.D., M.D., Lieutenant-Governor of Manitoba.
SELWYN, A. R. C., C.M.G., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Director of the Geological
Survey.
TANGUAY, MGR CYPRIEN, docteur és lettres.
TASSE, Hon. Jos., Senator.
Topp, ALPHEUS, C.M.G., LL.D., Librarian of Parliament.
VERREAU, L’ABBE HOSPICE, docteur és lettres, Principal of Jacques Cartier
Normal School.
WILLIAMSON, REV. DR., Queen’s University.
WILSON, SIR DANIEL, Kt., President University of Toronto.
YounG, Rev. G. Paxton, LL.D., University of Toronto.
LIST) OF, PRESIDENTS:
1882-83 . : ‘ é A . : à . SiR J. W. Dawson, Kt.
1883-84 4 ; : ‘ - A P L’HONORABLE P. J. O. CHAUVEAU.
1884-85 . ‘ “ . : à ; >» DROVE. SreRRyY ELUNT:
1885-’86 5 4 ; A SIR DANIEL WILSON, Kt.
1886-87 . 5 : : à ; - 2 . MONSIGNOR HAMEL.
1887-88 é : 3 - ‘ ; À : Dr. G. LAWSON.
1888-89 . ; ; - , 5 P és . SIR SANDFORD FLEMING, K.C.M.G.
1889-90 : : 5 : ; A : ‘ L’ABBE CASGRAIN.
1890-91. : : : : : : : . VERY REV. PRINCIPAL GRANT.
1891-92 L : : : ‘ à L : L’ABBE LAFLAMME.
1892-93 . x ‘ : : ‘ ‘ : . SIR J. G. BOURINOT, K.C.M.G.
1893-94 k : é : ‘ 4 ‘ : Dr. G. M. Dawson, C.M.G.
1894-95 . ‘ : A : à A . SIR J. MACPHERSON LEMOINE, Kt.
1895-96 ; : : 2 ; : x , Dr. A. R. C. SELWYN, C.M.G.
1896-97 . : : : : : ; : . Most REV. ARCHBISHOP O’BRIEN.
1897-98 D ‘ ‘ à : ; ‘ 3 L’HONORABLE F. G. MARCHAND
1898-99 . ; : : Z : : . TT. C. KEEFER, C.M.G.
1899-1900 - - - - = = = = - REV. PROFESSOR CLARK, D.C.L.
1900-1901 - - - - = = = : L. FRECHETTE, C.M.G., LL.D.
1901-1902 - - - re - : a - PRINCIPAL Loupon, LL.D.
1902-1903 - - - - - = - - SIR JAMES A. GRANT, K.C.M.G.,
MD; EGS;
For Rules and Regulations of the Royal Society of Canada, Revised to May
1901, see beginning of Vol. VI. Trans. R. S.
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ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA.
PROCEEDINGS FOR 1902.
TWENTY-FIRST GENERAL MEETING.
SESSION I. (May 27.)
The Royal Society of Canada held its twenty-first general meeting
in the West Hall, Main Building, of Toronto University.
The Fellows and delegates from affiliated societies met in the
office of President Loudon and registered their names in the Attend-
ance Roll, between the hours of 9.30 and 10.15.
The President, Dr. James Loudon, took the chair at 10.30 o’clock
a.m., and formally called the meeting to order.
The Honorary Secretary being absent, Dr. James Fletcher acted
as Secretary, and called the roll of Fellows.
The following gentlemen answered to their names: —
List oF FELLOWS PRESENT :—
President, Principal Loudon.
Honorary Secretary, absent through illness.
Honorary Treasurer, James Fletcher.
SECTION J.—A. D. DeCelles, Hon. Pascal Poirier, N. E. Dionne,
Edmond Roy.
SECTION II.—Rev. George Bryce, W. Wilfrid Campbell, Rev. W.
Clark, Arthur Harvey, Hon. J. W. Longley, Geo. Murray, Rev. J. Clark
Murray, D. Campbell Scott, Rev. F. G. Scott, J. Watson, Rev. W. H.
Withrow.
SECTION III.—Alfred Baker, H.T. Bovey, John Cox, W. H. Ellis,
Sir Sandford Fleming, G. P. Girdwood, W. L. Goodwin, B. J. Harring-
ton, A. Johnson, J. Loudon, A. McGill, W. Lash Miller, C. H. McLeod,
E. Rutherford, R. F. Ruttan, F. T. Shutt, R. F. Stupart, J. Wallace
Walker.
SECTION IV.—Frank Adams, L. W. Bailey, Rev. Dr. Bethune, T.
J. W. Burgess, J. Fletcher, James Fowler, Sir James A. Grant, G. U.
II ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Hay, A. B. Macallum, A. H. MacKay, G. F. Matthew, T. Wesley Mills,
D. P. Penhallow, H. 8. Poole, R. Ramsay Wright.
Letters regretting their inability to attend were read from His
Grace Archbishop Bégin, L. Fréchette, Abbé Gosselin, Mgr. Laflamme,
Sir James LeMoine, His Grace Archbishop O’Brien.
Four new Fellows, Prof. Macallum, Rev. George Bryce, R. F.
Stupart and Prof. A. Wallace Walker were duly introduced and took
their seats.
The Acting Secretary then read the following
REPORT OF COUNCIL.
The Council of the Royal Society of Canada have the honour to
present their twentieth report as follows: —
1. THE WORK OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY.
So far the results that have been reached amid all the disadvan-
tages that necessarily stand in the way of intellectual progress of any
high order in a relatively new country are of a character which should
give the Society much confidence in the future. On the whole these
results may fairly challenge comparison with the work of similar insti-
tutions in other and older countries. For some years the contributions
to the French and English literary sections have taken a far wider
range ‘than at any previous time since its organization. The catho-
licity of the Society, in a secular sense, can be judged from the
presence of men differing widely in politics, creed, and opinion, but
meeting here on a common platform of intellectual advancement, and
in this way doing not a little to remove those asperities and prejudices
which do so much to keep men apart in the world.
The Society rests on a broad basis of thought and discussion, and
recognizes no sectional, political or sectarian distinctions in the
selection of its members, or in the pages of its “ Transactions,”
carefully avoiding all those purely controversial or party questions
which are antagonistic to the success of a literary and scientific asso-
ciation. It claims at the same time for its members the freest and
fullest discussion within the limits of its legitimate work. It is not
selfish or narrow in its aim or object, and the literary or scientific
student who has anything valuable to offer will always find free access
to its pages. If we consult the programme of the present meeting,
it will be seen that a fair proportion of the papers are offered by
learned divines, public functionaries, and scholars who are not mem-
bers of the organization, but come forward voluntarily to give us the
PROCEEDINGS FOR 1902 III
benefit of their mature thought and study. On this basis the Society
has already been able to enlist the cordial and active co-operation of
a number of able scholars and thinkers, whilst at the same time
adhering to that rule of limited membership which it has always
deemed best calculated to sustain the high standard which is necessary
for the development of literary and scientific culture. It is satisfac-
tory to know that the labours of the Society ‘have so far obtained
an amount of recognition among scientific and literary bodies of other
countries that fully comes up to the hopes of its most sanguine pro-
moters and friends. The “Transactions” reach every scientific,
historical and literary society, as well as library of note throughout
the world, and it is now beyond our means to meet the demands that
are made upon us to supply the early volumes of the series. The
Society has circulated its “ Transactions ” with great liberality, under
the conviction that it can in this way best discharge the responsibility
that parliament has placed upon it in placing at its disposal a generous
grant for the publication of its proceedings.
In its typographical appearance, and wealth of illustrations and
maps, the “ Transactions ” are only equalled by some half dozen
societies of a cognate character in Europe and America. The Council
are convinced that the wide distribution of the volumes has been a
positive advantage to Canada, since they have reached a large body
of learned men and earnest students in many countries who otherwise
would know very little of many phases of the scientific, material,
political and intellectual progress of Canada.
The contents of the “ Transactions ” are now so varied in their
character, that the foreign reader can gather a vast amount of
information in the eighteen quarto and octavo published volumes
respecting the Dominion, that no other series of volumes, printed in
this or any other country, can pretend to offer. Papers on the
geology and mineralogy of the Dominion supplement the labours of
the able geological staff of Canada, and are printed simultaneously
with disquisitions on the development of government, and the nature
of our political institutions.
The canal system of Canada is brought to our notice, as well as
the progress of literature and science in French and English Canada.
The language and traditions of the aborigines are treated with as
much fulness as are the history and story of the ancient rocks. Under
the circumstances the Royal Society claims from the Canadian people
the same encouragement and attention that it is receiving from those
countries where its “ Transactions ” are now studied, and at the same
time appeals to its own members to keep ever steadily in view the high
duty and responsibility resting upon every one of them. To quote
IV ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
the language of one of its founders twelve years ago: “ We must
discharge this high duty and responsibility in the most perfect manner
possible and with a regard not to personal, party or class views, but
to the welfare of Canada and its reputation before the world. We
* should prove ourselves first unselfish and zealous literary and scien-
tific men, and next Canadians in that widest sense of the word in
which we shall desire, at any personal sacrifice, to promote the best
interests of our country by the aid of a pure and elevated literature,
and a true, profound and practical science.”
2. PRINTING OF TRANSACTIONS.
The seventh volume of the new series of the Transactions of the
Society is now in the binders’ hands, and will be distributed imme-
diately. It contains 915 pages of letter press, and is consequently
one of the largest and most expensive issued since the adoption of
the royal octavo form. It is also noteworthy for a great number
of maps, portraits, diagrams and other illustrations it contains, nearly
one hundred in the aggregate. A great number of pamphlets con-
taining the essays of members, have been distributed free of all
expense to authors for purposes of general circulation. The first and
second sections of literature and history largely exceed the scientific
sections in the quantity of matter. All the printing accounts have
been duly audited by officers of the printing department of the Gov-
ernment, and all maps and illustrations have been admirably executed
under the intelligent supervision of the King’s Printer, Dr. S.
E. Dawson, who is a member of the printing committee. All cheques
paid by the Society out of the Government grant, have also been duly
submitted to the Auditor-General of Canada. The finances of the
Society are in a satisfactory condition, despite the large bulk of the
present volume, and the liberality of the distribution of the Trans-
actions and separate authors’ pamphlets. The Honorary Treasurer
has now in hand a balance of $1,623.87 to the credit of the Society.
General Financial Statement of the Royal Society of Canada from
May 21st, 1901, until May 23rd, 1902.
Dr.
By cash in hands of Honorary Secretary.. .. .. .. .. .. $ 687 84
~ Government Grant for 1901-2... NP Jae eee ee OOOO OO
Advanced by Honorary Secretary.. .. .. .. .. 13 06
$5,700 90
PROCEEDINGS FOR 1902 V
1901 Cr.
Maye’ Gazette Printing Ge... .: 2... !.$ 485 85
SN avion Clarke Ce jos) ajo Le 23 00
“27 Ottawa Citizen (printing). AE 12 00
« 2% Journal (printing). SARA Ate a 12 00
>) ie ree, Press (amine, NA CHANT 9 00
27 W. C Bowles (clerical De 60 00
June 18 Grip Print. and Pub. Co. a AO 46 50
“ 18 Geo. E. Littlefield (engravings). ; 2 60
“ 18 Manfg. Stationers’ Co. (binding, Gat 50 45
Sept. 26 Gazette Printing Co. (printing). .. .. 800 00
MAS MA (proot-reading)on. ec.) 30 00
« 26 Dominion Express Co... .. 65
‘ 26 Grip Print. and Pub. Co. Ge ou) 74 00
“26 The Copp Clark Co. (binding)... 2 50
“ 26 Bishop Engr. & Print. Co. Gituseeatigns)! 58 00
“ 26 James Ewing (draughting).. .. .. .. 8 00
“26 The Mortimer Oo. (illustrations). .. .. 7 35
“ 26 I. W. Cadby (illustrations). . 5 18
< 26 H. H. Langton (books for ta) 4 00
=) .26) 6. Quaritch (illustrations). 2er. 30 00
Seen. Putnelo(lilusirations)y2ct 20e 1 50
7 30) W. Notman & Son (photos) :\.0 02) ./50 |< 1 50
« 30 Manfg. Stationers’ Co. (binding, ae 11697948
Dec. 17 8. T. Ami (proof-reading).. Mi rk 30 00
“ 17 A. Frechette (French proof- sending). 30 00
OR Peking Gllustrations) se 40 00
i) ell STE VERS MSN lustrations ay 20 00
“ 17 Maggs Bros. CE el Beanie 20 00
fc tt Ottawa, Paper Box (Co. 22, \,. 8 00
“018 Grip Print. and Pub: Co. netrations) 15 50
26 Gazette Printing Co. (printing). . 800 00
1902.
Heb. 324 Gazette: Printing Cons) 4, eles fore eae 00
Mar. 10 J. Robertson Gia of hockey 36 00
May 23 8. T. Ami (proof-reading). ; 60 00
May 23 Cash in hands of Honorary te 744 46
85,700 90
VI ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
3. DECEASE OF MEMBERS.
It is the melancholy duty of the Council to record the decease
of four of the Fellows who have been associated with the work of
the Society since its foundation in 1882: Abbé Cuoq, Monsignor
Tanguay, Rev. Moses Harvey, of Newfoundland, and the Rev. Principal
Grant; they had reached an advanced age when they were called upon
to lay down the burden of their useful lives.
Abbé Cuoq had been for years preparing to meet death in the calm
seclusion of one of those monastic institutions which the Roman
Catholic Church provides for its faithful clergy when age and infirmity
unfit them for the active pursuits of life.
He belonged to that long list of scholars who have devoted them-
selves for centuries in Canada to the study of the Indian languages
and character. Some of his elaborate essays on the Algonquin tongue
appear in the early numbers of the Transactions of the Society and
attest eloquently the vast range of his investigations and accurate
learning.
Rey. Dr. Harvey was identified during a long and earnest life
with the ancient colony of Newfoundland, in whose history he was
deeply versed. His historical contributions are of great value and
won for him at home and abroad a high reputation. He took a deep
interest in the work of the Royal Society and contributed to its Trans-
actions, besides lending his valuable aid to the Cabot celebration which
the Royal Society initiated so successfully some years ago.
The Society has also to record the death of the venerable Abbé
Tanguay, at the ripe age of 84. He had been identified with the
work of the Society since its foundation, and was one of the most
regular attendants at its general meetings.
He was a man of high culture, deeply versed in the history of the
province of Quebec. He possessed a genial, companionable disposition
which endeared him to his numerous friends and his associates in
the Society, in whose success he had the most perfect confidence.
Those who knew him best will always cherish the memory of this
distinguished scholar and divine.
By the death of Principal Grant, Canada has lost one of her
most useful and eminent sons. He was remarkable for his great
energy, for his knowledge of the questions of the day, for his versa-
tility as a scholar, divine, teacher and writer, for his ability to impress
all those with whom he came into contact, for his success in bringing
to a satisfactory conclusion any undertaking with which he was asso-
ciated, for his fearless expression of opinion on leading social,
FOR 1902
DINGS
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4
PROCEI
ABBÉ CUOQ.
PROCEEDINGS FOR 1902
Rev. Moses Harvey, LL.D.
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PROCEEDINGS FOR 1902
PRINCIPAL G. M. GRANT, D.D.
PROCEEDINGS FOR 1902 vor
economic and political subjects. He was a man noted for his origin-
ality of thought. He had a sense of humour and a capacity for
sarcasm which he was apt to level against the shams of modern condi-
tions of life. But withal he had a great heart and was ever ready
to make allowance for the weaknesses of human nature. He was
essentially a leader of men, and down to the very hour of his death
occupied a most conspicuous place in the public eye. He had a
perfect confidence in the greatness of this country, and was always
an earnest advocate of the imperial connection. He has many
claims on the gratitude of his fellow-countrymen; but probably his
greatest and most durable work is the high position which Queen’s
University has been able to assume among the higher educational
institutions through his untiring energy and fidelity to her interests.
He was one of the original members of the Royal Society, and was
chosen one of its presidents, though his many engrossing duties pre-
vented him from making any special contribution to its Transactions.
Indeed, his fame will rest not on his literary work, which was for the
most part of ephemeral interest, but on the influence he exercised
on public opinion during his life of rare activity, and on his services
to the education of the country. He had a host of personal friends
who will never forget him, while Canadians generally will give him
the tribute of their respect and admiration for his usefulness as a
great Canadian, ever alive to the true interests of the country he
loved so well.
4. ELECTION oF New FELLOWS.
On the 15th March last, nomination papers were duly sent out in
accordance with the new rule to the members of the four sections.
The first section had the right to fill up the two vacancies caused
by the deaths of Abbé Verreau and Dr. Marchand, and to add two
additional members. The following gentlemen received a majority
of votes: Hon. Thomas Chapais, M.L.C. of Quebec; Abbé Gustave
Bourassa, Mr. Ernest Gagnon of Quebec, and Mr. Raphael Bellemare
of Montreal. In the second section, Bishop Howley, D.D., of St.
John’s, Newfoundland, who has been a contributor to our Trans-
actions on several occasions, has also received the required majority.
In the third section there were four candidates nominated, but the
highest number of votes polled reached only thirteen, not a majority
of the section. In the fourth section there was only one nomination,
Professor Adami of McGill University, who received more than the
adequate majority. Under these circumstances the Council recom-
mend the election of the candidates for sections one, two and four,
VIII ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
.
and leave section three to deal with the failure to elect as it deems
most expedient.
In this connection the Council calls attention to the fact that
Professor MacGregor having accepted an important position in Edin-
burgh University, has resigned his membership in section three in
the following letter to the Honorary Secretary:
April 2nd, 1902.
DEAR SIR JOHN:
The receipt of the voting paper for candidates for Fellowship in
section 3 reminds me that having removed from Canada, being now in par-
tibus infidelium so far as the Royal Society is concerned, it is incumbent
upon me to resign my fellowship. I do so with very great regret, for though
I was unable to attend the meetings so frequently as I should have liked, I
am keenly sensible of having found the Society to be a perpetual stimulus
to work and a welcome means of favouring and maintaining my acquaint-
ance with the scientific and literary men of Canada.
Would you kindly express to the members of the Society the very deep
regret which I feel in withdrawing from membership. With very kind
regards,
Yours very truly,
(Signed). J. G. MACGREGOR,
The Council are of opinion that the Society, in accepting
Professor MacGregor’s resignation, should show its appreciation of his
usefulness as a Fellow for twenty years by placing him on the retired
list, in accordance with the practice usual in such cases.
5. DIPLOMA oF FELLOWSHIP.
In accordance with the instructions of the Society the Diploma
of Fellowship, a copy of which appears in volume seven of the Trans-
actions, has been duly engraved and distributed to all the Fellows.
The Latin translation was made by learned professors of Laval Uni-
versity, who most kindly responded in this particular to the request
of the Honorary Secretary.
6. Form or NOMINATION PAPER.
As the Honorary Secretary is constantly receiving applications
for the proper form of nominating candidates for a fellowship in the
four sections of the Society, the Council deem it expedient to give
one below for the purposes of reference hereafter. Although the
rule requires only the signatures of three members of a section to
such a nomination paper, the practice is growing up of canvassing
Fellows and adding as many names as possible in order to’strengthen
the chances of a candidate's election.
PROCEEDINGS FOR 1902 IX
The Council advises that it should be an instruction to the
Secretary that only three names should be appended to each nomina-
tion when submitted to the Fellows of the section for voting.
NOMINATION PAPER.
..1900
To the Honorary Secretary,
Royal Society of Canada.
Sir—We, the three undersigned members of Section .......... of the
Royal Society of Canada hereby propose as member of said section
Mr. .......................... has published the following books or papers :
Signatures, |
7. PREPARATION AND PUBLICATION OF ANNUAL BIBLIOGRAPHIES
BY THE FOUR SECTIONS.
The Council note with satisfaction that the first steps have been
taken in the preparation of scientific bibliographies by the members of
the fourth section (Biological and Geological sciences).
Dr. Whiteaves gives us notes on Canadian Zoology for 1900; Dr.
MacKay, a botanical bibliography for 1900; Dr. Bethune, another on
Canadian Entomology for 1900; Dr. Ami, on Canadian Geology and
Paleontology for 1900. Nothing has been done by the other sec-
tions in their respective spheres of study, and we express the hope
that no time will be lost by them in following the useful example of
the Fourth Section.
8. ASSOCIATED SOCIETIES.
The customary invitations to attend the present meeting and
report on the scientific and literary work of the year, were sent to
the following Canadian societies, which have hitherto co-operated with
the Royal Society:
SOCIETY PLACE DELEGATE
Natural History Society. eee Montreal trente Dr. F. D. Adams
Numismatic and Antiquarian Society...| do ............ Mr. E. Lafontaine
Microscopicali Societys NN TIR er OW AEN ES POLE ES CESR EE te
SOCICLEHEISLOTIQUE: LV ART NUE DOM LES ee he EL Ata se
Cercle Littéraire de Montréal. ....... . GOO pero torobie sats Mme. Cornu
Literary and Historical Society.......... Quebec "#20 Mr. P. B. Casgrain
Geographical Society......12.. 2.200. ONE, ME toc or | Eo RARE EN) EPA RE
InstitutiCanadien. :.1-::::2en. sh TOME MAUR RE Mr. H, Chassé
xX ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
SOCIETY PLACE DELEGATE
Literary and Scientific Society........... Ottawa io; espe Mr. W. H. Harring-
ton
Hielde Naturalists Club sesc: scene AOL citi eters Mr. F. T. Shutt
Hamilton Association. .................. Eamon cece: Dr. Burgess
Entomological Society of Ontario........ London pere Rev. Dr. Bethune.
Canadian Institutes <2. 32. 2. ees nee: MOrontO EE ET Prof. Coleman
Natural History Society of St. John, N.B.| St. John............ Byron E. Walker
N. S. Institute of Natural Science. .....| Halifax............. Prof. H. S. Poole
Historical Society of Nova Scotia........ AO | lois poe Hon. J. W. Longley
Natural History Society of B.C.......... Wictoniast. Carentan Mr. Frank Sylvester
Wentworth Historical Society.......... Hamilton, Ont...... Mrs. J. Rose Holden
Elgin Historical and Scientific Society...| St. Thomas, Ont....| Mr. J. W. Stewart
Historical Society of Manitoba ..... .... IWannipege sees cise: Mrs. Bryce
Botanical Club of Canada.. .... .. ..... Halifax, N.S.. .....| Dr. MacKay
American Folk Lore Society............. Montreal: ss Male ere DRE RESTE
EStoOtical SOCICbY..: 00 o-%,-- oie oi] RINRSON Ts ete ARE ARR RE
Toronto Astronomical Society.......... MOrOMtOt amen Mr. A. Harvey
Lundy’s Lane Historical Society........ Niagara Falls....... D Sat ee das et PTS
New Brunswick Historical Society .... | St. John............ RO ic hbo cooc
Historical Society of Ontario............. Toronto er tere er Mr. B. Cumberland
Women’s Historical Society of Toronto.. Ol Wek RE nr rite Mrs. Forsythe Grant
Niagara Historical Society............... Niagara "ue" Miss Carnochan
United Empire Loyalists’ Association of T Rev. C. E. Thomson
ONTARIO ne en RU OEE Cae ic Rev. Canon Macnab
Women’s Wentworth Historical Society.| Hamilton .......... Miss Nisbet
Natural History Association... .... ..... WMirsimichiice. cece Dr. Fowler
Peterborough Historical Society......... Peterborough.) al esa-ecnilineets seer
Canadian Forestry Association..... Ottawa...... .| Mr. E. Stewart
Women’s Canadian Historical Society. . GOP Ry AE ete Mrs. G. E. Foster
Hamilton Ladies’ College Alumnæ Asso
CIATION epee thse a Ney aan aA Reo Hamiiltone.s.eneee Miss Nisbet
Natural History and Antiquarian Society
ofa. Er Island... cadence ieee eee Charlottetown...... Mr. L. W. Watson
9. THe Visit or THEIR RoYAL HIGHNESSES THE DUKE AND DucHESS
OF CORNWALL AND YORK, NOW THE PRINCE AND PRINCESS
OF WALES, TO THE DOMINION OF CANADA.
The following is a copy. of the address which was presented in
a handsome form to the Duke and Duchess of Cornwall and York,
by President Loudon, on behalf of the Royal Society of Canada, on
the occasion of the visit of their Royal Highnesses to the city of
Toronto:
To His Royal Highness George Frederick Ernest Albert, Duke of Cornwall and York,
Duke of Rothesay, Prince of Saxre-Cobourg and Gotha, and Duke of Saxony;
Bart of Carrick and Inverness, Baron of Renfrew and Killarney, Lord of the
Isles and Great Steward of Scotland, K.G., P.0., K.T., K.P., G.C.M.G.,
G.0.V.0., LL.D, DiGs05) GC caee:
MAY IT PLEASE YOUR ROYAL HIGHNESS :
The members of the Royal Society of Canada have the honour on the
present occasion to give expression to the deep sentiment of devotion to the
Crown and Empire, which they feel in common with all classes of the Cana-
dian people, and to add their humble tribute to the National welcome which
is being extended with such joyous acclaims to Your Royal Highness, and
PROCEEDINGS FOR 1902 XI
Her Royal Highness the Duchess of Cornwall and York, on this auspicious
tour of the Dominion.
It will be of interest to Your Royal Highness to know that the Royal
Society, which represents a happy union of French and English Canadians
for the promotion of science and literature, was founded by the present Duke
of Argyll, when Governor-General of Canada, and owed much of its success
at its very commencement to the sympathy which it received from Her
Royal Highness the Princess Louise, who did so much during her residence
among us to encourage the literary and artistic development of this rela-
tively new country.
Representing, then, the two great national elements of the country, the
Royal Society venture the opinion in all confidence that the people of the
Confederation will be stimulated even to greater efforts in the future when-
ever the Empire demands sympathy and aid, and that they will feel drawn
still closer by ties of affection to the Throne by this visit of Your Royal
Highness to a Dominion which owes so much of its political strength and
material advancement to the admirable system of government established
during the reign of the great Queen, whose memory is so deeply enshrined
in the hearts of all Canadians.
(Signed), J. LOUDON,
President.
(Signed), JNO. GEO. BOURINOT,
Honorary Secretary.
To this address a reply was received in due order from His Royal
Highness the Duke of Cornwall and York, through his Honour the
Lieutenant-Governor of Ontario.
10. A TRIBUTE To Sir DANIEL WILSON.
In meeting for the first time in the city of Toronto, the Council
cannot refrain from referring to the fact that one of the most active
and earnest founders of the Royal Society was Sir Daniel Wilson,
for many years president of the great university which has given us
such admirable facilities on the present occasion. His sympathy with
the aims of the Society was of that practical character which has
made it a most useful factor in the intellectual development of
Canada. We can easily imagine how warm would have been his
‘greeting to the members of a body of whose success he had never a
doubt, had death spared him for a few years longer to the Canadian
people; but though he is no longer with them, the original members
of the Society, who met him so often, will always have for him a
tender recollection which is naturally intensified when we meet for
the first time within the walls of a learned institution over which he
presided with such signal ability during the best years of a career,
notable for an industry, a versatility and breadth of thought, which
made him a powerful factor in the higher education of the Dominion.
XII , ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
11. THE PRESERVATION OF PLACES OF SCENIC AND HISTORIC INTEREST.
The Council find it expedient to call attention once more to the
recommendation which they made at the nineteenth meeting of the
Society, that a Canadian Committee be formed for the preservation
of places of scenic and historic interest within the Canadian Dominion.
For the information of those persons who have not read or paid much
attention to that portion of the Council’s report in 1901, the Council
ask permission to repeat the most material sentences of their recom-
mendation.
“Canada has a deep interest in the formation of such an asso-
ciation, and the Council believe that the Royal Society of Canada,
essentially a national representation of the two great French and
British nationalities, should take the lead in a movement so eminently
calculated to stimulate a truly Canadian spirit among the races who
possess the Dominion. It is proposed that a Committee be formed
from the first and second sections of the Royal Society to be called
‘The Committee for the Preservation of Scenic and Historic Places
in Canada,’ and that this body should communicate with all historical
societies throughout the Dominion and ask each of them to nominate
one member to act in connection with the Royal Society’s Committee.
It would be the object of this Committee to obtain accurate informa-
tion of the matter under their cognizance, and take such measures
without delay as would be necessary to carry out the aims for which
it has been formed. This Committee being composed of all his-
torical bodies interested in its objects, would be able to work intel-
ligently and energetically. It would report on the work they may
have done throughout the year to the general meeting of the Society.
A small grant of one hundred dollars or more should be available for
this Committee whenever it would be necessary to have a special
examination and reports made on some place of interest by a member
of the Committee, whose knowledge would make him specially qual-
ified to deal with the subject. The Council only attempts at present
to outline the primary aims of the Committee, whose duty it will
be to look thoroughly into the whole raison d’étre of their existence,
and make themselves a thoroughly effective organization in every
respect.”
As a number of the historical and literary societies are repre-
sented at this meeting, the Royal Society hope that they will take a
direct interest in the work of a Committee whose objects seem in
every respect so desirable.
The Council have much pleasure in stating that already a
practical step has been taken in connection with this Committee.
PROCEEDINGS FOR 1902 XIII
An able French Acadian, Senator Pascal Poirier, a Fellow of the first
section has, at the request of the Council, paid a visit to the ruins of
the historic town and fortress of Louisbourg, on the eastern Atlantic
coast, and will lay before the Society the results of his interesting
and valuable investigations.
Senator Poirier also in the Senate drew “the attention of the
Government to the state of dilapidation and ruin in which the ancient
fortresses, the old battlefields and historic sites of Canada are to
be found” and inquired “whether the Government propose to take
some measures for their preservation.” After his interesting speech,
replete ‘with valuable historical facts and some remarks on the same
subject by Senators Church and Macdonald (Prince Edward Island),
Hon. Mr. Scott, leader of the Government in the Upper House, spoke
as follows: —“ My hon. friend from Acadia has brought under the
notice of the Senate a most important subject, and I am quite sure that
his remarks, and the remarks of my hon. friend from Lunenburg and
my hon. friend from Charlottetown, will be read with very much
interest by the people of Canada. He has chosen a most opportune
period for bringing it under the notice of the Senate and the people
of this country, inasmuch as just at this moment there is a patriotic
sentiment prevailing over Canada, and I think an anxious desire that
we should preserve those monuments which point to the heroism of
those who have gone before us, and to whose services we practically
owe the preservation of Canada as our country to-day. I will have
very great pleasure in drawing the attention of the Minister of Militia
to the remarks made by the hon. gentlemen who have spoken on the
subject, and I have no doubt that the people of Canada would approve
of a very liberal expenditure for the preservation of those monuments.
In drawing the attention of the Minister of Militia to the motion,
he informed me that he was giving it attention, and that the present
year a considerable sum would be spent to preserve monuments in
and around Quebec. How many other places he intended to spend
money on I am unable to say, but I think, after reading the patriotic
speeches made by my hon. friends opposite, he will be disposed to
ask for a more liberal grant than he originally intended.”
12. ARCHIVES.
Owing to the illness of the Archivist, Dr. Brymner, the usual
summary does not appear in the annual report for the year 1901,
but the Calendars for Lower and Upper Canada are given. The
Calendar for Lower Canada contains the correspondence of Lord
Gosford appointed Governor-General and Commissioner to investigate
XIV ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
the grievances complained of. The report of the Commission in four
volumes has been copied and placed on the shelves. The Calendar
for Upper Canada contains the correspondence of Sir John Colborne,
afterwards Lord Seaton, with the Colonial office, during the last period
in which he held the office of Lieutenant-Governor, and also despatches
from Sir Francis Bond Head and part of those sent by the Colonial
office to him in 1836.
13. A SYSTEM oF TRIANGULATION ALONG THE 98TH MERIDIAN.
Professor McLeod has again called the attention of the Honorary
Secretary to a subject worthy of the earnest attention of the Royal
Society in the following letter which explains itself:
McGILL UNIVERSITY, MONTREAL.
MONTREAL, May 16th, 1902.
Sir J. G. BOURINOT, K.C.M.G.,
Ottawa, Ont.
DEAR SIR:
You will remember that Dr. Pritchett, then Superintendent of the Coast
and Geodetic Survey of the United States, attended a meeting of the Royal
Society in 1898, for the purpose of calling the attention of the Society to the
desirability of extending the triangulation along the 98th meridian—which
was then approaching completion in the United States—northwards through
Canada. The Mexican Government had at the time undertaken to extend it
southwards to the Pacific Ocean, and this work is now in progress.
A Committee of Section III. was appointed for the purpose of urging upon
the Government the importance of this work, and a memorial was prepared
and presented to the Governor-General-in-Council, through yourself. So far
as I am informed, no reply to this memorial has been received by the Royal
Society or by Section III., and it has occurred to me that possibly you might
desire to draw attention to the importance of the work in your report, and
perhaps obtain from the Minister of the Interior any opinion he may have in
regard to the desirability of carrying it out. In case you desire to make
some reference to the subject, you will perhaps find my address, as Presi-
dent of Section III. in 1899, of assistance to you.
I propose to base upon such report as you may make, a request to Sec-
tion III. to again draw the attention of the Government to the importance of
the work.
I am,
Yours very truly,
C. H. McLEop.
14. ETHNOLOGICAL WORK IN CANADA.
At the Liverpool meeting of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science a Committee was nominated for the purpose
of initiating an ethnological survey of Canada on lines corresponding
with those already followed by the Committee for the Ethnological
Survey of the United Kingdom, as well as to continue, as far as
PROCEEDINGS FOR 1902 XV
possible, work of the same nature carried on in Canada since the
Montreal meeting in 1884 by the Committee for the Northwest
Tribes of Canada under the chairmanship of Dr. George M. Dawson,
The Committee as appointed comprised three members of the Com-
mittee on an Ethnological Survey of Great Britain, and fourteen
resident Canadian members. In the five years which have now
elapsed, the Canadian representation has undergone marked changes
through death and the consequent addition of new members, and the
most serious loss thus sustained, has been through the death of Dr.
George M. Dawson, to whose especial interest and ability in ethno-
logical work we have been chiefly indebted for the progress made up
to the time of his death.
At the Toronto meeting of the British Association, a special
grant was made in aid of the work of the Committee, and with the
means thus placed at its disposal it became possible to procure neces-
sary instruments for physical measurements, to distribute printed
instructions for the guidance of observers, and to give practical
assistance to certain observers where most needed. Each year since
then there has been a continuation of the grant, but in diminishing
amount, and it is a question if the British Association can be expected
to much longer continue to extend financial aid to the committee
which receives no similar support from the communities which are
directly interested in a continuation of such an important line of
work. In addition to such assistance, the British Association has
also published annually, the scientific results obtained by various
members of the Committee. This has been accomplished at consider-
able expense, and that it has been done in the face of great difficulties,
is most gratifying evidence of the appreciation of the work so far
accomplished:
The lines laid down by the Committee at the Toronto meeting,
along which the work of the Committee might profitably proceed, were
as follows: —
1. Physical types of the inhabitants.
2. Current traditions and beliefs.
3. Peculiarities of dialect.
4. Monuments and other remains of ancient culture.
5. Historical evidence of continuity of race.
As applied to Canada, inquiry along any one of these lines was
to have special reference to
a. The white races.
b. The aborigines or Indians.
The work so far accomplished has included important contribu-
tions to our knowledge of the early French settlers in Canada, by Mr.
XVI ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
B. Sulte; an exhaustive and accurate study of the Indians of British
Columbia, by Mr. C. Hill-Tout, still in progress; The Huron Indians of
Lorette, by Mr. L. Gérin; important data on the growth of children, by:
Dr. Franz Boaz, Prof. E. Tracy and others; and physical measure-
ments of adults, representative of people of diverse affinities and
environment. Much of this last material awaits a fitting moment
for elaboration, when sufficient data shall have been collected to justify
the formation of conclusions. In addition to this work, mention
should be made of the valuable studies carried on under the
auspices of the Minister of Education for Ontario, as embodied in
the archeological reports issued under the editorship of Mr. David
Boyle. These reports supplement the work of this Committee along
just those lines on which co-operation is desired. :
In the report of the Committee for 1900, attention is directed
to the great importance of securing ethnological data with as little
delay as possible. “ While this is eminently true with respect to
the white population which is experiencing new and marked changes
almost every year, in consequence of the introduction of foreign
elements, often in large numbers, it is particularly true with respect
to the native Indian population. In many localities the original
blood has become so modified by intermarriage with whites that it is
often a matter of great difficulty to find an Indian of pure blood.
Proximity to settlements of white people has resulted in a more or
less profound impress upon the social life and tribal customs, which
are fast becoming obsolete and forgotten. The old chiefs who have
served as the repertories of traditionary knowledge are rapidly passing
away, and with their death there disappears the last possibility of
securing reliable data of the greatest value.” What was true two
years since has been emphasized more recently in very striking ways.
In addition to the changed and rapidly changing conditions of research
as applied to the Indian population, the white population is under-
going changes at an accelerating rate in consequence of the greatly
increased influx of foreign elements — factors which are bound to
produce a more or less profound impression upon the character,
traditions and social customs of the various communities among
whom they settle, within a few years. It is therefore desirable to
once more strongly emphasize the pressing necessity for some more
definite and concerted action whereby the work entrusted to the Com-
mittee of the British Association may not only be prevented from
discontinuance, but that it may be given additional support through
the co-operation of the various provincial governments. The greatest
difficulties encountered by the Committee up to the present time,
have been found (1) in the lack of funds necessary to carry on their
PROCEEDINGS FOR 1902 XVII
work, and (2) in the lack of competent and enthusiastic observers.
The first difficulty is by far the more serious, and could it be over-
come, there would be comparatively little difficulty in meeting the
second. While competent observers are numerically few, it is also
true that those who might be selected are usually not in a position
personally to meet the often very heavy expenses attendant upon
long journeys and other items necessarily incidental to the acquisition
of desired information. It, therefore, becomes evident that under
present conditions, the work of the Committee cannot expand beyond
very narrow limits, and it may be that even that must terminate after
a few years.
The Committee have had under consideration for some time, a
plan whereby the various provincial governments might co-operate to
secure the desired result. Briefly stated, it is as follows: —
The present Committee of the British Association or such reor-
ganization of it as may be found desirable, should form a central
committee for the entire Dominion, in whose hands should be placed
the control of a comprehensive ethnological survey of the entire popu-
lation. Each province should contribute a certain proportional share
to the working expenses of this Committee, and should undertake to
establish a museum relating to the ethnology of its own territory.
By exchange with one another, each museum would thus become a
more or less complete exponent of the ethnology of that particular
province, while, at the same time, indicating its ethnological affinities
with all the others. In return for the financial assistance granted,
the Committee would give to the museum of each province, the
original or duplicate of each article or photograph obtained by a
study of the people within that province, while any further duplicates
could be transmitted to the English section of the Committee to be
deposited in the British Museum or such other place as might be
selected.
The work at present conducted by Mr. David Boyle, under the
auspices of the Department of Education for Ontario, is a step in
this direction, and if the initiative of Ontario were followed by the
other provinces, and the entire work were systematized under a cen-
tral Committee as suggested, great good might result.
The Royal Society of Canada is the most representative and
influential body of its kind in Canada, and it is believed that if it
were to lend its influence in the direction of making suitable repre-
sentations to the various provincial governments, it might be possible
to place the very important work of ethnological research upon a
basis of permanent usefulness.
Proc., 1902. B.
XVIII ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
15. INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF AMERICANISTS.
The Honorary Secretary has received the following communication
ona subject of special interest to the members of the First and Second
Sections of the Royal Society:
New York City, November 30th, 1901.
SIR:
We have the honour to inform you that in accordance with a vote at the
last Session of the Congress, held in Paris in 1900, the Thirteenth Session of
the International Congress of Americanists will be held in the halls of the
American Museum of Natural History, in the City of New York, beginning
at noon on Monday, the 20th, and continuing until Saturday, the 25th day of
October, 1902.
The object of the Congress is to bring together students of archeology,
and early history of the two Americas, and by the reading of papers and by
discussions to advance knowledge of these subjects.
You are respectfully invited to join the Congress, to present papers for its
consideration, and if possible to be present at the Session and take part in
the proceedings.
Hoping for your efficient aid and co-operation in the important objects of
the Congress, we beg you to accept our expression of deep respect.
(Signed), (Morris K. JESUP,
President of the Commission of Organization.
M. H. SAVILLE,
General Secretary, Commission of Organization.
All persons interested in the study of the archeology, ethnology,
and early history of the two Americas may become members of the
International Congress of Americanists by signifying their desire
to the General Secretary of the Commission of Organization (Mr. M.
H. Saville, American Museum of Natural History, City of New York,
U.S.A.) and remitting either direct to the treasurer or through the
general secretary, the sum of three dollars in American money. The
receipt of the treasurer for this amount will entitle the holder to a
card of membership, and to all official publications emanating from
the thirteenth session of the Congress.
Communications may be oral or written, and in French, German,
Spanish, Italian, or English.
The council will decide upon the time allowed for each com-
munication. No single paper shall exceed thirty minutes in delivery.
All debates are expected to be brief, and will be within limitations
determined by the presiding officer of the day. All papers presented
to the Congress will, on the approval of the Bureau, be printed in the
volume of Proceedings.
PROCEEDINGS FOR 1902 XIX
All members of the Congress are expected to send in advance
of the meeting, the titles, and, if possible, abstracts, of their papers,
to the General Secretary.
The subjects to be discussed by the Congress relate to: —
I. The Native Races of America; their origin, distribution, history,
physical characteristics, languages, inventions, customs, and religions.
II. The History of the early Contact between America and the
Old World.
16. THE MONTGOMERY MEMORIAL.
The public indignation which was evoked in various parts of
Canada at the proposal to erect a memorial at Quebec in honour of
General Montgomery, has had the satisfactory effect of bringing
about the withdrawal of the offer made by the relatives in the United
States for the placing of a tablet on the rocks of the ancient capital.
Consequently an irritating subject, for the time being, happily dis-
appears from the arena of public discussion, and no longer serves as
a factor for creating an unsatisfactory feeling between communities
who should cultivate the most friendly relations between each other
and allow the past, with its passions, prejudices and animosities, to
be buried in oblivion.
17. SURVEY oF TIDES AND CURRENTS IN CANADIAN WATERS.
This survey, which is under the direction of Dr. W. Bell Dawson,
F.R.S.C., continues to make substantial progress. An important
series of observations on the Lower St. Lawrence was obtained in
1900; and the results derived from these are now given in a complete
form in the annual report last issued. Further tidal observations
were obtained last season in Northumberland Strait and Cabot Strait,
which will serve to improve the accuracy of the tide tables for Char-
lottetown and Pictou. Observations of the currents have also been
secured in the regions in which tidal observations were taken, so far
as there has been opportunity.
Tide tables continue to be issued regularly for the principal
ports of eastern Canada; and the basis from which these are calculated
is being extended by utilizing the further observations from year to
year. In addition to these, tide tables are now issued for Victoria,
in British Columbia, and Sand Heads, in the Strait of Georgia. The
tidal relation of Vancouver to Sand Heads has been determined by
observations last season; and data have also been obtained for the
turn of the current in First Narrows, which leads into that harbour.
XX ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
The central position of Sand Heads, in the Strait of Georgia, makes
it eminently suitable as a port of reference for other harbours
throughout that strait. The only data previously available were
those given in the tide tables issued by the United States Coast
Survey, which are based upon comparison with Puget Sound, where
the type of the tide is different in character from the Strait of
Georgia. These data were far from satisfactory; and the only means
of securing an improvement, was to obtain observations in the region
itself. This has now been done; and the result will be further
improved and extended as time goes on. These new tide tables and
the accompanying information are much appreciated on the Pacific
coast.
At all the stations where observations are taken, the levels are
recorded permanently by reference to bench-marks. These will be
invaluable when they come to be connected by some general system
of levelling. In the meantime, they are of immediate use locally,
in enabling the true level of high and low water to be known, for
the purposes of construction in harbours, and for city works, such
as drainage. At the head of the Bay of Fundy,a good datum level
is afforded by the Chignecto Marine Railway. Last season, extended
levels were run around Cumberland Basin, to connect with this datum
a number of important observations of exceptional high waters. The
resulting range of the tide was also correlated with observations taken
by the Admiralty in 1859 in the other arm of the Bay of Fundy,
namely, at Noel Bay, in Minas Basin. In this way the extreme
height of the tide is definitely known, which is valuable in preventing
the flooding of the extensive dyked marshes in these regions. The
main object of the work was to determine the astronomical conditions
under which exceptional high water occurs; and to bring this within
the scope of prediction.
On the Lower St. Lawrence, the turn of the current in relation
to the time of high and low water had been determined at several
points, while the latest Admiralty surveys of the St. Lawrence were
made from 1885 to 1889; but, unfortunately, the time of the tide itself
was not known, as there were then no tide tables for the St. Lawrence
to refer to, or any data by which it could be ascertained. By the
tidal observations of 1900, the requisite data for the tide itself have
been secured, and this enables the turn of the current also to be
known. The information formerly obtained by the Admiralty is thus
made practically available to mariners for the first time. The local-
ities for the tidal observations were carefully chosen with this object
in view.
PROCEEDINGS FOR 1902 XXI
It has become evident that from a tidal point of view, the St.
Lawrence may be divided into two regions. From the head of tide-
water at Lake St. Peter to the Traverse, which is a little below Orleans
Island, the tides and currents can best be referred to Quebec. Below
this, in the open estuary as far as Anticosti, and in Chaleur Bay, the
tides are more advantageously referred to the principal tidal station
at Father Point. This accords with the natural features of the estu-
ary, as the deep water runs up as far as the Traverse; and Quebec
must be considered as in the river, about the true head of the estuary.
It is also just below Orleans Island that the tide has its maximum
range and the currents their greatest strength.
To carry out this sub-division practically, it is evidently necessary
to have tide tables for Father Point itself. With this object, the
difference in the time of the tide between Father Point and Quebec,
as given by two complete years of simultaneous observations, was
carefully examined into. The observations gave the difference in
time for 1260 consecutive tides; and it was found that this difference
varied during the course of the month, the variation being greater
in the case of low water. This variation was of a double character,
firstly, in the period of the synodic month with the moon’s phases;
and secondly, in the period of the anomalistic month with the moon’s
distance. The total amount of the variation for the low waters, was
41 minutes more or less than the mean value. In the endeavour
to obtain a tidal difference with less variation than this, trial com-
parisons were made with Wilhelmshaven, Germany; Harwich, on the
North Sea; and Portsmouth, on the English Channel. The tide in
each of these harbours is similar to Father Point, in having nearly
the same range; and it might therefore be expected that one of these
differences would prove to be more nearly constant than the difference
with Quebec. This was not the case, however; but by an analysis
of the difference in terms of the two periods above mentioned, a
double series of variable differences were obtained by which the tide
at Father Point can be correctly calculated from the tide tables for
Quebec. The series used are given in full in the present report. This
is the best method available until this Survey can afford the cost of
determining tidal constants for Father Point itself, from the record
which has already been secured there.
This investigation is of interest as an example of the use of vari-
able tidal differences. These have been much employed by this Survey
in the calculation of local tide tables from ports of reference. It may
never be practicable to secure direct astronomical data for every port in
a country for which tide tables are needed; but by means of tidal differ-
ences which vary in the period of one of the astronomical months,
XXII ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
results of a satisfactory degree of accuracy can be secured, and the mul-
tiplication of the more expensive permanent tidal stations may be
avoided. As another example, it has been found in Northumberland
Strait that the leading variation in the difference follows the declination
of the moon, or the period of the nodal month. The variations in
terms of the phases and the distance of the moon are relatively small.
Again, in the Bay of Fundy, the moon’s distance has as much effect on
the height of the tide as its phases; that is to say, the difference in the
range of spring tides at Apogee and at Perigee is as great as the differ-
ence between the mean range of neap tides and the mean range of spring
tides, the amount in each case being close upon 11 feet. These varia-
tions are detailed in the present report. It is thus evident that each
region must be investigated for itself, to determine the period in which
the dominant variation takes place.
By this general method, the characteristics of the tide in any par-
ticular region are first allowed for, in the tables calculated astronomi-
cally for the principal station. The tides for other localities in the
region are then calculated by means of a variable difference in time,
from this principal station; and it has usually been found that a varia-
tion in some one period includes so large a part of the whole, as to give
a result sufficiently accurate for praetical purposes. In one instance
above cited, however, a further plus and minus correction was used in
a second period over-running the first, to allow for another variation
next in importance. With such variable differences, a result that is
practically correct is secured, which would not be the case with the old
method of using a constant difference. Formerly, the discrepancy was
often large, as in Northumberland Strait, where the time of the tide
as found by a constant difference from an Atlantic port was as much as
14 hours early or late at certain parts of the month.
The tide at Quebec was also computed formerly by a constant dif-
ference in time from London, England. This may serve to indicate the
substantial improvements in accuracy already secured by this Survey.
The total expenditure on this Survey during the fiscal year from
June 30th, 1900, to June 30th, 1901, was $7,060.20. This total expen-
diture is classified as follows :—
(1) General expenses; maintenance of the seven principal tidal
stations, with repairs, heating, and supplies; salaries of observers and
assistants ; office work and travelling expenses, $2,910.35.
(2) Summer tidal stations, on the Lower St. Lawrence in 1900,
and in Northumberland Strait in the early part of the season (up to
June 30th) 1901; erection of gauges, salaries of observers, and inspec-
tion, $1,503.25.
PROCEEDINGS FOR 1902 XXIII
(3) Tide tables, calculations and printing; analysis of further tidal
records, to improve their accuracy, which is of permanent benefit for all
future years, $2,646.60.
The report is illustrated by an outline map and two series of tidal
curves from the self-registering gauges of 1900. These are of special
interest in affording simultaneous comparison of the type of the tide
throughout the Lower St. Lawrence, from the mouth of the estuary to
the point of maximum range.
18. MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION OF CANADA.
The past year (1901) has been, in one noteworthy respect, the most
important in the history of the Marine Biological Station, for it wit-
nessed the completion of a series of scientific reports which have now
been printed as a supplement to a Government blue book, under the
title of “ Contributions to Canadian Biology, being Studies from the
Marine Biological Station of Canada, 1901.” This selection of seven
original papers, embodied in the Supplement to the 32nd Annual Report
of the Department of Marine and Fisheries, Fisheries Branch, affords
ample proof of the valuable and energetic work which has been carried
on in this seaside laboratory during the three years of its existence.
The variety and scope of the researches, in which the scientific staff
have been engaged during that time, may be gathered from the titles of
the articles referred to, which are as follows :—
(1) Account of the Marine Biological Station of Canada, its Foundation,
Equipment and Work, by Professor Edward E. Prince, Dominion Commis-
sioner of Fisheries, Director of the Station.
(2) The Effects of Polluted Waters on Fish Life, by Dr. A. P. Knight,
Professor of Animal Biology, Queen’s University, Kingston, Ont.
(3) The Clam Fishery of Passamaquoddy Bay, New Brunswick (with four
plates), by Dr. Joseph Stafford, Department of Zoology, McGill University,
Montreal,
(4) The Flora of St. Andrews, New Brunswick, by Dr. James Fowler,
Professor of Botany, Queen’s University, Kingston, Ont.
(5) The Food of the Sea Urchin (Strongylocentrotus), by Dr. F. H. Scott,
Physiological Laboratory, University of Toronto.
(6) The Paired Fins of the Mackerel Shark (Lamna), with three plates,
by Professor E. E, Prince, Dominion Commissioner of Fisheries, and Dr. A.
H. MacKay, Superintendent of Education for the Province of Nova Scotia,
Halifax, N.S.
(7) The Sardine Industry in Relation to the Canadian Herring Fisheries,
by Arthur Bensley, B.A., &c., late Fellow in Biology, University of Toronto.
As Professor Prince states in a brief prefatory note, this publica-
tion represents part only of the work done by the staff of specialists at St.
XXIV ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Andrews, New Brunswick, and several faunistic and embryological
investigations were carried on, which are not sufficiently advanced for
presentation in permanent form at this stage.
During the past twelve months the station has been located upon
a new site, and the scientific workers have been conducting researches
in a more northern area, viz., the waters of eastern Nova Scotia, includ-
ing Chedabucto Bay, and that important outlet of the Gulf of St. Law-
rence, the Strait of Canso. The station was removed to this northern
site after two most successful seasons (1899 and 1900) at St. Andrews,
New Brunswick, this step being in accordance with the decision of the
Board of Management at the semi-annual meeting held in St. Andrews,
in July, 1899.
It may be noted that this Canadian station was designed in the
form of an ark or oblong building placed upon a large scow, so that it
could be moved from one point to another along the coast, as the Board
of Management might from time to time determine. At each chosen
location it might be either moored, or hauled up on dry land above high
water mark, thus fulfilling the conditions of a floating as well as of a
fixed scientific station. The building during its first two seasons was
not placed upon the scow, but was erected on the shore at St. Andrews,
New Brunswick, with the intention of having it placed upon the special
scow whenever the Board of Management decided to move it away to a
new locality. The laboratory was completed in June, 1899, and is a
neat one-story structure of wood, well lighted from the roof and sides,
and somewhat resembling a Pullman car, with a row of eight large win-
dows along each side, and a door with sash provided with plate glass at
either end. Its total length is 50 feet, the principal room, or main
laboratory, occupying the central part of the structure and forming a
well-lighted and cheerful work-room, measuring 30 feet in length, and
15 feet in breadth. Two tank and store-rooms are at the anterior end,
each room 6 feet by 6 feet, while at the opposite end are four rooms, one
reserved for the director, another, adjacent to the director’s, devoted to
the use of the attendant, and provided with a sink and spacious shelving,
and certain kitchen appliances, while on the opposite side of the passage
are two rooms, one used as a tank room, and the other as a chemical
room, the last being provided with a table for. chemical balances and
other instruments, and with shelves for storing chemicals and re-agents.
Of the eight windows on each side, half of them light up the main work-
room. On the roof, which is slightly elevated in the centre, is a neat
raised ventilator, or skylight, with nine movable panes on either side to
admit light and fresh air. The scow on which the laboratory was placed
in the spring of 1901 is sixty feet in length and nineteen and a half feet
PROCEEDINGS FOR 1902 XXV
in breadth, and about nine feet from the deck to the outside of the bot-
tom planking, that is, in vertical depth. It provides a narrow platform
round the sides of the building, and a spacious platform at each end, six
and a-half feet in width. A small double-acting brass deck-pump
placed on the platform at the front entrance is connected by hose pipe
with the fresh-water tank, and supplies the porcelain wash-basins, one
of which is provided at each worker’s table. Near the location selected,
at some little distance from the station, and adjacent to the sea shore,
a salt-water pump, with a Rider hot-air engine, 6 in. cylinder, are
placed, and connection is made by a pipe with a spacious salt-water
tank on the roof of the building at the anterior end. From this tank
a delivery tube, one inch in diameter, of galvanized iron, passes close to
the skylight into the interior of the station, immediately under the hori-
zontal cross beams of the roof, giving off lateral branch tubes, five on
each side, and supplying the salt water by special nozzles to the respec-
tive porcelain basins used by each worker. From this delivery tube,
temporary tanks can be supplied as required, and the final outflow
empties into the salt-water tank in the tank-room next to the chemical
room, at the rear end of the station. Along each side of the laboratory,
under the workers’ tables, a convenient drain carries away waste water,
and has its exit beneath the laboratory. The station possesses a gaso-
line launch, 22 ft. long, fitted with a Sintz engine, intended to be used
for conveying the workers conveniently to points within easy reach. It
was originally planned that this launch, which is 24 h.p., should be
utilized for bottom dredging, and for surface or mid-water tow netting
with capacious “ plankton ” and other nets; but it has proved to be not
well adapted for that work, on account of its insufficient power.
APPENDIX B XCIII
Assistant Secretary—W. H. Murch.
Curator—Mrs. W. St. Thomas Smith.
Editor—Judge Ermatinger.
Council—Mrs. J. H. Wilson, Mrs. S. E. Burns, Mrs. E. W. Gustin,
Mrs. F. M. Griffin, Mrs. S. Chant, W. Atkin, C. Oakes, J. H. Coyne.
The officers of the Ladies’ Auxiliary are as follows :—
President—Mrs. J. H. Wilson.
ist Vice-President—Mrs. J. H. Coyne.
2nd Vice-President—Mrs. C. O. Ermatinger.
3rd Vice-President—Mrs. D. O’Shea.
Corresponding Secretary—Mrs. Gustin.
Recording Secretary—Mrs. 8. Silcox.
Assistant Secretary—Miss Claris.
Treasurer—Mrs. E. Caughell.
Assistant Treasurer—Miss F. McLachlin.
Curator—Mrs. W. St. Thomas Smith.
XVI. From The Historical and Scientific Society of Manitoba,
through Mrs. GEORGE BRYCE.
There has been no report of the Historical and Scientific Society of
Manitoba presented before the Royal Society since that of 1898. During
the last three years the position of the Society has remained unchanged.
It still has for its aims historical and scientific research into subjects
pertaining to the countries lying between Lake Superior and the Pacific
Coast, and during these years it has, as in former times, done effective
work.
It still is greatly hindered in its aims by the want of convenient
rooms for its purposes. The City Hall of Winnipeg, in addition to the
civic departments, accommodates at present the Free Public Library,
which possesses about 10,000 books, and the Historical and Scientific
Society, with its valuable reference library of about 4,000 volumes.
It is hoped that when the building for the circulating library pro-
mised by Mr. Andrew Carnegie is erected, that the Historical Society will
receive consideration and be given space within its walls. It was the
Historical Society that first instituted the public library; it still has with
the City Council a joint proprietorship in it and a share in its manage-
ment, one of the members of the Society, Dr. Bryce, being chairman of
the Library Board. By arrangement with the City Council, the valu-
able reference library of the Historical Society is accessible to the read-
ing public of Winnipeg, and the public library would certainly be incom-
plete without it.
XCIV ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Committees.
Of the work of the committees appointed by the Society, the most
interesting to the Royal Society will undoubtedly be that of the Archæo-
logical and Scientific and the Literature and Publication Committees.
The Archeological and Scientific Committee—Chairman, Dr. J. G.
Laird—has had its patience sorely tried in cataloguing its specimens
and placing them in cases so as to be seen to most advantage in the
limited space allotted to its department; and indeed, the work of increas-
ing the collection has almost been brought to a standstill for want of
sufficient room. Nevertheless, during the last three years quite a num-
ber of specimens of Indian workmanship have been acquired and a col-
lection of valuable coins and other curios has been placed with the
Society as a permanent loan by Mr. Basil Hamilton.
The important scientific collection of the Society has recently been
given space in the new university building, where it can be exhibited to
greater advantage than in the Society’s present quarters.
The Literature Committee—Chairman, Prof. A. B. Baird—has
been diligent in acquiring books, rare or out of print on North-west
subjects, and the Society’s collection of such works is now unique.
Tn 1899 there was completed a work commenced some years before,
viz. : the collecting, classifying and binding of 100 volumes of pamphlets
and typical Western newspapers. These are indexed and easy of refer-
ence. The most important sets purchased since 1898 were: Bancroft’s
History of the Pacific Coast States, 39 vols.; the new translation of the
Jesuit Relations, 134 vols.; The Frontenac Edition of Parkman’s Work:,
with the Life of Parkman, 17 vols.; Bailey’s Cyclopedia of Horticul-
ture, and the completion of Leslie Stephen’s Biographical Dictionary,
now 73 vols.
Exchanges.
The Society at present receives exchanges of magazines and news-
papers amounting to 107; and historical and scientific exchanges of
other societies, 167.
Obituary.
The Society has to record with sorrow the loss by death during these
years of the following members :—
Honorary Members—Sir Wm. Dawson, C.M.G., and, quite recently,
the Marquis of Dufferin and Ava, and the Very Rev. Principal Grant,
DD:
APPENDIX B XCV
Corresponding Members—Mr. Joseph Fortescue, retired officer of
the Hudson’s Bay service, who at the lonely posts of the Northwest
devoted himself to the study of ethnography. For a paper on “The
Ethnography of Hudson Bay,” Mr. Fortescue received a medal from
VInstitution Ethnographique de Paris.
Dr. G. M. Dawson, C.M.G., prominent in Northwest exploration.
Peter Warren Wentworth Bell, a retired Hudson’s Bay Co. officer.
Ordinary Members—Mr. Stephen Nairn, for several years treasurer
of the Society, and the Very Rev. James Dallas O’Meara, Dean of
Rupert’s Land.
Publications.
In the report presented in 1898, a list of publications of the Society
was given as far as No. 52. Since that time there have been read before
the Society and published the following papers :—
No. 53. “ Manitoba Birds of Prey,” by A. E. Atkinson.
No. 54. “The Charitable Institutions of Winnipeg,” by Mrs.
George Bryce. ;
No. 55. “The Present Status of Natural Science in the North-
west,” by the Rev. W. A. Burman, B.D.
No. 56. “ On the St. Paul Trail in the Sixties,” by W. G. Fonseca.
No. 57. “ Early Red River Culture,” by Mrs. George Bryce.
: No. 58. “ Notes and Observations of Travels in the Athabasca and
Slave Lake Regions in 1899,” by W. J. McLean.
No. 59. “The Early Icelandic Settlements in Canada,” by Capt.
Sigtr. Jonasson.
No. 60. “The Insectivorous Birds of Manitoba,” by A. E. Atkinson.
No. 61. “ Britain’s One Utopia,” by Frank L. Hunt.
No. 62. “ Madame Lagimoniere: The First White Woman to Settle
in the Northwest,’ by Abbé Dugast. Translated by Miss Jessie
Morice.
With annual reports 1899, 1900, 1901.
Finances.
Besides the fees of the members and privileges of accommodation,
heating and light afforded by the civic authorities, the Society receives
an annual grant from the Provincial Government of $250, and a like
grant from the city of Winnipeg of $200.
XCVI ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
XVil.— From The Toronto Astronomical Society, through
Mr. A. Harvey.
The following are the names of the officers of the Society for
the year 1901: —
Honorary President—The Hon. Richard Harcourt, M.A., K.C.,
M.P.P., Minister of Education, Ontario.
President—G. E. Lumsden, F.R.A.S., 57 Elm Avenue, Rosedale,
Toronto.
ist Vice-President—R. F. Stupart, F.R.S.C., Director of the
Toronto Magnetic Observatory, and Superintendent of the Meteor-
ological Service of Canada.
2nd Vice-President—C. A. Chant, M.A. (Tor.), Ph.D. (Har.),
Lecturer in Physics, University of Toronto.
Treasurer—C. P. Sparling, 13 Isabella Street, Toronto.
Corresponding Secretary—W. Balfour Musson, 37 Yonge Street,
Toronto.
Recorder—J. E. Maybee, M.E., 103 Bay Street, Toronto.
Librarian—Z. M. Collins, 172 Borden Street, Toronto.
Assistant Librarian—.. Drs Baxter:
Mar.* 5. “ Circulation of the Blood”.. .. .. ..Dr. Baxter.
ie ihe blood im. Health} sis. ae .. Dr. Baxter. |
19. “ A Year with Buller in South Africa? . Sergt. Major Cox.
26. “ Outlines of the Solar System ”.. .. ..Mr. James Nicol.
April? “The Blood in Health??) 2. :..4\-¢vict sre Baxter:
9. * The Blood /in Disease?’ 4). LOU i hee Beamer
16: * Ansemia 72149048 De aa le aoe Daan
29. * Baeillt 2.150 SIREN ER EN DE ABE Ier
305. On Instinét ... chee eye Aire R DIE ME UE
May : 7. On Instinet” Le oo) eas ain eel eer Es Gone
14, A Valk op, ishes?” epee fe ian t te Dr Ua
Oct. 24. “Old Roman Coms ”.. 7.5.)-.. 2,2. .. Mr Machaehlan:
Nov. 12. “ The Migration of Birds”... .. Mr J. Hughes San,
uels, Toronto.
1902
Jan. 14. “ The Snakes of New Brunswick ”.. .. Dr. Cox.
21. “ The Nests of Bees and Hele i J. D. B. F. McKenzie.
“ Continuation of same... #4 AJ D> B. BP. MeKenze:
Feb. “The Anatomy of the Teeth a ee ct etl: JEL G- Nasa
DONATIONS TO MUSEUM AND LIBRARY.
The Sword of a Sword Fish: .<.. 0.0. 20 MEL" Brobecker
AsiGoshawh?? 2.0.0 "Lee Paes ey ee eae ean
Jersey.
Fifteen Bulletins of the Natural History Society
of New Brunswick.
A Horned Toad, Sea Horse, Tarantula, Scorpion,
Scorpion, Specimen of a Sisal Plant and Rope,
Star Fish, Centipede; a bunch of Nictor Beans;
a bunch of Whistling Beans; Horned Oyster;
specimen of Sea Bean; specimen of Castor Oil
Bean; specimen of Prickly Pear; specimens of
the Royal Ponciana Bean; the rattle of a rattle-
snake from Florida and the Bahama Islands .. A Friend.
Specimen of Lignile We ceo she sen 0 George [WA
APPENDIX B CXI
Specimen of Shells .. .. .. ; BAD ek Bray. 9
Two specimens of Copper Ore From Albert Cons T. W. McLean,
St. John.
Srecimen of Pig Iron, the first made at the
Dominion Steel Works, Sydney, C.B. .. .. ..Z. Tingley.
en IRUEIS) Lee 22 Luce. s+ es Walter Gilbert.
Pintail Duck (Dafila Acuta).. .. .. .. .. .. ..George Morrison.
Stone Gouge, Six Miles Brook, Cains River, Mir.. Lieutenant Donald.
Ruffed Grouse .. .. . ek es COX,
Drum Fish, pyaar’ stort: bee Choice,
Pomadasys fulvomaculatus, Texas .. .. .. ..T. A. Cox.
NG Bi er etn zen a Sarto es cana s Perley, Chatham
White- srinwed cs Bill. SLA AA UNE LUE O0
Specimens of Fishes TEE in Algonquin mi
Ontario: River Chub, Red Fin, Horned Dace,
Black-headed Minnow, Red-bellied Dace.. .. . Professor Macoun.
Musk Rat; Japanese Rope; French Ventilating
Brick; Cedar Burr, a piece of Petrified Tree .. A Friend.
SONO EE LUS ects, ola hated oes ET SU Henry Gerrish,
Stone Gouge .. .. . Ree TEA John Jarre
Piece of Petrified Woodly Meee sales eet 2 4 Capt. whobert Melean:
Old French Axe, moe oF ee ens Ss AT on Mourne MCP. P:
A number of Stone Arrowheads; Stone Axe; Stone
Scraper; Nest anl Eggs of Song Sparrow; ae
Ge Mason Bee LL EN oe se Co
Horse Shoe; French Axe; piece of ae ae
(iron); Musket Ball; Gun Flint; piece of Pot-
tery, math as C.B. aa Baten Se we ely A lerkander Brown.
SET NU NE LS ea ea ere Ce ER lige Davidson,
Church Point.
Red-throated Loon .. .. .. SM a Waker Gilbert
Pressed Plants, Primula Mons and Ly ché
Plas CUCM MAR EE EST AT lee AE D
APE Ed Plan ES NS PR RAR Dr Cox
MEckedtDop-Fish-(Shark) 0,000, 0 ov. Nm. Tait.
ÉROMEPARONIA TER ARR coe as ee we Sts, Lei MeLärran,
Black Ville.
Petrified Wood .. .. .. .. .. .. Chester Mowatt.
Cocoa Pod, with Seed) Dotninied, W. i Bee oe D NE Ward:
Wild Pimento, or Cannon Ball Plant, George-
town, British Guiana; Silver Ores from Color-
adormidNiew Mexico... 002.22 Di W. Ward.
CXil ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Nutmegs with Mace.. .. .. fo Gee ors, CP. As Nioomam
Nut of an unknown species A om an ras ne . J. Doyle.
Porcelain Clay from Demerara .. .. .. .. .. ..P. A. Noonan.
Native Sponges and Lichens from our own rivers
ATIC: foret eee ilar ates ote ici ENT re COLD SOn:
Military Woodpecker nv) 2.... 0. ne s'-) Gees eae ame: (Wishart,
: Tabusintac.
Piece of Petrified Juniper, from sewerage cutting
on Queen Street, Chatham 1°." OMR overt Murray:
Pin Cushion and Cuff Buttons, made from the
Bie Tree, California... este tet Dre Res en.
LAGS iC pes ae eee eee nner neta Oeste toy Orv Our as Kennet,
A che ao ne 20 6e re TM EN SRE ES SEE ln
Spotted Salamander :.,:.:. 1. James PAIE
Dovekie:. 5:04 11: ANTON Adams:
A piece of Petrified i uniper pa fhe Mare for
the sewerage .. .. .. .. ss +a) oe George Siothart,
A piece of plank eaten = ee orang cae at
from a plank of a scow, after lying six weeks
at Black Brook. Nac Cae .John Johnston.
Six specimens of as many inde ui He en Beds
from the West Indies .. .. .. se ee ings PAS Noonan
Geological Report, 1898, with Marbs) Geplozcal
Survey Department for year i900.
Annual Report, 1900, Early Red River Culture;
Transaction No. 5%, Notes and Observations of
Travels in Athabasca and Slave Lake Region;
Transaction No. 58, Early Icelandic Settle-
ments in Canada; Transaction No. 59 .. .. ..Historical & Scientific
Society of Manitoba.
Several Scientific Papers from the Bibliographica
Physicologica of Paris and Brussels.
Annual Report, American Museum of Natural
History.
The Polychena of Puget Sound Region .. .. .. Boston Society of Na-
tural History, 1900.
Vol 4, No. 1, Records of Australian Museum, Syd-
ney, 1901; Proceedings of Boston Society Natu-
ral History, Vol. 29, No. 17; Phenological
Observations, Canada, 1899; and Descriptions
of Fresh Water Sponge from Sable Island .. .. A. H. MacKay,
Nova Scotia.
APPENDIX B CXIII
Vols. IX. and X., 1899-1900, Proceedings and
Transactions of Nova Scotia Institute of
Natural Science; 12 numbers of Ottawa
Naturalist, 1900; Vol. III, Nos. 1-4, 1901,
Canadian Antiquarian and Numismatic Jour-
nal; Proceedings of Linnean Society, New
York.
A complete set of Standard Weights and
Measures of New Brunswick anterior to
Consederation DOM ahi In 05 Municipal ‘Council: of
Northumberland.
Gold Quartz and other Mineral Specimens from
a gold mine in Lunenburg Co., N.S... .. .. .. Hon. J. B. Snowball &
' Mr. R. A. Snowball.
Specimens of Coal and Stalactites from Bermuda. Miss Maggie Connors.
Piece of Petrified Lepidodendron, Bay du Vin. ..A. G. Williston.
This Association has been favoured in having its work freely
reported by the press, which has taken great interest in its proceedings.
OFFICERS.
Patron—His Honour Lieutenant-Governor Snowball.
President—Dr. Cox.
Vice-Presidents—D. Ferguson, Esq., and J. D. B. F. McKenzie,
Esq.
Corresponding Secretary—Dr. Baxter.
Librarian—Miss Bessie Creighton.
Treasurer—George Stothart.
Curators—Miss K. I. B. McLean, Miss Minnie Edgar, Mr. J.
McIntosh, Dr. Baxter and Dr. Cox.
Additional members of the Council—Messrs. J. L. Stewart, W. L.
T. Weldon, and Mrs. J. F. Connors.
Secretary—G. B. Fraser.
XXV.— From The Canadian Forestry Association, through
MR. E. STEWART.
I have the honour to present the following report upon the work
of the Canadian Forestry Association for the past year:
This Association, which has now entered upon the third year of
its existence, has members and officers in every part of the Dominion,
Proc. 1902. H.
CXIV ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
and, as its aims affect every citizen of the country, whether he reside
in the prairie districts of the interior of the Continent or the wooded
areas of the older provinces as well as that of British Columbia and
the west territory of northern Canada, it is evident that its mission
is one of great and lasting importance to the people of this country.
It is beginning to be realized, and none too soon, that it will be
absolutely necessary to give greater attention than heretofore to the
preservation of the timber at the sources of water supply if this country
is not to suffer the penalty that has visited others that have continued
to pursue the wholesale denudation of the timber of the country and
which has been begun in the older provinces of Canada.
The Association has, during the past year, suffered a great loss
in the death of Hon. Geo. W. Allan, one of its most active directors.
The third annual meeting was held in Ottawa on the 6th and 7th
of March last, and was well attended by members from all parts of the
country, and the Association was also favoured by and is deeply
indebted to Dr. Fernow, formerly director of Forestry for the Federal
Government at Washington and now Principal of the New York State
College of Forestry in connection with Cornell University, who was
in attendance and also gave an illustrated lecture on the evening of
the first day’s session.
Interesting papers and addresses were delivered by the following
gentlemen :— 1
“The Growing of Trees in British Columbia,” by President Sir
Henri Joly de Lotbinière.
“ Forestry in Ontario,” by Mr. Thomas Southworth.
“The Pulp Industry in Canada,” by Mr. D. Lorne McGibbon.
“The Pulp Industry in Canada,” by Mr. E. G. Joly de Lotbinière.
“The Forest Tree Planting in Manitoba,” by Mr. A. P. Stevenson.
“Forest Tree Planting in N. W. Territories,’ by Norman M.
Ross.
“Pulp Wood,” by Mr. Austin Carey, of the State of Maine.
“Timber in British Columbia,” by Mr. Anderson, of British Col-
umbia.
Sir H. Joly and Messrs. A. P. Stevenson, Carey and Anderson
were unable to be present in person, but their papers were read and
will appear in the published report.
Mr. Anderson also furnished the Association with specimens of
the different varieties of wood found in British Columbia, and also
with a section of a pile showing the disastrous work of the teredo in
the waters of the western coast.
APPENDIX B CXV
The officers for the present year are as follows :—
Patron—His Excellency the Earl of Minto, Governor-General.
Honorary President—His Honour Sir Henri Joly de Lotbinière,
Lieutenant-Governor of British Columbia, Victoria, B.C.
President—William Little, Westmount, P.Q.
Vice-President—Hiram Robinson, Ottawa, Ont.
Vice-Presidents for the Provinces and Districts—Ontario: J. B.
McWilliams, Peterborough, Ont.; Quebec: Hon. S. N. Parent, Premier
of Quebec, Quebec; New Brunswick: Lt.-Col. Hon. J. B. Snowball,
Chatham, N.B.; Nova Scotia: A. H. MacKay, LL.D., Superintendent of
Education, Halifax, N.S.; Prince Edward Island: Hon. Sir Louis
Davies, K.C.M.G., Minister of Marine and Fisheries, Ottawa; Mani-
toba: Stewart Mulvey, Winnipeg, Man.; Assiniboia: J. 8. Dennis,
Assistant Commissioner of Public Works, Regina, N.W.T.; Saskatche-
wan: J.G. Laurie, Battleford, Sask.; Alberta: William Pearce, Calgary,
Alta.; Athabasca: F. D. Wilson, Hudson Bay Co., Ft. Vermilion,
Atha.; British Columbia: H. Bostock, Ducks, B.C.; Yukon: The Com-
missioner, Dawson, Yukon; Keewatin: The Lieutenant-Governor of
Manitoba, Winnipeg, Man.
Secretary—E. Stewart, Dominion Superintendent of Forestry,
Department of the Interior, Ottawa.
Assistant Secretary and Treasurer—R. H. Campbell, Dept. of
Interior, Ottawa.
Directors—E. G. Joly de Lotbinière, Ottawa; Wm. Saunders,
LL.D., F.R.S.C., Director of Experimental Farms, Ottawa; John
Macoun, F.L.S., F.R.S.C., Asst. Director of the Geological Survey,
Ottawa, Ont.; Thomas Southworth, Director of Forestry, Toronto; C.
Jackson Booth, Ottawa; W. C. Edwards, M.P., Ottawa; C. E. E. Ussher,
Montreal.
J
XXVI—From The Women’s Canadian Historical Society of Ottawa,
through Mrs. G. E. FOSTER.
The Recording Secretary begs to present the following report:—
The Society has now come to the close of its fourth year. It has
been, on the whole, one of steady progress. The members continue
to show interest in the work, and the papers that have been presented
have been of unusual interest. These papers form a valuable nucleus
of a new volume, to the publication of which the Society is already
looking forward.
At the October meeting, Mrs. Foster, who had been president since
the organization of the Society, sent in her resignation, owing to her
CXVI ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
removal from the city. Her loss was deeply felt, as she had ever been
zealous in her efforts to promote the welfare of the Society. As a mark
of the Society’s appreciation of her efforts, she has been elected a vice-
president. Whilst the office of President was vacant, Mrs. Gwynne
kindly and efficiently occupied the chair. At the November meeting
Mrs. Dawson was elected president by a unanimous vote. During the
absence of the treasurer, Mrs. Ahearn, in Europe, Mme. Pigeon kindly
consented to act as treasurer. Mrs. O’Connor, recording secretary; who
had faithfully performed the duties of that office since organization had
also to resign during the year, much to the regret of the Society. The
Librarian consented to act as recording secretary until the annual meet-
ing. Another officer who has devoted much time and thought to the
work of the Society, viz., the corresponding secretary, Mrs. J. L. Mc-
Dougall, Jr., is retiring this year. The Society is very grateful to her
for all her enthusiastic work on its behalf.
Seven regular meetings of the Society have been held during the
year. The Executive has met eight times, having had seven regular
meetings and one special. The papers read were as follows:—
1901.
April —“ Account of the Settlement of part of Leeds County”—Mrs.
J. L. McDougall, Sr.
October —“Sketch of Jane Craig, a Revolutionary Heroine”—Mrs.
Ahearn.
“ Sketch of Ursuline Convent”—-Mme. Lamothe.
November—“ Ottawa in 1868” and “ A Story of the Cholera in 1832”—
Mrs. Kirwan.
“A Reminiscence of the Visit of His Excellency the Earl
of Elgin and Kincardine in 1853 ”— Mrs. Friel.
December—“ Schools and Schoolmasters of Ottawa”—-Miss Jamieson.
1902.
January —“ Phillipsburg”—Miss Read.
February—“ The Great Fire of 1870 ”— Mrs. Bradish Billings.
March —“ Industrial Development of Ottawa and MHull”—Mrs.
Roper.
The monthly meeting in December was held on the first Friday;
and on the second Friday and the Saturday following “ Tableaux
Vivants” were given in the Orme Hall under the auspices of the
Society. These were a great success, financially and otherwise. This
success was due to the efforts of a capable committee, consisting of Mrs.
Ahearn, convener, Mrs. J. L. McDougall, Sr., Mrs. J. L. McDougall,
Jr., Mrs. Goodeve, Mme. Leliévre, Mme. Lamothe, Mrs. Harold Pinhey,
Mrs. H. K. Egan, Miss Ida Hughes and Miss Meach. The Society is
APPENDIX B CXVII
also greatly indebted to the ladies and gentlemen, other than members
of the Society, who kindly assisted.
At the March meeting, Lady Ritchie and Mrs. Edward Griffin
were present as representatives of the Local Council of Women.
The Scrapbook Committee report steady work during the year.
Three books are in course of preparation—one, “Local Events,” by
Miss Masson; a second, “General Events,” by Miss Read; and the third,
“Ottawa City,” by Miss Horsey, convener.
The Treasurer reports a balance on hand of $88.19.
The Librarian reports having sent twenty-eight copies of the
transactions, Vol. I., to secretaries and librarians of societies in Canada
and the United States. Eleven copies were sent in Canada. Copies
of annual reports and transactions have been received in exchange from
several of the societies. From the Historical and Scientific Society of
Manitoba have been received an annual report and the following
papers :—(1) “ The Early Icelandic Settlement in Canada.” (2) “ Early
Red River Culture.” (3) “Notes and Observations of Travels in the
Athabasca and Great Slave Regions in 1899 The Wentworth
Historical Society sent a copy of transactions. The Ontario Historical
Society sent the same. Copies of the Canadian Historical Quarterly
have been received. Sir James LeMoine sent the “ Annals of the Port
of Quebec,” of which he himself is the author.
From the United States we have received the “ American
Anthropologist,” “The Iowa Historical Record,” the transactions of
the Oneida Historical Society, the transactions for 1899 and 1900 of
the State Historical Society of Wisconsin, and the Kansas Historical
collection.
The following volumes have also been presented:—
(1) “ Recollections of Bytown”—W. P. Lett. Presented by his son.
(2) “History of the Ottawa Valley ”—R. Gourlay.
(3) “Memorial volume of Knox Church, Ottawa.” Presented by Miss
Masson.
This is the first report from the Librarian. She hopes that mem-
bers of the Society will assist in collecting books written by Canadians
and those dealing with Canadian subjects.
The officers elected by the Society at the annual meeting, held
April 11th, 1902, were as follows:—
Patron—Her Excellency, the Countess of Minto.
Honorary President—Lady Laurier.
President—Mrs. S. E. Dawson.
1st Vice-President—Mrs. Gwynne.
CXVIII ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
2nd Vice-President—Lady Ritchie.
3rd Vice-President—Mme. Pigeon.
4th Vice-President—Mrs. Ells.
Vice-Presidents—Lady Bourinot, Lady Davies, Lady Strong,
Mrs. Foster, Mrs. Friel, Mme. Girouard, Mrs. G. E. King, Mrs.
Goodeve, Mrs. J L. McDougall, Mrs. H. Pinhey, Mrs. Roper, Mrs.
Burbidge, Mrs. A. Burritt, Mrs. Chas. O’Connor.
Recording Secretary—Miss Alice Burbidge.
Corresponding Secretary—Mrs. Wallbridge Howard.
Treasurer—Mrs. Ahearn.
Librarian—Miss M. A. Northwood.
Scrapbook Committee—Miss Horsey, convener, Miss Masson, Miss
Read.
Executive Committee—Mrs. Sedgewick, Mrs. Martin Griffin, Mrs.
Costigan, Mrs. W. W. Campbell, Mme. Leliévre, Mme. Lamothe, Mrs.
TJ. Allan Bate, Mrs. J. L. McDougall, Jr., Miss Jamieson, Miss Read.
XXVII.— From The Botanical Club of Canada, through
Dr. A. H. MacKay, LL.D.
During the year I sent out a circular with copies of reports and
other phenological papers to botanists and those likely to take an
interest in some department of the work of the Club. I am hopeful
of obtaining observers for the report of phenological data from the
Yukon to Newfoundland from the tenor of the responses received. It
often happens, however, that the daily routine of duties sometimes
obliterates a momentary resolve to carry out a continuous series of
such observations. But, if only a few observations, even for the spring
months alone, can be obtained from the more distant points, the
information will be of great interest and worth the general expendi-
ture of time and energy.
The greatest activity in the extension of phenological observations
must this year be credited to British Columbia, where the Natural
History Society of the province issued a circular to teachers in the
public schools, and an admirable schedule specially adapted to the
western side of the Dominion. The province of Quebec came next,
due mainly to the work of Principal John A. Dresser, M.A., of St.
Francis College, Richmond.
The British Columbia schedule provides for the description of the
locality, for the meteorological phenomena, for six migration items,
seven farming operations, flowering and fruiting of thirteen cultivated
plants, and the first flowering and “ when becoming common ” of fifty-
four named and thirty-seven unnamed plants.
APPENDIX B CXIX
In Ontario there has been an accession of a few able observers.
In New Brunswick a general exploration of the flora of the island is
being organized. In Nova Scotia some steps have been taken in the
same direction, under the leadership of local botanists. In the city
of Halifax, a local botanical club has been meeting regularly, in the
winter studying mainly the marine algæ, and in the summer the flower-
ing plants.
At Canso the Marine Biological Laboratory of Canada was in
operation during the summer, under the directorship of Professor Ram-
say Wright, of the University of Toronto. Professor James Fowler,
of Queen’s University at Kingston, paid special attention to the botan-
ical features of the region.
Professor Robertson, of Ottawa, representing Sir William Mac-
donald, is now encouraging the cult of nature study in the public
schools of Canada in a very effective manner. He plans to select some
of the most promising teachers in each province and send them away
to the best centres of nature study training in the world; then to
arrange with the educational authorities to show the effect of good
objective nature teaching by a teacher who may have ten rural schools
to give instruction in for half a day each week. As such nature
teaching must, to a very great extent, be botanical, the movement is
one which is not only worthy of observation by this Club, but of notice
and of substantial aid.
Canadian botanical literature appears to be regularly growing, as
is indicated by a comparison of the report on the Bibliography of
Canadian Botany, which has just been presented to the Biological Sec-
tion of the Royal Society, with the corresponding report of the previous
year.
Outside of Canada, Germany leads in the collection of phenological
data. Dr. E. Ihne, of Darmstadt, has been publishing annually for
several years, observations from about one hundred stations, more or
less, extending from Wales to Austria, and from Switzerland to the
Baltic; as well as a bibliography of phenological literature for each
year. He gives reports in his “ Phænologische Beobachtungen, Jahr-
gang, 1901,” (in den Abhandlungen der Naturhistorischen Gesellschaft
in Nürnberg), from eighty-six stations; and he published deductions
from them on the climate and “ middle dates ” of spring, etc., for sev-
eral European stations, somewhat as has been done in the Transactions
of the Institute of Science of Nova Scotia, in “ Natur und Schule,”
(I. Band. 1902, 3. Heft. Druck und Verlag von B. G. Teubner in
Leipzig).
CXX ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
In Denmark, M. J. Mathiassen, Mullerup Skole. pr. Slagelse, Jan.
1902, issued a schedule of local nature observations for use in the pub-
lic schools as in Nova Scotia. The introduction of the Nova Scotian
plan into Denmark is due mainly to the sketches of it published by an
eminent educationist, Carl Michelsen, of Skanderborg, well known in
literature and art, and vice-president of the “Union Idéaliste Uni-
verselle.” ‘The schedule is a preliminary one, providing for over fifty
items of observations. In the interesting page of directions to teach-
ers and other observers, the following sentence occurs: “ Som en saadan
Forberedelse, synes jeg, de Naturiagttagelser, som Hr. Skoleinspektor
Michelsen, Skanderborg har gjort opmærksom paa foretages i kana-
diske Skoler, fortrinlig vil egne sig”. (By way of introduction it
appears that the nature-observations carried on in Canadian schools
and reported upon by Herr Michelsen, of Skanderborg, School Inspec-
tor, will preeminently serve).
Phenochron Tables for 1901.
Two tables are here published. First, the Phenological Observa-
tions in Nova Scotia, 1901, which are also published in the Transactions
of the Nova Scotia Institute of Science. Second, the Phenological
Observations in Canada for 1901, which the said Institute publishes
from the report of this Club in order to keep the series complete and
for the purpose of comparison with local phenochrons.
Nova Scotian Phenochrons.
About 450 schedules of observations were approved from the
province of Nova Scotia. These were made in nearly every case by
the pupils of as many schools under the direction of the teacher.
Pupils on their way to and from school in the rural districts were kept
in good-natured rivalry seeking for the first bloom of every kind of
plant, shrub, or tree, etc., which the happy discoverer must, if possible,
bring to the school room for positive demonstration and exact deter-
mination. Over 500 dates of “ first flowering” and “ when flowering
became common” were in some cases determined in one school section.
These 450 schedules were divided between four of our best provin-
cial botanists for study and the compilation of average dates or
phenochrons for each meteorological region of the province, namely,
C. B. Robinson, B.A., of Pictou Academy; Principal E. J. Lay, of the
Amherst Academy; Principal B. McKittrick, B.A., of Lunenburg ©
Academy; and Miss Antoinette Forbes, B.A., of Windsor Academy.
APPENDIX B CXXI
Their reports on the probable mistakes made by some of the observers,
with suggestions for improvement in the schedule, etc., were published
in the April Journal of Education, 1901.
The following paragraph is taken from the directions printed on
the schedules to show the care taken to have accurate data:
‘To all observers the following most important, most essential principles
of recording are emphasized: Better no date, NO RECORD, than a WRONG ONE or
a DOUBTFUL one. Sports out of season, due to very local conditions not com-
mon to at least a small field, should not be recorded except parenthetically,
The date to be recorded for the purposes of compilation with those of other
localities should be the first of the many of its kind following immediately
after, etc. For instance, a butterfly emerging from its chrysalis in a sheltered
cranny by a southern window in January would not be an indication of the
general climate, but of the peculiarly heated nook in which the chrysalis was
sheltered; nor would a flower in a semi-artificial, warm shelter, give the date
required. When these sports out of season occur, they may also be recorded,
but within a parenthesis to indicate the peculiarity of some of the conditions
affecting their early appearance.”’
The following comments were made after the study of such sche-
dules from 1892 to 1899, in the Canadian Record of Science, Volume
VIII., No. 2, pages 73 to 84:
“The tendency to error is quite observable in a study of the whole of these
schedules. The most serious is characteristic of the solitary observer who
goes out for his walk of observation perhaps not more than once or twice a
week. His plants appear to flower by weekly or semi-weekly spurts; and if
certain plants are rare in his locality he may not see them in bloom until, may
be, more than a week after they have been in full flower. In the school
observations this tendency to error is entirely eliminated, for numbers of
individuals are daily wandering to and from school every day with their eyes
open for everything, especially when the discoverer of each new phenomenon
for the season wins a credit of some kind before the whole school.
“Again, the tyro botanist is at a disadvantage, for he does not know
where to look for the rarer species, and when he accidentally comes across
them they may have {been in flower for some time. It is very likely that the
average dates of the flowering of plants in Nova Scotia in the various coun-
ties may be slightly affected by this source of error, the counties having the
oldest and most enthusiastic botanists appearing to be earlier in season. This
may account for the unexpectedly advanced position of Pictou county in the
table.
“Then there is the accident of local land inclination or shelter, for the
warm intervals on the southern slope of the hill is earlier than the northern
slope. To estimate these local effects, the schedules from each county in Nova
Scotia from this year forward are to be classified into localities: (1) on the
coast, (2) low inlands, and (3) highlands.
CXXII ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
“And lastly, some individual plants are naturally earlier than others even
when in similar localities, and in the same individual certain twigs and
branches are earlier than others. To check such peculiarities an attempt is
made to fix the date when the flowering of each species may be said to be
‘becoming common.’ So that we have the two series of observations for each
individual, the ‘ first appearance’ and the ‘becoming common.’
‘“ Assuming the observers to be symmetrically placed in a country, to be
competent and careful, and to put exactly the same interpretation on what
constitutes the ‘first appearance’ and ‘when becoming common,’ the averag-
ing of the various observations would give us phenological norms for the com-
parison of a very important character of the country with that of another,
and more especially for the comparison of one season with another in the same
country, which after a series of years:would contribute to the solution of the
problem of the secular variation of climate.
‘“ In order to deal mathematically with phenological dates, averages or
means, it is necessary to indicate dates and average or mean dates in terms
of the day of the year instead of the days of the month. For the conversion
and reconversion of such dates, all that is necessary to make it convenient, is
to have before the eye a list of the months of the year with the number of the
day of the year corresponding to the last day of each month.
“Now, we may consider a phenological date to be a sort of mathematical
function of variables, several of which are already being very systematically
and accurately observed and recorded by the meteorological departments of
most countries, such as the variations of temperature, of atmospheric pres-
sure, sunshine, precipitation. Then there are local constants, such as latitude,
elevation, slope, proximity of bodies of water, and character of the soil. All
of these influences affect the phenological date, and conversely the date may
be considered as a summation or integration of all these and other more or
less unknown elements. We find that in the month of April the season is
advancing more rapidly this year than last year, while in May or a portion of
May it may be advancing less rapidly according to the varying balance of the
meteorological conditions affecting the organisms. Averages of the dates of
early flowering plants, for instance, during one season might be compared with
those of another season. Averages of a normally later series of flowers might
be similarly treated. But to compare one spring with another spring, a series
of typical flowers normally flowering in succession from the earliest date to
the latest might be taken. Such an average or mean for comparison we might
for convenience call a phenological norm or phenochron (a phenological time
ordinate). Phenochrons for comparison or for the plotting of phenological
curves should be based on the same number of observations taken at the same
stations under similar conditions, and if they are to correctly represent any
district of considerable extent, the stations should be symmetrically
distributed.”’
Returning to the special consideration of the Nova Scotian
phenochrons following, the province was mapped out into ten meteor-
ological slopes, basins or “regions,” and each region was, as a rule,
further subdivided into three “ belts ”— the coast, low inlands, and
high inlands. The dates in each of these “belts” were averaged to
APPENDIX B CXXIITL
find the “ belt” phenochrons; and the “ belt ” phenochrons were aver-
aged to find the “region” phenochrons. In this table the fractions
are omitted for lack of space.
The instructions printed on the blanks for these compilations are
given below for the full information of those interested. The pheno-
chrons thus found for each region of the province are given in the
double ten-columned table, one side giving the “ first appearance ” and
the other the “ when becoming common.” ‘The ruling of this table is
nearly a fac-simile of the ruled blanks prepared for the staff of com-
pilers referred to.
The fourth page of this blank is for the recording of the dates
of thunderstorms. But the difficulty of presenting these phenomena
in any compact form of tabulation is responsible for their omission
in the tables of the present report.
The following are the printed instructions on the compilation
blank referred to:
‘ REGION ” OR “ BELT” PHENOCHRONS.
Each Province may be divided into its main climatic slopes or regions
which may be seldom co-terminous with the boundaries of counties. Slopes,
especially those to the coast, should be subdivided into belts, such as (a) the
coast belt, (b) the low inland belt, and (c) the high inland belt.
In Nova Scotia the following regions are marked out:
No. REGIONS OR SLOPES. BELTS.
1. Yarmouth and Digby Counties, (a) Coast, (b) Low Inlands, (c) High
Inlands.
2. Shelburne, Queens and Lunenburg
Counties, CE ff 4
3. Annapolis and King’s Counties, (a) South Mts., (b) Annapolis Valley,
(c) Cornwallis Valley, (d) North
Mts.
4. Hants and Colchester Counties, (a) Coast, (b) Low Inlands, (c) High
Inlands.
5. Halifax and Guysboro Counties, “ ae “
Cobequid Slope (to the South), L Ge “
7. Northumberland Straits Slope (to
the north), “ “
8. Richmond and Cape Breton Coun-
ties, “ “ “
9. Bras d’Or Slope (to South-East), ae “ «
10. Inverness Slope (to Gulf, N. W.), i" ‘s “
AVERAGING LOCAL PHENOCHRONS FOR ‘ REGION” OR ‘ BELT’? PHENOCHRONS.
If ten or fewer good phenological observation schedules can be selected
from those belonging to any given belt, they may be averaged as indicated in
the columns within. If there are not ten from each belt, then it may be better
CXXIV ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
to combine two belts, or if necessary, the three belts on the form within. In
the latter case, the average will be the ‘region ” phenochrons. When a full
sheet can be made out for each belt, the average of the phenochrons for the
three “ belts ’’ will give the phenochrons for the “ region.”
BLANKS.
There is a convenience in averaging the dates of ten stations, which
accounts for the ten columns for stations in the form within. When a few
dates are not given, it may be fair to enter in the blanks the dates from a
similar and neighbouring station which is not otherwise utilized for the sheet.
Great care should be taken that such observations taken from a schedule not
summarized should appear to be what might have been observed at the station
indicated in the heading; and to indicate such a transference the date should
be surrounded by a circle with the pen, which would always mean that the
observation was not made in the station heading the column, but in a neigh-
bouring one, and was taken from a supernumerary schedule.
THUNDER-STORMS.
These dates will be entered in their respective columns and opposite the
month indicated. They will not be averaged, of course.
ACCURACY.
Care must be exercised in selecting schedules, the observations of which
appear to have been carefully observed, neglecting any which give reason for
doubt, when selecting for summation on the form within. Great care must
also be exercised in copying the figures and entering them, so that no slip may
occur, Every entry should be checked. One slip may spoil the effect of all the
accurate numbers entering into the summation. In like manner, great care
has to be taken. in adding and averaging the figures; and for this purpose
every sum should be done twice in reverse order, so as to give absolute con-
fidence in the accuracy of the work.
REMARKS.
The compiler filling one of these blanks should keep one copy for himself
while sending the other to the compiler-in-chief.
The set of stations on the right, under “‘ when becoming common,” must be
exactly the same as on the left, under “‘ when first seen.”
Phenological Observations, Canada, 1901. x
This table takes note of merely the date of the first appearance
of each phenomenon; and there are only the dates of individual
observers given in each column, except the column for Nova Scotia,
where the number (fraction omitted) is a phenochron derived from
several up to 450 individual dates.
APPENDIX B CXXV
The 450 observers of Nova Scotia are too numerous to be specified
here. Their names, addresses and the numbers of observations made
are published in the October Journal of Education of Nova Scotia,
1901.
The observers of the Botanical Club outside of the Province of
Nova Scotia, from whose schedules the following table is compiled, are
as follows :—
Mr. J. Vroom, St. Stephen, New Brunswick; Mr. John MacSwain,
Bishop Street, Charlottetown, P.E.I.; Mrs. Annie L. Beckett, Rich-
monc (1), Quebec; Miss Jessie M. Varney, Richmond (2), Quebec;
Miss Annie M. Dresser, Nicolet, Quebec; Dr. James Fletcher, F.R.S.C.,
Ottawa (i), Ontario; Dr. Cephas Guillet, Ottawa (2), Ontario; Miss
Alice Hollingworth, Beatrice, Muskoka, Ontario; Mr. B. J. Hales,
Macgregor, Manitoba; Mr. Thomas R. Donnelly, Pheasant Forks,
Assiniboia; Rev. C. W. Bryden, Willoughby, Saskatchewan; Mr. Percy
B. Gregson, Waghorn, Alberta; Mr. J. K. Henry, B.A., Vancouver,
British Columbia.
Following the Nova Scotian table (on page exxxili.) will be found
a plate of phenochrongraphs, illustrating the variations through the
ten “regions ” of the province of the flowering phenochrons of Nos. 3,
13, 51, 57 and 30 — the Mayflower, strawberry, apple, lilac and black-
berry — for “ when first seen,” and “ when becoming common.” The
curves are plotted from the figures given for the five plants in the
preceding table.
The two pages following show curves plotted from the tables of
preceding years, picturing the variations of phenochrons through the
counties of the province.
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, NOVA SCOTIA, 1901.
REGIONS 1 To 10— WHEN FIRST SEEN.
| Number.
—
bo
Day of the year 1901 corresponding
to the last day of each month.
EVE ole able’ bow 31 (July: P2210)
HODE ee overt: 59) YAWIE "ae 243
March......... 90 Sept. :..2738
April rl A0 MODES .. 304
LES ATP dc 151 Nov .........334
June .... 181 Dee: sneer 365
For Leap Year add one to each ex-
cept January.
Alnus ineana, Willd.... ....
Populus tremuloides, Michx..
Epigæa repens, L..........:
Viola cucullata, Gray........
Wi. blanda WII ease et
Neer rubrum, lice scree te
Houstonia cærulea, L.......
Equisetum arvense, i ete
Taraxacum officinale, Weber
Erythronium Americanum,
Coptis trifolia, Salisb........
Fragaria Virginiana, Mill....
i (fruit ripe)......
Prunus Pennsylvanica, L....
de (fruit ripe)......
Vaccinium Penn. v.Can., Lam
4 (fruit ripe)......
Ranunculus acris, L..........
Re pLepenss Ur. Hs koe eerie sce
Clintonia borealis, Raf.....
Trillium erythrocarpum, Mich
Trientalis Americanum,Pursh
Cypripedium acaule, Ait......
Callav palustris: 1-77 4-0
Amelanchier Canadensis, T.
Average for N.S.
118.4
134
126.6
123.3
130.1
129.3
12880
1h77)
154
1. Yarmouth and
and Lunenburg
2. Shelvurne, Queens
3. Annapolis and
Kings
4. Hants and
S. Colchester
Halifax and
Guysboro
6. S. Cobequid, (S.
Cum. and S. Col.)
7. N. St. Slope (Cum. !
Pic. & Antig
Col..
8. Richmond and
135
Cape Breton
9. Southeast slope to
Bras d'Or
Northwest slope to.
Gulf (Inverness)
_
RO a ba Go
119
161
142
143
148
141
141
148
142
144
141
APPENDIX B
CXXVII
PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, NOVA SCOTIA, 1901.
REGIONS 1 TO 10— WHEN BECOMING COMMON.
|
|
Number.
= ee
SPS sos 2 ao OU & wb = ©
© I a oa À À WW |
Day of the year 1991 corresponding
to the last day of each month.
JA sas ete ele SIL eee 212
BED RER HOMMEA UE ee eye nae
Marche "tr 90 Sept..........273
April PIO MNO CE ears ane telce 304
May epee ted ep NUON MAMA ENTRE 334
Des EPA TSH ADO. MA bake 365
For Leap Year add one to each ex-
cept January.
Alnus inca, Willd..........
Populus tremuloides, Michx..
Epigæa repens, L......
Viola cucullata, Gray.........
MÉDIANE ee cee odeoe
ACERTEUDEUM RE ERP oe
Houstonia cærulea, L........
Equisetum arvense, L........
Taraxacum officinale, Weber.
Erythronium Americanum,
ICTS Es EE LEE DONS OS FRET
Coptis trifolia, Salisb.......
Fragaria Virginiana, Mill...
«ec
(fruit ripe)......
Prunus Pennsylvanica, L....
ee
(fruit ripe)......
Vaccinium Penn.y.Can., Lam
ee
(fruit ripe)......
Ranunculus acris, L
R. repens, L
Clintonia borealis, Raf... ..
Trillium erythrocarpum, Mich
TrientalisAmericanum,Pursh
Cypripedium acaule, Ait......
Calla palustris, L
Amelanchier Canadensis, T.
&G
| Average for N.S.
151.6
146.4
147.5
157.8
159.4
142.2
1. Yarmouth and
2. Shelburne, Queens}!
and Lunenburg
3. Annapolis and
S. Colchester
Halifax and
Kings
4, Hants and
Guysboro
6. S. Cobequid, (S.
Cum. and S. Col.)|
7. N. St. Slope (Cum.
\
J
C
8. Richmond and
ol., Pic. & Antig
Cape Breton |
9. Southeast slope to},
Bras d'Or
10. Northwest slope to})
Gulf (Inverness)
113 102
IDB NOY es ae
109 108
129 124
125, 124
144 139
130, 134
131 129
148
1535)) JEU ce allocios
133) 135
126} 128
166) 166
138) 141
141! 146
149) 152
159} 159
146) 145
143) 142
142) 144
149) 151
160) 162
137) 140
208) 182
144
142
146
154
.| 202} 248
150} 162
156} 163
156
154
JADE
150
158
.| 151
141
160
163
165
147
219
121
119
133
128
127
| 113] 110
113
115
126
126
129
130
| 116
131
139
124
170
147
150
| 147
CXVIII
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, NOVA SCOTIA, 1901.
REGIONS 1 To 10— WHEN FIRST SEEN.
2 1 E elise
rene dy (BBL | | feeb ale le [BS
A |g 2/8 % IQ EN RS
ab tu. Ang Cae a |e [sale sens HAE
Marc . 90 Sept... 273 ae) = te Silene lies 37
dp ah Qa ou à ABS ales (esl "le ale glen
June rod Déc 365 5 S9)8 s/EMluec(Cd|-Ses|salse
as add one to each ex- L MARNE Le Ua
Rubus strigosus, Michx.. ... 156.2) 149] 156| 146} 159) 158) 146] 160) 165) 158) 165
fe (fruit ripe)...... 193.9] 188] 188} 175] 181|....|....| 187] 227} 211 |
Rubus villosus, Ait........... 165.4) 161) 163] 162] 158) 166) 168) 164) 173] 173) 166
CA (fruit ripe)...... 225.7| 196| 229| 225| 228| 232). 242 228
Kalmia glauca, Ait............ 149.9! 142) 147} 139] 142 156) 159) 164).
Ke aneustitolia, iis. .on sere 159.6) 141) 160} 142) 148).. 169) 184) 173
Cornus Canadensis, L....... .| 142.3] 187| 144] 140] 139} 143) 188) 143] 149) 146) 144
oF (fruit ripe)...... 190.7) 188} 205] 181} 180} 180). 195} . 211
Sisyrinchium angustifolium..| 155.2} 152) 155) 149] 148) 156) 158) 156) 163) 161) 157
Linnza borealis, L........ 159.5) 157) 158) 155) 155) 161) 161) 157) 171) 160) 160
Linaria Canadensis, Dum....! 173.7) 172) 172] 168} 184| 178). 175). 159} 182
Rhinanthus Crista-galli, L...| 168 | 171) 167) 171| 156) 172) 169) 168) 170) 167| 169
Sarracenia purpurea, L.......| 166 | 160) 163) 165) 160) 163). 167} 171) 179
Brunella vulgaris, L.......... 169.9} 169} 169) 170} 163} 171] 16+) 170) 177) 172
Epilobium angustifolium, L..| 178.4) 176) 169} 185} 156|....|.... 188|....| 185] 190
Rosa lucida, in ee 177.6) 173) 176| 172} 174| 176} 171) 174) 186) 184) 190
Het perforatum, L....| 168.5) 166| 172) 176} 134....|.... 173|. 190
Leontodon autumnale, L...... 168.6! 162| 164| 163| 165) 185| 166| 168 182) 172} 159
Prunus Cerasus (cultiv.)......| 143.6) 185) 144] 133] 138] 147) 144) 143) 157] 151] 144
“ (fruit ripe)...... 189.5) 188} 189] 181} 188)....}.... 196]... .| 195).
Cratægus Oxyacantha, L......| 153.8) 156] 157| 149} 149) 154) 152) 152) 161)... .| 154
Cicoccmen EE... tte 153.9! 154| 156) 155| 145) 154]. 155)....| 156| 156
Prunus domestica (cultivated) 144.8, 136) 145) 138] 142) 148) 145} 145) 159) 146) 144
Pyrus malus (cultivated) early) 146.2) 139] 148) 139] 142) 150} 146) 145) 156) 149) 148
+ Fe late! 153.9) 150) 156! 148| 143) 161| 148} 153) 168) 155) 157
Ribes rubrum (cultivated)... .} 138.5) 134) 141) 133] 133] 142} 135} 139) 147) 134) 147
a (fruit ripe)......) 187.9) 183] 188 177| 167! 180}....| 187) 208] 213
APPENDIX B
PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, NOVA SCOTIA, 1901.
REGIONS 1 TO 10— WHEN
Number
Day of the year 1901 corresponding
to the last day of each month,
Jan.. SlJuly, 212
MED RSR teee 59 Aug.. 243
March OMS ODE RTE 273
ADR EE reste 120 Oct......... 304
May ete ETS EN OV ne 334
DURE Creer et 181 Dec ..365
For Leap Year add one to each ex-
cept January.
Rubus strigosus, Michx
66
(ÉruiEripe) 20e
Rubus villosus, Ait
66
(fruit ripe).....
Kalmia glauca, Ait
K. angustifolia, L....
Cornus Canadensis, L
oe
(fruit ripe)......
Sisyrinchium angustifolium..
Linnea borealis, L............
Linaria Canadensis, Dum ...
Rhinanthus Crista-galli, L....
Sarracenia purpurea, L.......
Brunella vulgaris, L..........
Epilobium angustifolium, L..
Rosaluceidas Bhrnh et
Hypericum perforatum, L....
Leontodon autumnale, L
Prunus Cerasus (cultiv.)
oe
(fruit ripe).......
Cratægus Oxyacantha, L.....
CAcoccinear jac cece wee
Prunus domestica (cultivated)
Pyrus malus (cultivated) early
ce 66
late
Ribes rubrum (cultivated)..….
66
(fruit ripe)......
Average for N.S.
213.3
160.4
164.7
179.3
174.0
171.5
172.8
181.6
181.8
172.5
178.4
150.4
203.7
160.4
160.5
150.0
152.1
159.7
144.2
197.0
Digby
1. Yarmouth and
193
Proc., 1902.
and Lunenburg
2. Shelburne, Queens)
3. Annapolis and
I.
| 4. Hants and
S. Colchester
5. Halifax and
161
140
Guysboro
171
149
| 6. S. Cobequid, (S.
180
156]...
BECOMING COMMON.
Cum. and $. Col.)|
| 7. N. St. Slope (Cum.||
150
Col., Pic. & Antig||
| 8. Richmond and
166
250
171
172
193
173
165
175
149
203]... -
161
163
180]...
175
171
176
191
178
176
ATOS
149
208]...
157
15910:
150
150
158
144
206
pe to
Cape*’Breton
9. Southeast slo
Bras d'Or
| 10. Northwestslope to
164
Wee sce
163
162
170
151
237
Gulf (Inverness) ||
_
-1
iS)
150:
152
165
151
CXXX
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, NOVA SCOTIA, 1901.
REGIONS 1 TO 10— WHEN FIRST SEEN.
| Number.
Day of the year 1901 corresponding
to the last day of each month. y
ws
Jan. Je reine MS IR AO pue 212 Z
Rebér sers 59 Aug 243)
March MIOMSEPE Ce... 73} ©
April SOM OB ee terre sue 304, #
Mayscctesbees The ING vaectene ice Le 334, §
JUL oon e het = 181 DOC. ciate wie 365 =
For Leap Year add one to each ex- =
cept January. <
R. nigrum (cultivated)........ 141.1
ce (fruit ripe).....- 194.5
Syringa vulgaris, L. (cultiv.).| 155.0
Solanum tuberosum, L........| 183.5
Phleum pratense, L........... 177.0
Trifolium repens, L..........- 155.8
T. pratense, L........ severe eee 153.5
Triticum vulgare, L.......... 193:6)....
Avena sativa, L..... (RER Severe 192.6
180
Fagopyrum esculentum, L..| 194.4|....
Earliest full leafing of tree....| 135.5
Latest rt ‘i 1070
Ploughing (first of season)....} 108.7
Sowing ce CS re
Potato-planting NAN A EU IT le rate!
Sheep-shearing Beh bed rallies Pat)
Hay-cutting Er Be (el 2/2 |
Grain-cutting SPN eal hohe) |
Potato-digging OR ere: | Oe
Opening of rivers fee ese OLE,
Opening of lakes a CE Qt Dre)
Last snow to whiten ground..| 107.9
ci to fly in air... ......| 116.0
Last spring frost—hara...... 129.0
L Re hoar......| 153.4
Water in streams—high...... OF eas ae
+ hs lower: 217.0
176
and Lunenburg
2, Shelburne, Queens
3. Annapolis and
Kings
4, Hants and
|
S. Colchester
5. Halifax and
Guysboro
6. S. Cobequid, (S.
Cum. and S. Col.)
N. St. Slope (Cum.
Col., Pic. & Antig
8. Richmond and
fie
Cape Breton
9. Southeast slope to
94
242
142
159
110
126
117
121
203
245
272
73
92
103
108
121
154
Bras d'Or
Northwest slope to
Gulf (Inverness)
—
O9
=I
| 10.
149
APPENDIX B CXXXI
PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, NOVA SCOTIA, 1901.
REGIONS 1 TO 10— WHEN BECOMING COMMON.
DU ef cael moni, | Dale SEL à GOB Ele 2 2g
7 c EE DRE Sze sle ale 2
E SR. babe beceeeens
5 e |FS Bole algele ECEIMREMER EE
À 2 |2A(2 slailsulec CS ds zal5e
= |) wortieap ¥earaddone to each ex-| © 1) ja PAO ea A Lo 11
7, |cept January. 4 Li jai ios Mw ps fs KE [So ks IS
55 | R. nigrum (cultivated)........ 147.0! 145] 151| 143| 142] 150} 143| 145) 155) 144) 152
56 i‘ (fruit ripe)....... 216 3| 218] 223) 214) 204]....|.... 211 228
57 | Syringa vul., L. (cultivated). .| 160.7) 154) 161] 154] 155) 164] 160) 158] 170) 167) 164
58 | Solanum tuberosum, L....... 191.5) 179} 185] 180) 215] 183] 186) 193] 197) 213] 184
59 | Phleum pratense, L.... 181.1] 178} 179] 176) 172] 168} 182| 179} 181] 206) 190
60 | Trifolium repens, L...... 164.3] 162} 168} 158} 162] 167] 158] 162| 169| 169] 168
61 | T. pratense, L................ 162.3] 156! 164] 157| 156) 164] 163| 162] 170) 169] 162
62 | Triticum vulgare, L......... 194.8 198] 180] 158|....|.... 209)....| 229
Gan lPAtvenarsativas liens ere eleeels sil) 2OOS7 202) . 212). 215
64 | Fagopyrum esculen., L....... 218.8 221) 193 211 210).
65a| Earliest full leafing of tree....|......)....]....|....
65b| Latest FE SS Al a aes | cl ie al ere | Sch RS Bisel hice ieee lowe AIO
66 | Ploughing (first of season)....| 118.8! 109! 121) 119)....|.... 114| 127} 124) 126) 110
67 | Sowing me és 1291 121) TA ABS olen ae 124] 135] 137| 134) 129
68 | Potato-planting “ 129-6118) 128186021000 140) 138] 126) 131! 120
69 | Sheep-shearing & LORS MIS SS) USB ee ee cllooce 133} 143) 135} 121) 117
70 | Hay-cutting À 202 6! 185! 188] 188}....|.... 213] 207! 211) 215} 214
71 | Grain-cutting 249.9) 244) 247) 247 244) 252) 258] 257) 250
72 | Potato-digging ce 276.9) 251) 273| 269 288| 281] 281] 283] 289
CXXXII
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, NOV A SCOTIA, 1901.
REGIONS 1 To 10— WHEN FIRST SEEN.
n
Day of the year 1900 corresponding 5 on
to the last day of each month. . io (O98
Mm ia [So
a EM EC
AUS E
ë E,ÉS
5 Es £ Lrg
Æ S |s5/S&
eth hae 3 m2
5 For Leap Year add one toeachex-| 5
Z |cept January. eee ese lle
77a| First autumn frost, hoar...... 256.4] 263) 262
77b * i hard......| 286.2] 288] 286
78a| First snow to fly in air........| 294.0} 293] 292
78b sf whiten ground... .| 306.4] 310] 307
79a| Closing of Lakes.............. 343.8] 349] 343
79b +3 RIVETS: "52000777 350.0) 355] 353
8la| Wild ducks migrating, N..... 83.9 91
Slips <* re Sack 313.9] 312) 310
82a} “ geese + Nee 83.1 81
82b| ‘ à a Sain 325.7] 319) 327
83 | Melospzia fasciata, North.....} 92.9 90
84 | Turdus migratorius ‘“ 84.0 85
85 | Junco hiemalis 4 84.5} 61| 110
86 | Actitis macularia rr 134.6} 112} 134
87 | Sturnella magna a 117.4} 106] 110
88 | Ceryle Alcyon it 130.1} 131} 125
89 | Dendræca coronata ‘‘ 134.4) 180} 134
90 | D. æstiva ; 136 0, 139] 141
91 | Zonotrichia alba A: 127.0) 140} 111
92 | Trochilus colubris a 146.3) 154! 146
93 | Tyrannus Carolinensis‘* 135.7| 139} 142
94 | Dolychonyx oryzivorus“* 126.0) 130] 116
95 | Spinis tristis af 139.4) 151} 137
96 | Setophaga ruticilla “ ..... 139.4) 123} 147
97 | Ampelis cedrorum de 148.8) 172] 173
98 | Chordeiles Viginianus“ . 133.3) 142} 141
99 | First piping of frogs.. .......| 100.8) 93) 99
100 | First appearance, snakes..... 109.2) 101} 104
3. Annapolis and
Kings
Hants and
S. Colchester
5. Halifax and
Guysboro
6. S. Cobequid, (S.
103
108
Cum. and S. Col.)
N. St. Slope (Cum.
Col.,
119
108
Pic. & Antig
Richmond and
Cape Breton
9. Southeast slope to
8.
Te
104
113]
Gulf (Inverness)
Bras d'Or
| 10, Northwest slope to
255
75
TOG)
108
119
97
108
PRET
CXXXIII
ENDIX B
APP
PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, NOVA SCOTIA
1901.
,
a.
Phomactirons Nora Sceatz
ay " Becoming Connon”
ae s
" Jivat-Senne = ve
IP)?
anes
FARINA 1€
LO) Re = :
mmados:
SsPUADAUT Aamo fhew figues) addy
CNRS ES =
Bare nt
| ] — = - |
HER PE RPC EEE FA
|] = Re cet &
H = LÉFEÉFEREEESEE
DE MARIE
: ine
an
sha
«PF cS
UK
a aes De OTA OE #5
3 LEONE o Be
| it
NY Ua Q
4 d
re
si
ad
CXXXIV
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, NOVA SCOTIA, 1900.
(Mean of
Yarmouth.
Shelburne.
PHENOCHRON CURVES OF FLOWERING.
Annapolis
Guysboro,
Cumberland.
Colchester.
Antigoni-h
Richmond,
Cape Breton.
‘* first seen ” and *‘ becoming common ”’).
Victoria,
Er
PEN
[=a
€
al SE) Pry
a wes
BORN a Be? D]
LA
= TPS LAB Q\ UE 4
ae a.
~~! | \
= Se aa
=,
Do ot a [es = MR ee ee oe ee
a = na) ae Se
12S —
ed c
DE I iE Bee ia
SEEN C'EST AE
nee CW 7 —
RU
aa
| fT
SA
in order
from
SOUTH to
NorTH,
and from
WEST to
Kast.
APPENDIX B CXXXV
PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, NOVA SCOTIA, 1898 to 1900.
PHENOCHRON CURVES OF FLOWERING.
(Mean of ‘ first seen” and ‘‘ becoming common ”’).
Phenoohrone For Years [876 ,/877¢/900 |
CovuaTLES
T
é\¢ 2 ais! (2/212 lelal or
8 |2 2 s|é AE 2) E) Nova
[£|S 2 ES = |< 3| =} Scoria.
= |& 3 518 < lz =| F]
= Arranged
4 in order
from
SOUTH to
| Norta,
and from
VW EST to
aes a Cty À) CE ENS ET \
Sn, mea nue
daim ey a, En 1a Gea A ee
SS CES Ce Se SES ES CURE EMEA TES
Ÿ Se D =a
© | =
i Pa
oS ae ae ee
Heese) eno PR a pe
Sara S ee ees ee Jen
ER FES SSDS ES M
IE
SSS Finzi
ra
Ve SARA
NP Nes 49:
= ;
@ceetos
CXXXVI ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1901.
WHEN FIRST SEEN.
Day of the year 1901 correspond-
ing to the last day of each month. ch Hi dl
a ima :
Fob Ce ee [ee |S | Gle élelzlels
March ..... 90 Sept........273 |An| 4 | 2B) dc | o osl6l-/S/8/"/8] 4
April’ ..-:.120m00t 25... 304 CE facts is 4 A SS | re lS & nil eS
,. | May......-151 Nov........ $34 [so] 2/2/68] 8 SQ SS aa 2el/ai/e] &
2 June-...... 181 Dec... 365 SA = ê Ss 31% 3 g a NE e | à 8 À
8 For Leap Year add one to She a a F4 cS So |S E 2 ë al? à
Z | each except January. pile |S | Ses Teas | sla ie el as
1 | Alnus incana, Willd..... citecesse of) LOA): LOA), SUS | eae i ere 100 108 lS] LOW | SAME PAIE EE 64a
2 | Populus tremuloides, Michx....| 109|....} 113]..,.|... 108| 108] 113]....1...,1....| 118]......
3 | Epigæa repens, L....... ....... 104) ea MATE SRIMTITO|LOB PANIERS ARE PPT ERRI EEE
4 | Viola cucullata, Gray .. ... ...| 121|....|.... 147; 142] 111|....| .. | 123) . ASB AIRIS
Bl We blanda, AWalld:..............1 1171126). DOM DOS) MT ee RIEL23 001189)...
6} Acer mm brom) Le:--:-..--...... Seles SRE Een Teh a | SU AS | Bisndlasodinon, || ber 1
7 | Houstonia cærulea, L..... eee 1341: 140) VAS EN ARR lee latter IA SAISIR
Equisetum arvense, L......... so] 126) 145|M 00000) PILOT) MTS EN ERA +e mill oleisfe)| 79
9 | Taraxacum officinale, Weber....| 123| 126| 132] 153| ...| 123| 114) 118] 121|....| 143)... |.,..| 89
10 | Erythronium Amer,, Ker........ 130|....]....| 144] 139] 118] 116] 114) 118}.... So lsu |poooac
11 | Hepatica triloba, Chaïix.........| 129] 122) .. | 140) 125) 111} 105) 104)....)....]....}....] 169)......
12 | Coptis trifolia, Salisb........... 128| DAT cic Al's ciel revere meen everett | Lead: Er PE Al ineteudliolehetel| eroreverets
13 | Fragaria Virginiana, Mill....,..| 117) 132) 135) 141]... | 119) 121] 99] 132 139]. ...| 137]...
14 se (fruit ripe).. | 154] 167]....| 191]....] 154 164] 182] 161]....]....] ...| 146
15 | Prunus Pennsyl., L..... ........| 139] «+-|..+-| 162]/....| 127] 141] 128] 132]....] 142]... | 138) 120 c
16 2 (frtitipe)s 19041110... Moon Herel good ocr ino een ele) AUTRE
17 | Vaccinium Penn., Lam....... BST EC) LAT SION PSE Sc) DT PRESS) EPP APP | SE 61 d
18 ae Grmbiripe) 1960 Baca finda) Mise noe sek. | e248] Gece) ladon ood b5oq bobo0 :
19 | Ranuneulus acris, L ........... 144] 161|....| 172! 170| 147] 144) 143] 169]....]....]....1 147]......
20 | Rrepens Aisa sie cele slere ateleleteibietele BNE EE dire al all ste tore 541) eG PATES AIR IEEE Er | biog a|l ae S3
91 | Clintonia borealis, Raf....... Peel eGlierctaliteteta| CAD cleat LOT] LAD|| LAS ere: wfe|lersteval atelarellexeversil ers on
22 | Trillium erythrocarpum, Michx.| 140)... |....| 144] 140] 119] 129/....1....1....1....1...,1.,, 1...
gg | Trientalis‘Ameni., Purely. sc. us| TA1 | ec|cemall see |see |< ce. | as CE A A etre ERA es
24 | Cypripedium acaule, Ait........ AFA) CG on, gee ocd fetal Beane Raed PEACE PP al aûce
95 | Calla palustris, L........ rase dlablli eo ubeeal en rarer LOST) ALG woh] LAGI Sel ee ler een
26 | Amelanchier Canadensis, T.& G.| 137| 143/....|....1....|..,.| 128] 128] 123)... | 138]... | 136| 132
27 cs (fruitiripe)| 190 PRES Wand bond odo laude! dpe loood joodc ees. Pets) lice.
28 | Rubus strigosus, Michx......... 166 NI ere AA bale) eGo halen isctiieetael tae local p Aen pak tar Cc
29 se (fruitripe).. | 19810. leoacllooodioodd lacod| aa |pood CRIER oor) food AO RSC
30 | Rubus villosus, Ait.............] 165|....| ...1...1....|152| ...|.... Soa boool beds oco|padellaoscoc
31 de (fruit ripe). : | 22555. | 6 o
Ayre ica) i oe BEl|e/|?e BIEIlS|&|e2i¢4 a >
AIDES" 3 La | | = 4 = A 20 H s
isl Foal OMe MMe Meese | to. || a: RER RENE
k pe) = on “7 = pe] pe 4 Ep n O a ©
2 mn 5 am) & = (Sy |e) mn 2 = = = A
oo} tee Mallette | OS que a
delle IS) ls |A) ENEINE
193 AIS cee . erlece |vces sl lateterall| Oa 720
LOZ)! siete BE) Boon oc Se URC) CSS . .:l..-11206/ 52e
194. rlrsstla selon less eleseslsssn|.se | es scene
ABS) amelie uc cleew cles’ aliimeslstentel sonl set sec L29 loue
107 Mises etes pisleeecel! jee] | ate correcte
108}... 13010, 118)". sees) 99) LES) 115) LOB sere
PLD eee GUG steel tetera MLZST ccMllefiests seal sig] hoo) LLG) OZ
TIS) So CP IIIe a 134| 13771) LON Sr
VDD / al 2101. | OL LA eters ...| 153) 158] 147)......
192 Perle el een ecto) ieee! reed mee Mead lesa) meted Mie otic A
DETTE SE SE fe O6 oo SE TS fic eterall Mareteueta
260118 enr landes] te A Ce |) 205)) S06 OLIS
81]... 97) AQT on 7 [Besace 951 100| 4118315...
04 ssl alertes lee le oh) Bod ere) 20l
107|... |... | 129} 159} 121| 110| 110) 111| 89] 166) 155) 155|.....,
L1G eee saree reel ee ele a asl ALI IE RER EEE
129] 130}... 1191126100: © |....1....1 1321...) 156 On)
155| 145 haleine celle dl Leo 151] 156) 128
DFE lesnlesel. 00410111) 0’, (hla cqefeate
AS sous seleooveloes uso . 1441,..1"3801%%.2
2561... 2701... helene 277 |oe sel ss 1 229) RS
286|... A Gt nel raalesli280) 1.110, || 307)
2941-25 alarme ee Fock oood | cel) 664-74 spe pga Good Wee leooac +
306 ls Al ects el LOL econ | OLS 2L7Gl'<-cels soc] 209!) 248 [028
3431.,.,,1.., sel onirentlesenleosnlemasl..4.l-2s ll... lors
850|..., Blé .celie pelecvelccoc|sscclsees|scoslece Aloo acto o
831:..:1...:l 1260/1081 0415-1080... 96's o> B4| See
8183/4411 esdlreeel eos Sadlbons oagd bond ocdbo
83)...-| 77] 125] 118 ° | 112) 114)... 85]... 83|....e
926|-.. 12441 721 ele. iw(atsl veer lus, lee 5 1240) Mareta ete
921611104101 cine 86| 82|.. ...| 108 A0 PPOOOL
* These phenochrons are derived from about 450 schedules representing every county in the
province,
Each has a fraction which is omitted here for the sake of compactness.
APPENDIX B CXXXIX
PHENOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, CANADA, 1901.
WHEN FIRST SEEN.
Day of the year 1901 correspond- i
ng to the last day of each month. Fe n
5 || E St ip
Jante 5 Bl Aiming sauode NE sales Rate ie ee |) ;
Meh A ue ds me ue [oe | | Se S #14 |4|S
MATChE ee" 000 Sept........273/2 © AREAS co eo lo A eh ie: Al 4
RAD noce) OR RTE EN Et | a Sire pF fee | cr
May... LH NOv...........304| 5 3 3 28 | 4|4 cz SS | ae S| 4 2
5) |junes. Er et Dec.........365 05 ass als |sls a | |) Ss 6 3
ê slam |slé lé |s|slé|<|SlSs la le) $
= | For Leap Year add one to each| > A EE NEO ES El RE EN ESA SA 4
Z lexcept January. ON NM ON EN Nees (eS SS Wh Se EP Be ee pe
84 | Turdus migratorius, North......| 84). 99] 108] 100]... 88} 81 aleree|@ 991) 88 Se
85 | Junco hiemalis SS center. NOR sqiacog) SPA. 87 ET ESS | O9 Eee ESS
86 | Actitis macularia CR eee |: LOL NE El ele el T24 |. odlodo ose
87 | Sturnella magna CAS So re pod\oopdlaccrllasadlooud| 20-0) ClAlocedicaca): 200 lsasalladod ESS
88 | Ceryle Alcyon CM Coeod In ES 6e 58 (Sag 1103 aodl-000):d60luee ose
89 | Dendræca coronata WF -gooocall LECH) cd saap|locadlhce. |ldoog]|o cet) ecran So acer
90 | D. estiva D Anodoe|| Lets acalladasfoacal| PEN IE) So6 Mogodidona||aouuldood ADO
91 | Zonotrichia alba Sade duree) Dead nel | qadlecod|laded sao 4 RES SS
92 | Trochilus colubris Cp sono Sao ln SI PE MIE ES Po one 2864 LORS
O28 FDyrannusICarolinensisM lol. lee | evalara| eteratol 101... ll see
94 | Dolychonyx oryzivorus, North..| 126|....|....| 144] 161] 138] 127] 136|....1....1,...:....1....1......
95 | Spinis tristis COE UN TSO nn less al al ETS IS ele Pet ae
96 | Setophaga ruticilla SSH LSS lle vayall over ote | atatete| leratater tetaie el ererete |i O| Al 0edloced ace F6 SES
97 | Ampelis cedrorum DA coallsqadlaoo0| doadlocod|.” talssoallaocelaodollas sfereleveters|). sisteiore
98 | Chordeiles Viginianus CO FIBRE Cod Escales en SoU) PI ag || IBY) SA SAS co
99 | First piping of frogs ...........| 100]...++| 99) 141) 118] 116]....] 100] 101) 94) 119)....] 108] 59
100 | First appearance of snakes......| 109] 132)..,.] 161] 118] 118) .. | 103} 103] 96] 114] 111] 121]......
* These phenochrons are derived from about 450 schedules representing every county of the
province. Each has a fraction which is omitted here for the sake of compactness.
Lu MATE
Worn
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is
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* 7
COCIATÉ ROYALE DU: CANADA
MÉMOIRES
SiC LION A:
LITTERATURE FRANCAISE, HISTOIRE, ARCHEOLOGIE, Erc.
ANNEE 1902
a
1?
SECTION I, 1902. Ino) Mémoires S. R. C.
I.—Historique de la Bibliotheque du Parlement a Québec, 1792-1892.
Par N.-E. Dionne, M.D., LL.D.
Bibliothécaire de la Législature de la Province de Québec.
(Lu le 27 mai 1902.)
La fondation d’une bibliothèque spécialement consacrée à l’usage
des députés du peuple canadien, remonte aussi loin que l’introduetion
du régime parlementaire dans la province de Québec. La rareté des
livres à cette époque déjà assez reculée (1791-92), explique facilement
ies humbles débuts d’une telle fondation. Joignons à cela la nou-
veauté du régime, le manque de culture intellectuelle chez la masse
du peuple, et malheureusement aussi au sein de la Législature, et
rous comprendrons aisément que le goût de la lecture n’était guère
répandu, et parmi ceux-là qui se targuaient d’être un tant soit peu
lettrés, la plupart se contentaient des quelques ouvrages français
échoués par hasard sur nos rivages. Ces ouvrages, avouons-le,
n'étaient pas toujours bons; plus d’un Voltaire ou d’un Jean-Jacques
s'étaient glissés dans des bibliothèques privées, à côté des Mille et une
nuits ou des Mille et un jours, dont la vogue ne diminuait pas.
L’Assemblée Législative ne connut pas dans le principe de biblio-
thécaires en titre. Ce fut d’abord le Greffier de la Chambre qui fut
chargé de la besogne, et ce système dura quarante ans. Ce furent
Samuel Philipp, de 1792 à 1802, et William Lindsay, de 1802 à 1833.
Le greffier-bibliothécaire faisait les achats de livres, il en contrôlait
les prêts et les remises, et chaque année, à partir de 1802, suivant
un ordre de la Chambre en date du 10 mars, il faisait un rapport de
sa gestion en des termes toujours laconiques ; ce rapport comprenait
Ja liste détaillée des ouvrages achetés durant la vacance parlementaire,
et le prix de revient de ses acquisitions. (C’est grâce à ces rapports
que nous avons pu constater qu'en 1817 la bibliothèque renfermait
1,000 volumes, et 4,921 en 1832. Il avait fallu quarante ans pour
recueillir ce petit trésor de livres, car, pour l’époque, c’était réellement
un trésor, où il se rencontrait quelques volumes imprimés à Québec
et à Montréal, mais ils étaient précieux parce qu’ils représentaient
les premiers-nés de l’imprimerie canadienne.
En 1833, M. Etienne Parent, traducteur français de la Chambre
et officier en loi, reçut la nomination de bibliothécaire, tout en con-
servant ses autres fonctions de traducteur français et de greffier
en loi. Il recevait $800 pour vaquer à tout. Quelque modeste que fût
le salaire, il remplit sa nouvelle fonction avec le sérieux et le savoir-
4 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
faire qu’il mettait à tout ce qu'il entreprenait. Avocat et ancien
journaliste —il avait rédigé le Canadien depuis 1822 jusqu’à 1825—,
M. Parent pouvait porter fièrement le titre de bibliothécaire ; c’était
un homme instruit et judicieux.
Le premier rapport officiel de M. Parent date du 7 janvier 1834.
Il constate avec chagrin la disparition de plusieurs volumes au milieu
de séries importantes; il demande à la Chambre de décider une fois
pour toutes sil est à propos de laisser emporter des livres par les
députés, en violation du règlement; il recommande l’achat d’un certain
nombre d'ouvrages dont le besoin est impérieux.
Dans son rapport du 27 octobre 1835, M. Parent annonce qu’il a
dressé un nouveau catalogue, celui de 1831 étant devenu insuffisant.
La classification toutefois est restée la même. Il recommande de
tenir la bibliothèque ouverte jusqu’à la brunante, afin de favoriser
ceux qui, à raison de leurs occupations, ne peuvent fréquenter la
bibliothèque qu'après la fermeture de leurs bureaux ou ateliers.
Ce fut le dernier acte officiel de M. Parent en sa qualité de biblio-
thécaire.! Son salaire étant resté le même, malgré l’augmentation
de besogne, il se démit, en 1835, et son successeur M. Jasper Brewer
trouva, en prenant charge de la bibliothèque, environ 5,500 volumes,
comme l’indique un catalogue imprimé à cette époque par ordre de la
Chambre.
M. Brewer était un Allemand catholique, natif de Cologne. Il
remplissait depuis 1818 les fonctions de greffier des comités. Lors
de la guerre de 1812 il avait servi en qualité de lieutenant dans la
milice canadienne, dans le régiment des Meurons. Est-ce à ses états
de service comme militaire ou à ses qualités spéciales comme littérateur
qu'il dut son entrée dans le service civil? C’est plus que nous
pouvons dire, avec les quelques bribes de tradition qui nous en sont
parvenues ; mais, ce qui est certain, c’est que Brewer était un brave
et honnête homme, un citoyen irréprochable, et aussi un bon musi-
cien. Bien qu'il fût d’une constitution délicate, il se montra toujours
assidu à son devoir, luttant d’un pied ferme contre la maladie qui le
sninait lentement mais sûrement.
Apres les troubles de 1837-38, lors de la création du conseil
spécial, Jasper Brewer agit comme greffier du conseil exécutif, et il
1M. Parent était né à Beauport, le 2 mai 1801. Ses études collégiales
terminées, il entra, à 21 ans, à la rédaction du Canadien. Après la suspension
de ce journal en 1825, il se livra à l'étude du droit et se fit admettre au
barreau. Puis il accepta la fonction de traducteur francais et de greffier en
loi. Plus tard il reprit la direction du Canadien qu'il conserva jusqu’en 1842.
I) fut alors nommé greffier du conseil exécutif. En 1847 il devint assistant
secrétaire provincial et en 1867, assistant secrétaire d'Etat, fonction qu’il
remplit jusqu’à sa mort.
[DIONNE] BIBLIOTHÈQUE DU PARLEMENT À QUÉBEC 8
semble qu’on ait relégué dans l’ombre, de 1838 à 1841, et le biblio-
thécaire et sa bibliothèque. Brewer ne cessa pas toutefois d’être
bibliothécaire, et quand il disparut du monde des fonctionnaires
publics — en 1841 —la bibliothèque renfermait 7,000 volumes. En
reconnaissance de ses services, la Chambre lui alloua une pension
viagére de £120. Brewer quitta Québec pour aller vivre a Saint-
Hyacinthe, ot il mourut le 19 mai 1846. Le Canadien, annongant
cette nouvelle, disait: “ Tous ses actes furent marqués au coin de
l’honneur et de la probité la plus exquise. Sa foi fut celle d’un bon
chrétien et d’un fervent catholique.”
Avant de passer outre, jetons un coup d’œil sur le travail opéré
dans la province du Haut-Canada à l’égard de la bibliothèque de la
Législature. D’après un rapport de M. Fothergill en date du 10
février 1827, nous constatons que cette bibliothèque ne fut réellement
fondée qu'en 1815. Avant cela, ce n’était qu’un simulacre de biblio-
thèque, et conséquemment pas de bibliothécaire. Ce ne fut qu’en 1827
que M. Robert Sullivan fut nommé pour prendre soin des livres avec
un salaire de £50. Cet humble fonctionnaire, qui, plus tard, devait
être juge dans sa province, resta bibliothécaire jusqu’en 1835, alors
awil fut nommé au conseil législatif, et ce fut M. Alpheus Todd qui le
remplaça, en attendant qu’on lui choisit un successeur. Ce fut cette
année-là que la Législature du Haut-Canada accorda une appropriation
de $500 pour l’achat de livres. La bibliothèque renfermait alors 600
volumes, bien qu’un catalogue, imprimé en 1830, en donne une liste
de mille.
En 1836, le Dr William Winder fut nommé à la place de Sullivan,
et Todd lui fut adjoint en qualité d’assistant. Winder avait été
admis à pratiquer la médecine le 29 septembre 1835. Il est loisible
de croire qu’il préférait les livres aux malades, puisqu’après quelques
mois de pratique seulement, il crut bien faire en se laissant caser.
Quant à Todd, c'était encore un tout jeune homme, presque un
enfant, mais rempli des plus belles espérances d'avenir. Méthodique,
studieux, intelligent, il ne devait pas tarder à prendre le premier rang
dans cette bibliothèque, où, plus que tout autre, il se trouvait chez lui.*
En 1841, l’union des provinces du Haut et du Bas Canada étant
passée dans le domaine des faits accomplis, on dut aussi opérer l’union
des deux bibliothèques. A Québec, Brewer disparu, les chefs poli-
tiques s’entendirent pour mettre à la tête de la bibliothèque du Canada-
? Todd était né en Angleterre le 30 juillet 1821. Il vint au Canada à l’âge
de douze ans. En 1839 il publia un ouvrage intitulé : ‘“ The Practice and
Privileges of the two Houses of Parliament ”’, ouvrage resté célèbre, ainsi que
le suivant qui fait encore autorité sur les questions constitutionnelles: ‘ On
Parliamentary Government in England ”, paru en 1867.
6 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
uni les deux fonctionnaires qui, depuis 1836, relevaient du gouverne-
ment de la province du Haut-Canada. Voilà pourquoi nous retrou-
vons à Québec, en 1841, Winder et Todd, le premier bibliothécaire en
chef, le second son assistant.
On se rappelle que, durant la période de l'Union, le parlement
tenait ses assises alternativement dans les quatre principales villes
du Canada, qui étaient Québec, Montréal, Toronto et Kingston. Les
députés étaient obligés, au grand désespoir de plusieurs, d'émigrer à
chaque parlement d’une ville à l’autre, ayant parfois à franchir des
distances considérables sans autre moyen de transport que la carriole
ou la légendaire calèche. Comme la bibliothèque était une et ne
pouvait être fractionnée en quatre sections, il fallut bon gré mal gré
soumettre les livres au régime de l’émigration, et, tous les quatre ans,
les encaisser pour les diriger vers la capitale provisoire. On voit
d'ici le sort de cette bibliothèque ambulante, exposée aux nombreuses
vicissitudes des emballages, des transports par voie fluviale, des
déballages, ete., etc. En 1849 nous la retrouvons à Montréal, après
avoir fait un séjour de quatre ans à Kingston. Elle se composait de
8,232 volumes, mais il y en avait d'autres à Québec, environ 4,000,
que l’on n’avait pas jugé à propos de transporter, les jugeant d’aucune
utilité pour le législateur.
La bibliothèque s’était donc enrichie de 5,232 volumes depuis
l'entrée en fonction du Dt Winder et de son assistant. En 1842
et en 1846 on avait fait imprimer des catalogues de consultation facile.
Elle commençait à prendre d’assez jolies proportions cette bibliothèque,
vieille de plus de cinquante ans, presque sexagénaire. Elle renfermait
des volumes précieux au point de vue de l’histoire du Canada, entre
autres le Journal des Campagnes de 1759, rédigé par Knox, et 47 alma-
nachs de Nelson.
Le 25 avril, au cours d’une émeute survenue à Montréal à propos
de Vadoption par la Chambre d'Assemblée d’un bill d’indemnité en
faveur des exilés de 1837, le feu se déclara aux édifices parlementaires
et les consuma avec les livres de la bibliothèque. La perte fut
presque complète. Un nommé James Curran parvint à sauver seul
plus de deux cents volumes, parmi lesquels se trouvait la collection
des journaux de l’Assemblée Législative du Haut-Canada depuis 1825
jusqu’a l’Union. La collection d’ouvrages sur l'Amérique recueillis
par Faribault, au nombre de 2,000 volumes, et dont on peut se faire
une idée juste par le catalogue qu’il en a publié, fut entièrement
consumée. Cet incendie fut véritablement désastreux, car il fallut
commencer en neuf la partie concernant le droit parlementaire, le
droit civil, la série des documents officiels qui, pour la députation,
valait mieux que tout le reste.
[DIONNE] BIBLIOTHEQUE DU PARLEMENT A QUEBEC 7
Les 8,000 volumes composant la bibliothèque du conseil législatif
furent également la proie des flammes.
Afin de donner une idée plus juste de l’importance du trésor que
l’on possédait, parcourons le tableau suivant dressé par catégories de
matières :
1. Théologie, Religion et Histoire ecclésiastique .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 275 v.
2. Gouvernement, Politique et Législation.. .. .. .. :. .. .. .. .. .. 430 v.
3. Economie politique, Commerce et Statistiques .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 195 v.
4. Droit naturel, Droit civil et canonique .- .. .. .. .. «2 «5 «2 «+ «- 175) ve
5. Droit constitutionnel, parlementaire, etc. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 1,025 v.
CSS Ae erates el RADDOTES NEUTRE MEME NE ONE 770 v.
BOIS des | COLONIES aac) she ce) RTE MERE MT ET ET UT NS ER fla es 450 v.
8. Lois françaises, Traités, Commentaires .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 910 v.
9. Sciences physiques, mathématiques .. .. .. AO A 695 v.
10. Histoire naturelle, Agriculture, Botanique, AUS tes Be
IMAC EU OS RE TRS NT sis) ose epee iene eb tla = etre nine Mel vateiMeie\ey "els 750 v.
NMBPBelles-PetiresMiClassiqies de MU OMAN RENNES Re are 460 v.
PMBiitérature en Sénéral MEN CERN DT EME NOR Ve OM SMS vote 875 v.
Cre ORLA DRESS VOW: OS EE CPE OR RENE PEL MU SIT LR Reese 415 v.
ELIS OT ES éDÉTA le RS LR isle) seven even wise Mann SUN) se ne et en lee tite Mots 515 v.
lo MES tone den EULODe (ROMANE 5.24.04.) ca Sekt Be. eer a,c, se Gren aes 455 v.
Ge eLuistoire de brance, Mémoires. 3. <2) 02. sep cs sei ces sels sist een sie) ce 760 v.
iP peuistoire a Angleterre; d Ecosse 22) sick ci
+
Le Batard Flammand, chef iroquois, métis d’un Hollandais et d'une
femme agnier, commandait la bande qui tua le P. Garreau sur le lac
des Deux-Montagnes en 1656.
Le 15, à six lieues d’Albany, on sut définitivement que la province
toute entière était passée aux mains des Anglais, comme nous lavons
rapporté plus haut.
Le 20, samedi, les troupes attaquèrent un cabanage d’Iroquois ou
ils tuèrent “plus de deux sauvages ”, et une vieille femme. Dans une
escarmouche en plaine, le même jour, quatre Iroquois succombèrent,
mais six Français demeurèrent sur place. La nuit suivante et la jour-
née du lendemain il plut continuellement. Ce dimanche, M. de Cour-
celles eut divers entretiens avec le commandant du poste voisin, un Hol-
landais qui servait Angleterre depuis Fintroduction du nouveau régime.
La restauration de Charles IT qui datait de cinq ans, avait été soutenue
par Louis XIV, de sorte que les deux rois étaient ensemble dans les
meilleurs termes.
Malgré Vinsucces de ses armes, le gouverneur français se convain-
quit que sa présence et celle de son armée dans cette région, au milieu
de lhiver, impressionnait fortement les esprits.
Quelques prisonniers capturés durant le trajet, firent connaître que
les Agniers et les Onnevouts étaient allés en guerre chez des peuples
situés vers le sud et appelés “ faiseurs de porcelaines ”, probablement
les Andastes, habitants des bords de Ja Susquehanna. Cette nouvelle
acheva de décourager les Français, aussi, le soir du même dimanche,
après avoir été bien traitée par les Hollandais, l’armée décampa avec
précipitation, marchant toute la nuit et une partie du lendemain. Le
soir venu, survinrent les trente Algonquins de Louis Godefroy appor-
tant les produits, de leur chasse, ce qui était à propos, car la disette
régnait dans les rangs des soldats.
La Victoire aurait bien parlé
De la démarche et défilé
Que vous avez fait, grand Courcelle.
Sur des chevaux faits de ficelle,
Mais en voyant votre harnois
Et votre pain plus sec que noix
Elle n'aurait pu vous décrire
Sans nous faire pâmer de rire.
Les Agniers revenant dans leur pays au moment où de Courcelles se
retirait le suivirent à la piste et le harcelèrent avec adresse, ce qui rendit
la situation plus critique que jamais. Dans une affaire d’arriére-garde,
le sieur d’Aiguemortes et quatre soldats tombèrent sous leurs coups; i]
x eut trente Iroquois de tués. Le poète raconte en détail cette aventure
[sure] LE REGIMENT DE CARIGNAN 45
et dit que le jeune de Lotbinière (lui-même), qui avait pris la place de
M. d’Aiguemortes, fut légèrement blessé.
M. de Courcelles se voyait au milieu du lac Champlain lorsque les
vivres lui manquèrent. [1 envoya ouvrir une “cache” de provisions
qui avait été préparée dans le but d’assister les troupes au retour, mais
elle ne contenait plus rien. Les voleurs s'étaient empar? en même
temps d'effets valant quatre-vingts piastres de notre monnaie actuelle
appartenant au père jésuite Pierre Raffeix et à Charles Boquet, frère
donné.
Plus de soixante soldats moururent de faim par suite de ce mé-
compte. Il ne faut pas oublier ceux qui avaient déjà péri de misère
en allant ou revenant, ni ceux qui ne purent résister aux épreuves de la
marche depuis le lac Champlain jusqu'à Québec. Les Algonquins et
les Canadiens parvinrent à soulager bon nombre de ces militaires, en
abattant les bêtes de la forêt et donnant d’utiles conseils à ces pauvres
novices sur la manière de se conduire en pareilles circonstances. Le
poète décrit longuement, sur un ton gai, les souffrances de cette
campagne.
Enfin, le 8 mars, l’armée rentrait à Chambly dans un disarroi
lamentable.
Il est évident que le fort Sainte-Anne n'était pas encore construit,
car on eût pu s'y ravitailler après la découverte du pillage de la “cache.”
C’est alors, en apparence, que l’on concut le projet de placer un fort
sur une ile du lac. Le capitaine de la Motte-Lucière le termina lété
de 1666. Quant au fort Saint-Jean, il en est à peine fait mention; en
1666, le capitaine Berthier y commandait et le sieur de Rougement était
à la tête du fort Sainte-Thérèse.
Rendu au fort Saint-Louis de Chambly, M. de Courcelles rejeta
Vinsuccés de son entreprise sur les jésuites. Il continua de parler
@eux avec amertume et reproche jusqu'à Québec, où il comprit que sa
persistance à faire une semblable opération militaire en février, avec
des soldats européens, avait été la cause de sa déconfiture.
Les troupes, dit le poète, passèrent de Chambly à Montréal au lieu
de descendre à Sorel :
Montréal vit la jeunesse
Au retour conter sa prouesse.
Vers le 12 mars on reprit le chemin de Québec, rive gauche du
fleuve. Le soleil brillait avec ardeur. Les hommes, déjà épuis's par
la rude campagne qu’ils venaient de faire, ne purent supporter la vue
de ces rayons ardents mélés à la blancheur intense de la neige. Ils
©
46 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
subirent la cruelle expérience de l’enflure des yeux que nous appelons
le mal de neige.
Mais le soleil battant à plat
Et la neige faisant éclat
Les sieurs Dugal et Lotbinières
Pensèrent perdre leurs visières,
Et comme aveugles sans bâtons,
Ne pouvant marcher qu'à tâtons
Furent conduits aux Trois-Rivières.
11 paraîtrait qu'il y eut à ce dernier poste quelques infractions aux
règles du carême, commencé le 10 mars. Après une telle aventure, cela
se conçoit. |
M. de Courcelles étant passé aux Trois-Rivières arriva à Québec le
17 mars, connaissant nombre de choses dont il ne soupçonnait pas l’exis-
tence avant que de venir en ce pays.
VI
Dans les forts de la rivière Richelieu on avait laissé des garnisons
et il y avait sur le lac Champlain un certain nombre d'hommes, avec
la compagnie du capitaine Lamotte du régiment de Carignan, qui cons-
truisaient le fort Sainte-Anne, au printemps de 1666. Un peu plus
tard, au mois de juin, “certains guerriers iroquois rencontrèrent à la
chasse messieurs de Chasi, de Lerole, de Montagni, ofliciers, dont les
deux (premiers?) étaient parents de M. de Trasi. Agariata tua mes-
sieurs de Chasi et de Montagni, quelques autres Français, et amenèrent
M. de Lerole dans leur pays.” Nicolas Perrot ajoute : “M. de
Noirolle, neveu M. de Tracy, était prisonnier chez les Agniers et les
Onéïouths. M. de Chasy, son cousin, fut tué au nord du fort Lamotte
dans le lac Champlain. . . . Il partit vers le même temps un chef de
guerre considérable du pays des Aniez, ayant trente guerriers sous son
commandement, qui ramenaient les prisonniers français qu’ils avaient
à Montréal. Il alla se poster avec ses gens à Laprairie, où il n’y avait
encore aucun établissement, et y trouva des Onnontagués qui y avaient
chassé pendant l'hiver, pour mieux persuader les Français de la solidité
de cette paix qu’ils venaient de faire ensemble. Ils apprirent à ce parti
nouvellement arrivé que le Bâtard Flammand était à Québec pour y
conclure la paix. Ce chef, ayant appris cette nouvelle, ne voulut point
passer outre. Il y laissa reposer son parti et s’embarqua avec les
Onnontagués qui l’amenèrent à Montréal. Quand il y fut arrivé, on
dipêcha un bateau dans lequel il se mit pour se rendre à Québec. Il
trouva la paix faite à son arrivée. M. de Tracy le reçut fort bien et le
[SULTE] LE RÉGIMENT DE CARIGNAN 47
faisait manger souvent avec le Batard Flammand a sa table, car c'était
un homme de poids et de considération parmi les sauvages de sa
nation. .. M. de Tracy fit commander au mois de mai °* 1666 un parti
de trois cents hommes, français et algonkins, qui recontrèrent le Bâtard
Flammand, ayant avec lui M. de Noyrolle et trois autres Français dont
il y en avait un blessé au talon, que M. de Courcelles recommanda en
partant au sieur Corlard. Les Français et Algonkins de l’avant-garde,
prirent et lièrent le Batard Flammand et deux de ses gens, mais sitôt
que le gros des troupes eut joint, qui accourut aux clameurs et aux
buées des Algonkins, M. de Sorel, commandant en chef, les fit délier.
Les Algonkins en témoignèrent leur mécontentement et se portèrent à
dire quelques insolences au commandant, car ils voulaient qu’on les brü-
lat. M. de Sorel les relança avec tant de feu et de fermeté, qu’ils
neurent pas le mot à lui répliquer. Vous remarquerez qu'ayant été
pris, ils déclarèrent qu’ils venaient en embassade ** pour parler d’accom-
modement, et ce qui fut la raison pourquoi M. de Sorel en usa ainsi à
leur égard. Il amena ces ambassadeurs avec lui à Québec et les pré-
senta à M. de Tracy qui en renvoya un dans son pays avec une lettre
pour M. Corlard, par laquelle il l’assurait de sa parole, pour les faire
venir tous en assurance dans la colonie et qu'ils y seraient très bien
reçus.” 5°
Les Iroquois envoyèrent à Québec des embassadeurs avec mission
de parler de la paix et de reprocher aux Français leur agression. Au
lieu de les coffrer, on les traita en gens respectables. Durant ces pour-
parlers (juin 1666) les environs de Montréal étaient infestés de petites
bandes qui massacraient les colons. Des coups semblables avaient lieu
près des forts Chambly et Sainte-Thérèse.
Au mois de juillet, M. de Sorel, dirigeant une expédition contre
le pays des Iroquois, rencontra quelques-uns de leurs chefs à vingt
lieues des villages agniers et se laissa persuader qu’il fallait les
conduire à M. de Tracy pour négocier la paix. Cette ruse fut prise
au sérieux comme toujours. Les troupes rebroussèrent chemin.
Rendu à Québec, l’un de ces sauvages se vanta d’avoir tué un officier,
M. de Chasy, parent du maréchal d’Estrade—on lui mit la corde au
cou.
“M. de Tracy, donnant un jour à manger, témoigna à table
combien la perte qu’il venait de faire de M" son neveu lui était sen-
sible, mais que le bien du public l’avait engagé, nonobstant cela, à
donner la paix au Bâtard Flammand qui la lui avait demandée. Cela
suffisait pour faire comprendre à ce chef orgueilleux des Aniez la
douleur que M. de Tracy ressentait de la mort de M. de Chasy qu'ils
avaient tué et l’obliger, par bienséance, à diminuer son orgueil. Mais
48 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA
loin de compatir à la peine qu’il en marquait, il leva, en sa présence
et celle de toute la compagnie, son bras, se vantant hautement que
c'était le sien qui lui avait cassé la tête. Cette insolence outrée
rompit la paix que M. de Tracy avait accordée au Batard Flammand et,
faisant dire sur le champ à ce chef indiscret qu’il n’en tuerait jamais
d'autre, il le fit prendre et lier et, ayant envoyé chercher l’exécuteur,
sans le faire mettre en prison, il ordonna qu'il fut étranglé en pré-
sence du Batard Flammand.” °° }
* Le 6 septembre 1666, le sieur Couture arrive avec deux anniés
pour l’escorter, dont l’un est de la nation neutre, chef de la brigade
qui a tué M. de Chasy...... Onnonkenrite8i, chef des Sonnont8an ici
en personne, avec trois autres, nous prennent en particulier chez nous,
le P. Chaumonot et moi (le P. Lemercier) ; nous présentent un collier
pour retenir le bras d’Onnontio levé sur l’Annié. Nous répondons
1° que nous ne nous mélons point d’affaires de guerre, 2° que l’Annié
est un étourdi, 3° qu’Onnontio ne souffrira point son insolence, 4°
que, quoiqu'il arrive a Annié de la part d’Onnontio, qu’ils sont tou-
jeurs les bienvenus, ete... M. de Tracy conclut d’aller en personne à
Annié avec mille ou douze cents hommes ; ainsi la mission du P.
Fremin et du P. Rafeix, qui devaient aller à Goiog8en, est arrêtée.”
(Journal des Jésuites.)
Le 14 septembre 1666, “ M. de Tracy et M. le gouverneur
sembarquent pour la guerre avec plus de 400 habitants, enfants du
pays, volontaires, etc. Il m'a demandé les PP. Albanel et Raffeix ;
de notre plein gré nous donnons six hommes, entre autres Guillaume
Boivin et Charles Boquet.” (Journal des Jésuites.)
M. de Tracy était à la tête de six cents soldats et de six cents
Canadiens, dont cent dix de Montréal, plus cent Hurons et Algonquins.
Il se rendit au fort Sainte-Anne, d'où il repartit le 3 octobre—mais
M. de Courcelles, impatient à son ordinaire, avait déjà pris les devants.
En cette occasion Pierre Le Gardeur de Repentigny commandait les
Canadiens de Québec; Charles LeMoine et Picoté de Belestre diri-
geaient les miliciens de Montréal.
“Le 5 octobre, nous apprenous de bonnes nouvelles de l’armée
qui est bien de 14 cents hommes. Tous ces messieurs se portent très
bien. Ils sont entrés dans le lac de Champlain le 28 ou 29. Le
temps est très beau.” (Journal des Jésuites.)
“ Le 9 octobre nous recevons de bonnes nouvelles de l’armée qui
sera partie, le 3 ou 4, du fort de Sainte-Anne, qui est quatre lieues
dans le lac Champellain. M. de Tracy est en bonne santé, ete.”
(Journal des Jésuites.)
“ M. de Tracy partit en octobre 1666, à la tête de quatorze cents
hommes, soldats, Canadiens et Algonkins, pour aller contre les Aniez.
[SULTE) LE RÉGIMENT DE CARIGNAN 49
I! avait laissé à Sorel, en passant, le Bâtard Flammand qu'il renvoya
chez lui après cette campagne, qui fut employée à brûler et jeter dans
les rivières les blés-d’Inde de quatre villages, dont il mourut de faim
plus de quatre cents âmes pendant l’hiver. Ceux qui vécurent étaient
errants ça et là et allaient mendier des vivres chez les Onnontagués,
qui les refusaient et se moquaient d’eux en leur disant que le nord-est
impétueux avait foudroyé leurs grains par leur faute.” 57
“ M. de Tracy, M. notre gouverneur et M. de Chaumont partirent
@ici en personne pour aller au pays des Iroquois agneronons, qui
touche a la Nouveile-Hollande, possédée a présent par les Anglais.
L’armée était composée de treize cents hommes délite, qui tous
allaient au combat comme au triomphe. Ils ont marché par des
chemins des plus difficiles qu’on se puisse imaginer : parcequ il y faut
passer à gué plusieurs rivières et faire de longs chemins par des
sentiers qui n'ont pas plus d'une planche de large, pleins de souches,
de racines et de concavités très dangereuses. Il y a cent cinquante
lieues de Québec aux forts qu’on a faits sur la rivière des Iroquois
(Richelieu). Ce chemin est assez facile parce que l’on y peut aller en
canot et en chaloupe, y ayant peu de portages, mais passer au-delà
cest une merveille que l’on en puisse venir à bout, parce qu’il faut
porter les vivres, les armes, le bagage et toutes les autres nécessités
sup lerdos. ., 7? 5%
Comme dans la première expédition, les préparatifs manquaient
de logique. En sus, les Iroquois, avertis du danger, avaient des forts
munis de moyens de défense—de sorte que, pour leur répondre, il
fallait transporter des bouches à feu par des chemins à peu près
inaccessibles. Il en résulta des délais et de graves embarras pour les
troupes. Les approvisionnements manquèrent ; on donna aux com-
missaires des vivres, le titre dérisoire de “ grands maîtres du jeûne ” ;
ni la nourriture ni l’habillement n’étaient en rapport avec les néces-
sités du jour.
Les quatre villages des Agniers n'offrirent aucune résistance ; la
population les avait évacués ; on les brula, avec les provisions qu’ils
renfermaient. Au lieu de poursuivre ce premier succès et d'aller
ravager les quatre autres cantons, M. de Tracy ordonna la retraite.
Le 5 novembre il rentrait à Québec où l’on célébrait avec éclat “la
défaite des Agniers”, qui n’était pas du tout une défaite, comme le
temps le prouva.
“Le 5 novembre au soir, M. de Tracy retourne d’Annié avec ses
troupes d'environ 13 cents hommes y compris les sauvages, à la ré-
serve de 9 ou 10 noyés dans le lac de Champlain. Les Annienguer
ayant pris la fuite au bruit des tambours, il a fait brûler les 4 bourgs
Sec. I, 1902. 4.
50 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA
avec tous les blés : il y avait bien en tout 100 grandes cabanes. On
a appris de quelques vieillards restés que tout fraichement nouvelle
était venue que l’armée d’Annontaé avait été défaite par les Andastes.”
(Journal des Jésuites.)
“Le 8 novembre on renvoya le Bâtard Flamant avec un ancien
d’Annié. Jtem deux d’Onnei8t, entre autres un capitaine nommé
Soenres, avec commission de dire à leurs gens qu’ils aient, entre gi et
quatre lunes, à contenter Onnontio sur les propositions qu’il a faites
pour le bien des peuples, entre autres qu’ils amènent de leurs familles.”
(Journal des Jésuites.)
“A la fin de la campagne, le Bâtard Flammand fut renvoyé et
arriva chez lui où il trouva une désolation entière. Les Aniez s’ima-
ginaient avoir toujours les Français aux environs de leurs villages.
Ils le pressèrent de retourner sur ses pas et de demander avec
instance la paix. Il ne tarda guéres en effet à se rendre à Québec,
où il protesta avec toutes les assurances qu’on voudrait exiger de lui,
qu’il désirait avoir la paix ; qu'il resterait en otage et qu’il reviendrait
lui-même demeurer avec sa famille dans la colonie, pour prouver la
sincérité qui lui faisait venir la demander. Ces raisons furent écou-
tées favorablement ; il ne manqua pas aussi d’accomplir ce qu’il avait
promis, car plusieurs de la même nation, à son exemple, vinrent
s'établir à Montréal, sans y défricher cependant aucune terre. Ils
s'étendirent depuis la rivière des Outaouas jusqu’à la rivière Creuse, où
la chasse des castors, des loutres, des cerfs, des biches et des élans est
très commune. On les voyait, le printemps et l’automne, descendre
dans la colonie,"® chargés en si grande quantité de toute sorte de pelle-
teries, que le prix en diminua de plus de la moitié en France.” 7
L’expédition de l’automne de 1666 fut absolument sans résultat.
Il ne s’y fit que des bévues ajoutées à celles des deux campagnes précé-
dentes. Les six cents Canadiens qui servaient simplement d’éclaireurs
eussent accompli quelque chose de définitif, si la permission eût pu leur
en être accordée—mais non ! ils devaient se borner à accompagner les
beaux militaires et être témoins de la sottise européenne. Au lieu de
faire une attaque à fond, tout se borna à brûler des cabanes.
Ce qu’il mourut de soldats par le froid, la faim et les maladies,
dépasse le chiffre de toutes les garnisons que la France nous avait en-
voyées depuis l'origine de la colonie—il est vrai que ces garnisons
avaient toujours été déplorablement faibles.
Durant l’hiver de 1666-67, sur soixante soldats casernés au fort
Sainte-Anne, quarante furent malades du scorbut, une affliction qui
atteignait toujours les Européens parce qu’ils ne voulaient pas se con-
former aux enseignements de l’expérience et qu’ils méprisaient les
conseils des Canadiens. On découvrit—chose étonnante—que lair
[SULTE] LE REGIMENT DE CARIGNAN 51
était infecté au lac Champlain, et l’on transporta les malades à Mont-
réal, en plein hiver. |
M. de Tracy voyait des miracles partout. M. de Courcelles se
jetait tête baissée dans des périls qu’il ne comprenait pas. La milice
canadienne n’était guère regardée comme une aide par la morgue
française. Elle seule, pourtant, eut été capable de montrer comment
il fallait s’y prendre pour en finir avec les Iroquois. Retournés chez
eux après ce triomphe, les habitants eussent pu travailler en paix à
jeurs terres, protégés par les soldats royaux qui n'étaient utiles que
pour gêner les bandes de maraudeurs dans le voisinage des habitations.
Ce qui est assez curieux, c’est l’espèce de terreur dont furent prises
ces troupes une fois logées dans les nouveaux forts—elles n’osaient
plus s’éloigner de leurs retranchements, par crainte des Iroquois.
Cette panique gagna les officiers. Là où dix Canadiens s’aventuraient
hardiment, cent militaires refusaient de marcher.
Conduites avec une fausse précipitation, les entreprises des Fran-
çais contre les Iroquois n'avaient réussi qu'à moitié La première
campagne s'était bornée à une pénible et désastreuse marche en ra-
quettes ; la seconde et la troisième remplirent à peu près le but désiré
en terrorisant l'ennemi, mais le prestige de nos armes eut à souffrir du
flottement des affaires militaires dans ces opérations qui eussent dû
être foudroyantes.
Les Cinq-Cantons, inquiétés, non dévastés, non dispersés, sauf
celui des Agniers, n’altérèrent en rien leur politique. N’étant pas les
plus forts, ils recoururent à leur vieille et toujours salutaire coutume—
la diplomatie. De 1644 à 1699, et même plus tard, l’adresse de leurs
aélégués les sauva de la ruine plus d’une fois. On a trop souvent ré-
pété que cette nation avait été subjuguée, anéantie, par les soldats de
Carignan ; elle eût dû lêtre mais ne le fut pas. Dès 1683, elle re-
prenait l’offensive et la prolongeait jusqu’à la dernière année du siècle.
Ses bandes bravaient de nouveau toute la colonie des bords du Saint-
Laurent et semaient la terreur sur les territoires lointains où les Fran-
Gais avaient des établissements—aux Illinois, au Wisconsin, au nord
du lac Huron, à la baie James. L’horrible situation appelée les temps
héroiques (1640-1665) s’était terminée, il est vrai, en 1666, mais elle
était redevenue aussi intense en 1689-99.
BQ SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA
VII
Le plan de colonisation qui s’exécutait avec assez de vigueur et de
sagesse depuis 1661 à peu près, ne pouvait manquer de recevoir un
contingent de militaires ; cela entrait dans les projets du ministre qui
écrivait à Talon, le 5 avril 1666 : “Le roi est satisfait de voir que le
plus grand nombre des soldats... sont disposés à s’établir dans ce pays
au moyen de quelque aide supplémentaire qu’on leur donnerait à fin
de cet établissement... Cela parait si important à Sa Majesté qu’elle
désirerait les voir tous rester au Canada.”
Notre population était alors de 600 familles ; elle ne pouvait pas
recevoir d’un seul coup 1,000 ou 1,200 hommes : c’eut été un fléau, un
écrasement, aussi croyons-nous, d’après divers indices, que le chiffre
des soldats licenciés ne dépassait pas 400, dont plus d’un cent devinrent
coureurs de bois et ne firent rien pour la colonie ; une autre centaine
exercèrent des métiers ou furent domestiques à Québec, Trois-Rivières
et Montréal ; deux cents optérent pour l'agriculture, après avoir servi
trois années chez les “ habitants ”, selon la loi du pays.
Dans le règlement? du Conseil Souverain, du 24 janvier 1667,
au sujet de ces matières, il est dit que certaines clauses concernent * les
soldats du régiment de Carignan-Salières ou des garnisons des forts
de Québec, des Trois-Rivières et Montréal ”, ce qui embrasse les com-
pagnies venues par la voie des Antilles avec M. de Tracy en 1665.
Parlant de la milice canadienne, Talon écrivait en 1667 qu’une
“ dépense de cent pistoles ** dans toute une armée, mise en prix pour
les plus adroits tireurs, exciterait bien de l’émulation au fait de la
guerre ”.
“ Le 2 avril 1667, nouvelle arrive de Montréal, que les cing nations
témoignent une bonne disposition pour la paix. Le 20, le Batard
Flammant, avec deux Onnei8t arrivent, sans avoir amené ni Hurons
ni Algonquins, ni familles, qu’on leur avait demandés. Le 27, on prend
résolution en conseil de retenir ici toutes les femmes et de renvoyer
les hommes dans le pays, à la réserve de deux, avec protestation de la
part de M. de Tracy que si, dans deux lunes, ils n’obéissent et n’exécu-
tent les articles proposés, notre armée partira pour les aller ruiner dans
le pays.” (Journal des Jésuites.)
Le 28 août 1667, M. de Tracy s’embarqua sur le Saint-Sébastien
pour la France, amenant des troupes avec lui.
La mère Marie de l’Incarnation écrivait le 18 octobre 1667 : “On
dit que les troupes s’en retourneront l’an prochain, mais il y a appa-
rence que la plus grande partie restera ici, comme habitants, y trou-
vant des terres qu'ils n'auraient peut-être pas dans leur pays.”
[suLTE] LE REGIMENT DE CARIGNAN 53
Les événements survenus en Europe paraissent avoir haté le rappel
des troupes du Canada. L’Angleterre et les Pays-Bas étaient en lutte
ouverte dés 1664, ce qui inspirait 4 Colbert la création d’une marine
pour relever le prestige de la France dans le commerce maritime, de
même qu'aux colonies. La paix de Bréda (ville de Hollande) signée le
25 juillet 1667 entre |’Angleterre, les Provinces-Unies et la France, leur
alliée, régla le sort de la Nouvelle-Belgique (le New-Jersey et New-
York) qui devint définitivement possession anglaise, en échange du
privilège accordé aux Hollandais d’importer en Angleterre leurs mar-
chandises descendant le Rhin ; la France recouvra l’Acadie (prise en
1654) moyennant l’abandon à l’Angleterre des îles Antigoa, Mont-
serrat et Saint-Christophe, dans les Antilles.
Louis XIV, se croyant assuré de la complaisance de Charles IT,
songea à exécuter ses projets à l’égard de la Hollande qui était la
seconde puissance maritime, l'Angleterre étant la première depuis
Cromwell. Sous prétexte de revendiquer les prétendus droits de sa
femme espagnole, Marie-Thérèse, sur la succession du roi d’Espagne,
Louis XIV engagea (1667) la guerre dite de dévolution, envahit la
Franche-Comté et s’empara de douze villes des Flandres. “Les Hol-
landais prirent ombrage d'un prince aussi belliqueux et aussi avide.
Préférant garder pour voisin le roi d’Espagne, faible et éloigné, ils
formèrent avec l’Angleterre et la Suède une alliance à l’effet d’arrêter
Louis XIV. Celui-ci dut céder et rendre ses conquêtes par le traité
d’Aïx-la-Chapelle (1668), mais son irritation subsistait et il méditait
une revanche contre ce petit peuple protestant et républicain qui se
permettait ainsi de lui faire échec. Les relations restèrent done fort
tendues et, bientôt, une guerre de tarifs prépara la rupture compléte—
ce qui eut lieu en 1672.” 7%
“Le roi donna l’ordre de faire rentrer en France le régiment de
Carignan et les quelques compagnies, appartenant à d’autres corps,
qui l’avaient suivi. Quatre compagnies de Carignan, choisies parmi
celles dont les capitaines s'étaient mariés dans le pays ou étaient dis-
posés à s'v marier, furent laissées en arrière, afin de conserver les forts
les plus avancés et défendre les habitants contre les incursions des
ennemis. Le roi ayant averti les officiers qui allaient rentrer en
France, qu’il serait fort aise si une partie de leurs soldats consentaient
à demeurer dans la colonie, il resta en tout plus de quatre cents hommes
décidés à adopter le Canada pour leur patrie. On distribua à chaque
soldat cent francs, ou cinquante francs avec les vivres d’une année ;
chaque sergent recut cent cinquante francs ou cent francs avec les
vivres d’une année. Douze mille livres furent distribuées aux soldats
qui, sans appartenir aux compagnies laissées en arrière, consentaient
à rester dans le pays et à sy marier.” ‘4
54 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
On voit aux archives de la marine, à Paris, les pièces suivantes :
Le 12 février 1669, ordonnance du roi pour la subsistance de quatre
compagnies d'infanterie étant en Canada, composées chacune de 53
hommes, pendant l’année 1669. Le 22 mars, ordonnance pour la solde
et ‘“ entretenement ” de 25 soldats en chacune des quatre compagnies
restées en Canada, pendant l’année 1669. Même jour, ordonnance
pour la solde et entretenement, pendant les six premiers mois de l’année
1670, des quatre compagnies d'infanterie qui sont restées en Canada,
sur le pied de 78 hommes chacune. Le 25 mars, promesse des capi-
taines Chambly, La Durantaye, de Grandfontaine, Laubia et Berthier
de mettre leurs compagnies sur le pied de 50 hommes chacune, depuis
20 jusqu’à 30 ans, et de leur fournir la subsistance jusqu’à leur em-
barquement moyennant 1,000 écus. Le 29 du même mois, ordonnance
pour la levée et armement de six compagnies d'infanterie qui passent
en Canada et pour leur subsistance pendant neuf mois de 1669 et six
mois de 1670.
“ Sa Majesté envoie 150 filles pour être mariées, 6 compagnies de
50 hommes chacune, et plus de 30 officiers ou gentilshommes, tous pour
s'établir en Canada, et plus de 200 autres personnes qui y vont aussi
dans ce but.” 7° :
En 1668, Talon repassa en France et revint en 1670 avec environ
400 émigrants et six compagnies ‘* de soldats formant 300 hommes,
destinés à renforcer la garnison du Canada et à y devenir colons, au
fur et à mesure de leur congédiement.” *°
“Talon repartit pour Québec en 1669, avec un armement de deux
cent mille livres. Il fut suivi par près de sept cents émigrants, dont
trois cents soldats et plus de trente officiers ou gentilshommes ; ils
parvinrent heureusement à leur destination, tandis que lui-même, après
une navigation orageuse de trois mois, faisait naufrage sur les côtes du
Portugal et se voyait forcé d’attendre à l’année suivante pour reprendre
son voyage.” °°
L'été de 1669, Nicolas Perrot se trouvait à Montréal avec les Ou-
taouas qui y faisaient la traite. Il dit: “M. de la ‘Motte, homme de
cœur et d'honneur, commandait alors à Montréal ; sa compagnie était
la seule du régiment de Carignan restée dans le pays... On posta le
long des palissades tous les soldats de la garnison, qui faisaient en tout
le nombre de soixante hommes, qui furent commandés par un
sergent. . . ”
“Il est arrivé cette année 165 filles ; 30 seulement restent à
marier. Je les ai réparties dans des familles recommandables jusqu’à
ce que les soldats qui les demandent en mariage soient prêts à s’établir.
On leur fait présent, en les mariant, de 50 livres en provisions de toute
nature et en effets. Il faudrait encore que Sa Majesté en envoyât 150
[sure] LE RÉGIMENT DE CARIGNAN 85
à 200 pour l’an prochain. Trois au quatre jeunes filles de naissance
trouveraient aussi à épouser ici des officiers qui se sont établis dans le
pays. Je vous recommande d’envoyer des engagés. Madame Etienne,
chargée par le directeur de l’hôpital général de Paris, de la direction
des jeunes filles qu’il envoie, retourne en France pour en ramener celles
que l’on enverra cette année. Il faudrait recommander que l’on choisit
des filles qui n’aient aucune difformité naturelle, ni un extérieur repous-
sant, mais qui fussent fortes, afin de pouvoir travailler dans ce pays et,
enfin, qu’elles eussent de Vaptitude à quelque ouvrage manuel. J’ai
écrit dans ce sens à M. le directeur de l'hôpital.” **
Le 11 février 1671, Colbert écrit à Talon que le roi désire voir les
ofliciers des troupes s'établir en Canada et donner ainsi l’exemple à
leurs hommes. Le mois suivant il dit que des officiers des troupes
restées en Canada sont retournés en France, mais le roi désire qu’ils
se fixent en Canada et que ce sera pour eux le moyen de mériter ses
graces. ** De tous ces projets, il n’est pas résulté la création d’un
empire, mais seulement quelques groupes de cultivateurs aux environs
de Montréal et principalement sur la rivière Chambly. ‘*
La Relation de 1668 (p. 3) note que 400 soldats s’établirent.
D’après le P. Le Clercq, récollet, qui écrivait en 1691, le régiment
de Carignan “donna lieu à plus de trois cents familles nouvelles.”
“ Deux sortes de gens habitent ce pays-ci : les uns sont venus de
France avec quelque argent pour s'y établir ;** les autres sont des
officiers et des soldats du régiment de Carignan qui, se voyant cassés,
il y a trente ou quarante ans,** vinrent ici °° changérent l’épée en béche,
et le métier de tuer les hommes en celui de les faire vivre, je veux dire
la guerre en agriculture. Tous ces nouveaux venus *? ne furent point
embarrassés de trouver du fond; on les mit à même de la terre et on
leur en donna tant qu'ils en voudraient défricher.” 55
“La paix ayant été conclue, on réforma ce régiment qui s’établit
dans le pays. La colonie devint par là considérable par tous les ma-
riages des soldats et plusieurs officiers qui aimèrent mieux rester dans
le pays que de s’en retourner en France... Le Canada fut longtemps
sans troupes, jouissant d’une profonde paix qui dura vingt ans. Je
ne suis pas surpris si les Canadiens ont tant de valeur, puisque la
plupart °° viennent d’officiers et de ces soldats qui sortaient d’un des
plus beaux régiments de France... Des vingt-quatre compagnies du
régiment de Carignan-Salières qui étaient en Canada, on en fit repasser
en France, au bout de trois ans, et les quatre qui demeurèrent furent
composés de soixante et quinze hommes chacune. Il y eut plus de trois
cents personnes de ce régiment qui s’établirent dans le pays. Ces
quatre compagnies furent encore réformées quelques années aprés, dont
la plupart des réformés firent des habitations. Celles-ci (les com-
36 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
pagnies) furent remplacées, la même année, par quatres autres com-
pagnies. Les officiers qui ne voulurent point passer en France eurent
des concessions de terre et quelques libéralités que Sa Majesté leur
Bi
“Presque tous ** les soldats, dit Charlevoix, un peu plus tard,
s'étaient fait habitants, ayant eu leur congé à cette condition. . .
Plusieurs de leurs officiers avaient obtenu des terres avec tous les
droits de seigneurs ; ils s’établirent presque tous dans le pays, s’y
marièrent, et leur postérité y subsiste encore. La plupart étaient
gentilshommes, aussi la Nouvelle-France a-t-elle plus de noblesse an-
cienne qu'aucune autre de nos colonies, et peut-être que toutes les
autres ensemble.”
“Les premières troupes (qui arrivèrent en Canada) étaient du
régiment de Carignan-Salières. De vingt-quatre compagnies qui y
étaient, on en fit repasser vingt en France au bout de trois ans, et les
quatre qui demeurèrent furent composées de soixante et quinze hommes
chacune. Il y eut près de trois cents hommes de ce régiment qui s'éta-
blirent dans le pays, non pas avec des filles de joie, comme le prétend
le baron de La Hontan, mais avec des filles et des femmes qui étaient
en France à charge à de pauvres communautés, d’où on les a tirées pour
les conduire, de leur plein gré, en Canada.” ** Le même auteur ajoute
que les quatre compagnies en question furent réformées lorsque les
hommes se marièrent et qu'on les remplaça par quatre autres.
Le même Le Beau, qui vivait à Québec en 1727, ajoute: “ Le R. P.
Joseph, Canadien (Joseph Denys de la Ronde ?) et d’autres vieillards,
qui ont presque touché à ces premiers temps, disent que les hommes du
régiment Carignan-Salières s’établirent avec des filles venues de
France, qui étaient à charge à de pauvres communautés, d’où on les
tira pour les conduire en Canada de leur plein gré.”
“Ce régiment, quelque temps après, ** fut embarqué pour passer
en Canada, commandé par M. de Salières. La permission que le roi
donna aux officiers et aux soldats de se marier en ce pays-là, ruina le
régiment et il fut réduit aux deux colonelles * qui conservèrent leurs
drapeaux blancs et étaient de cent hommes chacune, tous officiers ré-
formés, sergents et vieux soldats. Ce régiment étant repassé en France,
le roi le rétablit et le fit de seize compagnies, une desquelles était la
colonelle de Salieres.” °°
“Comme l’immigration augmentait peu, on permit aux officiers et
aux soldats du beau régiment de Carignan de rester en Canada. Des
terres leur furent distribuées, avec des secours d’argent pour les aider
à commencer leurs établissements. Six compagnies, qui étaient re-
passées en France avec M. de Tracy (28 août 1667), revinrent en 1669.
Les officiers, dont la plupart étaient gentilshommes, obtinrent des
[sucre] LE RÉGIMENT DE CARIGNAN 87
seigneuries, dans lesquelles se fixèrent leurs soldats.” °* Est-il certain
que les compagnies revenues avec Talon appartenaient au régiment de
Carignan ?
“M. de Tracy débarqua avec sa petite armée (1665). Les 14 à
1,500 hommes qu'il amenait étaient, en effet, une véritable armée et un
événement considérable pour ces contrées qui n’avaient jamais vu plus
de 100 à 150 soldats réunis. . . M. Talon emportait pour instruction
de faire tous ses efforts pour déterminer le plus grand nombre des
soldats, après l’expédition, à prendre leur congé et un établissement au
Canada. Il ne manqua pas de s’y employer et parvint, en effet, à con-
duire à bonne fin cette importante affaire. Le plus grand nombre des
cfliciers et des soldats acceptèrent ses offres et se fixèrent au Canada.
C'était un grand pas dans le peuplement de ce pays, qui n’avait jamais
recu et ne reçut jamais depuis une immigration de cette importance
Les officiers obtinrent en concession des seigneuries, et il est probable
qu'un grand nombre de soldats prirent des terres sous leurs officiers
respectifs. .. Ce licenciement dut procurer plus d’un millier de colons
au Canada. Les troupes amenées par M. de Tracy devaient former
1,500 hommes, sur lesquels il faut déduire 300 soldats qui restèrent au
service et autant environ pour les hommes morts pendant la guerre et
ceux qui purent retourner en France; restaient donc 8 à 900
hommes que l’on congédia. Si l’on y joint maintenant tous ceux qui
suivent nécessairement les armées et que ce licenciement dut forcer à
prendre fortune dans le pays, avec le régiment, nous atteindrons facile-
ment, on le voit, le chiffre de 1,000 immigrants. Cette évaluation est
encore confirmée par le recensement de 1668, qui mentionne 412 soldats
établis, cette année méme, dans le pays, mais non encore portés sur le
cens. Or, comme en 1666 et en 1667 la plupart avaient déja recu
leurs terres et s’étaient installés, tout tend à montrer comme très ra-
tionnel le chiffre de 1,000 comme nombre des émigrants laissés dans le
Canada par le congédiement de cette petite armée. . . Le roi fit à
chaque soldat un présent et des avances pour l'aider à s’établir, et
quand il se mariait à une des filles que l’on envoyait de France, on
donnait cinquante livres à sa femme en provisions diverses. . . En
arrivant au Canada en 1665, Talon n’y avait pas trouvé 3,000 Ames,
puisque le recensement de 1666, comprenant les colons qu’il avait
amenés, ** ne porte que 3,418 habitants (âmes) ; en 1667 un nouveau
recensement ” nous donne un chiffre de 4,312, et le cens de 1668 porte
5,870 habitants, formant 1,137 familles, sans compter 412 soldats con-
gédiés qui étaient encore à peine établis. .. De ces hommes, quelques-
uns trouvèrent des épouses dans les familles mêmes du pays, mais le
plus grand nombre fut marié avec les jeunes filles que l'hôpital général
de Paris envoyait fréquemment au Canada. Nous savons même par
58 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
des chiffres positifs qu'avant de pourvoir au mariage de ces nouveaux
colons, on expédia alors pendant plusieurs années 150 à 200 filles par
an au Canada; et en général à peine étaient-elles arrivées qu’elles
étaient mariées. .. Ces licenciements, répétés coup sur coup, pour
aider le peuplement du Canada, et d’après les prescriptions instantes
du gouvernement, constituerent une sorte de tradition invariablement
suivie désormais par tous les gouverneurs. Tous facilitèrent, autant
que possible, à ceux des soldats qui le désiraient leur établissement
dans le pays; et, comme on ne tarda pas à arrêter (fixer) l’entretien
normal de 700 hommes à titre de garnison ordinaire, ils devinrent un
auxiliaire permanent pour le recrutement de la population. Les
soldats entretenus au Canada eurent en outre cette utilité que souvent
on les dispersait en cantonnement chez les habitants, où ils pouvaient
être pour leurs travaux d’utiles auxiliaires, qu’il eût été impossible de
se procurer dans ce pays.” °°? Cette étude conclut au chiffre de 1000
hommes, ce qui nous paraît au moins double de la réalité.
“ Les soldats du régiment de Carignan qui furent d’abord licen-
ciés, se groupèrent auprès des centres déjà subsistants ; beaucoup
d'entre eux épousèrent des filles du pays et entrèrent dans les rangs
de l’ancienne population, à laquelle ils communiquèrent un levain de
leur esprit militaire. Ils étaient devenus Canadiens par leurs habitudes
et leurs affections, quand d’autres compagnies du même régiment
furent renvoyées au Canada pour y recevoir leur congé. Aïnsi, l’an-
cienne population s’est toujours maintenue supérieure en nombre aux
accessions qu’elle recevait et elle leur a communiqué son type original,
tel qu’il s'était formé et développé sous Champlain, sous Montmagny
et sous leurs premiers successeurs.” 1°1
“ Le régiment de Carignan, qui-fut presque tout licencié ici, jeta
sur nos rives une nombreuse population appartenant à la meilleure
aristocratie.” 1°?
En l'absence de pièces officielles nous devons nous contenter des
cpinions ci-dessus. I] est probable que pas plus de 400 hommes du
régiment de Carignan sont restés dans la Nouvelle-France mais, de
1670 à quelques années plus tard, un nombre pareil est sorti des dé-
tachements que le roi entretenait dans la colonie, ce qui donnerait
raison à M. Rameau, par exemple, qui penche pour 800 ou 900.
Citons enfin un chercheur qui a surveillé cette question depuis
longtemps et qui se promettait de la tirer au clair: “Il y a une liste
des noms des officiers et soldats du régiment de Carignan qui sont éta-
blis au Canada. Leur nombre, diversement évalué par les historiens,
était de 403. Le débat sur ce point se trouve, je crois, vidé. J’avertis
ceux qui croiraient trouver là le précieux renseignement longtemps
désiré, que la trouvaille ne vaut pas ce qu’ils en pourraient espérer.
[suLTE] LE REGIMENT DE CARIGNAN 59
En effet, on sait qu’à cette époque il était d’habitude à peu près général
de donner à tout soldat un sobriquet. Avec le temps ce nom se greffait
à sa personne et devenait le seul connu. C’est sous ce nom d’emprunt,
dérivé le plus souvent de leurs particularités physiques, morales ou
mentales, que sont désignés la plupart des soldats dans cette liste :
La Bonté, La Douceur, La Malice, La Joie, Vadeboncceur, Pretaboire,
ete. Rendus a la liberté et devenus colons ou artisans, les noms véri-
tables, le plus souvent, furent repris. Il en résulte, on le comprend,
un obstacle qui enlève à ce document une partie de sa valeur.” 1°
Le relevé officiel de 1675 porte la population du Bas-Canada a
7,832 âmes ; celui de 1676 à 8,415. Le roi trouva ces chiffres trop
faibles ; il en exprimait sa surprise dans une lettre du 15 avril 1676,
vu, disait-il, “le grand nombre de colons que j’ai envoyés depuis quinze
ou seize ans ; on a dû omettre un grand nombre d’habitants ”. Le
recensement qui suivit indique qu’on ne s'était guère trompé, et celui
de 1681 montre qu’on ne pouvait aller au-delà. Il va sans dire que
800 coureurs de bois manquaient à l'appel, mais tout de même Louis
XIV avait dû faire des calculs un peu exagérés. En ce moment, il
voyait en noir, étant sous le coup des déceptions que lui attirait sa
politique à légard de l’Europe. La guerre de Hollande, ouverte en
1672 sous des auspices favorables, avait tourné contre lui. Guillaume
d'Orange, son grand adversaire, surgissait et, avec une habileté sur-
prenante, unissait de son côté les principales forces du continent.
Condé se tenait à l’écart depuis 1674. Turenne venait d’être tué. La
faiblesse des généraux français, le vide du trésor, le ralentissement du
commerce par suite de la guerre trop prolongée, tout contribuait à
diminuer le prestige du monarque dont l’ardeur ambitieuse avait pro-
duit ces revers de fortune. Nous n'avions plus à attendre de la France
l’aide si nécessaire à une colonie déjà commencée, non encore affermie.
Pour surcroit de malheur, le Canada, privé de Talon, ne comptait plus
personne pour activer les progrès matériels, l’agriculture en premier
lieu. Le comte de Frontenac s’en tenait au développement de la
traite des pelleteries. “Il est certain, dit M. Rameau, que, à partir de
1675, on ne trouve plus dans les actes du gouvernement français le
zèle qu’il avait montré précédemment pour le Canada. Plus de
sollicitude active, plus d’envois de colons, à peine quelques recrues
pour les troupes, et un abandon de plus en plus prononcé de la colonie
à sa propre faiblesse.” Ce qui sauva le pays de la ruine et maintint
tant bien que mal la situation, ce furent les enfants du sol. La colo-
nisation avait pris une assiette solide et, si peu étendue qu’elle nous
paraisse à cette époque, son rôle primait tous les autres moyens d’exis-
tence; elle résista même au fâcheux entraînement du commerce des
pelleteries, mais non sans éprouver sur ce point des pertes en hommes,
60 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
qui ne pouvaient se compenser. Les fonctionnaires, étrangers aux
intérêts canadiens, ne se faisaient pas faute d’affaiblir le noyau des
cultivateurs en dirigeant vers les courses lointaines les fils des habitants.
Le plan de Talon consistait à former une ligne militaire entre les
Iroquois et nous par le moyen de soldats licenciés qui deviendraient
cultivateurs et, en cela, il disait se modeler sur les Romains. C’était,
er effet, tellement romain qu'il ne fut pas capable de l’exécuter. Le
climat du nord, la neige, la forêt, les grandes distances d’un lieu à un
autre, la pénurie des ressources en tous genres, ne ressemblaient pas
aux admirables pays en pleine culture dont les soldats de la Répu-
blique massacraient les habitants et prenaient les fermes prospères.
Louis XIV voulait établir le système féodal: des censitaires ayant pour
chefs des seigneurs moitié civils moitié militaires, comme les Saxons de
Clovis, mais il ne prit jamais la peine de traduire sa pensée dans le sens
pratique. Clovis, arrivant au Poitou avec ses bandes de cultivateurs-
soldats, avait enlevé les plus belles terres aux Latins et s’y était instal-
lé. C'était une civilisation qui, le sabre à ia main, remplacait l’ancien
ordre civilisé. Quel rapport ces choses pouvaient-elles avoir avec le
Canada sauvage ?—aucun.
VIII
Un mot, une digression au sujet du régiment de Carignan, pour
lui dire adieu. Sa rentrée en France, sa troisième ou quatrième ré-
forme, puis la guerre de Hollande sont les premières choses à remar-
quer. Le 6 avril 1672, Louis XIV dénonçait aux Provinces-Unies l’ou-
verture des hostilités et, bientôt après, il s’avanca avec 130,000 soldats.
Le 16 mai il écrivait au comte de Frontenac, nommé gouverneur du Ca-
rada, l’instruisant de cette démarche. Le 12 juin eut lieu le célèbre
passage du Rhin.
Il nous a été impossible de suivre le régiment qui nous intéresse,
à travers cette campagne et bien d’autres. Le P. Daniel, notre seul
guide en cela, est peu précis et nous ne l’avons deviné qu’à l’aide
d’autres sources—encore y est-il plutôt question du chef que des
soldats :
“ Au prince de Carignan succéda le comte de Soissons, au comte
de Soissons le marquis de Lignerac, et puis M. de Cotteron et M. de
Cebret.” La colonelle de Saliéres y était toujours avec son drapeau
blanc et avait pour capitaine M. de Salières, fils de celui qui avait été
colonel du régiment en Canada. En 1714, sur la liste des régiments
d'infanterie, M. de Cebret est porté à la tête du régiment du Perche,
nom que le régiment de Carignan avait pris sous M. de Lignerac, vers
[SULTE] LE REGIMENT DE CARIGNAN 61
1700. Le successeur de ce dernier, M. de Cotteron, ayant été tué en
1707, au combat de Turin, on peut penser que le régiment était alors
avec lui. Au mois d'octobre 1718, le regent fit consentir M. de Salières
à ne plus porter le drapeau blanc dans sa compagnie, laquelle il lui
conserva, le dédommageant par un brevet de colonel. 1°°
Le prince Eugène-Maurice de Carignan, de la famille de Savoie,
fut induit par sa mère, qui appartenait à la maison de Bourbon, à
épouser (1656) Olympe Mancini, nièce de Mazarin, et ce dernier fit re-
vivre pour le prince le titre de comte de Soissons, de sorte que Olympe
est toujours citée comme ‘ comtesse de Soissons ” ou encore “ madame
la comtesse ” tout court. Elle dominait absolument son mari. On
a rendu celui-ci assez ridicule en prétendant que Molière a pris de lui
le mot de M. Jourdain qui s’étonne de faire de la prose. “ C’était
dailleurs, dit un biographe, un brave militaire qui avait fort bien servi ;
il s’était signalé à la bataille des Dunes (1658) sous Turenne et y avait
culbuté l’infanterie espagnole, à la tête des Suisses qu’il commandait.
Ij fut envoyé en embassade extraordinaire au couronnement de Charles
II (1661), et il se battit en duel avec un lord qui avait mal parlé du
roi de France. Il fit les campagnes de Flandres et de Hollande
(1667, 1672) et fut un des plus braves au passage du Rhin. Il allait
rejoindre l’armée de Turenne en Allemagne quand il mourut (1673)
assez subitement ”. 1% Olympe lui avait donné trois filles et cinq fils
dont l’un, né à Paris en 1663, fut le fameux prince Eugène, allié de
Marlborough, qui pesa si cruellement sur les destinées de la France à
la fin du règne de Louis XIV. Ce monarque avait été élevé avec
Olympe et il l’aimait ; les coups que lui portait le fils devaient être
pour lui doublement sensibles—mais la mère avait encouru la dis-
grâce de son ancien amant, de sorte que la conduite du prince Eugène
ressemble fort à la vengeance. “Rien n’était pareil, observe le duc
de Saint-Simon, à la splendeur de la comtesse de Soissons, de chez qui
le roi ne bougeait, avant et après son mariage, et qui était la maîtresse
de la cour, des fêtes et des graces”. En 1679-80, elle tomba sous des
intrigues de cour et se sauva à l’étranger. Colbert, fidèle au souvenir
de Marazin, avait protégé ses nièces; Louvois, ennemi de Colbert, persé-
cuta Olympe ; “il la poursuivit jusque dans Jes enfers ”, selon les
termes de l’abbé de Choisy. Elle erra vingt-huit ans hors de France
et mourut à Bruxelles en 1708, âgée de 68 ans, au moment des plus
grandes victoires de son fils.
Parmi les corps français d’où l’on tira des détachements pour les
envoyer en Amérique, au secours de Washington (1776-78) il y avait
le 30° du Perche qui fournit 1,064 hommes. Quatre autres en donnè-
rent davantage. Le contingent total fut de 25,658 hommes sortis de
34 régiments. 07
62 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
IX
Nous avons expliqué !‘ l’origine des coureurs de bois. Ce qui va
suivre complète le tableau.
“ T’arrivée des troupes introduisit le relâchement dans les mœurs
et donna une funeste atteinte à cette simplicité primitive, à cette
charité généreuse que nous avons admirées tant de fois et qui, pendant
près de trente ans, avaient fait comme le caractère particulier de Ville-
marie. En envoyant le régiment de Carignan dans son entier, sans
choisir les soldats et les officiers, on devait semer et on sema en effet
Vivraie parmi le bon grain. Quelques-uns des chefs militaires furent
même un grand sujet de scandale. .. Les exemples scandaleux de La
Frédière et notamment son trafic illicite avec les sauvages, trouvèrent
un trop grand nombre d’imitateurs parmi les officiers des troupes, et
eurent, pour toute la colonie, les plus tristes résultats. Ces militaires
devenus trafiqueurs, songeant avant tout à leurs intérêts privés, sem-
blèrent, au lieu de concourir à l’établissement du pays, n’y être venus
que pour conspirer sa ruine par le commerce avec les sauvages, à qui
ils donnaient des liqueurs fortes en échange de leurs pelleteries. Ils
occasionnèrent dans la colonie d’horribles désordres de la part de ces
barbares, et les choses allèrent même si loin que plusieurs des habi-
tants des Trois-Rivières, du cap de la Madeleine, de Champlain,
crurent devoir en informer le Conseil de Québec. Ils se plaignirent
de ce que, malgré les défenses tant de fois réitérées, on envoyait des
sens de guerre traiter des boissons enivrantes, aux sauvages, et en si
grande quantité, qu'à Villemarie, aux Trois-Rivières, à Champlain, au
cap de la Madeleine, à Batiscan, à Sainte-Anne, on rencontrait de ces
derniers perpétuellement ivres, se livrant aux désordres les plus mons-
trueux que pouvait produire l’ivresse dans ces barbares. Ils ajoutèrent
que ces gens de guerre, non contents de traiter avec les sauvages dans
les habitations, les suivaient à la chasse sous divers prétextes, d’où il
arrivait que, par leurs ivrogneries continuelles, les sauvages étaient
tellement détournés de cet exercice, qu’ils ne rapportaient que le demi
quart des pelleteries qu’on eût pu espérer d’eux sans cela.” 1°°
Par l’arrêt du 10 novembre 1668, il était permis “à tous les
Francais, habitants de la Nouvelle-France, de vendre et débiter toutes
sortes de boissons aux sauvages qui en voudront acheter d’eux et
traiter 7
Le terme “tous les Francais habitants” paraît avoir été choisi
pour désigner les colons, mais il arriva que “les volontaires, les vaga-
bonds et d’autres se crurent autorisés, aussi bien que les habitants ou
les colons proprement dits, 4 vendre des boissons aux Sauvages, ce qui
donna lieu à des rixes fâcheuses entre les Francais ”. 111
[SULTE] LE RÉGIMENT DE CARIGNAN 63
La permission de traiter de la boisson enivrante était restreinte
aux habitations des blancs. Défense était faite d’en porter dans les
bois, mais il était difficile de faire observer cette règle dans un pays si
vaste “ow il n’y avait d’autres troupes que les garnisons de Québec,
des Trois-Rivières et de Villemarie, si peu considérables qu’à peine
suffisaient-elles pour maintenir l’ordre dans ces trois postes. Aïnsi,
au mois de juillet 1670, M. de Courcelles ayant appris qu’on avait ren-
contré des coureurs de bois à soixante ou quatre-vingts lieues au-
dessus de Villemarie, avait ordonné au juge de ce lieu d’informer
contre eux, et au commandant, qui était alors M. de la Motte, de
donner main-forte pour les poursuivre et les arrêter; mais que pouvait
faire ce commandant avec dix soldats de garnison, pour saisir à une si
grande distance des hommes qui formaient entre eux des ligues et
marchaient toujours en armes ? Il arriva de là que l’impunité de ces
désordres fut cause que le nombre des coureurs de bois s’accrut con-
eidérablement.” 11?
“Des soldats du régiment de Carignan se mirent dans l’esprit de
vouloir courir les bois avec les Iroquois et de les suivre partout dans
ieurs chasses. Ils se précautionnèrent de beaucoup d’eau-de-vie et
partirent sans le dire à personne. Ils avertirent de leur départ quel-
qu’un de leurs officiers seulement, qui aidait même à les mettre en état
de faire ce voyage, dans l’espérance d’y avoir un peu de part. Cinq de
ces soldats, qui étaient déjà stylés à ces sortes de voyages, et qui savaient
la route de cette rivière et les endroits où les Iroquois avaient coutume
de chasser partirent la nuit et arrivèrent à la Pointe-Claire du lac Saint-
Louis où ils trouvèrent un Iroquois qui avait son canot plein de peaux
d’élans. Ces soldats lui demandèrent s’il ne voulait pas boire un coup
d'eau-de-vie ; il répondit que non. Voyant, néanmoins, qu’on lui
voulait donner à boire gratuitement et sans intérêt, il accepta Voffre
qu’on lui faisait. Cela l’engagea à en boire davantage et, à force de
l'exciter, il en but tant qu’il se saoula mort-ivre. Ces soldats, le
voyant hors de raison et sans connaissance, lui attachèrent une pierre
au col et le jettèrent dans l’eau, * au large du lac. Les autres Iro-
quois, qui avaient fait leur chasse, étant rendus à Montréal, deman-
aèrent, quelque temps après, si on ne l’avait pas vu. On leur dit que
non—tellement qu’ils le crurent noyé le long du saut de la rivière
des Outaoüas. Cependant, quelques sauvages, allant ou revenant de
la chasse, aperçurent un corps flottant sur l’eau, soit que la corde qui
servait à lui attacher la pierre au col fut rompue ou qu’elle ne fut pas
assez pesante. Ils furent droit vers ce corps et reconnurent celui dont
on ne savait point de nouvelles. Ils le transportèrent à Montréal et,
dans les plaintes qu’ils firent, ils représentèrent que, dans leurs chasses,
ii n’y avait pas eu d’autres sauvages qu’eux et, par conséquent, il n’y
64 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
avait que des Français qui pouvaient avoir tué leur camarade. On fit
d’exactes recherches pour découvrir les auteurs de cette action, sans
pouvoir réussir. Les soldats, après avoir fait ce coup, apportèrent nui-
tamment les pelleteries chez leur officier et lui firent accroire qu'ils les
avaient traitées avec des Iroquois qui étaient retournés à la chasse. Cet
officier en donna en payement à quelqu'un, car c’était l’usage de s’en
servir au lieu de monnaie dans le pays. Celui qui les avait eues de cet
officier les avait aussi données à quelque autre et, de cette manière,
elles étaient passées en plusieurs mains. Il arriva qu’un Français en
ayant une, la porta chez un marchand où se trouvèrent présents des
Jroquois, qui la reconnurent par la marque différente que chacun d’eux
met à sa pelleterie. Ils la saisirent pour la porter sur le champ au
commandant de la ville. On fit venir le Français, qui fut questionné
pour savoir de qui il avait eu cette peau. Il nomma la personne qui
la lui avait donnée. On la fit appeler ; elle nomma aussi celle dont
elle l’avait reçue, et on reconnut par ce moyen qu’elle était venue en
premier lieu de la maison où demeurait l'officier. On y fouilla, et
plusieurs peaux de la même marque s’y trouvèrent qui furent recon-
nues appartenant à ce sauvage assassiné. Ces preuves ne laissèrent
plus de doute qu’il avait été tué par des soldats. Ces soldats, dans
ce temps-là, étaient partis derechef pour traiter de l’eau-de-vie dans
la rivière des Outaouas, après avoir remboursé l’officier de la première
avance et de la dernière qu’il leur avait faite, pour le reste du butin de
lPIroquois qu’ils avaient assassiné. Il fut ordonné à l'officier de les
arrêter aussitôt qu'ils seraient de retour, ou d’avertir afin de les punir
et de rendre justice aux Iroquois—car on les entendait déjà mur-
murer. Ils donnaient à connaître que leur indignation était assez
grande pour renouveler la guerre, si on avait manqué de leur faire
raison de cet assassin. ''* Les auteurs de cet assassin n’ayant point de
retraite plus assurée que chez ieur officier, arrivèrent la nuit chez lui
ou ils furent arrêtés et mis en prison. Le conseil de guerre s’étant
assemblé pour les juger, ils avouèrent, dans les premieres interroga-
tions, le crime dont on les accusait et furent condamnés, tous les cinq,
a étre passés par les armes, en présence des Iroquois. On les fit con-
duire et attacher, tous les cinq, chacun a un pôteau. Les Iroquois
s’étonnèrent de ample justice qu’on leur rendait et demandérent grâce
pour quatre, parce que n’ayant perdu qu’un homme, il n’était pas juste,
disaient-ils, d’en défaire cinq, mais un seulement. On leur fit com-
prendre que les cinq étaient également criminels et méritaient sans
exception la mort. Les Iroquois, qui ne s’attendaient pas à une satis-
faction si étendue, redoublèrent leurs instances pour obtenir la grâce
de quatre et firent pour ce sujet des présents de colliers de porcelaine,
mais on ne les écouta pas et on les passa tous les cinq par les armes.” 15
[suure'| LE REGIMENT DE CARIGNAN 68
Frontenac écrivait a Colbert, le 2 novembre 1672 : “Il faudrait
envoyer ici quelques troupes, qui seraient trés nécessaires pour main-
tenir ce pays en repos, en empéchant les désordres des coureurs de
bois qui, si l’on n’y prend garde, deviendront comme les bandits de
Naples et les boucaniers de Saint-Domingue. Leur nombre s’aug-
mente tous les jours, nonobstant toutes les ordonnances qu’on a faites,
et que j'ai encore renouvelées, avec plus de sévérité qu’auparavant.
Leur insolence, à ce qu'on m’a dit, va au point de faire des ligues et de
semer des billets pour s‘attrouper, menaçant de faire des forts et d’aller
du côté de Manate et d’Orange, où ils se vantent qu’ils seront reçus et
auront toute protection.”
X
Le lecteur demande des explications—toujours. Les détails
nous manquent, qu'importe ! il faut qu’on explique. Chaque fois qu’il
s’agit du régiment de Carignan, les opinions étant indécises, on insiste,
néanmoins, pour avoir un exposé clair et précis de toute la substance.
Comment le donner puisque les pièces essentielles font défaut ?
Les neuf paragraphes qui précèdent devraient suffire, à la rigueur,
pour acquit de notre tâche, cependant un point n’a pas été mis en
lumière, savoir : les noms des officiers du régiment et même, si pos-
sible, des notes sur chacun d’eux.
Il n’y a pas de liste connue de ces hommes. (C’est avec patience
et longueur de temps que nous en avons retrouvé un certain nombre ;
peut-être en avons-nous assez pour comprendre le rôle qu’ils jouaient,
du moins en ce qui concerne le parti resté en Canada. On peut les
classer comme suit :
Tués en Canada.
D’Aiguesmortes périt dans la retraite, à la fin de février 1666,
avant que d’avoir traversé le lac Champlain.
En juin 1666, furent tués prés du fort Sainte-Anne, au lac Champ-
fain: Chasy, Marin, Chamat, Montagny et le capitaine Traversy.
Comme il n’est fait mention que de trois officiers, nous croyons que
Chasy, Marin et Traversy étaient ces personnes ; alors Chamat et Mon-
tagni deviendraient des surnoms appartenant 4 deux d’entre eux.
Le lieutenant Du Luques ou De Luc périt durant la marche de
retour, l’automne de 1666. Un officier du nom de De Chaulny fut tué
par les Iroquois (L’abbé Daniel: Quelques contemporains, p. 34.)
Sec. I, 1902. 5.
68 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
Repassés en France, ou dont la trace se perd après 1668.
Beaubel, officier volontaire; Salampar; Sauvole; De Saint-Nicolas;
Francois de Sainte-Croix, lieutenant de la compagnie de Sidrac Dugué;
Dugal ou Dugas; l'enseigne Darienne, commandant une escouade au
fort Sainte-Anne en 1666; le lieutenant François Feraud, premier
aide-de-camp ; le capitaine Fromont; Valentin Frapier, sieur de Beaure-
gard, lieutenant; le sieur Flottant, chevalier de Lescure; capitaine
Maximin; Mignardet, lieutenant de la compagnie colonelle; Frangois
de Montail, sieur de Clérac, capitaine au régiment du Poitou; capi-
taine La Fouille, oncle de Philippe Gauthier de Comporté; capitaine
de Latour; Nicolas de Choisy, cadet de la compagnie Maximin; Pru-
dent-Alexandre Taboureau de Véronne, enseigne de la compagnie
Berthier; capitaine Rougemont, commandant au fort Sainte-Thérèse
en 1666; Jean Nicolas, sieur de Brandis, enseigne; Jean Laumonier,
sieur de Traversy, enseigne au régiment d'Orléans.
Le chevalier Alexandre de Chaumont, né vers 1640, était maré-
chal des camps et armées du roi. Il a dû retourner en France l’au-
tomne de 1666. En 1685 on l’envoya embassadeur auprès du roi de
Siam.
A Québec, le 22 novembre 1667, au mariage de J.-B. Morin dit
Rochebelle, qui devint membre du conseil supérieur de Québec, était
présent “ Louis De Canchy, sieur De Lerolle”. Le Journal des
Jésuites note que “ Mr de Leroles était cousin de Monsieur de Tracy”,
Nicolas Perrot dit que “ Mt de Noirolle, neveu de M" de Tracy” était
prisonnier des Iroquois au commencement de l’été de 1666. Il re-
tourna a Québec et repassa en France.
Le capitaine Isaac Berthier, du régiment de l’Allier, servant au-
pres de M. de Tracy, était à Québec le 12 août 1665, témoin du ma-
riage d'Henri Brault. Est-ce lui qui repassa en France vers 1669,
d’après l’abbé Francois Daniel ? Oui, probablement. 115
En 1667, était garde-magasin à Québec, Nicolas Grisard, sieur des
Ormeaux. Le 5 décembre, même année, à Québec, Roch Thoery, sieur
de l’Ormeau, natif de Saint-André de Gailac, diocèse d’Alby en Lan-
guedoc, lieutenant au régiment de la reine, épousait Marie-Rogère Le
Page, de Saint-Martin de Clammecy, diocèse d’Autun, en Bourgogne."7
U est mentionné aussi comme enseigne de la compagnie de M.
Dugué. On peut lire dans Faillon, III, 393-96, le curieux récit de
Vattaque à main armée dont il fut l’objet, à Montréal, en 1671, de la
part de deux officiers, de Morel et Carrion. Les personnes présentes
étaient madame de l’Ormeau, Picoté de Belestre, Charles Le Moyne de
Longueuil, deux prétres, MM. de Casson et Frémont, un marchand de
[SULTE] LE RÉGIMENT DE CARIGNAN 67
la Rochelle nommé Baston, un domestique appellé Gilles. Nous ne
connaissons pas la suite de la carrière du sieur de Ormeau, sauf qu’il
était décédé avant 1681, d’après le recensement de Québec cette année.
Aumôniers.
Messire Flavien de Saint-Pons, prêtre, appelé l’abbé de Carignan,
élait aumônier du régiment. Il est cité aux Trois-Rivières, en mai
1666, et résidait à Chambly l’automne de 1667 ; paraît être retourné
en France l’année suivante. 11
L’abbé Jean-Baptiste Dubois d’Egriseilies, arrivé le 19 août 1665,
avec M. de Saliéres, accompagna l’armée l’automne de 1666 et faillit
périr de misère. En octobre 1667, il était résident au fort de
Chambly ; en mai 1671, on le voit aux Trois-Rivières ; en juillet 1674,
ii figure à Montréal. Son départ pour la France paraît avoir eu lieu
en octobre 1680. **
Le père Thierry Beschefer, jésuite, arrivé à Québec le 19 juin
1665, avec des compagnies du régiment de Carignan, se rendit jus-
qu'aux Trois-Rivières où les soldats devaient tenir garnison, mais
aiteint d’une fièvre continue, il retourna à Québec le 14 octobre suivant.
Il alla comme missionnaire chez les Agniers en 1670. On le trouve
supérieur du collège de Québec durant plusieurs années, puis il passa
en France. En 1691, il s'embarqua pour revenir, mais il paraît qu'il
ne séjourna pas longtemps dans la colonie et s’en retourna en
France"
Passés en Acadie.
Hubert d’Andigny de Grandfontaine, capitaine au régiment du
Poitou, puis à celui de Carignan, s’était vite familiarisé avec la vie des
bois et la guerre des sauvages. Vers 1669 il obtenait le grade de
miajor. Le 5 mars 1670, furent rédigées, “ pour le chevalier de Grand-
fontaine ”, des instructions afin d’aller commander en Acadie et solli-
citer “ auprès des officiers de Sa Majesté Britannique, commandant à
présent au dit pays”, la restitution des terres, places et seigneuries
qui devaient étre remises au roi de France en vertu du traité de Bréda
fait en 1667. En 1670 partirent done de Québec une trentaine de
soldats, le capitaine de Chambly, le lieutenant Marson de Joybert de
Soulanges, l’enseigne de Villieu et Venseigne Vincent de Saint-
Castin, sous les ordres de Grandfontaine. Les Anglais rendirent
immédiatement le Maine, le sud du Nouveau-Brunswick, la Nouvelle-
Ecosse, le pays des Maléchites et baie des Chaleurs, les îles Saint-
Jean et du cap Breton. En 1673 Grandfontaine étant rappelé en
68 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
France, ce fut Chambly qui le remplaça. Grandfontaine reprit la
direction des affaires en 1682. **
Le capitaine Jacques de Chambiy érigea le fort Saint-Louis sur
la rivière Richelieu, l’été de 1665, et y resta commandant. Il prit part
aux expéditions contre les Iroquois en 1666. La seigneurie du fort
Saint-Louis (Chambly) lui fut accordée le 29 octobre 1672 ; Vacte
porte : “ capitaine au régiment de Carignan et commandant les troupes
en Canada”. Le comte de Frontenac venait d’arriver dans le pays.
Il avait nommé M. de Chambly “ commandant de toutes les habitations
depuis la Rivière du Loup (Châteauguay) à celle de Saint-François (du
Lac) jusqu’au Long Saut (sur lOttawa), à l’exception de l’île de
Montréal”. Frontenac ajoute que l’habitation du fort Saint-Louis, où
réside cet officier, est la plus jolie de tout le Canada. C’est vers cette
date, croyons-nous, que Chambly épousa Me de Thauvenet dont la
sœur aînée était mariée à François Hertel, sieur de Lafrenière. Le
régiment de Carignan était alors repassé en France. M. de Chambly
recut le grade de capitaine dans le détachement d'infanterie que le
ministère de la marine entretenait parmi nous et que l’on appelait
improprement “troupes de la marine”, puisqu'il ne renfermait pas
de marins. En 1673 M. de Chambly commandait 4 Pentagoét sur la
côte du Maine et, l’année suivante, attaqué par un corsaire hollandais,
il reçut une blessure grave, le poste se rendit, son commandant fut ran-
conné, selon la coutume des écumeurs de mer. Peu après, M. de
Grandfontaine partant pour la France, notre officier devint gouverneur
de l’Acadie où il resta jusqu’à 1679, étant alors envoyé à la Grenade;
ensuite à la Martinique où il mourut dans cette dernière fonction. Ses
appointements lui étaient payés en sucre, principal produit de Vile.
Sa femme lui survécut. Il paraîtrait que, un jour, ayant fait fouetter
un nègre qui ne lui appartenait pas, elle reçut une réprimande du
ministre des colonies, comme on le voit dans une dépêche que M. J.-0.
Dion nous a montrée. Le fief de Chambly passa, après sa mort, à son
neveu René Hertel, qui prit l'habitude de signer “ Chambly”, et qui
fut tué dans la campagne de 1708 contre les provinces anglaises.
Pierre de Joybert, sieur de Marson, né vers 1644 à Saint-Hilaire
de Soulanges en Champagne, était lieutenant de la compagnie de
Grandfontaine au régiment du Poitou et fit la guerre de 1666 avec le
regiment de Carignan contre les Iroquois. En septembre 1668, il
paraît être revenu de France mêlé à une affaire de marchandises et a
des bagarres qui auraient eu lieu sur le navire la Sainte-Anne durant
la traversée ; il y est fait mention principalement de barriques de vin.
Le sieur de Joybert commençait probablement alors son métier de
trafiquant de fourrures. Au mois de septembre 1670, le chevalier de
Grandfontaine reçut du capitaine Walker le fort de Pentagouet à titre
[SULTE] LE RÉGIMENT DE CARIGNAN 69
de gouverneur français de l’Acadie, et Joybert de Marson, agissant
comme major, prit possession de Port-Royal et de Jemsee sur le fleuve
Saint-Jean. En novembre 1671, Talon écrit que Joybert est de
retour à Québec, après s’être brouillé avec Grandfontaine. Le 17 octo-
bre 1672, à Québec, Joybert :?? épousa Louise Chartier de Lotbinière ;
le 20 du même mois, Frontenac lui concéda la seigneurie de Jemsec
sur le fleuve Saint-Jean et l’envoya commander le fort de ce lieu où il
y aura, dit-il, 9 hommes de garde'fournis par Grandfontaine. Le 18
août 1673, naquit à Jemsec Louise-Elizabeth qui fut baptisée à Qué-
bec le 15 juin 1675, et se maria, en 1690, avec le marquis de Vaudreuil,
qui devint gouverneur général de la Nouvelle-France. Au mois d'août
1674, un corsaire hollandais qui avait passé par Boston, attaqua le fort
de Pentagouet où M. de Chambly fut blessé grièvement et pris ;
ensuite il enleva de Jemsec M. de Joybert et fixa sa rançon à mille
peaux de castor. En apprenant cette nouvelle, vers la fin de sep-
tembre, le comte de Frontenac envoya un canot pour ramener à Qué-
bec madame de Joybert abandonnée dans les bois du Nouveau-Bruns-
wick. Son mari se libéra, on ne sait quand, mais ce fut en 1676 au
plus tard, d’après l’acte de baptéme de son fils Pierre-Jacques qui porte
la date du 8 juillet 1677 a Québec. Dès l’été de 1676, Frontenac écri-
vait que Joybert et sa famille retournent 4 Jemsec. Une note du roi,
en mai 1678, constate que Joybert est commandant en Acadie ; c’est
VPannée même où cet officier mourut. Il faut croire que sa veuve
continua le commerce, car en 1682 il est fait mention des pelleteries
qu'elle avait à Jemsec ; en même temps elle sollicite de l’aide du roi
et Colbert l’inscrit pour une pension de 600 livres par année, laquelle
fut supprimée, à la mort du ministre. L’automne de 1685, Denonville
écrit que la pauvre femme est à Québec, dénuée de tout avec ses
enfants. Seignelay accorde une pension de 300 livres. En 1691 le
titre de la seigneurie de Jemsec reçut nouvelle confirmation du gou-
verneur, puis du roi deux ans plus tard, ce qui ne pouvait être utile
que pour le commerce des fourrures. Le fils, Pierre-Jacques, se fit
donner une terre, en Canada, aux Cascades, ??# qui prit le nom de Sou-
langes.
L’enseigne Vincent d’Abadie, sieur de Saint-Castin, originaire du
pays basque, appartient complètement à l’Acadie, où il a joué le rôle
d’un héros de roman et laissé des souvenirs multiples. De simples notes
comme celles-ci ne pourraient que le défigurer ou le laisser incomplet
devant l’histoire, si nous tentions d’examiner sa carrière.
Claude Villieu et sa descendance avaient été anoblis par Emma-
nuel, duc de Savoie, en 1628, puis, comme les circonstances l’obligèrent
plus tard à changer de pays, il se fixa à Beaumont-sur-Mer et obtint
d'enregistrer ses lettres patentes à Poitiers en 1662. Son fils, Claude-
70 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
Sébastien le Bassier de Villieu, sieur de Daudeville, signait au contrat
de mariage d'Henri Brault, le 12 août 1665, à Québec. Il est qualifié
de volontaire et enseigne au régiment de Carignan, aussi de lieutenant
de la compagnie Berthier. Vers 1667 il demanda la permission de
faire un voyage en France et s’y maria, à Nantes, paraît-il, avec
Jeanne-Marie Le Breton. Au mois de juin 1668 le roi accorda au
père des lettres de naturalisation. Notre officier ayant “vendu tout
son bien pour le transmettre en Canada avec toute sa famille”, il est
dit dans une plainte au Conseil Souverain que ceux qui ont le mono-
pole du commerce ont “refusé le passage de ses effets, ce qui la
obligé de demeurer en l’ancienne France, de même qu'un chirurgien
de Montréal qui a été obligé de prendre la route des Iles (Antilles)
plutôt que celle du Canada parce que on lui a refusé d’y passer ses
effets ”. La présence de ce ménage est signalée à Québec le 26 sep-
tembre 1671, par la sépulture d’une fille née en 1668 ou 1669. Peu
après, Villieu fut envoyé en Acadie, mais avec le dessein de revenir
puisqu'il reçut en 1672 la seigneurie appelée plus tard du nom de M.
Le Gardeur de Tilly. Villieu s’étant tout à fait acclimaté en Acadie,
la terre en question fut reprise par l’intendant et concédée à une autre
personne en 1684. Madame de Villieu était encore à Québec ou dans
les environs, en 1675 et elle occupait une maison appartenant à Pierre
Niel, exploitait une pêcherie, faisait en même temps enregistrer les
lettres de noblesse de son mari. Il est probable qu’elle ne tarda guère
à partir elle aussi. De ce moment jusqu’à 1704, on voit Villieu agir
comme militaire sous les gouverneurs de Port-Royal; il eut une car-
rière mouvementée, monta en grade, subit la disgrâce du roi, reprit
ses fonctions, fut accusé de faire le commerce, se brouilla avec ses
chefs, fut pris par les Anglais, retourna à la tête de sa compagnie,
reçut un fief, revint major de l’Acadie, fut de nouveau interdit, et
finalement on lui donne 600 livres de pension. Son fils Sébastien,
marié à Judith Le Neuf de la Vallière (1692), a été un officier militaire
de distinction. **4
Le capitaine Louis Petit, natif de Normandie, vers 1625, fut or-
donné prêtre à Québec le 21 décembre 1670, se voua aux missions des
Abénakis, fut nommé vicaire-général en Acadie le 5 septembre 1676.
I] résidait à Port Royal d’où les Anglais l’enlevèrent à la prise de cette
place en 1690. Il revint l’année suivante, mais ne put rentrer dans
son ancienne position et alla demeurer à Québec où il mourut en
170922?
[suLTE] LE REGIMENT DE CARIGNAN ; 71
Ont été militaires, traiteurs, gouverneurs.
Thomas-Xavier Tarieu, sieur de Lanaudière et de la Pérade, en-
seigne dans la compagnie de Saint-Ours, né en 1644, à Notre-Dame de
Mirande, diocèse d’Auch, en Gascogne, épouse à Québec, le 16 octo-
bre 1672, Marguerite-Renée Denys de ia Ronde, canadienne. Quel-
ques jours plus tard, il obtient, de concert avec Edme Le Sueur, la
seigneurie de Sainte-Anne de la Pérade, s'étendant depuis les Gron-
dines jusqu’à la rivière Sainte-Anne, comprenant le morceau de terre
acheté par eux du sieur Louis Hamelin, seigneur des Grondines. Le
10 février 1674, Tarieu est nommé gouverneur de Montréal par suite
de l’emprisonnement de Francois-Marie Perrot, et il garde cette place
jusqu’au retour de ce dernier en juillet 1675, sinon plus tard. Sa fille
Louise naquit à Montréal en 1674 ; un autre enfant, Louis, fut baptisé
à Québec en juin 1676, lequel se noya dans la rivière Sainte-Anne vers
1690. Un autre garçon, Pierre-Thomas, baptisé à Québec le 12 no-
vembre 1677, fut le continuateur de la famille. Tarieu demeurait
a Sainte-Anne, croyons-nous, tout en étant capitaine des gardes du gou-
verneur. Au mois d'avril 1680 il est mentionné comme ‘défunt et sa
veuve demande certains règlements d’affaires avec Edme Le Sueur qui
paraît être absent—peut-être était-il déjà dans l’ouest.1?5
Le lieutenant, René Gaultier de Varennes marié en 1667 à Marie
Boucher, canadienne, fut gouverneur des Trois-Rivières depuis cette
date jusqu’à 1689, où il mourut. Il exploitait le commerce de four-
rures du Saint-Maurice. De concert avec Pierre Boucher, son beau-
père, il commença la seigneurie de Varennes et y comptait une tren-
taine de pauvres habitants mais sans aucun travail de culture pour
lui-même. Son fils, La Vérendrye, a été militaire et traiteur; on lui
doit la découverte du nord-ouest ; malgré cela, il mourut sans for-
tune, comme son père, comme Tarieu de Lanaudière et autres qui ne
furent pas des habitants.
Militaire et gouverneur.
Noble homme Pierre de Saint-Paul, sieur de la Motte-Lussière,
capitaine au régiment de Carignan, construisit le fort Sainte-Anne à
l'entrée du lac Champlain (1666) et, vers la fin de 1668, il remplaca
Zacharie Dupuis, commandant à Montréal. Comme il était à ce poste,
“homme de cceur et d’honneur, sa compagnie était la seule du régi-
ment de Carignan restée dans le pays ”, observe Nicolas Perrot au sujet
d'événements qui se passaient l’été de 1669. De bonne heure, l’été de
1670, il partit pour la France, laissant La Frediére à sa place. Jusque-
là, il avait attendu l’arrivée de François-Marie Perrot, nommé gou-
72 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
verneur de Montréal mais qui se trouva retardé d’un an par suite des
périls de la navigation. Perrot étant débarqué à Québec avec Talon
son parent, le 18 août 1670, on suppose qu’il releva La Fredière de ses
fonctions vers le 1% septembre. En tous cas, Pierre de Saint-Paul,
sieur de la Motte-Lussiére, ne revint pas dans la colonie. On ne doit
plus le confondre avec les quatre personnages suivants, comme cela est
arrivé plus d’une fois: 10 Jean Deleau, sieur de la Motte qui
commandait à Chambly en 1677; 2° Dominique de la Motte-Lussière,
venu de France avec Cavelier de la Salle en 1678, marié à Montréal en
1680, seigneur de la Lussaudière en 1683, décédé à Montréal en 1700;
3° Claude de la Motte, marquis de Jourdis ou Jordis, marié à Lachine
en 1685, tué par les Iroquois en 1687; 4° Louis de la Rue, chevalier de
la Motte, lieutenant dans les troupes entretenues en Canada, tué par
les Iroquois, a Saint-Frangois-du-Lac, en 1690.
Fonctionnaire.
Le sieur Randin, enseigne de la compagnie de M. de Sorel, com-
mandait en 1671 un navire qui revenait de Pentagouet, d’après les
ordres de Talon. Le 29 octobre 1672, on lui accorda une demi-lieue
de terre au fleuve Saint-Laurent sur une lieue de profondeur, depuis la
concession de Gauthier de Comporté jusqu’aux terres non concédées ;
le même jour, il passa le titre de ce fief au capitaine Berthier. Une
des îles de Berthier-en-haut se nomme encore Randin. (C’est lui qui
traça le plan du fort de Cataracoui et en dirigea la construction, l’été
de 1673. Une “carte de l'Amérique Septentrionale ”, restée manus-
crite au dépôt des archives de la marine, à Paris, “ dressée par Randin
en 1689” est plutôt de 1678. Harrisse observe que “ Randin, ingé-
nieur, et l’obligé du comte de Frontenac, nomme le Mississipi Rivière
de Buade, et les pays avoisinants Frontenacie.” Cavelier de la Salle
écrivait, le 22 août 1682, pour se plaindre des coureurs de bois, et il
dit que Randin qui est décédé, allait, par ordre de Frontenac, inviter
les Sioux à se rendre à Montréal. 1°?
Fonctionnaire et traiteur.
Philippe Gauthier, sieur de Comporté, mérite une attention spé-
ciale car il représente à lui seul presque tous les caractères sortis du
régiment de Carignan au Canada. Né en 1641 dans un bourg du
Poitou, il avait le goût des aventures avec des aptitudes pour le com-
merce, ce qui paraît l’avoir décidé à se faire soldat dans la compagnie
de son oncle, le capitaine Lafouille, qui tenait garnison au lieu nommé
la Motte-Saint-Héray, près de Parthenay en Poitou. Un soldat appelé
{SULTE] LE RÉGIMENT DE CARIGNAN 73
Lanoraye, battant la caisse aux coins des rues et carrefours pour rac-
coler des recrues, se plaignit à ses camarades que le sieur Jacques
Bonneau-Chabot, juge, sénéchal civil et criminel du marquisat de la
Motte Saint-Heraye, !*5 l’avait maltraité et lui avait enlevé son tam-
bour. On décida de venger cet affront et, par conséquent, vers huit
ou neuf heures du soir, Comporté avec six ou sept hommes de la même
compagnie, se rendirent auprès de Bonneau qu’ils rencontrèrent comme
il venait de souper, ainsi que sept ou huit personnes armées d’épées.
Il y eut combat immédiatement. Le juge Bonneau et l’un de ses
suivants, appelé Jean Baugier de la Thibaudière, furent blessés à mort.
L'affaire ayant été instruite devant le siège royal de Saint-Maixant, en
février-avril 1665, la sentence de mort contre Comporté fut prononcée
ic 10 mai—alors que le régiment était en route pour le Canada.
L’oubli s’empara de ce drame qui ne paraît pas avoir été révélé au dé-
barquement des troupes à Québec. De simple soldat qu’il était en
1664, Comporté était devenu officier au titre de volontaire, d’après une
liste de 1669 que M. l’abbé François Daniel a publiée en 1867. L/in-
tendant Talon lui confiait la charge importante de commissaire général
des vivres. Dans une pièce du 1° septembre 1670, il est qualifié de
“commis à la recette du dix pour cent ”, et, comme tel, confisque les
marchandises venues de la Rochelle à l’adresse de (Paul ?) Dupuis et
qui ont été emmagasinées chez Eustache Lambert sans payer le dix
pour cent. Le 18 octobre 1673, il agit comme procureur de Jean
Talon, l’ancien intendant, au cours d’un procès contre Pierre Dupas,
à propos de la traite des pelleteries. Le 9 avril suivant, il figure dans
les registres du même tribunal au sujet d’un billet signé par les nom-
més Perrot et Derby, pour des affaires de commerce. En, 1675 on le
voit marguiller de la paroisse de Québec. Il était alors en possession
d'un fief d’une demi-lieue au fleuve sur une lieue de profondeur que
Talon lui avait accordé le 10 octobre 1672; c’est une terre située au-
dessus de Berthier-en-haut et qui esti connue sous les noms de Com-
porté, Antaya, Dorvilliers, d’après ses propriétaires successifs. Le 22
novembre 1672, Philippe Gauthier de Comporté se mariait à Québec,
avec Marie, sœur de Charles Bazire, l’un des principaux marchands de
la colonie. L'automne de 1675, il vendait son fief de Comporté à
François Pelletier dit Antaya et à François Chorel dit Saint-Romain,
toutefois il ne parait pas s’en être désaisi, faute par les acheteurs
d’avoir rempli certaines obligations. Plus tard le fils de Pelletier
devint acquéreur de la part de Chorel fils, surnommé Dorvilliers, de
sorte qu'il traita avec les héritiers du sieur Gauthier de Comporté
(vers 1700) et prit possession de tout le fief. En 1677 le roi créa une
cour de prévôté à Québec et y placa dans la charge de juge Philippe
A
Gauthier de Comporté, lequel parait s’étre retiré du commerce pour
74 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
occuper ce poste, mais il conservait des intérêts dans la traite des pays
d'en haut. Par prudence, il avait sollicité des familles Bonneau et
Baugier le pardon des deux homicides de 1665, et l’ayant obtenu sous
forme de déclaration empreinte de sentiments chrétiens, signée par
les principaux membres de ces familles, il invoqua la clémence du roi
qui ne lui fit pas défaut. Ces pièces furent enregistrées au Conseil
Souverain de Québec, l'été de 1681, après des séances solennelles dont
le compte-rendu présente une étude curieuse. Gauthier de Comporté
et sa femme moururent l’automne de 1687. De leur onze enfants il
en survivait sept, dont deux filles entrées en religion, deux mariées et
trois garçons qui ne paraissent pas avoir laissé de descendance. Les
cinq derniers se partagèrent vingt mille francs qui restaient à la fa-
mille, une fois les dettes payées. *°°
Ont fait la traite de Veau-de-vie et n’ont pas colonisé.
Les sept ou huit personnages qui vont maintenant nous occuper
farent les auteurs de la déplorable engeance connue sous le nom de
coureurs de bois. Quatre autres les ont secondés dans cette œuvre,
savoir: Gaultier de Varennes, Gauthier de Comporté, Pierre de Sorel
et Sidrac Dugué. Nous ne parlons pas des Canadiens qui en ont fait
autant: Boucher, Lebert, Rolland, Lachesnaye, etc.
Edme Le Sueur, lieutenant au régiment de Carignan, et Thomas
Tarieu de Lanaudière, enseigne au même corps, obtinrent ensemble la
seigneurie de Sainte-Anne de la Pérade par un titre du 29 octobre
1672. Au recensement de 1681, Le Sueur est le premier inscrit en ce
lieu: “ Edme Sueur, 50 ans, 3 fusils” Cette même année fut empri-
sonné à Québec, pour avoir traité au saut Sainte-Marie, Pierre-Charles
Le Sueur dit Dagenais, natif de Notre-Dame de Héden en Artois ;
cet homme se maria en 1690, a Boucherville, et demeura a Montréal;
il est qualifié d’interprète. Etait-il parent de Edme Lesueur ? car ce
dernier fut aussi un “voyageur des pays d’en haut.” En 1683 Edme
était au lac Pepin sur le Mississipi. Lorsque Nicolas Perrot prit posses-
sion du Haut-Mississipi, en 1689, Lesueur était présent. Vers 1692,
celui-ci avait un poste sur l’île Madeleine dans la baie de Chagouamigon,
côté sud-ouest du lac Supérieur. Trafiquant au pays des Sioux en 1695-
36, il invite les autorités de Québec à s’occuper d’une mine de cuivre
qu'il dit avoir trouvée et qui parait être la même que Dubuque exploita
yuus tard au-dessous du Wisconsin. M. de Callières dit qu’il n’est pas
dupe du trafic illicite caché derriére ces projets d’industrie, et il ajoute,
s’adressant au ministre, “toute la traite des pays éloignés n’est que
pour le profit de Lesueur, les coureurs de bois, et pour les sieurs de La
Forest et de Tonty.” Malgré cela, le roi accorda “au sieur Le Sueur
[SULTE] LE RÉGIMENT DE CARIGNAN 78
permission d’aller fouiller des mines qu’il prétend avoir découvertes
sur les bords du Mississipi”—21 mai 1698—mais le 27 mai 1699,
ce privilège était retiré. Il est probable que Le Sueur ne l’apprit
qu’en 1700, tandis qu'il explorait un affluent de la rivière Chippewa
pour y chercher des mines, avec un associé du nom de Penicaut. Des
qu'il eut connaissance de l’arrivée de d’Iberville (son parent) aux
bouches du Mississipi il s’empressa de le persuader de la valeur de sa
trouvaille et, dans ce but, il descendit le fleuve pour s’entendre avec lui,
et d’Iberville le renvoya avec une équipe de vingt hommes pour s’assu-
rer de la mine du pays des Sioux, probablement celle de l’île Royale
dans le lac Supérieur. Il n’en résulta rien de bon. En juin 1701
Lesueur fut autorisé à envoyer en France les marchandises qu’il avait
à Montréal, pourvu qu'il n’y eut pas de castor mêlé parmi ces effets
que Lesueur disait lui être devenus inutiles en Canada. Un mémoire
du roi, en date du 14 juin 1704, adressé au gouverneur-général de
Vaudreuil, permet à la dame Lesueur d’aller rejoindre son mari à la
Louisiane. (C’est la seule mention de cette personne que nous ayons
vue. Il est fait allusion quelque part à leur fils Louis Lesueur. Les
affaires de la Louisiane allant mal, le vieux coureur de bois, épuisé,
pauvre, se voyant aux limites de la vie, reparut dans la famille Tarieu
de Lanaudière, à Sainte-Anne de la Pérade—c’est là qu’il mourut et
fut inhumé le 1% mars 1707. 1#°
Pierre Dupas, né en 1637, fils de Jean Dupas et de Jeanne Le-
gendre, de Brache, diocèse de Châlons, en Champagne, avait une cabane
de traite, probablement à l’île qui a pris son nom, et où ses marchan-
dises étaient gardées par deux valets : Etienne Clémenceau dit La-
chesnaye et Pierre Dupinau, en juillet 1669, lorsqu'ils furent attaqués
par trois Soccokis et une sauvagesse de cette nation. Les deux Fran-
çais tuèrent deux des hommes et la femme. Celui qui s'était sauvé,
en emportant divers effets, fut capturé à Sorel. Le 3 novembre 1673,
Talon accordait au sieur Dupas, l’île appelée Dupas, avec une île adja-
cente, de plus, un quart de lieue dessus et autant dessous la rivière du
Chicot, sur une lieue et demie de profondeur. Tout ceci n’était qu’un
moyen de faire la traite. En octobre 1673, le conseil souverain s’occu-
pa d’une affaire de peaux d’orignal saisies chez Pierre Dupas. Tout
démontre qu’il vivait du commerce des pelleteries. Enfin il se maria
(1677) et mourut quarante jours après. Il fut inhumé à Sorel.
Comme bon nombre de petits traiteurs de l’époque, Dupas obtenait
ses articles de fabrication européenne du magasin de Charles Aubert
de La Chesnaie, marchand de Québec. Celui-ci prit possession de l’île
et des terres à titre de créancier. Le 11 novembre 1690 il vendit le
tout moyennant 1,500 livres tournois, #1 à Jacques Brisset, sieur Cour-
chêne et Louis Dandonneau, sieur Dusablé, habitants de Champlain.
76 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
Alors seulement commença la colonisation de l’île, par les gens de la
côte de Batiscan, Champlain et le cap de la Madeleine. * Il est done
faux que Pierre Dupas ait agi comme seigneur: il a fait le trafic des
fourrures et pas davantage. La famille Dupas qui existe à présent à
Sorel est celle de Charles Brisset, fils de Jacques ci-dessus.
Mentionnons un officier militaire qui, peut-être, se trouvait parent
de notre traiteur. En 1672, Louis XIV envahit la Hollande mais il
ne put en achever la conquête et se contenta de laisser des garnisons
dans les places enlevées par ses armes. Naerden, la ville la plus rap-
prochée d'Amsterdam, recut pour commandant le sieur Dupas.
L'année suivante, Guillaume d'Orange reprenait l’offensive, la situa-
tion des Français en Hollande devint insoutenable. Dupas rendit la
ville en septembre. On fit grand tapage de cette capitulation, toute-
fois les historiens disent que Dupas ne fut blamé que pour cacher la
honte qu’éprouvait Louis XIV du retrait de ses troupes.
Le capitaine de la Fredière, neveu de M. de Salières, était avec sa
compagnie à Montréal en mai 1666; l'automne suivant, il commandait
en cette ville. “Déjà disgracié par la perte d’un œil, il cachait sous
cet extérieur repoussant une âme asservie aux passions les plus avilis-
santes.” Avare, fourbe, tyrannique et débauché, non-seulement il
faisait avec les sauvages la traite de l’eau-de-vie, mais encore il les
trompait sur la qualité de sa marchandise par des emprunts trop géné-
reux aux vertus de l'inépuisable fleuve Saint-Laurent. Le 1% sep-
tembre 1667, M. de Salières se plaignait de ce que La Fredière avait
été jugé ou admonesté pour un certain délit par Talon et Courcelles,
prétendant que cet officier relevait de son colonel. Le major Zacharie
Dupuis commanda Vile de Montréal en 1668, puis le capitaine Pierre
de la Motte, de janvier 1669 jusqu’au commencement de l’été de 1670
où il partit pour la France laissant le poste à La Fredière qui l’avait
perdu en 1667 par ses excès. Au mois d@’aofit, Talon revenant do
France, remplaca le cheval borgne par un aveugle, car si La Frediére
n’était pas un saint, le sieur François-Marie Perrot ne valait pas
mieux, sans compter qu'il était parent de Talon qui sut le couvrir de
sa haute influence, tant à Montréal qu’en Acadie. Nous n’avons plus
de trace de La Fredière après 1670.1*% Tl fut chassé de la colonie.
Paul de Morel, enseigne de la compagnie de la Motte au régiment
de l’Estrade, reçut du sémininaire Saint-Sulpice, le 7 décembre 1671, un
fief de 8 arpents de front à la rivière, pointe nord de Vile de Montréal,
sur 25 arpents de profondeur, contigu à un fief de pareille étendue ac-
cordé le même jour à Philippe de Carrion. Ces deux seigneuries ne
iardérent pas à être flanquées de plusieurs défrichements que des colons,
placés par le séminaire, opéraient à la rivière des Prairies. Au mariage
[suLTE] LE REGIMENT DE CARIGNAN 27
de Francois Lenoir dit Rolland, à Montréal, le 2 janvier 1673, Paul de
Morel est présent. *°*
Philippe de Carrion, sieur du Fresnoy, lieutenant de la compagnie
de la Motte au régiment de l’Estrade, était probablement du Langue-
doc où son nom de famille se retrouve. Le 7 décembre 1671, le sémi-
naire de Saint-Sulpice lui accorda un fief sur Pile de Montréal dans la
région qui regarde la rivière de lAssomption, ou bras de la riviere
Ottawa. Vers le méme temps, il se mariait avec Pétronille des Heures.
Leur unique enfant, Jeanne, baptisée à Montréal le 19 septembre 1672,
se maria avec Jacques Lemoine de Sainte-Hélène. L’été de 1674,
Carrion fut mis aux arrêts à Québec pour avoir favorisé les coureurs de
bois sur la partie de l’Ottawa où il trafiquait (a Carillon aujourd’hui ?)
et condamné à une amende de 200 livres. Il demeurait alors à Lachine.
M. l’abbé Verreau résume une partie du conflit en quelques lignes qui
méritent d’être citées : Le juge de Montréal envoya un sergent
arrêter deux fameux coureurs de bois logés chez le lieutenant de Perrot,
M. de Carion. La mission n'était pas facile à remplir chez un homme
comme M. de Carion qui ne craignait pas d’attaquer ses ennemis l’épée
à la main, pendant que madame de Carion allait bâtonner leurs femmes.
Le malheureux sergent fut insulté, maltraité et, paraît-il, jeté en
prison. M. de Frontenac, apprenant cet outrage fait à la justice, crut
qu'il devait intervenir directement, sans égard pour le gouverneur
particulier (Perrot) et il envoya le lieutenant de ses gardes, Bizard,
arrêter Carion.
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Section I, 1902 [ 97] Mémorress &. R. C.
IV.—Louisbourg en 1902.
Par l’honorable PASCAL POIRIER.
(Lu le 27 mai 1902.)
L’impression que produit la vue des ruines de Louisbourg n’est pas
la même chez tous les voyageurs. Cela se voit très bien aux physiono-
mes, 0
L’Anglais, qu’il arrive de Toronto ou de Liverpool, regarde avec
sérénité le sombre panorama, et trouve tout naturel que la citadelle
française soit tombée, puisque |’ Angleterre avait résolu de s’en emparer,
et que le monde a été créé pour l’Angleterre.
L’Américain, agité, malgré ses efforts pour demeurer calme, trouve
tout à fait étonnant que Louisbourg ait pu résister si longtemps, quand
c’étaient Pepperrell et les troupes de la Nouvelle-Angleterre qui l’assié-
geaient.
Le Francais, aprés avoir, dans une rapide vision, vu passer devant
ces yeux l’image de la forteresse réputée inexpugnable, regarde les amas
de débris gisant à ses pieds, et se demande, avec l’amertune du pro-
phète Jérémie pleurant sur les ruines de Jérusalem: “Comment est
assise solitaire la ville autrefois pleine de peuple ? Toutes ses portes
sont renversées: les chemins de Sion pleurent.”
C’est qu’en effet des voix sortent des pierres que vous foulez; il
y a des larmes au fond des casemates qui vous regardent avec leurs
grands yeux caverneux; on entend encore distinctement des cris de
victoire, mélés à des cris de malédiction, éclater sur la cime des bas-
tions. Et ces voix, ces larmes, ces cris, se confondent avec la grande
voix de l’océan, qui gronde éternellement aux pieds des murs de Louis-
bourg, rongés et entraînés dans l’abîme des flots.
Spectacle d’une infinie tristesse ! Le glas dont le tintement loin-
tain gémit au-dessus du murmure confus de la mer, c’est le glas funè-
bre de la domination française en Amérique.
De la citadelle elle-même il ne reste plus qu’un amas de ruines, que
ie temps consume et couvre de sa poussière.
Bâti peu de temps après la signature du traité d’Utrecht (1713),
qui cédait à l’Angleterre la Nouvelle-Ecosse proprement dite, ainsi que
Pile de Terreneuve, Louisbourg fut, pendant près d’un demi-siècle, la
forteresse la plus redoutable de toute l'Amérique. Elle gardait formi-
dablement l’entrée du golfe Saint-Laurent, menagait la nouvelle pos-
session anglaise de l’Acadie, et inquiétait le commerce de la Nouvelle-
Angleterre.
Sec. I, 1902. 7.
98 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA
Son vaste port, ouvert à toutes les saisons, servait d’abri à la
flotte, en méme temps que de refuge aux corsaires de France et de Na-
varre, lesquels écumaient plus particulièrement les parages américains
de l’Atlantique, au grand dommage des corsaires, forbans, flibustiers et
autres marins de l’Angleterre et de ses colonies.
Les puritains de la Nouvelle-Angleterre résolurent de s’en empa-
rer, pour la plus grande gloire de Dieu, par haine des papistes et dans
les intérêts de leur commerce maritime.
Au printemps de 1745, ils levèrent 4,070 miliciens, qu’ils mirent
sous la conduite d’un marchand, nommé William Pepperrell; lui adjoi-
gnirent un précheur de croisade sainte, le révérend Whitfield, en même
temps qu’une bannière portant la devise: Nil desperandum Christo duce,
et lancèrent le tout, avec accompagnement d’hymnes pieuses, contre l’im-
prenable forteresse française.
Celle-ci tomba, sans gloire, après quarante-sept jours de molle ré-
sistance. .
Il est vrai que l’armée de Pepperrell avait été renforcée par une
escadre anglaise, sous les ordres du commodore Warren, et que Louis-
bourg était défendu par Duchambon, le pére du peu glorieux défenseur
du fort Beauséjour, du Vergor.
Jours néfastes, et hommes plus néfastes encore, pour la France,
que Dieu chatiait.
Trois ans apres ce haut fait d’armes des milices du Massachussetts,
le traité d’Aix-la-Chapelle restituait Louisbourg et le Cap-Breton a la
France, et rétablissait toutes choses dans l’état où le commencement de
la guerre les avait trouvées. Tel avait été le bon plaisir du roi très
chrétien de France, Louis XV dit “le Bien-Aiïmé ”, et de Georges II
d’Angleterre, le “ Défenseur de la Foi”.
La paix fut de courte durée, huit ans à peine, qui furent pour les
colonies anglaises et françaises d’Amérique moins qu’une trève, et pour
les Acadiens de la Nouvelle-Ecosse, une calamité plus dure que la
guerre, puisque ce fut durant cette paix, en 1755, qu’eut lieu leur dé-
portation violente de l’Acadie, le “ grand dérangement ”.
Les hostilités reprirent en 1756. Ce fut la guerre de Sept Ans,
guerre fatale a la France et a ses colonies, qu’elle perdit toutes.
L’effort de Angleterre se porta simultanément contre toute l’im-
mense frontière des possessions françaises, depuis Niagara jusqu’à
Louisbourg. Pitt avait juré d'en finir pour toujours avec la France
en Amérique ; et ce que les Pitt, père et fils, juraient, une divinité amie
se chargeait de l’accomplir.
Une flotte de vingt-deux navires de ligne, dix-huit frégates et deux
brûlots, portant dix-huits cents canons, et de douze transports montés
99
JURG EN 1902
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100 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA
par douze mille hommes de débarquement, mouilla, le 3 juin 1758, dans
la baie de Gabarus, à deux petites lieues de Louisbourg.
L’amiral Boscowan commandait la flotte et le général Amherst,
l’armée.
Les brigadiers-généraux Wolfe, Lawrence et Whitmore comman-
daient en second.
Louisbourg avait deux mille neuf cents hommes de troupes régu-
lières et quelques cents miliciens et sauvages à opposer aux assiégeants.
Dans la rade se trouvaient cinq vaisseaux de ligne et six frégates, avec
environ cing cents canons. Les murs et les batteries de la ville étaient
armés de deux cent trente-six canons et mortiers.
Le chevalier Drucour commandait la place.
Malheureusement pour lui et les siens, les murailles étaient en
mauvais état de réparations: le roi, ses courtisans et ses maîtresses
avaient besoin de tous les revenus du royaume pour leurs menus plaisirs.
I n’en restait plus pour Québec et pour Louisbourg.
Après une défense de près de deux mois, l’une des plus héroïques,
avec celle de Québec par Frontenac, et après celle de Port-Royal par
Subercase, dont les annales françaises d'Amérique fassent mention,
Louisbourg, le Gibraltar, le Dunkerque du Nouveau-Monde, tomba au
pouvoir des Anglais.
Quand, le 27% juillet 1758, les cleïs de la ville furent remises à
Amherst et à Boscowan, les murs de la citadelle, percés à jour, crou-
laient de toutes parts; les obus et le feu avaient détruit la plupart des
édifices publics, et tous les vaisseaux de la rade avaient été coulés à
fond, ou brûlés.
Les officiers et les soldats de la garnison furent transportés en
Angleterre, et ceux des habitants de la ville qui n’avaient pas porté les
armes, à la Rochelle.
Les murailles furent rasées de fond en comble, à la manière anti-
que. On aurait pu y passer la charrue et y semer du sel.
Les travaux de démolition durèrent près de deux ans, dit-on; et
tout ce que la poudre, le fer et la main des hommes put atteindre fut
démoli, rasé jusqu’au sol et jeté dans les fossés. Il ne resta que les
assises des bastions, des murailles et de quelques édifices publics, et
sept abris et casemates du bastion du Roi, dont quatre, maintenant
béants et percés à jour, sont à la veille de s’effondrer.
Les trois autres, situés en face et mieux conservés, donnent une
idée exacte de ce qu’étaient ces retraites, où s’entassaient les femmes et
les enfants, pendant que les bombes, les obus, les boulets froids et
rouges tombaient comme une pluie d’enfer sur la malheureuse ville
vouée à la destruction.
101
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Les blessés et les malades étaient logés à l’hôpital de Saint-Jean-
de-Dieu, grand édifice situé à l’autre bout de la ville, du côté de la
pointe Rochefort.
Les fortifications, d’une demi-lieue de circuit, avaient la forme
d'un quadrilatère irrégulier.
Murailles, bastions, demi-bastions, escarpes et contre-escarpes,
étaient dans le meilleur style de Vauban, et avaient coûté au gouverne-
ment français la somme énorme de trente millions de livres tournois.
La livre était d’environ vingt sous, où d’un peu moins d’un franc d’au-
jourd’hui.
Une bonne carte à la main, il est assez facile de reconstituer l’an-
cienne forteresse, et d’en suivre tout le circuit.
A l’extrémité ouest de la rade, donnant sur le Barachois et les
Hauteurs-Vertes, se trouvaient le bastion du Dauphin, une batterie cir-
eulaire et la porte principale de la ville.
Le bastion du Roi, le plus formidable de tous, attenait au bastion
du Dauphin, et renfermait l’arsenal, les casernes, les appartements des
officiers, le chateau du gouverneur, la chapelle et les casemates. C’était
en vérité la citadelle. Puis venaient successivement, en contournant
l'enceinte dans la direction du Cap Noir: le bastion de la Reine, pres-
que aussi formidable que celui du roi et faisant face a la mer; le bas-
tion de la Princesse, à l’extrémité sud, entre le Cap Noir et la pointe
Rochefort, et défendant de sa batterie les approches du port; les demi-
bastions Bourillon et Maurepas, l’un pointant ses canons au sud de la
pointe de Rochefort et des îles; l’autre, au nord, couvrant de ses feux
l’entrée de la rade et l’intérieur du port.
Les Anglais appelèrent cette dernière batterie la batterie du
diable, à cause de l'impossibilité où ils furent de ia réduire au silence.
Sur la rade même, à l’intérieur, qu’elle couvrait du rayonnement
de ses canons, se dressait la formidable batterie de la grève. Des ex-
haussements en terre la reliaient au bastion du Dauphin, à l’ouest; et
deux ponts de bois jetés sur un étang, au bastion Maurepas, du côté
du sud.
Ces sept bastions et cette batterie formaient ie pourtour des forti-
fications de Louisbourg, fortifications que madame de Pompadour, de
vertu peu farouche, estimait imprenables.
Il convient d’ajouter à ces puissants engins de défense deux autres
batteries, montées à grand frais, et garnies des plus grosses pièces de
la place: la batterie de l’Ile et la Grande Batterie, ou batterie Royale.
L’une, la batterie de l’Ile, était placée sur un rocher, à l’entrée même
de la rade, dont elle défendait l'accès. Elle prit une part glorieuse à
la défense de la ville, tant en 1745 qu’en 1758.
104 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA
L’autre, sise au fond du port, côté ouest, à mi-chemin entre le
vieux et le nouveau Louisbourg, devait arréter la marche des troupes
de débarquement opérant du côté de la baie de Gabarus, et couvrir, de
ce côté-là, les approches de la citadelle.
Elle se couvrit d’ignominie, à l’un et à l’autre siège, et n’arrêta que
le tir de ses propres canons, dès que les couleurs anglaises se montrè-
rent sur les Hauteurs-Vertes.
Un tas informe de pierres, qu’on aperçoit sur la grève, près de la
nouvelle église catholique, quand on se rend, par l’ancien chemin des
Français, de l’une à l’autre ville, c’est tout ce qui reste de cette batterie
royale, aussi peu glorieuse que le royal personnage lui-même, Louis
XV, dont elle portait le nom.
Les fortifications de Louisbourg, avec leurs glacis et les approches,
couvraient à peu près tout le terrain compris à l’est d’une ligne tirée
du Cap Noir au Barachois, c’est-à-dire toute la langue de terre qui
sépare le fond de la rade de l’océan, à l'exception, cependant, de la pointe
de Rochefort et du cimetière, à l’est, soit environ cent arpents en dedans
des murs et autant en dehors. Le terrain est de peu d’élevation.
Le coup d’ceil qu’offrent ces ruines est encore imposant par sa sau-
vage grandeur et sa désolation.
Devant vous c’est la mer, l’immense mer, toujours agitée, toujours
irritée. Un rideau d’écume blanchissante montant des brisants, des
îles de l’Entrée et des contre-forts du Cap Noir, s’étend jusque sous
vos pieds.
Quelque chose de courroucé plane sur ces sombres récifs qui ont
vu par deux fois tomber la forte citadelle, et avec elle s’écrouler la
domination d’un grand empire en Amérique.
Oh ! qu’il est à plaindre le vaisseau pris dans une de ces épouvan-
tables tempêtes qui labourent en sillons écumants les côtes de l’Atlan-
tique, s’il vient à toucher l’un de ces redoutables récifs !
Debout, sur le bastion de la Reine, vous avez devant vous, au sud,
un terrain plat, inculte, marécageux, se prolongeant jusqu’à la mer;
un peu plus à l’est, presque en ligne du bastion de la Princesse, vous
voyez une arrête saillante. C’est -le Cap Noir, énorme rocher vert-
sombre, d’où les Français tirèrent la plus grande partie des assises
des murailles et des bastions de Louisbourg. Ils en avaient coupé la
moitié verticalement et se préparaient à le raser tout à fait, quand :
la conquête anglaise vint les surprendre. On voit encore les trous
énormes des forêts. L’amas de pierres brunâtres laissées sur place et
entassées soigneusement suffirait seul à recommencer la reconstruction
de la forteresse.
A l’ouest une anse, une baie. (C’est l’anse de la Cormorandière,
la baie de Gabarus, où les Anglais vinrent deux fois débarquer une
[POIRIER] LOUISBOURG EN 1902 105
CASEMATES, 1902.
ENTRÉE DE LA RADE DE LOUISBOURG.
NC
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[POIRIER | LOUISBOURG EN 1902 107
armée d’assiégeants. Entre cette baie et la forteresse, le contour du
littoral est coupé par deux indentures, la pointe Plate, à une lieue de
vous, environ, et, plus près, la pointe Blanche. Au dela, c’est ’immense
océan bleu.
Après la citadelle et le port, c’est le côté est de Louisbourg qui
attire le plus le regard. Vous voyez, d’abord, un bras de terre qui
s’avance et arrête les vaisseaux au passage. C’est la pointe de Roche-
fort, où se trouve l’ancien cimetière. Un peu plus loin, de noires
surrections, des rocs, des écueils et trois ilôts: Green Island, Rock Is-
land et Goat Island, ou, pour appeler cette dernière de son nom fran-
cais, l’île de ’Entrée. C’est sur cet ilôt qu'avait été placée la grande
batterie destinée à protéger l’entrée de la rade. Celle-ci, large d’un
peu plus d’un demi-mille, offre un passage facile et sûr aux vaisseaux
de toutes dimensions, grâce à son chenal profond, dont l’île de l’'Entrée
et la pointe du Phare (ou tour de la Lanterne) forment les deux berges
opposées.
Les deux pointes que vous apercevez, coupant la ligne du rivage, de
l’autre côté de la Tour de la Lanterne, c’est la Lorraine des Anglais,
laquelle fut le Lorembec ou le Norambègue des Français et des pre-
miers découvreurs. Celui qui pourra trouver la véritable origine de ce
nom, donner la vraie étymologie de ce mot, dire, preuves en
mains, sil est sauvage, esquimau, scandinave, basque, allemand ou
vieux français, aura pénétré plus avant dans les ténèbres historiques
de notre Amérique que ne l’a fait aucun historien connu.
Plus loin encore, dans l’est, en suivant la ligne du rivage, s’estompe
à perte de vue la Baleine. C’est là qu’Ochiltree, durant la première
occupation anglaise de l’Acadie, construisit, en 1629, un fort, que le
capitaine Daniel vint lui enlever. Si l’on en excepte l’essai de colo-
nisation de Fagundez et des Portugais, au commencement du siècle
précédent, ce fort de Lord Ochiltree est le premier établissement euro-
péen qui ait été tenté au Cap-Breton.
Dans la même direction, on peut apercevoir aussi Vile de Puerto-
Novo, sise en face de l’antique “ Cap des Bretons ”, lequel a donné
son nom à toute la contrée. C’est, l’île de Scatarie et la pointe de Vile
de Sable exceptées, le point le plus oriental de tout le Canada.
La disposition intérieure de ce qui fut la ville de Louisbourg n’est
plus guère reconnaissable, au milieu du gazon qui recouvre les terre-
pleins, et parmi les amoncellements de pierres et de débris'qui jonchent
les fossés, les murailles et les emplacements des principaux édifices. T1
faut un guide pour sy reconnaître ; et Louisbourg, grâce au ciel, en pos-
sède un des plus recommandables dans la personne du capitaine Patrick
Kennedy, typique scion de la verte Irlande.
108 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
I] vous conduit d’abord, car il est bouillant catholique, à l’endroit
et. s'élevait la chapelle du gouverneur, au centre même du bastion du
Roi. On a sous les yeux le tréfonds remué d’une fondation qui est
bien celle où s'élevait, autrefois, en style élégant, la chapelle du gou-
verneur, laquelle servait au besoin d'église paroissiale ; mais c’est
absolument tout ce qu’il en reste. Pas une seule de ces belles pierres
de taille, que les vaisseaux du roi très chrétien apportaient de France;
pas même une brique rouge ou blanche, intacte. Tout a été fouillé, tout
a été dispersé, tout a été enlevé, tout a été vendu.
Les marchands anglais de Halifax et du Nouveau-Louisbourg ne
nourrissent pas de préjugés à l'endroit des briques et des pierres de
taille. Celles qui ont servi au culte papiste ont à leurs yeux autant
de valeur, pourvu qu'elles soient belles et bien conservées, que celles
qui auraient été destinées à des usages purement profanes; et, comme
le capitaine Patrick Kennedy, propriétaire par droit de prescription du
bastion du Roi et d’une assez forte étendue de terrain adjoignant, est
lui-même, à ses heures, d’une casuistique accommodante, il en est r3-
sulté que les briques et les pierres de taille de l’ancienne chapelle du
gouverneur ont pris le chemin de Halifax et du Nouveau-Louisbourg,
et que le prix honnête de ces matériaux enlevés au culte orthodoxe, est
tombé dans lescarcelle de Vheureux propriétaire intra muros.
Le capitaine vous fait voir aussi l'emplacement des casernes, du
château du gouverneur, de Varsenal, du couvent, de l’hôpital; mais
tout ce fouillis n’est, en définitive, que des rangées de pierres brunes,
dont les plus belles ont été trillées et emportées.
Tous les matériaux de quelque valeur, la pierre de construction,
une pierre verdâtre, provenant du Cap Noir, à quelques cents mètres au
sud du bastion de la Princesse; la pierre d’ornementation, un calcaire
blanc, apportée à grand frais de France; des quantités incroyables de
briques plates d’un rouge hématite, et fermes comme du fer, aussi
de provenance française, ont été pillées, depuis un siècle et demi, par
les vandales de Terreneuve, des Etats-Unis et de la Nouvelle-Ecosse,
et employées à la construction de quais, d’édifices publics et de maisons
privées.
Halifax en a enlevé la plus grande partie; des navires venaient de
irès loin en prendre des cargaisons; la nouvelle ville, le New-Louis-
burg, en a construit toutes ses caves, toutes ses cheminées, tous ses
soubassements, et, dernièrement, la Dominion Coal Company, les piles
et les culées d’un immense débarcadère.
Cette année encore, il a été vendu une dizaine de mille briques,
à raison de neuf dollars le mille ! Pour en arriver à ce brillant résul-
tat commercial, on a retourné, refouillé, regratté les pierres et dis-
loqué ce qui restait des antiques fondations.
N 1902
—_
n
4
LOUISBOURG 1]
[POIRIER |
‘AdIOD AI UNAS ASINd ANA
[POIRIER] LOUISBOURG EN 1902 111
Deux vieux puits retrouvés, l’été dernier, sous des décombres, ont
cu leur maconnage enlevé et vendu.
Jn pratiquant une de ces fouilles, où ni l’archéologie, ni la numis-
matique n’ont rien à voir, l’un des neuf propriétaires du fort a décou-
vert, tout récemment, un passage souterrain, apparemment inachevé,
creusé en-dessous du bastion de la Reine, et débouchant en dehors des
murs, du côté de la mer.
Ces sorties secrètes, imitées de celles que pratiquaient sous leurs
castels les seigneurs féodaux, et qui pouvaient servir à bien des fins
diverses, rappellent douloureusement à la mémoire que Duchambon, le
contemporain de l’intendant Bigot, était gouverneur de Louisbourg, en
1745, quand les fortifications de la ville tombèrent sous la récitation
des tracts bibliques des prédicants et sous le bruit des canons icono-
clastes des puritains de la Nouvelle-Angleterre, avec à peu près la
même facilité que les murs de Jéricho s’écroulerent par la vertu
des trompettes de Josué et des cris des Hébreux.
Bigot lui-même géra, durant quelques années, les finances de la
ville, en qualité de commissaire-ordonnateur, faisant, à Louisbourg,
l'apprentissage des méthodes qu’il devait perfectionner à Québec, de
compte à demi avec la très Haulte et très Honorée Madame de Pom-
padour.
A des hommes comme Duchambon ct Bigot, une sortie secrète
n'était pas une précaution inutile. Il est permis de rattacher celle du
bastion de la Reine à l’un ou à l’autre de ces deux noms peu glorieux
de notre histoire.
Il va sans dire que tous les objets de quelque valeur, trouvés dans
les ruines de la forteresse, ont depuis longtemps suivi le chemin des
briques rouges et des calcaires blancs. Or, il en a été trouvé de grandes
quantités, parmi lesquels de très précieux. Mon hôtesse, au Nouveau-
Louisbourg, m’a montré une grande cuiller en argent massif, parfaite-
ment conservée, portant un monogramme que mon ignorance de ces
sortes de chiffres ne m’a pas permis de lire, et qu’elle avait ramassée
cile-même dans quelque décombre. De vieilles armes et de vieilles
monnaies sont aussi souvent déterrées. Tous ces trésors ont disparu et
continuent à disparaître.
Après la forteresse, la flotte. On ne compte plus le nombre des
canons retirés des vaisseaux français, coulés dans le port.
À tant la livre de cuivre ou de vieux fer rouillé, chaque canon rap-
porte à son plongeur un joli denier. Ceux de cuivre rapportant davan-
tage, la recherche en est poursuivie avec une persévérance toute systé-
matique, qui laisse entrevoir le jour prochain où il n’en restera plus
aucun dans les eaux du port. |
-
112 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA
C’est avec un fragment de l’un de ces canons, tiré du Prudent, que
les Bostonnais des “Guerres Coloniales” coulérent, en 1895, la mé-
daille commémorative du cent-cinquantième anniversaire de la prise
de Louisbourg par Pepperrell et Warren. Car ce ne sont pas seule-
ments les pierres et les briques, les boulets et les canons, qui disparais-
sent sous la main des vandales, le sol lui-même, les fortifications elles-
mêmes sont escamotées, nous échappent, passent en des mains étran-
gères. |
Donc, la “ Société américaine des Guerres Coloniales”, dont le
siège principal est à Boston, ayant résolu de commémorer, par l’érec-
tion d’un monument idoine, le cent-cinquantième anniversaire du plus
grand fait d’armes dont se glorifient les milices de la Nouvelle-Angle-
terre, à savoir la prise de Louisbourg, en 1745, se fit concéder par le
capitaine Kennedy lendroit du bastion du Roi, où le général Pepperrell,
en présence des deux armées, reçut du gouverneur Duchambon les clefs
de la ville. C’est le site le plus en vue de l’antique citadelle.
La dédicace eut lieu le 17 juin, 1895, à Louisbourg même, en pré-
sence d’une multitude de délégués américains, tous plus ou moins
membres de la “ Société des Guerres Coloniales ”, du lieutenant-gou-
verneur et des membres du cabinet de la Nouvelle-Ecosse, d’un man-of-
war anglais, de hauts dignitaires britanniques, et consista dans la dédi-
cace d’une colonne commémorative en “ granit dorique ”, surmontée d’un
boulet de canon, portant, gravé, le millésime: 1745.
Des inscriptions appropriées et convenables se lisent sur les qua-
tre faces de la base.
La colonne elle-même, avec son boulet phrygien, est dépourvue
d'élégance; mais les discours qui en accompagnèrent la dédicace furent
tous, au point de vue international, d’une correction parfaite: la
“Société des Guerres Coloniales” recrute ses membres parmi les
citoyens les plus distingués et surtout les plus instruits de la répu-
blique américaine.
Ni le gouvernement fédéral, ni celui de la province ne s’émurent
de cette prise de possession du vieux Louisbourg par une corporation
étrangère: ils n’y virent, et il n’y a là possiblement nulle cause d’alarmes.
Le cabinet de Halifax, toujours complaisant, poussa même la gracieu-
seté jusqu’à confirmer le titre de concession obtenu du capitaine Kennedy
par la “ Société”. Monsieur le Bourgeois Gentilhomme pouvait-il trop
faire pour Monsieur le Marquis, qui lui faisait l’honneur de lui emprun-
ter ses écus ?
Bref, après que l’honorable lieutenant-gouverneur de la Nouvelle-
Ecosse eut fait le dévoilement de la colonne au nom du gouverneur-
général du Canada, lequel est le représentant direct de la couronne
anglaise en ce pays; que de très éloquents et de très nombreux discours
[POIRIER] LOUISBOURG EN 1902 113
MONUMENT COMMÉMORATIF,
PRISE a
[POIRIER] LOUISBOURG EN 1902 115
curent été prononcés, ou comme ils disent en anglais “ délivrés ”,
le commandant des troupes de Sa Majesté estima d’un heureux auspice
cette fraternité d’armes, renouvelée de celle de 1745, qui ramenait
sous les murs de Louisbourg, dans une étreinte dont les liens du sang
faisaient la force, les marins invincibles de la vieille Angleterre et les
miliciens invaincus de l’Angleterre nouvelle.
Il n’y eut guère d’enthousiasme; mais l’amiral anglais, le lieu-
tenant-gouverneur de la Nouvelle-Ecosse, tout le monde, enfin, senti-
rent qu’il venait de se cimenter là une éternelle alliance entre les forces
maritimes et militaires du Royaume-Uni d'Angleterre et d'Irlande et
celles des Etats-Unis d’Amérique.
D'un autre côté, des esprits moroses se demandaient, durant ces
édifiants ébats entre frères, autrefois d’armes, comment serait reçue,
dans la grande république étoilée, une société de guerres anglaises ou
canadiennes, qui s’en irait planter chez eux une colonne commémo-
rative quelconque de quelque victoire à nous sur l’un de nos ennemis ?
Pris en 1745 par les Américains et les Anglais; repris en 1758 par
les Anglais seuls, Louisbourg vient d’être, en 1895, recapturé en partie
par les Américains.
Espérons que, mis en appétit, ils ne reviendront pas réclamer le
reste de la vieille citadelle par la voix de leurs canons.
Mais l’histoire a parfois de bien surprenantes répétitions !
Lorsque, en 1876, je visitai Louisbourg pour la première fois, il
a’y avait que deux ou trois maisons, d'assez misérable apparence, sur
les vieilles ruines de la ville. Quelques brebis et de rares bestiaux
paissaient parmi les décombres; et les casemates de la citadelle, mieux
conservées qu'aujourd'hui, leur servait d’abri durant les nuits d’orage.
Tous, hommes et bêtes, me parurent ennuyés, accablés, de vivre
au milieu de ces ruines monotones, et ne rien tant souhaiter que de
changer d'habitation. Le souvenir des deux sièges semblait peser sur
leur existence.
Aussi je me flattais, à mon dernier voyage, de pouvoir, au moyen
d’arrangements de part et d’autre satisfaisants, obtenir des occupants
actuels une promesse de vente à prix raisonnable, une honnête “option”,
heureux qu’ils seraient, sans doute, moyennant amples dédommage-
ments, de s’en aller vivre ailleurs.
Ceci, d’ailleurs, entrait dans le cadre de la mission que m'avait
confiée la Société Royale, d’aller examiner sur place l’état présent de
la forteresse de Louisbourg, dans le dessein d’en recommander l’achat
au gouvernement fédéral, pour en faire un parc, ou, en tous cas, une
propriété publique.
Les ministres du cabinet provincial, que j'étais allé consulter
préalablement, s'étaient montrés tout-à-fait disposés à seconder les
116 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
efforts de la Société Royale, et à coopérer même, dans une certaine
mesure, avec les autorités fédérales dans un aussi patriotique et louable
projet. On sentait percer chez eux un certain regret d’avoir assisté
indifférents à tant de vandalisme inintelligent; d’y avoir même un peu
contribué, quoiqu’ils rejetassent avec violence tout le blâme sur leurs
prédécesseurs politiques en exercice.
Le fait est que libéraux et conservateurs ont montré la même in-
curie à l’endroit des sites historiques de la Nouvelle-Ecosse, et l’on
pourrait très bien leur appliquer, aux uns et aux autres, en le modi-
fiant légèrement, le vers connu de Pope:
The Torys finished what the Grits began.
et vice-versa.
Or, il est arrivé ce à quoi j’aurais dû m’attendre, en ce commence-
ment de siécle essentiellement progressif, dans un coin du Dominion
particulièrement enfiévr? de mouvement: j’étais devancé !
La Cape-Breton Railway Co. avait pris mon option !
Cette entreprenante compagnie est à construire, avec une charte
canadienne et des capitaux américains, une ligne de chemin de fer
reliant le détroit de Canso — ancien passage Fronsac — avec Louis-
bourg et Sydney, en passant par le canal Saint-Pierre.
C’est une ligne rivale de l’Intercolonial, dont le terminus est à
Sydney.
Sydney, les deux Sydney, sont aujourd'hui des villes considérables,
et compteront demain, peut-être, grâce aux hauts fourneaux, aux forges,
aux aciéries que la Dominion Steel Company et la Nova Scotia Steel
Company y construisent, ou sont à la veille d’y construire, parmi les
plus importantes de toutes les provinces maritimes.
Le gouvernement canadien a choisi Sydney pour terminus de son
chemin de fer. Les Américains ont pris Louisbourg. Le temps pour-
rait bien donner raison à ceux-ci.
Au surplus, ils sont en frais de se rendre acquéreurs du reste
de la vieille forteresse, de nous subtiliser le site historique le plus
fameux, avec Québec, de toute l’Amérique. C’est peut-être un mal
pour un bien ; et nous pourrions, en définitive, avoir des actions de
grâces à leur rendre; car enfin il vaut encore mieux que ce qui reste de
Louisbourg soit préservé par des marchands, que dilapidé par des Ostro-
goths.
Les papiers passés entre la compagnie du chemin de fer et certains
des neuf occupants du site de Louisbourg sont apparemment réguliers,
et les titres valables: la prescription s’établissant contre le gouverne-
ment anglais par une occupation ininterrompue de soixante ans. Or,
[POIRIER] LOUISBOURG EN 1902 1152
ACIÉRIES DE SYDNEY.
rey
AN pols RAGE :
Fort ANNAPOLIS (ANCIEN PorT-RoOyYAL), 1902.
[POIRIER] LOUISBOURG EN 1902 119
quelques-uns de ces squatters prétendent à une occupation de cent-
vingt ans et plus.
Mais il y a lieu de se demander où le gouvernement de la Nouvelle-
Ecosse, pour faire des m’amours à ses amis de Boston, prend l'autorité
qu’il se donne de confirmer ces titres, et, au besoin, d’en décerner de
nouveaux ?
C’est que le titre primitif, le titre légal, le fee anglais du site où
s’éleva Louisbourg réside toujours dans la couronne britannique, qui
ne s’en est jamais dessaisi.
A la suite de correspondances échangées entre Londres et Ottawa,
le gouvernement anglais, dans un arrêté du Conseil daté du 18 août
1882, transféra au gouverneur-général du Canada les terres d’ordon-
nance et les propriétés militaires impériales de la Nouvelle-Ecosse,
entre autres les vieux forts de Lunenburg, de Windsor et d’Annapolis,
l’ancien Port-Royal des Français.
Mais il n’y eut jamais de translation du vieux Louisbourg, ni en
laveur du gouvernement fédéral, ni encore moins en faveur de celui
de la Nouvelle-Ecosse. Il est encore aujourd’hui une propriété impé-
riale.
Ul nous est donc encore possible de rentrer en possession de Louis-
bourg ; car la Cape Breton Railway Co. n’a pas ratifié tous les termes de
son option avec les occupants du site; il s’est contenté du terrain lon-
geant le rivage, dont il fera le terminus extréme de son chemin de fer.
L'intérieur des fortifications, les bastions, les casemates, la pointe
Rochefort, le Cap Noir, les glacis, les fossés, le cimetiére, restent en-
core intacts: le tiers de tout le terrain relevant des squatters demeurant
toujours la propriété du gouvernement impérial.
Un grand avenir semble réservé à Louisbourg et au “ Fort-Louis-
bourg.” C’est ainsi que les habitants désignent la nouvelle et l’an-
cienne ville.
On conçoit que ce n’est pas sans de très sérieuses raisons que le
gouvernement français, généralement si sûr dans le choix du site de ses
villes et de ses ports, au Nouveau-Monde, a préféré Louisbourg au
Port-Dauphin, aux deux Sydney, à Inganiche, à Miré, à Saint-Pierre,
pour y élever sa forteresse royale. Au point de vue purement mili-
taire, Louisbourg, avec, à proximité, la baie de Gabarus, d’un atterrage
facile; avec les Hauteurs-Vertes et d’autres élévations de terrain à portée
de canon des murs, et d’où un ennemi peut tirer presque à feu plongeant
sur la ville, prête plutôt sérieusement à la critique.
Ce n’est pas non plus la fertilité de son sol qui lui a valu la pré-
férence. Sauf au fond, et du côté ouest de la baie, le pourtour du
havre est impropre à l’agriculture, et les alentours en sont ou rocheux
120 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
ou marécageux. La pittoresque et sauvage beauté du site n’aurait pas
non plus suffi à déterminer le choix du gouvernement: il s'agissait d’une
entreprise bien trop considérable.
Quels avantages prépondérants les ingénieurs et les officiers mili-
{aires de la cour de Versailles ont-ils donc trouvés à Louisbourg, ou
plutôt au Port-à-Anglais, puisque le havre s’est appelé de ce nom
fatidique, jusqu’à la fondation de la ville, vers 1721, pour le préférer
à tous les autres ports du Cap-Breton ?
La supériorité incontestable de sa rade.
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Louisbourg est ouvert à la navigation durant les douze mois de
l’année. Si quelque forte gelée y étend un pont de glace, la marée du
lendemain la brise.
Les glaces du golfe, que les vents du nord-est et de l’est engouf-
frent, parfois, le printemps, dans les ports de Lingan, de Miré, de Sainte-
Anne, de Sydney, qu’elles bloquent durant des semaines et même des
mois entiers, passent au large de Louisbourg: Vile de Scatarie, celle de
Puerto-Novo et les courants les en tiennent éloignées. Les banquises
de l'Atlantique n’y arrivent guère, non plus, interceptées qu’elles sont
par Vile de Terreneuve. Si des tempêtes exceptionnelles y poussent
quelques glaçons, le courant les en éloigne aussitôt. Les ports rivaux
ne jouissent pas de la même immunité.
La vue, du haut de l’ancienne forteresse, et particulièrement du
haut du bastion du Roi, embrasse toute l’étendue du port.
[POIRIER] LOUISBOURG EN 1902 121
Sa forme est celle d’une ellipse allongée, dont l’axe court du sud-
ouest au nord-est. Les bords en sont réguliers et nettement accusés,
et sa circonférence est d’environ deux lieues. Eau très profonde et
bon ancrage partout. C’est une de ces rades que les Anglais appellent
land-locked, c’est-à-dire encerclées de tous côtés, sauf à l’entrée. L’en-
trée de Louisbourg, munie des phares électriques modernes, peut facile-
ment devenir l’une des plus sûres du monde entier. L’abri est parfait,
à l’intérieur, principalement vers le fond, du côté du nord-est, et à
l'endroit où s’élève aujourd’hui la ville nouvelle. Le vent n’y arrive
que par-dessus les hauteurs environnantes.
C’est au fond de la rade, du côté ouest, que se trouvait le groupe
de Français qui ne résidaient pas au-dedans du fort. Ils y faisaient un
peu de culture, autant que le permettait un sol ingrat et rocailleux.
C’est aussi là que s’élève aujourd’hui la nouvelle ville, celle que
les Anglais appellent Louisbourg tout court.
Le Louisbourg d’aujourd’huw, éloigné de près d’une lieue de l’anti-
que forteresse, n’est pas non plus le Louisbourg d’il y a vingt ans.
Celui-ci était situé du côté est de la rade, presque au fond, au lieu
même où un vieux quai, datant de l’occupation française, achevait de
s’écrouler.
Une compagnie houillière y avait construit un débarcadère, où les
navires venaient prendre le charbon que voiturait, des mines éloignées
d'environ quatre lieues, mines déjà connues, sinon exploitées du temps
des Français, un chemin de fer abandonné depuis.
Un petit Louisbourg, deuxième du nom, s'était formé dans le
voisinage du quai. Il vient d’être déserté tout à fait au bénéfice de la
nouvelle ville: question de survivance pour le plus apte.
La nouvelle ville, dont la population s’élève à plus d’un millier
d’âmes, est déjà munie d’une charte municipale, d’édiles, d’un maire 4
et de tout ce qui fait le juste orgueil des municipes canadiennes. Elle
vit, elle palpite dans l’anticipation des grandes destinées qui l’attendent.
Lorsque le Cape-Breton Railway, un peu plus court que l’/nter-
colonial, sera terminé; que le pont projeté sur le détroit de Canso sera
construit, Louisbourg se trouvera en communication directe avec
Montréal, New-York et les autres grands centres américains.
Déjà un excellent chemin de fer le relie avec Sydney, parcours
d’environ quarante milles.
1 M. Levatte, à l’obligeance de qui je dois beaucoup de renseignements.
J'ai aussi bénéficié des connaissances historiques très étendues du Révérend
Monsieur Draper, Recteur de Saint-Barthclemée, l’une des figures les plus
sympathiques du clergé anglican du Canada. C’est de lui que je tiens le
croquis du lieutenant Davies, reproduit plus haut.
122 SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA
Le fait suivant démontre bien la supériorité du havre de Louis-
bourg sur celui des deux Sydney. Durant plusieurs mois de l’hiver, au
temps des glaces, le Dominion Steel, le Dominion Coal et d’autres com-
pagnies encore, font décharger leurs navires 4 Louisbourg, quitte a se
servir du chemin de fer pour rendre les frets à destination, soit à
Sydney soit ailleurs.
Comme Louisbourg est, de tous les ports canadiens, le plus orien-
tal, le plus à proximité des grands bancs de pêche de Terreneuve, et
surtout le plus rapproché de l'Angleterre, la ville peut tout attendre
de l’avenir. Québec et Louisbourg, les deux grandes forteresses fran-
caises, sont destinées par la nature a devenir, entre les mains du peuple
commercial le plus prodigieux que le monde ait vu, deux centres de
distribution, deux villes de premiére importance.
Québec a sa citadelle antique, que les Anglais, moins flegmatiques
qu'on se plait à Vécrire, ne visitent jamais sans un tressaillement de
légitime orgueil; et ils viennent de chez eux, c’est-à-dire de toutes les
parties de la terre, pour voir Québec et tressaillir.
Louisbourg a pour lui ses ruines incomparables et sa rade. Au
fond de son histoire, en pleine lumière, plane l’aigle américain.
Si les Anglais ont rasé la grande forteresse, en 1758, ne sont-ce
pas les puritains de la Nouvelle-Angleterre qui, les premiers, s’en sont
emparés, en 1745 ? La prise de cette ville réputée inexpugnable, Troie
succombant sous l’effort des Hellènes coalisés, fournit encore assez de
gloire à deux empires pour les enivrer. Pour les Américains, c’est un
peu du délire.
Laissez terminer le chemin de fer Cape-Breton ; édifiez, ensuite, dans
l'enceinte des fortifications, un de ces somptueux hôtels mammouths
dont les Américains ont inventé le prototype; annoncez-le dans les
gazettes, comme la première place d’eau, la plus grande station bal-
néaire, le plus colossal summer resort du monde entier; ajoutez-y un
musée inoui, où s’étaleront, aux yeux des touristes ébahis, toutes les anti-
quités, antiques et modernes, de la forteresse française, et le succès sera
prodigieux.
Tout Américain assez ferré sur l’histoire pour remonter à lan
1745 de Notre-Seigneur, voudra voir le théâtre des hauts faits d’armes
de Pepperrell, à ses yeux le plus grand génie militaire des temps an-
ciens, modernes et à venir; et les jeunes filles et les matrones de Bos-
ton, toutes plus ou moins bachelières, ès arts ou ès sciences, quand
elles ne sont pas doctoresses en quelque chose, se feront une religion
de connaître de visu et auditu cette tant glorieuse page de leur histoire
nationale qui fut la prise de Louisbourg par leurs ancêtres.
123
1902
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[POIRIER] LOUISBOURG EN 1902 125
Or voici le temps où jamais de sauver de l’irrémédiable destruc-
tion ce qui reste encore du colosse dont la chute décida, entre l’Angle-
terre et la France, de ’empire du Canada.
Sur la pointe de Rochefort, au rebord des fossés, le long des glacis,
dorment côte-à-côte les valeureux soldats de France, les intrépides fan-
tassins de marine d'Angleterre, les héroïques miliciens du Massachu-
setts, du Maine, du New-Hampshire et du Connecticut. La mort les a
réunis, le temps les a confondus dans une même poussière indistincte ;
et personne ne vient plus troubler leur sommeil de paix, excepté les cha-
cals et les démolisseurs.
Il y a plus d’un siècle que l’océan, qui vit s’écrouler la forte cita-
delle française, comme tombe un lion de la jongle sous les javelots des
chasseurs, vient seul pleurer et parfois rugir à ses pieds. Les hommes
n’y viennent plus, ou, s’ils y viennent, c’est pour faire œuvre de destruc-
tion stupide. Le vent gémit toujours sa mélopée plaintive parmi les
casemates et les ossements blanchis; mais jamais prêtre cn surplis blane
n’y vient chanter un De profondis.
Pas de pierre tombale, pas de mausolée, pas de croix.
C’est l’oubli plus glacial que les banquises qui effleurent le Cap Noir,
le printemps; plus froid que les grands vents du nord, |’hiver.
Ceux qui versèrent leur sang pour donner un empire à l’Angle-
terre, sont aujourd’hui oubliés de l’Angleterre et des Anglais. Qui se
souvient des morts ? Et pourtant dans le champ des morts, tout est
sacré, jusqu'à la poussière, jusqu'aux pierres sous lesquelles reposent
les héros et les martyrs. David nous le dit: Placuerunt servis tuis
lapides ejus, et terre ejus miserabuntur.
Tout invite a la piété envers ceux qui sont tombés là, tant pour la
défense que pour la conquête du Canada. Les vieilles causes d’acri-
monie peuvent toujours exister, au besoin, puisque les différences de
religion et d’origine, qui constituèrent ces causes chez une génération
intolérante, n’ont pas cessé d’être; mais la haine résultant de ces causes
n’existe plus entre Français, Anglais et Puritains.
Montcalm repose avec Wolfe dans un même mausolée, et, avec eux,
sont ensevelis beaucoup de préjugés, qui étaient les dogmes de l’intolé-
rance, au siècle avant-dernier.
Un réveil salutaire se fait dans tout le pays en faveur de la con-
servation des vieux sites historiques.
Le gouvernement canadien lui-même, faisant mentir l’adage qui
prétend que les corporations n’ont pas d’âme, vient d’acheter pour en
faire une réserve publique, au prix de quatre-vingt mille dollars, les
plaines d'Abraham, où il n’est pas du tout certain que la bataille des
plaines d’Abraham se soit livrée.
Sec. I, 1902. 8.
126 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
Louisbourg offre à la sollicitude du gouvernement canadien non
pas un champ de bataille douteux, mais des tombes, mais un cime-
tière, mais ce qui fut une ville entourée de fortifications vraies et réelles.
Le tout est à la veille de passer en des mains étrangères. C’est
comme si un syndicat d’industriels voulait faire l’acquisition de la cita-
delle de Frontenac et de Montcalm pour y dresser une foire exotique.
Louisbourg, en tant que théâtre de guerre, est l’égal de Québec.
Les huit ou neuf occupants de Louisbourg avaient consenti de
céder à la compagnie du chemin de fer, le Cap-Breton, moyennant une
compensation raisonnable, ce qu’ils ont acquis de terrain, par droit
d'occupation et de prescription, dans l’enceinte de la citadelle. Ils le
céderaient, sans doute, aussi volontiers au gouvernement qui voudrait
négocier avec eux. D’un autre côté, nous n’aurions qu’à demander au
gouvernement impérial à se dessaisir du vieux site, pour qu’il le fit
aussitôt.
Et ce qui fut Louisbourg, “et le champ où fut Troie ”, redevien-
drait propriété nationale.
Je livre ces considérations à la Société Royale du Canada, qui m’a
fait l’honneur de me désigner pour lui présenter un rapport sur Louis-
bourg.
Quand verrons-nous notre parlement fédéral voter une loi sem-
blable à celle qui fut passée en France, le 30 mars 1887, réglementant
“la conservation des immeubles qui, au point de vue de l’histoire ou
de l’art, offrent un intérêt national ?”
SECTION I, 1902 [127 ] Memorrges S. R. C.
V.—L’ Abbé Cuog—Notice biographique.
Par A,
(Lue le 27 mai 1902.)
Le 25 juillet dernier avaient lieu- au Lac des Deux-Montagnes
les funérailles de M. Jean-André Cuoq, P.S.S., décédé après une
courte maladie, à l’âge de soixante-et-dix-huit ans. Les paroissiens,
en grande partie iroquois et algonquins, s’étaient fait un devoir
d'accompagner à sa dernière demeure l’apôtre qui leur avait donné,
pendant près d’un demi-siècle, le meilleur de ses forces et de son
cœur. À la première nouvelle de la maladie du vénérable vieillard,
M. le Supérieur était venu le visiter et Mer Bruchési s'était arraché
à ses occupations pour accourir lui porter sa bénédiction. Moins
de huit jours après, Sa Grandeur reprenait le chemin d’Oka, accom-
pagné de son grand vicaire, M. Racicot, mais cette fois pour offrir un
suprême témoignage d’estime et d’affection à l’existence si humble,
si laborieuse et si féconde qui venait de s’éteindre.
Le nom de M. Cuoq est peu connu du public ordinaire, mais il
vivra longtemps dans deux portions distinctes, presque opposées de
la société, dans les tribus indiennes et dans le monde savant. Sous
Vhumble toit où s’assemble la famille iroquoise ou algonquine, long-
temps on le dira avec respect et amour, longtemps on évoquera le
souvenir du père, de l’ami, qui passait en faisant le bien, en montrant
le chemin du ciel, et son souvenir aux uns rappellera des promesses,
aux autres de salutaires avis, de paternels reproches, pour tous sera
une prédication muette, mais agissante, qui ne saurait rester sans
fruits.
Dans les assemblées savantes des deux mondes d'Amérique et
d'Europe, où l’on s’occupe d’indianalogie, le nom de M. Cuoq sera tou-
jours salué avec respect, son opinion regardée comme une autorité.
Né à Puy en 1821, M. Cuoq entra à St-Sulpice en 1843; deux
ans plus tard il arrivait au Canada. Il fut aussitôt envoyé au Lac
des Deux-Montagnes pour y continuer l’œuvre d’évangélisation entre-
prise depuis plus de deux siècles en faveur des tribus indiennes.
Apprendre les langues des peuplades à desservir s’imposait comme
un devoir. M. Cuoq se mit à cette étude avec ardeur, disons tout,
avec passion. En quelques années, il entra en possession du génie
des langues algonquines et iroquoises et dépassa tous ceux qui l’avaient
précédé dans la même voie.
128 SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE DU CANADA
Cette science allait servir la cause de la religion. C’était l’époque
où Ernest Renan exécutait ses prodigieux tours de passe-passe qui
ravirent, en France et à l'étranger, les applaudissements du public qui
lit. et qui s’amuse, ou pour employer le mot que M. Brunetière lui
applique, dansait et faisait rire : “ Saltavit et placwit.” Renan enivré
par l'harmonie de ses phrases et plus encore par l’enjouement universel
qu'il provoquait, ne doutant plus d’ailleurs que sa science ne s’étendit
même à ce qu’il ne savait pas, avait avancé qu'entre les Peaux-Rouges
et les races civilisées il y a toujours eu une différence irréductible.
De là à nier la possibilité de tout rapprochement entre les idiomes
américains et ceux de l’ancien monde, il n’y a qu'un pas; il fut franchi
dans l'“Histoire générale et système comparé des langues sémitiques.”
Dans quel dessein? . . . on le devine aisément. Renan voulait
arriver, par une déduction logique, à rejeter le fait important de l’unité
de la race humaine et l’origine de la diversité des langues à la tour
de Babel. Une fois de plus s’inscrire en faux contre l’Ecriture, et
se payer la fantaisie de traiter ses récits de rêveries ou de mythes,
quelle bonne aubaine! Quel triomphe!
M. Cuoq, bien que sa modestie l’inclinât au silence, pensa qu'il
était de son devoir de répondre; d’ailleurs des encouragements qui, pour
lui, étaient des ordres, lui venaient de Paris. M. de Hir le pressait
de réfuter les erreurs sur les langues sauvages où était tombé l’auteur
de l’Hisloire générale. M. 'Cuoq fit alors paraître dans le Journal de
Instruction Publique du Canada, une série d'articles bientôt réunis
sous le titre: “Jugement erroné de M. Ernest Renan sur quelques
langues sauvages de PAmérique ”. Cet ouvrage peu étendu mais sub-
stantiel, attira l’attention des savants de France et des Etats-Unis.
Le rédacteur d’une revue linguistique de Paris, après un éloge sans
réserve des articles parus, éloge d’autant plus sincère qu'il s’adressait
à un auteur anonyme, suppliait le savant “ de ne pas se borner à ce
qu’il avait publié jusque-là, mais à donner à ses compatriotes et au
monde savant tout entier une étude complète et approfondie des
langues indiennes. . . (C’est un service, ajoutait-il, que la
science, la vérité et la religion attendent de son dévouement et de
ses lumières.”
M. Cuoq ne put résister à de si puissants motifs et peu après
1866, il publia les Etudes philologiques sur quelques langues sauvages
de ’Amérique”. Cet ouvrage fut suivi de plusieurs autres. Citons
au hasard: Lexique iroquois; Grammaire algonquine; Grammaire
iroquoise; Dictionnaire algonquin, etc. Encore ne parlons-nous pas
de recueils de priéres, d’instructions, de legons catéchistiques, et méme
de cantiques, composés ou traduits pour l’usage des fidèles sauvages.
(Arr L’ABBE CUOQ—NOTICE BIOGRAPHIQUE 129
Ces ouvrages sont écrits dans un style sobre et précis, parfois méme
alerte et élégant, qui revéle sinon un littérateur, du moins un homme
de goût.
Ils valurent à leur auteur de flatteuses distinctions dont il fut
toujours le dernier à se flatter. La société Royale du Canada lui
ouvrit son sein, bientôt après la société ethnologique de Washington
lui faisait le même honneur; depuis il se vit nommer membre de
plusieurs sociétés de Paris.
Ses confrères de St-Sulpice, et tous ceux qui ont connu M. Cuoq
dans l’intimité, conserveront toujours le souvenir de sa conversation
enjouée, spirituelle, pétillante, à feux roulants, de ses anecdotes sou-
vent reprises mais toujours parées de nouveaux charmes, mais armées
de nouveaux traits. Par delà l’homme d'esprit, ils reverront dans
leur pensée le prêtre exemplaire qui aima la pauvreté jusqu’à ne pas
conserver un seul de ses chers livres, la prière jusqu’à devancer le lever
du jour pour s’y livrer, l’étude jusqu’à lui consacrer douze heures par
jour, jusqu’à lire, durant les derniers mois de sa vie, quatorze volumes
de la vie des saints, des Petits Bollandistes.
Mer Bruchési, dans une brève allocution, a tenu à rendre hom-
mage à une vie si cachée et si bien remplie, puis il a cédé la parole
à M. Mainville, ancien curé des Iroquois de St-Régis, qui, dans un
discours en langue indienne, a tiré, pour le plus grand bien de son
auditoire, les terribles et salutaires enseignements de la mort. Le ser-
vice a été chanté par M. Tallet, 1855, qui fut pendant plusieurs années
le compagnon d’armes dans les missions sauvages.
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ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
BANSACTIONS
SECTION IT.
ENGLISH HISTORY, LITERATURE, ARCHÆOLOGY, Erc.
PAPERS EOR 1902
SECTION II., 1902 [8] Trans. R. S. C.
I.—Modern Public Libraries and their Methods.
By Mr. Lawrence J. BURPEE.
Communicated by Sir John Bourinot, K.C.M.G.
(Read May 27, 1902.)
The history of libraries may be traced far back into classical times,
but none of these were public libraries, in the modern sense of the term,
any more than were the Monastic libraries of the Middle Ages. The
first use of the term bibliotheca publica is found in the fifteenth century,
and the collection of manuscripts bequeathed by Niccolo Niccoli to the
city of Florence, with the distinct provision that they were to be devoted
to the use of the citizens, may perhaps be regarded as the first public
library. This early progenitor of the modern free library was after-
wards merged into the Lauranziana, and the original manuscripts, or
most of them, may still be seen in that library. It was, however, but
an isolated example, far in advance of its times, and had no legitimate
successor until long after the invention of printing.
After Gutenburg, Fust and Peter Schoeffer in Germany, Coster in
Holland, and Caxton in England, had firmly established that greatest
of all modern inventions, the Printing Press, libraries of all kinds
became more common. They had previously been for the most part
confined to the universities, the monasteries, and (in England) a few
powerful guilds, such as the Corporation of London and the .Kalendars
of Bristol. They now spread among the less wealthy and the less
learned classes. Legal and medical libraries were formed for the use
of professional men; the old monastic libraries were offset, in Protestant
centres, by libraries containing the works of Luther, Melanchthon,
Erasmus, etc.; and in the castles of princes and great nobles were to be
found collections of popular romances, chronicles, etc., such as came
from the presses of Caxton, Wynkyn de Worde, and other early printers.
Pugzic LIBRARIES OF GREAT BRITAIN.!
The earliest traces of free town libraries in England belong to the
beginning of the seventeenth century. The town library at Norwich,
founded in 1608, is a characteristic example of a class of library peculiar
to this period. It is the oldest city free library with a continuous history
to the present day. The Norwich library, and others of the same kind,
were not provided by the community, as our modern free libraries are,
1 For the following particulars regarding public libraries in the United
Kingdom I am chiefly indebted to Mr. J. J. Ogle’s admirable little work on
The Free Library, London, 1897.
+ ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
but were the gift of some wealthy townsman who, like Niccolo Niccoli
of Florence, industriously collected books during his lifetime, and when
he died left them as a legacy to his fellow-citizens.
Five years after the establishment of the Norwich library, a city
library was opened at Bristol. This library has since been absorbed by
the new Bristol Free Library. A parochial free library was established
in 1623 at Langley Marish, in Buckinghamshire, by Sir John Keder-
minster. The town of Leicester opened a library in 1632; and in 1653
the Chetham Library at Manchester was founded, through the gener-
osity of Sir Humphrey Chetham. Numerous grammar school libraries
also dated from the end of the sixteenth and beginning of the seven-
teenth centuries.
In 1753 the greatest of all English libraries was established—the
British Museum. The subsequent history of free public libraries in
Great Britain is closely identified with this great national institution.
The influence of the Museum and its librarians has always been a
powerful factor for good in the moulding of public sentiment towards
free public libraries in every part of the United Kingdom, and each new
development in the organization and management of libraries has been
carefully examined and tested at the Museum.
The British Museum has become the repository from time to time
of many earlier collections of books and manuscripts. The first of these
was the library of 50,000 volumes of printed books and manuscripts,
with collections of coins, medals, etc., acquired by the nation from the
estate of Sir Hans Sloane of Chelsea, and which formed the nucleus of
the British Museum. At the same time the Harleian MSS. were pur-
chased, and these, with the Cottonian MSS., already the property of the
nation, were added to the new national library. Shortly afterwards the
King—George I].—transferred to the Museum the Royal Library of
the Kings of England, containing some splendid examples of early
printing, including a series of vellum copies by the famous French
printer Verard, specimens of Caxton, De Worde and other early English
printers, besides many valuable MSS. Since then the Museum has
been the recipient of a dozen or more valuable collections of books,
pamphlets, and manuscripts, including the Thomason Collection,
30,000 distinct publications, presented by George III.; the Cracherode
Bequest of 4,500 volumes, made in 1799; the splendid library of 84,000
books and MSS. presented by George [V.; the Grenville Collection,
received in 1846, etc. One of the most curious bequests was a set of the
Chinese “ Cyclopedia,” a single work in 5,000 volumes.
The growth of this great library is well illustrated by the number
of readers who made use of it at different periods of its history. In 1810
the number of visitors to the old Reading Room was about 1,950 for the
[BurPeze] MODERN PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND THEIR METHODS 5
whole year; in 1832 the visits had increased to 46,800; and in 1894 the
number of readers was over 200,000.
In 1845 an Act “ for encouraging the establishment of museums in
large towns” was passed. Although the Act made no provision for
books, the town of Warrington in 1848 established a library of reference,
free to the public on certain days and within certain hours, and a
lending library, which could be used only by subscribing members.
Salford followed the next year. Warrington was therefore the
first English city to establish a municipally-controlled and rate-
supported free library, though it was a long way from the free library
of the present day.
The first Public Libraries Act of the United Kingdom was passed
in 1850. This Act was the product of a Select Committee of the
House of Commons. The Committee examined a large number of
witnesses, one of the most important being Mr. Edward Edwards,"
whose name is associated with that of William Ewart, as founders of
the English free library system. Mr. Edwards, in his evidence before
the Committee, established the fact that in that year (1850), although
there were some 250 public libraries on the Continent “ easily acces-
sible to the poor as well as to the rich, to the foreigner as well as to the
native ”; and over 100 in the United States, most of them entirely open
to the public; there was “only one free library in Great Britain equally
accessible with these numerous libraries abroad, the library founded by
Humphrey Chetham in the borough of Manchester.”
The Public Libraries Act of 1850 allowed the establishment of
libraries and museums of art and science, together or separately, but
applied only to municipal boroughs in England. “The mayor, on the
request of a town council, was to ascertain whether the Act should be
adopted by a poll of the burgesses, but a two-thirds majority was
required for adoption.” No provision was made, however, for buying
books or specimens. These were left to the random generosity of
some townsman or other.
Several amending acts followed in the next few years, extending
the operation of the Act of 1850 to Ireland and Scotland; providing
for a penny rate in the pound; for the purchase of books and speci-
mens; the addition of news-rooms, etc. These latter provisions were
embodied in the Act of 1855, which repealed the 1850 Act, and
remained the principal Act for England and Wales until 1892.
The effect of these Library Acts was felt immediately throughout
England. Evwart’s first Act (1850) had been passed only about two
months when the city of Norwich adopted its provisions by a vote
1 See ‘‘ Edward Edwards, the chief pioneer of Municipal Public Libraries,”
by Thomas Greenwood. London, 1902, pp. 246.
6 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
of 150 to 7. Winchester followed the next year; and in 1860 Bir-
mingham, Bolton, Manchester and Oxford came into line. In 1853
Blackburn and Sheffield in the north, and Cambridge and Ipswich in
the east, accepted the new Act. Liverpool had already come in under
a local act. Airdrie in Scotland, and Cork in Ireland were the first
towns to adopt the Library Act outside of England and Wales. Others
followed during the next few years.
In 1869 Mr. Baines, M.P., moved for a return of public libraries,
which was furnished to Parliament in 1870. This Return, shows, up
to the end of 1868, forty-six adoptions of the Act, or local acts equiva-
lent thereto; twenty-nine places had established fifty-two libraries,
with nearly half a million volumes and a yearly circulation of 3,400,000
volumes. The amount raised by rate for public libraries and museums
was at least £25,400 per annum.
In 1877 a Conference of libraries was held in the lecture theatre
of the London Institution—the first gathering of the kind in Europe.
Two such conferences had already been held in the United States, the
first at New York in 1853, and the second at Philadelphia in 1876,
during the Centennial Exhibition. The London Conference was ~
largely an outcome of the Philadelphia meeting, which had been so
successful as to encourage English librarians to attempt something of
the same kind. There were 218 librarians present, representing 139
libraries, of which the United States contributed 17, France 4, Italy 1,.
Belgium 1, Denmark 2, Australia 1, and Great Britain and Ireland 113.
Out of this Conference grew, among other things, the Library Asso-
ciation of the United Kingdom, the formation of which marked the
commencement of a new period in the history of the free library in
Great Britain. One of the most important matters discussed at the
Conference was the question of printing the catalogue of the British
Museum, a colossal undertaking, which was commenced in 1881 and
completed by the end of the century. I shall have a few words to
say about this catalogue later on.
In 1879 the Birmingham Free Library was destroyed by fire, and
a number of irreplaceable literary treasures were lost, including the
greater part of the splendid collection of Shakespeariana. Only 1,000
volumes from the reference library of 50,000 were saved from the
flames. A new and larger library, however, sprang up in its place,
and now ranks among the foremost libraries of England. The new
central library was opened on the 1st June, 1882, when speeches were
delivered by John Bright, Joseph Chamberlain, and others. It is
perhaps worth mentioning that Mr. Bright had also taken a leading
part in the inauguration of the Manchester free libraries, some thirty
years previously, when, besides his own, speeches were delivered by
[BuRPEE] MODERN PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND THEIR METHODS Z
Dickens, Thackeray, Bulwer Lytton, Monckton Milnes, and other great
men of the day.
Of the libraries of the United Kingdom, the British Museum
stands head and shoulders above all others. It is the national library
of Great Britain and Ireland—of the British Empire in fact; and in
a still broader sense it may be said to be the library par excellence of
the whole English-speaking world. It is governed by a board of
Trustees or Directors, divided into three groups: official, representing
State departments and great national institutions; elected, consisting
of men of the highest standing in literature, science and art; and
family trustees, representing the families which have contributed very
important collections to the Museum such as the Sloans, Cottonian and
Townley.
For the first sixty years of the Museum’s existence, the funds
available for purchases and management, outside of the initial funds
and gifts, did not average £500 per annum. Later, through the untir-
ing efforts of Sir Anthony Panizzi, the famous head of the Museum,
the Government were induced to increase the annual grants, for a
time, to £10,000.
The British Museum at first consisted of three departments,—
printed books, manuscripts, and natural history; now there are
twelve,— four covering natural history, four relating to antiquities,
and four literary, 1.e., printed books, manuscripts, prints and drawings,
and Oriental printed books and manuscripts.
The library now consists of about 2,000,000 volumes, the largest
‘ collection in the world, with the possible exception of the Bibliothèque
Nationale at Paris. The additions of printed books of all descriptions
average 46,000 annually. Some forty years ago, Mr. Watts, one of
the most learned of the Museum’s librarians, made the following
striking statement, illustrating the unequalled scope of the Museum
library in every department of human knowledge, and in all
languages: — “The Museum is now supposed to possess the best
Russian library in existence out of Russia, the best Hungarian out
oi Hungary, the best Dutch out of Holland; in short, the best library
in every European language out of the territory in which that language
is vernacular. The books are in every case the standard books of
the language — the laws, the histories, the biographies, the works on
topography and local history, the poets and novelists in most esteem;
in short, all that moulds or paints the life and manners of a nation,
and which now a student of any European language need travel no
further than to the reading-room of the Museum to see and make
use of.”
8 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
The Bodleian Library, at Oxford, ranks next in importance to the
Pritish Museum, among English libraries, but as it is a university
rather than a public library, it hardly comes within the scope of this
paper. It is chiefly famous for the value of its unique collections of
manuscripts, and in this department it perhaps ranks even above the
British Museum.
The original City Library of London, of which the present Guild-
hall Library is the legitimate successor, was founded by the executors
of the renowned Richard (or Dick) Whityngton, Lord Mayor of London,
and of William Bury, early in the fifteenth century. The old City
Library fell upon days of indifference and nothing was heard of it
for several centuries, until in 1824 it was restored by a resolution in
the Court of Common Council. In June, 1828, the library was opened
with 1700 volumes. In 1840 these had grown to nearly 10,000; and
in 1893 to 68,369 books, besides 38,075 pamphlets. Of late years
there has been a movement on foot for the unification of the various
free libraries in London, the Guildhall Library to become a central
reference library, with a limited number of branch reference libraries
systematically distributed throughout the city with due regard to public
needs, thus leaving free many of the smaller libraries to development
as lending libraries.
Of the free libraries in London, Battersea was established in 1887,
and now contains 40,000 volumes. Chelsea opened the same year,
and has now about 30,000 volumes. Clerkenwell was established in
1588; Hampstead in 1893; and Lambeth in 1896. Other representa-
tive London free libraries are those of Newington, Poplar, Hanover
Square, Shoreditch, Wandsworth and St. Martin’s.
The most important of the English free libraries outside of London
are those of Manchester, Liverpool, Birmingham, Leeds, and Hull. The
most important free library in Scotland is that of Edinburgh. The
Mitchell Library at Glasgow is an endowed, not a free public library.
Ii was founded by the late Stephen Mitchell, and opened in 1877 with
over 14,000 volumes, which have since grown to something over
123,000. The leading Irish free libraries are those at Belfast and
Dublin.
The Manchester free library system consists of a central reference
library with eleven branches and four reading rooms. There are
some 270,000 volumes on the shelves, and the annual circulation
averages 2,000,000 volumes.
To Liverpool belongs the honour of having established the earliest
branch library; of first introducing into a free library books for the
blind, (1857); and book-music (1859).
{purPEE] MODERN PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND THEIR METHODS 9
The Birmingham library dates from 1860, when the Act was
adopted by an overwhelming majority, in spite of much opposition.
The reference library was opened in 1865. Some instructive remarks
have been made by Dr. Langford as to the principles which guided
the Birmingham Library Committee in their choice of books — prin-
ciples which might very well be recommended to the attention of
other library committees and librarians: — “The Committee were
guided by three principles: first, that the library should as far as
practicable represent every phase of human thought and every variety
ef opinion; second, that books of permanent value and of standard
interest should form the principal portion of the library, and that
modern and popular books should be added from time to time as they
are published; third, that it should contain those rare and costly works
which are generally out of the reach of individual students and col-
lectors, and which are not usually found in provincial or private libra-
ries.” The third principle could, of course, only be carried out to
a limited extent by any but the largest and wealthiest city libraries.
There are now nine branches at Birmingham, besides the central
libraries. The number of books at the end of 1895 was nearly
210,000; and the circulation in that year exceeded 1,200,000.
The Leeds Library was established in 1870. Here the system
of branches has been carried farther than anywhere else in England.
There are altogether some fifty-eight branches, thirty-seven school
branches and twenty-one other branches: with about 192,000 volumes.
The public library at Kingston-upon-Hull was established in 1892,
after a long fight against bitter and determined opposition. There
are two central libraries and two branches ; the number of volumes
being, in 1896, 52,588, of which 12,830 were in the two reference
hbraries.
The Edinburgh Public Library owes its beautiful building to the
generosity of that friend of libraries, Andrew Carnegie, who gave
£50,000 for the purpose. There are now over 100,000 volumes on
the shelves.
The two free libraries in Dublin are comparatively unimportant
as compared with the library systems of English cities of the same
size. They are, however, only a temporary expedient, and are to be
developed into a library worthy of the capital of Ireland. The chief
library in Dublin is the National Library of Ireland, an institution
which bears somewhat the same relation to Ireland as the British
Museum does to England. This library is housed in a building which
admirably combines architectural beauty with the requirements of
modern librarianship. It is situated close to Leinster House, the
home of the Royal Dublin Society.
10 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
The Belfast Library dates from 1883. With its branches it now
contains about 35,000 volumes.
Mr. J. J. Ogle, in his work on “The Free Library,” estimates
that in 1897 there were no fewer than six or seven hundred free
libraries established in 300 towns, parishes, or districts, under the
Public Libraries Acts of the United Kingdom. These libraries then
contained 5,000,000 volumes, and had an annual issue of from twenty-
five to thirty millions. This estimate does not, of course, include
the British Museum, the Bodleian, or other libraries not strictly
coming within the class of municipal free libraries. The outstanding
loans on free public library property, in England and Wales only,
amounted to not less than £800,000, despite the fact of the very con-
siderable gifts of buildings in every part of the country. “ But”
adds Mr. Ogle “the end is not yet. The movement is yet young,
and it is vigorous with the strength and activity of adolescence. The
towns will yet show advances neither few nor small ; but the villages,
the counties, have yet to reap the advantage the towns enjoy ; the
metropolis has yet to do much to equal the provision of the larger
provincial centres, whose libraries of twenty, thirty or forty years’
formation are one of the glories of this mercantile age.”
EUROPEAN LIBRARIES.
One would need the compass of a large volume within which to
describe the many famous libraries of Europe, and it is hopeless to
attempt even a partial sketch of this wide field. All that can be
done here is to mention a few of the more famous and representative
libraries. As a matter of fact the public libraries of Europe, outside
of England, whether supported by municipalities or by the state,
hardly come directly within the scope of this paper, for, with a few
notable exceptions, they are in no sense modern, in architecture,
methods, or in their relations to the community. On their shelves
are found manuscripts, incunabula, rare editions and other priceless
literary treasures, and in this respect the libraries of America can
never hope to compete with them ; but in a majority of cases the
libraries of Europe are still medieval in their methods. They have
not adopted the democratic principles of English and American public
libraries. They make no special effort to throw their stores of books
open in the fullest possible sense to the public.
Of the French libraries, the most important is, of course, the
Bibliothéque Nationale, whose history runs back to the days of King
John and Charles V. Although this great library is generally counted
to be the largest in the world, the question is not without doubt.
[BuRPEE] MODERN PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND THEIR METHODS 11
Tts only rival is the British Museum, but the number of books in the
Museum library are known definitely ; while the contents of the
French National Library have not been actually counted since 1791.
Besides the Bibliothéque Nationale, there are fifteen other libraries
in Paris each containing above 30,000 volumes. In the rest of France
there are some 350 free public libraries, containing approximately
4,000,000 volumes, and 50,000 MSS.
Germany has many libraries, seventy-two being counted in Berlin
alone in 1875, with about 1,300,000 printed books. Munich contains
several good libraries; and at Dresden there are about fifty. Stuttgart,
Darmstadt, Gotha, are all strong library centres.
In Austria there were in 1873-74 about 550 libraries, only 45
of which were however of a public character. Of the 550, Vienna
alone is credited with 101.
The public libraries of Switzerland are numerous, but very
small. Some 2000 were recorded in 1868, but of these only 18 had
as many as 30,000 volumes.
Italy boasts some of the most famous libraries of Europe, notably
the Vatican Library at Rome, the Magliabecchiana and Laurentian
libraries at Florence, and the Museo Borbonico at Naples. In 1865 a
table of relative statistics was published by the Italian Government,
which professed to show the remarkable fact that, with the exception of
France, Italy possessed the largest total number of books of any country
in Europe, the total contents of French libraries being 4,389,000,
and of Italian libraries, 4,149,281.
In Belgium and Holland, great libraries are found at Brussels,
Ghent, The Hague, Leyden, etc. Denmark, Norway and Sweden also
boast of many notable libraries. At Madrid, in Spain, and Lisbon,
in Portugal, the Biblioteca Nacional contains several hundred
thousand books and valuable MSS. covering the literature of their
respective countries. In Russia, the chief libraries are at St.
Petersburg and Moscow.
LIBRARIES IN THE UNITED STATES.
The history of public libraries in the United States goes back
to the early part of the nineteenth century. The Boston Public
Library, in fact, claims to trace its existence back to the middle of the
seventeenth century, but it was not until nearly two hundred years
afterwards that a public library in the modern sense of the term,
was established there. _
In 1817 Dr. Jesse Torrey, Jr., published a pamphlet entitled
“The intellectual torch,” in which he made an earnest plea for “the
12 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
universal dissemination of knowledge and virtue, by means of free
publie libraries” This pamphlet is said to be a second edition of
an earlier one entitled “The intellectual flambeau,” published at
Washington in 1816.
The first public library law in America was that passed by the
State of New York in 1835. One writer,’ indeed, states that it was
“ the first known law of a state allowing the people to tax themselves
to maintain genuine, public libraries. The law did not establish
libraries for schools (as some have supposed) but for the people, in
districts of the size of a school district.” In fact, the author of the
Act, John A. Dix, Secretary of State for New York, distinctly stated
that “ The object was not so much for the benefit of children attend-
ing school, as for those who have completed their common school
education. Its main design was to throw into school districts, and
place within the reach of all their inhabitants, a collection of good
works on subjects calculated to enlarge their understandings and
store their minds with useful knowledge.”
This Act provided that :
1. The taxable inhabitants of each ‘school district in the state shall have
power, when lawfully assembled at any district meeting, to lay là tax on the
district, not exceeding $20 for the first year, for the purchase of a district
library, consisting of such books as they shall in their district meeting
direct, and such further sum as they may deem necessary for the purchase
of a bookcase. The intention to propose such tax shall be stated in the notice
required to be given for such meeting.
2. The taxable inhabitants of each school district shall also have power,
when so assembled in any subsequent year, to lay a tax not exceeding $10 in
any one year, for the purpose of making additions to the district library.
3. The clerk of the district, or such other person as the taxable inhabi-
tants may at their annual meeting designate and appoint by a majority of
votes, shall be the librarian of the district, and shall have the care and
custody of the library, under such regulations as the inhabitants may adopt
for his government.
4. The taxes authorized by this act to be raised, shall be assessed and
collected in the same manner as a tax for building a schoolhouse.
Three years after the passing of this act, $55,000 a year was set
apart by the State of New York for books and apparatus for school
districts, provided the districts would give as much as their pro rata
share. The example of New York was soon followed by other States
ci the Union, both in the east and west, and eventually paved the
way to a broader and better system of free public libraries supported
hy local rates. The school district library reached its highest develop-
ment between 1838 and 1851. Early in the seventies it was found
1 Dr. Homes, ‘“ Legislation for public libraries,’ Library Journal, July-
August, 1879.
[puRPEE] MODERN PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND THEIR METHODS 13
to have outlived its usefulness, and was gradually superseded by the
present system.*
The centre of the free public library system of the State of New
York is the State University at Albany, founded in 1784 “ to encourage
and promote higher education”. This unique university now includes
038 institutions and 510 affiliated institutions, making a total of 1448.
Under the system in vogue, when a town or village wishes to establish
a public library, the local trustees obtain a charter from the university,
which entitles them to a state grant (not exceeding $200) equal to the
amount raised for the library by local effort. The library then
becomes an integral part of the State University. The state library
at Albany is the heart of the whole system. Here an efficient Library
School is maintained for the training of librarians and their assistants ;
from here an Inspector visits the various libraries throughout the
State, and keeps them up to a proper standard of efficiency; from here
travelling libraries are sent forth to various centres — there are now
about 500 of these travelling libraries moving about the State. The
various libraries are kept in touch with the central department, and.
every possible assistance is given to librarians and library trustees, by
means of reports, circulars, bulletins, personal advice, assistance in
planning library buildings, lists of best books, and public addresses
and discussions.
The public library movement in Massachusetts may be said to be
almost as old as the colony. One Captain Robert Keayne, an eccen-
tric tailor, founded the first public hbrary in Boston by a legacy of
hooks and money. ‘This early progenitor of the present magnificent
library was housed, in 1658, in a room in the markethouse. It was
not, however, until 1848 that Boston secured legal authority to establish
and maintain a public library. Gifts of books and money at once
began to come in for the purpose, but the library was not formally
established until 1852. The present splendid collection of books had
for its nucleus a gift of about fifty volumes from the city of Paris
in 1843, “through the efforts of an enthusiastic Frenchman named
Vattemare, who proposed to build up libraries through a system of
international exchanges”. The Boston Public Library is now the
largest and most thoroughly organized free public library in the world.
Boston was the pioneer in library extension in the state, but a
general law was soon passed, which was rapidly taken advantage of
? The district library system was adopted by Massachusetts and Michigan
in 1837; Connecticut in 1839; Rhode Island and Iowa in 1840; Indiana, 1841;
Maine, 1844; Ohio, 1847; Wisconsin, 1847; Missouri, 1853; California and
Oregon, 1854; Illinois, 1855; Kansas and Virginia, 1870; New Jersey, 1871;
Kentucky and Minnesota, 1873; and Colorado, 1876.
14 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
throughout Massachusetts. In 1890, when the Free Public Libraries
Commission was established, there were 248 out of the 341 towns in
the commonwealth, that enjoyed such privileges. In 1899 there were
only seven towns that were still without a free library, and these com-
prised less than one-half of one per cent of the population. I have
not the figures of the past year before me, but think it very probable
that even some of the benighted seven have ere this joined the
enlightened majority by establishing public libraries in their midst.
In the free libraries of Massachusetts there were, in 1899, some
8,750,000 volumes, with an annual circulation of 7,666,666, or over
three volumes to every inhabitant. The amount given for libraries
and library buildings in Massachusetts in the shape of gifts and
bequests, reaches in money alone the sum of over $8,000,000.
In an exhaustive and very valuable monograph upon “ Public
Libraries and Popular Education,” by Herbert B. Adams, Ph.D.,
LL.D., Professor of American and institutional history in Johns
Hopkins University, the following list is given, admirably illustrating
the evolution of the American library. Dr. Adams calls it a “ select
list of original library types ”:—
1. The private libraries of early colonists.
2. The institutional or scholastic libraries of Harvard, Yale, William &
Mary colleges, etc.
3. The church or parish libraries instituted in North Carolina, Maryland,
and the South by Dr. Bray, founder and Secretary of the Society for the
Propagation of the Gospel.
4. The co-operative or joint-stock library, e.g., the Philadelphia Library
Company, founded by Benjamin Franklin in 1731, which antedates by 25
years the first subscription library in England (Liverpool, 1756).?
5. The first theological library in America was that of St. Mary’s theo-
logical seminary of St. Sulpice, Baltimore, 1791.
6. The first law library was that of the Bar Association of Philadelphia,
1802.
7. The first medical library was at Pennsylvania Hospital, Philadelphia,
1763.
8 The first scientific libraries were those of the American Philosophical
Society, Philadelphia, 1743; and of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences,
Boston, 1780.
9. The first State Historical Society library was that of Massachusetts,
founded at Boston, 1791.
10. The first foreign nationality to establish a library was the German
Society of Philadelphia, 1764.
11. The first town library was in Salisbury, Ct., 1803, or at Peterborough,
N.H., 1833.
* This is incorrect. A subscription library was established in Edinburgh
as early as 1725, and in London in 1740. The Liverpool (Lyceum) Library
was founded in 1758, not 1756.
[puRPEE] MODERN PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND THEIR METHODS 15
12. The Congressional Library was founded at Washington in 1800.
13. The first formal state library was that of New Jersey, established
in 1796.
14. Young men’s mercantile libraries were founded in Boston and New
York in 1820.
15. School district libraries were authorized by law in 1835.
16. Endowed libraries were instituted at many different times and places.
17. Free public libraries, as progressive institutions, belong to the latter
half of the nineteenth century.
18. The federal or confederate type of public libraries, like those now
grouped together in New York as the New York Public Library, by con-
solidation of the Astor and Lenox libraries with the Tilden.
19. The travelling library is the latest and one of the most popular types
of public libraries. It best represents library extension.
The American library which bears the closest resemblance to the
British Museum, as a national institution, is the Library of Congress.
This library has had a chequered career. Established in 1800, it was
burned, together with the Capitol, during the war of 1812, by the British
army. In 1851 another fire destroyed all but 20,000 of the books.
Since then the library has grown rapidly, and now numbers close upon
a million books and pamphlets. As in the case of the British Museum
and the Bodleian Library at Oxford, the Library of Congress is
entitled by law to receive two copies of every publication which claims
copyright. The magnificent new building in which the library is
housed, is furnished with every modern convenience for the safety
and convenient use of the books.
The Boston Public Library at present contains something over
750,000 volumes. It has been the recipient of many valuable gifts
in books and money from its broad-minded citizens, the most notable
being Joshua Bates, after whom the stately Bates Hall is named,
Theodore Parker and George Ticknor the publisher. Josiah Quincy,
mayor of Boston, gave the following graphic description of the library
and its work for the public, in the Saturday Evening Post (Philadel-
phia), June 3rd, 1899: —
“The work of our public library is of such a comprehensive character
that it partakes very largely of the nature of a popular university, and comes
very near to constituting an example of municipal socialism carried into
practice. Our library plant—building, books and equipment—represents an
investment of at least $5,000,000. Three hundred and fifty persons are
employed in connection with its service, and it costs the city over a quarter
of a million dollars a year to maintain it. Besides the central library, we
have 10 branch libraries, containing independent collections of books, and
18 delivery stations. There are outstanding 65,000 active cards for a popu-
lation of 530,000 people. Over 700 readers are generally to be found in the
central building alone, and about 1,250,000 books are annually issued to card
holders for use at home. The people of Boston contribute nearly half a
16 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
dollar annually per capita for the support of this great institution, and I
doubt whether a community can be found anywhere in the world which
taxes itself as heavily to provide library facilities, or which makes a larger
use of them.”
In addition to the 10 branches and 18 delivery stations mentioned
by Mr. Quincy, there are also 33 other places—public schools, engine
houses, etc._—where books are regularly received on deposit. This
makes a total of 61 outlying agencies of the library.*
The New York Publie Library is a new institution, in which are
merged the Astor, Lenox and Tilden Libraries. It is possible that
before long the New York Circulating Library may also be included
in the general scheme, thus constituting one of the largest libraries
in America. Dr. John 8. Billings, a man of broad views and ripe
experience, has charge of the amalgamated libraries. A splendid
library building is now in course of erection in Bryant Park, and
Mr. Carnegie has offered an enormous sum for the establishment of
branch libraries in every quarter of Greater New York. The popularity
of the New York libraries may be gauged from the fact that the
daily combined average number of readers at the Astor and Lenox
Libraries was found in 1899 to be 488 ; while the average attendance
ai the British Museum, with over three times the number of books,
was only 516. The New York Public Library, as at present con-
stituted, contains in the neighbourhood of 700,000 volumes.
The New York Free Circulating Library was first incorporated
in 1880. There are at present 10 branches, with over 100,000 books.
No central library exists, but books are sent from one branch to
another as required, and there is a general catalogue of all the
branches. This library system is almost entirely supported by private
subscriptions, but it is free to the public, nothing but a guarantee
being required for an intending card-holder. | |
One of the most remarkable examples of a modern public library
system is that of Philadelphia. Here the modern idea of supplementing
the central library by outlying branches has been carried a long step
further by practically abolishing the central repository altogether,
and relying upon the branches alone—going to the people in their
own neighbourhoods, instead of making them travel to a distant
central library. Travelling libraries are another popular feature of
the Philadelphia system.
At Philadelphia is also to be found the oldest proprietory or
subscription library in the United States—the Library Company of
Philadelphia. This project was originally set on foot by Benjamin
* It appears by a recent report that these 61 agencies have now (1902) been
increased to 87.
[purPEE] MODERN PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND THEIR METHODS 17
Franklin in 1731. The collection combines the character of a public
and a subscription library, being open to the public for reference
purposes, while the books circulate only among the subscribing
members. It numbers at present about 130,000 books.
Other American proprietory libraries are the Mercantile Library
Company of Philadelphia, the Boston Atheneum, the Mercantile
Library of New York, the Apprentices’ Library of New York, etc.
None of these, however, are, strictly speaking, free public libraries.
The Buffalo Public Library was originally incorporated in 1837,
but it was a subscription library until 1897, when it was taken over by
the city. It now contains in the neighbourhood of 100,000 books, with
about 10,000 pamphlets. The advantages of a free public, over a
subscription, library is forcibly illustrated by the fact that while the
year previous to the transfer of the Buffalo library to the city, the
entire circulation of books was only 142,659, in four months from the
public opening in September, 1897, it had increased to 262,232, and
in 1898 to 768,028 volumes. An interesting feature of the Buffalo
library is its close connection with the public school system of the
city. Mr. Elmendorf, the superintendent of the library, in his annual
report for 1897, says: “The library is in the closest co-operation
with the high schools. An assistant visits each school before the
opening hour on every school day, receives books to be returned and
lists of books wanted, and makes delivery at the close of school ;
plans are being made in connection with the Superintendent of Public
Education to include all schools of the city in a travelling library
system.” In 1898 Buffalo had 40 travelling libraries reaching schools,
literary clubs, chapter houses and social settlements.
Another American library that has made special efforts to do
educational work, both through its reference and circulating depart-
ments, is the Reynolds Library at Rochester. Mr. George F.
Bowerman, formerly reference librarian at the Reynolds Library, thus
describes the method adopted to make that library of value to
students,— to make it in fact a centre of post-school education: —
“ Early in every scholastic year, that is, in August or September,
the managers of University Extension courses, the secretaries of liter-
ary societies, reading clubs, etc., are invited to send in their courses
of study for the season, together with the list of books which they
wish for their use. Any books on these lists which the library does
not have are ordered, and the books laid down in each course are
brought together and reserved in the reference room for the club
members during the season. As soon as one course was finished the
books would go back into the circulating department and their places
Sec II., 1902. 2.
18 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
be occupied by those of another course. In supplying these clubs
with the books necessary for carrying on their studies we are able to
make a comparatively small library of great educational use.”
The Osterhout Free Library, at Wilkesbarre, Penn., is an interest-
ing architectural example of a church building transferred into a
library. Special attention is directed here to the children’s depart-
ment. The librarian, Miss H. P. James, says of this department of
her library: — “In selecting our books, I was careful to leave out all
sensational reading and give the preference to stories with some his-
torical basis. We have a good store of Henty’s books, and have
appended a note to each entry, showing the time of the incidents
covered. Of course we have also all the books of Coffin, Drake, Knox,
Butterworth, French and Scudder. In the reference room I have a
goodly constituency of small readers with ragged clothes, not very clean
faces, but their hands are clean. The lavatory close by the door is
visited before they come to me for books, as they have learned that
it is indispensable. I feared that the beauty of the room might ,be
a little forbidding, but they don’t mind it in the least. A better
behaved set than the little ragamuffins are, it would be hard to find.”
This feature of modern librarianship—the reaching out after the
children, bringing them into the library, placing them at their ease
in a special room where tables and chairs are made to fit their small
bodies, and providing them with the books they desire — is one of
the most notable and praiseworthy developments in American libraries.
Nearly all the best city libraries in the United States have special
provision for children, a children’s department, where they are wel-
comed sympathetically, and taught at the very threshold of life to
cultivate the love of reading and the love of good books.
One of the largest and most progressive of the western libraries
is that of Cincinnati, which was established on its present footing in
1867. It contains about 150,000 books, besides pamphlets. The
main library is a very handsome and well-equipped building, and there
are two branches besides.
The Newberry Library, in Chicago, is chiefly notable on account
of its unique plan for classifying and arranging books, devised and
carried out by Dr. Poole, the original compiler of that famous and:
indispensable work, “ Poole’s Index.” In the Newberry Library the
several branches of human knowledge are shelved in different rooms,
arranged on a symmetrical plan, with provision for the addition of
other rooms as the growth of the library should call for further sub-
division. The building is simple in form, but substantially constructed,
and provided with every modern library convenience. Carrying out
Mr. Poole’s plan, the books are not shelved in stacks, but in a single
[puRPEE] MODERN PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND THEIR METHODS 19
tier of cases covering the floor of each room, with room for readers’
tables.
Space will not permit me to describe the many other prominent
libraries of the United States, such as the Chicago Public Library,
San Francisco Public, the popular and exceedingly energetic library at
Denver, the Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, the Peabody Institute at Bal-
timore, etc.
From a report issued by the United States Bureau of Education,
it appears that in 1900 there were 5,383 public, society and school
libraries in the United States having one thousand volumes or over.
These libraries contained altogether 44,591,851 volumes and 7,503,588
pamphlets. The number of manuscripts is not stated, but outside of
a few of the largest libraries they would be insignificant. Of the
individual states, New York ranks first, with 718 libraries, containing
7,490,509 volumes and 1,803,828 pamphlets. Massachusetts comes
second, with 571 libraries, 6,633,285 volumes, and 1,150,277 pamphlets.
Pennsylvania is third, with 401 libraries, 3,974,577 volumes, and
538,819 pamphlets. Illinois follows next, with 309 libraries; then
Ohio, with 266; and California, with 212. Eleven other States have
between 100 and 200 libraries each. The remainder run from 96 in
Vermont down to Arizona and the Indian Territory, which possess 5
and 3 libraries respectively.
I will venture to sum up this hasty sketch of United States
libraries by quoting from an address delivered by Mr. Melvil Dewey
at Convocation of the University of the State of New York, 1888.
Mr. Dewey said, speaking of the progress of libraries and librarianship
in the United States: —
We date active progress from 1876, when, after a four days’ successful
conference in Philadelphia, the American Library Association was organized.
It holds annual meetings, marked among conventions by their practical
work and enthusiasm. The same year we started an official monthly organ,
the Library Journal (now, 1902, in its 27th year). Shortly after followed that
most important practical factor in library work, the Library Bureau of
Boston, which undertakes to do for libraries such work as is not practicable
for the association or magazine. It equips large or small libraries with
everything needed (except books and periodicals) of the best patterns devised
by or known to the officers and committees of the association, of which it
is the tangible representative for manufacturing and distributing improved
appliances and supplies. Ten years after the Journal, which, because of its
limited circulation, barely pays expenses at $5 a year, came its co-labourer,
Library Notes, a quarterly magazine of librarianship, specially devoted to the
modern methods and spirit, and circulated widely because of its low price.
Last of the great steps came the school for training librarians and cata-
loguers, which two years ago (1887) was opened at Columbia College, through
the same influence which had before started the Association, Journal, Bureau
and Notes. You who appreciate what Normial Schools are doing to improve
20 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
our teaching will remember that librarians need a training school more than
teachers, who have had the experience of their own school life as a pattern;
for librarians till two years ago never had opportunity for training, and
came to their work like teachers who had been ‘self-taught, and not only
had no normal school advantages, but had never been in a school or class-
room even as pupils. As evidence of the growth of the idea, we may note
that this library school, which began two years ago with a twelve weeks’
course and provision for 5 to 10 pupils, has in two years developed to a
course of full two years with four times as many students at work, and in
spite of rapidly increased requirements for admission iis to-day embarrassed
by five times as many candidates as it can receive. This means a recogni-
tion of the high calling of the modern librarian who works in the modern
spirit with the high ideals which the school holds before its pupils.
It should be mentioned that this plan for a library school origin-
ated with Mr. Dewey himself. Some eight years before the first library
school was established in the United States, the British Library
Association passed a resolution in favour of training library assistants
in the general principles of their profession, but nothing practical came
of the suggestion at the time. Since then a library summer school
has been established, under the auspices of the Library Association
of the United Kingdom, but it is inferior to the American schools in
every way. We must look on this side of the Atlantic for the most
phenomenal progress in this branch of librarianship. Since the first
Library School was established at Columbia College, in 1887, similar
institutions have sprung up all over the United States. In 1889 Mr.
Dewey transferred the Columbia College School to the New York
State Library at Albany. Here he organized the school upon a sound
and permanent basis, with a strong faculty, and a thorough course of
training, leading up to the degree of B.L.S. (bachelor of library
science), given only to those students who pass the entire course with
honours. A summer course is also offered by this school, for the
benefit of persons who already hold a library position and wish to
gain a broader conception of library work as a whole.
Other library schools are those at the Pratt Institute, Brooklyn;
at the Drexel Institute, Philadelphia; and at the University of Illinois,
where library economy has been given a regular place among the col-
lege courses. At Madison, under the auspices of the State University,
is another school, the Wisconsin Summer School of Library Science.
Professor Wm. I. Fletcher, whose valuable continuation of Poole’s
Index most of us know the value of, established a library school at
Amherst College in 1891, which he personally conducts for five weeks
in midsummer. Lastly may be mentioned the Washington School
of Library Science, organized in 1897 at Columbian, University, and in
which instruction is given in every department of library economy
and administration.
[purrEE] MODERN PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND THEIR METHODS 21
PuBLic LIBRARIES OF AUSTRALIA, ETC.
To mention merely the names of the chief Australian and other
Colonial public libraries, outside of Canada, is about as much as can be
attempted here.
The chief public library in Australia is that at Melbourne,
establizhed in 1853. It now contains considerably over 100,000
volumes, with about 25,000 pamphlets. The library is supported by
an annual Parliamentary vote of about £5,000 or £6,000. Readers
are admitted without any formality and have free access to the shelves.
Next in importance to the Melbourne Library is that at Sydney,
which is said to contain the largest collection of works on Australasia.
Other public libraries have been established in New South Wales,
at Newcastle, Bathurst, Albury and elsewhere.
There are several other considerable libraries in Melbourne, in
addition to the Public Library, and outside of the capital, the State
of Victoria contains public libraries at Ballarat, Castlemaine, Geelong,
and many other places.
In Queensland, the chief public library is at Brisbane. There is
also a flourishing library at Adelaide, in South Australia ; and another
at Perth, in Western Australia. Tasmania contains public libraries at
Hobart and Launceton; and New Zealand, at Auckland, Christchurch,
Dunedin and Wellington.
In Cape Colony, the most important library is that at Cape Town—
the South African Public Library, which was established as long ago
as 1818. It now contains 100,000 volumes, including the collection
bequeathed by Sir George Grey, comprising besides MSS. and early
printed books, an unrivalled collection of works in the native languages
of Africa, Australia, etc.
Outside of Cape Town, there are (if they have survived the war)
public libraries at Cradock, East London, Graff Reinet, Grahamstown,
Kimberley, King Williamstown and Port Elizabeth. In Natal there
are public libraries at Pietermaritzburg, Durban, etc. ; and in Rhodesia,
at Bulawayo."
1 The following list of South African libraries appeared in the February
number of l'he Library World, London, 1902:—
CAPE COLONY.
Name of Library. Estab. No. of Books.
CADE TONNES AMEN TE Tew Eater tole! eter ye. ace 1818 100,000
POrteliZaADetls, sh shoe ei ya USE 1848 36,216
PAM AMISTO Wales ca coeter) Neural ete aniston” (e's 1863 15,387
MIE VEN ews hil tn cath ote AMAR he hats 1882 23,843
22 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
In the West Indies, public libraries have been established at
Antigua, Barbados, Nassau (Jamaica), Grenada and Trinidad. There
is a public library at Port Louis, on the Island of Mauritius; two at
Colombo, Ceylon; one at Singapore, one at Malacca, another at Penang,
and finally, one at Hong Kong.
CANADIAN PUBLIC LIBRARIES.
The history of free public libraries in Canada is almost too
recent for consideration at the present time. Outside of the Province
of Ontario, they may be numbered upon one’s fingers—with a good
margin over. Of course if one takes account of other than municipal
free libraries—which is the especial field of this paper—the showing
is a trifle more creditable. In a report published in 1893 by the
United States Bureau of Education, relating to public libraries, detailed
statistics are given of the various libraries of Canada.’ From these
statistics it appears that, in 1891, there were altogether some 202
public libraries in the Dominion,’ containing 1,392,366 volumes and
86,544 pamphlets. Of these, 152 libraries, or over three-quarters of
the entire number, with 821,198 books and 42,134 pamphlets, were in
Ontario; 27 libraries, or over on-half of the remaining number with
459,781 volumes and 31,073 pamphlets, were in Quebec; and the
remainder were scattered over the other provinces. Of the 202
libraries, only 17 were strictly speaking free public libraries. There
NATAL.
Name of Library. Bstab. No. of Books.
IPISter mete DIY Sr ARE sisi che le bia’. pe 1851 11,261
POUT IAS ee. epi ease, ea stein Heel Wella deo bares e's 1853 12,368
Meer uibet 0e APN PMR ig Life ER CPL S CT DEP 1857 2,794
RACOMONG RNG Eash nobis! net ney comet) ae! dela tie 1865 2,500
AVEC NS Dee ems ath eee Gel 1872
ELON ict, RL TE Tr Mes louise 1873 1,100
ATTY LOW AYISL. UE RE Le lorient 1874 2,759
ASL COULD. ne ete ace nek ERAS thos a 1875 2,300
TOPO! Shi Le ARE NN ER RENE) Le 1880 2,310
NONPAS TELE AA sain ere amen aie ete bes 1880 3,200
ISIDINLO vo) 0 See ee ee yaa ett aye, das 1880
Howick: JaHplecs ARE nl 2% 1883 1,022
I Sys | '-) F: 1138 Pine coc à Nt er Ad ete 1885 500
Harding’ Circulating oa ee As ee our 1886 400
Dundee, ey Sag Foe. Su ea) CARA RSS 1891
Stier Hpriitesn Comes was lee) temo ea Cire 1896 450
SEANEET 5 ae) ee eee ee ae na te Lee Ov er tee 1898 419
? Prepared by Mr. James Bain, Jr., Chief Librarian of the Toronto Public
Library.
2 These include only libraries containing at least 1,000 volumes.
[BURPEE] MODERN PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND THEIR METHODS 23
were 109 Mechanics Institutes, all in Ontario, with the exception of
one at Sherbrooke, P. Q. (The Ontario Mechanics Institutes have
since been transformed into public libraries by an Act of the
Legislature of Ontario.) Of the rest, 37 were university and college
libraries; 19 law libraries; 8 parliamentary; and the remainder
medical, historical and scientific.*
The oldest library in Canada is that of Laval University, Quebec,
founded about 200 years ago. It now contains over 100,000 volumes,
besides a large number of very valuable manuscripts relating to the
early history of Canada.
The earliest subscription or co-operative library in Canada was
the Quebec Library, established in 1779.2 On January 7th, 1779, the
following advertisement appeared in the Quebec Gazette :—
‘ À subscription has been commenced for establishing a publick library
for the city and district of Quebec. It has met with the approbation, of His
Excellency the Governor-General and of the Bishop, and it is hoped that the
institution, so particularly useful in this country, will be generally encour-
aged. A list of those who have already subscribed is lodged at the Secre-
tary’s Office, where those who chuse it, may have an opportunity to add
there names. The subscribers are requested to attend at the Bishop’s
Palace, at 12 o’clock, the 15th instant, in order to chuse trustees for the
Library.”’
The meeting was duly held, and resulted in the election of a
board of trustees, and the passing of certain regulations for the govern-
ance of the library. The subscription was placed at £5 on entering,
and £2 annually afterwards. Books were only lent out to subscribers.
The public were assured that “no books contrary to religion or good
morals, would be permitted.” In 1822 the library had been removed
from the Bishop’s Palace and occupied rooms on St. Peter Street, in the
Lower Town. There were then some 4,000 volumes on the shelves.
In 1843 another library was established at Quebec, known as the
Quebee Library Association. Some years afterwards the old Quebec
Library amalgamated with the Library Association. In 1854 the
Parliament Buildings were destroyed by fire, and a large portion of
the books of the Quebec Library Association, which had been housed
there, were burnt. In 1866 a catalogue was printed showing 6990
volumes in the library; and the following year the books were sold
to the Quebec Literary and Historical Society; and the Quebec Library
* See Appendix for further statistics regarding Canadian public libraries.
? A very interesting account of the origin and history of the library of
the Literary & Historical Society, and of the Quebec Library, and Quebec
Library Association, by Mr. Frederick C. Wiirtele, will be found in the
Transactions of the Lit. and Hist. Soc. of Quebec, No. 19, 1889, pp. 29-70.
24 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Association, with the original Quebec Library, came to an end. The
Quebec Literary and Historical Society, which was founded in 1824,
chiefly through the instrumentality of the then Governor General,
the Earl of Dalhousie, has been an important factor in the intellectual
life of Quebec ever since. It has published a number of volumes of
valuable transactions, and its library now contains some 25,000 books
and pamphlets.
The only other libraries of any importance in the Province of
Quebec are those of McGill University, established in 1855, and
now containing 89,000 volumes, besides about 10,000 pamphlets
(McGill is the only Canadian library using Cutter’s Expansive System) ;
the Fraser Institute, Montreal, endowed by Hugh Fraser, opened in
1885, and now containing 39,000 volumes; and the Sherbrooke Library
and Art Union, the only remaining example of the once popular
Mechanics Institutes, which spread from England to America many
years ago, and in their day did good work. Their places are now,
however, much more effectively in every way taken by public libraries
supported by municipal rates, and open to the public in the widest
possible sense.
Among Canadian libraries the premier place must, of course, be
given to the Library of Parliament at Ottawa, an institution which bears
(or ought to bear) a somewhat similar relation to Canada, to that occu-
pied by the Library of Congress, and the British Museum, in their res-
pective countries. It is housed in a building which may be said without
exaggeration to be the most beautiful library building in America,—
if we except the mural decorations of the Boston Public Library, and
of the Library of Congress. It is questionable, however, whether the
Library of Parliament is, even relatively, of the same value to Canadian
scholars and students as the great national libraries of England and
the United States. This is not through any particular fault of the
staff, who are almost uniformly courteous and obliging, but mainly
because of the antiquated and cumbrous system by which the library
is managed, and the absence of any desire on the part of the authorities
to make the library one truly national in scope and helpfulness, rather
than purely and simply a library for the use of members of Parliament
during the few months of the session. Surely, librarians and the
friends of libraries in Canada, are not unreasonable when they hope
for the inauguration of a more effective and far-reaching policy as
respects the Library of Parliament; a policy which will make that
library, with its really splendid collections of books, the centre for
all that is best in modern librarianship, a source of inspiration and
helpfulness to other Canadian libraries, and of wide usefulness te
[purPEE] MODERN PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND THEIR METHODS 25
scholars and students and all who may seek information from its
increasing stores of books. It will then be in the truest sense a national
Library.
Of public libraries, in the stricter sense of the term, the great
majority, as has already been stated, are in Ontario, and the chief
of these is the Public Library at Toronto, with its five very active
branches. This library system, under the able direction of Mr. James
Bain, is doing, in a perfectly unostentatious way, a splendid work in
Toronto. It reaches, through its branches, every quarter of the city,
and its reference library is one of the best in Canada. In its methods
it aims to make the library of the widest possible helpfulness to the
community, and to keep its books, not on the shelves, but in the houses
of the people. There are now some 111,725 volumes in the main
library and branches, of which 37,297 are in the reference department
of the main library.
Next in importance to the Toronto Public Library is that at
Hamilton, in which several admirable features of modern library man-
agement have been adopted, with ample success. The books are classi-
fied according to the Dewey System, and an indicator is in use for the
assistance of readers. There are at present 28,000 books on the
shelves.
The most important of the other public libraries in Ontario are
those at London, Brantford, Guelph, Kingston, Preston, St. Catharines,
Lindsay, Berlin, St. Thomas, Waterloo, Sarnia and Stratford.
In the Lower Provinces there are only two municipal free libraries,
one at St. John, and the other at Halifax. Both are doing good work
in their respective communities, and the Halifax Library, especially,
has lately been re-organized and re-classified on a modern basis. A
printed catalogue, arranged on the Dewey System, was published in
1900. There are at present some 13,000 volumes in the library. The
St. John Library contains about 11,000.
The only public libraries in the west are those at Winnipeg, Vicioria,
Vancouver and New Westminster. These libraries are still in their
infancy, but will doubtless prove a boon to the people, and lead to the
establishment of similar libraries in other western Canadian towns.
Two features of the Ontario library system that are bound to bear
an increasing influence upon the development and usefulness of public
libraries in the province, are the existence of a carefully constructed
Provincial Act governing the establishment and maintenance of public
libraries; and the organization of the Ontario Library Association.
The latter, although only a year or two old, is already making its
influence markedly felt not only upon the libraries in the province,
26 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
but indirectly throughout the Dominion, in encouraging the establish-
ment of modern methods and appliances, and generally making our
public libraries of wide educational value.
It would not be just to close this brief sketch of the present
state of Canadian publie libraries, without mentioning the munificent
generosity of Mr. Andrew Carnegie. The same broad-minded spirit
which has led Mr. Carnegie to build public libraries in almost every
quarter of his adopted country, and throughout his native Scotland,
now embraces Canada as well. In Ottawa, Halifax, Vancouver,
Winnipeg and many other Canadian cities and towns, our people
have good reason to appreciate the munificence of the great steel
maker.
CATALOGUES AND CATALOGUING.
Modern cataloguing dates from the famous code of ninety-one
rules, prepared under the direction of Sir Anthony Panizzi, greatest
of modern librarians, and published in 1841. These rules were pre-
pared for use in the British Museum, of which Panizzi was then Keeper,
but they have since been adopted, with certain changes and modifi-
cations, by most of the libraries and librarians of England and America.
When these rules were considered before the Royal Commission
appointed in 1847 to inquire into the constitution and government
of the Museum, some curious evidence was adduced. Even such
eminent librarians as Mr. J. G. Cochrane, of the London Library,
objected to the rules in toto, maintaining that “they were more calcu-
lated to perplex and to mystify than to answer any useful purpose.”
When Mr. Cochrane was asked the question “ Do you object to rules in
1 The following is a list of the gifts of Mr. Carnegie to Canadian libraries,
up to the end of April, 1902:—
Berlin’ Ont... <6... .. .. =. .-0.. 910, 000 salltyste;, Marie, Ont... i. 12 2. Sl0oee
CHatham Ont. .., 22s ss saree Lp O00MSherbnooke QUE... 2.1 MIb 000
Collinewood Ont... 0. 7 wee DOU MOMIE PAIE Ont... 0.007010 000
Cornwall Ont. 20 MN mn OISE CA ETannes, Ont. 4.07: 357m O00
Godenich Ont. "7. LMP MODO Sidon, NB; sa.) 5): 2.105000
Guelph Ont: 2... ca ce sc. orice) 20 000MSE Thomas On... yes.) te plOAQOG
Pfam) TD UODMSETEIEOTO WONT. 1220... ioe! ale velo TOUO
TANGSAN Ont. 0 2e CEE ORO UO SES YIU NGUING See fore) En ec aie eal OOO
London (Ont... \.k) as 4.) sb ine (25) SOOO SMiameoliver; BIC. 1.201: 1 .4)' 0) 5.) EO OOR
Montreal Quel.) 2.0 ..).< c2 0s) D0 000 Victoria, BC... 3:60 000
Ottawa, ONE 2. 2c. oe ae see 100 0DD MN VANOSOT ONT ii. 2655. ve le os 20;000
Palmerston, Ont.. .. .. .. .. .. 6,000) 0Winnipes, Man. 7... 11: 52.5 100}000
Pembroke, Out: :2 /:; .. 33: 2 2.) 10/000) Wammouth, NCS. 1. 1. eb ico ODD.
SATHANONE esp MNT NET EN ae) LD OU ,
This makes a total of $826,500, to which may be added $50,000 for a library
in St. John’s, Newfoundland.
[BurPez] MODERN PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND THEIR METHODS 27
any compilation of catalogues?” He said, “ Yes, very much.” Many
witnesses strongly objected to the rule that whoever wanted a book
must look it out in the catalogue, and copy the title on a slip with
the press-mark before he could receive it—a rule that has since been
almost universally adopted in public libraries. Mr. Carlyle, with
characteristic crankiness, preferred to get his books elsewhere rather
than submit to the rule. “I had occasion” he says, “at one time
to consult a good many of the pamphlets respecting the Civil War
period of the history of England. I supposed these pamphlets to be
standing in their own room, on shelves contiguous to each other. I
marked on the paper ‘ King’s Pamphlets’ such and such a number,
giving a description undeniably pointing to the volume; and the
servant to whom I gave this paper at first said that he could not serve
me with the volume, and that I must find it out in the catalogue and
state the press-mark, and all the other formalities. Being a little
provoked with that state of things, I declared that I would not seek
for the book in that form; that I could get no good out of these
pamphlets on such terms; that I must give them up rather, and go
my ways, and try to make the grievance known in some proper quarter.”
Protessor Charles Coftin Jewett, of the Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, prepared a code of cataloguing rules, which he published
in 1853 in a pamphlet entitled “ Smithsonian Report on the Construc-
tion of Catalogues of Libraries, and their Publication by means of
Separate Titles, with Rules and Examples.” Mr. Jewett’s rules were
founded upon those of the British Museum ; some of them are verba-
tim ; others conform more to rules advocated by Panizzi but not finally
sanctioned by the Trustees of the Museum. Jewett’s rules are classified
as follows: pp. 1-45, Titles; pp. 45-56, Headings; pp. 57-59, Cross-
references; pp. 59-62, Arrangement; pp. 62, 63, Maps, engravings, etc. ;
p. 64, Exceptional cases. These rules, with some exceptions and modi-
fications, were afterwards adopted by the Boston Public Library.
Another code of rules founded largely upon Panizzi’s, was that
drawn up at Cambridge University—“ Rules to be observed in forming
the Alphabetical Catalogue of Printed Books in the University Library.”
With the exception of some alterations made in 1879, these rules, forty-
nine in all, now stand substantially as originally adopted.
The rules of the Library Association of the United Kingdom were
originally formed for the purpose of making a foundation for a gigantic
work suggested by the late Mr. Cornelius Walford,—a Catalogue of
English Literature. The plan for this catalogue fell through, but the
rules remained, and were adapted to the purposes of a general library
catalogue. They have been amended on several occasions since.
28 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
The Library Association rules were at one time adopted for the
catalogue of the Bodleian Library, but in 1882 Mr. Edward B. Nichol-
son, the librarian, arranged and had printed a set of “ Compendious
Cataloguing Rules for the Author-Catalogue of the Bodleian Library,”
which has since been added to, and now numbers sixty rules.
But the most important of all these codes of cataloguing rules is
undoubtedly Mr. Charles A. Cutter’s “ Rules for a Printed Dictionary
Catalogue,” first published in 1876 as the second part of the “ Special
Report on Public Libraries in the United States.” Mr. Cutter not only
goes much more minutely into every division and sub-division of his
subject than any of his predecessors, but he also sets out clearly and
forcibly the reasons on which each rule is founded, making his work of
inestimable benefit to the librarian, and especially to the cataloguer.
Mr. H. B. Wheatley, the well-known English librarian, while strongly
combatting many of Cutter’s rules, and the arguments advanced in sup-
port of them, acknowledges fully and frankly that “it would be difficult
to find anywhere in so small a space so many sound bibliographical
principles elucidated.”
Mr. Wheatley’s own little book, “ How to Catalogue a Library,” is
an extremely interesting and instructive contribution to the available
literature on the subject. It furnishes, in compact and lucid form, a
statement of the first principles of cataloguing, with an impartial dis-
cussion of the most notable codes, English and American.
The American Library Association, like its sister body of Great
Britain, has also put forth a collection of rules, entitled “ Condensed ~
Rules for an Author and Title Catalog.”
Another American work on the subject is Mr. F. B. Perkins’ “ Cata-
loguing for Public Libraries,” San Francisco.
Two codes of rules for card catalogues are Mr. Melvil Dewey’s
“Library School Card Catalog Rules” ; and Mr. K. A. Linderfelt’s
“Eclectic Card Catalogue Rules; Author and Title Entries.” Mr.
Linderfelt’s elaborate work is based on the German code of Dziatzko,
librarian of the Breslau Library, compared with the rules of the British
Museum, Cutter, Dewey, Perkins, and other authorities.
In his article on “ Cataloguing ”—one of the “ Papers Prepared for
the World’s Library Congress”—Mr. Wm. C. Lane, Librarian of the
Boston Atheneum, summarizes the points of general agreement in regard
to a library catalogue. These points are briefly as follows :—
1. The necessity of a comprehensive and detailed card catalogue.
If a carefully made and reasonably full printed catalogue exists, the card
catalogue may form simply a supplement to this, but if the printed catalogue
be only a finding list, or short-title catalogue, the card catalogue should be
complete in itself.
[BuRPEE] MODERN PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND THEIR METHODS 29
Its forms are various: in drawers, in trays open on a counter, in sliding
trays, in a Rudolph indexer, or slips mounted on the leaves of a book. In
any case the point to be provided for is the possibility of inserting new titles
indefinitely in strict alphabetic or other specified order.
2. On this catalogue every work should have at least an author or
(when this is impossible, as in the case of anonymous works, periodicals,
etc.) a title entry.
A common English custom is to use for certain classes of works, form or
subject entry only ; such are, almanacs, catalogues, society or academy publi-
cations, periodicals, etc. The nearly universal American usage is to treat
these works like any other.
3. In addition to author or title entry most works should also be
entered under the name of the subject of which they treat.
4. The author’s name should if possible be given in the vernacular,
unless all his works have been published in some other language than
that of his own nationality. Latin must often be considered the ver-
nacular of mediæval names.
5. On author cards titles should be brief, and the author’s name and
bibliographic details should be given in full. On subject cards the title
should be fuller and descriptive, but the author’s name may be given
with initials only, and some of the more technical or minute biblio-
graphic details may be omitted.
6. In transcribing titles the words and spelling of the title-page
should be strictly adhered to, any addition or deviation being plainly
indicated by brackets.
In addition to the above main points of agreement, there are several
smaller matters on which substantial unanimity exists. These are, as
to the treatment of names with prefixes, compound names, capitals,
numerals, periodicals, names beginning with Mc or St, and reports of
trials.
There are several different forms, and several different kinds of
catalogue, in use. The chief forms are: Printed catalogue, with printed
supplements. Printed catalogue, with card supplement. On cards
complete. On slips pasted in volumes—the British Museum plan. On
slips fastened in bunches like the leaves of a book—the Leyden plan;
which is also being tried at Harvard. The Rudolph Indexer or books.
To these may be added; printed finding-lists or other abbreviated forms
of catalogues; and, printed bulletins of recent accessions. Of these
forms, the printed and the manuscript, or a combination of both, are in
chief favour in England; while the popular form in the United States is
the card catalogue. In Australia and in Canada the practice is some-
what haphazard, opinion seeming to be impartially divided among all
the various forms.
30 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
The kinds of catalogues! may be divided into two general classes—
those in which author and subject entries are distinct and separate; and
those in which author and subject entries are combined in a single
alphabet. The former class may be subdivided into four smaller groups:
A. Subject catalogues in dictionary form.
B. Classified on the decimal system (Dewey’s).
C. Classified on some other system (Cutter’s, Harris’, etc).
D. Alphabetico-classed subject catalogue, i.e., a catalogue having general
classes in alphabetic sequence, with alphabetic subdivisions.
Of the several systems of classification, the decimal system devised
by Mr. Melvil Dewey is most generally used. It has been adopted by a
large majority of public libraries in the United States, and is making
considerable headway in England. It is also used in a few Canadian and
Australian libraries. It has won the approval of several leading Euro-
pean librarians, but has as yet been adopted by very few, if any, libraries
on the Continent. The decimal system has been fully described by Mr.
Dewey in an elaborate paper published in the “ Special Report on Public
Libraries in the United States” (pp. 623-648). Under this system the
whole field of human knowledge is divided into ten classes; each of these
is then sub-divided into ten divisions of the main class; and each of
these, again, is further sub-divided into ten. This sub-division may, of
course, be carried out indefinitely, and thus provide for the most minute
classification. It is this division into tens that gives the system the
name of decimal. The main classes are: General Works, Philosophy,
Sociology, Philology, Natural Science, Useful Arts, Fine Arts, Litera-
ture, History. The chief advantage claimed for the system is its adap-
tability to the needs of any library, large or small, general or special.
As an instance of the minuteness with which the classification may be
carried out, take the case of a work on Strikes. The number for this
would be 331.89; the first figure representing the general class Soci-
ology; the second, the division Political Economy; the third, the section
devoted to Capital, Labour and Wages; the fourth, Labouring Classes;
and the fifth, Strikes. The main classification only covers three
figures, any further sub-division being carried beyond the decimal
point.
1 The late Mr. Justin Winsor gave this admirable advice as to the use of
cataloguing systems:—
“Pach of two systems under proper conditions may be equally good,
when both are understood and an equal familiarity has been acquired with
each. Choose that which you naturally take to; use it, and do mot decide
that the other is not perfectly satisfactory to him who chose that. Which-
ever you have chosen, study to improve it, and you will probably do so, in
so far as it becomes fitted more closely to the individuality of yourself and
your library.”
[Burpre] MODERN PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND THEIR METHODS 31
Mr. C. A. Cutter devised some years ago a system which he calls
the Expansive Classification. Briefly it consists of seven tables of classi-
fication, of progressive fulness, designed to meet the needs of a library
at its successive stages of growth, and so arranged that the transfer from
one classification to a closer or more minute one, can be made with com-
paratively little trouble. The main classes are: General Works, Phil-
osophy, Religion, Biography, History, Geography and Travels, Social
Sciences, Natural Sciences, Medicine, Useful Arts, Fine Arts, Arts of
Communication by Language. Fiction, Poetry, etc., are included in
the last section.
From the point of view of the practical librarian, catalogues are
subject to still another division. In addition to the classes of catalogues
which are open to the public, and with which we are all familiar, there
are several which belong to the internal economy of the library, and are
used only by the staff.
The first of these is the Accession Catalogue, in which the history
of every book acquired either by purchase or gift, is recorded; when it
was acquired, its accession number, its class, book and volume number,
a short title, place and date of publication, size, binding, cost, etc., with
a remarks column in which is noted its subsequent history, whether it
is rebound, transferred, lost, sold, condemned or exchanged.
The index is the official authors’ catalogue, for use by the librarians
in checking the public authors’ catalogue, which is prepared from it.
The shelf list is the official subject catalogue. It represents the actual
arrangement of the books on the shelves. It is generally on loose
sheets, laced together, and gives the class, book and volume number of
each volume, together with its accession number, author, and short title.
It is used in the annual examination of the library, and also serves as
the librarian’s subject catalogue, giving a compact list of all the books
which the library has on any given subject.
The greatest of all catalogues is, of course, the Catalogue of Printed
Books in the British Museum, the printing of which was begun in 1880
and completed by the end of the century. The catalogue contains
separate entries of every book, pamphlet, magazine, newspaper and
broadside or single-sheet in the library, with the exception of a few
collections of books and pamphlets which are covered by special
catalogues. .
Up to 1897 the British Museum was the only library of the first rank
that had printed its general catalogue, either by author or subject. In
August of that year there appeared the first volume of the general alpha-
betical catalogue of the Bibliothéque Nationale. The catalogue is
preceded by a learned introduction by M. Léopold Delisle, giving the
history of the library and its various catalogues, and describing the
32 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
scope of the new undertaking. It is expected to contain about two
million entries, including, however, a number of cross-references from
editors, translators, etc.
One of the most notable of European library catalogues is that in
use at the Royal Library at Breslau. Dr. Dziatzko, formerly librarian
at Breslau, and now of the University of Gottingen, originated this cata-
logue. Dr. Dziatzko’s system, which has already been mentioned as the
main source of Linderfelt’s Code, was itself founded upon the British
Museum rules, with certain important modifications. The Breslau
catalogue is not a book catalogue, like that of the British Museum,
but a card catalogue.
The dictionary catalogue is peculiarly an American invention, and
very few specimens are to be found outside of the United States. One
may be mentioned, however, the “Analytical and Classified Catalogue
of the Library of Parliament of Queensland,” 1883, prepared by Mr.
D. O'Donovan, Parliamentary Librarian. The books are entered under
author and subject with full cross-references, and all the entries are
arranged in one alphabet. There are abstracts of the contents of some
of the books, and references to articles in reviews. The finest example
of this type of catalogue is, of course, that of the Surgeon-General’s
Office, Washington, but the tremendous amount of money and labour
expended upon this catalogue makes it improbable that any other library
will attempt to carry out the dictionary principle so exhaustively.
Mr. Cutter, in the introduction to his “ Rules for a Dictionary
Catalogue,” gives the following analysis of this form of catalogue :—It
must embody: Author-entry, title-entry or title-reference, subject-entry,
cross-references and classed subject table, form-entry, the edition and
imprint, with notes bibliographical and literary where necessary. It is
designed to serve the following purposes: To enable a person to find a
book of which either the author, the title, or the subject is known. To
show what a library has, by a given author, on a given subject, or in a
given kind of literature. To assist in the choice of a book, as to its
edition (bibliographically), or, as to its character (literary or topical).
The dictionary catalogue includes practically the advantages of
every other kind of catalogue. It answers every legitimate question that
the reader or student may ask as to the books of which it is the record.
It is, therefore, if properly constructed, of inestimable benefit to the
constituents of any library, large or small.
The arrangement of books upon the shelves may be roughly divided
into two classes : the fixed location system ; and the relative location.
The former has been adopted at the British Museum, the Bodleian, and
most of the larger libraries of England and the Continent. About the
only American library which uses it is that of Cornell University. The
[BurreE] MODERN PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND THEIR METHODS 33
relative location is practically universal in the United States; and has
also been adopted by some of the modern English free libraries, the
newer portions of the Cambridge University Library, and in the Biblio-
thèque Nationale. In the fixed location system, the books are arranged
in definite book-cases, each of which has a number or letter which forms
part of the press-mark of the book. In the relative location, the books
are arranged not with regard to any particular book-case or shelf, but
with regard to each other. They run along the shelves, free from either
the wasteful gaps, or inconvenient crowding, inevitable in the fixed
location.
“Tf you are troubled with a pride of accuracy, and would have it com-
pletely taken out of you, print a catalogue.’’—Henry Stevens.
References on Cataloguing and Classification :—
Cataloguing : Enc. Britt., XIV., pp. 537, 539.
Report U.S. Libraries, p. 399 (special and complete catalogues);
425; 489 (cataloguing); 495 (shelf lists); 496 (finding lists). 497
(printed catalogues); 512 (cataloguing college libraries); 552
(printed or MSS.?); 645 (subject catalogues); 648 (dictionary
catalogues): 657, 660 (classed catalogues).
Papers prepared for World’s Lib. Cong., 826 et seq.
Library Administration, by J. Macfarlane, London, 1898; p. 78.
How to Catalogue a Library, by H. B. Wheatley, London, 1889.
Denver Library Hand-Book, pp. 59 (card catalogues); 108-111
(what questions a catalogue should answer, etc.) ; 117-120
(dictionary catalogue).
Essays in Librarianship, by Dr. R. Garnett, London (1899), pp.
83, 84, 109-114 (British Museum catalogue).
The Free Library, by J. J. Ogle, London (1897), p. 125.
Home Education Report (Univ. of State of N.Y.), 1899, p. 89 (card
catalogues).
Classification: Enc. Britt., III., 661.
How to Catalogue a Library (Wheatley), 47.
Report U.S. Libraries, 492, 623 et seq.
Denwer Library Hand-Book, 112-115, 124.
Library Administration (Marfarlane), 148.
Hssays in Librarianship (Garnett), 210 et seq.
Papers prepared for World’s Lib. Cong., 861. At p. 893 will be
found a very full list of references on classification.
Sec. II., 1902. 3.
34 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
THE OPEN SHELF SYSTEM.
This system is one of the most recent developments in library
administration. While the idea itself is not very new, its distinctive
application belongs to the past decade, and the initiation of the system
must be credited to American libraries and librarians. In a limited
sense, open access to the book shelves has been in operation for many
years past in the British Museum, the French National Library at
Paris, and other English and Continental libraries. In the reading-
room of the British Museum some 20,000 carefully selected books
are open to the public; and in the Salle de Travail of the Bibliothéque
Nationale about 12,000 are made available in this way.
In the United States the principle has been carried to its logical
conclusion in several prominent libraries, by throwing practically the
whole resources of the library open to the public. Many other Amer-
ican libraries have contented themselves with the more conservative
system of the British Museum, by placing a certain number of selected
books in one room, generally called the “ Open Shelf Room,” where
they may be consulted by readers without the intervention of the
library attendants.
An admirable example of the successful working of the Open
Shelf System as applied to an entire library, is furnished by the Phila-
delphia Public Library. Here the books are conveniently classified,
and the visitor or reader may go direct to the shelves and examine
the authorities on any given subject to his heart’s content, or pick out
the book he wants and carry it to a neighbouring table. The success
of the system at Philadelphia has been all that its most devoted
adherents could desire.
Professor Adams, of Johns Hopkins University, has clearly stated
the case for the Open Shelf System in the course of an elaborate paper
on “ Public Libraries and Popular Education.” He says: “The old
method of guicing readers in the use of books was the printed cata-
logue; but public experience in America long ago demonstrated that
men and women want to see the books rather than the mere titles of
books. A brief examination of a printed volume soon convinces the
reader whether he wants to read that particular book. Moreover,
access to a varied collection of authorities on one subject, like that
of money, or labour, China, or Cuba, quickly determines the reader’s
choice. Oldtime methods of scholastic administration often raised
barriers between the books and the people, just as medieval theories
raised monastic walls between social life and religion.”
In the Astor Library, the New York Circulating, and other
libraries of the American metropolis, the open shelf system is
[eurrge] MODERN PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND THEIR METHODS 35
reported to be a pronounced success. In the New York Circulating
Library the system has been extended to nearly all its numerous
branches throughout the city, and free access to the shelves is per-
mitted even to children over nine years of age.
At Buffalo a large room is devoted to the purposes of open access.
Here some 11,000 books are classified in cases around the walls. A
number of reading tables fill the centre of the room, and the reader
may forage around, picking out what he wants from the shelves. In
the Buffalo Library, as in most of the American libraries that have
adopted the Open Access System, the books are not put back on the
shelves by readers, but are left on a central table, to be replaced by the
attendants. This obviates one of the chief objections to the system
raised by English librarians, that the books would become hopelessly
mixed through the carelessness of readers in not returning them to
their proper places on the shelves.
In the Reynolds Library at Rochester, a similar arrangement is
in existence. On the ground floor there is a reference or study library
with some 3,000 books most in demand, which are directly accessible
to the public. Here, as in other American libraries, a reference
librarian is always on hand, to advise and assist readers, but in no way
to interfere with their free access to the shelves.
Many other cases might be cited of American libraries which have
adopted this admirable system, as, for instance, the Cleveland Library,
where it is claimed to have increased the circulation of the books
60 per cent in a very short time. From present indications the
system is bound to grow in favour, on both sides of the Atlantic.
In his admirable article on “College Library Administration,”
forming part of the voluminous report on “ Public Libraries in the
United States,” Professor Ottis H. Robinson made a strong plea for
the Open Access System as applied to college libraries, and his argu-
ment is equally applicable to the case of a public library. The plea
that in a public library such a privilege would be taken advantage of
by frivolous or careless readers, to the great detriment of the books,
is not borne out by the experience of those libraries that have tried
the experiment. It has been found — as any thoughtful man might
have predicted —that the classes of people who take advantage of
the privilege are the serious-minded readers, the students, the genuine
seekers after knowledge. As for the idle or frivolous reader, he still
prefers that the library attendants should relieve him from the task
of choosing a book. And even if this were not so, is it not better
and wiser to take chances of a few books being lost or damaged, rather
than deny to serious readers the immense advantage of personal con-
tact with the books as they lie classified on the shelves? The time
36 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
spent in browsing around among the books is never lost. As for the
further objection that Open Access will prove an added temptation
and opportunity to evil-disposed persons, it need only be stated that a
reasonable supervision should in any event be kept over rooms where
books are made freely accessible to the public, and if this is done
there need be no great fear of book thieves.
“Remove the barriers,” says Professor Robinson, “and make
familiarity with well chosen authors as easy as practicable. No habit
is more uncertain or more capricious than that of a student in a
library. He wants to thumb the books which he cannot call for by
name. It is not an idle curiosity. He wants to know, and has a
right to know, a good deal more about them than can be learned from
teachers and catalogues. Deny him this, and he turns away disap-
pointed and discouraged; grant him this, and his interest is awakened,
his love for books increased, and the habit of reading will most likely
be formed.”
OPEN SHELF vs. INDICATOR.
In England the question has developed into one of Open Shelf
vs. Indicator. The use of indicators is very widespread in Great
Britain; but the device is practically unknown in the United States.
In Australia and in Canada it has found a few adherents. In England
the rival system of “open access” is steadily gaining ground, and
there seems reason for believing that it will ultimately displace the
indicator.
The Indicator is an arrangement for showing whether or not a
given book is in or out. There are a number of varieties in use in
English libraries, but by far the most popular is what is known as
the “ Cotgreave Indicator,’ from the name of its inventor. This
indicator is in use in over sixty libraries in London alone, besides many
in other parts of the Kingdom. The following description is taken
from Macfarlane’s work on “ Library Administration,” in Dr. Garnett’s
Library Series :—“It consists of an upright framework of wood or
metal, fitted with minute zine shelves without ends, which is placed
in the library so that one side (protected with glass) is visible to the
public, and the other accessible to the staff. On the shelves are placed
title-ledgers of blank forms, in metal cases with ends, coloured red and
blue respectively, and bearing numbers. When a case is inserted so
that the blue end meets the public eve it is to be understood that the
‘in’: when the red end is seen it
is out”. The borrower having found in the catalogue the number
of the book he requires, and seeing by the colour exhibited on his
hook hearing the number shown is
[surrre] MODERN PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND THEIR METHODS 37
side of the Indicator that it is ‘in, hands in a request for it, together
with his ‘borrower’s ticket” The library assistant removes the
corresponding ledger from its shelf, enters it in the number of the
borrower’s ticket and the date of the loan, places the ticket in the
ledger, and replaces it so as to exhibit the ‘ out’ colour to the public.”
Despite the popularity of the Indicator in England, one finds it hard
to see how there can be any question as to the superiority of the
Open Shelf System. combined with the modern charging system of
cards and trays.
The first English public library to adopt the Open Shelf System,
or “ Open Access” as it is called in England, was that at Clerkenwell,
whose librarian, Mr. James D. Brown, was sent over to the United
States at the time of the Chicago Exhibition, by his unusually generous
and far-sighted Library Committee, to study modern American library
methods. Mr. Brown prefers the term “safeguarded access” as applied
to the Open Shelf System, it being, he considers, more accurate, since
it is admitted that various checks on readers and borrowers are neces-
sary. At Clerkenwell the system applies to the circulating, but not
to the reference library. The public “enter the library at one side
of an enclosed counter in which an assistant is placed, and leave with
him the hooks they are returning. After choosing a volume from
the open shelves they bring it to the other side of the counter, where
it is booked for them, and they then leave the library by a different
door from the one by which they entered. The book-shelves are placed
end on with the issue counter, so that an assistant stationed there
can see between each, and has full control of the whole library.”
A limited form of “ open access ” was tried at the Liverpool Public
Library a few years ago, but has since been discontinued on account of
the loss of the books. That this loss was not due to any weakness in the
system so much as to defective supervision, is proved by the fact
that the books were shelved in alcoves, where anything like adequate
supervision would be impossible.
The system has been adopted in the Croydon Public Library,
where it has proved eminently satisfactory, the library building having
been arranged to suit the system.
In the Wigan Free Library, a special building for boys was opened
in 1895, and here also a system of open shelving has been adopted.
At St. Martin’s, London, open access is in vogue, but, reversing
the Clerkenwell plan, it applies only to the reference department. An
ingenious device is also in use here to keep readers informed as to
recent additions to the library. It is known as the “ wheel catalogue,”
and is placed under glazed portions of the counter. By means of
38 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
a lever it is made to revolve and bring successively into view a long
list of new book-titles arranged on the circumference of the wheel.
At Birmingham a limited form of open access is in operation, a
large number of works of reference, now filling nearly fifty shelves,
being made free to the public. This system applies also to the Aber-
deen Library.
At Cardiff, in Wales, the open shelf system has been tried in four
of the branches, but unfortunately the plan has been abused by
systematic book thieves and consequently discredited.
The general experience, both in the United States and England,
seems to have been that, with proper precautions, the loss of books is
very small. The experience of the Boston Public Library has certainly
been very unfortunate, for out of a juvenile library of 5,000 books,
several hundred were lost in one year, but this was admittedly the result
of a lack of reasonable supervision. The Minneapolis Public Library,
on the other hand, issued several hundred “free access” permits in a
year, and only lost three volumes from the reference shelves and a
few odd numbers of periodicals. The experience at Philadelphia and
New York has been practically the same. The losses from English
libraries adopting the system have as a rule been very insignificant—
at Clerkenwell about three volumes in a year. At the British Museum
experience has shown that the only books at all likely to be purloined
are the small portable volumes, of comparatively slight value. Until
recently a set of “ Murray’s Guides” was, placed in the reading room
of the Museum for the use of readers, but these “used to vanish—not
quite unaccountably—about the month of August, and either remain
away, or come back in October stained with much trouble.” Now
“Murray” reclines upon a remote shelf, and one must send an
attendant for him.
On the whole, the Open Shelf System would seem to have come
to stay. It is only from the librarian’s point of view, as custodian of
the books, that there can be any question as to the desirability of the
plan. From the reader’s standpoint the system is one of inestimable
benefit. And it must always be remembered, that it is not so much the
convenience of librarians or libraries that is to be considered, but above
all the convenience and benefit of the public, for whom solely the
public library exists. As Mr. George Iles, a New York librarian, very
justly said, “only when the full catalogue, whatever its form, and
the shelves themselves are at the free disposal of the public, does the
public library fully stand by the promise of its open door.” 1
1 The Open Shelf, or Open Access, system has been very widely discussed
during the past few years. The following references are merely suggestive,
[purPEE] MODERN PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND THEIR°METHODS 39
LOAN OR CHARGING SYSTEM.
The primary requisites of any system for keeping a record of
books borrowed in a public library, are speed, simplicity, and the
minimum of trouble to the borrower. In some libraries readers are
driven away by unnecessary and exasperating “red-tape”; and in
others the efficiency of the library is sacrificed to the impatience of
borrowers. Hither extreme is in the long run fatal to the growth
and efficiency of the library. And yet it is not always easy to attain
that happy medium which should be the aim of every right-minded
librarian. Borrowers are not always patient and reasonable — as
instance the case of Mr. Carlyle, already referred to—and the tempta-
tion is doubtless often strong upon the well-meaning librarian to
sacrifice accuracy and thoroughness upon the altar of popular favour.
The oldest of the various systems at present in use for charging
books, is what is known as the Ledger System. In this system —
which is widely used in English, Australian and Canadian libraries,
as well as on the Continent,—the record of books borrowed and bor-
rowers’ names is kept in a ledger, each borrower having a separate
page. Whena book is taken out, the number is entered on the proper
page, with the date, and when the book returns, the charge is can-
celled. A day-book is frequently used with this system, for the sake
of speedy charging. The advantages of the system are its permanent
form, compactness, speed, and the fact that each borrower’s record
and do not pretend to cover the literature of the subject with any approach
to exhaustiveness:—
“Papers Prepared for the World’s Library Congress,’ edited by Melvil
Dewey. Washington, 1896. pp. 737, 924, 979, 989, 993.
“ College Library Administration,” by Prof. Otis H. Robinson, in ‘ Report
on Public Libraries in the United States.” Washington, 1876. p. 516.
7th Annual Report (1899) Home Education Department. University of
the State of New York. pp. 79, 84, 90, 152, 251.
“Freedom in Public Libraries,’ by William Howard Brett, in “ Trans-
actions and Proceedings, International Library Conference.” London, 1898.
pp. 79-83.
“Denver Library Hand-Book.”’ pp. 14, 60.
“The Free Library,’ by J. J. Ogle. London, 1897. p. 101. .
“Library Administration,’ by J. Macfarlane. London, 1898. pp. 78, 208,
211;
‘Library Construction,’ by F. J. Burgoyne. London, 1897. pp. 169, 187,
205, 210.
Library Journal, V. 8, p. 241 (Foster), V. 13, p. 35 (Cornell), V. 15, pp. 100,
103, 133-4, 197-8, 229-31, 296 (Symposium on Open Access), V. 16, pp. 268-9 (Hig-
ginson), 297-300 (N.Y. Lib. Club), etc., etc.
Library Notes, V. 2, p. 216, V\ 12, p. 189, V. 18, p. 181, V. 24, C136-42, etc., etc.
The Library (London), Ser. 2, V. 1 (Dec., 1899), pp. 49-62.
40 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
stands by itself. There are, however, many weaknesses in the system,
chief of which is the practical impossibility of obtaining from it any
information as to a given book.
A modification of the Ledger System is what is known as the
Temporary Slip System. The slips may be used in the same way as
the pages of the ledger, with the advantage that more than one person
may be engaged in charging and discharging books. The slips are
arranged in trays or in pigeonholes in any of three ways: (1) with guide
cards or blocks for each day, making practically a daybook; (2) by
borrower's name or number, making an account with the borrower;
or, (3) by call number, making an account with the book. A sugges-
tion has been made that by means of a carbon paper, such as is used
by clerks in a dry-goods store, an extra copy of each slip might be
made, and thus two records would Le possible, one arranged by bor-
rowers and the other by books.
The system most used in American libraries is the Card System.
This is a further development of the Temporary Slip System. The
record, being on durable cards, is permanent rather than temporary.
In other respects the system is substantially the same. As a matter
of fact, however, there are two card systems —the Single Card Sys-
tem and the Two Card System. The advantages of the former over
the Temporary Slip System are comparatively slight; but the Two
Card System has many important advantages. It is, on the whole,
the most altogether satisfactory system that has yet been devised.
There are two sets of cards — borrowers’ and book cards, the latter
kept usually in date order. The system is subject to a number of
variations, but the arrangement generally used is that in which the
borrower’s card records the call number and date, and the book card
the borrower’s number and date. When a book is returned, the dating
slip in it and the date of the borrower’s card are compared, and if the
same, the latter is marked with the date of return and handed back,
while the book card is looked up by means of the number in the book,
the date of return is noted on it, the card placed in a pocket on the
inside cover of the book, or in a card indicator, and the book returned
to the shelves.
The indicator, so widely used in English libraries, must also be
mentioned among charging systems. There are a number of forms,
and a description of the most popular, known as the “ Cotgreave,” is
given elsewhere in this paper.
A feature that is common to some of the indicators as well as the
card systems, is the movable date register or tray. The date register
of the indicator has cleven columns for books not overdue, and one
[eurese] MODERN PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND THEIR METHODS Al
for overdue books. The date tray has fourteen compartments for the
former, and one for the latter.
The trays move from right to left, and as to-day’s circulation
becomes yesterday’s, its tray is moved one space to the left, while the
fourteenth tray shows that all cards left in it represent books one day
overdue, and the delinquents can thus be promptly notified.
Some years ago a list was prepared by the librarian of the Mil-
waukee Public Library, and published in the Library Journal, of 20
questions answered by the charging system of that library. Of these
questions, it may be noted that only those relating to borrowers can
as a rule be answered by the Ledger System. Three or four additional
questions may be answered by the Temporary Slip System, and the
Single Card System. The Two Card System answers nearly all.
The list is as follows (the additions in brackets having been added by
Miss Plummer, of the Pratt Institute, in a paper on “ Loan Sys-
tems ?): —
1. Is a given book out ?
2. If out, who has it ?
3. When did he take it ?
4. When is it to be sent for as overdue ?
5. Has the book ever been out ?
6. How many times and when has the book been out ?
7. How many (and what) books were issued on a given day ?
ja. How many (and what) bookis are due on a given day ?
8. How many (and what) books in each class were issued on a given day?
9. How many (and what) books are now out, charged to borrowers ?
10. How many (and what) books are at the bindery ?
11. Has a certain book been rebound, and when ?
12. What books (have been discarded ?
13. Does the circulation of a discarded book warrant its being replaced ?
14. Has a given borrower a book charged to him ?
14a. (How many books are charged to him ?)
14b. (What books are charged to him ?)
15. How many persons have now books charged to them ?
16. Are these the persons who registered earliest or latest ?
17. How often has a borrower made use of the library ?
18. Has a borrower had a given book before ? =
19. What has been the character of the borrower’s reading ?
20. Is the borrower’s card stili in force and used ?
20a. (Has this person a right to draw books ?)
Questions 10, 11 and 12 are answered, in most libraries, by a reference to
the Accession Book. ;
In the Proceedings of the American Library Association for 1889, pp. 203-
214, will be found an admirable historical treatment of Charging Systems, in
the United States, by Mr. Hi J. Carr. In an appendix to Mr. Carr’s report is
given a bibliography of Charging Systems from 1876 to 1888. The subject has
been frequently dealt with since 1888 in the American Library Journal. See:
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
>
to
FUNCTIONS OF A LIBRARIAN.
Nowhere is the difference more marked between the old and new
conceptions of librarianship, than in the duties of the librarian, his
attitude towards the library and his attitude towards the public.
Under the old dispensation the librarian was merely a custodian of
books. Books were few; readers were fewer; the librarian had very
little to do, and was estimated accordingly. He was considered to be,
and as a matter of fact generally was, a comparatively useless member
of society. One John Durie published a little book, in 1650, “ The
Reformed Täbrarie-Keeper,” in which he drew a very unflattering
picture of the librarians of his day. ‘They subordinate,” he says,
“all the advantages of their places-to purchase mainly two things
thereby, viz., an easie subsistence, and some credit in comparison
with others; nor is the last much regarded, if the first may be had.”
He then proceeds to set forth what he considers the “ proper charge
of the Honorarie Librarie-keeper,” to wit, “to keep the publick stock
of learning, which is in Books and Manuscripts, to increas it, and to
propose to others in the waie which may be most useful unto all”;
from which one gathers that John Durie was a man several hundred
years in advance of his age. Among other things, he recommended
a “ Catalogue of Additionals,” to be printed every three years.
An English librarian of our own times, Mr. Henry Bradshaw,
gives in a single sentence an admirable definition of the ideal librarian.
“A librarian,” he says, “‘is one who earns his living by attending to the
wants of those for whose use the library under his charge exists; his
primary duty being, in the widest possible sense of the phrase, to save
the time of those who seek his services.” And to this might be added
the qualification suggested by an American librarian, Mrs. M. A.
Sanders — herself a striking example of the success of her theory —
“the librarian should meet the reader in the position of a host
or hostess welcoming a guest.”
Unfortunately, even in these latter days there are not wanting
people, and educated people too, whose conception of the librarian
and his work is a conception that belongs to the seventeenth or
eighteenth century. According to their idea, his chief duty consists in
handing books over a counter to the library’s customers. How sur-
prised they would be to be told that the conscientious librarian—the
librarian who has the best interests of his library at heart—gives, and
must give, not an hour or two daily, but his whole waking thoughts,
1889, 14: 213-14; 1899, 14: 468-9; 1889, 14: 281; 1891, 16: 232; 1891, 16: C51-2; 1891, 16:
246; 1891, 16: 334-4; 1893, 18: 42.
[BuRPEE] MODERN PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND THEIR METHODS 43
to the innumerable problems that confront him from morning till
night. ‘Trained intelligence, a genuine love for and wide knowledge
of good literature, business acumen, native courtesy and helpfulness,
tact and discrimination, a good memory, patience, breadth of view;
these are some of the essential characteristics of the successful modern
librarian. The day has happily gone when the office of a librarian
was merely a refuge for some broken-down politician, unsuccessful
school-teacher, or man who had made a failure of his profession,
whatever it might be. Täibrarianship is now an honourable profession,
the world over. Careful study and preparation is required of those
who aspire to the position either of a librarian or library assistant;
and it is even beginning to be recognized by Library Committees that
a man or a woman possessing the requisite qualifications is entitled to
a fair remuneration.
We are merely upon the threshold of a new era in the history of
public libraries. What the present century may see, in the direction
of increasing and broadening their mission as factors in the educational
life of the community, it would be difficult to foretell, but that that
influence will be deep and lasting, everyone who has studied the recent
development of public libraries, especially in the United States and
-England, must feel heartily assured.
APPENDIX.
For the benefit of those who might be sufficiently interested in
the subject of Canadian libraries, the writer prepared a list of ques-
tions, which were submitted to the librarians of all the more important
public libraries throughout the Dominion. Through the courtesy of
these officers, very complete answers have been secured to the several
questions submitted, the substance of which will be found below.
No attempt has been made to procure data from all the Ontario
libraries, of which the last Report of the Minister of Education for
that Province (1901) records 432 in existence, divided into 303 “ Public
Libraries” and 129 “Free Libraries,” but a certain number of the
larger and more representative Ontario libraries were selected, as to
which somewhat fuller particulars have been procured than are to be
found in the tables of the Education Report. These latter tables con-
A series of works that will be found of inestimable advantage to librarians,
library assistants, and those who may be preparing themselves for the pro-
fession, is The Library Series, edited by Dr. Richard Garnett, formerly of the
British Museum. The series is in five volumes, each devoted to a particular
branch of library work: construction, administration, etc. The books are
published by George Allen, London, England.
+
44 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
tain a statement of receipts, expenditure, balance on hand, number of
members, number of volumes in library, number of volumes issued,
number of newspapers and periodicals, assets, and liabilities, for each
of the Ontario libraries reporting to the Department. The list of
questions which I submitted was as follows: —
When was library first established ?
Is it in a special building, or where ?
How is it supported ?
What is the total income ?
How many on the staff ?
What salaries paid ?
Have you any branches ?
How many assistants in each ?
How many books at present ?
How many pamphlets ?
What catalogues used—card, printed, or manuscript ?
What system of classification ?
Do you prefer any other system ?
Do you use any and if so, what indicator ?
Do you publish bulletins of new books—
On a board in the Library ?
Or in the newspapers ?
Have you any special rule for buying fiction ?
What is your annual circulation of books ?
How does circulation of fiction compare with total circulation ?
Do you permit readers to have access to the shelves ?
Do you approve of it ?
Is your library open on Sunday ?
Have you any special provision in your library—
For children ?
For ‘school pupils ?
Have you any connection with the public schools ?
Have you any special collections of books ?
Do you keep scrap-books, for clippings, prints, etc. ?
Are there any fittings or other conveniences peculiar to your library ?
Outside the province of Ontario, there are at present not more
than half a dozen free public libraries in the Dominion. These are
at St. John, N.B., Chatham, N.B., Halifax, N.S., Winnipeg, Man.,
Victoria, B.C., Vancouver, B.C., and New Westminster, B.C. To
these have been added two endowed free libraries, the Fraser Institute,
Montreal, and the Portland Library, St. John, N.B.
45
IR METHODS
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46 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
It will be seen from the foregoing table that the system of classifi-
cation in most general use— jf it may be dignified with the name
of a system — is the one prescribed by the Education Department of
Ontario. Several libraries use systems of their own, generally a simple
alphabetical arrangement by authors under a few general headings.
The Dewey Decimal System is used in the Hamilton Library, the
Citizens’ Free Library of Halifax, the London Public Library, and, in
a modified form, in the Reference Department of the Toronto Public.
t is also used in several Canadian college libraries. Cutter’s Expan-
sive System is used in only one Canadian library, that of McGill
University.
The great majority of Canadian libraries use a printed catalogue,
with periodical supplements. Card catalogues are used in the Fraser
Institute, Montreal, in the Reference Department of the Toronto
Library, and, in conjunction with a printed catalogue, at London,
Brockville, St. Thomas, and in one or two other Ontario libraries.
The consensus of opinion among Canadian librarians and library
committees seems to be somewhat divided on the question of permit-
ting readers to have access to the shelves, under what is known as
the Open Shelf, or Open Access, System. The system has been
adopted, under various restrictions, in the following lbraries: —
Berlin (to all books except fiction and juvenile), Dundas (to a limited
extent), Elora, Halifax (for reference purposes only), Hamilton (under :
certain restrictions), Niagara, Paris, Sarnia (not at present, but pro-
pose doing so in new library), Stratford (absolutely unrestricted,
except as to fiction and juvenile), and Victoria. Vancouver replies:
“ The open access system was tried here and found very unsatisfactory.”
It might be added that in a large majority of the college libraries
of Canada, students are permitted to have either full or partial access
to the book shelves.
Another important point upon which information was obtained,
is, whether any special provision is made for children, or school
pupils. Here, again, opinion seems to be somewhat divided, although
it may at once be said that, in the sense of the larger and fully organ-
ized children’s departments of United States libraries, there is at
present no such thing as special provision for children in Canadian
libraries; that is to say, there are no rooms specially constructed and
set apart for children, no fittings or furniture specially adapted to
the needs of children, no library attendants whose special duty it is
to look after the wants of the children, and, except to a very limited
extent, no attempt to provide a special, carefully selected and class-
ified, juvenile section in the library, with its own catalogues. The
public library of Victoria provides “certain library shelves for
[8vere] MODERN PUBLIC LIBRARIES AND THEIR METHODS 47
children’s books, to be selected but not read in the library”; Van-
couver has “no special provision for children at present, but intends
to do so in the new building now under construction through the
generosity of Mr. Carnegie”; at St. Thomas “the Board has placed
books in the schools for supplementary reading, under the teachers’
supervision ”; Berlin replies: “ Not at present, but in our new build-
ing, which is being built this summer, a children’s department will
he included ”; Lindsay has “a special collection of juvenile books,
specially classified”; Brockville “ would have special provision if we
had proper accommodation”; Sarnia also pleads “lack of room”;
St. John, N.B., has no special provision, but “aims at it”; Stratford
“is arranging for a special children’s reading-room in the new
building.”
So far, only one Canadian library has reached the stage where
the establishment of branches becomes necessary or desirable.
Toronto possesses five flourishing branches, in connection with the
central reference and circulating library.
Indicators, generally a simplified form of the “ Cotgreave,” are
used in the following libraries: Toronto, Hamilton, London, Berlin,
Grand Trunk (Montreal), Brockville and Collingwood; Vancouver
“intends to procure one,” while St. John replies, “No, they are
obsolete.”
The Citizens’ Free Library of Halifax is distinguished from all
other Canadian libraries by possessing a bindery of its own, in which
all necessary binding and repairing is done. ‘The binder receives
$34.66 per month, and an assistant gets $13.00 per month.
SECTION II., 1902 [ 49 ] Trans. KR. $. C.
IL—The Underground Railway.
W. H. Wirnrow, M.A., D.D. war
(Read May 27, 1902.)
It is gratifying to Canadian patriotism to know that among the
very first laws enacted by the newly organized province of Upper
Canada was one for the abolition of slavery. In the year 1793 the
conscript fathers of the new commonwealth, homespun clad farmers
or merchants from the plough or store, with a large vision of the
future, passed an act which forbade the further introduction of slaves
and made provision for the gradual emancipation of all slave born
children in the province. Dr. Scadding thus describes the picturesque
surroundings of the scene:
“We see them adjourning to the open air from their straightened
chamber at Navy Hall, and conducting the business of the young
province under the shade of a spreading tree, introducing the English
Code and Trial by Jury, decreeing roads, and prohibiting the spread
of slavery; while a boulder of the drift, lifting itself up through the
natural turf, serves as a desk for the recording clerk.” 1
From that time onward till the abolition of Slavery? in the
American Republic, a period of nearly a hundred years, Canada was
* Previous to this date, however, Lord Mansfield had declared, in 1772,
“Villeinage has ceased in England, and it cannot be revived. The air of
England,” he said, “has long been too pure for a slave, and every man is
free who breathes it. Every man who comes into England is entitled to the
protection of English law, whatever oppression he may heretofore have suf-
fered, and whatever may be the colour of his skin: Quamvis ille niger, quam-
vis tu candidus esses,”
Cowper, the British poet of the slave, translated this dictum into verse
that thrilled the age:—
“Slaves cannot breathe in England: if their lungs
Receive our air, that moment they are free ;
They touch our country and their shackles fall.”
Still earlier, in the very opening years of the eighteenth century, Chief
Justice Holt had affirmed that ‘as soon as a negro comes into England he is
free ; one may be a villein in England, but not a slave ” ; and later: “ In
England there is no such thing as a slave, and a human being never was
considered a chattel to be sold for a price.”
? On September 22nd, 1862, President Lincoln announced that on the first
day of January, 1863, “all persons held as slaves within any state
Sec. II., 1902. 4,
or desig-
50 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
the place of refuge for many thousands of fugitives from bondage.
The lone north star was the cynosure of their watching eyes. On
many a midnight march it guided their footsteps till they reached
our shores. It is estimated that more than 30,000 negro slaves found
freedom in Canada. These were helped on their way to the land of
liberty by a philanthropic organization known as the Underground
Railway. Of this organization, of its methods, its results, and some
of its principal agents, we purpose in this paper to give some account.
From the nature of the case the operations of the “ Underground
Railway ” had to be conducted in secret. Few details of its work
were placed on record. Its agents for very practical reasons “ did
good by stealth and blushed to find it fame.’ They lived in an
atmosphere of suspicion and espionage. When discovered they were
marked men, exposed to punishment by the law, and were subject to
extra judicial disabilities, annoyance and persecution, and were some-
times done to death as martyrs of liberty. The literature of the
subject is therefore meagre. It is scattered through reports of legal
trials, newspaper and magazine articles and a number of books and
sketches, reminiscence and biography. A few Underground Railway
agents were indiscreet enough to commit to writing the record of
their operations, some of which, for a time preserved, it was found
necessary to destroy. Nevertheless, a number of works have been
compiled on this subject.
The most considerable of these is Still’s “ Underground Railway
Records,” a large volume of 780 pages, which appeared in 1872 and a
second edition in 1883. Mr. Still for some years before the war took
an active part in the Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery Society, and had much
personal intercourse with the fugitives whom he harboured and helped
to Canada. Levi Coffin, an apostle of abolition, a distinguished mem-
ber of an uncompromising anti-slavery family, has written a large
volume of reminiscences of the stirring events in which he was
so prominent. Theodore Parker, of Boston, an active abolitionist,
made a large collection of manuscript and printed documents on this
subject which is now in possession of the Boston Public Library.
That philanthropic Canadian, Dr. Alexander M. Ross, who bore
a brave part in aiding the escape of fugitives, has in his “ Recol-
lection and Experiences of an Abolitionist” recorded many stirring
nated part of a state, the people whereof should then be in rebellion, should
be then, thenceforward, and forever free.” It was not, indeed, till June 28rd,
1864, that all laws for the rendition of slaves to their masters were repealed,
and on January 31st, 1865, by a constitutional amendment, slavery was for-
mally abolished throughout the entire Union, and the fourteenth amendment
of the constitution absolutely forbade compensation being made either by the
United States or by any state.
[WITHROW] THE UNDERGROUND RAILWAY 51
incidents of the anti-slavery campaign. The biographies of Fred
Douglass, Josiah Henson, Austin Steward and other escaped slaves,
also describe many personal incidents and adventures. A very viva-
cious volume entitled “ Heroes in Homespun,” by Ascot Hope (Robert
Hope Moncrief), gives vivid pictures of the prolonged anti-slavery
struggle. The investigations of Dr. Samuel G. Howe on the condition
of the refugees in Canada after the Secession War were very pains-
taking and exhaustive, and his book on the subject gives much valu-
able information. Other memoirs, biographies, local histories and maga-
zine and newspaper articles describe various aspects of the great moral
crusade for the abolition of slavery and succour of the slave.
Mrs. Stowe’s “ Uncle Tom’s Cabin” gives a graphic account of
Underground Railway methods, and the Key to that work furnishes
corroborative statements vindicating the general truthfulness of her
novel — Levi Coffin, for instance, being faithfully portrayed under a
pseudonym. Several of the anti-slavery poems by Whittier, Lowell
and Longfellow catch their inspiration from the stirring episodes of
this great movement.
The latest, best digested and most comprehensive book on this
subject is “The Underground Railway from Slavery to Freedom,” by
Wilbur H. Siebert, Professor of European History in Ohio State Uni-
versity... No other writer has so carefully investigated the sources
of information, so admirably digested the vast multitude of facts he
has discovered or presented them in such a luminous manner as Pro-
fessor Siebert. To his volume land to those of several of the other
writers referred to above we are indebted for much of the data of this
paper. To this we add our own recollections of the antebellum
period, our personal acquaintance with not a few fugitive slaves and
our intensely interested observation of the struggle for the rendition
of Robert Anderson, which was one of the causes célèbres of Canadian
jurisprudence.
It is somewhat remarkable that such law-abiding and peace-loving
people as the Friends or Quakers should be such active agents in the
violation of law and defiance of authority involved in the abduction,
concealment and forwarding to their destination of the hunted slaves.
The zealous abolitionist and Underground Railroad agent, to use
the words of Professor Albert Bushnell Hart, of Harvard University,
argued thus: “In aiding fugitive slaves he was making the most
effective protest against the continuance of slavery; but he was also
doing something more tangible; he was helping the oppressed, he was
eluding the oppressor; and at the same time he was enjoying the most
romantic and exciting amusement open to men who had high moral
1 Macmillan Company, New York, 1898. 8vo, pp. 478.
52 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
standards. He was taking risks, defying the laws, and making him-
self liable to punishment, and yet could glow with the healthful
pleasure of duty done. Above all,’ he adds, “the Underground
Railroad was the opportunity for the bold and adventurous; it had
the excitement of piracy, the secrecy of burglary, the daring of insur-
rection; to the pleasure of relieving the poor negro’s sufferings it
added the triumph of snapping one’s fingers at the slave-catcher; it
developed coolness, indifference to danger, and quickness of resource.”
Fred Douglass, himself frequently exposed to fine and imprison-
ment for succouring the fugitives, writes: “ I never did more congenial,
attractive, fascinating and satisfactory work.”
Professor Siebert has recorded the names of over three thousand
persons who were engaged in this heroic work, a roll of honour in
which its members might well be proud to be inscribed. While the
rank and file were men of humble birth and unknown to fame, yet
some of them were persons of high position, literary culture, or heroic
daring —men who won “glorious infamy” by their sufferings for
the slave. We may mention Colonel Thomas Wentworth Higginson,
Theodore Parker, Gerrit Smith, Joshua Giddings, Levi Coffin, Dr. A.
M. Ross and many others. The futile effort of Brown, of Osawatomie,
to emancipate the slaves in Virginia led to his execution on the scaf-
fold; but on many a weary march and by many a lonely camp fire,
the armies of freedom chanted the Marseillaise of the Civil War:
“John Brown’s body lies amouldering in the grave, but his soul is
marching on.” Its refrain, too, furnished the motive for the noble
battle hymn of the Republic.
‘In the beauty of the lilies Christ was born across the sea,
With a glory in his bosom that transfigures you and me:
As he died to make men holy, let us die to make men free,
While God is marching on.”
The historic record of the Quakers as unfaltering friends of
liberty and uncompromising foes of oppression and wrong, as heroic
confessors unto blood and martyrs unto death for righteousness and
truth, finds further illustration in their connection with the Under-
ground Railway.
From very early times in the history of slavery the bondman
had a habit of seeking his liberty when he found an opportunity. It
is a way that slaves always and everywhere have had. So great a
loss thus accrued to the slave holders of the American Republic that
as early as 1793, in an unconscious irony on its own recent struggle for
Independence, Congress passed its first Fugitive Slave Law.
[witHRow] THE UNDERGROUND RAILWAY 53
From that time down to the close of the Secession War may be
considered the period of the secret modes of rescuing the slave, cul-
minating in the well organized Underground Railway with its many
routes and branches. The fugitive slave laws were from time to time
made more severe in their penalties, involving not only heavy fines,
but severe imprisonment. These laws became more and more obnox-
ious to the abolitionists as violations of primal human rights, of the
instincts of liberty, and the principles of the Declaration of Indepen-
dence. The benign provisions of the ancient '!Hebrew law of divine
origin, “ Thou shalt not deliver unto his master the servant which
is escaped from his master unto thee,” were cited as good reasons for
violating the man-made law which virtually made all northern citizens
accomplices in the crime of slave catching.
A considerable number of slaves in the far south escaped to
Mexico or to the deep recesses of the Dismal Swamp, and some to
Great Britain; but to most of them the true land of liberty was
Canada. The stimulation of the increased scope and value given
to slave labour by the Louisiana Purchase and the invention of the
cotton gin and consequent vast extension of cotton culture made the
task of the slave more bitter and increased his passion for liberty.
Virginia, the mother of Presidents, became also the mother of slaves,
as expressed in the pathetic poem of Whittier on the Virginia Slave-
mother’s Lament for her Daughters. The southern tier of slave states
became a great mill in which were ground out the lives of bondmen;
and new grist must be supplied, after the foreign slave trade had been
abolished, by slave breeding in the northern tier of slave states. This
stimulated the activity of the slave marts in Baltimore, Washington,
Charleston, Richmond, New Orleans and St. Augustine. The dread
of being “sold south,” with the utter and irrevocable severance of
the dearest and tenderest ties of kinship and love hung like a night-
mare over the souls of myriads of our fellow-beings. The value of
slaves became greatly enhanced and led to the systematic pursuit of
fugitives and sometimes to the kidnapping of free negroes in the north.
Yet, in many parts of the far south the very existence of such
a place as Canada and the succour which it proffered for the fugitive
were unknown. The war of 1812-15, and the return of the southern
soldiers to their homes, made that place of refuge known and predis-
posed the negroes to seek liberty among the enemies of their masters.
It was not long before tidings from the fugitives in Canada found
their way back to their old homes. Before the Secession War it is
estimated that five hundred negroes annually travelled between the
land of freedom and the land of slavery to rescue their kinsmen.
54 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
There were those also of an alien race, whose only kinship with
the oppressed was that of the soul, who took part in this crusade.
Notable among these was Dr. Alexander M. Ross, a native of Ontario,
a cititzen of Toronto, a man of culture and of distinguished scientific
attainments, who devoted his energies with impassioned zeal to the
succour of the slave. Mrs. Stowe’s tear-compelling story of “ Uncle
Tom’s Cabin” was to him a revelation and a command. Upon read- .
ing it his resolution was taken, he says, to devote all his energies to
let the oppressed go free. Dr. Ross was a naturalist of distinguished
merit. He won name and fame in the old world and the new for
his scientific studies, and received decorations from several European
sovereigns. He visited the cotton states in pursuit of his studies
in ornithology, visited many plantations, conversed with the more
intelligent slaves and induced numbers to escape. He would give
them money, food, a pocket compass, and a knife or pistol, and send
them on to the land of liberty. A reward of $12,000 was offered for
his arrest. While aiding the escape of a slave he evaded capture only
by shooting the horse of his pursuer. He was a tried and trusted
friend of John Brown whom he entertained at his home in Toronto.
Dr. Ross was in Richmond at the time of Brown’s attack on
Harper’s Ferry. He was arrested and handcuffed, but escaped for
lack of incriminating evidence. John Brown on the day before his
death wrote to Dr. Ross exhorting him not to give up his labours for
“the poor that ery and are in bonds.”
During the Civil War Dr. Ross served in the Federal army and
subsequently in the army of Mexico. He won the commendation of
Mr. Gladstone for his zeal, forethought and tenacity, and for the
signal courage and disinterestedness in humanity which formed the
basis of his character.*
1 Whittier made Dr. Ross the subject of the following memorial verses,
which are printed in fac-simile in the Canadian Magazine, Vol. V., p. 16:
For his steadfast strength and courage
In a dark and evil time,
When the Golden Rule was treason,
And to feed the hungry crime.
For the poor slave’s hope and refuge
When the hounds were on his track,
And saint and sinner, state and church,
Joined hands to send him back.
Blessings upon him! What he did
For each sad, suffering one,
Chained, hunted, scourged and bleeding,
Unto our Lord was done !
[WITHROW] THE UNDERGROUND RAILWAY 55
William Lloyd Garrison, one of the most famous of the aboli-
tionists, was born in Newburyport, Mass., of New Brunswick parentage.
In Baltimore and Washington he came in contact with slavery and
wrote so vehemently against it that he was tried, imprisoned and
amerced in a fine of $1,000. In 1831 he issued the first number of
“The Liberator,” in which, for five and thirty years, he continued
to plead the cause of the slave. He adopted as his motto “ My
country is the world, my countrymen are all mankind,” and stoutly
affirmed “I will not equivocate, I will not excuse, I will not retreat
a single inch, and I will be heard.” These prophetic words are
engraved upon his monument in the city of Boston, through whose
streets he was dragged by a mob and committed to prison to save his
life. When he visited England Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton was amazed
to find him a white man, having taken it for granted that no one could
plead so eloquently against slavery unless he had himself been a slave.
He procured the aid of George Thompson, the eloquent English aboli-
tionist, who earnestly pleaded the cause of the oppressed in the chief
cities of the northern States and Canada.*
A noble band of women became leaders in the anti-slavery reform
at a time when public opinion forbade public speaking to their sex.
Mrs. Chapman, Mrs. Child, Lucretia Mott, Abby Kelley and others
bravely bore this reproach and addressed public audiences when stones
and brickbats crashed through the windows. For admitting free col-
oured girls to her school at Canterbury, Conn., Miss Prudence Crandall,
a Quaker lady, was treated with contumely and malice. She was
boycotted, to use the phrase of a later day, even by the doctor who
refused to visit the sick in her school, and lived as in a besieged gar-
rison. She was thrown into a prison cell from which a murderer
had just been taken for execution. Her school was fired and well
nigh wrecked and was finally closed by violence.
Wendell Phillips, a man of the bluest blood of Boston, a member
of its Brahmin caste, son of the first mayor of that city, espoused
the cause of the hated abolitionists. He shared their persecutions
and witnessed their triumphs. Channing, Quincey and other heroes
of reform soon joined the ranks.
Intense opposition was offered the new propaganda, anti-
abolitionist riots took place in several northern cities. In New York
the house of Mr. Louis Tappan was sacked and the furniture burned.
In Philadelphia the anti-slavery hall was burned as was also an asylum
for coloured children. The Hon. J. C. Burney, solicitor of Alabama,
1 After thirty-five years’ ceaseless effort the work to which ‘‘The Libera-
tor’’ was devoted was accomplished, and Garrison, an invited guest, saw the
flag of the emancipated Union raised upon the battlements of Fort Sumter.
86 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
released his slaves, for which his name was stricken off the roll of
the bar and the press he established at Cincinnati was destroyed.
Many ministers of religion obeyed the precepts and imitated the
example of Him who came to “ preach to the captives and to set at
liberty them that are bruised.”
The Rev. Elijah P. Lovejoy, a Presbyterian pastor, from Maine,
for denouncing a cruel lynching in St. Louis, was driven from that
city. The same fate followed him to Alton, Ill., where his house
was attacked and he was himself shot to death by a mob. He was
the first but not the last abolition martyr. His fate sounded the
death knell of slavery. Soon more than a hundred anti-slavery soci-
eties sprang up throughout the north.
The Rev. Owen Lovejoy, whose brother, as we have seen, was mur-
dered for the cause of liberty, was taunted as “ nigger stealer.” He
replied, “Thou invisible demon of slavery, dost thou think to cross
my humble threshold, and forbid me to give bread to the hungry and
shelter to the houseless! I bid you defiance in the name of my God!”
For many years the light in the window of Thomas Rankin, a
Presbyterian pastor on the Ohio River, “ were hailed by slaves fleeing
from the soil of Kentucky as beacons to guide them to a haven of
safety.”
Theodore Parker, the accomplished scholar and orator, and
enthusiastic abolitionist of Boston, writes: “I must attend to living
men, and not to dead books, and all this winter my time has been
occupied with these poor souls.”
The Rev. Charles Torrey in 1838 resigned the pastorate of a
Congregational church in Providence, Rhode Island, and relinquished
quiet and comfort that he might devote himself to the work of freeing
the slaves. He was thrust into prison, attempted to escape, was
sentenced to penitentiary for six years and in prison he died. In
1844 he wrote: “If I am a guilty man, I am a very guilty one; for
I have aided nearly four hundred slaves to escape to freedom, the
greater part of whom would probably, but for my exertions, have died
in slavery.” He was buried in Mount Auburn Cemetery, Cambridge,
Mass., and a memorial service in Faneuil Hall on the day of his funeral
was signalized by a poem by Lowell, and addresses by General Fessen-
den and Walter Channing. Of him, Whittier wrote: “In the wild
woods of Canada, around many a happy fireside and holy family altar,
his name is on the lips of God’s poor. He put his soul in their
soul’s stead; he gave his life for those who had no claim on his love
save that of human brotherhood.”
Calvin Fairbank, a student of Oberlin College, read at his father’s
fireside, a station of the Underground Railway, the story of sorrow
[wirarow] THE UNDERGROUND RAILWAY 57
of escaped. slaves. “My heart wept,’ he writes, “my anger was
kindled, an antagonism to slavery was fixed upon me.” He devoted
himself with enthusiasm to the work of succouring the slave and soon
was placed behind prison bars. He was arrested again and again
and spent seventeen years and four months of his life in prison for
abducting slaves, and has placed on record the statement that he
received at the hands of prison officials 35,000 stripes on his naked
body. His ample reward was that he had guided forty-seven slaves
toward the north star. “I piloted them,” he writes, “through the
forests, mostly by night; girls, fair and white, dressed as ladies; men
and boys, as gentlemen or servants; men in women’s clothes, and
women in men’s clothes; boys dressed as girls, and girls as boys; on
foot or on horseback, in buggies, carriages, common wagons, in and
under loads of hay, straw, old furniture, boxes and bags; crossing the
‘ Jordan of the slave, swimming or wading chin deep; or in boats, or
skiffs; on rafts,and often on a pine log. And I never suffered one
to be recaptured.”
Two of the most noted leaders of the Underground Railway
movement were those sturdy Quakers, Thomas Garrett of Delaware,
and Levi Coffin of Ohio. In his sixtieth year Garrett, when mulcted
in a fine of $8,000 for the crime of helping his brother man, replied:
“ Judge, thou hast not left me a dollar, but I wish to say to thee,
and to all in this court-room, that if any one knows of a fugitive who
wants shelter and a friend, send him to Thomas Garrett and he will
befriend him.” Long afterwards he said: “The war came a little
too soon for my business. I wanted to help off three thousand slaves.
I had only got up to twenty-seven hundred.”
Levi Coffin, the Quaker Greatheart of Mrs. Stowe’s “ Uncle
Tom’s Cabin,’ was born in a slave state, North Carolina, in 1798.
The scenes he witnessed as a boy entered his soul. In 1847 he settled
in Cincinnati for the purpose of dealing only in the product of free
labour. It is said that “for thirty-three years he received into his
house more than one hundred slaves every year.” Under Levi Coffin’s
Quaker drab and broad-brimmed hat there lurked a vein of quaint
humour combined with a shrewd business method. Summoned before
the Grand Jury, he was asked if he knew of any violation of the fugi-
tive slave law in his own neighbourhood. He replied that persons
often stopped at his house who said they were slaves, but he knew
nothing about it from their statements for the law did not consider
them capable of giving evidence. He collected money for a poor
family in need, and three swaggering Kentucky slave holders sub-
scribed their dollar each and were greatly disgusted to find they had
helped fugitive slaves along the Underground Railway. He so worked
58 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
upon the sympathies of a strongly pro-slavery man by showing him a
scarred and wounded fugitive that he could not help contributing to
his relief. Coffin promptly rejoined: “ Thou hast laid thyself lable
not only to a heavy fine, but to imprisonment, under the Fugitive
Slave Law. Thou gave a fugitive slave a dollar to help him to Can-
ada; I saw thee do it!”
Sometimes he induced free negroes to act the part of supposed
runaways. They would be hurriedly driven off with ostentatious pre-
cautions, to cover the fact that the real fugitives had quietly escaped.
Coffin’s good wife so far compromised with her conscience as to lay
aside her Quaker garb and dress up as a fashionable lady, with a negro
fugitive slave carrying a rag baby behind her. Coffin knew every
quirk of the law and was remarkably. shrewd in taking advantage of
any flaw in its process to extricate the fugitives from its grasp.
At the close of the War, after the emancipation of the slaves in
the United States, Coffin declared: “The stock of the Underground
Railroad had gone down in the market, the business is spoiled, the
road is now of no further use.” The work of the Underground Rail-
road was done.
It was through Coffin that this mysterious railway received its
designation. “Certain baffled slave-hunters,” says “Ascot Hope,”
“are said to have declared that there must be an underground railroad
to Canada, with Levi Coffin for president, as they never could get the
slightest trace of a fugitive after reaching his house, so shrewdly
and slyly did the Quaker manage their flight.” Analogous to this
was the “grape-vine telegraph” by which intelligence was secretly
conveyed with strange rapidity along the Underground Railway lines.
A friend, and in a way a colleague of Coffin’s, was John Fairfield,
a man of dauntless spirit and reckless audacity. He was the son of
a Virginia planter, and became a fierce antagonist of the slave system
amid which he was brought up. He was arrested again and again,
but always managed to break gaol. He used. to hector and bully the
very men whom he was helping to escape in a way that convinced
their owners that he had little sympathy with abolitionists. Bringing
off a number of mulattoes and quadroons, he provided himself at
Philadelphia with $80.00 worth of wigs and powder for their disguise.
In 1853 he brought off twenty-eight slaves at the same time. At
Detroit, writes Mr. Fitch Reed, “two hundred and fifty abolitionists
took breakfast with them just before daylight. We procured boats
enough for Fairfield and his crew. As they pushed off from shore,
they all commenced singing the song: ‘I am on my way to Canada,
where coloured men are free,’ and continued firing off their arms till
out of hearing.”
[WITHROW] THE UNDERGROUND RAILWAY 59
On witnessing the ecstasies of the negroes on reaching the land
of liberty, some of them to meet long lost kinsfolk or friends, Fair-
field exclaimed: “ This pays me for all dangers I have faced in bring-
ing this company, just to see these friends meet.”
He was once pursued to Pittsburg by a special train, but the
fugitives under his convoy made a dash from the cars, scattered
through the city and were so well concealed that not one could be
caught, and Fairfield, their gallant conductor, conveyed them all to
Canada. After many bold exploits he mysteriously disappeared.
“ Levi Coffin,” says “Ascot Hope,” “is inclined to identify him with
an, unknown white man killed in stirring up an insurrection among
slaves, shortly before the war. A slight chance of fortune might have
made his name ring through the world as loudly as that of John
Brown.”
One of the boldest exploits of John Brown was his escorting, in
1858, a band of twelve slaves from Missouri by a devious route of
well nigh 1,000 miles to Windsor, in Canada, in mid-winter, in spite
of a reward of $3,000 for his arrest. This raid excited great alarm
in Missouri. Many slaves, as a consequence, were sold south and
others escaped. John Brown’s policy, he himself avowed, was to
destroy the money value of slave property by rendering it insecure.
Captain Jonathan Walker, for the crime of attempting to convey
seven slaves from Pensacola to the Bahamas, was branded on the
hand with the letters “S. S.”, slave stealer, amerced in a heavy fine
and languished for nearly four years in a southern prison. Whittier’s
stirring poem immortalizes his heroism:
“Why, that brand is highest honour ! — than its ‘traces never yet
Upon old armorial hatchments was a prouder blazon set ;
And thy unborn generations, as they tread our rocky strand,
Shall tell with pride the story of their father’s branded hand !
“Then lift that manly right-hand, bold ploughman of the wave!
Its branded palm shall prophesy, ‘Salvation to the slave!’
Hold up its fire-wrought language, that whoso reads may feel
His heart swell strong within him, his sinews change to steel.”
A bold attempt was made by Captain Drayton, of the schooner
Pearl, to convey seventy-six slaves at one time from the city of Wash-
ington.* By an irony of fate their dash for liberty was made during
a great torchlight procession in honour of the establishment of the
Republic in France. They were pursued and brought back. Three
persons were prosecuted, the amount of their bail being fixed at
* Outgoing vessels were sometimes smoked, as is done to get rid of rats,
to make sure that no stowaways were on board.
60 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
$228,000. Drayton was himself fined $10,000 and sent to prison in
default, but through the efforts of Senator Sumner, after four years’
imprisonment, was pardoned. The affair caused intense excitement
in Congress.
Undeterred by such disasters, Richard Dillingham, a Quaker, for
aiding a slave to escape, was condemned to three years’ imprisonment
in the Nashville penitentiary; but, separated from his aged parents
and his betrothed bride, he died in two months in the prison, from
an epidemic of cholera.
A year after Dillingham’s death, William M. Chaplin, for attempt-
ing the release of two negroes, the property of Robert Timms and
Alexander H. Stevens, was arrested, but was released on bail bonds of
$20,000. After five months’ imprisonment, by consent of his bond-
men he sacrificed his bail rather than meet the trial, which would have
resulted in a fifteen years’ imprisonment.
Peter Still escaped from Alabama after forty years of slavery.
It was too perilous a task for him to return for his family through
1,600 miles of danger and difficulty. Seth Concklin, a white man,
volunteered to do it. “He travelled,” says “Ascot Hope,” “from
first to last some thousands of miles, and spent two or three months
among men who might have hung him up to the nearest tree had
they guessed his true business.” Seth Concklin convoyed his party
as far as Vincennes. He was arrested and escaped, but was “found
drowned with his hands and feet in fetters and his skull fractured ”—
perhaps by accident, perhaps by a darker fate.
Two brothers, market-gardeners, living near Baltimore, concealed
in a large box a slave woman and her daughter and conveyed it in
their market wagon across Maryland and Pennsylvania, a three weeks’
journey, to the land of liberty. Two students of Marion College
were sentenced to twelve years’ imprisonment for assisting two negroes
to escape, and a pro-slavery party burned the college to the ground.
Among the most heroic agents of the Underground Railway were
the negroes themselves. Many of these, having tasted the sweets of
liberty in Canada, voluntarily incurred the risks of recapture, with the
fearful penalties consequent thereon, in their endeavour to bring off
their kinsfolk and often those whose only kinship was that of race
and misfortune. Professor Redpath considers as many as 500 a year
as incurring this risk.
No danger was too great for these knights of Christian chivalry
toincur. With a reward for their capture, dead or alive, they braved
imminent peril again and again.
One of the most notable of these sable heroes was Josiah Henson,
the original of Mrs. Stowe’s “Uncle Tom.” Born and bred a slave, |
[wiTHROWw] THE UNDERGROUND RAILWAY 61
he at length escaped to Canada. lager to lead others into liberty,
he travelled on foot 400 miles into Kentucky, and brought off safely
a party of thirty fugitives. Time after time he repeated his adven-
turous journey and rescued in all 118 slaves from bondage. Of one
of these journeys he writes: “ Words cannot describe the feelings
experienced by my companions as they neared the shore; their bosoms
were swelling with inexpressible joy as they mounted the seats of
the boat, ready eagerly to spring forward that they might touch the
soil of the freeman, and when they reached the shore they danced and
wept for joy, and kissed the earth on which they first stepped, no
longer the Slave, but the Free.”
John Mason, another fugitive slave from Kentucky, aided the
escape in nineteen months of two hundred and sixty-five fugitives,
and in all assisted not less than 1,300 to escape to Canada. He was
finally captured by the aid of bloodhounds. He resisted till both
arms were broken. He was sold south to New Orleans, but escaped
to the city of Hamilton, in Canada. “Let a man walk abroad on
Freedom’s Sunny Plains,” he writes, “and having once drunk of its
celestial “stream whereof maketh glad the city of our God,’ afterward
reduce this man to slavery, it is next to an impossibility to retain him
in slavery.”
A. brave woman named Armstrong, disguised as a man, returned
to the Kentucky plantation, where she had been a slave, hid near a
spring where her children came for water, and brought off five of
them to Canada.
Surpassed by none in high courage and consecrated zeal in these
efforts to emancipate the slave was the humble heroine Harriet
Tubman. Of this simple black woman Governor William H. Seward,
of New York, wrote: “I have known Harriet long, and a nobler,
higher spirit or a truer, seldom dwells in human form.” John Brown
described her as “one of the bravest persons on this continent —
General Tubman, as we call her.” “She saw in the oppression of
her race,” says Siebert, “the sufferings of the enslaved Israelites, and
was not slow to demand that the Pharaoh of the South should let her
people go.” She, therefore, received the name of Moses — from
the great Hebrew liberator who led to freedom a nation of slaves.
Herself born a slave, she first tasted the sweets of liberty in 1849.
She subsequently made nineteen excursions south and brought off
over three hundred fugitives from bondage. All her own earnings
were devoted to this mission together with generous sums given her.
Her method was, having secured her convoy of slaves, to start north
on Saturday night so as to allow a good start before they could be
advertised, and to pay negroes to tear down the advertisements of
62 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
their escape.! She would soothe the crying babies with paregoric
and carry them in baskets. When hard pressed she would make a
detour southward to throw off pursuit. At one time an award of
as much as $12,000 was offered for her arrest; yet, unafraid, she
pursued her self-imposed task. She boldly waded through icy waters
in mid-March, lay hidden in forest or FA and incurred incredible
hardships.
She brought off in a rude nude chaise her aged parents.
unable themselves to walk, and several brothers and sisters. She was
something of a mystic and felt conscious communion with the unseen.
She had no fear of arrest for she ventured only where God sent her.
She expressed her heroic faith and confidence in the words: “Jes
so long as God wanted to use me he would take keer of me, an’ when
he didn’t want me no longer, I was ready to go. I always tole him,
I’m gwine to hole stiddy on to you, an’ you’ve got to see me trou.” Of
her Thomas Garrett said: “I never met with any person, of any colour,
who had more confidence in the voice of God, as spoken to her soul.”
During the Civil War she was employed as an hospital nurse and
scout. “She made many a raid,” says Governor Andrew, of Massa-
chusetts, “inside the enemies’ lines, displaying remarkable courage,
zeal and fidelity.”
Old, infirm and poor she still lives in a humble home in Auburn,
N.Y., which she transformed into a hospital where she cared for
the helpless of her own race.
It should be to every Canadian ground for patriotic pride that
during all the years of struggle for the abolition of slavery the only
refuge on this continent for the fugitives from bondage was beneath
our red cross flag of freedom. The land of promise in the north
exercised such a fascination for the slave that their owners endea-
voured to discount its attractions by absurd stories concerning its
vast distance, the wintry rigours of its climate, the sterility of its
soil, its perils from savage beasts and more savage men. One fugi-
tive declares he was assured that the Detroit River was over three
thousand miles wide, and a ship starting out in the night would find
1 These advertisements of runaway slaves are evidence of the cruelties
with which they were sometimes treated. They describe the scars upon their
bodies; the lacerations of whips; the branding with hot iron on the back, or
hand, or cheek; the wounds of rifle shots; the scars by the teeth of blood-
hounds with which they had been pursued, and of the fetters with which they
were manacled; and sometimes they escaped with iron bands on neck or ankle.
Sometimes one or two teeth were knocked out or a slit made in the ear as
marks by which slaves could be readily identified. See Reports of Trial of
John Anderson, a fugitive slave, at Toronto, 1860, us alleged crime of murder
in Missouri.
[WITHROw] THE UNDERGROUND RAILWAY 63
herself in the morning “right whar she started from.” Another
was told the grotesque story “ that in Canada the British would put
out their eyes and send them to lifelong labour in mines underground.”
But the slaves were too shrewd to be deceived by these calumnies.
“The rumour gradually spread,’ says Professor Siebert, “among
the slaves of the Southern States, that there was, far away under
the north star, a land where the flag of the Union did not float;
where the law declared all men free and equal; where the people
respected the law, and the government, if need be, enforced it. The
rumour widened; the fugitives so increased, that a secret pathway,
afterward called the Underground Railroad, was soon formed, which
ran by the huts of the blacks in the slave states, and the houses of
the good Samaritans in the free states. Before the year 1817 it
is said that a single group of abolitionists in southern Ohio had
forwarded to Canada by this secret path more than a thousand fugi-
tive slaves.”
Henry Clay, Secretary of State in 1828, described the escape of
slaves as a growing evil which menaced the peaceful relations between
the United States and Canada, and urged an extradition treaty for
their return; but the British Government staunchly and steadily
refused to depart from the principle that every man is free who
reaches British ground. ji
The Underground Railway came in time to cover with a network
of routes, not found in the railway maps, the territory embraced by
the middle and northern states from the Mississippi to the Atlantic.
The greater number, however, were in Ohio, Pennsylvania, New
York and other states contiguous to the frontier of central Canada.
Windsor, Sandwich, Amherstburgh, Owen Sound, Collingwood, Sarnia,
and the Niagara frontier were the principal points of entry for this
contraband commerce. “The untrodden wilds of Canada, as well
as her populous places, seemed hospitable to a people for whom the
hardships of the new life were fully compensated by the consciousness
of their possession of the rights of freedom, rights vouchsafed them
by a government that exemplified the proud boast of the poet Cowper :—
‘Slaves cannot breathe in England; if their lungs
Receive our air, that moment they are free!
They touch our country and their shackles fall.’ ”’
The chief agents of the Underground Railway were found, as
we have said, among the quiet and peace-loving Quakers. The mem-
bers of the Presbyterian and Wesleyan Methodist churches, which were
strongly anti-slavery in their sympathies, were very good seconds in
this law-breaking practical Christianity.
64 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
After the passage of the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850, Philadelphia
and New York became important entrepôts for receiving and forward-
ing fugitive slaves. These arrived both by rail and coastwise ves-
sels and were sent by way of Albany, Syracuse and Rochester, or
by Harrisburg and Elmira to Upper Canada. A few escaped by way
of New England, but the chief routes were through Ohio and western
Pennsylvania. Cleveland, Sandusky, Toledo, Detroit and other border
towns became important stations of the Underground Railway.
The abolitionists and the helpers of the slaves were not sustained
by public sympathy or applause. They were under ban and social
disabilities, the subjects of insult and injury. “ Niggerites,”’ and
“amalgamationists” were among the epithets hurled at them, and
“nigger-thief ” was the inappropriate designation given men who
restored the negro to his ownership of himself. They were subject
to suspicion, espionage and persecution; their cattle were injured;
their persons were menaced; their houses in some cases were burned.
Professor Siebert quotes the offers of as much as $2,500 for the abduc-
tion or assassination of the Rev. John 8. Mahon, of Brown County,
Ohio, for his offence in aiding the escape of slaves. The slave hunter
took the law in his own hands. One such assaulted and injured
for life a free citizen and was amerced in a fine of $10,000 for his
crime. A Kentucky slave holder assumed Quaker garb to worm out
the secrets of the Friends, but he could not quite adopt their phrase-
ology, and was detected as a wolf in sheep's clothing.
From the need of secrecy most of the travel was done by night,
and also because many of the slaves had no other guide but the north
star... Professor Siebert thus dramatically described the process at
a station of the Underground Railway: “The faltering step, and the
light, uncertain rapping of the fugitive at the door, was quickly
recognized by the family within, and the stranger was admitted with
a welcome at once sincere and subdued. There was a suppressed
stir in the house while the fire was building and food preparing; and
after the hunger and chill of the wayfarer had been dispelled, he
was provided with a bed in some out-of-the-way part of the house,
1 Readers of Lowell’s “‘ Biglow Papers” will remember how Birdofredum
Sawin undertook to capture a slave “‘runnin’.” But Pomp captured him and
made him work all spring. This is Birdofredum’s account of it:
“He made me larn him readin’, tu, (although the critter saw
How much it hut my morril sense to act agin the law),
So’st he could read a Bible he’d gut; an’ axed ef I could pint
The North Star out; but there I put his nose some out o’ jint,
For I wheeled roun’ about sou’west, an’, lookin’ up a bit,
Picked out a middlin’ shiny one an’ tole him thet wuz it.”
[WwWITHROW] THE UNDERGROUND RAILWAY 65
or under the hay in the barn loft, according to the degree of danger.
Often a household was awakened to find a company of five or more
negroes at the door. The arrival of such a company was sometimes
announced beforehand by special messenger.”
Special passwords, signals and cryptic signs were employed; the
imitated hoot of an owl or cry of a bird was used. A vein of
humour ran through some of the secret messages, as in the following:
“ By to-morrow evening’s mail you will receive two volumes of
the ‘irrepressible conflict, bound in black. After perusal, please
forward, and oblige.”
“Uncle Tom says if the roads are not too bad you can look for
those fleeces of wool by to-morrow. Send them on to test the market
and price, no back charges.”
Others, with more courage than prudence, boldly wrote without con-
cealment, as the following quoted by Siebert:
“I understand you are a friend to the poor and are willing to obey
the heavenly mandate, ‘ Hide the outcasts, betray not him that wan-
dereth.’
“Yours in behalf of the millions of poor, opprest and downtrodden
in our land.”
One good Quaker in Ohio had a large covered wagon for conveying
fugitives, which he named “ The Liberator.” Others used pedler’s wag-
ons with concealed recesses. Some fugitives were shipped as freight
in boxes. One man, appropriately named Box Jones, was sent in a
packing case from Baltimore to Philadelphia, and was seventeen hours
on the way. A ruse of Levi Coffin’s was to forward twenty-eight negroes
in broad day in a funeral-like procession. The routes often followed
zigzag detours in order to throw off pursuit and secure safe hiding.
The fugitives were concealed in barns, in hayricks, in cellars and
sub-cellars, in the heart of a wood-pile, in the abutment of a bridge, in a
smoke-house, in a rail pen covered with straw, in thick, dark woods, in a
coal bank, in a cave, beneath a trap door. One good pastor hid the fugi-
tives three days in the belfry of his church, another built a room with a
secret panel.
For disguises the men sometimes carried scythes or rakes as if
seeking work. Light mulattoes sometimes were passed as white men;
sometimes they were disguised by blacking the hands and face. Some-
times theatrical outfits of wig and beard and clothing were employed.
A mulatto girl was dressed in silks and ribbons and furnished with a
white baby borrowed for the occasion. To her chagrin her master was
on the train by which she travelled and watched the ferry for her at.
Sec. IL., 1902. 5.
66 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Detroit. When the steamer was under way the fugitive removed her
veil and gave a farewell greeting to her master, whose turn it now was
to be chagrined. The Quaker veiled bonnet and shawl were admirable
disguises, and Brother Aminabab or Jonathan tenderly convoyed on his
arm a feeble and decrepit companion, who soon proved to be a very alert
negress. A young slave mother with her two children were placed under
the convoy of an ardent pro-slavery man, who little thought, so fair
was their complexion, that he was acting as an agent of the Under-
ground Railway.
A black nurse, brought with her mistress to Connecticut, refused to
take advantage of being in a free state. “ Don’t you wish to be free?”
she was asked. With impressive earnestness, she replied, “ Was there
ever a slave that did not wish to be free? I long for liberty. I will
get out of slavery if I can, the day after I have returned; but go back I
must, because I promised that I would.”
As may well be supposed, considerable amounts of money were
needed to meet the wants and travelling expenses of these fugitives, who
after years of toil owned not a penny, nor even themselves. Yet these
needs were always met, humble donors giving lavishly to help the
escaped slaves.
The “conductors ” of this railway ran no small risk. Vigilance
committees were organized to guard the route, aid the slave and prevent
pursuit. Theodore Parker writes: “ Money, time, wariness, devotedness
for months and years, that cannot be computed, and will never be
recorded except, perhaps, in connection with cases whose details had
peculiar interest, were nobly rendered by the true anti-slavery men.”
They were known even to storm the Court House where a fugitive
was confined and rescue the prisoner, not to lynch but to save him. John
Brown, the hero of Harper’s Ferry, organized in Springfield, Mass., a
league of “ Gileadites” to resist the enforcement of the fugitive slave
law,—* Whosoever is fearful or afraid let him return and depart early
from Mount Gilead.” Brown urged bold measures, the carrying of
weapons, the rescue of the prisoners, the creating a tumult in court by
burning gunpowder in paper packages and similar practices. “ Stand
by one another while a drop of blood remains,” he said, “ and be hanged
if you must, but tell no tales.”
The fugitives were often penniless, naked and hungry. Sometimes
they came “ in droves.” Levi Coffin had seventeen fugitives at his table
at one time. Companies of twenty-eight or thirty were not unknown.
They needed food, clothing and money to help them on their way.
Although it was forbidden by law under heavy penalties to give the
slightest assistance, yet the friends of the slaves did not hesitate to vio-
[wirHRow | THE UNDERGROUND RAILWAY 67
late such unrighteous commands. Emergency funds were established
whose contributors were described as “stockholders” in the Underground
Railway. Women conducted sewing circles to supply the fugitives with
clothes. Even humble negroes, both men and women, gave freely to
help them. After the introduction of steam locomotion, railways and
steamboats could often be used. The cost of tickets was considerable,
yet it was always cheerfully met by sympathetic friends. Generous cap-
tains on the Mississippi, Ohio and Illinois rivers often conveyed fugi-
tives as stowaways. Captain William Brown in 1842 conveyed in seven
months sixty-nine of them across Lake Erie to Canada. Scows and
sailing craft were also employed.
It is remarkable that so seldom were runaways returned to slavery,
and that not unfrequently those seized for that purpose were rescued
from the slave hunters. Even when on trial and under the very eyes of
the judge, they were sometimes smuggled out of the court room, and the
marshal and his deputies hustled and prevented re-arresting them.
Many of the friends of the fugitives suffered in their person and in
their purse for their humanity. In Michigan three persons were mulcted
in fines and costs $6,000. D. Kauffman, in Pennsylvania, for sheltering a
family of slaves in his barn, was fined over $4,000. For a similar offence
R. Sloan, a lawyer of Sandusky, was fined $3,000. Space would fail to
do justice to this noble army of heroes, and some of them martyrs. Pro-
fessor Siebert gives a list of 3,211. Their obscurity and unknown death
have prevented the record of many more. He well remarks: “ Consider-
ing the kind of labour performed and the danger involved, one is
impressed with the unselfish devotion to principle of these emancipators.
There was for them, of course, no outward honour, no material recom-
pense, but instead such contumely and seeming disgrace as can now be
scarcely comprehended.”
Five families in Ohio whom he mentions forwarded over a thousand
fugitives to Canada before the year 1817. Daniel Gibbons, of Pennsyl-
vania, in fifty-six years, aided about one thousand, Dr. Nathan M.
Thomas, of Michigan, fifteen hundred, and John Fairfield not only hun-
dreds, but thousands. General McIntyre, resident in Ohio, aided over
a hundred fugitive slaves. “ Of the multitudes,’ says ex-President
Fairchild, “that came to Obelin, not one was ever taken back to bond-
age.” So intense was popular sympathy with the anti-slavery move-
ment, that a sign-post was erected in the form of a fugitive running
towards the town. In consequence of this defiance of the law against
harbouring slaves, repeated attempts were made to repeal the charter of
Oberlin College.
Though the heroes of this great crusade concealed their acts, they
did not conceal their principles; indeed, they sought to make converts
68 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
to their convictions. They opposed to the slave law the moral dictates
of the Golden Rule, of God’s ancient oracles, and the sacred teachings
of the Declaration of Independence. “ They refused,” says Siebert, “ to
observe a law that made it a felony in their opinion to give a cup of cold
water to famishing men and women fleeing from servitude.” -
Like every great moral movement, their sacred passion found expres-
sion in sacred song, of which the following breathes the spirit:
“?Tis the law of God in the human soul,
*Tis the law in the Word Divine ;
It shall live while the earth in its course shall roll,
It shall live in this soul of mine.
Let the law of the land forge its bonds of wrong,
I shall help when the self-freed crave ;
For the law in my soul, bright, beaming, and strong,
Bids me succour the fleeing slave.”
Theodore Parker, in a sermon in Boston, thus defied the Fugitive
Slave Bill of 1850: “'To law framed of such iniquity I owe no allegi-
ance. Humanity, Christianity, manhood revolts against it. For my-
self, I say it solemnly, I will shelter, I will help, and I will defend the
fugitive with all my humble means and power.”
The discipline of the Methodist Church as early as 1789 prohibited
the slave trade: “the buying or selling the bodies or souls of men,
women, or children, with an intention to enslave them;” and the great
division of the Methodist Church in America arose from the possession
of slaves by Bishop Jehu Andrews of its southern section.
The Fugitive Slave Bill of 1850, intended to prevent the escape of
slaves, increased it. Slaves dissembled their desire for freedom for fear
of being sold south. “No, I don’t want to go to none o’ your free coun-
tries,” said one. “ But L surely did,” he added, in telling the story in
Canada; “a coloured man tells the truth here, there he is afraid to.”
In the employment of the writer’s father as stableman was an
escaped slave. He used diligently to con his spelling-book during off
hours, and so learned to read. “ Did they use you well, Sam, in your
old Kentucky home?” we said one day. “ Yes, boss,” he replied, “dey
use me mighty well; allus had ’nuff to eat, not over hard work; but den
I’se free here,” and his black face lit up and his form straightened with
the conscious dignity of manhood.
The demonstrations of delight of the fugitive slaves on their reach-
ing the frontier of Canada were often pathetic, even when they were
grotesque. Says Captain Cleveland of two negroes whom he landed on
our shores: “ ‘Is this Canada?’ they asked. ‘ Yes,’ I said, ‘ there are no
slaves here;’ then I witnessed a scene I shall never forget. They seemed
[WITHROW ] THE UNDERGROUND RAILWAY 69
to be transformed; a new light shone in their eyes, their tongues were
loosed, they laughed and cried, prayed and sang praises, fell upon the
ground and kissed it, hugged and kissed each other, crying, ‘ Bress de
Lord! Oh! I’se free before I die.’ ”
In their ecstasies they sometimes lay down and wallowed in the
sand.
As Harriet Tubman was convoying a party of fugitives over the
Suspension Bridge, she wished them to see the great cataract of which
it commands so magnificent a view. “ ‘Joe, come, look at de Falls! it’s
your last chance” But Joe sat still and never raised his head. At
length Harriet knew by the rise in the centre of the bridge and the
descent on the other side that they had crossed the line. She sprang
across to Joe’s seat, shook him with all her might, and shouted, ‘ Joe,
you’ve shook de lion’s paw!’ Joe did not know what she meant. ‘Joe,
you’re free!’ Then the strong man, who could stand under his mas-
ter’s whip without a groan, burst into an hysterical passion of weeping
and singing, so that his fellow-passengers might think he had gone crazy ;
but did not withhold their sympathy when they knew the cause of such
emotion.”
Not a few slaves purchased their own liberty by working overtime,
and others were purchased by white sympathizers for the purpose of
emancipation when they could not be otherwise rescued.
Sometimes an attempt was made to kidnap fugitive slaves even on
Canadian soil. A negro named Stanford and his wife had escaped from
slavery to St. Catharines, in Canada. A professional slave hunter,
Bacon Tate by name, in 1836 kidnapped and carried off these fugitives
to the city of Buffalo. He broke into Stanford’s house, dragged him,
his wife and six week’s old baby out of bed, and forced them into a
carriage, and before daylight had crossed the Niagara River. The slave
hunters were followed by some black neighbours of Stanford’s. At
Buffalo a coloured rescue party dragged the fugitives from the carriage
in which they were being abducted, defended them for a time in a
private house, hurried them to the ferry despite the Riot Act read
by the sheriff, and after a running fight of two hours the Stanfords
were placed in the ferry boat. “Those left behind,” says ‘Ascot
Hope,’ “ gave three cheers, eagerly watching the boat as it bore the
poor slaves out of reach of their enemies. When it was seen to reach
the Canadian side, Stanford leaped on shore, rolled himself in the
sand, and ever. rubbed it into his hair, in the wildness of his delight
at finding himself once more on free soil.” Twenty-five of the rescue
party were tried and fined, but no punishment was meted out to Tate
for his dastardly crime.
70 . ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
The hardships which many of the refugees underwent in Canada
were severe. One of them, writing from Hamilton, Canada West, to
Fred. Douglass, said: “ ‘Twenty-one years ago I stood on this spot, pen-
niless, ragged, lonely, homeless, helpless, hungry and forlorn.
Hamilton was a cold wilderness for the fugitive when I came there.”
There were at first no schools, no churches and very little preaching
and other consolations of religion to which the negroes had been accus-
tomed. Their poverty, their ignorance, their fears, made their condi-
tion very pitiable. “ Yet,” says Siebert, “it was brightened much by
the compassionate interest of the Canadian people, who were so tolerant
as to admit them to a share in the equal rights that could at that time be
found in America only in the territory of a monarchical government.”
Generous efforts were soon made to meet their religious needs. As
early as 1838 a mission was begun among them. Schools were estab-
lished and other means adopted for the betterment of their social con-
dition. A manual labour institute was begun at Amherstburgh. They
were visited by anti-slavery friends from the United States, John Brown,
Levi Coffin and others. Mr. Coffin, describing their condition, said some
of these former slaves “owned good farms, and were perhaps worth more
than their former masters. . . . Many fugitives arrived weary and
footsore, with their clothing in rags, having been torn by briers and
bitten by dogs on their way, and when the precious boon of freedom was
obtained, they found themselves possessed of little else, in a country
unknown to them and a climate much colder than that to which they
were accustomed.” Yet they soon earned an honest living, and not a
few amassed considerable property.
Mr. Clay remonstrated with the British Government for harbouring
these refugees: “ They are generally,” he alleged, “ the most worthless of
their class, and far, therefore, from being an acquisition which the
British Government can be anxious to make. The sooner, we should
think, they are gotten rid of the better for Canada.” “ But,” says Pro-
fessor Siebert, “the Canadians did not at any time adopt this view.”
The Government gave the exiles welcome and protection and land on
easy terms. Under the benign influence of Lord Elgin, then Governor-
General, the Elgin Association was formed for the purpose of settling
the refugees on Clergy Reserve and Crown lands in the township of
Raleigh. In the so-called Queen’s Bush, a vast region stretching
towards Lake Huron, many fugitives hewed out for themselves homes in
the wilderness. At Dawn, near Dresden, as early as 1842, a negro set-
tlement was formed. The Revs. Hiram Wilson and Josiah Henson
organized a training institute. Several hundred acres of land were
secured on which in ten years there were five hundred settlers, with
sixty pupils in the school. In other settlements adjacent, says Mr. Hen-
[WITHROW] THE UNDERGROUND RAILWAY 71
son, there were between three and four thousand refugees and the pupils
reached the number of one hundred and sixteen. Thus was anticipated
by nearly half a century the industrial training which Booker T. Wash-
ington has so successfully organized at Tuskegee, Alabama.
At Buxton, in Kent County, a settlement named after Thomas
Fowell Buxton, the famous philanthropist, was organized, and in 1848
the Elgin Association was incorporated. Ten years later Dr. Howe
reports 2,000 acres deeded to negro owners, and two hundred neat cot-
tages erected, with a population of about 1,000. “There is no tavern,
and no groggery,” he writes, “ but there is a chapel and a schoolhouse.
Most interesting of all are the inhabitants. ‘Twenty years ago
most of them were slaves, who owned nothing, not even their children.
Now they own themselves; they own their houses and farms; and they
have their wives and children about them. They are enfranchised citi-
zens of a government which protects their rights.” A saloon was opened
in the Buxton settlement, but could not find customers enough to support
it, and so was closed within a year.
Other similar but less noted colonies, one bearing the honoured
name of the philanthropist Wilberforce, were established. Some of the
negroes’ best friends, however, considered that they would succeed better
if thrown upon their own resources and encouraged to cultivate self-
reliance. Their gregarious instinct, however, tended to keep them
together. The refugees for the most part gravitated towards the towns
and cities—Amherstburgh, Windsor, Chatham, St. Catharines, Hamil-
ton and Toronto—where they cultivated small gardens and performed
such lowly labours as wood sawing, whitewashing, hotel service, laundry
work and the like. A less number found homes and occupations at
Kingston and Montreal, and a few at St. John and Halifax.
The negroes at Dawn were reported to be “ generally very pros-
perous farmers — of good morals, and mostly Methodists and Bap-
tists.” Out of three or four thousand coloured people not one, says
Josiah Henson, was sent to gaol for any infraction of the law during
the seven years from 1845 to 1852.
In 1852 the Anti-Slavery Society of Canada reported that there
were about 30,000 coloured residents in Upper Canada, nearly all
being refugees. About ten years later Principal Willis, of Knox
College, who took deep interest in their condition, estimated the
number at 60,000. This was doubtless an over-estimate. After the
War the number very greatly decreased, many returning to the north-
ern tier of states and some further south.
The Canadian census of 1901 reports in the whole Dominion
17,437 negroes, more than half of whom, namely, 8,935, dwell in
72 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Ontario, 5,984 in Nova Scotia, 1,368 in New Brunswick, and only 532
in British Columbia, and 280 in Quebec.’
A few of the refugees followed the blacksmith and carpenter
trades, fewer still kept small stores, and some accumulated real estate
and a degree of wealth. Many of them owned small neat homes,
though sometimes the unthrift inherited from slavery days was seen
in the unkempt and dilapidated premises. Dr. Howe considered
their state ‘better than that of the foreign immigrants in the same
regions. Sunday schools were early established in the negro settle-
ments, the Bible was read with interest in many humble homes, not
a few learning to read and write after reaching adult years.
The tendency of the negroes to association was shown in the
organization of what were known as “True Bands,” a sort of mutual
improvement clubs; one at Chatham had a membership of 375, and
one at Malden a membership of about 600. Religious organizations
were formed among them, chiefly of the Methodist and Baptist
persuasion, perpetuating the modes of worship of these churches in
the Southern States. Most of the meeting places were devoid of
architectural pretensions and were sometimes rude and almost prim-
itive. The worship was largely of an emotional character, marked
by the vigour and often the eloquence of the address and the beauty
of the singing, which were not infrequently accompanied by hand
clapping and other physical demonstration.
Among their ministers were some very devout and pious men,
some of them possessing much ability and persuasive eloquence. Of
these we may mention the Revs. Wm. Mitchell, Josiah Henson, Elder
Hawkins, and Bishop Disney of the Methodist Episcopal Church.
(The latter three were born slaves.) They accomplished much good
among the coloured race in Canada. A few of the negroes joined
white churches, but for the most part they worshipped together. The
franchise was freely given them on the payment of the same amount
of taxes as was paid by the white people.
As may well be imagined many touching scenes took place as
each band of fugitives reached the land of liberty. Many families
long separated were re-united. “Each new band of pilgrims as it
came ashore at some Canadian port was scanned by little groups of
+The negro population seems to be continuously decreasing in the
Dominion. The census of 1871 reports a total of 21,496, not including Prince
Edward Island, Manitoba, British Columbia and the Territories, which were
not then in the Dominion. Of these, 13,425 were in Ontario, 6,212 in Nova
Scotia, 1,701 in New Brunswick, and 148 in Quebec. In 1881 the negro popula-
tion in the whole Dominion was 21,394, of whom 12,097 were in Ontario, 7,062 in
Nova Scotia, 1,638 in New Brunswick, 274 in British Columbia, 155 in Prince
Edward Island, 141 in Quebec, 25 in Manitoba, and 2 in the Territories.
[wiTrHRow ] THE UNDERGROUND RAILWAY 73
negroes eagerly looking for familiar faces. Strange and solemn re-
unions, after years of separation and hardship, took place along the
friendly shores of Canada.”
A large number of fugitives from slavery considered themselves
safe, at least till after 1850, within the borders of the Free States.
Josiah Henson estimated that in 1852 there were as many as 50,000
former slaves living in the various Free States. But this was always
at considerable risk of being kidnapped or, after the Fugitive Slave
Act of 1850, of being legally restored to bondage. “The Southern
people,” says Professor Siebert, “apparently regarded their right
to recover their escaped slaves as unquestionable as their right to
reclaim their strayed cattle, and they were determined to have the
former as freely and fully recognized in the North as the latter.”
There sprang up a class of men who made it their business to
track runaway slaves. They watched the advertisements of such
runaways, and haunted the abolition communities or towns for their
detection. The Rev. L. B. Grimes, a coloured man, had organized a
church of fugitive slaves in Boston. On the enactment of the Fugi-
tive Slave Bill forty of them fled to Canada. One of the number,
Shadrach, was arrested, but made his escape. Sims, another, under
guard of three hundred Boston policemen, was restored to slavery.
The Rev. J. S. C. Abbott recites a stirring story of another
rescue in Boston. A fugitive slave girl married a coloured man
named Crafts in that city. To them were born two children. “A
young, healthy, energetic mother with two fine boys was a rich prize.”
An attempt was, therefore, made in 1852 to abduct them. “These
Boston boys,” says Siebert, “born beneath the shadow of Faneuil
Hall, the sons of a free citizen of' Boston, and educated in the Boston
free schools, were, by the compromises of the Constitution, admitted
to be slaves, the property of'a South Carolinian planter. The Boston
father had no right to his own sons.” Warned in time the mother
fled with her children and escaped by a Cunard steamer to Halifax.
Senator Charles Sumner declared that “as many as six thousand
Christian men and women, meritorious persons,—a larger band than
that of the escaping Puritans,— precipitately fled from homes which
they had established.”
The Coloured Baptist Church of Rochester out of a membership
of one hundred and fourteen fugitive slaves lost a hundred and twelve,
including the pastor who fled for safety to Canada. Similar numbers
escaped from Buffalo, Detroit and other border cities. The persons
who aided the escape of such fugitives were subject to severe penalties
even before the passage of the Fugitive Slave Act. In 1847 Mr.
Giltner, of Kentucky, was amerced in fines of $2,752 for such an
74 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
offence. In 1850, Mr. Newton, of Michigan, was fined the sum of
$2,850 for aiding fugitive slaves, and against Mr. R. R. Sloan, of
Sandusky, Ohio, was given a verdict of $3,330 for aiding the escape
of fugitive slaves, besides $1,393 in law costs. For hindering the
arrest of a fugitive in 1855, Mr. Booth, of Wisconsin, was imprisoned
one month and amerced in a penalty of $1,451. In 1856 Margaret
Garner, a slave woman, fled with her four children to Cincinnati,
Ohio. Frenzied with fear of capture she killed her favourite child,
but with the surviving children was restored to slavery.
‘Nhe Canadian freedmen gave a warm welcome to the fugitives.
A declaration which they issued ran in part as follows: “ Including
our children, we number here in Canada 20,000 souls. The popula-
tion in the free states are, with few exceptions, the fugitive slave’s
friends. We are poor. We can do little more for your deliverance
than pray to God for it. We will furnish you with pocket compasses,
and in the dark nights you can run away.”
Upon the passage of the Fugitive Slave Law in 1850, Joshua R.
Giddings, of Ohio, declared: “The freemen of Ohio will never turn
out to chase the panting fugitive. They will never be metamorphosed
into bloodhounds, to track him to his hiding-place, and seize and drag
him out, and deliver him to his tormentors. Rely upon it they will
die first . . . . Let no man tell me there is no higher law than
this Fugitive Bill. We feel there is a law of right, of justice, of
freedom, implanted in the breast of every intelligent human being,
that bids him look with scorn upon the libel on all that is called law.”
“ Villages, towns and cities from Iowa to Maine,” says Professor
Siebert, “but especially in the middle states, witnessed scenes calcu-
lated to awaken the popular detestation of slavery as it had never
been awakened before. Pitiable distress fell upon the fugitive set-
tlers in the North and did much to quicken consciences everywhere.
The capture of a fugitive in the place where he had been living invari-
ably caused an outburst of indignation.”
The appearance of Mrs. Stowe’s “ Uncle Tom’s Cabin,” in 1850,
and of its Key of corroborative evidence in 1853, aroused the con-
science of the ‘North like the peal of a clarion. In 1854, Anthony
Burns, a fugitive slave was arrested in Boston; but, through the zeal
of the abolitionists the city. was set ablaze with excitement. At a
meeting held in Faneuil Hall it was decided to rescue Burns by force
from the Court-House gaol which, defended by troops, had the air
of a beleagured fortress. A thousand soldiers furnished with loaded
cannon, assisted by four platoons of marines and battalion of artillery
conducted Burns to ‘the United States revenue cutter by which he
was carried back to Virginia. Fifty thousand people lined the
[wWiTHRow] THE UNDERGROUND RAILWAY 75
streets, greeted the procession with hisses and groans and displayed
emblems of mourning and shame.
It does not lie within the scope of ‘this paper to describe the
Free Soil struggles in Kansas, nor the career of John Brown, but
Professor Siebert quotes the estimate that the “attack on Harper’s
Ferry caused the value of slave property in Virginia to decline to
the extent of ten million dollars.” Not a few thoughtful minds
agreed that the existence of the Underground Railway was on the
whole a fortunate thing for’the slave states; that it was, as the negro
historian, Williams, has said: “a safety valve to the institution of
slavery. As soon as leaders arose among the slaves, who refused to
endure the yoke, they would go North. Had they remained, there
must have have been enacted at'the South the direful scenes of San
Domingo.”
General Quitman, Governor of Louisiana, declared in 1850 that
the South had lost 100,000 slaves in the previous forty years whose
value he estimated at $30,000,000. Both the number of fugitives
and their value were, doubtless, very much exaggerated. In addition
to these it is alleged that the American Colonization Society, whose
chject was to remove free blacks from the South to the coast of
Africa, sent out in forty years previous to 1857, 9,502 emigrants. The
solution of the slavery problem was evidently not repatriation in
their original home.
In the year 1860 a very stirring international episode occurred
in the city of Toronto. It was one of the most remarkable cases
ever tried in Canada, both from the public sympathy that was called
forth and from the points of law involved. A very dull account of
this trial is given both in the Upper Canada Queen’s Bench Reports
and Common Pleas Reports.t The facts of the case were as follows:
John Anderson, a slave belonging to one McDonald, in Missouri, had
left his owner’s house with the intention of escaping from slavery.
About thirty miles from his home he met with one Diggs, a planter,
working in a field with his negroes. Diggs told Anderson that as
he had not a pass he could not allow him to proceed. Anderson tried
to run away from his captor when Diggs ordered his slaves, four in
number, to take him a prisoner. Diggs himself attempted his arrest,
was stabbed by Anderson, and in a few days died of his wound. Ander-
son in the meantime made good his escape and got away to Canada.
This was in September, 1853. After seven years’ residence in Canada
Anderson was tracked by a slave catcher, charged with murder, and
* Queen’s Bench Reports, Vol. XX., Second Ed., pp. 124-198, Michaelmas
Term, 24 Victoria, 1860. Court of Common Pleas Reports, Vol. XI., Second
Ed., pp. 9-72, Hilary Term, 24 Victoria.
76 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
his surrender demanded under a clause of the Ashburton Treaty
providing for the extradition of slaves guilty of crimes committed
in the United States. Lord Elgin, the Governor-General of Canada,
in response to an appeal on behalf of Anderson, replied to the effect
that “in case of a demand for John Anderson, he should require
the case to be tried in their British court; and if twelve freeholders
should testify that he had been a man of integrity since his arrival
in their dominion, it should clear him.”
The magistrate who examined the case decided that the charge
against Anderson was sustained. The case was brought before the
Court of Queen’s Bench, Toronto, which court decided that Anderson
should be given up. Intense excitement was created throughout the
country by this decision. Public meetings were held and strong pro-
tests were made against the surrender of the hunted fugitive. It
argued that in defending himself against recapture to bondage and
to condign punishment and probably a cruel death he was exercising
an inalienable right. The Court of Queen’s Bench gave a decision,
Justice McLean strongly dissenting, not for his surrender, but against
his discharge, leaving him'to be dealt with by the Government which
might find sufficient reasons for not complying with the requisition
from the United States. Justice McLean expressed his strong dis-
sent in these words: “Can, then, or must, the law of slavery in Mis-
souri be recognized by us to such an extent as to make it murder
in Missouri, while it is justifiable in this province to do precisely the
same act? . . . . In administering the law of a British province,
1 can never feel bound to recognize as law any enactment which can
convert into chattels a very large number of the human race. I
‘think that on every ground the prisoner is entitled to be discharged.”
So profound was the interest in this case that after the decision
in Canada became known in England, the Habeas Corpus was applied
for and granted by the Court of Queen’s Bench in that country.
Before that could be executed, however, the prisoner had obtained
a similar writ from the Court of Common Pleas in Canada. The
result was that the prisoner was discharged on the grounds of inform-
ality of his committal. There can be little doubt, however, that
all the legal resources of Great Britain would have been employed
for the defence of this lowly black prisoner.
The present writer has a very vivid recollection of a great public
meeting of sympathy with this fugitive slave, held in St. Lawrence
Hall, Toronto, in which the Hon. George Brown and Dr. Daniel
Wilson, President of Toronto University, took a prominent part.
He was also present at the reading of the decisions of three judges
before the Court of Queen’s Bench at Toronto. It was an occasion
[wirHRow | THE UNDERGROUND RAILWAY T4
of thrilling interest. The fugitive slave was brought to the court
in a cab surrounded by a strong body of police carrying muskets with
fixed bayonets — so great was the fear of a popular rescue. Chief
Justice Robinson gave a learned judgment to the effect that Anderson
should be given up. Judge Burns followed in an impressive address
to the same effect. During the reading of these judgments, which
were heard in death-like silence, the poor negro turned almost pale
with trepidation. As Judge McLean pronounced his decision that
the prisoner should not be surrendered, a cheer that could not be
restrained, burst from the lips of the audience, was caught up by the
thousands gathered outside of the hall, and rang from street to street
till the news was known throughout the city.
Co-incident with these events was the secession of South Carolina
and the organization of the Southern Confederacy. Then followed
the four years’ war with, as one of its results, the abolition of the
last vestige of slavery on this continent.
L i Aue
fh
116
SECTION IL., 1902 [W7 98] Trans. R. S. C.
ILI.—The Old Basque Tombstones at Placeniva.
By Rr. Rev. Bishop How ey.
(Read May 27, 1902.)
In the primitive old wooden church (Anglican) at Placentia, the
ancient French capital of Newfoundland, are still to be seen the
disjecta membra of a few tombstones of the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries, relics of the Old Basque and French settlements.
These interesting old monuments were rescued a few years ago
by order, if I mistake not, of the late Governor Glover, from the
graveyard, and placed within the church for safety. But even there,
so badly had they suffered from the ravages of time, they are fast
crumbling to decay, being in a much worse and less legible condition
now than they were the first time I examined them about twenty
years ago.
Several unsuccessful attempts have been made to decipher these
inscriptions, but as far as I am aware, the first attempt at reproducing
a fac-simile of them, was made by the present writer. I had them
engraved and published in my “ Ecclesiastical History of Newfound-
land.” I have several times since then examined the stones. I
found that my original copies though fairly exact were not altogether
correct. In December last (1901) I made a final and most careful
study of them, spending part of two days at the work, and I am now
prepared to present to the readers of the “ Transactions,” copies as
near to fac-similes as can be cbtained without the aid of photo-
graphy. I have also been fortunate in obtaining a correct interpre-
tation of the inscriptions which have hitherto puzzled completely all
historians, antiquaries and philologists.
The engravings here presented have been made from my own
drawings by our talented young fellow-townsman, Mr. D. Carroll.
Since my last inspection of the stones an attempt has been made to
photograph them by Mr. Figary, photographer, Placentia. They were
not quite a success, on account of the stones being in such a dilapidated
condition.
There are altogether five stones or fragments of stones bearing
inscriptions. Of these, two (which afterwards will be shown to be
parts of one inscription) are in French, and three in Basque. These
latter are the most interesting, and have been undeciphered up to
the present time. In my “History,” page 144, I stated that “ The
language is distinctly Latin, though one or two of the words are
unintelligible.”
80 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
The late Professor Robinson Smith of Cambridge, one of the
editors of the Encyclopædia Britannica, and an expert philologist, to
whom copies of the inscriptions were sent in 1886, pronounced some
of the words to be Basque. Now that we have correct copies, we find
that they are all pure Basque with the exception of one word which
is French.
DAME M EM
No. 1 (front).
We owe th2 correct reading and interpretation of the epitaphs
to the Right Revd. Monseigneur LeGasse, Prefect Apostolic of St.
Pierre, Miquelon. This learned prelate is a Basque by birth, and
not only speaks the language as his native tongue but is also a scholar
in the grammar and literature of this very unique and interesting
language. On paying a visit to St. John’s, in the summer of 1900,
he remained a day or two at Placentia and made a careful and intelli-
[HOWLEY ] OLD BASQUE TOMBSTONES AT PLACENTIA 81
gent study of the stones. We afterwards compared his copies with
mine, and found that they agreed substantially, but with a few slight
discrepancies.
The first stone bears the date of 1676, the oldest yet discovered.
The letters stand out in bold relief, the surface of the stone having
been sunk in. They are about three inches high, and are fairly well
cut. The lines of the inscription are separated by bands or fillets,
also in relief. This stone is engraved on both sides, a rather unusual
thing.
GANNIS
CEQANA
VSAN NO
NENECO
No. 1 (back).
The explanation of the inscription is as follows: —DA HEMEN.
This is the ordinary phrase so common in epitaphs in all languages,
“These two narrow words Hic jacet, Cy git, “ Here lies,’ “which
; Sec. IT., 1902. 6
82 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
“have drawne together all the farre stretched greatnesse, all the
“pride, crueltie, and ambition of men” (Sir W. Raleigh). Literally
in the Basque it reads, “is here,” or, “here is.” Da. is the third
person singular of the verb to be. Hemen, here. The next line
contains the word Hila J, then a blank space and then O. The word
Hila means dead, mortuus. The letter I, according to Mgr. LeGasse,
belongs to another word, the body of which is effaced, leaving only
this first letter I and the final O. It probably refers to the day of
the week. ‘This portion of the inscription then means “ Here lies dead.”
In the “Hand Book of Newfoundland, and Tourists’ Guide,” published
by the late Rev. Dr. M. Harvey, the following incorrect explanation
of these words is given. “The name of the occupant of the grave
was probably Dahemen Hilaire”!
The third and last line of the inscription on this side of the
stone reads MAII 1676.
In copying this inscription for the first time, I took this word
for the Latin Mai, the genitive case of Maius, May. This, together
with the words Anno and Hila (ri) O caused me to assert in my
History, “ that the language is distinctly Latin.” On close examina-
tion, however, there appears a space between the two I’s thus MAT I
showing that they do not belong to the same word and that the correct,
reading is Mai I (one or first), viz, May 1st. The word is Frencn
and is the only French word on the tombstone. The Basque word
for May is Mayatcea, and “in May,” Mayatcean. Thus, for exam-
ple: —“ Mayatcean egina da,” It is done in May. Literally, “ May
in done (or made) is.”
Next comes the date 1676 which, as I stated before, is the oldest
yet found. It is about thirty-six years previous to the abandonment
of Placentia by the French and Basques at the Treaty of Utrecht
(1713). Beneath this is the well known Christian monogram I.H.S.,
surmounted by the Cross, being the initials of Jesus Hominum
Salvator: (Jesus Saviour of men).
On the back of the stone we read as follows: — First line,
GANWNIS, pronounced Gannish, this is a correct form of the
name of John in the Basque tongue.
There are three other forms or methods of spelling this name,
viz.: — Joanes, Joannis and Jouannes, all of which are to be found
on these inscriptions as we shall see. The next word De Sale gives
the family name of the deceased. The name is one of nobility as
designated by the prefix De. It is still a frequent name in the Basque
Provinces. Monseigneur LeGasse states that he had schoolfellows
who bore the name. The renowned St. Francis De Sales, Bishop of
Geneva, was a member of this family. The third line is somewhat
[HOWLEY | OLD BASQUE TOMBSTONES AT PLACENTIA 83
damaged and difficult to decipher. As well as can be made out it
reads Cesana, but such a word is not known in the language. It may
be a proper name. The fourth and fifth lines read as follows: —
Usanno — Neneco.
These words should be divided as follows: — Usann, Oneneco. Usan
means odour, or perfume. The proper orthography is Usan, but it
is pronounced by the people with a strong accent on the latter syllable,
hence they have doubled the N in the inscription. Oneneco means
“the best.” It is in the genitive case, and in a provincial form or
patois. ‘Thus, Ona means good; hobea, better; hobeago, or hoberena,
the best, genitive onenena, of the best, and provincially oneneco. Hence
the two words Usan oneneco, mean “of the best, or sweetest odour ”
(optimi odoris). This probably was the name of the house, homestead,
manor, villa or townland of the family. It may have been so called
on account of its fertility, and in happy allusion to the Scriptural ex-
pression of Isaac and Jacob (Genesis XVIIT., 29) “ Odor filit mer sicut
odor agri pleni ” (the smell of my son is as the smell of a plentiful field).
The sixth and last line contains the one word, SEME A, “The
son.” There is no definite Article in the Basque language. The
effect is produced by adding the termination A. Thus, SEME
means Son, or A Son, SEM EA, The Son.
The whole inscription then reads as follows: —
‘‘ Here lies dead (or having died)
(on) The first of May 1676
John De Sale Ce ana
The Son (or heir) of (the House)
of Sweetest Odour.”
The words of the inscription Gannis de Sale Cesana Usann
Oneneco Semea are given in the following garbled manner in Harvey’s
“Hand Book ”:—*“Canus de Tale le Araus Anno nenego Semea!”
This is I presume the corrupt form in which the inscription was sent
to Professor Robinson, and it is not to be wondered at, that that
distinguished philologist could make nothing of it.
As many tourists are of late years beginning to visit Newfound-
land, it is to be hoped that a correct and authentic Guide Book may
soon be published.
84 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
The next stone (No. 2) is only a small fragment containing a
portion of the proper name IOANES SARA.
No. 2 (front).
The stone is 14 inches wide, 3 inches thick, and 94 inches in
length at the longer side, it is broken unequally. The letters are
bold and well cut in high relief about three inches in height. Hach
line is separated as in No. 1, by a fillet or band in relief. This stone
is chiefly interesting as giving us a second form of the Basque name
for John. On the back of this stone is to be seen a portion of the
Christian monogram I. H. $S. with the Cross and letters very neatly
cut (also in relief) in the ornamented form known in Heraldry as
Moline. There are also two very neatly designed Maltese crosses in
the corners.
No. 2 (back).
The third stone which I show here is considerably dilapidated.
The top part is missing, but fortunately there is enough left to
enable us to decipher the name. Joannis (pronounced Joannish).
Here we have a third form of the name John. The surname is
Dehiriart, a name still quite well known as a family name in the Basque
Provinces. The letters on this stone are also in relief, but they are
sprawling and much more crude than the others, neither are the
lines separated by the band or fillet. The width of the stone is
sixteen inches. The height of the portion now remaining is about
two feet five inches. Since my first visit another piece has been
[HOWLEY ] OLD BASQUE TOMBSTONES AT PLACENTIA 85
broken off, and it is probable that in a few years they will be all
totally destroyed. Only three lines ‘and the lower portion of a fourth
now remain. The top line contains the lower half of the letters
IOAN. The second line NIS completing the word Ioannis.
No. 3.
The third line DEHIR. The D is turned wrongly, the circular
part being towards the left. The fourth line contains the letters
IART being the conclusion of the name.
THE FRENCH STONES
are rapidly falling to pieces, and will soon be entirely destroyed unless
some measures be taken to preserve them. The cutting of the letters
is in an inferior style as compared with the Basque stones. The letters
are not standing out in relief, but simply incised. There are now
two distinct stones, as I have said, but I find on referring to my note-
book that when I first copied these inscriptions (now nearly thirty
years since) I referred to them as being both upon one stone. (See
Note at foot of this article.) I was rather surprised then and some-
what taken aback when I learned from Mgr. LeGasse that they are on
86 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
two distinct stones. My interpretation, as will appear further on,
requires that they should be on ome stone only, as I believe the
second inscription is only a continuation of the first. It was there-
C Ws MGM atone WAS
DE *SVIGARAICHK
D'IMNCEISIC CAPI
AINEe DEeFRE GATE
SAR OY | |
o | CAC) ae:
an Ve
|
COOENWIE POV R
L-HONN EV Rog eon
>. "PRIN CE oIALLOIS N=
SVIVA NT o SAsCARRIERE
AU AG Wee ee ENNE
MIS + ENeLEVReMESMEe
fore with some misgivings that I went to view the stones in December
last. However, on careful examination I was soon reassured. It is
[HOWLEY ] OLD BASQUE TOMBSTONES AT PLACENTIA 87
true that there are now two distinct stones; but the first thing I no-
ticed was that being of a laminated structure like slate they are quite
easily split, and are in fact all coming away in thin slabs. I saw at
once that the backs of both stones as they now stand are quite new and
fresh and also irregular in thickness. I immediately came to the con-
clusion that the stone had recently become split or cleft in twain. On
measuring the stones, I found them both to be of exactly the same
width (2 ft. 9 in.). The thickness of each piece is about three inches,
and, allowing an inch or half an inch to have “spawled” off, if both
were put together it would give a thickness of nearly seven inches.
This may seem abnormal. However, on measuring another of the
stones there present I found it to be seven inches in thickness. The
objection, that it is not customary to have an inscription on {wo sides of
a tombstone, vanishes before the actual fact of the Basque stone de-
scribed above.
Finally, to make assurance doubly sure, I took a small piece from
each of these stones, a sliver from the back of each, and submitted
them toa geological expert, J. P. Howley, Esq., F.G.S., asking his
opinion of them. The following is an extract of his letter:
ST. JOHN'S,
Jan’y 14th, 1902.
“. . . . Ihave again carefully examined the two pieces of stone with
“a microscope, and lam convinced beyond doubt that both mineralogically
“and lithologically they are identical in every respect. It is almost equally
“certain that they must have been derived from the same stratum, if not
‘ from the same slab.’’
(Sgd.), JAS. P. HOWLEYx.
Let us now take up the consideration of the inscription on the
stone. The date is 1694, some nineteen years before the French
abandoned Placentia, at the Treaty of Utrecht, 1713; and some eigh-
teen years later than the Basque stone of 1676. This French stone
is of historical value as showing the transitionary state of the popula-
tion at the time. Although it is erected to the memory of a Basque,
yet the language is French. We find in the historical records of
Placentia, about this date (1684) a despatch or Report from Governor
Parat in which he complains of the “ insolence ” of the Basques (“ als
font mille insolences”), and he threatens to chastise them. It is
evident that they were beginning to lose ground and to give way
before the French and Breton population.
The whole of the inscription on this stone as far as legible, is in
French, except the name of the person over whose remains it was
erected. The name, as we shall see, is pure Basque. The ortho-
88 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
graphy is not perfect, but rather phonetic. However, the matter
of correct spelling was not a mark of illiteracy in those days either
in English or French, and especially among nautical persons. Hence
we find the well known formula Cy Git appearing as Cy Gis. Then
we have the Basque name for John, in the fourth form, Jouannes.
This is also a quite correct form. Next comes the family name
Suigarai-Chipi, a thoroughly Basque name. The termination Chipi,
pronounced Xipi or tchipi (it is not possible to express the exact
sound in English letters) is a diminutive, meaning small or little.
The inscription then tells us that this man was also called Croisic
(Dit Croisic). This form of family nomenclature is quite common
among French speaking people. The name Le Croisic is that of a
small seacoast town in the Loire Inférieure, Brittany, near St. Nazaire,
at the mouth of the River Loire In these days there was much com-
munication between the Basques and the Bretons. They were the
pioneers of French colonization. Hence, we may suppose that the
family of Suigarai settled in Le Croisic from which he took his second
name, or what is more probable the name Croisic was a Basque family
name which they gave to this village on settling there. M. Elizée
Reclus, in his Géographie Universelle (Div. III., p. 230), speaking of
Le Croisic and Batz, a neighbouring village, says: — “ Out of a popu-
lation of 2,750 persons nearly one-half belong to eight families.
Under these circumstances, family names and surnames do not suffice
and nearly every individual is known by some soubriquet.” This
accounts for the second name (Dit Croisic) and is of considerable
historical and ethnological interest. It is therefore painful to find
that the Newfoundland “ Guide Book,” missing altogether the anti-
quarian interest of this subject, treats it in the following trivial man-
ner:— “The next oldest stone is that of a Captain of a French
King’s frigate, who rejoiced in the Breton name of Johannes de
Sulgaraichipi (sic). He was good enough, however, to shorten it into
Croisic for everyday use!”
We next read that this Suigarai was “Capitaine de Fregate”
du Roy. Capitaine de Fregate is a regular official grade in the French
Navy, just as Capitaine de Pavillon, Flagship Captain or Commodore;
Capitaine de Vaisseau—post Captain, or duly gazetted Captain.
The Capitaine de Fregate, was a minor degree, nearly equivalent to
our English grade of Commander. “The King” of course, in this
case, was Louis XIV., whose long reign of seventy-two years (1643
te 1715) extended over the reigns of nine English rulers, including
the Commonwealth.
Turning to the second inscription, which I consider to be a
continuation of the previous one, and to have been originally on the
[HOWLEY ] OLD BASQUE TOMBSTONES AT PLACENTIA 89
back of the same stone; if taken by itself it will be found altogether
incomplete, giving neither name nor date, whereas I undertake to
show that it forms a natural sequence to the former. ‘To begin, I
must state that it is very much broken and obliterated, so that in a
short time it will be altogether illegible. It commences with what
appears to be merely an ornamental scroll or flourish, but which I
now think is intended to contain the letter L’ with an apostrophe.
The first word is partly destroyed. The first three letters E.N.V.
are clearly decipherable, after which there appeared to be a portion
of a Y, and at first I read it Hnvoyé (sent), which would make sense
with the following words: “For the honour of my Prince I went to
attack the enemy, etc.” But on close inspection I found the word
Envoyé would not suit, as the letter immediately after the V proved
unmistakably to be an I, and the last letter was discovered to be
the remains of an X. I immediately pronounced the word to be
“Envieux” which, in the sense of “desirous for the honour, etc.,” would
also make good sense. But finally the true interpretation broke in
upon me. The word is indeed Hnvieur, but in an entirely different
sense. In my studies of the history of these times from the “ Docu-
ments Relatifs à la Nouvelle France,’ I found the Royal Frigate
“L’Envieux ” playing a very conspicuous part in the events of that
troubled period. I find the earliest mention of her in a letter from
M. de Frontenac, Governor of Quebec, to the Prime Minister of
France, dated Quebec, 15th Sept., 1691. At this time the “ Vais-
seau L’Envieux” was commanded by Le Sieur de Bonaventure. Le
Sieur Le Moyne D’Iberville was aboard with some troops for the
capture of Fort Nelson. In a letter from the King (Louis XIV.) to
Le Sieur de Villebon, Commandant of the troops in Acadie, dated
at Versailles, April, 1692, the King orders the “ Vaisseau L’Envieux ”
to be sent to him (Villebon) at the River St. John (N.B.), with soldiers
and munitions of war, provisions, money, etc. He is to make war
on the English “ Sans relasche.’ |The Ænvieux is still commanded
by De Bonaventure. In 1692 the “ Envieuz,” accompanied by the
“Joly,” attacked Pemscuit (Pumkit). Shortly after this, the “ Joly ”
was lost on the coast of Newfoundland. In 1694, the date of our
tombstone, I find Le Sieur de Bonaventure transferred to the com-
mand of the “ Bretonne” Though the “ Envieux ” still occupies the
stage, unfortunately, the name of her new commander is not given.
We find, however, that De Bonaventure, in command of “La Bre-
tonne. left La Rochelle on the 8th of April, 1694, in company with
Captain Baptiste, of the corvette “ La Bonne.”
The latter was captured by the English on May 24th, 1695, at
St. John (N.B.), the captain and crew escaped to land. On the
90 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
22nd of July. he says: “I embarked aboard the ‘ Envieux? to return
to France.” On her homeward journey the “ Hnvieuwx” touched at
Placentia on August 12th, and remained till the end of September
to convoy home the fishing vessels. In 1695 (December) I find the
“ Envieux ” again in charge of De Bonaventure. From this it will
be seen that there is lacuna in the history of the movements of the
“ Envieux.” But there is time for a short period of captainship by
poor Suigaraichipi before his death in 1694. My reading of the
inscription then is this: — “ Here lies, etc., Captain of the frigate of
the King, L’Envieux: For the honour of, etc., I went to attack, etc.”
The next words that cause some trouble are: “Mon.........
Prince,’ The letters Mon are quite clear, and I at first read it “ My
Prince,’ meaning, as I thought, “My King.” But I then noticed
portions of some letters, almost illegible, at the beginning of the third
line, before the word “ Prince.” I also noticed that the stone was
frayed away somewhat after the word or letters Mon, at the end of
the second line, and that there had been room for a letter or two
there. Also that immediately before the word “Prince” is to be
distinctly observed the little diamond stop which is used to separate
one word from another, and which is rarely placed at the beginning
of a line. My interpretation of this part of the inscription then,
is this: —
This would apply to Philip, Duke of Chartres and Orleans, brother
of the King (Louis XIV.), whom he had appointed Commander-in-
Chief of the Army and Navy, and whose official title was Monsieur
Le Prince. Here there is a transition of the grammatical construc-
tion of the epitaph from the third to the first person, and the subject
of the inscription (Suigarai) is represented as speaking himself:
“ Jallois,’ I went, etc. The next word, last of the third line, has
puzzled me. The word is clearly NE; but as such it makes no
sense. I have come to the conclusion that it is a mistake for EN,
which, with the participle Suivant, makes good French (in following).
Here again the construction changes back to the third person. “Sa
Carriere,” unless the pronoun Sa be referred to Monsieur le Prince,
but that would be a strained interpretation. “His Career,” or the
career appointed for me by him. From this down the stone is very
much broken up, and the last part is entirely missing. It reads as
follows: —“J’allois en suivant sa carriere, attaquer les enemies en leur
mesme . . . . . “I went, in following out his (qu My?) career
to attack the enemy even in their own.” . . . . The final word
[ HOWLEY | OLD BASQUE TOMBSTONES AT PLACENTIA 91
is missing. It would doubtless be some word to express harbours,
forts, countries, waters, etc., qu. Demeurs.
In looking over the “ Documents,” etc., I find at about this date
(7th March, 1693) a despatch from the Minister at Versailles to
Monsieur du Brouillant, Governor of Placentia, in which there are
some words which bear a striking resemblance to those on the tomb-
stone. The Minister informs the Governor that he cannot this year
supply him with the two, nor even one, frigates (des deux ny dune
fregattes) which he had asked for, but the King had engaged a com-
pany of merchants of St. Malo to go and make war on the English
established on the coast of Newfoundland, “ Mesme pour les attaquer ! ”
These words were almost identical with those on the tombstone, and
the coincidence is remarkable, probably the expression may have had
some special significance about that period.
There only now remains to be considered the two letters or parts
of letters which are to be seen in the right hand lower corner of the
stone. They appear like P, or D, M, preceded by a small Greek
cross such as is used before the signature of a Bishop, or of a prayer
or blessing in the Roman Missal and Ritual. It may probably be
the initials of the sculptor, or perhaps the last part of “ Priez, P. M.
(pray for me) pour moi.”
There are at Placentia many other interesting relics, old MSS.,
with autograph of Louis XIV.; old forts and batteries, ete., which,
together with the beautiful natural scenery, make it a place worthy
of a visit from the tourist and antiquary. These subjects may pos-
sibly claim attention for a contribution to a future volume of the
“Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada.”
NOTE.
When I first visited Placentia, some thirty years ago, and examined the
stones, I find by my notes that I stated that the two French inscriptions,
commencing respectively ‘‘Cy Gis” and ‘‘ L’ENVIEUX,’”’ were on one and the
same stone. When Mgr. LeGasse informed me last year that they are on two
different stones, I was surprised, as I considered one inscription to be only
the complement of the other, and that they are incomplete (especially the
second one) if taken separately. On my subsequent visit, I found that it
appeared that the learned Prelate was correct, and that they were in reality
on two different stones. On measuring and examining again attentively, I
found: —
ist. That the two stones were exactly the same width;
2nd. That both were split, neither being of its original thickness; and
3rd. I took a piece from each and had them examined by a geologist, who
declared that they were both of the same geological formation.
I then concluded (as in the text of my article) that the stone had been
split in twain, and that originally the inscriptions had stood back to back,
one on each side of an upright stone.
92 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Now, quite recently (Sept. 21st, 1902), I have once more examined the
stones, and made a discovery which, while it places beyond doubt my theory
that the two inscriptions belong to the same stone, and thus verifies my notes
taken in 1872, yet changes somewhat the line of my argument. I now find
that by placing the two pieces of stone together, not back to back, but end to
end, they fit exactly (as shown in engraving), and that the stone, besides
being split, has been cracked across the middle irregularly, and that the two
inscriptions were on one side only of the stone, viz., at the head and foot of
it, leaving a vacant space in the middle. The stone must have been at least
eight feet long, and hence was not an upright monument, but what is known
as an altar or table tomb, the top of which was lying horizontally. This
explains the otherwise puzzling fact of the vacant space, which in the former
theory, would be above the first words of the inscription, commencing
‘“ L’Envieux.” If the stone were placed upright it would be impossible to
account for the inscription commencing so far down on the stone, and leaving
such a large space vacant above. But if we consider the two stones as one,
and lying horizontal, the vacant space will be in the middle, and was probably
filled by some object, such as a lamb, a bust, a cross, a ship, etc., standing
upright on the stone. This would explain all admirably.
I may also mention that the name SARA is not, as I stated, the name of a
man, but of a province or township, so called up to the present day. M.F.H.
SECTION II., 1902 [98] Trans. R. S. C.
IV.— The First Legislators of Upper Canada.
By C. C. James, Toronto, Ont.
(Communicated by Sir John Bourinot, and read May 27, 1902.)
In the terms of capitulation at Montreal, in 1760, Ontario was
referred to as “le pays d’en haut” (the upper country). Three years
later (10th February, 1763) the formal transfer took place under the
Treaty of Paris, in these words:
“His most Christian Majesty cedes and guarantees to his said
Britannic Majesty, in full right, Canada with all its dependencies, as
well as the Island of Cape Breton and all the other islands and
coasts in the Gulf and River St. Lawrence.”
There was no attempt at defining the western boundaries or limits
of Canada; there was no necessity for further definition; the people
of Canada were understood to be those living in immediate rela-
tionship to Quebec, Three Rivers, and Montreal. On the 7th of
October of the same year, however, a Royal Proclamation was issued
which fixed the limits of Quebec as follows:
“The Government of Quebec, bounded on the Labrador Coast
by the River St. John, and from thence by a line drawn from the
head of that river through the Lake St. John to the south end
of the Lake Nipissing; from whence the said line, crossing the River
St. Lawrence and the Lake Champlain in forty-five degrees of north
latitude, passes along the highlands which divide the rivers that
empty themselves into the said River St. Lawrence from those which
fall into the sea; and also along the north coast of the Baye des
Chaleurs and the Coast of the Gulf of St. Lawrence to Cape Rosières,
and from thence crossing the mouth of the River St. Lawrence by
the west end of the Island of Anticosti terminates at the aforesaid
River St. John.”
Allowing for some incongruities in these lines we find that by
this proclamation the part of Ontario lying east of a line drawn from
Cornwall to the south-western end of Lake Nipissing was then
included in Quebec.
By the Quebec Act of 1774 the boundaries were carried westward
to include the remainder of Ontario to the Great Lakes and also a
portion of the present United States lying east of the Mississippi
and north of the Ohio River.
Two years later came the outbreak of the Revolutionary War.
By the settlement in the Treaty of Paris, 3rd September, 1783, the
land to the south and west of the Great Lakes was cut off from
94 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Quebec and the boundary line fixed through the lakes and the con-
necting rivers.
Then began the locating of the Loyalists, the settlers coming in
more rapidly than the surveyors could run their lines. The settle-
ments were made in four somewhat distinct groups, which may be
named, fon convenience, the St. Lawrence, the Bay of Quinté, the
Niagara, and the Detroit. Before referring to these in particular it
may be well to state that discharged loyalist soldiers formed the
nucleus of every settlement. As a rule the various regiments were
allotted separate townships and at first took up land together, accom-
panied by most of their officers. Each loyalist regiment had, as a
rule, been raised within a certain area of the neighbouring States,
so that the various townships were settled by little groups of persons
who had come from the same section, were fairly well acquainted
with one another, and to a certain extent were inter-related by mar-
riage. The result of this was to reproduce here the characteristics
of their original home districts, and to give an individuality to each
township. There was a variety in the make-up and therefore in the
views and modes of life of the component township parts of these
districts that is sometimes not fully recognized by writers and stu-
dents of early times. Interesting fields of investigation await the
historian and novelist in the study of the first Highland Scotch settle-
ments, the German, the Dutch, and even the French Canadian settle-
ments, and a visit to these parts to-day will show that they have
not yet lost all of their early peculiarities. I stated that the officers,
as a rule, settled along with their disbanded regiments. It was to
be expected that these men who had been their leaders for seven or
eight years should take the lead also in these various districts, and
that when the time came for the choosing of legislators some of them
should be selected as their representatives.
A few words now as to these four settlements. We begin at
the east with the St. Lawrence section. Lancaster, the first town-
ship lying next to the old seigniory of New Longueuil, was passed
by, for it was low and marshy, and hence was called “the sunken
township.” Beyond this, eight townships fronting on the river were
surveyed, each one known as “ No. so-and-so below Cataraqui.”
Charlottenburg {No. 1) was settled by Scottish Highlanders, Roman
Catholics; Cornwall (No. 2) and Osnabruck (No. 3) by Scottish Pres-
byterians; Williamsburg (No. 4) and Matilda (No. 5) by German
Lutherans from Northern New York. Edwardsburg (No. 6), Augusta
(No. 7) and Elizabethtown (No. 8) were more mixed in their composi-
tion. For fuller study of the five counties forming the St. Lawrence
district, the various local histories may be consulted.
[JAMES] FIRST LEGISLATORS OF UPPER CANADA 95
The Bay of Quinté District.— Beginning at Kingston, ten town-
ships were surveyed around the Bay of Quinté, each one known as
“No. so-and-so above Cataraqui.” Here settled the second Battalion
of Sir John Johnson’s Royal New York Regiment, Major Rogers
with his King’s Rangers, Capt. Grass with his band from New York
City, Major Van Alstine with his batteau men, a part of Jessup’s
Rangers, a small body of the Hessian Mercenaries, and a small but
important body of Quakers from Dutchess County, N.Y. The Scottish
element was not so prominent as in the St. Lawrence townships, but
German and Dutch permeated the whole district. The student will
also find two other interesting elements, though somewhat limited in
numbers, namely, German-Irish, or JIrish-Palatines, and French
Huguenots. |
At Niagara, settlement received an impetus because the fort on
the eastern bank had remained in British hands and had been a
haven of refuge for the loyalist families of the Mohawk valley. The
discharged soldiers sought out their wives and children and crossed
the river to take up the frontier lots of the newly surveyed townships
of the peninsula. Butler’s Rangers formed an important part of
these first settlers, who soon occupied the townships from about where
Hamilton now stands, to Long Point.
In the western district Detroit formed the headquarters, and here
w: find three interesting elements,—the British regulars and their
officers; the French Canadians, descendants of the pioneer French
families; and the British officers who had led the Indians in the wild
western warfare that swept the forests from Mackinac to Pittsburg.
When the time comes for this district to produce magistrates and
representatives, we may expect them to come from these three classes.
Across from the old French settlement at Detroit, in 1747, was
established the Indian Mission, and about it there gradually grew up a
French settlement with Sandwich (L’Assomption) as its centre, an off-
shoot of old Quebec, where the French language still is spoken and where
the. French Canadian mode of life still prevails. On the shores of Lake
Erie, westward from where Kingsville now stands, 97 lots were surveyed,
and on these a mixed body of loyalists were settled, among them being
some of Butler’s Rangers. The Western or Detroit District then con-
sisted at first of three settlements. Detroit, on the American side, the
French Canadian settlement among the Indians about Pointe de
Montreal, and the “ two-connected townships ” (Gosfield and Colchester)
on Lake Erie. The township of Malden had few settlers until 1796,
when Detroit was evacuated and Fort Amherstburg was erected to com-
mand the river. About the same time the lots along the River Thames
began to be taken up.
96 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
It will now be seen that the people of the province were arranged
in four groups, and when it became necessary to establish courts and land
boards in 1788-89, the limits of the districts were easily determined as
follows :—
Lunenburg, from Lancaster Township to the Gananoque River.
Mecklenburg, from the Gananoque to the Trent.
Nassau, from the Trent to the eastern:end of Long Point.
Hesse, from Long Point to the Detroit.
Perhaps it may be well to state also the vacant or but sparsely
settled frontier sections. They were as follows: A somewhat narrow
section between Gananoque and Kingston; the Lake Ontario region from
Trenton to Hamilton; the central portion of the Lake Erie section.
As the population extended and grew, both by the large natural
increase peculiar to those early days, and also by the coming in of
those who are sometimes called the later loyalists, as well as by the
coming of some who had fought on the side of the Revolutionists, it
was natural that there should arise a desire that this western part of
Quebec be separated from the older portion of the province, where
French laws and methods prevailed. Without stopping to discuss
the agitation that soon sprang up over this question, we came down
to the passing of the Constitutional Act of 1791, providing for the
division of Quebec. On the 18th of November of that year, Lieut.-
Governor Alured Clarke issued his proclamation, fixing the boundary
line between Upper and Lower Canada to take effect on the 26th
December, 1791. Lieut.-Col. John Graves Simcoe arrived early in
the new year to take his office as Lieut.-Governor of Upper Canada.
The Constitutional Act provided that the Parliament should consist
of two bodies, a Legislative Council to consist of not fewer than seven
members appointed by the Crown, and a Legislative Assembly to consist
of not less than sixteen members elected by the people. The following,
therefore, would be a statement of the governing bodies of the
country :—
The Governor-General of Canada (Lord Dorchester).
The Lieut.-Governor of Upper Canada (Lt.-Col. Simcoe).
The Executive Council (the executive, corresponding to a cabinet
of ministers in these days, all appointed by the Crown).
The Legislative Council (corresponding to our Senate).
The Legislative Assembly (the elected representatives of the people).
Lord Dorchester had sent home a list of persons suitable for the
Executive Council from which a selection had been made. We are told
that Simcoe was delayed some months at Quebec awaiting a quorum of
his new advisers, with whose assistance he wished to decide upon the
basis of representation in the new Legislature. While at Quebec (Feb.
[JAMES] FIRST LEGISLATORS OF UPPER CANADA 97
7th, 1791,) he issued a proclamation as to the conditions of sale of
Crown Lands. Beyond this we have as yet little or no record as to his
doings while at Quebec. Probably he was renewing acquaintances with
some of his old associates of the Queen’s Rangers, and gathering informa-
tion as to his new province.
With the early summer he started westward, and on July 8th,
reached Fort Frontenac or Kingston. After the swearing in of the
following members of his Executive Council he began formal
deliberations :—
William Osgoode sworn in 9th July, 1792.
James Baby PA rage eos cu ae 1792.
Peter Russell Say arene NES 792.
Alexander Grant of erallalt laiatatcs 1792.
William Robertson had been selected as a member, but he does not
appear to have been sworn in or to have taken his seat. Trying to make
up for lost time, the Council met even on Sundays, and after 8 days’
deliberation the proclamation of July 16th, was put forth. This
proclamation dealt with two things: First, it divided the province into
19 counties; second, it provided for the selection of 16 members of the
Legislature by the residents of these 19 counties.
The following notes of procedure are to be found in the Archives
of Canada for 1891. They supply some interesting information as to
how the work proceeded :—
Minutes of meetings at Kingston, 8th July, 1792.—Proclamation that Dor-
chester is appointed Governor-General of Upper and Lower Canada, and
Simcoe Lieutenant-Governor of Upper Canada read and Simcoe takes the
prescribed oaths.
Minutes, 9th July.—Executive Councillors Osgoode, Baby and Russell take
the oaths and their seats. Littlehales, appointed Clerk of the Council, and
Jarvis, the Secretary of the Council, take the oaths. Instructions read
(embodied in minutes in full).
Proclamation ordered for continuing judges and other civil officers in
their employments.
Minutes, 10th July.—Militia returns laid before the Council, which pro-
ceeded to divide the Province into counties to provide for representation.
Minutes, llth July.—Grant took the oaths and his seat as a member of
the Executive Council. Tthe division of the Province resumed.
Minutes, 12th July.—Division of the Province continued.
Minutes, 18th July.—Same business resumed.
Minutes, 14th July.—Division resumed.
Minutes, Sunday, 15th July.—Division concluded; proclamation to bring it
into effect ordered; as also a proclamation to call together a legislature.
Sec II., 1902. 7.
98 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Minutes, 16th July.—Writs of summons to the Legislative Council issued
to the following: William Osgoode, Chief Justice; James Baby, Richard
Duncan, William Robertson, Robert Hamilton, Richard Cartwright, Jr., John
Munro, Alexander Grant, Peter Russell.
Edward Burns took the oath as Clerk of the Crown, and Richard Pollard
and Alexander McDonell took the oaths as Sheriffs.
Minutes, 21st July.—Additional proclamation issued respecting the con-
tinuation of civil officers in judicial and ministerial employments.
This proclamation was issued before a printing press was established
in Upper Canada. I understand that it was sent to Montreal to be
printed, and a copy of it is to be found in the department of the
Secretary of State at Ottawa. Two points in connection with it may
be mentioned. In the Quebec Gazette of the 9th August, 1792, appears
the following news item:
‘ Letters Patent dated the 9th of July have been issued by His Excellency
Lieutenant-Governor Simcoe, dividing the Province of Upper Canada into
counties, etc., and apportioning the representation thereof. The following are
the names of the Counties, with the number of representatives they send to
the House of Assembly, viz.: Glengarry, 2; Stormont, 1; Dundas, 1; Gren-
ville, 1; Leeds and Frontenac, 1; Ontario and Addington, 1; Prince Edward, 1;
Lenox, Hastings and Northumberland, 1; Durham and York, 1; Lincoln, 1;
Norfolk, 1; Suffolk and Essex, 1; Kent, 2; making in the whole 19 counties
and 15 representatives.”
The question at once arises as to how the official organ at Quebec
made the mistake in reporting the decision of the Lt.-Governor and
Council. It appeared one month after the decision of the Executive.
Does it represent the views of Simcoe before he left Quebec, which views
were changed after discussing the situation with the Upper Canada
Councillors? Was it the Council’s first draft, or was it merely a
news item sent down by some correspondent who was not exact in
his statements?
The second point is that the proclamation must have been scarce
and not readily available. The first time it appears in the Journal of
the Legislature is on the 31st December, 1821, where it was placed on
record by resolution of the House. It does not appear in the earliest
printed collection of Statutes, but it is to be found for the first time,
and, I am of opinion, for the only time in available form, in the volume
of Statutes issued at Kingston in 1831, by Thompson and MacFarlane.
Now let us give a list of the counties beginning at the extreme
west :—
Kent, Essex, Suffolk, Norfolk, Lincoln, York, Durham, North-
umberland, Hastings, Prince Edward, Lennox, Addington, Ontario,
Frontenac, Leeds, Grenville, Dundas, Stormont, Glengarry.
[JAMES ] FIRST LEGISLATORS OF UPPER CANADA 99
The nineteen counties may be arranged in two groups, the first
consisting of eight, the second of eleven. The first eight, Kent to
Northumberland, in the order given, are also the names of the eight
eastern counties of England; the townships making up these eight
counties Were named after important towns in the similar counties
of England. Thus Newark, the name then given to the township
and the settlement in which the Legislature was to be convened, was
so-called after the town of Newark in Lincolnshire.
The next question that presents itself for our consideration is,
who were the men selected by our people as their representatives, and
what ridings did they represent? This election took place only 110
years ago; it was the first legislature of the province that was to be
formed. One would think that it would be easy to turn up some
record that would give us this information, but I could not find
it, and I decided to try to work out the answer to this question, and
this paper is the result. It will, I think, be admitted that we should
if possible, determine who were the first representatives and whom
they represented. Every printed record that I have found is either
incomplete or incorrect. The writers of our history have told us
what these men did, but they have told us very little as to who they
were. The first printed list that I have found in our historical
works is contained in Dr. Canniff’s Settlement of Upper Canada, pub-
lished in 1869, and the writers since have copied it in its incomplete
or only partially correct form. It would take too much space to
recount the interesting search that has been made for the facts that
are to follow.
To show further what meagre material we have to work on, it
may be stated that the first legislature held five sessions as follows, at
Newark or Niagara:—
Ist session, 17th September to 15th October, 1792.
2nd “, 81st May to 9th July, 1493:
3rd " 2nd June to 9th July, 1794.
4th ii 6th July to 10th August, 1795.
5th mee koth) May to: -ard; June, 011796:
Of these five sessions we have very condensed typewritten reports
or journals of the 1st and 2nd. There is no record available here
or in England of the 8rd, 4th and 5th. What became of the reports
sent home by Simcoe? The journals of the Legislative Council are
missing for the same years as those of the Assembly, and the surmise
has been offered that the vessels carrying these records may have been
captured by French corsairs, in which case search in the archives of
Paris might bring interesting results. It may be that some day they
100 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
will be resurrected from their long sleep in some dusty pigeon hole
in old London.
Glengarry— This county then included the present county of
Glengarry, and also the land north to the Ottawa in the county of
Prescott. The first riding included the township of Charlottenburg
(formerly called No. 1), and the second riding comprehended the rest
of the county. The latter therefore would include the few settlers
in Lancaster and those residing in the rear of the county as far as
the Ottawa River. The two members selected were the brothers,
John Macdonell and Hugh Macdonell.
The Macdonells of Aberchalder came out to America at the
solicitation of Sir William Johnson and received grants of lands in
the Mohawk Valley. Alexander Macdonell, the father, had been
an aide-de-camp to Prince Charles Stuart in 1745. Sir John Johnson
raised in New-York the celebrated body of Loyalist soldiers known
as the King’s Royal Regiment of New York (Johnson’s Royal Greens),
Alexander Macdonell became captain of the first battalion of this
regiment. His brother also was an officer in the regiment. Their
sons followed in their fathers’ footsteps and enlisted in the same
regiment, in the Royal Highland Emigrant Regiment, and in Butler’s
Rangers.
John Macdonell, after serving as lieutenant in the 84th, or Royal
Highland Emigrant Regiment, was, for five years and ten months
captain in Butler’s Rangers. When the Royal Canadian Volunteer
Regiment of Foot was organized in Canada in 1796, John Macdonell
was appointed lieutenant-colonel of the 2nd battalion. This was
the first corps raised in Upper Canada. The first battalion was
raised in Lower Canada under Lieutenant-Colonel de Longueuil and
Major Louis de Salaberry.
The younger brother, Hugh Macdonell, was lieutenant in the
1st Battalion of the King’s Royal Regiment of New York, and served
in that corps for seven years. When the R. C. Volunteers were
organized, Hugh Macdonell commanded a company under his brother,
Col. John. He was shortly after appointed captain in the 2nd Bat-
talion, and in 1803, was Lieutenant-Colonel of the Glengarry Militia
Regiment, of which John was Colonel. Mr. J. A. Macdonell states
that “he was appointed by Lieutenant-Governor Simcoe to be First
Adjutant-General of Militia in Upper Canada, and was the founder
of our militia system.” The two brothers settled in Glengarry along
with the other Scottish soldiers, and were selected as the representa-
tives of that county. Mr. J. A. Macdonell, in his book on Glengarry,
states that Hugh was member for the First Riding. His name
[JAMES] FIRST LEGISLATORS OF UPPER CANADA 101
appears frequently in connection with the surveys and settlement of
the first townships in his section.
John Macdonell was chosen Speaker of the Legislature when it
met in session at Newark in September, 1792. He continued as a
member for Glengarry in the second legislature, 1796-1800, but his
brother Hugh was succeeded by Captain Wilkinson. Hugh Mac-
donell was in 1805 appointed Assistant Commissary-General at Gibral-
tar, through the recommendation of H.R.H. the Duke of Kent, and
later (1811 to 1820), Consul-General at Algiers. Sir Alexander
Macdonell and Sir Hugh Guion Macdonell, who have both won dis-
tinguished honour in the Imperial service, are his sons.
Lieutenant-Colonel Chichester Macdonell was a brother of the
two members. After serving as lieutenant in Butler’s Rangers he
followed the British service abroad, was under Sir John Moore at
Corunna, and died in India, leaving behind a worthy record.
But the relationship of this family to our early legislatures is not
yet all told, for a sister of the three brothers was married to Alex-
ander Macdonell of Greenfield, and two of their sons represented
Glengarry in the Legislature of Upper Canada, Lieutenant-Colonel
Macdonell, who fell with Brock at Queenston Heights, and Lieutenant-
Colonel Donald Greenfield Macdonell.
Before passing on to the next riding, it may be worth calling
attention to the fact that the first Speaker of the first Legislature of
Upper Canada was a Roman Catholic, for at that time such a selection
could not have taken place in the Legislature of Nova Scotia. The
date of his death is uncertain, but he died at Quebec, and his remains
lie buried under the Roman Catholic cathedral of that city.
Stormont.— This county consisted of the townships of Cornwall
and Osnabruck and all north to the Ottawa River. One member was
to be selected and the- man first chosen was Lieutenant Jeremiah
French, who had served seven years in the 2nd Battalion of the King’s
Royal Regiment of New York. The French family are supposed to
have come from Manchester, England. They settled in Vermont
and occupied a farm whereon Manchester, Vermont, now stands.
There were two brothers, Jeremiah and Gershom. On the breaking
out of the war, they enlisted as loyalists. Jeremiah French appears
to have been a man of importance in Vermont; he had a large holding
of land and was at one time High Sheriff at Manchester. His wife
(Elizabeth Wheeler) was true to British rule, and after her husband
departed for Albany, it was considered advisable by the Revolution-
ists to expel her from the State on account of her outspoken loyalty.
Jeremiah French’s property had been seized by the State, and now
part of the chattels were sold to pay for her transportation. Then with
102 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
a few belongings she was taken to the frontier and sent on to the
British camp.
Gershom French, the brother of the member, lived at Coteau
Landing, and under direction of the Governor, made some exploration
of the country between Kingston and Ottawa.
Lieutenant Jeremiah French drew lands in Cornwall and in
Montague. He was an intimate friend of Bishop Strachan. Ben-
jamin French, son of Jeremiah, and Dr. Strachan, were married to
sisters, daughters of Dr. Wood, an English army surgeon. We shall
close our account of Lieutenant French by referring to the sad acci-
dent that happened while he was entertaining the Duke of Kent: A
turkey shoot was in progress, and just as Mr. French was about to
fire, his daughter crossed in front, and was shot dead upon the spot.
His successor was Robert I. D. Gray, who was drowned in 1804 in the
lamentable shipwreck of The Speedy off Presquw isle.
Lieutenant French died in 1805, and was survived several years
by his widow. |
(For these particulars I am indebted to his descendant, F. J.
French, Esq., K.C., of Prescott.)
Dundas.— This county consisted of Williamsburgh and Matilda
townships, and all lying to the north as far as the Ottawa. The
member chosen was Alexander Campbell. Of this member we know
but little. Croil, in his History of Dundas, says, that he left behind
him an unenviable reputation for veracity, but whether this was
merely in the political sense or not, we do not know. He appears
to have left the riding and moved to Montreal. His name does not
appear in the list of members published in the Quebec Almanac for
1796. This list, of course, must have been made up and printed in
1795, before the expiration of the first legislature. He was present,
however, at the first and second sessions. His successor in the
second legislature was Colonel Thomas Fraser, of Matilda.
Grenville— This county was composed of the townships of
Edwardsburgh and Augusta, and the lands to the north as far as the
Ottawa River. The western part of Carleton and the south-eastern
part of Lanark therefore were then included in Grenville, but prac-
tically all the settlers were in the two front townships. Ephraim
Jones was chosen as member for Grenville. At the same time he
was a member of the Land Board for Leeds and Grenville. Josiah
Jones came to Boston in 1665 and settled at Weston, Mass., where
he died in 1714. His grandson, Elisha Jones, had a numerous family,
fourteen sons and one daughter. The family records have it that
all these children came to British territory at the time of the Revolu-
tionary War, some settling in New Brunswick and in Nova Scotia,
[JAMES] FIRST LEGISLATORS OF UPPER CANADA 108
and some in Upper Canada. Ephraim was the tenth son. He set-
tled in Augusta township, where he was long known as “ Commissary
Jones,” through his having charge of the Government stores. He
married a Miss Coursoll, of Montreal, and had four sons and four
daughters as follows:
1. Charles, born 1781, was a miller and merchant, and began the
settlement at Brockville, where he died in 1840. He was member
for Leeds from 1820 to 1828, and was afterwards appointed a member
of the Legislative Council.
2. William owned mills at Beverley (now Delta). He died at
Brockville in 1832.
3. Jonas, a pupil of Dr. Strachan, studied law, was appointed
Judge, and in 1837 was made Judge of the Queen’s Bench. He
died at Toronto, in 1848. His eldest son, David Ford Jones, was
member for Grenville for three terms, 1816-1828, and again chosen
in 1836.
4, Alpheus was Collector of Customs and Postmaster at Prescott,
where he died in 1863.
5. Charlotte married L. P. Sherwood, afterwards Judge of the
Queen’s Bench.
6. Sophia married Andrew Stuart.
7. Lucy married Dr. Hubbell, of Brockville.
8. Eliza married H. J. Boulton, of Toronto, at one time Governor
of Newfoundland.
Ephraim Jones was succeeded as member in 1786 by Dr. Solomon
Jones who had been a surgeon in Burgoyne’s Army, and who also had
settled in Augusta. There were two well known but unrelated fami-
hes of the name of Jones in Grenville county. Solomon was one of
four brothers — Daniel, Solomon, David and John —who came to
Upper Canada from Fort Edward, New York. Two other brothers
were killed in the war, and a seventh settled in Nova Scotia. Daniel
was, along with Charles Jones, son of Ephraim, one of the founders
of Brockville. He was the father of Daniel Jones, who was knighted.
His other son, David Jones, was member for Leeds, and was appointed
registrar and judge. David Jones, brother of Solomon, was the pros-
pective husband of Jane McCrea, who was murdered by the Indians in
northern New York, and whose death played an important part in
the Revolutionary War.
(For most of these facts in regard to the Jones family I am
indebted to Leavitt’s “ History of Leeds and Grenville.”)
Leeds and Frontenac counties included the townships at present
contained therein, together with all the land north to the Ottawa
River. These two together were entitled to one member. The
104 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
_ reason for this will be evident by recalling what was stated before
as to the vacant land between Kingston and Gananoque. John White
was selected as the first member. He came out from England in
1792, probably along with Simcoe, who appointed him Attorney-
General. That he represented Leeds and Frontenac we know from
one of Simcoe’s letters, an extract from which appears in the Archives
of Canada for 1891, p. xxii., as follows: —
“In my passage from Montreal to Kingston, I understood that the general
spirit of the country was against the election of half-pay officers into the
Assembly, and that the prejudice ran in favour of men of a lower order, who
kept but one table, that is, who dined in common with their servants. It was
by great good fortune that the temporary residence I made at Kingston
created sufficient influence to enable us to bring the Attorney-General, Mr.
White, into the House.”’
Mr. White was succeeded in the Legislature, in 1796, by Captain
Jessup. He was shot in a duel with Mr. Small, clerk of the Executive
Council, on January 3rd, 1800, and died the following day.
Addington and Ontario— Addington included Ernestown or town-
ship No. 2, and all the land north to the Ottawa. Ontario was an
island county consisting of Amherst, Gage, Wolfe, Howe and all other
islands east to the Gananoque River. The remainder of the thousand
islands east of the Gananoque River were attached to the several coun-
ties in front of which they were situated. It might be mentioned here
that Amherst Island formed part of the estate of Sir John Johnson.
Addington and Ontario were entitled to one member, and Mr. Joshua
Booth was selected.
Joshua Booth's early history is, like that of most early settlers
of Upper Canada, largely of a traditionary nature. His ancestors
were English and were settled in Orange County, New York. At
the outbreak of the Revolutionary War the family divided, Joshua
taking the British or Loyalist side. (On the U. E. L. list he was
reported as a sergeant.) He settled in Ernestown and shortly after-
ward became proprietor of the King’s Mill, situated west of Kingston,
on what is now known as Mill Creek. There is a story that after the
war, his mother came from New York State by the Champlain and
St. Lawrence to visit him. She was accompanied by negro slaves
and her object was to convey to him a bag of gold, doubtless the result
of some family division of property. During the war of 1812, Joshua
Booth and his two sons saw service, the father as captain. The
mother when condoled with for the absence of her two sons, flashed
out: “ Indeed. and I wish I had more to send.” This Spartan mother
was Margaret Fraser, daughter of Daniel Fraser, U. E. L.
[TAMES] FIRST LEGISLATORS OF UPPER CANADA 105
Joshua Booth’s death was tragic. Though a soldier and a
fighter, the sight of blood overcame him. During an engagement
he was thrown into a state of catalepsy, and died on October 31st,
1813, from loss of blood; or, as some assert, he was by mistake buried
alive in the hurry of the affray. He was survived by his widow and
ten children.
In 1796 Joshua Booth was succeeded as representative by Chris-
topher Robinson, who died November 2nd, 1798. William Fairfield,
of Bath, was chosen in June, 1800, to complete the unexpired
term (two sessions). The latter was the grandfather of the wife of
Marshall Spring Bidwell.
Lenox, Hastings and Northumberland.—The county of Lenox
(this is the original spelling) included the present townships of North
Fredericksburg, South Fredericksburg, Adolphustown and Richmond,
Hastings included all the townships in the present county, together with
all the land lying north as far as the Ottawa, and the small islands
in the bay and river Trent lying nearest to it. Northumberland in-
cluded the townships in the present county as far north as the Mississaga
Indian lands. The settlers in 1792, were located principally in the
townships on the bay. The proclamation provided that these three
counties, with Adolphustown excepted, should together elect one mem-
ber. The man chosen was Lieutenant Hazleton Spencer. He was the
eldest son of Benjamin Spencer, and was born at East Grenville, Rhode
Island, on 29th August, 1757. About ten years later the family moved
toa grant of land on the Winooskie River, Vermont. The father was
elected a member of the Provisional Assembly or Congress to decide the
course of the State in connection with the revolutionary troubles. He
stood out for British rule, and, consequently, had to flee. He joined
Burgoyne’s Army, was present at the battle of Bennington, and died
shortly after at Ticonderoga. Hazleton Spencer, the son, joined the
King’s Royal Regiment of New York, and was at one time a prisoner
with the rebels. He was made lieutenant in the 2nd battalion and
on the disbanding of the regiment settled on a tract of land in Fredericks-
burg, on the bay shore near Conway.
He was married to Miss Margaret Richards. There were born six
sons and three daughters, the baptisms of which appear in the Langhorn
Registers, published by the Ontario Historical Society (Papers and
Records, Volume I, 1899).
The late Rev. Canon Spencer, through whom this information was
procured, was the son of Dr. Benjamin Conger Spencer, the eldest son
of Lieut. Hazelton Spencer.
When the second Battalion of the R. C. Volunteers of Foot was
raised by Colonel John Macdonell, Hazelton Spencer was appointed
106 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Major. From 1797 to 1803, he was commandant of the garrison at
Kingston, and, it is said, was a great personal friend of Dr. Strachan,
with whom he was wont to hold lengthy heated discussions. He was
the County Lieutenant of Lennox, and was actively preparing for the
war with the United States when he died suddenly in February, 1813.
He was buried with military honours on his own farm. Lieutenant
Spencer was an ardent supporter and upholder of the Anglican Church.
Prince Edward and Adolphustown.—The county of Prince Edward
was of the same extent as it is to-day. It was divided into three town-
ships—Marysburgh (No. 5), Sophiasburgh (No. 6) and Ameliasburgh
(No. 7). These townships contained the overflow from across the bay
of Sir John Johnson’s soldiers. Here also (in Marysburgh) were
located the little band of Hessians, and in these townships some of the
officers drew large areas of land. Among others may be mentioned
Major James Rogers, Major Peter Vanalstine and Captain Archibald
McDonell. To make the representation fair, Adolphustown was
detached from Lennox and added to Prince Edward. Though separated
by the Bay, it should be remembered that the main road to York passed
through Adolphustown and crossed at the point by ferry to Prince
Edward County shore, whence it ran on to the carrying place.
Adolphustown was one of the most important townships of the
Bay district. Though small and divided into two parts by Hay Bay,
-it possessed an importance beyond its size or population. It was here
that the Loyalists landed and from it the settlement spread to adjoining
townships. In it was a band of Quakers or Friends from Dutchess
County, New York, many of whom had been fighters on the British
side. Major Peter Vanalstine was the leader of the soldier settlers,
and Philip Dorland was the leading Quaker. The selection of Philip
Dorland as member took place, and in September he started for the
meeting in Newark. But there was a difficulty in the way. To take
his seat he must first take the prescribed oath. This he could not do
as a Quaker. This matter came up for consideration immediately after
Colonel Macdonell had been elected speaker. A statement of the case,
signed by Dorland, was presented, and the House at once decided that
the seat be declared vacant, and a new election held. When the people
met once more to consider the situation they selected Major Peter
Vanalstine as their representative, and he appeared and took his seat
at the second session.
In Dr. Canniff’s settlement of Upper Canada, it is stated that
Peter Vanalstine was major only by courtesy and that he came as a
non-combatant at the head of a party of non-combatant farmer
Loyalists to settle this beautiful little township. This statement has
[samEs] FIRST LEGISLATORS OF UPPER CANADA 107
been repeated again and again, but it is incorrect. Through the
courtesy of Rev. W. O. Raymond of St. John,,N.B., I have been per-
mitted to examine a muster roll of batteau men organized and directed
by Captain Peter Vanalstine, and in his evidence before the Claims
Commission, Vanalstine refers to his military service. Major
Vanalstine was of Dutch ancestry, he came from near Albany, New
York, and spoke English with quite a foreign accent. After living
for some years in Adolphustown he moved across the bay to Prince
Edward, where he had large holdings of land and started the mill at
the most picturesque spot of the Bay district, the lake on the moun-
tain. He returned to Adolphustown and died at his old home in 1811.
He was succeeded in 1796, by David McGregor Rogers, the son of
Major James Rogers, and the nephew of the celebrated ranger, Robert
Rogers. David McGregor Rogers was at the time living on a large
military land grant at West Lake. David McGregor Rogers sat in
the Legislature of Upper Canada from this time until his death in
1824, with the exception of one Parliament. His record, therefore,
was for 24 years, the longest of any member of the Upper Canada
House of Assembly. Reference to the Rogers family may be found
in a paper printed in the transactions of the Royal Society of Canada,
1900. “Rogers, Ranger and Loyalist,” by Walter Rogers.
Durham, York and 1st Lincoln.—The County of Durham extended
from Northumberland west to the end of Long Beach in Darlington
township, and north as far as the Mississaga Tract. It represented
very nearly the county of the present day. York consisted of two
ridings or parts: The east, including the present counties of York
and Ontario; and the west, the northern half of Wentworth County.
Between these two lay an Indian Reserve, now forming the counties
of Halton and Peel. The county of Lincoln comprehended the
Niagara Peninsula, and included Ancaster, Barton, Saltfleet, Glanford
and Binbrook townships of the present county of Wentworth, together
with the present counties of Lincoln and Welland. Lincoln was
divided into four ridings. The first riding consisted of the following
townships :—Aneaster Barton, Saltfleet, Glanford, Binbrook, Caistor,
Gainsboro, Grimsby and Clinton. Durham, York and 1st Lincoln were
to elect one member who would, therefore, represent the settlers on
Lake Ontario from Port Hope to a little beyond Beamsville. The great
bulk of the settlers were around the head of the lake from Hamilton
southeast. The man selected was Nathaniel Pettit, of Grimsby. He
had been a member of the Land Board of Nassau since 1788, and his
name was one of the list sent home by Lord Dorchester from which
to select the Legislative Council. Jonathan and Deborah Pettit lived in
the State of Pennsylvania. Part of their land was in New Jersey. There
108 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
were two sons, Andrew and Nathaniel. Andrew married Sarah Smith
in 1780, and in 1787, with wife and four children started for British
territory. They crossed the Niagara in July, and within two weeks
erected their log house on lot 15, Grimsby township. Andrew Pettit
died 12th March, 1819. He is the ancestor of the Pettits of that
section. His brother Nathaniel lived on a farm between Grimsby and
Beamsville. He owned the land on which Grimsby now stands.
Nathaniel Pettit owned lot No. 9 in the first and lot No. 9 in the
second concession; Andrew Pettit owned lot No. 15 in the first
and second concessions and the broken front; and John Pettit owned
lot 12 on the front and in the first and second concessions. Grimsby
village is situated on lot 9 in the first concession, and lots 9 and 10 in
the second concession.
Nathaniel Pettit was commonly known as Judge Pettit. He
never married. Some descendants of his brother are of opinion that
he returned to New Jersey; others think that he died and was buried
on his own farm on the lake front. He was succeeded in 1796, as
member, by Richard Beasley.
The Second Riding of Lincoln was given one member. This riding
consisted of the following townships:—Louth, Grantham and Newark,
the three northwestern townships of the present county of Lincoln.
Benjamin Pawling of Grantham township was a member of the first
Legislature and as he lived in the second riding, it is a fair surmise
that he was its representative.
Benjamin and Jesse Pawling were brothers, sons of a Welshman
who had settled in Pennsylvania. At the outbreak of the Revolu-
tionary War they refused to take up arms against the British, and
their property was confiscated or burned. Driven out, they made their
way to Nova Scotia, whence by walking and canoeing they reached
Quebec. Here they enlisted and fought till peace was proclaimed.
Benjamin was a Captain-Lieutenant in Butler’s Rangers, and at the
close of the war was advanced to be a Colonel. He was reported at
Detroit about 1784, evidently intending to settle there, but he left
for Niagara and drew land on the lake front. immediately east of
Port Dalhousie. Jesse’s land was to the west of this. Benjamin was
employed as a surveyor in the early days and was appointed a member
of the first Land Board of Nassau in 1788. His oldest son Henry was
a Captain of Militia during the war of 1812-14, and was a trusted
carrier of despatches between Niagara and Detroit. He was present
at the battles of Stoney Creek and Lundy’s Lane. Henry Pawling’s
daughter married William Pay who is still living at St. Catharines,
and who remembers the destruction of the Caroline, for he stood
sentry on the Canadian side as she went over the Falls. There are
[JAMES | FIRST LEGISLATORS OF UPPER CANADA 109
descendants also of Jesse Pawling, the elder brother of Benjamin,
still living in the Niagara Peninsula.
According to the Niagara records, Colonel Benjamin Pawling, of
Twelve Mile Creek, was buried on 16th December, 1818, by Rev. Mr.
Addison of St. Andrews Church, Niagara.
Samuel Street was elected in 1796, as a member of the second
Legislature, and I am inclined to place him as the representative of
2nd Lincoln.
The Third Riding of Lincoln was given one member. This riding
consisted of the following townships which now form part of Welland
County :—Stamford, Thorold and Pelham. Isaac Swayzie was a mem-
ber for one of the Lincolns, and I am disposed to place him in the
3rd, in which he lived. If not member for the 3rd, he must have been
member for the 4th. Strange to say I have found the greatest diffi-
culty in placing the members who represented the ridings adjacent to
Newark, and in obtaining personal notes as to them. In Lord
Dorchester’s list, Isaac Swayzie is entered as “ Pilot to the New York
Army.” He is referred to by some as a noted scout, and this whets our
desire to know something of his interesting early career. He lived
in Thorold township and held a position as a Magistrate of the Home
District. He had a son, Richard Swayzie, who was born at Elizabeth,
New Jersey, in 1775, whose daughter married a Mr. Church. In Vol.
I., page 616, of Mr. John Ross Robertson’s “ History of Freemasonry
in Canada,” I find this reference :—
‘ Brother Isaac Swazie and Brother Parshall Terry had the monopoly of
contracts for the supply of the fort at York. Brother Swazie was originally
7
a member of Lodge No. 7, New Jersey, and was initiated in 1776, receiving his
B.A. and F.C. in the United States, and affiliating as an F.C., was raised to
the sublime degree of a M.M. in 1801 in Lodge No. 2 at Niagara.”
One other item may be credited to him, and that is that the old
well-known apple, Swayzie Pomme Gris, was originated on his farm.
He was not a member of the second Legislature, but sat in succeeding
Houses as follows :—
3rd Parliament, 1801 to 1804, for 2nd, 3rd and 4th Lincoln, along
with Ralfe Clench.
4th Parliament, 1805 to 1808, for 2nd, 3rd and 4th Lincoln.
6th Parliament, 1813 to 1816, for 4th Lincoln.
The old Niagara church records published in Vol. III. of the
“ Paper and Records of the Ontario Historical Society,” contain some
Swayzie items. There are baptisms of the children of Isaac and
Eleanor Swayzie, one of whom, Wm. Dickson Swayzie, was married
on 3rd of March, 1830, to Mary Durham. Mrs. Mary Durham Swayzie
110 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
is still living in New York at the fine old age of 93. She remembers
the British officers stopping at her father’s home on the North River
Road toward the close of the war. She says Isaac Swayzie died on his
farm about two miles from Niagara. According to the records he
appears to have been married twice, first to Sarah Secord (daughter
Catherine, born 13th March, 1793,) and afterward by Rev. Wm.
Addison, on the 18th of September, 1806, to Lena Ferris (widow).
The Fourth Riding of Lincoln and Norfolk were together allowed
one member. The fourth Lincoln consisted of the following town-
ships: — Willoughbly, Crowland, Bertie, Humberston and Wainfleet,
Norfolk County extended west from Lincoln and the west riding
of York as far as the River Barbue or Orwell (now called Catfish
Creek). The northern boundary was the Thames, and Lake Hrie of
course formed the southern limit. Norfolk, therefore, included all
of Haldimand and part of Elgin, also parts of Brant, Oxford and
Middlesex. Most of Haldimand was Indian lands. The settled por-
tion consisted mainly of the townships of Welland County, named as
the 4th Lincoln, with Fort Erie as headquarters. Who was the
member elected ? We are certain that Pettit, Pawling and Swayzie
were three of the Lincoln members, for their names appear in the
journals of the first and second ‘sessions, but who was the fourth ?
That is the question that has puzzled me and I am compelled to state
that I cannot answer the question satisfactorily. Dr. Canniff, in his
list has a name as follows “— Young,” but he gives no riding for any
member. No such name appears in the journals, which mention
only fifteen names in all. Through the kindness of Mr. Phileas
Gagnon I had the Quebec almanacs searched and find the following
list in that for 1796, without mention of any constituencies:
HOUSE OF ASSEMBLY OF UPPER CANADA.
John McDonnell, Esq., Speaker.
Nanthanial Pettit. * Benjamin Pawling.
Isaac Swayze. David Wm. Smith.
Hazleton Spencer. John White.
Ephraim Jones. Jeremiah French.
Joshua Booth. Francis Baby.
Peter Vanalstyne. Pashal Tarry.
Hugh McDonell.
Angus McDonell, Esq., Clerk.
The list of fourteen names supplied a new name which should
read I have no doubt “ Parshall Terry.” It suggests a number of
questions. Why only fourteen ? Why the new name of Terry ? As
referred to before he was associated with Swayzie in the supplies for
[JAMES ] FIRST LEGISLATORS OF UPPER CANADA 111
the fort at York. After the removal of the Government to York, he
appears to have taken up his residence there and to have conducted a
milling business in the valley of the Don. Was Young first elected
and then for some reason or other compelled to drop out ? ‘The
journals might tell us, but those of the 3rd, 4th and 5th sessions are
lacking. If we accept the almanac list, Terry was the member in 1795.
Who was the Young? There were several of that name in
the Niagara district. There were two John Young’s, both associated
with St. Andrew’s Church at Niagara. One was a merchant and had
holdings of land opposite. Youngstown was named after him. He
was drowned in Lake Ontario while returning from Montreal on 29th
July, 1840. A tablet in St. Andrew’s Church, Niagara, states that he
was 73 years of age at the time of his death. If he were the member,
he would have been only 25 years of age when elected. There was
also a Peter Young, a merchant at Vittoria in the early days.
Suffolk and Hssex counties were together to have one repre-
sentative. Suffolk had a frontage on Lake Erie from Catfish Creek
to Point of Pines and extended back to the Thames. It, therefore,
included the western part of Elgin county, and the eastern part of
Kent county, as these at present are constituted. Essex took in the
rest of the country westward to the Detroit, and included all of Essex
and the remainder of Kent county, except a strip four miles wide that
was marked off by a line running from Maisonville’s mill on the
Detroit east to the Thames. The settlers were mainly in “the
two connected townships,” Gosfield and Colchester, and along the
Detroit River toward the present town of Sandwich. Who was the
member for Suffolk and Essex ? In most of the lists given, the name
is Mr. Baby, and some writers have conjectured that it was Mr. James
Baby. Referring to the Quebec Almanac list we find that it was
Francis Baby. In only one historical work have I seen the name
correctly given and that is in Dean Harris’ “ History of the Roman
Catholic Church in the Niagara Peninsula,” wherein he states that
there were three members of the Roman Catholic Church in the first
Legislature, namely, the two Macdonnells from Glengarry and Francis
Baby. James Baby had been appointed one of the first members of
the Legislative Council on the 16th July, therefore, it could not have
been he. I think we may set it down as settled that the member was
Francis Baby, who lived on the east side of the Detroit River in, or
on the borders of, the present town of Sandwich. I have seen the
statement that when General Hull invaded Canada, he established
his headquarters in the partially completed house of Francis Baby.
The Baby family was prominent in the west. When Quebec was
taken in 1759, and Montreal capitulated in 1760, Major Rogers was
112 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
sent by General Amherst to proceed westward and take over the posts
of Michigan. The negotiations between Rogers and Bellestre, Com-
mander of Detroit, were carried on through M. Babee for the French
and M. Brehme for the British. This was doubtless Jacques Duperon
Baby, the son of Raymond Baby and grandson of Jacques Baby de
Rainville, who came to Canada from Guienne, France, with the Carignan
Regiment. Duperon Baby was appointed in 1788, a Justice of the
Court of Common Pleas for Hesse, being associated with Alexander
McKee and William Robertson. He was born in 1738, and died at
Sandwich in 1796. He was the only French-Canadian fur merchant
at Detroit. On the 20th November, 1760, he married Mlle. Suzanne
de la Croix Reaume. There were eleven children, seven sons and
four daughters. The four daughters married Caldwell, Thomas
Allison, Ross Lerin and Bellingham (afterwards Lord Bellingham).
Daniel, Antoine and Louis entered the British Army; Pierre studied
medicine in Edinburgh, and returned to practise in Upper Canada;
Jean Baptiste was one of the members for Kent in the fifth Parliament
(1809-12). William L. was another son. Jacques, or James, the
eldest of the family, was educated at Quebec and in Europe, was
made a Judge of the Court of Common Pleas and an Executive
Councillor.
Francis Dufresne Baby, member of the Executive Council of
Quebec, was a younger brother of Jacques Duperon Baby.
The children of Honourable James Baby, and Eliza Abbot were as
follows:—Jacques, a lawyer of Toronto; Raymond, sheriff of Kent;
Charles and William of Sandwich; and Eliza who married Hon.
Charles Casgrain, son of Pierre Casgrain, Seigneur de la Bouteillerie.
Thérése Baby, daughter of Jacques Duperon Baby, married (1) John
Cassidy, (2) Thomas Allison. Her daughter, Susanne Allison, married
Philippe Aubert de Gaspé.
The successor of Francis Baby in the representation of Suffolk
and Essex in-1796, in the 2nd Parliament, was John Cornwall of
Colchester.
Kent county was granted two representatives. It included every-
thing left over from the other eighteen counties. The following is
the description in the proclamation :—
“Which County is to comprehend all the country not being territories of
the Indians, not already included in the several counties hereinbefore
described, extending northward to the boundary line of Hudson’s Bay, includ-
ing all the territory to the westward and southward of the said line to the
utmost extent of the country commonly called or known by the name of
Canada.”’
[JAMES] FIRST LEGISLATORS OF UPPER CANADA 113
This was a large county, surely, but the voters were included in
a strip four miles wide along the south shore of Lake St. Clair, and in
the town of Detroit.
The two members chosen were William Macomb and David
William Smith. They were or had been residents of Detroit, at which
place no doubt the election took place (27th August, 1792).
John Macomb was a North of Ireland man. His ‘home was at
Dunturkey, county Antrim. He married Jane Gordon of the Scottish
House of Gordon. He established the first line of sailing vessels
between Belfast and New York. Coming out to America about 1750,
he settled for a time at Albany, where he was appointed a magistrate.
He engaged in the business of furnishing supplies for the British
posts from Montreal to Detroit, and for nearly half a century the
name of Macomb occurs in connection with the trade of the lakes and
St. Lawrence. He had three children, Alexander, William and Ann.
The two brothers followed their father’s business and as partners had
their headquarters at Detroit. Alexander married Catherine Navarre,
daughter of Robert Navarre. She was born at Detroit in 1757, and
died in New York in 1789. ‘This Alexander was born at Belfast in ,
1748. He was the man interested in the Macomb purchase along the
St. Lawrence in northern New York, though it is claimed that his
brother William provided some of the funds. Alexander was the
father of Alexander Macomb, a United States general in the war of
1812. He defeated Prevost in the battle of Plattsburg (11th Septem-
ber, 1814). From 1828 to 1841 he was Commander-in-Chief of the
United States Army. Born at Detroit on 13th April, 1782, he died at
Washington, D.C., 25th June, 1841. A monument to his memory is
being erected at Detroit.
Ann Macomb was born in Ireland, 1753. She married (1)
Colonel Francis Von Phister, who was killed at Bennington, 1777;
(2) Thomas Bennett, of Detroit, in 1782.
William, the member, was perhaps the largest land owner at
Detroit, being the possessor of most of the American islands in the
river, and also of a large farm (the Cass farm) now in the very heart
of the finest residential portion of the city. He married (1) Sarah
Jane Dring, daughter of General Dring, and (2) Miss Gallant (a
Huguenot). After his death his widow married Captain Betton, Com-
mander of the King’s forces on the lakes. She died in New York in
1846. William had eleven children, eight of whom were living at the
time of his death. He died in 1796, just about the time that Detroit
was evacuated. His will, dated 11th April, 1796, is on register at
Sandwich. In it he mentions his father, so that it is probable the
Sec. II., 1902. 8.
114 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
latter survived his son. Whether he died at Sandwich or at Detroit
is uncertain, but the family tradition is that he died at Detroit, was
buried there in old St. Paul’s Churchyard, Woodward Avenue, which
is now covered with stores. His surviving children were John W.,
William, David, Ann, Catherine, Sarah, Jane, Eliza. William J.
married Monique Navarre, grand-daughter of Robert Navarre.
It is interesting to note that Mr. W. D. Balfour, M.P.P., for South
Essex, 1882-96, married Josephine Broadhead, a great grand-daughter
of William Macomb, the member for Kent in 1792-96, and that Mr.
W. J. McKee, M.P.P. for South Essex, 1896-1902, married Mary
Baby, daughter of Charles Baby and grand-daughter of Hon. Jacques
Baby, the representative of the western district in the Legislative
Council.
Though most of the descendants of William Macomb are residents
of the United States, he was loyal to the British cause. As his name
does not appear in the Quebec Almanac for 1796, the presumption is
that, through illness or some other cause he may have dropped out of
the Legislature. The name of Alexander Campbell is also left out
of that*list—the suggestion in his case is that he had removed from
Upper Canada.
As showing the manner of man William Macomb was, the follow-
ing extract from Governor’s Hamilton’s Report on the Detroit Post
may be reproduced : —
Mr. Macomb deserves that I should add thus much on this sub-
ject. When I had occasion to make purchases of provisions and goods
on account of the Crown, the traders in general refused or scrupled
to accept my orders or drafts, this person made no hesitation and
from the beginning of the year 1773, to the present time, has furnished
goods at a more reasonable rate than any other merchant. If his
prices are compared with goods taken up for the Crown at other posts,
I am well assured that they will be found more moderate. The
distance and risk from Niagara to this place might make a considerable
difference in Mr. Macomb’s charges. I am told he has sold cheaper
here than they have at Niagara. He has never charged commission or
expenses, though he has given himself a vast deal of trouble in the
purchase of Indian corn, flour, cattle, etc. He has advanced on the
credit of the Crown to the amount of $12,000 New York currency at
one time, though his place at that period was threatened with an
attack by the rebels. While I enlarge on this subject, I but do
justice to a perfectly honest man, who I believe has so far defied envy
as to have the suffrages of his rivals in trade.”
This extract was furnished by Mr. C. M. Burton of Detroit.
[JAMES] FIRST LEGISLATORS OF UPPER CANADA 115
David William Smith was the son of John Smith, major of the
5th Regiment, stationed at Detroit from 1790 to 1792. As command-
ing officer the father was chairman of the Land Board of Hesse. D.
W. Smith was at this time an ensign in his father’s regiment. At
the meeting of the Board, held 30th July, 1790, Major John Smith
appears for the first time as chairman, and D. W. Smith as secretary.
Two years after this the Major was transferred to Fort Niagara, and
there he remained till his death,in 1795. The son, D. W. Smith,
was transferred at the same time. Lt.-Governor Simcoe thus refers
to the young member, for he was, at the time of his election, only
28 years of age: —
“His Majesty’s service has been essentially promoted by Lieutenant
Smith, the son of Major Smith, who commanded for the last two years at
Detroit, being elected by the inhabitants of that district into the Assembly.
This gentleman owes this distinguished mark of favour to the singular grati-
tude of the people for the attention which he showed and the liberality and
disinterestedness of his proceedings as Clerk, and indeed as the official person
of the Land Board in that district.” (Archives of Canada, 1891, page xxii.)
D. W. Smith studied law and was called to the Bar. He held
many important and responsible positions under the Lt.-Governor,
deputy judge, surveyor-general of lands, trustee of the six nations,
etc. He moved to Newark and spent most of his time in connection
with the land surveys and grants of land. He was made an Executive
Councillor on the 2nd of March, 1796. At the elections for the second
legislature he was returned, not for Kent, but for one of the Lincolns.
I am inclined to the opinion that it was for 4th Lincoln and Norfolk,
as in the third parliament he was elected member for the new riding
of Norfolk, Oxford and Middlesex. He had, I am told, a residence
on the lake shore in Norfolk in addition to his residence at Newark.
He was the Speaker of the second and third legislatures, and when
he retired, in 1804, he was succeeded by Benajah Mallory. He returned
to England and for some years managed the estate of the Duke of
Northumberland. He was knighted in 1821, and died in 1837.
When D. W. Smith left Canada in 1804, he took with him a large
quantity of papers, letters and maps that had an important bearing
on the early settlement of this province. A few years ago they were
placed on sale and were secured by Dr. James Bain, Librarian of
the Toronto Public Library. These papers are now in that library.
Among them ‘s a copy of “A Memorandum of the dates of the Hon.
D. W. Smith’s Appointment,” prepared by himself. It will be found
in print in the report of the Association of Ontario Land Surveyors
116 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
for 1894, pages 146 and 147. The following statement of his Can-
adian appointments is reproduced :—
Ensign in the 5th Regiment of Foot .. .. .. .. .. .. :. .. 8th September, 1779
Acting: Paymaster to the same AR EM . Sth September rs)
secretary of the Land Board) (Detroit. 2) -. -. .. -.).. .. 4th June 1790
Secretary to the Commandant, Detroit. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 4th June, 1790
Mort Adjutant. (MANIP RSR 1 4th June: 1790
Assistant tie SMS does cells 220) COOPER TONER 1791
Deputy Quarter Master, RE ee. va LAthYAÏDrIL 1792
Secretary to the Commandant, Niagara .. .. .. .. .. .. ..12th June, 1792
Member of First Canadian Parliament .. .. .. .. .. .. ..27th August, 1792
Justice of Peace... =.) eee Ee en hors as ee. s kth AUSUSE 1792
Surveyor General of Lands Pee meee eee) cs Ot, BEDtempenmmnae
Deputy Judge Advocatewe. E RE PRE EC iced ue («ole 18thiOctoher 1792
Member o£ all tbe Wand Boards! tera yess. a. si) as be «. «20th October; 1792
Vice-President of Agricultural Society.. .. .. .... .. .. ..27th October, 1792
Articled to the Attorney-General.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 2nd June, 1793
Called to the BAT NP PR aon Ce eect be os. kee AC Cne liye 1794
Major to Provincial Horse Artillery PR EN ye fos) the TC AIToanS te 1794
Captain in bth Regiment of Hoot)... 2. 2. .... .. .. .. 2nd September, W795
Privy Councillor. 0. Pepe ae os 0... eNO Aarchs 1796
Deputy Lieutenant for CEE oe Tancoln: BEC Sc. een ao LSC PANT OTIS ts 1796
Member Of 200g Parliament RE EEE CR «so cs, «28th AUEUSE 1796
Colonel jot Lan colm Militias st nerd clotariyee ils! aie tte = LT 7th January, 1797
Judge ort Court of REQUESDS CEE LEE ee Th Jamuanys 1797
Speaker of House of Commons.. .. .. NE NTTRtTUNE, 1797
Commissioner for Examining Public Once Tr lt ATETUSE 1797
Trustee for the Six Nations.. .. .. Pec ye ys. esl Oth October: 1797
Goloneltonevork Militia-vend Battalion wit. > ce un... + 3. LSt Jume; 1798
lieutenant of the County ot VOrk ss 4... =. -. -- .. -. .. ord December iss
Mastemin ehoancenvassr aetna Meco neti ce ccs. ee LUC JULY, 1799
Member otisra Parliament PNEU EEE es es eel ss « kSth Aupust 1799
Rie-chosenis peaken eee see PEER Recteur June 1801
Commissioner of Growth of Heiney: Sule Oty) Side ey Societe mee mip 4 oe Fb 7 1801
Commissioner for Administering the Government .. .. .. 1st September, 1801
Resigned my appointments and a pension for my services.10th May, 1804
He was fairly entitled to his knighthood on his Canadian record
alone.
The list gives us the date of the general elections for the 1st,
2nd and 3rd parliaments, and also the date of organization of the first
Agricultural Society of Upper Canada.
Among the valuable contributions to Upper Canadian history by
D. W. Smith, is the Gazetteer of 1799 with the accompanying map.
The reprint in the Canadian Journal of 1876, with annotations by
Rey. Dr. Scadding is, however, of more value than the original scarce
volume. In the Toronto Public Library collection of Smith papers
[JAMES ] FIRST LEGISLATORS OF UPPER CANADA 117
is a manuscript map of the province of 1792 based on Simcoe’s Pro-
clamation.
Thomas McKee and Thomas Smith were chosen to represent
Kent in the second House. Thomas McKee was the son of Colonel
Alexander McKee, who had been the Indian Agent at Pittsburg before
the War. He was the great grandfather of W. J. McKee, M.P.P.,
who, from 1896 to 1902 represented practically the same riding.
Thomas Smith was the secretary of the Land Board of Hesse before
D. W. Smith was appointed. I find this note about him: “ Loyalist,
came into Niagara in 776 with a plan of Fort Stanwix and Intelligence.”
These are the men who formed the first Legislative Assembly
of Upper Canada. We have located them all, with the exception
of one doubtful case. The legislature was not the all-powerful body
a century ago that it is to-day, but it was the beginning of responsible
government, and it should add interest to our study of provincial
development to know something of the men who initiated that move-
ment. The study of men adds interest to the study of measures.
I give herewith a list of the members of the first Legislative
Assembly, 1792-1796, and of the second Legislative Assembly, 1796-
1800. It will be seen that only two members sat in both assemblies,
namely, John Macdonell, the Speaker of the first, and David William
Smith, the Speaker of the second. In 1800 the province was rear-
ranged to provide for 19 members.
1792 to 1796...
1796 to 1800...
.Hugh Macdonnell
Glen rar nl SbyRIGin geese seer ete {
-Richard Wilkinson
John Macdonell (Speaker)
1792 to 1796...
Glengarry, 2ngyRigine PE A eclocne
.John Macdonell
(1796 to 1800 ..
1792 to 1796....Jeremiah French
S COLTON oy ore tics cae) Poems
1796 to 1800.... Robert I. D. Gray
1792 to .. Alexander Campbell
JOH AG IG ae ete Fae SOT E baie cee RTE Aie
1796 to 1800....Thomas Fraser
1792 to 1796....Ephraim Jones
Grenvillewre sass atid seks smote male
1796 to 1800....Dr. Solomon Jones
1792 to 1796...
1796 to 1798...
1800...
is to 1796...
1796 to 1800...
.John White
.Edward Jessup
.Joshua Booth
.Christopher Robinson
. William Fairfield
118 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
1792 to 1796....Hazelton Spencer
Lenox, Hastings and Northumberland. {
1796 to 1800....Timothy Thompson
Nig ....(Philip Dorland)
Prince Edward and Adolphustown...... 1792 to 1796....Peter Vanalstine
1796 to 1800.... David McGregor Rogers
1792 to 1796....Nathaniel Pettit
Durham, York, and Ist Lincoln.........
1796 to 1800....Richard Beasley
(8782 to 1796.... Benjamin Pawling
PNG aINCOMN erst tie EEE BTN te PA
(1796 to 1800....Samuel Street
1792 to 1796....Isaac Swayzie
Srdi Lincoln: 875 a ee eee À
1796 to 1800....— Hardison
1792 to 1796....Parshall Terry
4th Lancolnvand) Norfolk eee
1796 to 1800....David William Smith
1792 to 1796.... Francis Baby
Suffolk and) HsseX |. ..i23.)./2 th miele ae
1796 to 1800....John Cornwall
‘aa Wm. Smith and
1792 to 1796.
William Macomb
Kent (two members)" ie. cle ererre ;
Thomas Smith and
1796 to 1800..
Thomas McKee
ADDENDUM
Since the preceding paper was set up and proof-read, and just as
it is going to press, I have received from Mr. P. Gagnon, of Quebec,
the following list taken from The Quebec Magazine for December,
1792. The late find is interesting as having been printed so soon
after the first session. It is followed in the magazine by a resumé
of the bills passed, and a copy of the speech of Lieut.-Governor Simcoe
on proroguing the House. Having definitely settled most of the
members and the constituencies, we refer to it for help in regard to
the doubtful cases. It contains several mistakes, that may be set
down as typographical, for instance, “ Prince Edward ” and “ Northum-
berland” should each be dropped down one line, and “1st Riding
York, Lincoln” should be “1st Riding Lincoln and York.” Accord-
[JAMES] FIRST LEGISLATORS OF UPPER CANADA 119
ing to our investigations, the names of “ David Wm. Smith” and
“ Francis Baby ” should be interchanged. What does it settle? First,
that “— Young” as a member is a mistake, and that Parshall Terry
was the member elected for 4th Lincoln and Norfolk. Secondly, the
list of members for the Lincolns is the same as I had already worked
out. The spelling of the names on this list is incorrect in many
cases. Petit should be Pettit; McDonell should be Macdonell;
McComb, Macomb; Swazye, Swayze, etc., but the most interesting is
the changing of the name of the long lost member for 4th Lincoln
from Parshall Terry to Partial Jerry.
UPPER CANADA: LIST OF MEMBERS OF THE HOUSE OF ASSEMBLY OF
UPPER CANADA.
Ete he Mic Done Lipps aa RCE CR Mn Hirst: Riding ....5.) Glengarry
JohniMcDonelle ss AR ee Second Riding...... Glengarry
JereRIAN ETEL CRE MR RE da fees ect nie nee ie oie erties Stormont
JANTES CAD ON AO EE CE CS AR SO RE EE Dundas
ETM AIMS OIE Segarra vere mercedes Un ere Pan eels n en ee UE à Grenville
SOMME VWADUCG ie. LR EE OR At ne ait ec Leeds and Frontenac
POSMNUIAES OOD MANN eee ent Ontario and Addington, Prince Edward
ERP DOTIANn AE RER cere fem ene ce sine ie Ad eee et rt Northumberland
HaZelboniSpDenCen nee matin sienne nent des Cmte dees Lennox, Hastings
Nathaniel Pebititete cos A na First Riding........ York, Lincoln
Ben UNIT esas sterol een els ns ses Second Riding...... Lincoln
ISRACID WAZ OCs ee ae creies LRU: use Third Riding. ...... Lincoln
Partial Jerry sei. sass ae. sate ees. Fourth Riding. ....Lincoln, Norfolk
Wavide Wis Suave. RER AUS ce to eects sates Saitek RU Suffolk and Essex
Ba Rens A RS SAR Kent
Francis Baby
N.B.—Philip Dorland, Esq., vaeated his seat by refusing to take the oath pre-
scribed by the Act of Parliament, and a new writ was issued for the county to
return another member. (Mr. Dorland is a Quaker.)
(The Quebec Magazine, December, 1792.)
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Sxcrion Il., 1902 [121] Trans. R. S. C.
V.— Family Memoirs of ‘the McCollom Family, U. E. Loyalists.
By W. A. McCottom, Tilsonburg.
(Communicated by Sir John Bourinot, and read May 27, 1902.)
Incidents and record of family of James McCollom, who came
from Argyleshire, Scotland, about the year 1765, and first located in
New Jersey where he obtained lands, and was married to Miss Sarah
Campbell, who had two children, and died soon after the birth of the
second child.
Several years afterward he was again married to Miss Eunice
French, 'and as travelling westward appears to have been popular
even at that early date, he disposed of his property in New Jersey and,
with other pioneers, followed up the beautiful Hudson River to a
place called Cherry Valley in New York State, and again obtained
land, upon which he resided with his family during the period of the
Revolutionary War. Other property in vicinity of Albany was many
years ago reported to be of fabulous value, as a portion of the city
is located upon it.
Mrs. Folwell, an aged lady of Toronto, whose mother was for-
merly Mary McCollom, a daughter of James and Eunice McCollom,
states that her grandfather was well brought up and educated, and a
man of rank in Scotland. He had not been brought up to work and
was not inclined to undertake it, but was a great Mason and Presby-
terian, and was disposed to share occasionally in convivial habits that
were popular in those days. He was also a staunch adherent to the
cause of Royalty and to the British Empire, with her substantial
forms of Government and her ‘established laws and progress in arts,
science, literature and religion, and with a firm belief in ability of her
noble statesmen to rectify by constitutional methods the oppressive
legislation enacted by British parliament, and assented to by King
George III., to compel Colonists to pay a portion of the enormous
war debt incurred very largely in their behalf during the Seven Years’
War. Also to amend the laws limiting exports to British channels
only, limiting amount of colonial manufactures, and of shipping, ship-
ments, etc. He firmly declined to give up adherence to a substantial
Imperial form of government for what he deemed a shadowy repub-
lican system which he, with many thousands of the most eminent and
cultured men in the country, considered a very hazardous chaotic
experiment liable to result in disaster, internicine strife and disin-
tegration of the territory, or that it might become absorbed by one
122 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
of the great European powers, whose unwilling vassals they might
have remained. ‘There is ample evidence that this conspiracy among
crowned heads of Europe to crush out republicanism might have
become effective a few years later had not the plan been thwarted
through disapproval of the scheme by Great Britain whose influence
and valour then intervened to prevent the contemplated invasion.
James McCollom also refused to be coerced into taking up arms
against the Mother Country during the continuance of the war, or
to countenance the many extremely harsh methods of persecution
adopted against the loyalists by the relentless and lawless revolution-
ists who, after the capitulation, found that with the change of system
of government, old statutes were considered suspended or abolished and
new laws not yet enacted, or new methods of legal procedure estab-
lished or enforced, so that they were therefore enabled in numerous
instances to carry out without restraint the most atrocious designs
of mob violence against quiet and orderly people, whose homes, estates
and other property they coveted and were eager to possess. This
persecution was also carried on to so great an extreme by constituted
authorities under the new republican regime that the property of
loyalist families was confiscated, and being thus debarred from resid-
ence and quiet enjoyment of homes established by years of economy
and industry, the only resource left them was to desert their homes
and associations that were dear to them, and, with what they could
carry or pack on animals, to follow the lonely trails through a long
wilderness, where Indians roamed and wild beasts were plentiful,
toward Canada to hew new homes out of the dense forests and to
dwell once more beneath the British flag, which was to them and has
been to many thousands since, the most inspiring emblem of freedom
and justice to be found in the world. The heavy infliction imposed
on these people we can only conjecture, as heads of families with
delicate women and children, and in some instances with aged people,
all took a last sad survey of their home and familiar surroundings
and then started on their long, weary and eventful journey northward.
James McCollom and family undertook the journey in 1788 with
what they could conveniently move. Goods were packed on horse-
back and two small children balanced in panniers with other goods
on one horse. The eldest son, John, and a smaller brother, Joseph,
drove a few cattle through the perils and lonely wilderness. At night
to insure safety from wild beasts, they would build a camp fire, close
to which they would remain, and which they dared not leave till day
dawned. One night their cattle were frightened by some large wild
animal and ran until sound of the bell was lost in the distance. The
next morning, by following in the direction the cattle had gone, they
[M’coLLom] MEMOIRS OF THE McCOLLOM FAMILY 123
were recovered again. On another occasion John, then in his six-
teenth year, nearly lost his valued rifle, on which he depended for
safety, through cupidity of an Indian who came up to their camp
and picked up the rifle with the words, “me swap,” replacing it with
his dilapidated musket. John sprang quickly and struck the Indian
a heavy blow on the neck that laid him out for a while, John then
recovered his gun, and the Indian was contented to depart with his
musket.
After a variety of thrilling adventures the family were re-united
again at Genesee, N.Y., where they remained for a time and then con-
tinued their ‘journey into Canada, settling finally near where the village
of Smithville now stands. James McCollom obtained a good tract
of land and resided upon it with his family until his death.
The entry of crown lands was gazetted at Niagara, on page (111)
of a list dated on the margin 1797, and copy published at Ottawa, on
page (148) of the Canadian archives of early State Papers of Upper
Canada.” The crown deed conveying 200 acres to James McCollom
is dated 1803, and is now, in 1898, in possession of Miss Catharine
McCollom, of Smithville, Ontario, who is of the fourth generation.
A crown deed for the adjoining 200 acres was conveyed to John
McCollom, eldest son of James McCollom, and the property is now in
the possession of Mr. Melvin McCollom, of Smithville, who is also of
the fourth generation.
John McCollom, the eldest son of James McCollom, was born in
the State of New Jersey, January 30th, 1773, and he and his sister
Sarah, had the great misfortune to lose their mother when both were
quite young. They were removed with their father’s family to Cherry
Valley, N.Y., and thence ultimately to Canada, as already mentioned.
He grew up healthy and vigorous and with a kind disposition, but
circumstances were not favourable for enjoyment on account of preva-
lent alarms and excitement during the period of the Revolutionary
War, and were also very trying subsequently when he was compelled
to leave home, early associates and familiar scenes for others untried
and new, with relatives to undertake, what was at that time a long,
perilous journey, to reach British territory again. He assisted in
opening the Ridge Road, a leading thoroughfare running westward
to Buffalo. Having attained his majority about the time of coming
to Canada, he worked industriously to assist in establishing the new
home and for the improvement of the new country. He obtained a
crown deed in 1802 for 200 acres of land adjoining his father’s home-
stead near Smithville, and, having married Miss Sarah Sternberg,
they resided upon this farm until 1808, when [he disposed of it and
124 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
obtained another on the north side of Lake Ontario, which lies on
Dundas Street, four miles back from Burlington and ten miles north-
east from Hamilton. But this new and pleasantly situated home
was not to be peacefully enjoyed very long with his wife and small
children, as alarming rumours of war were again circulating and caus-
ing very intense excitement and anxiety throughout the sparsely
settled districts of Upper and Lower Canada.
Many Americans, filled with military ambition and elated over
successful establishment of the republic, were very desirous of
extending its borders over the Continent, beginning with annexation
cf Canada, which they deemed easy to obtain, and while the British
army were again engaged in a great Continental conflict (ending in
the Battle of Waterloo, and defeat of Napoleon in 1815) was con-
sidered the opportune time to accomplish their design. Emissaries
had been for some time in Canada striving to stir up discontent and
obtain recruits without success. A variety of pretexts were assigned
as cause for war, but it was generally understood then in the United
States, and is since conceded by historians, that the capture of Canada
was the real object Americans wished to attain. While the sentiment
was not by any means unanimous among them, the war party was
sufficiently strong to induce Congress to declare war on June 18th,
1812. When the exciting news was received in Canada that war was
proclaimed, towns and villages were soon resounding with bugle calls
and clash of arms, and militia men were busy with their drill in every
settled district. Upon them the defence of the country largely
depended as there was only a few British troops in Canada at that
time.
As an officer in the militia, John McCollom took an active part
in helping to repel the American invading forces from the Niagara
district in the war of 1812 to 1814, and was finally in the battle at
Lundy’s Lane, where many valiant men who had once been driven
from their possessions fought as heroes to defend their loved ones
and the new homes they had obtained and by hardest labour made.
When marching into battle, a feeling of nervous timidity or anxiety
pervaded the troops, but this was soon forgotten when first volleys
were fired and comrades were falling. Only a bullet grazed his
cheek, while hundreds around him fell in this the most fiercely con-.
tested engagement during the war. The British troops and Canadian
militia under General Drummond only numbered 2,800 and were
opposed by an American army of 5,000 men under General Brown.
The battle began at 5 p.m. July 26th, 1814, and continued with-
out cessation and with telling effect on both sides till 9 p.m., when
there was a brief respite and firing entirely ceased, and the unceasing
[M’coLLoM] MEMOIRS OF THE McCOLLOM FAMILY 125
roar of Niagara was again heard as a dirge of the ages. Huge masses
of clouds covered the sky, and through rifts of these the moon occa-
sionally shone upon the field of carnage and suffering. Rapid firing
on both sides was soon resumed again with rushing onslaughts.
Charges and counter-charges with hand-to-hand encounters were
frequent, and the cannon at times almost muzzle to muzzle. The
defence was heroically maintained by the small defending army until
near midnight when firing again ceased; they lay upon their arms
during the night, and when morning dawned they found that the
United States troops had retreated from the field, had thrown their
heavy baggage into the river, and, destroying the bridge at Chippewa
after passing over it, retired to Fort Erie where they remained
entrenched for a time too strongly for General Drummond to dislodge
them after two attempts with his limited force, but they soon returned
to United States territory again, with desires for conquest of Canada
fully dispelled and content thereafter to remain within their own
domain.
After this thrillmg experience, John McCollom and wife and
family of four daughters and one son, John 8. McCollom, who was
the youngest, resided peacefully upon the farm which he had obtained,
and soon developed it into an attractive and comfortable home, at
which the early Methodist ministers and other pioneers were always
assured of kind hospitality. A few years subsequently the daughters
were married and in homes of their own, and Mr. McCollom, assisted
by his son, had good success in clearing the farm, in planting fruit
and ornamental trees and in obtaining good returns as fruits of
industry from crops, from the raising of stock, ete. With keen solici-
tude for the progress of religious and political affairs, the two very
important factors in establishing growth of the new country on a
substantial basis. They regarded with deep interest the beneficial
spread of religion by ministers, who endured hardships in travelling
over very extensive districts, among those in new settlements who
had been for years almost entirely deprived of its ministrations.
They watched closely with much concern the trend of political mea-
sures and issues, also the favouritism and many reprehensible methods
of procedure adopted by those placed in authority by the Crown, as
well as by those elected to the legislature through connivance of the
former, whose dutiful servants or accomplices they thus became.
Many prominent government positions with large salaries attached
were for years given to relatives and scions of the British nobility,
who presumed to look upon colonists as unworthy of consideration.
Requisite legislation could not be obtained, as affairs of government
were so largely conducted and manipulated by this irresponsible clique,
126 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
designated The Family Compact, who had control of the revenues of
the country to aid in maintaining their positions.
When general elections were held, a poll for voting was kept
open a week at only one central place in a large riding or district,
comprising several of the present counties. Elections were not held
simultaneously in all constituencies over the province as at present,
but proclamations were issued for different dates in each, so that it
was more convenient for government officials, their assistants and
sympathizers to throng each polling division, to resort to covert and
disreputable methods with free liquor and bribery and often force,
to get their favourite or faithful followers elected. In many instances
this was accomplished by having a rowdy element in control of the
polls for days at a time, to prevent all opposed to those Tory poli-
ticians from voting. The struggle for this privilege was often so
great that lives were occasionally lost, or permanent injuries sustained.
This continuous contest for justice was maintained until within very
few years of the close of Mr. McCollom’s life, at the age of seventy-
four years. He was ruddy and vigorous to the last day of his life,
with hair remarkably white and teeth as white and even as those of
a child (having never lost but one), his appearance was venerable,
and noted at church and other assemblages. He had seen and felt
the disastrous consequences which resulted from Great Britain’s loss
of domain and prestige through errors of her King and Legislative
and Privy Councillors, who allowed the most beautiful and fertile
country in the world to slip from their control and to be lost to the
Crown forever. For these reasons Mr. McCollom was the more
urgent for the establishment of a responsible form of government,
favourable to necessary reform measures, in sympathy with the peo-
ple, and who could be depended upon to compile statutes necessary
for their amelioration, thereby contributing to their happiness and
prosperity. And to him and his son and the many pioneers contem-
porary with them who, contended honourably, manfully and constitu-
tionally for the right, Canadians to-day owe a deep debt of gratitude
for the reason that in this department of the British Empire the
great principles of justice, morality and religious toleration were so
thoroughly inculcated and established that a greater amount of free-
dom is enjoyed than in any other country in the world.
[GANONG ] DOCHET (ST. CROIX) ISLAND FRONTISPIECE
Fic. 1.—Map to show the geographical position of Dochet Island. It lies
in the centre of the cross and of the circles. The circles are of one, two, three
and four hundred miles radius.
Sec 11000219!
ial LP.
riley
Sxcrion Il., 1902 BASANT Trans. R. §. C.
VI.—Dochet (St. Croix) Island,— A Monograph.
By W. F. Ganone, M.A., Px.D.
(Read May 27, 1902.)
INTRODUCTION.
GEOGRAPHY.
GEOLOGY AND NATURAL HISTORY.
NAMES.
MAPS.
LITERATURE.
HISTORY.
1. The Acadian Period, 1604-1632,
2. The Boundary Discussions, 1796-1799.
. The Modern Period, 1799-1902.
. The Future.
BR oc
In the beautiful River St. Croix, near to where it empties into
the Bay of Passamaquoddy, lies a little island, justly celebrated as
one of the most interesting historical localities in this part of Amer-
ica. It is the site of de Monts’ ill-fated colony of 1604, and hence
witnessed the real beginning of the permanent settlement of Canada;
later it became again prominent in the discussions between the United
States and Great Britain over their boundaries, and was the chief
determinant in fixing the St. Croix as the international boundary;
while other events in its annals are not without at least local impor-
tance. Though thus of interest to many people, its full history has
not yet been written, and the materials for it are scattered and inac-
cessible, or even, in no small part, existent only in manuscript
or tradition. It is the object of this paper to set forth, as accurately,
fully and clearly as the writer may be able, all that is known of the
history of this island.*
+ At this point I desire to acknowledge, with my best thanks, the very kind
assistance I have received from several gentlemen in the preparation of this
paper. Especially do I wish to mention the indispensable and skilled biblio-
graphical aid I have received in generous abundance from my friend Mr.
Victor H. Paltsits, of the Lenox Library, and the cordial co-operation of Rev.
Dr. Raymond, of St. John, who allowed me the free use of the valuable records
of the Boundary Commission in his possession, with permission to publish
such of them as I chose. I have had valued information, too, from Captain
Joseph Huckins, the present keeper of the lighthouse on the island, from Mr.
James Vroom, of St. Stephen, and from Rev. Joseph Lee, of Red Beach. It
may not be inappropriate to add that I have myself been familiar with the
island and its surroundings from early boyhood, and it is therefore with
particular satisfaction that I have found myself privileged to write its history.
128 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
GEOGRAPHY.
The St. Croix River, once nearly the centre of ancient Acadia,
is now from source to mouth a part of the international boundary
between the United States and Canada, between the State of Maine
and the Province of New Brunswick (Fig. 1). Its mouth, as legally
3210 SQ mpsons Int.
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Fic. 2.—Map to show the surroundings of Dochet Island.
established and accepted by custom, is at Joes Point near St. Andrews
on Passamaquoddy Bay (Fig. 2), but as a matter of geographical fact,
it is farther north at the Devils Head, the part between these two
points, some seven miles in length, and one and a half to two miles
[Ganon ] DOCHET (ST. CROIX) ISLAND 129
et aol
oe ee Hunts Ledge
TARA EN
gat ees
Fic. 3.—Map of Dochet Island with its surrounding ledges, From a survey by the author in September, 1902.
+
OCR eS oe CRM Ar 2
[Ganonc] DOCHET (ST. CROIX) ISLAND 131
in breadth, is really but an arm of the sea, salt and tidal. Nearly
midway of this estuary, and midway, too, between its banks, lies
Dochet Island, in latitude 45° 07 44”, and longitude 67° 08° 03”.
The deepest channel is on the eastward, thus making the island a
part of the United States.
The situation of the island is extremely beautiful. Both banks
of the river, clothed with well-cultivated farms interspersed with
lines and groups of trees and large areas of forest, slope upward into
ridges and hills, culminating in Greenlaw and Chamcook, whose abrupt
sides and rocky summits rise above six hundred feet from the tide. To
the northward one looks into Oak Bay with its prominent island and
distant shores framed by the nearer Devil’s Head, wooded and abrupt,
and the lofty hills of the Canadian shore. To the southward beyond
the widening banks, lies Passamaquoddy, and over it, faint and far,
the low hills of Deer Island. Seen at its best, on soft summer days,
there is much colour in the landscape, a bright blue sky and a deep
blue sea, a dark green of the forest and a bright green of the fields,
and here and there a red and a brown of the rocks. It is a goodly
country, fair to see, the very perfection of quiet new world scenery,
never losing its charm for those who have known it.
The island is a very small one (Fig. 3), less than 300 yards (about
one-sixth of a mile) in length in its main part, or less than 400 yards
including the partially detached “ Nubbles,”+ and not over 125 yards
in extreme breadth. It encloses in the main part about 5 acres.
The highest point, on a rocky ledge a little to the east of its centre
(Fig. 14), is about 52 feet above extreme high tide mark,? or about
62 feet above mean tide level. From this point there is a slope in
all directions, at first (on the rocky part) abrupt, but soon, (on the
soil parts) more level. The entire island is, however, markedly tilted
towards the westward, so that while the eastern shore is a continuous
bluff rising nearly 40 feet above high tide, on the west it slopes in
places almost down to high tide level. These features of slope are
well illustrated in the accompanying photographs (Figs. 17, 18). The
eastern bluffs of the island are of clay and sand, bearing a dense
growth of small trees and resting upon granite rock except at the
southern end, where an abrupt treeless bluff of sand without vegeta-
tion has no visible rock, but only sand, beneath it. The low shore
of the western side shows a thin soil resting upon rock, and bearing
but a few scanty bushes and very small trees, while the remainder
of the island, all fair soil excepting the rocky band of ledges across
? Nubble is a word used frequently in this region for small semi-detached
islets.
? According to levels taken by myself.
132 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
it, is cleared and cultivated as garden, or utilized as pasture (Fig. 14).
At the southern end of the main island stand two partially isolated
“ Nubbles,” obviously once a part of the main island, consisting of
masses of sand and clay, heavily wooded with small trees, resting upon
granitic rocks. The larger is now cut off from the main island at
every high tide, but the smaller is still attached to it by a low ridge
of sand, never, or extremely rarely, crossed by the tide. Around the
Fic. 4.—Dochet Island and its immediate surroundings. From the United
States Coast and Geodetic Survey Chart No. 300, the largest and best pub-
lished map of the Island. Original size. It is set in this position in order to
allow of better comparison with the maps of figures 3, 8, 12, 14, and hence,
like them, is adjusted to the magnetic meridian, with north at the right and
west at the top.
és
islands are many ledges, shown on the maps (Figs. 3, 4), connected
with one another by sand, gravel and boulders, extending on the
eastward into a remarkable, long, sandy point. Beyond the low-tide
limits of these ledges, as a rule, the shores slope down rather abruptly
to the greater depths of the river; so that the ledges as a whole repre-
sent a rather distinct and marked elevation above the general bed of
the river.
The only buildings upon the island are those of the United
States Light Station, comprising a house with the lantern, carrying
a revolving flash light, upon its roof, and various lesser buildings
connected with the station, together with a small shed used by the
weir fishermen (Fig. 14). The only residents are the keeper of the
light and his family.
[aaxoxG] DOCHET (ST. CROIX) ISLAND 138
GEOLOGY AND NATURAL HISTORY.
The history of any place is deeply influenced by the physical
environment, and some knowledge of this is essential to a full under-
standing of ihe course of historic events. We must note, therefore,
the natural circumstances and productions of Dochet Island.
Geology. Geologically, Dochet Island consists of a base and core
of solid rock rising to over fifty feet above high tide level, resting
upon which is a mass of clay sand and gravel (Fig. 5). The basal
rock, which may be seen nearly everywhere about the island, is a red
Fic. 5.—Ideal median section through Dochet Island, as seen from the
east. The horizontal line is that of high tide; the soil is dotted and the rock
shown by angles. At the left may be seen Wright’s Nubble, and next it the
sand bluff,
granite, like that forming the western bank of the river, and believed
by geologists to be of Devonian age and intrusive origin.*
A question of very great interest now arises, as to the origin,
or mode of formation, of the isolated rocky mass which forms the
basis of the island. Why does it exist here, rising abruptly from
the bed of a great river with deep water all about it? At present,
owing to insufficient geological study of the region, this question
cannot be answered. with any certainty, but clues exist which will
enable us to form at least a theory of some probability. The rock
of which the island is composed seems plainly to be intrusive Devon-
? The Geological Survey (of Canada) map of Charlotte County, the only
one yet published which colours the island, makes it Silurian, which is an
error. There appear to be two bands of granite on the island, one of lighter
red colour and coarser texture forming the northern end and western side,
and the other of darker red colour and much finer grain forming the eastern
margin, together with the southern end and the ledges to the southward. An
approximate contact line between them may be traced along the eastern shore.
While the western coast of the river is composed of this same granite, the
eastern shore is not, at least not opposite the island, suggesting that a fault
line, or line of contact must run, doubtless following the deeper channel, along
the river on the eastward of the island, a line which may be connected with
the formation of this part of the river and its extension into Oak Bay. Little
Dochet Island, on the other hand, is of very different formation, being a coarse
conglomerate supposedly belonging to the Lower Carboniferous formation
(newer than the Devonian), and it is probable that the line of contact between
the two formations lies in the deep channel between the two islands.
134 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
ian granite, that is, granite which forced its way upwards in a molten
state from deep in the earth, filling gaps and areas of weakness caused
by movements of the earth’s crust in the older Silurian rocks. Now,
at this time, it is fairly certain, the St. Croix river did not exist,
and the present river bed was filled with Silurian rocks; or, more
correctly, the river bed had not yet been cut out of the rocks. On the
present site of the island there was probably some gap, or fault-line,
in the Silurian rocks, and into this the molten granite was forced
from below, just as it was in many other isolated masses now forming
hills in this region. Later, in the course of the ages, the St. Croix.
river began to flow over this place, and gradually, by the slow but
resistless process of erosion, aided by the presence of contact and fault-
lines, cut down the rocks until the river bed reached the granitic mass
now forming the island. After that it cut out the softer Silurian
rocks around it much faster than it could cut the hard granite itself,
so that finally the granitic mass was left as a hill rising from a plain
of the softer rocks. Then the land sank, and the sea entered this valley
to such a depth that the top of the hill only was left above the sur-
face; and this is the probable origin of the rocky part of Dochet
Island.
The soil resting upon these rocks is of glacial origin. It is known
to geologists that in the glacial period, some thirty or more thousands
of years since, a sheet of ice several thousands of feet in thickness
moved southeastward over this region. This ice smoothed these
granite rocks, as may be seen beautifully at the north end of the
island, and would have left them but naked rounded ledges had not
the same ice sheet carried an abundance of soil ground from the rocks
in its passage, which soil was deposited, especially as it melted, around
and in the lee of the core of the island. The glacial movement on
the island was almost exactly true southeast (a trifle east), as is clearly
shown by the course of the glacial grooves on the north end of the
island; this is why the great mass of the soil of the island lies on the |
southeast side of the rocky axis in the form of a long point ending
in an abrupt bluff (Fig. 5), precisely such a point as is found in similar
situations near by at Sand Point, Oak Point, Navy Island and elsewhere.
The fact that this soil is mostly fine, thus forming good agricultural
land, indicates that its deposition took place in quiet water. Had the
conditions been different, and a coarse boulder soil replaced it, Dochet
Island might have had no history. Only a few boulders exist on and
around the island. Those above the tide, notably the huge one to
the northward of the lighthouse, were, of course, brought here by the
glacial ice from far to the northward at the time the soil was laid
down, which explains their composition out of rock different from that
[&anonc] DOCHET (ST. CROIX) ISLAND 138
of the island. Those below high tide were, no doubt, brought for
the most part at the same time, though some of them may have been
drifted by floating ice in recent times from the mainland up the river.
Following the glacial period this region was submerged beneath the
sea, during which time this glacial soil was, no doubt, more or less
worked over and given the final details of its levels and character.
The soil of the island consists of sand and clay much intermingled,
and forming a fine agricultural soil of fair quality on which garden
crops thrive well, a fact of some importance in its history. The inter-
mingling of the clay and sand, instead of its separation into beds,
makes the soil very pervious to water; and this, together with its
shallowness, does not allow the presence of springs, nor the possibility
of good wells, a fact which had, as we shall see, a great influence upon
the early history of the island.!
The surface of the island, as already mentioned, slopes to near
the water’s edge on the western side of the island, but elsewhere ends
in bluffs of soil descending steeply to the rocks beneath, or to the
sandy beach. The bluffs on the north and east sides are covered with
small trees, but on the south the vegetation is wanting, and the bluff
of sand and clay is so abrupt (Fig. 20, 24) that the least disturbance
is enough to bring it down in an avalanche. Now, the foot of this
bluff which rests on the sand beach, and the feet of others on the rocks
as well, are washed by the waves at the highest tides, and they are
obviously being eaten away by the waves and tide. That a washing
away of the island is steadily going on is attested not only by the
universal testimony of residents in the vicinity, but also by a compari-
son of the several existent maps of the island, which also afford a
fair measure of its amount. If we compare the ancient map of 1604
made by Champlain (Fig. 8), with the much later map by Wright (Fig.
12), and with the two modern maps of 1885 and 1902 (Figs. 13, 3),
a subject made the plainer if they are reduced to the same scale and
superposed as in the accompanying figures (Figs. 6 and 14), it will
be seen that in three hundred years the island has lost little on its
northern and western sides, but has lost greatly at its southern end
and on the southwest, where large sections of the island, including
the site of the cemetery of 1604 and the knoll on which de Monts
mounted his cannon, together with much of the island north of
1 The light-keeper has to rely for his water supply upon reservoirs filled
by the rain collected from the roof of his house.
? Champlain’s map, being sketchy and in some ways inaccurate, must be
altered somewhat to fit the actual form of the island. It is, however, given
exactly in Fig. 6, but in Fig. 14 it is altered to accord as nearly as possible
with what must have been the real form of the island.
136 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Wright’s Nubble, have been totally removed? (Fig. 14). That this
process is still going on is shown by the fact that every year the light-
keeper notes some backward movement of the southern bluff, and also
by the fact that the site of a well, within twenty years surrounded by
the upland and of some use in wet times, is now marked by a ring of
stones on the rocky beach several feet from the nearest upland (Fig. 14).
Since the soil of the island extended so far beyond its present limits
within historic times, it is a natural inference that in yet earlier
pericds it extended still farther, and covered the neighbouring ledges,
not only those on the south, but those on the north and west as well;
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Fic. 6.—The four principal maps of Dochet Island reduced to the same scale
and superposed.
but it is unlikely that it ever extended, as locally often stated, to include
Little Dochet Island, for there is a deep-water channel between. Now,
a continuous washing away of an island after this manner is known by
geologists to be possible onlv where the coast is sinking beneath the sea,
and of such a sinking in-this region there is much other evidence.?
The rate of the subsidence is not known, but it is probably between
one and two feet a century. The rocky base of the island, doubtless,
stood five or six feet higher above the tide in Champlain’s time than
now; and in still earlier times it was vet higher, so that all of the
1 The removal is not wholly natural, for prior to 1865 much sand was
removed to the mainland for building purposes, though in an amount incon-
siderable in comparison with that which has been washed away.
2 Summarized in a note by the present writer in the Bulletin of the Natural
History Society of New Brunswick, No. XIX., 1901, 339 It is of interest to
note that one of the pieces of evidences cited in that article is derived from
this island, namely,—on Wright’s map (Fig. 12) a certain ledge is described
as “somewhat green at its top,” implying that it then bore vegetation, whereas
now it is bare of vegetation, and apparently overwashed by the highest tides.
[aaxoxc] DOCHET (ST. CROIX) ISLAND 137
ledges around the island were probably formerly covered with soil
raised above the reach of the tide. Since the subsidence appears to
be still going on, we can foresee the time when the soil of the island
will, unless artificially prevented, be entirely washed away, leaving
behind but a series of bare rocky ledges. This, however, is still far
in the future, and engineering skill can, by the use of retaining walls
and other appropriate devices, preserve the island practically unchanged
for many a century to come.
T'ides.— The tides at the island, as determined by the United
States Coast Survey and recorded upon their charts (Chart No. 300),
have an average vertical range of 19-9 feet. The range of the highest
spring tides is between 22 and 23 feet. These tides cause currents
in the river of some two miles an hour at the extreme, a rate some-
times troublesome but never dangerous to navigation, even by small
boats. The appearance of the island changes much with the tides, for
the reefs are so elevated and extensive that when the sea is out the size
of the island is increased several fold (Fig. 3) by an irregular margin,
in places of rock clad with brown seaweed, and elsewhere of boulders or
sand, while at high tide but little is to be seen beyond the margin of
the soil of the main island and the nubbles, which then seem to float
lightly upon the waves."
Climate-— The climate of the island may be described in general
terms as that characteristic of a place half way between equator and
pole, on the eastern margin of a continent; but it is modified in the
present case by the very cold water which occupies the deep arm of
the sea in which the island hes. Hence it presents a marked alter-
nation between a cold winter and a warm summer, but without great
extremes, and in summer it is considerably cooler than normal for its
latitude. The keeper of the light-house on the island, who has noted
the temperature daily for over twenty years past, informs me that the
coldest days of winter are about —10° F., but an extreme of —28° F.
has been noted, and the hottest days of summer average about 85°,
with a recorded extreme of 92°. A very satisfactory idea of the
climate of the island can be gathered from the records kept at St.
Andrews, N.B., which, only six miles away and seated upon the end of
a long peninsula projecting into Passamaquoddy Bay, must have a
climate nearly identical with that of the island. The climate of St.
Andrews, as shown by the averages for a large series of years, is,
1 In the map, Fig. 3, the high tide mark is shown by the continuous line,
and low tide by the marginal dotted lines. The angles indicate rocky ledges,
the circles boulders, and the dots sand. The broken line shows the outline of
the grassy or wooded upland.
188 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
according to a table supplied to me by the Meteorological Office of
Canada, as follows: —
: o
oo
2 ° vo r re . =
ST. ANDREWS. | £ | 4 SMART) À | a | s Eten
Sie |e | Document given later on page 200; used as Docias in Benson’s Report of
1798, mentioned later, page 209.
2 Cited in the St. Croix Courier Series (on which see later, page 151), No.
XXIII.
[GANONG ] DOCHET (ST. CROIX) ISLAND 143
as follows:! “My father told me that a party of young people who
were on a picnic at the island early in the present century named it
Dosia’s Island, because they had seen a very pretty young lady in
St. Stephen who was called Theodosia. She was, I believe, a Miss
Milberry.” Yet another form of the tradition makes her a visitor to,
or resident of,” the island and attributes to her such great personal
beauty as to have led the residents in the vicinity to speak of the
island by her name. There are sundry other variants of the tradi-
tion, but the foundation of them all, a close connection between a
young woman named Dosia (Theodosia) and the island, causing them
to be long talked about in the neighbourhood in connection with one
another, explains, I believe, the real origin of the name. Dosia is
a commonly used contraction for the name Theodosia, and, locally
at least in this region, where women still bear the name, it is pro-
nounced as Do-shay, precisely as the name of the island is. Such
an origin is in entire accord with the methods by which place-names
arise, and it explains perfectly the first use of the word in the form
Doceas or Docias. The later variations are easily explained. Captain
Owen seems to have originated the form Dochet; doubtless he, knowing
the early association of the island with the French, supposed the name
as locally pronounced to be of French origin, and gave it a French
spelling to agree with its pronunciation; and the great influence of
his chart, the basis for all those in use to-day, caused this form to be
widely adopted. The other form, Doucette, originated with Wilkinson
in 1859, and, I believe, represents another effort to attribute to the
word a French origin, of which there are other examples on Wilkin-
son’s map. It is quite possible that Wilkinson supposed the word
had some connection with the name of John Doucett, Lieutenant-
Governor of Annapolis Royal in 1718, and this determined his spell-
ing, though on this theory the final e should be absent. Kilby (in his
Eastport and Passamaquoddy, page 126), suggests that the island may
be named for Lieutenant-Governor Doucett, but there is absolutely
2 A fact which may have some significance in this connection is this:—A
Miss Milberry, now living in St. Stephen, says that the island once belonged
to her grandfather. As shown later in this paper, he could never have been
its legal owner, but he may have been an earlier resident than we have other
evidence of, in which case Theodosia Milberry may have been a resident on
the island.
3 The final s of the word, following the law in such cases, was probably
by this time commonly dropped. It is now rarely heard, though old people
occasionally use the form Doshays Island.
Sec. II., 1902. 10,
144 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
no known fact to sustain it, while the fact that the form Doucet or
Doucette is not known to occur prior to 1859 is an insuperable objec-
to it, aside from the fact that the local pronunciation of the word
Doshay, could hardly have been derived from Doucett. A combination
of the forms Dochet and Doucette, namely, Douchet, is sometimes used,
as by Winsor (America, IV., 137), and other variants occur.
St. Croix, or Isle Saincte Croiz— This was the name given it
in 1604 by Sieur de Monts, as Champlain’s narrative, later cited,*
records. Champlain does not tell us why the name was chosen but
his contemporary, Lescarbot, explains $ that it was suggested by the
resemblance of the meeting of the rivers above the island to a cross
(see Fig. 2), and this is fully confirmed by the fact that both Cham-
plain and Lescarbot on their maps give the river a marked cross shape
(Fig. 7). This name was used in the Jesuit Relations and one or two
later documents, cited below (page 196), often abbreviated to Ste.
Croix, down to 1632, when it vanished, only to reappear as an alterna-
tive name for the island, and usually anglicized to St. (not Ste.)
Croix, in connection with the boundary disputes in 1797 (Fig.
12). It lingers upon certain later maps, as on Purdy’s “ Cabotia” —
of 1814, and on Bouchette of 1815, and even in deeds, later cited, of
1826 and of 1856, the former of which speaks of the island as com-
monly called St. Croix Island. But it has not in recent times been
in use as the common name of the island. It was, of course, from
the island the name was extended to the river, first by Champlain him-
self.
Some maps show, and records mention another St. Croix Island
in this region, namely, Treats Island, near Eastport. The name was
improperly used under a misunderstanding, but it long persisted on
maps.*
Bone— This name first appears on Wright’s fine map of this
region made in 1772, on which we find the earliest modern representa-
tions of the island, reproduced later in this paper (Fig. 10). The
name is further applied to it in sundry documents connected with
the boundary discussions of 1796-1798, (misprinted Bon and Boon),
and is on Wright’s map of 1797, given herewith (Fig. 12). It per-
*It is not necessary to go so far afield or aback to find a Doucet after
whom one might claim it to have been named. I am informed by M. Placide
Gaudet, our leading Acadian genealogist and historian, that one Charles
Doucet, born in 1776, at Baie Ste. Marie, N.S., removed to St. Andrews or
vicinity when a young man, and married there a Miss Monroe, and they had
several children. But there is nothing to connect him with the island.
? Page 155.
> Page 180.
* It is discussed in these Transactions, VII., ii., 237.
[aaxoxG] DOCHET (ST. CROIX) ISLAND 145
sists as late as Bouchette’s map of 1831 but then vanishes, and it is
now locally unknown even to tradition. We have no facts to explain
the origin of the name; but since we now know that the cemetery in
which were buried the thirty-five victims of the winter of 1604-1605
has been gradually washed away, it seems not improbable that it was
the exposing of their bones which gave origin to the name.
Neutral.—Although not now in use, this name is well known tra-
ditionally. I have been told by a very old resident that it originated
at the time of the war of 1812, when, as later mentioned (page 213)
the British and American vessels met here to exchange their cargoes
of plaster, as upon neutral ground. The earliest use of it I have
found is in Williamson’s History of Maine of 1839, when he says,
“the inhabitants often call it Neutral Island.” It occurs in the deed
later mentioned of 1856, and is mentioned by Kilby and several other
writers.
Big (or Great).— These forms appear not now to be used, but
they occur in deeds of 1820 and 1869, later mentioned (pages 214, 217).
The name, of course, was by way of contrast with Little Dochet, these
two being the only islands in that vicinity.
De Monts— This name was formally given in 1866 by officers
of the United States Coast Survey, as described on a later page.
Parkman in his “ Pioneers of France,” published the preceding year,
speaks of it as De Monts Island, though evidently using the word
descriptively and not as a proper name for the island, and it was, per-
haps, this use, fresh in their minds, which led the Coast Survey officers
to adopt it. Jam informed by the Superintendent of the Coast Sur-
vey that “ Professor Hilgard in 1866 named it DeMonts Island, and
for several years subsequently Dochet and DeMonts were used indif-
ferently, but the latter afterwards disappeared entirely from Light-
house Lists and from Hydrographic Office Charts.” I have not seen
any chart or other government publication using the name, though
it is adopted in Brown’s “Coasting Voyages in the Gulf of Maine”
(in Collections Maine Historical Society VII). Kilby, in his “ East-
port and Passamaquoddy ” (page 126), suggests, apparently indepen-
dently of earlier use, that it should be called DeMonts Island. But
the name has never come into use, and is quite unknown locally for
the island.*
+ The name is, however, coming locally into use for the point at the Devils
Head on which the summer cottages are built. A few years ago a small sum-
mer hotel was built here in a small new clearing, and named, appropriately,
‘ Hotel De Monts,” (shown on Figure 15). It speedily became popular, and
cottages were built near it, so that the place in general, which is isolated by a
long extent of woods from the highway and other settlements, soon became
known locally simply as DeMonts. In 1901 the hotel was burned and has not
146 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Hunts.— This name appears, as far as I can find, but once, and
then upon the original plane-table sheet of the survey of this region
by the United States Coast Survey, of which the island is reproduced
(by permission of the Superintendent of the Survey) in Fig. 13. This
name is entirely unknown locally for the island, and on inquiry of the
Superintendent of the Coast Survey, I find that nothing is now known
in the Survey office as to the reason for its adoption. Though the
name is on the original manuscript sheet, it is not on the published
map made from it (Fig. 4), and it has vanished completely. Two
possible explanations occur for this name: — first, that it was intended
to use the name de Monts given the island by the Coast Survey in
1866, but that owing to imperfect memory of some person connected
with the survey it was put down wrongly as Hunts, and, second, (and
more probably) the name was transferred to it by mistake from a ledge
on the northwest of the island which is locally often called Hunts
ledge (Fig. 3).
Met-a-neg-wis or Met-neg-wis (the a being sometimes sounded,
sometimes not), the Passamaquoddy Indian name of the island. As
to its exact form and significance, Mr. A. 8. Gatschet, of the United
States Bureau of Ethnology, our best authority upon the Passama-
quoddy language, writes me that he derives the name from Met-neqwis,
meaning “the little island at the end” (met “at the end,” negwis,
diminutive of m’niku, “island”), and he suggests that it may refer
to the end of navigation. The great objection to this interpretation
is in its inappropriateness; the island is by no means at the end of
anything, but rather in the middle of the length and breadth of this
estuary. There is, moreover, some evidence looking in another direc-
been rebuilt, but the placesis still referred to as ‘‘ DeMonts” by the people of
Calais and St. Stephen. It will be interesting for the future student of place-
nomenclature to observe whether the name becomes persistent.
It may here be noted incidentally that the supposition repeated by Kilby
(Eastport and Passamaquoddy, page 126), and which has some local vogue,
that Devils Head is a corruption of d’Orvilles (a companion of de Monts at
St. Croix Island in 1604) Head, is a pure guess with absolutely no fact what-
ever from historical documents or maps to support it. On the contrary, the
word can be traced back in its present form through numerous maps and
documents to 1770, when it appears in the Owen Journal spelled as now.
All the probabilities, therefore, are in favour of the belief that this head, very
prominent and somewhat treacherous to the sailor because of the squalls
which sometimes sweep down from it, was named the “ Devils” precisely
as innumerable other places in this region, of a somewhat uncanny nature,
are named for him. Another origin, equally foundationless, for the word, is
given locally, that it is for a man named Duval who once lived behind it. As
above shown, the word goes back in its present form long prior to any settle-
ment in this vicinity, which did not begin until after 1783.
[Ganona] DOCHET (ST. CROIX) ISLAND 147
tion. I have myself obtained the name from a Passamaquoddy in
the form Mut-on-a’g-wes, which he defined as “little wild island,”
probably simply at random. The name occurs several times among
the MS. of the boundary Commission, later described (page 189) in
testimony taken from Indians in 1796-1797. One Indian gave the name
as “ Matnagwish. It was so called because they left their stores, etc.,
there when they went a-hunting, as no Bears or other wild beasts sat
down there.” Another gave it as “Muttanagwis, . . . which
signifies a place like a store or chest,” while a third gives “ Muttaneg-
wiss, because a place where a store to deposit things.”+ This agree-
ment of the three Indians, apparently examined separately, is
important in its bearing upon the true meaning of the word, which,
however, I cannot further explain.
Of the names placed upon my modern map (Fig. 14), some
explanation may be given. Triangle Cove and Sand Point are taken
from Wright’s map (Fig. 12), though the former seems to be unknown
locally. Treats Cove is used locally and is, no doubt, for the fisherman
who worked on the island in early days, as later mentioned (page 215).
Hunts Ledge is used locally, but I do not know its origin. The two
partially isolated islets at the south of the island are locally called
_ Nubbles, and I have named one Chapel Nubble, because nearly on it stood
the Indian chapel built by de Monts (Figs. 8, 14), and the other,
Wrights Nubble, since it is first shown isolated from the main island
on Wright’s map, for on Champlain’s it is a part of the main island
(Fig. 14). When other names are needed for places on the island,
or, indeed, for other places in the vicinity, or even for estates, hotels,
clubs, yachts of the neighbourhood, they may well be drawn from some
of those of the companions of de Monts, later mentioned in this
paper.
Maps.
The existent maps of the island fall into two classes: — first,
special maps of the island itself, and second, general maps of the
region upon which it appears incidentally.
Of the former I have been able to find but five, four of which
are reproduced in this paper; first, Champlain’s of 1604 (Fig. 8);
second, Wright’s of 1797 (Fig. 12); third, one made by the United
1 Compare also Kilby’s ‘‘ Eastport and Passamaquoddy,” pages 116 and 488.
The name of Little Dochet is given in the testimony as Muttinagwenish, or
Muttanagwamis, evidently a diminutive of the name of the larger island (rather
implying that the name of the latter is not a diminutive, as Mr. Gatschet’s
explanation supposes), and once the two are transposed, doubtless by an error
in taking them down, as they are on Carleton’s map of Maine, 1802.
148 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
States Coast Survey in 1885 (Fig. 13); fourth, one made by the present
writer from survey in 1898, and published in the Transactions of the
Royal Society of Canada, new series, Vol. V, section i, page 265;
and fifth, one made by the writer from a new survey in September,
1902, and here (Fig. 3) published for the first time. Owing to an
inaccuracy in the compass used in the 1898 survey (a nickel-plated
instrument found subsequently to give 5° of error in some positions}
that map was inaccurate in details of its shape; and, in consequence,
it is intended to be superseded by the new map herewith presented
(Figs. 3 and 14). Repeated inquiry in various directions, locally and
in the Maine State and the Massachusetts Land Offices, has failed to
show the existence of any other maps of the island.
» Champlain
Ca 1632
Lescarbot
/609 ;
Champlain
/b/2
Champlain
/6/0
Fic. 7.—All of the known early maps showing Dochet (St. Croix) Island,
with the St: Croix River. Original size.
Of general maps of the region on which the island is shown, the
first is that of Champlain, dated 1610, of which the St. Croix portion
is reproduced herewith (Fig. 7),1 and it appears again in somewhat
different form on his maps of 1612, 1613 and of 1632 (Fig. 7), in two
of these marked by the standard indicating a French settlement. It
1 The Lescarbot map is from the 1609 edition of his ‘‘ Histoire de la Nou-
velle France”: the 1610 Champlain map is from the copy in Brown’s ‘“ Gene-
sis of the United States’; the 1612 and 1613 Champlain maps are from the
[aaxoxc] DOCHET (ST. CROIX) ISLAND 149
appears also on Lescarbot’s earlier map of 1609, but unnamed (Fig. 7).
Subsequent maps of the region become much distorted, and the island
does not appear, at least recognizably, upon any other map down to
1772, when it appears with the name Bone Island on Wright’s great
survey map, a portion of which is here reproduced from the MS. in
the Public Record Office in London (Fig. 10). It appears with its
Indian name on Carleton’s Map of Maine of 1802, though with its
name and that of Little Dochet transposed. From 1772 down to the
present it appears upon all maps of large scale, sometimes named and
sometimes not, reaching its most detailed representation upon the
United States Coast Survey Chart of 1895 (No. 300), of which a por-
tion is here reproduced (Fig. 4), and this is the largest-scale published
map of the island, aside, of course, from the special maps earlier
mentioned.
LITERATURE.
The history of Dochet Island has been of such interest, and, in
connection with the boundary disputes, of such importance as to give
rise to a considerable literature. This may be divided into five
classes: — (1) original historical narratives and other documents,
(2) references in general historical works, (3) scientific literature,
(4) popular accounts in newspapers and other fleeting sources, and
(5) pure literature, romance, and poetry.
First, we consider the original historical publications. Of these,
by far the most important is “ Les Voyages dv Sievr de Champlain,”
written by Samuel de Champlain, companion of de Monts in 1604,
and published as a quarto at Paris in 1613. This work is now very
rare and costly, but is accessible in the edition of Champlain’s writings
published at Quebec in 1870, under the editorship of Abbé Laverdière,
a work whose faithful reproduction of the original text (marred only
by the crudeness of reproduction of some of the illustrations), and
scholarly annotations make it one of the monuments of Canadian
scholarship. From this the text in the following pages is taken.
There is also an edition of Champlain’s works published in 1632,
reprinted in a valueless edition at Paris in 1832, and with fidelity in
the Quebec edition of 1870, which contains an abbreviated account
of the island and its discovery, but omits the account of the settle-
ment. Champlain’s “ Voyages” of 1613 has been translated into
“Voyages”’ of 1613, and the 1632 Champlain is from the 1632 edition of his
works. I have a copy of a 1607 or 1608 map of the St. Croix by Champlain
(given me by Mr. Henry Harrisse), but it does not show the island.
150 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
English by Dr. C. P. Otis, annotated by Rev E. F. Slafter, and pub-
lished at Boston in 1878-1882 by the Prince Society, an extremely good
work with photographie reproductions of the illustrations; this trans-
lation I have used as a basis for that in the following pages, not
hesitating, however, to alter it whenever, which was rarely, I thought
it could be improved.
There is, however, an earlier account of the voyage and settlement
of 1604 which, as Parkman has said, may have been written by Cham-
plain himself,— namely, that in Le Mercvre Francois, a contemporary
French journal for 1608, published in 1611, and this is reproduced
later in this paper, together with a translation based upon that given
in the Magazine of American History, Vol. If., 49. Second in impor-
tance to Chamrylain’s works comes the “Histoire de la Nouvelle
France,” published in 1609 by Mare Lescarbot, a lawyer of Paris, who
spent the years of 1606-1608 in Acadia, and visited the island in 1607.
He obtained his facts, of course, from Champlain, with whom he
passed a winter at Port Royal, and upon some matters he gives more
information than does Champlain himself. New editions of his
“ Histoire” were published in 1611, 1612 and 1618, and that of 1612,
which is followed in the text later in this paper, has been reprinted,
not in fac-similc, but somewhat modernized, by Tross at Paris in 1866.
The different editions not only differ from one another in the amount
of material included, but they also vary considerably in the details
of the text,’ although, so far as the parts relating to St. Croix Island
are concerned, the differences appear to be merely in diction and not
to involve any change of meaning or additional matter? The parts
of Lescarbot’s work relating to de Monts’ voyage and settlement were
translated into English by a clergyman named Pierre Erondelle, and
published at London in 1609 under the title “ Nova Francia; or the
Description of that part of New France which is one continent with
Virginia ” IT have used this quaint and interesting trans-
lation, which I was tempted to reproduce here exactly, in making the
translation given later in this paper. This translation of Erondelle’s
is given, abbreviated, in Purchas’ “ Pilgrims,” Vol. IV., and in full
in Churchill’s Collections of Voyages, Vol. VIII. The only other
printed original documents relating to the earlier periods of the
* On the different editions, consult Biggar, ‘“ The French Hakluyt, Marc
Lescarbot of Vervins,” in American Historical Review, VI., 671-692.
Full bibliographical details of the works of Champlain and Lescarbot are
given by Winsor in Chapters III. and IV. of Vol. IV. of his “America.”
* As shown by a comparison of the three editions made for me by my
friend, Mr. Victor H. Paltsits, of the Lenox Library.
[Ganonc] DOCHET (ST. CROIX) ISLAND 151
island’s history are contained in the Relations of the Jesuit Mission-
aries, which have recently been collected and republished in original
and translation in seventy-three volumes under the editorship of R. G.
Thwaites, a monumental work of research and scholarship. The cita-
tions in this paper are from that edition. The documents bearing
upon the later history of the island are mostly still in Ms. in the
voluminous records of the Boundary Commission, which will be found
described later in this paper.
Passing next to books of history, we note that all works treating
the ‘history of Canada, or this part of America, necessarily make some
mention of the history of the island. Such references are well-nigh
innumerable, but not always accurate, and need not be: considered
further here. Works of more limited range, those relating to Maine
and to the Acadian Provinces naturally give more detailed accounts,
and such narratives are to be found in Haliburton’s Nova Scotia
(1829), Murdoch’s Nova Scotia (1865), Hannay’s Acadia (1879), Wes-
ton’s Maine (1834), Williamson’s Maine (1839), Willis’s Early Collec-
tions of Voyages to America, in the New England Historical and
Genealogical Register, XV., 1861, 212-213, Parkman’s Pioneers of
France in the New World (1865), Brown’s Coasting Voyages in the
Gulf of Maine, (Collections of the Maine Historical Society, VII,
1873, 243), and there is a treatment of it, with reproductions of the
maps, in the section on Acadia in Vol IV. of Winsor’s “Narrative
and Critical History of America,” (1884). Dionne’s Samuel Champlain
(1891) treats it fully, but with no new information., It is synoptically,
but not very accurately considered in a local work, Knowlton’s “Annals
of Calais, Maine and St. Stephen, New Brunswick,” 1875; it is con-
sidered briefly, with the cut of the settlement by Kilby in his Eastport
and Passamaquoddy (1888); is discussed very fully and with a transla-
tion of Champlain’s narrative and reproduction of his map of the
settlement in Nos. XXIII— XXVI. of the very valuable series of
historical articles, edited by James Vroom, in the “St. Croix Courier,”
published at St. Stephen, in 1892-1895. More recently it has been
briefly treated, with a cut of the settlement-map, by Hay in his “ Can-
adian History Readings” (1900). The interesting questions as to the
identity of the island, its names, etc., have received some attention
from several writers, and there are notes on the subject in Holmes’
“ Annals,” I., 149 (I., 122 of 2nd Edition), in Williamson’s History of
Maine (I, 88, and II., 578), in Laverdiére’s, and in Otis-Slafter’s
editions of Champlain, in Winsor’s “America,” IV., 137, and in
Thwaites’ Jesuit Relations, II., 291. From the point of view of the
identification of the site of the settlement, etc., I have treated the
subject, with reproductions of three maps, in my “Historic Sites in
152 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
New Brunswick” in these Transactions, V., section II., 262-266. The
part played by the island in the Boundary controversies is touched
upon in several of the above works, and the subject is very fully sum-
marized in my “ Monograph of the Evolution of the Boundaries of
the Province of New Brunswick,” published in Vol. VII. of the Trans-
actions of the Royal Society of Canada.
Of scientific literature relating to the island there is extremely
little, and it has been referred to in the preceding pages. The Geo-
logical map of Charlotte County colours the island for the Silurian
formation, though, as already pointed out, erroneously, but the accom-
panying reports make no mention of it. Brief references to the
molluses, ete., which occur there, in identification of those mentioned
by Champlain and Lescarbot, are given by the present writer in the
Bulletins of the Natural History Society of New Brunswick, (No. VI,
page 17; No. VII., page 14, and No. VIII. pages 4-6, 16), while a
reference to a southern star-fish occurring there occurs in the same
Bulletin, No. IX., page 54. Other than these, I can find no refer-
ences to the island in scientific literature.
Of more fleeting literature in newspapers there has been an
abundance. The island being one of the chief local attractions, is
visited by many tourists and an occasional reporter every summer,
and some of these on their return home publish their experiences in
the newspapers. Such narratives are sometimes grotesquely inac-
curate, and abound in characteristic exaggerations, and they have no
permanent value. One of the first of such articles is said locally
to have been published in the New York Sun some forty years ago,
and is worth note because it reproduced the two maps of Champlain,
and became a chief source of information locally about the island.
An interesting reference to a visit to it occurs in a book for children,
“ All Among the Lighthouses,” by Mary Crowinshield (Reel 1886),
pages 339-343.
Of pure literature the island has almost none. No romance
has been woven from its story, though its subject offers tempting
opportunity, and it has inspired but two short poems, one, an Ode
to de Monts, written by Lescarbot on his voyage to the island in 1607,
and contained in his “ Muses de la Nouvelle France,” : and A. W. H.
Eaton’s St. Croix Isle in his “Acadian Legends and Lyrics.” Opinions
will differ as to the merits of the latter, and its many inaccuracies mar
its application to the place. In time to come, perchance, the imagina-
1 Given in the Tross edition, Vol. III., page 45, of the ‘‘ Muses.” There is
in this work also an ode to de Monts and his associates, and sonnets to Cham-
plain, Poutrincourt, and Champdoré.
[Ganona] DOCHET (ST. CROIX) ISLAND 1583
tion of novelist or poet will take up the theme where the historian has
left it: — may the result then be worthy of the subject!
HIsTorY.
The history of Dochet Island falls naturally into four periods: —
First,— its settlement by de Monts in 1604, and events to the grant
of Razilly in 1632.
Second,— its part in the boundary controversies and in the deter-
mination of the River St. Croix in 1796-1799.
Third,— its modern history from the first permanent settlement of
the St. Croix to the present.
Fourth,— its probable and desirable future.
1. THE DiscovERY AND SETTLEMENT oF Sr. Crorx (DocHET) ISLAND
IN 1604, AND SUBSEQUENT EVENTS To 1632,
The opening of the year 1604 found not a single European settled
amid the endless forests of the northern parts of North America.
Attempts at colonization had been made, it is true, but all had proved
abortive. The very ownership of the country was in dispute, for
England claimed it all by right of the discoveries of the Cabots, while
France maintained a right to the same region by virtue of the later
and better known discoveries of Verrazano. Such were the condi-
tions when, in 1603, the Sieur de Monts, an energetic and prominent
soldier and gentleman of France, proposed to the King of France to
found a colony in Acadia, offering to bear all of the expenses if he
could be given as compensation a monopoly of the fur trade. This
was readily granted, and the Sieur de Monts, in addition to receiving
the monopoly, was made Lieutenant-General of the King for the
country of Acadie, a region covering the Atlantic coast of North
America from latitude 40° to 46°, or from Philadelphia to Cape Bre-
ton (Fig. 1). Accordingly, early in 1604, de Monts brought together
a company of 120 men, some of them gentlemen in search of adven-
ture, some of them artizans and other workmen, together with abun-
dant stores and equipment for a permanent settlement, and embarked
them upon two vessels, one of 120 and the other of 150 tons. With
him as King’s Geographer, and, as it proved, historian of the expedi-
tion, went Samuel de Champlain, a great man, afterwards the Father
of New France. The vessels reached Acadia in safety in May, and,
after sundry adventures and explorations, the vessel containing
de Monts and Champlain reached St. Mary’s Bay in Nova Scotia on
154 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
June 16th, the other vessel, commanded by Sieur de Pont Grave,
remaining at Canso. Embarking in a smaller boat, apparently a
barque of eight tons, with a few men, de Monts and Champlain
proceeded to explore the Bay of Fundy, hitherto unknown to Euro-
peans, discovering Port Royal and Annapolis Basin, passing around
the head of the Bay of Fundy, and entering the mouth of the St.
John on June 24th. Then they kept on to the westward, passing
the islands we now call the Wolves, and entering Passamaquoddy
Bay, through which they passed. But from this point on we shall
allow Champlain to tell the story as he has written it in his own book.
CHAPITRE III.
nous en[32]trasmes dans vne riuiere qui a presque demye lieue de
large en son entrée, où ayans faict vne lieue ou deux, nous y trouuasmes deux
isles: l’vne fort petite proche de la terre de l’ouest: & l’autre au milieu, qui
peut auoir huict ou neuf cens pas de circuit, esleuée de tous costez de trois à
quatre toises de rochers, fors vn petit endroict d’vne poincte de Sable & terre
grasse, laquelle peut seruir à faire briques, & autres choses necessaires. Ily
a vn autre lieu à couuert pour mettre des vaisseaux de quatre vingt à cent
tonneaux: mais il asseche de basse mer. L’isle est remplie de sapins, boul-
leaux, esrables & chesnes. De soy elle est en fort bonne situation, & n’y a
qu’vn costé où elle baisse d’enuiron 40. pas, qui est aisé à fortifier, les costes
de la terre ferme en estans des deux costez esloignées de quelques neuf cens à
mille pas. Il y a des vaisseaux qui ne pourroyent passer sur la riuiere qu’a
la mercy du canon dicelle Qvi est le lieu que nous iugeâmes le meilleur: tant
pour la situation, bon pays, que pour la communication que nous pretendions
auec les sauuages de ces costes & du dedans des terres, estans au millieu
d’eux: Lesquels auec le temps on esperoit pacifier, & amortir les guerres qu’ils
ont les vns contre les autres, pour en tirer à l’aduenir du seruice; & les
reduire a la [33] foy Chrestienne. Ce lieu est nommé par le sieur de Mons
l’isle saincte Croix. Passant plus outre on voit vne grande baye en laquelle
y a deux isles: l’vne haute & l’autre platte: & trois riuieres, deux mediocres,
dont l’vne tire vers l’Orient & l’autre au nord: & la troisiesme grande, qui va
vers l’Occident. C’est celle des Etechemins, dequoy nous auons parlé cy dessus.
* The reader who may be interested in knowing more of the lives and per-
sonalities of Champlain and de Monts may find accounts of them in the follow-
ing sources. Of Champlain, there is a full account, with a portrait, in Chapter
III. of Vol. IV. of Winsor’s ‘‘America’’; others are in the Otis-Slafter Transla-
tion, in the Quebec edition of Champlain’s works, in Dionne’s Samuel Cham-
plain and elsewhere. As to de Monts, there are references and a reproduction
of a possible portrait in Chapter IV. of Vol. IV. of Winsor’s ‘“‘America,’” and a
mention of him by Dionne in the preceding volume of these Transactions,
section i., 40. here is a portrait of him in the Gilbert Parker collection at
Queen’s University Library, which, is, I am informed, from the same original
as that given by Winsor.
The text of Champlain following is from the Quebec edition of 1870, but
with the chapter headings and pages added from the original edition of 1613.
[&axoxc] DOCHET (ST. CROIX) ISLAND 185
TRANSLATION.
CHAPTER III.
. . . . St. Croix Island, and other noteworthy objects on this coast.
. + . . Wwe entered a river almost half a league in breadth at its mouth,‘
sailing up which a league or two we found two islands: one very small? near
the western bank: and the other® in mid-river, having a circumference of
perhaps eight or nine hundred paces,* with rocky sides three or four fathoms °
high all around, except in one small place,® where there is a sandy point and
clayey earth adapted for making brick and other needful articles. There is
another place affording a shelter for vessels from eighty to a hundred tons:
but it is dry at low tide.‘ The island is covered with firs, birches, maples and
oaks. It is by nature very well situated, except in one place, where for about
forty paces it is lower than elsewhere:® this, however, is easily fortified, the
banks of the main land being distant on both sides some nine hundred to a
thousand paces.” Vessels could pass up the river only at the mercy of the
cannon on this island, and we deemed the location the most advantageous, not
only on account of its situation and good soil, but also on account of the inter-
course which we proposed with the savages of these coasts and of the interior,
as we should be in the midst of them. We hoped to pacify them in the course
of time and put an end to the wars which they carry on with one another, so
as to derive service from them in future, and convert them to the Christian
faith. This place was named by Sieur de Monts Saint Croix Island." Farther
on there is a great bay, in which are two islands, one high and the other flat ;**
2 Now the St. Croix, with its mouth at Joes Point (Fig. 2).
? Now Little Dochet (Fig. 2).
5 Now Dochet, the subject of this Monograph (Fig. 2).
* The distance is about exact, as the island was at that time.
° The fathom was rather more than ours, being nearly seven feet (com-
pare the scales on Wright’s map, Fig. 12).
$ This point no doubt would be that shown on Champlain’s map (Fig. 8)
as mounted with two cannon. Here as comparison with the modern map will
show (Fig. 14), the rocks are wanting and there is a sandy beach.
7 This is Treats Cove (Fig. 3), altered considerably from its appearance at
the time of Champlain, but still forming such a harbour as he describes. I
have been told by a former resident of the island, that, before the sand was
removed between the main island and the Chapel Nubble, this was a most
charming harbour, protected by high banks all around. Compare Wright’s
map (Fig. 12), where it is very clearly shown. The bottom is of sand, and so
smooth that small vessels can lie in perfect safety upon it as the tide falls.
* Oaks are not now found among the few trees on the island, though
Wright found one tree in 1797 (see later, page 204). The others here mentioned
still occur on the island (compare page 139).
° This refers, I believe, to the part of the island on the south-west shore,
where it slopes almost to the water’s edge.
7” In a general way these distances are about correct, though Champlain’s
own map (Fig. 8), being for a Special reason (elsewhere explained, page 156),
much distorted in this respect, makes it much less.
“1 This name was suggested by the meeting of the rivers above the island
in the form of a cross, as earlier (page 144) explained.
7 Oak Bay, with the lofty Cooksons Island, some 300 feet in height, and the
low sandy Little Island. (Fig. 2).
156 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
also three rivers, two of moderate size, one extending towards the east,! the
other towards the north,” and the third of large size, towards the west.? The
latter is that of the Etechemins, of which we spoke before.
\
EXPLANATIONS OF CHAMPLAIN’S MAP OF ST. CROIX ISLAND, 1604-5 (Fa. 8).
ORIGINAL. TRANSLATIONS (and notes).
Les chifres montrent les brasses d’eau. The figures indicate fathoms of water.
A. Le plan de l'habitation. A. A plan of the settlement. (Com-
pare also Fig. 9.)
B. Iardinages. B. Gardens.
C. Petit islet seruant de platte C. Little islet serving as a platform
forme à mettre le canon. for cannon. (This islet is now
washed away.)
D. Platteforme où onmettoit du D. Platform where cannon were
canon. placed.
E. Le cimetiere. E. The Cemetery. (Now washed away.)
F. La chappelle. F. The Chapel. (On the present Cha-
pel Nubble, or nearly.)
G. Basses de rochers autour de G. Rocky shoals about Sainte Croix
l’isle saincte Croix. Island.
H. vn petit islet. H. A little islet. (Little Dochet.)
I. Le lieu où le sieur de Mons auoit I. Place where Sieur de Monts had
fait commencer vn moulin à a water-mill commenced, (On
eau. Lows Brook.)
L. Place où l’on faisoit le charbon. L. Place where we made our char-
coal. (Beside Beaver Lake Brook.)
M. Iardinages à la grade terre de M. Gardens on the western shore.
l'Ouest. : (In a charming situation, easily
recognizable, east of Red Beach.)
N. Autres iardinages à la grande N. Other gardens on the eastern
terre de l'Est. shore. (Beside the small stream
emptying into Johnsons C'ove.)
©. Grande montaigne fort haute O. Very large and high mountain on
the main land. (McLaughlans
Mountain.)
P. Riuiere des Etechemins passant P. River of the Etechemins flowing
au tour de l’isle saincte Croix. about the Island of St. Croix.*
dans la terre.
1 The Waweig.
2 Oak Bay, with the small stream (Gallops Stream) emptying into its head.
2 The St. Croix above the Devils Head (Fig. 2). Champlain repeatedly calls
it “River of the Etechemins,’ which name persisted on a few maps down to
Denys, 1672, and then vanished. It was called by the Indians the Scoodic, and
to some extent the name is still in use.
4 For the location of the various places on the island in comparison with
the modern topography consult Fig. 14.
While the proportions of the island are fairly good in this map, the shores
of the mainland (compare figs. 4, 10 and 11) are brought far too near, of course
in order to keep the map a convenient size. It is adjusted to the magnetic
meridian, and the scale, as to the island, is about 250 feet to the inch. ‘The
PR
OR
ù THE o-oo p À À
à
& bee A al font ut Es loge
: er ALMA put Fm
S
: À
À | DEC
“|
rt
Pt Tee eee
8 i):
/
Fic. 11.—Wright’s map of the Island and Surroundings, 1797. From the copy in the Crown Land Office, Fredericton, reduced to pseu the ied dr
size. (For the sake of clearness in the reduced copy, the shore lines have been made somewhat heavier, and the figures of soundings somew
_ larger than in the original.)
ze]
oad
e
Dale MAN +. OO
[&AnoNG] DOCHET (ST. CROIX) ISLAND 159
Here follows a description of the falls in the River of the Eteche-
mins (St. Croix), with mention of the portages to the Norumbegue
(Penobscot) and St. John, and of the fishing and soil, and of the
planting of wheat there, and some minor matters, not connected with
St. Croix Island.
|
Ce lieu est par la hauteur de 45. degrez vn tiers de latitude, & 17. degrez 32.
minuttes de declinaison de la guide-ayment,
TRANSLATION.
This place is in latitude 45° 20’, and 17° 32° of the variation of the mag-
netic needle.*
vessels represented are doubtless that in which de Monts came to America,
with the barque in which he and Champlain were exploring when they dis-
covered the island. The animals represented are the whale and two por-
poises, which are unmistakable (and still to be seen at times around the
island), and a third kind of creature which seems to represent the fish called
the sculpin more nearly than anything else that lives in this region. The
meaning of the seated man near the ledges at the south of the island, I do
not understand; the place is only uncovered at low tide. Nor is the meaning
of the figure of a man, with apparently a clearing beneath him, evident,
unless it means that the Indians had a small clearing as a sort of lookout
on the bluff at Sandy Point. The depths given are too little (compare.
Fig. 4).
1 Although he has been speaking of the falls on the River of the Eteche-
mins, he must in this sentence refer to St. Croix Island, because the deter-
mination of latitude and magnetic variation require some time and care
which he could give in the settlement on the island, and would not be likely
to give on his hasty visits to the much less important place at the falls. His
latitude, though somewhat too great (it is really 45° 07’ 44”), is yet, considering
the imperfection of the instruments of the time, remarkably accurate. The
variation of the magnetic needle at the island is now (1902) somewhat over
18° 30’, and increasing slightly, west of north. Various early surveys, by
Wright, 1772, and others later, show that it was from 13° to 14° W. somewhat
over a century ago. Champlain’s observation here given is, of course, much
the earliest on record for this region. A very curious fact about Champlain’s
cbservations is that they show an increase in the variation from the east west-
ward, thus seeming to imply that the variation was then to the eastward, and
not to the westward. The subject has been carefully studied by C. A. Schott,
for the United States Coast Survey, with results published in the eighth edi-
tion of his “‘Secular Variation of the Earth’s magnetic force in the United
States and in some adjacent foreign countries,” in the Report of the Coast
Survey for 1895. He comes to the conclusion that Champlain’s determinations
are as much as 6° in error, and not to be depended upon within that amount.
The variation must then have been west, and it still remains unexplained how
Champlain could have found the angle increasing to the westward. In a
treatise on his two maps given at the end of his “ Voyages,’’ Champlain
explains, with a diagram, his mode of finding the true meridian, a mode simple
and crude enough, but doubtless the best available to travellers at that time.
160 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
[35] LE SIEUR DE MONS NE TROUUANT POINT de lieu plus propre pour
faire vne demeure arrestée que Visle de S. Croix, la fortifie & y faict des logements.
Retour des vaisseaux en France, & de Ralleau Secretaire d’iceluy sieur de Mons, pour-
mettre ordre a quelques affaires.
CHAPITRE IV.
N "AYANT trouué lieu plus propre que ceste Isle, nous commencames à faire
vne barricade sur wn petit islet vm peu separé de Jisle, qui seruoit de
platte-forme pour mettre nostre canon. Chacun s’y employa si vertueuse-
ment qu’en peu de temps elle fut rendue en defence, bien que les mousquittes
(qui sont petites mouches) nous apportassent beaucoup d’incommodité au
trauail: car il y eust plusieurs de nos gens qui eurent le visage si enflé par
leur piqueure qu’ils ne pouuoient presque voir. La barricade estant acheuée,
le sieur de Mons enuoya sa barque pour aduertir le reste de nos gens qui
estoient auec nostre vaisseau en la baye saincte Marie, qu'ils vinssent à
saincte Croix. Ce qui fut promptement fait: Et en les attendant nous pas-
sames le temps assez ioyeusement.
Quelques iours aprés nos vaisseaux estans arriuez, & ayant mouillé l’ancre,
vn chacun descendit à terre : puis sans perdre temps le sieur de Mons com-
manca à employer les ouuriers à [36] bastir des maisons pour nostre demeure,
& me permit de faire l’ordonnance de nostre logement. Aprez que le sieur de
Mons eut prins la place du Magazin qui contient neuf thoises de long, trois de
large & douze pieds de haut, il print le plan de son logis, qu’il fit prompte-
ment bastir par de bons ouuriers, puis aprés donna à chacun sa place: & aussi
tost on commenca à s’assembler cing à cing & six à six, selon que l’on desiroit.
Alors tous se mirent à deffricher l’isle, aller au bois, charpenter, porter de la
terre & autres choses necessaires pour les bastimens.
Cependant que nous bastissions nos logis, le sieur de Mons depescha le
Capitaine Fouques dans le vaisseau de Rossignol, pour aller trouuer Pontgraué
à Canceau, afin d’auoir ce qui restoit des commoditez pour nostre habitation.
Quelque temps aprés qu’il fut parti, il arriua vne petite barque du port de
huict tonneaux, où estoit du Glas de Honfleur pilotte du vaisseau de Pontgraué,
qui amena auec luy les Maistres de nauires Basques qui auoient esté prins
par ledit Pont en faisant la traicte de peleterie, comme nous auons dit. Le
sieur de Mons les receut humainement & les renuoya par ledit du Glas au
Pont auec commission de luy dire qu’il emmenast à la Rochelle les vaisseaux
qu’il auoit prins, afin que iustice en fut faicte. [37] Cependant on trauailloit
fort & ferme aux logemens: les charpentiers au magazin & logis du sieur de
Mons, & tous les autres chacun au sien; comme moy au mien, que ie fis auec
l’aide de quelques seruiteurs que le sieur d’Oruille & moy auions; qui fut incon-
tinent acheué; où depuis le sieur de Mons se logea attendant que le sien le
fut. L'on fit aussi vn four, & vn moulin à bras pour moudre nos bleds, qui
donna beaucoup de peine & trauail à la pluspart, pour estre chose penible,
L'on fit aprés quelques iardinages, tant à la grande terre que dedans l’isle, où
on sema plusieurs sortes de graines, qui y vindrent fort bien, hormis en l’isle;
d'autant que ce n’estoit que Sable qui brusloit tout, lors que le soleil donnoit,
encore qu’on prist beaucoup de peine a les arrouser.
[39] Quelques iours aprés le sieur de Mons se delibera de scauoir où estoit
la mine de cuiure frane qu’auions tant cherchée: Et pour cest effect m’enuoya
auec vn sauuage appellé Messamotiet, qui disoit en sçauoir bien le lieu. Ie
party dans vne petite barque du port de cing à six tonneaux, & neuf matelots.
[canonc] DOCHET (ST. CROIX) ISLAND 161
auec moy. A quelque huict lieues de l’isle, tirant à la riuiere S. Iean, en
trouuasmes vne de cuiure, qui n’estoit pas pur; neantmoins bonne selon le rap-
port du mineur, lequel disoit que l’on en pourroit tirer 18. pour cent. Plus
outre nous en trouuasmes d’autres moindres que ceste cy. Quand nous fusmes
au lieu où nous pretendions que fut celle que nous cherchions le sauuage ne la
peut trouuer: de sorte qu’il fallut nous enreuenir, laissant ceste recerche pour
vne autre fois.
Comme ie fus de retour de ce voyage, le sieur de Mons resolut de renuoyer
ses vaissaux en France, & aussi le sieur de Poitrincourt qui n’y estoit venu
que pour son plaisir, & pour recognoistre de pais & les lieux propres pour y
habiter, selon le desir qu’il en auoit: c’est pourquoy il demanda au sieur
de Mons le port Royal, qu’il luy donna suiuant le pouuoir & commission
qu’il auoit du Roy. Il renuoya aussi Ralleau son Secretaire pour mettre ordre
à quelques affaires touchant le voyage; lesquels par-[40]tirent de Visle 8S. Croix
le dernier iour d’Aoust audict an 1604.
TRANSLATION.
CHAR THE RD Vic
Sieur de Monts, finding no place betier adapted for a permanent scttlement than
the island ef St. Croix, fortifies it and builds dwellings. Return of the Vessels to
France, and of Ralleau, Secretary of Sieur de Monts, for the purpose of arranging
some business affairs.
Having found no more suitable place than this island, we commenced
making a barricade on a little islet’ a short distance from the island, which
served as a station for placing our cannon. All worked so energetically that
in a little while it was put in a state of defence, although the mosquitoes
1 At a first glance, the islet here mentioned would seem to be the Nubble,
named on our maps (Fig. 3, 14) Wrights Nubble, and such was formerly my
own opinion (expressed in my “ Historic Sites of New Brunswick,” in these
Transactions, V., section ii., 263). But a more thorough study of the subject,
especially as based upon a comparison of Champlain’s and the modern maps
reduced to the same scale and superposed (Fig. 14) has convinced me that the
present Wrights Nubble is a remnant of the point on Champlain’s map, and
that the islet on which his cannon were placed was farther to the southward,
and is now entirely washed away. If this is not the case, and the present
Wrights Nubble is the one on which de Monts placed his cannon, Champlain’s
map must be distorted in its southern part to a degree quite impossible to
believe of so skilled a cartographer. My present interpretation allows the
maps to be harmonized perfectly, and it is confirmed by the relation of
Wrights Nubble to the ledge on the southeast of the island (the one near the
point with the two cannon on Fig. 8). The reason why the present Nubble
has been preserved, while all the intermediate part of the island has been
washed away is very plain ; the Nubble is protected by the rock on which it
rests which rises above the highest tides, while in the intermediate part the
rock is wanting and the sea now washes directly against the soft soil, easily
undermining it. It is to be remembered that the island stood some feet higher
in Champlain’s time (page 136).
Champlain’s map seems to show the little islet on which the cannon were
mounted as united by a narrow neck with the main island, but in his text,
Sec. II., 1902. 11
162 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
(which are little flies) annoyed us excessively in our work:! there were several
of our men whose faces were so swollen by their bites that they could scarcely
EXPLANATIONS OF CHAMPLAIN’S VIEW OF DE Monts’ SElTLEMENT ON
ST. CROIX ISLAND, 1604-5. (Fic. 9.)
ORIGINAL. TRANSLATION.
A. Logis du Sieur de Mons. A. Dwelling of Sieur de Monts.
B. Maison publique où l’on passoit B. Public building where we spent
le temps durant la pluie. our time when it rained.
C. Le magasin. C. The storehouse.
D. Logement des suisses. D. Dwelling of the Swiss.
E. La forge. E. The blacksmith shop.
FE" Logement des charpentiers. F. Dwelling of the carpenters.
G. Le puis. G. The Well.
H. Le four où l'on faisoit le pain. H. The oven where the bread was
made.
I La cuisine, TKitchen.
L. Iardinages. L. Gardens.
M. Autres Iardins. M. Other gardens.
N. La place où au milieu y a vn N. Place in the centre where a tree
arbre. stands.
O. Palissade. O. Palisade.
P. Logis des sieurs d’Oruille, Champ P. Dwellings of the Sieurs d’Orville,
plain & Chandoré. Champlain and Champdoré.
Q. Logis du sieur Boulay, & autres Q. Dwelling of sieur Boulay, and
artisans. other artisans.
R. Logis où logeoient les sieurs de R. Dwelling where the sieurs de
Genestou, Sourin & autres ar- Genestou, Sourin, and other ar-
tisans. tisans lived.
T. Logis des sieurs de Beaumont, la T. Dwelling of the Sieurs de Beau-
Motte Bourioli & Fougeray. mont, la Motte Bourioli, and
Fougeray.
V. Logement de nostre curé. V. Dwelling of our curate.
X. Autres iardinages. X. Other gardens.
Y. La riuiere qui entoure l’'isle. Y. The river surrounding the island.
For the position of the settlement in relation to the modern topography
of the island, as nearly as they can be harmonized, consult Fig. 14 This
view, and the plan on the map of the island (Fig. 8), while agreeing in gen-
eral, do not harmonize in details.
in chapter IV., he speaks of it as ‘‘a little islet a short distance from the
island,’ and Lescarbot speaks of it in the same way; hence we may infer
that, despite the appearance on Champlain’s map, this islet was then partially
separated from the main island, probably with a ‘‘ saddle” or dip between
them, extending down a few feet but not to the beach.
2 It is likely that the black flies rather than the true mosquitoes are meant.
In the present cleared condition of the island, neither mosquitoes nor black
flies are ever troublesome, though the tiny midges are somtimes so.
[aanoxc] DOCHET (ST. CROIX) ISLAND 163
RE ate Le pe ee eg TL A Pe ee EE te ee
° 5 x
| halstacion de hleste ro
Fe El
Fic. 9. View of the Settlement of de Monts on St. Croix Island, 1604-5.
Drawn by Champlain. Original size.
[aaxoxa] DOCHET (ST. CROIX) ISLAND 165
see. The barricade being finished,t Sieur de Monts sent his barque” to notify
the rest of our party, who were with our vessel in the Bay of St. Mary,’ to
come to St. Croix. This was promptly done, and while awaiting them we
spent our time very pleasantly.
Some days lafter, our vessels* having arrived and anchored, all disem-
barked. Then without losing time, Sieur de Monts proceeded to employ the
workmen in building houses for our abode, and allowed me to determine the
arrangement of our settlement. After Sieur de Monts had determined the
place for the store-house, which is nine fathoms? long, three wide, and twelve
feet high, he adopted the plan for his own house, which he had promptly built
by our good workmen, and then assigned to each one his location. Straight-
way, the men began to gather together by fives and sixes, each according to
his desire. Then all set to work to clear up the island, to go to the woods, to
make the framework, to carry earthand other things necessary for the
building.
Wihile we were building our houses, Sieur de Monts despatched Captain
Fouques in the vessel of Rossignol,’ to find Pont Gravé at Canso, in order to
obtain for our settlement what supplies remained.
Some time after he had set out, there arrived a small barque of eight tons, -
in which was du Glas of Honfleur, pilot of Pont Gravé’s vessel, bringing the
Basque shipmasters who had been captured by the above Pont while engaged
in the fur-trade, as we have stated. Sieur de Monts received them civilly,
and sent them back by the above Du Glas to Pont Gravé, with orders for him
to take the vessel he had captured to Rochelle, in arder that justice might be
done. Meanwhile, work on the houses went on vigorously and without cessa-
tion; the carpenters engaged on the storehouse and dwelling of Sieur de Monts,
and the others each on his own house, as I was on mine, which I built with
the assistance of some servants belonging to Sieur d’Orville® and myself. It
1 It thus appears that the little islet, now vanished, served as a temporary
fort for the safety of the party after their barque was sent away.
? This barque is frequently mentioned iin the narrative. What is doubit-
less a picture of it is given on Champlain’s map (Fig. 8) to the northward of
the island.
* Still so called, on the coast of Nova Scotia. It will be remembered that
the vessel with the larger part of the men had been left at St. Mary’s Bay,
while de Monts and Champlain, with a few men, in a barque of eight tons,
had explored the coasts and reached St. Croix Island.
* The vessel left at St. Mary’s Bay (of which what is doubtless intended
as a picture is given on Champlain’s map, Fig. 8), and that of one Rossignol
(see note 7 below).
5 The fathom was nearly seven feet (see earlier, note 6 on page 155).
° A fuller description of de Monts’ house, and other particulars about the
settlement not mentioned by Champlain, are given by Lescarbot, as shown
later, page 183. Compare also the accompanying plan of the settlement (Fig. 9).
* This vessel had been captured on the Nova Scotia coast while engaged
in illicit trading, and had doubtless been brought to St. Croix Island with the
vessel from St. Mary’s Bay.
® De Monts possessed by his charter the sole right of trade with the natives
in this region: hence the Basque captains were poachers.
° This is the Sieur D’Orville, whose name has been wrongly guessed to have
been corrupted into the Devils of Devils Head (see earlier, page 146).
166 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
was forthwith completed, and Sieur de Monts lodged in it until his own was
finished. An oven was also made, and a handmill for grinding our wheat, the
working of which involved much trouble and labour to the most of us, since
it was a toilsome operation. Some gardens were afterwards laid out on the
mainland! as well as on ‘the island, where many kinds of seeds were planted,
which flourished very well on the mainland, but not on the island, since there
was only sand here, and the whole were burned up when the sun shone,
although special pains was taken to water them.
Some days after, Sieur de Monts determined to ascertain where the mine
of pure copper was which he had searched for so much.” With this object in
view he despatched me together with a savage named Messamoüet, who
asserted that he knew the place well. I set out in a small barque of five or six
tons, with nine sailors. Some eight leagues from the island towards the River
St. John, we found a mine of copper which was not pure, yet good according
to the report of the miner, who said it would yield eighteen per cent.* Farther
on we found others inferior to this. When we reached the place where we
supposed that was, which we were hunting for, the savage could not find it,
so that it was necessary to come back, leaving the search for another time.
Upon my return from this trip, Sieur de Monts resolved to send his vessels
back to France, and also Sieur de Poutrincourt, who had come only for his
pleasure, and to explore countries and places suitable for a colony, which he
desired to found; for which reason he asked Sieur de Monts for Port Royal,‘
which he gave him, in accordance with the power and direction he had
received from the King. He sent back also Ralleau, his Secretary, to arrange
some matters concerning the voyage. They set out from the Island of St.
Croix the last day of August, 1604.
Chapter V. deals with a voyage of exploration made by Champlain,
by order of de Monts, as far as Kennebec. Although of very great
interest, it does not concern our present subject. He set out Septem-
ber 2, and returned to the island October 2.
[51] DU MAL DE TERRE, FORT CRUELLE MAL-adie. A quoy les hommes
& femmes sauuages passent le temps durant l'yuer. Ht tout ce qui se passa en Vhabita-
tion pendant Vhyuernement.
CHAPITRE VI.
OMME nous arriuasmes à l’isle S. Croix chacun acheuoit de se loger.
l'yuer nous surprit plustost que n’esperions, & nous empescha de faire
beauccup de choses que nous nous estions proposées. Neantmoins le sieur de
Mons ne [52] laissa de faire faire des iardinages dans l’isle. Beaucoup com-
mancerent à deffricher chacun le sien; & moy aussi le mien, qui estoit assez
1 Shown on Champlain’s map (Fig. 8). Their exact location is explained
on page 156.
* A mine of copper had been reported from the Bay of Fundy the preceding
year ‘by one Sieur Prevert, as related in an earlier volume of Champlain’s
writings.
* This mine was probably in the vicinity of Beaver Harbour, where small
veins of the copper ore chalcopyrite are known.
* Now Annapolis Basin, Nova Scotia. De Monts, as Lieutenant-General,
had ample power to make grants of land to intending colonists.
[GANONG ] DOCHET (ST. CROIX) ISLAND 167
grand, où ie semay quantité de graines, comme firent aussi ceux qui en auoient,
qui vindrent assez bien. Mais comme l’isle n’estoit que Sable tout y brusloit
presque lors que le soleil y donnoit: & n’auions point d’eau pour les arrouser,
sinon de celle de pluye, qui n’estoit pas souuent.
Le sieur de Mons fit aussi deffricher à la grande terre pour y faire des
iardinages, & aux saults il fit labourer à trois lieues de nostre habitation, & y
fit semer du bled qui y vint tresbeau & à maturité. Autour de nostre habita-
tion il y a de basse mer quantité de coquillages, comme coques, moulles, our-
cins, & bregaux, qui faisoyent grand bien à chacun.
Les neges commencerent le 6. du mois d'Octobre. Le 3. de Decembre nous
vismes passer des glasses qui venoyent de quelque riuiere qui estoit gellée.
Les froidures furent aspres & plus excessiues qu’en France, & beaucoup plus
de durée: & n’y pleust presque point cest yuer. Ie croy que cela prouient des
vents du nord & norouest, qui passent par dessus de hautes montaignes qui
sont tousiours couuertes de neges, que nous eusmes de trois à quatre pieds de
haut, iusques à la fin du mois d’Auril; & aussi qu’elle [53] se concerue beau-
coup plus qu’elle ne feroit si le pais estoit labouré.
Durant l’yuer il se mit vne certaine malsdie entre plusieurs de nos gens,
appelée mal de ta terre, autrement Scurbut, à ce que i’ay ouy dire depuis à
des hommes doctes. Il s’engendroit en la bouche de ceux qui l’auoient de gros
morceaux de chair superflue & baueuse (qui causoit vne grande putrefaction)
laquelle surmontoit tellement, qu'ils ne pouuoient presque prendre aucune
chose, sinon que bien liquide. Les dents ne leur tenoient presque point, & les
pouuoit on arracher auec les doits sans leur faire douleur. L'on leur coupoit
souuent la superfluité de cette chair, qui leur faisoit ietter force sang par la
bouche. Apres il leur prenoit vne grande douleur de bras & de iambes,
lesquelles leur demeuerent grosses & fort dures, toutes tachetes comme de
morsures de puces, & ne peuuoient marcher à cause de la contraction des
nerfs: de sorte qu’ils demeuroient presque sans force, & sentoient des douleurs
intolerables. Ils auoient aussi douleur de reins, d’estomach & de ventre; vne
thoux fort mauuaise, & courte haleine: bref ils estoient en tel estat, que la
pluspart des malades ne pouuoient se leuer ny remuer, & mesme ne les pouuoit
on tenir debout, qu’ils [54] ne tombassent en syncope: de facon que de 79. que
nous estions, il en mourent 35. & plus de 20. qui en furent bien prés: La plus
part de ceux qui resterent sains, se plaignoient de quelques petites douleurs &
courte haleine. Nous ne pusmes trouuer aucun remede pour la curation de
ces maladies. L’on en fit ouuerture de plusieurs pour recognoistre la cause de
leur m2ladie.
L’on trouua 4 beaucoup les parties interieures gastées, comme le poulmon,
qui estoit tellement alteré, qu’il ne s’y pouuoit recognoistre aucune humeur
radicalle: la ratte cereuse & enflée: le foye fort legueux & tachetté, n’ayant sa
couleur naturelle: la vaine caue, ascendante & descendante remplye de gros
sang agulé & noir: le fiel gasté: Toutesfois il se trouua quantité d’arteres, tant
dans le ventre moyen qu’inferieur, d’assez bonne disposition. L’on donna à
quelques vns des coups de rasoüer dessus les cuisses à l’endroit des taches
pourprées qu’ils auoient, d’où il sortoit vn sang caille fort noir. C’est ce que
l’on a peu recognoistre aux corps infectés de cette maladie.
Nos chirurgiens ne peurent si bien faire pour eux mesmes qu’ils n’y soient
demeurez comme les autres. Ceux qui y resterent malades furent gueris au
printemps; lequel com-[55]mence en ces pays la est en May. Cela nous fit
croire que le changement de saison leur rendit plustost la santé que les remedes
qu’on leur auoit ordonnés.
168 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Durant cet yuer nos boissons gelerent toutes, horsmis le vin d’Espagne.
On donnoit le cidre à la liure. La cause de ceste parte fut qu'il ne auoit point
de caues au magazin: & que l’air qui entroit par des fentes y estoit plus aspre
que celuy de dehors. Nous estions contraints d’vser de tresmauuaises eaux,
& boire de la nege fondue, pour n’auoir ny fontaines ny ruisseaux: car il
n’estoit pas possible d’aller en la grand terre, à cause des grandes glaces que
le flus & reflus charioit, qui est de trois brasses de basse & haute mer. Le
trauail du moulin à bras estoit fort penible: d’autant que la plus part estans
mal couchez, avec l’incommodité du chauffage que nous ne pouuions auoir a
cause des glaces, n’auoient quasi point de force, & aussi qu'on ne mangeoit que
chair salée & legumes durant l’yuer, qui engendrent de mauuais sang: ce qui
à mon opinion causoit en partie ces facheuses maladies. Tout cela donna du
mescontentement au sieur de Mons & autres de l'habitation.
Il estoit mal-aisé de recognoistre ce pays sans y auoir yuerné, car y
arriuant en eté tout y est [£6] fort aggreable, à cause des bois, beaux pays &
bonnes pescheries de poisson de plusieurs sortes que nous y trouuasmes. Il y
a six mois d’yuer en ce pays.
TRANSLATION.
CHAPTER VI.
Of the mal de terre, a very desperate malady. How the Indians, men and women,
spend their time in winter. And of all that occurred at the settlement while we were
passing the winter.
When we arrived at the Island of St. Croix,’ each one had finished his place
of abode. Winter came upon us sooner than we expected, and prevented us
from doing many things which we had proposed. Nevertheless, Sieur de
Monts did not fail to have some gardens made on the island. Many began to
clear up the ground, each his own. I also did so with mine, which was very
large,? where I planted a quantity of seeds, as also did the others who had
any, and they came up very well. But since the island was all sandy, every-
thing dried up almost as soon as the sun shone upon it, and we had no water
for irrigation, except from the rain, which was infrequent.
Sieur de Monts caused also clearings to be made on the mainland for mak-
ing gardens,*® and at the falls three leagues from our settlement* he had work
done and some wheat sown which came up very well and ripened. Around
our habitation there is at low tide a large number of shell fish, such as cockles,°
mussels, sea-urchins and sea-snails, which were a great boon to all.
The snows began on the sixth of October. On the third of December we
saw ice pass which came from some frozen river.” The cold was sharp, more
severe than in France, and of much longer duration; and it scarcely rained at
1 After the journey described in the preceding chapter.
2 This was no doubt the garden at L. on the plan (Fig. 9) adjoining Cham-
plain’s house.
? Shown on Champlain’s map (Fig. 9).
* At the present site of Calais and St. Stephen.
5 He means doubtless clams, which, with the others mentioned, are exces-
sively abundant on this island. (See earlier, page 140).
® Champlain’s account of the winter of 1604-5 shows that it was of unusual
severity. (See earlier, page 138.) The ice came of course from the head of tide
on the St. Croix near Calais and St. Stephen. ;
[GANONG ] DOCHET (ST. CROIX) ISLAND 169
all the entire winter. I suppose that is owing to the north and northwest wind
‘passing over high mountains always covered with snow, which was from three
to four feet deep up to the end of the month of April; lasting much longer, I
suppose, than it would if the country were cultivated.
During the winter, many of our company were attacked by a certain
malady called the mal de la terre; otherwise scurvy, as I have since heard
from learned men. There were produced in the mouths of those who had it,
great pieces of superfluous and drivelling flesh (causing extensive putrefac-
tion), which got the upper hand to such an extent that scarcely anything but
liquid could be taken, Their teeth became very loose, and could be pulled out
with the fingers without its causing them pain. The superfluous flesh was
often cut out, which caused them to eject much blood through the mouth.
Afterwards a violent pain seized their arms and legs, which remained swollen
and very hard, all spotted as if with flea bites; and they could not walk on
account of the contraction of the muscles so that they were almost without
strength and suffered intolerable pains. They experienced pain also in the
loins, stomach end bowels, had a very bad cough and short breath. Ina
word, they were in such a condition that the majority of them could not rise
nor move and could not even be raised up on their feet without falling down
in a swoon. So that out of seventy-nine, who composed our party, thirty-five
died, and more than twenty were on the point of death. ‘The majority of
those who remained well also complained of slight pains and short breath. We
were unable to find any remedy for these maladies. A post-mortem examina-
tion was made of several to investigate the cause of their malady.
In the case of many, the interior parts were found mortified, such as the
lungs, which were so changed that no natural fluid could be perceived in them.
The spleen was serous and swollen. The liver was legueux”? and spotted,
without its natural colour. The vena cava, superior and inferior, was filled
with thick coagulated and black blood. The gall was tainted. Nevertheless,
many arteries, in the middle as well as lower bowels, were found in very good
condition. In the case of some, incisions with a razor were made on the thigh
where they had purple spots, whence there issued a very black clotted blood.
This is what was observed on the bodies of those infected with this malady.’
1 These thirty-five were without doubt buried in the cemetery shown as
occupying a little knoll on Champlain’s map (Fig. 8). This knoll is now almost
entirely washed away, though its position is readily recognizable (Fig. 14),
and its only remnant is the slight rise where the birch trees stand at the north
entrance to Treats Cove (Fig. 23). It was very probably the exposure of the
skeletons of these victims of the scurvy by the washing away of the bank
which gave origin to the former name of the island, Bone Island. The keeper
of the lighthouse tells me that some years ago he dug up human bones on
the site of the garden near the north end of the island (the incident mentioned
in Mrs. Crowninshield’s “All among the Lighthouses,’ compare earlier, page
152). He thought them remains of the French settlers, but suggests that they
have been those of a negro said locally to have been buried on the island
many years ago.
? There appears to be no such word in French, ancient or modern. I can
only surmise that it is a misprint for ligneux, meaning woody, or wood-like.
3 This disease was of course the scurvy, from which Arctic and other
expeditions, obliged to depend upon salt food, suffered so much until recent
advances in the regulation of diet have removed all danger from it.
170 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Our surgeons could not help suffering themselves in the same manner as
the rest. Those who continued sick were healed by Spring, which commences
in this country in May. ‘Tihat led us to believe that the change of season
restored their health, rather than the remedies prescribed.
During this winter all our liquors froze, except the Spanish wine. Cider
was dispensed by the pound. The cause of this last was that there were no
cellars under our storehouse, and that the air which entered by the cracks was
sharper than that outside.’ We were obliged to use very bad water, and drink
melted snow, as there were no springs nor brooks; for it was not possible to go
to the mainland in consequence of the great pieces of ice drifted by the tide,’
which varies three fathoms between low and high water. Work on the hand
mill was very fatiguing, since the most of us, having slept poorly, and suffer-
ing from insufficiency of fuel, which we could not obtain on account of the!
ice, had scarcely any strength, and also because we ate only salt meat and
vegetables during the winter, which produced bad blood. The latter circum-
stance was, in my opinion, a partial cause of these dreadful maladies.* All this
produced discontent in Sieur de Monts and others of the settlement.
It would be very difficult to ascertain the character of this region without
spending a winter in it; for, on arrving here in summer, everything is very
agreeable, in consequence of the woods, fine country, and many varieties of
good fish which are found here. There are six months of winter in this
country.
Here follows an account of the customs of the Indians of this
region, of much interest and value but not connected with our present
subject. |
[57] . . . . Au mois de Mars ensuiuant il vint quelques sauuages qui nous
firent part de leur chasse en leur donnant du pain & autres choses en
eschange.
Nous attendions nos vaisseaux à la fin d’Auril lequel estant passé chacun
commenca à auoir mauuaise opinion, craignant qu'il ne leur fust arrivé
? Of course not a fact.
? Compare earlier, page 138.
* Aggravated by the enforced idleness of the men, no doubt.
Father Biard, in his Relation of 1616 (Jesuit Relations, III., 52), says:—
“ Que de toutes les gens du sieur de Monts, qui premierement hyuernerent
“a Saincte Croix, onze seulement demeurent en santé. C’estoyent les chas-
“seurs, qui en gaillards compagnons aimoyent mieux la picorée, que l’air du
“foyer; courir vn estang, que de se renuerser pasesseusement dans vn lict, de
“pestrin les neiges en abbattant le gibier, que non pas de deuiser de Paris &
‘’ ses rotisseurs aupres de feu.”
TRANSLATION.
“Of all sieur de Monts’s people who wintered first at Sainte Croix, only
“eleven remained well. These were a jolly company of hunters, who preferred
“rabbit hunting, to the air of the fireside; skating on the ponds, to turning
“over lazily in bed; making snowballs to bring down the game, to sitting
‘around the fire talking about Paris and its good cooks.”
These eleven doubiless included de Monts, Champlain, and the other gentle-
men of the party, many of whom had come on the expedition in search of
adventure.
[GANONG] DOCHET (ST. CROIX) ISLAND 171
quelque fortune, qui fut occasion que le 15. de May le sieur de Mons delibera
de faire accomoder vne barque du port de 15. tonneaux, & vn autre de 7. afin
de nous en aller à la fin du mois de Iuin à Gaspé, chercher des vaisseaux pour
retourner en France, si cependant les nostres ne venoient: mais Dieu nous
assista mieux que nous n’esperions: car le 15. de Iuin ensuiuant estans en
garde enuiron sur les onze heures du soir, le Pont Capitaine de l’vn des vais-
seaux du sieur de Mons arriua dans vne chaloupe, lequel nous dit que son
nauire estoit ancré à six lieues de nostre ha-[58]bitation, & fut le bien venu
au contentement d’vn chacun. ~
Le landemain le vaisseau arriua, & vint mouiller l’ancre proche de nostre
habitation. Le pont nous fit entendre qu’il venoit aprés luy vn vaisseau de
S. Maslo appelé le S. Estienne, pour nous apporter des viures & commoditez.
Le 17. du mois le sieur de Mons se delibera d'aller chercher vn lieu plus
propre pour habiter & de meilleure temperature que la nostre: Pour cest effect
il fit équiper la barque dedans laquelle il auoit pensé aller à Gaspé.
TRANSLATION.
In the month of March' following, some savages came and gave
us a portion of their game in exchange for bread and other things which we
gave them.
We looked for our vessels at the end of April; but, as this passed without
their arrival, all began to have an ill-boding, fearing that some accident had
befallen them. For this reason, on the fifteenth of May, Sieur de Monts
decided to have a barque of fifteen tons and another of seven fitted up, so
that we might go at the end of the month of June to Gaspé, in quest of
vessels in which to return to France, in case our own should not have arrived.
But God helped us better than we hoped; for on the fifteenth of June ensuing,
while on guard about eleven o’clock at night, Pont Gravé, Captain of one of
the vessels of Sieur de Monts, arriving in a shallop, informed us that his
ship was anchored six leagues from our settlement, and he was welcomed
amid the great joy of all.
The next day the vessel arrived, and anchored near our habitation. Pont
Gravé informed us that a vessel from St. Malo, called the St. Estienne, was
following him, bringing us provisions and supplies.
On the seventeenth of the month, Sieur de Monts decided to go in quest
of a place better adapted for an abode, and with better temperature than
our own. With this view, he had the barque made ready in which he had pro-
posed to go to Gaspé.
Chapters VII, VIII., IX. deal with a voyage made by de Monts,
Champlain and others, as far as Cape Cod. They started June 18,
and returned August 2.
[95] L’HABITATION QUI ESTOIT EN L'ISLE DE S. Croix transportée au
port Royal, & pourquoy.
CHAPITRE X.
E sieur de Mons se delibera de changer de lieu & faire vne autre habita-
tion pour esuiter aux froidures & mauuais yuer qu’auions eu en l’isle
saincte Croix. N’ayant trouué aucun port qui nous fut propre pour lors, & le
peu de temps que nous auions à nous loger & bastir des maisons à cest effect,
172 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
nous fit equipper deux barques, que l’on chargea de la charpenterie des mai-
sons de saincte Croix, pour la porter au port Royal, à 25 lieues de la, où l’on
iugeoit y estre la demeure beaucoup plus douce & temperée. Le Pont & moy
partismes pour y aller; où estans arriuez cerchasmes vn lieu propre pour la
situation de nostre logement [96] & Al’abry du norouest, que nous redoutions
pour en auoir esté fort tourmentez.
TRANSLATION.
CEPAIEMTER EX
The Duwelling-place on the Island of St. Croix transferred to Port Royal, and the
reason why.
Sieur de Monts determined to change his location, and make another set-
tlement, in order to avoid the severe cold and the bad winter which we had
in the Island of St. Croix. As we had not, up to that time, found any suitable
harbour, and, in view of the short time we had for building houses in which
to establish ourselves, we fitted out two barques, and loaded them with the
framework taken from the houses of St. Croix, in order to transport it to
Port Royal, twenty-five leagues distant,where we thought the climate was
much more temperate and agreeable. Pont Gravé and I set out for that
place; and, having arrived, we looked for a site favourable for our residence,
under shelter from the northwest wind, which we dreaded, having been very
much harrassed by it.
Such is the history of de Monts’ unhappy colony on St. Croix
Island, as told in the matter-of-fact language of an eye-witness, the
great Champlain. There exists also another much briefer account,
possibly also by him, which supplies some additional details, that in
Le Mercure François for 1608 (11. 294-295), which reads as follows :—
Le septiesme de Mars l’an 1604. le sieur de Monts partit auec deux nauires
du Haure de Grace, pour y commencer ladite habitation, & y demeurer en
Hyuer. Arrivé qu’il y fut apres auoir eu plusieurs tourmentes sur mer, il
dressa sa premiere habitation en la riuiere de Canada, dans l'Isle de S. Croix,
ou il feit vn fort qu’il garnit de canon, & de plusieurs bastiments de charpen-
terie: Il y en aucuns qui se cabannerent à la mode des Sauuages: Bref ils des-
fricherent l’Isle, recogneurent quelques lieux és enuirons, où ils semerent des
grains, & mirent le meilleur ordre qu’ils peurent pour y hyuerner: cependant
que le sieur de Poitrincourt qui l’auoit accompagné en ce voyage, s’en retourna
en France auec les deux nauires, qui emporterent plusieurs balles de Castors
& autres marchandises de pelletrie.
L’Hyuer venir, qui est tres-rigoureux en ce pays-la, ces nouueaux habi-
tans en receurent de grandes incommoditez, premierement de bois, & d’eau
douce, n’ayans qu’vn seul bateau pour passer la grande riuiere & en aller
querir, car leur barque n’estoit raccommodee: puis ce fut pitié pour les gelees
& neiges, qui y furent si grandes, que le cidre gela dans les tonneaux, & le
vin ne s’y distribuoit plus que par certains iours de la sepmaine: plusieurs
qui beurent de l’eau de neige deuindrent incontinent malades de maladies
incogneués en l’Europe, pareilles à celles qu’eurent ceux qui y accompagne-
rent autresfois Iacques Quartier: Les iambes leur deuenoient premierement
grosses & enflees, les nerfs retirez & noircis, puis la maladie leur montoit aux
[GANONG ] DOCHET (ST. CROIX) ISLAND 173
hanches, cuisses, espaules, aux bras & au col; la bouche leur deuenoit si
infecte d’vne chair pourrie laquelle y surabondoit & renaissoit du iour au
lendemain quand on la pensoit enleuer, qu’en peu de tenps trente-six en
moururent: Il y en eut quarante ou enuiron lesquels en guerirent quand le
Printemps fut reuenu.
L’Hyuer passé, le sieur des Monts fit equipper la barque pour aller des-
couvrir nouuelles terres où l’habitation peust estre plus saine qu'à S. Croix:
il costoya plusieurs pays iusques à Malebarre, mais n'ayant trouué le lieu
propre il s’en reuint à sa premiere habitation, attendant quelque nauire pours
s’en retourner en France. Comme il estoit en ces termes, arriua le sieur du
Pont-Graué de Honfleur auec vne compagnie de quelques quarante hommes
pour le secourir: Ceste venué fit qu'ils aduiserent ensemble d’aller faire la
demeure à vn Port que le sieur de Poitrincourt auoit demandé audit sieur de
Monts pour y habiter à leur retour; & l’auoit appellé le Port-Royal, qui est
dans la Baye Francoise.
Ceste resolution prise, chacun desfaict son logis: on transporte tout à la
nouuelle habitation.
TRANSLATION.
On the seventeenth of March in the year 1604, Sieur de Monts set out with
two vessels from Havre de Grace to commence there the aforementioned
settlement, and to winter there. Having arrived there after experiencing
several storms at sea, he established his first settlement in the river of
Canada? on the Isle St. Croix, where he built a fort which he provided with
cannon, and with several framed buildings. Some constructed huts for them-
selves after the Indian manner. In short, they cleared the island, explored
several places in its neighbourhood, where they sowed seeds, and placed
everything in the best order they could for passing the winter. Meanwhile
the Sieur de Poutrincourt who had accompanied him in this voyage, returned
to France with the two ships which carried several bales of beaver and other
kinds of fur.
The winter, which is very severe in that country, having set in, these new
settlers suffered great hardships, especially for want of wood and fresh
water, as they had but a single boat for passing the great river in search of
these things, for their barque was not in repair. Then it was pitiful, for the
ice and snow were so great there that the cider froze in the casks, and the
wine was served only on certain days of the week. Many who drank of the
snow water fell suddenly ill of diseases unknown in Europe, similar to those
which they had who formerly accompanied Jacques Cartier. First their legs
became thick and swollen, the muscles shrunken and black; then the disease
crept up to the hips, thighs and shoulders, to the arms and neck; their mouths
became so charged with rotten flesh which spread all over and grew afresh
between night and morning when it was sought to remove it, that in a short
time thirty-six of them died of it. There were about forty men who were
cured of it when Spring returned.
The winter being over, Sieur de Monts fitted out the barque to go to seek
new lands where a settlement would be more healthful than at St. Croix.
* This is an expression I do not understand, for the “ River of Canada”’
mes the St. Lawrence. Champlain could hardly have made such a mistake,
which is evidence against his authorship of this account.
174 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
He coasted past several countries as far as Malebarre, but not finding a fit-
ting place, he returned to his first settlement expecting some ship in which
to return to France, Whilst he was in this position, the Sieur de Pont-Gravé
of Honfleur, with a company of some forty men, arrived to aid him. On his
arrival they considered together. This decided them to settle at a Port which
the Sieur de Pontrincourt had asked of the said Sieur de Monts to settle on
his return; he had called it Port Royal, and it is in the Baye Francaise [Bay
of Fundy].
This determined upon, each one took down his house, and all were trans-
ported to the new settlement.
There is, happily, yet another contemporary account of these
events, that by the historian Lescarbot, who, though not himself a
witness of them, spent two winters at Port Royal, 1606-1608, with
many of those, including Champlain, who had been at St. Croix
Island with de Monts. Doubtless the events of that first winter were
often discussed around the fires at Port Royal during the long winter
evenings, and Lescarbot’s ready note-book must have been often in
use. Lescarbot’s narrative shows more liveliness and imagination
than Champlain’s, and contains many facts not in the latter’s works.
The parts relating to our present subject, as given in the 1612 edition
of his History, read thus :1—
CHAP, ITU.
[4607 <> dla vindrent MEN vne grande riviere (qui est proprement mer)
où ilz se camperent en vne petite ile size au milieu de cette riviere, que ledit
sieur Champlein avoit esté reconoitre. Et la voyant forte de nature, [461] &
de facile garde, joint que la saison commencoit à se passer, & partant falloit
penser de se loger, sans plus courir, ilz resolurent ide s’y arréter. Ie ne veux
point rechercher curieusement les raisons des vns & des autres sur la reso-
lution de cette demeure, mais je seray toujours d’avis que quiconque va en vn
païs pour posseder la terre ne s’arréte point aux iles pour y estre prisonnier.
Car avant toutes choses il faut se proposer la culture d’icelle terre. Et je
demanderois volontiers comme on la cultiuera s’il faut a toute heure, matin,
midi & soir passer avec grand’peine vn large trajet d’eau pour aller aux
choses qu'on requiert de la terre ferme? Et si on craint l’ennemi, comment se
sauvera celui qui sera au labourage ou ailleurs en affaires necessaires, estant
poursuivi? car on ne trouve point toujours de bateau à point nommé, ni deux
hommes pour le conduire. D’ailleurs notre vie ayant besoin de plusieurs com-
modités, vne ile n’est pas propre pour commencer l’établissement d’vne colonie
s’il n’y a des courans d’eau douce pour le boire, & le menage, ce qui n’est
point en des petites iles. Il faut du bois pour le chauffage: ce qui n’y est
point semblablement. Mais sur tout il faut avoir les abris des mauvais vents,
& des froidures: ce qui est difficile de trouver en vn petit espace environné
d’eau de toutes parts. Neantmoins la compagnie s’arréta là au milieu d’vne
1 The following passages from Lescarbot agree in all essentials with the
1612 edition, as kindly corrected for me by Mr. Paltsits ; but they differ in.
some details of typography which could not be exactly rendered by the
modern type. i
[GANONG] DOCHET (ST. CROIX) ISLAND 175
riviere large où le vent de Nort & de Norouést bat à plaisir. Er d'autant
qu’à deux lieuës au dessus il y a des ruisseaux qui viennent comme en croix
se déchar[462]ger dans ce large bras de mer, cette ile de la retraite des Fran-
cois fut appelée SAINCTE CROIX, à vingt-cinq lieués plus loin que le Port-Royal.
Or ce-pendant qu'on commencera à couper & abbatre les Cedres & autres
arbres de ladite ile pour faire les batiments necessaires, retournons chercher
Maistre Nicolas ‘Aubri, perdu dans les bois, lequel on tient pour mort il
y a long temps.
Comme on estoit apres à deserter l'ile, le sieur Champ-doré fut r’envoyé
à la Baye Saincte Marie avec vn maitre de mines qu’on y avoit mené pour
tirer de la mine d’argent & de fer: ce qu’ilz firent. AA rch Reming ate
[463] . . . . Le pauvre Aubri . . . . estoit merveilleusement extenué,
comme on peut penser. On lui bailla à manger par mesure, & le remena-ou
vers le troupe à Vile Saincte Croix, dont chacun receut vne incroyable joye
& consolation, & particulierement le sieur de Monts, à qui cela touchoit plus
qu'à tout autre.
.
[466] Or apres qu’on l’eut fétoyé & sejourné encore par quelque temps à
ordonner les affaires, & reconoitre la terre des environs l'ile Saincte Croix,
en parla de r’envoyer les navires en France avant l’hivet, & à tant se dis-
poserent au retour ceux qui n’estoient allez 14 pour hiverner. Ce-pendant les
Sauvages de tous les environs venoient pour voir le train des Francois, & se
rengeoient volontiers aupres d'eux: mémes en certains differens faisoient le
sieur de Monts juge de leurs debats, qui est vn commencement de sujection
volontaire, d’où on peut concevoir vne esperance que ces peuples se rangeront
bien tot à nôtre façon de vivre. ;
[467] Entre autres choses survenuës avant le partement desdits navires,
avint vn jour qu’vn Sauvage nommé Bituani trouvant bonne la cuisine dudit
sieur de Monts, s’y estoit arrété, & y rendoit quelque service: & neantmoins
faisoit l’amour à vne fille pour l'avoir en mariage, laquelle ne pouvant avoir
de gré & du consentement du pere, il la ravit, & la.print pour femme. La
dessus grosse querelle. Et en fin la fille lui est enlevée, & retourne avec
son pere. Vn grand debat se preparoit, n’eust esté qui Bituani s’estant plaint
de cette injure audit sieur de Monts, les autres vindrent defendre leur cause,
disans, à scavoir le pere assisté de ses amis, qu'il ne vouloit point bailler
sa fille à vn homme qui n’eust quelque industrie pour nourrir elle & les
enfants qui proviendroient du mariage: Que quant à lui il ne voyoit point
qu'il sceut rien faire: Qu'il s’amusoit à la cuisine de lui sieur de Monts,
& ne s’exercoit point à chasser. Somme qu'il n’auroit point la fille, &
devoit se contenter de ce qui s’estoit passé. Ledit sieur de Monts les ayant
ouys il leur remontra qu'il ne le detenoit point, & qu’il estoit gentil garçon,
& qu'il iroit à la chasse pour donner preuve de ce qu'il scavoit faire. Mais
pour tout cela, si ne voulurent-ilz point lui rendre la fille qu’il n’eust montré
par effet ce que ledit sieur de Monts promettoit. Bref il va à la chasse
(du poisson) prent force saumons: La fille lui est renduë, & le lendemain
il vint revétu d’vn beau manteau de castors tout neuf bien orné de Matachiaz,
au Fort qu’on [468] commencoit à batir pour les Francois, amenant sa femme
quant & lui, comme triomphant & victorieux, l’ayant gaignée de bonne
guerre: laquelie il a toujours depuis fort aimée par dessus la coutume des
autres Sauvages: donnant à entendre que ce qu’on acquiert avec peine on
le doit bien cherir.
176 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
[468, i.e., 469] Description de l'Ile Saincte Croix: Enterprise du sieur de Monts
difficile, & genereuse : et persecutée d’envies. Retour du sieur de Poutrincourt
en France :
CHAP. V.
l'ile de saincte Croix est difficile à trouver à qui n’y a esté. Car il y a
tant diles & de grandes bayes à passer devant qu'on y soit, que ie
m’etonne comme on avoit penetré si avant pour l’aller trouver. Ilya
trois ou quatre montagnes eminentes par dessus les autres aux côtez :
mais de la part du Nort d’où descend la riviere, il n’y en a sinon vne pointuë
eloignée de plus de deux lieuës. Les bois de la terre ferme sont beaux &'
relevez par admiration & les herbages semblablement. Il y a des ruis-
seaux d'eau douce tres-agreables vis à-vis de l’ile, où plusieurs des gens du
sieur de Monts faisoient leur menage, & y avoient cabanné. Quant à la nature
de la terre, elle est tresbonne et heureusement abondante. Car ledit sieur de
Monts y ayant fait cultiver quelque quartier de terre, & icelui ensemencé de
segle (ie n’y ay point veu du froment), il n’eut moyen d’attendre la maturité
dicelui, pour le recueillir: & neantmoins le grain tombé a sur[470Jcreu &
rejetté si merveilleusement, que deux ans apres nous en recueillimes d’aussi
beau, gros, & pesant qu’il y en ait point en France, que la terre avoit produit
sans culture: & de present il continué à repulluler tous les ans. Ladite ile ha
environ demi lieué de tour, & au bout du coté de la mer il y a vn tertre, &
comme vne ilot separé où estoit placé le canon dudit sieur de Monts, & la
aussi est la petite chappelle batie à la Sauvage. Au pied d’icelle il y a des
moules tant que c’est merveilles, lesquelles on peut amasser de basse mer,
mais elles sont petites. Je croy que les gens dudit sieur de Monts ne s’oublie-
rent point à prendre les plus grosses, & n'y laisserent que la semence &
menué generation. Or quant à ce qui est de l’exercise & occupation de noz
Francois, durant le temps qu'ils ont esté là, nous le toucherons sommaire-
ment apres que nous aurons reconduit les navires en France.
Les navires du sieur de Monts retournans en France, [471] le
voila demeuré en vn triste lieu avec vn bateau & vne barque tant seulement.
[472] . . . . Le sieur de Poutrincourt avoit fait le voyage par dela avec
quelques hommes de mise, non pour y hiverner, mais comme pour y aller
marquer son logis, & reconoitre vne terre qui lui fust agreable. Ce qu’ayant
fait, il n’avoit besoin d’y sejourner plus long temps. Par ainsi les navires
estans prets a partir pour le retour, il se mit & ceux de sa compagnie dedans
D re a que parler du retour des navires en France, il nous faut dire que
l’vn d’iceux. 3. iy /
[474] . . . . ayant le dit sieur de Poutrincourt laissé ses armes & muni-
tions de guerre en l'ile saincte Croix en la garde dudit sieur de Monts, comme
vn arre & gage de la bonne volonté qu'il avoit d’y retourner.
[475] Batimens de Vile Saincte Croix : Incommoditez des Francois audit lieu :
Maladies inconeués.
CHAP VI.
Fort lequel il avoit assis au bout de l'ile à l’opposite du lieu où nous
avons dit qu’il avoit logé son canon. Ce qui estoit prudemment consi-
deré, à fin de tenir toute la riviere sujete en haut & en bas. Mais il y
avoit vn mal que ledit Fort estoit du côté du Nort, & sans [476] aucun abri,
P ENDANT la navigation susdite le sieur de Monts faisoit travailler à son
[canona] DOCHET (ST. CROIX) ISLAND 177
fors que des arbres qui estoient sur la rive de l’ile, lesquels tout a l’environ il
avoit defendu d’abattre. Et hors icelui Fort il y avoit le logis des Suisses
grand & ample, & autres petits representans comme yn faux-bourg. Quel-
ques-vns s’estoient cabannés en la terre ferme pres le ruisseau. Mais dans
le Fort estoient le logis dudit sieur de Monts fait d’vne belle & artificielle
charpenterie, avec la banniere de France au dessus. D’vne autre part estoit
le magazin, ot reposoit le salut & la vie d’vn chacun, fait semblablement de
belle charpenterie, & couvert de bardeaux. Et vis à vis du magazin estoient
les logis & maisons des sieurs d’Orville, Chanplein, Champ-doré, & autres
notables personages, A l’opposite dulogis dudit sieur de Monts estoit vne gal-
lerie couverte pour l’exercice soit du jeu ou des ouvriers en temps de pluie.
Et entre ledit Fort & la Plateforme où estoit le canon, tout estoit rempli de
jardinages, à quoy chacun s’exerçoit de gaieté de cœur. Tout l’automne se
passa à ceci: & ne fut pas mal allé de s’estre logé & avoir defriché l'ile avant
l'hiver, tandis que pardeca on faisoit courir les levrets souz le nom de maitre
Guillaume, farcis de toutes sortes de nouvelles : par lesquels entre autres
choses ce pronostiqueur disoit que le sieur de Monts arrachoit des épines en
Canada. Et quand tout est bien consideré, c’est bien vrayment arracher des
épines que de faire de telles entreprises remplies de fatigues & perils con-
tinuels, de soins, d’angoisse, & d’incommoditez. Mais la vertu & le cou[477]-
rage qui dompte toutes ces choses fait que ces épines ne sont qu’eillets &
roses à ceux qui se resolvent à ces actions héroiques pour se rendre recom-
mandables à la memoire des hommes, & ferment les yeux aux plaisirs des
douillets qui ne sont bons qu'à garder la chambre.
Les choses plus necessaires estant faites, & le pere grisart, e’est a dire
l'hiver, estant venu, force fut de garder la maison, & vivre vn chacun chez
soy. Durant lequel temps nos gens eurent trois incommoditez principales en
cette ile, à-sçavoir faute de bois (car ce qui estoit en ladite ile avoit servi
aux batimens) faut d’eau douce, & le guet qu’on faisoit de nuit craignant
quelque surprise des Sauvages qui estoient cabanés au pied de ladite ile, ou
autre ennemi. Car la malediction & rage de beaucoup de Crétiens est telle,
qu'il se faut plus donner garde d'eux, que des peuples infideles. Chose que
ie dis à regret: mais à la mienne volonté que ie fusse menteur en ce regard,
& que le sujet de le dire fust 6té. Or quand il falloit avoir de l’eau ou du
bois on estoit contraint de passer la riviere qui est plus de trois fois aussi
large que la Seine de chacun côté. C’estoit chose penible & de longue haleine.
De sort qu’il falloit retenir le bateau bien souvent vn jour devant que le pou-
voir obtenir. La-dessus les froidures & neges arrivent & la gelée si forte que
le cidre estoit glacé dans les tonneaux, & falloit à chacun baillér sa mesure
au poids. Quant au vin il n’estoit distribué que par certains jours de la
semaine. Plusieurs paresseux buvoient de l’eau de nege, sans pren[478]dre le
peine de passer la riviere. Bref voici des maladies inconeués semblables à
celles que le Capitaine Iacques Quartier nous a reprenentées ci-dessus, les-
quelles pour cette cause ie ne decriray pas, pour ne faire vne repetition vaine.
De remede il ne s’en trouvoit point. Tandis les pauvres malades languis-
soient, se comsommans peu à peu, n’ayans aucune douceur comme de laictage
cu bouillie, pour sustenter cet estomach qui ne pouvoit recevoir les viandes
solides, à-cause de l’empechement d’vne chair pourrie qui croissoit & surabon-
doit dans la bouche, & quand on le pensoit enlever elle renaissoit du jour au
lendemain plus abondamment que devant. Quant à l’Arbre Annedda duquel
ledit Quartier fait mention, les Sauvages de ces terres ne le conoissent point.
178 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Si bien que c’estoit grande pitié de voir tout le monde en langueur, excepté
bien peu, les pauvres malades mourir tous vifs sans pouvoir estre secourus.
De cette maladie il y en mourut trente-six, & autres trente-six, ou quarante,
qui en estoient touchez guerirent à l’aide du printemps si-tot qu'il fust venu.
Mais la saison de mortalité en icelle maladie sont la fin de Ianvier, le mois
de Fevrier & Mars, ausquels meurent ordinairement les malades chacun a
son rang selon qu’ils ont commencé de bonne heure à estre indisposez: de
maniere que celui qui commencera sa maladie en Fevrier & Mars pourra
échapper: mais qui se hatera trop, & voudra se mettre au lict en Decembre &
lanvier il sera en danger de mourir en Fevrier, Mars, ou au commencement
[479] d’Avril, lequel temps passé il est en esperance & comme en asseurance
de salut.
[456]
A saison dure estant passée, le sieur de Monts, ennuié de cette triste
demeure de Saincte Croix, delibera de chercher vn autre port en pais
plus chaud & plus au Su:
[499] . . . . Et à-tant ledit sieur de Monts fit appareiller pour retour-
ner à saincte Croix, où il avoit laissé vn bon nombre de ses gens encore
infirmes de la secousse des maladies hivernales, de la santé desquels il estoit
SOUCICUR. CNE Rete
[501] Arrivée du sieur du Pont à Vile saincte Croix: Habitation transferée au
Port Royal:
CHAP VILL,
Monts attendit à Saincte Croix le temps qu'il avoit convenu: dans
lequel s’il n’avoit nouvelles de France il pourroit partir & venir cher-
cher quelque vaisseau de ceux qui viennent à la Terreneuve pour la
pécherie du poisson, à fin de repasser en France dans icelui avec sa
trouppe, s’il estoit possible. Ces temps dés-ja estoit expiré, & estoient prets
à faire voile, n’attendans plus aucun secours ni rafraichissemens, quand
voici arriver le sieur du Pont, surnommé Gravé, demeurant à Honfleur, avec
vne compagnie de quelques quarante hommes, pour relever de sentinelle
ledit sieur de Monts & sa troupe. Ce fut au grand contentement d’vn chacun,
comme l’on peut penser: & canonnades ne manquerent à l’abord, selon la
coutume, ni l'éclat des trompetes. Ledit sieur du [502] Pont ne Scachant
encore l’état de noz Francois, pensoit trouver là vne demeure bien asseurée,
& ses logemens prets: mais attendu les accidens de la maladie étrange dont
nous avons parlé, il fut avisé de changer le lieu. Le sieur de Monts eust bien
desiré que l’habitation nouvelle eust esté comme par les quarante degrez sca-
voir à six degrez plus au Midi que le lieu de Saincte Croix: mais apres avoir
veu la côte jusques à Malebarre, & avec beaucoup de peines, sans trouver ce
qu’il desiroit, on delibera d’aller au Port Royal faire la demeure, attendant
qu’il y eust moyen de faire plus ample decouverte. Ainsi voila chacun em-
besoigné a trousser son pacquet: on demolit ce qu’on avoit bati avec mille
travaux, hors-mis le magazin, qui estoit vne piece trop grande à transporter,
& en execution de ceci plusieurs voyages se font. Tout estant arrivé au
Port-Royal.
| A saison du printemps passée au voyage des Armouchiquois, le sieur de
[aaxoxc] DOCHE! (ST. CROIX) ISLAND 179
TPANSLATION.
Discription of wie '.) =. ,Lsle.Saincte Croir 2 * . Disputes among the
Indians referred io the decision of Sieur de Monts.
CHAPTER Tin.
they came . . . . into a large river, (which is properly a part of
the sea), where they encamped on a little island in the middle of the river
which the said Sieur de Champlain had been to reconnoitre.! And seeing it
naturally strong and easy of defense, besides the season was slipping away
so that it was time to think of lodging themselves, without going farther they
resolved to stop there. I do not wish to inquire too closely into the various
reasons for the decision as to this dwelling, but I shall always be of the
opinion that whosever goes to a country to take possession of it should not
make themselves prisoners upon islands.”
For, before everything else, the cultivation of the land must be regarded.
And I would fain ask how one will cultivate it if he must at all hours, morn-
ing, noon and night, cross with much trouble a large passage of water to go
for the things one requires from the mainland. And if one fears the enemy,
how will he be saved if working in the fields or at other necessary work he
is pursued? For one does not always find a boat in time of need nor two men
ready to manage it. Further, our life having need of many comforts, an
island is not good for commencing a colony if there is not running fresh water
for drinking and household needs, something which is not found in little
islands. Wood is needed for fuel, which likewise is not there. But above
everything there is needed protection from the violent winds and the cold,
which it is hard to find on a little island totally surrounded by water.’ Never-
1 This seems to imply that Champlain discovered the island when unac-
companied by de Monts. This is more explicitly stated by Charlevoix in his
History of New France (Shea’s Translation, I., 252), where he tells of Cham-
plain exploring the coast in a sloop and pushing on to the Island, where,
‘M. de Monts arriving soon after,” etc. Charlevoix in 1744, as his references .
show, had no source of information on this subject not open to us now, so
that his statement doubtless rests upon this passage in Lescarbot. The entire
narrative of Champlain shows, however, that he and de Monts were together
on this voyage, and if Lescarbot really means that Champlain discovered the
island, it must be that he found it while exploring in the small boat while de
Monts in the barque was exploring some other part of the immediate neigh-
bourhood, perhaps the Magaguadavic or other part of Passamaquoddy Bay.
In this connection the Indian legends given on a later page (page 189) may be
noted; it is possible that de Monts was erecting a cross at the mouth of the
Magaguadavic, while Champlain, to save time, explored beyond in the smaller
boat, and found this river and island.
2 This idea is also expressed by Sir William Alexander in his ‘‘ Encourage-
ment to Colonies,” 1624, when he says, referring to this settlement,—‘ in the
end finding that a little Ile was but a kind of large prison.’’
5 These arguments against settling on islands are sound, but how much
easier it is to be wise after than before the event! It is reasonably certain
that had Lescarbot been with de Monts in 1604, he too would have been con-
vinced from the data at his command (on which compare earlier, page 141)
Sec. II., 1902. 12.
180 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
theless the company stopped there in the middle of a big river where the
north and northwest winds sweep at their will. And since two leagues above
there are rivers which form a cross at their discharge into this large arm of
the sea, this island of the refuge of the French was called Saincte Croix;' it is
twenty-five leagues beyond Port Royal.
Now whilst they began to cut and fell the cedars and other trees of the
said island in order to construct the necessary buildings, let us return to
seek Master Nicolas Aubri, who had been lost in the woods, and long since
believed to be dead.*
When the island was being cleared, the sieur Champdoré was sent to
St. Marys Bay with a mining expert who had been brought with them to
take samples from the mine of silver and iron, which they did. :
The poor Aubri was wonderfully wasted, as one would suppose.
They gave him food by degrees, and took him to the company at Isle St.
Croix, whence everyone was completely overjoyed and relieved, and parti-
cularly the Sieur de Monts, who was touched by this as by nothing else. .
Now afiter having feasted him* and remained some time to arrange mat-
ters and to explore the country around Isle Saincte Croix, they spoke of send-
ing the ships back to France before the winter and at the same time arranged
for the return of those who had mot come there tio winter.’ In the meantime
the Indians from all the neighbourhood came to see the outfit of the French,
and placed themselves voluntarily near them; even in certain disputes mak-
ing the sieur de Monts judge of their discussions, which is a commencement
of a voluntary submission from which one may take hope that these people
will adopt entirely our mode of life.
Amongst other things which happened before the departure of the vessels,
it came about one day that an Indian named Bituani, who had found the
kitchen of Sieur de Monts attractive, and had established himself there,
rendering some service, in the meantime made love to a girl with a view
of having her in Serpe Soe but ie wbeing able to bring this about with the
that the island was a suitable site for a settlement. It must be remembered
that it was only after experiencing the winter of 1604-1605 that its disadvan-
tages as a site of a settlement were, or could be, known.
1 Had we not this statement of Lescarbot the origin of the name Sainte
Croix applied to this island would have remained uncertain, but with it there
is no doubt. (Compare earlier, page 144.)
2 The priest (as Champlain says he was), who was lost at St. Mary’s
Bay some two weeks earlier, as related both by Champlain and Lescarbot.
He was found by Champdoré on his arrival at St. Mary’s Bay.
3 Evidently this was the same expedition mentioned by Champlain, when
he says that de Monts sent the barque to notify the remainder of the party
who were in St. Mary’s Bay, etc. (Compare earlier, page 165.)
# Viz., Nicholas Aubri.
5 Sieur de Poutrincourt and others.
5 They encamped apparently at the foot of the island, (later, page 182),
and for them doubtless the chapel, built after the Indian fashion, (Fig. 8, 14),
was intended (compare later note 4, page 182). Indian relics have been
faund on the island, notably a number of wampum beads, now in possession
of Rev. Jos. Lee, of Red Beach, Maine.
[aANONG] DOCHET (ST. CROIX) ISLAND 181
liking and consent of her father, he ravished her and took her to wife.
Then ensued a great quarrel. Finally the girl is taken away from him and
returned to her father. A great debate impended, had it not been that the
said Bituani having complained of this injury to the Sieur de Monts, the
others came to defend their cause, saying, that is the father assisted by his
friends, that he would not entrust his daughter to a man who had not the
industry to support her and the children which would result from the mar-
riage. That as to him [Bituani] he saw nothing that he could do, that he
loitered about the kitchen of the Sieur de Monts, and did not exert himself
in hunting, and finally that he should not have the girl, and ought to be
satitsfied with that which was past. The Sieur de Monts having heard
both parties, remarked that he did not detain him [Bituani], that he was
a good youth and should go a hunting to show what he could do. But for
all that they would not restore the maid to him until he had shown in fact
that which the Sieur de Monts had promised for him. Finally he went a
fishing, and took a great haul of salmon. The girl is returned to him, and
the next day following he came, clothed in a beautiful new robe of beaver
skins, very well ornamented with wampum, to the fort which was then a
building for the Frenchmen, bringing his wife with him as triumphing in
his victory, having gained her in fair fight. He has ever since loved her
well, contrary to the Indian custom, giving us to understand that what is
acquired with trouble ought to be much cherished.’
CHAPTER V.
Description of Isle Saincte Croix. Enterprise of the Sieur de Monts, difficult and
public-spirited, but persecuted by envy : Return of the Sieur de Poutrincourt to France.
Before speaking of the return of the ships to France, it should be said
that the Isle St. Croix is hard to find for one who has not been there, for
there are sO many islands and bays to pass before one gets there that I am
astonished how they penetrated so far to find it. There are three or four
mountains prominent above the others on the banks, but on the north from
which the river descends there is nothing but a sharp pointed one over two
leagues distant.* The woods of the mainland are fair and admirable, and the
grass is the same. Tihere are two very pleasing streams of fresh water oppo-
site the island, where several of the men of Sieur de Monts did their house-
keeping, and had built huts there? As to the nature of the land, it is very
1 These mountains are evidently the loftier ones along the Canadian shore
(Fig. 2), Chamcook and Greenlaw, with McLaughlans, Simpsons and Leigh-
tons. The sharp pointed one two leagues distant is plainly on Cooksons Island
in Oak Bay, and his special reason for mentioning it in this way is no doubt
to show how unprotected was the island from the north winds.
* One would think he referred here to the two streams at Red Beach,
Beaver Lake Brook and Lows Brook (Fig. 2), were it not that Champlain’s
map (Fig. 8) marks a camp or cabin beside the gardens at Johnsons Cove on
the Canadian shore, implying that this was one of the two, and Beaver Lake
Brook the other, The former stream is, however, at present extremely small,
little more than a swale, running only in times of much rain. In the wooded
condition of the country it may then have been more constant. Lescarbot
(see later, page 83), implies that some of the men took up their abode on the
mainland.
182 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
good, and gratifyingly productive. For the sieur de Monts having had a cer-
tain piece of land there’ eultivated and sown with rye (I have not seen any
wheat there), he was not able to await its ripening before gathering it, but
nevertheless the grain grew to excess, and reproduced so wonderfully that
two years’ afterwards we gathered it as fine, large and heavy as it ever is in
France which the land had produced without cultivation, and at present it
continues to multiply every year. The said island is about a half league in
circuit, and at the end of it, on the sea side, there is a hillock, as it were a
separated islet,* where the Sieur de Monts placed his cannon, and there also
is the little chapel built after the Indian fashion.* At its foot are shellfish so
many that it is wonderful, which are gathered at low water, but they are
small. I believe that the men of the Sieur de Monts were careful to take the
larger, leaving there the spawn and the smaller generation. Now as to the
activities and occupation of our Frenchmen whilst they were on the Island,
we shall give a summary after we have followed the ships back to France.
Tihe ships of Sieur de Monts returning to Franee left him there
in a desolate place with one boat and a barque only.®
* Apparently he is here referring to the land cultivated at the Falls of
River des Etchemins, 1.e., on the present site of Calais or St. Stephen, as men-
tioned by Champlain (earlier, page 168), though he may refer to the land culti-
vated near the camping place just mentioned, in which case it would be the
place at Johnsons Cove mentioned in Note 2 above.
? His visit to the Island two years later is described later in this paper,
page 192.
#5 Wrongly shown as connected with the main island on Champlain’s map
(Fig. 8) ; compare earlier, note 1, page 161.
* Lescarbot seems to imply that the chapel was on the islet with the can-
non, but Champlain’s map (Fig. 8) shows that this was not the case, and
probably Lescarbot means to say merely that it was at the same end of the
island as the islet. Another possible but less likely explanation is that the
chapel shown by Champlain on his map, was a more pretentious structure,
used by the French, and that there was another, merely a wigwam for the
Indians on the same islet with the cannon. It is furthermore possible that
the building shown on the plan of the settlement (Fig. 9) as attached to the
house of the priest was a chapel. In any case, there is surprisingly little
reference to the chapel, or to any religious matters, in the narratives, a fact
easily explained on reflection, since de Monts was a Protestant as were others
of his company, and they were accompanied both by a priest and a Protestant
minister. The silence of both Champlain and Lescarbot as to religious mat-
ters is due no doubt to the fact that Protestant influence was prominent in
the settlement, and they were writing in and for a country overwhelmingly
Roman Catholic. Compare also the incident later, on page Loi
5 On the shell fish, see earlier, page 140. This selection of the largest,
leaving the smallest to breed, here mentioned, represents the first attempts
at molluse culture in the New World, as pointed out in the Bulletin of the
Natural History Society of New Brunswick, No. VIII., page 16.
5 Presumably the barque was hauled from the water for the winter, leav-
ing them but the one small boat in which to bring wood and water from the
mainland. This is implied in a statement in Le Mercure Francois (see earlier
page 173).
[canonc] DOCHET (ST. CROIX) ISLAND 183
- . . . The Sieur de Poutrincourt had made the voyage there with some of
his own men, not to winter there, but in order to select a residence and to
explore out a pleasing place. This having been done, he had no need to
remain longer. Hence the vessels being ready to return, he embarked on one
of them with his retinue.
the Sieur de Poutrincourt having left his arms and munitions of war
on St. Croix Island in care of the sieur de Monts, as a pledge and guarantee
of his good intention to return there.
CHAPTER, Vi.
Buildings on St. Croix Island. Discomforts of the French at this place.
Unknown sickness.
During the voyage just described,’ the Sieur de Monts had work done on
his fort,? which he had placed at the end of the island at the end opposite to
the place where we have mentioned he placed his cannon. This had been
prudently considered in order to command all the river above and below. But
it was a fault that the fort was on the north side and without any shelter
except for the trees which were on the bank of the island all around which
he had forbidden to be cut down. And outside of the fort was the lodging of
the Swiss, large and spacious, and other small buildings like a fauxbourg [or
suburb].f Some had housed themselves on the main land near the brook. But
inside the fort was the residence of the said Sieur de Monts, built with beau-
tiful and artistic woodwork,’ with the banner of France above. In another
place was the storehouse, in which was the health and life of everybody,
built also of good woodwork, and covered with shingles. Opposite the store-
house were the dwellings of the Sieurs d’Orville, Champlain, Champdoré® and
other notable persons. Opposite the residence of the Sieur de Monts was a
covered gallery for exercise play or work in time of rain. And between the
said fort and the platform where were the cannon, all the space was occu-
1 That made by Champlain to the Kennebec (page 166).
? Champlain does not in his narrative speak of this place as a fort, but
his plan and the description here given by Lescarbot show that a part of the
settlement was included within a palisade, to which, no doubt, it was intended
the settlers could retreat from an enemy as to a citadel, abandoning the
remainder of the buildings. As the Indians were the only foe to be con-
sidered, however, a palisade between the buildings was sufficient. This fort
included apparently the dwelling of Sieur de Monts, the storehouse and the
general assembly house, between which buildings was a palisade (see the plan,
Fig. 9, and also 14).
3 Apparently Swiss workmen, possibly also soldiers.
* A suburb, 1.e., like the more open places with separated residences and
gardens on the outskirts of a city.
5 Of course brought from France, as was probably in part at least the
storehouse. The other buildings were probably simply log huts, while those
of the men appear to have been little better than Indian wigwams. Cham-
plain’s picture-plan of the settlement (Fig. 9) is obviously a good deal
idealized.
* Not quite correct ; compare Champlain’s plan (Fig. 9).
184 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
pied by gardens in which each one exercised himself with a happy heart.
Thus the autumn passed; and it was well for them to have lodged themselves,
and to have cleared the island before the winter; whilst in these parts pam-
phlets' were circulated under the name of Maitre Guillaume (Master Wil-
liam), stuffed with all kinds of news,” by the which, amongst other things, this
prophet said that Sieur de Monts did pull out ‘thorns in Canada.* And when all
is said it is very truly pulling out thorns in taking in hand such enterprises
full of continual perils and fatigues, of cares, anguish and discomforts. But
the virtue and the courage which subdues everything makes these thorns but
carnations and roses to those who are determined on heroic actions to com-
mend themselves to the memory of men, and close their eyes to the pleasures:
of those effeminates who are good only to guard the chamber.
The most needful things having been done, the hoary father, that is to
say, the winter, being come, made it necessary to keep to the house and
each to live at his own home. During this time our people suffered three
principal discomforts on the island, namely, lack of wood (for that which
was on the island had been used for the buildings), want of fresh water, and
the watching which was done at night through fear of some surprise by the
Indians who were encamped at the foot of the island, or some other enemy.
For the malediction and rage of many Christians is such that it is neces-
sary to guard against them more than against infidels. This is something I
say with regret, but I would that I lied in this regard and that I had no cause
to speak it.* Now, when it was necessary to have fresh water or wood one
had to pass the river which is more than thrice as large as the Seine on each
side. It is a painful and tedious business. So that it was needful to keep
the boat very often a whole day before obtaining the things needed Then
the cold and snow arrived, and the freezing was so strong that the cider was
frozen in the barrels, and it was necessary to portion out the share of each
one by weight. As for the wine, it was only served out on certain days of
the week. Many lazy fellows drank snow water without taking the trouble
to cross the river.® In brief here came a certain unknown sickness like to
those which Captain Jacques Cartier has described to us earlier, which for
+ Levrets, that is, livrets.
* This passage seems to show that the young gentlemen amused them-
selves in winter, as the men of arctic expeditions do to this day, by issuing
the equivalent of a newspaper, probably not printed but written out by
hand. What would not we collectors of local literature be tempted to give
for a complete set of the Master William, issued on Dochet Island in the winter
of 1604-1605 !
* An equivalent for our ‘“ draw the teeth,” viz., to subdue ?
* It is possible that Lescarbot here refers only to a possible attack by the
English or some other Christian enemy, but his language seems rather to
refer to some treachery or mutiny within the party itself, though there is no
cther evidence of such a thing. After all, though we know the main facts
about the settlement, we know little of the life of those seventy-seven men
during that winter on the Island.
° He must refer to a time When most of the men were incapacitated, and
the few who could do the work needed rest between their toilsome voyages.
* Showing bad discipline, and also implying a lack of concerted action in
obtaining water. It is quite probable that with a rigid discipline and com-
[GANONG ] DOCHET (ST. CROIX) ISLAND 185
this reason I shall not describe again, to avoid a vain repetition. No remedy
was found. Meanwhile the poor sick creatures languished, pining away little
by little, having no dainties such as milk or soups to sustain a stomach
which could not take solid food because of the growth of a hindrance of a
rotten flesh which grew and over-abounded in the mouth, and when one
thought to remove it, it grew in one night more abundantly than before, As
to the tree Anneda? of which the said Cartier makes mention, the Indians
in this region do not know it. It was indeed a great pity to see everybody
in decline except a very few,” and to see the poor invalids dying as it were
full of life without any possibility of help. Of this malady there died thirty-
six, and another thirty-six or forty who were affected improved by the help
of the spring as soon as it came. But the season of mortality in this disease
began the last of January, the months of February and March, when ordin-
arily they died in the order each in his turn according to whether they com-
menced early to be taken; so that he who began to be ill in February and
March could escape; but he who hastened too much and would take to his
bed in December and January, he was in danger of dying in February, March,
or the beginning of April, which time being passed he has a hope and
even an assurance of safety.
The hard season being passed, the sieur de Monts, wearied of his sad stay
on Isle St. Croix, considered hunting for another harbour in a warmer country
farther to the southward.
Ê And so the Sieur de Monts decided to return to St. Croix, where
he had left a goodly number of his men still weak from the effects of their
winter’s illness, for the safety of whom he was anxious.
CHAPTER VIII.
Arrival of the Sieur de Pont at Isle St. Croix. The Settlement removed to Port
Royal
The spring being passed in the voyage to the Armouchiquois,‘ the sieur de
Monts awaited at St. Croix the time he had decided in which if there was
no news from France he would set out to find some vessel of those which
come to Newfoundland for the fishery, in order to return in it to France with
his party if it were possible. This time had expired, and they were ready to
set sail, not expecting any aid or assistance, when the Sieur de Pont, sur-
named Gravé, resident of Honfleur, arrived with a company of some forty
men, to relieve the suspense of sieur de Monts and his party. This was to
the great satisfaction of everyone, as can readily be believed, and cannonading
was not wanting according to custom, nor the blaring of trumpets. The said
pulsory exercise, etc., the horrors of ithe scurvy would have been much
lessened, but it must be remembered that the subject was very little under-
stood at that time.
1 This tree, so called by the Indians at Quebec in 1535-1536, appeared to
heal Cartier’s party of the scurvy. Its identity is unknown, but it is gen-
erally supposed to have been some evergreen.
* On the identity of these few see earlier, note 3, page 170.
* After his voyage to Cape Cod, described in Lescarbot’s work.
* Indians of Massachusetts,
186 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
sieur de Pont not knowing the state of our French men thought to find there
a settlement quite assured, with buildings ready; but because of the accidents
of the strange malady of which we have spoken it was decided to change the
location. The Sieur de Monts had strongly desired that the new settlement
should be in forty degrees,’ that is to say six degrees nearer the Equator than
the situation of St. Croix; but after having seen the coast as far) as Male-
barre,? and with much care, without finding what he wanted, it was delib-
erated whether to go to Port Royal to make the settlement, awaiting the
means to make a more ample exploration. Thus each one busied himself to
pack up his baggage. They demolished that which they had built with a
thousand labours, except the store-house, which was a piece too large to
transport,’ and in accomplishing this several voyages were made. All having
arrived at Port Royal
Such are the original narratives of the first settlement on St. Croix
Island. They include the only extant original sources of information
upon the subject, and all later writers have derived their facts from
these alone. Since no one of the three is complete, but each supplies
something lacking in the others, it will be useful to bring together
here in synopsis the chief events of the settlement, forming a sort of
composite of the narratives.
On June 26 or 27, 1604, Sieur de Monts, accompanied by Sieur
de Champlain and a few men in a small barque, entered Passama-
quoddy Bay in search of a site for a. permanent settlement. The
party, or more probably the Sieur de Champlain exploring in advance
of the main party in a small boat, discovered the island which
de Monts named Sainte Croix, following a suggestion given him by
the curious cross-formed meeting of the waters above it. Finding :
the situation charming, and all the physical features of the island
favourable for settlement and defence against the Indians, and the
season growing late, they determined to establish themselves there.
They at once fortified a knoll or nubble at the south end of the island
as a temporary protection, while the barque was sent to the Bay of
St. Mary in Nova Scotia to bring up the vessel and the remainder of
the party. On the arrival of the latter, work was vigorously com-
menced upon clearing the island, erecting buildings, and making gar-
1 His charter gave him rights of settlement as far south as 40°, viz., to the
vicinity of the present City of Philadelphia. It is very surprising that he did
not find, in his search along the coast as far as Marthas Vineyard, any place
which seemed to him as favourable for settlement as Port Royal. The history
of New England would have been somewhat different for a time had he
found a site on Massachusetts Bay, or had he directed his voyage in 1604 to
latitude 40° instead of to Canso.
7 Cape Cod.
> Apparently all the good woodwork, especially that brought from France,
excepting that of the Magazine, was transported to Port Royal, while the
rougher log buildings were left behind. 7
[GANONG ] DOCHET (ST. CROIX) ISLAND 187
dens. The plan of the settlement was prepared by Champlain, and
is fully shown on a map and a picture-plan drawn by him (Figs. 8
and 9). It stood on the nearly level, elevated north end of the island
in a situation easy to recognize, though every trace of the settlement
has vanished. The principal buildings were the residence of the com-
mander, and a strongly built storehouse, the materials for both of
which had doubtless been chiefly, if not entirely, brought from France.
These two, together with a third building serving as a general assem-
bly house (and perhaps, too, as the general mess-room), were connected
with one another by palisades, the whole forming an efficient fort,
ample for protection against the Indians. Cannon were mounted also
north of the settlement, on the knoll at the foot of the island, and
on the bluff on the south east of the island. Near by were constructed
other buildings,— barracks for the Swiss mercenaries, dwellings for
the gentlemen and for the workmen, all of whom seggregated into
groups according to their rank and tastes. An oven house and a
kitchen were built, and a well was dug though it proved of slight
service; and a water-mill for grinding grain was started, but not com-
pleted, on the mainland. ‘lhe chapel was, seemingly, attached to the
house of the priest, and another, little more than a large wigwam, was
built near the foot of the island, probably for the use of the Indians,
some of whom encamped there. All of the buildings, except the
first mentioned, were doubtless built of logs, but with doors, windows
and chimneys brought from France, and it is likely that they were
badly built, as the carpenters must have been new to this kind of
construction. Gardens were laid out both among the dwellings, and
on the level ground southward of the settlement (Fig. 14), and also
on the mainland of both banks of the river and at the falls near the
present Calais and St. Stephen, and many grains and other seeds
were planted. In the autumn some of the party returned in the
vessels to France, leaving de Monts and some 76 men on the island.
The winter set in very early and proved exceptionally severe. The
cold north winds swept down the river, little broken in force by the
thin fringe of trees left around the island, and penetrated the
badly constructed dwellings, imperfectly heated by their charcoal fires,
or by their ravenous fireplaces for which little wood could be got.
Great quantities of ice formed in the river, so that it became very
difficult, and sometimes impossible, to fetch wood and water in their
small boat from the mainland, and for the same reason little fish or
other fresh food could be obtained. The men, weakened by the cold,
by labour on the hand mills and by watching against possible treachery
from the Indians, and, perhaps, from some among their own number,
with blood impoverished by the salt food, bad water and little exercise,
188 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
fell sick with the scurvy. ‘This soon got so far beyond the skill and
control of the surgeons, that nearly half of the men died, and most of
the remainder, all except a dozen of the most active persons, (probably
the gentlemen of the party who kept up health by active games, and
spirits by writing amusing pamphlets), were in various stages of ill-
ness. The care of the sick wore upon the well, and it was only the
return of spring which saved them from a lke illness and allowed
the sick to recover. So great were their sufferings that all became
utterly discontented with the place of settlement, and when the relief
ship arrived in the middle of June, she was hailed with the greatest
manifestations of joy, and it was resolved to abandon the place. The
settlement was then removed to Port Royal in Nova Scotia.
Before passing to the later history of the island, there are three
subjects connected with the first settlement worth a brief discussion,—
the exact date of the discovery of the island, the Indian traditions
as to the settlement, and a current misconception as to certain early
religious services on the island.
The date of the discovery of St. Croix Island is, unfortunately,
nowhere stated, nor is there any conclusive incidental evidence in the
narratives bearing on the subject. De Monts with his party left St.
Mary’s Bay on the 16th of June, and eight days later, on June 24th,
after exploring around the head of the Bay of Fundy, discovered the St.
John. They appear not to have remained long, and probably left on the
25th. Allowing for their slow progress in a small open barque, enter-
ing every harbour and promising place for a settlement, they could
hardly have reached St. Croix Island in less than two days, that is,
June 26th or 27th. ‘This is confirmed by certain other facts from the
narratives. Putting together the narratives of Champlain and Lescarbot,
we find that a barricade was immediately made on Isle St. Croix, after
its discovery, and as soon as it was finished, a messenger, Champdoré,
was sent in the barque to St. Mary’s Bay to bring up the vessels with
the rest of the party. On reaching St. Mary’s Bay they discovered
Nicolas Aubry, who had been lost in the woods for 16 or 17 days.
Now, he had been lost four days before June 16, that is June 12;
hence he must have been found on June 28 or 29. Now, as it must
have taken Champdoré a day to cross to St. Mary’s Bay, and the party
a day to erect the barricade, the island must have been discovered
at least two days before June 28 or 29, that is, on June 26 or 27.
We may imagine they left the St. John on the 25th, reached St. Croix
Island on the evening of the 26th, spent the 27th in erecting the
barricade, and sent Champdoré to St. Mary’s Bay on the 28th, on
which day or the next he discovered Aubry. We may thus best
[GANONG ] DOCHET (ST. CROIX) ISLAND 189
accept June 26 as the most probable date, with the 27th as a possible
alternative.
It will be of interest to inquire what traditions the Indians of
the region have as to the settlement, for not only will these be of
some interest in themselves, but, with our full knowledge of the real
discovery, they will afford a test of the accuracy of Indian tradition.
I have not made any attempt to obtain traditions which may still
exist among the Passamaquoddies, (not having thought of it when I
had the opportunity), but some information on the subject exists.
Thus, in 1796-1797, the testimony of certain Passamaquoddy Indians
was taken for the use of the Boundary Commission, later to be ex-
plained, and this testimony still exists in MSS. among the Commission’s
records, a set of which I have been privileged, through the generosity
of their present owner, Rey. Dr. Raymond, of St. John, to use. One
of the traditions, thus given by Francis Joseph, is as follows: —
That the French about four hundred years ago came to this part of the
Country with one vessel. That they first came to Head Harbour and Har-
bour Le Tang; and from thence went up the River Magaquadavic in a Boat,
where they saw some Indians—That not liking the Land they came down the
river, and erected a Cross at its mouth; and then returned to France. That
the next time the French came here in four Vessels and set down at an Island
near Devils head, where a Malady assailed them by drinking bad water; of
which a great number died and the rest returned to France.
Another Indian, Nicola Awawas, testified :—
that there was a fort on the great island—that he understood the French
first landed at—Megagwadavy and that they came to St. Andrew’s Point
and then they went to Muttanagwamis [Dochet], that the first time the
French came there were two vessels and one remained here, and when they
came again they found that all the men who remained had died and the
vessel which came the second time finding that all the men who had
remained were dead went away.
Again, a document, giving a summary of these traditions as
obtained from several Indians in 1796, is printed by Kilby in his
“Eastport and Passamaquoddy ” (page 114), from which the following
sentences are taken: —
That two or three hundred years ago the French came in three or four
ships to Passamaquoddy Bay, entered at the L’Etete Passage and erected a
cross at the entrance of the Magaguadavic River, upon Point Meagique, that
they soon after removed and erected a cross upon St. Andrews Point, on St.
Andrews day celebrated Mass there and gave it the name of St. Andrews;
that at the time the Indians were clothed in skins, which the French pur-
chased of them, and gave them in return knives, hatchets, and ruffled shirts,
that the French at their request set blacksmiths to work on board the ships,
and furnished them with such iron instruments as they described their want
190 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
of; that the French remained long enough to load the ships with furs and
then returned to France. That the next year they came again with four ships
and went to the small island at the mouth of the Scoudiac River,; that this
island was the place of resort for the Indians to deposit their articles both in
going up and coming down the Scoudiac River, and has a name describing
that as its use; that the French landed there and remained some months, but
finding that the water upon the island was not good, and had a poisonous
quality, and that a mortality as they supposed from that cause prevailed
among them, they went away; that at this time they did not traffic; that all
the adjacent country was full of Indians; that the French came to this small
island because they could there defend themselves; that they did not go to
any other island or remain on shore at any other place, from their fear of
the Indians, who were not willing that they should land upon the main, or
any large island, lest they should claim a right of possession. That this
island was larger than it now is, and that the sea has washed it away from
the rocks on the lower side. That the small hill or island towards the sea
had always remained distinct by itself, and the water on the inside and near
to it is very deep.
In further conversation they said that after erecting the cross at the
Magaguadavic, the French Priest went up to the forks of that river, and
there put some earth in his handkerchief, and said ‘‘this is the place.”’
Another tradition of about the same time (given in the “ Courier
Series,” No. XXIV.) states that the Indians used to lie in wait for
the French as they landed from the island.
These testimonies, in comparison with the known facts, do not
allow us to entertain a very high regard for the accuracy of Indian
tradition.. But it must be conceded that there is in them a certain
substratum of truth, and that probably they are less accurate than they
would be were 1t not for a confusion of several voyages in the minds
of the Indians. It is possible, for instance, that the visits of other early
French traders who entered this bay are here confused with those
ef de Monts, and it is probable that the tradition about the naming
of St. Andrews? may be substantially correct, though belonging to
a much later period.
We may next consider an erroneous supposition originated by
Willis in the “New England Historical and Genealogical Register,”
Vol. XV., 1861, 212, 213, that Protestant religious services, the first
held in North America north of Florida, were held on the island in
1604-1605. The evidence is based upon a combination of two
passages in Lescarbot’s History. One, (page 461 of the 1612 edition),
beginning “Je demanderois” (given earlier, page 174), Willis inter-
prets as a protest by Lescarbot against the settlement, whence he
infers that Lescarbot was at the island in 1604. But this is simply
a mistranslation of demanderois, which means simply “I would ask,”
1 Discussed in Acadiensis, II., 184.
[GANona] DOCHET (ST. CROIX) ISLAND 191
etc., and introduces a question, while the evidence is perfectly con-
clusive that Lescarbot was not in Acadia until two years later. Second,
Willis interprets a passage, on page 490 of the 1612 edition, in which
Lescarbot says he gave religious instruction to the people at the request
of Poutrincourt, as referring to St. Croix Island. But this, as the
context shows, although coming in a chapter describing events at St.
Croix Island, occurs in a digression relating to his own student habits,
and refers to Port Royal, and not to St. Croix Island.
In this connection we may note an interesting incident which
may have happened at Isle St. Croix. As Champlain tells us in the
edition of his works of 1632, the party with de Monts included both
Protestants and Roman Catholics, and had with it both priests and
ministers. Now, Sagard, in his Histoire du Canada, of 1636 (page 9),
speaking of the unfortunate effects of religious disputes upon the men
when Catholic priests and Protestant ministers were allowed to go
together upon expeditions to the New World, says:—
En ces commencemens que les François furent vers l’Acadie; il arriua
qu’un Prestre & un Ministre moururent presque en mesme temps, les mate-
lots qui les enterrerent, les mirent tous deux dans une mesme fosse, pour veoir
si morts ils demeureroient en paix, puisque viuants ils ne s‘estoient pda
accorder.
TRANSLATION.
In the first ventures made by the French in Acadia, it happened that a
priest and a minister, having died at almost the same time, the sailors who
buried them, placed them together in a single grave to see whether when
dead they would remain together in peace, since living they were never able
to agree.
It is not, of course, certain that this incident occurred at St. Croix
Island, but the indications point to the island as its location.
So much for the history of the island down to the removal of
the settlement to Port Royal. Only once more does Champlain have
any connection with it. He visited it along with Poutrincourt on
September 7, 1606, which visit he describes as follows: —
CHAPITRE XIII.
[1131 . . . . Le lendemain fusmes dedans vne chalouppe à l'isle de S.
Croix, où le sieur de Mons auoit yuerné, voir si nous trouuerions quelques
espics du bled, & autres graines qu'il y auoit fait semer. Nous trouuasmes
du bled qui estoit tombé en terre, & estoit venu aussi beau qu’on eut sceu
desirer, & quantité d'herbes potageres qui estoient venues belles & grandes:
cela nous resiouit infiniment, pour voir que la terre y estoit bonne & fertile.
192 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
TRANSLATION.
The next day we proceeded in a shallop to the Island of St.
Croix, where Sieur de Monts had wintered, to see if we could find any spikes
of wheat and other seeds which we had planted there. We found some wheat
which had fallen on the ground, and come up as finely as one could wish;
also a large number of garden vegetables, which also had come up fair and
large. It gave us great satisfaction to see that the soil there was fair and
fertile.
This was Champlain’s last visit to the island. In September,
1607, he returned to France, and later became the Father of New
France, but he came no more to Acadia.
Lescarbct mentions this visit in the following words: —
CHAP EL [ue CTI]
[5538]. = . . Sieur de Poutrincourt . . |. :. visita ladite ile, 14 où il trouva
du blé mur de celui que deux ans auparavant le sieur de Monts avoit semé,
lequel estoit beau, gros, pesant, & bien nourri.
CEIAP XV.
[557] . . . . Apres avoit à fait, vne reveué, & caressé les Sauvag. qui y
estoient
TRANSLATION.
Sieur de Poitrincourt . . . . visited the said Island, where he
found ripe wheat, of that which two years before the Sieur de Monts had
sown, which was fine large heavy and well-filled out. . . . After having
made there a review and having conciliated the Indians who were there . . . .
A year later, in July, 1607, Lescarbot himself in company with
Poutrincourt, visited St. Croix Island, of which he speaks thus :—
[590] . . . . Etat de Vile Saincte-Croix.
CHAP. XVIII.
[600] . . . . Arrivez que nous fumes dans ladite ile de Saincte Croix, nous
y trouvames les batimens y laissez tout entiers, fors que le magazin estoit
découvert d’vn côté. Nous y trouvames enco-[601]re du vin d’Hespagne au
fond d’vn muy, duquel nous beumes, & n’estoit guere gaté. Quant aux jar-
dins nous y trouvames encore des choux, ozeilles & laictues, dont nous fimes
cuisine. Nous y fimes aussi de bons patez de tourtres qui sont 1a frequentes
dans les bois. Mais les herbes y sont si hautes, qu’on ne pouvoit les trouver
quand elles estoient tuées & tombées à terre. La court y estoit pleine des
tonneaux entiers, lesquelz quelques matelotz mal disciplinez brulerent pour
leur plaisir, dont i’eu horreur quand ie le vi, & jugeay mieux que devant
que les Sauvages estoient (du moins civilement) plus humains & plus gens
bien que beaucoup de ceux qui portent le nom de Chrétien, ayant depuis
trois ans pardonné à ce lieu, auquels ilz n’avoient point seulement pris vn
morceau de bois, ni du sel qui y estoit en grande quantité dur comme roche.
[aaxonc] DOCHET (ST. CROIX) ISLAND 193
TRANSLATION.
iy CHAPTER XVIII.
State of St. Croix Island.
. . . . Having arrived at the said St. Croix Island, we found there the build-
ings which had been left all entire, except the magazine which was uncovered
on one side. We found there also in the bottom of a pipe Spanish wine of which
we drank and it was of good flaver. As to the gardens, we found there also
cabbages, sorel and lettuce, which we cooked. We made there aiso good
pies from the pigeons which are frequent there in the woods. But the grass
there is so high that one cannot find them when they are killed and fall to
the ground. The courtyard there was full of whole barrels, which our badly
disciplined sailors? burned for pleasure, which horrified me when I saw it and
I saw better than before that the Indians were (at least in manners) more
humanized and better people than many of those who bear the name of
Christians, having for three years spared this place from which they had not
taken a single morsel of wood, nor of salt which was there in a great quantity
as hard) AS TOC
We have now to trace the history of the island for the remainder
of the period, and brief enough it is. The records are to be found
chiefly in the Relations of the Jesuit Missionaries, from which the
following quotations are taken.
After 1607, no mention of the island occurs until 1610, in which
year, as related by Lescarbot, Sieur de Poutrincourt in a voyage,
vindrent à Sainte Croix premiere habitation de noz Francois en cette côte,
là où ledit Sieur fit faire des prieres pour les trespassez qui y estoient enterrez
dés le premier voyage du sieur de Monts en l’an 1603.
TRANSLATION.
came to Saint Croix, the first settlement of our French upon this coast, where
the Sieur had prayers offered for the dead who had been buried there since
the first voyage made by Sieur de Monts, in the year 1603 [1604].
(Relations II., 132-133.)
Thus, touchingly and appropriately, with prayers for the repose
of those who died in that first sorrowful winter, ends the connection
of Poutrincourt, last of the comrades of de Monts in Acadia, with
St. Croix Island.
? Human nature changes little with the progress of the Ages! Lescarbot
is not the only hunter who has explained his return without game as due to
his inability to recover that which he has killed !
? This confirms the supposition as to the bad state of discipline among the
French sailors of the time, which must have made their management under
such circumstances as prevailed at St. Croix Island in the winter of 1604-1605
very difficult.
194 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
The next year, 1611, came another incident in its history, when
a trader, Captain Platrier, seated himself there, and passed the fol-
lowing winter upon it, as recorded in the Relations of Father Biard.
nous apprinsmes que le capitaine Platrier s’estoit resolu de passer
Ecities en l’Ile saincte Croix, & qu'il y estoit resté luy cinquiesme. Cette
nouuelle fit prendre resolution au sieur de Biencourt d’aller à Saincte Croix
de ceste mesme tirade, auant que le Capitaine Platrier eust moyen de se forti-
fier; car il vouloit tirer de luy le Quint de toutes ses marchandises, & traicte,
parce qu'il hyuernoit sur le pays. L’Isle Saincte Croix est à six lieües
du Port aux Coquilles, au milieu d’vne riuiere.
Doncques le sieur de Biencourt y vint, accompagné de huict personnes, &
y entra en armes, ayant laissé le P. Biard en vn bout de l'Isle, sur des roches
attendant l’euenement, parce que ledict Pere auoit conuenu auec ledict sieur,
qu'en cas d'aucune inuasion, ou actes de guerre, ou force contre les Francois,
il seroit delaissé en quelque lieu à l’escart, en telle facon, qu’vn chacun peust
sçauoir, qu'il estoit amy de tous les deux partys, & qu'il s’entremettroit fort
volontiers pour accorder les differents, mais nullement pour estre partialiste.
Dieu mercy, tout passa heureusement: Platrier nous traicta le mieux qu’il
peut: Et à son ayde le sieur de Biencourt recouura vne barque.
TRANSLATION.
. We learned that Captain Platrier had decided to pass the Winter on
the Island of sainte Croix, and that he [Sieur de Biencourt] would get his
fifth therefrom. This news made Sieur de Biencourt resolve to go to Sainte
Croix at once, before Captain Platrier had means of fortifying himself: for he
wished to collect from him the Fifth of all his merchandise and trade, for
wintering in the country. The Island of Sainte Croix is six leagues from
Port aux Coquilles,' in the middle of a river.
Accordingly sieur de Biencourt went to this place, accompanied by eight
people, and, well-armed, marched into the place, having left Father Biard in
one end of the Island upon the rocks, awaiting the outcome; because the
Father had arranged with the sieur, that in case of any invasion, or warlike
act or force against the French, he should be left in some place apart, so that
every one might know that he was a friend of both parties, and that he would
very willingly interpose to make peace between those at variance, but under
no circumstances would be take sides with either.
Thank God, all passed off happily: Platrier treated us as well as he could:
and with his aid, Sieur de Biencourt recovered a barque.
(Relations III., 198-201.)
Biencourt was the son of Poutrincourt and at this time was in
command in Acadia, and entitled to a fifth share of all trading profits.
Later in the same year, Father Biard with Sieur de Biencourt
again visited St. Croix Island: —
nous repassasmes à l'Isle S. Croix, où Platrier nous donna deux barils de
pois, ou de febues: l’vn & l’autre nous fut vn bien grand present.
1 Head Harbour, on Campobello.
[&aaxonc] DOCHET (ST. CROIX) ISLAND 195
TRANSLATION.
we passed on to the Island of Ste. Croix, where Platrier gave us two barrels
of peas or beans; they both proved a very great boon to us.
(Relations, III., 224, 225.)
That Captain Platrier really spent the winter of 1611-1612 on
St. Croix Island is attested by a statement in a letter of Father Biard
(Relations, II. 26, 27). Whether he or anyone else wintered there
in 1612-1613 we do not know, but in the next year, 1613, occurred
the final event in the history of the buildings on St. Croix Island.
In the summer of that year, Captain Argal was sent by the English
of Virginia to drive the French from the Bay of Fundy. He cap-
tured Father Biard at Mount Desert, and what followed, we will allow
the good Father himself to tell in his letters to his Superior in France.
Hic quoque iterum nobis periculum. Volebant ire Angli, ut ante dictum
est, ad habitationem Sanctae Crucis, etsi in ea nulli tunc habitatores essent.
Sed erat sal ibi relictum. Nemo praeter me viam sciebat; atque ibi me ali-
quando fuisse Argli norant. Rogant igitur ut eos deducam. Ego qua possum
tergiversari et evadere ; sed nihil proficio. Vident aperte me nolle. Hic nimi-
rium incenditur capitaneus, et eram jam periculo propior; cum subito sine
me ipsi locum reperiunt diripiunt et.incendunt.
TRANSLATION.
Here a new peril arose. The English, as I have previously stated, wished
to go to the settlement of Sainte Croix, although it had at this time no inhabi-
tants. Some salt, however, had been left there. No one except myself knew
the way; and the English knew that I had been there formerly. They accord-
ingly demand that I lead them. I do all I can ‘to evade and refuse this pro-
posal; but it avails me nothing. They perceive clearly that I am unwill-
ing to obey. At this the captain grows very angry, and my peril becomes
imminent; when suddenly they find the place, without my help, and plunder
and burn it.
(Relations, III., 10, 11.),
In another place, his Relation of 1616, Father Biard gives another
account of this event.
De sainct Sauueur ils addresserent à S. Croix, ancienne habitation du
sieur de Monts, & parce qu’ils auoyent sceu, que le P. Biard y auoit esté,
Argal vouloit qu’il les y conduisit, mais ledit Pere ne le voulut point, ce qui
le mit entierement en la disgrace dudit Argal, & en grand danger de sa vie.
Ce neantmoins Argal roda tant en haut qu’en bas, & rechercha tant tous leurs
endroits, les confrontans auec les cartes, qu'il nous auoit prinses qu'en fin il
la trouua de soy-mesme ; il en enleua vn bon monceau de sel, qu’il y trouua,
brusla l'habitation & destruisit toutes les marques du nom & droict de France,
ainsi qu’il auoit en commandement.
TRANSLATION.
From saint Sauveur they sailed for Ste. Croix, Sieur de Monts’s old settle-
ment ; and, as they knew that Father Biard had been there, Argal wished
Sec. IT., 1902. 13,
196 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
him to conduct them thither; but the father would not consent to do so. This
caused him to be in complete disgrace with Argal, and in great danger of his
life. Notwithstanding this, Argal wandered about, up and down, and, by dint
of searching all places thoroughly and comparing them with the maps which
he had taken from us, he at last found the place himself. He took away a
good pile of salt, which he found there, burned the settlement, and destroyed
all traces of the name and claims of France, as he had been commanded to do.
(Relations, IV., 36, 37.)
But once more in this period does St. Croix Island make its
appearance in the records of history. In 1632, Isaac de Razilly, fol-
iowing nearly in the footsteps of de Monts as a colonizer of Acadia,
received a great grant from the King of France, described in the
following terms: —
L’étendtie des terres & pays que ensuivant, à scavoir la rivière & baie
Saincte-Croix, isles y contenues, & terres adjacentes d’une part & d’autre en
la Nouvelle France, de l’étendtie de douze lieiies de larges, à prendre le point
milieu en l’isle Saincte-Croix, ou le sieur de Mons à hiverné, & vingt lieües de
profondeur depuis le port aux coquilles, qui est en l’une des isles de l’entrée
de la riviére & baie Saincte-Croix, chacque lieiies de quatre mille toises de
long.
(“ Memorials of the English and French Commissaries,” Paris, 1755, page 707.)
TRANSLATION.
The extent of land and territory following, that is to say, the river and
bay of Saint Croix, the islands contained therein, and the adjacent country
on both sides in New France, in the extent of twelve leagues in breadth, with
its middle point in St. Croix Island, where the Sieur de Monts wintered, and
twenty leagues of depth from the Port Aux Coquilles [Head Harbour], which
is in one of the islands at the entrance of the river and bay of St. Croix, each
league of four thousand fathoms in length.
It is easy enough to lay down this grant upon a modern map,
and the curious reader may find it thus shown with other early
French grants upon a map in an earlier volume of these Transac-
tions. But de Razilly died before he could carry out his plan for
colonization, and his grant lapsed. ‘There is not the slightest evi-
denee that he ever even saw Isle St. Croix, much less attempted to
settle upon it.
Thus ended the history of Isle Sainte Croix in the Acadian period.
Acadian settleis in small numbers lived in the vicinity towards the
close of the seventeenth and early in the eighteenth century, but none
of them are known to have occupied the island. Nor in any other
way, in document, or on map, does it make any appearance during
the remainder of the long Acadian period, which ended with the Treaty
of Paris in 1763 and the cession of all Acadia to England.
OT ON Se eee
1 Vol. V., 1899, section ii., page 313.
[&axoxa] DOCHET (ST. CROIX) ISLAND 197
2. THE PART or ST. CROIX ISLAND IN THE BOUNDARY CONTROVERSIES,
AND IN THE DETERMINATION OF THE RIVER ST. CROIX AS THE
INTERNATIONAL Bounpary, 1796-1799.
So Isle St. Croix vanished from original histcrical records in
1632. It does not again come into notice in any way whatsoever that
I can find until 1772, one hundred and forty years later, when it
appears, named Bone Island, upon Wright’s fine map of the Passama-
quoddy Region, a map based upon the first accurate surveys of this
part of the world. Wright’s map has not been published, but exists
in manuscript in the British Museum and in the Public Record Office
Fic. 10.—Earliest modern map to show the Island. From Wright’s Ms. “ Plan
of the Coast from the West Passage of Passamiquodi Bay to the River
St. John,” 1772. Original size.
at London, and, from a copy of the former, Bone Island and its sur-
roundings are here reproduced (Fig. 10), giving us the earliest modern
map of the island. As to the name assigned to it, Wright obtained
it from some of the several settlers then living at Passamaquoddy,
for in certain testimony given by him before the Boundary Commission
in 1797 (preserved in Ms. among the records of the Commission), he
testifies that the names on his map were not given by him, but were
“obtained from the Inhabitants of the District.” A probable reason
for the origin of the name has been given earlier in this paper (page
169). But with this map the island again vanishes, not to reappear,
so far as I can find, until 1796, when it becomes prominent in certain
198 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
documents of the Boundary Commission, — but thereby hangs an his-
torical tale, which must be briefly related
The Treaty of Paris in 1783, which formally closed the unhappy
war of the Revolution, established the St. Croix river from its source
to its mouth as a part of the International Boundary between the
United States and the British Possessions. This was the natural
international boundary in this region, for it was the old boundary
between Massachusetts, then including Maine, which had led the Revo-
lution, and Nova Scotia, then including New Brunswick, which had
remained loyal to Great Britain. The Treaty was not a year old,
however, before disputes arose locally as to the identity of the River
St. Croix of the Treaty, the British residents claiming the present
river of that name, and the American residents claiming the Magagua-
davic. Its seems strange to us, with our accurate modern historical
and geographical knowledge, that there could have been any doubt
upon the subject, but if we view it in the light of the imperfect
knowledge of that time, the origin of the controversy becomes clear.
All that was definitely known about the River St. Croix was that it
was one of the rivers emptying into Passamaquoddy Bay which had
been named by the French when they settled there. But all tradition of
de Monts’ settlement had long since vanished, and there was nothing
known to the residents to enable them! to determine which of the
several rivers emptying into Passamaquoddy was the true St. Croix,
or even how the identity of the river was determined. The earlier
attempts which had been made to identify the river when it was the
boundary between Massachusetts and Nova Scotia only confused the
issue, and the best maps of the time threw no light upon it. Thus,
in 1764, when John Mitchel was sent by the Governor of Massachu-
setts to identify the River St. Croix, he was told by the Indians that
the Magaguadavic was the river so called by them. This testimony
of the Indians was valueless, for we now know that the St. Croix
was not the Magaguadavic, and, moreover, the Indians the very next
year, 1765, told Morris, a Nova Scotia surveyor, that the Cobscook
was known to them as the St. Croix. Nevertheless, their statement
to Mitchel, apparently confirmed as it was by the maps of the time,
naturally enough, led the people of Massachusetts, and, after 1783, the
people of the United States, to believe that the Magaguadavic was
the St. Croix, and hence, should form the International Boundary.
The best maps of that time gave a certain support to this-view, for
they showed two large rivers emptying into what was supposed to
1 This subject is treated fully in the writer’s ‘‘ Monograph of the Evolution
of the Boundaries of the Province of New Brunswick,” in the preceding.
volume of these Transactions.
[aanoxc] DOCHET (ST. CROIX) ISLAND 199
represent Passamaquoddy Bay, and of these two the easternmost was
named the St. Croix. We now know that the maps contained a very
curious error in the supposed Passamaquoddy Bay which made them
utterly misleading, and we now know further that the river named
on them the St. Croix is really the present river of that name;
but these facts were then unknown, and: the supposition that the
Magaguadavic was the St. Croix was most natural under the circum-
stances. The British claimed the present St. Croix as the St. Croix
of the Treaty, chiefly ‘on the ground that it was the larger river and
the most natural to be selected as the international boundary, but
they had no positive historical evidence to offer in its support, and
so far their case was weaker than that of the Americans. Such was
the condition of affairs during the decade after the close of the revolu-
tion, and much local friction and no little embarrassment to the two
governments was caused by the uncertainty as to this boundary.
Finally, the question became so pressing that in 1794 the United
States and Great Britain entered into a Treaty, providing for leaving
the question as to the identity of the River St. Croix meant by the
Treaty of 1783, to a commission of three men, one to be appointed
by each nation, and these two to choose a third, the decision of any
two of them to be accepted as final. Accordingly, Great Britain
chose Thomas Barclay, a prominent loyalist of Nova Scotia, and the
United States chose David Howell, an eminent citizen of Rhode
Island, and those two agreed upon Egbert Benson, a leading lawyer
of New York, as the third commissioner. The British agent, to
argue the British claim, was Ward Chipman, a leading loyalist of St.
John, while the American agent was James Sullivan, one of the most
eminent lawyers of his time in Massachusetts. The secretary of the
commission was Edward Winslow, another New Brunswick loyalist.
The commission assembled at St. Andrews, New Brunswick, in August,
1796, transacted much routine business in connection with its organ-
ization and the making of surveys, and gathered all the local inform-
ation it could from residents and Indians. The members personally
visited the Magaguadavic and the Scoodie (or present St. Croix),
examined the various islands in them, and then adjourned to meet
the next year in Boston. It was, of course, known to the commis-
sioners from the start that the St. Croix river was named by de Monts,
and that he had settled on an island within its mouth, but on their
visits to the various islands they did not have with them Champlain’s
original narratives and maps, but only some extracts from his narra-
_ tives, quite insufficient of themselves to determine the identity of
the island and river. The American agent endeavoured to convince
the commissioners that an island, now called Hog Island, near the
200 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
mouth of the Digdeguash, was the island described by Champlain,
thus seeking to sustain his contention that the Magaguadavic was the
St. Croix. The British agent appears to have hit upon the correct
island, namely, Dochet, as Isle St. Croix, but apparently the com-
missioners were then unconvinced by either. When the commission
met in Boston in August, 1797, very lengthy arguments were sub-
mitted by the agents of the two countries. The British agent traced
the history of the River St. Croix of the Treaty, and argued that it
was the same as the River St. Croix of all the earlier charters, etc.,
and the same as the St. Croix in which de Monts had wintered in
1604, and he claimed that the Scoodic (the present St. Croix) was that
river. The American agent, on the other hand, claimed that the
River St. Croix of the Treaty of 1783 was not that of the ancient
charters, but the river locally so called, and so represented upon the
maps of the time, especially on Mitchell’s map of 1755 which was
admitted to have been used by the negotiators of the treaty in their
deliberations, regardless of whether this was the ancient St. Croix
of de Monts and Champlain or not. The former St. Croix he
claimed to be the Magaguadavic. The commissioners, as their deci-
sion shows, unanimously decided that the contention of the British
agent was correct, a decision which is fully in accord with the evidence
and, indeed, the only one possible in the light of a full knowledge
of the subject. The question then resolved itself into this, which
of the rivers was the St. Croix of de Monts and Champlain? Hap-
pily this question was answered even before it was asked, and here
St. Croix, or Dochet, Island steps once more upon the scene. In
June or July, 1797, Mr. Chipman, the British agent, received from
Europe a copy of Champlain’s map of 1604 (fig. 8), which now became
known to the members of the commission for the first time. He
sent a copy of this map to Robert Pagan, a prominent citizen of St.
Andrews, who, guided by the map, proceeded to Dochet Island; but
we will let him tell his own story, in his own words. It is contained
in a deposition laid before the commission, and preseryed among their
papers.
Robert Pagan Declares, that having obtained a Plan of St. Croix Island
said to have been publish at Paris Anno 1613 and having compared it with
the Shore Coves and Points of the Island laying a few miles below the mouth
of Scoodiac River at the Devils Head commonly called Doceas Island, and
also with the shores &c@ of the main Land westward and Eastward of it, as
laid down in that Plan, and having found a most striking agreement between
every part of these shores, coves and points and that plan.
He on the 7th day of this Instant July went to said Doceas Island accom-
panied by William Cookson, Thomas Greenlaw, Nehemiah Gilman and John
Rigby for the purpose of making further discoveries there. On the North
End of said Doceas Island where in the plan above mentioned the French
[GANONG] DOCHET (ST. CROIX) ISLAND 201
buildings are laid down, he found four distant Piles of ruins agreeing in their
situation and distances from each other with the spot at A, as laid down in
that plan, and these four Piles of Ruins are directly abreast of the long sandy
Point at low water in said Plan.
On examining these Piles he found them considerably raised above the
general level of the Ground around them, some parts of them covered with
roots of Trees and wind Falls, and all of them with mould or rotten leaves
from six to eighteen inches deep.
On further examining he discovered distinctly several tiers of stone in
each of the Piles laid in clay mortar, one on the Top of an other, the Clay is
perfectly distinct from the stone, and of the usual thickness (between the
Tiers of stone) of mortar made use of in laying Stone or Brick at this Day.
In some parts of these ruins the Clay is as soft and Perfect as if newly dug
out of a Pit, and in other parts appears as clay does in chimnies where fire
has been, and there are evident marks on the stone in many Places
In diging he found charcoal in a perfect state only it was easily crum-
bied to pieces in handling he also found part of a stone Pitcher in full preser-
vation. One one side of one of the Piles he discovered a number of Bricks, so
laid together as to convince him that a large cven has formerly been built
there, all these Bricks are in a tolerable state of preservation. He further
Declares—that on the 18th day of this Instant, July being at said Doceas Island
on a party of pleasure with a large Company part of the Company went with
him to view the ruins above described, and on further examination in presence
of John Brewer Esqr., John Campbeli, The Revd. Mr. Andrews, Daniel
McMasters Esq., Donald McLauchlan, Donald Grant, William Pagan and
Thomas Pagan. He uncovered another Pile of Ruins distinct from the four
Piles found on the 7 Instant which they found to be laid in clay mortar with
Tiers of Stone in the same manner as the first four Piles are laid.
In diging with a spade for a few minutes near one of these piles they
turned up a metal spoon, a muskett Ball, a piece of an earthen Vessel and a
spike Nail all of which shew evident marks of having laid a long time under
the surface.
He further in presence of these Gentlemen discovered on that part of the
Island agreeing with the spot in the plan between A & B a ledge of Rocks
extending from the middle of the Island towards the shore on each side a
considerable breadth in many places the Rocks are some height above the
surface and in other places the Ledge is lightly covered with earth and leaves.
That this Declaration may be more fully understood he has affixed the
plan refered to.
(Signed), ROBERT PAGAN.
St. Andrews 20th July 1797.
Personally appeared before me Daniel McMaster Esqr. one of his Majesty’s
Justices of the Peace for the County of Charlotte Robert Pagan Esqr. also.
made oath to the truth of the Declaration contained in the first and second
pages of Sheet of Paper subscribed by him.
. (Signed), DAaNL McMASTER, J.P.
(From the Boundary MS. in possession of Rev. Dr. Raymond: given also by Kilby in
his “ Eastport and Passamaquoddy,” pages 124, 125.)*
' There is a reference to this discovery in a letter by Barclay of Sept. 8,
1797, in Rives’ ‘ Life of Barclay.”’
202 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
But this is not the only testimony on the subject. Later in the
same year Thomas Wright, Surveyor-General of Isle St. John (Prince
Edward Island), the maker of the map of 1772, already referred to
(carlier, page 197), visited Passamaquoddy on behalf of the Boundary
Commissioners, and on October 24, 1797, gave sworn testimony as
follows (Ms. hitherto unpublished among records of the Boundary
Commission):
Since being summoned to attend the Commissioners appointed
as aforesaid, I have bestowed every attention towards informing myself on
the Subject of their investigation: Have perused the several publications of
voyages made by the French to Acadie; their Discoveries thereupon, and con-
sequent Settlement made (by Monsrs. de Monts, Poutrincourt, Champlain,
Lescarbot and others), on a small island which they named Isle de Sainte
Croix, called on my said plan, Bone Island, situated in the midst of the River
Scoodiac or Great River St. Croix.—I have also critically examined those
French Settlers plan of the said Island; handed to me by Ward Chipman
Esqr. His Britannic Majesty’s Agent &c. Have compared it in every particu-
lar respecting the situation (as described by the said French Settlers) its
measurement, shape, &c. with that of my said Survey made in 1772; and find
such the said French Description and plan of the said Isle de Sainte Croix, so
very nearly to correspond therewith as to leave me not the least room for
doubt, that the said Isle de St. Croix or Bone Island was the Identical spot
on which the said Frenchmen made their settlement sometime about or
between the years 1604 and 1614.—there is no other situation to be found in the
circuit if the whole Bay of Passamaquoddy to which such the said French
Description of and plan would in the least apply to; so that taking the whole
into consideration I have every reason most assuredly to believe that the
said River Scoodiac is the true and antient named River St. Croix.
On the same date, Thomas Wright also swore to the following
testimony, likewise now published for the first time from the Ms. in
the records of the Boundary Commission. It will be noted that it
is of very great local interest.
The Deposition of Thomas Wright, Esquire, His Majesty’s Surveyor Gen-
eral of the Island of St. John in the Gulph of Saint Lawrence, respecting what
he saw of Remains of Habitations on Isle de Saint Croix, or Bone Island &c.
whilst on the Survey thereof October the eleventh and twelfth one thousand
seven hundred and ninety-seven—in company with Robert Pagan, Esquire,
and a party of men assisting upon the said Survey &c.
Thomas Wright, Esquire, above named, upon his Oath doth testify and
declare that—
ist. He examined the Foundation of a building (as the People cleared
away the Trees, Rubbish, &c.) in Form of an oblong square, which he meas-
ured with a six Feet Rod; and found one Side twenty Feet long, laying in the
Direction (by his pocket compass) of North North East and South South
West—The other side at right angles to it (and facing nearly the North End
of the Island) measured sixty-six Feet in Length, the remaining two Sides of
[GANoxG] DOCHET (ST. CROIX) ISLAND 203
the oblong square measured the same.’—At about twenty-four Feet from the
Southern End of the said Foundation, towards the Middle of the area thereof,
he observed a large Heap of Stones, with some Bricks of a light yellow
colour which measured eight Inches long—four broad—and one Inch and four-
tenths in Thickness; which Heap of Stones and Bricks—evidently appeared to
have resulted from the tumbling down of a Stack of Chimnies?; and (upon
removing the upper part of the Rubbish) was regularly bedded in a stiff light
coloured clayey mortar: as in like manner, was the whole of the said Founda-
tion.—Some of the Stones about this supposed Chimney-Heap appeared black,
as if burnt on one Side:—There was, also, some Charcoal about the said
Heap, that appeared in its usual Form; but easily crumbled, when squeezed
between the Fingers, as rotten:—there was, also, (about the said Heap) some
pieces of very hard burnt Earthen Ware.—And this Deponent further saith
that he took some Bricks from under a Cedar and Fir Tree (whilst the people
were grubbing and pulling them down) which trees measured from ten to
twelve Inches through at their But:—there were, besides, Wind Falls of rot-
ten Trees, over the said Foundation, about eighteen or twenty Inches in
Diameter; and various Roots of Trees that had insinuated themselves between
-almost all the Stones of the said Foundation to the Earth, beneath.—
2nd. In the Direction of about South by West (by his pocket compass)
from the above mentioned chimney pile, Distance from seventy to eighty
Feet, he observed another like pile of Stones and Brick,’ to all appearance as
the former, and bedded in like Manner with clayey mortar of same light or
bluish colour—that had evidently the same appearance of a tumbled chimney
—with Roots of Trees interwoven.—
srd. That from this last mentioned pile of to appearance tumbled chim-
nies, in Direction (by his pocket compass) of about West by North, Distance
‘seventy or eighty feet,‘ he observed another pile of Stones ; which, in every
particular, resembled the former.—
4th. From this last mentioned pile, he found another Heap of Stones in
the Direction (from the preceeding) of South by West, Distance about thirty
or forty feet®; for the pile covered so much Space as to render it difficult to
measure the exact Distance: This Heap of Stones, &c., resembled in every
particular the former, as described and, like them, evidently appeared the
Result of a tumbled chimney.
5th. Everywhere they dug about the Island, they found nought else but a
sandy hungry soil, above and beneath for the Depth of from three to six
Feet—then Rock.—
6th. He observed a remarkable Ridge of Rocks, somewhat to the South-
ward of the above mentioned Foundations, and runing some distance athwart,
or across the Island.—
jth. The Sea-Coast around the Island is very rocky—except at its South
End (opposite a small Peninsula) where is a high sloping Sand Bluff, and
1 Evidently the storehouse.
? De Monts’s own house apparently. There is some difficulty in homolo-
gizing the distances and direction of the ruins given by Wright with the
locations of the buildings on Champlain’s plan (Fig. 9), but it is to be
remembered that both are only approximate.
’ Apparently the house T of Champlain’s plan (Fig. 9).
* Apparently the house E of Champlain’s plan.
5 Apparently the dwelling of Champlain, P on the plan.
204 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
some clay; in chaining from which, over a Shoal to the Ledges South thereof,
he observed large Quantities of Muscles and some Clams—on a Bed of Sand—
Clay—and Rocks.—
8th. In surveying around the Island, he did not observe the least Run, or
any Springs, of fresh water; though the People with him made diligent Search
for some to drink; but, they were obliged to send to the Main Land for some.
3th. In the Neighbourhood of the before mentioned Foundations and piles
' of (to Appearance tumbled chimnies, he observed several deep Holes that
seemed to have been dug in Search of Water.
10th. And, further, this Deponent saith that, the Island is covered with
Wood—some of considerable Size—The Species are chiefly of Fir—Spruce—
some Pines—White Birch—Maple—Cedar and Beech—He saw but one Oak
Tree:—that appeared to have been lately fallen with an axe, for some of its’
Leaves were on the Branches:—It measured from eighteen to twenty Inches
in Diameter, near the But.—
l1ith. And lastly, this Deponent saith that, a plan of the said Survey now
in his hand intitled a plan of Isle de Sainte Croix, or Bone ‘ Island situated»
in the Scoodiac or Great River ‘‘Sainte Croix, in Passamaquoddy Bay ’—is a
true plan of a Survey of the said Island made by Him, the said Deponent, on
the Twelfth Day of October in. the year of our Lord One Thousand seven :
hundred and Ninety-seven.—
St. Andrews Oct. 24th 1797.
THO. WRIGHT,
Surv. Genl.
of the Isl St. John.
St. Andrews, County of Charlotte,
Oct, 24th 1797.
Personally appeared the above named Thomas Wright, Esquire, and made
Oath on the Holy Evangelists of Almighty God to the Truths of the afore-
going Deposition by him subscribed.—
Phineas Bruce, Esquire, was notified and present at the taking of this.
Deposition.—
Before us,
JNO: CURR) Js:
Danu. McMaster, J.P.
The map of Bone Island made by Thomas Wright is that here-
with reproduced.! (figs. 11, 12.)
This testimony was transmitted to the commissioners, and
accepted by them. Naturally the British agent rested his case with
confidence upon it, while the American agent endeavoured to explain
it away. The latter claimed that the ruins were not proven to be
those of de Monts’ settlement, but were much more likely those of
1 Not hitherto published except in the author’s work, “A Monograph of
Historic Sites in the Province of New Brunswick,” in these Transactions,
Vol. V., 1859, Sect. ii., page 264. Two copies of the map are accessible, one in
the Crown Land Office at Fredericton, from which the present copy (Fig. 11)
is taken, and another with the Benson MS. in the Library of the Massachu-
setts Historical Society. Other copies are in the MS. Records of the Boundary
Commission.
CT EECTE
Aviron os igh
>
& Lead Alig Pnau cath Eur lay ik
Pear AAA Cn pk tye al 4er
Fic. 11.—Wright’s map of the Island and Surroundings, 1797. From the copy in the Crown Land Office, Fredericton, reduced to one-fourth the alse
size. (For the sake of clearness in the reduced copy, the shore lines have been made somewhat heavier, and the figures of soundings somew
larger than in the original.)
of IUD,
un
20 'T
LM
DA PAS
2
7104 PUPS
ae à A Seale of 0 French Joises each dé vs tng Lh
th. bn
777 A Seale f 7,75 (hams tng lsh equal D #0 French Soises
eg a} unig gwynruas ipo uh Ft
m\
Fic. 12.—Wright’s map of the Island, 1797. Portion of the map shown in Fig. 11, but of the original size. (The scales have been brought from their
lower position on Fig. 11 to the place here shown: otherwise the map is a fac-simile of the original.)
[Ganon] DOCHET (ST. CROIX) ISLAND 209
some early trading post of Razilly or other early Seignior; and second,
he maintained that in any case the subject was not important to the
question at issue since it was not the St. Croix of de Monts and
Champlain that was meant by the Treaty, but the St. Croix of the
maps used by the negotiators of the Treaty of 1783, which St. Croix
he held to be the Magaguadavic. The commissioners, however, unani-
mously agreed that the St. Croix of the Treaty could be traced back
continuously to the St. Croix of de Monts and Champlain, and that the
two were one and the same river. Hence Isle St. Croix proved the iden-
tity of the river.! Their opinion as to the. value of the evidence con-
tained in the above cited testimony can best be given in the words
of the third commissioner, Egbert Benson, who, in a report? to the
President of the United States, explaining the decision, says :—
Subsequent to the View of the mouths of the Rivers in question, and the
adjacent Objects, by the Commissioners, at the instance of the Agents, in the
Fall of 1796, the Edition of Champlain, of 1613, was procured from Europe, con-
taining a Map of the Isle Sainte Croix, a copy of which is hereunto annexed,
and a Search having then been made by digging into the Soil on the Island
called Bone, or Docias, Island, Bricks, charcoal, spikes and other artificial
articles have been found, and evident foundations of buildings have been
traced. Whoever will compare these proofs with the Bay of Passamaquady,
including the Islands and Rivers in it, will perceive that they result in
demonstration that the Island St. Croix, and the River Saint Croix, meant by
them, are respectively Bone Island, and the River Scudiac, comprehending in
the latter the arm of the Bay, or as it is expressed by Lescarbot, Sea.
Thus was the evidence as to the identity of the River St. Croix,
based upon the discovery of the ruins of de Monts’s settlement on St.
Croix Island, together with the comparisons between the ancient and
modern maps, accepted by the commissioners as final and unquestion-
able. On October 25, 1798, they rendered a unanimous decision in
which they declared the Scoodic, or present St. Croix, to be the River
St. Croix truly intended by the Treaty of 1783, and it thus became the
International Boundary as we know it to-day.
Such was the part played by Dochet Island in the Ann
controversy. It is too much to say that upon it alone depended the
identification of the river and hence its selection as the boundary,
for there was probably enough other evidence to have produced the
some result. But, on the other hand, it is very probable, since one
* It is no wonder that Chipman in one of his letters (of Mar. 27, 1798) to
Jonathan Odeli (MS. in possession of the author) speaks affectionately of “ My
little Isle St. Croix.” With its identity established he easily won his case:
without it this would have been dificult enough.
* The Report is printed in full in Moore’s ‘‘ History and Digest of the
International Arbitrations to which the United States has been a Party,”
Vol. I., 33-43, and reference is there made (page 32) to other publications of it.
210 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
of the commissioners is known to have held at first strongly for the
Magaguadavic, that without the evidence drawn from the island, the
commissioners would have been divided in opinion instead of unani-
mous. In this case their decision would have been received with
reserved acquiescence.and some feeling of injustice, rather than with
general approbation and satisfaction as it was. Dochet Island, there-
fore, has contributed somewhat to the peace between nations. It is
only occasionally, and in the writings of the most partizan and unin-
formed writers, that we find the view still expressed that the Maga-
guadavic should have been the boundary. Happily, the sole remaining
support for this view, namely, that the River St. Croix on Mitchell’s
map used by the negotiators of the Treaty was the Magaguadavic,
has by recent studies been shown to be erroneous, and, even the River
St. Croix of that map has been proven to be the present River St.
Croix. Thus from every point of view, the decision of the Com-
mission of 1798 was perfectly just, and both nations may feel entirely
satisfied with the result.
We come now to the final incident in the history of the island
in this period, and that concerns its ownership by the United States.
The decision of the Commission fixing the St. Croix as the Inter-
national Boundary, also declared its mouth to be -at Joe’s Point,
although, as we have already scen (page 128), the true geographical
mouth of the river is at Devil’s Head. The reason for this decision
of the commissioners is nowhere recorded, but it can be inferred
from the attendant circumstances, and is implied in Benson’s report
on the decision, namely, it was thought best to conform to the his-
torical usage of Champlain, making the River St. Croix include the
waters around Isle St. Croix from which it took its name and by the
aid of which it had been identified. Along with this, too, there was
no doubt, another reason, namely, that in the Treaty of 1783 the
mouth of the St. Croix was described as in the Bay of Fundy; it was
no doubt felt that while Passamaquoddy Bay could be readily con-
sidered as a part of the Bay of Fundy, the part of the river between!
Devil’s Head and Joe’s Point could hardly be so viewed, and that
hence a better accordance with the language of the Treaty would be
secured by placing the mouth of the river officially at Joe’s Point.
This decision, however, had an extremely far-reaching effect upon the
subsequent history of Dochet Island, for, incidentally, it assigned the
island to the United States, whereas, had the commission fixed the
mouth of the river at the Devil’s Head, the island would to-day be
a British possession. The reason why this is so may be briefly traced.
The decision of the Commissioners said nothing directly about the
islands in the St. Croix, but the Treaty of 1783 had declared the
[GANONG] DOCHET (ST. CROIX) ISLAND 211
boundary to be a line drawn “ along the middle of the River St. Croix,”
and the middle line of the St. Croix lies on the east side of the
island (fig. 4, also 10), hence throwing the island into the United
States. On the other hand, if the decision had placed the mouth
of the river at Devil’s Head, then the part below, in which the island
lies, would have been a part of the Bay of Fundy, since the Treaty
declared the mouth of the river to be in the Bay of Fundy and recog-
nized no other waters. But the Treaty assigned to the United States
all islands within twenty leagues of its coasts lying between lines
drawn due east from the mouth of the St. Croix and the mouth of
St. Mary’s River in Florida, “excepting such islands as now are,
or heretofore have been, within the limits of the said Province of
Nova Scotia.” Now, the old charters of Nova Scotia, on which her
ownership was based, had granted to her all islands within six leagues
of her coasts, and this is the reason why New Brunswick, the legal
successor here of Nova Scotia, possesses to-day all the islands of
Passamaquoddy Bay, except only Moose Island and two contiguous
islets, which were in 1817 assigned to the United States chiefly on
the ground of her long possession of them and in return for a partial
claim she had to Grand Manan. Had the mouth of the St. Croix
been fixed at Devil’s Head, Dochet Island would have been in the Bay
of Fundy, and, being within six leagues of the coast of New Bruns-
wick, would to-day belong to that province.
But, although it thus fell plainly to the United States, it was
not yielded without some symptoms of protest. In a manuscript
draft of a letter of Ward Chipman, the ‘British agent before the
Boundary Commission, to Governor Carleton, dated July 7, 1799, we
read as follows (Ms. in possession of Rev. Dr. Raymond): —
I take this opportunity further to inform your Excellency that I have
received intelligence that the subjects of the United States residing on the
western shores of the River St. Croix have lately taken possession of the Isle
St. Croix lying in this river just within its mouth, and from which the river orig-
inally took its name. Under the construction of the 2d article of the Treaty
of Peace, which I had the honour to submit to your Excellency’s consideration
in my letter of the 21st ulto. your Excellency will perceive that this island
belongs to the United States as lying on the west side of the channel and of
the dividing line between the two countries along the middle of the river from
its mouth, and to the northward of a due East line from its mouth, and not
therefore affected by the clauses affecting islands in this article of the
treaty; but if this construction is erroneous, and the exception or reservation
to His Majesty of such islands as have at any time been within the limits of
the Province of Nova Scotia is to be considered as absolute and unqualified,
and the clause descriptive of the Islands granted to the United States is to
have no effect whatever upon the exception, this island still undoubtedly
belongs to his Majesty as having been at the time of the treaty of peace
within those limits.
212 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Governor Carleton transmits, the subject, somewhat perfunctorily,
to the Duke of Portland in a letter of August 5, 1799, suggesting that
Great Britain may still have a claim on Isle St. Croix through the
general exception of islands belonging to Nova Scotia. But Chipman
himself saw the subject differently soon after, for in a draft of a
letter of his (Ms. in the author’s possession) to Sir John Wentworth,
Governor of Nova Scotia, of August 6, 1799, he says: —
This island [Isle St. Croix] tho of very trifling value, has been dur-
ing the present year taken possession of by Subjects of the United States
residing upon that part of the western shore of the River St. Croix which is
opposite to it—altho’ this island was clearly included in the original Grant of
the Province of Nova Scotia to Sir William Alexander and therefore was an
island which ‘‘ had formerly been within the limits of that Province,” still I
conceive that it is not saved to His Majesty by virtue of the exception in the
24 article of the Treaty of Peace, because it is not found to lie between the
due east lines mentioned in that article, and therefore is not included in the
Grant of the Islands upon which alone the exception can operate. The right
to this island I conceive must be decided by ascertaining whether it lies on
the American side of the boundary line mentioned in the Treaty of Peace “ to
be drawn along the middle of the river St. Croix from its mouth in the Bay
of Fundy to its source,” and as this island does in fact lie on the American
side of such line along the middle of the river,’ and also on the western side
of the main channel of the river, and to the northward of a due east line
from its mouth, if my construction of the treaty in this respect is not erron-
°
eous, it evidently belongs to the United States. . . . .”
Chipman’s later position seems unquestionably the correct one,
and with this the subject ends. However much we may regret that
this island does not belong to the country with whose history it is
so closely connected, we must all agree that the title of the United
States to it is perfectly clear and just.
Curiously enough there is an apparent still later British claim
to the island, no longer ago than 1896, for in that year in a codifica-
tion of the boundaries of New Brunswick passed by the local legisla-
ture, Doucetts Island is included within the bounds of the Parish of
St. Croix in Charlotte County. This was, of course, due to some
error on the part of the compilers of the Act, but it is curious that
there was no one in the Legislature of New Brunswick sufficiently
informed to point out the error before the Act was passed. But, in
1899 a new law was enacted to strike out the words “ Doucetts Island
1 Tt is fortunate that the island lies on the west of the middle of the river,
as well as on the west of the deepest channel, or a controversy might have
arisen over the exact significance cf the word “‘ middle” of the Treaty.
2 At one time he thought the boundary line would run through the island,
for in a letter of Mar. 27, 1798, (MS. in my possession) he writes to Jonathan
Odell,—“ My little Isle St. Croix will probably be divided between the two
countries.”
[&ANoNG] DOCHET (ST. CROIX) ISLAND 213
in the River St. Croix” from the description of the bounds of St.
Croix.
3. Tur Moprern History oF DocHET ISLAND FROM THE First PER-
MANENT SETTLEMENT OF THE RIVER TO THE PRESENT,—
1799—-1902.
The modern history of the island began apparently with the
adoption of its present name not long prior to 1796. The permanent
settlement of the Passamaquoddy region had begun in 1763 with a
few New England fishermen and traders, and a few settlers from
various sources continued to arrive from time to time until 1784, when
large numbers of loyalists settled on the British side of the St. Croix,
and various settlers began to occupy the American side. But there
is nothing to indicate any occupancy of Dochet Island prior to 1799,
and probably it was not settled, for had any settlement existed it would
hardly have escaped mention in the testimony of Pagan and of Wright
above cited, or some representation on Wright’s map. Moreover, the
implication in the letter of Ward Chipman above cited, is that Amer-
ican settlers were taking possession of the island for the first time
in: 0499. - > *
There is no evidence known to me as to who these settlers were
aside from tradition, which states that the earliest settlers on the
island were one Haliker and his wife, who lived there many years,
and whose graves, marked by rude unlettered stones, can now be seen
near the lighthouse. It is possible, however, that Haliker and his
wife were simply early residents, and not the earliest. The first
residents must have been squatters, since the island was not granted
until 1820.. The next event in the history of the island is also
supplied by tradition, namely, that at the time of the war of 1812
the island was used as a “neutral island” (hence originating the
name, Neutral Island, by which it has often been known), on which
the British and American vessels exchanged their cargoes of plaster.
For some years prior to 1812, and for some time after, the navigation
laws of one or the other nation were so constructed that British
vessels could not carry plaster or other goods into the United States,
nor United States vessels go to British ports for it. Consequently,
the vessels had to meet and exchange cargoes, quite illegally, on cer-
tain places tacitly accepted as “ neutral,” and Dochet Island was one
of these places, probably utilized for this purpose because far removed
from the customs officers who had headquarters at Eastport.t British
* A good account of these operations has been published by Sabine, re-
printed in Kilby’s ‘‘ Eastport and Passamaquoddy.”’
214 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
vessels are said to have unloaded the plaster upon a wharf, traces of
which are still to be seen, built for the purpose in Treats cove (Fig.
14), whence it was taken by American vessels. Tradition states that
during the war time a settler named Herrick, possibly the Haliker-
above mentioned, lived on the island.
Soon after this time we come to authentic information. On
March 1, 1820, the Commissioners of the District of Maine in the.
Commonwealth of Massachusetts, sold to John Brewer, of Robbinston,
in return for thirty dollars
“two small islands in the Bay of Passamaquoddy, one situated nearly oppo-
site the dividing line between the Towns of Robbinston and Calais containing
four acres more or less and commonly called the great Island; and the other
containing one acre more or less lying about one mile southerly from the
first mentioned Island and near to the shore of Robbinston and called the
little Island.! (Washington County, Registry of Deeds, Machias, Me., Vol. 11,.
page 337.)
Great Island is, of course, our Dochet. John Brewer was a
prominent citizen of Robbinston, and 1 believe was the magistrate who.
took several depositions for the Boundary Commissioners. He was
on the island with Pagan, July 11, 1797,° and, as one of those con-
cerned in the discoveries on the island, it is very likely that at this
time his attention was called to it, and he took the first opportunity
thereafter to secure a grant of it. He did not, however, long retain
it, for, on August 15, 1826
John Brewer of Robbinston, in consideration of six hundred dollars paid
by Stephen Brewer of Northampton, Mass., Gentleman . . . . remise
release bargain sell and convey . . . . an Island commonly called St. Croix
Island lying in Schoodick River nearly opposite the south east corner of
Calais, together with the house barn and all other buildings thereon, and also:
the wharf and all other improvements on or about said island. (Washington
County Deeds, Vol. 17, page 11.)
The house and other buildings were doubtless those occupied by
Haliker as tenant of brewer, and the wharf was the plaster wharf
above mentioned. Why Stephen Brewer, presumably the brother of
John, a prominent merchant of Northampton, Massachusetts, pur-
chased this island we have no idea, nor can his daughters still living
in Northampton explain; but it is of interest to note that he owned
other parcels of land on the mainland in this region.
1 J have not followed the ownership of Little Dochet beyond this date. Pro-
bably it still belongs to the heirs of John Brewer. It appears to be valueless.
I am informed by Dr. Howard Vose, of Calais, that the diary of Richard V.
Hayden, a noted surveyor of this region, contains the following entry, April’
17, 1823:—‘‘ Surveyed Big Island for Gen.’1 Brewer . . . . contents about
6 acres.” Of course he would have made a map, which would be of great
interest if it could be found.
? See earlier, page 201.
[GANONG] ” DOCHET (ST. CROIX) ISLAND 215
We now come to some information, which, although resting upon
tradition alone, is yet reliable since it comes within the memory of
a still living witness. There is now (September, 1902) living at Red
Beach, Maine, Mr. George Mingo, over 80 years of age but in pos-
session of all his faculties, who, in early boyhood lived with his parents
upon the island, and has known it intimately ever since. From him
I have derived much information about the recent history of the
island. The earliest owner he remembers was Stephen Brewer, and
hence he must have lived there between 1826 and 1830. There were
at that time on the island four buildings, standing where the old
cellars! now are, at the south-western angle (Fig. 14), all occupied or
used by his family. There was much cleared land and many signs
of earlier settlement in fruit trees and bushes. The ruins of the
old French settlement were clearly visible as was the place on the
bluff where cannon had been placed. The Chapel Nubble was then
united with the main island and a large pine tree stood upon it.
Every summer there came to the island from the Penobscot River,
four fishermen, named Black, Treat, Noble and Sanburn, who lived
with the Mingo family and tended the six salmon weirs of which they
had charge and from which many fish were taken. There were stages
for the curing of fish here also, and, in fact, although the residents
of the island did some gardening, fishing was the chief interest which
took them to the island. Somewhere after 1830, perhaps consider-
ably later, the Mingo family removed from the island. It is doubtless
to this family Williamson refers in 1839 in his History of Maine
(Vol. I., 189), when he says of the island, “Its soil is fertile, and it
is usually the residence of one family.” After the Mingo family
left it, there was for a time a resident named Treat, and later
another named Chase. Later, one Thompson kept there a sort of
public house of low repute, to which people resorted from Calais and
elsewhere. These two latter residents gradually burnt up the older
buildings for wood; they remained but a year or two, and then there
were no more residents on the island until the lighthouse was built.
For some time after this, however, the residents of the mainland
used to remove from the island scow-loads of sand for building pur-
poses, and this has contributed to the diminution in size of the lower
end of the island and the separation of the smaller nubble from the
1 There are some other cellars on the island (Fig. 14), that south of the
lighthouse probably belonging to Haliker’s house. Other hollows on the
island have a different origin, that north-east of the lighthouse being a pit
from which sand was taken in erecting the buildings, and others being holes
dug by money-hunters who have left such traces in most of the prominent
places in this region.
Sec. II., 1902. 14.
216 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
main island. In 1847, or thereabouts, Admiral Owen used the island
as a station in making his survey of this region for the British Admir-
alty, the survey on which our present charts are based. He cut down
many of the trees on the island to open lines of sight for his instru-
ments, doing much to destroy the fine woods which Mr. Mingo remem-
bers to have occupied most of the island in his early boyhood.
We come now to a new and important chapter in the history of
the island. On June 4, 1856, the heirs of Stephen Brewer of North-
ampton, Massachusetts, sold to the United States of America, for the
sum of one hundred and thirty-three dollars and thirty-three cents
a certain Messuage situated on Neutral or St. Croix Island, so called, in the
St. Croix River opposite the Plaster Mills at Red Beach in Calais.
Two undivided third parts of the northerly half of the Island atovenetal
beginning on the westerly shore of said island at a rock marked with a cross
at high water mark, thence running south sixty-three degrees east’? across
the said island to the eastern shore of the same where there is a marked stake
at high water mark, thence northerly westerly and southerly by the shore of
said island to the place of beginning, containing two and a half acres of
upland, more or less, with the beach and flats pertaining to the said northern
half, meaning to convey to the said United States two undivided third parts
of the above described premises. +
(Washington County Deeds, Vol. 86, page 27.)
Thus, the larger part of the island passed into the pos-
session of the United States, by whom it was bought for the erection of
a light station. This station was established the next year (1857).
The full records of the station are, of course, preserved in the archives
of the Lighthouse Board at Washington, and through the courtesy
of the Engineer-Secretary in charge I am enabled to cite the follow-
ing facts. The first keeper was Elias Barber (December 15, 1856—
August, 1859). The light was discontinued August 1, 1859,° and
1 The position of the mark is not known exactly, nor is the line marked.
2 The British Chart of 1827, and some other maps, mark a lighthouse on
the American shore below Dochet Island, and I supposed the Dochet light
was estabished to replace it, but I am informed by the U. S. Lighthouse
Board that this was not the case. I know nothing of the shore Station.
Among the papers cited by the Lighthouse Board is a letter of 1853 from a
captain who says “A lighthouse upon this [Big, viz., Dochet] Island is very
necessary as the many vessels wrecked upon it abundantly prove.” I have
no information about these wrecks.
? An interesting reference to the Island at this time is given by Willis in
the New England Historical and Genealogical Register, Vol. XV., 1861, p. 212:
“This island is now called Neutral Island. . . . . It has a lighthouse upon
it, with a house for the keeper: is well covered with grass, and has some old
fruit trees, apple and cherry, upon it. I took from it, in the summer of 1860,
some pieces of French bricks, of which there are many fragments remain-
[GANONG] DOCHET (ST. CROIX) ISLAND 217
re-established in October, 1869, since which time the keepers have
been,— Jacob F. Young (November 10, 1869 — December 17, 1875),
Harrison Keen (January 11, 1876—April 28, 1880), and Joseph
Huckins, appointed May 4, 1880, and now in charge, an efficient and
popular official. The lantern carrying a white light flashing every
thirty seconds is built upon the keeper’s house, and is 74 feet above
the sea. Long may it shine for the guidance of good mariners!
Not long after the erection of the lighthouse an attempt was
mad: to re-name the island. The only account of the ceremony
known to me is contained in a footnote in Godfrey’s “ Centennial
Celebration of the Settlement of Bangor,” Bangor, 1870, page 20,
which reads as follows:
This has been called Neutral Island, and Dosquet’s Island. The ‘ Con-
gressional Voyagers ” in the U.S. Cutter Mahoning, along the coast of Maine,
in 1866, having with them Mr. Hilgard, of the U. S. Coast Survey, and several
gentlemen of the Maine Historical Society, voted that the island be hereafter
called Demont’s Island, at the same time giving the proper salute.
The history of this abortive name has been mentioned earlier
in this paper (page 145).
The sale of a part of the island to the United States in 1856
left the remainder still in possession of the heirs of Stephen Brewer.
On May 5, 1869, however, they
in consideration of one hundred dollars paid by Charles H. Newton, Joseph
A. Lee, Herbert Barnard and Benj. F. Kelley .. . . remise release and
forever quit claim . . . . the southerly part of Big Island so called in St.
Croix River, beginning at a mark (x) in the ledge in a small cove on the
westerly side of theisland near highwater mark thence running S. 63°E about
22 rods across the island to a marked birch tree on the easterly bank or shore
of the island, thence following the shore southerly westerly and northerly
around the southerly part of the Island to the mark in the ledge :
containing three acres of upland more or less with the beach and flats per-
taining to the same—meaning to convey all that part of Big Island so called
not heretofore conveyed to the United States of America to the said Newton
ete. (Washington County Deeds, Vol. 122, page 162.)
In the possession of these purchasers, or of their heirs, the
property now stands. It is well known locally that their object in
acquiring the island was to make of it a summer resort, but nothing
was done toward this end beyond stopping the injury done it by the
removal of sand. In this unimproved condition it remains at this
day, a pasture for the light-keeper’s cow, and a picnic ground for
all who care to use it.
ing. I may add that visitors still (1902) take away fragments of ‘ French
brick ”’ to such an extent, as the lightkeeper informs me, that he cannot keep
brick on the island to repair his chimneys !
”
218 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
We have but one more event in the island’s history to record.
In 1885, during the careful survey of this region made by the United
States Coast and Geodetic Survey, the island and its surroundings
were carefully surveyed, and the resultant map of the island, repro-
duced by the kind permission of the Director of the Survey, is given
Statute Miles
Fic. 13.—TJhe United States Coast and Geodetic Survey map of the Island,
1885. From the original MS. sheet in the Archives of the Survey;
original size. From this the map of Fig. 4 was constructed.
herewith (Fig. 13). As earlier explained (page 146), the origin of the
name Hunt’s Island applied to it is not known, nor has the name
persisted.
The present condition of the island is represented in large part
upon the accompanying map (Fig. 14), and more fully by the accom-
panying photographs (Figs. 15-24), all of which were taken by the
author in September, 1902, except No. 15, which was taken a few
years ago.
Such is tke history of Dochet Island, and its state at the present
day.
[GANONG] DOCHET (ST. CROIX) ISLAND 219
4, THE FUTURE TO BE DESIRED FOR DocHET ISLAND.
The future of the part of. the island owned by the United
States is assured; it will remain perpetually the property of the
government, and continue to support the light station, which is here
both indispensable and admirably placed. For the remainder, how-
ever, still in private hands, there are two possible futures, aside of
course, from remaining in its present condition, which cannot con-
tinue indefinitely. First, it will be bought by some person of means
who will build there a summer home, and then it will cease to be
open to all as now, and the public will have a right to visit this part
of the historic island only by courtesy of the owner. Indeed, an
attempt has already been made, but so far unsuccessfully, by a pro-
minent former officer of the United States Government to secure
it for such a purpose. Second, it could be purchased by the State
of Maine as a part of a park system ultimately intended to preserve
for the free use, enjoyment and instruction of the public, all places
of great historic, scenic or other unusual interest in the State. Cer-
tainly it would be a misfortune if even a part of the island in whose
history so many feel a deep interest, and which, by that very fact,
becomes in a measure the property of all, should be closed against
the free access of all who desire to visit it. It is a good thing for
a people to take pride in their history, and this they do the more
if they can study it freely upon the actual sites of their historic
events, and surrounded by the charm which always hovers over places
which have witnessed historic scenes. It would be an enlightened
and public-spirited, and as well a profitable, act for the State of
Maine to take over and care for this place as a contribution to the
higher life and to the education of the people of the State, of the
Union, of America. At no large expense it could be acquired, beau-
tified by the planting of trees, and preserved against farther loss
from the waves, and an understanding could no doubt be effected
with the United States Government for the improvement of the
entire island. The Maine Historical Society would be its natural
custodian or guardian, and could most properly initiate this move-
ment. Further than this, there should be erected upon the island a
suitable monument stating the chief facts in its history and indicating
the principal historic spots upon it. This, indeed, need not wait
for the consummation of the larger plan, but could well be under-
taken by the Maine and New Brunswick Historical Societies jointly.
And there could be no more appropriate time for its dedication than
the ter-centennial of the discovery of the island on June 26, 1904.
220 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
It would be a marked day in the history of Maine and New Bruns-
wick, if, on that three hundredth anniversary of the discovery of
the island, the representatives of the two historical societies and the
people of the river could meet upon the island, and, with dignified
and appropriate ceremonies, dedicate at one and the same time the
island te the free use of the people forever, and a graceful monu-
ment recording the events and commemorating the persons promin-
ent in its history. May the wish prove a prophecy !
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[&ANONG] DOCHET (ST. CROIX) ISLAND 225
Fic. 17.—View of the Island from the north, at high tide, showing its west-
erly slope. The Light-station is in the centre, and the boathouse on
the right. The settlement of de Monts was between the Light-station
and the bank in the foreground.
Fic. 18.—View of the Island from the south, showing the Light-station, the
sandy bluffs forming the southern end of the main island, and the two
nubbles, the Chapel Nubble, with the weir-house, on the left, and
Wright’s Nubble on the right. The gardens of de Monts were between
the Light-station and the sandy bluffs.
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[GANONG ]
[GANONG ] DOCIIET (ST. CROIX) ISLAND
229
. 21.—View from the extreme northern end of the Island looking south
to the Light-station across the site of the settlement of de Monts, which
covered the grassy field in
the foreground. Beyond is the
shore.
American
Ita 22.—View from the Light-station looking north across the site of the set-
tlement of de Monts, which occupied the field in the foreground, espe-
cially the level portion on the right.
Beyond one looks up Oak Bay; in
the centre rises Leighton’s Mountain, to the right of which runs the
Waweig, and to the right of that is McLauchlan’s Mountain.
[GaNnona] DOCHET (ST. CROIX) ISLAND 231
Fic. 23.—View from the Light-station southward across the site of the
gardens of de Monts, now a _ pasture. In the distance lies Little
Dochet, with the American shore beyond; nearer is seen Wright’s
Nubble, and on the right the group of trees crowning the Chapel Nub-
ble. On the extreme right, the two trees mark the edge of the hill
on which the cemetery was placed in 1604, now almost entirely washed
away.
Fic. 24—View from the southeast angle of the Island,
Wright’s Nubble on its rocky ledge is on the left,
the extensive ledges visible at low tide;
bluffs, and beyond is the Chapel Nubble, with the weir house. In the
distance is the American shore.
looking southwest.
and beyond it are
on the right are the sandy
SECTION II., 1902 [2838 } Trans. R. 8. C.
VII.—A Canadian Bibliography of the Year 1901.
By Mr. LAWRENCE J. BURPEE.
(Read May 27, 1902.)
The preparation of the following bibliography was undertaken
at the request of the late Honorary Secretary of the Royal Society.
Sir John Bourinot had for several years advocated the compiling of an
annual Canadian Bibliography, to be published in the Transactions of
the Royal Society, which would cover everything of importance by Can-
adian writers, bearing upon subjects included in the English Litera-
ture section of the Society. He had had some thoughts of attempting
such a bibliography himself—and his admirable bibliography of the
Royal Society proved his special fitness for the present task—but the
pressure of other engagements made it impossible. No other member
of the Royal Society seemed prepared to undertake the bibliography,
and Sir John Bourinot, knowing that I had had some little experience
in work of this nature, asked me to attempt it.
I had several opportunities of discussing the plan and scope of
the proposed work with Sir John Bourinot, and we finally decided
to include, not only books, but, as far as they could be identified,
pamphlets, papers in society transactions, and magazine articles. In
the latter class have keen included quarterly, monthly and weekly
periodicals — everything, in fact, except newspapers. Of course, the
list has not been confined to Canadian periodicals, but includes, as
well, Canadian work in English and American magazines. The con-
tents of Canadian college magazines have also been embodied in the
bibliography. The list is confined to books, articles, etc., in English,
but the original intention to restrict it to subjects covered by the
English Literature section of the Society was not found altogether
feasible, as it was sometimes difficult to define exactly what did and
what did not belong to that section. I have consequently included,
not only material in history, biography, fiction, poetry, archeology,
and other subjects coming within the boundaries of the English Lit-
erature section, but also considerable matter belonging to the Scien-
tific sections. Although these sections have, of recent years, been
fairly well covered by special bibliographies, it did not seem desirable
to exclude anything that might serve to supplement the material they
contained. At the same time, the bibliography does not profess to
he anything like exhaustive, so far as purely scientific publications are
concerned.
234 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA ¥
\
I am indebted to many friends throughout Canada, and abroad,
for assistance in gathering data; and would especially like to acknow-
ledge the very complete list furnished by Mr. Arnold Haultain, of
the writings of Dr. Goldwin Smith. The librarians of the several
Canadian colleges have also been most courteous and helpful. No
pains have been spared to make the bibliography as complete as
possible, both as to the books and articles included, and the data
descriptive of each. Not only has every available source of informa-
tion been personally examined, but, where books or periodicals were
not accessible here, data has been secured from the publishers, or
from the custodians of public libraries. Notices, asking for data
as to privately printed books and books printed abroad, were pub-
lished in the literary weeklies of London, New York, Boston and
Chicago, as well as in newspapers in all the leading Canadian cities.
Finally, to gather up as much as possible of the residue, direct corres-
pondence was had with many Canadian authors, of whose work I felt
that I still had insufficient data. This involved the writing of several
hundred letters. Having exhausted every possible avenue of informa-
tion, I am still only too conscious that the bibliography will show
many omissions and many inaccuracies. For these, in view of the
difficulty of covering, in anything like an exhaustive manner, such a
wide and varied field, one may perhaps claim at least a measure of
indulgence. This bibliography cannot be more disappointing
to others than it is to the compiler. In attempting such a task one
is forcibly reminded of the warning of a veteran bibliographer: “ If
you are troubled with a conceit of accuracy, and would have it com-
pletely taken out of you, prepare a bibliography.”
In addition to the bibliography proper, there will be found an
Index of brief Titles, which may prove of service to those seeking
material on a given topic, rather than the work of a particular author.
Poetry will be found in a section by itself.
It is, of course, patent that the value and usefulness of such a
bibliography as the present depends very largely upon its being con-
tinued from year to year; but one man can hardly be expected to give
ihe time demanded by a task of this magnitude; nor in any event can
one man do it justice. If I may be permitted to make a suggestion, it
is that, in the event of this Canadian Bibliography being continued from
year to year, the work should be divided among a number of men,
each having a special knowledge of the subject entrusted to him. One
might collect the year’s publications in botany, another gather the work
in history, a third deal with geology, a fourth with fiction, and so on,
both in English and French, through the entire range of subjects. The
[BuRPEE] A CANADIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE YEAR 1901 285
material might then be handed to a general editor, thoroughly conver-
sant with bibliography and modern cataloguing rules, who could put it
into uniform shape, arrange it in proper order, bring the data into har-
mony with the most approved practice, and prepare a full index of
titles, with cross-references, subject headings, etc. In this way, a biblio-
graphy would be prepared, year by year, covering the whole field of
human knowledge, so far as Canadian work is concerned; a bibliography
which would be of genuine service to students both at home and abroad,
and alike creditable to Canada and the Royal Socicty.
ASE)
To my lassie (verse).
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVI, 520.
ABBOTT, ALBERT H.
Some photographic reminiscences.
Acla Victoriana, Victoria University, Toronto, XXV, 147.
ADAM, G. MERCER.
Walter Savage Landor, 1775—1864.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVIII, 128.
ADAMS, REV. HENRY F., M.A.
C. H. Spurgeon—An analysis of the great preacher’s power.
Acadia Athaneum, Acadia College, Wolfville, N.S., XXVIII, 11, 66.
ADAMS REV. W. H.
The English Nile.
Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto, LIII, 337.
ADAMS, REV. W. H.
The Markham Memnonites.
Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto, LIV, 395.
ADDISON, MARGARET FE. T.
Glimpses of education in Europe.
Acta Victoriana, Victoria University, Toronto, XXIV, 301.
AHEARN, Mrs. M. H.
The early settlers of March township.
Women’s Canadian Historical Society of Ottawa, Transactions, I, 48.
AHEARN, Mrs. M. H.
Historical Sketch of the 100th Prince of Wales’ Royal Canadian Regi-
ment. :
Women’s Canadian Historical Socicty of Ottawa, Transactions, I, 77.
AHEARN, Mrs. M. H.
Settlers of March township.
Ontario Historical Society, Toronto, Papers and Records, III, 97.
ALEXANDER, C. J.
The woollen industry.
Industrial Canada, Toronto (Convention number), Vol. PES NOs 45
p. 128.
ALEXANDER, W. J., Ph.D.
A school anthology of English poetry. Edited with an introduction
and notes by W. J. Alexander, Ph.D., University College, Toronto.
Toronto, The Copp Clark Co., 8vo., 1901.
ALEXANDER, W. J., Ph.D.
Scott’s “Lay of the Last Minstrel.” Edited with introduction and
notes by W. J. Alexander, Ph.D.
Toronto, The Copp Clark Co., 8vo., 1901.
ALLAN, REV. J. M. ;
His first day in class. (Prof. Charles Macdonald.)
Dalhousie Gazette, Dalhousie University, Halifax, XXXIII, 297.
236 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
ALLEN, A. W.
November (verse).
Acta Victoriana, Victoria University, Toronto, XXV, 60.
ALLEN, GRANT.
Colin Clout’s Calendar (New Ed.).
E. P. Dutton, New York, 12mo., 1901.
ALLEN, GRANT.
Country and Town in England. London, Eng., 1901.
(A book of nature sketches.)
ALLEN, GRANT.
Gilbert White’s “ Natural History of Selborne,” edited with notes by
Grant Allen, and illustrated by Edmund H. New.
London and New York, John Lane, 1901.
ALLEN, GRANT.
The Backslider, London, Eng., 1901.
(A collection of short stories, published after his death.)
ALLEN, (TJ:
Lumbering in New Brunswick.
The University Monthly, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton,
NBs EXT wel
ALLEN, T. J.
Mineral Resources of Albert County.
The University Monthly, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton,
NB x el ode
ALLIN, ARTHUR.
Work and Discipline.
Acta Victoriana, Victoria University, Toronto, XXIV, 339,
ALLISON, WILLIAM TALBOT. 4
The Intendant Talon’s farewell to New France. (Verse.)
Acta Victoriana, Victoria University, Toronto, XXV, 141.
ALLOWAY, MARY W.
Looking Backward.
Rod & Gun in Canada, Montreal, II, 421.
ALWARD, SILAS.
My descent into Hades.
Acadia Atheneum, Acadia College, Wolfville, N.S., XXVIII, 182.
AMI, HENRY M., D.Sc., ETc.
Brief Biographical Sketch of Elkanah Billings.
American Geologist, XXVIII, 67-86.
AMI, HENRY M., D.Sc., ETC.
Dr. G. M. Dawson.
Reprint of article in American Geologist in 1900, with corrections
and additions to bibliography, etc.
AMI, HENRY M., D.Sc., ETC.
Dr. G. M. Dawson.
Events, Ottawa, VII, 311.
ANDERSON, A.. LL.D.
Prof. Chas. Macdonald: An Estimate.
Dalhousie Gazette, Dalhousie University, Halifax, N.S., XXXIII, 282.
ANDERSON, M.
Lundy’s Lane and Stoney Creek. Letters from M. Anderson.
Wentworth Historical Society (Hamilton), Journal and Transactions,
III, 9.
ANGWIN, REv. J. G.
Sailor and Saint. ;
Methodist Magazine & Review, Toronto, LIV, 415. Noe
ARBORY, JOHN. i ,
Old Quebee. (Verse.)
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 357.
[BuRPEE] A CANADIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE YEAR 1901 237
ARMITAGE, REV. W. J., M.A.
The Year-Book of St. Paul’s Church, Halifax, N.S., 1901.
(Contains an historical sketch of St. Paul’s Church, etc.)
ARMSTRONG, LOUIS OLIVER,
Hiawatha or Manabozho; an Ojibway Indian Play.
Privately Printed, Montreal, 1901.
ARMSTRONG, REV. W. D., M.A., PH.D. (Ottawa).
The Ladies College and its place in our educational system.
The Canada Educational Monthly, Toronto, XXIV, 81.
ARNETT, J. H.
A School Problem.
Educational Journal of Western Canada, Winnipeg, III, 37.
ASHMORE, ANNIE.
The Horns of the Altar.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVI, 244.
ASLING, Miss STELLA E.
Historical St. Paul’s,
Wentworth Historical Society (Hamilton), Journal and Transactions,
III, 19.
AYLESWORTH, A. B., K.C.
The Bond Phi Sigma.
University of Toronto Monthly, I, 157.
AYLESWORTH, A. V.
A Director’s Problems. (Kindergarten.)
Ontario Educational Association (Toronto), Transactions, 1901, p. 373.
BC
The war of trade between Great Britain and America.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 68.
18) 5 05 1d}
A poet’s sister.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 64.
Bees:
Summer flowers. (Verse.)
Prince Edward Island Magazine, Charlottetown, II, 353.
Be Re Herc:
The North Pole, Canada’s northern boundary.
University of Ottawa Review, III, 541.
BAILEY, Dr. L. W.
A retrospect.
The University Monthly, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton,
N.B., XX, 114.
at JAMES, LL.D.
Travels and Adventures in Canada and the Indian Territories between
the years 1760 and 1776, by Alexander Henry, Fur Trader. New Edi-
tion, Edited with Notes, Illustrative and Biographical, by James Bain,
Chief Librarian, Toronto Public Library, Toronto.
George N. Morang & Co., Toronto, 8vo., 1901, pp. 347.
BAIN, J. W.
Where engineers are educated.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVI, 497.
BAIN, Hon. THOMAS,
The Speaker and the House of Commons.
Journal and Proceedings of the Hamilton Scientific Association, 1901,
pp. 26-39.
BAIRD, FRANK, M.A. (REvV.).
A Masterpiece of God.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVIII, 148. (See also Dalhousie Gazette,
Dalhousie University, Halifax, N.S., XXXIV, 98.)
BAIRD, FRANK.
Henry Irving as Shylock.
The University Monthly, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton,
NB, Se 170;
238 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
BAKER, NELLIE N.
Among the Doukhobors in Canada.
Missionary Review of the World, Aug., 1901, pp. 575-581.
BALFOUR, GRANT.
Canada my Home.
James Miller Grant, Toronto, 1901.
BALTIMORE, J. MAYNE.
From Mount Robert’s summit.
Canadian Magazine, Foronto, XVII, 429.
BAMBRICK, J.
Traditions of the Early Acadians—Occupation of East River and
St. Peters.
Prince Edward Island Magazine, Charlottetown, II, 360, 395.
BANTON, J. L.
Honesty as an only policy.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 205.
BARKER, J. S.
A Brief History of David Barker, a United Empire Loyalist.
Ontario Historical Society, Papers and Records, III, 168.
BARKER, CAPT, ROK
The Rowing Season of 1901.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVIII, 33.
BARR, ROBERT.
A Prince of Good Fellows. A series of eleven tales, based on the sup-
posed adventures of James V. of Scotland. Illustrated by Edmund
J. Sullivan.
McClure’s Magazine, New York, 1901.
BARR, ROBERT.
The Victors: A Romance of Yesterday Morning and This Afternoon.
New York, I’. A. Stokes Co.; Toronto, The Copp Clark Company, 8vo.,
19015 “pp. 0675:
BARSS, J. EDMUND, M.A.
An Acadia Man.
Acadia Atheneum, Acadia College, Wolfville, N.S., XXVIII, 15.
BARRY, LILY E. F. :
In the Paths of Peace. With illustrations by A. G. Racey.
Montreal, The Canada Engraving and Litho. Co., 8vo., 1901, pp. 310.
BAYFIELD, H. A., B.A., Sc.
A day with Pheasants in Vancouver Island.
Prince Edward Island Magazine, Charlottetown, ITI, 354.
BEATON, WELFORD W.
Reveries of an angler.
Rod and Gun in Canada, Montreal, IT, 500.
BEGG, ALEXANDER,
Review of the Alaska Boundary Question.
Scottish Geographical Magazine, January and February, 1901, pp. 30-40
and 86-96.
BELL, F. H.
Recollections (of Prof. Charles Macdonald).
Dalhousie Gazette, Dalhousie University, Halifax, N.S., XX XIII, 263.
BELL, J. M.
Explorations in the Great Bear region.
Geographical Journal, London, XVIII, 249.
BeLi;, ROBERT, MD,, CM, Li D.,, F'R.8:C:
Legends of the Slavey Indians of the Mackenzie River.
Journal of American Folk-Lore, XIV, 26-29.
BELLINGHAM, HENRIETTA G.
Quebec Cathedral. (Verse.)
North American Notes & Queries, Quebec, I, 260.
[BURPEE] A CANADIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE YEAR 1901 289
BENGOUGH, J. W.
Scenes from a Sky-Pilot’s Parish, “Al.”
Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto, LIV, 76.
BENNETT, C. V., B.A. (Barrie, Ont.).
Tiberius: A character sketch.
Ontario Educational Association, Proceedings, Toronto, 230.
BENSLEY, B. ARTHUR, B.A. (late Fellow in Biology, University of Toronto).
The Sardine Industry in relation to the Canadian Herring Fisheries.
Contributions to Canadian Biology, 1901 (Supplement to the 32nd
Annual Report of the Department of Marine and Fisheries, Otta-
Wa). p. 59.
BERNARD, GEORGE.
The Coming Rise in Prices.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 168.
BERNARD, GEORGE.
Postage on Periodicals.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 228.
BERNARD, GEORGE.
A New Departure.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 103.
BERNIER, CAPTAIN J. EH. (Quebec).
A Canadian Polar Expedition.
Proscedings Royal Canadian Institute, London, XXXII, 99.
BERR, RENE PP PRE "A
Missions and the Social Problems.
Methodist Magazine & Review, Toronto, LIV, 242.
BIGGAR, H. P., B.A., B.Litt. (Oxon.)
Early trading companies of New France. A contribution to the his-
tory of commerce and discovery in North America. H. P. Biggar,
B.A., B.Litt., University of Toronto.
Toronto, The University Library, 1901, pp. XII, 308. (University of
Toronto Studies in History. Edited by G. M. Wrong, M.A.)
BIGGAR, H. P., B.A., B.Litt. (Oxon.)
The French Hakluyt; Mare Lescarbot of Vervins.
The American Historical Review, July, 1901, pp. 671-692.
BILL, REV. INGRAM, M.A.
An educated gentleman.
Acadia Atheneum, Acadia College, Wolfville, N.S., XVIII, 61.
BILL, REV. INGRAM, M.A.
Shipping upon the Great Lakes.
Acadia Atheneum, Acadia College, Wolfville, N.S., XXVIII, 10.
BINDLOSS, HAROLD.
The epic of a prairie farm.
Methodist Magazine & Review, Toronto, LIV, 28.
BINDLOSS, HAROLD.
The evolution of a wheat crop.
Liltell's Living Age, New York, CCX XVIII, 48.
BINDLOSS, HAROLD.
Forest clearing in British Columbia.
The imperial and Colonial Magazine, London, III, No. 1, pp. 81-95.
BINDLOSS. HAROLD.
A sower of wheat.
London, Chatto & Windus.
Toronto, The Copp Clark Company, 8vo., 1901, p. 272.
BisHOP, M. BLANCHE, M.A.
The star in the east (verse).
Acadia Atheneum, Acadia College, Wolfville, N.S., XXVIII, 108.
BLACK, NORMAN F.. (Lindsay, Ont.)
Public school text-books.
Ontario Educational Association, Transactions, Toronto, 267.
=
240 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
BLAKE, W. H., B.A.
Professor Young in the lecture room.
The University of Toronto Monthly, I, 63.
BLEWETT, JEAN.
At Eastertide (verse).
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVI, 559.
BLEWETT, JEAN.
Grown Baby.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 116.
BLEWETT, JEAN.
A grey day and a golden.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 548.
BLUE, ARCHIBALD.
Notes on skulls taken from a prehistoric fort in Kent County.
Proceedings Canadian Institute, Toronto, II, 93-95.
BLUNT, J. E., C.B.
: Brigands and Brigandage.
Year Book of Victoria Club, Boston, 1901.
Bouton, Mrs. C. E. (Bellwood, Ont.)
Some phases of infant mind.
Doninion Educational Association, Addresses and Transactions,
Ottawa, 390.
BONE, JOHN R.
A new Canadian industry.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 564.
Bonis, HENRY, B.A.
Aims and methods in teaching Latin.
The Canada Educational Monthly, Torontot, XXIV, 102.
Bonis, HENRY, B.A.
Teaching grammar.
The Canada Educational Monthly, Toronto, XXIV, 102.
BOUCHER DE LA BRUERE, Hon. P., D.C.L. (Superintendent of Public Instruc-
tion for the Province of Quebec).
Educational Bureau for the Dominion of Canada.
Dominion Educational Association, Addresses and ‘Transactions,
Ottawa, 76.
Bourinot, Sir JOHN GEORGE, K.C.M.G., LL.D., F.R.S.C., ete.
British rule in the Dominion of Canada.
Forum, New York, March, 1901, pp. 1-14.
BoURINOT, SIR JOHN GEORGE, K.C.M.G., ete.
Builders of Nova Scotia.
Methodist Magazine & Review, Toronto, LIV, 105, 195, 301.
BouRINOT, SIR JOHN GEORGE, Ke GIMAG:; Etc:
Canada in the Nineteenth Century.
(In “ The Nineteenth Century: A Review of Progress.” By Cue:
Nott and others.) New York, 1901.
BouRINoT, Str JOHN GEORGE, K.C.M.G., elec.
Canada under British Rule, 1760-1900. With eight maps.
The Copp Clark Co., Toronto, 8vo., 1901, pp. 346.
BOURINOT, SIR JOHN GEORGE, K.C.M.G., etc.
A manual of the constitutional history of Canada from the earliest
period to 1901, including the British North America Act of 1867, a
digest of the judicial decisions on important questions of legislative
jurisdiction, and observations on the working of parliamentary gov-
ernment. (New edition, revised and enlarged.)
The Copp Clark Co., Toronto, 8vo., 1901, pp. 246.
BOURINOT, SIR JOHN GEORGE, K.C.M.G., etc.
The political institutions of Canada: A constitutional study.
The Imperial & Colonial Magazine & Review, London, March and
April, 1901, pp. 201-208 and 302-310.
[gurPee] A CANADIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE YEAR 1901 241
BouRINOT, SIR JOHN GEORGE, K.C.M.G., etc.
The United Empire Loyalists.
Paper read before the London and Middlesex Historical Society, Lon-
don, Ont., and published in the London Free Press, Jan. 17th, 1901.
BOURINOT, SIR JOHN GEORGE, K.C.M.G., etc.
Royal visits to Canada.
Forum, New York, September, 1901.
Empire Review, London, October, 1901.
Boxp, Hon. Sir J. A. (Chancellor).
The bar dinner (1901).
The Canada Educational Monthly, Toronto, XXIV, 57.
Boyp, S. J. A. (Exeter, Ont.)
How can we secure desirable changes in our public school regulations?
Ontario Educational Association, Transactions, Toronto, 364.
Boxp, W. H.
A day’s visit to the Atlin Glacier.
McMaster University Monthly, Toronto, X, 303.
BoyYLE, DAVID.
On the paganism of the Iroquois of Ontario.
Annual Archeological Report (being part of appendix to the report
of the Minister of Education, Ontario, for the year 1901), 32.
BoyYLb, DAVID.
The philosophy of folk-lore.
Annual Archeological Report, etc., 125.
BoyLE, DAVID.
Portrait of Father Marquette.
Ontario Historical Society, Papers and Records, Toronto, III, 167.
(BoYLE, DAVID).
(Earthwork in Township of Moore.
Annual Archeological Report, etc., 32.
(BOYLE, DAVID).
Mounds generally.
Annual Archeological Report, etc., 30.
(BOYLE, DAVID).
Ossuary in Clinton township, Lincoln county.
Annual Archeological Report, etc., 22.
(BOYLE, DAVID).
Yellow Point Mound.
Annual Archeological Report, etc. 25.
Boys, WILLIAM, F. A., LL.B. (Senior County Judge of the County of Simcoe,
Ontario).
Early days of the University (of Toronto).
Supplement to the University of Toronto Monthly, II, 3 (December),
pp. 36.
BRADLEY, A. G.
Chronicles of the Hudsons Bay Company.
Macmillan’s Magazine, London, February, 1901, pp. 231-240.
BRAID, M. H.
Cairo and its panorama,
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 399.
BRAITHWAITE, HENRY (and RISTEEN, F. H.)
How to build a bark canoe.
Rod and Gun in Canada, Montreal, II, 477.
BRAMBLE, CHARLES A,
The moose.
Rod and Gun in Canada, Montreal, II, 450.
BRAMBLE, CHARLES A.
Regarding woodcock.
Rod and Gun in Canada, Montreal, II, 416.
242 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
B(RAMBLE), CHARLES A.
Hints from a dog.
Rod and Gun in Canada, Montreal, II, 443.
BRIDCRS Es. (St. Johns NE.)
Attention in the school—how it may be secured.
Dominion Educational Association, Addresses and Transactions,
Ottawa, 356.
BRITTAIN, JOHN (Normal School, Fredericton, N.B.)
Bulletin of Nature Studies.
J. & A. McMillan, St. John, N.B., 1901.
BRITTAIN, JOHN.
Object lessons and nature study.
The Educational Review; St. John, N.B., XIV, 216, 241.
BRITTAIN, JOHN.
Public school education in New Brunswick.
Dominion Educational Association, Addresses and Transactions,
Ottawa, 138.
BRITTAIN, JOHN.
The question of time.
The Educational Review, St. John, N.B., XIV, 164.
BRODIE, DR. WILLIAM.
Animal remains on Indian village sites.
Annual Archeological Report (being part of appendix to report of
Minister of Education, Ontario, 1901), 44.
BROUGH, T. A., BUA:
Composition.
The Canada Educational Monthly, Toronto, XXIV, 71.
BROWN, J. H.
The art of poetry.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 42.
BROWN, J. H.
Politics.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 18.
BROWN, J. H.
Walt Whitman, poet and seer.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 146, 166.
BROWN, REV. J. W., PH.D.
Anti-Rationalism in the Early Christian Church, as represented by
Tertullian and Arnobius. ;
Acadia Atheneum, Acadia College, Wolfville, N.S., XXVIII, 1.
BROWN, L.
A service at the Metropolitan Tabernacle.
McMaster University Monthly, Toronto, X, 195.
Brown, L. D.
Indian occupation in Nissiouri.
Annual Archeological Report, Ontario, 38.
Brown, R. H.
The habits of ruffed grouse.
Rod and Gun in Canada, Montreal, II, 502.
BROWN, ROBERT.
About Cape Breton. (Pamphlet).
Reprinted from Year-Book of Victorian Club, Boston, 1901, pp. 8.
BROWNE, REV. ADDISON.
Strength.
Acadia Athenœum, Acadia College, Wolfville, N.S., XXVIII, 7.
BROWNE, R. H.
Land tenure in Canada.
Report of the Commissioner of Crown Lands for Ontario, Toronto, 1901.
BROWNING, REV. A.
The conversion of Mametoose, Jun.
Metiodist Magazine & Review, Toronto, LIII, 252.
[surPgx] A CANADIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE YEAR 1901 248
BROWNING, REV. A.
Founder of empire.
Methodist Magazine & Review, Toronto, LIII, 63.
BROWNING, REv. A.
Jonah on board a man-of-war.
Methodist Magazine & Review, Toronto, LIII, 456.
BROWNING, REv. A.
The unanswered letter.
Methodist Magazine & Review, Toronto, LIV, 344.
BRYAN, CLAUDE.
Canadian voyageurs.
Empire Review, London, July, 1901.
BRYAN, CLAUDE.
The Duke and Duchess of York at home.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 501.
BRYAN, CLAUDE.
An Indian lullaby (verse).
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVI, 234.
BRYAN, CLAUDE.
Exploring in Ontario.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVI, 303.
BRYAN, CLAUDE.
The lost cargo.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 58.
BRYAN, CLAUDE.
A pair of lunatics.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 378.
BRYAN, CLAUDE.
Winston Churchill.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVI, 344.
BRYCE, GEORGE, LL.D., F.R.S.C.
Manitoba College thirty years old (pamphlet).
Winnipeg, 1901.
BRYDONE-JACK, PROFESSOR E.
The management and direction of steel bridge and structural wort,
The University Monthly, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton,
NB ol, 30:
BRYMNER, DOUGLAS, LL.D., F.R.S.C.
Report on Canadian Archives.
Government Printing Bureau, Ottawa, 1901.
BURBIDGE, Hon. G. W. (Judge, Exchequer Court of Canada).
The parent’s responsibility to the state.
Dominion Educational Association, Addresses and Transactions,
Ottawa, 386.
Burns, H.
Some points of interest/in Albert County (New Brunswick).
The University Monthly, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton,
NB SG 120:
BURPEE, LAWRENCE J.
Blackmore and Lorna Doone.
The Critic, New York, XXIX, 307.
BURPEE, LAWRENCE J.
Canadian novels and novelists. ;
Reprinted from Transactions of the Literary and Scientific Society oy
Ottawa. pp. 28.
BURPEE, LAWRENCE J.
A Canadian poet: Isabella Valency Crawford.
Poet-Lore, Boston, vol. XIII (mew series, V), 575.
ù Sec. II., 1902. 15.
244 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
BURPEE, LAWRENCE J.
Canadian fiction.
World Wide, Montreal, I, 508.
BURPEE, LAWRENCE J.
Canadian prose writers.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 108, 130.
BURPEE, LAWRENCE J.
Canadian verse writers.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 85.
BURPEE, LAWRENCE J.
The Elizabeth books, and The Golden Age.
Events, Ottawa, VII, 633.
BURPEE, LAWRENCE J.
Charles Heavysege (with portrait).
Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, Second Series, Vol. VII,
Sec. II, p. 19.
BURPEE, LAWRENCE J.
Archibald Lampman.
Events, Ottawa, VII, 149.
BURPEE, LAWRENCE J.
Review of ‘‘ Life and Letters of Huxley.”
Events, Ottawa, 1901.
BURPEE, LAWRENCE J.
Review of “ Life of Parkman.”
Events, Ottawa, 1901.
BURPEE, LAWRENCE J.
Review of Morley’s ‘‘ Cromwell.”
Events, Ottawa, 1901.
BURPEE, LAWRENCE J.
Review of Rosebery’s ‘‘ Napoleon.”
Events, Ottawa, 1901.
BURPEE, LAWRENCE J.
Stories of French Canada.
Events, Ottawa, VII, 22.
BURPEE, LAWRENCE J.
An unconscious humorist.
Acta Victoriana, Victoria University, Toronto, XXIV, 198.
BuRRITT, Mrs. ALEXANDER.
Early settlement of Grenville County.
Women’s Canadian Historical Society of Ottawa, Transactions, I, 61.
BURRITT, Mrs. ALEXANDER.
The settlement of the County of Grenville.
Ontario Historical Society, Papers and Records, Toronto, III, 102.
BURRITT, JAMES H., B.A. (Pembroke, Ont.)
Voluntary schools. :
Ontario Educational Association, Transactions, Toronto, 432.
BuRWASH, E. M.
Winchester and the millenary.
Acta Victoriana, Victoria University, Toronto, XXV, 49.
BuRWASH, REV. N., S.T.D., LL.D.
A manual of Christian theology.
William Briggs, Toronto, 8vo., 1901.
BURWASH, REV. N., S.T.D., LL.D.
The nineteenth century.
Methodist Magazine & Review, Toronto, LIII, 95.
BuRWASH, REV. N., S.T.D., LL.D.
Nineteenth century theology: Its tendencies and probable outcome.
Methodist Magazine & Review, Toronto, LIII, 166.
BuRWASH, REV. N., S.T.D., LL.D.
The Queen.
Acta Victoriana, Victoria University, Toronto, XXIV, 243.
[BurPee] A CANADIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE YEAR 1901
BuRWASH, REV. N., S.T.D., LL.D.
The University Bill.
Acta Victoriana, Victoria University, Toronto, XXIV, 353.
BYRNE, SAMUEL.
Canada’s commercial metropolis (Montreal).
Catholic World, July, 1901.
Oh) INGER
A day afield.
Rod and Gun in Canada, Montreal, II, 419.
Cza:saR, L., B.A: (Port Hope, Ont.)
Roman ruins: a ramble in an Oxford vacation.
Ontario Educational Association, Toronto, 222.
Catus, A. W.
Spooks—an incident of the last century.
McMaster University Monthly, Toronto, X, 319.
CAMERON, A.
‘ Have ” rimes.
The Educational Review, St. John, N.B., XIV, 242.
CAMERON, A.
The King’s English.
The Educational Review, St. John, N.B., XIV, 197.
CAMERON, A.
Misquotations and other things.
The Educational Review, St. John, N.B., XIV, 218.
CAMERON, A.
‘“ Scotsman.,”’
The Educational Review, St. John, N.B., XV, 8.
CAMERON, AGNES DEANS.
245
Can character be modified by education? If so, to what extent?
Canada Educational Monthly, Toronto, XXIV, 87.
CAMERON, AGNES DEANS.
The end of the story.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 229.
CAMERON, AGNES DEANS.
Kipling.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 127.
CAMERON, AGNES DEANS.
Lest we forget: A forgotten corner in a far-off colony.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 96.
CAMERON. AGNES DEANS.
A new year’s Call.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 170.
CAMERON. AGNES DEANS.
Our American cousins and patriotism.
Educational Journal of Western Canada, Winnipeg, III, 49.
CAMERON, AGNES DEANS.
Wihere west is east and east is west.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 45.
CAMERON, J. HOME, M.A. (University of Toronto).
Elements of French composition.
Henry Holt & Co., New York, 8vo, 1901.
CAMERON, JOHN.
Wild fowl and birds of passage.
Paper read before the Oxford Historical Society, Woodstock, Ont.
on the 21st February, 1901.
CAMERON, P.
Christian science.
Queen’s Quarterly, Queen’s University, Kingston, VIII, 170.
CAMPBELL, A. C.
Britain’s rivals and Britain’s trade.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 147.
246 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
CAMPBELL, A. C.
A message to Spirit River.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 30.
CAMPBELL, A. C.
The progress of the single tax.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 186.
CAMPBELL, A. C.
The question for the twentieth century.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 14.
CAMPBELL, A. C.
Review of ‘The life of Henry George, by his son, Henry George, Jr.”
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 16.
CAMPBELL, CL. T., M.D.
The founding of London.
Paper read before the London and Middlesex Historical Society, Lon-
don, Ont., and printed in extenso in the London Free Press and the
London Advertiser, on the 25th October, 1901.
CAMPBELL, Cu. T., M.D.
Studying early history.
Paper read before the London and Middlesex Historical Society, Lon-
don. Ont., and printed in extenso in the London Advertiser, Nov.
28th, 1901.
CAMPBELL, F. J.
The yachting season of 1901.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVIII, 43.
CAMPBELL, REV. JOHN, LL.D., F.R.S.C.
Spanish documents relative to the Canary Islands.
Transactions of the Canadian Institute, Toronto, Vol. VII, Part I,
No. 13, p. 29:
CAMPBELL, REV. JOHN, LL.D., F.R.S.C.
Talks about books.
Presbyterian College Journal, Montreal, 1901.
CAMPBELL, JOHN W.
Wallace and Canada (verse).
Copyright, 15 Nov., 1901.
CAMPBELL, RODERICK, F.R.G.S.
The father of St. Kilda; twenty years in isdlation in the subarctic
territory of the Hudson’s Bay Company. By Roderick Campbell,
F.R.G.S., with portrait, London.
W. R. Russell & Co., Ltd., 1901, pp. XV, 327.
CAMPBELL, WILLIAM WILFRED, F.R.S.C.
Britain. (verse).
Wesiminster Gazette, London, Sept., 1901.
CAMPBELL, WILLIAM WILFRED, F.R.S.C.
The Dryad’s house. (verse).
Spectator, London, December, 1901.
CAMPBELL, WILLIAM WILFRED, F.R.S.C.
Glen Hila. (verse).
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVI, 136.
CAMPBELL, WILLIAM WILFRED, F.R.S.C.
The home of song. (verse).
The Outlook, London, September, 1901.
CAMPBELL, WILLIAM WILFRED, F.R.S.C.
A series of sonnets: September, Our Heritage, etc.
Literature, London, Sept., Oct., etc., 1901.
CAMPBELL, WILLIAM WILFRED, F.R.S.C.
The vanguard: A poem for the new century (pamphlet).
Privately printed, Jan. 1st, 1901.
CAMPBELL,. WILLIAM WILFRED, F.R.S.C.
Victoria Regina. (verse).
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 20.
Also Methodist Magazine & Review, Toronto, LIV, 14.
[BurPEE] A CANADIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE YEAR 1901 247
CAMPBELL, WILLIAM WILFRED, F.R.S.C.
Wind: A lyric of summer. (verse).
Atlantic Monthly, Boston (August, 1901), LXXXVIII, 135.
CAMPBELL, MRS. W. W.
Origin of Canadian people.
Women’s Canadian Historical Society of Ottawa, Transactions, I, 127.
CAPPON, JAMES, M.A. (Professor of English, Queen’s University, Kingston,
Ont.).
Britain’s title in South Africa.
MacMillan & Co., London, 1901.
CAPPON, JAMES, M.A. (Professor of English, Queen’s University, Kingston,
Ont.).
Kruger, Hofmeyr and the Bond.
Queen’s Quarterly, Kingston, Ont., April, 1901.
CAPPON, JAMES, M.A. (Professor of English, Queen’s University, Kingston,
Ont.).
Mark Twain as the American conscience.
Queen’s Quarterly, Kingston, Ont., April, 1901.
CAPTAIN, THE.
A honeymoon in a sailing dinghy.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVI, 434.
CARLING, SIR JOHN.
London pioneers,
Paper read before the London and Middlesex Historical Society, Lon-
don, Ont., and printed in the London Free Press, Nov. 20th, 1901.
CARMAN, REV. ALBERT, D.D.
Queen Victoria—The elements of her greatness.
Methodist Magazine & Review, Toronto, LIII, 209.
CARMAN, ALBERT R.
A visit to Westminster.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVIII, 122.
CARMAN, Buiss (and HOvVEY, RICHARD).
Last songs from vagabondia.
Small, Maynard & Co., Boston, 12mo., 1901, pp. 79.
CARMAN, BLISs.
May and June (verse).
Living Age, New York, CCXXIX, 68.
CARMAN, BLISs.
Pictor ignotus (verse).
Cosmopolitan, New York, XXX, 248.
CARMAN, BLISS.
The point of view (verse).
The Outlook, New York, LXVIII, 787.
CARMAN, BLISS.
Tidings to Olaf (verse).
North American, Philadelphia, CLX XIII, 857.
CARNOCHAN, JANET (Miss).
Early records of St. Mark’s and St. Andrew’s churches, Niagara.
Baptisms in Niagara (Rev. Robert Addison).
Weddings at Niagara, 1792.
Burials, Niagara, 1792.
Register of baptisms, commencing 29th June, 1817, Township of
Grimsby.
Register of marriages, township of Grimsby, U.C., commencing Aug.,
1817.
Register of burials in the township of Grimsby.
Register of christenings in the Presbyterian Congregation, township
of Newark, Upper Canada.
Register of births and baptisms, St. Andrew’s church, Niagara.
Marriages celebrated by Rev. Robert McGill.
Ontario Historical Society, Papers and Records, Toronto, Vol.
III, 7-86.
248 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
CARNOCHAN, JANET (MIss).
Count de Puisaye; or, a forgotten page of Canadian history.
Niagara Historical Society, Transaction No. 8.
CARNOCHAN, JANET (MIss).
Inscriptions and graves in Niagara Peninsula.
Niagara Historical Society, Transaction No. 8.
CARNOCHAN, JANET (MIss).
The problem of English composition in the high school.
Dominion Educational Association, Addresses and ‘Transactions,
Ottawa, 272.
CARSTAIRS, JOHN STEWART, B.A.
The culture-value of history.
Ontario Educational Association, Proceedings, Toronto, 299.
CARSTAIRS, JOHN STEWART, B.A.
Review of Chesnel’s ‘ Histoire de Cavelier de la Salle.”
Review of Historical Publications Relating to Canada. The University
of Toronto. Published by the Librarian, VI, 31.
CARSTAIRS, JOHN STEWART, B.A.
Review of Cumberland’s ‘“ History of the Union Jack.”
Review of Historical Publications Relating to Canada, VI, 13.
CARSTAIRS, JOHN STEWART, B.A.
Review of Green’s ‘‘ William Pitt, Earl of Chatham.”
Review of Historical Publications Relating to Canada, VI, 35.
CARSTAIRS, JOHN STEWART, B.A.
Review of Hopkins’ ‘‘ Progress of Canada in the Century.”
Review of Historical Publications Relating to Canada, VI, 18.
CARSTAIRS, JOHN STEWART, B.A.
Review of Townshend’s ‘Military Life of Field-Marshal George, First
Marquess Townshend.
Review of Historical Publications Relating to Canada, VI, 37.
CARTWRIGHT, CONWAY (REV.)
Personal reminiscences of Bishop Strachan.
Queen’s Quarterly, Queen’s University, Kingston, IX, 24.
CASSELMAN, A. C. (Toronto).
The German U.E. Loyalists of the County of Dundas.
Toronto, 8vo., 1901.
CASSIDY, JAMES.
Coal fields of Canada.
Chambers’ Journal, London, Eng., LXXVIII, 310.
CATES, W. G.
Imperial proposals.
Acta Victoriana, Victoria University, Toronto, XXIV, 342
CHAMBERLAIN, ALEXANDER F.
Kootenay group-drawings.
American Anthropologist. N.S., Vol. III, 248-56.
CHAMBERLAIN, ALEXANDER F.
Kootenay ‘‘ Medicine-Men.”
Journal of American Folk-Lore, XIV, 95-99.
CHAMBERLAIN, ALEXANDER F.
Some items of Algonkian Folk-Lore.
Journal of American Folk-Lore, XIII, 271-277.
CHAMBERLAIN, ALEXANDER F.
Translation: A study in the transference of folk-thought.
Journal of American Folk-Lore, XIV, 165-172.
CHAMPION, REv. J. B.
The strenuous life.
Acadia Atheneum, Acadia College, Wolfville, N.S., XXVIII, 112.
CHARLTON, JOHN, M.P.
Annexation vs. Imperialism.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVI, 215.
[BurPEz] A CANADIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE YEAR 1901 249
CHESLEY, EGBERT M., M.A.
The ideal philosophy of Leibnitz.
Acadia Atheneum, Acadia University, Wolfville, N.S., XXVIII, 262.
CHIPMAN, W. F.
February the 2nd (verse).
McGill Outlook, McGill University, III, 1382.
CHOWN, ALICE A.
The supplement of higher education for women.
Methodist Magazine & Review, Toronto, LIV, 443.
CHURCHILL, HELEN T.
Curious addresses.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVI, 220.
CLARK, JEREMIAH S.
Meskeek-Uum-Pudas (verse).
Acadia Atheneum, Acadia College, Wolfville, N.S., XXVIII, 60.
CLARK, JOSEPH T.
The Duke: A passing glimpse.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVIII, 3.
CLARK, PROFESSOR WILLIAM, D.C.L., F.R.S.C.
The death of the Queen.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVI, 402.
CLARK, PROFESSOR WILLIAM, D.C.L., F.R.S.C.
Significance of Easter.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVI, 505.
CLARK, PROFESSOR WILLIAM, D.C.L., F.R.S.C.
University education for the clergy.
University of Toronto Monthly, Toronto, I, 244.
CLARK, PROFESSOR WILLIAM, D.C.L., F.R.S.C.
The work of the Royal Society.
Canada Educational Monthly, Toronto, XXIV, 161.
CLARK, WILLIAM MORTIMER, K.C.
An Oriental university.
University of Toronto Monthly, Toronto, I, 291.
CLARKE, DR. C. K.
The outlook for Rugby in Ontario.
Queen's College Journal, Kingston, XXIX, 36.
CLARKE, C. LANGTON.
Alias ‘‘ Jackson.”’
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 368.
CLARKE, C. LANGTON.
Iolanthe.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVI, 257.
CLARKE, G. HERBERT.
Bounty (verse).
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 529.
CLARKSON, C., B.A. (and REYNAR, A. H.)
Annotated edition of Scott’s ‘“ Lay of the Last Minstrel.”
Toronto, W. J. Gage & Co., 1901.
CLAWSON, J. W.
Siderial astronomy.
The University Monthly, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton,
INGE een 4a,
CLAWSON, W. H.
The poetry of Archibald Lampman.
The University Monthly, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton,
INGB NET 724
CLENDENNAN, D. W.
Some Presbyterian U.E. Loyalists (United Empire Loyalists).
Ontario Historical Society, Papers and Records, Toronto, III, 117.
230 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
CLEVELAND, BERT MARIE.
Sunset (verse).
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVI, 428.
CoaTEs, HARPER H., B.A., B.D.
Civilization in Japan.
Acta Victoriana, Victoria University, Toronto, XXIV, 313.
COLEMAN, PROFESSOR A, P.
The new science building.
The University of Toronto Monthly, Toronto, I, 6.
COLQUHOUN, ARTHUR H. U.
A century of Canadian magazines.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 141.
COLQUHOUN, ARTHUR H. U.
Did Wolfe take Quebec?
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 471.
COLQUHOUN, ARTHUR H. U.
Prime ministers of the Queen.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVI, 408.
CoLQUHOUN, ARTHUR H. U.
Roosevelt and Canada.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 183.
COLQUHOUN, ARTHUR H. U.
Significance of the royal visit.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 495.
COMPTON, HUBERT.
Some recollections of Richmond Bay.
Prince Edward Island Magazine, Charlottetown, II, 366.
CONANT, THOMAS.
Re-afforesting Older Ontario.
Rod and Gun in Canada, Montreal, II, 481.
CONNOR, RALPH (see GORDON, REV. CHARLES W.)
Cook, REv. W. A., B.A. (Thorold, Ont.)
The whole Bible should be a text-book in our public schools.
Ontario Educational Association, Proceedings, Toronto, 436.
COOPER, JOHN A.
Canada under Victoria, being four chapters contributed to a volume,
entitled ‘(Queen Victoria,” published by the World Publishing Company,
Guelph, Ont., and now reprinted for private circulation.
Toronto, 1901, pp. 70.
COOPER, JOHN A.
The Canadian mint.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 197.
CooPER, JOHN A.
The failure of the Pan-American.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVIII, 99.
CooPER, JOHN A.
The first Imperial Federationist.
Acta Victoriana, Victoria University, Toronto, XXV, 112.
COOPER, JOHN A.
The King and the university.
University of Toronto Monthly, Toronto, II, 11.
COOPER, JOHN A.
Making one hundred magazines.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 194.
COOPER, JOHN A. ‘
Review of Hall Caine’s ‘‘ The Eternal City.’”’
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVIII, 72.
COPLAND, JOHN A.
A meteor king.
Copyright, 16th February, 1901.
{[surpxe] A CANADIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE YEAR 1901
COPELAND, AGNES GROTE.
Memoires (verse).
Privately printed, Toronto, 1901.
COPELAND, AGNES GROTE.
On the sunset sea (verse).
Privately printed, Toronto, 1901.
COPELAND, AGNES GROTE.
The queen’s soliloquy (verse).
Privately printed, Toronto, 1901.
. COTES, Mrs. EVERARD (Sara Jeannette Duncan).
The crow’s nest.
Methuen, London. Dodd, Mead & Co., New York, 8vo., 1901.
CotTrEs, Mrs. EVERARD (Sara Jeannette Duncan).
A mother in India (a novelette).
Scribners, New York, 1901.
CRAGG, NORMAN W.
Not without avail.
Methodist Magazine & Review, Toronto, LIV, 174.
COULTHARD, G. C. (Miss).
A visit to the House of Lords.
251
The University Monthly, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton,
INNS execs:
Cox, W. SHERWOOD.
La cravate rouge: A French-Canadian sketch.
McMaster University Monthly, Toronto, X, 151.
Cox, W. SHERWOOD.
The spring that did not fall.
McMaster University Monthly, Toronto, X, 289.
COYNE, JAMES H., B.A.
A century of achievement.
Methodist Magazine & Review, Toronto, LIII, 50, 117.
CRAICK, W. ARNOT.
Port Hope: Historical sketches. (Ilustrated.).
Copyright, 26 November, 1901.
CRAWFORD, H. J.
Physical training at the university.
University of Toronto Monthly, Toronto, I, 200.
CREED, H.C); LETT. D.
Physical education, its place and scope.
Acadia Atheneum, Acadia University, Wolfville, N.S., XXVIII, 18.
CREIGHTON, G, (Inspector of Schools, Halifax).
Education in Nova Scotia.
Dominion Educational Association, Transactions, Ottawa, 350.
CROFTON, F. BLAKE.
Our fighting vocabulary.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 52.
CROMPTON, PHŒBE.
The leaden heel.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 50.
Cross, G. W.
The Testament theology: Gould.
McMaster University Monthly, Toronto, X, 146.
CROSS EH:
Technical schools.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 106.
CRUIKSHANK, LiIEuT.-Cou. E.
Records of the services of Canadian regiments in the war of 1812.
Part VI. Canadian Voltigeurs.
Proceedings Canadian Military Institute, Toronto, 1901.
252 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA N
CRUIKSHANK, LIEUT.-COL. E.
Review of Codman’s ‘ Arnold’s Expedition to Quebec.”
Review of Historical Publications relating to Canada. The University
of Toronto. Published by the Librarian, VI, 47.
CRUIKSHANK, LIEUT.-COL. E.
Review of Halsey’s ‘ The Old New York Frontier.”
Review of Historical Publications relating to Canada. VI, 28.
CRUIKSHANK, LIEUT.-COL. E.
Review of Hannay’s ‘ War of 1812.”
Review of Historical Publications relating to Canada. VI, 53.
CRUIKSHANK, LIEUT.-COL. E.
Review of Roosevelt’s ‘‘ War with the U.S., 1812-1815.”
Review of Historical Publications relating to Canada. VI, 53.
CUMBERLAND, BARLOW.
The story of a university building.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 235.
CUMMING, L. H., LL.B.
The Clayton-Bulwer and Hay-Pauncefote Treaties.
Dalhousie Gazette, Dalhousie University, Halifax, XXXIII, 314,
CUMMINGS, JAMES.
South Africa and Canadian manufactures.
Industrial Canada, Toronto (convention number), Vol. II, No. 4,
p. 124.
CURRIE, MRs.
Story of Laura Secord, and Canadian reminiscences.
Wm. Briggs, Toronto, 8vo., 1901.
CURRIE, P. W.
Ancient drainage of Niagara Falls.
Transactions of the Canadian Institute, Toronto, Vol. VI, Part I, p. 7.
DAFOE, JOHN W.
A call from the gorge: A story of the rivermen of Ottawa.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVIII, 65.
DAVIDSON, JOHN, D.PHIL. (Professor of Political Economy in the University
of New Brunswick.)
The Canadian census.
British Economic Journal, London (Dec., 1901), XI, 595.
DAVIDSON, REv. J. W., B.A., B.D.
The Kaffir missionary Soga.
Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto, LIV, 232.
DAVIN, NICHOLAS FLOOD.
In memory of the Queen. An Address. (Pamphlet), 1901.
Dawson, Miss M., B.Sc.
Anatomical characters of ‘ Indian Soap.”
Transactions of the Canadian Institute, Toronto. Vol. VII, Part I, p. 1.
DAWSON, RANKINE, M.A., M.D., M.R.C.S.E.
Fifty years of Work in Canada, scientific and educational. Being
autobiographical notes by Sir William Dawson, C.M.G., LL.D., F.R.S.,
etc., etc. Edited by Rankine Dawson, M.A., M.D., M.R.C.S.E.
London and Edinburgh: Ballantyne Hanson & Co., 1901, pp. X, 308.
Dawson, S. E., Litt.D., F.R.S.C.
The prose writers of Canada. An address delivered before the
teachers of the city and district of Montreal.
E. M. Renouf, Montreal, 1901, pp. 39.
DEACON, J. S. (Milton, Ont.)
Public school libraries.
Ontario Educational Association, Toronto, 413.
DEARNESS, J. (London, Ont.)
Nature-study.
Ontario Educational Association, Toronto, 396.
[surPee] A CANADIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE YEAR 1901 253
DEARNESS, J. (London, Ont.) ae
The prescribed course of studies in the training schools,
Ontario Educational Association, Toronto, 395.
D’Easum, BASIL C.
Fourteen days.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 465.
DELMAGE, EDITH R.
Madame Guyon.
McMaster University Monthly, Toronto, X, 204.
DEMILLE, A. B., M.A. (Professor of English literature and history, in the
University of King’s College, Windsor, N.S.).
City children, (verse).
Life, New York, June, 1901.
DEMILLE, A. B., M.A.
Canada’s place in English literature.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 25.
DEMILLE, A. B., M.A.
Cross Island Light. (2,000 words).
Gray Goose Magazine, Cincinnati, Ohio, April, 1901.
DEMILLE, A. B., M.A.
A Curtailed Visit. (3,500 words).
Town and Country Magazine, New York, July, 1901.
DEMILLE, A. B., M.A.
Ballad.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 185.
DEMILLE, A. B., M.A.
A Death in Winter. (verse).
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, March, 1901.
DEMILLE, A. B., M.A.
Literature in the Century.
The Linscott Publishing Co., Toronto, London, Philadelphia, Svo.
1901, pp. 548.
DEMILLE, A. B., M.A.
Longfellow’s ‘‘ Evangeline,’ with introduction and notes. Authorized
for school use in Nova Scotia.
T. C. Allen & Co., Halifax, N.S., 1901.
DEMILLE, A; hp; M.A.
Dr. A. H. MacKay. (Canadian Celebrities Series, No. XX.)
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVI, 310.
DEMILLE, A. B., M.A.
On certain literary possibilities.
Acadiensis, St. John, N.B., I, 126.
DENISON, LIEUT.-COL. GEORGE T.
Robert Grant Haliburton.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 126.
DENISON, LIEUT.-CoL. GEORGE T.
Soldiering in Canada.
Geo. N. Morang & Co., Toronto, Svo., 1901, pp. 364.
DENVERS, T. M., B.A.
Hymnology of the church.
Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto, LIII, 238.
DE SOYRES, J.
Queen Victoria—A contrast.
Acadiensis, St. John, N.B., I, 51.
DEVLIN, H. S.
Saint Valentine’s Day.
The University Monthly, University of New Brunswick, XXI.
DEWART, REV. E. H., D.D.
Early Canadian Methodist history.
Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto, LIII, 46.
254 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
DEWART, REV. E. H., D.D. é
Preaching and pastoral work in the Twentieth Century.
Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto, LIV, 320.
DICKSON, JAMES.
The white flag.
Rod and Gun in Canada, Montreal, II, 445.
DINGWALL, E. EDNA.
College and the student.
Acta Victoriana, Victoria University, Toronto, MINIV Ole
Drxon, PROFESSOR, (University of New Brunswick). {
Address in praise of the founders of the University of New Brunswick.
The University Monthly, Fredericton, N.B., XX, 201.
DOBBIE, J. A.
Drawing course of the public schools.
Dominion Educational Association, Transactions, Ottawa, 109.
Dor, DR: Wee:
Translations of Horace.
The University Monthly, University of New Brunswick, DO. Be atch
DouGLAS, GRAHAM.
Charlie—Circus usher.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVIII, 181.
DouGLAS, JAMES.
Some recollections of by-gone days.
Queen's College Journal, Kingston, XXVIII, 186.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVIII, 181.
Dow, J. B. (Whitby, Ont.)
Teaching of languages in public schools.
Ontario Educational Association, Toronto, 423.
DOWSLEY, E.
The bugler boy.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 414.
DOXSEE, E. R.
Reminiscences of Victoria University sixty years ago.
Acta Victoriana, Victoria Univ., Toronto, XXIV, 204.
DREw, E. B.
The China of a year ago and to-day.
Year-Book of Victorian Club, Boston, 1901.
DRUMMOND, WILLIAM HENRY, M.D., F.R.S.C.
Johnnie’s first moose, (verse).
Rod and Gun in Canada, Montreal, II, 445.
DRUMMOND, ! WILLIAM HENRY, M.D., F.R.S.C.
Johnnie Courteau and other poems. With illustrations by Frederick
Simpson Coburn.
G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New York and London, 8vo., 1901, pp. 161.
DRUMMOND, WILLIAM HENRY, M.D., F.R.S.C.
Little Bateese, (verse).
Littell’s Living Age, New York, CCXXXI, 322.
DUCKWORTH, REv. H. T. F., M.A. (Trinity University, Toronto.)
St. John the almsgiver, the patriarch of Alexandria.
Blackwell, Oxford, 1901.
DucKWoRTH, REV. H. T. F., M.A. (Trinity University, Toronto.)
Manuals of Greek church doctrine.
Rivingtons, London, 1901. »
DuGAST, M. L’ABBE G.
(See MoricE, Miss J. M.).
DUNCAN, JOHN MACDONALD, B.D., B.A.
George Paxton Young, LL.D.
University of Toronto Monthly, II, 60.
[puRPEE] A CANADIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE YEAR 1901 255
DUNCAN, NORMAN.
The chase of the tide.
McClure’s Magazine, New York, August, 1901.
DUNCAN, SARA JEANNETTE.
(See CoTEs, Mrs. EVERARD).
Dupuis, NATHAN F., M.A., F.B.S. Edin. (Queen’s University).
The Conservative and Liberal in education.
Queen’s Quarterly, Queen’s University, Kingston, Oct., 1901.
DUPUIS, NATHAN F., M.A.
Science.
Queen’s College Journal, Kingston. XXVIII, 205.
Dupuis, NATHAN F., M.A.
The study of Greek.
Queen's College Journal, Kingston. XXVIII, 284.
DURAND, EVELYN.
A river song (verse).
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVI, 428.
DURAND, EVELYN.
New Year (verse).
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVI, 328.
DURAND, EVELYN.
Hildegarde.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 323.
DYDE, S. W., M.A., D.Sc., LL.D. (Professor of Mental Philosophy, Queen’s
University).
Socrates, his person and work.
Queen's Quarterly, Queen’s University, Kingston, Ont., July, 1901.
DyDpEe, SAW, MAS D SC LED;
The University question: The claims of Queen's,
Queen’s College Journal, Kingston, XXVIII, 136.
DYDE, S. W., M.A, DiSe:, LED.
The University question:
(a) Is Queeh’s denominational?
(b) Relation of Queen’s to the Provincial Government.
(c) The claim of Queen’s.
Queen's College Journal, Kingston, XXIX, 37.
EASTMAN, H. M.
Development of rapid communication.
The University Monthly, University of New Brunswick, XX, 17
EASTMAN, H. M. :
The engineer as a factor in civilization.
The University Monthly, University of New Brunswick, XXI, 41.
EATON, REV. ARTHUR W. H.
Episcopalians in literature.
Book World, New York, 1901.
EATON, REV. ARTHUR W. H.
Pope’s “Rape of the Lock.” Edited with notes by rthur W. H.
Eaton.
New York, Boston and Chicago, Silver Burdette & Co., 1901. pp. 67.
EATON, REV. ARTHUR W. H.
Preface to the ‘“ Churchman’s Almanac.”
Whittaker & Co., 1901.
EATON, REV. ARTHUR W. H.
Recollections of a Georgia Loyalist. Edited, with an introduction, by
Arthur W. H. Eaton.
(See JOHNSTON, ELIZABETH LICHTENSTEIN.)
EATON, REV. CHARLES AUBREY.
The old Evangel and the new Evangelism.
Fleming H, Revell Co, Toronto, 8vo., 1901.
Qt
256 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
EATON, OLIVER Mowat, (Athens, Ont.).
Rodney and Francis.
Copyright, 1901.
Eppis, WILTON C., F.C.A., (Toronto).
Commercial education in our institutes and its objects.
Ontario Educational Associaton, Toronto, 317.
EDGAR, PROF. PELHAM.
Shelley and Keats as nature poets.
University of Toronto Monthly, II, 36.
EDGAR, W. W.
Interpretations (verse).
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 50.
EDGAR, W. W.
Quatrains (verse).
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EDWARDS, JAMES.
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ELLIOTT, JUDGE W.
Early days of London.
Paper read before the London and Middlesex Historical Society, Lon-
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ELuis, P. W. (President, Canadian Manufacturer’s Association).
Annual address.
Industrial Canada, Toronto (Convention number), Vol. II, No. 4,
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ELLIs, PRoF. W. H.
Henry Holmes Croft, D.C.L.
University of Toronto Monthly, II, 29.
Evuis, W. S., B.A. (Kingston, Ont.)
Educational significance of kindergarten, nature study and manual
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Dominion Educational Association, Addresses and ‘Transactions.
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HES, RR. W.., dak: Belk. C-
Notes on the geology of Minas Basin and vicinity.
Acadia Atheneum, Acadia College, Wolfville, N.S., XXVIII, 153.
EMBREE, L. E., M.A. (Toronto.)
High school course as a preparation for the professions.
Ontario Educational Association, Transactions. Toronto, 117.
ENOL, F. W.
The enchanted wood.
McGill Outlook, McGill University, Montreal, III, 148.
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Song.
McGill Outlook, McGill University, Montreal, III, 174.
E(NOL), F. W.
A Psalm of Law (verse).
McGill Outlook, McGill University, III, 152.
EVANS, REV. FRANCIS.
The establishment of the first district school in the Talbot district,
dated 1839.
Paper read before the Norfolk County Historical Society, Simcoe, Ont.,
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EVANS, W. SANFORD.
The Canadian contingents and Canadian Imperialism.
Toronto, The Publishers Syndicate; London, T. Fisher Unwin, 1901,
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[gurPee] A CANADIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE YEAR 1901 287
FAIRBAIRN, M. L.
A decade of Canadian art.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 159.
FAIRCLOUGH, H. R., M.A.
University starvation.
University of Toronto Monthly, I, 146.
FALCONER, REV. R. A., D.LITT.
Heroes and hero-worship: a review. f
Dalhousie Gazette, Dalhousie University, Halifax, N.S., XXXIV, 46.
F(ARMER), Pror. J. H. (McMaster University, Toronto).
A sample of the higher criticism.
McMaster University Monthly, Toronto, X,
FARMER, PROF. J. H., LL.D.
The Baptists of the Dominion of Canada. (Chapter XI, pp. 137-145,
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MARR; Cac:
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FARRANT, HOWARD.
Story of Im.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 551.
FARRELL, R. BRINDLE.
A mysterious manuscript.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 109.
FARRIS, J. W. DEB.
How to run a college paper.
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FAWCETT, W.
The canals of Canada.
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FELIX, PASTOR.
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FERGUSON, REV. GEORGE D., B.A. (Professor of History, Queen’s University).
The development of law during the Middle Ages, especially in France
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FILELIS.
An Imperial coinage.
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FINCH, A. HENEAGE.
A Swan Valley deer hunt in 1900. 7
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FINDLAY, W. N.
A plea for the teaching of civics.
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FITZGIBBON, MARY AGNEs.
The Jarvis letters.
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The study of Canadian history.
Paper read before the London and Middlesex Historical Society,
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FITZPATRICK, ALFRED.
Life in lumbering and mining camps.
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258 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
FLATHER, J. M., M.A.
A selection of Tales from Shakespeare, by Charles and Mary Lamb.
Edited with introduction, notes, and an appendix of extracts from
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Copp Clark Co., Toronto, 1901.
FLEMING, SIR SANDFORD, K.C.M.G., LL.D., etc.
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FLEMING, SIR SANDFORD, K.C.M.G., LL.D., ete. ;
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FLETCHER, MARY C.
Professor Charles Macdonald.
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Forp, ARTHUR R.
Summer clouds (verse).
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FOSTER, HON. GEORGE E.
Students and the new century.
Acta Victoriana, Victoria University, Toronto, XXV, 168.
FOWKE, GERARD (and SMITH, HARLAN I).
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FowLer, Dr. JAMES (Professor of Botany, Queen’s University, Kingston).
The flora of St. Andrews, New Brunswick.
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FRASER, CHARLES G. (Toronto).
Should the Bible be a text-book in our public schools?
Ontario Educational Association, Toronto, 357.
FRASER, D. C., M.P.
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Dalhousie Gazette, Dalhousie University, Halifax, N.S., X XXIII, 301.
FRASER, W. A.
Little Sister at Saint’s Lake.
Ladies’ Home Journal, XVIII, 11.
FRASER, W. A.
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Canadian Magazine, XVI, 49, 157, 235, 354, 449, 561.
FRASER, W. A.
Nawaz Khan, the gift of Allah.
Littell’s Living Age, CCXXVII, 707.
FRASER, W. A.
The outcasts. Illustrated by Arthur Heming.
William Briggs, Toronto, S8vo., 1901, pp. 138.
FRASER, W. A.
The snakes’ paradise.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 116.
FRASER, W. H.
Il dolce stil nuovo.
Acta Victoriana, Victoria University, Toronto, XXV, 134
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[purPpEE] A CANADIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE YEAR 1901 289
FRIEL, MRs. H. J.
The Rideau canal and the founder of Bytown. L
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Ga He
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To the twentieth century (verse).
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GAGNON, PHILÉAS.
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GANONG, WILLIAM F., M.A., Ph.D.
A floral emblem for New Brunswick.
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GANONG, WILLIAM F., M.A., Ph.D.
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GANONG, WILLIAM F., M.A., Ph.D.
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GAUDET, PLACIDE P.
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The Hurons of Lorette.
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Minerals of Nova Scotia.
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GILROY, W. E.
The truth shall make you free (verse).
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GODFREY, H. H.
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GODFREY, H. H.
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260 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
GOGGIN, D: J.; M.A., D.C.L.
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GooDFELLOW, D. K. (Beauharnois, P.Q.).
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GorDON, REV. CHARLES W. (Ralph Connor).
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GorDON, D. M., D.D.
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GORDON, W. C.
In the woods of New Ontario.
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GOSNELL, R. E.
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University reform.
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GRAHAM, ANNIE $.
Nature study in primary grades.
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GRAHAM, ERIC. 5
Of such is the nature of woman.
Acta Victoriana, Victoria University, Toronto, XXV, 143.
GRAHAM, H. W., B.A.
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GRANT, CHARLES A.
A surveying tour in New Ontario.
McMaster University Monthly, Toronto, X, 248,
GRANT, GEORGE Munro, M.A., D.D., LL.D.
Address to convocation.
Queen’s College Journal, Kingston, XXVIII, 281.
GRANT, GEORGE MUNRO, M.A., D.D., LL.D.
In memoriam, Charles Macdonald.
Dalhousie Gazette, Dalhousie University, Halifax, N.S., XX XIII, 255.
GRANT, GEORGE MUNRO, M.A., D.D., LL.D.
The university question.
Queen’s Quarterly, Queen’s University, Kingston, Ont., VIII, 211.
GRANT, GEORGE Munro, M.A., D.D., LL.D.
The university question: Queens and Toronto should occupy common
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Queen’s College Journal, XXVIII, 228.
GRANT, W. L.
Cape Breton, past and present.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 435.
GRANT, W. L.
The Royal visit.
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[purPprE] A CANADIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE YEAR 1901 261
GRAY, P. L.
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GREEN, HAZEN.
The last of the nineteenth century in New York.
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GRENFELL, W. T.
Life in Labrador.
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GRIFFIN, GEORGE D.
The United Empire Loyalists of 1837.
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GRIFFIN, JUSTUS A.
Militia rolls of 1866.
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GRIFFIN, JUSTUS A.
Monument sites, with correspondence and papers relating thereto.
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Ont TEEN
GRIFFIN, JUSTUS A.
Our first president.
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GRIFFIN, JUSTUS A.
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Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVI, 313.
GROTE, GEORGE WHITFIELD.
Ode on the burial of Queen Victoria (verse).
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GUERBER, H. A. (See WiTHROw, W. H.).
H., O.
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Quality versus quantity in the study of classics.
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HALE, KATHARINE.
Some prominent players.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 35.
HALL, JOHN E, à
The cricket season of 1901.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVIII, 38.
HAMILTON, D. W.
Destruction of trees.
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HAMILTON, J. CLELAND, M.A., LL.B.
Educational problems in Toronto.
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262 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
HAMILTON, J. CLELAND, M.A., LL.B.
Notes from Lake Rosseau.
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HANBURY-WILLIAMS, CHARLES.
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HANNAY, JAMES, D.C.L. es ‘
History of the war of 1812, between Great Britain and the United
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Acta Victoriana, Victoria University, Toronto, XXV, 100.
EARDY, By Ax, BA
An outline program of the work of the Ontario Library Association.
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HARDY, E. A., B.A.
Review of Theodore Rand’s Song-Wawes.
McMaster University Monthly, Toronto, X, 337.
HARPER, HENRY A., M.A.
The agricultural industry of Canada.
The Labor Gazette, Ottawa, I, 488, 555.
HARPER, HENRY A., M.A.
Canada’s attitude towards labour.
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HARPER, HENRY A., M.A.
Colleges and citizenship.
Acta Victoriana, Victoria University, Toronto, XXIV, 207.
HARPER, HENRY A., M.A.
The copper and nickel industries in Canada.
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HARPER, HENRY A., M.A.
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HARPER, HENRY A., M.A.
The iron industry in Canada.
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HARPER, HENRY A., M.A.
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HARPER, HENRY A., M.A.
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HARPER, HENRY A,, M.A.
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HARPER, HENRY A., M.A.
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[purPEE] A CANADIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE YEAR 1901 263
HARPER, HENRY A., M.A.
Legislation in Canada for the protection of employees in mines.
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HARPER, HENRY A., M.A.
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HARPER, DR. J. M.
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HARPER, DR. J. M.
Educational Bureau for the Dominion of Canada.
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HARPER, DR. J. M.
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HARPER, Dr. J. M.
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School Libraries.
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HARRISON, F. C.
The Ripening of Cheese.
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HARRISON, DR. THOMAS.
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INSEE ake ye
HARRISON, REV. W.
Biblical Criticism and its Results.
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HARRISON, REV. W.
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MART, PERCY W.
The Young Martinet.
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HART RSV. Wen DD
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HARTWELL, GEORGE E., B.A., B.D.
Our Territorial Trust.
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HARVEY, ARTHUR, F.R.S.C.
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HARVEY, JOHN.
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264 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
HAULTAIN, T. ARNOLD, M.A.
Golf.
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HAULTAIN, T. ARNOLD, M.A.
The Literary Agent.
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HAULTAIN, T. ARNOLD, M.A.
Of Mirth.
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HAULTAIN, T. ARNOLD, M.A.
A Winter’s Walk in Canada. :
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HAY/ IC Us; De se. '
Canadian History Readings.
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HAT G, Ur, Ses
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HAYDON, ALBERT E.
Garibaldi.
McMaster University Monthly, Toronto, X, 311.
HAYDON, ALBERT E.
Greek Tragedy.
McMaster University Monthly, Toronto, X, 354.
HAZELWOOD, M.
The House that Jack Built.
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HENDERSON, JOHN, M.A. :
Should Greek and Latin be retained as subjects in our Secondary
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HENDERSON, JOHN, M.A.
Some Defects in the High School Curriculum.
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HENRY, ALEXANDER. (See BAIN, JAMES.)
HENSHAW, JULIA A.
Why Not, Sweetheart?
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[puRPEE] A CANADIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE YEAR 1901 265
HIGHEST, MINNIE E., M.A., Ph.D.
The Value of the Study of Philology in Modern Education.
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HILL, HAROLD J. TEMPLE,
Miss Wynifred Fraser.
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HILL, HAROLD J. TEMPLE,
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HILL-ToutT, CHARLES.
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PArE TE?
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The Kinetoscope.
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HODGINS, J. GEORGE, M.A., LL.D.
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HODGINS, J. GEORGE, M.A., LL.D.
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HODGINS, J. GEORGE, M.A., LL.D.
Transitional Years of Education in Ontario, 1871-2.
Acta Victoriana, Victoria University, Toronto, XXIV, 304.
HODGINS, J. GEORGE, M.A., LL.D.
University Extension—Science a Commercial Factor.
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HODGINS, THOMAS, M.A.
University Endowments.
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HOGARTH, E. S., B.A.
The Deutschamerikanischer Lehrertag.
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HOLLING, REV. T. E., B.A.
Epitaphs.
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Tennyson’s Ministers.
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HOPKINS, J. CASTELL, F.S.S.
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266 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
HOPKINS, J. CASTELL, F.S.S.
The Progress of Canada in the Nineteenth Century.
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HOPKINS, J. CASTELL, F.S.S.
The Story of the Dominion: Four Hundred Years in the Annals of
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HORNUNG, PrRor. L. E.
A Decade of Canadian Prose.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 150.
HORNUNG, PRoF. L. E.
Faithful Unto Death.
Acta Victoriana, Victoria University, Toronito, XXV, 103.
HORNUNG, PROF. L. E.
Goethe's Faust.
Transactions of the Canadian Institute, Toronto, VII, Part I, p. 135.
HORNUNG, PROF. L. E.
Some Early Canadian Magazine Gleanings.
Acta Victoriana, Victoria University, Toronto, XXIV, 245.
HORSEY, AMY.
Early Settlement of Prince Edward County.
Women’s Canadian Historical Society of Ottawa, Transactions, I, 70.
HOUSTON, WILLIAM, M.A.
Literary Selections for Advanced Classes in Public High Schools.
W. J. Gage & Co., Toronto, 1901.
HOWE, JONAS.
A Monument and its Story.
Acadiensis, St. John, N.B., I, 63,137.
HUGHES, Mrs. A. M.
Education in Ontario.
Ontario Educational Association, Transactions, Toronto, 76.
HUGHES, JAMES L.
The National Economic Association.
Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto, LIII, 59.
HUGHES, JAMES L.
Toronto.
Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto, LIV, 33.
HUGHES, JAMES L.
The Training of Queen Victoria’s Family.
Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto, LIV, 494.
HUME, PROF. JAMES G., M.A., Ph.D.
Prohibition as a Problem of Individual and Social Reform.
Acta Victoriana, Victoria University, Toronto, XXIV, 248.
HUME, PROF. JAMES G., M.A., Ph.D.
Introduction to publication of the writings of Schopenhauer.
M. Walter Dunne Co., New York, 8 vo., 1901.
HUNT, FRANK L.
Britain’s One Utopia.
Historical and Scientific Society of Manitoba, Transaction No. 61.
Winnipeg, 1901, pp. 11.
Hunt, Lewis, M.A., M.D.
University teaching as a training for the Medical Profession.
Acadia Atheneum, Acadia College, Wolfville, N.S., XXVIII, 311.
HUNTER, A. F., M.A.
The Ethnographical elements of Ontario.
Ontario Historical Society, Papers and Records, Toronto, III, 180.
[purPEE] A CANADIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE YEAR 1901 267
HUNTER, A. F., M.A.
Notes on Huron Villages in Medonte, Simcoe County.
Annual Archeological Report. (Being part of Appendix to the Report
of the Minister-of Education, Ontario, 1901), 56.
HUNTER, A. F., M.A.
Wampum records of the Ottawas.
Annual Archeological Report, etc., 52.
HUNTER, A. T.
Some Practical Observations on our Training Camps.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 317.
HUNTER, REv. T. W.
The log of a Missionary Deputation in Dominica.
Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto, LIII, 229.
HUTCHINS, REV. W. N., M.A.
The Fact of Christ.
Acadia Atheneum, Acadia College, Wolfville, N.S., XXVIII, 222.
HUTTON, PROF. MAURICE.
A Dream of Greek Letters.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 55.
Love Letters of an English Woman.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 76.
eet ee Wee
By Shore and Camp Fire.
Prince Edward Island Magazine, Charlottetown, II, 347, 404.
IDINGTON, JOHN, LL.B.
Average ages of Matriculants.
University of Toronto Monthly, I, 179.
INCH, DR abs
Millenary of King Alfred the Great at Winchester.
The University Monthly, University of New Brunswick, XXI, 36.
INGRAM, J. FRANK.
The Mind of Christ the mould of Christian Doctrine.
McMaster University Monthly, Toronto, X, 360.
INNES, JOHN.
Wolves on the Range.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVIII, 144.
ERWIN, UREA AEX Jr, BA, 0B'D:
The Romance of the ‘ Killing Time.”
Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto, LIV, 207, 352.
JACK, DAVID RUSSELL.
Book-Plates.
Acadiensis, St. John, N.B., I, 91, 115, 236.
JACK, DAVID RUSSELL.
The Indians of Acadia.
Acadiensis, St. John, N.B., I, 187.
JACK, DAVID RUSSELL.
The Last Moose of Vermont.
Acadiensis, St. John, N.B., I, 41.
JACK, DAVID RUSSELL.
Joseph Wilson Lawrence.
Acadiensis, St. John, N.B., I, 43.
JACK, DAVID RUSSELL.
Old Colonial Silver.
Acadiensis, St. John, N.B., I, 168.
JACK, DAVID RUSSELL.
~ The Wetmore Family.
Acadiensis, St. John, N.B., I, 243.
268 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
JACK, ISAAC ALLEN.
Æsthetic attributes of Acadia.
Acadiensis, St. John, N.B., I, 169.
JAMES, B. G.
Nature Study.
The Educational Review, St. John, N.B., XIV, 272.
JAMES, C. C.
Notes on some Canadian Poets.
Acta Victoriana, Victoria University, Toronto, XXIV, 387.
JAMIESON, M.
A glimpse of our city fifty years ago.
Women’s Canadian Historical Society of Ottawa, Transactions, I, 36.
JEFFERS, T. C., Mus. Bac.
Sound and Spirit.
Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto, LIV, 341.
JENKINS, Mrs. F. M. S. (Ottawa).
Educational value of music: or, music as an integral part of educa-
tion.
Dominion Educational Association, Addresses and Transactions,
Ottawa, 380.
JENNER, REV. J. HuGH, M.A.
Doubts and Doubters.
Acadia Atheneum, Acadia College, Wolfville, N.S., XXVIII, 275.
JOHNSON, GEORGE, F.S.S. (Dominion Statistician).
Canada’s Exports of Manufactures.
Industrial Canada, Toronto, (Convention Number). Vol. II, No. 4,
p. 84.
JOHNSON, GEORGE, F.S.S.
Canadian Industries.
Industrial Canada, Toronto, (Convention Number). Vol. II, No. 4,
p. 85.
JOHNSON, GEORGE, F.S.S.
The new partnership.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 2.
JOHNSON, GEORGE, F.S.S.
Place-name oddities.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 62.
JOHNSON, GEORGE, F.S.S.
Statistical Year Book.
Government Printing Bureau, Ottawa, 1901.
JOHNSTON, A. J.
A Triumph (verse).
Acta Victoriana, Victoria University, Toronto, XXV, 65.
JOHNSTON, ELIZABETH LICHTENSTEIN.
Recollections of a Georgia Loyalist. Written in 1836. Edited by
Reverend Arthur Wentworth Eaton, B.A.
New York. The Bankside Press. M. F. Mansfield & Co., 1901, pp. 224.
JOHNSTON, GEORGE L., B.A. (Hamilton, Ont.).
Wihich should be taught first, single or double entry?
Ontario Educational Association, Transactions, Toronto. 324.
JOHNSTON, WILLIAM, M.A., LL.D.
Educational requirements of to-day.
Dominion Educational Association, Addresses and ‘Transactions,
Ottawa, 294.
JOHNSTON, WiLLIAM, M.A., LL.D. L
Why do country inspectors not receive the same remuneration for
their services as other county officials?
Ontario Educational Association, Transactions, Toronto, 421.
[BuRPEE] A CANADIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE YEAR 1901 269
JOHNSTONE, H. MCBEAN.
The educating influences of the Camera Club.
Rod and Gun in Canada, Montreal, II, 510.
JOHNSTONE, H. MCBEAN.
The landscape—arrangement of mass. (Photography).
Rod and Gun in Canada, Montreal, II, 462. -
JOHNSTONE, H. MCBEAN. t
Why not follow directions? (Photography).
Rod and Gun in Canada, Montreal, II, 485.
JONES, Miss ALICE (Halifax, N.S.).
The Night-Hawk. A Romance of the ’60’s. By Alix John.
New York. Frederick A. Stokes Co., 8vo., 1901, pp. 378.
JONES, GEORGE M., B.A. (Hagarsville, Ont.).
Stephen Phillips.
Ontario Educational Association, Transactions, Toronto, 183.
JONES, Miss L. L., B.A. (Cobourg, Ont.).
Hermann Sudermann.
Ontario Educational Association, Transactions, Toronto, 203.
JONES, J. W.
The diffusion of knowledge.
Acadia Atheneum, Acadia College, Wolfville, N.S., XXVIII, 233.
JONES, MABEL V.
The Passing Year (verse).
Acadia Atheneum, Acadia College, Wolfville, N.S., XXVIII, 51.
JONES, RALPH M.
A Chat about Father Knickerbocker.
Acadia Atheneum, Acadia College, Wolfville, N.S., XXVIII, 116.
JONES, RALPH M.
God’s Discipline (verse).
Acadia Atheneum, Acadia College, Wolfville, N.S., XXVIII, 281.
JONES, R. V., Ph.D.
Echoes of the Past.
Acadia Atheneum, Acadia College, Wolfville, N.S., XXVIII.
JORDAN, REV. W. G., B.A., D.D. (Professor of Hebrew in Queen’s University).
Amos the Man and the Book in tthe Light of Recent Criticism.
Biblical World, April, 1901.
JORDAN, REV. W. G., B.A., D.D.
The outlook for Old Testament Interpretation at the beginning of the
Twentieth Century.
Biblical World, June, 1901.
JORDAN, REV. W. G., B.A.,; D.D.
Recent contributions to Old Testament Theology.
Queen’s Quarterly, Queen’s University, Kingston, Ont., October, 1901.
JORDAN, REV. W. G., B.A., D.D.
Review of Professor Royce’s ‘The World and the Individual.”
American Journal of Theology, April, 1901.
JORDAN, REv. W. G., B.A., D.D.
Review of Duff’s ‘Old Testament Theology,” Vol. II.
American Journal of Theology, January, 1901.
Keays, H. A. (Mrs.) Mansfield, M.D.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVI, 251.
KEIRSTEAD, REV. J. W.
The college man as a citizen.
Acadia Atheneum, Acadia College, Wolfville, N.S., XXVIII, 272.
KEIRSTEAD, E. M., D.D. (Professor of English Literature at Acadia College,
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The Baptists of the Maritime Provinces during the 19th Century.
By E. M. Kierstead, D.D. In ‘“ Baptist Achievements in the Nine-
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American Baptist Pub. Society, Philadelphia), 1901.
270 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
KEMPTON, REV. JUDSON, M.A.
A Midsummer Night’s True Tale.
Acadia Atheneum, Acadia College, Wolfville, N.S., XXVIII, 245.
KENNEDY, HENRY DAwsoN (Peterboro, Ont.).
Jacob the Wrestler.
Copyright, 30th March, 1901.
KENNEDY, HOWARD ANGUS.
The French Canadians,
Proceedings Royal Colonial Institute, London, XXXIII, 52.
KENNY, MARGARET.
Peter Klengersmith.
Paper read before the Norfolk County Historical Society, Simcoe, Ont.,
in March, 1901.
KENNY, F. GERTRUDE.
Municipal Growth in the district of Dalhousie.
Women’s Canadian Historical Society of Ottawa, Transactions, I, 9.
KENNY, F. GERTRUDE.
Some account of Bytown.
Women’s Canadian Historical Society of Ottawa, Transactions, I, 22.
KENNY, F. GERTRUDE. (See also under McDouGALL, Mrs. J. Lorn, Jr.)
KERR, EDITH, B.A.
The First Parliament of Upper Canada.
Women’s Canadian Historical Society of Ottawa, Transactions, I, 158.
KERR, W. A. R., B.A. (Upper Canada College).
Nahe Des Geliebten (verse).
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 17.
ECRRR ey CNA dae, let Ja
A Summer Among the Habitants.
Ontario Educational Association, Toronto, 165.
Kerr, W. A. R., B.A. ‘
Golf in Canada. ‘
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 340.
KETCHUM, Mrs. JESSE.
Battle of Lundy’s Lane.
Women’s Canadian Historical Society of Ottawa, Trans., Vol. I, 168.
KIDNER, F.
Hamilton’s Crystal Palace.
Wentworth Historical Society, Journal and Transactions, III, 38.
KIDNER, F.
Odds and ends of early life in Hamilton.
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KIDNER, T. B. (Truro, N.S.).
Manual Training.
Dominion Educational Association, Ottawa, 121.
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KING, W. L. MACKENZIE.
The Late Henry A. Harper.
The Labour Gazette, Ottawa, II, 325.
KINGSMILL, ESTHER TALBOT.
The Heart of a Red-Man.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, 1901, p. 508.
KIRBY, WILLIAM, F.R.S.C.
Memoir of the Whitmore Family of Niagara.
Niagara Historical Society Transaction No. 8, pp. 19 to 24.
KIRBY, WILLIAM, F.R.S.C.
Memorials of the Servos Family.
Niagara Historical Society, Transaction No. 8, pp. 1 to 19.
KIRSCHMAN, A., M.A., Ph.D. (University of Toronto). : :
“Pundamental Problems of Suggestion,’ in Hypnotism and Hypnotic
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Rochester, N.Y., 1901.
[BuRPEE] A CANADIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE YEAR 1901 271
KLOTZ, OrTo J.
Technical Education.
Official Book, Trades and Labour Council of Canada, 1901.
Also in The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 26.
KNIGHT, DR. A. P. (Professor of Animal Biology, Queen’s University, King-
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The Effects of Polluted Waters on Fish-Life.
Contributions to Canadian Biology, 1901. (Supplement to the 32nd
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LABAT, GASTON EP.
Le Livre d'Or (The Golden Book) of the Canadian Contingents in
South Africa, with an Appendix on Canadian Loyalty, containing
letters, documents, photographs, portraits of Queen Victoria, King
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Montreal, 1901, pp. XII, 170; XII, 194, 66.
LAIDLAW, LIEUT. G. IE.
Gambling Among the Crees with Small Sticks.
American Antiquarian, XXIII, 275-276.
LAIDLAW, LIEUT. G. E.
Notes on North Victoria Village Sites.
Annual Archeological Report. (Being part of Appendix to the Report
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LAIDLAW, LIEUT. G. E.
Some Ethnological Observations in South Africa.
Annual Archeological Report, etc., 1901, p. 132.
LAIDLAW, LIEUT. G. E.
Wooden Relics.
American Antiquarian, XXIII, 248-258.
LAIDLAW, T.
Scholar and something more.
Educational Journal of Western Canada, Winnipeg, III, 41.
LAIRD, R.
Some suggestions as to the Form and Method of St. Paul’s teaching.
Queen's Quarterly, Queen’s University, Kingston, VIII, 268.
LAMBLY, REV. O. R., M.A., D.D.
More Hours with our Hymn-Book.
Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto, LIII, 541.
LAMOTHE, MME. H. G.
A page from the Anmals of our First Missions.
Women’s Canadian Historical Society of Ottawa, Transactions, I, 111.
LAMPMAN, ARCHIBALD, F.R.S.C.
Poems. (New Edition).
George N. Morang & Co., Toronto, 1901, pp. 473.
LANCEFIELD, R. T.
The Prince of Wales’ Visit to Canada.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVI, 420.
LAND, JOHN H.
The Story of Robert Land, United Empire Loyalist.
Niagara Historical Society, Transaction No. 8, 1901, pp. 42-46.
LANE, C. H.
Notes taken in New York City.
The University Monthly, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton,
XX, 102.
LANG, A. E.
The Mission of the Theological Faculties.
Acta Victoriana, Victoria University, Toronto, XXV, 162.
272 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
LANG, S. E.
The Teaching of History.
Educational Journal of Western Canada, Winnipeg, III, 69.
LANG, PROF. W. R.
Poison Lore.
Acta Victoriana, Victoria University, Toronto, XXV, 154.
LANGTON, H. H., B.A. (Librarian, University of Toronto).
Sir Daniel Wilson, a biographical sketch with bibliography of his
writings.
Review of Historical Publications relating to Canada, University of
Toronto, 1901.
LARUE, LEA.
The Second Administration of Frontenac.
Women’s Canadian Historical Society of Ottawa, Transactions, I, 129.
LAUDER, MRS. DE TOUFFE.
The Last Night and its Vision (verse).
Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto, LIII, 244.
Laut, Miss A. C.
Wanted—A Better Loyalty.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 12.
LAVELL, ALFRED E., B.A.
Our Prison Problem.
Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto LIII, 501.
LAWSON, FRANK.
A Heart Cry (verse).
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 433.
Laycock, REV. J.
My All in All (verse).
Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto, LIV, 414.
LEAKE, ALBERT H.
Manual Training.
The Canada Educational Monthly, Toronto, XXIV, 67.
LEAKE, ALBERT H.
Manual Training in Ottawa.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVI 538.
LEFROY, CATHERINE F.
Recollections of Mary Warren Breckenridge, of Clarke Tavinahip’
Ontario Historical Society, Papers and Records, III, 110.
LEFROY, PROFESSOR.
University Training as a preparation for the Legal Profession.
University of Toronto Monthly, I, 263.
LEHIGH M. STANLEY.
Victor and Other Poems.
Published for the Author, Frankville, Ont., 1901.
LEITCH, PJ.
Poems and Lectures.
Printed for the Author, Montreal, 1901.
LEMAY, GEORGE.
The Present-Day French Canadian.
Anglo-American Magazine, New York, April, 1901.
LEMOINE, SiR JAMES M., F.R.S.C. etc.
The Port of Quebec: Its Annals, 1535-1900.
The Chronicle Printing Co., Quebec, 1901, pp. 95.
LEPAGE, THOMAS.
Evening (verse).
Dalhousie Gazette, Dalhousie University, Halifax, N.S., XXXIV, 6.
LEPAGE, THOMAS.
Quid Mihi Adfers? (verse).
Dalhousie Gazette, Dalhousie University, Halifax, N.S., XXXIV, 37.
[BuRPEE] A CANADIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE YEAR 1901 273
LEPAGE, THOMAS.
To the New Year (verse).
Dalhousie Gazette, Dalhousie University, Halifax, N.S., XXXII, 153:
LEPAGE, THOMAS.
Two Pictures (verse).
Dalhousie Gazette, Dalhousie University, Halifax, N.S., XXXIV, 33.
LEPAGE, THOMAS.
Two Summer Eves (verse).
Dalhousie Gazette, Dalhousie University, Halifax, N.S., XXXIV, 20.
LEREW, G. A.
Are the French and German children learning the English language?
Educational Journal of Western Canada, Winnipeg, Man., III, 237.
LEROSSIGNOL, PROF. J. E.
Economics in the High School.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 68.
LESUEUR, W. D., LL.D.
The Essentials of Culture.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 9.
LESUEUR, W. D., LL.D.
The Problem of Popular Government.
University of Toronto Monthly, I, 229, 257.
LESUEUR, W. D., LL.D.
Professor Goldwin Smith on the Decay of Religion.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 22.
LESUEUR, W. D., LL.D.
Questions for the Twentieth Century.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 45.
LESUEUR, W. D., LL.D.
Review of Crozier’s History of Intellectual Development on the Lines of
Modern Evolution, Vol. III.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 193.
LEWIS, HELEN F. M.
A Visit to Corea in 1899.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVI, 491.
LEWIS, JOHN.
Imperialism—Quantity and Quality.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 8.
LEWIS, JOHN.
Patriotism in the Schools.
The Canada Educational Monthly, Toronto, XXIV, 243.
LEWIS, JOHN.
The Philosophy of Lampman.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 28.
LEWIS, JOHN.
The Wild Heart of Man.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 218.
LEWTHWAIT, E.
Women’s Work in Western Canada.
Fortnightly Review, London, LXXVI, 709.
LIFFITON, FLORENCE.
Ether Music (verse).
Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto, LIV, 340.
LIFFITON, FLORENCE.
Farewell to the Old Year (verse).
Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto, LIV, 493.
LIGHTHALL, W. D., M.A., F.R.S.L.
The “Glorious Enterprise.’ The plan of Campaign for the Conquest of
New France; its origin, history and connection with the Invasions of
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Privately printed, Montreal, 1901, pp. 88 and table.
274 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
LIGHTHALL, W. D., M.A., F.R.S.L.
The Plan of Campaign (pamphlet).
Reprinted from the Canadian Antiquarian. Third series, Vol III,
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LIGHTHALL, W. D., M.A., F.R.S.L.
Hiawatha the Great (pamphlet).
Reprinted from the ransactions of the Royal Society of Literature,
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LINTON, WILLIAM, (Galt, Ont.).
Should Minors be licensed to teach in our Public Schools?
Ontario Educational Association, Transactions, Toronto, 347.
LLOYD, WALLACE.
Bergen Worth (a novel).
Langton & Hall, Toronto, 8vo., 1901.
LOCKHART, REV. ARTHUR JOHN (Pastor Feliz).
An Autumn Hymn (verse).
Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto, LIV, 358.
LOCKHART, REV. ARTHUR JOHN.
An End of Song (verse).
Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto, LIII, 469.
LOCKHART, REV. ARTHUR JOHN.
The Fathers (verse).
Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto, LIII, 544,
LOCKHART, REV. ARTHUR JOHN.
Ferdinand Freiligrath.
Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto, LIII, 125.
LOCKHART, REV. ARTHUR JOHN.
Have the Birds Come? (verse).
Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto, LIV, 186.
LOCKHART, REV. ARTHUR JOHN.
George Martin (verse).
Methodist Magazime and Review, Toronto, LIV, 460.
LOCKHART, REV. ARTHUR JOHN.
Migration (verse).
Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto, LIII, 58.
LOCKHART, REV. ARTHUR JOHN.
The Parting Year (verse).
Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto, LIV, 512.
LOCKHART, REV. ARTHUR JOHN.
The Song Sparrow (verse).
Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto, LIII, 522.
LOCKHART, REV. ARTHUR JOHN.
Victoria (verse).
Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto, LIII, 277.
LOGAN, J. W., B.A. |
Recollections of Prof. Macdonald.
Dalhousie Gazette, Dalhousie University, Halifax, N.S., XXXIII, 298.
LONGLEY, Hon. J.: W., D.C.L.
Marie Corelli.
Acadia Athenœum, Acadia. College, Wolfville, N.S., XXVIII, 142.
LONGWORTH, ISRAEL.
Honourable Judge Robie.
Acadiensis, St. John, N.B., I, 81, 148.
LOUDON, JAMES, M.A., LL.D. (President of Toronto University.)
Commercial Education.
University of Toronto Monthly, I, 242.
LOUDON, JAMES, M.A., LL.D.
The Origin of Technical Education in Ontario.
University of Toronto Monthly, I, 148.
(BURPEE]
LOUDON, JAMES, M.A., LL.D.
Rudolph Koenig.
University of l'oronto Monthly, II, 41.
LOUDON, JAMES, M.A., LL.D.
The University and State Aid.
University of l'oronto Monthly, I, 135.
LOUDON, JAMES, M.A., LL.D.
The University Question.
Events, Ottawa, VII, 273.
LOUGH, HELEN BAPTIE.
Life’s Stream (verse).
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 125.
LOUGH, HELEN BAPTIE.
Northman’s Welcome (verse).
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 563.
LOUNGER, THE.
Children.
Hvents, Ottawa, VII, 344.
LOUNGER, THE.
Low,
Low,
Low,
Low,
La
Low,
Low,
Low,
Low,
Low,
Low,
Montcalm’s Private Letters.
Events, Ottawa, VII, 677.
MAY AUSTIN.
Baby Bunting.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 553.
May AUSTIN.
A Song in Spring.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 111.
MAY AUSTIN.
Sunset at Chambly (verse).
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 219.
MAY AUSTIN.
War (verse).
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVI, 353.
REV. G. J., D.D.
The Decline of Honour.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 17.
REV Garde .D:
The Late Right Rev. I. Hellmuth.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, 157.
REY. G. J., D.D.
Iconoclasm.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa I, 57.
REV. Gade). D:
Pleonasm in the Prayer-Book.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa I, 37.
Rev. Go de, D:D.
Shirley and Yorkshire in 1812.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 97.
REv. G. Jz, D:D.
Spelling Reform.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 117.
LUCAS, AQUILA.
Manual Training.
The Educational Review, St. John, N.B., XV, 9.
Lucas, AQUILA.
The Summer School of Manual Training and some results
he Educational Review, St. John, N.B., XV, 61.
Sec. IT., 1902. 17.
A CANADIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE YEAR 1901
275
276 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Lyons, R. N.
The Private Secretary.
Copyright, 23 April, 1901.
M. Wanted—A Humble Man.
Prince Edward Island Magazine, Charlottetown, II, 409.
Why JASE EB
Arbor Day.
The Educational Review, St. John, N.B., XIV, 247.
M, :B:
Scott’s Women.
University of Ottawa Review, III, 519.
M., E. L.
Charlottetown, Fifty Years Ago.
Prince Edward Island Magazine, Charlottetown, II, 343, 412.
"The Folk-Lore of Shakespeare’s Garden.
McGill Outlook, McGill University, Montreal, III, 116.
Tu Victoria the Good.”
McGill Outlook, McGill University, Montreal, III, 131.
"Victoria the Good.
Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto, LIII, 213.
The Prisoned Flowers (verse).
Prince Edward Island Magazine, Charlottetown, II, 394.
NES WA: }
The Judgment and the Sentence.
Educational Journal of Western Canada, Winnipeg, III, 78.
M., W. A.
The Oral Expression of Children. ’
Educational Journal of Western Canada, Winnipeg, III, 86.
MACALLUM, PROF. A. B.
Huxley and Tyndall and the University of Toronto.
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MACCABE, J. A., LL.D.
The Training of Teachers in Ontario.
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MACCALLUM, D. C.
Addresses at McGill University.
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MACDONALD, DUGALD (Mount Royal Vale, P.Q.).
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MACDONALD, ELIZABETH ROBERTS.
At Yule-Tide (verse).
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MACDONALD, ELIZABETH ROBERTS.
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Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 322.
MacDouGALu, Mrs. J. LORN.
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(See also KENNY, Miss GERTRUDE.)
MACFARLANE, JOHN.
The Canadian Patriotic Calendar for 1901.
Farlane.
(Lord Strathcona presented one of these Calendars to each member
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With Verses by John Mac-
[gurP£e] A CANADIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE YEAR 1901 277
MACFARLANE, THOMAS, F.R.S.C.
Chamberlain’s Chaff.
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MACFARLANE, THOMAS, F.R.S.C.
Preferential Trade:
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 43.
MACFARLANE, THOMAS, F.R.S.C.
Representation and Taxation.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa I, 121.
MACFARLANE, THOMAS, F.R.S.C.
Salisbury’s Imperialism.
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MACFARLANE, THOMAS, F.R.S.C.
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MACGREGOR, J. G., LL.D., F.R.S.C.
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MACGREGOR, R. M., B.A.
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MACHAR, AGNES MAULE.
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MacKay, A. H., LL.D.
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MacKay, ISABELLA E.
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MACKLEM, REv. T. C. STREET, M.A.
Centennial of the University of New Brunswick.
The University Monthly, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton,
INS exer 0
MACLEAN, Miss ANNIE MARION, Ph.D.
The Acadian Element in the Population of Nova Scotia.
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MACLEAN, REV. JOHN, M.A., Ph.D.
Better Lives for Common People.
William Briggs, Toronto, 8vo., 1901.
MACLEAN, REV. JOHN, M.A., Ph.D.
Blackfoot Amusements.
American Antiquarian, XXIII, 163-169.
{
278 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
MACLEAN, REV. JOHN, M.A., Ph.D.
The Making of a Christian.
William Briggs, Toronto, 8vo., 1901.
MACLENNAN, S. F., B.A.
The Needs of the University.
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MACLEOD, A. J.
The Notary of Grand Pré. A Historic Tale of Acadia.
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MACLEOD, FRED. J.
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MACLEOD, R. R.
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MACMECHAN, ARCHIBALD, Ph.D.
Carlyle’s Heroes, Hero-Worship and the Heroic in History. Edited by
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MACMECHAN, ARCHIBALD, Ph.D.
Marabastad,
Dalhousie Gazette, Dalhousie University, Halifax, XXXIII, 154.
MACMECHAN, ARCHIBALD, Ph.D.
The Porter of Bagdad, and Other Fantasies.
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MACMURCHY, ARCHIBALD, M.A.,
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MACMURCHY, HELEN, M.D. (Resident Medical Assistant, Toronto General
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MACNAUGHTON, REV. JOHN, M.A.
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{[purPEE] A CANADIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE YEAR 1901 279
MACOUN, JOHN, M.A., F.L.S., F.R.S.C.
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MACOUN, JOHN, M.A., F.L.S., F.R.S.C.
The Wheatfields of the Canadian North-West.
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Macoun, W. T.
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MACRAE, D., D.D.
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MACVANE, S. M. (McLean Professor of Ancient and Modern History at
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MARTIN, CHESTER B.
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MARTIN, CHESTER B.
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IN; B See 2:
280 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
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McCormac, GEORGE J.
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[purPEE] A CANADIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE YEAR 1901 281
McFADYEN, JOHN E., M.A., B.A. (Oxon.).
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McKay, A.
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282 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
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Two Canadian Golden Wedding Medals.
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Character.
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MIDDLEMISS, REV. JAMES, D.D.
Christian instruction in the Public Schools of Ontario.
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MILLAR, JOHN, B.A.
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[purPprEE] A CANADIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE YEAR 1901 283
MILLs, Hon. DAVID, K.C.
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MILLS, HON. DAVID, K.C.
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MORICE, Rev. A. G., O.M.I.
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MORICE, Miss J. M.
The First Canadian Woman in the North-West; or, the story of Marie
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MORRISON, LIEUT. HDWARD W. B.
With the Guns in South Africa.
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A Night with Smugglers.
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MoRSE, CHARLES, D.C.L.
An Immortal Work. (Review of new edition of Gibbon.)
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MORSE, CHARLES, D.C.L.
Legal Maxims.
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284 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
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A Modern Eloisa.
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MORSE, CHARLES, D.C.L.
A Plea for a ‘“ Higher” Criticism.
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[surPre] A CANADIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE YEAR 1901 285
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OXLEY, J. MACDONALD.
Christmas Games in French Canada.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVIII, 117.
OXLEY, J. MACDONALD.
The City of Logs and Laws.
The King’s Own, Toronto, June, 1901.
OXLEY, J. MACDONALD.
The Gratitude of Ugly Mug.
Ihe Canadian Boy, Toronto, October, 1901.
OXLEY, J. MACDONALD.
Goldwin Smith at the Grange.
New York Times Saturday Review, Oct. 12th, 1901.
OXLEY, J. MACDONALD.
In the Land of the Lamas.
I'he Westminster, Toronto, September, 1901.
OxLEy, J. MACDONALD.
In Peril on the Sea.
I'he King’s Own, Toronto, March, 1901.
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[purPEE] A CANADIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE YEAR 1901 287
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PACE:
A Peep at the Other Half.
McMaster University Monthly, Toronto, X, 295.
Py OW.
A Nicotine Ballad (verse).
Prince Edward Island Magazine, Charlottetown, II, 350.
PACKHAM, JAMES H., B.A. (Owen Sound, Ont.). ï
Interest.
Ontario Educational Association, Transactions, Toronto, 328.
PAGE, R. B., B.A. (Toronto Junction, Ont.).
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Ontario Educational Association, Transactions, Toronto, 173.
PAKENHAM, W., B.A. (Toronto).
Higher Hlementary Phase of Secondary Education in England.
Dominion Educational Association, Addresses and Transactions,
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PAPINEAU, TALBOT M.
To Hudson’s Bay in Canoes.
McGill Outleok, McGill University, Montreal, IV, 50, 64,
PARKER, SIR GILBERT, D.C.L., M.P.
The March of the White Guard.
R. F. Fenno & Co., New York, 1901.
PARKER, SIR GILBERT, D.C.L., M.P.
The Right of Way. A Novel. Illustrated by A. I. Keller.
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Toronto, Copp Clark Co., 12mo., 1901, pp. 419.
PARKER, JOHN, B.A. (Inspector of Schools, Leeds, P.Q.).
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PARKIN, GEORGE R., D.C.L., C.M.G.
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PARKINSON, AMY.
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Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto, LIV, 522.
PARKINSON, AMY.
Enoch (verse).
Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto, LIV, 442.
PARKINSON, AMY.
A Glad New Year (verse).
Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto, LIII, 140.
288 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
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God Shall Supply All our Need (verse).
Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto, LIII, 535, LIV, 176.
PARKINSON, AMY.
His Great Love (verse).
Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto, LIV, 58.
PARKINSON, AMY.
In the Morning (verse).
Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto, LIII, 357.
PARKINSON, AMY.
The Lord is thy Keeper (verse).
Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto, LIII, 275.
PARKINSON, AMY.
The Song in the Night (verse).
Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto, LIV, 458.
PARTRIDGE, REv. DR.
Has Man Three Brains.
The University Monthly, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton,
XX, 145.
PATERSON, JOHN A., M.A.
The University Act, 1901.
University of Toronto Monthly, I, 268.
PATRICK, J. N., A.M.
Method.
The Canada Educational Monthly, Toronto, XXIV, 63.
PATTERSON, J. W.
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Canadian Imperialism in England.
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Historical Publications.
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A National Mint.
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The New King.
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The Royal Train.
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[puRPEE] A CANADIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE YEAR 1901
PATTERSON, MRS. SARA BARRY.
June Studies for Little Folks.
l'he Educational Review, St. John, N.B., XV, 11.
PATTERSON, MRS. SARA BARRY.
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Paper read befor2 The Historical Society of the County of Brome, at
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PATTULLO, G. R., JR:
Ha-Hin, Chinaman.
Lhe Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVI, 261.
PEACE, ROBERT.
Incompleteness.
Prince Edward Island Magazine, Charlottetown, IT
PECK, HARCOURT W.
The Hawaiian Pantheon.
» 3d2.
Acta Victoriana, Victoria University, Toronto, XEXEV 202:
PENNINGTON, AMY KINGSLAND.
The Response (verse).
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PENSE, E. J. B.
The Making of a Bishop.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVI, 228.
PEPPER, M. S.
Maids and Matrons of Canada.
Lhe Chatauquan, XXXII, 381.
PERRY, S. W., B.A. (Kincardine, Ont.).
Elementary Instruction in Latin.
Ontario Éducational Association, Transactions, Toronto, 252.
PETERSON, W., M.A., LL.D. (Principal, McGill University).
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McGill Outlook, McGill University, Montreal, III, 127.
PETITT, MAUDE, B.A.
Across the Barrier of Years.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 467.
PETITT, MAUDE, B.A.
By Western Watch-Fires.
Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto, LIII, 263.
PETITT, MAUDE, B.A.
A Crushed Flower.
Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto, LIV, 364.
PETITT, MAUDE, B.A.
A Mast-head Light in the Storm.
Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto, LIII, 71.
PETITT, MAUDE, B.A.
Nought but Sleep (verse).
Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto, LIV, 419.
PETITT, MAUDE, B.A.
On the Bluff by the Sea.
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290 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
PETITT, MAUDE, B.A.
Rumblings of Revolution.
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PERRY ME ek
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PHILLIPPS-WOLLEY, CLIVE (Captain).
The Chicamon Stone.
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PIGEON, MADAME.
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PLANT, VERNER LOVELACE. j
Alone (verse).
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PLANT, VERNER LOVELACE.
The Viking’s Vision.
McGill Outlook, McGill University, Montreal, III, 178.
PORTER, REV: LEE EME AS
Stability and Progress.
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PoRTLOCK, Mrs. Rosa.
Twenty-Five Years of Canadian Life.
William Briggs, Toronto, 1901.
POWELL, M. E.
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POWELL, NONIE.
The Birthplace of Napoleon.
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PRESTON, SYDNEY HERMAN.
The Abandoned Farmer.
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PRINCE, PROFESSOR EDWARD E., F.R.S. (Dominion Commissioner of Fisheries).
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PRINCE, PROFESSOR EDWARD E., F.R.S.
The Aim and Method of Fishery Legislation.
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PRINCE, PROFESSOR EDWARD E., F.R.S.
The Hatching and Planting of Trout.
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PRINCE, PROFESSOR EDWARD E., F.R.S.
The Paired Fins of the Mackerel Shark. By Professor E. E. Prince,
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Contributions to Canadian Biology, 1901, p. 55.
PRINCE, PROFESSOR EDWARD E., F.R.S.
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[BurPEez] A CANADIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE YEAR 1901 291
PUGSLEY, EDMUND.
Peter Klengersmith, or White Peter. |
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RAGG, ALBAN E.
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[BurPxe] A CANADIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE YEAR 1901 293
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Some Notes on a recent Examination Paper.
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American Baptist Educational Work. Part IV. In the Dominion of
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The Value of University Social Life.
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WALSH, FRANCIS L.
The First School in Norfolk, kept by William Pitt Gilbert, in Abram
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WALTON, ELLA (Mrs.).
The Founding of Upper Canada.
Women’s Canadian Historical Society of Ottawa, Transactions, I, 148.
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The Queen as a Constitutional Sovereign.
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WARBURTON, JUDGE A. B.
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[sgurrgr] A CANADIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE YEAR 1901 307
WARE, FABIAN, M.A.
Some Foreign Educational Ideas.
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Canadian Crystals. Poems.
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Notes on Canadian Pottery.
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WEBSTER, W. F.
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The University Monthly, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton,
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WEDD, WILLIAM, M.A.
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WETHERALD, ETHELWYN.
‘The Mind.
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WETHERALD, ETHELWYN.
The Price (verse).
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVI, 118.
Sec. II., 1902. 19,
308 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
WETHERALD, ETHELWYN.
To Time (verse).
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 447.
WETHERALD, ETHELWYN.
Two Beggars (verse).
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 222.
WETHERALD, ETHELWYN.
White Gifts (verse).
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The Isolation of Canada.
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United States Relations with Canada.
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WHITE, REV. WILLIAM C.
Chinese-English Dictionary of the Kien-Ning Dialect. Compiled by
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Includes 11 pages of introductory matter and 47 pages of index. Con-
tains meanings for 6,146 Chinese characters, besides 277 Romanized
colloquial words for which there is no written character. It is the
first dictionary of the Kien-Ning dialect.
Published by the Methodist Episcopal Anglo-Chinese Book Concern.
Foochow, 8vo., 1901, pp. 480.
WHYTE, WILLIAM.
Asiatic Russia.
industrial Canada, Toronto, (Convention Number), Vol. II, No.
4 ps6.
WICKETT, S. MoRLEY, B.A., Ph.D.
Translation of Biicher’s Jndustrial Hvolution, with a new Introduction.
(In the work of translating Dr. Wickett was assisted by Dr. G. H.
Needler).
New York, Henry Holt & Uo., 1901.
WICKETT, S. MoORLEY, B.A., Ph.D.
City Government in Canada.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVIII, 51.
WICKETT, S. MORLEY, B.A., Ph.D.
Commercial Education at Universities,
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 561.
WIGHTMAN, REV. F. A.
The Commonwealth of Caribbea.
Methodist Magazine and Keview, Toronto, LILI, 511.
WILKINSON, LIEUT.-COL. J. R.
Canadian Battlefields and Other Poems. 2nd Edition. Revised and
Enlarged.
Toronto, William Briggs, 1901.
WILL, A. A.
A College Courtship.
Acta Victoriana, Victoria University, Toronto, XXV, 61.
WILLIAMS, C. H.
After Wild Geese in Manitoba.
Electric Magazine, New York, CXXXVI, (Jan. 1901).
[BurP£e] A CANADIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE YEAR 1901 309
WILLIAMS, C. H.
. Fifteen Hundred Miles in Canada.
Lilectric Magazine, New York, CXXXVI, 487.
WILLIAMS, C. H.
The Great Lakes of North America.
Blackwood’s Magazine, Edinburgh, January, 1901.
WILLISON, J. G.
The Function of Journalism in Democracy.
Queen's Quarterly, Queen’s University, VIII, 298.
WILLSON, BECKLES.
The Evolution of a New World.
Strand Magazine, London, September, 1901.
WILLSON, BECKLES.
The Newfoundland Question. Is a Present Settlement with France
Desirable?
L'orinightiy Review, London, February, 1901, pp. 359-363.
WILLSON, BECKLES.
The Truth about Newfoundland. The Tenth Island.
London, Grant Richards, 1901, (2nd Ed.), pp. XII, 228.
WILLSON, Miss ALICE, B.A.
Edmond Rostand.
Ontario Educational Association, Transactions, Toronto, 194.
WILSON, ALFRED W. G.
Physical Geology of Central Ontario.
Transactions cf the Canadian Institute, Toronto, Vol. V1, Part I,
p. 139.
WILSON, ELIZABETH.
Vittoria in 1842.
Paper read before the Norfolk County Historical Nociety, Simcoe,
Ont., February, 1901.
WILSON, H. W.
Newfoundland or France? The Peril of the French Shore.
New Liberal Review, London, April, 1901.
WILSON, REV. ROBERT, D.D.
A Peculiar People.
Methodist Magazine and Keview, Toronto, LIII, 131.
WINTEMBERG, W. J.
German-Canadian Folk-Lore.
Ontario Historical Society, Papers and Records, Toronto, III, 86.
WINTEMBERG, W. J.
Drills and Drilling of Canadian Indians.
Lhe KReliquary, VII, 262-266.
WINTEMBERG, W. J.
Supposed Aboriginal Fish Weir near Drumbo.
Annual Archeological Keport, 1901. (Being part of Appendix to
Report of Minister of Education, Ontario), 35.
WINTER, CAPTAIN CHARLES F.
Our Empire’s Land Defence.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 23, 69.
WITHROW, REV. W. H., D.D., F.R.S.C.
The Better Side of Bismarck.
Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto, LIV, 369.
WITHROW, REV. W. H., D.D., F.R.S.C.
A Distinguished Canadian—Sir John George Bourinot, K.C.M.G., LED:
DICHE
Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto, LIV, 45.
WITHROW, Rev. W. H., D.D., F.R.S.C.
Child Wives and Child Widows.
Methodist Magazine and Ieview, Toronto, LIII, 276.
310 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
WITHROW, REV. W. H., D.D., F.R.S.C.
Child Wives and Child Widows of India. By D. L. Woolmer and
W. H. Withrow.
Methodist Magazine and Keview, Toronto, LIV, 523.
IWATHROW REV WE MEL DID), ER SIC
The Deaconess Movement in Canada.
Methodist Magazine and Keview, Toronto, LIV, 83.
WITHROW, REY. W. H., D.D., F.R.S.C.
Deaconesses, Ancient and Modern.
Methodist Magazine and Keview, Toronto, LIV, 183.
WITHROW, Rev. W. H., D.D., F.R.S.C.
Thomas Hutchinson, the Last Royal Governor of the Province of
Massachusetts’ Bay. (With Portrait.)
Transactions of the Koyal Society of Canada, Ottawa, Second Series,
Viol Will, sPart2; D: 76s:
WITHROW, Rev. W.MEL DsD.; RRS Ce:
The Lady of the White House.
Methodist Magazine and Keview, Toronto, LIV, 177.
NVITHROW, REV. W. H., D:D, EoR:S.C.
The Life Story of Booker T. Washington.
Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto, LIV, 483.
WITHROW, REV. W. H., D.D., F.R.S.C.
Review of Lord Rosebery’s Napoleon.
Methodist Magazine and Keview, Toronto, Lill, 281.
WITHROW, Rev. W. H., D.D., E.R.S.C.
Lord Strathcona and Mount Royal.
Methodist Magazime and Keriew, Toronto, LIII, 80.
WITHROW, REV. W. H., D.D., F.R.S.C.
New Canadian Verse.
Methodist Magazine and Keview, Toronto, LIII, 92.
WITHROW,, REV. Wi.) EL) DADs MER SC:
The new Wesley Portraits. :
Methodist Magazine and Keview, Toronto, LIII, 562.
WITHROW, REv. W. H., D.D., F.R.S.C.
On the Corniche Road and Beyond.
Methodist Magazine and Keview, Toronto, LIII, 32.
WITHROW, REV. W. H., D.D., F.R.S.C.
Religious Drift.
Methodist Magazine and Kkeview, Toronto, LIV, 86.
WITHROW, REV.. W.. ES ND 'DMERERS:C:
The Romance of Missions: St. Boniface, the Apostle of Germany.
Methodist Magazine and Keview, Toronto, LIV, 211.
WITHROW, Rev. W. H., D.D., F.R.S.C.
Our Brother in Black.
Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto, LIV, 483.
WiTHROW, REV. W. (HS DD, ER SC
Religious Progress in the Nineteenth Century. A Review of the Moral
and Reiigious Progress of the Century, ete. Illustrated.
(Vol. I, of The Nineteenth Century Series). Toronto and Brantford, and
Detroit, Mich., Whe Bradley-Garretson Co., Ltd.
London, Eng., and Toronto, he kLinscott Pub. Uo., 8Vvo.,
1901, pp. 468, XXII.
WitHRow, REv. W. H., D.D., FRS:C
Salt Lake City.
Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto, LIII, 531,
WitHROW, (REV. WE, (DD) rks
Soldiering in Canada.
Methodist Magazine and Review, Toronto, LIV, 3.
{puRPEE] A CANADIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE YEAR 1901 311
NVITHROW, EH Ven W. NE, (D 'D"F;R.S.C.
The Storied Rhine. By H. A. Guerber and W. H. Withrow.
Methodist Magazine and Kevicw, Toronto, LIV, 291, 430.
WITHROWALECE VV. Et. DADs, BVRES/C:
Student Life at Heidelberg. By Prof. H. Zick and Dr. W. H. Withrow.
Methodist Magazine and Keview, Toronto, LIII, 487,
WITHROW, REV. W. H., D.D., F.R.S.C.
A Woman’s Life for Kashmir.
Methodist Magazine and Keview, Toronto, LIII, 369.
Woop, JOANNA E.
Farden Ha’. A Novel.
London, Hurst & Blackett.
Toronto, Langton & Hall, 8vo., 1901.
Woop, JOANNA E.
Presentation at Court.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 506.
Woop, JOANNA E.
Algernon Charles Swinburne.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 3.
Woop, S. G., LL.B.
A Legal Reminiscence.
University of Loronto Monthly, II, 19.
Woops, WILLIAM CARSON.
The Isle of the Massacre.
Toronto, 8vo., 1901.
WOODSIDE, HENRY J.
Dawson as It Is.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 403.
WOODSIDE, HENRY J.
The Yukon River Tragedy.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVIII, 108.
WOODSWORTH, CLARA M.
Mrs. Browning: An Interpretation.
Acta Victoriana, Victoria University, Toronto, XXIV, 258.
WOOLMER, D. L. (See WITHROW, W. H.)
WOOLSTON, Mary (and TRyY-DAVIES, J.).
Love and Company (Limited).
Privately Printed, Montreal, 1901.
WoRSLEY, P. LL.B.
The Dissipated Mind.
Dalhousie Gazette, Dalhousie University, Halifax, XXXIV, 111.
WRIGHT, H.
A Bear and a Panic.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 547.
WRIGHT, R. WALTER.
In the Beginning (verse).
Methodist Magazine and Keview, Toronto, LIV, 811.
WRIGHT, R. WALTER.
The Stars of the East (verse).
Acta Victoriana, Victoria University, Toronto, XXV, 128.
WRIGHT, PROF. RAMSAY.
The Royal Visit.
University of Zl'oronto Monthly, II, 14.
WRONG, PROF. GEORGE M.
Biggar’s Harly Llrading Companies of New France, Hdited by George
M. Wrong.
University of l'oronto Studies in History, 1901.
WRONG, PROF. GEORGE M.
Edited Review of Historical Publications Kelating to Canada.
University of Toronto, 1901.
312 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
XERXES.
The Acquisitive Man.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVIII, 126.
YEIGH, FRANK.
Canada at the Glasgow Exhibition.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 530.
YEIGH, FRANK
The Drama of Hiawatha or Mana-Bozho.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 207.
YEIGH, FRANK.
Sir Wilfrid Laurier. A Character Sketch.
New Liberal Review, London, Aug., 1901, pp. 136-142.
Younc, Pror. A. H., M.A. (Trinity University, Toronto).
The late Reverend A. J. McLeod, B.A.
University of Toronto Monthly, I, 180.
YOUNG, Pror. A. H., M.A.
The Legislation and the University Grants.
The Canada Hducational Monthly, Toronto, XXIV, 184.
YouncGc, Pror. A. H., M.A.
The Text-Book Question.
N The Canada Educational Monthly, Toronto, XXIV, 60.
YOUNG, PrRor. A. H., M.A.
What a Pupil has a Right to Expect as a result of his High School
Training in French or German.
Dominion Educational Association, Addresses and Transactions,
Ottawa, 188.
The Canada Educational Monthly, Toronto, XXIV, 283.
YOUNG, EGERTON R.
Indian Life in the Great North-West.
London, S. W. Partridge & Co., 1901, pp. 126.
YOUNG, REV. E. RYERSON, JUN.
Worthy of His Hire.
Methodist Magazine and Keview, Toronto, LIII, 470.
YOUNG, E. T. (Hamilton, Ont.).
Optimistic, Pessimistic—Which?
Ontario Educational Association, Transactions, Toronto, 338.
YOUNG, Miss KATHERINE A.
Early Days in Maple Land.
New York, James Pott & Uo., 1901.
ZicK, PROFESSOR H. (See WITHROW).
ANONYMOUS.
Bank of Nova Scotia, History of, 1832-1900.
Privately printed, Halifax, 1901, pp. 176.
Birds, Protection of.
Educational Journal of Western Canada, Winnipeg, III, 48.
British Budget, The, and the Empire.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 82.
Burke, Edmund.
I'he University Monthly, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton,
XXI, 34
Canada and the Empire.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 79.
Canada, Two Official Languages in.
Saturday Review, London, XCI, 37.
Canada, United States relations with.
The Nation, New York, LXXII, 426.
à
[surrge] A CANADIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE YEAR 1901 313
Canada, Water-ways and water-power of.
Spectator, London, LXXXVII, 12.
Canadian Forestry Association, Second Annual Meeting.
Rod and Gun in Canada, Montreal, II, 503.
Dalhousie College: A Bit of History.
Dathousie Gazette, Dalhousie University, Halifax, SOT 1217:
Dante and Beatrice.
McGill Outlook, McGill University, III, 139.
Dawson, George Mercer.
American Geologist, XXVIII, 67.
Dundurn, The Gates of.
Wentworth Historical Association, Journal and Transactions, Hamil-
tons) ells 135:
Edueational Misfit, An. ;
Educational Journal of Western Canada, Winnipeg, III, 20.
Edward VII.
The Educational Review, St. John, N.B., XIV, 196.
Empire, The—One and Indivisible.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 19.
‘“ Empire Day ” in the Primary Grades.
The Educational Keview, St. John, N.B., XIV, 278.
Forestry Meeting in Toronto.
Rod and Gun in Canada, Montreal, II, 455.
French Tom Cat, The.
Prince Edward Island Magazine, Charlottetown, II, 377.
Hawthorne and Longfellow. ’
I'he University Monthly, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton,
SO AVAL
History, The Reading of.
Events, Ottawa, VII, 411.
Humour and Good Stories.
Hvents, Ottawa, VII, 278.
Immigration.
I'he University Monthly, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton,
XEN ESS
Independence in Parliament.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 140.
Jubilee Convention, The.
I'he University Monthly, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton,
RENTE
Libraries, The care of School.
The Educational Review, St. John, N.B., XIV, 2388.
Literature, Imaginative, for the Young.
The Educational Review, St. John, N.B., XIV, 215.
Macdonald’s (Sir John) Speech on Confederation.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVII, 223.
Manuai Training.
The Educational Review, St. John, N.B., XIV, 214.
Manual Training.
Events, Ottawa, VII, 37.
Maps, Outline.
The Educational Review, St. John, N.B., XV, 81.
Municipal Taxation.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa I, 175.
New Century, The.
Rod and Gun in Canada, Montreal, IT, 424.
New Honesty, The.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 99.
314
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Nineteenth Century, The message of.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 60.
North American Fish and Game Protective Association.
Second Annual Meeting. od and Gun in Canada, Montreal, II, 446.
Ontario, Early Records of. l
Queen's Quarterly, Queen's University, Kingston, VIII, 223.
Ontario Game.
Rod and Gun in Canada, Montreal, II, 525.
Ontario Game Laws, The.
Rod and Gun in Canada, Montreal, II, 423.
Optional and Partial Courses.
Educational Journal of Western Canada, Winnipeg, III, 21.
Orbilius, The Fables of.
The University Monthly, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton,
KT Te :
Party Government.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 119.
Queen Victoria.
The University Monthly, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton,
XX, 128.
Queen's Council and Senate to His Majesty Edward VII.
Queen's College Journal, Kingston, XXVIII, 158.
Reading, On.
The University Monthly, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton,
XX, 144.
Report, Archaeological (Being part of appendix to the Report of the
Minister of Education, Ontario, 1901).
Toronto, Warwick Bros. & Rutter, 1901, pp. 62.
Report, Bureau of Mines, Ontario, 1901.
Toronto, L. K. Cameron, 1901, pp. 236.
Report. Canadian Forestry Association.
Ottawa, Government Printing Bureau, 1901, pp. 64.
Report of the Geographic Board of Canada.
Ottawa, S. Æ. Dawson, 1901, pp. 45.
Report, Geological Survey of Canada.
Ottawa, S. Æ. Dawson, 1901, pp. 867.
Report, Summary, Geological Survey of Canada.
Ottawa, S. E. Dawson, 1901, pp. 203.
Report, Annual, of Minister of Mines (B.C.).
Victoria, Richard Wolfenden, 1901, pp. 1026.
Report, Department of Mines (N.S.).
Halifax, N.S., 1901.
Review of Bourinot’s ‘ Canada under British Rule.”
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 116.
Review of Bourinot’s ‘Manual of the Constitutional History of
Canada.”’
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 213.
Review of Crozier’s ‘Civilization and Progress.”’
The .Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 113.
Review of Crozier’s ‘ History of Intellectual Development.”
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 113, 133.
Review of Rémy de Gourmont’s ‘“ Esthétique de la Langue Francaise.”
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 114.
Review of Rémy ce Gourmont’s ‘ La Culture des Idées.’”’
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 153.
Review of Prof. Saintsbury’s ‘ History of Criticism.’
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 155.
[BURPEE] A CANADIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE YEAR 1901 315
Scadding, The late Reverend Henry, D.D.
Transactions of the Canadian Institute, Toronto, VI, 235.
Speech, The famous, of Rev. Major Smith, C.B.
Canadian Magazine, Toronto, XVI, 262.
Spelling Reform.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I, 80.
Split Infinitive, The.
The Commonwealth, Ottawa, I,
Student Life, Incidents of.
The University Monthly, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton,
EXT 19:
Temagami, Lake, Reserve.
Rod and Gun in Canada, Montreal, II, 454.
Tree Planting in the West.
Rod and Gun in Canada, Montreal, II, 455.
University Question, The. One University for Ontario, or two, three,
or more, as may be needed.
The Queen's College Journal, Kingston, XXIX, 18.
Upper Canada College, Roll of Pupils, from 1829 to 1900, with Ap-
pendices. Published by the Upper Canada College Old Boys’ Asso-
ciation.
Toronto, Warwick Bros. & Rutter, 1901, pp. 87.
73.
INDEX OR DPMS!
AMbpandoned ER ARMErRIE UE ci elle, ete QU PRESTON, S. H.
Aboriginal fish wier near Drumbo . . . WINTEMBURG, W. J.
ACAd an VETO ACT er nc eager BARRS, J. E.
Acadia, Aesthetic attributes of......
Acadian Element in Nova Scotia .
Acadian Monarch
Acadians, The .
Acadians . . 4
JNGQUISIGiVey Miatinm meter AN fo) alesis aoe le
Across the Barrier of Years .
Addresses at McGill University
Adventure of Mrs. McKenzie
Alaska Boundary Question.......
Albert County, Points of Interest . .
Alfred the Great .
Alfred the Great .
Alfred the Great...
Algonkian Folk-lore .
Alias ‘ Jackson” . É
ANENLTNENA CERTES ALE TER CURES
Alma-Tadema, Laurence
Alumnus, The Ideal .
Amateur Burglary, Our
Ste ) el tere 6) (0) 1 or. 6:
mete eS lel Ale.” (agua
aE oiet CCM
a ndso ere ce! vier sa) e Unie)
Oaks ie! gets et vu Glas elys
OF Ce Are Nuits
TOI Os CAME 0
SACK, Isp Ay
.MAcLEAN, ANNIE M.
McCARTHY, PATRICK.
Dawson, Mrs. S. E.
See LAVALLIERE; TRADITIONS.
XERXES.
PETTIT, MAUDE.
MACCALLUM, D. C.
SCO Dae.
BEGG, ALEX.
. BURNS, H.
GRAHAM, H. W.
See Millenary, Winchester.
CHAMBERLAIN, A. F.
CLARKE, C. LANGTON.
MACHAR, AGNES M.
McEvoy, BERNARD.
Wi; IG: VER:
OxXEY (JM
American Cousins, Our, and Patriot-
LETTRE ewe eek sun melee dyads hg
American, Proplenie Ames) silo aula:
American University 3s a National
CAMERON, AGNES D.
GRAHAM, H. W.
Factor. SEL Marea rath auras sales i. OSBORNE, W. F.
AmnericaniStec RS CHERE en Ale aan) on cule SHANNON, R. W.
American’s Sentiments towards the
British DHA eR ee TOUT Cede re FOSS) Eas
Amos the Man and the Book...... JORDAN, W. G.
Anarchism ii. osc ne, SU) Gilly Io pete ees SMITH, GOLDWIN.
Ancient Science. EEE AD APE See PYRAMIDS.
Annexation vs. Imperialism. . . . . .. CHARLTON. JOHN.
MILus, PROF.
316 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Annals of our First Missions . . . . . . LAMOTHE, MME. EH, G.
Annual Register (Morangs). . . . . .. HOPKINS, J. C.
Anthology of English Poetry ...... ALEXANDER, W. J.
Anti-Rationalism in the early Christian
CHUPCH ats vee, NUAGE ut vee eee nee BROWN, J. W.
AD OL IAT EU Pei Lih coh away co le eee tc eee M., A. H.
Archeological Report, Ontario.....
Archeology of Southern British Colum-
DID LEUR Ne Xow side: te Crepe DAT CPE . SMITH, H. I.
ATCHEÆDIOBY CA (00 NME NES See CAIRNS; Canadian Pottery; Earth-
work; Folk-Lore; Gambling; Huron;
Indians; Iroquois; Mounds; North
Victoria; Ossuary; Skulls; Wooden
Relics; Yellow Point.
Architecture, Church, in Northern
France 2404) Mey Ah een ee SQUAIR, J.
Archives. VUS 20e NPA CREER See Canadian.
AINODIUS EN EUR ERNE REE SEC eat Rationalism,
Arnold, Matthew, Poetry of ...... MACPHERSON, W. E.
Arnold, Thomas, on Personal Educa-
tion ).OX ULE SG eR ee Morse, R. O.
Art Education.. . BY Ue AY ae ER ANNE SEMPLE, JESSIE P.
AS ‘Others /See. Ws? Re een ee HANBURY-WILLIAMS, CHARLES.
ASSYrI A wh OLDS Ais OS ene ean See Babylonia.
Astronomy, the Great Macrocosm. . . . HOOVER, MARTIN.
Astronomy; (Siderial. i... ue lene ee eee CLAWSON, J. W.
Atlin Glacier, sA0 Visit: tom ee eee Boyp, W. H.
Atnas, “Who aresthe st, Adee Wee ee Morice, A. G.
Baby: Bunting 4... Scots ee eee Low, May A.
Babylonia and ASEVTIA eee ee MURISON, G.
Backslider, The: 2% tl cise cence . ALLEN, GRANT.
Bank of Nova Scotia, History of. . . . Anon.
Baptist Educational Work EEE 0 NVALTACE, ©: €. 8:
Baptist Pulpit; The SBTTISO ean. TROTTER, THOS.
Baptists of (Canada). wit iene eee ee ee FARMER, J. H.
Baptists of Maritime Provinces. . . . . KEIRSTEAD, E. M.
Bar’ Dinner, {The KW: eee eee eae ee BoybD, Sir J. A.
Barker, David. "CRE BARKER, J. S.
Bass tof Ontario: PRIMES NASH, C. W.
Bear,.Atand'Aa panic 4.2) piste eel es WRIGHT, H.
Bee vs. Man 2 NT PT CET sere SMITH, GOLDWIN.
Bergen, Worth) ie ee eee Ps LLOYD, WALLACE.
Between “two Fires MER SMITH, GOLDWIN.
Bible should be text-book in Schools. .Cook, W. A.
Bible, should it he text-book in schools. FRASER, C. G.
Bible. in public ‘schools't.. eee oF Scott, Wm.
Bible in the schools. eee wae eee ROBERTSON, W. J.
Biblical criticism and its results. . . . HARRISON, W.
Billings, Elkanah, Sketch of ......Ami, H. M.
Billings, Elkanah, List of writings. . . WALKER, B. E.
Biological, Marine, station of Canada. Prince, E. E.
Bird) Portraits 2)". PO pee ee ee SETON-THOMPSON, E.
Birds, Protectionwol CNET ee ee eee Anon.
Bishop, Makin es OPA TERRE PENSE, E. J. B.
Bismarck, Better side of. ....... WITHROW, W. H.
Blackfoot Amusements. ........: MACLEAN, JOHN.
Blackmore. "un oe yc eT ee SAWTELL, R. W.
Blackmore and Lorna Doone. . . . . . . BURPEE, L. J.
Blood Pressure: rs. UNS te tee eet oe RUDOLF, R. D.
Bluff aby “the Sen ie kis eee ee eee PETITT, MAUDE.
Bond, The "Phi Siema. L'AADENMERNE AYLESWORTH, A. B.
BOo0k-=-DIAÉES. CN MOMIE LUE CÉRSE ENS STAGE: DR!
A
[BURPEE] A CANADIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE YEAR 1901
317
BOOKS “LAIKSRAG OMEN ene cel ieliges ERNEST one CAMPBELL, JOHN.
2OOKS) ANGe VICTIM emia stl teh ve ation. '4 Ji) OSLER PROM,
BOUTINOUI MOULES UT M MMS eenCanadian VDistinsetuished.
Bourinot’s “Canada under Britisa
Reb RON à Doc ES ECRIRE RP OP TEE See REVIEW.
Bourinot’s ‘ Constitutional History of
Canada ea AE ER ML AR aera “ol be See REVIEW.
BOY Of Cher BATLESIMS NME ai) ays be en OEE Ys) elev
“ Bragh,’”’ The Old, or Hand Mill. . . .MCKELLAR, A.
Brains, Hasmmany Chree- 1.5% 5 45. on PARTETD CH UNDER:
Brant; Joseph revenu EL AUTO . See LTHAYENDANEGEA.
Breckenridge, Mary Warren . . . . . .See Recollections.
Brigands and Brigandage..... Aig Sisto eye ad DE
Bright Sidevohwuapours NN. NU Un saivoroy aby SS
Britain’s one Utopia. . . . . PR ERTN TM Dee be
Britain‘s rivals and Britain’s 7 es . . CAMPBELL, A. C.
Britain’s title in South Africa. . . . . .CAPPON, JAMES.
British Budget and the Empire. . . . . Anon.
BRIDISHRADIDIOM ACIER tc), (cele. si MAIRIE MACVANE, S. M.
British Empire, Growth of. . . . . . MEROSS UC MNVE
British empire MUMILYNOEMMENC ts s,s . . MIELS, DAVID.
BritSQUEMDerIA LISTEN DONC TL . . SMITH, GOLDWIN.
British PulpitePDhefmodern 1..." Maces, itd Weal ED
Britishe ihc ea aie ioe si Swe wala ES See AMERICAN.
(EATS EES Tae yp oy meen Seperate rat Pave Sr (nai ae) jcc 6e BAPTIST.
British Golomb Archaeology of . . . SMITH, H. I.
British Columbia, Cairns of. . . . . . SMITH, EH. LE
British Columbia, First clearing in. . . BINDLOSS, HAROLD.
British Columbia, sbistery of. 2. 2 .). GOSNELL, R. E.
British Columbiawes raw ana rs Us - . » .see SK. GOMIC; | TOTHMISM.
Brome! Octosensrianvwm.) Aas cos) LE eLAYuOR,: BoM: :
Brother in Black, Our. =. - . . .WITHROW, W. H.
Browning’s Message to Humanity. . .GRAHAM, M. M.
Browning, Mrs., An Interpretation. . . WOODSWORTH, CLARA M.
Browning, Mrs., Love Life of. . . . . . POWELL, M. E.
Browsings from an Old Pasture... .SAWTELL, R. W.
BIULEN TONNERRE AR PN beet Ls See PENNSYLVANIA’S FIRST EXPLORER.
Brymner, Dougias ess : SCOLT MEN O!
Büucher’sMndustrial “Peau On
(Lrans tation) here ner vat eis NAME Ave WICKETT, S. M.
Puslen Boyer ine semanas AN ce. tata cole DOWSLEY, E.
Burkes, HG tinder bashes le. a te . -Anon.
Biuiriiens “Conciliation with the
Colonics erratic. cls, ne WEBSTER, W. F.
Bytown, The ee irae) ein la oe TIRER VER SE MENT:
Bytown, Some account of. . . . . CR ENNY I. Ge
BYtO Wile!) ad eee ie MA LAON MARNE See OTTAWA; RIDEAU CANAL.
Cable Service, An Imperial ....... FLEMING, SIR S.
Caine’s MternaMGitye ae Soe eke let See REVIEW.
Cairns) of British Columbia j= PU SMITH, H. I., and FOWKE, G.
Caro an dE Panorama eae ny 2) MS BRATD (Me GET
Gall fromitne Goreng cs 1. . .DAROn, J. Wi.
Camera CID EN deca aren aes a en a JOHNSTONE, H. M.
Camp Rustenburg, Communication
TH QO) 4 RIORIRAEIE OME Me à Re Ure cle Wey Mee en Pi Ross, A. E
@amadan' tiki (ct sores ae ew a eal a STRATHCONA, LORD.
Canada and the Empire. . . . . . . . .Anon.
Canada at Glasgow Exhibition. .... YEIGH, FRANK,
Canada British rile inves so. wh POURINOTISIR dG:
Canada, City Government in . . . . .. WICKETT, S. M.
Canada, Coal Micldstote PAL PAT CASSIDY, JAMES.
Canada, Constitutional History of . . . BOURINOT, SIR J. G:
Canada, Earliest Beginnings of. .. . . HARPER, J. M.
Canada, Earliest Settlers of. . . . . .. SULTE, MME. B.
318 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Canada, Fifteen hundred miles in. . . . WILLIAMS, C. H.
Canada in Nineteenth Century . . . . . BOURINOT, SIR J. G.
Canada, TIOlLAtION NORME MCE WHELPLEY, J. D.
Canada, Maids and Matrons of. . . . . PEPPER, M.S.
Canada MMA OmMEeN ss.) hiss) ements ME BALFOUR, GRANT.
CAD la Ne. vel eo tere, COR EEE ee McINTYRE, C. H.
Canada Progress (of: 21). MONNIER Hopkins, J. C.
Canada, Royal Visits tory = eee BOURINOT, Sir J. G.
Ganada under British Rule. i vee BOURINOT, SIR J. G.
Canada under Victoria 2 os eee SOOPER, J. A.
Canada, United States Relations with . WHELPLEY, J. D.
Canadian Archives, Report on. . . . . . BRYMNER, D.
Canadian Archives, Supplement. . . . . RICHARD, E.
Canadian, AT ECC UP NEA CR AVEC ER MEW IKE
Canadian Art, A: Decadejota.. oe olen. FAIRBAIRN, M. L.
Canadian Banking. ete ge ee eee SHORTT, ADAM.
Canadian Beauty Spots—Peterboro’ . .THORNTON, P. $.
Canadian B02 men. AMIENS STADELMAN; P. C.
Canadian Celebrities:—
The ater: (A; vATenn eying MACHAR, AGNES M.
Archbishop of @uebee ; Men. STEWART, GEORGE.
Douglas Brymnersg. ca ence Scott, M. O.
a3, OE Taya Gish ets ee eRe SMITH, F. C.
Hon Donald Farquharson... ..... MELLISH, A. E.
Dr Louise rechettewisc- wer ene aa SMITH, FE. C.
Dr. AT EL, IMACRAN MER RER ieee erie DE MILLE, A. B.
Jean Mcllwraith . . . . .. NL MACcMurTHY, M.
Commissioner Perry ss eee TRANT, WM.
EME Horning tone pene ace mi i GODFREY, H. H.
Canadian Census VANNES ene DAVIDSON, JOHN.
Canadian Coins and Tokens....... McCann, W. C.
Canadian Contingents and Canadian
fmperialism: o Van pa Re EE Evans, W. S.
Canadian Contingents, Golden Book of.LABAT, G. P.
Canadian ‘Copymightiaw tee peer RRRE Mavor, PROF. JAMES.
Canadian, Distinguished — Sir John
Bourinot 2c. nice eee eds) GVVILTELROW; VV. MEL
Canadian. jHissalys;. ENONCE O'HAGAN, THOS.
Canadian Golden Wedding Medals . . .MCLACHLAN, R. W.
Canadian History, A Forgotten Page of. CARNOCHAN, JANET.
Canadian History Readings. ...... EVA Ge Ws
Canadian History, Study of....... FirzGIBBON, AGNES.
Canadian Imperialism in England . . .PaTTERSON, NORMAN.
Canadian! in China sasuke ee MANLEY, H. B.
CanadianMindustricsia kee ae eae JOHNSON, GEO.
Canadian Industry, A New....... BONE, J. R.
Canadian Life, Twenty-Five Years of . PORTLOCK, Mrs. Rosa.
Canadian Magazines, A Century of. .
.COLQUHOUN, A. H. U.
Canadian Magazines, Early. . . . .. HORNUNG, L. E.
Canadian Manufactures........ See SOUTH AFRICA.
Canadian Methodist History, Early. . . DEWART, E. H.
Canadian Mint, The COOPER, J. A.
CanadianiNesero V.C MERE WARNER, D. V.
Canadian Novels and Novelists. . . BURPEE, L. J.
Canadian Patriotic Calendar . . . . . .MACFARLANE, JOHN.
Canadian Parliamentary Guide . . . . .MAGURN, A. J.
Canadian People, Origin of . . . . .. CAMPBELL, Mrs. W. W.
Canadiany Poet wis: ORPI BURPEE, L. J.
Canadian Poetry, A Decade of . . . . .ScoTT, D. C.
Canadian Poets, Notes on....... JAMES, C. C.
Canadian Polar Expedition...... BERNIER, J. E.
Canadian Pottery, Notes on. . . . .. WAUGH, F. W.
Canadian Prose, A Decade of. .... HORNUNG, L. E.
Canadian Prose Writers. ....... BURPEE, L. J.
Ceurpge] A CANADIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE YEAR 1901 319
Canadian Regiment, Royal . . . . . . . AHEARN, Mrs. THOS.
Canadian Statesmen, Early . . . . . . . SHORTT, ADAM.
Canadian Vers eMNeEWI is MALUS ARNO WITHROW, W. H.
Canadian Verse Writers. . . . . . . . . BURPEE, L. J.
Canadian VOVASEUTS EURE NTM i BRYAN, CLAUDE.
Canadians UPNeMEMENCh EE MN LC. KENNEDY, H. A.
Canada’s Attitude towards Labour. . . HARPER, H. A.
Canada’s Commercial Metropolis (Mont-
TEA) RP EU ETS NE NT NT BYRNE, SAMUEL.
Canada’s Exports of manufactures. . . JOHNSON, GEO.
Canada’s Northern Boundary. . . . . . BE IR, nie (Ce
Canada’s Place in English Literature. .DE MILLE, A. B.
Canada’s Relations with the United
SHATCS PNR NE ire cece SHANNON, R. W.
CAN AA ie ar RER LE CS LE See Annual Register; Baptist;
Biological; Canals; Contingents;
Deaconess; Early Days; French-
Canadians; Geographic Board; Geo-
logical Survey ; Golf ; Indians ;
Industries; Labour; Land Tenure;
Legislation; North-West; Official
Languages; Political Institutions;
Prose: Railway Policy; Roosevelt;
Schools; South Africa; Statistical
Year Book; Upper Canada; United
States; War of 1812; Waterways;
Western Canada; Yachting.
Ganals) GE @Ganadayraen acne (or st." . . «MAWCETT, W.
Canary Island SEM MER On see . .See Spanish.
Canoe) Elow toy Dui dears fa letist sy esos os oe ve BRAITHWAITE, H. and RISTEEN, F. H.
Gape: Breton rere tee ce ee LME sles Ue BROWN, ROBT.
Cape Breton, Past and Present. . . . . GRANT, W. L.
Cape) Brevonme cates weemtan ited ten cs <) vero), sit See Steel Making.
Cappon’s ‘Britain’s Title in South
AEIGA Se ae SE rol bo) se fs, ens See REVIEW.
Garlyle’s) “SE erosWershiips ian. is) 2 CU MACMECHAN, A. (Hd.)
C'arlyle SUMMER MOTS NID EE MTL ON See REVIEW.
Census How, it is} taken EN Nue TOKER, HE. J
CENSUS. TENTE iat etre ial US) Nia See Canadian Census.
Century; INEMN RP ARR tae AU crane. ve one Anon.
Century of Achievements : 0.5... . Coyne, J. H.
Century, PAST IAE OS all ey Lu SMITH, GOLDWIN.
GLS LA Te EE Lee lou G coll oe 5 Se Re CIR ae See Nineteenth.
Chamberlain’st@hatiwemeaeares Are ite os MACFARLANE, T.
Character EN EN ER ET NUS MERSEREAU, I, F.
Character Modified by Education. . . .CAMERON, AGNES D,
Charlie—CireusmUSneriera Mies a) ooo 0 DouGLAS, GRAHAM,
Charlotte; ilizaibecharawen seit LT OWEN, ELIZABETH A.
Charlottetown—Fifty years ago ....M., E. L.
Chase. of The ride PMR eyo. ack DUNCAN, NORMAN.
Chatham, The Genuine ATEN UE SMITH, GOLDWIN.
Chaucer, life and) Timesvof. 2.52 . .: IPAGH iis ise
Chaucer; TherPathoswine tyne i Gls ie RAYMOND, W. O.
Cheese; Ripenimer olin sy A SR EUR TAUX HARRISON, F.. C.
Chesnel s Lar Salemi we eae ake See Review.
Child Study, What it has done for Edu-
Cations yi MNT EE crite LUN SCOTT, WM.
CA ED Le AR DR LES eNO eset Se See India.
GIT ETS 3 si. Rennes TESTER ea NPE MD eel. AE “‘ LOUNGER.”
OhicamonwS TONER MAMAN TEA PHILLIPS-WOLLEY, CLIVE.
China of a Year Ago and To-day. . . .DREw, E. B.
CTIA LS restau es a eae enV IR ner TN A See Canadian in China; Mongolian;
Printing-Press; Women,
Chinaman, John at Home. sy. o.oo. VICHERT, J. FE.
320
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Chinese-English Dictionary.......
Chink: The
Christ, The
Christ, The
Christ’s Teaching, Infallibility of. .
Development of a Pup. .
Lite tc) jatot ai ABA Rasta ede ©
MINOR OMIS false oe ae
Christian Instruction in Schools of
Ontario
sl» de dale) Le, Moy fia Tub Aw gee oy eee
Ghristian, Making Of. CMS NEA
Christian Science sh. eue IE MONTE
Christian Theology, Manual of . . . . .
Christianity
Christianity, Ethical Development of.
and its Evidences . . . . .
Christmas Talks and Stories. . . . . . .
Chrysler's Harm; Battle Joi. (een omen
Church, Relations to Social Reform. .
Church:
Churches, Messengers of.........
Churchill; “Winston. 6.0.6) Ce eterno
Civics, A plea for the teaching of.
WHITE, W. C.
. THOMPSON-SETON, E.
HUTCHINS, W. N.
INGRAM, J. F.
-Ross, JAMES.
MIDDLEMIss, J.
MACLEAN, John.
CAMERON, P.
BuRWASH, N.
Mowat, SIR O.
-SCRIMGER, J .
PATTERSON, Mrs. S. B.
RHEAUME, MME.
. VROOMAN, A. E.
See Architecture.
SANDERSON, J. E.
BRYAN, CLAUDE.
. - FINDLAY, W. N.
Clam Fishery of Passamaquoddy Bay.STaArrorD, JOSEPH.
Classics in Ministerial Education...
Classics, Th
Classics.
e Study AOL ML NE NES
o, fo Mers le ele, sie s)he) EEE
Clayton-Bulwer and Hay-Pauncefote
Treaties.
Coats of Arms and their Meanings. .
.MILLIGAN, G. M.
HAGARTY, E. W.
See Greek; Tragedy; Homer; Horace;
Philosophy; Sophocles; Socrates;
Virgil. ;
CUMMING, L. H.
. HEMSLEY, R.
Codman’s Expedition to Quebec. . . . . . Nee Review.
Coinage. a de ails Ss tio eee, Ne EE See Imperial.
Coins and Tokens 220502) 5) eae: See Canadian,
Oolin’ Clout?s Calendar. 224 5.) eee ee ALLEN, GRANT.
College and
LHe /STUGENE wet eee e i
College; The ‘City tante nt
College ‘Courtship, JA... 1.16 CEE et ate
College Day
College Graduate, Debt of, to Society.
Si be de 18 ets lotte le, nee
Coliege, Ladies, in our Educational
System .
fe a 5 1e ile tele Te Le 9 yt
College Man ‘as, a. Citizen.) 200 7 cue
College Paper, How toruna......
Colleges and: Citizenship* % 295. 24.
HARCOURT, HON. R.
+DROTTER, TT.
ARMSTRONG, W. D.
KEIRSTEAD, J. W.
FARRIS, J. W. D.
HARPER, H. A.
Colonial Silver; Old. eee eee WACK; AD: EE,
Colony, A forgotten corner in. ..... CAMERON, AGNES D.
Color Lessons es. 2e ur Ee eee eee PATTERSON, MRs. S. B.
Commercial, Education, 3. 2.) .2)5 2: Eppis, W. C.
Commercial Education. PRE LOUDON, PRESIDENT.
Comic Element in Henry V....... RAYMOND, W. O.
Commonwealth of Caribbea. ...... WIGHTMAN, F. A.
Compositions COTES NN CRIME BROUGH, T. A.
Confession, Reyision of)... TENUE SCRIMGER, JOHN.
Constitutional Change: 3) <9) i 6 REC" SMITH, GOLDWIN.
Contingents, “Passing Of." 2. eee PATTERSON, NORMAN.
Contingents fi 0:5, .06 Gs se eee See Canadian Contingents,
Conversion of Mametoose........
Convocation,
AGOTCSS TON EVE RATER
Copyrizht Question. 2% CN EC NE
BROWNING, A.
SMITH, GOLDWIN.
Copyright. EE EU AE NC ES ECM NEA See Canadian Copyright.
COgualiGet.! epson 2 Seok A -SCONT) D. C!
Corea,;'"A"Visit to An 41899, 2 et ee ae LEWIS, HELEN, F. M.
Corelli; Marie; bares see LONGLEY, Hon. J. W.
Corniche Road On thes". 24) ea. ee VWVITHROW, W. H.
Country School Teaching ......... WETHERALD, ETHELWYN.
Crawford, Isabella Valancy ....... BURPEE, L. J.
[BURPEE] A CANADIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE YEAR 1901
Cravate Rouge, La—A French Canadian
Sa ne. bé 00 OT NORME CORNE a tSe
CLOS NRA ek Rae ys See Gambling.
Cricket Seasonp Ole 1001's) fy EEE HALL, J. E.
GRUGICISTI ere ACN ets th cg ee a Sar. ot See Higher.
CEE AO Ae CRSP AT sh ak ou Niel Shyer oes whys SUTHERLAND, D.
CPOSEMELEREIMELIOIMIESE aml ONE ELLIS, Wife wal
Cromwell PATES LMM ET ANNE ENTREE Sce Review.
COTON SAN ES Uae ema PE NRC Cotes, Mrs. EVERARD.
CGrOSSH Slane tbe wy obo ehteliehiumise ole DE MILLE, A. B.
Crozier’s Civilization and Progress . . . .See Review.
Crozier’s Intellectual Development. . . . .See Review.
CrUShedPENOWNEL MARMITE TUNER EN PETITT, MAUDE.
CultuTpers HSSenibral sO faye swe sie shuts te) jie LE SUEUR, W. D.
Cumberland’s Union Sack... 0. |. . : See Review.
Curious AGOGRESSESA aie hay Assia ies UE CHURCHILL, HELEN T.
ur Cale deaNGISie me AU rs) ois) NN SISTER DE (MILLE, A. B.
Dalhousie College: A bit of History. .Anon.
Dalh'ouste to ele GTA shy we | sy sp use beh ve SMITH, E.
Dalhousie’s new professors . . . . . . . MURRAY, W. C.
DH alhOusion ne wes baer ee us wees es See Municipal.
WantevandmBeatmiGersy, MT MU Anon.
Dante ss ConcepLonr of, Bivils; NN 4). SAUNDERS, LOIs.
D'AVIONS ieee aie eis SMITH, E. C.
Davin, The late Nicholas Flood. . . . . SHANNON, R. W.
Dal wSonke DEN Gana sear NE. NAN ETS «lve
Dawson, George Mercer . . . . . . . . . Anon.
Dawson, Dhewlatem res accent eerste ‘ye! ye SHANNON, R. W.
Dawson, Sir William, Autobiographical
INOUESRS ae Peter Asie ns CA Re RA DAWSON, RANKINE.
DAW SOM ASMENIS MEN cm eerie oe iet tsa) Wabesn teh 3 WOODSIDE, HENRY J.
Daye AT El AT are spas series sits har te uae CAMEMMER
Deaconess Movement in Canada . . . . WITHROw, W. H.
Deaconesses, Ancient and Modern . . .\VirHrow, W. H.
Decimals and Decimalisation . . . . . . HARVEY, ARTHUR.
Deere IOS RENE NAN NN CUIR AUS Se ae
Deer Hunt San VAE as... tee FINCH, A. H.
DT OCT AC VAE MT oh eis, EC LUS: See Journalism.
Dene SuUrservgemeae ty ess wae coke. Voc MORICE, A. G.
Dénés, Classification of 1.0. 10 1. MORICE, A. G.
_Denison’s “Soldiering in Canada.’’. . . See Review.
MeSharatsieislan deem sues, LUE TEEN “STRAW Hat,”
Deutschamerikanischer Lehretag. . . . HoGARTH, E. §.
Devil” im Darwen NC EUR L ROGERS, R. V.
DICLIONAL Vere Mowe Te Nas taken ee See Chinese.
DIssipated mundane mph e st yh oa. e Worstey, P. J.
Divine) PUES LENDEMAIN ale ae MCFADYEN, J. E.
Doctrineiof therbolyaSpirity 8 a neo. SCRIMGER, JOHN.
Dollier de Casson and Galinée on Black
Creek NOR Rn ek oe one leans WADSWORTH, J. J.
Dominica, Log of a Missionary Depu-
EALION ye Meek in dre te Le PE di toes Coe HUNTER, T. W.
Dominion Storynohether wr ea wl kee HOPKINS, J. C.
Dominion registration of Teachers . . . ROBINS, S. P.
Doocley;:-Mr: ER Rene PUR LEA EU Ps Anon.
Doubts! and: Doubterspaeneten ye eke JENNER, J. H.
DPoukhoborsoL Candida sees at oto. BAKER, NELLIE N.
Drawing course of the public school . . DOBBIE, J. A.
Drummond Island Voyageurs, List of . .Anon.
DrUMIMNONMISlanidieat ests are ops See Voyageurs.
Duck Shooting on Lake Temiscamingue ARR ACC
Duff's “Old Testament Theology.’’. . . See Review.
Duke, The: A passing glimpse . . . . . CARs JA UT
321
322 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Duke, The, and Duchess of York
ALL NOM ERREUR . BRYAN, CLAUDE.
TUNUP, GALLES JOR: reer fo ac dee EN MEN Anon.
Dying Speeches and Confessions
OL XG WOCTA ULL see ce forks She cane ite ie . « GRIFFIN, M. J.
Early: Days in Maple Land....... YOUNG, CATHERINE A.
Early Settlements (in Ontario). . . . . See Grenville; March; Prince Edward
County.
Earthwork in Township of Moore. . . .BOyLE, DAVID.
Waster, Significance lot. Lei CRE AMEN CLARK, PROF, WM.
wastern Townships; Eafe NN: CHERS MCALEER, GEO.
Hastern TOoWNShINS os mck) tks beeen See Pioneer Life.
Heclesiastes, The (Book: Of. (5 v7 oie, ue MILLIGAN, G. M.
Hehoes of the Past.) cc eee. TDR JCNES, R. V.
Economic Association, National. . . . . HUGHES, J. L.
Economics of Trades Unions...... PATTERSON, J. W.
Economics in the High School. . . . . . LEROSSIGNOL, J. E.
Educated Gentleman, An....... Biuu, I. E.
Education, Conservative and Liberal
Education
Education
Education
in Europe. ...
in, NOVa. SCOLIA Me ite
Hducation in Ontario... TRACE
Education in Ontario,
VATS A lle mic’ he mis Heike RO eo
Education
Education
Education, Physical
Education, Physical .
d'a 9 Less
Education, Relation of to Morality. .
Education, Secondary, in Englind. .
Hiducation, Technical... 5 ENONCE ASHMORE, ANNIE. ”*
House Of Lords. CEE CCM OUR COULTHARD, Miss G. C.
House) that Jack Built... esse ene HAZELWOOD, M.
Housman’s ÆEnglishwoman’s Love Letters. See Review.
Hudson’s Bay Company, Chronicles of. BRADLEY, A. G.
Hudson’s Bay Company, Twenty Years
hile Ona) chet wee Qt à 0 CAMPBELL, R.
Hudson's: Bay in Canoes= 2.) uae PAPINEAU, T. iM.
Humour and Good Stories. . . . . . . . Anon.
Humorist, An Unconscious MM BURPEE, L. J.
Huron Villages; Notes on. CERN HUNTER, A. F.
varons of Torette ni, LC ENCORE GERIN, LEON.
Hutchison, last Royal Governor of
Massachusetts, UC CU cei eeoneenaenme WITHROW, W. H.
Huxley and Tyndall and Toronto Uni-
Vers Ts US LR CANCER ENT E MACALLUM, A. B.
Éuxley’s Life and Letters. OMC See Review.
Hymn-Book, More Hours with . . . . . LAMBLY, O. R.
Hymnology of the Church" DENYRS, T. M.
ELypnotism 7 - VC TP CRE See Suggestion.
feonoclasm <2 SN ONE CPE Low, G. J.
Idylls of the King, The Women of . . . .ROTHWELL, B. E.
IDolce Stil Nuovo UC ee eee FRASER, W. H.
Immipration > 0. . 0 LU CENTRE Anon.
immortality of the Soul. . PARKER, SIR GILBERT,
March Township, Early Settlers of. . . AHEARN, MRs. THOS.
March Township, Settlers of ...... AHEARN, Mrs, THOS.
Mark -Everard ie ELLE LEA EAU EE MAGER, KNOX.
Marquette, Father, Portrait of. .... BOYLE, DAVID.
Masterpiece or GodhAym a ame lee Lae BAIRD, FRANK.
TrRy-DAVIES and ‘WOOLSTON.
329
AMIE
330
Mast-Head Light in the Storm
Mathematics for Undergraduates . . .
Matriculants, Average ages of
Matterhorn, Record climb up the... .
Macdonald, Professor Charles:
Dalhousie. OF 1807-07 dew vet le) eo CRIE
Dalhousie’s Late Professor
Estimate...
His First Day in’ Class) 255 MENGE, G. J.
Social Problems - 0. "NN = ie
Social Reform. "1 ier sis becena mate
Socrates, his Person and NVOrK Em DyYDE, PRoFr. S. W.
Soldiering in Canada....--+-+:>; DENISON, G. T.
SOpHOCIGSS ey =) eats ic ci ARE ROBINSON, P. J.
Sound and) Spinitc) o. CR cae CR TE JERRERS, TC.
South Africa and Canadian Manufac-
dures ME eco TES IEC TC MC IEEE CUMMINGS, J.
South Africa, Sketches from. . . . . : Ross, A. E.
South Africa, With the Guns in... .MoRRISON, E. W. B.
South Africas c/s) sae) etal ees mn See Britain’s Title; Canadian
tingents; War.
Sower of Wheat, À . . - - . - + + + » : BINDLOSS, H.
Spanish Documents relating to Canary
TSlandS MES MONET EN NS ASTON io) 5) CAMPBELL, J.
Speaker and House of Commons. . . .BAIN, THOS.
Speech of Rev. Major Smith Te ENCE Anon.
Spelling, Reform. Nu NEC Hows GC: Ji.
Spelling Reform. 3). )- RATES Anon.
Split) Infinitive ibe. i 1) ence: Anon.
Spooks—An Incident of the Last Cen-
EULV Cy 0 held: CCE CR CAIUS, A. W.
Sprachkenntnisse Al Mittel Zur Geis-
Lesbildune Me UE oo. ONO "a © MUELLER, P. W.
Spring, The, thait did not MENT Dy) Goo à COR ANS:
Spureeon ©. bie fou eileen ADAMS, H. F
Stability and Progress. .---+-+-+-::-> PORTER, T. W.
Staél-Holstein, Madame de. . . . . - : NORTON, J. M.
Statistical Year-Book. . . . - + + «+ - - JOHNSON, GEO.
Steel Bridge and Structural Works. . .BRYDONE-JACK, E.
Steel-Making in Cape Breton. . . . . - McGRATH, P. T.
PTE PE ET getnon fo xe to) ES D 0791 DC See America.
Stephen’s Utilitarians. . . . . + + + + + + See Review.
Stevenson, Robert Louis . . . . + + . : SEETON, Miss E.
Stevenson, Robert Louis, The Art of. .MacNAUGHTON, JOHN.
Stoney Creek (War of AND) CNP ER See Lundy’s Lane.
Story Of Mil. eee le CENTRE FARRANT, H.
Strachan, Bishop, Reminiscences of . .CARTWRIGHT, GC;
Strathcona and Mount Royal, Lord. . .WiTHRow, W. H.
Con-
Strencth «))s ee ene is pic SU CPROWNE, A. i.
Strenuous Life, The. . .. . . .. .. . . + © CHAMPION, J. B.
Student Life, Incidents of. . . . . . . . Anon.
Students and the New Century. . . . : Fosrer, GEo. E.
Studies for Little Folks. . . . . . . . - PATTERSON, Mrs. S. B.
Sudermann, Hermann. . . . . + + + + : JONEs, Miss L. L.
Suggestion, Fundamental Problems of. KIRSCHMAN, A.
Summers are Long, Where. . . . . . . Mowat, J. G.
Swinburne, Algernon Charles. . . . . . Woop, JOANNA E.
Teacher, What he can do for the
Farmer: oes elec poe Lite DFA MARSHALL, G. R.
Teachers’ Examinations, Notes on. . .HAY, G. ju
Teachers, Professional Training of. . .MCINTOSH, A.
Teacher (TO ENS UE MCE SMITH, GOLDWIN.
Teachers, Training, in Ontario. . . . . MACCABE, J. A.
Teachets RENNES ae yee) APR RCE See Dominion; Education; Schools.
Technical Schools. - 3). «6 » © % «fe sil Cross, I. E.
Temagami Lake Reserve . . . . . . . . Anon.
Tennyson’s Ministers . . . . . . . . . . HOLLING, T. E.
Tennyson: te EE Re PET CRE See Idylls of the King.
Territorial Trust, Our. . -. - 0... HARTWELL, G. E.
Tértullians SSL NT CET ROUTINE See Anti-Rationalism.
[BURPEE]
Text-Book Problem .
Text-Book Question . ‘
Thayendanegea, Relic of .
Theological Faculties, Mission of. . .
Theology, Nineteenth Century
Theology, Old Testament.
Theology, Principles of Pauline.
Theology, Testament: Gould .
Thomson’s A Day’s Song.
Thornton,
Tiberius: A Character Sketch.
Tientsin, Siege of ......
A BUT CET NS “5. ICO MON NONON
Time, The Question of.
Tom Brown’s School.
Toronto.
Toronto University .
Matthew, Signature ‘or Lhe
A CANADIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE YEAR 1901
.MACMURCHY, A,
. YOUNG, A. EH.
Rose-HoLDEN, Mrs. M. E.
. LANG, A. E.
.BURWASH, N.
JORDAN, PROF.
.THOMAS, ERNEST.
Cross, G. W.
.See Review.
. VROOM, JAMES.
. BENNETT, C. V.
SELAND Vie alWie
SAUNDERS, MARSHALL,
. BRITTAIN, JOHN.
.MACMURCHY, MARJORY.
HUGHES, J. L.
.See HUXLEY and TYNDALL;
Building.
ROCriITPe TON 1. Jal oo alot 0 one oe GOD E ai EME
Totemism in the Old Testament . . MURISON, R. G.
Totemism, Origin of, British Ce en HizL-TourT, C.
TOULINE a CoMmpiaenieee) cals) s,s) en .<) e - PATTERSON, N.
Townshend’s Life of Townshend. . . . .See Review.
Trade War between Great Britain and
AINE CARS PE RME o/uel ue. fennst. op ret te he 13h, (Ge
DradeS UNION SERRE UE CU .. . .See Economics.
Traditions of Early Acadians. . . . . . BAMBRICK, J.
Trainings NAN UDIIAtONCOMPATEM 2s. 3). WADDELL, JOHN.
Training Camps, Practical observations
OR NÉ tic eG) UA Cree CURE SIa ET ie ae ELUNTEHR AG) rh.
Dre Sato, Course of Studies in. DEARNESS, J.
Translation NUIT Cet See Büchter.
Trapper’s Camp, How to build. . . . . RISTEEN, F. H.
Tree Planting in the North-West . . .MITCHELL, A.
Trees. and MOrestsweregpeteae ay Sic TEE Ve
Trees and ShrulbsayNativies AE NE ie ee MULDREW, W. H.
Trees (IDEStrucHonmotam esi) sakes ese HAMILTON, D. W.
Trees, Shade; Plambtinvie sof oe . se. < aoe NVEIUES
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Trinity Winter stig Year- Book irameias A CRUNZTE M. A. (Ed.)
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Tyndall at Toronto University ..... IMACALLUM, A. B.
Twain, Mark, as the American Con-
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Twentieth Century, The Question for .CAMPBELL, A. C.
Twentieth Century. .See Century.
Unanswereditietkern MONET BROWNING, ARTHUR.
United States relations with Canada .Anon.
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Universities, Commericial Breton at WICKETT, S. M.
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University, and State AIT 205). 202 LOUDON, PRESIDENT J.
University, andy StatewAideue cust. i)... MEREDITH, SIR R.
University and the Schools. ...... WATSON, PROF. JOHN.
University Sill hema wen ere ys mrss! BURWASH, CHANCELLOR.
University Building, Story of a..... CUMBERLAND, B.
University Confederation. ....... SMITH, GOLDWIN.
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University (of Toronto), Early days of.Boys, W. F. A.
University Education for the Clergy. .CLARK, PROF. Wm.
University Endowments. . -HODGINS, THOS.
University Extension. ... . HODGINS, J. G.
Sec. II., 1902. 21.
DMC ET CIC ARC
a er ele) je
339
Science
340
University
University
University,
University,
University,
fession .
University
University
University
University
University
University
University
University
University
University,
fession .
University,
University,
University
Unposted Letter, An
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MOnODOLYA RE Tee Ne elu SHORTT, PROF. ADAM.
OTISNEL ME MCE ET CLARK, W. M.
Physical Training at. . . .CRAWFORD, H. J.
preparation for Legal Pro-
LEFROY, PROF.
Symposium on. . Anon.
Question The Met EE DYDE, PRoOF. S. W.
QUESTION (EDC MN EMEN TUNER GRANT, PRINCIPAL G. M.
Question The CICR G.
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FLeCLOT REP MU MEN DOME Graduate.
Social Life, Value of . . . . WALLACE, CHANCELLOR ©. C. $.
Starvatloniogs) EME FAIRCLOUGH, H. R.
Training for Medical Pro-
tl ES Sd ES Le De Le de Mal cre Poets ete nS Hunt, LEwis.
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Victoria
. KERR, EDITH.
WATSON, ELLA.
See Britain.
ee) ve. tet ve We” ye) le) aus Ved weno gen sine
IDEVCIN Ish Se
See Queen.
Day, Saint
etre vey ve!) 0 vole en eere
oi) a. ot tao ce: diel te. dette pire sole letters
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©. Te:\ yao le: lal) ane; He) Mowe,
1842. . .
Seine ey Ow Oy DO Phe eg
7) QUANCERIBLD, >Re) 2.
. HUNTER, A. F.
M.
MACMURCHY, A.
MATTRESS, W.
McKINNON, H. V.
SMITH, GOLDWIN.
ete (io! eve. We) lois file
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ole. {ete rie (ste) ner eg ae. Le
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War of 1812, Canadian Regiments in. . CRUIKSHANK, E.
War of 1812, Effect of on Canada. . . .McCoNNELL, Mrs. R. G.
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Wesley Portraits, The New ...... WIiTHROW, W. H.
West, The, as a field of labour for
BIAStern MED NE EN on CNE ANR TIGHE, W. B.
[purPEE] A CANADIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE YEAR 1901 341
Western Canada, Women’s Work in. . LEWTHWAIT, E.
NVeSsTern AAC fires) BY NN NC De PETITT, MAUDE.
NVeSEMINS EPA AISIENTO MES CN CARMAN, A. R.
IWetmoremHemilya VE he ter SEM JACK, D VE.
Wheat) Crops Evolution Of Ve 2. 5° - BINDLOSS, HAROLD.
Wheatfields of Canadian North-West .MAcouN, JOHN.
Where the Sugar Maple Grows..... TESKEY, A. M.
Where west is east and east is west . . CAMERON, AGNES D.
Wiite EMA RTE MENU AMENER DICKSON, JAMES.
White ÉAOUSe PRE maa Gy? fi rie0 a) oie) ont WITHROW, W. H.
White Mamssmeumcdeminy ss) trevor tay hie ye NVEPCE AGE.
. ALLEN, GRANT (Æ£d.)
. BROWN, J. H.
White’s Natural History of Selborne . .
Whitman, Walt, Poet and Seer. .
Whitmore family of Niagara...... KIRBY, WM.
NV OS SEA TON 5 4 6 Gc loin aro Sfond God OXLEY, J. M.
Why. Not Sweetheart M NN 3s). ne HENSHAW, JULIA W.
MWANKol PNiobiaseyl TRIB. © © OMAOMOMPMEMENSR c THOMPSON-SETON, ERNEST.
Wild Animals MPICLUTES Of, 25). 21 <) <1 THOMPSON-SETON, ERNEST.
Wild Geese, Shooting, in New Bruns-
W IC NN neh Re avec den silseroey a SILVER, A. P.
Wild Eiearto fein eee ceils cock clk oi LEwIs, JOHN.
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Willie Winkiem amp ce et) chs veel er er ce SHaw, C. L.
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sketch . A) co AOL Foe CORE RES - LANGTON, H. H.
Winchester and the Millenary . . . . . BuRWASH, E. M.
WVINSlOWMEBADer ENTER civ hatuslacerel ies 6 RAYMOND, W. O.
IWinter/SmVVielliimn@ ainadare lel wash a LOCKHART, A. J.
MONTNSNEN EME cl leiden ae ar ea! ve THOMSON, J. S.
Mother Carey’s Chickens. ..... ROBERTS, THEODORE,
Mountaineer n. ahs a lo NAN SPAHR dacs
MAMMA ra fev lah ey M TAYCOCE, Ji
NaherDesiGelhebtent sib. 684 Me KERR, W. A. RR.
NEVER APM dss ea bas . DURAND, EVELYN.
Nicotines Ballade AN jst ATEN UN 5 EB AYE
IND hte AWS OLN EEee oe ne al lant as MARTIN, MARTHA.
Northern) Reverie, "A. . 9. . =... .). STRINGER, A. J-
Northmanis Welcome + .13 2.5 95%). LOUGH, HELEN B.
Noughimbmtn Sleepy acl. UNS CIN ONE PETITT, MAUDE.
November ALLEN, A. W.
Ode on Burial of Queen Victoria. .GROTE, G. W.
Old Quebec RM andl Keke oe ARBORY, JOHN.
On) aiiGhilceseeortraice.) -00 Ve. STRINGER, A. J.
On anGhopins Nocturne... 2. = =) a0: STRINGER, A. J.
Ont UNSS EAN ci yaa ease COPELAND, AGNES G.
OUVERTS EME co eet shh Gat eee CAMPBELL, W. W.
Pare VER EDR. NT _LocKHART, À .J.
Passinemvedr ER ee iia he he JONES, MABEL V.
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PionGers perma gems oss.) ELU ROGERS, W. W.
Pipersiotsthepeoolawes ms ics. tek ROBERTS, C. G. D.
POCIIS EMEA ER i ote Give LAMPMAN, ARCHIBALD.
PONS yey aes Sale a seas ROBERTS, C. G. D.
Poemsiandetectures 2s sal ae LEITCH, P. J.
Poems by a Business Man..... TYRRELL, WM.
Poems of a Great Range..... . STICKLE, C. H.
IEtow amore WEI o oS a) Rue Cowl oun CARMAN, BLIss.
Price Whe RS far at's va Lt WETHERALD, ETHELWYN.
PriINCeMCEOREE NE a) TN GODFREY, H. H.
Prisoned@ilowensieass. 4 4 6 Wiley “ALE
QU'ALTANN SNA ER EU ets EDGAR, W. W.
QuebeciCathedra le RAM 2 cle. BELLINGHAM, H. G.
Queen’suSoliloquya Ther. 5 2.0. 4°: COPELAND, AGNES G.
Quid Mihi Adfers? ........ . LEPAGE, THOS.
Response Dewan RUEIL PENNINGTON, AMY K.
River SON ER AN meen robs. TA utes DURAND, EVELYN.
ROSe Of MILAN amen es ols gas ROBERTS, C. G. D.
Sailing NOTÉE weenie eli ER ROBERTS, THEODORE.
Sea ibys themWoodwihenw) so... 2 SCOTT Dae.
S€a=Sonle Amie eran a ies 2 ba. ashok MacKay, ISABELLA FE.
September eau yes ieee sees ie seve le le CAMPBELL, W. W.
Sir Ector to the Dead Knight. . . . ROBERTS, THEODORE.
SO i ee eae ere ee a EME NS NO MARTIN, MARTHA,
SONS in OCtoperi meee ie alle STRINGER, A. J.
Sons ines pring a Aue ma enn lanai Low, May A.
Sone inl themiNie hit hh eae eel Ll. PARKINSON, AMY.
Sone # Sparrows nerd eee) ENNN TUE LOCKHART, A .J.
SORTIE ES nee ET aire Pea NE LL RE CAMPBELL, W. W.
SDECE AGEN iain ey re Je) a MCGILL, WM.
Star in the East, The.. . . . . . . .BisHop, M, B.
344
Stars of the East Mhe sic) oe
Summer Clouds .
Summer Flowers. . .
Sunset. .
Sunset at ‘Chambly. 7s) si.) den ck oe
Tecumseh and Canadian Poems.
Tidings of Olah. 7: 0. cesh nee eee
To Count Tolstoi
“boy I heel URN th 6) oe S Qual ofa CRE
To the New Year
To the Twentieth Century. . . . .
o) fey wt le Ant ee fs Piet a jem
A Woy xl i hoch sy 20e et Ulrich ear Re
Toast “to! hie) Wscin'e" MN toe CCR
ABritite; A7 M MUC tie Olea ee
ANMDN AS inh Org oO CITE NRC
Truth Shall Make You Free, The.
Twin Flowers on the Portage. .
Two Beggars.
Two Pictures. .
Two) Summer Hives. EURE ORNE
Vanguard, The...
Victor and other Poems.
AVA CEOLIO’. come po kom crue pict PS EN eee
Victoria Emanuel...
Victoria Regina .
Wallace and Canada: 0) tee
War Spirit.
Way Of Beauty, The RSC
Welcome to Duke of York
Wind. :
Wisdom of Love.
sé) ie le) ve Male let Eee
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
. WRIGHT, R. W.
. FORD, ARTHUR R.
BASE
. CLEVELAND, B. M.
. LOW, May A.
. MAIR, CHARLES.
. CARMAN, BLISS.
.RAGG, ALBAN HE.
AS NE D.
. LEPAGE, THOS.
. GADSBY, FRANKLIN.
. WETHERALD, ETHELWYN,.
SELWYN, CECIL EH.
- ROGERS, AMY.
- JOHNSTON, A. J.
- GILROY, W. E.
ICOM UDC.
- WETHERALD, ETHELWYN.
. LEPAGE, THOS.
. LEPAGE, THOS.
- CAMPBELL, W. W.
. LEHIGH, M. S.
. LOCKHART, A. J.
-GROTE, G. W.
. CAMPBELL, W. W.
. CAMPBELL, JOHN W.
. Low, MAY A.
- STRINGER, A. J.
. MCINNES, T. R. E.
SCO, D, iC!
. CAMPBELL, W. W.
. ROBERTS, C. G. D.
ROM SOCIETY OF CANADA.
RAANSACTIONS
SivC EION, LLL:
MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL anp CHEMICAL SCIENCES
PAPERS HOF 1902
AL:
ey tt
el T2
r x
un Ê
a.
V1
rl
[Bovey] STRESSES IN BEAMS LOADED TRANSVERSELY Sec. IIL., 1902
1
DUIOTEN TI
OF CAST STEEL BEAM.
D}
SIDI
ON
cn LU
PLACE
NSOMETERS IN
x
wpe
PHOTOGRAPH SHOWING EXTI
SECTION III., 1902 [3] Trans. R. S. C.
.— On the Stresses Developed in Beams Loaded Transversely.
By Henry T. Bovey, F. RB. S.
(Read May 27, 1902.)
The present paper contains further results obtained with the new
extensometer described in Section III., Vol. VII., of the “ Transactions ”’
of the Royal Society of Canada, in the year 1901-02.
The loading was of the same description and of two kinds, namely,
(1) loads of increasing magnitude were placed at the centre; and (2)
equal loads of increasing magnitude were concentrated at two points
equidistant from the centre, the maximum B. M. in each case being the
same as for the corresponding centrally placed load.
In all measurements, the beams were placed on supports 60 ins.
apart and the distance between the extensometer points was 8 ins.
In each set of observations, the horizontal row at the top of the
columns gives the loads successively placed on the beam, and the columns
under the several loads give the corresponding changes of length
between the extensometer points in millions of an inch, each change of
length being the average obtained from five to ten observations.
The decrements and increments of length are indicated by negative
and positive signs respectively.
A.—EXPERIMENTS WITH AN 8 IN. STEEL RoLuep Joist WxIGHING
492 LBs. PER LINEAL YARD.
An extensometer was placed horizontally at the centre of gravity of
the section and extensometers were also placed on parallel lines at
distances of 1:27 ins., 2°54 ins. and 3-81 ins., above and below the centre
of gravity, the extensometers in the last case being on the flanges.
LoApDs CONCENTRATED AT 30-IN. CENTRES.
3,000 lbs. 6,000 Ibs. 9,000 Ibs. 12,000 Ibs. 15,000 Ibs.
— 930 — 1701 — 2415 — 3126 — 3824
Gal — 1228 Gris — 2395 — 2840
— 323 = GW — 903 EU — 1460
=) KG + D + 13 + 22 + 25
+ sil + 627 + 937 + 1239 + 1536
+ 631 + 1256 + 1863 + 2446 + 3008
+ 891 + 1682 + 2478 + 8252 + 4038
By plotting the above results, diagram I. is obtained.
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA .
[BovEY] STRESSES IN BEAMS LOADED TRANSVERSELY
TABLE OF MAXIMUM BENDING MOMENTS AND DEFLECTIONS.
ee in lbs. Max. Bending Mo- Deflections in
ment in in.-lbs. inches.
3000 45000 ‘O11
6000 90000 “024
9000 135000 038
: 12000 180000 ‘051
15000 225000 063
LOADS CONCENTRATED AT 20-IN. CENTRES.
2,250 lbs. 4,500 lbs. 6,750 lbs. 9,000 Ibs. 11,250 lbs.
= to — 1582 — 2384 — 3208 — 4075
— 645 — 1265 — 1860 — 2452 — 3027
— 337 — 679 — 1014 — 1350 — 1671
— “10 — 38 Oo — 100 — 133
306 597 + 887 + 1172 + 1452
637 se 1457) + 1570 + 2475 + 3068
942 + 1840 + 2664 + 3404 + 4268
By plotting the above results, diagram II. is obtained.
TABLE OF MAXIMUM BENDING MOMENTS AND DEFLECTIONS.
Load in lbs.
Max. Bending Mc-
Deflections in
ment in in.-lbs. inches.
2250 45000 013
4500 90000 ‘015
. 6750 135000 ‘017
9000 180000 ‘019
11250 225000 021
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
LOADS CONCENTRATED AT 15-IN. CENTRES.
2,000 Ibs. 4,000 Ibs. 6,000 lbs. 8,000 lbs. 10,000 lbs.
— 879 — 1711 — 2482 — 3323 — 4153
— 656 — 1267 — 1865 — 2446 — 3029
— 352 — 694 — 1051 — 1419 — 1728
LA — 47 — 86 — 123 — 156
295 + 591 + 872 + 1156 + 1435
+ 629 + 1243 + 1838 + 2429 + 3006
+ 933 + 1859 + 2685 + 3502 + 4290
By plotting the above results, diagram III. was obtained.
TABLE OF MAXIMUM BENDING MOMENTS AND DEFLECTIONS.
Load in lbs. Max. Bending Mo- Deflections in
ment in in.-lbs. inches.
2000 45000 ‘O12
4000 90000 “023
6000 135000 034
8000 180000 047
10000 225000 *059
LOADS CONCENTRATED AT 8-IN. CENTRES.
5,190 lbs.
1,730 lbs 3,460 lbs.
— 913 — 1778
— 599 — 1164
— 290 — 559
+ 15 + 40
+ 327 + 659
+ 636 + 1264
+ 1068 + 2014
— 2632
— 1707
811
ap {ty
+ 995
+ 1836
+ 2862
6,920 lbs.
— 3473
2239
1066
+ 109
+ 1318
+ 2495
+ 3683
8,650 lbs.
— 4318
— 2751
— 1310
+ 145
By plotting the above results, diagram IV. was obtained.
[Bovey] STRESSES IN BEAMS LOADED TRANSVERSELY
TABLE OF MAXIMUM BENDING MOMENTS AND DEFLECTIONS,
Tegadiin lbs: Max. Bending Mo- Deflections in
ment in in.-lbs. inches.
1730 44980 “011
3460 88960 "021
5190 134940 "032
6920 179920 043
8650 224900 "054
LoaAps CONCENTRATED AT 6 IN. CENTRES.
1,665 lbs 3,330 lbs. 4,995 lbs. 6,660 Ibs. 8,325 lbs.
— 1050 — 1924 — 2775 se — 4385
— 594 Se | aa — 2149 — 2637
— 290 — 548 — 795 — 1038 — 1271
EL AB AMP RD: + 119 + 165
ST + 641 + 964 + 1289 + 1605
+ 627 + 1235 + 1846 + 2423 + 2965
+ 92 + 1777 + 2612 + 3413 + 4177
By plotting the above results, diagram V. was obtained.
TABLE OF MAXIMUM BENDING MOMENTS AND DEFLECTIONS.
Max. Bending Mo-
Deflections in
Load in lbs.
ment in in.-lbs. inches.
1665 44955 “O11
3330 89910 ‘021
4995 134865 ‘031
6660 179820 .042
8325 224775 "053
8 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
LoAp CONCENTRATED AT CENTRE.
3,000 Ibs. | 6,000 Ibs. 9,000 Ibs. 12,000 Ibs. 15,000 Ibs.
— 847 — 1660 — 2488 — 3270 — 4077
Se i PR ATEN 7 — 1409 — 1873 — 2311
aaa fa pe — 486 — 72 —. 537
yap. NAT SE en + 285 +° 811 + 878
+ 387 + 742 + 1063 + 1876 + 1687
+ 65 | + 1938 + 1796 + 2384 + 2907
+ 1099 | + 2049 + 2866 + 3707 + 4504
By plotting the above results, diagram VI. was obtained.
TABLE OF MAXIMUM BENDING MOMENTS AND DEFLECTIONS.
Load in lbs. Max. Bending Mo- Deflections in
ment in in.-lbs. inches.
3000 45000 01
6000 90000 | 02
9000 135000 | -03
12000 i80000 -04
15000 225000 “05
In diagram IV., in which the loads are concentrated at 8-in. centres,
the stress in the material is almost directly proportional to the distance
from the neutral axis which seems to be slightly above the centre of
gravity. .
The diagrams for the 30-in., 20-in. and 15-in. concentrations indicate
that the stress in the material increases more rapidly than the distance
from the neutral axis, while the increase is not so rapid for the 6-in.
concentration and for the beam loaded at the centre. In the last case,
the neutral axis has moved very appreciably above the centre of gravity.
[BOVEY ] STRESSES IN BEAMS LOADED TRANSVERSELY 9
B.—EXPERIMENTS WITH A 7'85-IN. X 3°425-1nN. Cast STEEL
Bream WEIGHING 496} LBs. PER CuBic Foor.
Five extensometers were used with this beam, one being placed
horizontally at the centre of gravity and the remainder on parallel lines
at distances of 1:8125 ins. and 3°625 ins, above and below the centre of
gravity.
DIAGRAMS FOR CAST-STEEL BEAM WITH LOADS
CONCENTRATED AT GOIN. CENTRES
10 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
SERIES I.
LOADS CONCENTRATED AT 30-IN. CENTRES.
800 lbs. / 1,600 Ibs. 2,400 lbs. 3,200 lbs. 4,000 lbs.
— 87 — 174 — 269 — 361 — 457
— 38 — 81 — 122 — 170 — 211
3. 0 | ap 1 + 4 +f 6 +f 8
+ 34 + 97 | + 142 + 197 + 240
+ 92 + 205 + 310 + 412 + 515
By plotting the above results, diagram VII. was obtained.
TABLE OF MAXIMUM BENDING MOMENTS AND DEFLECTIONS.
Toad in be Max. Bending Mo- Deflections in
ment in in. lbs. | inches.
800 12060 ‘001
1600 24000 ‘0015
2400 36000 ‘003
3200 48000 “0045
4000 60000 “0055
SERIES II.
1,600 lbs. 3,200 lbs. 4,800 lbs. 6,400 lbs. 8,000 Ibs.
ee) ah Mere SE — 760 — 935
— 78 — 166 — 263 — 357 — 447
6 fF 8 + 8 4 7 vi
+ 92 + 188 + 280 + 375 + 473
202 + 405 + 601 + 789 + 975
By plotting the above results, diagram VIII. was obtained,
[BOVEY ] STRESSES IN BEAMS LOADED TRANSVERSELY 11
TABLE OF MAXIMUM BENDING MOMENTS AND DEFLECTIONS.
Load in lbs. Max. Bending Mo- Defiections in
ment in in. lbs. inches.
1600 24000 -002
3200 48000 004
4800 72000 007
6400 % 96000 -0085
8000 120000 011
SERIES III.
2,400 lbs. 4,800 lbs. 7,200 lbs. 8,60 lbs. 12,000 lbs.
— 272 — 559 — 840 — 1120 — 1383
— 119 — 242 — 368 — 493 — 616
+ 8 + 17 += 26 + 37 qe ay
145 297 + 447 + 602 ae TST
+ 304 + 605 sta + 1176 + 1440
By plotting the above results, diagram IX. was obtained.
TABLE OF MAXIMUM BENDING MOMENTS AND DEFLECTIONS.
Load in lbs. Max. Bending Mo- | Deflections in
ment in in.-lbs. inches.
2400 36000 -003
4800 22000 -006
7200 108000 “010
9600 144000 014
120000 180000 ‘017
ass ©
Yi» X2
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
SERIES IV.
3,200 Ibs. 6,400 Ibs. 9,600 lbs. 12,800 Ibs. 16,000 Ibs.
— 387 — 763 — 1116 — 1438 — 1767
— 172 | —" 360 — 545 — 724 — 900
aa 8 oo 2 + 13 + 15 35
+ 184 + 370 + 578 780 990
+ 398 + 795 + 1177 + 1551 + 1913
By plotting the above results, diagram X. was obtained.
TABLE OF MAXIMUM BENDING MOMENTS AND DEFLECTIONS.
Load in lbs.
3200
6400
9600
12800
16000
Max. Bending Mo- Deflections in
ment in in.-lbs. inches.
48000 ‘004
96000 ‘009
144000 ‘013
192000 ‘018
240000 028
[BovEY ] STRESSES IN BEAMS LOADED TRANSVERSELY 13
DIAGRAMS FOR CAST-STEEL BEAM WITH LOADS
CONCENTRATED AT 2OIN. CENTRES
SERIES I.
Loaps CONCENTRATED AT 20-IN. CENTRES.
600 lbs. 1 200 Ibs. 1,800 lbs. 2,400 Ibs. 3,000 lbs.
— 104 — 212 — 318 — 421 — 521
— 58 — 112 — 168 — 218 — 272
= 2 — 3 — 6 — 12 | — 415
+ 35 dO) + 119 + 155 | + 202
+ 86 ah les) + 286 + 379 + 475
By plotting the above results, diagram XI, was obtained,
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
TABLE OF MAXIMUM BENDING MOMENTS AND DEFLECTIONS.
Max. Bending Mo-
Deflections in
Load in lbs.
ment in in. lbs. inches.
600 12000 ‘001
1200 24000 “002
1800 36000 0035
2400 48000 “005
3000 60000 “0055
SERIES II.
1,200 lbs. 2,400 lbs. 3,600 lbs. 4,800 lbs. 6,000 lbs.
— 188 — 318 — 577 — 765 — 942
es — 168 — 265 — 361 — 451
oo 7} 3 + 4 oo 2 4
+ 89 + 187 + 276 368 467
+ 195 + 403 + 599 + 799 980
By plotting the above results, diagram XI]. was obtained.
TABLE OF MAXIMUM BENDING MOMENTS AND DEFLECTIONS.
Load in lbs.
Max. Bending Mo-
Deflections in
ment in in. lbs. inches.
1200 24000 ‘001
2400 48000 "003
3600 72000 *0055
4800 96000 .0075
6000 120000 0094
[BovEY ] STRESSES IN BEAMS LOADED TRANSVERSELY
SERIES III.
15
1,800 Ibs. 3,600 Ibs. 5,400 bs. 7,200 lbs. 9,000 Ibs.
— 279 — 566 — 851 — 1132 — 1406
— 126 — 254 — 383 — 512 — 638
+ 2 10 + 16 + 24 + 32
143 296 + 445 + 596 + TAT
+ 299 + 603 + 889 + 1175 + 1453
By plotting the above results, diagram XIII. was obtained.
TABLE OF MAXIMUM BENDING MOMENTS AND DEFLECTIONS.
Mendiin Ibe. Max. Bending Mo- Deflections in
y ment in in.-lbs. inches.
1800 36000 003
3600 72000 “006
5400 108000 “009
7200 144000 012
9000 180000 “015
SERIES IV.
2,400 lbs. 4,800 lbs. 7,200 lbs. 9,600 lbs. 12,000 lbs.
— 381 — 761 — 1116 -- 1447 — 1781
— 168 — 361 — 549 — 742 — 919
+ 9 + 3 + 8 + 6 + 10
+ 190 + 3869 + 572 titi + 969
+ 406 + 80 + 1178 154 + 1906
By plotting the above results, diagram XIV, was obtained.
16 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
TABLE OF MAXIMUM BENDING MOMENTS AND DEFLECTIONS.
Load in lbs. | Max. Bending Mo- Deflections in
ment in in.-lbs. inches.
2400 | 48000 | “004
4800 96000 -009
7200 144000 013
9600 192000 | 017
12000 240000 | 021
DIAGRAMS FOR CAST-STEEL BERM WITH LOADS
CONCENTRATED ATISIN. CENTRES
[BovEY ]
SERIES I.
LoADS CONCENTRATED AT 15-IN CENTRES.
STRESSES IN BEAMS LOADED TRANSVERSELY
535 lbs.
1,070 lbs.
1,605 lbs.
2,140 lbs.
+ + +
+ + +
bi
ist)
Qt
+ + +
_
~]
co
2,675 lbs.
— 475
+ + +
bo
bo
©
By plotting the above results, diagram XV. was obtained.
TABLE OF MAXIMUM BENDING MOMENTS AND DEFLECTIONS.
Max. Bending Mo-
Deflections in
Load in lbs.
ment in in.-lbs. inches.
535 13138 “001
1070 26276 “002
1605 39414 “003
2140 52552 “004
2675 65690 “005
SERIES II.
1,070 lbs. 2,140 lbs. 3,210 lbs. 4,280 Ibs. 5,350 lbs.
— 190 — 387 — 581 — 711 — 946
"84 — 172 — 272 — 369 — 460
6 ~ 2 1 1 0
86 + 183 275 365 464
196 + 406 602 797 982
By plotting the above results, diagram XVI. was obtained.
Sec. III., 1902. 2.
18 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
TABLE OF MAXIMUM BENDING MOMENTS AND DEFLECTIONS.
Load in ils. Max. Bending Mo- Deflections in
ment in in.-lbs. inches.
1070 26276 ‘001
2140 52552 ‘003
3210 78828 "0055
4280 105104 “0075
5350 131380 ‘010
SERIES III.
1,605 lbs. 3,210 lbs. 4,815 lbs. 6,420 lbs. 8,025 lbs.
— 284 — 572 — 850 — 1110 — 1359
— 129 — 167 — 416 — 555 — 692
+ 3 6 + 5 + 4 + 10
144 285 + 425 + 577 + 726
312 614 + 912 + 1189 + 1470
By plotting the above results, diagram XVII. was obtained.
TABLE OF MAXIMUM BENDING MOMENTS AND DEFLECTIONS.
Toadanilbs: Max. Bending Mo- Deflections in
ment in in.-lbs. inches.
1605 39414 "003
3210 78828 006
4815 118242 "009
6420 157656 ‘013
8025 197070 ‘016
[Bovey ] STRESSES IN BEAMS LOADED TRANSVERSELY 19
DIAGRAMS FOR CAST-STEEL BEAM WITH LOADS
CONCENTRATED AT BIN. CENTRES
_ SERIES I.
LOADS CONCENTRATED AT 8-IN. CENTRES.
460 lbs. 920 lbs. 1,380 lbs. 1,840 lbs. 2,300 Ibs.
— 86 — 181 — 268 — 365 — 456
— 41 — 86 — 123 — 171 — 213
+ Le + 4 + 6 ey) HAUTE
+ 40 + ely + 138 + 194 + 238
101 + 206 + 316 + 413 + 515
By plotting the above results, diagram XVIII. was obtained.
20 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
TABLE OF MAXIMUM BENDING MOMENTS AND DEFLECTIONS.
Load ands: Max. Bending Mo- Deflections in
ment in in.-lbs. inches.
460 11960 “001
920 23920 ‘0015
1380 35880 "002
1840 47840 "003
2300 59800 ‘004
SERIES II.
925 lbs. 1,840 lbs. 2,760 lbs. 3,680 lbs. 4,600 lbs.
— 185 — 364 — 557 — 1746 — 920
— 77 — 156 — 248 — 336 — 484
4 + 15 12 18 + . 13
90 + 199 287 381 + 476
200 + 413 + 608 + 801 + 990
By plotting the above results, diagram XIX. was obtained.
TABLE OF MAXIMUM BENDING MOMENTS AND DEFLECTIONS.
Load in lbs. Max. Bending Mo- Deflections in
ment in in.-lbs. inches.
920 23920 002
1840 47840 0045
2760 71760 0065
3680 95680 0085
4600 119600 +010
[BovEY] STRESSES IN BEAMS LOADED TRANSVERSELY
SERIES III.
2,380 lbs. 2,760 Ibs. 4,140 lbs. 5,520 lbs. 6,900 lbs.
— 274 — 559 — 836 — 1090 — 1333
— 117 — 248 — 389 — 525 — 662
ar 7 ae 17 ae KD + 16 mle
+ 145 + 289 + 424 + 575 +) 720
+ 307 + 610 + 903 + 1176 + 1451
By plotting the above results, diagram XX. was obtained.
TABLE GF MAxIMUM BENDING MOMENTS AND DEFLECTIONS,
Load in Ibs. Max. Bending Mo- Deflections in
ment in in. lbs. inches.
2380 35880 004
2760 71760 -007
4140 107640 -010
5520 143520 -012
6900 179400 "014
22 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
DIAGRAMS FOR CAST-STEEL BEAM WITH LOADS
CONCENTRATED AT OIN. CENTRES
SERIES I.
LoADps CONCENTRATED AT 6-IN. CENTRES.
445 lbs. 890 lbs. 1,335 lbs. 1,780 lbs. 2,220 lbs.
— 93 — 189 — 283 — 379 — 470
— 41 — 86 — 126 — 151 — 216
1 + 2 + 4 + 6 =f 8
40 + 87 + 137 + 189 + 335
95 + 195 + 299 + 401 + 6501
By plotting the above results, diagram XXI.
was obtained.
[BovEY } STRESSES IN BEAMS LOADED TRANSVERSELY
TABLE OF MAXIMUM BENDING MOMENTS AND DEFLECTIONS.
23
Max. Bending Mo-
Deflections in
Load in lbs.
ment in in. lbs. inches.
445 12015 “001
590 24030 ‘002
1335 36045 ‘003
1780 48060 ‘004
2225 60075 ‘005
SERIES II.
890 lbs. 1,780 lbs. 2,670 lbs. 3,560 lbs. 4,450 lbs.
— 182 — 365 — 556 — 743 — 917
— 7 — 151 — 239 — 331 — 419
+ 7 cane Le + 21 + 19 + 24
+ 94 + 97 + 291 + 383 + 480
+ 201 + 415 + 612 + 806 + 992
By plotting the above results, diagram X XII
. was obtained.
TABLE OF MAXIMUM BENDING MOMENTS AND DEFLECTIONS.
Load in lbs. Max. Bending Mo-
ment in in.-lbs.
890 24030
1780 48060
2670 72090
3560 96120
4450 120150
Deflections in
inches.
-003
24
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
SERIES III.
1,335 Ibs. 2,670 lbs. 4,050 lbs. 5,340 Ibs. 6,675 lbs.
— 274 — 553 — 836 — 1078 — 1325
— 116 — 244 — 381 — 514 — 645
10 17 Salo dE) 74 20
146 288 + 431 + 578 + 723
305 613 + 897 + 1167 + 1445
By plotting the above results, diagram XXIII. was obtained.
TABLE OF MAXIMUM BENDING MOMENTS AND DEFLECTIONS.
Max. Bending Mo-
Load in lbs.
ment in in.-lbs.
1335 36045
2670 72090
4050 108135
5340 144180
6675 180225
SERIES IV.
1,665 lbs 3,330 lbs 4,895 lbs. 6,660 lbs.
— 340 — 683 — 997 — 1285
— 166 — 314 — 493 — 645
a 9 21 + 30 47
197 374 + 570 733
389 732 + 1002 + 1294
Deflections in
inches.
004
‘007
“009
‘018
‘016
8,325 lbs.
— 1573
— 778
+ 58
+ 893
+ 1594
By plotting the above results, diagram XXIV. was obtained, but
only one series of observations was made in this case.
[Bovey] STRESSES IN BEAMS LOADED TRANSVERSELY 25
TABLE OF MAXIMUM BENDING MOMENTS AND DEFLECTIONS.
Min ibs. Max. Bending Mo- Deflections in
ment in in.-lbs. inches.
1665 36045 ‘007
3330 72090 ‘010
4995 108135 "013
6660 144180 ‘017
8325 180225 \ .020
DIAGRAMS FOR CAST-STEEL BEAN? WITH LOADS
CONCENTRATED AT CENTRE
26 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
SERIES I.
LoaAp CONCENTRATED AT CENTRE.
800 lbs. 1,600 lbs. 2,400 Ibs.
— 81 — 169 — 245
— 33 — 64 — 98
5 3 6 13
38 + 89 + 141
87 + 185 + 287
By plotting the above results, diagram XX V. was obtained.
TABLE OF MAXIMUM BENDING MOMENTS AND DEFLECTIONS.
3,200 lbs.
+ + +
bo
©
aw
Max. Bending Mo-
Load in lbs.
ment in in.-lbs. inches.
800 12000 ‘001
1600 24000 ‘002
2400 36000 ‘003
3200 48000 “004
4000 60000 “005
SERIES II.
1,200 lbs 2,400 ibs 3,600 lbs 4,800 lbs.
— 113 — 253 — 381 — 6517
— 62 — 100 — 158 — 206
e 3 13 28 28
61 + 140 + 228 294
+ 133 + 286 + 450 586
Deflections in
6,000 lbs.
+ + +
657
By plotting the above results, diagram XX VI. was obtained.
[BovEy ]
STRESSES IN BEAMS LOADED TRANSVERSELY
TABLE OF MAXIMUM BENDING MOMENTS AND DEFLECTIONS.
Load in lbs.
ment in in.-lbs. inches.
1200 1800 “002
2400 3600 “004
3600 5400 005
4800 7200 ‘006
6000 9000 “008
SERIES III.
1,600 lbs. 3,200 lbs. 4,800 lbs. 6,400 lbs. 8,000 lbs.
— 172 — 338 — 519 — 706 — 886
— 71 — 133 — 211 — 296 — 376
3 22 + 29 27 + 29
83 194 + 292 376 + 468
183 396 + 586 760 + 933
Max. Bending Mo-
Defiections in
By plotting the above results, diagram X XVII. was obtained.
TABLE OF MAXIMUM BENDING MOMENTS AND DEFLECTIONS.
Load in lbs.
Max. Bending Mo-
Deflections in
ment in in.-lbs. inches.
24000 "002
48000 003
72000 005
96000 ‘006
120000 008
28 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
SERIES IV.
2,400 lbs. 4,800 lbs. 7,200 lbs. 9,600 lbs. 1,200 lbs.
— 951 — 6514 — 790 — 1060 — 1330
— 103 — 213 — 342 — 460 — 581
+ 14 + a0 + 36 + 41 + 46
141 + 297 + 482 + 567 + 706
290 + 6588 + 853 + 1111 + 1352
By plotting the above results, diagram XX VIII. was obtained.
TABLE OF MAXIMUM BENDING MOMENTS AND DEFLECTIONS.
Load in lbs. Max. Bending Mo- Deflections in
ment in in.-lbs. inches.
2400 36000 -003
4800 72000 006
7200 108000 “010
9600 144000 “014
12000 180000 017
An inspection of diagrams VII. to XXIV., for the cast steel beam,
shows that in all cases the stresses in the material are very approxi-
mately proportional to the distance from the neutral surface and that
this neutral surface very approximately coincides with the centre of
gravity, indicating that, in the case of the concentrated loads, the varia-
tion of stress in the beam in question is closely in accordance with
theory.
In diagrams XV. to XX VIII, plotted from the results obtained for
a beam loaded at the centre, the neutral surface has very appreciably
moved towards the compression side, but the stress in the material is
still proportional to the distance from the neutral surface in its changed
position.
SECTION III., 1902 [29] Trans. R. S. C.
I1.—Correlation of the Curve of the Second Order and the Sheaf of Rays
of the Second Order in Geometry of Position.
By Professor ALFRED Baker, M.A., of University of Toronto.
(Read May 27, 1992.)
As a convenient notation, C4 is used to denote the projection of C
from A.
»
ne
To obtain tangents at A and B, A and B are taken as radiant points,
and A# and BE as base lines, and C is projected on these from A and B,
giving C4, Cg; also D is projected from A and B, giving D4, Dr. The
intersection of C4 Cr and D 4 Dz gives F, the intersection of the tangents
at A and B.
Again, to find the tangent at Æ, A and Æ are taken as radiant points
and A B, E B as base lines. The projections of C are C4 and Cg. On
Cz CA the intersection of the tangents at A and E lies. Hence, finding
G, the intersection of CzC4 with tangent at A, we have the point
through which the tangent at Æ passes.
30 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
To find tangents at C and D, take C and D as radiant points and
C A, D Aas base lines. Then projecting B from C and D we get Bo and
By; and projecting # from C and D we get Ecand Ep. The intersec-
tion K,of Be Bp and Ee Ep, gives the intersection of the tangents at
Cand D.
Again, taking B and C as radiant points, and A B, A Cas base lines,
and projecting Æ from these points, we get Ze, Ez, which are the same
as Cr, Ca. Hence the intersection of tangents at B and C lies on Cy Cz,
on which also lies the intersection of the tangents at À and #. Similarly
the intersection of tangents at C and Æ lies on C4 Cr, on which also lies
the intersection of tangents at A and B.
We thus see that if a quadrilateral be described about a conic, the
intersection of lines joining opposite points of contact (B # and A ©) is
also the intersection of lines joining opposite intersections of tangents
(G Land FM).
Next consider the five tangents (at À, B, C, D, E) as rays of a sheaf
of the second order. Take F and G as radiant points and F# P, G P as
base lines. Sheaves from F' and G will be in perspective. But G Z and
F M intersect at C4, and F H and G JN intersect at D4. Hence B E is
the line on which corresponding lines from F and G intersect, and B and
E are “ points of contact.”
Hence when five points are given (which uniquely determine a curve
of the second order), and the construction for tangents at these five
points is made, the five tangents, regarded as the basis of a sheaf of rays
of the second order and uniquely determining the sheaf of rays, have for
‘ points of contact ” the five original points.
Again, À and B being radiant points, and À #, B E base lines, if
any ray, g, be given, we construct for g,, the ray corresponding to g, and
so get À, a sixth point on the curve of the second order.
To construct tangent at À, take A and # as radiant points, and À B,
R B as base lines. Then projecting Æ on these lines from A and À, we
get Qand Hp. The intersection of Q Hr with the tangent at A gives #,
and enables us to draw the tangent at A.
But this tangent (at R) is a ray of the set of five tangents, viewed
as a sheaf of rays of the second order. For it is also got by projecting Q,
a point on A # (which is the line joining “ points of contact” on F &,
P G), from P and F on the base lines F G, P G, since P, Q, X are in
the same straight line, and also F, Q, Y in the same straight line.
It has thus been proved that the “tangents ” at points of a curve of
the second order form a sheaf of rays of the second order, and the points
at which the tangents are drawn are the “ points of contact ” for the rays
of this sheaf of the second order.
[Barker] CORRELATION OF CURVE OF THE SECOND ORDER 31
I add the following proof of the uniqueness of the curve of the second
order, whatever five points on the curve be selected as the base of the
construction and whichever of these be taken as the radiant poinis :
First let A, B, C, D, E be the five points, and A and C the radiant
points. Then the curve is unique, 7.e., only one curve exists with A and
C as radiant points ; or, to put it more clearly, if a given ray from A be
selected, say AX, to this corresponds only one ray from C, the intersec-
tion of these rays giving a point on the curve.
But the question arises,—if we take two other of the five points as
radiant points shall we get the same succession of curve-points ?
To answer this, construct first the point J’, À and C being radiant
points and B Æ, B D base lines. Then S is the point from which the
ranges B # and B D are in perspective. Thns A F and C F are corre-
sponding rays.
Next take A and B as radiant points, and C Æ and C D as base lines.
Then S' is the point with respect to which the ranges C E and C D are
in perspective. The same ray A Æ is taken from A, and the question is,
will the corresponding ray, now from B, intersect it in the same point F.
This corresponding ray is evidently B Y’'.
Then considering the triangles XY B X!and Y Y' C, the correspond-
ing sides BX, Y' Y intersect in S}, the sides 4° X, C Y in S, and the
sides 4* B,C Y'in D. But S', Sand D are in the same straight line.
Hence 41 C, B Y‘ and X Y intersect in F.
Take now another point Æ, say, as radiant point instead of A, and
the intersection of the ray B F' from B, with the corresponding ray from
E, will, by what has just been proved, give the same point F.
Thus any pair of the five points may be taken as radiant points, and
the same points will make up the curve, since a ray in the direction of F
will always be intersected at F by the corresponding ray, and F repre-
sents any point on the curve.
32 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Hence the curve through the five points À, B, C, D, E is unique,
und does not depend on the particular pair selected as radiant points.
Next let the curve through A, B, C, D E be constructed, and on it
select any five points. Take any two of these as radiant points and
suppose the curve constructed. This must be the curve first constructed,
since only one curve can pass through the second five points, and the
original curve does this.
An analogous proof applies to the uniqueness of the sheaf of rays of
the second order, whatever five rays of the sheaf be selected as the base
of the construction and whichever of these be taken as the base lines.
The following is the figure correlative to the preceding :
A Le Les ° a
=
\ “,
y
ee TS NT 4
rs Sai Wie
4
uw
!
The five rays which form the base of the construction are u, u,, À A,,
BB, ana CC. Then u, u, being the base lines, and S, S, the radiant
points, C B, or u, is the perspective axis. Hence, given a point D on u,
we construct at once the corresponding point D, on u,, and the new
ray D D, is reached.
[BAKErR] CORRELATION OF CURVE OF THE SECOND ORDER 33
Then retaining u as a base line, let A A, or ul, be the other. Also B,
and C, being the new radiant points, S C or u!, is the new perspective
axis.
Hence, given a point D on u, we construct at once the corresponding
point D! on ul, and the new ray D D' is reached.
But this ray D D’, is the same as the preceding D D,. For the
triangles P S S, and S' P' §*, are such that the lines joining correspond-
ing points P and §', Sand P', S, and S,’, pass through the same point
C. Hence the intersections of corresponding sides P Sand S’ P', S 8,
and P! §}, S, P and S; S’, i.e., the points D, D; and D,, all lie on the
same straight line. That is the new rays D D,and D D,' are identical
And from this point the proof proceeds as in the preceding demonstration.
Sec. III., 1902. 3.
(AL | ii vn AA,
hie, Qu (Hp NA
L ih Cou
| AN TA CL EUR
SECTION III., 1902. [35 ] Trans. R. 8. C.
III.—On the Determination of Moisture in Honey.
By Franx T. Saurr, M.A., F.I.C., F.C.S.,
AND
A. T. CHARRON, M.A.
(Read May 27, 1902.)
The investigation which gave rise to the work recorded in this
paper was undertaken to ascertain what difference in composition—if
any—existed between honey extracted from capped and uncapped
comb. Apiarists term the latter immature or unripe honey and con-
tend that it is of a thin and inferior quality and, therefore, when
placed upon the market apt to injure the sale of mature or ripe honey
taken from fully capped comb. Further, it is held that “unripe”
honey materially affects the latter’s keeping quality.
Among the first determinations attempted was that of the water-
content of the honeys, and the difficulties that were at once met with
in obtaining results of a concordant and reliable character led us to
examine the various methods now in vogue for estimating moisture
in such saccharine substances.
DRYING oN ASBESTOS IN GLASS TUBES AT APPROXIMATELY 98° C., IN
STEAM BATH.
In all essential features, this method is that recommended by
Macfarlane for estimating moisture in milk, butter, and many other
articles of food that are already fluid or can be readily brought into
this condition. The honey was weighed in a weighing bottle and
then washed out into a 100 c.c. graduated flask and made up to the
containing mark. An aliquot part of the solution was run into each
tube containing a sufficiency of asbestos to act as an absorbent. The
tubes were then dried in racks in a steam oven at atmospheric pressure
and maintained at a temperature of (approximately) 98° C. We
presume that this is essentially the method and modus operandi fol-
lowed in obtaining the greater number of the results recorded in the
Bulletin (No. 47) on honey, issued by the Inland Revenue Department,
Canada.
Unfortunately, this convenient method proved exceedingly unsat-
isfactory, it being found impossible to obtain constant results. The
longer the period of drying, the greater the loss. Even after 5 days
drying, the tubes continued to lose in weight—due, undoubtedly, to
the continued decomposition (dehydration) of the levulose, which
constitutes practically 50 per cent of the saccharine matter of honey.
In the following table we have arranged the moisture-content
of 12 samples of honey as determined at the expiration of 48 hours,
36 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
72 hours, and 96 hours. In the first series each tube received 20 c.c.
of an approximately 20 per cent solution, and in the second series,
10 c.c. of an approximately 5 per cent solution. ‘The percentages of
moisture, as calculated from the specifie gravity determination (’)
are also given.
TABLE I. MoiISTURE IN HONEY, AS DETERMINED IN STEAM BATH AT 98°C.
From 20% (approximately) | From 57 (approxi- }
Homer < solution mately) solution oes
? te Sp.Gr.
eee 48 72 96 48 72 ona
Hours Hours Hours Hours Hours
Fully capped 1 21°91 22°82 24°17 23°40 25°40 17°93
comb 20°30 22°19 2298 25°68 26.48
2 21°86 22°38 23°38 25°80 26°20 17:88
21-17 21°89 23.13 26.28 26: 50
3 21°56 23°29 24°01 29°40 30°80 18°76
20°56 21°44 22:76 28°24 29°72
4 24°43 24°48 26°27 28°94 30°70 19°55
23°00 23°70 95°53 29°10 31:10
Partially
capped 5 25°05 26°91 27°73 29°78 31°54 19°49
comb 24-78 | 25°78 | 26-93 | 31:16 | 32°28
6 27°29 7 86 29°37 32°08 33°80 2229
27°56 28°50 29°49 32°18 33°30
7 28°41 29°57 30°86 33°80 35°88 23°27
27°59 28°50 29°59 32°08 34.36
8 25°65 27°59 27:66 32.10 33.90 23°92
26°14 27°63 28°14 33°00 35°72
Uncapped 9 23°68 24°86 25°47 30°40 31:76 19:57
comb 23-06 | 24.63 | 25°32 | 28°56 | 30°04
10 22°82 24°10 24°88 28°54 29°34 18°25
23°07 | 23°98 | 24.97 28°48 | 30°36
|
11 23°34 24°65 25°73 27°58 29°76 19°24
22°87 24°19 25.91 28°76 29°60
12 25°59 27°06 27°68 32°26 32:86 22°69
26°65 28°10 28°58 32°90 34:22
1In all the estimations of moisture and solids as calculated from the
specific gravity of the diluted honey (taken at 15°5°C), the following formula
has been employed :—
D—1000
W = Per cent of solids in honey.
D = Density of diluted solution of honey.
3-85 — Increase of density for each 1 gram of sugar or other carbo-hydrate in
100 c.c. of the liquid.
M — Grams of honey in 100 c.c. of diluted solution.
37
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[SHUTT & CHARRON] ' MOISTURE IN HONEY 39
A detailed consideration of the data is unnecessary, but the more
important deductions from them may be briefly stated as follows:
1. That, assuming the results from the specific gravity deter-
mination to be approximately correct, a drying period of 48 hours
at 98° C. gives too high a percentage of moisture, the excess being
about 5 per cent.
2. That the longer the drying period, the greater the loss; that
is, the decomposition of the levulose is continuous. This fact, that
it is practically impossible to dry to a constant weight, is in itself
sufficient to condemn the method.
3. That higher percentages of water are obtained from the 5 per
cent than from the 20 per cent solutions of honey, showing that there
is a more rapid decomposition of the levulose when using the more
dilute solution.
DRYING on ASBESTOS IN GLASS TUBES AT 70° C. To 75° C. IN
STEAM BATH.
Our next step was to ascertain the moisture-content, drying
between 70° C. and 75° C.— the other conditions being the same as
in the first series. Each tube contained 10 c.c. of an approximately
12 per cent solution of honey. The samples, though corresponding
with those of the first series, were not identical with them.
TABLE II. MoisTURE IN HONEY, AS DETERMINED IN STEAM BATH AT 70°C To 75° C.
SOLUTION, APPROXIMATELY 12 PER CENT.
Calculated
HONEY 20 27 31
FRoM No. Hours Hours Hours Hours Sn
Fully capped 1 19°36 19°82 20°03 20°07 15°46
comb 19-95 | 20:29 | 20-50 | 20-90
2 19°52 19°87 19°99 20.00 16°95
18°78 18°88 19:24 19°42
3 20°63 20°52 21°29 21°51 15°89
19°59 20°16 20°67 20°44
4 20°20 20°59 21°12 20°91 15°84
20 07 20°66 20°75 21°07
Partially capped 5 23.00 23°49 23.87 23°71 19°12
comb 29-13 | 22-39 | 92°67 | 23-12
6 24°89 25°19 25°44 25°46 20°63
1 Peet 25°87 26°21 25°91
7 25°23 25°46 25°85 26°19 20°68
24°96 25°26 25°91 26°18
8 23°45 23°88 24°59 24°73 21°03
24°00 24°06 24°78 25°33
40 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
M
TABLE II. MoISTURE IN HONEY, AS DETERMINED IN STEAM BATH AT 70° C. TO 75° C.
SOLUTION, APPROXIMATELY 12 PER CENT.—Concluded.
Calculated
HONEY 20 27 31 36
FROM No. Hours Hours Hours Hours one te
Uncapped 9 21 20 21°77 21°69 22°09 17°83 é
comb 21:46 | 21:56 | 21°81 21-62
10 21°26 21°73 21°61 22°00 16°59
20°69 20°93 21:09 21:00
11 21°52 21°79 22°05 22°14 39°42 1
21°70 22°21 22°34 22°09
12 20°24 21°11 21°30 20°86 41°201
1 Found to be slightly fermented.
From these data we note that drying even at this lower temperature
(70° C.— 75° C.) for a period of 20 hours, gives results much higher
than those obtained from the specific gravity estimations; and, further,
the percentages of moisture — or rather of loss — increase with con-
tinued heating, though not so rapidly as when a temperature of 98° C.
is used (see Table L.).
Drying on (a) ASBESTOS, AND (b) SAND, IN PLATINUM DISHES,
IN PARTIAL Vacuum AT 70° C.
The apparatus used in these trials was exceedingly simple. A
tubulated desiccator was placed inside the steam bath (the same as
used in the foregoing experiment) and connected as shown in the
illustration with an exhaust pump attached to the water service. With a
current of dry air at the rate of one bubble per second being drawn
through the desiccator, a vacuum of approximately 8 inches was main-
tained. The temperature of 70° C. was without difficulty kept con-
stant for a week or more at a time by almost filling the bath with
water and arranging a series of small gas jets (from an S-burner) at
a distance of 3 to 4 inches from the bottom of the bath. The flames
were protected from draughts by a casing of asbestos board.
The absorbent materials were sand and asbestos, and platinum
dishes (flat and round bottoms) were used in the place of glass tubes.
[SHUTT & CHARRON] MOISTURE IN HONEY 41
TABLE III. MOISTURE IN HONEY, FROM FULLY CAPPED COMB, AS DETERMINED
IN PARTIAL Vacuum AT 70° C.
Solution A: 60:9166 grms. honey in 500 c.c. (approximately 12%).
Solution B: 25:3596 grms. honey in 500 c.c. (approximately 5%).
Moisture in honey, as calculated for Sp. Gr. of A—17' 88%.
Moisture in honey, as calculated for Sp. Gr. of B—17'46%.
From Solution A From Solution B
ABSORBENT | 5
ae
MATERIAL | SA | 24 48 72 96 24 48 72 96
A Hours | Hours | Hours | Hours | Hours | Hours | Hours | Hours
——
—_—_—_— | qq] —_q—_ loo] li J ——— | —
Sand F.B.| 17°91 | 18:20 | 18°67] 18:88 | 17:00 | 17:94] 17°94| 18°22
Asbestos |EF.B.| 20:14 | 20:83 | 21:20 | 21:73 | 22:48 | 24:89 | 25:75 | 26°82
To compare these results with those obtained by the method
previously used, solutions A and B (using 10 c.c. in each estimation)
were dried at atmospheric pressure in the steam bath (98° C.) on
asbestos in glass tubes, when the following moisture percentages were
obtained:
24 hrs. 48 hrs, 72 hrs. 96 hrs.
SolutionvAye 2. 23075 26°40
24°71 27°12
Solution BEN 4.) | 22:98 30°21 33°92 35°24
22°20 29°62 32°06 34°05
We now present data of a similar character to those in Table IIL.,
but from honey taken from uncapped comb.
TABLE IV. MoisTURE IN HONEY, FROM UNCAPPED CoMB, AS DETERMINED IN
PARTIAL VACUUM AT 70° C.
Solution: 25:0872 grms. honey in 500 c.c. (approximately 5%).
Moisture in honey, as calculated from Sp. Gr.=22:35%.
ABSORBENT Shape of 24 48 72 96
MATERIAL Dish Hours Hours Hours Hours
Sand F.B. 21°34 22.65 23°37 23°69
R.B 21°52 23°03 23°51 23°99
Asbestos F.B. 28°45 31:52 33°04 33.32
42 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
The comparative data, drying at 98° C. in steam bath, using
asbestos in glass tubes, are as follows :—
24 hrs. 48 hrs. 72 hrs.
Percentage of Moisture . . . . 31°34 36°25 40°01
ms oe 31:90 36°90 40°53
DRYING ON (a) ASBESTOS, AND (b) SAND, IN PLATINUM DISHES,
IN PARTIAL Vacuum AT 60° C.
In all respects, save that of temperature, the conditions of drying
were identical with those of the preceding series. The results, given
in Table V., appear to show that at this lower temperature (60° C.)
24 hours drying is sufficient for perfect desiccation. As at 70° C.,
however, the percentages obtained by drying on asbestos are somewhat
higher than those when sand is used.
TABLE V. MOISTURE IN HONEY, FROM FuLLY CAPPED COMB, AS DETERMINED IN
PARTIAL Vacuum AT 60° C.
Solution: 59°8312 grms. honey in 500 c.c. (approximately 12%).
Moisture in honey, as calculated from Sp. Gr.—17:08%.
ABSORBENT Shape of
ear Dish 24 Hours 48 Hours 96 Hours
Sand F.B. 16°88 17:13 17°28
R.B. 17:62 17°84 18°04
Asbestos F.B. 18°88 19°24 19°65
R.B. 18°65 19°20 19 52
The same solution dried on asbestos in glass tubes at 98° C. gave
the following results: —
24 hrs. 48 hrs. 72 hrs. 96 hrs.
Percentage of moisture .. 26°27 29°21 30°67 32°26
ci a 24° 66 27°26 28°90 30°33
A review of the results in the foregoing tables allows us to con-
clude :—
(1) That in drying a solution of honey in glass tubes on asbestos,
a temperature of 98° C. at atmospheric pressure induces a consider-
able and continuous dehydration of the levulose, resulting in an
apparent loss of moisture far exceeding the real amount present.
? fe
[SHUTT & CHARRON] MOISTURE IN HONEY 43
(2) That drying in glass tubes on asbestos at atmospheric pres-
sure between 70° C. and 75° C. also occasions a decomposition of the
levulose of the honey. It will not suffice, therefore, if accurate results
are to be obtained, simply to lower the temperature of the steam bath
as in the second series of experiments.
(3) That drying in platinum dishes on sand in a partial vacuum
(8 inches) at a temperature of 60° C. to 70° C. for 24 hours to 48
hours, vields results in close accord with those calculated from the
specific gravity determinations — and that a more prolonged drying
is undesirable, as such appears to induce a slight decomposition of the
levulose.
(4) That drying on asbestos yields much higher results than dry-
ing on sand. This, apparently, is as true at 60° C. as at 70° C. (see
Tables IV. and V.) and indicates a peculiar property or quality of the
asbestos in inducing decomposition of the levulose.
(5) That there were no differences of note between the results
from drying in round and flat bottom platinum dishes.
ON THE BEHAVIOUR OF MIXTURES (SOLUTIONS) OF DEXTROSE AND
LEVULOSE UNDER VARYING CONDITIONS OF DRYING.
As the saccharine matter in honey consists almost entirely of
dextrose and levulose, existing in practically equal proportions, it was
considered desirable to ascertain the effect of drying solutions of such
a mixture, employing methods involving the same conditions of tem-
perature and pressure as in the foregoing tests with honey.
TABLE VI. MIxTURE OF DEXTROSE AND LEVULOSE, DRYING IN GLASS TUBES ON
ASBESTOS IN STEAM BATH AT ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE AT 98° C.
AND 70° C., RESPECTIVELY.
Dextrose, 5°0009 grams in 100 c.c.
Levulose, 5°0038 grams in 100 c.c.
10 c.c. used in each determination =1:°0005 grms.
AT 98° C. AT 70° C.
48 60 80 98 120 132 140 8 20 25 36 42
hrs. hrs fhrs 2 arse hrs) Ts. hrs. | hrs. hrs. hrs. | hrs |) hrs:
grms. | grms. | grms. | grms. | grms. | grms. | grms. | grms. | grms. | grms. | grms. |grms.
*909 | ‘885 | 864; °846| ‘827 | ‘818 | °815|1°276| ‘954 | ‘951 | ‘944 | ‘943
O00) | 677 CES GAS CA 8101806) 1172" O5 | 9560100948) 9€7
+ ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
TABLE VII. LEVULOSE (KAHLBAUM), DRYING IN PLATINUM DISHES ON ASBESTOS,
IN PARTIAL Vacuum AT 55° C. To 80°C. AND AT 70° C.
Levulose, 4°465 grms. in 100 c.c.
10 c.c. used in each determination — 0'4465 grms.
At 75° C. ro 80° C. At 70°C.
Shape of 4 8 24 8 12 14 18
Dish Hours Hours Hours Hours Hours Hours Hours
grms. grms. grms. grms. grms. grms. grms.
F.B. 3°236 437 ES | eee Le oe cS ell eee
910 426 ADO EE: be aitaral| bare MO le Benes eee
R.B. 3° 205 437 494 | -584 “440 “437 434
3°746 438 425 "479 438 435 ‘431
| 944 443 - +442 439
TABLE VIII. LEVULOSE (DIABETIN, ‘‘ SCHERING”), DRYING IN PLATINUM J)ISHES
ON (a) SAND, AND (b) ASBESTOS, IN PARTIAL VACUUM AT 70° C. To 75° C.
Levulose, 5°472 grms. in 100 c.c.
10 c.c. used in each determination = 0°5472 grms.
ABSORBENT Shape of
MATERIAL Dish 24 Hours 48 Hours
Grams Grams
Sand F.B. 5385 5309
R.B. ‘5404 *5290
R.B. .5386 5814
Averapel tu 5392 °5304
1718) * 5293 5239
Asbestos
R.B. 5288 “5206
R.B. ‘5276 5214
AVETASE| 2-6 me ae "5286 ‘5219
[SHUTT & CHARRON] MOISTURE IN HONEY 45
TABLE IX. LEVULOSE (KAHLBAUM), DRYING IN PLATINUM DISHES ON (a) SAND,
AND (6) ASBESTOS, IN PARTIAL VACUUM AT 60° C.
Levulose, 5°2228 grams in 100 c.c.
10 c.c. used in each determination — 0°52228 grams.
ABSORBENT Shape of 21 25 43 48
MATERIAL Dish Hours Hours Hours Hours
Sand EÈE: "543 "525 "525 525
R.B. “905 * 528 "528 "528
Asbestos F.B. *539 “510 *510 “509
R.B. “534 *507 *506 “505
GENERAL DEDUCTIONS FROM DATA IN TABLES VI. To IX.
The results given in Table VI. show a considerable loss due to
decomposition on drying a mixture of dextrose and levulose on asbes-
tos for 48 hours at 98° C.— and this loss constantly increased. Ata
temperature of 70° C. (atmospheric pressure), 8 hours drying was
insufficient, but an additional period of 12 hours proved too long.
From Table VII. it is apparent that a temperature of 75° C. to
80° C.— using asbestos and drying in a partial vacuum — is too high.
A drying period of 8 hours ‘was sufficient to show that decomposition
had commenced. Under the same conditions, but at 70° C. a period
of 12 hours furnished results indicating a thorough desiccation of the
levulose but no decomposition. Further drying, however, undoubt-
edly caused dehydration of the sugar.
In the results of Table VIII. the relative value of sand and
asbestos as absorbent materials is compared at 70° C. to 75° C. As
in the case of honey, we find that with asbestos there is a greater loss
on drying than when sand is used. In 24 hours the loss through
decomposition, using sand, is about 1-4 per cent, whereas with asbestos
it is approximately 3:4 per cent. At 48 hours these losses, respec-
tively, are practically 3:1 per cent and 4°6 per cent.
The data furnished in Table IX. are indicative that 25 hours
drying in a partial vacuum at 60° C. on sand is sufficient for desicca-
tion of the levulose, and that there is no decomposition or further
loss on continued drying. In the case of asbestos, under the same
conditions, there appears to be decomposition (between 2 per cent
and 3 per cent) of the levulose. It is evident that even at this low
drying temperature sand is the preferable absorbent.
46 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
The results of the work on levulose solutions agree very well on
the whole with those obtained on solutions of honey. It has already
been shown that drying the latter from 24 hours to 48 hours at 60° C.
tc 70° C., in a partial vacuum on sand, gave percentages in close accord
with those obtained from the specific gravity determinations. The
investigations with levulose solutions prove that a temperature of
60° C., in a partial vacuum using sand, furnished figures approxim-
ating the amounts weighed out. It is probable that a temperature
of 79° C. could be safely used if the pressure were reduced to, say,
6 or 8 inches, but with the partial vacuum that we were able to main-
tain it is evident that the drying temperature should be as close as
possible to 60° C. ©
SECTION III., 1902 [ 47 ] TRANS RH 167207:
IV.-—An Experimental Investigation of the Conditions Determining
the Oxidation of Ferrous Chloride.
By A. McGitt, B.A., B.Sc.
(Read May 27, 1902.)
The following sequence of reactions, having in view the production
of free chlorine and carbonate of soda from common salt, by the
agency of carbon and oxygen, is satisfactory so far as theory is con-
cerned.
First Stage-—The decomposition of chloride of sodium by sul-
phurie acid, with production of sulphate of soda and hydrochloric
acid.
Second Stage.—Treatment of the sulphate of soda with peroxide
of iron and carbon, to produce carbonate of soda and sulphide of iron.
Third Stage—Decomposition of the sulphide of iron by hydro-
chloric acid, with production of ferrous chloride and sulphuretted
hydrogen.
Fourth Stage-—Oxidation of ferrous chloride, (by air or oxygen)
to ferric oxide and free chlorine.
Fifth Stage—Oxidation of sulphuretted hydrogen to sulphuric
acid. |
It will be seen that the complete process involves a continuous
supply of common salt, carbon and oxygen, and furnishes a continuous
output of carbon monoxide, carbonate of soda and free chlorine.
The sulphuric acid and ferric oxide introduced at the first and
second stages, are reproduced in the fifth and fourth stages respec-
tively; while the hydrochloric acid, sulphate of soda, sulphide of iron,
chloride of iron and sulphuretted hydrogen only exist as phases within
the cycle.
The following diagrammatic presentation of the cycle will make
this more evident. In the diagram the materials used are heavily
underlined; the substances removed from the cycle are enclosed in
brackets; while the arrows connect the names of such substances as
are present at different phases of the process, and undergo reciprocal
change within it. Of these, sulphuric acid and ferric oxide, which
are introduced at the beginning of the process, and reproduced at the
end of it, are indicated by broken lines.
The reaction occurring in the first stage is successfully carried
out in the ordinary manufacture of salt cake.
48 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
The second stage is the fundamental principle on which Kopp’s
soda process is based.! This process has been approved by Stromeyer ”
but condemned by Hoffman, Waldeck and Lunge. The main features
objected to are the destructive action of the mixture of sulphate of
soda, ferric oxide and coke upon ordinary furnace linings; and the
impossibility of recovering a high percentage of the total soda, as
carbonate. The first objection is met by Macfarlane * who describes
a furnace lining of quicklime and basic slags, impregnated with
sodium sulphide. The second disadvantage is avoided by another of
Macfarlane’s claims, according to which the carbonating is done by
furnace gases during the lixiviation.
The third stage, involving the decomposition of ferrous sulphide
by hydrochloric acid, with formation of ferrous chloride and sulphur-
etted hydrogen presents no difficulties.
The fifth stage, in which sulphuretted hydrogen is burned to
furnish SO,, for the leaden chambers in the manufacture of suplhuric
acid, is equally free from practical difficulties.*
The object kept in view throughout these experiments, and that
which furnished a motive for the work, was the demonstration of
conditions necessary to make the reactions of the fourth stage prac-
tically successful.
Recorded attempts to produce chlorine by the oxidation of chloride
of iron are the following:
Thibierge (Eng. pat. 2290, 1855) proposes to pass dry air over
ferrous chloride; but I cannot find that the process has ever been
investigated under the conditions of his patent. The same reaction
is utilized by Macfarlane (1863) and by Longmaid, Konigs, Henderson
and others. In no case, however, does it appear that the process has
been subjected to a full and searching investigation; and it was
through Mr. Macfarlane that I was led to enter upon the work now
put on record. I have had the advantage of consultation with Mr.
Macfarlane throughout the progress of the investigation, and it is
largely due to his encouragement and assistance that I have been able
to carry it to a successful conclusion.
I may here draw attention to the fact that the patents of Swin-
dells and Nicholson (Eng. pat. 390, 1852), and of Larkin and White
(Eng. pat. 3093, 1870) treating of the production of chlorine by
oxidation of chloride of iron, refer to the per-chloride, and are to be
distinguished from those previously mentioned.
1 Ann. Chim. Phys., Sept., 1856, p. 21; and Lunge, Sulphuric Acid and
Alkali, 2nd Edition, III., 223.
2 Ann. Chem. Pharm., CVII., p. 333.
3 Engl. Patent 126, 1863.
* Lunge, Sulphuric Acid and Alkali, I., 277.
[M‘GILz] OXIDATION OF FERROUS CHLORIDE 49
First Series.—On examining the work of this series in the light
of later results, it is evident that the disappointing record shown is
chiefly due to the small percentage of water still present in the sam-
ples of ferrous chloride used. I had taken, as I thought, all necessary
precautions to have both the chloride and oxide thoroughly dry.
The influence of mere traces of water in the charge, is very
perceptible in destroying available chlorine, and is expressed by the
formula = x 10 — _ per cent of chlorine in the sample,
à a
where :—
a — per cent chlorine in sample.
es NT water “
Hence, the loss of free chlorine for each unit per cent of water in
Sample I. is 10-8 per cent, and in Sample III. is 20-2 per cent of
the total chlorine in these samples, respectively.
The highest result in free chlorine obtained with Sample I. is
33-1 per cent (Expt. 16), and this is also the best yield of the series.
Taken in connection with other experiments in which Sample I.
was used, it shows the favourable influence of a large proportion of
ferric oxide, a condition fully confirmed by later results.
Especial pains were taken to dry Sample III., yet the best result
obtained with it was 20 per cent available (Expt. 9), and this although
in Expt. 12,as much as 91-6 per cent of its total chlorine passed over
into the absorbers. The fact that for each 1 per cent of water
present, 20-2 per cent of chlorine reverted, was not taken into con-
sideration at the time, and, in consequence, the investigation was
discontinued during an interval of nearly nine years.
Second Series.—The investigation was resumed in December, 1899,
chiefly on account of the fact that, during the interval, methods for
the production of oxygen (or highly enriched air) had been developed,
and it was believed that oxygen could be economically employed for
the oxidation of ferrous chloride. The samples used were dried with no
greater care than those employed in the First Series, but Sample V. must
have been very dry, since in several experiments it yielded about 60
per cent of its total chlorine in the free state. It is noteworthy that
in one of these experiments (No. 15) air only was used; and the chief
positive result of this series is to demonstrate that, so far as liberation
of chlorine is concerned, oxygen has no important advantage over
atmospheric air. Perhaps other considerations, such as the dilution
of the product by atmospheric nitrogen, may be found to give cheap
oxygen an advantage over air; but the examination of this point does
50 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
not fall within the scope of the present investigation. (See Expt. 32,
of Series III.)
Third Series.—This series was undertaken in order to ascertain
whether it was practicable to make ferrous chloride sufficiently dry,
by roasting on iron plates, to obtain from it a high yield of free
chlorine. Roasting in air is attended by more or less oxidation and loss
of chlorine; so that experimental proof was wanted of the possibility of
making the charge absolutely dry, without too great waste of chlorine
at the same time. Samples A and B, used in this series, are identical
with V. and VI. of the Second Series. The remaining samples are
mostly prepared from these two, by mixing with ferric oxide or ferric
hydrate, and drying. It is unfortunate that a galvanized iron plate
was used in drying samples A and B, hence introducing chloride of
zinc into the charge. The influence of this impurity is slight in sam-
ples C, D, F and G,
The importance of thorough drying had been seen, and the yield
of available chlorine is much better throughout the whole series. The
catalytic influence of Fe,0, is recognized, and the presence of a large
excess of ferric oxide was found to be favourable to the preliminary
drying of ferrous chloride. Samples F and G with which the work
of this series was begun, contain about 65 per cent of ferric oxide;
and sample CC, which gave encouraging results in experiments 12 to
26, contained about 10 per cent of ferric oxide, and gave decidedly
higher results in free chlorine when ferric oxide was added to the
charge — (Expt. 18, 22, 25, 26). The fact that Fe,O, acts cataly-
tically, and not merely mechanically is further borne out by the
results of Experiments 21 and 24 in which dry gypsum and dry sand,
respectively, were substituted for ferric oxide, with an immediate
decrease in the percentage of available chlorine.
Experiment 23 is introduced for incidental investigation of the
question of recovery of chlorine from Solvay process waste, by a
variation of this mode of working. The question is important
enough to justify separate treatment; and there can be no doubt
that special apparatus must be devised to overcome the difficulties
introduced by the extreme hygroscopicity of chloride of calcium.
The experiments made with sample EE (Nos. 28 to 33) prove the
practicability of recovering the chlorine from Solvay waste by the
use of ferrous sulphate. This sample contained about 15 per cent
of calcium sulphate, yet gave a high yield of available chlorine.
The final results of this work may be summed up as follows: —
First.—That ferrous chloride can be decomposed by oxygen in
such a way as to yield uniformly, from 75 to 85 per cent of its
[M‘a1LL] OXIDATION OF FERROUS CHLORIDE 51
chlorine in available form, and from 10 to 20 per cent as hydrochloric
acid.
Second.—That the oxygen in atmospheric air can be successfully
employed, although it may be that an impracticably large dilution of
the resulting chlorine with nitrogen would thereby result.*
Third.— That very complete dehydration of the charge of ferrous
chloride is necessary to a high result of free chlorine.
Fourth.—That both the drying of the charge, and the subsequent
oxidation are aided by the presence of ferric oxide, which should form
at least fifty per cent by weight of the charge.’
Fifth—That a red heat is necessary to bring about complete
decomposition.
* From the equation Fe,01,+30—Fe,0,+2Cl, the ratio of oxygen required
to chlorine produced is, 1°3 by weight, or 3:4 by volume. Or each gramme of
chlorine requires nearly 0°25 litre oxygen — 1:25 litres atmospheric air.
see. wl 1902 94:
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
52
EEE É SH 6 : "9 ox : Sa : 19 HH: 0S MNS
OS ‘H & = Or+s*Hg —? SSa1501d ur pesoduovep pure ‘PauIO T (Q)
A
ae | #0 WI : OS SH Z—: JO pue Je
paonpordor pur ‘1049 Jo SuruulZeq Je ons sv paonporur] (2)
A Ne —* 21949 049 uIUJIA aSuvyo eooadioea Suroropun seouvysqneg (¢)
| 29 a | a 0 Co = 50 ST + 70 OT i
NS \
re he oe
= | = : à
Ve N 20 & : ‘09 PNB 098
Sal BS: —: 91949 oY) WOIJ PIAOWAI SadURYSqNE (Z)
Ke S
x. > ~ “0 #8: O0L:10 PN F
N = < 7: JNOUJIM Woy 21949 BY OJUI pPOYNPOIJUI SaUUJSNS (I)
V V Dee .
Sie 20 AT = NOT + HF a
Sy À à
eu aK
| = The
—.., = :
500 "on & | + | 09 «| + 59 BJ =OL + OT + sie
A .
=
V4 V D | =
10 H ÿ + ‘OS ON & = 10 MNF + 'OS*H ZT
{m ‘GILL ]
OXIDATION OF FERROUS CHLORIDE
53
DESCRIPTION OF THE SAMPLES OF FERROUS CHLORIDE USED IN THE EXPERIMENTS.
Total Equiva- | Ferric
SAMPLE | Chlorine lent Oxide REMARKS
Dc: Fes Cly. | Approx
I 36°51 65°3 30 Nearly 1% of the chlorine existed as Fey Clg.
II 35°53 63°6 30
III 19°50 34°9 60 Made from II by addition of Fe; (OH); and
roasting.
IV 46°98 84'1 25
V | 47°3 81°5 15 CORRE 2°8% Fe, Clg From iron and
| HCl.
VI eee O71 32°14 65 By addition of Fe, O; to V, moistening, mix-
ing and drying on an iron plate.
Al 47°3 81°5 10 Prepared from iron (filings) and AC.
Same as V.
Bl 17:97 32°14 65 Same as VI.
C1 49°24 87'9 10 Like A, but coarser granules.
D! 21°87 39°1 60 The fine siftings from C, mixed, dry, with
€o a
E 41°5 74:1 20 Prepared ae reaction of Fe SO, Ca Cl.
F1 19:23 34°3 65 From D, by mixing with water and redrying.
G 1 19°56 34°9 65 Same as F, but is the fine dust sifted out.
H | 7:46 13:3 85 From M by addition of Fe, O3.
M | 9:04 16:1 80 From Fe SO, and Ca Cl.
S 350 grms crystallized Fe SO,, 7 H, O dried to
| weigh 185 grms—contains 50°1% SO3;=
95°2% Fe SO».
Me ki Like S, but an old peroxidized sample
copperas used; product contained
479% SO3—.
x 62°3 A sample of Ca Cl, fused and powdered,
| chlorine corresponds to 97.4% Ca Clos
Reaction alkaline ; probably about 2/
bi Ca O—trace moisture.
CC 1 50°9 90°9 10 Prepared from C by heating to loss of 11°27
of its weight. Loss chiefly H,O
(Expt. 7).
SX Li) 52028 A mixture of Fe SO, (S) and Ca Cl, (X) in
| ratio 100; 71, %.e., in molecular pro-
portions.
BOA A ese ea 93°2 5 Prepared from A by heating to loss of 9°6%
weight, contains Zn Cl, from drying
on galv. iron plate.
EE 43°75 78°1 5 Prepared like E, this last being added to it
and the whole carefully dried. It con-
tains 14°8% Ca SO,—(caleulated from
| 8°72% SO, found).
1 These samples, especially A and AA, contained a trace of Zn Cl: from having been roasted on a
plate of galvanized iron,
eet
=,
10
mg mi
~
nr
55
Dre) FIRST SERIES.—December, 1890, and January and February, 1891.
CHARGE PRODUCT
Serial ; Total Available | Combined | Residual
Senter Description | Weight RE PURES Chlorine in | Chlorine in | Chlorine in | Chlorine in CONDITIONS OK THE EXPERIMEN’. REMARKS
Experiment of cecal used aontnined rl absorbers absorbers absorbers |comb'n tube
experiment Grams Ge Grams Calculated as a per centum on total Chlorine con-
tained in the charge
1 I! 5 1°826 5 42°0 0 42°0 58°0 Heated in glass tube 1Sinches long; current, dry air, till
Ferric Chloride began to sublime ............-.....
11 I 5 1°826 5 50 2 Trace 50°2 49°8 Like 1, but heat longer continued........................
3 II 5 1°777 5 16°6 10 85°6 13'4 Plug of asbestos at exit end of tube. Used glass rod as
a‘stitrerinithe tube. ele -e ces
4 I 20 7302 20 Tel Like 3 Tube cracked
5 IV 15 7-050 | 15 76°6 10°6 66:0 23:4 | Like 4
6 IV 15 7:050 15 $2°8 134 69°4 17°2 Mernic Oxid Smad BVeCnyiEy tc access telieseeactee cap ane
7 III 25 4°875 0 ll4 | ATTheMALErIAIS VER ATV... damian «ie cers eian
8 IIL 25 4°875 0 1210 Used a longer combustion tube. Much condensation of
| water and Ferrie Chloride took place in the cooler
9 III | 25 4°875 | 0 73°3 20°0 533 | 267 Like 8, but used stronger heat. [portion of tube
10 III 25 4.875 | 0 7:5 Used an iron tube, heating exit end to redness before
= heating the charge Tr ed Rte
11 Ill | 25 4°875 0 64 SAIS AS DAS <. metas totem cn eerie ;
12 III 25 4875 | 0 91°6 16°6 750 8-4 Used a glass tube. Heated for 2 hours ....
13 III 25 4°875 | 0 16°6 Like 12, but air more carefully dried....
14 I | 15 3°478 = 15 21°2 Much ga ee eA Rn cre erie hace ras scr
15 I 15 | 5478 15 843 19:2 65°1 157 Like 14, but air not artificially dried....................
|
16 I | 10 | 3°651 | 20 84:0 Boal 50°9 160 JAIN CUREANEADIOM calle “cube ve + ER een Excess of Fe, O, favourable
| |
17 IV 10 4698 | 20 | Slowacumrenbioh Die LU tects Tube cracked
18 IV | 10 | 4 698 20 | 10°9 | Slow air current Tube cracked
19 nye = 10) eps |) | 234 | 681 | 85 Eee sn Pe oe Sse
20 IV 10 4°698 30 | 79:0 271 51°3 21°0 Slow current of heated air. Low temperature main-| Excess of Fe,0, is favourable
7 | TANEMAUNInENTSENOUT one a aoa ere
21 IV 10 4°698 40 | 61:9 32:9 29°0 38°1 10 grams Fe, O, placed at exit end of tube and kept hot.
22 r = | Chlorine still coming off at end of 2 hours ......... a
22 IV | 5 2:349 | 20 | 53°6 18°3 | 35°3 | 46°4 Like 21, but temperature kept below redness........-... | Strong heat requisite
23 IT 10 3°554 | 20 | 55°7 12°0 | 437 | 445 Used a porcelain tube, which was rotated at 5 minute}
| intervals ............:............ eee
1 For detailed description of these samples see p. 53.
* In order to check the distribution of the Chlorine, the products were examined with following results :
Available Chlorine in first absorber (wash bottles with K O LD) so = ue
0°071
“ “
Combined Chlorine in first
ce se
second
“
ce
second ‘*
(cylinder with glass balls, ete., =
Il
= 0:230) |
É 1°456
= 1°226
Chlorine not accounted for = 3 554— 3436 =
ch
Chlorine brought over = a
+ = 3°436
... = 1074
3 % nearly
EX EE A ENT À
dain Fl
j
OUT, haben tie
i ; bre ni hoger
ete) MONET EEE
A ar L (AE i
ied
é
à |
{
Le . L
: _
* 4
if, x
. y ity
= ; a!
» |
-
| i i
*
‘
‘
+e
”
‘
LI
k
w
4 Lin
f
‘
r SU
i 7”
[MGILL] SECOND SERIES.—December, 1899. 57
CHARGE Propucr OXYGEN
Serial TE | ? Total Available | Combined | Residual
Number ; Weight ACT Fey Os Chlorine in | Chlorine in | Chlorine in | Chlorine in Weed Required CONDITIONS OF THE EXPERIMENT REMARKS
of the Material used Obloring added absorbers | absorbers | absorbers | comb’n tube by theory
Experiment used SEA contained RES ee WRG
== Grams Girne Grams Calculated as percentage on total chlorine con- litres
tained in the charge
1 V1 5 2°365 10 34:0 5 0°56 Porcelain tube 30 inches long; 18 inches heated in gas fur-
nace. Charge distributed over 15 inches. Oxygen gas
2 ¥i 5 2°365 10 68°0 28°0 40-0 32°0 2 0°56 Charge restricted to 6 inches, between asbestos plugs.. ..
3 V = 2-365 | 10 trace 7 Ain ere sees Tube choked by accumula-
: tion of Fe.Cl; on asbestos
4 V 5 2°365 10 5-0 ASIN AAA eee == PR See Tube choked. [plugs.
5 Vv | 5 2°365 | 10 617 40°7 21°0 38°3 15 0°56 Charge'distributed/asiin Le cena ;
6 | V | 5 2365 10 44°4 5 15 0°56 Tube'rotated severalibimes 4. .,...2....-.-.s ee
iz | V | 5 2°365 | 20 370 30°0 70 63°0 Moderate heat, and slow stream of oxygen .............. Heat too low.
8 VI | 20 3°694 0 34°0 2:0 0°85 IMO GratevHeabi res memes eee cc Ci etre
9 VI 20 3594 0 trace DA Used a glass flask instead of the combustion tube ; heat
irene br Eee bee eee
10 VI | 20 3° 594 0 | 20°0 2-0 0°85 Very gentle heat, to bare redness.................
| |
11 V | 5 2365 0 | 43°0 | 26°0 17:0 57:0 0°56 Charge placed at entrance end of tube..... ............ 33'7% of total chlorine was
| | | sublimed as Fe Cl, into
12 Vv 5 2°365 | 0 60°6 | 20°2 40°4 39°4 2:0 0°56 Like II— Used improved absorption apparatus.......... cooler part of tube.
13 | V | 5 2°365 10 | 831 62:0 21-1 16-9 20 0°56 O_ esse) Charge placed at A B.| Best yield of chlorine.
| | RÉ © Portion from B to C frst
14 Vv | 5 2°365 | 10 | 86°3 60°0 26°3 13°7 2-0 0°56 Like 13, [strongly heated. Then to redness at AB.
| | |
15 | Vv | 5 2°365 10 58°9 Cal sito) 4 adresse ane de TDR
16 Vv | 5 | 2°365 10 90°0 | 54°0 36°0 10°0 15 0°56 Like 13 and 14; but packed the tube from B to C with
| | ShredsioL Porcelain et. RP Te ane
17 VI | 20 3°594 0 715 48°4 23°1 28:5 15 0°85 Ohargelplaced ag in le 241: eee
Nove.—From the equation 2 Fe Cl, + 3 O, = 2 Feo Oy + 4 Clo, it appears that 3 volumes oxygen are required to furnish 4 volumes chlorine, or the ratio by weight of oxygen to chlorine is 96 : 284 = 1: 3 nearly.
1 For detailed description of these samples see p. 53. à
am: VA
| | HUE Dr Pt NT vat
FR wate y
HART 4 |
NS
4 es. end v, Ny bes
CONDITIONS OF THE EXPERIMENT.
wey oe om dL
Actual | Ciforine in
, | Chlori _absorbers nb’ =
| Experiment | a Fat ” | Sears contained. eal aes A ;
7 Sr ateria rams. am ; itage on the total Chlorine - a fae
oe Grams Game) . nthe charge :
à 3-850 : 0 66°0 28°5 37-5 34°0 Used a mixture of air 2 vols.: oxygen 3 vols. Porcelain] Sample tly not dry.
1 F É 7 tube, 30in. Exit end heated to redness before heat- F Morte anaes
es ~ r ¥ ing the charge. Tube rotated once. Duration of
L 9 G 3-920 0 a0" 40 0 35°0 25°0 Conditions as in 1. {experiment 35 minutes.
3 FE 10 1-925 0 ae 27°0 ss Used an asbestos plug to keep back finely divided Fe, O,| Tube choked.
: 7 which is mechanically carried over into absorbers...
4 G 10 1-960 0 63°1 38°6 24°5 369 As in 1, but more rapid air current......... ..... DÉDtnaTe
5 G 10 1:960 0 765 30'8 45°7 23°5 As in 1, but heat more gradually applied....... ..... pode
6 Cc Fr 29-460 0 DCE DE Ba ne A U-tube, immersed in ice, placed at end of combustion| Exit tube choked by Fe, 0,—
| tube, to retain Fe, (Cle... the sees cence Sara
i Cc 5 2° 460 0 78°6 34.0 44.6 21'4 Conditions ain le een ere ee ersttenen Samples G, x, ant & seem
not thorough Sy.
8 © 5 92-460 0 78°9 36°0 42°9 21'1 Conditions as in 1, but air current slower................ Cds
Cc 5 2-460 0 69°4 33°2 36°2 30°6 Improved apparatus for drying the gas ............ na yl
9
10 A 5 2-365 0 84°6 46°3 38°3 | 15:4 Conditions as in de. eee SES Sort
11 A 5 2:365 0 79°7 43:7 36:0 20:3 Irene rt SE APE RSR og 3 aoe
12 CC 5 2°545 0 69°6 619 Wa | 30°4 Conditions as in 1. Sample granular....................- Sample very dry.
13 CC 5 2°545 0 72-1 66°5 56 | 2719 Conditions as in 1. Sample granular ............... ..
|
14 cc 2:5 1:273 0 735 68°6 4-9 | 26% Conditions as in 1. Sample granular............ . .....
15 CC 5 2°545 0 641 58°5 56 39'9 Conditions as in L. Sample very fine powder.
16 CC 5 2-545 0 62°3 56°0 63 37°7 Heat applied under the charge only......................
17 CC 5 2°515 10 80°1 571 23°0 19°9 Fe: 0, contained some Ca SO,, and was not absolutely dry.
18 CC 5 2-545 10 91°8 80°0 11°8 8-2 Fey O; was thoroughly dry, ai ? vols. : oxygen 1 vol....| Highly oxygenated air seems
unnecessary.
19 CC 5 2.545 10 772 660 11°2 | 22°8 | Used air only, 6 litres, 4.e.. twice the theoretical quantity
for/oxidationlof the CHATS... 20sec... sees jon ee 2
20 CC 5 2-545 5 80°6 69°4 11:2 19°4 Tube rotated several times. Air and oxygen 1 vol. : 1 vol.
21 CC 5 2-545 0 765 64°0 12:5 23°5 Added 10 grams dry gypsum to the charge............... Contents of tube coked.
22 CC 5 2°45 10 92°5 75 5 17:0 T5
23 SX 10 2°580 0 84-4 30°0 54°4 156 Charge consisted of Fe SO, and Ca Cl in molecular pro-| 56% chlorine in absorbers
. NE ae _ DOrtIONS......-.-... Mee oer ere ne eter bec existed as Fes Cls.—
24 cc 5 2-545 0 70°7 58°5 12°2 29°3 Mixed 10 grams dry sand with the charge................
25 CC 5 2.545 15 86.6 A U-tube with glass beads and strong HC! was arranged, Fe. O, acts catalytically.
to wash the gas, and retain Mey Cly—&c... .-.......
26 cc 5 2345 5 85-4 73°4 12:0 146
27 AA 5 2°610 15 | 82°2 73°2 9°0 | 17:8 Zine was accidentally en in sample AA, from its} Zn Cl, sublimed over into
5 | having been heated on a galvanized iron plate. .... receivers.
28 EE 5 2-190 10 92°6 83°6 90 | 74 These are the first experiments in which a material quite} Importance of Fe, 0; demon-
: free from Zn Cl has been used............. ........ strated.
29 EE 5 2°190 0 | 71'8 475 24°3 28°2
30 EE 5 2°190 15 | 95°3 86°4 8-9 4°7 Further corroboration.
31 EE 5 2190 15 | 81:0 70°0 11:1 190 Used'air only (db litres) eee: ce Probable oxygen starvation.
32 EE 5 2-190 15 88.7 757 13°0 11°3 Like 31, but used 6°5 litres air.2.......22.1... 7. ....| The mean dilution of chlo-
| | rine by air for 31 and 32
a “2 | is Ch:air::1:11 vol.
33 EE 5 2-190 15 97°0 86°0 11:0 | 30 Used 8 litres air. Meat applied only under the charge. .| Oxygenated air not neces-
sary in the process, so
far as decomposition of
| - Fe, Cl, is concerned.
1 For detailed description of these samples, see p. 53.
* The Chlorine (gas) obtained is diluted with residual air in the ratio 1 : 10 —.
Experiments 31 and 32 is, Chlorine: Air : : 1 : 11 vols.—
Would Gaseous Chlorine so dilute as this be available for manufacture of bleach? The mean dilution of the Chlorine in
Section III., 1902 [61] Trans, R. 8. C
V.— Researches in Physical Chemistry, carried out in the University
of Toronto during the Past Year.
By Prorrssor W. Lash MILLER.
(Read May 27, 1902.)
The eight papers whose titles follow have already appeared in
the chemical journals or will shortly be published. Owing to the
delay attending the publication of the Proceedings, it has not been
thought advisable to ask the Society to print these papers in full.
(1) The Application of Polarimetry to the Estimation of Tartaric
Acid in Commercial Products: — Professor Edgar B. Kenrick (Uni-
versity of Manitoba) and Dr. Frank B. Kenrick. The influence exerted
by a large number of substances on the rotation of tartaric acid was
studied, and methods were worked out for the analysis of the chief
commercial products containing it. (Jour. Am. Chem. Soc. XXIV.
928.)
(2) The Sulphates of Bismuth: — Dr. F. B. Allan. An application
of the phase rule. The following salts were identified :— Bi,O,.480,,
Bi,0,.280,.21H,0, Bi,0,.80,. (Am. Chem. Jour., XXVIT, 284.)
(3) The Rate of Oxidation of Ferrous Salts by Chromic Acid: —
Miss C. C. Benson. The rate was determined as a function of the
concentrations of the chromate, the acid, and the ferrous salt. Mea-
surements of the rate of oxidation of ferrous salts, and of the rate
at which iodine is liberated, in solutions containing chromic acid
ferrous salts and iodides, are in progress.
(4) The Reaction between Slannous Chloride and Water:— Mr. C.
M. Carson. The results are in conflict with those of Ditte.
(5) The Rate of Oxidation of Ferrous Salts by Oxygen:— Mr. J.
W. McBain. Experiments carried out under the direction of Dr. F.
B. Kenrick. The rates of oxidation of the sulphate, chloride, and
acetate, were measured with various concentrations of the iron, the
acid, and the oxygen. (Jour. Phys. Chem., V. 623.)
62 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
(6) The Rate of Reaction in Solutions containing Potassium
Chlorate, Potassium Iodide, and Hydrochloric Acid:— Mr. W. C. Bray.
Experiments showing that two reactions of the fourth order occur
simultaneously. Schlundt’s results are recalculated.
(7) The Rate of the Reaction between Arsenious Acid and Iodine in
Acid Solution; the Rate of the Reverse Reaction; and the Equilibrium
between them:— Mr. J. R. Roebuck. Experiments to test the theory
of Kinetic Equilibrium. (Jour. Phys. Chem., VI., 365.)
(8) The “ Compensation Method” of Measuring the Rate of Oxida-
tion of Iodides:—Mr. J. M. Bell. The method was introduced by
Harcourt, using sodium peroxide as oxidizing agent; it is not applic-
able when chloric acid, chromic acid, or ferric salts are employed.
Schiikarew’s assumptions (Zeit. phys. Chem. XXXVIII 357), are
not justifiable.
SECTION III., 1902 [63] Trans. R. 8. C.
VI. On the use of Wheatstone Stereoscope in Photographing Surveying.
By E. DEVILLE.
(Read May 27, 1902.)
Dr. C. Pulfrich, of the Carl Zeiss Optical Works, in Jena, has
devised an instrument, called stereo-comparator, for the purpose of
making accurate measurements on stereoscopic views. The instru-
ment, which is described in “ Zeitschrift fur Instrumentenkunde,”
Nos. 3, 5, 6, and 8, of 1902, is constructed by the firm of Carl Zeiss;
it is perfect in every detail and its results are remarkably accurate.
Among other uses, Dr. Pulfrich describes its employment for photo-
graphic surveys. Taking two views of the ground from properly
selected stations, the stereo-comparator gives, by means of a micro-
meter screw, the distance of any point of the landscape. The
direction of the point is afterwards taken from the views by any
of the well known methods and transferred to the plan upon which
the point is then located by its distance. The altitude is deduced
from the distance in the usual way. ‘The instrument appears to be
thoroughly practical and may prove of great value in surveying.
A little difficulty may be experienced at first in securing proper
stereoscopic views, but Dr. Pulfrich has already indicated the prin-
ciple of a camera for that purpose and it may be hoped that the
Carl Zeiss Works will soon place an efficient instrument at the dis-
posal of topographers.
Another solution of the problem of stereoscopic surveying
occurred to the writer, and experiments were commenced in 1896;
owing to pressure of other duties, they had to be abandoned. In
view of the attention now given to the subject, a description of the
instrument devised at the time may offer some interest.
The apparatus is a Wheatstone or reflecting stereoscope provided
with such adjustments as are necessary for plotting topographical
pians. Let it be assumed that the two photographs of a pair are taken
in the same vertical plane, that is to say, that the plates are vertical
and the optical axis of the objective perpendicular to the line joining
the two stations from which the exposures «are made. The photo-
graphs may be taken with one camera carried from one station to
the other, or, preferably, with two identical cameras operating simul-
taneously.
The instrument, fig. 1, consists of an eye piece or viewing stand, A,
with two eye holes, DD, of two frames, BB, for the transparencies,
64 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
and of a tracer, ©, the whole being mounted upon a drawing table
accurately plane.
The metal plate, DD, in which the eye holes are pierced revolves
upon a horizontal axis perpendicular to the middle of the line joining
STEREOSCOPIC APPARATUS FOR PLOTTING TOPOGRAPHIC PLANS.
Fie. 1:
the holes, the inclination of this line being indicated by a graduated
are and vernier E. The distance between the holes is equal to the
[DEVILLE] WHEATSTONE STEREOSCOPE IN SURVEYING 65
interval of the eyes. This interval being variable with individuals,
means must be provided to adjust the distance of the holes when the
instrument is to be used by more than one person. The adjustment
can be made by a simple arrangement, not shown on the figure.
Behind the eye holes are two vertical glass plates with parallel faces,
set at an angle of 45° with the axis. The front face is slightly
silvered, but not enough to prevent seeing a bright point through the
plates. Each one is provided with two adjusting screws like the
small mirror of a sextant. One of the screws, G, revolves the glass
around a vertical axis; the other screw, not visible on the figure,
moves it around a horizontal axis parallel to the plate.
The transparency frames are upright and in the direction of the
axis of the apparatus. They can be moved up and down by the screws
HHH, or right and left by the screws JJ. They are maintained
in their planes by pins sliding in the slots K. For transparencies
printed by contact, the distance from a frame to the image of the
corresponding eye hole seen in the glass plate must be equal to the
focal length of the objective used for taking the photographs. A
better arrangement is to place the frames at the most convenient dis-
tance and to produce the transparencies by enlargement from the
negatives in suitable proportion.
The base of the tracer C consists of three arms supported by
foot screws O, the head of the screws being of spherical shape. The
central arm carries a pencil N and two upright posts upon which
slides a rectangular plate or screen L painted dead black. A small
hole is pierced in the centre. The point of the pencil is in the
plane of the face of the screen. The height of the screen is indi-
cated by a scale MM upon one of the posts; when at zero of the
scale, the hole of the screen is at the same height as the eye piece
axis. The graduation extends on both sides of zero.
Before using the instrument for plotting, it is necessary to
adjust the tracer and the reflecting glass plates.
For adjusting the tracer, move the screen to the top of the posts
and mark the middle of its upper edge. The mark must not move when
the tracer is revolved around the axis of the pencil, held stationary.
If found to move and describe a circle, it is adjusted by means of
the foot screws OO.
To adjust the glass plates of the viewing stand, set the line of
the eye holes horizontal by placing the vernier at zero of the graduated
arc, fix the tracer screen at zero of the altitude scale, draw on the table
the trace Ot, fig. 2, of the vertical plane parallel to the axis and passing
through one of the eye holes, the left one, for instance, place the
point t of the pencil upon this trace and insert a plane mirror in the
66 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
frame B. Should the instrument be properly adjusted, the hole of
the screen and the image of the hole of the eye piece seen by reflection
in the mirror will coincide when looked at through the eye hole.
The reflecting glass F gives a virtual image of the eye hole O in
0,;,FO0,—FO. The mirror B gives another virtual image of O, in
0,;,P 0, — PO, The reflecting glass F gives a third virtual image
pr Oy m0 END 407 |
O3
ES
Fig. 2.
It is not necessary that the transparencies be vertical or parallel
to the axis of the stereoscope or parallel to each other. The only
condition to be fulfilled is that the visual ray parallel to the axis,
that is to say the line passing through the principal point of the pers-
pective, be reflected by the glass plate perpendicularly to the plane
of the transparency. This line can be moved to any direction by
means of the adjusting screws, therefore it can always be made per-
pendicular to the transparency. A frame may be placed at B’, which
is parallel neither to B nor to the axis.
Should the two holes not coincide when seen through the eye
hole, they are brought together by means of the adjusting screws of
the glass plate F. The other glass plate is adjusted in the same man-
ner. The instrument is now ready for plotting.
The first thing to be done is to mark the extremities of the
horizon and of the principal lines upon the transparencies which
are then inserted in their frames. The eye holes plate is set at
[DEVILLE] WHEATSTONE STEREOSCOPE IN SURVEYING 67
an inclination equal to the slope of the line joining the stations
from which the views were taken, which slope has to be measured on
the ground either by direct angular measurement or by ascertaining
the difference of altitude between the stations. The horizon and
principal lines of each transparency must now be adjusted. Com-
mencing, for instance, with the transparency on the left side which
we may assume to have been taken from the highest station, the
screen of the tracer is set at the height of the left eye hole; this is
done by setting the screen at a height above zero equal to half the
difference in altitude between the two stations (reduced to scale).
The tracer is moved until seen through the eye hole it appears close
to the edge of the frame; by means of the screws H H, the frame is
displaced up or down until the hole of the screen is bisected by the
end of the horizon line. The tracer is now moved until it is seen
close to the opposite edge of the frame which is adjusted in the same
manner. The same operation is repeated several times until both
ends of the horizon line are in correct position.
To adjust the principal line, the trace of the vertical plane
parallel to the axis and passing through the eye hole is drawn upon
the table and the point of the tracer pencil is set upon this trace.
The screen of the tracer is moved up or down until close to the
upper or lower edge of the transparency frame and fixed in that
position. The frame is now moved by means of the screws J J until
the hole in the screen is bisected by the extremity of the principal
line. Should the screen be moved until seen near the opposite edge
of the frame, the hole must be bisected by the other extremity of
the principal line, without further adjustment. Each transparency
is, of course, adjusted in the same manner, and by a separate operation.
Looking now through the eye holes with both eyes, the hole in
the screen appears as a bright point projected over the relief of the
ground. Guiding the tracer by hand so that the point seems to
follow and remain in contact with the surface of the ground, the
pencil describes on the table a contour line. When the screen is at
zero, the altitude of the contour is equal to the mean of the altitudes
of the two stations. For describing any other contour line, the
screen is displaced above or below zero a distance (reduced to scale)
equal to the difference between the mean altitude of the stations
and the altitude of the contour line to be drawn. Other lines not
situated in horizontal planes, like the shore of a rapid river, a road
or other features of the ground, are drawn by using a screen with a
vertical slit instead of a hole. The tracer is moved so that the slit
appears to pierce the ground along the line which is to be plotted.
68 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
For the sake of simplicity, it has been assumed that the two views
of a stereoscopic pair were taken in a vertical plane parallel to the
base line. This condition can be dispensed with and use made of
views taken from the extremities of the base line 8 WS (fig. 3) in
the directions S X and S Y forming with the base angles a
and #. The adjustments of the stereoscope are made as usual, but
with this difference; instead of placing the tracer upon a parallel to
the axis of the stereoscope passing through the eye hole, it is placed
in t (fig. 4) upon a line Ot, forming with the axis an angle equal to
X Y ert
/ |
|
| LA
B | B
| OL A / , ’
S| Pal ae (ite dal Wipe ANS i P
x |
Pete en oO (oy
Fig. 3. Fra. 4.
90°— a. | With such views, the reflecting glass plates have to be
adjusted for each pair of views; it would, therefore, be proper to
substitute ordinary tangent screws for the adjusting screws. The
adjustment of the reflecting glass plates is a quick, precise, and simple
operation; its repetition for each pair of views is a small matter and
cannot cause any inconvenience. The vertical axis around which each
reflecting glass plate revolves must be so placed that the focal distance
of the transparency does not change when the glass is revolved by
the adjusting screw.
This property of the stereoscope permits the employment of views
taken with cameras, such as the one used on Canadian surveys, which
are not provided with telescopes for directing them accurately. There
is little doubt that the difficulty of the stereoscopic method will be to
obtain the pairs of views on the ground. The methods hitherto pro-
posed require views taken perpendicularly to the base line; that seems
simple enough, but when tried in the ordinary course of surveying
operations, it may not be found so easy as it appears. It is an impor-
tant advantage of the stereoscope that this condition has not to be
fulfilled. ;
[DEVILLE] WHEATSTONE STEREOSCOPE IN SURVEYING 69
The scale of the plan is the proportion between the interval of
the eye holes and the distance (not reduced to the horizon) between
the two stations. Should, for instance, the holes be 65 millimetres
apart, and the distance of the stations be 65 metres, the scale of the
plan will be 1/,560-
The direction of the meridian is deduced from the azimuth of
the axis of the camera, represented upon the plan by a parallel to
the axis of the stereoscope.
The plan is afterwards reduced or enlarged by photography to
the scale of the general map. It will be observed that after the
views are taken, the scale of the plan drawn by means of the stereo-
scope is invariable, depending only upon the distance of the stations; it
is, therefore, essential to select this distance so as to obtain a suit-
able scale. The plan should not be so small that details would
become indistinct, neither should it be so large as to extend beyond
the range where the tracer can be handled conveniently. This
limitation in the selection of stations is a disadvantage and the
instrument is inferior in that respect to the stereo-comparator, with
which the distance of the stations may vary to a considerable extent.
It is true that other organs might be introduced in the stereoscope
for changing the scale of the plan, but the instrument would become
more complicated.
It must also be noted that the scale is the proportion between
two distances, one of them being the interval of the eye holes which
is liable to variations according as the eyes are opposite one part or
another of the holes. Moreover, no magnifying power is available
and there are other causes of error. So far as accuracy is concerned,
the stereoscope is, therefore, far inferior to the stereo-comparator.
On the other hand, the plotting is much less laborious and the instru-
ment would seem to be particularly suitable for detailed reconnais-
sance surveys. It may be that unforeseen difficulties will be met with
in practice; until the instrument has received the test of practical
experience, it would be idle to speculate upon its value.
SECTION III, 1902. ret] Trans. R. S. C.
VIL— Eecited Radioactivity Produced from Atmospheric Air.
By $. J. ALLAN, M.Sc.
Demonstrator in Physics, McGill University.
(Communicated by Prof. Rutherford, and read May 27, 1902.)
Elster and Geitel have shown,’ that when a negatively charged
body such as a wire, is exposed to the air for some time it becomes
temporarily radioactive, that is, it has the power of discharging elec-
tricity from a charged body, and that this radioactivity decayed with
time. They also showed that this radioactivity could be dissolved
off by dilute acid and after being evaporated down to dryness, the
residue was still radioactive.
The radioactivity in its properties is thus similar to that produced
by the radioactive compounds, thorium and radium.
This paper gives a brief account of experiments made by the
author during the past winter at McGill University. In most of the
work hitherto done on this subject the experimenters have used the
gold leaf electroscope method to observe the rate of leak of the
charged body.
The author was fortunate enough to be able to make use of the
very sensitive electrometer used by Prof. Rutherford in his work on
radium and thorium. Whilst the method hitherto used has been
slow and did not allow of sufficient readings being taken, the electro-
meter gave very rapid and accurate readings. Some of the experi-
ments have already been described in a paper by Prof. Rutherford
and the author.?
The method used was as follows: — The wire on which to collect
the radioactivity was stretched between two insulated supports. The
negative terminal of a Wimshurst machine was then attached to the
wire, the positive terminal of the machine being earthed. The wire
was thus kept at a certain potential above earth. To ensure the
potential always being about the same during the run, an adjustable
spark gap was introduced between the wire and earth. The distance
between the knobs was arranged so that it would never quite spark
across, thus ensuring the potential never rising above a certain value.
The spark gap was calibrated and we could always tell approximately
the voltage the wire was at. The Wimshurst machine was driven by
an electric motor.
1 Phys. Zeit., 1901.
2 Phys. Zeit., 1902.
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
72
—Fig I -
SESS a EEE Se ee Saree tee qq
Kadroactive
Wire
— Earth—
[ALLAN] EXCITED RADIOACTIVITY FROM ATMOSPHERIC AIR 73
The apparatus used for testing radioactive wire in most of the
experiments is shown in Fig. 1. It consists of a metal cylinder A
closed at the bottom, this cylinder serving as the outer electrode.
The inner electrode consists of an iron frame B of rectangular shape,
120 cms. long and 10 cms. wide. The radioactive wire was wound
on this frame from end to end making about 15 turns of wire.
This frame was hung inside the cylinder by means of an insulated
cross-bar C. This cross-bar was in three pieces, joined together by
two pieces of brass D D. These brass strips were connected together
and earthed. This arrangement acting as a guard ring and prevented
any leakage at the ends. The outside cylinder was connected to
one pole of battery E, the other pole of which was earthed.
The battery consisted of a group of storage cells from which any
voltage from 2 up to 600 could be obtained. The diameter of
cylinder was 30 cms. and the length 200 cms. The inner electrode
was connected to one pair of quadrants of the electrometer F, the
other pair being earthed.
The electrometer consisted of a very light needle of silvered
paper suspended by a very delicate quartz fibre between upper and
lower pairs of quadrants. The needle was charged up to a potential
of 200 volts by lightly touching it with a fine wire at a potential of
200 volts. The charge on the needle kept quite constant, never leak-
ing away more than 10 per cent in 24 hours, so that for readings over
a few mins. it would be quite constant. To make sure whether the
charge on the needle had leaked away much, an arrangement was used
which consisted of two parallel plates of metal between which a
standard specimen of uranium was placed. The lower plate was
charged to 50 volts and the upper plate was connected temporarily
to the electrometer. The rate of leak induced by the uranium being
constant, the needle could thus always be standardized. The readings
of the electrometer were thus always comparable. The movement of
the needle was observed by means of a telescope and scale. When
the needle was at a potential of 200 volts, one scale division corres-
ponded to a P. D. of -0018 volts, or a little over 500 scale divisions
per volt. We could thus observe very small rates of leak something
of the order of 10— amperes being the current generally produced.
When not taking an observation the quadrants were all connected to
earth. When a reading was to be taken, one pair of quadrants was
separated from earth by means of a key operated from a distance by
a string. The time taken for the needle to move over a certain
number of scale divisions was observed by means of a stop-watch.
This gave a measure of the ionization current between the electrodes.
Sec. IIL., 1902. 5.
74 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Very often the movement of the needle was too rapid to observe by
means of the eye, so that when this was the case, a condenser was
connected in parallel with the electrometer cutting down the current
to any desired ratio. Several readings were always taken at a time
and they were always quite consistent. The electrometer and all
connecting wires were surrounded by metal screens connected to
earth, preventing any stray electrical effects from reaching the electro-
meter. All the woodwork, ete., in the neighbourhood of the electro-
meter was covered with metal and earthed.
DECAY OF RADIOACTIVITY.
Many experiments were made to determine the rate of decay of
excited radioactivity. The charged wire was supended in different
places, such as in closed rooms and in the air outside the building.
Fig. 2 shows two such curves plotted. I. A copper wire charged
for 210 mins. at a P. D. of — 25,000 volts inside the closed room.
II. A copper wire charged for 270 mins. at a P. D. of — 24,000 volts,
outside in the open air. An examination of these curves shows that
they fall to one-half their value in about 50 mins., following very
closely a geometrical progression, as can be seen by the following
results:
CURVE I.
Falls to 4 value in about 52 mins.
66 + LA2 “ec 96 «6
“cc 4 «6 oe 176 «
CURVE II.
Falls to 4 value in about 48 mins.
“ce t «6 “ce 97 (41
“oe 2 [212 “ce 188 “cc
[ALLAN] EXCITED RADIOACTIVITY FROM ATMOSPHERIC AIR 75
Fig. 3 shows the results for a lead wire charged for 190 mins. at
a P.D. of about — 25,000 volts. This falls to one-half its value
in about 46 mins.
NOR |
ee
HS ee
Rey
Es =
Q 20 40 Go 80 100 120 140
160
— rare of Leck
These experiments were performed at long intervals between
and under different conditions. They show that the rate of decay
is the same wherever the radioactivity is produced.
ABSORPTION OF RADIOACTIVITY.
Several experiments were made to test the absorption of the
excited radioactivity. For this purpose another apparatus was used.
This is shown in Fig. 4 It consists of an upper plate A connected
to the electrometer, a lower plate B connected to the battery C. The
lead wire on which the radioactivity was collected was wound in the
form of a flat spiral and placed on the lower plate. The whole was
inclosed in a metal box connected to earth. The rate of leak was
observed when the wire was bare, and when covered with various
thicknesses of aluminum foil. From these two readings the amount
of absorption could be obtained. The results are shown plotted in
a curve, Fig. 5, along with some absorption curves for other radiations.
It is seen that the excited radioactivity from air is of a more pene-
trating character than any of those types shown.
EFFECT OF WEATHER CONDITIONS.
A long series of experiments were made to determine the amount
of radioactivity that could be collected on a wire under different
weather conditions, especially those of a Canadian winter. For this
purpose the wire was suspended outside in the open air, and was
76
Lorth
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
—Fig.4.—
lait
(test
—Electromerer-
~ £arth - Lbonite
EEE
Ebonite — Fbonite
APIO OEP EE ET PL LLILLLIII LIMIT TELE EOE TELE LEE EEE LTE EERE TED TEI”
Radioac uve & Substance.
SSS WSS
SSS SSS
RE RD D ADD DIED DLL 7 Ph PT
DEEE DS SEEN ESS EE TESTER EEE ET EE EEE ERAN USS EE TEEN ETS TEEN
4 Battery
SSSR TEE EEE EE EE ET ET EEE EEE EEE EEE ere
Ebon)
Say
/ Per aff Raraffine
Wax Wax
Hz SLA LEE ELE DETTE 7 DEE TIT CLAD Th
60
ë
monde
EX
DIE
É
A
Earth
[ALLAN] EXCITED RADIOACTIVITY FROM ATMOSPHERIC AIR ois)
charged for a fixed time and voltage. The experiments extended
over a good many days and under various sorts of weather. Some of
the results are shown in the following table:
A copper wire charged for 30 mins. at a P. D. of —22,000 volts.
RATE OF LEAK
DATE hn) Sen eee CONDITION OF THE WEATHER.
Jan. 17th 23°0 Clear and cold, moderate wind.
‘* 20th 12°3 Clear and fairly cold, light wind.
23rd 46°5 Clear and fairly cold, very high wind.
“24th 36°5 Clear and cold, high wind.
28h 28°0 Clear and very cold, high wind.
29th 22°5 Clear and cold, moderate wind.
‘* 30th 23°5 Clear and cold, light wind.
‘ S3lst 5:3 Clear and cold, no wind.
Feb. 4th 12°0 Clear and cold, light wind.
‘ 6th 1765 Clear and moderately cold, light wind.
a NTbE 15 Dull and fairly warm, no wind.
‘* &th 115 Dull, snowing, and high wind.
As can be seen by this table, the amount of radioactivity varied
greatly on different days, on some being hardly observable, and on
others enough could be collected in a few minutes to necessitate the
use of a condenser in parallel to cut down the rate of leak.
A clear, windy, dry day seemed to give the best results, whilst
a dull, quiet day the least. Experiments made since, during the
spring weather, seem to show that on no day could there be obtained
as much as in winter. The amount that could be obtained from
the air inside never seemed to change very much. Two wires were
charged for the same time and at the same potential, one outside the
building and the other inside. Whilst that outside varied from time
to time, that inside kept fairly constant.
VARIOUS EXPERIMENTS.
Experiments were made on the effect of length of charge. It
was found that the amount of radioactivity increased directly with
time for the first two hours and then more slowly. The amount
of radioactivity was found to vary directly as the length of exposed
wire and to be not effected by the diameter of wire nor the material
of the wire.
78 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
To obtain a fair amount of radioactivity a large volume of air
is necessary. From a closed box of about 1,000 litres no appreciable
amount could be obtained. Several times the wire was charged posi-
tively, but not the slightest effect could be obtained. Experiments
were tried to see the effect of voltage on the amount that could be
collected. Owing to the difficulty of getting satisfactory conditions
no definite relation could be obtained. At — 4,000 volts the rate of
leak after charging a certain time was 19 divs. per sec., whilst at
— 28,000 volts the rate of leak was 67 divs. per sec. for the same
time of charge.
CoNCLUSIONS.
From these experiments we may draw the following conclusions:
The excited radioactivity from air is similar in its properties to that
produced by thorium and radium, but is of a more penetrating char-
acter than either, and decays much more rapidly than that of thorium.
It does not seem likely that it is caused by an emanation from the
soil or vegetation, because it is more abundant in winter when the
ground is covered with snow. The fact that we can obtain more
when it is very windy is probably due to the fact that fresh carriers
are continually being brought into the wire.
It is probably due to an emanation of positive electrons in the
air, ever present though in varying quantities. This emanation in
the ordinary state shows no tendency to collect on substances except
when there is an electric field to draw them into the negative by
charged wire. For a given volume of inclosed air there should be
a saturation voltage at which all the carriers would be brought in.
Experiments are at present being done on this point. In conclusion,
I wish to express my gratitude to Prof. Rutherford for suggesting
this subject, and to his kindly supervision of the work.
Sxcrion III, 1902 [79 ] Trans. R. S. C.
VIII.— The Existence of Bodies smaller than Atoms.
By E. Ruruerrorp, M.A., D.Sc
Macdonald Professor of Physics, McGill University, Montreal.
(Read May 27, 1902.)
During the last few years considerable evidence has been obtained
of the production, under various conditions, of bodies which behave
as if their mass was only a small fraction of the mass of the chemical
atom of hydrogen. As far as we know at present, these minute
particles are always associated with a negative electric charge. For
this reason they have been termed “electrons.” In whatever way
they are produced, they always have the same charge and this charge
is probably the same as that carried by the hydrogen ion in the
electrolysis of water.
A brief historical account will be given of the growth of our
knowledge of this subject, which seems likely in the near future to
profoundly modify our ideas of the constitution of matter.
Faraday showed that when a current passed through a conducting
solution, the amount of matter deposited or given off at the electrodes
depended only on the quantity of electricity which had passed through
the solution. For different solutions, the amounts of matter depos-
ited for unit quantity of electricity are chemically equivalent to each
other. It is now generally accepted that the current is carried
through the solution by means of charged carriers or ions. In an
electric field the negative ions travel through the solution to the
positive electrode, and the positive ions to the negative.
The weight W of hydrogen given off for a passage of Q coulombs
of electricity is given by
We. Ge where z = 10-+ is the weight of hydrogen
given off for a passage of one electromagnetic unit of electricity.
Let e — charge on an ion.
m — mass of each ion.
n — number of ions of hydrogen in a weight W.
Then Wim
Q = ne:
We therefore have © — A EN CRE
m W Z
1 The abstract of an address before Section III. of the Society, introducing
a discussion on the evidence of existence of bodies smaller than atoms.
Experiments illustrating points of the theory were kindly shown to the
meeting by Dr. J. Maclennan, of Toronto University.
80 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
This gives the ratio of the charge of an ion to its mass in the
electro-magnetic system of units.
So far no assumptions have been made as to the actual value of
the charge of the mass of an ion. Rough approximations to the
values of these quantities can be obtained from considerations based
on the kinetic theory of gases, but, as will be seen later, the evidence
does not rest on the actual values of the mass but only on the value
of the ratio ©
mt
Sir William Crookes first drew attention to a remarkable phe-
nomenon which showed itself when an electric discharge was passed
through a highly exhausted vacuum tube. Below a certain pressure
of the gas in the tube, a peculiar kind of rays are shot off from the
cathode. These “cathode” rays travel in straight lines and produce
brilliant phosphorescent effects on the walls of the tube and also on
many other substances placed directly in their path. Crookes showed
the path of the rays could be bent by a magnet. In a strong mag-
netic field these rays can be made to trace out spirals round the
direction of the lines of magnetic force. He showed that they pro-
duced strong heating effects by their impact and a considerable
mechanical pressure on vanes placed in their path.
For a long time two rival theories held the ground as to the
explanation of these effects. The German school of physicists took
the view that the cathode rays were ether waves of some kind. The
English view, as voiced by Crookes, held that they were in reality
projected particles travelling with high velocity. On the latter view
most of the effects observed by Crookes received a simple explanation. |
The phosphorescent, heating, and mechanical effects were due to the
bombardment of material particles, driven off from the cathode by a
strong eleciric field. The curvature of the path of the rays by a
magnetic field was due to the fact that a moving charge acts like a
current.
The presence of two rival theories led to a large amount of
investigation of the discharge in vacuum tubes.
Hertz tried if the rays were deviated by a strong electric field
but failed to get any effect. Lenard, in 1895, showed that the
cathode rays were able to pass through thin windows of glass, mica,
or metal foil. He was thus able to examine the cathode rays outside
the vacuum tube. He showed that the absorption of the rays by
matter was independent of its chemical constitution and depended
only on its density. This was true whether the matter was in the
state of solid, liquid or gas. The fact that these rays could pass
through solid matter, together with the absorption results, pointed
[RUTHERFORD] EXISTENCE OF BODIES SMALLER THAN ATOMS 81
to the conclusion that, if the rays were projected material particles,
they must be so small that they were able to pass through the inter-
stices of matter, or in other words, that to these particles matter
behaved like a coarse sieve.
In 1895 Perrin showed that the rays carried with them a negative
charge. This was strong evidence in support of Crookes’ hypothesis.
The discovery of Rontgen rays gave a great stimulus to the
investigation of the discharge in vacuum tubes. It was found that
Rontgen rays were able to produce charged carriers or ions from the
gas, through which they passed, and this made it probable that car-
riers of a similar kind existed in a vacuum tube.
The experiments of J. J. Thomson threw a great deal of addi-
tional light on the nature of the cathode rays and laid the foundation
of all future work on that subject. He found that the rays were
negatively charged particles travelling with enormous velocities and
were probably of dimensions small compared with a molecule.
These results were deduced from experiment in the following
way:
Let e = charge on the cathode ray particle,
m == mass of the particle,
v = velocity of the particle,
n — number of particles in a single discharge.
The mechanical energy of a single particle is 4 m v? and this is
mainly transformed into heat in the impact on a metal surface. The
energy W in a single discharge was measured by observing the rise
of temperature when the rays fell on a specially constructed thermo-
pile. We therefore have W — 4 mn v’.. The amount of electricity
Q carried by a single discharge was measured by an electrometer and
was given by Q — ne.
Dividing the second equation by the first, we obtain
e QE
OA 2A
Another relation was obtained between e, m, and v by observing
the curvature 9 of the path of the rays when a uniform magnetic field
H was applied perpendicular to the direction of the rays. A charge
e, moving with a velocity v, acts as a current of strength e v. The
force exerted on the particle by the magnetic field is H e v and is
mutually perpendicular to the direction of the field and the rays.
The rays are made to trace out a curved path under the action of
this force. The force which causes the body to move in a path of
82 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
2
curvature © is dynamically given by ae and this is equal to the
applied force H e v.
Therefore Hey = or 4. = Ra
p m H p
2
We have already shown that © — Cu
< m 2
D T
From these two equations we obtain v = EN
p HQ
e 2 W
ACID 2) = eee
m Fate HE)
Substituting the numerical values of H, E, and Q, it was found
that in round numbers
=
© ss
and — Wl,” CMS NpDer ROC;
We thus have obtained the result that the value of = for
the particles is about 1,000 times as great as the same ratio observed
for hydrogen on the electrolysis of water. If the charges are the
same for both cases, the mass of the carriers in the cathode rays is
only about 1-1000 of the mass of the hydrogen atom. The velocity
of these particles is very great, approximating to the velocity of light,
and enormously greater than any velocity of matter before observed
in physics.
The theory from which these results are deduced is possibly open
to some objections, but the values were confirmed by another inde-
pendent method.
If the rays are charged particles their path should be altered in
passing through an electrostatic field. Hertz obtained negative
results; but J. J. Thomson, by varying the experimental conditions,
was able to show that the rays are deviated and that the failure of
Hertz to observe the effect was due to the masking action of the
conducting gas, through which the particles moved. This electro-
static deviation supplied him with a simple means of determining the
velocity and ratio of © of the particles. The rays were made to
m
pass between the plates of a charged condenser and were at the same
time acted on by a magnetic field. The strength and direction of the
field was so adjusted that there was no deviation of the path of the
rays.
[RUTHERFORD] EXISTENCE OF BODIES SMALLER THAN ATOMS 83
From the data of the experiment the values of the velocity and
aa were found to be about the same as those determined by the first
method.
J. J. Thomson also found that the ratio © Was independent
MA
of the gas in the vacuum tube, showing that, possibly, particles of
the same size were produced from different kinds of matter. It is,
however, possible to explain this result by supposing that the dis-
charge is in all cases carried by the trace of water vapour which is
always present in the vacuum tube.
A complete confirmation had thus been given to the projection
theory of cathode rays, and the importance of the work was at once
recognized by Continental physicists.
A series of experiments were performed by Des Coudres, Lenard
Kauffmann and others, which verified and extended Thomson’s results.
There was always present, however, a doubt that possibly the
theory from which the results were deduced might be inapplicable,
and that the enormous velocity of the particles did not exist in fact.
This last doubt was completely removed by Weichert, who showed,
by actually measuring the time taken by the rays to pass from one
point to another, that the velocity was of the same order as that
obtained by previous observers by the methods already explained.
Townsend showed by considerations based on the Kinetic theory
that the charge on a gaseous ion was the same as on an ion in elec-
trolysis. By a beautiful method, J. J. Thomson succeeded in deter-
mining the actual value of the charge, and this charge was found
to be the same from whatever gas the ion is produced.
el
J. J. Thomson also made determinations of the ratio Fa for
electrons produced in two other distinct ways. Since the work of
Hertz on electrical waves, it has been known that a clean surface of
metal discharges negative electricity when ultra violet light falls upon
it. The ultra violet light, in some way, produces negatively charged
ions at the surface of the metal plate. At atmospheric pressure these
ions are equal in size to the ions produced out of the gas by Rontgen
or Becquerel rays, but at low pressures they have been shown to be
similar to cathode rays. By observing the deviation of these ions
by a magnetic field when they were made to move rapidly in a strong
electric field, J. J. Thomson showed that the ratio of © for the
nt
carriers was the same as for the cathode ray produced in a vacuum
tube.
84 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
In a similar way he showed that the same ratio was obtained for
negative particles shot off from the glowing carbon filament of an
incandescent lamp.
We thus see that “electrons” produced under widely different
conditions are all of the same size and of mass about 1-1000 of the
hydrogen atom.
We have so far considered electrons which have been produced
by the agency of light, heat, and the electric discharge, but there is
also very strong evidence that these electrons are always present in
matter and may manifest their presence under special conditions.
Zeeman discovered in 1896 that the bright lines in the spectra
of many substances were displaced by a strong magnetic field acting
on the source of light.
Later experiments showed that under certain conditions one of
the D-lines of sodium, for example, was transformed into a triplet by
the action of a magnetic field. These lines showed definite peculiar-
ities in regard to the polarization of the light. These results were
in direct confirmation of a theory advanced by Lorentz which. con-
sidered light to be due to the rotation or oscillations of the electrons
in the molecule. The equations representing the change of period
of the light in a magnetic field involved the ratio =. From the
wt
change in wave length of the light vibration it was possible to deduce
the value of this ratio. The value of was again found to be
about 107, showing that in all probability that light was due to the
rotation or oscillation of electrons in a molecule, and that the mass
of the electron was much smaller than the atom itself.
Not only are these electrons present in matter, but in some
cases they are spontaneously emitted from it. Becquerel has shown
that the radioactive substances uranium and radium give out some
rays deviable in a magnetic field. The writer has recently found
that thorium, the other permanent radioactive substance, also pos-
sesses the same property. These rays were found to be analogous
in all respects to high velocity cathode rays. They were deviated
by a magnetic and by an electric field and carried with them a nega-
tive charge. Becquerel also showed that the particles travelled with a
velocity not very different from the velocity of light, while the ratio
of —— was again about 107.
Wt
Many of the electrons shot off from radioactive substances have
a much higher velocity than the cathode rays in a vacuum tube. The
highest velocity observed for the latter is about one-third of the
[RUTHERFORD] EXISTENCE OF BODIES SMALLER THAN ATOMS 85
velocity of light, while Kauffmann recently found that the velocity
of some of the radium electrons was about 95 per cent of the velocity
of light. ;
Experiments of these very high speed carriers are of great import-
ance at the present time, in order to throw some light on the question
as to whether the mass of the electron is apparent or real. On the pres-
ent electro-magnetic theory a rapidly moving charged body increases
in apparent mass with increase in velocity. When the carriers travel
with the velocity of light the apparent mass would be infinite.
It is not yet settled what proportion of the apparent mass is
electrical. It may possibly prove that the mass is altogether elec-
trical in origin. If such should prove to be the case! (and it does
not seem improbable), it would be very strong evidence in support
of the view that all mass is electrical in character.
It thus appears that electrons produced by the electric discharge,
by a glowing carbon filament, and by ultra violet light, as well as those
present in incandescent sodium vapour or spontaneously emitted by
radioactive substances, all alike show about the same ratio of
Since the charges are the same in each case, the masses must be the
same for the electrons produced in such widely different ways. The
electron thus appears to be the smallest definite unit of mass with
which we are acquainted. The view has been put forward that all
matter is composed of electrons. On such a view an atom of hydrogen
for example is a very complicated structure consisting possibly of a
thousand or more electrons. The various elements differ from one
another in the number and arrangement of electrons, which compose
the atom.
We thus have a kind of modified Prout’s hypothesis in which the
electron is the ultimate corpuscle of which all matter is composed.
The physical existence of electrons is now accepted by many
scientific men and there are a large number of prominent physicists
who are developing mathematically the logical sequence of the idea.
T need only mention a few of the more prominent workers—Drude,
Voigt, Riecke in Germany, Lorentz and Zeeman in Holland, Poincaré
and Becquerel in France, J. J. Thomson, Schuster, Lodge and Lord
Kelvin in England, to show that the view has a solid basis of support
among the ablest physicists.
* Within the last month, important results bearing on this point have
been published by Kaufmann and Abrahams. The former has shown that
the apparent mass of the electron increases with the speed in the same way
as the electromagnetic theory suggests. He has deduced that the apparent
diameter of the electron is 10-13 cms, and that its mass is probably alto-
gether electromagnetic in origin.
86 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
The view that the atom is a complex aggregate instead of a simple
entity, as was first supposed, does not in any way invalidate the basis
‘of chemical theory. All we have to suppose is that the chemical
atom is the smallest quantity of matter which takes part in a chemical
combination, and that the removal of an electron is a sub-atomic
change quite distinct from ordinary chemical action, although a chem-
ical action may in some cases be accompanied by the emission of
electrons.
The evidence of the complexity of the atoms of the elements is
very strong from other points of view than those considered in this
paper. The extraordinary complicated spectrum of heavy elements of
atomic weights is of itself very strong support of the view that an atom
is a very complicated structure.
At the close of the address there was a vigorous discussion among
the members of the section, in which Professor Lash Miller, Cox,
Goodwin, Baker, Walker and Ruttan took part.
SECTION III., 1902 [87] Trans. R.S. C.
IX.— On an Improved Method of Producing Concentrated Manure from
Human Refuse.
By Tuomas MACFARLANE.
(Read May 27, 1902.)
For many years moss litter has been in use for bedding horses
and cattle in Germany, England and the United States, and twenty
years ago, the first mention of its applicability as a deodorizer and
absorbent for human excreta was made by Dr. Ludwig Happe, in
Braunschweig. Since then, its application for this purpose has been
on the increase in Europe, and even half dried moss has been found
useful at Caledonia Springs, in Canada. ‘This, of course, at once
recalls the dry earth system, in connection with which great improve-
ments in sanitary arrangements were at one time expected. The
advantages of dry moss over dry earth for the purposes referred to
are, however, very decided. They consist in the perfect inoffensive-
ness of the moss manure, in the fact that one part of moss will dry
and deodorize six parts of mixed excreta and in the greater agricul-
tural value of the resulting manure.
Although this country possesses in its numerous bogs and swamps
an inexhaustible supply of this absorbent, still its use for disinfecting
purposes is trifling. This is, perhaps, owing to a fear that the quan-
tity required would be too great and the quality of manure produced
too low in fertilizing constituents. In order to produce, with a
minimum quantity of moss, the best quality of manure, the author
undertook to conduct certain experiments in a closet of peculiar con-
struction, which have been so successful as to entitle them to be
minutely described.
The closet is constructed either in a separate house, in the
manner shown in the drawing hereto appended, or in any outhouse
attached to a dwelling, or in any apartment of the same. It is quite
possible to place the closet or cabinet in the latter places, because,
although used for the purposes of a privy, no disagreeable odours
are produced from the excreta received and treated in it. In the
drawing, the letter A indicates the seat occupied by the person using
the moss closet, which consists of a movable lid with an opening in
it, hinged at the back, so that it can be lifted up, completely exposing
the receptacle for the excreta, marked C. Behind the latter, on the
other side of a dividing partition, and marked F’ and F?, are shown
boxes or hoppers, which are filled with the moss, turf powder, or peat
dust, and which communicates with the excreta receptacle by the slit
88 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
or opening B. The bottom of the hopper and of the receptacle is
inclined at an angle of from 33 to 45 degrees towards the front of the
closet, so that the dry moss or other absorbent may slide down as
used towards the opening at the bottom of the receptacle. Of course,
it is quite possible to construct a mechanical arrangement at the open-
ing 6, connected with an additional cover or lid, which, on closing
the latter, would cause a sufficient quantity of absorbent to be thrown
down into the receptacle. At the lowest place in the latter there
is an opening through which the moss and excreta descend to the
space D. ÆE indicates the floor upon which the contents of the
receptacle collect, and may be mixed and spread out. At G is shown.
a box for containing the moss litter or dry moss for use in covering
the excrement. Instead of using the floor, a shallow box may be
substituted, lined with thin sheet iron, but this has not been found
to be indispensable.
The manner in which the closet is operated is as follows:—The
moss litter, turf powder, peat dust or other absorbent, or the moss
manure hereinafter to be described, is introduced into the hopper, F",
and, by means of a small hook or hoe, or stick, is drawn or pushed
down through the hopper, F#?, and opening, B, until sufficient has
been introduced to cover the bottom of the receptacle. This done,
the closet is ready to be used. After completing the evacuations,
the person using it draws a sufficient quantity of the moss or absorb-
ent from the back part of the receptacle by means of the small hoe
and covers the solid excrement with it, or he may obtain the dry moss
from the box, G. This completely prevents the escape of disagree-
able odour, and the closet may be thus used without annoyance until
the receptacle and the space beneath it are nearly filled. The urine
is readily absorbed by the moss, provided the latter is not too dry.
When the excreta and absorbent have accumulated in the receptacle
and space G to an inconvenient extent, they are thoroughly mixed, by
means of a long-handled shovel and spread over the floor, ZL.
The mixture thus spread is occasionally turned over, which may
be done without the slightest annoyance, by any servant or municipal
labourer, on the other side of the dividing partition from the closet,
without interfering with its use. The manure spread over the floor
loses moisture and dries sufficiently to be fitted for use in the closet
again. It is then shovelled into the hopper, #’, and takes the place
of fresh moss or other absorbent. It is still capable of taking up
the disagreeable emanations from solid excrement and urine, and may
thus be used over again an indefinite number of times until, indeed,
it has become too wet for rapid drying. It may then be removed
to a special drying floor, allowed to lose more moisture, and may be
ht
PRE 7,
Basi
Trans. R. 8. C., Section m1.
DOUBLE
DRY MOSS CLOSET
SEAT OR LIO WITH OPENING IN IT
OPENING FOR INTRODUCING ABSORBENT
. SPACE FOR COLLECTING MOSS MANURE
Floor For
A
B
C. Receprac.e FOR excreta
D
E
F
DRYING MANURE
" F* Hoppers FOR DRY MOSS OR MANURE
TO BE USED OVER AGAIN.
G Box FoR CONTAINING ORY MO55
F*
| ER
E
A CR ARR
A/\ NV mi Mh
SECTION
SIDE ELEVATION
i 4, wpe
À
| ALT AU EE
RS LOT EAU di
DTU MM TEA A
amt
[MACFARLANE] IMPROVED METHOD OF PRODUCING MANURE 89
profitably sold as moss manure. By the above described method of
manipulation this manure acquires a muclt higher fertilizing power
than is possessed by night soil or barn-yard manure, and, being abso-
lutely inoffensive, can be packed in bags or barrels and transported
to great distances.
The drawing shows the arrangement above described as a double
closet for use outside of any dwelling by both male and female inmates.
Of course, it may be constructed singly, or placed in an outhouse,
shed or cellar, in such a manner as may be found most convenient.
The arrangement can also take the form of a cabinet and be placed
in any inner apartment of a dwelling, and moved from one apart-
ment to another. When used in places where it is exposed to great
cold there is danger that the contents of the receptacle may freeze,
but this may be prevented by the introduction of the moss in a proper
manner. As a rule, it is best to begin using the dry moss late in
the fall, in which case it resists freezing until the spring. When
properly attended to there is no necessity for removing the manure
oftener than once a year. ‘The best time for removal is late in the
fall, when it can be taken to a special floor for further treatment, or
stored anywhere until spring.
When the moss or other absorbent is used repeatedly and for a
long time, there is danger of a slight escape of ammonia during the
time when the manure is exposed to the drying process. This may
be prevented by previously mixing with the absorbent a small pro-
portion of such chemicals as are capable of fixing the ammonia. For
this reason I prefer to prepare an absorbent made up of the following
quantities : — Moss litter, turf powder, or peat dust, 100 lbs.; ground
gypsum or land plaster, 20 lbs.; copperas, 2 lbs. German authorities
recommend an addition to the dry moss of two or five per cent oil of
vitriol in a diluted state, which not only causes the ammonia to be
retained, but occasions the destruction of all germs of infectious
diseases. Possibly for both purposes an admixture of, say, 10 per
cent superphosphate of lime would be effective, while at the same
time an unusually valuable fertilizer would be produced.
As has been stated, the use of moss litter or peat dust for deodor-
izing purposes has much increased of late, especially in Germany, but
so far as I am aware, the mixture has always been collected in a
movable tub or pail or other receiver placed under the seat, and not
in a receptacle such as above described. The necessity of frequently
removing such receivers and their contents is always a cause of much
expense, and does not always secure cleanliness. Besides, no oppor-
tunity is afforded under that system of properly saturating the dry
Sec. III., 1902. 6.
90 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
moss used, or effecting a drying of the manure, nor has it ever been
possible to produce direct in any closet an inoffensive artificial manure
containing fertilizing constituents of a very high value. Further-
more in carrying out the peat dust or “torfstreu” system in Ger-
many, the weight of absorbent used sometimes equals that of the
refuse with which it is mixed, and it is never less than 1 lb. of
absorbent to 5 lbs. of mixed excreta. By the system which I have
practised of using the moss manure over and over again until satu-
rated, the quantity of absorbent used forms only a small part, not
more than one-twentieth of the resulting manure.
I may now make mention of the actual results of operating the
closet in the manner above described, on my own premises in Ottawa.
The closet was erected last fall, and has since been in continuous use
by myself and other persons. 10 lbs. of dry moss from the Welland
marsh were placed in its hoppers on the 11th November, 1900, and
the mixing, spreading and re-using continued until the 8th May,
1901, when the product was carefully mixed and sampled. It was
found to contain: —
Lbs. fertilizing
Per cent. | constituents in ue
2000 Ibs. Se
Moïsture ire NE LE SAR Er I | 60°60) AL RER RARE Bde ee eee
Organic substances) "7": 32 LOT LR AE NS EARS MAR din Goi oie 6
Containing 1°75 total Nitrogen ....... Se ene CONNUE 35 at 13c. $4.55
Ash. iesmenetrees ee Poe Corne e ir: Wied Eee ETL re uueeanlee ROLE
Containing 0°71 of Phosphoric Acid...|............ 14°2 at 5c. 0.71
ss 0200 Potash em men Le 2) seer 4 at 5ic. 0.21
100°00 $5.47
This product has a value of $5.47 per 2,000 lbs., calculating the
fertilizing constituents at the same prices per lb. as in agricultural
fertilizers. This is a very encouraging result, for fresh barn-yard
manure usually contains about 67 per cent of water and has a value
of only $2.25 per ton of 2,000 Ibs. Moss manure, as produced in
Germany, with 83 per cent water, is worth $2.37 per 2,000 Ibs.
The same manure produced by the method I employ is, there-
fore, worth more than double that obtained with the use of
movable pails. It is easy to perceive from the way in which
the moss manure becomes lighter in colour on the surface, that
it loses water very rapidly. I ascertained this loss to be 9-6 per
[MACFARLANE] IMPROVED METHOD OF PRODUCING MANURE 91
cent in 24 hours without stirring. Still without disturbing the sam-
ple, the loss was 30-7 per cent in five days. After stirring and
exposure at ordinary temperatures for three days more, the additional
loss was 11:1 per cent, making the total loss in eight days, 41-8 per
cent, while the original percentage was 60-6. I thus found that there
would be no difficulty, the manure being perfectly odourless, in car-
rying out this drying on a large scale.
Owing to a slight development of ammonia in the product above
mentioned, an addition was made to it of 20 lbs. ground plaster, 1 lb.
whiting, and + lb. copperas. The use of the mixture thus made was
continued in the closet for another month without any apparent
exhaustion of its deodorizing qualities. On the 8th June the quantity
of this moss manure was ascertained to be 99-5 lbs., and it was again
carefully sampled and analyzed. It contained as follows: —
Per cent. Ce Value
Per ton. Beaton
Lbs. Price
Moisture 35.6. NE Lier NI BR ec each elas coe ee
Organic substances eee ase aces SE NM AE RON RES Pa A EP Bu ee, MERE Ba
With 5 fotalyNrirocenky es em ANRT EURE 23 13c. $2°99
ASE 20 watt fe ECE oo ae veraha ele DOS rune ect ete sales En
Nithi0:slPhosphonic Acide "lt re ets 10°2 5c. 0°51
MOSS OP POLRSREE RE eee leu mue co 2°6 5ic. 0°14
100°00 $364
With reference to the 1:15 per cent of nitrogen above mentioned
it has to be stated that 0-60 was in the form of ammonia, and that
no nitric acid was present.
Without being stirred this manure loses 40 per cent moisture in
ten days. After drying a sample of it artificially at 90° C. it became
quite brittle, was easily ground, and an analysis yielded the following
results : —
Fertilizing
Per cent. Constituents. » De
Per ton. PE
Lbs Price
Moisture: 1022 reece ee ie ZG Piles eae openers Sisto Maisie ANR ie ere
Organic substances pease esi «-/-\- Li SEA ALORS PORC SOU SRI be ee ae
Containing 3°46 total Nitrogen with
0°92/as ammOon AE RARE M EPL à 69°2 13c. 58:99
AS... 31004 SL EN Sco Ac. ene ZBL ASIN ROUTES MSA RE RURAL Ch
Containing 2°52 Phosphoric Acid......]......... .. 30°4 5c. 2°52
a 065 Potash cmp cee: lee ote sections 13°0 5ic. 0°68
92 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
After allowing this moss manure, with frequent stirring, to
become apparently air dry at ordinary temperatures, the product of
this first experiment, called E No. 1, showed the following composition
and value: —
Fertilizing Value.
Per cent. Constituents,
Per 2000 lbs. Per ton.
bs Price
MOisture tiers: .ts)-tiiaciciiets eee betel deers eter D EN | RS ets oes) METAR RE ELA b choc
Organic matber © MW PR EE Creer Cer TOGO, Oil eek Leva AT RAR sae ete ota lett eee
Containing 3°16 total Nitrogen........|............ 63°2 13c. $8'22
MSHS he bat dace ent se {Sapiens tame tieter 1322 SAME ike ise cin toil nee eres
Containing 2°52 Phosphoric Acid .....|............ 38 4 5c. 1°92
er 0165 ;Botashye ayer ieee ERA UE TTL 312 5ic. 1:95
100°00 $12°09
The 3-16 of nitrogen above mentioned (which is equivalent to
3°84 per cent ammonia in the original moss manure) was present in
the following conditions : —
AS IOrganiciNItrOgene en cc's sls elec me ERIC 0°56
A'S PAMMONIA Tr apres ceed teh lake sie eee yen yarerebe tele PE 2°42
AS Nitric (A CIGs Sia iia same sales baleine tee 0°18
3°16
It thus appears that during the air drying the greater part of
the original organic nitrogen is converted into ammonia and fixed by
the plaster and copperas, but not further changed into nitric acid.
From June until November, 1901, additional experiments were
carried on in the dry moss closet, different substances being used in
each for fixing the ammonia. In the following tabular statement
the particulars of these experiments are given, each treatment being
distinguished by the letter and number given to their respective pro-
ducts (moss manures) on analysis: —
E. No. 2. E. No. 3. E. No. 4.
Materials used : Lbs. Lbs. Lbs.
Moss litters. 22220028 UNS RER 5°52 5°52 9:17
Superphosphate 2.022240) 45 hae seer 1°00 LOOP lite IAA TEE
Sulphate of) (Potash CRE 7 serbian tetera EE RTE nA Oa aaa ey Peace
Ground'Plaster "1.2.0: mire SA ease Stelle gallo iuress pate tote 1:00
[MACFARLANE] IMPROVED METHOD OF PRODUCING MANURE 93
a
E. No. 2 E. No. 3 E. No. 4
Lbs. Lbs. Lbs.
Moss manure produced.................... 87°75 83°55 70°00
es FL driedi ne eus 13°17 17°47 15°61
Analysis of the latter:
p-c. p-c. p.c.
Way Avb Cone GoLTdedbclcoe PTE 30°74 33°16 13°65
Orsanicmatten PPS EEE CCR - 49°82 He aa ER ie Br o5ia
PS REB AR RO. Gop bis todo Ed 0 BEC MOT 19°44 TST Ole oleae a steers bate
100°00 100-00
Nitrogen:
p.c. p.c. p.c.
Organic) aioe eee iaeise os neil eine te 1:74 1°26 1°76
AS VATMIMONIA ME EMEE EE RTE 1°64 0°92 1°54
As NitricvAcidiamaacmicaeh sists as che «siete 0°04 0°10 0°00
3°42 2°28 3°30
Phosphoric Acide eee eon eee 3°43 3°04 0°32
Potash. ca ghee eee EU Un LL 3°72 3°24 1°84
Value of the fertilizing constituents at the
rates already mentioned............... $16: 23 $12°37 $10°83
There is good reason for believing that the dry moss system
could be also advantageously applied to public urinals by causing it
when once used to be dried by exposure to air under agitation, to be
resaturated in the urinal, and repeating these processes as long as
found practicable. A laboratory experiment in imitation of such
treatment may here be noted. The quantity of moss litter used for
it was 158 grammes, and to this there were added, from time to time,
14-15 grammes of ordinary oil of vitriol diluted with water. To this
mixture fresh urine was added whenever the evaporation of the excess
of moisture rendered absorption possible. This experiment lasted
for about three months, and at the end the mixture weighed 474
grammes, which decreased on air-drying to 346 grammes. A sample
of this, marked moss manure, U No. 1, gave:
MOISCUTE a eet EEE ee PARUS Ne 89°94 p.c.
Organic mate "000 CAS CE DEN 35°66
DN) RAT AMEN O ACO ROR ACT el oielere e dates 24°40
100°00
94 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
The fertilizing constituents and their values were as follows: —
Fertilizing Value.
Per cent. Constituents.
Per 2000 lbs. Per ton.
Nitrogen :
3 Lbs Price
Organic MP Es TAN Le RENE URNNRRRE 058, 0 ASSIS NI PRE PEN EEE
A8 AMMONIA EU NUE RAR MEL CPE DAG. VER CRAN AE RARE PRE
IAS NICTIC ACIER AE 0:22. SOS ne AE Ae le eS iy
320 | 64:0 13c 88-32
Phosphoric Acid .......... RM Gua 1°16 23°2 dc. 1°16
IROLASD TG Lae: owen See Me PEN Oe mer: 1°34 26°8 5ic. 1°41
Total $10°89
The product of the experiment just described was found perfectly
capable of absorbing fresh quantities of urine, and of giving off only
its moisture, retaining the dried matter and its manurial constituents.
410 grammes of it mixed with 150 of fresh moss litter were, in the
course of eighteen days treated with 2,206 grammes of urine and
exposed to evaporation in various ways at ordinary temperatures.
The resulting manure weighed 483 grammes. During the experiment
2,283 grammes of water had, therefore, been evaporated by the instru-
mentality of 522 grammes moss litter. Calculated on the weight
of the latter this amounts to 437 per cent, or, in other words, the
moss litter was capable of dissipating 24 per cent of its weight of
moisture per diem. ‘This is the average of various modes of treat-
ment, the rate of evaporation increasing from 10 to 100 per cent,
according as the moss was kept in a mass 6 inches in diameter, spread
out in a thinner layer, or agitated more and more vigorously. The
capability of dry moss or moss litter for absorbing moisture is suffi-
ciently well known, but its property of also giving it off to the atmo-
sphere does not yet appear to have been appreciated, and it is, this
quality which will be found valuable in the manufacture of concen-
trated manures from human refuse.
I may say that these experiments are not by any means completed,
and that I expect: to obtain even more favourable results than those
I have described. But, without considering future possibilities, I
consider myself justified in maintaining that I have already practically
demonstrated that human refuse need no longer be a source of danger
to the public health, nor a cause of expense to any community.
Indeed, it can be so treated, either privately or under municipal
management, as to become a source of profit to towns and cities, and
[MACFARLANE] IMPROVED METHOD OF PRODUCING MANURE 95
a great advantage to agriculture. ‘The value of town excreta has
been estimated by different German authorities at from 370,000 to
1,500,000 marks annually per 100,000 of population. Heiden places
it at 10-38 marks per individual per annum. I believe that a con-
servative estimate in this country would be $2 .— annually per person,
and that the collection could be made by the dry moss system, so as
to leave a handsome profit. Of course, difficulties will be encoun-
tered; there is no beneficent project that is not beset with such.
Among the greatest of these will be the indifference of the individual,
who, for the last thirty years has been urged to follow methods, such
as the water-borne system, which lead in an entirely different direc-
tion. Let us hope, however, that when our municipal authorities
are shown “a more excellent way” they will no longer be parties to
the pollution of our rivers and lakes, but, remembering that “ clean-
liness is next to godliness,” will endeavour to persuade their various
populations to take heed to the commandment of Moses, which
says: — “Turn back, and cover that which cometh from thee.”
Sxcrion IIL., 1902 [97] Trans. RB. S. C.
X.— On Exciled Radioactivity.
By Mr. R. M. STEWART.
Advanced Student, University of Toronto.
(Communicated by President Loudon and read by Professor J. C. McLennan
May 27, 1902.)
(1.) INTRODUCTION.
Professor Rutherford! has shown that air which has been passed
over thorium oxide, or other compounds of thorium, possesses the
power, in the absence of an electric field, of imparting radioactivity
to any body with which it comes in contact.
He also found that when this air is drawn into a receiver con-
taining a negatively charged conductor, the excited radioactivity at
ordinary pressures is confined entirely to the negatively charged body
and does not appear to be induced in any degree on the walls of the
receiver.
On the other hand, when a positively charged wire is inserted
in the receiver containing air which has been passed over thorium,
the walls of the containing vessel become radioactive but the posi-
tively charged wire does not.
Quite recently Elster and Geitel? have found an analogous effect
when a negatively charged body is exposed in atmospheric air. They
find that negatively charged conductors, on being exposed for some
hours in the open air, gradually become radioactive, while conductors
which are positively charged remain inactive.
This radioactivity which is excited or induced is of a temporary
character and does not persist after the exposure, but decays in the
course of a few hours. In this respect it is very similar to the
activity excited by the action of thorium compounds.
From these results it would appear that excited radioactivity
can be communicated in an electric field only to conductors which
are negatively charged.
In his paper on radioactivity induced by the action of thorium
compounds, however, Rutherford® describes an experiment which
suggested the possibility of concentrating radioactivity under certain
conditions upon positively charged conductors, as well as on those
1 E. Rutherford, Phil. Mag., 49, page 1 and page 161, 1900.
? Elster & Geitel, Physikalische Zeitschrift, No. 40, page 590.
* —. Rutherford, Phil. Mag., page 186, Feb., 1900.
28 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
which carry a negative charge. In describing his experiments upon
the amount of excited radioactivity communicated in air at different
pressures to metallic conductors in the presence of thorium oxide, he
states that, in air at very low pressures, he found a negatively charged
rod became but feebly radioactive, while the sides of the vessel, on
the contrary, which contained the oxide, the negatively charged rod
and the attenuated air, exhibited a strongly excited radioactivity.
As the thorium oxide was enclosed in a paper envelope, and so
was not in direct contact with the sides of the vessel, this experiment
indicated that the emanation which was the cause of the excited
radioactivity could be concentrated under certain circumstances, on
a positively charged body, although the effect was found generally
associated with one which carried a negative charge.
This experiment led the author to examine the effect discovered
by Elster and Geitel more closely, and, among other points, to see
if radioactivity was not excited, even feebly, on a positively charged
conductor exposed in free air.
A series of experiments was made during a period extending over
some months with conductors exposed to the air in a large room in
the Physical Laboratory, as well as with some exposed to the free
air outside, and it was found that not only did conductors which were
negatively charged become radioactive, but at times those which were
positively charged also acquired a marked, though feeble, radioac-
tivity. The following paper contains an account of the experiments
dealing with radioactivity excited in positively charged bodies, together
with a few observations on some of the causes which affect the intens-
ity of the activity imparted to conductors exposed with a negative
charge.
(IT) APPARATUS.
In conducting these experiments the radioactivity was detected
by means of an electroscope similar to that devised by C. T. R.
Wilson’ for the purpose of investigating spontaneous ionization in
air and other gases. The instrument is shown in Fig. I.
A thin strip of brass, A, was suspended vertically in a small
metallic box, B, by means of an insulating bead of sulphur, C. To
this strip there was attached a gold leaf whose deflexions, observed
with a micrometer microscope through a mica window in the appa-
ratus, gave a measure of the potential of the brass strip.
A brass rod, D, which supported the measuring system, passed
through an ebonite plug, #, and was connected to one of the terminals
1 C. T. R. Wilson, Proc. Roy. Soc., Vol. 68, p. 154.
[STEWART] ON EXCITED RADIOACTIVITY 99
of a battery of small storage-cells, the other terminal of the battery
being joined to the case of the electroscope.
A fine steel wire which was attached at its upper end to the
rod, D, extended below the sulphur bead, and was there bent into a
loop surrounding the brass strip. This steel wire could be readily
drawn into contact with the strip, A, by means of a small magnet,
and the measuring system by this operation was raised from time to
time to any desired potential.
The apparatus was also provided
with a movable base, G, and bodies to
be tested for radioactivity were placed
in the electroscope resting on this base.
Besides having a small capacity,
this measuring system possessed the
advantage of being entirely free from
leakage along its supports. In practice
the conducting rod D, was maintained
throughout any measurement, at the
initial potential of the gold leaf, and,
consequently, when the latter indicated
any loss of charge, it was evident that
such loss arose from a leakage through
the gas surrounding the measuring sys-
tem. Any conduction across the sul-
phur bead could only be in such a di-
rection as to partially counteract the
loss arising from leakage through the
gas.
In operating the electroscope, it
was found that a potential of 150
volts applied to the system produced a convenient deflection of the
goid leaf, and, as this voltage was ample to produce the saturation
current under spontaneous ionization, it was adopted generally
throughout the investigation as the standard.
With the scale provided in the micrometer, readings could be
made to ‘01 mm., and, as the microscope in a measurement was always
adjusted so that a movement of one-tenth of a millimetre corres-
ponded approximately to a fall in potential of one volt, it was possible
to measure without difficulty a change of a fraction of a volt in the
potential of the gold leaf.
100 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
(IIL.) RADIOACTIVITY COMMUNICATED TO NEGATIVELY CHARGED
BoDIES.
For the purpose of the investigation, a series of circular discs was
cut from a thin sheet of zine of such a diameter as to fit snugly into
the movable base, G. The method followed in the experiments was
to place one of these discs, after having cleaned it carefully with
fine emery paper, on the base of the electroscope, charge the gold
leaf to 150 volts and then observe its rate of fall under the conduc-
tivity arising from spontaneous ionization in the vessel. When this
rate was ascertained, the dise was removed from the electroscope and
suspended by an insulating support in some selected position. A
wire was led from it to one terminal of a Toepler Holtz machine and
the second terminal of the machine was joined to earth through a
water main.
The dise was then maintained at a potential of about 11,000
volts, positive or negative as desired, for a selected time, and after-
wards replaced in the electroscope and the rate of leak again deter-
mined. Any increase observed in the rate of fall of the gold leaf
was taken as a measure of the intensity of the radioactivity acquired
by the zine plate during its exposure.
A preliminary set of measurements was made on the amount of
radioactivity excited in a series of discs suspended in a large room in
the Physical Laboratory at different distances from the electrical
machine which charged them. All were exposed for the same length
of time under the same negative potential. On testing the discs
after exposure, it was found that the radioactivity excited was much
less on those discs which were suspended in close proximity to the
machine than on those which occupied positions more remote.
From this result it seemed evident that air when confined in
a room does not possess the power of imparting radioactivity to bodies
to an unlimited degree, and that whatever property of this kind the
air may possess initially, it is gradually deprived of it in the pressure
of an electric field such as that produced by an electrical machine in
action.
In corroboration of this conclusion, it may be stated that some
observations were made upon the radioactivity excited in a series of
discs exposed consecutively in the same position in the room while the
air was kept as far as possible unchanged. The room was well aired
before the experiments began, and the doors and windows were kept
closed during the whole period of exposure. The results of one
test are given in Table I., and they indicate a gradual decrease in the
activity excited.
[STEWART] ON EXCITED RADIOACTIVITY 101
TABLE I.
ate of loss of charge
| of gold leaf, when
Discs. | Time of Exposure. Potential of Disc. disc was inserted
|
in electroscope.
No. 1 First hour 11,000 volts negative 54
pen Second ‘“ ie 4 KE | 45
os Third “ eek us = | 39
tra Fourth ‘ SUR x | 33
HA Fifth +3 + se $s | 27
It was also found that after a series of experiments had been
made in the room and the air had lost to a considerable extent its
power of imparting radioactivity, the opening of a window and the
consequent admission of fresh air was always accompanied by an
immediate increase in the amount of radioactivity excited in the
exposed body.
Some measurements were also made on the radioactivity excited
in discs exposed, when negatively charged, before an open window
in the laboratory, and a few of the results obtained are recorded in
Table II. Column I. of this table gives the day upon which the
exposure was made; column II. the time of exposure in hours; column
III. the potential in volts of the zinc plate during exposure; column
IV. the observed rate of leak in the electroscope with the unexposed
zinc plate inserted, and column V. the rate of leak when the zinc
plate was replaced in the electroscope after exposure.
TABLE II. For NEGATIVE EXPOSURES.
: ‘ Loss of charge in | Loss of charge in
Date | exposure | exposed plate |,,"glts per hour, | volts per hour
5 j ionization alone. exposed plate.
Oct. 30, 1901 1 12000 negative 1:9 19°2
Le 1 at oH F9 sy
COUPE | PRE 4 Bs LRT) 10°8
“ig a : à = 167 177
Nov. 6,2” 7 ES + 3°2 36°0
CEST ir 10°5 © 2°9 36°0
tha a RE 14°5 $ “s 2°8 34°5
Jan. 10, 1902 18°0 28000 oh 2-4 26°7
eer 57 ii 21°5 25000 HY 2°5 14°4
102 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
From the numbers given in column IV. of this table it will be
seen that the conductivity of the air arising from spontaneous ioniza-
tion is not constant, but varies considerably from day to day. An
extended series of measurements which were made during the past
winter upon the spontaneous ionization of atmospheric air confirmed
these earlier results, and the numbers given above represent fairly
the extent of the variations found in the conductivity of atmospheric
air under normal conditions.
It was also found that there was considerable variation in the
amount of radioactivity acquired by the exposed conductors when
the conditions of exposure apart from the state of the air remained
unchanged. Daily variations occurred in the amount of radioactivity
excited, and it often happened that exposures made at different times
in the same day gave quite irregular results. Examples of this type
of irregularity are shown in the numbers recorded for Oct. 30th and
31st. With the wind blowing toward the window where the discs were
exposed, excited radioactivity was especially strong.
(IV.) Raproactiviry Excirep IN POSITIVELY CHARGED CONDUCTORS.
Concurrently with the experiments described above, a series of
exposures was made before the open window with zinc discs positively
electrified. The discs were charged, as in the previous experiments,
with the Toepler Holtz machine, but in this case the negative terminal
of the machine was joined to earth, while the positive was connected
to the exposed plate. The polarity of the machine was examined
from time to time in each experiment, and in none of the tests was
there any indication of a reversal of polarity during the exposure.
The results of the experiments are given in Table III.
TABLE III.
PRE A Con I PREY Oe A] Loss of charge of | Loss of charge of
Time of Potential of | gold leaf in volts | gold leaf in volts
Date En ny rs discs in volts. per hour with per hour with
in hours. unexposed plate. | exposed plate.
Oct. 30, 1901 1'0 12000 positive 1'9 3:7
RT LTC 1:0 cic SE 1'9 2°6
Nov. 4, 1901 40 oe i 3°0 3°0
cae 10°0 ‘ 5; 2-2 76
NN 4°0 ve ae 2°2 Al
« 6, «e 10:0 “cc “ec 3°29 5:2
‘cc Tk “cc 7:0 “cc ““ 2°9 5-1
“se 14, [22 145 ce “ 3:3 | 3°3
Jan. 15, 1902 17:0 28000 ‘i 3°3 35,
[STEWART] ON EXCITED RADIOACTIVITY 103
From the numbers given it will be seen that, while on some days
the positively charged discs gave no indication of excited radioactivity,
on other days there was clear and distinct evidence that a feeble but
well marked radioactivity had been excited in them, although they
were positively charged when exposed. In order to make certain
that the observed increase in the rate of leak was a true effect and
not due to the gradual dissipation of a small charge adhering to the
dises, they were all carefully cleaned and polished before being
exposed. The increase in the rate of leak, besides, was found to be
the same, whether the gold leaf was charged positively or negatively.
Since the above results were obtained the experiments with
positively charged discs have been occasionally repeated and, although
in the majority of cases no excited radioactivity has been observed,
still on several occasions the discs were found to exhibit the same
feeble activity from exposure.
As the greatest care was taken to eliminate every chance of error
in these experiments, it does not seem possible to arrive at any con-
clusion but the one that under certain circumstances, which as yet are
unknown, radioactivity can be excited in conductors which are posi-
tively electrified. ;
I wish here to express my thanks to Professor J. C. McLennan
for suggesting the investigation to me, and for his kind supervision
of the work.
} An
( iN ha) à
By, er ana
he MATRA
SECTION III., 1902 [108 ] Trans. R. $. C.
XI.— The Specific Heats of Organic Liquids and their Heats of
Solution in Organic Solvents.
By J. WALLACE WALKER, M.A., Ph.D.
AND
JAMES HENDERSON, B.Sc., Ph.D.
(Read May 27, 1902.)
Although the heat of solution has formed the subject of many
investigations the results obtained have aided very little in the develop-
ment of our ideas regarding the nature of this phenomenon. One
reason for this may be that the materials mostly employed as solutes
have been chosen from the class of substances called electrolytes, whose
thermal behaviour on solution is known to be greatly complicated by
ionic dissociation. A second reason is also most probably to be found
in the nature of the solvent employed, viz., water. Ramsay and
Shields have shown from surface tension measurements that water in
the liquid form has not the simple molecular formula H,0, but [H,0],
where n is about 1-7 at the freezing point and decreases with rise of
temperature. It is hardly to be imagined, therefore, that the total
heat change during solution in such a solvent, except at great dilution,
is due to the solute. Some of it is most likely to be attributed either
to the splitting up of the complex water molecules into simpler ones,
or to the condensation of simple into complex molecules. A further
source of complication is also to be found in the fact that many of the
substances investigated are crystalline solids, and an unknown amount
of heat is certainly involved in their passage from the crystalline con-
dition. It seems, therefore, probable that if a generalization is to
be derived at all from such observations, substances should be chosen
for examination whose structure is of the simplest nature, and where
there is least cause to attribute part of the thermal effect to any kind
of chemical interaction. The work of Ramsay and Shields has demon-
strated that water, the alcohols and the liquid aliphatic acids are all
substances of a considerable degree of molecular complexity, while the
hydrocarbons and the esters, along with many other liquids, consist
almost entirely of simple molecules. The latter, therefore, form the
ideal class to choose as solvents. : -
Qualitative. The results of a few preliminary experiments con-
firmed this conclusion and indicated the main lines of the investigation.
Sec. III., 1902. 7.
106 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
When the following solutions were made, the change in temperature
A 7 Was observed: —
NIET
32 grams Methyl Alcohol in 100 grams water ............ .... ..... + 8:50°
46 ‘ Ethyl fF £ A nie Ce ES + 8'30°
60. n-Propyli se DE CERCLE LUE . + 4:00°
58) *S" Acetone’ (<5 £8 SF + ONE LT SCORE + 7:60°
92 ‘“ Glycerine ‘ 4 Fe Oe ePIC ED Acc + 470
100 c.c. Toluene in LOU cic Benzenomeeeerrtiis.. re coe mere — 037°
Equal volumes of Acetic Ether and Benzene ........................ — 0°55°
x . olen e ciated Se ae eee =, (HET
‘ Aceto Acetic Ether and Benzene..... ............ — 1:00°
4 Loluene :::- 00m — 1:00°
os Quinoline andiBenzenes ass.) oso Ce ee eee — 010°
The first five are mixtures of an associated liquid with an asso-
ciated solvent and the heat change is a large one. In the remainder
the liquids are both non-associated and the heat change is small. It
is also of opposite sign. These results seem to point to the con-
clusion that the main source of the thermal effect in the solution of
such substances is due to the dissociation of molecular aggregates
and this was confirmed by a few more roughly qualitative experiments
in which the mixing was done in a test tube using 5 c.c. of each
liquid at the same temperature.
Methyl Alcohol and Ethyl Alcohol................ ...... A T= + 065
+ Wer Usk LOPVIPALCOMO arte 2. AE - 0°37
Ethyl Alconol ‘“ ns SO OSS a eRe farcical + 0°8°
Benzene and Ethyl Alcohol................ 48 bOI) AAR — 57°
Toluene ‘‘ HE An as dessus Mer à — 5'2°
m-Xylene and DANONE bSc od ao te oO REECE Eee — 4°5°
Benzene and n-propyl Alcohol....:.......,............. — 30°
Acetic ether and Ethyl AICGROI .. ose Le ees aes — 72
There is, therefore, a very small heat effect on mixing the alcohols
with each other — à result quite in accord with the idea of association.
For being so similar in nature and in degree of molecular complexity
any influence which the methyl alcohol might be expected to have
in breaking down the aggregates of ethyl alcohol would apply equally
to its own aggregates. A very remarkable fact, however, is that,
whereas all mixtures of water and the various alcohols with each
other give out heat, in every other case that has been examined the
heat change is negative. The above values show also that the amount
of heat absorbed during the solution of an associated liquid in an
unassociated solvent is by no means inconsiderable, while, when both
liquids are unassociated it is insignificant. A few experiments per-
formed very recently do not show the same agreement, however, with
this theory of the cause of the phenomenon. When acetone is dis-
solved in acetic ether there is very little heat change, yet acetone is
[WALKER & HENDERSON] SPECIFIC HEATS OF ORGANIC LIQUIDS 107
an associated liquid. Aniline is unassociated, and yet when mixed
with an equal volume of benzene, the temperature falls 3:3°. A still
more surprising result was obtained with rhigoline B.P. 30°—40° which
is almost pure pentane and from analogy unassociated. When mixed
with an equal volume of benzene there was a fall of 4° in temperature.
Gasoline B.P. 70°—80° gave a similar result with benzene, and with
the unassociated acetic ether as great a depression as with the associated
acetone, viz., 5°. It was thought that a determination of the mole-
cular weight might throw some light upon the results, but a deter-
mination by the freezing point method gave 73 as the molecular weight
of rhigoline in benzene, instead of 72, the theoretical value for pen-
tane.
Quantitative. In determining with any degree of accuracy the
heat change during solution it is, of course, necessary to know the
specific heat of the resulting solution. The latter cannot be taken
as a mean of that of the two constituents. For this purpose an
electrical method was adopted, a certain very constant current sent
through a small incandescent lamp, which was entirely immersed in
the liquid contained in a silver vessel, serving as the source of heat.
The lamp was 16 c.p. at 50 volts, and had, instead of a metal socket,
a glass tube fused on the end through which the copper leads passed.
The current was measured. by a Weston ammeter and voltmeter, and
could be read in each case to at least 1 part in 500. The thermometer
employed was of thin glass with a long, narrow bulb and an enclosed
milk-glass scale. It was graduated in 7/,,ths of a degree, and could
be read with accuracy by means of a lens to 0-015°. The calorimeter
was provided with a well-fitting lid in which were holes for the
various accessories. It was arranged otherwise as described by
Ostwald in his Hand und Hilfsbuch. The stirring was done by hand,
two thin platinum wires passing through the lid serving to raise and
lower the stirrer. The same volume of liquid was used in every
experiment. The method seems at first sight to have several grave
sources of error, and it is doubtless not one of extreme accuracy, but
as the experiments were all made under the same conditions, and
are all relative to the specific heat of water which is taken as unity
most of these errors ought to have been eliminated. The results
obtained are, of course, the best test of efficiency. In the following
determinations of the water value of the calorimeter the bath was
very nearly 16°, and the heating was applied from a few degrees below
to an equal amount above that temperature.
Toran Loss OF CALORIES PER DEGREE.
NOIRE CAE 40 CALE Re DU Ge ZIAD PV HIN On ARR sk te be ot hag RUE ata -2e 21°3
108 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
The mean of these numbers 20-4 is taken as the correction to
be applied when other liquids were being examined. As the total
energy supplied per degree is 15 times this value, the error of the
method must be small. The following are the results obtained for
the specific heats of several organia liquids between 10° and 20°.
The third column contains the results given by others for approxi-
mately the same temperatures:
Benzene 0° 406 0°340 at 10} De Heen and Deruyts.
404 0°482 ‘* 40°
‘405
‘406 0°400 at15° Schiff.
Mean 0° 405
Toluene 0°391 0°3638 at 10° DeHeen and Deruyts.
*390 0°400 ‘ 15° Schiff.
Mean 0°391
m-Xylene 0°389 0°400 at 15° Schiff.
"388
Mean 0°389
Nitrobenzene 0°339 0:3438 at 10°-20° Regnault.
"340
Mean 0°340
Aniline 0°474 0°512 at 8°-82° Schiff.
477
Mean 0°476
o-Toluidine 0°473 0°5038 at 12°-83° Schiff.
‘471
Mean 0° 472
Chlorbenzene 0°305 0°325 at 7°-64° Schiff.
"307
Mean 0°306
Phenetol 0° 433 0°4417 at 15° Schiff.
0°433
Quinoline 0:342 No data
"349
Mean 0°346
[WALKER & HENDERSON] SPECIFIC HEATS OF ORGANIC LIQUIDS 109
Methyl Alcohol 0°601 0°6009 at 15°-20° Regnault.
“601
601
603
Mean 0°601
Ethyl Alcohol 0°612
607 0°6019 at 16°-30° Schüller.
Mean 0°609
n-Propyl Alcohol 0.555 0°615 at 16°-64° Schiff.
“HET 0°659 at 21°-23° Pagliani.
Mean 0°556
Acetone 0°486
*492
Mean 0°489
Methyl Acetate 0° 465 0°4548 at 15° Schiff.
463
466
Mean 0:465
Ethyl Acetate 0° 458 0°4548 at 15° Schiff.
459
458
"457
*456
Mean 0°458
iso-Amyl Acetate 0°449 0°4548 at 15° Schiff.
*451
Mean 0°450
Methyl Propionate 0°463 0° 4548 at 15° Schiff.
*460
Mean 0°462
Ethyl Propionate 0°460 0°4548 at 15° Schiff.
*458
"460
457
Mean 0°459
Ethyl Oxalate 0°426
"427
Mean : 0:°427
110 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
When determining the heat of solution the lamp was removed
from the calorimeter, the water value of the latter was then found to
be 11-64 calories per degree. The heat of solution was determined
by placing a weighed quantity of the solvent in the calorimeter, and,
after it had attained a steady temperature, running into it a certain
amount of the solute of the same temperature from a water-jacketed
tube. The quantities were so chosen as to give a final volume of
approximately 260 c.c. in each experiment. The mixture was stirred
rapidly for + minute and a reading taken. Several successive read-
ings were taken at intervals of + minute. The calorimeter was then
weighed, the difference giving for large quantities of solute the amount
taken. In making the more dilute solutions 5 c.c., 3 c.c., 2 c.c., and
1 c.c., pipettes were used. The specific heat of the solution was
then determined as in the case of a pure liquid. The results are
expressed in the following manner — the number of grams of solvent
to 1 gram molecule of the solute is calculated for each degree of
dilution and the corresponding number of calories.
I. ALCOHOLS IN BENZENE.
Solute Solvent Sp. Heat Cal.
Methyl alcohol’. ..2-1 1-00 o- 78.2 gr. 0°481 241
EbhylalcohOL "PRE Ties CC 0-511 403
n-Propyl alcohol) sc) EEE 635 “ 0491 317
II. ALCOHOLS IN TOLUENE.
Solute Solvent Sp. Heat } Cal,
Methyl alcohol. 7-7". 3.-..--- 91°6 gr. 0°473 237
HMthylaleonol. ECC CE 90: "2 0.495 374
III. METHYL ALCOHOL IN M-XYLENE,
Solute Solvent Sp. Heat Cal.
Methylalconol-#77""""172 99°3 gr. 0°469 260°5
IV. ALCOHOLS IN ETHYL ACETATE.
Solute Solvent Sp. Heat Cal.
Methyl' alcohol FPE ee ite. 90 gr. 0°497 421
Ethylalcoholvees EE sees 87 5104 0°515 566
[WALKER & HENDERSON] SPECIFIC HEATS OF ORGANIC LIQUIDS 111
V. THYL ALCOHOL IN CHLOROBENZENE.
|
Solute | Solvent Sp. Heat Cal.
HENYIFAICONOLE EEE 268°2 gr. 0°398 658
In these experiments, the concentrations are somewhat divergent,
but they are close enough to suggest that the heats of solution of
methyl alcohol in the three solvents, benzene, toluene and xylene are
almost identical, but very different from the value obtained for the
same substance in ethyl acetate. Also the heat of solution of ethyl
alcohol is seen to be very different from that of methyl alcohol in
the same solvents. To test these points further it is, however, neces-
sary to examine solutions of varying degrees of concentration, and
this work has been commenced. Ethyl alcohol has been examined
in solutions in benzene, toluene and nitrobenzene, as well as to a
less extent in phenetol. The results are expressed in the same terms
as the foregoing.
Benzene Specific Heat Cal.
80°96 grams 0°528 437
123° 87 “511 578
210.99 1% 497 806
483° 21 oe 460 1255
1301°1 oS "428 2132
26271 of “417 2901
4457 Fe "414 3584
6721 ue ‘410 3974
13433 “ 406 4032
Toluene Specific Hea Cal.
80°2 grams 0°513 332
20830 *470 628
469:6 <* "442 1034
1248°2 os “419 1803
2584 +f 407 2594
4405 * "399 3205
6645 of "395 3515
13222 xe 391 3815
112 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Nitrobenzene | Specific Heat Cal.
110°78 grams | 0°457 612
288°8 ss | 415 1090
653 se | -379 1629
3580 a | 348 2851
6100 se 345 3075
9204 ee 342 3156
18328 < *341 3330
Phenetol Specific Heat Cal.
89°08 grams 0°537 409
7397 os "445 1973
14600 ss *433 2300
From these tables, and still more from the curves in which the
calories are plotted as ordinates and the grams of solvent as abscissæ,
it is evident that the heat of solution of alcohol in benzene, although
nearly the same, is not identical with that in toluene. Still the
curves lie very close together and run nearly parallel throughout their
entire length. Whether the final value at infinite dilution is the
same for both or not is, of course, doubtful. If its cause is solely
disassociation of the molecular aggregates of alcohol it ought to be
so, but a comparison of these results with those for nitrobenzene, and
especially phenetol, make this conclusion improbable. The curve
for nitrobenzene shows that the maximum value has been almost
reached, and it is much lower than those for benzene and toluene,
while at the greatest dilution reached with phenetol it is only about
half the value of the latter. Further experiments: with other sol-
vents and solutes are in progress.
Ee
Heat of Solution of Ethyl Alcohol
Walker & Henderson. Trans.R.S.C., Sec.IlI.
3200
nN
a
©
©
D
ë
°
2200
Gram calories
1600
1400
1200
+4
pat
1000
a :
+ T T asus ty sutsee
as
>
4
+t
3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10006 11000 12000 13000 14000 15000 16000 17000 18000 19000
Grams Solvent to 46 Grams Ethyl Alcohol.
NOR ie, | F
meet ee 7
mt pa
: | < cr.
La | ; , a Le ‘Rare
Secrion III, 1902 [118 ] Trans. R. 8. C.
X1L.— Oudemans’ Law and the Influence of Dilution on the Molecular
Rotation of Mandelic Acid and its Salts.
By J. WazLacE WaLKER, M.A., Ph.D.
(Read May 27, 1902.)
From an examination into the influence of dilution upon the
property possessed by solutions of the salts of the alkaloids of rotating .
the plane of a beam of plane-polarized light, Oudemans deduced the
law that in dilute solution the molecular rotatory power of an alkaloid
is independent of the nature of the acid with which it is combined.
For example, he found that solutions containing a molecular weight
of quinine in 20 litres of water showed approximately the same rota-
tory power when combined with the following acids:
Acid HCl HNO, HCIO, C,H,0, CH,0, H,SO, C,H,0, H,PO, HClO,
WE, NET Faea ses 270°. 2819. 2792 272°. 2805) 2882
Similar results were obtained for a number of other alkaloids by
Oudemans, Schwebel, Carrara, and others.
Landolt examined in a similar way the metallic salts of the
optically active tartaric acid and arrived at a similar conclusion, viz.,
that in dilute solution the molecular rotation is independent of the
nature of the metallic constituent of the salt. The values for the
neutral salts were
i
Li Na K NH, Mg
: +38°6° 39-:9° 43° 42° 412,
for the Acid Salts +-28°5° 21:5° 28:3° 280: =
van’t Hoff in his “ Die Lagerung der Atome im Raume,” p. 103, gives
a table of fifteen such acids whose salts have been examined in this
way, and I have since, along with Professor Purdie, investigated lactic
acid along the same lines. In the main the results obtained sustain
the conclusion that, although the molecular rotations of the various
salts of an optically active substance may differ from each other in
concentrated solutions, they all, on dilution, approach the same value.
This law, like so many others regarding the dilute aqueous solu-
tions of salts fell at once into line with the ionic theory of solution,
for, according to the latter, these dilute solutions of the salts of the
alkali metals and of the strong acids contain but few whole molecules
of the salt. The molecules have become dissociated by dilution into
separate ions, and, therefore, the dilute solutions of different salts
of an optically active acid contain the same unit upon which the
amount of this activity depends, viz., the optically active ion. Excep-
114 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
tions found to the law are as numerous as the agreements with it,
but these are explained as due to incomplete dissociation, e.g., in the
case of Ba, Sr, Ca, Mg, etc., salts. Entire agreement is only to be
looked for at high dilution, and in the case of the Li, Na, K, and
NH, salts. With one exception, however, the acids examined are
possessed of a comparatively low rotatory power — never above 50°—
and so the degree of dilution to which their change of molecular rota-
tion can be accurately followed with any ordinary polarimeter is very
limited — in fact, scarcely within the limits where agreement with the
ionic theory would be expected. On this account, having prepared
a quantity of active mandelic acid for other purposes, it seemed worth
while to first employ it for this investigation, as it is a very active
substance, having a molecular rotation of about 200°.
The acid employed was the dextro modification, and it was
obtained by fractional crystallization of the quinine salt of the inactive
acid. It melted, sharp, at 132:5°, and had a specific rotation of
+ 154-2° in 2 per cent solution at 17°. The salts were not prepared ,
in the free state but by neutralizing a weighed quantity of the acid
by a standard solution of the hydroxide in the case of the sodium,
potassium, and ammonium salts, and by the theoretical quantity of
the pure carbonate in the others. This solution was then diluted to
4 normal or + normal, and from these the various other concentrations
were prepared by the use of calibrated pipettes and flasks. The results
obtained for the molecular rotations of the various salts are contained
in the following table. The observations were made at 15°.
CONCENTRATION. |4N|/ 4 N/A4N/[ANIANIANIANIAN [xt N
Metallic ion
H. 7 a a ae & PAA) | 2S idea 77.010) Iloaas fe 220°0 | 221°5
Li. 185°6 | 182°4 | 181°2 | 180°8 |....... 18220 PP EEERE PRE EEE
Na. 1874]; 71} EL 2) 160; OMS eae .| 183-0
K. 182°5 | 180°0 | 180°2 | 180°0 | 179°6 | 181°6 |....... jh...
NH, LSU 18084 7S 018179010178 91182 0) PP PER) REP PNR EPS
Ba: NM AIME 192:6 |) TOUR #189:01| 188;:6 || MS9IOM PEER IE CAE PIECERPR
Sr. 1 110190211193 208101570187: TEE 189: 0.160,20) SEE
CAN PALA RICE RAR 218°4 | 210°0 | 203 0 | 200°3 |....... 192 HA ATP aleneesters
Mo ane al P RAS 198°0 | 194°4 | 191°0 | 190°5 |....... 0 KE) US Jol hae EN EEE
An examination of the table shows that the molecular rotations
of all the salts decrease with dilution, and, that in the case of Li. Na.
[WALKER] OUDEMANS’ LAW 115
K. and NH, they soon reach an almost constant value of 180°, as the
ionic theory predicts that they should, also that at the greatest dilution
examined, the Ba. Sr. Ca. and Mg. salts have not yet reached this
limit, a result also in conformity with the ionic theory, for these salts
especially those of Ca. and Mg. are considerably less dissociated than
those of the alkalies at the same concentration. According to van’t
Hoff (loc. cit.), therefore, we should take 180° as the rotation of the
mandelic ion in aqueous solution. Mandelic acid, even in the most
dilute solution in which it could be examined, shows a wide departure
from this value and this again is predicted by the ionic theory, for the
molecular is much greater, evidently, than the ionic rotation, and
like all the organic acids which are only half electrolytes, mandelic
acid is but slightly dissociated at these concentrations. The progress
of ionization with dilution is, however, clearly indicated in passing
from a ‘/, N. to an1/,, N. solution. Even in the !/, N. solution, how-
ever, there are some ions present as well as possibly molecular aggre-
gates possessing a different rotatory power from the simple molecule,
so that we are not justified in taking 243° as the value for the latter.
If, however, a sufficiently large number of H-ions are present in the
solution of mandelic acid they will, according to the law of mass action,
decrease the ionization of that substance to a negligible amount. This
condition of things has been attained by dissolving the acid in normal
hydrochloric acid and diluting, not with water, but with normal hydro-
chloric acid, when, as seen in the table, the molecular rotation rapidly
falls to a constant value of 243°. This value may, therefore, be taken
as the rotation of the simple molecule of mandelic acid.
iN EN iN UN
246 7° 244° 242 -7° 243-20
Using these values, 243 for the undissociated and 180 for the
entirely dissociated molecule, and applying Ostwald’s dilution law
for half-electrolytes to the values found for mandelic acid in pure
water, a fairly satisfactory constant is obtained.
So far the results are in accordance with accepted theories, and
seem to confirm Oudemans’ law. But a closer inspection shows that
the explanation of them is not quite so simple, and that the full inter-
pretation of them involves something more than the ionic theory.
The degree of dissociation of mandelic acid, as indicated by the change
in rotation, is much greater than that calculated from the measure-
ments of its conductivity, being already more than 30 per cent at
1/39 N., while the latter method gives only 27-7 per cent at 1/,,, N.
It is evident also that not only do the salts of the alkalies approach
a constant value of 180° but that those of Ba. Sr. and Mg. approach
116 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
a constant at 189° or 190°, and this at a concentration where they
are still far from being entirely dissociated. Further, there are indica-
tions that, in every case except that of the Ca. salt, the rotation after
falling to 180° or 190° begins to increase again. The increase is
slight, and in spite of the fact that it occurs in so many instances
might be attributed to errors of reading, for a mistake of two or three
minutes would account for the difference, and the instrument only
allowed of reading to one minute. But in a paper published subse-
quently to the making of these observations, Rimbach (Zeitschr fiir
Phys. Chem., 25, 253) has examined the Na. salt to a higher degree of
dilution than I was able to do with the instrument at my disposal.
He finds that at about 1/,, N. the rotation begins to increase and con-
tinues to do so till 1/,, N. is reached, when it decreases once more.
As these solutions are more dilute than any of those upon which
the Oudemans-Landolt law is based, the latter can scarcely be accepted
for the present as entirely confirmed. It is my intention to examine
both the salts of mandelic acid and those of other active substances
in a more powerful instrument and at greater dilutions to see whether
these abnormalities can be detected and confirmed.
SECTION III, 1902 11178] Trans. R.S, C.
XIIL.— An Abnormal Result in the Hydrolysis of Amygdaline.
By J. WALLACE WALKER, M.A., Ph.D.
AND
W. S. Hurcurnson, M.Sc.
(Read May 27, 1902.)
The glucoside amygdaline C,,H,,NO,,, as is well known, when
heated with dilute acids, is split up into glucose, benzaldehyde and
hydrocyanie acid, the reaction consisting in a combination of the
substance with the elements of water. When amygdaline is treated
with strong hydrochloric acid at a temperature of 100° C. for two
hours the glucose is converted into a charred mass, and the aqueous
extract contains ammonium chloride and laevo-rotatory mandelic
acid. One of us has had occasion to convert large quantities of
amygdaline into active mandelic acid by the above method, but the
yield was always much below the theoretical. A somewhat larger
quantity was obtained by using hydrochloric acid of specific gravity
1:12. The loss was not due to the production of the inactive variety,
although the formation of the latter might, from analogy with the
behaviour of tartaric and malic acids under similar conditions, be
expected on heating the active with a strong mineral acid. As
amygdaline is an exceedingly expensive substance it was thought
advisable to try the hydrolysis in another way. |
When amygdaline is boiled with alkalies the nitrogen atom only
is split off as ammonia, but the glucose is not separated from the
remainder. It remains combined in the form of an acid called amyg-
dalinic acid, a quantitative yield of the latter being obtained, and it
was expected that the substance could then be resolved quantitatively
into glucose and active mandelic acid by boiling with dilute hydro-
chloric acid. The first part of the expectation was fulfilled, the
reaction went quantitatively, but instead of active mandelic acid, the
inactive modification was alone produced.
The method we adopted was to boil the amygdaline with a slight
excess of barium hydroxide solution till all the ammonia was expelled,
then add enough normal hydrochloric acid to combine with all the
barium, and leave a gram molecule in excess for every gram molecule
of amygdaline taken. This solution was then boiled for six hours
on the water-bath, polarimetric readings being taken every hour till
there was no further change in rotation. When cold, it was extracted
with ether. The ether left on evaporation a crystalline acid which,
118 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
when recrystallized from benzene, melted at 118°— the melting point
of inactive mandelic. Its aqueous solution was quite inactive when
examined in the polarimeter.
Two other experiments were performed using 2 N. HCl to effect
the hydrolysis of the amygdalinic acid, but the result was the same.
Inactive mandelic acid was the product in each case.
Fearing that the inversion to inactive might have been caused
by boiling with an excess of baryta, we performed another experiment
in which the latter was added in small quantities with a final slight
excess, but the product was again inactive mandelic acid.
In two other experiments, after precipitating the barium with
the theoretical quantity of oxalic acid, we hydrolysed the amygdalinic
acid with concentrated hydrochloric acid and hydrochloric acid of
specific gravity 1:12 respectively, as in the preparation of the active
acid from amygdaline, but again obtained the inactive acid.
In order to test finally in which stage the inversion takes place,
we dissolved 25 grams of amygdaline in an excess of standard barium
hydroxide solution and diluted with water to 250 c.c. The solution
was examined in the polarimeter and gave a reading in the 100 m.m.
tube of —4-3°. A part was then boiled under a reflux condenser
for ten minutes and then rapidly cooled. Its rotatory power was
now —5-55°. A second portion was boiled in the same way for thirty
minutes and also had a rotation of —5-55°. The hydrolysis is, there-
fore, one which proceeds very rapidly and is complete after ten
minutes boiling. The solution was then boiled in an open flask till
all the ammonia was expelled and again made up to 250 cc. The
angle of rotation was now —5-75°, showing that the substance had
not been inverted by boiling with the barium hydroxide, and this
solution yielded on hydrolysing with concentrated hydrochloric acid,
the inactive acid. The inversion, therefore, must take place when
the hydrogen atom is being introduced in place of the glucose radical.
Wislicenus has shown that some of these so-called physical isomers
are exceedingly sensitive to light, and that ordinary daylight under
certain conditions can transform the one into the other. To investi-
gate whether such was the case in the present instance or not, we
hydrolysed the amygdalinic acid with normal HCl in darkness, but
obtained again the inactive acid.
The same result was obtained when potassium hydroxide was
substituted for barium hydroxide and the amygdalinic acid hydro-
lysed with 4 N. HCl.
It seems, therefore, impossible to hydrolyse active amygdalinic
acid with hydrochloric acid of any strength at least above $N. so as
to obtain the corresponding active mandelic acid — the inactive race-
[WALKER & HUTCHINSON] HYDROLYSIS OF AMYGDALINE 119
moid is always produced. This anomalous result corresponds in some
respects with the observation of Walden on active chlor-succinic acid.
He found that when he attempted to replace the chlorine atom by
hydroxyl and reproduce the active malic acid from which the chlor-
succinic acid had been prepared, he obtained not laevo-malic acid,
but the dextro-variety. Later, he observed that it was possible to
obtain either dextro, laevo, or inactive by simply varying the concen-
tration of the alkali employed. One of us also found in acting on
active chloropropionic acid with sodium ethylate that inactive ethoxy-
propionic acid was produced. The inactive modification represents
the position of equilibrium between the two active forms. But what
are the conditions tending to this point of equilibrium which are so
pronounced in the case just described and so feeble in the case that
seems so similar—the production of active mandelic acid directly
from amygdaline ?
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SECTION III, 1902 [121 ] Trans. R. 8. C.
XIV.— On the Specific Heat of Water of Crystallization.
By Neviz Norton Evans, M.Sc.
(Presented by Dr. Walker, and read May 27, 1902.)
Some time ago Prof. Walker called the attention of the writer to
the fact that the specific heat of water of crystallization in inorganic
compounds, as calculated from the figures given in Landolt and Born-
stein’s tables, was very nearly that of ice, 1.e., water in the solid state;
and a careful calculation of the data showed that this was generally the
case, although in certain instances there were very extraordinary and
apparently anomalous exceptions. ‘The number of such substances
which have been examined in the hydrated and dehydrated condition
is very limited, but in nine cases the specific heat of the water of
crystallization only varies from 0-496 for NiSO,-7H.,O to 0:638 for
BaCl,-2H,O. Sulphates have been chiefly investigated, but even borax
and tartaric acid give values which lie close to 0:5. The intention is
to redetermine with as great a degree of accuracy as possible the specific
heats of these compounds and to extend the investigation to salts of
organic acids, etc.
In experimentally investigating the subject the first step was to
decide upon some method of determining as accurately as possible the
specific heat of solids. The work so far has consisted in the elabora-
tion and testing of a method for doing this, the determination of the
conditions necessary for accurate results being the main object in view
up to the present time.
From the first it appeared advisable not to employ the method of
mixtures as this gives the specific heat over too large a range (1.¢.,
between the temperature to which the solid is heated or cooled and
the final temperature in the calorimeter), while it is much more desir-
able to get the specific heat over as small a range as possible, about eight
degrees being adopted in the present work. As it has been pretty well
established that electrical methods, wherever applicable, yield much
more accurate results than other methods, and as this has been amply
verified in the case of liquid calorimetry by the work of Callendar and
Barnes on the specific heat of water, it was decided to elaborate such
a method for the intended investigation. The solid to be experimented
upon is more or less finely divided and kept suspended in the liquid
(in which it is insoluble) in the calorimeter by suitable vigorous stir-
Sec. III., 1902. 8.
122 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
ring, and a measured quantity of heat is introduced by means of a
spiral of fine platinum wire immersed in the liquid and heated by a
current of electricity of known strength.
The calorimeter which has been thus far employed is made of
nickel-plated copper, and is of cylindrical form, being four inches high
and two inches in diameter. It is fitted with a cover having three
holes, for the thermometer, stirrer and heating coil, to be described
below. The size is unusually small, it having been thought desirable,
among other things, to determine with how small a quantity of sub-
stance accurate results could be obtained. It has been found that a
calorimeter somewhat larger than the present one would be better.
The spiral used for heating is made of one meter of pure platinum
wire having a resistance of about six ohms, and wound on a frame made
of mica. The ends of the wire are fused on to thick copper leads,
whose free ends project some inches beyond the calorimeter, are bent
over, and dip into two little mercury cups, thus connecting with the
circuit outside. The current employed is obtained from six automobile
accumulators of twenty-five ampere hours each, and is cut down by a
resistance so that about 0-8 ampere passes through the heating spiral
when it is in use. A Weston ammeter is inserted in series, and a
Weston voltmeter is connected so as to give the drop of potential
between the terminals of the heating spiral. A rocking mercury switch
is so arranged that by its means the current can be turned through the
heating spiral, or through an auxiliary resistance approximately equal
to it. Before any determinations are made, the current is allowed to
flow for a considerable time through this resistance in order that all
connecting wires, joints, etc., may become warmed, and everything
reach a steady state.
The stirrer is shaped like the propeller of a steamer, is made of
copper, and fixed by means of plaster of paris to the end of a narrow
glass tube which projects through the cover of the calorimeter. This
tube is connected at its upper end to the vertical shaft of a tiny pulley
by a short piece of rubber tubing, and the pulley is revolved by an elec-
tric fan motor to which it is connected by a belt. The speed of the
motor is variable, that generally employed driving the stirrer at about
680 revolutions per minute. The blades of the stirrer are just above
the bottom of the calorimeter and are curved so as to lift the mixture
of solid and liquid.
The temperature is read on a mercurial thermometer (of Max
Kaehler and Martini’s manufacture), specially made for calorimetric
work, and divided to twentieths of a degree; it is observed by means of
a telescope, and readings can be made to hundredths of a degree.
[EVANS] SPECIFIC HEAT OF WATER OF CRYSTALLIZATION 123
The calorimeter is inclosed in two metal jackets and immersed in
a large thermostat. At present the determinations are being made at
room temperature, though later on it is intended to make them at a
series of different temperatures.
The method of determining the specific heat of a solid as at
present carried out with this apparatus, is as follows: 100 gr. benzol
is introduced into the little calorimeter which is then stood in cold
water till its temperature has fallen considerably below that of the
thermostat. It is then wiped dry, placed in its jackets in the
thermostat, and its temperature brought to nearly four degrees below
that of the thermostat by passing the current through the heating
spiral; then the whole is allowed to stand for at least fifteen minutes
with the stirrer running. With a little practice the temperature de-
sired (namely, four degrees below that of the thermostat) can be thus
obtained to within a tenth of a degree. During the time that no cur-
rent has been running through the heating spiral, it has been running
through the auxiliary resistance. When the necessary time has elapsed,
the temperature is accurately read, the current is quickly switched
from the resistance to the spiral, and the time taken by starting a
stop-watch. The readings of the two meters are ‘then recorded each
minute during the time of heating. With the apparatus employed, a
current of about 0-840 amperes is used, the potential difference between
the terminals of the spiral is about 5-00 volts, and the time required to
raise the temperature of the 'system eight degrees is approximately
seven minutes. When the temperature has risen to about four degrees
above that of the thermostat the current is switched off and the watch
stopped; the maximum thermometer reading is then accurately noted.
The means of the readings of the ammeter and voltmeter are calcu-
lated, and the quantity of heat in calories introduced into the calori-
meter is determined from the equation:
U = CVt — 41838
where U represents the calories, C the current in amperes, V the drop
in potential in volts between the terminals of the heating spiral, and
t the time in seconds during which the current is passing. By dividing
the number of calories thus obtained by the number of degrees through
which the system has been raised (about eight in the experiments now
being carried on) the number of calories required per degree is ob-
tained.
The determination can be repeated as often as desired by remov-
ing the calorimeter from its jackets, cooling it, and again going through
the above process.
124 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Having thus determined the number of calories required to raise
the system one degree, a weighed quantity of a solid to be experi-
mented upon is introduced in a finely ground condition into the liquid
in the calorimeter and two or three determinations made in the same
way as the one just described, the result giving the number of calories
required to raise the calorimeter, etc., plus benzol, plus solid one degree.
By subtracting the result first obtained from this one, the heat required
to raise the solid one degree is determined, and dividing this by the
weight of the solid in grams its specific heat is obtained.
As has been intimated above, the process requires further improve-
ment, and the calorimeter employed must be larger; but the results
already obtained seem to indicate that the method is sound in principle
and capable of being modified so as to give a degree of accuracy equal
to that of any method previously employed, while its carrying out is
extremely simple. ‘A few results obtained with the apparatus described
are here appended:
Number of calories required to raise apparatus plus 100 grs.
benzol 1 degree: .
52-67
52°53
52°53
52°56
52-78
The benzol employed above was the commercial article, not
specially pure.
Number of calories required to raise apparatus plus 100 grams
benzol plus 58-22 grs. BaCl,-2H,O one degree:
65:34
65:46
Subtracting from each of these 52-61 calories, the mean of the series
of the determinations above, and dividing the remainder by 58-22, the
weight of crystallized barium chloride present, 0-219 and 0-204 are
obtained for the specific heat of the compound. In a similar manner
the specific heat of the anhydrous salt was determined—0-0817 and
0-0833. For crystallized copper sulphaic (5 molecules water) the num-
bers were 0-322 and 0-306; and for the anhydrous compound, 0-222
and 0-218.
As will be observed, the determinations in the cases of the anhy-
drous compounds are much closer than in the cases of the crystallized
ones, and this is to be attributed to the fact that the latter were not
[EVANS] SPECIFIC HEAT OF WATER OF CRYSTALLIZATION 125
finely pulverized while the former, the anhydrous ones, were in the
form of very fine powder. The obvious deduction is that the solid
skould be employed in the form of a powder as finely ground as pos-
sible. Further, means are being devised to permit of the use of a very
much larger proportion of the solid, so that the heat absorbed by it
may be a much larger fraction of the total. It is hoped that farther
results will be ready for publication before long.
SECTION III, 1902 127 Trans. R.S. C.
XV.— he Variation in the Density of Ice.
By H. Lester Cooke, B.A.,
Demonstrator in Physics, McGill University, Montreal.
(Communicated by Professor John Cox, M.A., and read May 27, 1902.)
In spite of the many accurate researches made with a view to
obtaining the absolute value of the density of ice, the problem is still
far from being satisfactorily settled. The determinations made by
Brunner,! Plücker and Geissler,? Bunsen * and others,‘ leave nothing
to be desired in point of accuracy, considered singly; yet when com-
pared with each other, the values obtained by these experimenters
differ by amounts so far in excess of the probable errors of each
separate research, that one is forcibly brought to the conclusion that
there must be some other factor which has been overlooked.
It was owing to these considerations that Professor Nichols ° was
led to investigate this problem. One of the primary objects of his
research was to discover whether this variation in the results obtained
by previous experimenters was due to constant errors in the methods
of observation, or was to be ascribed to an actual variation in the
density itself, the various specimens of ice used in these determinations
having been obtained under very different conditions. Many inter-
esting points were brought out in this paper; a variation in the density
of ice formed under different conditions being unquestionably indi-
cated; there were also indications that the effect of time on newly
formed ice was to cause its density to change, apparently approaching
some normal value.
Later, some determinations of the density of the St. Lawrence
River ice were made by Professor H. T. Barnes and the author, in
order to ascertain what effect age would have on this value. Although
the age of the specimens experimented with ranged from a few weeks
to over three years, no variation in density was detected.
The object of the present paper is to offer a possible explanation
of this variation. It is evident from the results of the various
researches, that this variation must obey some very definite laws,
otherwise much greater inconsistency would be noticed in the form
of probable errors.
1 Brunner, Pogg. Ann., Vol. LXIV., p. 113 (1845).
? Pliicker and Geissler, Pogg. Ann., Vol. LXXXVI., p. 265.
3 Bunsen, Pogg. Ann., Vol. CXII., p. 1 (1870).
+ Trans, R/S!) Cy ival Nake) Sec. Tht... p: 155:
5 E. L. Nichols, Phys. Rev., 8, 21 (1899).
128 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
The first theory that suggests itself on examining the facts is
that this phenomenon has its origin in some structural alteration in
the crystal itself. However, there is a simpler explanation, which
appears to account for the majority of the observed facts.
The specimens of ice used in these determinations are divisible
into two classes,— natural and artificial. Artificial ice may be
obtained in many ways, but for the purposes of the present paper it
will be sufficient to deal with three main classes. If a vessel be filled
with water and immersed in a mixture whose temperature is below
the freezing point, ice will form around the inside walls of the vessel—
let this be called the interior formation. If the vessel be filled with
the freezing mixture and placed in water, ice will form around the
outside of the vessel — this will be referred to as the eaterior formation.
Lastly, if a long tube be filled with water, and the freezing mixture
applied to the end, by gradually moving this forward as the column
of water freezes, a column of ice will be formed without any tendency
to fracture the walls of the tube.
The ice formed inside Plücker and Geissler’s dilatometer affords
an example of the interior formation; the ice-mantle in a Bunsen ice
calorimeter is an exterior formation; while an instance of the column
formation, which was first devised by Boyle, is seen in the overflow
dilatometer used by Bunsen in his density determinations.
In fig. 1 is seen a section of a vessel in which the first formation
is going on, the freezing mixture being applied from the outside.
Before the freezing commences, the outside surface of the vessel
is approximately at the temperature of the freezing mixture, while
the inside surface is very nearly at the temperature of the contained
water, these being the conditions necessary to allow the heat to be
conducted through the walls of the vessel. Since the average tem-
perature of the vessel is below zero, it follows that it is slightly smaller
than it would be if it were at a uniform temperature of zero. Thus
the surface on which the first layer of ice forms will tend to enlarge
when it assumes the zero temperature. After the first layer of ice
is formed, its average temperature will also fall below zero, since the
heat is conducted through the ice as well as through the walls of the
[cooKE] VARIATION IN THE DENSITY OF ICE 129
vessel; and so the next layer of ice is also formed on a surface which
will expand on reaching a uniform temperature of zero. And the
same reasoning will apply to the formation of each layer, till the
process of freezing is completed. So, when the apparatus is finally
transferred to a bath of ice and water, the outer layers of the forma-
tion, including the walls of the vessel, will tend to expand, while the
inner layers, being very near the freezing point, will tend to retain
their dimensions. The effect of these stresses will be an increase in
volume, and a corresponding decrease in density.
In the case of the second formation where the water freezes
around the outside of the vessel, the same reasoning will apply, the
ice always forming on a surface which will tend to assume larger
dimensions when its temperature is brought to zero. However, in
this case, the contracted support for the newly forming ice is on the
inside (see fig. 2), and so when the ice mantle is complete and the
instrument placed in a zero bath, it is the interior layers, including
the walls of the vessel, which tend to expand, this expansion being
resisted by the exterior layers. These forces cause a certain amount
of compression of the volume, and so the density assumes a higher
value.
Fie. 3:
In the case of the column formation, represented diagrammatically
in fig. 3, the explanation is somewhat more complex, as the difference
130 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
in the coefficients of expansion of the ice and of the material of which
the tube is formed has to be taken into account.
Suppose that the tube is of glass, the coefficient of this material
being many times smaller than that of ice. When the first layers
of ice are formed, and the freezing mixture is moved up along the
tube, both the ice and that part of the tube containing the ice become
colder, and contract; the ice, however, contracting much more than
the glass. Thus the ice tends to occupy a smaller fraction of the
space inside the tube than it would do at zero. This tendency is
resisted by the rigidity of the mass of ice and its adhesion to the walls
of the tube, the forces due to the contraction having a shearing effect
at the juncture of the ice and glass. While the ice is in this con-
tracted state with reference to the glass vessel, fresh layers of ice
are continually forming further up the tube, thus binding the ice
which was previously formed, into its cramped position. This action
will continue up the tube as long as fresh ice is forming. When this
process is completed and the apparatus is placed in a zero bath, the
ice which was first formed tends to expand, this expansion being
resisted by the superimposed layers. These expansive stresses result
in a force of compression, longitudinal to the tube, and so tend to
increase the density of the ice.
It must be noted that the reasoning in the last case is based
on the assumption that the end of the extending ice column is flat,
or approximately so. Should this become concave, as shown by the
dotted line in fig. 3, the action in the case of the interior formation
would come in, and under favourable conditions might completely
offset the effect due to the longitudinal strains in the ice column. The
concavity of the top of the extending ice formation would be caused
either by advancing the freezing mixture rapidly, or by using a tube
of a material of high thermal conductivity.
Also, in this third formation, the effect due to the shortening of
the column of ice will be directly proportional to the ratio of the
coefficient of expansion of ice to that of the material of which the
tube is formed. Hence, if the latter coefficient were greater than
that of ice, the column will apparently undergo a longitudinal expan-
sion during the process of ice formation further up the tube, and so
the effect of the stresses when the apparatus is placed in a zero bath
will be to cause the ice to expand and therefore assume a lower density.
As far as the quantitative aspect of the matter is concerned, little
can be said, as these actions depend on so many conditions, such as
diameter of vessels, thermal conductivities, coefficients of expansion of
materials, etc. | However, these effects should be much more marked
[cooKE] VARIATION IN THE DENSITY OF ICE 131
where freezing mixtures of extremely low temperatures are used, than
where these are of a mild character, such as salt and ice.
The question very naturally presents itself now as to whether
there is any species of ice which one would expect from «a priori reason-
ing to be free from internal strains, and thus to have a normal density.
In the case of the formation of a sheet of ice on a pond or river,
the ice starts at the edges, gradually extending out until the forma-
tion joins in the centre and the water is completely covered; all the
ice formed subsequently is in the form of layers on the under surface
of this sheet of ice. Now, when the ice is extending from the shores,
before the sheet of water is completely frozen over, the formation is
continually becoming thicker, and hence, as the heat from the water
is being conducted away through the ice, the temperature of the ice
is falling, and its volume is becoming less, the contraction being a
two dimensional one. When the extending sheet of ice has com-
pletely covered the water, the superficial dimensions of the sheet
become permanently fixed, and so the ice cannot respond to any change
in temperature by a corresponding change in superficial dimensions.
As this ice sheet becomes thicker, its temperature falls, and it con-
tracts, but only in a direction at right angles to the plane of formation.
A little consideration will show that the contraction or expansion in this
direction, provided it be practically uniform over the whole sheet,
cannot set up strains between the different layers of ice; and so the
layers which are formed after the superficial dimensions of the ice
sheet are fixed, should possess a normal density; and also the pre-
viously formed layers, when a uniform temperature of zero is attained
throughout the mass, should be under a strain of compression acting
in the plane of formation, and so should show a high density.
As far as icicles are concerned, nothing very definite can be said.
li the formation were always kept completely wet by the dripping
water, then the icicle should possess a normal density; but if the
forming mass were only partially wet, or only wet on one side, then
its average temperature would fall below zero, and the newly forming
ice would grow upon a contracted support, which it would tend to
compress when a uniform temperature was established, and hence the
density would rise above the normal value. As a general rule, icicles
are not kept completely wet during formation.
When dust-free water is cooled below zero and then agitated,
exceedingly fine and translucent mixture. It seems highly probable that
ice so formed should possess a normal density, as the formation is so
finely distributed that the presence of any internal strains seems
inconceivable.
132 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
The ideal ice, so far as normal density is concerned, would be
the ground or anchor ice, formed along the beds of small streams
during cold, clear nights, when the surface has not frozen over. In
this formation, the heat escapes by radiation from the bottom and the
ice always remains at the freezing temperature, and so cannot undergo
any strains due to unequal expansion and contraction.
It seems very probable that ice recovers in time from any internal
strains set up during formation, and for this reason, in cases where
the density alters with time, it is likely that the true normal value
is being gradually approached. The theory of the viscosity of mater-
ials would lead one to anticipate this change in the presence of internal
strains.
The following facts, taken from the observations of varicus
experimenters, seem to the writer to have a direct bearing on this
explanation of the variation in the density of ice.
The interior formation was used both by Plücker and Geissler,
and by Kopp. The result of three determinations made by the former
experimenters gave the value 0:91580 + -000008, while Kopp
obtained 0:9078 + -0007. Kopp’s value, however, is unreliable, as
his dilatometer was of very inferior construction, and the results
were further vitiated by the presence of an air bubble in every speci-
men of ice experimented with.
The only experimenter who has used the second formation —viz.,
ice-mantles,—in his determinations, is Professor Nichols. In his paper
he gives several abnormally high results, which are, however, unim-
portant as far as the absolute value is concerned, as they were obtained
by using dilatometers containing large quantities of mercury, which
caused a considerable deformation in the walls of the vessel. But
there are several points in the account of his experiments which seem
to have a decided bearing on the subject in question. He says that
certain preliminary experiments made by him “appear to indicate
that mantles formed by the use of alcohol as a refrigerant at —5° to
—10° are less dense than those frozen by ether and CO, at —70° by
at least one part in a thousand. It was likewise found that one of
the latter mantles upon standing twenty-four hours in an ice bath,
appeared to have lost density by nearly the same amount.” This is
precisely what one would be led to expect, as the amount of the inter-
nal strains depends on the temperature gradient of the ice at the
time of formation of the different layers; and also the ice would tend
to recover from these strains very quickly when kept at 0° C., as its
elasticity is a minimum at this temperature. Professor Nichols also
observes that it was impossible to obtain ice-mantles of more than a
[cookr] VARIATION IN THE DENSITY OF ICE 138
certain thickness, as the formation invariably became filled with a
network of fine cracks when the mantle became very large. The most
probable explanation of this phenomenon would seem to be that when
the glass support and the inner layers have practically reached the
temperature of the refrigerant, the outer layers are still at a tem-
perature very near the freezing point. Hence, as the freezing pro-
gresses, the outer layers tend to contract far more than the inner ones;
this contraction is free to take place in a radial direction, but the
circumferential dimensions of the outer layers are fixed when the
supporting layers have reached the limit of contraction. Therefore
a decrease in temperature of these superimposed layers should result
in the formation of small cracks, the general plane of these cracks
being in the direction of the length of the tube and extending radially
outwards. With regard to Professor Nichols’ determinations on ice-
mantles by the method of weighing, it seems highly improbable that
these mantles were preserved intact during the experiments, and, if so,
the results can have no bearing on this discussion, since a breaking up
of the ice-mantle would at once release it from the effect of any inter-
nal strains.
Two determinations were also made by Nichols on the density
of very fine specimens of the icicle formation, the result obtained,
using the method of weighing, being 0:91807 + -00004.
Both Brunner and Nichols have determined the density of ice
taken from the surface of ponds, formed at the beginning of very cold
weather, and these two determinations show a remarkable agreement.
Nichols also experimented with pond ice one year old, obtaining a
value considerably lower than that of the newly cut specimens.
Bunsen, using an overflow dilatometer and experimenting on the
column formation, obtained 0:91685 + -00003.
As the result of seven determinations of the density of the St.
Lawrence ice, made by Professor H. T. Barnes and the author, the
value 0:91661 + -000065 was obtained. The ice used in these measure-
ments was cut from the lower surface of the ice sheet, and the speci-
mens ranged from a month to over two years in age. No trace of
any variation due to age was detected. A modification of the method
of weighing was used.
These results are all given in tabulated form below. In the
sixth column will be found the probable result, whether high or low,
according to the theory given in this paper, and in the seventh column
the difference from the density of old river ice is given, the value
assumed being a mean between Nichols value and our own, weights
134 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
being assigned in the ratio of 2 to 1 in favour of our own seven mea-
surements, as compared with his one.
Exp ter. Method. Kind of Ice. SA ook Calcul. Obs.
Brunner | Double weigh.| Fresh surface 0°9180 + °000039 | High | + ‘0015
ice
ee Dilatometer | Interior Form | 0°91580 | + ‘000008 | Low — ‘0007
an
Geissler
Kopp re se 0°9078 + ‘0007 Low — ‘0087
Bunsen * Column 0°91685 | + ‘000035 | High | + ‘00035
Nichols | Double weigh. Mantles 0°9163 — ‘00009 High | — ‘0002
EMMA . Icicles 091807 | + -00004 | High | + -0015
oe " Surface (fresh) | 0°91804 | .......... High | + ‘0015
The results may in the main be said to agree very well with the
theory advanced, but, although some of the observed phenomena seem
strikingly indicative of the truth of this explanation, it can hardly be
said at present to be more than a suggestion. It is the writer’s inten-
tion to pursue the matter experimentally as soon as possible; some
preliminary measurements would seem to indicate that artificial ice
of the interior formation tends to gain in density when allowed to
stand in an ice bath, but the experiments were too rough to be
conclusive.
Ice may undergo compression arising from other causes than
unequal expansion and contraction, as when specimens are kept by
being buried deep in ice houses, or are formed under a head of mercury
in dilatometers. Thus, ground ice, which can undergo no strains
due to unequal temperature, is always formed under a considerable
hydrostatic pressure. However, the writer has purposely only treated
the one aspect of the matter in this paper.
With regard to the Bunsen Ice Calorimeter, the conditions which
affect the density of the mantle would seem to be its thickness, the
diameter of the tube around which it is formed, the thermal conduc-
tivity of the same, and the temperature of the refrigerant; also the
outer layers are probably less dense than the inner ones. This instru-
ment would thus appear to have many disadvantages when used to
obtain absolute calorimetric measurements. However, if the ice man-
tles are formed by the use of a comparatively mild refrigerant, and
allowed to stand before being used, much greater accuracy should be
attainable.
In conclusion, I wish to thank Professor Barnes for his kind
supervision and suggestions in the preparation of this paper.
Secriox III, 1902 [135 ] Trans. R. S. C.
XVI. The Hall of Potential Method as applied to the Measurement of the
Resistance of an LHlectrolyte in Motion.
By H. T. Barnes, M.A.Sc., D.Sc.
Assistant Professor of Physics, McGill University, Montreal,
AND
J. Guy W. Jounson, B.A.
McGill University, Montreal.
(Communicated by Professor John Cox, M.A., F.R.S.C., and read May 27, 1902.)
In a note which one of the authors had the honour to send to
the Royal Society of Canada, in 1900, it was pointed out that the
change in density with concentration for many hydrated electrolytes
is discontinuous. It was also suggested that this discontinuity
represented a change in dissociation of the hydrate. Recently the
authors have carried out some experiments on the change in resistance
of a hydrated electrolyte with density, in order to study the effect, if
any, of the discontinuity. If the effect is due to a change in dissocia-
tion the conductivity of the solution should be indicative of it.
The salt which we selected for the measurement was MgC1,—
one which exhibits well the change in question. This was obtained
pure from Merck, and various solutions made in strengths above and
below the concentration at which the change occurs.
Since the effect we were looking for is small and had been entirely
overlooked in the work of other observers we were obliged to select
a method for measuring the electrical resistance which would give us
the greatest possible accuracy and delicacy. We selected a modification
of the fall of potential method rather than the standard telephone
method of Kohlrausch, because we found we could obtain much
greater accuracy with the instruments at our disposal. We might
state at the outset that it was the possession of such an instrument
as the Thomson-Varley slide potentiometer with the corresponding
high resistance (100,000 Ohms) galvanometer of the Thomson reflect-
ing type, designed for use with it, which made our work possible by
this method. There can be no question that the application of such
instruments to the measurements rendered the results more accurate
than could have been obtained by a telephone method.
As the effect of temperature on the resistance of an electrolyte
is large, it was necessary for us to take special precautions to guard
against this error. We, therefore, arranged to have the electrolyte
flow slowly through the resistance cell, first passing through a spiral
136 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
of glass tubing immersed in the water bath containing the cell. Thus
it assumed the uniform temperature of the cell before entering, and
any possible error due to current heating was reduced to a minimum.
It has been shown by Hall that the motion of an electrolyte pro-
duces no change in its electrical resistance, although the results of
Bosi* indicated such a change. Hall? repeated carefully Bosi’s
experiments, but with negative results. In several of our experi-
ments we varied the velocity of flow, but could detect no difference.
TO FLASK
T-V Slide,
Fic. 1.—THE FALL OF POTENTIAL METHOD FOR MEASURING THE RESISTANCE
OF AN ELECTROLYTE.
In fig. 1 we give a diagram of our cell as well as a sketch of
the general electrical connections. The cell consisted of a narrow
tube 14 millimetres in diameter and 15 centimetres long, fused to
tubes of 3 cm. in diameter. Rubber stoppers closed the two ends.
Through these rubber stoppers heavy platinum wires were passed,
connecting with plates of platinized platinum foil. Potential ter-
minals of platinum wire were fused into the glass of the small bore
tube. The electrolyte entered the cell from a reservoir after passing
through the glass spiral. A flask at the outflow end collected the
solution which dripped from a tube inserted in the rubber stopper.
Thermometers were placed in the inflow and outflow ends, and the
temperatures read simultaneously during the measurements. The
complete cell was immersed in a bath through which water was made
1 Nuovo Cimento, 5, 249 (1897).
2 Physical Review 7, 246 (1898).
[BARNES & JOHNSON] FALL OF POTENTIAL METHOD 137
to flow from the mains and the temperature carefully observed. The
temperature was maintained constant during a set of readings, but
it varied somewhat for the different measurements on account of
the fact that the water in the mains became warmer as the
summer weather advanced. In correcting the results to a uniform
temperature a temperature coefficient was obtained from a special
set of readings. This value was found to agree with the coefficient
given in Kohlrausch and Holborn. It is our intention in conducting
any further experiments to pay particular attention to keeping the
temperature of our bath constant during a series of measurements
with different concentrations. The electric current was supplied
from a storage cell and was passed through a standard 100-ohm coil
connected in series with the cell. The Thomson-Varley slide poten-
tiometer was connected in parallel with the cell and standard coil,
and being of such high resistance, 100,000 ohms, only shunted a small
portion of the current. To avoid the errors due to polarization we
arranged a make and break key in the main circuit shown at K!
and a reversing key shown at K. The galvanometer was permanently
connected to the sliding contact on the potentiometer, and to a
contact which could be passed successively to the mercury cups
d, e, b, a; these connected with the two potential terminals on the
cell and the ends of the 100-ohm resistance coil. Since the fall of
potential through the cell and standard, when the current was flow-
ing, was equal to that on the potentiometer, equipotential points
could be found between d, e, b, or a successively and the potentio-
meter. The fall of potential from d to e was then represented by
the difference in the two readings on the potentiometer, and the fall
of potential from b to a was likewise represented by two correspond-
ing readings. As long as the current remained constant the resist-
ance of the electrolyte represented by a column of liquid between
two planes at right angles to the axis of the tube and fixed by the
position of the potential terminals was given by the simple expression.
R= d,—d,
d.—d,
In taking the readings, instead of allowing the current to flow
and taking the position of the balance or zero current through the
galvanometer by making and breaking the galvanometer circuit, the
main current was made momentarily, and the deflection of the gal-
vanometer observed before the cell had time to polarize. A second
reading was then observed by reversing the main current at the
reversing key. On account of rapid polarization the galvanometer
would always show a deflection, but in case the balance was such
Sec. III., 1902. 9.
x 100
138 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
that the deflection was in the opposite direction to that produced by
the polarization, a deflection first in one direction and then in the
other direction resulted. The balance point was taken to be the
exact point at which the momentary deflection in the opposite direc-
tion to the polarization disappeared. After a little practice it was
possible to take readings and repeat measurements of the resistance
to 1 part in 5,000 with comparative ease.
As a check of the accuracy of our measurements the resistance
of one of our solutions, through the kindness of Mr. McIntosh, was
determined by the Kohlrausch method, using the telephone instrument
set up and in constant use by him in the McDonald Chemistry Build-
ing. The result was in good agreement with our own on the cal-
culation of the specific resistance, and showed, we think, that we were
free from constant errors. Our method of;
a. Keeping the electrolyte in motion,
b. Reversing the direction of the main current between each
reading,
c. Closing the main current for only a small fraction of time
in obtaining the readings,
reduced the errors of the direct current method to a negligible
amount and avoided current heating common to all methods.
In preparing our solutions we took great care to use pure dis-
tilled water, and to have all parts of the apparatus clean. ‘Twelve
different concentrations were taken varying above and below the
point in question. These solutions were first adjusted roughly with
a hydrometer and afterwards the density obtained accurately by
means of a pyknometer. The density varied from 1-155 to 1-019,
representing a range in strength from 0-211 grms. per c.c. to 0-026
grams per ©.c.
The following table contains the results of our measurements:
| ONCENTRATION GRAMS
DENSITY. RESISTANCE. Concr SRE en
1°1553 101°52 0°2119
1 1235 113°57 01670
11111 118°21 0°1470
1°1031 120°44 0°1350
1°0901 126°54 0°1200
1;0821 | 134°65 0°1085
10735 | 145: 56 | 0:0970
1°0673 155° 28 0° 0888
1°0585 175°72 0°0770
1°0407 | 233° 88 | 0° 0536
1°0322 | 269° 25 | 0° 0424
1:0195 | 423° 88 | 0° 0260
| These are plotted in fig. 2.
[BARNES & JOHNSON] FALL OF ‘POTENTIAL METHOD 139
On the same diagram we represent the relation between the
density and concentration. We use the same vertical scale for dens-
ity, 1.¢., from 1:00 to 1:30. The horizontal scale for the resistance-
density curve is represented in ohms, each block representing 100
-0) : 202 z : -
+3
|
G)
@ = Densily-Concenfration Curve
© = Densily-Resis/ance Curve
Fic. 2.
ohms. The horizontal scale for the other curve, given at the top
of the page, represents the difference between a theoretical density,
calculated on the assumption that every molecule of salt added to
the solution displaces one molecule of water, and the true density as
observed with the pyknometer. Thus, if the theoretical density held,
140 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
the curve would lie along the vertical axis. It does this approxim-
ately up to a concentration of ‘05 grms per c.c., after which more
water is displaced by the added salt than is represented by this simple
relation.
A second change in relation appears to take place at a density
of about 1:105. These points correspond approximately with the
change in slope of the resistance curve.
Density at which a possible change in dissociation takes place:
Density-concentration. Density-resistance.
1:105 1:090
1:040 1:035
In conclvsion we may state that we hope to examine a number
of other salts during the coming summer.
(Added January 1st, 1903.) We have examined the resistance
curves of two salts, KCl and K, SO,, since the communication of this
paper, and find that the experimental evidence is not sufficiently
strong to justify us in assuming a form of dissociation to account
for the discontinuity in the density curves. There appears to be
indications of it in the case of MgCl,, supra, but this is not shown
in our curve for K,SO,, where a very marked change in the density
curve occurs. Our later experiments will shortly form the subject
of a further communication.
SECTION III, 1902 [ 141 ] Trans. R. S$. C.
XVIL— On the Absolute Value of the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat.
By H. T. Barnes, M.A.Sc., D.So.
Assistant Professor of Physics, McGill University, Montreal.
(Communicated by Professor John Cox, M.A.)
In the very careful and elaborate reports submitted to the Paris
Congress in 1900, on the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat and the
Specific Heat of Water, by J. S. Ames and E. H. Griffiths, a general
summary of the work of previous observers was made. An examina-
tion of this summary shows what a wide divergence exists in the
absolute value of this important constant.
This has already been pointed out by the author,’ who has also
shown that the results of Rowland and of Reynolds and Moorby,
which are the best direct mechanical measurements we have, can be
compared, and that they are in good accord with each other. ‘
The author ‘desires at this time to give what he considers to be
the most probable value of the mechanical equivalent.
In selecting a value of the thermal unit to which to refer the
mechanical equivalent of heat we have the one recommended by
Griffiths in his report. This defines the unit as the heat required
to raise the temperature of one gramme of water from 15° C to 16° C.
We have also the one recommended by the author in his paper on the
Specific Heat of Water, which defines the limit between 15-5° and
16-5° C. giving a mean temperature of 16° C. Since the specific heat
decreases with rise in temperature these units differ a little, but their
mean is almost exactly equal to the mean value over the entire range
of temperature between the freezing and boiling points. It was this
important fact which originally decided the author to recommend the
unit at 16° C. Some time ago, before the variation curve for the spe-
cific heat of water was accurately known over the entire range, Griffiths
was led to believe from certain of his measurements that the mean
value of the specific heat between 0° C. and 100° C. was not far from
the value at 15° C.
The absolute value of the specific heat at this temperature which
was recommended by Griffiths in his report is 4187 X 107 ergs.
This value in terms of the 16° C. unit becomes 4:186 X 107 ergs.
Rowland’s value for this temperature, corrected by Waidner and
Mallory,? comes 4:186 X 107, which is the value given by Griffiths.
1 Proc. Roy. Soc., 67, 238 (1900). Phil. Trans., A., Vol. 199 (1902).
* Physical Review, 8, 193, (1899).
142 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
The value of the mean specific heat obtained by Reynolds and Moorby
is 41832. The value obtained by the author, using the continuous-flow
method of electric calorimetry is 41883, in terms of the Clark cell
value 1:4342 volts, or 4:1891 in terms of Griffiths unit. These values
in terms of the Clark cell value 1-43325, which is equal to the abso-
lute value obtained by Carhart,’ are 4:1828 and 4.1836.
Since Reynolds and Moorby’s absolute value, measured mechan-
ically, is between these and equal to Rowland’s value at the same
temperature to within 1 in 1000, which was the limit of accuracy of
Rowland’s work, the evidence seems to point to a value of J equal to
41832 X 107 ergs.
as being correct.
In gavitation units this becomes
426-60 kilogrammetres.
for latitude 45 and sea level taking Helmert’s value of g equal to
980-5966,” or,
777-58 foot-pounds.
in the English units.
1 Physical Review, 9, 288 (1899).
? Landolt and Bornstein’s Tables.
SECTION III, 1902 143 ] Trans. R. S. C.
XVIII.—On the Density of Ice.
By H. T. Barnes, M.A.Sc., D.Sc.,
Assistant Professor of Physics, McGill University, Montreal,
AND
H. Lester Coors, B.A.,
Demonstrator of Physics, McGill University, Montreal.
(Communicated by Professor John Cox, M.A.)
(Read May 27, 1902.)
The earliest determination of the density of ice was made by
Robert Boyle, and the method employed was to observe the difference
in volume of a certain quantity of water contained in a calibrated
receptacle, first in the liquid and then in the solid state, and from
this to calculate the density of the ice. The vessel used was a glass
one, with a long narrow neck on which the graduations were marked.
This was filled with water exhausted under an air pump and so com-
paratively free from air. A freezing mixture was then applied to
the vessel from below, moving the mixture up as congelation took
place, which by this method did not involve the fracture of the glass.
In this way the volume of the water when frozen was observed
to increase 11:12 per cent, which gives the value for the density of
ice as 0-903. No great scientific value was aimed at here, the strains
undergone by the glass during the formation of the ice rendering the
results most uncertain, apart from the probable presence of minute
cracks in the ice formation, a difficulty exceedingly hard to guard
against in determinations involving the use of artificial ice. There
were several other early determinations made by Williams, Heinrich,
Dumas, Osann and others, and results obtained at various values rang-
ing from 0-905 to 0-950. These, however, do not call for any special
attention, as they were for the most part derived from investigations
carried on in a comparatively rough way, and often involving cor-
rections of such a nature as to render the results quite useless, from
a scientific point of view.
During the last century there were many accurate determinations
of the density of ice.
The first of these was performed by the German physicist Brunner.
His method consisted of weighing ice in different media, whose densi-
ties could be accurately determined.
144 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
For this purpose he prepared pieces of river ice, formed during
very sudden and severe cold weather. This ice he found could be
procured in sizes suitable for his experiments, without flaw or crack
of any description. He devoted some time and attention to the pro-
duction of artificial ice free from air, but was not successful in obtain-
ing any sufficiently free from the flaws and cracks which usually
characterize this kind of ice.
The weighing was first conducted in air, corrections being made
for air displacement. Then the specimen, which was suspended from
the arm of the balance by a single human hair, was immersed in refined
petroleum oil. The specific gravity of this oil was determined with
the utmost accuracy, the method employed being that of weighing
in air and in the petroleum a piece of glass, of which the coefficient
of expansion had been determined very carefully. The loss of weight
undergone by the specimen of ice when immersed in this liquid afforded
the data for the computation of its density, which was found to be
0-9180 + -000039.
It is worthy of note here that this series of experiments, while
involving the determination of the ice density, was not undertaken
for this especial purpose, but rather for the refutation of a statement
that the density decreased with a decrease of temperature. This,
needless to say, was entirely disproved, the linear coefficient of expan-
sion obtained being 0-0000375. (Experiments carried on from —1° to
—20° C.)
After Brunner, the next experimenters of note to undertake
determinations of this quantity were Pliicker and Geissler. The
principle employed by them was essentially that of Robert Boyle, to
whose experiments reference has been made, the method, of course,
being subjected to refinements not attempted in the earlier experi-
ments.
The instrument employed was a dilatometer of exceedingly deli-
cate construction, shown in fig. 2. First, the instrument was completely
filled with mercury, after which water was introduced through the small
opening at C; when the inner bulb B had been almost completely filled
with water, the inlet C was sealed off in a flame.
The introduction of the water into the instrument forced the
mercury up into the capillary tube A, which had previously been very
carefully calibrated. The instrument was now ready for use, and
was placed in a bath at 0° C. and the height to the mercury thread
noted; then the apparatus was transferred to a freezing mixture, com-
posed of alcohol, cooled by ice and calcium chloride. As one would
expect, the walls of the instrument gave way under the strain when
congelation took place ; however, the mercury was forced up in the
[BARNES & COOKE] THE DENSITY OF ICE 145
capillary tube A, and the movement was a direct measure of the
expansion of the water on freezing. Only three determinations of
this kind were made, probably owing to the fact that a new instrument
had to be prepared for each experiment.
The «mean value obtained by these three determinations was
0:91580 + 0-000008.
The determination made by Kopp in 1855 is scarcely worthy of
mention. His method involved the use of a dilatometer, but one of
poor design and involving probable errors of such a nature as to render
his results quite worthless. His values came much lower than those
of the preceding observers, a result which might have been anticipated
from the fact that in every specimen of ice experimented on, obtained,
of course, by artificial freezing, a small bubble was noticed. The
value obtained was 0:9078 + -0007.
In 1860 Dufour undertook a new determination of the density of
ice. His method differed from both the preceding ones, being inca-
pable of the same degree of accuracy obtained by the double weighing,
or by the dilatometric method.
The method consisted of submerging ice in a liquid, of which the
density could be varied ; then, by adjusting this, a point could be
reached where the density of the liquid was identical with that of the
ice, this being ascertained by observing when the ice was in equilibrium
in the liquid. The specific gravity of the liquid was then accurately
determined, and the ice density thus arrived at. In his first series
of experiments, a solution of alcohol and water was used. Here,
however, the results were doubly indirect, as the alcohol attacked the
ice, when the mixture was at 0° C., rendering it necessary to carry
on the experiments at lower temperatures than this, and then allow
for the cubical expansion of the ice, adopting the coefficient obtained
by Plücker in his experiments, viz., 0-000158. From 22 experiments
he obtained the value 0-9175 + 0-0007, the probable error here being.
the same as that of Kopp’s results.
The year following the publication of these results, Dufour again
set himself to solve the same problem, using the same method, but
employing a mixture of chloroform and petroleum, neither of which
attacks ice. Here again he worked at temperatures below the freezing
point, the results obtained being slightly higher than those of the first
set of experiments — 0:9178 + 0-0005.
We now come to the work of Bunsen, who began his determina-
tions in 1870. The method employed involved the use of a dilato-
meter of special design, the increase in volume being measured by the.
quantity of mercury expelled from a capillary point in the apparatus,
146 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
the general principle being identical with that of the weight thermo-
meter, without, of course, involving the coefficient of expansion for
the glass dilatometer, as the observations before and after were both
taken at zero Centigrade. Three determinations were made, the
results showing a remarkable agreement, the mean value being
0-91685 + -00008.
This value, determined by three observations alone, has been the
accepted value of the density of ice since 1870. This quantity, how-
ever, is of great importance, especially in connection with the use
of the Bunsen ice calorimeter, and this fact led to a redetermination
of this value in 1899 by Nichols.
Professor Nichols first determinations were made by the
dilatometer method, using a specially prepared instrument, resem-
bling a combination of both a specific gravity bottle and a Bunsen
ice calorimeter (see fig. 4). The principle employed in freezing the
water was identical with that of the Bunsen calorimeter, and the
method of observing the increase in volume of the water was the
same as that used by Bunsen in his density of ice determinations,
the density being arrived at by two different methods of calculation
from the different weighings, both results, however, being obtained
from the identical experiments. These two values, 0:92154 and
0:91631, are far from showing good agreement, this fact being espe-
cially pointed out by Nichols and used as an argument against the
dilatometer method, when mercury is used to fill the instrument.
The great divergence shown by these two results is probably due in
a large measure to the deformation of the walls of the instru-
ment, caused by filling the dilatometer completely and afterwards
partially with mercury.
These considerations led Professor Nichols to abandon this
method and to devise another, in which the results would be more
certain and consistent. The next method tried was that of weighing,
first in air, and then in refined petroleum. Great precautions were
taken in the details of the experiments, the density of the petro-
leum being found by weighing a piece of glass in distilled water, and
then in the petroleum, the coefficient of expansion of the materials
being allowed for. All the weighings were likewise reduced to
weights “in vacuo.”
The main object of this series of experiments was to determine
the variation in density, if such existed, of specimens of ice formed
under different conditions and obtained from different sources. Four
varieties of ice were thus experimented on, and results obtained
[BARNES & COOKE] THE DENSITY OF ICE 147
ranging from 0-91816 to 0-91590; these being given in the following
table :—
TABLE I. RESULTS OF NICHOLS ON THE DENSITY OF ICE.
d Density at0in |
Kind of Ice Pompe pare terms of that | Means
Crees of water at 0
Tcé-mantles ere ur. — 16 0:91619
(CO:)'and'ether er ere Res — 15 0°91590 0°91615
— 06 0:91636
Natural Ice (cicles) nee Eee: — 19 0°91816
— 16 0°91801 0°91807
Natural Ice (pond ice newly cut) .. — 07 0°91804 0°91804
Natural Ice (pond ice one year old) — 18 0°91644 091644
Nichols then proceeded to compare the results obtained with the
values given by the other observers for similar specimens of ice and
showed that there is a remarkably good agreement and one that
evidently points to real differences in the densities of the specimens,
and not errors in the methods.
The importance of these considerations led Nichols to devise
another and independent method by which these results could be
checked and verified. The plan decided on was as follows: —A small
iron box was constructed, built up of slabs of iron with the faces planed
and polished, with an accurately fitting slab of iron as a cover. After
having brought the box to the temperature of the room, it was filled
with mercury, and from the weight of the mercury required to completely
fill the box, its cubical contents was found. ‘The volume was com-
puted for zero, by allowing for the cubical expansion of the iron
and mercury. The box thus having been measured, a piece of ice, newly
cut from a reservoir, was placed in the box, the ice being of such
a size as to have a small margin all around it, when in position in
the box (the insterstices being filled with mercury), the ld, which was
formed of a planed slab of iron fitting accurately on to the planed
tops of the four sides of the vessel, was then pressed down, forcing
out part of the mercury and leaving in the box only mercury and
ice. From the weight of the ice, determined beforehand, and the
cubic contents of the box, and the amount of Hg. necessary to fill
up the space around the ice in the box, the density of the ice could
be computed. The value obtained was 0-91772.
Nichols concludes his paper by pointing out the strong evidence
which his experiments bring to support the theory that there is an
actual discrepancy between the absolute values of the density of
148 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
specimens of ice formed under different conditions, the artificial ice
experimented upon being formed similarly to the ice mantles formed
in the Bunsen Ice Calorimeter.
In reviewing these experiments, it will at once be seen that there
are three general methods of determining ice density, viz., equilibrium,
dilatometric and weighing methods.
In the first method, obviously, great accuracy cannot be obtained.
Of the two experimenters using this method, Dufour obtained by
far the most accurate results. The advantages of the method are that
both artificial and natural ice can be experimented upon, and the deter-
minations can be repeated upon the same specimen as often as desired.
However, these advantages are far outweighed by the above mentioned
disadvantages, and the method as used by Thomson and Dufour may
be set aside as insufficiently accurate.
The next general method to be considered is the dilatometric.
The construction of the dilatometer for use in these determinations
is very varied; but it will be sufficient to study the forms used by
Kopp, Plicker and Geissler, and by Bunsen.
The instrument used by Kopp (see fig. 1) had many
| disadvantages, which need not be entered into here at
| great length.
Whenever the water in the inner tube was frozen,
a small bubble was always observed in the ice. which
| would, of course, tend to increase the observed volume
CH) and alter the density. The liquid used to fill the
| vessel was turpentine oil. The oil would tend to pene-
7
EC NSRE
AA
SESS
|
RUE irate the cork, and the joints between the cork and
Hk the glass tubes, and so vitiate the results. When the
il (à . ; ‘ :
E | ice formed, the oil was forced up higher in the capillary
=n
—
A tube and thus the interior pressure on the walls of the
vessel was increased and its dimensions altered. The
| order of accuracy of the instrument is shown by the
KZ fact that, while only two sets of readings were taken,
Fic. 1. Kopps these varied 2 parts in 900, and as these were only read
Dilatometer to 1 part in 1100, Kopp himself evidently realized the
limitations of the instrument. The results obtained were far below
those of the other experimenters.
The apparatus employed in Plücker and Geissler’s determinations
was far more delicate and accurate. There was no cork to add
uncertainty to the action of the instrument. Also the difficulty
of the different internal pressure, owing to the column of mercury
being forced up in the tube, was partially overcome by having the
capillary tube widened from a to b, causing the difference of head
FRERE
TRES
[BARNES & COOKE] THE DENSITY OF ICE 149
to be less than it otherwise would have been. But this advantage is
ofiset by the use of mercury as the liquid, owing to the great specific
gravity of this metal. The most serious objection to the instrument,
however, is the fact that the walls of the inner chamber give way
under the strain and thus form crevices.
We now come to Bunsen’s dilatometer, the construc-
tion of which is shown in the accompanying diagram. A
number of the defects of the dilatometers previously
constructed were overcome in this instrument. The vary-
ing internal pressure, caused by the alteration of the level
of mercury in a capillary tube, was obviated by arrang-
ing the instrument so that the mercury would be forced
out into a beaker, which could be afterwards weighed,
thus maintaining the internal pressure on the instru-
ment constant. Also the difficulty about fracturing the
sides of the vessel during the formation of ice was elim-
inated by starting the ice formation at the end “a” of
the instrument and gradually extending the solidifica- |
tion down to the juncture of the water and mercury |
at b. But, unfortunately, the uncertainty of the cork a
c _ : ; : - Fie. 2. Pliicker
in Kopp’s apparatus, which difficulty was avoided by ,,4 Cons
Plücker and Geissler, was reintroduced into this instru- Dilatometer
ment, and may be regarded as its weak point. The apparent disad-
vantage owing to the deformation of the walls of the instrument
does not interfere with the accuracy of the instru-
4 ment, as this deformation is the same before and
i | after the formation of the ice.
u This instrument is undoubtedly the most accu-
(EN rate of all the dilatometers used in these determin-
ations. But there is one possible disadvantage,
which it shares with all dilatometers caused by the
formation of the ice in the instrument itself.
The last general method to be considered is
that of weighing. This is capable of several slight
modifications, so that it would be well to consider
the plans adopted by Brunner and Nichols separ-
b ately.
Brunner’s experiments were designed primarily
with the object of ascertaining the coefficient of
expansion of ice between 0° and —20° C. How-
ever, the measurements made supplied the neces-
sary data for the computation of the density at
Fic. 3. Bunsen’s 170 The plan is indirect, as no weighings were
Dilatouieter actually carried on at zero, for which tempera-
150 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
ture the ice density is required. The method is, in fact, doubly
indirect, as the density of the ice is compared with that of the liquid
used, the specific gravity of this liquid having to be determined by
separate experiment, thus there is an extra process introduced, involy-
ing an additional liability to error. The liquid used was petroleum,
which does not act on ice at temperatures below —1° C., this being
the highest temperature at which any of the determinations were
carried on.
Professor Nichols’ results are open to precisely the same objec-
tions as Brunner’s, being carried on at temperatures below the freezing
point and involving a separate determination of the density of the
liquid used.
|
5
Fic. 4 NICHOLS DILATOMETER.
We are now in a position to summarize the relative advantages
and disadvantages of each of these three general methods.
The weak point of the first method, that of adjusting the density
of the suspending liquid until the ice is in equilibrium, lies in the uncer-
tainty of each separate experiment — the method is, in fact, not sensitive
enough for the requirements of the determinations.
The dilatometrie methods used by Kopp, Plücker and Geissler,
and by Bunsen, each have some uncertain feature peculiar to the
particular instrument used.
The objections to the method of weighing are that the experi-
ments are not carried on at zero, and the density of the liquid has
to be determined by a separate experiment. The application of the
coefficient of expansion in order to reduce the density to zero is not
a serious objection, though it may be possible that this coefficient,
which was determined for temperatures ranging from —1° to
—20° C., may not hold between say —1° and 0°, owing to 0° being
the point where a change of state takes place; nor is the separate
experiment for determining the specific gravity of the liquid a serious
objection, as this is done by the same method as the ice density
determinations, and is capable of the same degree of accuracy.
From this it will be seen, that it is the method of weighing from
which one would expect the most accurate results, and, as a matter
[BARNES & COOKE] ~ THE DENSITY OF ICE 151
of fact, as Nichols has also pointed out, it is the only one that has
yielded consistent results in each of its applications to the measure-
ment of ice density, and it is evidently to this method that one must
look for a final determination of the absolute value.
It was owing to a consideration of these facts, that the method
of weighing was adopted in the following series of ice determinations
carried out in the Macdonald Physics Building, during the winter of
1900-01, by the authors.
The objections to which former methods of weighing were open,
that the ice during the experiments was not at the temperature for
which the density was required, was eliminated by the arrangement
employed in these determinations, the ice first being weighed in air
at zero, and then in water at the same temperature; the water being
unable to act upon the ice without the access of heat, which was
prevented by the experimental arrangements.
The ice is placed in the weighted grip which is suspended from
the arm of a sensitive balance by a fine wire. This wire passes
through a long, narrow tubular opening in the cover of a copper vessel,
which is surrounded by a mixture of pure snow and water and the
entire contents thus brought to zero. After the ice has been weighed,
pure water at zero temperature is admitted into the vessel, and after
this has completely covered the suspended ice, the weight is again taken,
and from the loss due to immersion, the density of the ice is calcu-
lated, due corrections being made for the weight of the suspension
and grip and for the density of the water.
, The general arrangement of the appa-
ES cs ratus is shown in the accompanying diagram.
The grip was made of flexible brass wire,
about a millimetre and a half in diameter,
the three prongs and the end of suspending
wire being very carefully soldered together.
To the lower end of each prong a short piece
of fine lead tubing was then soldered to
counteract the tendency of the ice to rise
to the surface when immersed in the water.
The greatest care was taken in the soldering
to prevent cracks or inequalities of the sur-
face upon which bubbles of air might have
lodged during immersion. The upper end of
the wire ended in a hook, by which it could
be attached to the arm of the balance.
The copper vessel inside which the grip
was suspended was about 15 cms. in diameter
152 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA.
and 40 cms. high. The top could be securely bolted down and was
rendered water-tight by means of a leather washer. A brass tube,
about 14 cms. in diameter and 30 cms. long, was soldered in an
upright position into a hole in the centre of this cover, forming
a long, narrow neck through which the suspension wire could hang
freely from the balance arm down into the interior of the vessel.
This long neck also rendered it possible to completely immerse the
vessel in the mixture of snow and water. In the lower part of
the vessel an outlet was constructed of a bit of bent brass tubing
soldered in position. To this orifice a very long piece of brass
tubing was attached by means of a rubber neck, this tubing project-
ing above the snow and water, and preventing this mixture from
entering at the lower opening. By pulling out this tubing the water
could be allowed to enter the vessel and cover the suspended specimen
of ice. In case the inflow of water should carry in small particles
of snow, which would tend to vitiate the observations, a piece of
fine wire gauze was fastened to the inside of the vessel, just above
the inlet, which therefore cleared the water of all particles of snow
before it reached the specimen of ice.
The outside vessel, which contained the snow and water mix-
ture, was of copper and about 60 ems. in diameter by 70 cms. high.
Thus when the inner vessel containing the specimen was imbedded in
this mixture, it was surrounded by a wall of snow and water ranging
in thickness from 15 to 20 ems., more than sufficient to prevent any
possibility of transmission of heat from the outside.
The balance used was one constructed by Oertling, and very
sensitive. A hole was bored in the bottom of the case and also
through the supporting table to allow the free passage of the suspen-
sion to the rest of the apparatus, which was placed under the table
during the weighings.
The following was the method of carrying out an experiment:
A piece of ice was cut from the solid block a little larger than
required. This was then reduced by washing in cold water, which
removed all traces of chipping and crevices due to the cutting. It
was then put aside and allowed to come to zero temperature, shown
by its tendency to melt. Meanwhile, the mixture of snow and water
was prepared, the inner vessel imbedded in it with the top off and
the apparatus taken into the open air, the temperature during the
days of the experiments never being far from 0° C. The specimen
was then taken outside, carefully dried with filter paper and a linen
rag, placed in the weighted grip, and placed inside the inner vessel,
the specimen never being touched by the bare hand during these
[BARNES & COOKE] THE DENSITY OF ICE 153
operations. The cover was then securely bolted on, the end of the
suspension passing up through the tubular opening, and after having
completely covered the main body of this inner vessel to a depth
of about 10 to 15 ems., the whole apparatus was carried in to the
laboratory and placed under the table on which the balance was
placed. After passing the suspension up through the table and
balance case, it was attached to the arm of the balance and the
vessels beneath adjusted till it was hanging freely. Before taking
the weight, the specimen was allowed to remain thus suspended for
about 15 minutes so as to accurately assume the temperature of the
surrounding mixture. After the weight had been carefully taken
to -1 of a milligram, the water was allowed to enter the inner vessel
from the surrounding mixture and the weight again taken. The density
of the ice is calculated from the loss of weight owing to the immersion
in the water.
The weight and density of the suspension had to be allowed for
in these calculations, and they were determined in the same manner
as the ice density, the experiment being carefully repeated on the
suspension and grip after each ice density experiment, and using the
same water for immersion. The density of the water in the inner
vessel was then compared with that of distilled water by means of a
pyknometer. All the weighings were corrected to weight in vacuum.
One of the primary objects of these experiments was to deter-
mine the variation in the density of old and new ice in case any such
difference existed, and with this end in view, the specimens exper-
imented upon were cut from blocks of ice taken from the St.
Lawrence River during the winters of 799, 00, and *01, and kindly
supplied to us by Mr. Becket, from the warehouses of the City Ice
Company. However, no systematic difference was noticed in these
three kinds of ice, and it is safe to assume that for ice similar in
formation We p-2, Z IL, Fo etc., bear similar interpretations ; then
re en BGP ol CODEN SE oes (iI).
The third is
(a,ta,+.. 112) me (a +a, +... + de) + 2(a,ta,.+a 2)
RE) EEE SO (DEN) de Monet's (ID).
It will be seen that theorems II and III are particular cases of theo-
rem I,
For values of p 5 n the right-hand sides of these equations are no
longer zero, and the principal object of this paper is to furnish their
values under these conditions, ¢.e., to obtain general theorems true for all
values of p.
1 Messenger of Mathematics, New Series, No. 153, 1884.
158 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
2. Let
Gi TOR RE D ea, + Oye ao ee
DE PDPERIE SL mi he FA GER on A Oop ris ie le
D
n, p
Oe. ei M sXe) Ber eee ete sen Sete ye) aoe) n'es se fe, © «ec ea 'e) eae) ee mientems
Any + LEE 3 Pm >: . Ban + Onn» + °F Pan
let A = | ns B= We aes P = | prol,
yn
and let 4 a, Le cy -.+.p_ denote the determinant formed from 4, as
follows: The first a columns are taken from À, the next # columns are
taken from B, the next y columns are taken from C, and so on; the last
az columns being taken from P, with the proviso that no two columns
thus taken have the same column number, £.e., come from corresponding
positions, and where a+ 6+ y+....2 =n; then, as is well known,
eee et es Pe (A)
The generalization of Muir’s theorem I is as follows :
Dy ae REED tee s - ne De )
ee El SOA Was rat Maly: ARRET er NAN TT (B)
wheren-pSasSfPsy5....5 050,
and where, since the subscripis of a,b... . p are by definition essentially
positive, we are to interpret 4 a, 8 +++ pas zero in case of a nega-
n, p-2
tive subscript which occurs when p > n.
To prove this theorem we have but to partition all the determinants
in (B) with polynomial elements into determinants with monomial
elements according to (A), and then it may be seen that the complete
coefficient of any one of these determinants with monomial elements is
zero.
As illustrations we have for p = 3 and n = 3
An = Oy = Cy Aya + Oy + Cy ys + Vis + Cis |
dy, + ba, = Ca An + Oo + Co Us + Do, + Cog
Ay, + ds + Co Age + O52 + Co sg À Deg = Css
a dy + bn Ay + by dis + by |
Fa | Ay, + dy, Ax + do An, + Vs |
Ay + by, As2 À Us A + Vs |
| ay, Ayo a1
a | du 922 Az
| 43, yo gg
[merzcer] DETERMINANTS WITH POLYNOMIAL ELEMENTS 159
for p = 2 and n = 3
ay + Oy Ay + by» Az + Vus Ay dy Ars | by Oy Os
Ae, + da A + Do» As + Bog} — | Ax, G22 A5| — | by De Doe
as, + Va Ag, + Doo Ag, + Ogg dy dy Asg a Vg by
|
Ay, A, Oy Ay Oy ay bi Ay, dy
— Pa heater Oa | o> || Gay boy Go| > | Oa Gz A»
| |
As, Az Ogg As, Vs y by y gg |
| nl
Ay Op Vis | by A. Ors bi Py Gs |
+ lan Ox ag | + | by a» dm | Bay Onn ag
As, Os by | Ds, y Ogg by ge sg
3. If we make all the terms vanish in all the elements of 4 except
those in the principal diagonal, it reduces to the product of n polynomials,
and if {7 ay bg Pr denote the product of a a’s, 8 b’s, y c's... 7 p's,
then theorem (B) becomes
Te ee ae ch Ce
Se el tate pe ee (C)
When p>n ee ty Oa Pe si NOT C
have Muir’s theorem II.
4, If further we make all the polynomials in IF, identical, there
results the relation
@+at....+ay-Z@+a+....+a, +...
+ (AP? ZE (a, + a)" + (CD Say
SRE et on A el Cut à EE yi aac
à (D)
When p > n the right-hand side vanishes and we have Muir's theo-
rem ITI.
5. US ia ated ate = 1 we have from (D)
pp (pty REED (pay... CD » + ip
.
2!
= i ha Nr Le) Cr en) HAE (a)
on Se Œ)
The value of this series on the left of (E) has been given in deter-
minant form by Dr. E. D. Roe.!
1 Annals of Mathematics, Vol. II., No. 6, p. 191.
160 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
6. Ifp = n, the right hand-side of (B) is
Zan DER pe
the right-hand side of (C) is
ZT NON D:
and the right-hand side of (E) is
n !
If 6 is an imaginary nth root of unity, and
IL, = (a, + 4,0 +a, ... + a, 0) (a, 0 +07... + 431 07 + Gy)
(4,0) +a, +a,0+....+ a, 0")
then (C) takes the form
(a + 0a, +... 4 04} — 2 (a, + Oa, +... . Pas)? +
PO 2 Gee vay C1 2 ae
SSE Ad e s-- «bn (F)
If, in addition, a, =a, =....= a, = 1; then (F) becomes
a= a eee ee (et dO... t= OO) eri
(ai? Sh Oy Glyn nt (@)
But since
SS ep Sh EVE) ER ue LR AT 2) _yn—ly"
= (1) (1 6 a ea)
We have from (G)
forn=2s+1
aye Ao eae UNE. cs 1)2s + l,ç1ÿ +223
(DE 6 Be a ay? slo Saone) ae
28
+(-1°°2(2s+1) =(28s+1)! (G’)
forn=2s8
(ly 2 Gee pee eee ne HET +los pe gs-2)2s
+ “25047? +c? 225-251 GC
SecrTioN III., 1902 Piety TRANS. R.. EXC
XX.—On the Potential Difference required to produce Electric
Discharge in Gases at low pressures—An Extension of
Paschen’s Law.
By W. R. Carr, B.A.
(Communicated by President Loudon.)
(Read May 27, 1902.)
J. INTRODUCTION.
The researches of recent years have conclusively settled the
general connection between the spark potential and the pres-
sure of a gas. It is now well known that as the pressure of
a gas diminishes the difference of potential necessary to produce
a discharge between electrodes in the gas, a fixed distance apart, also
diminishes until at a critical pressure the spark potential reaches a
minimum value. It is further established that below the critical
pressure the potential difference required to produce discharge rapidly
increases as the pressure is lowered.
This connection between the spark potential and the correspond-
ing pressure of a gas has been well illustrated in a series of curves
drawn by Peace! who investigated the sparking potentials between
a pair of parallel plates at pressures ranging from one-half an atmo-
sphere down to a little below the critical pressure.
Among others, Strutt ? and Bouty * have carried on the investiga-
tion at pressures considerably below the critical point and the results
show that, once the critical pressure has been passed, the rise in
potential difference necessary to produce discharge is exceedingly
rapid.
The effect of varying the distance between the electrodes was
first determined by Paschen,* who observed the existence of a simple
law connecting the pressure at which discharge took ‘place with the
corresponding spark potential and the distance between the electrodes.
Paschen’s results showed that when a given potential difference
was applied to two spherical electrodes whose distance apart could
be varied, the maximum pressure at which discharge occurred varied
inversely with the distance between the spheres.
1 Peace, Proc. Roy. Soc., Vol. 52, p. 99.
2 Strutt, Se hilsirans MOI 1935 sp. S77.
* Bouty, Comp. Rend., Vol. 131 (2), p. 443.
“ Paschen, Ann. d. Phys., Vol. 87, p. 69.
162 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
The range of pressures over which he found the law to apply,
while considerable, did not extend below 2 cm. of mercury, and his
results do not in any case indicate that the critical pressure had been
reached. It is evident then that Paschen’s conclusions are confined
to pressures higher than the critical pressures.
Since the statement of this law by Paschen, Peace* alone seems
to have published results which could throw any additional light on the
conditions holding for discharge in a gas at very low pressures. Peace
experimented in air, with parallel plates as electrodes, at various
distances apart and found that the value of the critical pressure
increased greatly as the distance between the electrodes was lessened,
but his results at points below the critical pressure give no evidence
of the existence of any such law as had been enunciated by Paschen.
This can be readily seen from the numbers recorded in his paper,
a few of which, selected from readings taken below the critical pres-
sure, are given in the following table. These results admit of easy
comparison since the potential difference in the cases chosen are very
nearly the same. The product of pressure and spark length should
be a constant quantity, if Paschen’s law held.
TABLE OF PEACES RESULTS.
Applied potential | Pressure in mm. | Distance between | Product of pressure
difference in volts. of mercury. electrodes in inches.| and spark length.
649 2°5 ‘082 °205
660 6 “005 ‘030
670 5 “O21 “105
731 25 030 075
If we compare the first and second of these results where the
difference in spark potential is only 11 volts, we find the product in
the first case nearly seven times that in the second. Again, the
product corresponding to the spark potential, 660 volts, is less than
one-third that corresponding to 670 volts, a large difference in the
opposite direction. The same irregularity is exhibited by the product
corresponding to the spark potential, 731 volts, and it seems difficult
to understand how experimental errors could be made to explain such
a wide divergence of results.
At the critical pressure Peace’s results point to the existence of
the law, but, as stated above, it would appear that as soon as lower
pressures were approached the indications were uniformly against
1 Peace, Proc. Roy. Soc., Vol. 52, p. 99.
[CARR] AN EXTENSION OF PASCHEN’S LAW 163
the existence of the relation which Paschen found to hold at high
pressures.
Owing to the special precautions taken by Peace to obtain accu-
rate values for the spark potentials, it is possible to arrive at but one
of two conclusions regarding the departure from Paschen’s law indi-
cated by Peace’s numbers. Judging by the results, either the law
ceases to hold when the critical pressure is passed or else the appa-
ratus used by him in his experiments did not admit of an accurate
measurement of the actual spark lengths corresponding to different
spark potentials.
A short discussion of the apparatus will reveal one considerable
defect. ‘The object of the investigations of both Paschen and Peace
was to determine the electromotive intensity requisite to cause dis-
charge in a gas. Throughout the range of pressures investigated by
Paschen the discharge always took place along the shortest distance
ketween the spherical electrodes, and the electromotive intensity
requisite to break down the gas was, therefore, directly proportional
to the spark potentials obtained by him. At points below the crit-
ical pressure, as Peace’s results indicate, discharge occurs more easily
over a longer distance than over a shorter one, and if the values of
the electromotive intensities necessary to break down a gas at differ-
ent pressures are to be compared, it is necessary to know in each case
not only the potential difference applied to the electrodes, but also
the path between the electrodes along which the initial discharge
occurs.
To insure passage of the discharge over the same length of path
Peace used plane parallel plates of very large diameter as electrodes;
but while in this way he obtained a uniform field of considerable
extent, and so was able to obtain an accurate measure of the electro-
motive intensity between the electrodes, he failed to make certain
that the path along which the gas initially broke down was always
confined to the uniform part of the field. As mentioned in his paper,
there was considerable tendency at low pressures to a brush discharge
from the edges of the plates and this indicated a defect in his appa-
ratus which apparently he did not completely eliminate.
In the present paper an account is given of an investigation on
the potentials necessary to produce discharge in a gas, with a form of
apparatus which insured the passage of the discharge in a uniform
electric field.
With this apparatus the discharge potentials have been deter-
mined for different distances between the electrodes over a range
extending considerably above and below the critical pressure. The
results of the investigation not only confirm the truth of the law
164 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
enunciated by Paschen for discharges at high pressures, but also demon-
strate beyond doubt the applicability of the same law to the critical
pressure and to all pressures below it.
The existence of the same relation has been sought in each of
the gases, air, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide, and the result of the
investigation has been the establishment with equal certainty of the
same general law for all pressures, viz., that with a given potential
difference, the field being uniform, the product of the pressure at
which discharge occurs, and the distance between the electrodes, is
constant.
II. DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS.
The form of the discharge chamber is shown in Fig. I.
The electrodes consisted of two plane brass plates a, a, 3-6 em.
in diameter, embedded in ebonite as shown in the figure, the outer
D Llechomek ToBattery
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>
faces of the electrodes being flush with the surface of the ebonite.
These pieces of ebonite which carried the electrodes served also to
close the glass tube 7’, 7’, which thus constituted a discharge chamber.
In order to confine the gas in this chamber to the region where the
electric field was uniform, a ring of ebonite C, C, which projected over
the edges of the brass plates, was inserted. In the construction of
the apparatus special precautions were taken to insure that the plugs
B, B, pressed tightly against the ebonite ring. As a result of this
device, that portion of the electric field which was not uniform was
[CARR] AN EXTENSION OF PASCHEN’S LAW 165
entirely confined to the space occupied by ebonite, so that in this
way it was rendered impossible for a discharge to occur through the
gas in any but a uniform field. The thickness of the ebonite ring,
which could be made accurate to 4/;9), mm., determined the distance
between the electrodes and consequently the length of the discharge.
The length of the discharge could be varied at will, therefore, by
inserting rings of different thicknesses.
The gas was admitted and removed from the chamber by glass
tubes sealed into the ebonite plugs, and these tubes were connected
with the air space by two very fine channels leading through the
ebonite ring.
Before closing the discharge tube, which was made air-tight with
ordinary commercial soft wax, the inner surface of the ebonite ring
was carefully rubbed with glass paper to remove any conducting
material from its surface.
The potential differences used in these experiments were obtained
from a series of small storage cells, similar to those used in the
Reichsanstalt, Berlin. As these cells have a large capacity their
voltage remained constant over long intervals of time, and as a con-
sequence it was possible to make the readings with the greatest accu-
racy. The potential differences were measured by a Weston voltmeter
which was carefully calibrated by means of a potentiometer furnished
with a standard Weston cadmium element.
Throughout the investigation the discharge chamber was con-
nected in series with a drying tube containing phosphoric pentoxide,
a glass reservoir about two litres in volume, a McLeod pressure gauge
giving readings accurate to */1 9), of a mm., and a mercury pump of
small capacity. By using this reservoir and the pump of small capa-
city it was possible to diminish the pressure in the discharge tube
by such exceedingly small amounts that it was easy to obtain a series
of discharge potentials over the whole range of pressures investigated
without the necessity of admitting fresh gas to the chamber.
In making measurements one terminal of the battery was joined
to earth and the other terminal was connected through a resistance
of xylol to one of the electrodes of the discharge tube. The other
electrode was permanently joined to one pair of quadrants of a quad-
rant electrometer, the second pair of which was kept to earth. In
determining the potential difference necessary to produce discharge
at a given pressure, the electrometer electrode was first earthed, a
given potential applied to the battery electrode and the earth connec-
tion of the electrometer electrode then removed.
If, after waiting some minutes, no discharge passed, the operation
was repeated with a slightly higher potential applied to the battery
166 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
electrode. This procedure was followed until a potential sufficiently
high was reached to break down the gas and cause a discharge. The
passage of the discharge could be readily noted as it was accompanied
by a violent deflection of the electrometer needle.
The well known phenomenon of delay in the passing of the
discharge, which has been investigated at length by Warburg,’ was
observed throughout the experiments. It was especially marked in
FIG. /l@)
/800
|
1600 Re a
S
S
TE
=
:
8
|
\
À
Polertial Difterence in lols
eat
À
À
ia
|
3
200
2
/ 15
6 9
Pressure in Millimelres
the neighbourhood of the critical pressure, discharges being frequently
obtained ten or even fifteen minutes after the requisite voltage had
been applied.
In every case, therefore, as the minimum sparking potential for
any pressure was approached, a considerable time was allowed to
elapse, with a given applied potential difference, before any increase ©
was made.
III. EXPERIMENTS IN AIR.
In the experiments on atmospheric air the whole discharge
apparatus was first exhausted to a very low pressure and then refilled
by fresh air, which bubbled in very slowly, first through a wash-bottle
of sulphuric acid and then through a tube tightly packed with phos-
1 Warburg, Ann. d. Phys., Vol. 62, p. 385.
[carr] AN EXTENSION OF PASCHEN’S LAW 167
phoric pentoxide. The discharge chamber was then exhausted to
about 20 mm. of mercury and allowed to stand at this pressure for a
period of from eight to twelve hours.
During this time the air was always in contact with phosphoric
pentoxide in the drying tube, and was, therefore, entirely free from
moisture when the measurements were taken.
The first measurements were made with the electrodes 3 mm.
apart, and the spark potentials were determined over a range of
pressures extending from 51 mm. down to :35 mm. of mercury. The
Fig. ~ Arr
C
FPofen/iol Life E72? LOS
2 5} FA
Fressure in Millimelres Of ME CULy
spark potentials corresponding to the various pressures are recorded
in columns 5 and G of Table I., and the results are represented graph-
ically in Fig. IL, a.
In making these determinations the precaution was always taken
of allowing eight or ten minutes to intervene between consecutive
readings in order to make certain that the air was in its normal con-
dition when the discharge occurred. As can be seen from the figure
the curve is quite regular and exhibits all the peculiarities already
noted by Peace,’ Strutt,? and Bouty®. The curve, however, is carried
much higher than those drawn by any of these experimenters, dis-
charges corresponding to potential differences of over eighteen hun-
dred volts being recorded.
1 Peace, Roy. Soc. Proc., Vol. 52, p. 111.
3 Strutt, Phil. Trans., Vol. 193, p. 384.
5 Bouty, Comp. Rend., Vol. 131 (2), p. 446.
OCIETY OF CANADA
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[CARR] AN EXTENSION OF PASCHEN’S LAW 169
The distance between the electrodes was then varied and five
different sets of readings were taken in air with the electrodes 1, 2,
3, 5, and 10 mm. apart, respectively. The complete set of numbers
for these different spark lengths is given in Table I., and curves
showing the readings taken over that portion of the range of pressure
below 5 mm. of mercury are exhibited in Fig. IT.
It is apparent from the relative positions of these curves in the
figure, that at points at and below the critical pressures, with a given
potential difference applied to the electrodes, the pressures at which
discharges occurred regularly decreased as the distance between the
electrodes was increased. But a critical examination of the curves
and also a reference to the numbers which they represent show that
Paschen’s law is rigidly applicable over the whole series of discharge
potentials recorded.
For example, the pressures at which discharge took place with
an applied potential of 1800 volts were, for the different distances
between the electrodes, approximately :—
Distance between electrodes Discharge pressures in
in mm. mm. of mercury.
1 1°05
2 536
3 351
5 216
10 ‘105
and it will be seen that the numbers in column ? are almost exactly
in inverse proportion to the numbers in column 1.
Again, with an applied potential of 500 volts (say), the approxim-
ate pressures at which discharge occurred were :—
Distance between the electrodes Discharge potential in
in mm. mm. of mercury.
i 2°35
2 1°30
3 ‘804
5 ‘517
10 *259
seca lite, 002
170 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
where the pressures are in the ratio 1:00: -55: -34: -22: -11, numbers
which are again very nearly inversely proportional to the distance
between the electrodes.
Further, we notice that the spark potential corresponding to the
critical pressure in all cases was practically the-same, 350 volts, and
the values of the critical pressures for the different spark lengths
were, from Table L.:—
Distance between electrodes Discharge pressures in
in mm. mm. of mercury.
1 4°98
2 2°71
3 1°89
‘5 1°34
10 “679
and ‘these numbers while not exactly in the ratio 10: 5: 3: 2: 1, are
still very close to it.
In finding the values for portions of the curves around the critical
pressures the results given in Table I. show that a small variation in
potential difference was associated with a relatively very large change
in the pressures, so that a very small error in reading the potential
difference would result in a large error in the pressure readings. It
is interesting to note, however, that even under these unfavourable
conditions a striking agreement is presented between the results
obtained at critical pressures and the results demanded by Paschen’s
law.
In order to make the agreement between the numbers demanded
by Paschen’s law and those obtained in these experiments still more
evident, the results recorded in Table I. are again given in a slightly
different form in Table II, where each potential difference is asso-
ciated with the product of the pressure at which discharge took place
and the corresponding spark length. Paschen? found that at high
pressures these products were constant for different distances between
the electrodes, as long as the applied potential difference was the
same.
The numbers recorded in Table II. show that the same law is
rigidly applicable to all pressures both high and low.
1 Paschen, Ann. d. Phys., Vol. 37, p. 69.
171
AN EXTENSION OF PASCHEN’S LAW
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172 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
A like conclusion must be drawn from the curve shown in Fig.
IT, which graphically represents the numbers in Table II. In plot-
ting this curve the products of spark lengths and discharge pressures
were taken as abscisse and the sparking potentials as ordinates. The
regularity of the curve which represents the products for the five
FID. I-Air
FPofen/ie/ Difference in ho/fs
Fo Char Dire Poe orsionce tone Lecrocks
different electrode distances shows clearly that there can be no doubt
regarding the applicability of Paschen’s law to electric discharges in
air at pressures at and below the critical point as well as to pressures
above it.
IV. EXPERIMENTS IN HYDROGEN.
In order to demonstrate, if possible, the generality of the law
which has just been proven to hold for discharges in air, a series of
measurements were made on the spark potentials in the gases hydrogen
and carbon dioxide.
In these experiments exactly the same apparatus was used as in
the previous experiments in air.
Preparatory to making the measurements in hydrogen the appara-
tus was first exhausted of air to a pressure of 1 mm. of mercury or less,
and then filled with hydrogen to atmospheric pressure. It was then
exhausted and refilled with hydrogen several times to make certain
that all air was removed.
[carr] AN EXTENSION OF PASCHEN’S LAW 173
The hydrogen was prepared from zinc and sulphuric acid in a
Kipp apparatus, and, in order to insure purity and freedom from
moisture, was passed through wash-bottles containing potassium per-
manganate and caustic potash and through a tube tightly packed with
phosphoric pentoxide, before being led into the discharge chamber.
Also, just as in the experiments in air, the gas was always allowed
to stand for several hours at a pressure of about 20 mm. of mercury
in the presence of phosphoric pentoxide, before any readings were
recorded.
Fi = /V- #4 yaroge/
Hi
DA |
Cae ee
QU Ca ae ae
Polen/ial Difference /Wol/s
© Race à
2 Oe a
In the experiments with this gas readings were taken for the same
electrode distances, 1, 2,3, 5, and 10 mm., and the values of the spark
potentials and their corresponding pressures are given in Table III.
These numbers are also graphically set forth in Fig. IV.
We see from this table that the readings corresponding to the
spark potential 1800 volts are:—
Pessina 7 Miineres
Distance between electrodes ° Discharge pressure in
in mm. mm. of mercury.
1 2°60
2 1°33
3 861
5 “516
10 ‘264
which pressures are in the ratio 9-9: 5-0: 3-2: 1-9: 1.
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
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‘NHOOHAZXH ‘III H'IAVIL
175
AN EXTENSION OF PASCHEN’S LAW
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178 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
distances, 1, 2, 3, 5, and 10 mm. The carbon dioxide was prepared
by treating marble with hydrochloric acid and was purified and dried
by being bubbled through a wash-bottle of water and passed through
a tube tightly packed with phosphoric pentoxide before reaching the
discharge apparatus. In each case the operation of exhausting the
whole discharge apparatus to 1 mm. or less, of mercury, and then
refilling with carbon dioxide, was repeated five or six times, and finally
the gas was allowed to stand, as in both previous cases, in the presence
of a bulb of phosphorus pentoxide for several hours.
The complete set of results is given in Table V. and the corres-
ponding curves set forth in Fig. VI., and if we again compare the
discharge pressures and spark lengths corresponding to any value of
the applied potential, the same law is seen to hold here also with even
greater rigidity than in the other cases.
For 1800 volts the figures are approximately: —
Distance between electrodes Discharge pressures in
in mm. mm. of mercury.
1 | *817
2 421
3 ‘274
5 ‘164
10 "0892
where the pressures are almost in the required ratio, being 9-2: 4:8:
DUO
For 500 volts the numbers are :—
Distance between electrodes Discharge pressures in
in mm. mm. of mercury.
2°34
2 1°23
3 ‘84
5 7
10 "28
where the pressures are as 8-4: 4:4: 3: 2:1.
[cARR] AN EXTENSION OF PASCHEN’S LAW 179
And at the minimum discharge potentials which are again con-
stant, 420 volts, the readings given are:—
Distance between electrodes Discharge pressures in
in mm. mm. of mercury,
1 5°02
2 2°52
3 1°63
5 1°07
10 510
Special attention is directed to these latter results, inasmuch as
the exactness of the ratio indicated by the pressures is very remarkable
The ratios of the pressures are practically 10: 5: 3-1: 2: 1, the nearest
approximation to the numbers demanded by Paschen’s law which has
been shown by any of the comparisons, and this result is all the more
convincing in that these figures were obtained at the critical points
where in the other two gases the results obtained indicated the law
in a somewhat less marked degree.
Fig. Vi Carbon DIOx/de
+ |d= |/m
x fat 2m
/0 M,
6 4
Beewer Ox De ana Dies ce pes Zec/Foaes
Though it would appear that further evidence was unnecessary,
the table of products was again calculated and is given in Table VI.
Also the corresponding curve is shown in Fig. VII.
. Once more the regularity of the curve shows that as in air and
hydrogen so in carbon dioxide Paschen’s law is rigidly applicable to
all spark potentials both above and below the critical pressure.
HE
nr
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iE
xO
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180 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
VI. Spark POTENTIALS WITH DIFFERENT ELECTRODES.
It has now been shown, using brass electrodes of constant size,
that for discharges in a uniform field in any gas, the values of the
spark potentials are determined solely by the product of the pressure
of the gas and the distance between the electrodes. From this result
it appeared that if the size or material of the electrodes did not affect
the results, the spark potentials were dependent only upon the quan-
tity of the gas per unit cross section between the electrodes.
In order to determine this point the brass electrodes which had
been used up to this time were replaced in turn by electrodes of iron,
zinc and aluminium of exactly the same size. The results of the
experiments showed that there was no variation in the different sets
of readings and it was evident that there was not the slightest effect
produced in any case by a change in the material of which the elec-
trodes were made.
In order to see if the size of the electrodes affected the values
of the spark potentials for the different pressures, provided the dis-
charge took place in a uniform field, a reduction was made in the
surface of the electrodes exposed to the gas. This was done by
replacing the ebonite rings C, C, Fig. I., which had an inner diam-
eter of 3 cm., by others whose inner diameter was but 1 cm. By
this device the areas of the electrodes exposed to the gas were reduced
to about */,, of their value in the early experiments, and the condition
that the discharge could only take place in a uniform field still held.
Using this apparatus, with air, no difference could be observed in the
values of the discharge potentials corresponding to the different pres-
sures, and it was therefore certain that the value of the spark potential
was in no way influenced by the size of the electrodes.
It is therefore clearly established that the only factors that affect
the spark potentials are pressure and the distance between the elec-
trodes, and hence Paschen’s law is most accurately expressed by
saying: “ That, with a given applied potential difference, discharge in
a uniform field, in any gas, at pressures ‘both above and below the
critical pressures, is dependent solely on the constancy of the quan-
tity of matter per unit cross section between the electrodes.”
Every assistance towards the carrying of my research to a success-
ful issue has been given me throughout by President Loudon, and I
gratefully accept this opportunity of thanking him. I also wish to re-
cord my appreciation of the many kind suggestions of Professor J. C.
McLennan, in whose laboratory the experiments were performed and
to whom I owe much for their success.
181
AN EXTENSION OF PASCHEN’S LAW
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ROME SOCINTY OF CANADA
ANS A CEIONS
SECTION Tv.
GEOLOGICAL AND BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
PAPERS. FOR 1902
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SEcrion IV., 1902 [3] Trans. R. S. C.
I.—Osmundites skidegatensis, n. sp.
By D. P. PENHALLOW.
(Read Me. 27, 1902.)
(By permission of the Acting Director of the Geological Survey.)
PLATES I-VI.
The material upon which the following studies are based, was
received from the Director of the Geological Survey of Canada early in
the present year.t It was found to consist of several fragments of what
appeared to be stems, and a number of fragments of leaves. In trans-
mitting these specimens to me, the observation was made that the stems
were believed to represent some form of Cycadaceous plant. They were
all obtained from Alliford Bay, Skidegate Inlet, Queen Charlotte
Islands, by Dr. C. F. Newcombe, of Victoria, B.C., in 1897. In two
instances they gave evidence of having been exposed for some time to
the action of salt water, by reason of barnacles attached to their sur-
faces. Dr. G. M. Dawson informs me that the age of the deposit to
which these fossils belong is undoubtedly Lower Cretaceous, and a full
account of the formation may be found in his report upon the Geology
of the Queen Charlotte Islands for 1878-1879."
Macroscopic CHARACTERS.
The material of most definite value consists of fourteen fragments
of stems, all of which are highly calcified. When small fragments were
treated with hydrochloric acid, they were found to undergo rapid solu-
tion with violent effervescence, leaving a residuum of rather large
volume and composed of black, angular fragments like chips of lignite.
These were found to be very brittle, and although soft, were quickly
broken up when probed with a needle. When this residue was ignited
in an open crucible, it oxidized rapidly, but without much apparent
diminution in volume, to a gray ash which gave no further solution
with hydrochloric acid. . A quantitative estimation of the proximate
constituents of the fossil gave the following results :—
Soluble in hydrochloric acid .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 70°49
Combustiblepmatveuae wich ELEMENT NA PA EL TES 6
LHSOlUDICARCSIGIICH Ee bose ciel cee ce RE 2 EE
100°00
1 Dr. G. M. Dawson, 1898.
2 Report of Progress, Geol. Surv. of Canada, 1878-1879, 29, 63-77B.
4 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
These results are of interest as showing the relatively small extent
to which silica enters into the process of fossilization in this case, and
the large amount of organic residue retained by the body of the calcified
mass.
The several fragments of stems vary in diameter from 2 to 4
cm.—differences which may be ascribed in part to varying age, and in
part, also, to the removal of more readily separable external parts in
some cases and their retention in others. The length was found to vary
from one or two centimetres to upwards of 9°5 em. Upon careful exam-
ination, this variation was found to result from the development of fre-
quent transverse cleavage planes, proceeding from crystallization of the
carbonate of lime, and several of these fragments were clearly parts of
one stem in their original condition. The evidence in this direction
seemed to point to the conclusion that even the largest specimen was
only a fragment or small part of the original stem, a conclusion more
fully sustained by subsequent study of the internal structure, and com-
parison with stems of existing species of the same type.
Although presenting certain individual differences of minor impor-
tance, all of the specimens agree in their principal characteristics with
respect to :—
(1) General form and structure.
(2) The development of numerous transverse cleavage planes.
(3) The prevailing colour.
(4) The appearance of strongly defined surface grooves and ridges
parallel to the principal axis.
(5) The very unequal distribution of these ridges on opposite sides.
(6) The presence of emergent organs.
A detailed consideration of these features will serve to more clearly
define the character of the plant.
The dominant colour is grayish black. Closer inspection, never-
theless, shows that the surface ridges are frequently of a dull red colour,
while the intermediate areas are a dull black. The polished transverse
section is coal black, while the cut and unpolished surface is of a slaty
black colour.
Local crystallization of the calcite has resulted in the formation of
numerous transverse cleavage planes, varying very greatly in thickness
and in extent of separation. The more prominent of these occur at
intervals of 10-12 mm., and they are often only 0-5 mm. in thickness.
Through them the original stem has been broken up into shorter frag-
ments, in consequence of which it is in some cases impossible to deter-
mine the proper external aspect and dimensions from a single specimen.
The less prominent of the cleavage planes occur at variable and fre-
quent intervals, and they cause a breaking off of external parts in sucha
[PENHALLOW] OSMUNDITES SKIDEGATENSIS 5
way as to give a columnar or basaltic aspect to the specimens (Plate L.,
fig. 1), while they also contribute to a very ready and often extended
removal of external parts whereby, under the influence of even slight
mechanical effects, the size of the specimen may be readily reduced.
It is, therefore, possible to account for the differences in diameter pre-
sented by some of the specimens, more particularly when it is recalled
that some of the smallest had undoubtedly been exposed for some time
to the action of salt water, as shown by the presence of barnacles.
In nearly all the specimens, the stem enlarges gradually upward.
As shown in the photograph (Plate I., fig. 1), a stem having a total
length of 9°5 em. is 2°5 cm. broad at the base and 3°5 cm. broad at the
upper end. In two specimens no such variation was observed, from
which the conclusion was drawn that the tapering specimens represent
the basal portions of stems, while the latter were derived from a higher
position where the diameter was more uniform. This is in harmony
with the view already stated, that the specimens as now found belonged
to stems of far greater length than any of the single fragments. These
views are also sustained by evidence derived from comparison with the
rhizomes of related existing species.
In nearly all the specimens the surface is made up of a series of
longitudinal grooves and ridges, with no evidence of cortication; but in
two cases there were found prominent areas of glistening, coaly matter
suggestive of the former presence of a structure allied to a cortex. A
brief examination, however, was sufficient to disclose the fact that the
coaly matter had been derived from structures similar to those consti-
tuting the surface ridges, and this conclusion, taken in connection with
evidence derived from comparison with existing species, led to the final
conclusion that no real cortex could have been present in the original
plant, and that the coaly matter represents the decayed bases of the
outermost portions of the stipes.
The longitudinal ridges to which reference has already been made,
and which have been described as of a dull red colour, are often several
centimetres long. They are normally flattened radially into a some-
what broadly lenticular transverse section, and are generally about 5 mm.
broad (Plate I., fig. 1) and fig. 1. Where most numerous, they are
separated by very slight intervals in such a way as to suggest over-
lapping in the original plant. It is, moreover, seen that they arise at
different levels on the central axis, and in such a way that the newer
ones are continually overlapped by the older, thus bringing about the
upward enlargement already noted. (Plate I., fig. 1.) It is also
observed that these ridges vary in size and number on opposite sides
of the stem. Thus on one side, as shown in Plate I., fig. 1, they are
6 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
large and numerous, while on the opposite side they are conspicuously
smaller, being reduced to 3 mm., and less numerous. Among the latter
may be noted numerous small, oval processes upwards of 1°5 X 2°5
mm., representing emergent organs which have been cut off abruptly
near the surface. That these processes represent emergent roots, and
the longitudinal ridges represent the persistent bases of stipes which
had become more or less closely knit together into an outer layer,
seemed altogether probable, and this view was later confirmed not only
by an examination of the internal structure, but by comparison with
existing species in which precisely the same general appearances and
relations of parts are to be met with. Attention being directed some-
what more critically to the relations between the stele and the stipes,
it was found (Plate I., fig. 1) that the latter are given off at an angle
of about (10°) ten degrees. This is in all probability somewhat too
FIG. 1.—OSMUNDITES SKIDEGATENSIS. X !/;
low a value, in consequence of the compression to which the specimens
must have been subjected before complete mineralization, and yet,
from determinations in Osmunda regalis and O. cinnamomea, it is to
be regarded as not very much below the actual divergence.
The larger end of one of the most characteristic specimens was
carefully cut and polished, when it was found that four separate regions
of structure could be distinguished, (fig. 1). These consist of (1)
a central pith, (2) a vascular cylinder or stele, (3) a zone but slightly
carbonized and containing a few leaf traces, and (4) portions of a zone
composed of highly carbonized structure and penetrated by many leaf
traces.
MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE.
The succession of parts noted above was obtained from the polished
end of one of the stems. This was found necessary in consequence of
the fact that in reducing slices to a condition of transparency, it was
impossible to avoid the loss of external parts, so that of the four regions
noted, only three appear in the microscopic preparation with any
[PENHALLOW] OSMUNDITES SKIDEGATENSIS Ti
approach to completeness, the fourth and most external being repre-
sented by a small fragment only. (Plate I. fig. 2.)
The Pith.—The pith is prominent and 13 mm. broad in its greatest
diameter. It consists of rather large, parenchyma cells in which local-
ized groups often show a tendency to greater thickening of the walls.
These groups of sclerenchyma are dark in colour, but devoid of starch.
There is a general absence of starch in the medulla proper, except in the
region bordering upon the stele and in certain radial extensions which
lie between the folds of the horseshoe-shaped xylem bundles. These pro-
iections, when narrow, are composed of thin-walled parenchyma cells
which show remnants of nuclei, but they are devoid of starch. When
broad, they commonly enlarge toward the free end. (Plate IT. fig. 3.)
The border cells are then seen to be thin walled, usually with nuclei,
and devoid of starch; but the cells of the central region are con-
spicuously thicker walled and filled with large starch grains which are
more or less completely carbonized, and thus impart to such structures a
very dark appearance which is most conspicuous. (Plate IT. fig. 3.)
The Medullary Rays—The medullary rays are very variable in
width. In the narrower ones, the structure has been pretty completely
obliterated. In the broader rays, the cells bordering upon the xylem
are thin walled and contain nuclei, but they show no evidence of starch.
The central region of such rays consists of rather thick-walled cells
filled with starch. Outwardly the rays spread out laterally along the
face of each of the xylem bundles (Plate IT. fig. 4) in such a way as
to connect with the inner phloem between the xylem and the sieve cells.
The Stele.— The stele is conspicuous, and it is made up of about
twenty-six bundles of the collateral type. It has an external diameter
of 19 mm. and an average thickness of 3 mm.
The xylem bundles are conspicuous for their peculiarly curved or
horseshoe form (Plate II. fig. 3), a feature which at once suggests
comparison with Osmunda, in which similar bundles are a well-known
and characteristic feature. The xylem elements consist of broad
vessels of considerably greater diameter than in Osmunda Claytoniana
or O. cinnamomea, and they are more nearly comparable with those
of Todea barbara. The wall, at a point midway of its width, gen-
erally shows a constriction (Plate III., fig. 6) where the opposing
plates are joined laterally and vertically. Between this point and
the lateral limits of the wall, the two plates are split away so as to
leave a narrow slit-like opening in the median plane, such as may be
observed ‘in Osmunda and more conspicuously in Todea. In
longitudinal section the vessels are seen to be of the scalariform type
common in ferns (Plate III. fig. 5), and identical with those which
occur in Osmunda.
8 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Immediately external to the xylem, the phloem consists of several
rows of medium sized, thin-walled cells containing conspicuous nuclei,
but devoid of starch. In longitudinal section these cells are found to be
short cylindrical, and the nuclei become much more prominent. (Plate
IL, fig. 5.) This tissue is succeeded by a layer of large, rather thick-
walled sieve cells of very regular form, but variable in size and shape,
often exceeding the largest xylem element. (Plate II., fig. 4.)
Opposite the terminations of the rays, this zone broadens out radially
and projects into the ray like a blunt wedge, after the manner described
by De Bary for Osmunda.! (Plate IT. fig. 4, and Plate VI. fig. 11).
External to the sieve cells, the phloem again becomes very thin
walled, the cells contain prominent nuclei, are devoid of starch and are
radially narrow, being tangentially elongated (Plate IV., fig. 7) in a
manner quite similar to what occurs in Todea (Plate VI., fig. 12), and
much more so than in either of the Osmundas studied. (Plate VI,
fig. 11.)
The Endodermis.—The transition from the outer phloem to the sur-
rounding parenchyma zone, occurs without any abrupt transition other
than that which appears in the passage from radially narrower to radi-
ally broader cells. (Plate IV., fig. 7.) In other words, there is no
separate and well defined endodermal layer such as occurs in Osmunda
regalis and other ferns (Plate VI., fig. 11), but the transition is in all
respects comparable with that which may be observed in Todea barbara.
(Plate VI., fig. 12.)
Parenchyma zone or inner cortex.— Immediately external to the
stele is a zone about 3 mm. thick, and thus with an external diameter of
about 25 mm. (Plate I., fig. 2.) It probably represents a colourless
tissue, and consists of rather large, thin-walled elements (Plate IV.,
fig. 7), in many of which starch may be seen—quite enough to indicate
that the tissue as a whole was filled with this material as in Osmunda.
The starch appears in the form of large grains somewhat highly
carbonized, and in the figures (Plate II., fig. 3 and Plate IV., fig. 7) it
gives a dark colour to the individual cells. The tissue as a whole
presents but little alteration, and from the comparatively small amount
of carbon present, it was evidently a tissue presenting but little, if any,
modification in the original plant. An exactly similar and equivalent
zone is met with both in Todea and in the Osmundas (Plate VI, fig.
i1), and in the latter particularly the entire structure is filled with
starch.
This region is traversed by few leaf traces (Plate I., fig. 2), since
it is into this part of the stem that they are first given off from the
1 Comp. Anat. of Phan. & Ferns, 347.
[PENHALLOW] OSMUNDITES SKIDEGATENSIS 9
outer face of the stele with a divergence probably somewhat in excess
of 10°. They all have the form of a rather flat crescent (Plate IV.,
fig. 8), the parenchyma lying between the two arms being filled with
starch.
The second zone external to the stele consists of a very highly car-
bonized, dense and opaque mass through which the more transparent and
numerous leaf traces pass. (Plate I., fig. 1) and fig. 1. The material
of this zone is very readily removed by mechanical manipulation, and
Fic. 2.—OSMUNDA REGALIS. x 10.
even in the original specimens, only a comparatively small portion
remains, while in the sections prepared for the microscope, only small
fragments are preserved. (Plate I., fig. 2.) The highly carbonized
character of the structure indicates that the original tissue must have
been thick walled and of a modification containing a relatively high
percentage of carbon. It would, therefore, be comparable in this
respect, as well as in position, with the sclerenchymatized outer cortical
zone so well defined in Todea and Osmunda. (fig. 2.) No definite
10 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
limits can be assigned to the volume of this zone, but it is probable
that it must have been at least 1 em. thick. The numerous leaf traces
which traverse this region are now found to be much larger (fig. 1) than
in the preceding zone, and to be more highly organized, partaking more
of the character of the future stipes into which they lead than of
simple leaf traces.
Leaves.—Among the material submitted to me were fragments of
several leaves and a few casts of an uncertain character. Among them
all there were only two fragments which could, with any degree of cer-
tainty, be regarded as having connection with the stems. From their
general aspect it was assumed, provisionally, that they might represent
‘ai
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. 3.—OSMUNDITES SKIDEGATENSIS. X !/;
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r
the fronds of a fern of the type of Osmunda, in which case they must
be held to be fragments of pinnæ of a doubly pinnate frond comparable
with the fronds of Osmunda Claytoniana or O. cinnamomea. ‘The
largest and most perfectly preserved (figure 3) was found to be 8 cm.
long by 5:5 cm. wide at its greatest breadth. The pinnules are oblong,
slightly scythe shaped, obtuse, and with entire (?) margins; they are
8 mm. broad at the base and 2°5 cm. long, and there seems to be a
possibility that they were confluent at the base, as in Osmunda
Claytoniana. The whole specimen shows portions of fourteen pinnules
only, while the rachis has been completely obliterated. The dimen-
sions as given would show a rachis upwards of 5 mm. wide, which is
[PENHALLOW ] OSMUNDITES SKIDEGATENSIS 11
probably much in excess of the real breadth of the original structure.
This may possibly be explained by a separation of the pinnules under
the influence of decay and pressure, or it may represent the confluent
bases of the pinnules, which have disappeared. Unfortunately, the
alteration of structure in these fragments has been carried to an
extreme limit. Of the fourteen pinnules represented, three are mere
impressions faintly defined. The others are impressions together with
a very slight amount of carbonaceous matter, but in all cases all evi-
dence of venation has been completely obliterated. It is, therefore,
quite impossible to determine with any degree of accuracy what fern
these casts represent. Nevertheless, a close comparison serves to show
a certain resemblance to the fronds of Osmunda, and particularly to
those of O. Claytoniana. Unfortunately, no final conclusions can be
based upon these fragments of fronds, although there seems some
ground for the belief that they may represent the foliage of the stems
associated with them, and this may be adopted as a provisional view.
If this should eventually prove to be a correct interpretation of their
character, then they would prove that the fronds of the fossil were
fully twice as large as those belonging to the modern Osmunda
Claytoniana.
OSMUNDA.
The entire external aspect of the fossil stems served to suggest their
relation to the modern Osmundas, and upon close comparison with O.
regalis as the most readily available species, it was found that not only
in the various external characters, but also in the internal structure and
arrangement of parts, the characteristics already described for the fossil,
are very clearly duplicated. Upon subsequently looking up the litera-
ture of the subject, I was much interested to note that O. regalis was the
one species which had at various times been selected by previous investi-
gators as the basis of comparison.
For purposes of comparison, several characteristic rhizomes of O.
regalis were gathered. These were found to occupy a horizontal position
in growth, the upper extremity in the region of the terminal bud being
somewhat ascending, and the stipes all turned into a vertical position.
The rhizomes branch dichotomously, the whole spreading over an area of
considerable extent. Each branch at its base is of minimum size, enlarg-
ing upward until a certain length has been attained, when the diameter
becomes nearly uniform. Thus in one of the most characteristic of the
rhizomes (Plate V., fig. 9) the total length was 23 em., while the greatest
breadth was 5 cm., this diameter being reached from a narrow base
j 1 Carruthers, Quart. Jrnl. Geol. Soc., XXV., 349, 1870. Goeprert, Die, Foss.
Flora der perm. Form., XII., 1864-65,
12 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
enlarging upward. The stumps of the old stipes are seen to overlap
laterally to a limited extent, while the older overlie the more recently
formed in such a manner as to explain the upward enlargement. It
is also seen that the stipes arise chiefly from the under side of the
rhizome? (Plate V., fig. 9 shows this aspect), from which position
they turn upward. On the upper side of the rhizome the roots have a
diameter upwards of 1 X 2 mm., slightly smaller than in the fossil.
These organs are very numerous, and form an extensive mass
which serves to completely conceal the stumps of the stipes arising
from the same side of the rhizome. This distribution of roots and
leaves is exactly represented in the fossil, from which it is pos-
sible to determine the position of the latter in growth, and to distinguish
the superior from the inferior surface. The stipes are given off from the
under side of the principal axis at an angle of 15°, and from the upper
side at an angle of 28°. In O. cinnamomea, on the other hand, the
angle is much less—ten degrees—and the same for both sides. A further
examination of O. regalis shows that, taking the divergence of the stipes
from a median line drawn on the under surface of the rhizome, the aver-
age is 15°, which is just that obtained from the longitudinal section.
From this it may be inferred that the divergence of the stipes in the
fossil as measured on the surface, is the same as would appear in longi-
tudinal section, and therefore, the external angle of 10° as obtained is
the true angle of divergence from the central axis. This being admitted,
it then appears that in this respect, the fossil approaches O. cinnamomea
much more nearly than O. regalis.
A transverse sect:on of the rhizome (fig. 2) shows (1) a conspicu-
ous pith, (2) the stele, (3) a parenchymatous zone penetrated by few
leaf traces and corresponding to the third region in the fossil, (4) a broad
zone of sclerenchyma penetrated by many leaf traces, and represented
in the fossil by portions of a highly carbonized zone, (5) a region where
the stipes are loosely held together by soft tissue—a region not repre-
sented in fig. 2, but appearing in two of the fossil specimens in the
form of carbonized surface areas of limited extent.
The Pith.—The pith is about 1 mm. broad. This is approximately
the same as in O. cinnamomea (1°25 mm.), but only one-thirteenth the
diameter of the same structure in the fossil, from which inferences may
be drawn respecting the relative dimensions of these plants. The cells
are rather large and thin-walled, and are very commonly found to con-
tain an abundance of starch. Within limited areas, the cells are thick-
walled, thus forming groups of dark coloured sclerenchyma.
? The eccentricity of the central axis of Osmunda relative to the exter-
nal portions of the rhizome, has been incorrectly interpreted by Carruthers as
due to unequal wearing of the parts. (Quart..Jrnl. Geol. Soc., 1870, 349.)
[PENHALLOW] OSMUNDITES SKIDEGATENSIS 13
Radial extensions of the pith project into the stele between the arms
ot the curved xylem bundles. These consist of thin-walled elements with
prominent nuclei but no starch, all along the region of contact with the
xylem; but in the larger of these projections, which then enlarge to-
wards the free end, the central cells become thicker-walled and con-
tain an abundance of starch exactly as in the fossil.
The Medullary Rays.—The rays consist of thin-walled elements with
prominent nuclei but no starch, except where unusually broad. Then
the central cells become thick-walled and are filled with starch. Out-
wardly they spread right and left along the outer face of the xylem, lying
between it and the sieve cells, and thus connecting with the inner
phloem. (Plate VI., fig. 11.)
The Stele-—The stele has an average thickness of 0°75 mm. and an
extreme external diameter of 2°5 mm.* In O. cinnamomea these dimen-
sions are somewhat larger, the external diameter being 3 mm. In the
fossil it has been found that the stele has an average thickness of 3 mm.
and an external diameter of 19 mm., from which it appears that it has a
diameter 7°06 times greater than in O. regalis, and an average thickness
about four times greater. From this an inference may be drawn as to
the relative dimensions of the two plants. The observation that the
rhizome of Todea barbara, with an external diameter of 11°5 cm., and
therefore more than twice the diameter of O. regalis, nevertheless has a
stele only slightly larger, and of the same size (3 mm.) as in O. cinna-
momea, appeared at first to indicate that relative dimensions cannot be
established by comparison of the steles. But when it is recalled that
the much greater angle at which the stipes are given off in Todea offers
a complete explanation of the greater external dimensions, and that both
O. cinnamomea and the fossil are essentially the same with respect to the
divergence of the leaves from the central axis, as well as in the dimen-
sions of the stele, it will be found that the latter offers a fairly safe
basis upon which to estimate differences in size of the plant as a whole.
From this, therefore, it is fair to assume that the fossil under considera-
tion was about seven times larger than O. regalis, and this view is also
borne out in part by the supposed foliage.
The xylem bundles have the horseshoe shape so well known in this
genus, and are about 11 in number. The elements are much narrower
than in the fossil and somewhat broader than in O. cinnamomea.
(Plate V., fig. 10.) In both O. regalis and O. cinnamomea, they also
show the structural features described for the fossil, and this very close
resemblance is fully borne out in longitudinal section.
1 This does not agree with De Bary’s statement that the stele is 6 mm.
thick. (Comp. Anat. of Phan. & Ferns, p. 279.)
14 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
The phloem on its inner face consists of several rows of thin-walled
elements which contain very prominent nuclei. (Plate VI, fig. 11.) This
tissue is succeeded by a well-defined layer of sieve cells which are rather
thick-walled and remarkable, not only for their radial compression, but
also for the contortion of the walls, features which are also found in 0.
cinnamomea, and, to less marked extent, in Todea, but do not appear in
the fossil. (Plate VI. figs. 11 and 12.) Opposite the medullary rays
the sieve cell tissue broadens radially to form blunt, wedge-shaped
masses which project into the ends of the rays after the manner des-
cribed by De Bary.! (Plate VI. fig. 11.) The outer phloem consists
of several rows of thin-walled elements containing prominent nuclei.
They are somewhat elongated tangentially (Plate VI., fig. 11), but
probably not to the extent to be inferred from De Bary’s statement.?
Endodermis.—In Osmunda regalis there is a well-defined endoder-
mal layer which is also present in O. cinnamomea, but lacking in the
fossil. It consists of a layer of dark coloured cells which he in one or
two rows, or locally of three or four rows. The cells are hexagonal and
elongated tangentially, but not infrequently they assume a distinctly
oval form and become somewhat thicker walled. (Plate VI., fig. 11.)
Parenchyma Zone.—Immediately external to the endodermis is a
broad zone of parenchyma having a thickness of about 1 mm., and an
external diameter of 4°5 mm., constituting the inner cortex. In ©.
cinnamomea these dimensions are somewhat greater, being 1°25 mm.
and 5-5 mm. respectively. (Fig. 2.) The tissue throughout is colour-
less. The cells are rather large and thin-walled. They contain very
prominent nuclei and are always filled with starch. (Plate VI, fig. 11.)
This region is traversed by few leaf traces, which are in the form of an
open crescent, and in this respect it approaches the type found in the
fossil much more nearly than does O. cinnamomea. ‘This region is
exactly represented in the fossil by the third region described. (Plate
Tite 2.)
Sclerenchyma Zone.—Following the parenchyma is a dense, dark
coloured zone of sclerenchyma forming the external cortical region of
the stem proper. (Fig. 2.) This zone is represented in the fossil by
remnants only (Fig. 1), and in the microscopical preparation, only very
small fragments appear (Plate I., fig. 2.) While in the fossil the
limits of this zone cannot be determined, its relative volume may be
inferred by comparison with Osmunda. In O. regalis it has a thickness
of about 2 mm. and an external diameter of 8°5 mm., while in O.
cinnamomea, with about the same average thickness, it has an external
diameter of 9 mm. If, then, the same ratio obtains for this as for the
1 Comp. Anat. of Phan. & Ferns, 347.
2 Comp. Anat. of Phan. & Ferns, 347.
[PENHALLOW] OSMUNDITES SKIDEGATENSIS 15
other parts, this zone in the fossil must have had an external diameter
not far from 64 mm.
The cells of this tissue are rounded, rather small, and thick-walled.
The region is traversed by numerous leaf traces which now partake more
fully of the organization of the future stipe. By comparison with the
fossil, it is possible to understand the highly carbonaceous character
which this region presents in the latter.
TODEA BARBARA.
The large external diameter of the stems of Todea barbara suggested
the expediency of a comparison with it In this plant the short upright
stems are about 24 cm. long and 11°5 cm. broad. They are joined into
a massive trunk nearly three feet in diameter and about the same height.
A transverse section discloses the fact that the external dimensions bear
no relation to the size of the central axis or stem proper, and therefore
in that respect it fails to throw light upon the character of the fossil.
From what may be regarded as equivalent to the upper side of the rhi-
zome in Osmunda, the stipes diverge from the stem at an angle of 20°,
while from the opposite side—that which is outermost in relation to the
whole trunk—they show a divergence of 35°, this angle being greatly
increased toward the outer limits of the stem by a continually increasing
curvature. It will thus be seen that this divergence is at least twice as
great as in the fossil, twice as great as in Osmunda cinnamomea, and
one-fourth greater than in O. regalis. This seems to explain the marked
differences of external dimensions where the central axis is approximately
the same.
The Pith.—The pith has an external diameter of 1:5 mm. It shows
but few radial extensions into the xylem of the stele.
Medullary Rays.—The medullary rays are few in number, but they
present essentially the same features as in Osmunda.
The Stele.—The stele is composed of a few broad vascular bundles.1
The xylem only occasionally exhibits the horseshoe form so well defined
in Osmunda. The phloem shows essentially the same features as in
Osmunda, except that the outer layer in the endodermal region consists
of very much elongated (tangentially) cells, in this respect differing
materially from Osmunda and closely approaching the type exhibited in
the fossil. (Plate VI., fig. 12.) The stele as a whole has an outside
diameter of 3 mm., with an average thickness of 0°75 mm. It is
therefore closely comparable with the two species of Osmunda already
described.
1 De Bary, Comp. Anat. of Phan. & Ferns, 347.
16 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
The Endodermis—There is no clearly differentiated endodermal
iayer as in Osmunda. (Plate VI. fig. 12.) The radially flattened
cells of the outer phloem are immediately adjacent to the zone of starch-
bearing parenchyma. This latter (Plate VI., fig. 12) is made up of
large, thin-walled cells containing comparatively little starch, which
may possibly be explained by the unusual thickening of the stipes, the
fleshy bases of which form a compact zone of considerable width
immediately external to the sclerenchyma, and thus make up the chief
portion of the stem. The parenchyma zone is only 7 mm. in outside
diameter, and it is traversed by few leaf traces.
The sclerenchyma zone has an extreme external diameter of 2 cm.,
and it is thus much more voluminous than in Osmunda, but far less so
than in the fossil.
From the facts thus set forth, the following general conclusions
may be drawn :—
1st. The fossil represents a plant of the general external aspect and
habit of growth of Osmunda regalis.
2nd. In size it was much greater than any of the three species of
Osmunda common to this latitude, and probably about seven times larger
than O. regalis.
3rd. In its internal structure it approaches Osmunda on the one
hand and Todea on the other.
4th. In the absence of foliage and fructification, no precise connec-
tion with one or the other of these genera can be established.
5th. The evidence now at hand seems to indicate a closer affinity
with Osmunda than with Todea.
In view of these conclusions, it would seem most expedient to refer
this plant to the genus Osmundites, and to assign it a specific name
indicative of the locality, for which O. skidegatensis seems appropriate.
At the present time but few species of Osmundites are known. Two
of these are European, and their determination is based upon the stem
structure, while of the four North American species, the three hitherto
described are based upon the foliage only. Astrochlena schemniciensis
of Pettko, which Unger later referred to Osmundites, was derived from
the Tertiary of Schemnitz in Hungary.’ I have not been able to com-
pare the present specimen with it.
Osmundites dowkeri of Carruthers * was obtained from the Lower
Eocene of Home Bay, England. It is described as much larger than
Osmunda regalis, and in this respect may be regarded as representing a
type similar to that of O. skidegatensis. It is also of interest to note
E De Bary, Comp. Anat. of Phan. & Ferns, 347.
7 Solms-Laubach, Fossil Botany, 172.
# Quart. Jrnl. Geol. Soc., 1870, 349.
[PENHALLOW] OSMUNDITES SKIDEGATENSIS 17
that similarly there is evidence of an abundant starch deposit in the
parenchyma tissue of the inner cortex. The figures and description,
however, are very unsatisfactory, inasmuch as they do not supply the
details necessary for a close comparison, and in the absence of actual
examination of the original specimens, it is not possible to establish more
than a generic resemblance.
The several species of Osmundites (Osmunda) occurring in North
America ! are known only by their foliage and fruit, so that no compari-
son can be made with them at the present time. It is, nevertheless, of
interest to note that these plants were not only common in Tertiary
time,” but that they also appear to have been abundant at a somewhat
earlier period than the Lower Cretaceous,* and the plant which is now
found in the Lower Cretaceous of Queen Charlotte Islands is, in all
probability, closely similar to those occurring in the Potomac formation
of Virginia. It is, however, clear, from the preceding considerations,
that our present knowledge of these plants will not admit of establishing
specific relations between the present fossil and those previously recorded.
With respect to the relations of O. skidegatensis to existing species
in the same region, nothing can be said, since the genus Osmunda has
completely disappeared from that locality.* and at the present time it
does not extend farther west than Manitoba.’
1 For a full list of these plants and bibliography, see Knowlton’s Cata-
logue of Cretaceous and Tertiary Plants of North America. (Bull. U.S. Geol.
Surv., No. 152, p. 154.)
7 U.S. Geol. Surv., Tertiary Flora, 60.
# U.S, Geol. Survey, Potomac Flora, 146, etc.
* Geol. Surv. of Canada, 1878-79, 222B.
° Cat. of Canadian Plants (Macoun), 286.
Sec. IV., 1902. 2.
18
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
ILLUSTRATIONS.
PLATES I-VI.
1.—Rhizome of Osmundites skidegatensis, x */;.
2.—Osmundites skidegatensis. Sectional view showing (1. tr.) leaf traces.
xo.
Sis) altace coun . .. .. .. A portion of the stele, showing (1) pith,
(2) the horseshoe-shaped xylem bundles enclosing starch-bearing
extensions of the pith, (3) medullary rays, (4) the phloem, (5)
starch-bearing parenchyma external to the stele. x 20.
LS Seer ere .. .. «. .. . Section showing (1) the outer face of the
eee © a medullary ray at the point of emergence and junc-
tion with the inner phloem, (3) the ‘sieve tissue showing the
wedge-shaped expansion, (4) the elongated cells of the outer
phloem. x 200.
Bead eo .. .. .- Tangential section showing (1) scalari-
forth ements of the xylem, (2) thin-walled elements of the inner
phloem containing nuclei. x 200.
6... s)he be Ge se ws eee --. Transverse section of the xylemiyx7200:
TN. re De. - Lransverse section showings @) dthervelon—
gated cells of the outer phloem, (2) the absence of a definite
endodermal layer, (8) the cells of the parenchyma zone-bearing
starch. x 200.
8.—.. . + os ss 02 aves so mection of a leaf tracey showing paren-
ce ser containing starch. x 55.
9.—Osmunda regalis. View of a rhizome from the underside, show-
ing the overlapping stipes and the upward enlargement of the
Dase x
10 3. ae ee eet ee Section through the xylem: 32200)
11.—.. .. .. .. .. .. .. Section showing (mr.) the medullary ray and its
junction with the inner phloem, (x.) the xylem, (ph.*) the inner
phloem, (s.c) sieve cells with the wedge-shaped expansion of the
tissue opposite the ray, (ph.*) the outer phloem, (en.) the endo-
dermis, (pr.) the outer zone of parenchyma with prominent nuclei
and starch. x 183.
12.—Todea barbara. Section showing (x.) the xylem, (mr.) a medullary
ray at its junction with the inner phloem, (s.c.) sieve cells show-
ing their radial expansion into a wedge-shaped mass opposite
the ray, (ph.) inner and outer phloem, the latter showing. much
elongated cells, (pr.) the Outer zone of parenchyma. x 183.
[PENHALLOW ] OSMUNDITES SKIDEGATENSIS 19
Fig. 1.—OsMUNDITES SKIDEGATENSIS. X ‘/;.
Vadis ancacetyvirer rh ssconsicdrh 00 eieetitrtetarre ms iahiteatiiin seems neucusse née heart intention error eee
PLATE Jf. Fic. 2.—OSMUNDITES SKIDEGATENSIS. X 3.
[ PENHALLOW |
OSMUNDITES SKIDEGATENSIS
PLATE II.
F1G. 3.—OSMUNDITES SKIDEGATENSIS.
Fic. 4.—OSMUNDITES SKIDEGATENSIS.
x 20.
x 200.
[PENHALLOW |
PLATE III.
OSMUNDITES SKIDEGATENSIS
Fie. 6.—OSMUNDITES SKIDEGATENSIS. x 200.
23
fly ag
ltt ts
fd
[PENHALLOW]
PLATE IV.
OSMUNDITES SKIDEGATENSIS
25
[PENHALLOW]
OSMUNDITES SKIDEGATENSIS
207
PLATE V.
Fic. 9.—OSMUNDA REGALIS. X 1/,.
Fic. 10.—OSMUNDA REGALIS. X 200.
[ PENHALLOW ] OSMUNDITES SKIDEGATENSIS 29
NA ET
RO tO:
ES der
<
A
LAS
ange
PLATE VI. Fic. 12.—TODEA BARBARA. x 183.
SECTION IV., 1902 [31] Trans. R. 8S. C.
II.— Notes on Cretaceous and Tertiary Plants of Canada.
By D. P. PENHALLOW.
(Read May 27, 1902.)
Plates VII.— XVI. _
Among the large amount of fossil plant material brought together
by Sir William Dawson, were several collections from the west coast,
from the Queen Charlotte and other Islands and from the interior of
British Columbia and the Northwest Territories. Some of this
material had been submitted to a preliminary study, but the greater
portion had not been examined at all before his death. In looking over
the fossil plants in the Redpath Museum with a view to making the
determined species available in the collections, my attention was
directed to this material as likely to afford some additional facts
relative to the vegetation of the formations from which it was
derived, and arrangements were accordingly made to proceed with
its study without unnecessary delay. Three of these collections
form the subject of the present paper, and they were derived from
1. Vancouver and the Queen Charlotte Islands.
2. The Red Deer River, N.W.T.
3. The Horse-Fly River, British Columbia.
VANCOUVER AND QUEEN CHARLOTTE ISLANDS.
The plants comprised in the collection from the Queen Charlotte
Islands and from Vancouver Island, are recorded as collected by Dr.
F. C. Newcombe in 1895. There were in all, fifty-three specimens, but
the total number of species represented, proved not to exceed eighteen.
Of these three are probably new, one is of uncertain specific identity,
and the remainder represent previously described and well-known
types. In two instances it has been possible to connect specimens of
wood with the foliage of the same species, hitherto known only through
their leaves and fruit, while in a third case, a petiole and a portion of
a fertile frond, bave extended our previous knowledge of a plant which
had been recognized by its stem alone. 'Dhe present studies of this
group, therefore, may be held to possess special interest and value as
contributing to a definite and accurate knowledge of types occupying
a position of special prominence in the formations to which they
belong.
32 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
OSMUNDITES SKIDEGATENSIS, Penh.
Plates VII.— XI.
Lower Cretaceous of Maud Island and Skidegate Inlet, Queen Charlotte
Islands.
Among the material from Maud Island was an imperfectly pre-
served fragment of a frond representing a portion of a pinna 2 cm.
long. On the central rachis which was conspicuous, there were portions
of five pairs of pinnules, so that the entire pinna had a width of 1 cm.
The pinnules are oblong, obtuse (7), entire and with a somewhat
distinct midrib from which the apparently forking veins diverge at a
conspicuous angle. The pinnules make an angle of about 40 deg. with
the rachis, and they present a width of 3-5 mm. Two of them show
depressions extending from the midvein to the margin, of such form
and character as to immediately suggest the soral areas of Osmunda,
and more particularly of Todea. No further evidence of the fruit
appears, however, as all of the sporangia, if originally present, have
completely disappeared. The depressions are of sufficient number and
their relations to the general structure are of such a nature as to
eliminate the idea of “accidental features.” They diverge from the
midvein parallel to the veins, and they extend from the midvein to the
margin. In one or two cases they were found to exactly correspond to _
the shght lobing of the pinnule—one depression to each lobe. If these
features are connected with the development of .the fruit, it then
becomes obvious that the sori must have been oblong, and placed in
two series laterally to the midrib. Bringing these features into com-
parison with what may be found among existing types, they are
obviously representative of the Osmundaceae, and perhaps most
suggestive in some respects of the genus Todea, while in others they
suggest Osmunda. But no existing T'odeas have fronds exhibiting such
diminutive segments as are here represented, so that the specimen is
no doubt. to be regarded as representing the fertile frond of an
Osmunda of the type of O. claytoniana.
In immediate association with the frond there was found a small
fragment of a stem measuring 5 mm. in diameter and 13 mm. in
length. This specimen was perfectly terete and showed neither sur-
face markings nor carbonized residue indicative of cortex. The
transverse fracture gave no indication of structure beyond a circular
zone near the central portion, suggestive of a vascular axis or stele.
Although not in absolute connection with the frond, the very intimate
[penHALLow] CRETACEOUS AND TERTIARY PLANTS OF CANADA 38
association of the two—the one overlying the other within a space of
less than 1 cm. at the point of greatest separation, and at an angle
which seemed to show that in the original matrix the two must have
been in contact, if not actually joined — served to lend weight to the
idea that the two fragments were in reality parts of the same plant,
and that the stem-like body was therefore a portion of a fern stipe or
rachis. From the very small amount of material available, transverse
and longitudinal sections were cut, and these proved to be most
successful in exposing the most important parts of the structure. It
was then seen beyond all doubt, that the specimen represented the
stipe of a fern in a most excellent state of preservation, and from it
the following details have been obtained.
Transverse.— (Plate VIT. fig. 1). The epidermal system has been
completely removed. The outer cortex consists of rather small
rounded sclerenchyma cells (Plate VIT. fig. 2), the walls of which are
not very strongly thickened. This tissue passes ‘gradually into the
structure of the inner cortex (Plate VIII., fig. 3) which is composed
of rather large and thin-walled elements, among which are a number
of much broader, prominent mucilage cells. The tissue as a whole has
been much altered and broken by decay. The stele is of crescentic
form (Plate VII. fig. 1,and Plate IX., fig. 5), and it is thus directly
comparable with the corresponding structure in the Osmundaceæ
(Plate VIIL. fig. 4), the free ends being incurved in each case. The
endodermis shows no structural details. The vascular bundle is of
the collateral type as in the Osmundaceæ. The phloem lies on the
dorsal side (Plate IX., fig. 5), but the structure has been largely
removed by decay and only that portion in immediate contact with
the xylem —the phloem proper — (Plate IX., fig. 6) has been pre-
served, but in such condition that the details cannot be determined.
Within this region there are a number of rounded bodies which stand
out from the general margins of the adjacent parts, and these repre-
sent globules of mucilage precisely as found in any existing Osmunda,
and as is also prominent in Todea. (Plate VIII. fig. 4,and Plate X.,
fisse TS)
The central parenchyma on the ventral side of the stele, consists of
small, thick-walled elements containing an abundance of protoplasmic
material, but that portion which immediately abuts upon the protoxylem
has been removed by decay so as to develop a structureless zone of
considerable width. (Plate IX., fig. 6.) There is therefore evidence
which tends to show the structure of this region to have been thin-
walled parenchyma as in Todea (Plate X., fig. 7), and this resemblance
is further heightened by the occurrence here of an abundance of
mucilage globules which, in situation and number, as well as in fre-
34 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
quency of occurrence, closely duplicate similar features in Todea.
(Plate VIIL, fig. 4.)
The protoxylem is well preserved, and it appears as a well defined
layer on the ventral side of the stele. (Plate IX. fig. 6.) The elements
are narrow and rather thin-walled, and they form a layer of very
unequal thickness. The secondary xylem is represented by broad, not
very thick-walled elements which lie within a single row. (Plate IX.,
fig. 6.)
Longitudinal. (Plate X., fig. 8.) The longitudinal section was
most fortunate, cutting through the stele in the dorsal half so as
to expose nearly all the component elements. This section also
shows the epidermal tissue to be wholly wanting. The outer cortex
consists of rather narrow, fibrous sclerenchyma cells which gradu-
ally diminish in length and increase in breadth until they pass into
the structure of the inner cortex (Plate XI., fig. 9) where the ele-
ments are fusiform. The inner cortex terminates in a narrow zone
of fibrous sclerenchyma elements, precisely as in Todea, and
although the details of structure are not very clearly distinguish-
able, there seems little reason to doubt that this is the equivalent
of the similar sheath in Todea, and that it represents the
sclerenchymatous zone replacing the special endodermis, as so
commonly occurs in the Osmundas. Within this sclerenchymatous
sheath is the broad, vacant region formerly occupied by thin-walled
parenchyma, and the great abundance of mucilage located here, now
becomes much more apparent than in the transverse section. The
mucilage zone is inwardly limited by the remnant of the phloem, and
this is succeeded in turn by the xylem. The section appears to have
cut through the xylem at such a point as to expose the inner edges of
the scalariform vessels which appear to form the principal elements,
(Plate XI., fig. 10) but at one point it traverses the protoxylem which
is shown as very narrow tracheids with exceedingly close spirals, so
as to resemble scalariform structure. The succession of tissues as
exposed in the longitudinal section, is therefore as follows :—
1. Cortex.
(a) Hypodermal, fibrous, narrow-celled sclerenchyma passing into
(b) The inner cortex composed of large-celled, thin-walled, fu-
siform parenchyma with an abundance of mucilage cells.
. The sclerenchymatous sheath replacing a special endodermis, and
composed of slender, fibrous sclerenchyma as in Osmundas
of recent times.
3. A broad zone of parenchyma from which the structure has been
removed by decay—now occupied by globules of mucilage.
[au]
[PENHALLOwW] CRETACEOUS AND TERTIARY PLANTS OF CANADA 38
4. A narrow zone of phloem.
5. A single row of large, scalariform tracheids.
6. A narrow zone of protoxylem elements.
?. Small celled parenchyma of the central region filled with pro-
toplasm, but with no starch.
In the xylem and other elements, the cell wall has been so far
altered by decay that it is impossible to determine the specific structural
features, and it is therefore impossible to establish the precise contact
with Osmunda in this respect, but the features thus described indicate
most clearly the general relation to the Osmundaceæ. Specifically the
type differs from Osmunda and approaches Todea in the following
respects :—
1. The broad zone of thin-walled parenchyma internal to the sheath.
2. The greater abundance of mucilage in large cells within the phloem
and protoxylem regions.
3. The zone of thin-walled parenchyma in the Donner region.
It differs from the type of Todea and thereby approaches Osmunda
in the following respects :—
1. The special form of the stele.
2. The occurrence of the secondary xylem in a single row.
The great excess of mucilage in the phloem region.
The great volume of the phloem parenchyma.
5. The greatly diminished size of the cells in the central parenchyma.
fe
These relations are supported by the evidence afforded by the
foliage and we cannot otherwise than conclude that the plant under
consideration must have been a true Osmunda.
In 1898 a rhizome of an Osmunda from Alliford Bay, Skidegate
Inlet, Queen Charlotte Islands, was described by me under the name of
Osmundites skidegatensis.1 There were also found certain fragments
of foliage in all probability belonging to the same plant. Upon com-
parison with existing species, it was found that the material might be
referred to the type presented in Osmunda claytoniana. The results
of these studies are now published in connection with this paper. It
is worthy of note that the two specimens from the same horizon, and
essentially from the same locality, are both to be referred to Osmunda
of the type of O. claytoniana, and there can be little reason to doubt
7 "Trans. Re soc, Cane) Valley ive, Se
36 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
that the two lots represent the same species. As we know it, the
species is now represented by: —
. The complete structure of the rhizome.
. The rather complete structure of the stipe.
. The foliage.
- The fertile pinnules devoid of sporangia.
05 2D =
AS
CTENOPTERIS COLUMBIENSIS, D. Sp.
Upper Cretaceous of Port McNeil, Vancouver Island.
This species is represented by a small fragment of a frond from
Port MeNeil, Vancouver Island, and it embraces only three pinnules.
The oblong pinnules ascend at an angle of 60 deg., and attain a
Fic. 1.—CTENOPTERIS COLUMBIENSIS.
dimension of 7 mm. in width by 13 mm. in length. The margins are
entire, the apex rounded and the base slightly decurrent. The eight
or nine veins are prominent and fork from near the base.
NEUROPTERIS HETEROPHYLLA, Brongn.
Brongniart, Hist. des Veg. Foss., 1828, 243, LXXI. & LXXII.
Lower Cretaceous of Alliford Bay, Queen Charlotte Islands.
Three fragmentary specimens from Alliford Bay, Queen Charlotte
Islands, represent the pinne of a fern showing the characteristic
venation and forms of Brongniart’s Neuropteris heterophylla from the
coal measures of Europe, and from which it cannot well be separated,
but in view of the very different horizons in which they occur, it
would seem expedient to designate the Alliford Bay specimen as
N. heterophylla cretacea. The only other species recorded from the
same horizon in neighbouring localities, is N. castor of Dawson,
derived from the Upper Cretaceous of Vancouver Island, but this
differs in such conspicuous ways as to admit of no difficulty in
separation.
[PENHALLOW] CRETACEOUS AND TERTIARY PLANTS OF CANADA 37
TÆNIOPTERIS PLUMOSA, Dn.
Dawson, Trans. R. Soc. Can., I., iv., 24 (1883).
Lower Cretaceous of Alliford Bay, Q.C.I.; and Baynes’ Sound, Vancouver
Island.
One small fragment from Alliford Bay is evidently identical with
Tæniopteris plumosa as described by Sir William Dawson from the
Upper Cretaceous of Baynes’ Sound.
TÆNIOPTERIS OROVILLENSIS, Fontaine.
Fontaine, Amer. Journ. Sc., Ser. 4, II. (1896), p. 274.
Ward, Mesozoic Flora of the U.S.
Ann. Rept. U.S. Geol. Surv., XX. (1898-1899), 384.
Jurassic (Lower Oolite) of Oroville, California; Upper Cretaceous of Port
McNeil, Vancouver Island.
The material representing this species is from the Upper, Creta-
ceous formation at Port McNeil, Vancouver Island. It consists of a
fragment of a stipe and four fragments of fronds. The fragment
of the stipe measures 38 mm. in length. The basal end is 9 mm. wide,
and from this it gradually diminishes upward to a diameter of 5 mm.
For a distance of 22 mm. from the basal end, the structure is intact
and the surface shows fine, parallel striæ about 1 mm. distant. The
upper 16 mm. of the specimen show one-half of the structure to have
been removed, evidently in the splitting of the matrix, so as to expose
a section in the median plane, and here a differentiation of structure
is manifested in the occurrence of a lighter streak or longitudinal
band which serves to suggest the exposure of one of the vascular
bundles in section. The whole specimen has been much flattened
by pressure, and it is in such a condition as to render sectioning
imexpedient.
With one exception the leaf fragments show a strong midrib and
more or less well defined venation. The apex is not represented, but
the base is poorly shown in one instance. The frond enlarges upward
gradually, from a narrow base to a width of 5-5 em. In the largest
specimen the length of the frond must have been about 20 cm. when
complete. The margin is perfectly entire in all cases. The very
strong midrib ranges in width from 2 mm. to 3 mm. in the largest
specimen, and when well preserved it is strongly but finely rugose.
The veins are strictly simple. They leave the midrib at an angle of
38 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
very nearly 90 deg., or in one specimen, they show a more pronounced
tendency to form a definite upward angle. They are extremely fine,
numerous and closely packed, being exactly 3 to the millimetre. At
the outer end, at a distance of about 7 mm. from the margin, they
commence a slight upward curve which is maintained to the end.
An examination of the records of similar plants from the same
or neighbouring localities, shows the occurrence of Macroteniopteris
vancouverensis, Dn., in the Upper Cretaceous of Nanaimo, Vancouver
Island,* but this admits of no direct comparison with our specimens.
Teniopteris plumosa, Dn., was described in 1883 by Sir William
Dawson as occurring in the Upper Cretaceous at Baynes’ Sound, but
the small size of the frond and the strongly developed upward angle
(50 deg.) of the veins, at once excludes it from all comparison with
the present forms.
Ward figures and describes various specimens of Tæniopteris
orovillensis from the Oroville beds of California. The essential
features of his description show the frond to be narrowly elliptical,
tapering gradually toward both base and apex, and attaining a pro-
bable length of 26 em. The midrib is strong, prominent and rounded,
while the lateral veins which are given off nearly at right angles, are
parallel throughout, fine, closely packed and 3 to the millimetre, while
they also curve slightly upward toward the end of the frond. The
figures given? almost exactly duplicate one of our specimens. It
will thus be seen that there is a very close correspondence between
the plants from Port McNeil and those from the Oroville beds. Fon-
taine’s original account of this species* gives nothing beyond the
name and a discussion of the geological relations.
The genus Tæniopteris as a whole, belongs to the earlier rather
than to the later Mesozoic time, and with the exception of T. plumosa
which represents a diminutive form, there is no previous record of
its occurrence above the Lower Cretaceous, while it is very conspicuous
in the Jurassic and Triassic formations. Tæniopteris orovillensis
as recorded by Fontaine and Ward, is very abundant in the Oroville
beds which Prof. Fontaine finds to be of the age of the Lower
Oolite,* although in a later statement, he shows that the age cannot
be so exactly defined, and that it may be anywhere between the
Upper Trias and the Lower Oolite. The occurrence of the same
species in the Upper Cretaceous may possibly be taken as indicating
2 "Trans. Re Soc, Can, Ml; AVS os
* Mesozoic Flora of the U.S., 384, Pl. LII., figs. 2-4.
* Amer. Journ. Sc., Ser. 4, II. (1896), 274.
* ltd, 275.
° Mesozoic Flora of the U.S., XX., 341.
[PENHALLowW] CRETACEOUS AND TERTIARY PLANTS OF CANADA 39
the limit of the geological range, and that it there represents the
culminating form of the type in association with the obviously depau-
perate T. plumosa.
SAGENOPTERIS NILSONIANA (Brongn.), Ward.
Fontaine, The Older Mesozoic of Virginia. U.S. Geol. Surv., Mem. VI., 104,
1883. ‘
Ward, The Mes. Flora of the U.S. U.S. Geol. Surv., Ann. Rept. XX., 352,
1898-99.
Schimper, Paléontologie Végétale, I., 642.
Brongniart, Hist. des Veg. Foss., I., 225, 1828.
Jurassic (Oroville Beds) of California; Lower Cretaceous of Queen Charlotte
Islands (Maud Island and Alliford Bay).
The specimens in the Queen Charlotte Island collection were
obtained from Maud Island and Alliford Bay. One specimen from
Maud Island represented a partial pinnule with a perfect apex but
no base. It measured 5 cm. in length and 3 em. in width at its
greatest expansion. In form it is narrowly obovate with a well defined
and rounded apex, and an entire margin. The midvein is not obvious.
The veins are quite prominent and appear as diverging lines, but
there is no evidence of anastomosing. Except in point of size, the
specimen compares very closely with Ward’s figure of Sagenopteris
nilsoniana ! from the Oroville beds of California. Another nearly
complete specimen measured 9 cm. by 4 cm. at its greatest width. A
pronounced midvein extends from the base to within 3 cm. of the apex
where it disappears. The characteristic anastomosing of the veins
is clearly shown, as depicted by Fontaine,? while the specimen as a
whole is that figured by Ward.*
The four smaller and less perfect specimens from Alliford Bay
show the veins but no anastomosing.
In all of these specimens it is impossible to find any means of
satisfactorily differentiating them from the Oroville material, and, as
the mere element of size is of no great value in a species of such
strongly polymorphic tendencies, I do not hesitate to refer them to
Sagenopteris nilsoniana.
* (Mesozoic Flora of the U.S., 352, Pl. LVI., 1; LVII., 2.
* Older Mesozoic of Virginia, Pl. XLIX., 5.
#5 Mesozoic Flora of the U.S., Pl. LXVII., 2.
40 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
SAGENOPTERIS OBLONGIFOLIA, n. sp.
Lower Cretaceous of Alliford Bay, Q.C.I.
An incomplete specimen from Alliford Bay shows all the char-
acteristics of Sagenopteris, but of a type not hitherto described. The
single pinna is 22 mm. broad, and in the complete state it was appar-
ently about 5 em. long. In outline it is regularly oblong-elliptical
with a rounded base and possibly also a rounded apex, but in the
absence of the upper portion, this can only be assumed from the
general trend of the sides. The midrib is obscure except at the
extreme base. The anastomosing of the venation is distinct, and
the veins are divergent from near the base. The diagnosis of this
species would be as follows: —
Fic. 2.—SAGENOPTERIS OBLONGIFOLIA.
Pinne regularly elliptical-oblong, about 5 cm. long and 22 mm.
wide; the base rounded; midrib obscure except near the base; margin
entire; the anastomosing venation divergent from near the base.
The elliptical form at once suggested the propriety of the name
elliptica, but this was found to have been retained by Fontaine for
another species from the Potomac Formation, distinguished by its
oblong-lanceolate form. The present species may therefore be desig-
nated as 8. oblongifolia.
[PENHALLOwW] CRETACEOUS AND TERTIARY PLANTS OF CANADA 41
SAGENOPTERIS ELLIPTICA, Fontaine.
Fontaine, Potomac Flora, 149, Pl. XXVII., figs. 9, 11, 17.
Lower Cretaceous of Alliford Bay, Q.C.I.; ‘Potomac Formation of Potomac
Run, Virginia, and Baltimore, Maryland.
Associated with Sagenopteris oblongifolia in the material from
Alliford Bay, were two fragments of pinne —the one of the base
and the other of the apex—which could not be separated from
S. elliptica of Fontaine, as derived from the Potomac formation. This
name seems somewhat unfortunate in that it fails to express the
proper form of the pinna which is lanceolate rather than elliptical,
with a tapering base.
CYCADITES, sp.—
The genus Cycadites is represented by a small fragment of a leaf
with ten pinne, all of which have been broken off so as to represent
but a portion of the original length. The rachis is prominent and
the rather closely set, opposite pinnæ, are given off at angles rang-
ing from 63 to 70 deg. The pinne are 1:75 mm. broad and broken
off at lengths which range from 5-8 mm. Each has a fine but con-
spicuous central nerve. In some respects this plant suggests C. unjiga
of Dawson? from the Cretaceous of Table Mountain, Pine River Forks
and Peace River, after which latter locality it is named. In this latter
species, however, the somewhat distant pinne diverge at an angle of
40-50 deg. A similar resemblance is also established with Les-
quereux’s C. pungens,” in which the pinne diverge at an angle of about
37 deg., and are somewhat more distant. The material is so frag-
mentary, and it is so obviously different from other known species,
that while it should be definitely designated, it seems unwise to erect
a new species upon such incomplete and scanty material. It is
possible the fragment represents the immature foliage of one of the
recognized species of the locality.
ZAMITES CRASSINERVIS, Fontaine.
Fontaine, Potomac Flora, 172, Pl. LXIX. & LXXXIII.
Potomac Formation of Fredericksburg, Va.; Lower Cretaceous of Alliford
Bay, Q.C.I.
Represented by one specimen about 4:3 cm. wide and 8-5 cm. long.
The apex is incomplete, and the leaf was apparently about 12 cm. long
in its original condition.
i Trans. R. Soe, Canty, iv. 20:
2 Flora of the Dakota Group, 30.
42 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
ZAMITES TENUINERVIS, Fontaine.
Hontaine, Potomac) Mora, "rl SPLIT NTI XV MR SR VIE
TX TITI ÉTENERER TV
Potomac Formation of Virginia; Trinity Division of Glenrose, Texas: Lower
Cretaceous of Alliford Bay, Q.C.I.
Two small fragments which cannot be distinguished from
Fontaine’s Z. tenuinervis.
NILSONIA POLYMORPHA CRETACEA (Sch.), New Comb.
Schimper, Traité de Paléontologie, I., 489. Atlas, XLV., fig. 6.
Lower Cretaceous of Maud Island, Q.C.I.
The specimen consists of the terminal portion of a pinnate frond
apparently of considerable length. Portions of 10 pinnæ are present,
some of them perfect. They are alternate, of uniform width, with
truncated or rarely acute ends which are turned up so as to give the
pinna a falcate form, and they diverge from the rachis at an angle
of 70 degrees. The only other Nilsonia recorded from the same
horizon in adjacent localities, is N. lata Dn., from Baynes’ Sound,
Vancouver Island! The difference is such, however, as not to admit of
a comparison of the two. N. polymorpha of Schimper is represented by
a frond about 25 cm. long and 3-5 cm. wide. The pinne in the middle
diverge at an angle of 70-75 degrees, and they are distinctly falcately
curved with acute ends. As the apex of the frond is approached,
the divergence becomes reduced to 70 degrees, the falcate form
becomes obscure or is altogether lost, and the acute apex is replaced
by a truncated extremity. In these last features we recognize an
almost exact duplication of the characters which distinguish the Maud
Island specimen, and when we recognize the permissible latitude which
is expressed in Schimper’s observation that the species is remarkable
for its polymorphism, it will appear that our specimen cannot be
satisfactorily separated from the type of N. polymorpha. Schimper
records that this species is first found in the Rhetic Formation of
Europe, and that its greatest development occurred during the period
extending from the Rhetic to the Lower Lias. It therefore belongs
in Europe, not only to the earlier Mesozoic, but to a transitional age.
The occurrence of this plant in the Upper Cretaceous of America has
not been recorded heretofore, and it would therefore seem appropriate
that the present representative should be designated as N. polymorpha
cretacea.
1 Trans, R. Soc. Can, I., iv., 22
[PENHALLOwW] CRETACEOUS AND TERTIARY PLANTS OF CANADA 48
GINKGO PUSILLA, Dn.
(Plate XII. and Plate XIII. fig. 1.)
Dawson, Trans. R. Soc. Can., VI., iv. (1888), 72; XI. (1893), 56 & 73 (foot-note).
Upper Cretaceous of Port McNeil, Vancouver Island, and U.C. of Cumshava
Inlet, Q.C.I.
Hitherto this species has been known only through its foliage as
described by Sir William Dawson in 1893," but in the material collected
at Cumshava Inlet, Queen Charlotte Islands, there was a fragment
of a branch which was readily recognized as a Ginkgo. The specimen
measured 5-5 em. long, and it had been compressed into a narrowly
elliptical transverse section 2 cm. wide and 3-5 cm. long. No external
evidence of bark could be found, but there were indications of more
or less extended decay which had resulted in leaving somewhat
irregular surface depressions and concavities from which angular
fragments had been removed. The section shows a portion of the
pith and medullary sheath in a very fair state of preservation. The
wood has been subjected to somewhat advanced decay, so that areas
show no structure whatever. When the wood structure is preserved,
as it is through the greater part of the stem, it is in such condition
as to permit a recognition of all the essential details. Growth rings
are obvious, but the sharpness of their definition has been obscured
by the action of decay which has reduced the thickness of the walls
in the summer wood so that the cells cannot be readily differentiated
from those of the spring wood. ‘The whole structure is calcified.
The following are the structural details observed:
Transverse. (Fig. 11). Growth rings obvious, the spring wood
passing gradually into the not strongly defined summer wood; medul-
lary rays very narrow; tracheids in regular radial rows, very uniform,
those of the spring wood about 22 X 21 u the walls 5-3 x thick.
Radial. (Fig. 12). Medullary rays very low, the cells straight,
about 17 y high, equal to about 5 tracheids; the upper and lower
walls thin and not pitted; the terminal walls thin, straight and devoid
of pits; the lateral walls with large? pits, one per tracheid. Bordered
pits on the radial walls of the tracheids not recognizable.
Tangential. (Fig. 13). Medullary rays 1-3, more rarely 4 cells
high, about 8-7 / broad.
The fact that Ginkgo pusilla is the only species so far reported
from this locality, appears to justify reference of our present material
1 Trans. R. Soc. Can., XI., iv., 56.
+ ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
to it, and this view seems to gain strength from the observations of
Sir William Dawson, who recorded in a footnote to his paper published
in 1893,* that while the latter was in press, he received a specimen
of a flattened, cylindrical stem of about an inch in diameter. He
determined the structure to be coniferous, and expressed the opinion
that it probably represented the wood of Ginkgo pusilla.
SEQUOIA LANGSDORFII (Brongn.), Heer.
(Plate XIII., fig. 14, and Plate XIV.)
Dawson, Trans. R. Soc. Can., XI., iv., 56 (1893).
Upper Cretaceous of Nanaimo and Port McNeil, Vancouver; Maud Island;
Fort Union Group of Montana and Porcupine Creek, Canada.
Lower Cretaceous of Q.C.I.
Eocene of Alaska; Green River Group of Florissant, Colorado.
Miocene of the John Day Valley, Oregon, and the Mackenzie River.
This species has been known heretofore, only through its foliage
and fruit, but in the material from the Queen Charlotte Islands there
were two specimens of calcified wood which proved beyond all doubt
to be identical with one another and with the genus Sequoia. One
represented a small branch devoid of bark. It was 6-5 em. long and
18 mm. wide in its greatest diameter. It had been flattened some-
what by compression so as to present an elliptical section. The struc-
ture proved on the whole, to be in a very excellent state of preservation,
although regional areas of more or less extended: decay were to be
observed. The larger and more important specimen was 12-5 cm.
long and compressed into a narrowly elliptical form 7 X 3-7 em.
The remains of barnacles indicated immersion in salt water. There
was no external evidence of a cortex, but the end exhibited a some-
what definite indication of what seemed to be separate pith, wood
and bark. A complete transverse section served to somewhat modify
the opinion formed on the basis of the external features. Decay was
found to have been carried so far as to involve the greater portion
of the structure. What had been taken for the pith proved to be a
region of the wood structure only partially altered by decay. External
to this the broad zone supposed to be the wood, was found to be an
area of advanced decay which had involved the woody tissue, and
nearly obliterated all traces of former structure, so that the resulting
modifications from decay and pressure had developed an appearance
which, externally, simulated wood with its medullary rays. Externally
: Trans. R: Soc Can: XI av, 73. i
[PENHALLOwW] CRETACEOUS AND TERTIARY PLANTS OF CANADA 45
to this region again, detached areas of wood were found, while exter-
nally to all there was a narrower zone of decayed woody tissue so
modified as to resemble compressed and modified bark. The details
of the microscopic examination are as follows: —
Transverse. (Fig. 14). Growth rings strongly defined. Tracheids
of the spring wood in very regular rows, squarish, about 52 x: 52 y,
the walls 14 A thick, but the secondary layers more or less disin-
tegrated and carbonized. Summer wood about 4-6 tracheids thick,
the transition from the spring wood abrupt. ‘Tracheids about
24 u wide, the walls about 12 x thick but much altered. Medul-
lary rays prominent, one cell wide. Resin canals generally absent,
but sometimes appearing in an imperfectly organized form on the
outer face of the summer wood. Special resin cells are not to be
distinguished from those in process of disintegration.
Radial. (Fig. 15). Bordered pits on the radial walls of the
tracheids in one row, about 28 « broad, distinctly bordered, the
orifice round. Cells of the medullary rays constricted at the ends,
about equal to 4? tracheids. The upper and lower walls thin and
devoid of pits; the end walls thin, not pitted, straight or curved. The
cells about 27 y high. Pits on the lateral walls not recognizable.
Tangential. (Fig. 16). Medullary rays uniseriate, about 31:5 yu
broad.
This species has been found on two former occasions in the
Cretaceous of Vancouver Island, and specimens of leafy branches
from Port McNeil, described by Sir William Dawson in 1893, are
reported by him to be indistinguishable from specimens derived from
the Laramie and Middle Tertiary. “It would seem to range from
the Upper Cretaceous to the Miocene inclusive.” The fact that no
other species of Sequoia has been reported from the Cretaceous of the
same locality, would seem to justify reference of our present material
to it.
Comparison with existing species shows that S. langsdorfii bears
a very striking resemblance to S. sempervirens with respect to the
structure of the wood. How far this may prove identity it is impos-
sible to say at present, since the wood of S. langsdorfii is deficient
in some essential structural features, but it may be noted that the
resemblance is most marked with respect to the general structure, the
character of the growth rings, and more particularly as established
through the medullary rays and the occurrence of imperfectly formed
resin passages.
Sec. IV., 1902. 3.
46 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
QUERCUS HOLMESII, Lesq.
Lesquereux, Flora of the Dakota Group, 58.
Cretaceous and Tertiary Floras, 38 (1883), Pl. IV., 8.
Dawson, Trans. R. Soc. Can., XI., iv., 59 (1893).
Upper Cretaceous of Port McNeil, Vancouver Island, and Dakota Group of
San Juan River, Colorado.
One nearly perfect leaf and several fragments to be referred
without doubt, to this species which was reported by Sir William
Dawson from the same locality in 1893.
LAUROPHYLLUM INSIGNE, Dn.
Dawson, Trans. R. Soc. Can. XW iv., 61 Pl. VIL, 24 & 25.
Upper Cretaceous of Port McNeil, Vancouver Island.
This species is represented by several fragments of leaves with
characteristic venation.
CINNAMOMUM SEZANNENSE, Watlet.
Lesquereux, Flora of the Dakota Group, 107, Pl. XII., 6 & 7.
Dawson, Trans. R. Soc. Can., XI., iv., 64, PI. XIII., 58.
Cretaceous of Glen Cove and Sea Cliff, Long Island, and Port McNeil,
Vancouver Island.
This species is represented in the present collection by one-half
a leaf only, but it had been recognized by Sir William Dawson in
collections from the same locality in 1893.
PLANTS FROM THE RED DEER RIVER.
In 1889 Mr. Weston, of the Geological Survey, made a collection
of plants from the mouth of the Blind Man River, a tributary of the
Red Deer River, N.W.T. These plants were supplementary to the
collections from the same locality previously reported upon by Sir
William Dawson, and published in the Report of the Geological
Survey for 1886, and the Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada
for 1887. The formation from which these plants were derived, has
been assigned to the Laramie. According to a note kindly supplied
by Dr. H. M. Ami, of the Geological Survey, the Laramie formation
south of the 50th parallel has been divided by Dr. G. M. Dawson into
three series, viz.: (1) the Porcupine Hill, (2) the Willow Creek, and
(3) the St. Mary River series. In northern Alberta, between 51 deg.
[PENHALLOwW] CRETACEOUS AND TERTIARY PLANTS OF CANADA 47
20 m., and 54 deg. 30 m., Mr. Tyrrell has divided the formation into
(1) the Edmonton — an estuarine series referable to the Cretaceous —
and (2) the Paskapoo — referable to the Eocene Tertiary, a fresh water
series of sediments characterized by fresh water mollusca, etc.
The evidence collected by Mr. Tyrrell seems to point to the fact
that the Tertiary Epoch was ushered in with the commencement of the
Paskapoo series which stands as the representative of the European
Eocene. During this time a great thickness of sandstones and shales
was laid down without any break or unconformity. This series also
is held to include Dr. Dawson’s Porcupine Hills and Willow Creek
series, together with all but the lowest 700-900 feet of the St. Mary
River series. The Paskapoo series embraces the region of the Red
Deer and Blind Man Rivers. “The bed consists of more or less hard,
light grey or yellowish, brownish weathering sandstone, usually thick
bedded, but often showing false bedding; also of light bluish-grey and
olive sandy shales, often interstratified with bands of hard, lamellar,
ferruginous sandstone, and sometimes with bands of concretionary blue
limestone. The whole series as shown by its invertebrate fauna, is
of fresh water origin.”1 The plants derived from the explorations of
1885-86 were determined by Sir William Dawson and published without
illustrations. Combining the earlier list as given by Tyrrell,’ with
the later list published in the following year by Sir William Dawson,’
and omitting duplications, the recognized species were as follows: —
Onoclea sensibilis, Newby.
Sequoia langsdorfii (Bret.), Heer.
7 nordenskioldii, Heer.
couttsiæ, Heer.
Podocarpites tyrrellii, Dn.
Taxodium occidentale, Newby.
Platanus nobilis, Newby.
Corylus macquarrii (Forbes), Heer.
Quercus sp.
Populus acerifolia, Newby.
ns artica, Heer.
ss richardsoni, Heer.
genetrix, Newby.
os nervosa (?), Newby.
Salix laramiana, Dn.
Ficus sp.
Carya antiquorum, Newby.
Nelumbium saskatchuense, Dn.
Trapa borealis, Heer.
Viburnum saskatchuense, Dn.
asperum, Newby.
Catalpa crassifolia, Newby.
Sapindus sp.
“6
1 Rept. Geol. Surv. Can., N. Ser., II. (1886), 135 E.
2 Ibid, 136 E.
3 Trans. R. Soc. Can:, V. (1887), iv., 35.
48 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
In addition to the above, Dr. H. M. Ami informs me that there
are also specimens of Juglans sp. and Abietites tyrrellii, Dn., in the
collections of the Geological Survey, so that the entire list of plants
from these earlier explorations, embraces 25 species. The collection
by Mr. Weston in 1889, now under consideration, embraces 29 species,
and the former lists are therefore extended by 24, and possibly by 26
additional species. The entire collection is as follows : —
SPHENOPTERIS GUYOTTII, Lesq.
Lesquereux, Cretaceous and Tertiary Floras, VIII., 137, Pl. XXI., 1-7.
Tertiary of the Green River Group, Florissant, Colorado; and Paskapoo Series
of Red Deer River, Canada.
The original description of this plant was given by Lesquereux
in his Cretaceous and Tertiary Flora, as based upon specimens from
Florissant, Colorado. The present determination is based upon one
small fragment of a pinna, and is by no means satisfactory, though
the venation and the form of the ultimate segments seem to point to
the correctness of its reference to 8. guyottii.
SPHENOPTERIS BLOMSTRANDI, Heer.
Heer, The Miocene Flora of Greenland (1874), 18, Pl. I., 3-5.
The Miocene Flora and Fauna of Spitzbergen (1870), 31.
Eocene (Paskapoo Series) of Red Deer River, Canada.
This species appears to be represented in the Paskapoo Series by
several fragments of fronds. As determined by both venation and
form of the pinnules, they are apparently inseparable from the type
as figured by Heer in his Miocene Flora of Greenland and Spitzbergen.
LASTREA FISCHERI, Heer.
Newberry, Later Extinct Floras, XXXV., 10, Pl. XLVIII., 6.
Miocene of the John Day Valley, Oregon; Eocene of the Red Deer River,
Canada.
One specimen showing three fragments of as many pinnæ. The
form, size and other features of the pinnules correspond exactly with
[pENHALLOW] CRETACEOUS AND TERTIARY PLANTS OF CANADA 49
the diagnosis for L. fischeri, but in the latter there are about ten
nerves on each side of the midrib, while in our specimen the nerves
never exceed seven pairs, and there are frequently not more than four.
It is therefore provisionally referred to L. fischeri.
EQUISETUM ARCTICUM, Heer.
Heer, Miocene Flora and Fauna of Spitzbergen, 1870, 31, Pl. I., 1-15; II., 2 & 3b.
Dawson, Trans. R. Soc. Can., IV. (1886), iv., 22, Pl. I., 2.
Miocene of Spitzbergen; Eocene of Red Deer River, Canada.
The original description of this species appears in Heer’s Miocene
Flora of Spitzbergen, where also several excellent figures of the plant
are given, showing the stem in longitudinal and transverse aspects,
together with numerous tubers. The plants are shown to closely
resemble the existing species of E. limosum, and they are found in great
abundance at King’s Bay.
In the material from Red Deer River, there are no complete stems.
These structures are represented only in end view, and show nodal
sections from which roots and tubers radiate. The tubers, when
perfect, are upwards of 7 mm. wide and 2 cm. long. ‘They are borne
upon short stalks and are somewhat broadly elub-shaped, with an abrupt
or almost truncate termination. The surface is strongly rugose. The
very close resemblance which these specimens bear to E. arcticum, leaves
no room for doubt that they may be referred to that species. Les-
quereux describes an Equisetum from the Tertiary of Green River
Station, Wyoming, under the name of E. wyomingense which it is
very difficult to separate from E. arcticum, the only real difference
appearing in the length of the internodes.
Sir William Dawson observed two species of Equisetum in the
Upper Laramie of Porcupine Creek and of Great Valley* in lat. 49,
long. 105. The specimen from Porcupine Creek is neither figured
nor described, but it is spoken of as having a diameter of one quarter
of an inch, and its close resemblance to E. arcticum of Heer, and to
E. wyomingense of Lesquereux is noted, but identity could not
be established. The specimen from Great Valley is not described,
but it is figured. The figure shows a short fragment of stem with
tubers. The plant was described in the Report on the 49th Parallel
+ Trans. R. Soc. Can., IV. (1886), iv., 22.
50 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
under the name of Physagenia parlatorii, and the opinion is expressed
that all specimens passing under that name, and abundant in Canada
and the United States, represent species of Equisetum. In the present
instance, it seems highly probable that all of these species as figured,
may be referred to E. arcticum, though the identity is not clearly
established by the figures and descriptions so far published.
SEQUOIA COUTTSIÆ, Heer.
Heer, Flora of Northerm Greenland (1869), 464, Pl. XLI., I-9; XLII., 1; XLVIII.
Knowlton, Fossil Flora of the Yellowstone National Park, ENCRES, 681.
Dawson, Trans. R. Soc. Can., V. (1887), iv., 35.
Rept. Geol. Surv. Can., N. Ser., II. (1886), 135 E.
Eocene of the Red Deer River, Canada; Laramie of the Yellowstone National
Park; Lower Miocene of Greenland; Cretaceous of Staten Island.
Numerous fragments of leafy branches together with one specimen
showing two cones, apparently young. This species was found in
the former collections recorded by Sir William Dawson from the same
locality.
4
SEQUOIA NORDENSKIOLDII, Heer.
Heer, Miocene Fauna and Flora of Spitzbergen (1870), 36, Pl. II, 136.
Newberry, Later Extinct Floras of N. America, XXXV., 20, Pl. XXVI., 4.
Dawson, Trans. R. Soc. Can., IV. (1886), iv., 22.
Miocene of John Day Valley, Oregon; Mackenzie River.
Upper Laramie (Eocene) of Porcupine Creek, Great Valley and Red Deer
River, Canada.
In the original description of this well known species from Cape
Staratschin, Spitzbergen, Heer lays stress upon the decurrent char-
«cter of the leaves. In the present material from the Red Deer River,
which consists of three specimens of short, leafy branches, there is
an exact agreement with the diagnosis, except that the leaves are
here spreading, while in the type they are more or less conspicuously
appressed to the branch. Newberry, on the other hand, in describing
specimens from the Laramie of the Yellowstone River in Montana,
figures several branches in which the leaves are spreading exactly as
in the specimens from the Red Deer River.
[PENHALLOW] CRETACEOUS AND TERTIARY PLANTS OF CANADA 81
TAXODIUM DISTICHUM MIOCENUM, Heer.
Heer, Flora Foss. Sachalinensis, 22, Pl. I., 9.
Flora of Northern Greenland (1869), 463, Pl. XLIII., 4, 5.
Miocene Flora of Spitzbergen (1870), 32, Pl. II. & III.
Dawson, Trans. R. Soc. Can., VIII., iv., 79: I. (1882), iv., 33 & 34.
Newberry, Later Extinct Floras of the U.S., XXXV., 22, Pl. XLVII., 6; L, 3;
eae Os
Miocene of Greenland; Birch Bay, Washington and John Day Valley, Oregon.
Fort Union Group of Montana. Eocene of Elko Station, Nevada and
Red Deer River, Canada. Miocene of the Similkameen Valley, British
Columbia, and Mackenzie River.
This widely spread and familiar species appears in the Paskapoo
series of the Red Deer River in the form of several fragments of
leafy branches, but without fruit. They show the characteristic
features of the species.
GLYPTOSTROBUS EUROPÆUS (Brongt.), Heer.
Dawson, Trans. R. Soc. Can., VIII., iv., 791 (1882), iv., 34.
Newberry, Later Extinct Floras of the U.S., XXXV., 24, Pl. XXVI., 6 & 8a;
LV., 3, 4.
Lesquereux, Tertiary Floras, VII., 74, Pl. VII., 1, 2.
Cretaceous and Tertiary Floras, VIII., 222, Pl. XLVI., 1.
Eocene of the Paskapoo Series, Red Deer River, Canada.
Miocene of Stump Lake and the Similkameen Valley, B.C.
Miocene of the Bad Lands and the Yellowstone Valley.
Fort Union Group of Dakota and Birch Bay, Washington.
Green River Group of Florissant, Colorado.
In the Paskapoo series, Glyptostrobus europeus is represented
by one small, leafy stem only. In the Flora of the Similkameen Val-
ley, Sir William Dawson figured a small specimen of Glyptostrobus
which he hesitated to identify, although admitting its close resem-
blance to G. europæus from the Miocene of Europe. It would seem
to me that there is no real ground for hesitation in admitting the
identity of this species.
TYPHA, sp.
Eocene of the Paskapoo Series, Red Deer River, N.W.T.
Leaf narrowly lanceolate, apex acute (?), margin entire. Veins
numerous, about 36 to the cm., unequal, and not equidistant; trans-
verse veinlets none.
The specimen upon which the above diagnosis is founded is about
11-5 em. long and 17 mm. broad at the lower end where it has been
52 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
broken off. It evidently represents the upper portion of a narrowly
lanceolate leaf, but the termination cannot be properly determined
although the natural continuation of the side lines would seem to
indicate an acute apex. There are also two smaller fragments of the
same type of leaf showing the same characters.
Mss
Fic. 3.—TYPHA LEAF.
The form and general character of this fossil at once suggest
its relation to Iris, Phragmites or Typha. A critical inspection, how-
ever, at once shows that the complete absence of distinct nerves must
serve to exclude it from both Iris and Phragmites, and it must there-
fore be excluded from all connection with P. alaskana of Heer, as
[PENHALLow] CRETACEOUS AND TERTIARY PLANTS OF CANADA 88
figured and described by both Lesquereux * and Knowlton, but to which
its general form would seem to make it allied.
J
Fic. 4.—TYPHA VENATION. X 5.
A critical examination of two species of typha has served to bring
out the possible connection of this fossil with that genus. In
T. latifolia, a leaf having the same width as the fossil showed a com-
plete absence of nerves, but the presence of numerous unequal, and
unequally distant veins to the number of about 83 per cm. ‘These
veins are not connected by transverse veinlets as in Iris, and as called
for in most of the descriptions of Phragmites. The absence of nerves,
however, is not a constant character, since in larger leaves these struc-
tures appear chiefly toward the base where they are also obsolete to
some extent, and their distribution within the width of the blade is
by no means uniform. The veins of T. latifolia appear to be about
twice as numerous as in the fossil, but this would seem to be of the
nature of a specific variation, since in T. angustifolia they are only
48 per cm. In all cases the veins are distinguished by their unequal
size and variable distance as in the fossil.
Lesquereux has described a species of Typha from the Green
River Group of Florissant, Colorado,? but both description and
figures seem to be wholly inapplicable to the genus as far as it is
represented by existing forms. In T. latifolia and T. angustifolia,
both of which he refers to for general comparison, the veins are either
all alike, though variable in size and proximity, or there are more or
less prominent nerves about 1 mm. distant, with about 7 intermediate
veins which are alternately larger and smaller. In no case do herb-
arium specimens exhibit transverse veinlets, and certainly nothing
of the sort could become conspicuous in the impression of a fossil leaf
of this genus. It is therefore evident that the statement that the
leaves are “ marked lengthwise by parallel nerves (14) crossed at right
1 Tertiary Flora, VII., 90.
2,Cret. & Tert. Floras, VEIT, 141, Pl. XXIIT:, 4; 4a.
54 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
angles by transverse thin lines; intermedial veinlets numerous
(10 — 13 ,” cannot apply to Typha. The “ transverse thin lines ” here
referred to as connecting the nerves and crossing the 10 — 13 “ inter-
medial veinlets” cannot be interpreted as ordinary cell walls, but
they must obviously be regarded as cellular partitions, the spaces
between which are air chambers; the entire structure is therefore of
-
Bia. 5.—MAJANTHEMOPHYLLUM GRANDIFOLIUM.
ME ete ee
that type which is not uncommon in aquatics, and in the broad sheath-
ing petioles of Sagittaria, the characteristics of Typha latissima are
very nearly represented.
MAJANTHEMOPHYLLUM GRANDIFOLIUM, D.sp.
Eocene of the Red Deer River, N.W.T.
Leaf broadly ovate, about 9-5 cm. wide, and 11-2 em. long from
the base of the sinus to the apex; apex acute; margin entire; obscurely
[PENHALLOW] CRETACEOUS AND TERTIARY PLANTS OF CANADA 58
three nerved, the veins about ? — 3 imm. distant, the chiefly obscure
cross veins either wholly transverse or diagonal.
This diagnosis is based upon one fairly well preserved specimen
of which the basal lobes are wanting, and upon three other less com-
plete fragments which show a much less perfect state of preservation,
inasmuch as they show no veins, or at the best exhibit them but
obscurely. That this leaf is that of an endogen admits of no doubt,
and a comparison with the leaves of existing species soon served to
establish a general resemblance to those. of Maianthemum bifolium
dilatatum. The leaves of this species vary somewhat widely as to
their form and the development of the basal sinus, but the following
may be taken to represent the essential characteristics so far as they
could be obtained from a number of herbarium specimens.
Leaf broadly ovate, about 7 cm. broad, and upwards of 10 cm.
long from the base of the sinus to the apex. Sinus broad and shallow
or upwards of 3 cm. deep. Margin entire; the apex acuminate or
abruptly acute. Nerves about 11, somewhat prominent toward the
base, but becoming obscure and finally obsolete toward the apex; the
interval variable, but at the point of curvature toward the apex,
about 5 mm. distant; the veins about 1 mm. distant.
From the above descriptions, it would seem that our fossil has
its nearest representative among living plants in Maianthemum
bifolium, and it should therefore be referred to the genus Majan-
themophyllum of Weber. The very large size of the leaf suggests
the propriety of grandifolium for the specific name. Of Tertiary
representatives of this genus, Schimper enumerates four species as
common in Europe,! and Hollick has described one ?— M. pusillum —
from the Cretaceous of Staten Island. As given by Schimper, and
as defined by the figure of M. pusillum given by Hollick, there seems
to be no essential point of agreement with the Red Deer River material,
which represents a different specific type and requires to be separately
designated.
ge
mes
CLINTONIA OBLONGIFOLIA, n. SP.
Eocene of the Paskapoo Series, Red Deer River, N.W.T.
Leaf lanceolate oblong, about 3.5 em. wide and 9 em. long. Apex
acute ?; margin entire; the base tapering into a margined petiole;
en not apparent; veins fine, obscure, distant about 1 mm.; nerves
obscure.
? Paléontologie Végétale, II., 440; III., 582.
+ "Trans. Noy. ACdd sce axl, 36 (1892):
56 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
The apex of the specimen has been truncated to a width of about
? mm., but a continuation of the side lines makes it probable that
the termination was acute. The base is rounded, but the folding in
of the sides at the position of the midrib, indicates the existence of
a tapering base which probably extended into a short and margined
petiole which may also have been sheathing. The nerves are very
obscure and observable at one point only, thus making it doubtful if
they were prominent in the original plant. The veins are fine and
numerous though obscure. They are uniformly distant 1 mm., and
they are connected by transverse veinlets at intervals which could
Fic. 6.—CLINTONIA OBLONGIFOLIA.
not be determined with accuracy. The undoubtedly endogenous char-
acte: of this specimen has led to a comparison with the genus Clintonia
which it closely resembles. A diagnosis of a leaf taken from C. bore-
alis, gives the following results: —
Leaves very variable, elliptical oblong to narrowly oblong; midrib
obscure; veins numerous, not prominent, distant 1 mm., and connected
by transverse veins which are somewhat conspicuous, rarely oblique,
and distant about 2 — 3 mm.
[PEeNHALLOwW] CRETACEOUS AND TERTIARY PLANTS OF CANADA 57
From this it appears that there is a very close resemblance
between the fossil and the leaves of existing Clintonias, a resemblance
so close not only with respect to general features, but with respect
also, to details, that I do not hesitate to assign the fossil to the genus
under the name of C. oblongifolia.
POPULUS UNGERI, Lesq.
Lesquereux, Tertiary Flora, VII., 175, 12) GO Yay
LL
Denver Group, Golden, Colorado.
Eocene of the Red Deer River (Paskapoo Series), N.W.T.
One nearly perfect specimen evidently identical with Populus
ungeri of Lesquereux, originally described by him from the Denver
Group of Golden, Colorado.
PoPULUS OBTRITA, Dn.
Dawson, Trans. R. Soc. Can., VIII., iv., 82 (1890).
Lower Miocene of the Similkameen Valley, B.C.
Eocene of the Red Deer River (Paskapoo Series), N.W.T.
The original description of this species was based upon material
from the Lower Miocene of the Similkameen Valley, B.C., and the
diagnosis is supplemented by a figure of a very complete specimen.
The peculiarities of the species are to be found in the broadly ovate,
or almost reniform shape of the leaf, its dentate margin and especially
the venation which embraces two strongly defined veins curving
strongly upward from the summit of the petiole, thus giving rise to
one strong lateral in each case.
The material from the Red Deer River embraces several specimens,
three of which are very perfect and admit of determination beyond
all doubt.
PoPULUS DAPHNOGENOIDES, Ward.
Ward, Bull. U.S. Geol. Surv., No. 37, p. 20.
Dawson, Trans. R. Soc. Can., VIII., iv., 83 (1890).
Fort Union Group of Seven ‘Mile Creek, Montana.
Lower Miocene of the Similkameen Valley, B.C.
Eocene of the Red Deer River (Paskapoo Series), N.W.T .
Represented by one small specimen, evidently a young leaf not
more than 2-5 em. broad, from which the upper third has been removed.
The base, margin and venation, so far as they appear, are quite perfect
58 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
and characteristic, and they seem to leave no doubt as to the identity
of the species.
This species was originally obtained from the Fort Union Group
at Seven Mile Creek, Montana, and described by Ward. More recently
it has been found in the Miocene of the Similkameen Valley as
described by Sir William Dawson.
PoPULUS RICHARDSONII, Heer.
Heer, Fossil Flora of Northern Greenland, 468, Pl. XLIV., 7, 8, 9; LV., 3b.
Miocene Flora of Northern Canada, 13 (1880), Pl. L., 2d, 3.
Lesquereux, Tertiary Flora, VII., 177, Pl. XXII.
Cretaceous and Tertiary Flora, VIII., 159, 224, 260.
Green River Group, Colorado and Elko Station, Nevada.
Miocene of the Bad Lands, Dakota; Chignik Bay, Alaska; Northern Green-
land and the Mackenzie River.
Eocene of the Red Deer River (Paskapoo Series), N.W.T.
This very familiar and widely distributed specimen of poplar
appears in the Eocene from the Red Deer River, and in the material
now in hand it is seen in the form of one incomplete leaf 5-5 cm. wide
and 4-5 cm. long. It shows the cordate base, characteristic venation
and dentate margin, though the latter is largely obliterated.
QUERCUS ELLISIANA, Lesq.
Lesquereux, Tertiary Flora, VII. (1878), 156, Pl. XX., 4-8.
Laramie Group, Bozeman, Montana.
Eocene of Red Deer River, N.W.T.
A fragment of a leaf devoid of base and apex, but the general
contour, venation and margin, appear to make reference to Quercus
ellisiana correct.
CoRYLUS AMERICANA, FOSSILIS, Newb.
Newberry, Later Extinct Floras, XXXV., 60, Pl. XXIX., 8-10.
Fort Union Group of Seven Mile Creek, Montana, and Fort Union, Dakota.
Laramie of Porcupine Creek, Canada.
Eocene of Red Deer River, N.W.T.
This species is recorded by Newberry from the Fort Union Group
of Dakota and Montana. It also appears in the Upper Laramie of
Porcupine Creek, Canada, and is again found in the Eocene of the
Paskapoo series at Red Deer River, which locality is represented by
a single fragment of a leaf distinguished by the general form and
characteristic venation.
[PENHALLOwW] CRETACEOUS AND TERTIARY PLANTS OF CANADA 59
CoRYLUS MACQUARRII, Forbes.
Heer, Flora Fossilis Arctica (1880), 14, Pl. I., 1 & 2b.
Flora of Northern Greenland (1889), 469, Pl. XLIV., 114; XLV., 6b.
Miocene Flora and Fauna of Spitzbergen (1870), 56, Pl. XI., 10-13 ;
XIIL., 350.
Lesquereux, Cretaceous and Tertiary Floras, VIII., 223, Pl. XLIX., 4.
ss Tertiary Floras, VII., 144, Pl. XVIII., 9-11.
Newberry, Later Extinct Floras, XXXV., 61, Pl. XXXII., 5; XLVIII, 4.
Knowlton, Flora of the Yellowstone Nat. Park, XXXIL., 699, Pl. LXXXVL, 3.
Forbes, Quart. Jn’1 Geol. Soc., VII. (1851), 103, Pl. IV., 3.
Eocene of Alaska, the Mackenzie River and Red Deer River, N.W.T.
Fort Union Group, Montana and Porcupine Creek, B.C.
Laramie Group of Wyoming.
Miocene of the Yellowstone Park, Northern Greenland and Spitzbergen.
This species originally described by Forbes as Alnites, but
transferred to Corylus by Heer, is represented in the material from
the Red Deer River by two leaves, one of which is 7-5 X 11-5 cm. and
shows the characteristic base, venation and to a large extent, also the
margin. The other fragment of about half the size of the first, has
had a large portion of its margin removed. Otherwise it answers to
the characters of the species.
In his Flora of Spitzbergen, Heer describes many fragments of
leaves which he refers to this species, but the fragmentary nature of
the material leaves an element of doubt as to the identification. From
the same locality — Cape Staratschin — he also describes several fruit-
like bodies considered as possibly the fruit of this species. In his
Miocene Flora of Northern Canada, Heer also records and figures the
same species, the fragments of leaves shown, exhibiting in their well
preserved venation, characteristic features.
Lesquereux has recorded the occurrence of this species in the
Tertiary of the Washiki Group at Carbon Station, Wyoming. He
further draws attention to the fact that at that time no specimens
had been seen from the Upper Miocene of the Green River and the
Parks, and that such material as has been obtained from the Lower
Lignitic, represents indistinct and scarcely determinable specimens.
In his Cretaceous and Tertiary Floras, however, he records its occur-
rence in the Miocene of the Bad Lands, and gives an excellent figure
of a nearly complete leaf. The best diagnosis of this abundant and
widespread species, as illustrated by a very characteristic and nearly
complete specimen, and that which is chiefly relied upon in the present
determination, is given by Newberry in the Later Extinct Floras of
North America, where material from the Fort Union Group is
described.
60 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
ALNITES GRANDIFOLIA, Newb.
Newberry, Later Extinct Floras, XXXYV., 67, Pl. IV., 2.
Dakota Group of Nebraska; Paskapoo Group (Eocene) of Red Deer River,
Canada.
Represented by three fragments of leaves which collectively show
the base, margin and venation. The species was originally described
by Newberry who figures it in his Later Extinct Floras as derived from
the Cretaceous of Smoky Hill, Kansas.
CARYA ANTIQUORUM, Newb.
Newberry, Later Extinct Floras of N.A., XXXV., 35, Pl. XXXI., 1-4.
Lesquereux, Tertiary Floras, VII., 289, Pl. LVII., LVIII.
Cretaceous and Tertiary Floras, VIII., 236.
Fort Union Group of the Yellowstone Valley, Montana.
Denver Group of Carbon and Evanston, Wyoming; Cross Lake, Louisiana.
Upper Laramie of Porcupine Creek, Rocky Mountain House and the Paskapoo
Series of the Red Deer River, N.W.T.
The material from the Red Deer River embraces several specimens
of this species representing venation, margin and apex. The original
description of this species occurs in Newberry’s Notes on the Later
Extinct Floras of North America, and is reported in full, together
with excellent figures, in his more voluminous treatment of the same
subject in the publications of the U. 8. Geological Survey.
JUGLANS LECONTEANA, Lesq.
Lesquereux, Tertiary Flora, VII., 285, Pl. LIV., 10-13.
Denver Group of Evanston, Wyoming.
Laramie of Marshall, Colorado.
Eocene of Cherry Creek, Oregon, and Red Deer River, N.W.T.
Two partial fragments of leaves which show the characteristic
venation of this species.
ENHALLOW] CRETACEOUS AND TERTIARY PLANTS OF CANADA 61
JUGLANS OCCIDENTALIS, Newb.
Newberry, Later Extinct Floras of N.A., DOO BY Ib LOVE, XVe
Bocene of the Green River, Wyoming, and Red Deer River, N.W.T.
This species was originally described by Newberry from the
Tertiary of the Green River Group of Wyoming, and as at present
known, is of very restricted distribution. It nevertheless reappears
in the.Paskapoo series of Canada, as represented by a fragment of a
leaf embracing the apex. The material is so small and imperfectly
preserved that identification is somewhat doubtful, but it seems to be
as above indicated.
JUGLANS LAURIFOLIA, Kn.
Knowlton, Fossil Flora of the Yellowstone National Park, XXXII., 688, Pl.
LXXXIII., 2 & 3.
Tertiary of Yanceys and Chaos Mountain, Yellowstone National Park.
Eocene of Red Deer River, N.W.T.
This species was first described by Knowlton from the Laramie
of the Yellowstone Park, and it now reappears in the Paskapoo of the
Red Deer River in the form of a single, imperfect leaf, but the char-
acters are such as to make identification reasonably complete.
JUGLANS ACUMINATA, A. Braun.
Heer, Arctic Flora, 1869, 483, Pl. LVI., 5, 6.
Eocene of Port Graham, Alaska, and Red Deer River, N.W.T.
Lower Miocene of N. Greenland.
The material from the Red Deer River is represented by one
nearly complete leaf which agrees with the descriptions and figures
of Juglans acuminata, as given by Heer, based upon specimens from
the Lower Miocene of Northern Greenland at Copenhagen.
Sec. IV., 1902. 4.
62 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
VIBURNUM OVATUM, D. sp.
Eocene of the Red Deer River, N.W.T.
This species is represented by one small leaf, 3:5 X 6 cm., with
about one-third wanting, but the remainder shows the margin, vena-
tion and apex, though the base is wholly wanting. The fragmentary
Fic. 7.—VIBURNUM OVATUM.
nature of the material makes the foundation of a new species unsatis-
factory, and the name V. ovatum is therefore given provisionally.
Leaves small with a well defined ovate form; apex acute; margin
rather coarsely dentate towards the apex, the teeth rounded.
CoRNUS RHAMNIFOLIA, O. Web.
Lesquereux, Tertiary Floras, VII., 244, Pl. XLII., 6.
Laramie Group of Montana.
Montana Formation, Wyoming.
Paskapoo Series (Eocene) of the Red Deer River, N.W.T.
Represented by three well preserved and nearly complete specimens
of leaves which present the characteristic features as defined by
Lesquereux, and as figured by him in the Tertiary Flora.
[PENHALLOwW] CRETACEOUS AND TERTIARY PLANTS OF CANADA 63
CERCIS PARVIFOLIA, Lesq.
Lesquereux, Cretaceous and Tertiary Floras, VIII. (1883), 201, Pl. XXXI., 5-7.
Green River Group of Florissant, Colorado.
Paskapoo Series (Eocene) of Red Deer River, N.W.T.
The original of this species was described by Lesquereux from
the Green River Group at Florissant, Colorado. It is distinguished
by its small size, and it now reappears in the Paskapoo series of the
Red Deer River. The material shows a leaf from which the apex
has been removed, but otherwise perfect. In addition it shows one-
half of a fruit-like body resembling a cherry stone, and strongly sug-
gestive of the fruit of Tilia or Celtis.
PHYLLITES CARNEOSUS, Newb.
Newberry, Later Extinct Floras, XXXV., 134, Pl. DG bs) alr
Fort Union Group, Dakota.
Paskapoo Series (Hocene) of the Red Deer River, N.W.T.
This problematical genus is represented in the material from
the Red Deer River by two leaves which conform to the descriptions
and figures derived by Hayden from the Fort Union Group of Dakota.
Dusious SPECIEs.
In the material from the Red Deer River there were several
fragments of a foliaceous fossil, none of which show a normal outline,
or even a portion of a normal margin. The three most perfect speci-
Fic. 8.—VENATION OF A DOUBTFUL SPECIES. x 6.
mens measure respectively 4:5 X 8-5 cm.; 37 & 6-5 cm. and
22 X 9:5 cm. The surface shows a uniform structure entirely devoid
64 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
of nerves, but marked by fine veins at regular intervals and about 30
to the em., or 22 per em., the latter probably being the normal number.
At intervals of about 1:5 mm. cross veins or bars connect the former
either transversely or diagonally. In detail, the appearance of the
structure is like that which characterizes the various descriptions and
figures of Phragmites between the nerves. ‘The apparently great
breadth of the organ represented, the complete absence of nerves and
also the absence of secondary veinlets traversed at right angles by the
cross bars, serve to exclude it completely from both Phragmites and
Typha as usually described in palæobotanical works, and by the same
characters the fossils are excluded from relationship with Phragmites
and Typha as expressed in the structure of existing representatives
of those genera.
Among recognized fossil plants, there is great difficulty in
establishing identity, but Fontaine figures a somewhat similar frag-
ment from the Mesozoic of Virginia. This specimen shows about 20
veins to the cm. The description reads as follows: —
“Stem finely striate; punctures, or bars, between all the striæ.
The transverse bars, under a good glass, are much like dots, and do
not always connect the longitudinal lines.”
This diagnosis applies to Calamites punctatus, Emmons, which
Fontaine identifies with and transfers to Sphenozamites rogersianus,
and the close similarity of the present material, suggests possible
identity.
[PENHALLOW]
zr
CRETACEOUS AND TERTIARY PLANTS OF CANADA
Red Deer River
CRETACEOUS.
oo
Staten Island
Dakota Group
Montana Formation
of Wyoming
Wyoming and
Laramie of Colorado
Montana
|
|
National Park
Yellowstone
LARAMIE AND ÉOCENE.
p, Wyo-
ming, Galode
Denver Grow
and Lousiana
Alnites grandifolia..........
Cercis parvifolia...........
Clintonia oblongifolia, n. sp
Cornus rhamnifolia.........
Corylus americana........ ;
Corylus mequarrii .........
Equisetum arcticum.......
Glyptostrobus europæus...
Hickoria antiqourum.. ... |
Juglans acuminata.........
Juglans laurifolia.....,....
Juglans Leconteana.......
Juglans occidentalis........
Lastrea Fischeri...........
Majanthemophyllum
grandifolium, n. sp.
Phyllitis carneosus.........
Populus daphnogenoides...
Populus obtrita............
Populus Richardsonii ......
Populus Ungeri ...........
Quercus Ellisiana..... ....
Sequoia Couttsiæ .........
Sequoia Nordenskioldi.....
Sphenopteris Blomstrandi..
Sphenopteris Guyottii.....
Taxodium distichum mio
cemum,.
Typha SD. se: races
Viburnum ovatum, n. Sp.
x
x
65
os
U. Laramie
(Eocene) of
Canada and U.S,
p
Montana, Dakota
and B. Columbia
Fort Union Grou
Colorado and
Green River Grou
Wyoming
Eocene of Alaska
and Oregon
go-
) Canada
Similkameen Val
L. Miocene (Oli
cene
Miocenn.
‘on
and the y
gha-
lien and Spitz-
Mackenzie River
bergen
ocene of
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Miocene of Ore:
B. Col.
Miocene of Sa,
[ae
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an
[PENHALLOwW] CRETACEOUS AND TERTIARY PLANTS OF CANADA 67
An analysis of the preceding table by localities, shows that of a
total of 58 stations for the plants of the Paskapoo series as previously
determined, 34:48 per cent are Miocene, 60-34 per cent are Eocene
and only 5-17 per cent are Cretaceous. Out of the 28 species included
in the list from the Red Deer River, 24 have been definitely recognized
and associated with particular formations. Employing this as a basis,
the percentage distribution of the Red Deer River plants would be,
Miocene 12-5 per cent, Eocene 83:33 per cent, and Cretaceous 4:16 per
cent. Yet again, of the Eocene plants, 10 per cent also extend into
the Cretaceous, while 45 per cent extend into the Miocene, thus leaving
55 per cent which may be regarded as purely Eocene, while 10 per cent
are common to both Cretaceous and Miocene. Of the purely
Cretaceous type, so far as its previous record is concerned, is
Alnites grandifolia which Newberry observed in the Dakota Group,
where at least two other species have been recognized, while Alnites
insignis also occurs in the Upper Cretaceous at Nanaimo. The genus
Alnus as known on this continent is altogether ‘Tertiary, ranging from
the Eocene to Pleistocene, and the same is true of its occurrence in
Europe, from which it would appear that the genus Alnites is to be
regarded as a Tertiary and not as a Cretaceous type. Sequoia couttsiæ is
a species of wide range, extending from Cretaceous to Miocene, and ‘the
same is largely true of Cornus rhamnifolia, so that both are to be
viewed as essentially Tertiary types. Viburnum ovatum which appears
to be a new species, belongs to a genus which is found in both the
Cretaceous and Tertiary of North America, but by far the larger
number of species are of Tertiary age, while in Europe, it does not
appear before the Eocene where it has few representatives, but in the
Miocene it is augmented by a large number of species. Clintonia
oblongfolia has not been recognized on this continent heretofore, and ~
in Europe also, it has no representative. It therefore affords no
special evidence as to the age of the Paskapoo series. Maianthemum
is represented in the Cretaceous of North America by Majanthemo-
phyllum pusillum from Staten Island. In Europe it does not appear
before the Miocene where it is represented by four species, but it is
most abundant in the later part of this age.
So far then as these comparisons afford evidence, the flora of the
Paskapoo series abundantly confirms the conclusion of Mr. Tyrrell
that this formation is of Eocene age.
68 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
TERTIARY OF THE HORSEFLY RIVER, B.C.
One small collection was marked “ Horsefly River, B.C., G. M.
Dawson, 1894.” It embraced only eleven species, but in 1901, Mr.
Thomas Drummond brought to me a small specimen of fossil wood
from the Miocene Mines at that locality, and it has been added to the
collection. The species recognized are as follows: —
GLYPTOSTROBUS EUROPÆUS, Heer.
Represented by small fragments of leafy branches only.
TAXODIUM DISTICHUM, MIOCENUM, Heer.
Represented by several characteristic, leaf-bearing branches.
SEQUOIA LANGSDORFII (Brongn.), Heer.
Represented by one fairly well preserved cone and by several leafy
branches.
PSEUDOTSUGA MIOCENA, n. SP.
(Plate XV. and XVI.)
The specimen representing this species is a small fragment of
a stem secured by Senator R. H. Campbell, of Cariboo, B.C., and for-
warded through Mr. Thomas Drummond in 1901. It was obtained
from Cariboo Mine, on the Horsefly River, at a depth of 400 — 500
feet, where there is reported to be a large amount of material often-
times representing tree trunks between two and three feet in diameter.
Much of the material is carbonized. The deposit in which it occurs
is described as a white quartz gravel resting upon a stratified and
indurated clay.
The specimen placed in my hands was only a few centimeters in
length. A small portion was carbonized and had the aspect of cortical
structure, but under the microscope it shows no details whatever. The
principal portion of the specimen had the appearance of a decorticated
[PENHALLOw] CRETACEOUS AND TERTIARY PLANTS OF CANADA 69
fragment of a branch, which it eventually proved to be. The details
of its examination are as follows :—
Transverse. (Fig. 17.) Growth rings prominent; the spring wood
passing gradually into the summer wood. Resin canals rather abun-
dant and scattering, the details of structure not recognizable.
Radial. (Fig. 18.) Tracheids highly altered by decay and
maceration; spiral structure of the wall conspicuous but due to
extreme development of the striation through maceration, the normal
spirals of secondary growth not recognizable; bordered pits nearly
obliterated, in one row. Details of structure in the medullary rays
are nearly obliterated; pits on the lateral walls about 4 per tracheid,
bordered ?
Tangential. (Figs. 19 and 20.) The structure shows extreme
alteration through decay. The medullary rays of the uniseriate
type have round or oval cells about 24-5 broad; those of the fusiform
type have thick-walled cells and in their general structure are com-
parable with those of Tsuga, Picea and Pseudotsuga.
There can be no doubt that this specimen represents the wood
of Pseudotsuga, and it thus acquires additional interest because it is
the first instance of which I am aware, of the occurrence of this genus
in the Miocene, or of even later formations, though it is a matter of
some surprise that it has not long since appeared in the great
abundance of material collected from the Tertiary deposits of the
western portion of this continent, where it is now so conspicuous an
element of the forests.
PINUS TRUNCULUS, Dn.
Jawson, Trans. R. Soc. Can. (1890), VIII., iv., 78.
This species was first described by Sir William Dawson on the
basis of a single leaf from the Lower Miocene of the Similkameen
Valley at Stump Lake, B.C., and it now reappears in the Miocene of
the Horsefly River.
CASTANEA CASTANZ FOLIA (Ung.), Kn.
Lesquereux, Cretaceous and Tertiary Floras, VIII. (1883), 246, Pl. LII., 1, 3-7.
Heer bhi rans © laxeexe 47 Only ANNE TES elu Vel (1889):
The specimens from the Horsefly River represent fragments of
leaves only, but they are to be identified without doubt, with Castanea
castanefolia.
70 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
ALNITES CURTA, Dn.
Dawson, Trans. R. Soc. Can. (1890), VIII., iv., 86.
Originally described by Sir William Dawson from the Lower
Miocene of the Similkameen River, on the basis of leaf and fruit. It
appears in the Miocene of the Horsefly as leaves only.
BETULA STEVENSONI, Lesq.
Lesquereux, Tertiary Flora (1878), VII., 139, Pl. XVIII.
As described by Lesquereux, this species is already known in the
Laramie of Wyoming. In the Miocene of the Horsefly, it appears
in the form of imperfectly preserved leaves of varying sizes, but with
characteristic venation and margins.
PLANERA LONGIFOLIA, Lesq.
Lesquereux, Tertiary Flora, VII., 189, Pl. XXVII., 4-6.
Cretaceous and Tertiary Floras (1883), VIII., 161, Pl. XXIX., 1-3.
This species occurs in the Green River Group of Wyoming, and
now reappears in the Miocene of the Horsefly as fragments of leaves,
often in a very imperfect state of preservation.
ARALIA NOTATA, Lesq.
Lesquereux, Tertiary Flora (1878), VII., 237, Pl. XXXIX., 2-4.
Several fragments of leaves with characteristic venation.
ACER DUBIUM, n. sp.
One specimen showing the wing of a fruit but no seed vessel.
This was correctly referred to the genus Acer by Sir William Dawson,
but as the material is altogether insufficient for accurate diagnosis,
it is provisionally assigned to A. dubium.
NELUMBIUM PYGMÆUM, Dn.
Dawson, Trans. R. Soc. Can. (1890), VIII., iv., 87.
Two imperfectly preserved leaves only. The only other locality
for this species is on Mill Creek, Similkameen River, and therefore
Lower Miocene.
[PENHALLOwW] CRETACEOUS AND TERTIARY PLANTS OF CANADA 71
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72 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
This list of plants is much too limited to be employed as a definite
basis for conclusions relative to the age of the deposit, but an analysis
of the foregoing table shows that in point of distribution, the plants
are considerably more abundant in the Eocene (56-66 per cent) than in
the Miocene (40-00 per cent). On the other hand, there are no
species which are exclusively Cretaceous, but there are 2 per cent
which are exclusively Eocene and 3 per cent exclusively Miocene.
Seven species in all occur in the Eocene, while eight species occur in
the Miocene. Out of a total of ten species, 10 per cent occur also
in the Cretaceous and 40 per cent occur also in the Eocene. So far
then, as this evidence goes, it seems to indicate the Miocene age of
the formation on the Horsefly River.
EXPLANATION OF THE FIGURES.
Plates VII.-XVI.
Fig. 1.—Osmunda skidegatensis. Transverse section of the stipe. x 29.
Fig. 2.— ...... .. .. .. «. + ..Transverse section of the outer cortex. x 180.
Wig. 3.—.. .. .. .. .. «. .. .. «. Dransverse section of the inner coxtex. x 180.
Fig. 4.—Todea barbara. Transverse section of the stipe. x 29.
Fig. 5 —Osmunda skidegatensis. Transverse section of stipe, showing details
of the stele. x 42.
Fig. 6.—.... .. .. .. .. Transverse section of the stele, showing details
of the gore region, and obliteration of the parenchyma in the
phloem and xylem regions. x 180.
Fig. 7.—Todea barbara. Transverse section of the stipe, showing details of
the stele for comparison with fig. 6. x 56.
Fig. 8—Osmunda skidegatensis. Longitudinal section of the stipe, showing
cortical parenchyma, two regions of phloem parenchyma with
abundant mucilage globules, and a central region embracing the
xylem. x 29. -
Fig. De we se ses ee cs uelee longitudinal section of itheystipe, showine
the structure of the inner cortex, the region of the phloem paren-
chyma with abundant mucilage globules, the phloem region and
scalariform vessels of the xylem. x 55.
Pig. 10.—... peace . .... .. .. LOngitudinal section through the xylem, show-
ing the Uptaierive of the scalariform vessels. x 180.
Fig. 11.—Ginkgo pusilla. Transverse section of the wood. x 61.
Fig. 12.—.. .. .. .. .. .. Radial section of the wood. x 180
Fig. 13.—.. .. .. .. .. .. Tangential section of the wood. x 180.
Fig. 14.—Sequoia langsdorfii. ‘Transverse section of the wood. x 55.
Big: 15.—..... Sas ae! pet ie eee adial ssection of the woods sop:
Fig. 16.—.. -. .. .. .. .. .. .. Tangential section of the wood. x 55,
Fig. 17.—Pseudotsuga miocena. Transverse section of the stem. x 55.
Big, 1822, 5 NN RAA Section Of /StemimsagliU:
Fig. 19.—.. .. .. 4 ss is we cd. Danigential section of, stem, showing uni-
seriate rays. x 170.
Fig. 20.—.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. Tangential section, showing character of the
fusiform rays. x 170.
[PENHALLOW] CRETACEOUS AND TERTIARY PLANTS OF CANADA 73
Fic. 1.—OSMUNDITES SKIDEGATENSIS. x 29,
PLATE VII. Fig. 2.—OSMUNDITES SKIDEGATENSIS x 180,
A) 8) Me mis .
“LAN PF dt Al
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[PENHALLOwW] CRETACEOUS AND TERTIARY PLANTS OF CANADA 75
Fic. 3.—OSMUNDITES SKIDEGATENSIS. x 180.
PLATE VIII. Fic. 4—TODEA BARBARA. x 29. 4 A
Fe ee
ee one LS : Me
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[PENHALLOW] CRETACEOUS AND TERTIARY PLANTS OF CANADA LE
Fic. 5.—OSMUNDITES SKIDEGATENSIS. X 42.
FLATE IX. Fic. 6.—OSMUNDITES SKIDEGATENSIS. x 180.
[PENHALLOW] CRETACEOUS AND TERTIARY PLANTS OF CANADA
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Fic. 7.—TopEA BARBARA. x 56.
PLATE Xe
Fia. 8.—OsmunbITEs SKIDEGATENSIS. x 29
ade
[PENHALLOW] CRETACEOUS AND TERTIARY PLANTS OF CANADA 81
Î [A4 +} CA
Fic. 9.—OSMUNDITES SKIDEGATENSIS.
PLATE F1G. 10.—OSMUNDITES SKIDEGATENSIS. x 180.
[PENHALLow] CRETACEOUS ANDYTERTIARY PLANTS’0F CANADA 88
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PLATE XII.
Fic. 12.—Ginxco PUSILLA. x 180.
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[PENHALLOW]
CRETACEOUS AND TERTIARY PLANTS OF CANADA
PLATE XIII.
Fic. 13.—GINKGO PUSILLA. x 180.
SA
à
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Fic. 14.—SEQUOIA LANGSDORFII. X 55.
85
a.
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CANADA 87
PLANTS OF
CRETACEOUS AND TERTIARY
[PENHALLOW]
oe, RY
Fic. 15.—SEQUOIA LANGSDORFII.
3.
- æ ;
SEQUOIA LANGSDORFII.
16.
Fila.
PLATE XIV.
[PENHALLOW] CRETACEOUS AND TERTIARY PLANTS OF CANADA 89
’
7 OVE . . Tr = :
PLATE XV. FIG. 18.—PSEUDOTSUGA MIOCENA, x 170,
91
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PLANTS OF
AND TERTIARY
CRETACEOUS
[PENHALLOW]
x 170.
Fic. 19.—PSEUDOTSUGA MIOCENA.
oe AIAN
20.—PSEUDOTSUGA MIOCENA.
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PLATE XVI.
Secrion IV., 1902 [ 93 ] Trans. R. S. C.
III.— Notes on Cambrian Faunas.
By G. F. Marruew, LL.D.
Earlier ‘“‘notes’’ were published in these Transactions in 1897-98 and ’99.
(Read May 27, 1902.)
No. 5. OBoLôID SHELLS OF THE CAMBRIAN SYSTEM IN CANADA
AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP.
Much has been done of late years to make known to us the type
of Eichwald’s genus Obolus, and especially through the monograph
on this genus prepared by Michwitz. Through his writings we now
know the main points of the internal anatomy of that genus as pre-
sented in the type species O. Apollonis and its variety Quenstedti, and
can see how easily it might be misunderstood from the older repre-
sentations of its form and internal features.
Depending, as the paleontologists have had to in the first case,
on external features as the means of determining the genus, a
number of species have been referred to Obolus, which, when better
known, were found to exhibit important points of difference, these
were chiefly in the moulding of the interior surface of the valves.
Of this moulding of the interior, the most distinctive markings
are those which indicate the points of attachment of the muscles that
move the valves, and the impressions of the main trunks of the
circulatory system. Much variation was found in these two sets
of markings, showing radical differences in the arrangement of the
internal parts of the animal. Yet the more obvious characters of the
external form, and the surface markings of the valves, are those which
must necessarily first be used in assigning the species to its genus.
We propose in this brief note to point out some distinctions
which have been made out from a knowledge of the internal char-
acters of the shells of the Oboli of the Cambrian System in Canada;
and indicate some possible relations to other genera of shells that
have been assigned to the genus Obolus.
The species are referred to in succession, taking the oldest first,
and continuing with those that are found in successively higher
horizons in the Cambrian.
94 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
OBOLUS TORRENTIS (Plate 1, fig. 1).1
This species, found in the shales enclosed in the volcanic rocks
of the base of the Cambrian, is referred to the genus only on the
basis of general form. The internal moulding of the shell is not
known, but the depressed band on the median line of dorsal valve
indicates a relationship to the following species:
OBOLUS TRIPARILIS (Plate 1, fig. 2).
This species from the base of the Lower Etcheminian, is easily
distinct from the type of the genus by the advanced position of the
anterior adductors of the dorsal valve, and the close association with
them of the “7” laterals. In O. Apollonis the first named muscles
are wide apart and the “7” laterals are far in advance of them.
There is also in the Etcheminian form a small scar between these
laterals from which, with them, the species takes its name. Of this
scar the cause is not known, but in size and appearance it resembles
those made by the “7” laterals.
OBoLus piscus (Plate 1, fig. 3).
This form by the arrangement of the central group of muscles
anc the sculpture shows it relation to the preceding. Itis larger and
more orbicular.
OBOLUS ÆQUIPUTEIS (Plate 1, fig. 4).
This Obolus also has the two pairs of scars of the central muscles
of the dorsal valve, approximated, but the supposed “ 7” laterals are
unusually large. It also has the small median scar that is found in
the other two. The three form a series of closely related forms
(Eoopouws).
OBOLUS LENS-PRIMUS.
This small Obolus is the initial form of a quite different series.
The preceding three have the vascular trunks of the ventral valve
wide apart as in Obolus Apollonis. In the series of which O. lens-
primus is the oldest known form, the vascular trunks of this valve
are approximated so as to resemble those of the Lingulepis. They
may even be so close together as to enclose only a third of the area
of the valve.
1 The full description of this and the three following new species will
be found in the author’s report to the Director of the Geological Survey
of Canada, on the Cambrian Rocks of Cape Breton.
[MATTHEW] CAMBRIAN FAUNAS 95
The amount of chitinous matter in the valves of the species of
this group is small, and the outer shell may have been calcareous. As
preserved in the shales of the Cape Breton Cambrian, it is trans-
lucent and apparently silicious. These shells may be related to
Obolella.
OgoLus LENS (Plate 1, fig. 6).
This form is considerably larger than the preceding, and, like it,
has regular concentric ridges on the surface. In this character they
differ from the Oboli of the Lower Etcheminian, which have a surface
ornamentation of waving irregular ridges.
OBozus BRETONENSIS (Plate 1, fig. 5).
The preceding species is found both above and below this one;
the former is found in fine sandy shale, but the present species affected
a mud in which clay was more plentiful. This species had more
prominent and more widely set concentric ridges on the surface than
the preceding.
These three forms belong to the section PALÆOBOLUS, char-
acterized by approximated vascular trunks.
In the base of this division of the Etcheminian is a large Obolus,
whose characters are not sufficiently known to enable us to use it
in this comparison (O? major).
OBOLUS PULCHER (Plate 1, fig. 7).
In the base of the St. John group another Obolus appears, of a
type quite different from either of the preceding. It is easily recog-
nized by the peculiar ornamentation of cancellated ridges, resembling
those of Zphidea pannula. The dorsal, by its incurved and flattened
posterior slope, and its internal markings, shows a resemblance to the
markings of Acrothele, and the beak of the ventral is more prominent
than is usual in Obolus; but it is not pushed forward as in Acrothele,
nor is the cardinal area visible from above.
One peculiar feature of this species is the larger size and fan-
like form of the callus of the ventral valve; in this point it resembles
some of the Orthids. The callus extends beyond the middle of the
valve, and shows that in the ventral valve of this species, the central
muscles were far forward. This is referred to the subgenus Bors-
FORDIA.
2
96 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
OBOLUS PRISTINUS (Plate 1, fig. 8).
Nearly cotemporaneous with the last is a somewhat larger species,
which, if the markings are interpreted aright, has similarly advanced
centrals in the ventral valve, but the anterior adductors of the dorsal
are unusually far back. This is counterbalanced by the position of
the “7” laterals which are only } of the length of the valve from
the front. The surface markings are fine and more like later than
earlier species.
The Paradoxides beds, though containing a varied fauna and
several genera of Brachiopoda, shows hardly a single example of
Opolus; this is especially true of the Lower Paradoxides beds, where
the bulk of the fauna is found.
Ogozus ELLA (Plate 1, fig. 9).
This form, formerly referred to Lingulella, is decidedly Oboloid
in shape. It differs from the type lin the backward position of the
“7” laterals of the dorsal valve; also the anterior adductors of this
valve are set further back than in ©. Apollonis. Mr. Walcott’s refer-
ence of it to Westonia would also indicate that the sculpturing of the
surface of the valves differs from that of Eichwald’s species.
OBOLUS REFULGENS (Plate 1, fig. 11).
This species is very near the geological horizon of Obolus Apollonis,
but lived in a different habitat. The latter species abounded in sand-
stone beds, but the former in fine dark gray shales or mud-beds. Being
very thin, the internal markings of the valves of O. refulgens are faint,
and it is only lately that specimens have been found which show that it
is not a typical Obolus. In Obolus proper (Euobolus) the scars of the
anterior adductors of the dorsal valve are separated far from each
other, but in this species they are closely approximated; they are
closer together than those of Lingulella, and are parallelled only by
those of Monobolina, Salter. Lingulella Davisii, which is nearly co-
temporary with these two forms, is intermediate between them as
regards the approximation of these two muscle scars.
From an examination of the internal features of the valves of
the several species of Obolus, which the author has briefly outlined
above, the reference of these species to that genus, taking O. Apollonis
[MATTHEW | CAMBRIAN FAUNAS 97
as the type, is evidently open to question; the arrangement of the
muscle scars and of the vascular trunks, relates them to other genera
rather than to Obolus, as typified by the species above named. For
this reason we have felt it necessary to propose sub-generic names
to indicate these important differences.
The oldest group (Hoobolus) differs from the type in the
advanced position of the whole group of the central muscles of the
dorsal valve; not the “ 7”? laterals alone.
The second group Lol differs in the approximation of
the vascular trunks of the ventral valve, which enclose only a third
of the area of the valve, whereas in O. Apollonis one-half of the
surface is thus enclosed.
The third group (Botsfordia) differs in the close grouping of
the central scars of the dorsal valve, and the posterior position of
the lateral scars. Also in the very large callus of the ventral valve.
The fourth group represented by Obolus pristinus is different
by the arrangement of the scars from any of the preceding, and also
by its sculpture. It is, perhaps, on the line of development of Obolus
Ella which Mr. Walcott, on account of its surface, has referred to
his subgenus Westonia; it, however, has no resemblance to Westonia
in its surface-markings, and the “ j ” Jaterals of the dorsal are much
farther forward.
The fifth group (Monobolina) differs from the type in the close
approximation of the anterior adductors of the dorsal valve.
There are also differences in the sculpture In the first group
(Eoobolus) this consists of close, fine irregular waving concentric ridges.
In the second (Palæobolus), of stronger and more regularly concentric
ridges. In the third (Botsfordia), of cancellated ridges, forming a
marked pattern. In the fourth, of fine concentric ridges, irregular
in their elevation and prominence. In the fifth (Monobolina), in
very fine and regular concentric ridges.
The following table is an attempt to show graphically the possible
relations of the several species to each other, and to other genera,
and subgenera of the Cambrian system.
The table shows the horizon in the Cambrian at which each of
the species appeared in Eastern Canada, with some vieuiclas cE to
other species occurring outside that region.
98 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
CoNJECTURAL LINES OF DESCENT OF THE CANADIAN OBOLI, WITH REFERENCES
TO THE OLDEST KNOWN ATREMATA. THE ZONAL HORIZONS OF THE
SEVERAL SPECIES ARE SHOWN IN THE MARGIN.
Dictyonema Obolus (Monobolina)
Obolus ( Euobolus) refulgens
Apollonis aA
\ /
he 7.
Peltura O (Westonia) Iphidea \ DS
Ella pannula Lingulella Linguella
| Davisii concinna
| \
| | \
NS .
Olenus | | q L. levis
| | N
| \
| | hs
Upper | | \
Paradoxides Obolus, sp. | Lingulepis L. radula
Starri
Lower | | L. Dawsoni
Paradoxides | |
|
|
Protolenus Obolus O. (Botsfordia) L. Martinensis
pristinus pulcher
|
|
|
O. (Palæobolus)
Upper Bretonensis
Etcheminian | O. (P) lens
|| O. (P) lens-primus
|
{ O. (Eoobolus) L. longinervis Lingulalla
Lower æquiputeis Selwyni
Etcheminian | O. (E) discus is i
O (E) triparilis| L. Gregwa if L. longovalis
/
/
7
/
Coldbrook O (E?)torrentis} L. pumila L, cf. longovalis
Base of the
Cambrian Leptobolus Obolus Lingulepis Lingulella
| pl |
Atremata
Pre-Cambrian
[MATTHEW ] CAMBRIAN FAUNAS 99
No. 6. DEVELOPMENT IN SIZE OF THE INARTICULATE BRACHIOPODS
OF THE BASAL CAMBRIAN.
In comparing the Brachiopods of the Coldbrook Terrane (Base
of the Cambrian) with resembling forms of the next terrane above,
the writer observed that in all the genera the resembling forms were
larger. This had been found to hold in the genus Acrotreta, which
in the range of time from the beginning of the Cambrian to the
Lower Ordovician increased considerably in the height of the ventral
valve, and also in the bulk of the valves generally.
That this enlargement of the valves did not affect one genus
only, but was notable in several, seems to indicate that there is a
law of general application in the development of the Brachiopoda
in this direction, such as is seen to have acted in the case of the
Horse and of other Tertiary Mammalia.
Owing to the smallness of these early Brachiopods this peculiar-
ity in the forms of the successive faunas is easily overlooked, but
in reality the change of bulk is quite noticeable, and in some cases
is nearly as great as that observed in the species counted in the
descent of the Horse from Hyracotherium to the modern Horse.
The enlargement of the species of Acrotreta from the first that
appeared in the base of the Cambrian to their culmination in Ordo-
vician Time is described in some detail in a paper by the writer, con-
tributed to the Bulletin of the Natural History Society of New Bruns-
wick, last year.
INCREASE IN SIZE OF THE VENTRAL VALVES OF ACROTRETA IN THE CAMBRIAN
AND LOWER ORDOVICIAN.
ra a x £3
TERRANE OR ASSISE NAME ° a TS RE
4 EF |ae4|) 4
mm mm
Coldbrook terrane........ A. papillata-prima...... 2 24 2° 5°
Lower Etcheminian.......| A. papillata....... Léa 24 3 2°4 75
Upper Paradoxides ..... A. socialis, v. Seeb...... 3 3 15 9°
Dolgelly Group........... A DISECHAN ities ARR ee 3 34 1°3 9°75
Llandeilo Group.......... A. subconica, Kutorga.. 4 4 ‘85 | 16:
Increase of the latest be-
VOU Me nie de to CA DCR DC cick: haste EN SAME RAR LAINE ART FER R ammere eye 3'2
In this table, the third column shows the proportion of the
width to the height of the valve, from which it will be seen that the
ventral valve became proportionally higher as time went on.
Sec. IV., 1902. 5.
100 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
it is conceivable that if we could follow the series in the phylum
of Acrotreta farther back in time, we would meet valves in which
the umbo would be no higher than in Acrothele or Linnarssonia; or
even until the umbo came down to the plane of the edges of the valve.
The fourth column represents the area of the opening of the
valve, assuming it to be square, which, of course, it is not; but the
extra third is left as an offset to the “third dimension,” viz., the
height, which is not shown in this and the following tables. This
column is intended, therefore, to represent the bulk of the shell.
In the case of Acrotreta it may be gathered from this table that the
Ordovician Acrotretas had attained three times the bulk of the
species that appeared at the beginning of Cambrian time. This then
is the result of the observations already made on the genus Acrotreta.
Let me see how far this result is borne out by observations on
other genera.
Several genera of Brachiopods are known to have appeared
simultaneously in the base of the Cambrian in the Acadian provinces
of Canada. These are:
Acrothyra.
Acrotreta.
Leptobolus.
Lingulepis.
Lingulella.
Obolus.
On comparing the species of these genera which appeared in the
Coldbrook or lowest terrane, with the species in the next terrane
which they most resemble, a decided, though not very great increase
in bulk, is observable. This will be seen by the following table:
COLDBROOK TERRANE ETCHEMIN TERRANE
£|£ =| 8
SPECIES AND Mutations | #|m | § SPECIES = real esa
2 ee ov CA I
wile ld SE 4] 4
mmimm mm|mm
Acrothyra signata-prima....| 2 | 24 | 4°50|| A. signata........ PAR MG: E.1b
Acrotreta, papillata prima..| 2 | 24 | 5‘00 | A. papillata....... 24 | 24 | 625 |E.3d
Leptobolus, torrentis........ 30|20146:00! Wa atavus "22 5 | 34 11750 | E.3e
Lingulepis pumila ........ .| 6 | 44 | 27° L. longinervis ....|11 | 8 |88° |E.2b
Linguella, c.f. longovalis....| 74 | 5 |37°5 || L. longovalis..... 916 |54 |E.le
Obolus torrentis............. 6 |6 |36- O. triparilis.... .. O18) 726 Hake
[MATTHEW] CAMBRIAN FAUNAS 101
A circumstance affecting this comparison is that more abundant
collections were made from the Etchemin terrane than from the
Coldbrook, and as the size of the largest valves is recorded in the
description of the species, this would give the Etchemin species an
advantage as regards comparative size. But even after eliminating
this possible occasion of a greater than the natural difference, there
remains enough variation to prove an increase in size of the Brachio-
pods as time went on.
For the purpose of checking this result, an examination was
made more in detail of the last four of the genera named above,
as they are represented by species in the Etcheminian terrane, from
which it will be seen that an increase in size is noticeable in all these
genera, as they pass through the Etchemin terrane. The assise where
each species occurs is given in the margin of the following table. The
assises occur in the following order from below upward, the Coldbrook
being the lower terrane.
Co: FOSSILIFEROUS } CoLDBROOK
SHALE OF THE TERRANE
la |
16
oe Division 1
ld
le
2a
2b + LE
Division 2 Etchemin Terrane
2c
Lower Fauna
3a
36
-3¢
34
3e
3 f
———_—s i”
Division 3
Upper Fauna
nn
~
The fauna of the two lower divisions of the Etcheminian is
distinct by its species from that of the upper division, and to some
extent also by the genera.
102 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
LEPTOBOLUS.
This is represented by two phyla in one of which the species
are diminutive, tumid, long-oval, thin shelled brachiopods with the
vascular trunks close to the margins. In the other phylum (L.
collicia, etc.) the species are somewhat larger and the margins of the
valves flatter. It is the first phylum which is considered here.
VALVES OF THE SMALLER LEPTOBOLI OF THE ETCHEMIN TERRANE, SHOWING
THE INCREASE IN SIZE FROM THEIR FIRST APPEARANCE ONWARD.
aq < =
+ ca ©
Assise NAME D = ae a
—_ HM
4 Bille EL hae
mm mm
Co : Beptobolusitorrentise Fr... 3° 2° 55 6:
E. 14 Less MÉTILAVUS EE ane se male 3°8 2°4 1°6 91
HD 214 (2) el 200 PNAS UU M DETTE Une 4°2 2°3 18 or
E. 34 LATE AUAVUS EE des eesmeent come où 31 1:84; 17.7
E. 3 e Miss Feet MANS A DANS ER nn Ne DE a Hee 4°8 31 15551 |) 1429
Increase of the latest beyond the first..|........|........|........ 2°5
LINGULEPIS.
Under this generic name there are at least two phyla. One
presenting small, thick shelled species, the other of larger species
(L. Gregwa, etc.), that appeared in the principal mudbed of the Lower
Etchemin fauna, and has not been met with higher up; for no Lingu-
lepis is yet known in the Upper Etchemin Fauna. The phylum of
small forms is here presented:
VALVES OF THE SMALLER LINGULEPIDES OF THE ETCHEMIN TERRANE, SHOWING
THE INCREASE IN SIZE FROM THEIR FIRST APPEARANCE ONWARD.
rs 5 Sg
Assise NAME. = SI 2.0 3
o S ECS =
4 EN ee <
mm mm
Co. Lingulepis pumila.......... A EE 6 44 1°33 27
E.1d Taz atm b vise Gregwa-robusta............ 104 74 1°64 78.75
E. 26 PR bi eae hea JOU PINELVIserc meee CRT sic 11 8 1:38 88°
Increase of the latest beyond the first..|........1........|........ 3°3
2 A full description of this and other new species of Cambrian fossils in
these tables will be found in the writer’s Report to the Director of the Geo-
logical Survey of Canada on the Cambrian Rocks of Cape Breton.
[MATTHEW] CAMBRIAN FAUNAS 103
LINGULELLA.
The Lingulellas of these lower Cambrian Zones are none of them
typical, that is they have not the “satchel shape” form characterizing
the type of the genus, L. Davisii, of the Upper Cambrian. Those
that are treated of here belong to a phylum of oval forms which are
found at intervals throughout the Cambrian system. The Lingu-
lepides just cited are perhaps nearer Lingulella-typical, than the species
named below.
VALVES OF OVAL LINGULELLZ OF THE ETCHEMIN TERRANE, SHOWING
INCREASE IN SIZE FROM THEIR FIRST APPEARANCE ONWARD.
a By ns
~ 2} os
Assise NAME ci D ne 3
o ra &
À es pny <
Co: Lingulella cf. longovalis ............... 74 5 1:50 37°50
E. 1c Di eer ERP longovalis.:- 2." 8 5 1:60 40°
Hee DÉMARRER longovalis wesley 9 6 1°50 54
Increase of the latest beyond the first.|........|........|........ 1°5
The increase in area is only one-half above the first integer; but
then the range in time was short, viz.: Coldbrook and one-half of
the Lower Etchemin Fauna.
OBOLUS.
Here is a complex group in which several phyla are involved:
SIZE OF VALVES OF THE OBOLI AS THE SPECIES SUCCEED EACH OTHER IN THE
ETCHEMIN TERRANE.
2 a Be
Assise NAME = 3 ye §
© fre à + Le
4 Bewley <
Co: Obolirstorrenbiss yj sissies 6 5 "83 30°
E. 1b OF tripariliste sees ssc 9 8 88 72°
E. le Oe. GISCUSMe Eee sacha: 94 9 *85 85°5
E. 2 (a?) OM: 57. RAMIDUbELS oc omnuoude Eee 12 11 92 132
HS) Didier ONE SET RS SO En 14 12 86 168
E. 3 4 OUT Bretonensis Pete 15 17 1:13 255°
Increase of the latest beyond the first.|........|........|........ 8.5
or 4.4
In this series there are at least two phyla. The interior of
O. torrentis is unknown, but the next three are characterized by the
equality and regular arrangement of the central scars of the dorsal
valve (including the anterior laterals), and by the possession of a small
sear in the middle of this group of muscles.. The first phylum may
104 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
be regarded as running through the Coldbrook and Lower Etchemin
Faunas, and to have increased four fold in that time; or, if one should
omit the Coldbrook species, they doubled in size.
The series of Oboli as a whole increased eight fold; but the two
species of the Upper Etcheminian are of a different phylum, one
especially, O. Bretonensis, was separate, if one may judge by the unusual
course of the vascular trunks of the ventral valve, which, for an Obolus,
are very close together. The two species of this fauna (O. lens and
O. Bretonensis) have a similar sculpture, and are likely to be from
the same root form.
As a result of this enquiry one may present the following con-
densed statement:
Number of integers
NAME OF THE GENUS OR PHYLUM FROM of increase of
Range in Time. bulk of the latest
WHICH THE FORMS HAVE SPRUNG species beyond
the first.
Entire Cambrian ..| Acrotreta, earliest species. A. papillata prima 3°2
Basal Cambrian ...| Leptobolus, ‘ + Htorrentis 70" 2°5
Includes Lower
Etchemin........ Lingulepis, ‘“ a Ibs MCW ease caoe SG)
Same, or for 4'3rate
Basal Cambrian..| Lingulella, ‘“‘ à L. cf. longovalis .. 4°3 or 1'5
Lower Etchemin
inclusive......... Obolus, ve S Os torrentis.. 2... 4°4
Basal Cambrian as
a whole........ .| Obolus, as a genus, based on form........... 8:5
ACROTHYRA.
As a contrast to this result we present the variations traceable
in the genus Acrothyra, from its earliest known appearance to the
latest form, of which we have positive knowledge. This covers the
whole of the Basal Cambrian time.
SIZE OF VENTRAL VALVES OF ACROTHYRA FROM THEIR FIRST APPEARANCE
TO THE TOP OF THE BASAL CAMBRIAN.
Selo ena nee
Assise NAME | Ce an eet gt AE
vo Es o ge a
4 F A oy x
mm | mom mm
Co : A. signata-prima....... Ske Rei at ir Se Er 24 24 1} 6°25
E. 1b A sionata (YPO) oser 3 2 1 2 6°
E.1le AUN Se, Cee SOA et oa Ree oe ae bone 24 24 14 1"72186:25
E. 14 AOS, eR cents Las EA ae NR and) SCI 24 3 14 2 00\NT eo
E. 2¢ AL ttenter OLGA a ore SAS oe 2 12 14 12 | 3:5
E.3a A. proavia-prima....... ..... Od ete 3 2 2 ees
E. 3 e BALM tte CLASSE MS Hele dee eins, sia¢ 24 2 13 12311167
E.3e A \proavia (EYpe)--2-t2 4h otre marie 3 2 14 1°3 | 6°
Increase of the latest beyond the first....|......|......|.. ...|...... “95
[MATTHEW ] CAMBRIAN FAUNAS 105
An increase in the elevation of the ventral valve (see fourth
column) is quite as noticeable in this genus as in Acrotreta as it is
found in the Basal Cambrian; but so far as bulk of the valve is con-
cerned the two genera differ, for Acrothyra shows no increase, but
on the contrary, if anything, a reduction in bulk. It would seem to
have been a closed type, which had reached its culmination and was
not capable of further development.
No. 7. Dip THE UPPER ETCHEMINIAN FAUNA INVADE EASTERN
CANADA FROM THE SOUTHEAST?
Some years ago, when president of Section IV. of this Society,
the writer had the honour of asking the attention of the members of
this section to certain conditions of the fauna and sediments of the
early Paleozoic in the North Atlantic region, that seemed to indicate
the manner of the migration of animal species at certain times from
one side of the Atlantic to the other; the faunas in some cases being
borne from Europe to America, and in others from the latter continent
to Europe.
These conjectures in regard to the migration of species were based
largely on the known spread of the genera from certain provinces
where the faunas were in full force, to others where they were repre-
sented by a limited number of species.
For instance, the Paradoxides fauna, of which Anopolinus is a
member, appeared to have its headquarters in Northern Europe, for
there not only does it have the greatest variety of genera, but it also
shows the most continuous chronological suceession. Anopolinus,
while it is found in Scandinavia and Britain and extends as far west
as Newfoundland, has not been found in Canada. And the species
of Paradoxides abundant in Europe and well represented as far as
Maritime Canada, is reduced to one species (or two) in Massachusetts,
and west of this is unknown.
A representative form of one species of this fauna, a Liostracus
(the Conocephalites tener of Hartt), which we had thought to be pecu-
liarly American, was sent to me this summer from the south of France,
by Mons. Jean Miquel, it thus also proves to be European, but belongs
in the southern facies of this fauna, represented in Paradoxides
rugulosus and the associate species. The American fauna of Para-
doxides thus drew its representatives from both the northern and
southern provinces in Europe. It would be an instructive study to
ascertain how and why the northern fauna of Paradoxides prevailed over
the southern in Maritime Canada, and what held the Upper Fauna of
106 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Paradoxides there, while the Olenus fauna was being developed in
Europe. |
In the article on the distribution of the Cambrian Faunas above
referred to, the present writer ventured to suggest that the fauna of
the Utica slate was a cold deep-water fauna, swept in upon America
from the North Atlantic region. Since then R. Rudemaun, the talented
Assistant Palæontologist of the New York State survey, has found
proof of the existence of such a current from the northeast prevail-
ing over northeastern New York in Utica times. This he has demon-
strated by observations on the attitude of colonies of graptolites
entombed in the Utica shale in that region.
In the present author's article above cited, it was also inferred
that the central part of North America was the headquarters of the
Olenellus fauna, because it was there represented by a variety of
species, whereas in Europe the fauna where it had been found consisted
of only a few species, stragglers from the main swarm. The argu-
ment in reference to the Paradoxides fauna would imply a reversed
current in the time of the Olenellus fauna, viz.: one flowing to the
northeast, and carrying with it the migrating young of the Benthos.
A possible confirmation of this view is found in the attitude of the
entombed shells of the Etcheminian faunas in Cape Breton, especially
the Upper fauna.
In the Upper Etcheminian fauna the orientation of its Brachio-
pods to the northeast is of a very marked character, indicating a
current setting to the northeast along the Cambrian shore during the
time of the entombment of the Upper Etcheminian fauna.
In the Lower Etcheminian the orientation is more capricious,
some beds showing it distinctly and others not at all. But in the
fossils of the Upper fauna it is very conspicuous in many of the layers.
Sometimes as many as eighty per cent. of the valves are turned in
the direction of the current. This would indicate a steady flow of
water setting to the northeast during the time of the entombment of
the Upper Etcheminian fauna.
It is in accordance with this that the fauna changed suddenly at
the beginning of this time, a new set of species, and one new genus
appearing among the Brachiopods. There was also a change in the
kind of sediment deposited, as hard massive sandstones gave place to
more flaggy beds and shales.
It does not seem likely that the phenomenon of orientation to
the northeast was due to tidal action, for in the valley where this
feature is most noticeable, the beds in which it was observed thicken
to the southwest, indicating that the opening of the bay was in that
[MATTHEW ] CAMBRIAN FAUNAS 107
direction. Burials in tidal mud would occur in largest numbers at the
recession of the tide, and the valves would have been oriented to the
southwest, whereas these valves have just the opposite direction.
If then the burial of the shells was not by tidal mud but through
sediment carried on a continuous marine current, this current undoubt-
edly set steadily to the northeast. The nature of the sediment which
it carried and the species of fossils entombed by it, show that it was
a shore current. Whether the currents of the open ocean set in
the same direction, or not, there is no evidence to show. This may
have had a reversed direction, just as the Gulf stream is complimentary
to the Arctic current along the coast at the present day; but so far
as the shore animals are concerned, these were subject to the condi-
tions of trdnsportation above inferred.
We as yet know nothing of the deep water animals of this time,
which may have dwelt in a southwest current as did those of the
Utica slate, and probably also those of the Paradoxides beds.
Full particulars of observations on the orientation of the Cape
Breton Cambrian fossils are contained in the report on that region
recently submitted by the writer to the Director of the Canadian Geo-
logical Survey.
No. 8. CAMBRIAN BRACHIOPODA AND MoLLUSCA or Mr. STEPHEN, B.C.,
WITH THE DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES OF METOPTOMA.
At the time that the trilobites of the Mt. Stephen fauna were
reviewed by the author, the Brachipods were left, in hope that better
material would come into his hands, than were found in the Walker
collection. Since then, through the kindness of the late Director of
the Geological Survey of Canada, opportunity was furnished to examine
the collections that had been made for that survey by Messrs.
McConnell and Ami. These gave some further material for study.
In this year, through the courtesy of the Director of the U. S.
Geological Survey, I have seen the types of the species from Mt.
Stephen described by him (except the Crania) and so am in a position
to identify with some certainty the several Brachiopods coute by
Mr. Walker and Dr. Ami.
Mr. Walcott, through the occurrence of several of the Mt. Stephen
species in the Cambrian strata of central Nevada, correlates them with
the fossils of a certain belt of shales that occurs in a section in that
district.*
Am. JOUr SC, AVOIR VII Sept. 188s.
108 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
He summarizes this section as follows :—
FEET
1. Quartizite [at the top of which is the Olenellus fauna]...... 350
2. Limestones and shales [at the top of which is the group of
species corresponding to the Mt. Stephen Fauna]........ 1,450
3. Massive limestones [in the upper part of which is the Dicel-
locephalus (Euloma-Niobe fauna, fide Brégger) ]....:.... 3,000
4,800
By this section, the fauna corresponding to that of Mt. Stephen,
is about 1,400 feet above the fauna of Olenellus in the same section.
At a later date than the publication of this section, Mr. Walcott
described several of the Brachiopods of the Mt. Stephen Fauna, the
characters of which, as described by him, are here givent.
‘ LINGULELLA MACCONNELLI, n. sp.”
“Shell subspatulate, height and breadth as 7 to 44. Ventral
valve subattenuate toward the apex; broadest midway, with the sides
converging slightly toward the front,, and rather rapidly toward the
apex; front broadly rounded. Dorsal valve short, height and breadth
subequal; the broad front is squarely rounded.
The specimens are somewhat flattened in the shale, but the rather
strong shell preserves a moderate convexity. Surface marked by
concentric striæ of growth and radiating longitudinal lines.”
In the examples in my hands the concentric and radiating
striæ above referred to are obscured by a minute granulation; and
the radiations are much finer than the concentric lines. An example
of the ventral and one of the dorsal valves, both small, were found
in the Walker collection.
“ CRANIA (?) COLUMBIANA, n. sp.”
Is described by Mr. Walcott as follows:— “ Shell, small circular,
or slightly longer than wide; apex, central or nearly so. Surface
marked by fine coste, that radiate from the apex to the margin. ‘Traces
of fine spines appear about the margin. Diameter, 2 mm.”
The generic reference is made on account of the surface char-
acters being more like those of shells referred to Crania than to those
of other genera. Crania Grayi, Davidson ; Crania Lelia, Hall.
(24th Rep. N.Y. State Cab. Nat. Hist., p. 220, pl. 7, flg. 16.).”
1 Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., June, 1889.
[MATTHEW ] CAMBRIAN FAUNAS 109
There is no example of this form in the Walker or Canad. Surv.
Collections.
“ACROTRETA GEMMA, Var. DEPRESSA, 1. var.”
“The specimens from Mt. Stephen are relatively much lower and
broader in proportion to the height than the typical forms of A. gemma.
On this account they are considered as a variety.”
Mr. Walcott writes to me to say that the dorsal which he referred
to Linnarssonia sagittalis Salt, he now thinks to be the dorsal valve of
of the above species.
In the Walker collection is a dorsal valve which, by its sharp
median septum and other features, appears to be the dorsal valve of
this Acrotreta; the species appears to be sufficiently distinct from
A. gemma and may be called A. depressa, Walcott.
“ ORTHISINA ALBERTA, 0. sp.”
“ Shell transversely suboval, front broadly rounded; the straight
hinge-line is shorter than the full breadth of the valve; the area of
the ventral valve high, bent backward from the hinge-line, divided
by a large foramen that is covered by a convex deltidium. The area
of the dorsal valve slopes back at about a right angle to the valve.
The broad short foramen appears to have been covered by a low
deltidium.
Surface marked by radiating coste five in the distance of 3 mm.
on the frontal margin.
This species recalls Orthis Lindstrom, Linrs. from the Paradox-
ides zone of Sweden.”
Examples from the Walker collection are not well preserved and
show no further characters.
There is another Orthid in the Walker collection, with ribs much
wider apart, but not in good preservation.
“ KUTORGINA PROSPECTENSIS, Walc.,?” +
“A fragment of a species of Kutorgina, closely related to
K. prospectensis, occurs on slate in association with Ptychoparia
Cordillere. 1t not improbably represents a new species.”
No example of this was found in the collections that passed under
? Am. Jour. Sci.. Vol. XXXVI., Sept., 1888, p. 166.
110 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
the writers hands, all resembling specimens being referable to
Iphidea pannula. (See below.)
The following species appear not to have been in Mr. Walcott’s
collection, received from the Dr. Rominger.
IPHIDEA PANNULA, White sp.
Fine examples of this species were found in the Mt. Stephen
collections. They show well the characteristic ornamentation, which
resembles that of Obolus (Botsfordia) pulcher in that the cancellated
ornamentation is developed chiefly on the middle zone of the shell,
the front part being concentrically striated only. Still, there are
dorsals which show the cancellation over nearly the whole surface.
The shell has the convex pseudo-deltidium characteristic of Iphidea.
No examples showing the interior of the valves were obtained.
There are specimens of this shell in both the Walker and the
Canadian Geological Survey collections.
ACROTHELE SUBSIDUA, White.
Mr. Walker’s collection contains several examples of the valves
of this species, usually much flattened. One or two show well the
concentric ridging and the more minute, somewhat wavy ridglets
between. One dorsal is 9 x 10 mm. in size. Owing to the crushing,
the internal features are obscure in these valves.
Some good examples of this species were found in the collection
received from Mr. Walker.
OBozus ELA, Hall & W.
Comparatively few examples of this species were found, and they
do not show good interiors; still the discoid, circular form agrees better
with Obolus than Lingulella; and the position of the central muscles,
so fai as they can be made out, corresponds to Obolus. Perhaps the
low broad cardinal area of the ventral valve accords more decidedly
with Obolus than the other peculiarities of the valves, which are
modified to suit the discoid form of the valves.
The largest valve observed was a dorsal, somewhat abraded,
9 x 103 mm. across. The species is somewhat “ satchel ”-shaped.
Mr. Walcott in an MS. note remarks that this species varies greatly
in different localities and sediments. He refers it to his new sub-
genus Westonia on account of its surface which is not shown in the
few specimens in my hands.
[MATTHEW] CAMBRIAN FAUNAS 211
ACROTRETA Of BAILEYI.!
A thin-shelled form which has suffered much from compression,
is not rare in the Mt. Stephen shale. As in A. Baileyi the area of
the ventral valve is quite short, and the median ridge of the interior
of the dorsal has the broad lance-formed end of that of Linnarssonia.
Sculpture. This consists of very fine concentric striæ, somewhat
obscured by a minute granulation.
Size. Length, 34 mm.; width, 4 mm.; height (as compressed in
the shale) less than 1 mm.
This species is very Linnarssonia-like but the beak is too sharp
and too much elevated for that genus; also the smooth shining shell
of Linnarssonia is wanting.
LEPTOBOLUS cf. GRANDIS.”
A number of examples of a small brachiopod were found, which
by its size and form comes near the above species.! It is a thinner
and flatter shell but the difference may be due to the occurrence in
shale in place of sandstone. There is less difference in the compara-
tive length of the two valves than in L. grandis, and the sculpture
also is different. Sculpture consists of faintly marked fine, concentric
striæ, with more distinct undulations cf growth, the whole obscured |
by a minute granulation.
It is distinct from Halls species of the Utica slate in the absence
of minute concentric striæ, distinct, close and regular, also in its
larger size.
Merorroma AMI, n. sp. (Plate 1, fig. 12).
Examples of this shell are usually much flattened and the natural
form obscured. The apex was usually somewhat excentric and was
acuminate. Outside of the acuminate apex the slopes of the shell
were convex, and so continued to the margin.
Sculpture. Only very faintly marked radiating striæ are visible
and a few concentric undulations of growth.
Size. Length of orifice 10 mm.; width, 84 mm.; height (as com-
pressed in the shale), 2 mm.
This species was not quite so large as Metoptoma Barrandei,
Linrs., and differed in its smooth surface. It was much flatter and
was smaller than the Metoptome of the Potsdam sandstone of Wis-
consin.
* Trans. Roy. Soc. Can., Vol. IIL, p. 36, pl. v., figs. 13, 13 @ b c.
? Trans. Roy. Soc. Can., Vol. XI., p. 91, pl. 16, figs. 7a to c.
112 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATE.
Fig. 1. Obolus torrentis. Dorsal valve, Mag. 3. Coldbrook terrane.
Fig. 2. Obolus triparilis—a, Ventral valve—b, Dorsal valve, interior—c, Sec-
tion of same. All mag. +. Lower Etcheminian.
Fig. 3. Obolus discus—a, Ventral valve—b, Dorsal valve—c, Interior of same.
All mag. 4—d, Cardinal area of dorsal, further enlarged. Lower Etcheminian.
Fig. 4. Obolus œquiputeis—a, Ventral valve—b, Interior of same—c, Dorsal
valve—d, Interior of same. All mag. $ —e, Surface markings, enlarged f
Lower Etcheminian.
Fig. 5. Obolus Bretonensis—a, Ventral valve—b, Interior of same—c, Section
of same—d, Dorsal valve—e, Interior of same. All mag. ?. Upper Etche-
minian.
Fig. 6. Obolus lens—a, Ventral valve—b, Interior of same—c, Section of
same. All mag. 21 —d, Dorsal valve—e, Interior of same. Both mag. ? Upper
Etcheminian.
Fig. 7. Obolus pulcher—a, Ventral valve, outline of interior—b, Dorsal valve,
interior. Both mag. + Protolenus Fauna. |
Fig. 8. Obolus pristinus—a, Ventral valve—b, Side of same—c, Mould of a
ventral (?)—d, Back view of same. All mag, 2—e, Dorsal valve, young, mould
of. Mag. +. Protolenus Fauna.
Fig. 9. Obolus Ella—a, Ventral, outline of interior—b, Dorsal valve, outline
of interior. Both mag. 2. Peltura Fauna.
Fig. 10. Obolus Apollonis. Eichwald, var. Quenstedti. After Michwitz. Dia-
grams of the ventral and dorsal valves, enlarged; showing positions of the
muscle scars and vascular trunks (the branches of the latter are omitted).
Dictyonema Fauna, or below.
Fig. 11. Obolus refulgens—a, Ventral valve, interior—b, Dorsal valve, mould
of interior. Both mag. #. Dictyonema Fauna.
Fig. 12. Metoptoma Amii, n. sp.—a, Shell seen from above—b, Same from the
side. Both mag. ?. Peltura Fauna of Mt. Stephen, Field, B.C.
CAMBRIAN FAUNAS Trans. R.S,. C., Sec. IV.
3
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Sgcrion IV, 1902. PSE Trans. R.S. C.
1V.— Further Experiments in Plant Breeding at the Experimental
Farms.
By Wm. SAUNDERS.
Director of Experimental Farms.
(Read May 27, 1902.)
Experiments and observations in connection with the cross-
breeding of plants have been conducted from year to year at the
Canadian Experimental Farms since their establishment in 1887-8.
In 1894 the writer presented a paper to the Royal Society of
Canada on the progress of these experiments, in which some details
were given of the results obtained from the crossing of varieties of
wheat, barley, oats and pease, with the object of obtaining new sorts,
more productive, earlier in ripening, and higher in quality. Reference
was also made at that time to crosses obtained with different sorts of
gooseberries and raspberries, and to some hybrids between the black
currant and gooseberry.
In the present paper some particulars are given of further pro-
gress in these lines of work.
Cross-bred Wheats.
Experiments have been conducted with this important cereal since
the spring of 1888, and several hundreds of new varieties have been
produced, among which some very promising sorts have appeared.
The Red Fife, universally recognized as a variety of the highest
excellence, which produces most of the celebrated “No. 1 hard wheat ”
of Manitoba and the North-west Territories, has been used in many
of these crosses with the object of producing a variety equal to the
Red Fife in quality, productiveness and vigour, but which would ripen
earlier and be more rust-resisting. With this in view, early ripening
sorts have been brought from different parts of the world, especially
from countries where the season is short. The Red Fife has been
bred with these and the crosses obtained have in many instances been
found to possess some of the desirable characteristics of both parents.
Among other early experiments the Red Fife was crossed with
Ladoga, an early ripening Russian wheat, and from this source very
promising varieties were produced. Among the more notable exam-
ples are the two wheats known as Preston and Stanley. The Red Fife
116 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
is a beardless wheat, while the Ladoga is bearded. The Preston is
a vigorous growing bearded sort, while the Stanley is a beardless sport
from the Preston. The Preston wheat has manifested from the out-
set a remarkably vigorous and prolific character. During the past
seven years it has been tested in uniform trial plots with nearly 100
other varieties of spring wheat at all the Dominion experimental farms,
and, taking the average of all the results obtained, the Preston has
given a heavier crop than any other sort.
As compared with the Red Fife the Preston has given an average
crop for the whole time of 33 bushels 58 lbs. per acre, while the Red
Fife, during the same period and under similar conditions, has yielded
32 bushels 30 lbs., a difference in favour of the Preston of 1 bushel
28 lbs. per acre. It has not yet been definitely proven that the quality
of the Preston is equal to that of Red Fife; it is, however, regarded
as an excellent wheat. Samples sent to the office of the High Com-
missioner for Canada in London, England, in 1900, were submitted
to one of the best wheat experts on the London market for opinion.
Regarding the Preston, he reports that after a careful examination
he finds it to be of most excellent quality for milling purposes, rich
in gluten, and the type of wheat the British miller wants.
In a field crop of five acres, grown on the experimental farm at
Indian Head, in 1901, the Preston wheat averaged 54 bushels 54 Ibs.
per acre, while a field of 34 acres of Red Fife, grown on similar land
with the same treatment, gave 49 bushels 40 lbs. per acre. The
Preston ripens about four days earlier than the Red Fife, which is a
decided advantage in a short season. This earliness, associated with
greater productiveness, is remarkable, for, as a rule, any considerable
gain in earliness is associated with a diminution of crop; the berry
being smaller and less plump as the ripening is hastened.
The variety of wheat known as Stanley, although a twin product
with the Preston, has not shown quite as much vigour nor so high a
degree of productiveness, it having given, during the seven years
referred to, an average crop of 31 bushels 19 lbs. per acre, being 2
bushels 39 lbs. per acre less than Preston.
In testing the many new varieties of wheat produced, all those
which show a lack of vigour and productiveness are discarded after
trial for three or four years. From the new sorts which have been
originated at the experimental farms during the past thirteen years,
fifty-four have shown sufficient promise to justify their being included
in the list of those annually tested in the comparative trial plots at
the several experimental farms.
In conducting these experiments the object in view, as already
stated, is to originate new varieties of wheat equal in quality to Red
| SAUNDERS ] EXPERIMENTS IN PLANT BREEDING 117
Fife, earlier in ripening, more rust-resisting, and more productive.
Red Fife is an excellent wheat which produces a flour unsurpassed
in quality, hence it would be unwise to do anything which would tend
to lessen the interest in that variety, until it is proven that we have
other sorts equally good as to quality, associated with advantages
in earliness and productiveness. It should, however, be borne in
mind that in the growing of wheat there is constant self-fertiliza-
tion, and this “in and in” breeding may sooner or later cause deteri-
oration. The Red Fife has, fortunately, maintained its vigour and
excellent quality in the Canadian North-west for many years and as
yet does not show any signs of deterioration. Hence, in the meantime,
effort is made by careful selection and cultivation to grow every year
on the western experimental farms considerable quantities of this
valuable sort of the purest and best quality. This is distributed for
seed among some of the best farmers, so that the general purity and
high quality of the Red Fife wheat may be maintained. Red Fife
is not, as a rule, so successfully grown in the Eastern Provinces, and
there, other varieties are needed, and the new sorts referred to are
gradually finding their way into general cultivation in many of the
eastern districts. Should there at any time be any material diminu-
tion in the productiveness and vigour of the Red Fife on the prairie
lands of the west, we have, in these new sorts, other varieties which
will be available to take its place.
In the efforts to obtain rust-resisting sorts crosses have been made
chiefly with varieties of Triticum durum, of which the Goose and
Roumanian wheats are well known examples. Some work has also
been done in crossing the Speltz wheat with other spring varieties.
Long experience has shown that these sorts are less liable to the
attacks of rust than most other varieties, but the grain is inferior in
quality for bread-making. In producing these crosses Red Fife has
generally been used as one of the parents, with the hope of securing
a higher quality in the progeny. The experience had with these
later crosses has not yet been sufficient to permit of reliable opinions
being formed as to their merits.
One of the most interesting crosses in wheat yet made here was
produced in 1900 by Dr. C. E. Saunders, to whose careful and skillful
manipulations I am indebted for many of the most promising sorts
under trial. In this instance the Red Fife flowers were fertilized
with pollen of the Polonian wheat, Triticum polonicum. The Polonian
wheat has a very large and remarkable head, with very large kernels.
As a rule the plant grown from the kernel resulting from the cross
produces heads closely resembling those of the female used in the
experiment, and such modifications as are brought about by introduc-
Sec. IV, 1902. 6.
118 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
ing the blood of other sorts, are not very distinctly manifest until
the second generation, when the plants vary to a degree which is
remarkable. In this instance, however, the head was very much
modified in the first generation, and the plant produced from the Red
Fife kernel which was fertilized by the Polonian pollen gave heads
which were quite unlike Red Fife, with kernels considerably larger
than are ever found in that variety. The kernels were removed with-
out destroying the head which still retains much of its natural form.
These kernels have been sown and are producing vigorous plants,
among which some remarkable variations may be expected.
Cross-bred Barleys.
In the cross-breeding of barley the two-rowed sorts Hordeum
distichon have been crossed with the six-rowed Hordeum hexastichon.
The six-rowed sorts ripen earlier than the two-rowed, while the latter
stools much more freely. This cross has been effected with the object
of bringing about earlier ripening in the new varieties of two-rowed
originated and a greater tendency to stool in the new six-rowed sorts.
A number of productive and useful varieties have been thus obtained.
Among the new two-rowed barleys produced, the Beaver and Nepean
stand in the front rank, and among the new six-rowed sorts, the Royal
and Nugent. These have all gained a good record for productiveness
and quality, and are now grown to a considerable extent. Six-rowed
varieties of bearded barley have also been crossed with six-rowed
beardless sorts and some promising results obtained.
In crossing the two-rowed barleys with the six-rowed, the plant
produced from the hybridized kernel has usually resembled the variety
used as the female in the cross, but when the crop from this plant
has been sown the following season many striking and singular varia-
tions have occurred, some heads having two rows, others six rows,
while some have intermediate forms. By selecting the most promis-
ing sorts and rejecting from among these all the variations which
occur subsequently from year to year, the type will in a few years
usually become fixed and will reproduce itself in a pure form.
Cross-bred Oats.
In the crossing of oats the improvements looked for were
increased productiveness, earliness in ripening, stiffness of straw,
plumpness of grain, thinness of hull, and less liability to rust. Black
oats have been crossed with white, and, in some instances, three
varieties have been obtained by subsequent variations from the one
[SAUNDERS ] EXPERIMENTS IN PLANT BREEDING 119
kernel, viz., black, white and dun coloured. Sided oats have also been
crossed with branching, from which oats have been produced with
half branching heads. Among the most productive of the cross-bred
oats are the Cromwell, a cross between Prize cluster female and Giant
cluster male, which last year stood at the head of the list of varieties
tested at the Central Experimental Farm, the Kendal, which has
given on the trial plots at all the experimental farms for the past
three years an average crop of 70 bushels 18 lbs. per acre, and Hol-
land, a cross between Giant cluster female, and Prize cluster male,
which has given for the same period an average of 69 bushels 1 Ib.
per acre.
Cross-bred Pease.
Many useful crosses have been made in this group, some of which
have produced heavy crops. The Arthur, a cross between the varie-
ties known as Mummy and Multiplier, stands at the head of the list
tested at the Central Experimental Farm, having given an average
during six years trial of 37 bushels 35 lbs. per acre. Among the
other varieties which have stood high in productiveness are Carleton,
which was obtained from the same cross as Arthur, King a cross
between the Mummy and the large White Marrowfat, and Paragon, a
cross between the Black-eyed Marrowfat and Mummy. In all, about
175 cross-bred sorts of pease have been produced, and after discarding
those which have proved deficient in vigour, productiveness or quality,
there still remain thirty varieties which have shown sufficient merit
to warrant their being placed with the best of their class.
Cross-bred Apples for the Northwest Plains.
Ever since the experimental farms were established continued
efforts have been made in the Canadian North-west to obtain apple
trees which would be hardy enough to endure the climate of that
eountry. All the promising sorts obtainable in Northern Europe,
the Northern United States and elsewhere have been secured and
tested in considerable numbers, both with and without shelter, but
thus far unsuccessfully. In the spring of 1887, among other seeds
received from the Royal Botanic Gardens at St. Petersburg, Russia,
there was a package of the seed of the “ berried crab” from northern
Siberia, Pyrus baccata. Young trees were raised from this seed and
sent to the experimental farms at Brandon and Indian Head to be
tested and have now been under trial there for the past ten years.
They have been found perfectly hardy and have borne good crops of
fruit. These trees are dwarf in habit, low-branched and strongly
120 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
built, and the fruit is very firmly attached to the branches. They are
hence well fitted to endure the strong winds which sometimes prevail
on the open plains. The fruit, however, is very inferior in quality
and very small, about the size of a cherry. (See fig. 1.)
Having found in this species a tree with
the degree of hardiness desired, experiments
were undertaken with the object of increasing
the size and improving the quality of the fruit
by cross-fertilizing it with some of the hardiest
and best varieties of apples grown in Ontario.
The first experiments made in 1894 were with
the Tetofsky, Duchess and Wealthy, and, as
opportunity offered, other sorts have been used
and thus this work has been gradually ex-
tended. Thus far the introduction of the
blood of the larger apples has not appreciably
lessened the hardiness of the trees, and all
the varieties tested at the experimental farms,
both at Brandon and Indian Head, have passed
through the winters uninjured. ;
In the character of the foliage, colour of the wood and form of
growth of the cross-bred trees, there is much variation, some resem-
bling the varieties of cultivated apples used as the male, while others
are more like the wild form of the female. More than fifty of these
cross-bred sorts have fruited, and nine or ten of them are of such
size and quality as to justify their propagation for more general
distribution.
Among these the following are worthy of special mention:
Charles. Pyrus baccata female, with Tetofsky male, planted in
orchard at one year from seed, April 28th, 1896. The tree has grown
rapidly and wintered well. In the spring of 1899 it bloomed freely.
The flowers were deep pink in bud, large when open, pinkish-white,
petals wide. The fruit set well and ripened about September 3rd.
Size of fruit 1°/,, inches across and 1°/,, inches deep, distinctly
ribbed, calyx persistent. Colour a uniform yellow and very attrac-
tive. Flesh yellow, solid, crisp, juicy, with a pleasant flavour, mildly
acid and very slightly astringent. Skin rather thin, fruit bakes well.
Pioneer. Pyrus baccata, female, with Tetofsky, male. Planted in
orchard as a yearling tree, April 28th, 1896. It has grown rapidly
and it blossomed freely in the spring of 1899. The blossoms were
pink in bud, large and pure white when open, petals wide. The fruit
set well and was ripe September 21st.
Fig. 1.
-PYRUS BACCATA.
[SAUNDERS] EXPERIMENTS IN PLANT BREEDING 121
Size of fruit 12 inches across and 14 inches deep, slightly ribbed,
calyx persistent. Colour yellow, with a pink cheek. Flesh ‘white,
fine-grained, firm, crisp, moderately juicy, subacid, with a pleasant
flavour, astringency very slight.
Novelty. Pyrus baccata, female, with Wealthy, male. Planted in
orchard as a yearling tree, April 28th, 1896. This tree is an upright
and vigorous grower with good foliage. Fruited in 1899. Blossoms
deep pink in bud, white when open. Flowers large, petals broad.
Fic. 2.—CHARLES. Fic. 3.—PIONEER.
Fruit ripe September 19th. Size 14 inches across, 14 inches
deep. Colour, deep red. Flesh, pale yellowish pink, firm, crisp,
juicy, subacid and of fair quality. Stem long, calyx usually persistent,
bakes well.
Progress. Pyrus baccata, female, with Wealthy, male. Tree a
vigorous grower and fairly upright in habit. Planted in orchard as
a yearling, April 28th, 1896. Blossomed freely in 1899, flowers deep
pink in bud, pinkish-white when open, flowers large, petals wide.
Fruit ripe September 14th. Size 15/,, inches across and 1%/,,
inches deep. Colour yellow suffused with red, with a dark red cheek.
Flesh very firm, crisp, juicy, subacid and of fair flavour, astringency
barely perceptible. Stem long, calyx persistent.
Aurora. Pyrus baccata, female, with Tetofsky, male. Planted in
orchard as a yearling, April 28th, 1896. Made strong growth and
blossomed well in spring of 1899. Flowers deep pink in bud, large
when open, pure white, petals broad.
122 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Fruit ripe September 6th to 10th. Size 17/,, inches across and
1*/,, inches deep, calyx persistent. Colour bright red almost all over.
Flesh crisp, juicy, acid, and of fair flavour, astringency very slight,
bakes well.
Among other varieties of promise are Cavan, Dean, Northern
Queen, Carleton and Prairie Gem. Over 400 in all of these cross-
Fic. 4—NOVELTY. Fic. 5.—PROGRESS.
bred fruits have been produced and many new sorts are fruiting each
year. Most of the good varieties are being propagated for more
extended distribution.
Cross-bred Gooseberries.
These have been made with the object of improving the size and
quality of the varieties known as American gooseberries, by introduc-
ing strains of some of the best English sorts, so as to get as far as
is possible the size and quality of the English gooseberry with the
comparative freedom from mildew which characterizes the American
sorts. Two of the gooseberry crosses, Pearl and Josselyn (Red
Jacket), have become popular and are now in general cultivation in
[SAUNDERs ] EXPERIMENTS IN PLANT BREEDING 123
Canada and the United States on account of their useful size, produc-
tiveness and freedom from mildew.
The crosses in gooseberries include a number of other promising
sorts.
Many crosses have been made with red and black raspberries,
Rubus strigosus with Rubus occidentalis, the progeny of which have
Fic. 6.—AURORA.
been purple caps, many of them of large size. The black currant,
Ribes nigrum has been crossed with the gooseberry Ribes grossularia
and some interesting results obtained. Crosses have also been effected
between the sand cherry and the plum Prunus pumila with Prunus
americana, with Prunus nigra and Prunus americana, Pyrus maulet
and Pyrus japonica, and between Berberis Thunbergi and Berberis
vulgaris purpurea.
A large quantity of most interesting material has thus been accu-
mulated, among which, no doubt, many new sorts of practical value
will be found.
SECTION IV, 1902 .[ 125 ] Trans. R. S. C.
V.— Some Features of the Flora of Northern New Brunswick.
BAC UE EDS:
(Read May 27, 1902.)
The rivers of Northern New Brunswick present a most inviting
field for the botanist as they do for the angler; and if the former has
something of the sportsman in his nature—and what botanist has not
—] know of no place more congenial for the woodsman and canoeist
than the Restigouche, the Nepisiguit and the Tobique. The very
names are suggestive of a woodsman’s paradise. The weary
dweller in far off cities sniffs the breath of the forest and
the exciting chase of the antlered moose and caribou or the
struggles with gamy salmon and trout; the forester with admiring
eye can note the girth and height of lordly pines and spruces,
or giant birches and maples, and at night be gently lulled to refresh-
ing slumber by the sough of the wind through their tops as he
stretches contentedly beneath their broad canopy; the canoeman,
gliding over the swift pebbly stretches of the Restigouche, or through
the rock strewn rapids of the Nepisiguit, or among the many devious
windings of the Tobique and Serpentine, can say exultingly: “ Were
there ever woodland rivers like these!” The botanist, while he hails
the discovery of rare plants in these little explored regions, will rejoice
more in the luxuriance and the harmonizing influences of vegetation
to be found in the deep gorges, in the river valleys, in the mazes of
primeval forests, or in the Arctic forms that cling to the rocks of wind-
swept mountain tops.
It has been my good fortune in recent years with a congenial com-
panion to explore these rivers to their sources, to spend days lazily
paddling with the current or alternately climbing up the foaming
waves of rapids, or making weary portages around cataracts or through
intervening forests; to sleep contentedly at night in mosquito proof
tents ; — these and many other experiences, delightful and otherwise,
are the lot of those who explore the forests and inland waters of
Canada.
Before drawing your attention to the flora of the Restigouche
river, I may refer to some of the characteristic features of that valley
which forms the northern boundary of New Brunswick. The high
plateau country which extends from the St. John river to the Bay de
Chaleur is underlaid with calcareous slates formed under the sea in
past ages. Through these yielding slates the Restigouche has cut its
126 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
way eastward, delving deeper into the earth as it approaches the sea.
Next to the St. John and Miramichi, the Restigouche is the largest
river in New Brunswick, draining an area within the province of some
2,200 square miles. The wide divergence of its four chief tributary
streams, three from the north which drain a portion of the province
of Quebec and one from the south, the Upsalquitch, explains the origin
of its name — the river of the five fingers. This divergence of its
branches, one of which is as large as the main stream, and all of them
flowing nearly at right angles to the main stream, makes the drainage
area of the Restigouche system not far from 5,000 square miles. The
length of the main stream is 150 miles and during its course there
is a descent cf about 600 feet. Its flow is strong and swift, over a
gravelly bottom, broken by rapids on an average of every hundred
yards or so, but everywhere navigable for canoes. Jts waters are clear
and cold, from the springs of the dense wilderness to the north. As one
descends the stream, the valley becomes extremely narrow, flanked by
hills rising steep from the water’s edge, but scarcely ever too steep
to admit of a luxuriant vegetation, chiefly evergreen, which gives a
somewhat sombre character to the lower course of the river, although
in autumn enlivened by the scarlet and yellow of the numerous maples,
birches and other deciduous trees. The prevailing evergreens are the
white and red spruce and fir with a few white pines of small growth.
In the loops formed by the winding course of the river there may be
seen at frequent intervals, now a stretch of meadow land, now beautiful
terraces from thirty to seventy feet above the river; but so suddenly
does the stream change its course that these meadows and terraces
alternate in quick succession from one side of the headstrong river to
the other. These level spots are clothed with the most luxuriant
vegetation whose vivid green in the growing season contrasts with the
clear flashing waters below them and the darker evergreen of the hill-
sides beyond. The small area of the meadows and terraces with the
precipitous hillsides and wild scenery around them, make them suited
for garden spots of those fishing lodges so picturesquely perched above
the salmon pools at various points on the river.
The rich alluvial soil, the many sequestered nooks and shady
ravines of the Restigouche furnish most congenial habitats for ferns.
There is probably no district in Kastern Canada, except Owen Sound,
where they are found in greater luxuriance and variety. Nearly every
species found in the province of New Brunswick is represented there.
In the fertile meadows in the middle and upper course of the river the
most abundant was the Onoclea Struthiopteris, or ostrich fern, growing
in such luxuriance that fronds six feet in height were not rare.
Equally luxuriant and growing beside it in many places was the shield
[Hay] FLORA OF NORTHERN NEW BRUNSWICK 127
fern, Aspidium aculeatum var. Braunii, and the different types of the
royal fern (Osmunda) and the Asplenium theiypteroides. On the islands
near the mouth of the Metapedia was found that most graceful of all
our larger ferns, the maiden-hair, Adiantum pedatum.
The gorges and hillsides furnished an even greater variety of the
smaller ferns. The rock Polypody (Polypodium vulgare) somewhat rare
in our northern counties grew in great profusion in places, its fronds
sometimes reaching a length of from fifteen to eighteen inches. The
green spleenwort, Asplenium viride, filled crevices of limestone rock,
occasionally found with the rarer cliff brake, Pellea gracilis. The
delicate and graceful fronds of these two ferns and their light green
color, arching out from the gray crevices of rocks, often far beyond
reach, and the two bladder ferns, Cystopteris bulbifera and. C. fragilis
occupying the taluses at the foot of the cliffs, formed a picture that
would delight the lover of these beautiful plants. Both the Asplenium
viride and the Pellæa gracihs are ferns loving the shaded calcareous
rocks having a northern exposure, and are extremely difficult to
cultivate. I have succeeded with the Asplenium after repeated
attempts, and then only by reproducing the conditions of its habitat
as exactly as possible. The Pellwa has so far defied all attempts with
me at cultivation. Other rare ferns met with in secluded places on
the hills and mountains were the rare Aspidium fragrans, its clusters
of dead and living fronds forming patches among inaccessible rocks,
and Woodsia hyperborea and W. glabella. ‘These three ferns, known
in but few localities in the Atlantic provinces of Canada, were found in
several places on the Restigouche, and were especially abundant near
the top of Squaw Cap Mountain at a height of nearly two thousand
feet above the sea. By making a rockery and lining the crevices with
portions of slate rock gathered from where the ferns were growing, I
have succeeded so far in making them thrive passably well.
One of the most abundant plants on the Upper St. John river and
along the whole course of the Restigouche.is the Campion Flower,
Silene cucubalus. The branching habit of this plant, forming clusters
in congenial situations, its greenish white leaves, gray bladder-like
calyx, surmounted by a milk white corolla, renders it a conspicuous and
interesting object along the shores and islands of these rivers. It is
not indigenous, but has evidently followed the footsteps of man as
explorer and settler. Mr. M. L. Fernald, of Cambridge, in an interest-
ing article on this and some other foreign plants, attributes their
introduction into New Brunswick and Maine to the Jesuits and early
French explorers. In this connection it is interesting to note the
presence of a plant near Fredericton, New Brunswick, which, so far as
I know, is not found in any other locality in the Northern States or
128 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Canada. This is Pimpinella saxifraga, a plant common in France and
Central Europe. It belongs to the Umbelliferæ family and might be
easily mistaken for the caraway. It covers both sides of the road for
two or three miles above Fredericton to the exclusion of almost every
other plant. It is, no doubt, an aggressive weed, but up to this time
has shown no disposition to spread broadcast, as the caraway has done,
over cultivated fields and meadows. This conservatism is highly
praiseworthy in a weed. Its advent to the locality near Fredericton
was very likely coeval with the French occupation more than two
centuries ago. The history and habits of this plant are worthy of
investigation.
I am not aware that the question has ever been raised whether
the Hop, Humulus Lupulus, is indigenous in any province of Canada
or not. It has been a question among plant students in New Bruns-
wick, but its discovery along the Restigouche in positions where it could
not be very well introduced, perhaps settles the matter in favour of its
being a native.
The presence of a vetch with yellow flowers, Lathyrus pratensis, on
an old camping ground near Boston Brook on the Restigouche, as also
its presence on the Miramichi, and in a meadow near Salmon river below
Grand Falls on the St. John, shows that it may have been introduced.
The most abundant deciduous tree on the middle and upper waters
of the Restigouche is the Balsam Poplar, Populus balsamifera, and on
some of the low grounds it had taken complete possession, the upper
portion of the soil being a matwork of its roots.
Many plants found on the upper waters of the St. John are equally
abundant along the Restigouche, growing on the Silurian ledges, the
outcroppings of which are very frequent on the borders of the stream.
Those most frequently noticed were: Anemone Pennsylvanica, A. riparia,
A. multifida, Castilleia pallida, var septentrionalis, Hedysarum boreale,
Parnassia Caroliniana, Tofieldia glutinosa, Astragalus alpinus, A. oro-
boides, Shepherdia Canadensis, Apios tuberosa, Allium Schenoprasum,
Desmodium Canadense, Prunus pumila, Oxytropus campestris, Asclepias
cornutt, Sanguinaria Canadensis, Caulophyllum thalictroides, Asarum
Canadense, and a few others. Tanacetum Huronense, very abundant
on the St. John river, was found in but one locality on the Resti-
gouche. This is the farthest point east, to my knowledge, that this
interesting western plant has been discovered. Another interesting
western plant found at Eel river, below the mouth of the Restigouche,
is Collomia linearis. The only stations reported east of Minnesota
are in the State of New York, at the station above mentioned, and
near Point Lepreau, New Brunswick, where it is apparently introduced.
It is one of the curiosities of plant distribution that this peculiar
[Hay] FLORA OF NORTHERN NEW BRUNSWICK 129
western plant should be found at a point so far east as the Hel river
station, with apparently no intervening points of distribution.
Pinguicula vulgaris, a curious insectivorous plant, very widely distri-
buted in the northern parts of Asia, Europe and North America, is found,
along the Restigouche occupying, at intervals, a length of territory
not exceeding twenty miles. It grows on wet, mossy rocks with
Primula mistassinica and Pellea gracilis. Transferred to a rockery
built on the edge of a brook, it has flourished well for several years,
but seems to do equally well in a grass plot beside a path, where some
plants were accidentally dropped and took root. Its rosette of yel-
lowish-green leaves, sending up in June flowers on scapes similar to
the blue violet (whence its common name of bog or marsh violet),
makes it a very attractive plant in cultivation, while its upturned
leaves, with the active juices, are ever ready to diminish the horde
of mosquitoes, black flies or other insects that may alight upon them.
One of the most remarkable inroads of a weed that I have ever
noticed was that of the Hieracium prealtum, appropriately named
the “ king-devil.” From the mouth of the Upsalquitch down to the
estuary of the Restigouche it has taken possession of roadsides and
farms, invading even the woodland districts, threatening the extirpa-
tion of the smaller native plants. I have never seen a farmer more
helpless in the presence of a weed than one who lives near the mouth
of the Upsalquitch. His fields were being steadily covered with the
“king-devil,” so that one could walk over them on the carpet of basal
leaves thrown up by this ill-favoured plant. It was the old story
of neglect on the one hand and weed-aggressiveness on the other.
The presence of many Alpine plants in the valley of the Resti-
gouche is of interest, especially near the mouths of the tributaries
that flow into it from the highlands of South-eastern Quebec. Among
these are the small Timothy, Phleum Alpinum, Arctostaphylos, Uva-
Ursi, Solidago virgaurea var alpina, Arnica mollis, Pyrola secunda var
pumila, Galium boreale, Goodyera Menziesti, Anemone parviflora, Carex
atrata var ovina, C. alpina, with other flowering plants and ferns
already mentioned, including especially the ferns Asplenium viride,
Woodsia glabella and W. hyperborea, Aspidium fragrans and A. aculea-
tum, Pellea gracilis.
130 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
THE NEPISIGUIT.
The physical features and flora of the Nepisiguit river differ in
many respects from those of the Restigouche, although the streams
run parallel and at no great distance apart. The bed of the Nepisi-
guit is an interminable succession of rocks and shingle, while that
of the Restigouche is everywhere overlaid with gravel. There are
ew terraces on the Nepisiguit, while these are picturesque features
of the Restigouche, especially where they are crowned with fishing
lodges, the summer abodes of anglers. The flora of the Nepisiguit
is less interesting and varied than that of the Restigouche, affording
fewer rare plants, especially ferns and those boreal species brought
down from the hills and mountains of Quebec. The Restigouche
has comparatively low land along its upper course, the country rising
into hills and mountains along its lower stretches. In the portions
of the Nepisiguit towards the mouth, especially above Grand Falls,
the hills are low, but the land gradually rises as the river is ascended
until altitudes of from 1,000 to 2,500 feet are met with along its
upper waters and at its source. The Nepisiguit has only one tribu-
tary of any importance, the South West Branch, which is nearly
equal in size and volume to the main stream. Many islands occur
in the Nepisiguit river, a few clothed with grass, but many more
covered with a growth of trees, some of considerable size. Elms and
butternuts covered the islands and adjacent meadows along portions
of the upper river, and the arboreal vegetation is more varied
than on the Restigouche. There were ample groves along the river
of the scrub pine, Pinus Banksiana, some of these with large, straight
trunks rising to the height of forty and fifty feet. Large groves of
red pine, Pinus resinosa, were seen on the ridges around the head-
waters of the Nepisiguit, their summits reaching to the height of
eighty and even ninety feet. Unfortunately, large stretches along
this river have been devastated by fire, which gives a bleak and deso-
late character to much of the country.
One of the rarest plants met with was Aster linariifolius at
Pabineau Falls, its only known station in the province. On the
summit of Mount Denys, from whose bald top, nearly 2,000 feet high,
an extended view is obtained of north-eastern New Brunswick, includ-
ing the whole valley of the Nepisiguit from the lakes at its source
to the sea, there were a few boreal types of plants, including Vacci-
nium uliginosum, V. Vitis-Idea, Empetrum nigrum and others. All
along the river, Huphrasia officinalis was seen with other familiar
weeds in the track of the lumberman, but not a vestige could be
[HAY] FLORA OF NORTHERN NEW BRUNSWICK 131
found of the plant referred to before, so abundant on the Resti-
gouche, Silene cucubalus, although this river, as well as the Resti-
gouche, was a pathway of the French explorers and missionaries, by
whom, it has been supposed, the plant was introduced into the
province. ,
The scenery along the upper course of the Nepisiguit is grand
and picturesque. Lofty mountains, whose rounded and dome-shaped
tops form fine positions for extended and uninterrupted views, were
constantly in sight. Low islands became more numerous, and bend-
ing over the banks of the stream was a luxuriant vegetation of vibur-
nums (V. opulus, V. pauciflorum and V. cassinoides, cornuses, thick-
ets of nemopanthes), while everywhere was the bright, rich green
of clumps of the Osmunda regalis, here attaining the height of a shrub.
The tall grasses and ostrich ferns gave evidence of the richness of
the soil, while the white blossoms of Clematis and Viburnum Opulus,
the purple of asters and joe pye-weed, the yellow of golden-rod
afforded everywhere striking contrasts to the vivid green of the foli-
age. Our average speed up this rough and wayward but beautiful
stream was only about six or seven miles a day, but the invigorating
exercise of climbing up rapids makes a pleasure of toil.
There are four lakes which form the source of the Nepisiguit
river. Of these, three are scarcely more than ponds of little depth
and with soft, muddy bottoms and low shores — the favourite feeding
ground of moose, caribou and deer. The fourth lake is a fine sheet
of water, very irregular in shape, especially on its northern side,
where a long ridge (moraine) extends into the lake, covered with a
fine forest of red pine. A portage of about two and a half miles
following a decline of over two hundred feet, brings one to the sys-
tem of lakes which give rise to the little Tobique river running west-
ward ta the St. John. Five plants, new to New Brunswick, were
found in the Nepisiguit Lakes, Ranunculus circinatus, Myriophyllum
altermflorum, Carex utriculata var minor, Potamogeton heterophyllus,
and Pyrola secunda var pumila. The latter was found on a hot
August day at the headwaters of the Tobique, on the borders of
Spring Lake, the temperature of which registered 41° F., a congenial
habitat for a boreal plant.
The scenery of this portion of the province is strikingly wild
and picturesque, and little visited by the sportsman, lumberman
or naturalist on account of the difficulties of access. It contains
the highest land in New Brunswick, some of the mountain peaks
rising to the height of over 2,500 feet. The New Brunswick
legislature, at its late session, laid aside a portion of country,
132 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
including the Tobique and Nepisiguit lakes and the picturesque region
about them as a provincial wild park, similar to the reservations in
Ontario and many of the United States, for the preservation of its
hitherto untouched forests, its game and water supply, and to serve
as a place of resort and instruction for coming generations. The
idea was first broached by Prof. W. F. Ganong,’ and, with the aid
of a committee of the Natural History Society of New Bruns-
wick was brought to the attention of the government with the
result mentioned above. In connection with this wild and pic-
turesque region I may here mention that Prof. Ganong, with great
industry and ingenuity, has devised a system of names for some of
its prominent physical features, chiefly its mountains, which hitherto
lacked any distinctive appellation, or were designated by meaningless
repetitions of names given elsewhere in the province. The plan
which Prof. Ganong has followed? aims to commemorate the names
of some of the early discoverers and explorers of the province, its
governors, and its scientific men. Group names are given to ranges
or to those mountains which naturally form a group, such as the
“ Geologists’ Range,” the “ Governors’ Plateau,” etc.
THE TOBIQUE.
The Tobique, emptying into the St. John river at Andover, is
a larger stream and its drainage area much greater than that of the
Nepisiguit. At its head a curious forking takes place: the Sisson
Branch and South West Branch coming in nearly at right angles to
the main stream, while the Little Tobique and Mamozekel are more
nearly in line with it. These tributary streams, branching so widely,
form a network of communication by means of short portages, with
the Restigouche, Nepisiguit and Miramichi. No such system of
rivers anywhere afford more favourable conditions for exploration
for the naturalist and sportsman; and the well-beaten portage paths
at the headwaters of the streams show that from times immemorial
they have been used by warriors, hunters and explorers in their
expeditions across the province from the St. John river to the Bay
de Chaleur and Gulf of St. Lawrence. One of the most common
routes, described by Governor Gordon in his “ Wilderness Journeys”
of New Brunswick, is the route up the Tobique, thence by the Little
Tobique to the Nepisiguit and down that river to the Bay de Chaleur.
* See Bulletin of Natural History Society of New Brunswick, Vol. IV.,
Part 3, p.24i:
? “Proposals for a Nomenclature of New Brunswick Hills and Mountains,”
Bulletin Nat. Hist Soc. of N.B., Vol. IV., Part 3, p. 248.
[Hay] FLORA OF NORTHERN NEW BRUNSWICK 133
The first one of our modern scientific explorers to make this journey
was Professor L. W. Bailey, in 1863, and his description’ contains the
first contribution to the geology and botany of this region that we
possess. The fine scenery along the Tobique river, the ease with
which it can be navigated in canoes, and the wildness of the Nepisi-
guit valley, will always make this a favourite route of the admirers of
river and woodland scenery, at least, while our forests are preserved,
which it is hoped may be for a long time to come. The movement
to set aside a wild park in this picturesque region, with a view to
preserve and study our forest conditions and the hoarding up of the
water supply of the rivers is an example that deserves imitation and
the support of governments and scientific men everywhere in Canada.
The botany of the main Tobique is not so rich in rare species and
boreal types as the Restigouche, and to a lesser degree of the Nepisi-
guit. It has broad expanses of fertile meadows well suited for agri-
culture and some of the best farming land in the province is to be
found along its valley.
Of its tributary streams, the Sisson branch is the most picturesque,
especially the “Gorge,” six miles from its mouth, which is one of the
wildest and most picturesque spots in New Brunswick. A succession
of cataracts and rapids, from a height of one hundred feet, flow
through a gorge walled by perpendicular rocks. Here were found
Asplenium viride, Arnica mollis, Woodsia Ilvensis and W. hyperborea,
Aster graminifolius, and on rocks further down the stream, Aspidium
fragrans and Woodsia glabella.
The southwest branch of the Tobique, whose sources are con-
tiguous to the northwest branches of the Miramichi, drains a lake
country which is one of the most remote and least visited regions
of the province” Its forests abound in big game—moose, caribou,
deer —and numerous small fur-bearing animals. It is one of the
few districts in the province where beavers are still to be found, exer-
cising their industrious and ingenious habits of constructing their
dams and dwellings. The country is dotted with lakes and ponds,
and traversed with streams in every direction. It is a virgin forest
untouched as yet by forest fires, and into the remotest districts of
which the lumberman has not yet penetrated. Some of its lakes
are deep, with rocky wooded sides, while others are shallow and bor-
1 ‘“ Notes on the Geology and Botany of New Brunswick,” Prof. L. W.
Bailey, Canadian Naturalist, 1864.
? “Notes on the Physiography of the Basin of the Negoot or South Tobique
Lakes, W. F. Ganong, Natural History Society of N.B., Bulletin, Vol. IV.,
Part IV. from page 324; also ‘‘ The Flora of the South Tobique Lakes,” G. U.
Hay, Nat. Hist. Soc. Bulletin of N.B., Vol. IV., Part V., from page 472.
Sec. IV., 1902. 7.
134 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
dered by marshes, covered by tamaracks, stunted swamp spruces, alders,
viburnums and various heath plants such as Ledum, Kalmias, Vacci-
niums, Cassandra, Rhodora. The dark purple flowers of the pitcher
plant contrasted with the clusters of white flowers of the Labrador
Tea, in endless profusion, make even the swamps flower gardens. Every-
where the borders of the shallow lakes were covered with yellow and
white pond-liies (Nuphar advena, N. Kalmiana and Nymphea
odorata), the shield-like leaves of Brasenia pellata, numerous Pota-
mogetons and the floating heart (Limnanthemum lacunosum), grasses,
carices and other sedges, rushes and equisetums fill the shallower
parts of the lakes. Among these, several rare forms were found, most
of which are new to New Brunswick,— Glyceria borealis, Scirpus
atrocinctus var brachypodus, Carex canescens var vulgaris, Carex tris-
perma, Carex sterilis var excelsior, Carex interior, Carex stricta var
curtissima, Carex rostrata var ambigens, Carex vesicaria var jejuna.
The arctic species of plants found on the Restigouche and upper St.
John are absent along the Southwest Branch and other tributaries of
the Tobique, which occupy a central position in Northern New Bruns-
wick, lying in a comparatively sheltered position with numerous small
affluents which take their rise in surrounding low hills. It is without
any of the representatives of that New England flora which is found
in the valley of the upper St. John in northern Maine and in north-
western and western New Brunswick, many of the species of which
represent a flora to be found several degrees further south, but which
the climate and soil along the St. John river cause to grow in abun-
dance even side by side with boreal species. Among these are Poly-
gala Senega, Polygonatum biflorum, Asarum Canadense, Sanquinaria
Canadensis, Tanacetum Huronense, and others.
It would be interesting in this connection to trace out this some-
what unique feature of the flora of the St. John river, combining as
it does certain southern forms with boreal types, but I refer those
who are interested to papers written by Dr. G. L. Goodale, of Harvard
University, Mr. B. L. Fernald, of Cambridge, and other New England
botanists, and to articles found in the Bulletins of the Natural His-
tory of New Brunswick.*
1 “On the Occurrence of Arctic and Western Plants in Continental Acadia,”
by G. F. Matthew, Natural History Society of N.B., 1869. ‘ The Botany of
the Upper St. John,” by G. U. Hay, Bulletin Natural History Society of N.B.,
Vol. I., Part 2, p. 21, 1883.
SECTION IV., 1902 [135 j Trans. R.S. C.
VI. The Classification of the Archean.
By Prorsssor A. P. Coteman, M.A., Px.D.
(Read May 27, 1902.)
The literature on the Archean of America is so immense and
so scattered that a mere reference to the more important papers would
demand a large amount of space. Fortunately, the older writings
on the subject have been admirably discussed and summarized by
Professor Van Hise, in his correlation paper on the Archean and
Algonkian,! an indispensable work for the student of these ancient
and complicated formations, so that in general no reference need
be made to them here. The views held by the various writers are
so different and conflicting that no good purpose would be served
in reviving the old controversies. Of late, however, there are signs
that the two opposing schools on the north and on the south sides
of the Great Lakes, as they come together in their field work in Minne-
sota, are also to some extent coming together in their opinions, giving
hope of a final satisfactory solution of the difficulties.
It will be remembered that the earliest work on these formations
was done north of the lakes by Logan and his assistant, Murray, while
the workers on the American side, starting from a different standpoint,
reached conclusions which did not harmonize with those formed by
Logan and his successors. As a starting point one naturally takes
the views of Sir William Logan as summed up in the Geology of
Canada in 1863, dividing the Archean, or Azoic as it was then called,
into a lower system, the Laurentian, and an upper, the Huronian.
Following the ideas of the time, the gneisses which form the
greater part of the rocks of the Laurentian were looked on as met-
amorphosed sediments. Above them came the Grenville. series,
characterized especially by crystalline limestones, the Hastings series,
and the Anorthosites, all largely schistose and, therefore, considered
metamorphic rocks.
The Huronian was not found in contact with the Grenville or
Hastings series, but was considered later than any of the Laurentian
rocks, largely because it is in part more evidently sedimentary and
usually less crystalline.
It will not be necessary to discuss in detail the changes of view
which have been caused by later studies of the Laurentian and Huron-
1on regions; but we may hold with Dr. Adams that the Lower Lau-
+ Bull. U.S. Geol. Sur., No. 86, 1892.
136 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
rentian or Ottawa gneiss is mainly, if not altogether, of eruptive origin,
and, therefore, not a metamorphosed sediment; that the Anortho-
sites are later eruptives; and that the Grenville is probably a true
sedimentary series which has sagged down synclinally into the Ottawa
gneiss on which it rests.
The Hastings series is considered only a less crystalline phase
of the Grenville series by Dr. Ells, and also apparently by Drs. Adams
and Barlow; so that the Laurentian may be defined now as consisting
of a lower eruptive group of mainly schistose rocks, the Ottawa
gneiss; while the upper or Grenville and Hastings series are more or
less metamorphosed sediments resting on the Ottawa gneiss and often
nipped into it as synclines.?
THE HURONIAN.
The Huronian, as defined by Logan in 1863, was essentially a
sedimentary series resting unconformably on the Laurentian. He
describes first the rocks of Lake Temiscaming, then those of Doré
river on Lake Superior, next those north of Lake Huron between
Blind river and Lake Superior, giving an elaborate map founded on
Murray’s detailed work in the region, and finally the rocks of Thunder
bay. It has been customary to speak of the region north of Lake
Huron as typical, since the name Huronian was derived from that
area; but Logan gives no suggestion that he did not consider the rocks
of Lake Superior or of Lake Temiscaming equally typical, though
he has treated them in less detail.
Resting unconformably on both the Laurentian and Huronian
of the Thunder bay region is a series of black cherts and slates which
he recognizes as distinctly later in age, the Animikie rocks of the
present day.
After Logan’s time Canadian geologists placed all the green schists
and associated sedimentary rocks in the Huronian, until Dr. Lawson
changed the nomenclature for the rocks of the Lake of the Woods
(in 1885), and Rainy lake (in 1888), using the terms Keewatin and
Coutchiching for upper and lower divisions of the schistose rocks
resting on the Laurentian or nipped in as synclines between areas of
gneiss. His reason for doing this was the apparent difference between
the schists of western Ontario, which were largely of eruptive origin,
and the quartzites and graywacke conglomerates north of Lake Huron,
which were mainly sedimentary. Looking on the latter as typical
? Origin and Relations of the Grenville and Hastings Series, Ani. Jour.
Se., Vol. III., Mar., 1897, pp. 173-180.
* Geol. Sur. Can., Vol. XI., 108 and 109A.
[COLEMAN | CLASSIFICATION OF THE ARCH ASAN 137
he doubted whether the western rocks were really Huronian, and
inclined to make them older than the typical Huronian.
The most important discovery of Lawson was that the Laurentian
was not the oldest rock of the region, since it has an eruptive contact
with the Coutchiching and Keewatin, which must, therefore, have been
solid rock before the gneiss of the Laurentian had cooled and solidi-
fied. This discovery had far-reaching consequences, for if any part of
the Keewatin was of Huronian age the generally accepted relation-
ship of Huronian and Laurentian must be reversed.
SUBDIVISIONS OF THE HURONIAN.
Within the past few years evidence has accumulated showing
that the Huronian as described and mapped by Logan and his suc-
cessors in Ontario at least, must be subdivided into two formations,
an upper and a lower, separated by a very extensive unconformity.
The lower division corresponds in the main with Lawson’s Keewatin
and Coutchiching; while the upper one includes most of the Huronian
as found on the north shore of Lake Huron.
The need for this division has been brought out by the tracing of
the iron range rocks and of basal conglomerates containing pebbles
of these rocks from the province of Quebec near Lake Temiscaming
almost to the boundary of Manitoba on the Lake of the Woods, a
distance of nearly 800 miles. As shown by the work of the Bureau
of Mines of Ontario, every large area of rocks mapped as Huronian
between these limits contains long belts or ridges of jasper, chert or
granular silica interbanded with iron ore, and not far off thick bands
of schist conglomerate or graywacke conglomerate containing pebbles
of the banded silica.1
The interval between the upper and lower formations was long
enough to provide for very extensive erosion of hard crystalline rocks
over an area of at least 800 by 100 miles, and the building up of
hundreds and often thousands of feet of conglomerate, containing
well rounded pebbles and boulders of very heterogeneous rocks, such
as granite, quartz porphyry, various greenstones and schists, and the
characteristic rocks of the iron range. There are few unconform-
ities in Paleozoic or later times which can be compared with it
for magnitude, though Lawson’s Eparchean interval, the break
between the Huronian and the Cambrian, is no doubt much greater.
The thick slate conglomerates of the Huronian north of Lake
Huron with their numerous pebbles of jasper and chert evidently
? Ont. Bur. Mines, 1901, Vol. 10, pp. 200-204.
138 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
represent the basal conglomerate of the upper Huronian as found
in other localities; and it is doubtful if the lower division occurs in
the portion studied by Murray, though silica banded with iron ore
belonging to the iron range has been found nine miles northeast of
the Sault Ste. Marie and near Batchewana bay.’ The slight break
between the upper and lower divisions of the Huronian, as mapped by
Murray, is not of much significance, the two conglomerates which
he separates being closely alike in every respect; and almost the whole
of the so-called typical Huronian may be classed as consisting of the
basal conglomerate of the upper Huronian or the quartzites and
arkoses rising above it.
In the other regions described by Logan as Huronian, however,
there are well defined members of both the upper and lower divisions.
In the Temiscaming country we have jasper-bearing conglomerates of
the upper division and banded jaspers of the lower; and the same is
true of the Michipicoton area; so that the conclusion is unavoidable
that in his Huronian, Logan included rocks both above and below the
important unconformity described on a former page. As much of
the lower division consists of schistose volcanic materials and sheared
eruptives, while the upper conglomerate in many cases contains great
quantities of materials derived as pebbles and boulders from the lower
rocks, the whole rolled out and rendered finely schistose by squeezing
and shearing, so that the pebbles may be entirely indistinguishable,
it is not surprising that the two should have been confounded in
reconnaissance work. In fact, hand specimens of schists from the
two divisions at Michipicoton could not be separated even by men
who had been at field work in that region, so closely alike are they.
When we add to this that the two divisions have undergone the
same folding, squeezing and recrystallization, so that they are now
everywhere in parallel position as to strike and dip, the reason will
be clear why rocks really separated by a great lapse of time should
have been thrown together as Huronian.
That the so-called typical Huronian, as mapped by Murray, is
far from being typical is well known to all Canadian geologists who
have worked in the region. If the different areas described as Huron-
ian by Logan are examined it will be found that all the others contain
a larger amount of eruptive material, have a more schistose and
crystalline character, and have undergone a far greater amount of
tilting and folding than the region mapped by Murray. In fact, the
region specially mapped is quite exceptional in its gentle dips and
slight metamorphism. The very same rocks may be followed a few
* Bur. Mines, 1901, pp. 189 and 201.
| COLEMAN] CLASSIFICATION OF THE ARCHÆAN 139
miles east and west to localities when they have been nipped in as
close folds and stand nearly vertical.
The American geologists who have attempted to correlate the
Pre-Cambrian west and south of the Great Lakes with the Huronian
to the north have usually contented themselves with a visit to the
easily-reached shore between Thessalon and the Sault, and have
carried away a quite false impression of the typical Huronian. In
reality, the other sections described by Logan are far more typical
than the one mapped, when compared with the great areas of Pre-
Cambrian worked out since his time.
It is probable that the fundamental error of Irving in confound-
ing the Animikie with the Huronian was due to his belief that the
characteristic rocks of the latter lay nearly flat and were comparatively
little changed sediments. If he had gone to Blind river, ten miles
east of the region he visited, he would have found the same rocks much
more metamorphosed and in a vertical attitude.
To some extent Lawson, who had not visited the region, however,
was misled also in his questionings as to the relative position of his
Keewatin and the Huronian. His schist conglomerates with their
iron range pebbles, as on Shoal lake, are undoubtedly the equivalents
of the slate conglomerates of the Huronian, the basal member of the
upper division, and there are examples of banded silica and iron ore
associated with his Coutchiching which, no doubt, represent the iron
range rocks forming the upper part of the lower division at Michi-
picoton, one of the regions which Logan put in the Huronian. How-
ever, the vast series of ash rocks, agglomerates and sheared eruptives
of the Rainy lake and Lake of the Woods regions have few parallels
in other Pre-Cambrian regions of Ontario, and the gray fine-grained
mica schists and gneisses of the Coutchiching scarcely occur east of
Lake Superior in regions mapped as Huronian; so that the introduc-
tion of new names was thoroughly justifiable.
RELATION OF THE LAURENTIAN TO THE HURONIAN.
There remains one more subject to discuss before a classification
of the Pre-Cambrian of northern and western Ontario can be taken up,
the relationship of the Laurentian to the Upper Huronian or Huron-
ian proper. It has been proved by Lawson that the Ontarian, as he
names the Coutchiching and lower Keewatin, has been penetrated
eruptively by the gneisses of the Laurentian which rose dome-like
beneath them, nipping them into synclines, carrying off fragments of
them and sending dikes into the steeply tilted schists. The eruptive
character of the contact has been accepted by almost all geologists
140 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
who have studied the region since Lawson’s luminous reports on it,
and may be looked on as satisfactorily proved. Were the upper
Huronian sediments also laid down before the upheavals of the Lau-
rentian and the folding of the Keewatin ?
This question has been differently answered by different geolo-
gists. Logan and Murray assumed that the Huronian rested uncon-
formably on the Laurentian, but described no section where this is
proved. Irving and Van Hise concluded that they had found such
a section on some small islands east of Thessalon, but Barlow, after
studying the same section, believed the contact eruptive. Willmott
and myself have twice visited the locality with a view to settling the
matter, but do not feel absolutely sure of the relationship, though
inclining to the belief that the contact is eruptive.
In our last visit, at a time of low water, in the spring of 1900,
we noted on one of the islands a conglomerate crowded with boulders
overlying a laminated quartzite with a few boulders of granite or
gneiss looking like the Laurentian in its lower part; which apparently
rested on the Laurentian. On a point of the mainland not far off
is an auto-breccia of granite and gneiss somewhat suggesting a basal
conglomerate. On an islet to the south of this, however, where
conglomerate and granite come together, the latter appears to have
fused and inclosed parts of the conglomerate in an eruptive way. The
evidence seems too uncertain to decide the matter positively.
The only other example that has been described of a basal upper
Huronian conglomerate resting apparently in place on the Laurentian,
is from Baie des Péres, on the Quebec side of Lake Temiscaming,
where Barlow and Ferrier found a mass of granite passing through
a weathered brecciated zone up into a conglomerate forming the base
of a series of greenish Huronian quartzitest This conglomerate
is evidently upper Huronian, since it contains, like the Thessalon con-
glomerates, some pebbles of jasper, evidently derived from the iron
range, the top of the lower Huronian; and, as far as I am aware, it
is the only example known of an undoubted Huronian conglomerate
formed of underlying Laurentian materials.
On the other hand, there are in various places examples of upper
Huronian conglomerates having Laurentian rocks in eruptive contact
with them, as Willmott and myself have shown at Michipicoton.?
Sir William Logan believed that the Huronian schist conglomerate and
the Laurentian at Doré river in this region were more or less blended,’
* On the Relations and Structures of certain Granites and Associated
Arkoses, Rep. B.A.A.S., Toronto, 1897, pp. 656-660; also Barlow in Geol. Sur.
Can., 1897, 195 I.
? Bur. Mines, 1902, The Michipicoton Iron Region, 152-185.
* Geol. Can., p. 54.
[COLEMAN] CLASSIFICATION OF THE ARCH HAN 141
but this appearance is due to sheared dikes of porphyry or felsite sent
off from the Laurentian gneiss, which has an eruptive contact some
distance north.
In many localities then the Laurentian is in eruptive contact with
the upper Huronian and, therefore, later in age, while in one or two
places the evidence seems to make it earlier. Can the two relation-
ships be harmonized ?
If we suppose the solid basis on which the Huronian was laid
down to have had the composition of the gneiss of the Laurentian,
and suppose further that this basement was fused, or at least, ren-
dered plastic, by the ascent of the isogeotherms due to blanketing
with a thick layer of overlying sediments, we may, perhaps, conclude
that in cases where the conglomerate passes down into unchanged Lau-
rentian breccia, the mass of sediments happened to be too small to
raise the underlying rock to the temperature of igneo-aqueous soften-
ing or fusion. In such localities, we should naturally expect the
upper Huronian to be much less metamorphosed than elsewhere, and
this really appears to be the case.
There is, of course, another possibility, viz., that the quartzite
at Baie des Pères is later in age than the upper Huronian, Animikie,
for instance, and not really Archean. It is, however, very much like
the quartzites of other regions held to be undoubtedly Huronian, and
has little resemblance to the Animikie of Thunder bay.
Lawson in his latest treatment of the subject places the Huronian
(Upper Keewatin) above the Laurentian with an unconformity
between.’ I have no doubt, however, that in most cases the reverse is
correct.
THE RELATION OF THE HASTINGS AND GRENVILLE SERIES TO THE
HURONIAN.
The next problem is the relationship of the Hastings and Gren-
ville series to the Huronian. We may consider the two together since
the Grenville is now held to be only a more crystalline phase of the
Hastings series. The Hastings series with its schist conglomerates
and limestone bands is suggestively like the upper Huronian of the
west; and the quartzite of the Grenville suggests the upper Huronian
quartzite. On the other hand, the gneisses of the Grenville, which
Adams has shown have the composition of slates, come nearest in
character to Lawson’s Coutchiching gneiss, supposing it to be somewhat
more completely metamorphosed than it is in the west.
? Univ. Cal., Bull. Dep. Geol., Vol. 3, No. 3, p. 61.
142 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Unfortunately, the two clues which solved the relationships of
the Huronian areas, the banded silica of the iron range in the lower
Huronian or Keewatin, and the basal conglomerates containing
iron range pebbles in the upper Huronian, cannot be applied to the
southeastern Archæan, since nothing corresponding to the banded
iron range jaspers has been found in them. Iron ores are common
among them, but never interleaved with silica.
The Grenville must be earlier than the Laurentian, since the
latter has been plastic enough to nip in bands of Grenville limestone
before it solidified; but I have seen no conclusive evidence as to the
relationship of the Hastings series to the Laurentian.
The age relationship of the Grenville rocks and the Laurentian
gneiss is not always stated as given above. Drs. Adams and Barlow,
for instance, say “ the relations of the Grenville series to the Funda-
mental Gneiss are such as to suggest that in the former we have a
sedimentary series later in date than the Fundamental Gneiss, which
has sunk down into and been invaded by intrusions of the latter series
when this was in a semi-molten or plastic condition.” However,
a little later they say that “ masses of the highly crystalline lime-
stone or marble in some cases lie quite isolated in what are, to all
appearances, the lower gneisses, as if they had been separated from
the parent mass, and had passed outward or downward into the
gneissic magma.” “The contact of the Fundamental Gneiss and the
Grenville series would appear, therefore, to be a contact of intrusion,
in very many cases at least.” *
Still later they suggest that the Grenville series bears the same
relation to the Fundamental Gneiss as the Huronian does further
west, the similarity, however, not implying identity in age. From
the quotations given it will be seen that their view is not really differ-
ent from that advocated by Lawson and in this paper for the lower
Huronian or Keewatin. In my opinion, however, the date of an
eruptive rock should be determined by the time of its final consolida-
tion, which would, of course, place the Laurentian gneiss as described
by Adams and Barlow later than the Grenville limestone which it
has invaded. This does not imply that the Grenville series, or the
Coutchiching and Keewatin of the west, the oldest known rocks, were
founded on nothing; but that their foundations have since been
become semi-molten, or at least plastic, and have then cooled and
crystallized as our present gneiss. The materials are Pre-Grenville,
but the gneiss is later in age.
That the Hastings and Grenville series occupy the same position
between the Laurentian and the Paleozoic sediments as the Keewatin
1 Am. Jour. Se., Vol. III., Mar., 1897, p. 176.
[COLEMAN] CLASSIFICATION OF THE ARCHÆAN 143
and much of the Huronian seems certain, and that they were formed
under not unlike conditions is probable; but that the Hastings and
Grenville series are the exact equivalents of either the lower or upper
Huronian is uncertain, though one naturally thinks of them as formed
during the time which elapsed between the beginning of the Coutchi-
ching and the completion of the upper Huronian.
THE ALGONKIAN QUESTION.
The relationships of the rocks called by the American Geological
Survey Algonkian with the rocks classed by Canadians as Huronian
or Keewatin have long been in dispute, though appearances now point
to a reconciliation between the two schools of Pre-Cambrian geology.
The origin of the differences of opinion and of nomenclature may
be traced to Irving’s views as to the equivalence of the Penokie iron
range rocks with the Huronian and with the Animikie of Thunder
bay! Logan had shown that the Animikie and also the Huronian
cecur on the shore of Thunder bay, and Irving in his brief visit to
the region overlooked the fact that the almost horizontal Animikie
slates and cherts lie unconformably over the steeply tilted Huronian
schists along the shore of the bay, and jumped to the conclusion that
the two series of rocks are the same. Logically enough, he included
the Vermilion iron range also, since that is in reality the south-
westward extension of the Huronian at Thunder bay. His visit to
the slightly tilted and not greatly metamorphosed Huronian strata
on the north shore of Lake Huron seems to have misled him into the
belief that the Huronian as a whole was little tilted or altered. In
reality, instead of being equivalent, the Animikie and Huronian are
separated by the profoundest gap known in geological history, the
Eparchæan Interval, as Lawson has named it, and this has been recog-
nized ever since Logan’s time in Canada and also by the Minnesota
survey.
The Algonkian was founded to include all Pre-Cambrian sedi-
ments, the Fundamental complex underlying it being looked on as
of eruptive origin. As the main defender of the classification, Pro-
fessor Van Hise, has recently admitted that the Vermilion and Michi-
picoton iron ranges, which are undoubtedly of sedimentary origin,
are of pre-Algonkian age, it is evident that a rearrangement of the,
classification and of the nomenclature is demanded.? Unfortunately,
? U.S. Geol. Sur., 8rd An. Rep., 170, etc.
* U.S. Geol. Sur., Iron-ore Deposits of the Lake Superior Region, 1901,
p. 317.
144 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Professor Van Hise has not accepted the arrangement in use in Can-
ada and Minnesota, but puts the Keewatin or lower Huronian in the
Archæan, and leaves the upper Huronian and Animikie in the Algon-
kian. He has cut the Vermilion rocks out of the unnatural associa-
tion given them by Irving, but still retains the other error of placing
the upper Huronian and Animikie as equivalents. How illogical
this position is has been shown by Willmott, Lawson, and myself,*
and it will be unnecessary to discuss the matter here. The inclusion
of the Animikie with the Huronian rested on an error in the begin-
ning and should not be continued by the American survey. Whether
it will be worth while to retain the name Algonkian as representing
the upper Huronian alone or the Animikie and Keweenawan seems
doubtful. The latter rocks look very modern and the finding of
fossils may at any time relegate them to the Cambrian. There seems
no excuse for renaming so well known a group of rocks as the upper
Huronian, which bore their present name for a generation before the
introduction of the term Algonkian.
As the American geologists working south and west of Lake
Superior have at last recognized the same number of Pre-Cambrian
formations as ourselves, with the same gaps between them, and have
in at least one case carried their work up to the boundary where it
connects with ours, they should do away with the confusion which
has so long reigned and accept the Canadian nomenclature, which has
the right of priority.
CLASSIFICATION OF THE ARCHÆAN.
The ground is now cleared to compare the various systems of
classification and nomenclature of the Pre-Cambrian. The earliest
subdivision into Laurentian and Huronian will naturally be retained,
but with the explanation that the name Laurentian applies only to
the Ottawa gneiss or the Fundamental gneiss, a complex of eruptives
now mainly schistose and of later consolidation than the Huronian
in most, if not all, regions. It is better that the Hastings and Gren-
ville series should be separated from the Laurentian as older than the
underlying gneisses and probably equivalent in age to part or all of
the Keewatin and Huronian.
A number of systems of classification have been proposed and
may now be compared. After the great break between the upper and
* Nomenclature of the I. Superior Formations, Willmott, Jour. Geol., Vol.
10, No. 1, 1902, pp.68-76; The Eparchæan Interval, Lawson, Univ. Cal. Pubs.,
Vol. 3, No. 3, pp. 51-62: and The Huronian Question, Coleman, Am. Geol., Vol.
XXTX., No. 6, pp. 325-334.
[COLEMAN] CLASSIFICATION OF THE ARCHÆAN 145
lower Huronian, and also between the upper and lower Keewatin was
made clear, it became necessary to recognize this in the classification ;
and the Bureau of Mines of Ontario has adopted the following
arrangement for the Archean in the Michipicoton iron region!:
LAURENTIAN—Gneisses and granites.
UPPER HURONIAN—Basal conglomerate.
Iron range rocks.
HURONIAN— |
PURÉE) AUEON \Tuffs and eruptives.
If this classification is to be extended to cover the Archean
generally, the Eparchæan Interval should come above the Laurentian,
and above that should be placed the Animikie and Keweenawan.
Lawson in his last paper on the Archean gives a more elaborate
scheme of classification for the Lake Superior region.?
CAMBRIAN (upper division or Potsdam only).
Unconformity.
Keweenawan
ALcoNKIAN—4 Unconformity.
Animikie = Penokee = Upper Marquette.
PALÆOZOIC
Eparchæan Interval.
HURONIAN = Upper Keewatin = Lower Marquette, etc.
Unconformity.
LAURENTIAN, so called, granite gneisses, etc., ‘intrusive in the Onta-
rian) and the Carltonian anorthosites.
Keewatin = Lower Huronian = Crystalline schists of
south shore invaded by granite-gneisses.
Unconformity.
Coutchiching.
ARCH: AN +
opel
Van Hise in his latest publication uses the following classification
of the formations *:
CAMBRIAN,
(Unconformity).
KEWEENAWAN,
(Unconformity).
UPPER HURONIAN (= Penokee-Gogebic = Animikie),
(Unconformity).
LOWER HURONIAN (= Upper Huronian or Keewatin of Ontario),
(Unconformity).
ARCHZAN (Vermilion series, including Soudan iron formation, certain schists
and intrusive granite and gneiss = Lower Huronian or Keewatin
Ontario with Laurentian).
In the arrangement given above three successions have been
combined, omitting the local applications and adding the equivalent
terms as recognized in Ontario. The unconformities are of very
unequal importance, the one below the upper Huronian (—Animikie)
2 Bur. Mines, 1902, p. 185.
Wniv. Cally Violiis, Mons, p, 61.
* U.S. Geol. Sur., 21st An. Rep., p. 338, p. 385 and p. 402.
146
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
being the Eparchæan Interval, and the one beneath the lower Huron-
ian (—Upper Huronian) being the next in importance.
The gneisses,
etc., of the Laurentian are not given a separate formational name,
probably because as eruptives they were not considered entitled to
one.
If we fill out the Bureau of Mines classification to the form of
the other two and omit the Cambrian in which all are alike, the three
compare as follows:
BUREAU OF MINES LAWSON VAN HISE
Keweenawan Keweenawan Keweenawan
(Unconformity) (Unconformity) (Unconformity)
Animikie Animikie Upper Huronian
(Unconformity) (Unconformity) (Unconformity)
pate 0 |
(Eruptive unconformity)
Upper Huronian Huronian
: Lower Huronian
(Unconformity) = Upper Keewatin ;
(Unconformity) (Unconformity)
{ Laurentian, so-called \
Lower Huronian Ontarian Archean
(including Vermilion
series, schists and
gneisses)
(including Keewatin
(Unconformity) and
Coutchiching)
(including Iron Range,
pyroclastic schists and
eruptives)
It is apparent that if the Laurentian gneisses be left out as
eruptives the three classifications correspond very closely both as to
formations and as to unconformities, though, after the Keweenawan,
the nomenclature of the third column has each name shifted one
place upward as compared with the other two, the Archean taking
the place of the lower Huronian or Ontarian. It is understood, of
course, that the whole series is included in the Archean in the first
two columns, and all but the last is included in the Algonkian in
the third.
The differences between the first and second columns are chiefly
in regard to the place of the Laurentian and the occurrence of an
unconformity between the Keewatin and the Coutchiching. At Michi-
picoton and in many other Huronian localities there is no doubt that
the Laurentian is later than the upper Huronian, as shown in former
[COLEMAN] CLASSIFICATION OF THE ARCHÆAN 147
pages; though at one point on Lake Temiscaming, and perhaps also
on Lake Huron, the granite and gneiss seem older than the upper
Huronian; so that possibly both arrangements may be right at differ-
ent points, the first, however, being the prevalent one.
With regard to the break between the Keewatin and the Coutchi-
ching, my own observations have not shown it to be important, though
Lawson’s detailed work in the region should give his opinion on the
subject far more weight than mine. I thoroughly agree with him,
however, that a series of gray mica schists and gneisses of sedimentary
origin can be separated from the prevailingly eruptive Keewatin rocks
in many localities.
The iron range rocks, which form the upper part of the lower
Huronian in many places, if not all, have not been provided for in
his subdivisions, since the Keewatin group is defined as mainly or
entirely of eruptive origin. ‘Though they are not usually of great
thickness, they form an easily recognized horizon and are of great
practical importance. On Grassy Portage bay of Rainy lake and near
Wabigoon to the north, rocks of the iron range are associated with
characteristic Coutchiching schists, while at other points, as at Michi-
picoton, the associated rocks are sheared eruptives and pyroclastics
which may properly be called Keewatin.
Is it not possible that the Coutchiching, is the true lower Huronian
and that the Keewatin series, being eruptive, is accidental in its
occurrence, sometimes lying above the Coutchiching, sometimes inter-
calated with it, and sometimes replacing it altogether?
The name Ontarian to include the Keewatin and Coutchiching
seems very suitable, since the province of Ontario contains the best
examples of these rocks; but there are two objections to it, perhaps,
however, of little importance. The name, I am informed, has been
given to a fossiliferous formation in the United States, though whether
it has priority or not, I cannot say, not having a copy of the report
in which it was described. The other objection is that the name was
not published in the reports on the areas where the Keewatin and
Coutchiching were first described, so that the two latter terms, espe-
cially Keewatin, already hold the field in the literature. Both in
Ontario and Minnesota the term Keewatin has often been used to
replace lower Huronian and is now found on many of the maps of
the Archean. It might. therefore, be better to use Keewatin as
the general term including the whole lower Huronian instead of
Ontarian, and to give a fresh designation to the eruptives and pyro-
clastics.
While the propriety of separating the lower part of the Archæan
from the Huronian as Keewatin or Ontarian is quite clear in view
148 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
of the extensive unconformity between them; there is a practical
reason in favour of retaining the old terms of upper and lower Huron-
ian. In many cases it is difficult or impossible to determine in the
field which group is actually present, and a general term including
both will long be necessary in reconnaissance work. ‘This will apply
also to the Hastings and Grenville series, formerly considered as
Laurentian, but now properly to be classed as older than the Lau-
rentian and equivalent to the upper or lower Huronian. Which of
the two formations they should be placed with is at present uncertain,
so that here also a general term like Huronian, including both divi-
sions is desirable.
Though the difficulties are not all removed we are now closer
to unanimity than ever before, and possibly a compromise classification
like the following may be found to serve the present needs:
MIDDLE AND Jp
LOWER CAMBRIAN ? (Unconformity).
OR ALGONKIAN ? Nigeria.
EPARCHÆAN INTERVAL.
Laurentian = Fundamental Gneiss, etc.
(Eruptive unconformity).
{ Upper Huronian
or Huronian proper,
ARCHÆAN (Unconformity). Grenville
Hurontan- Lower Huronian oe and
Schistose pyroclastics Hastings
or , { and eruptives series.
\ Keewatin Coutchiching.
SECTION IV., 1902. [ 149 ] Trans. R.S. C.
VII.—Biblipgraphy of Canadian Zoology for 1900, exclusive of
Entomology.— Supplement.
By Dr. J. F. WHITEAVES.
(Read May 27, 1902.)
(BrRps.)
Check List of the Birds of Ontario and Catalogue of Birds in the
Biological Section of the Museum.
By W. C. Nash.
8vo., pp. 58., Published, in 1900, by the Department of Education, Toronto.
From the Auk, Vol. xvii.
The Occurrence of Steller’s Hider (Hniconetta Slelleri) in the Gulf
of St. Lawrence.
By Ja Ke Hisher:
Notes on some of the Birds of British Columbia.
By Allan Brooks.
The Flicker wintering in Montreal.
By J. B. Williams.
Ontario Bird Notes.
By James H. Fleming.
New Brunswick (Bird) Notes.
By W. H. Moore.
Occurrence of the Little Blue Heron in Labrador.
By Outram Bangs.
The Western Red-tail at Toronto, Canada: and List of the Rarer
Birds met with during the Spring of 1900 in the Immediate
Vicinity of Toronto.
By J. Hughes Samuel.
Sec. IV., 1902. 8.
ya
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NRA PAR PAT ARR AE n
L seul. 7 ray hs Le CP
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Section IV., 1902 [151 ] Trans. R. 8. C.
VIII.—Bibliography of Canadian Zoology for 1901, exclusive of
Entomology.
By Dr. J. F. WHITEAVES.
(Read May 27, 1902.)
(MAMMALIA.)
The Extinction of the Elk in Ontario.
By L. H. Smith.
Ottawa Naturalist, July, 1901, Vol. xv, No. 4, pp. 95-97.
La Baleine de Montréal.
By Rév. Abbé V. A. Huard.
Le Naturaliste Canadien, Nov. 1901, Vol. xxviii, pp. 183-185.
Records the occurrence of Balænoptera physalus at Montreal.
(Brrps.)
The Nesting of the Cerulean Warbler.
By W. E. Saunders.
Ottawa Naturalist, Jan., 1901; Vol. xiv, No. 10, pp. 183-185.
Notes on the Acadian Owl (Nyctale Acadica) in captivity.
By F. Norman Beattie.
Ottawa Naturalist, Feb., 1901, Vol. xiv, No. xi, pp. 218-220.
A New Song for a Common Bird.
By W. E. Saunders.
Ottawa Naturalist, March, 1£C1, Vol. xiv, No. 12, pp. 224-226.
Two Warblers new to Canada.
By W. L. Kells.
Ottawa Naturalist, March, 1901, Vol. xiv, No. 12, pp. 230-234.
Records the capture of a specimen each of Kirtland’s Warbler (Dendroica
Kirtlandi) and the Prairie Warbler (D. discolor) near Toronto, by Mr. J. H.
Samuel.
The Hudsonian Curlew in Middlesex Co., Ont.
By W. E. Saunders.
Ottawa Naturalist, March, 1901, Vol. xiv, No. 12, p. 234.
Bird Notes from Point Pelee, Ontario.
By Harry Gould.
Ottawa Naturalist, April, 1901, Vol. xv, No. 1, pp. 15 and 16.
152 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Bird Notes.
By W. T. Macoun.
Ottawa Naturalist, May, 1901, Vol. xv, No. 2, pp. 53 and 54.
A record of birds seen near Ottawa from Jan. 12 to April 23, 1901.
Ross’s Gull.
By Professor E. E. Prince.
Ottawa Naturalist, May, 1901, Vol. xv, No. 2, pp. 55 and 56.
The Golden Eagle. An addition to the Fauna of Middlesex County.
By J. E. Keays.
Ottawa Naturalist, May, 1901, Vol. xv, No. 2, pp. 56 and 57.
Cory’s Least Bittern (Botaurus neoxenus, Cory).
By W. L. Kells.
Ottawa Naturalist, June, 1901, Vol. xv, No. 3, pp. 67-70.
Ornithological Notes.
By We ©.) Macoun,
Ottawa Naturalist, June, 1901, Vol. xv, No. 3, pp. 89-93.
Notes the arrivals of various birds in 1901 at localities in Canada and
Michigan, and near Ottawa in April and May, 1901.
Ornithological Notes (continued).
By W. T. Macoun.
Ottawa Naturalist, July, 1901, Vol. xv, No. 4, pp. 112 and 113.
Records the arrivals of fifty-six species of birds at four localities in
Ontario, in May, 1901.
Tryngites rufescens, Buff-breasted Sandpiper.
By G. A. McCallum.
Ottawa Naturalist, August, 1901, Vol. xv, No. 5, pp. 127 and 128.
Records the nesting of this species near Dunnville, Haldimand Co., Ont.
The Woodcock’s Love Song.
By L. H. Smith.
Ottawa Naturalist, August, 1201, Vol. xv, No. 5, p. 129.
Notes on the Winter Birds of the Cariboo District, B.C.
By Allan Brooks.
Ottawa Naturalist, Sept., 1901, Vol. xv, No. 6, pp. 152-154.
Some of the Birds of Algoma.
By CooL Seo:
Ottawa Naturalist, Oct., 1901, Vol. xv, No. 7, pp. 155-161.
Notes on the Woodcock’s Love Song.
By W. H. Moore.
Ottawa Naturalist, Dec., 1901, Vol. xv, No. 9, p. 195.
The King Eider in Middlesex County.
By Robert Elliott.
Ottawa Naturalist, Dec., 1901, Vol. xv, No. 9, pp. 198-199. |
[WITITEAVES)] BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANADIAN ZOOLOGY 153
Autumn Notes on Birds, Sable Island, N.S., 1901.
By Richard Boutelier.
Ottawa Naturalist, Dec., 1901, Vol. xv, No. 9, pp. 199 and 200.
The Glaucous Gull in Middlesex County.
By W. E. Saunders. '
Ottawa Naturalist, Dec., 1901, Vol. xv, No. 9, p. 200.
Natural History Notes.
By William Yates.
Journal and Proceedings of tre Farilton Scientific Association, Session
1900-1901, pp. 99-106.
Contains some observations on Canadian birds.
A List of Birds of the Districts of Parry Sound and Muskoka,
Ontario.
By James H. Fleming.
The Auk, Jan., 1901, Vol. xviii, pp. 33-45. And, corrections to do., in the
same journal for July, 1901.
Nesting of Cory’s Bittern at Toronto, Ont.
By James H. Fleming.
The Auk, Jan., 1901, Vol. xviii, p. 106.
Nesting of Cory’s Bittern (Ardelta neoxena) and Other Notes.
By J. H. Ames.
The Auk, Jan., 1901, Vol. xviii, p. 106.
(Bird) Notes from Ontario.
By Dr. C. K. Clarke.
The Auk, Jan., 1901, Vol. xviii, p. 112, and Oct., 1901, Vol. xviii, pp. 401
and 402.
The Passenger Pigeon.
By G. C. Tremaine Ward.
The Auk, April, 1901, Vol. xviii, pp. 191 and 192. |
The Loggerhead Shrike in New Brunswick.
By W. H. Moore.
The Auk, April, 1901, Vol. xviii, p. 201.
(Bird) Notes from the Magdalen Islands.
By the Rev. Herbert K. Job.
The Auk, April, 1901, Vol. xviii, pp. 199 and 200.
New Brunswick (Bird) Notes.
By W. H. Moore.
The Auk, April, 1901, Vol. xviii, p. 201.
The Snowy Heron in Alberta.
By G. F. Dippie.
The Auk, Oct., 1901, Vol. xviii, p. 392.
154 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
La faune des Oiseaux de la province de Québec.
By Sir J. M. Lemoine.
Le Naturaliste Canadien for Oct., 1901, Vol. xxviii, pp. 148-152.
REPTILIA.
Note on the Oviposition of the Mud Turtle.
By Mailes Cowley.
Ottawa Naturalist, Dec., 1901, Vol. xv, No. 9, pp. 108 and 109.
Alligators and Turtles as Pets.
By W.. 38: Odell. ;
Ottawa Naturalist, Dec., 1901, Vol. xv, No. 9, pp. 193-196.
Rattlesnakes and Scorpions.
By J. R. Anderson.
Ottawa Naturalist, Oct., 1901, Vol.xv, No. 7, pp. 162 and 163.
FISHES.
The Effects of Polluted Water on Fish-Life.
By Dr. A. P. Knight.
Suppl. to the 23rd Ann. Rep. of the Canadian Department of Marine and
Fisheries, Fisheries Branch, pp. 9-18.
The Paired Fins of the Mackerel Shark (Lammna).
By Prof. E. E. Prince and Dr. A. H. MacKay.
Suppl. to the 23rd Ann. Rep. of the Canadian Department of Marine and
Fisheries, Fisheries Branch, pp. 55-58, pls. v, vi and vil.
The Sardine Industry in relation to the Canadian Herring Fisheries.
By R. Arthur Bensley.
Suppl. to the 28rd Ann. Rep. of the Canadian Department of Marine and
Fisheries, Fisheries Branch, pp. 59-62.
Du nouveau concernant la question de l’Anguille.
By Rev. Abbé V. A. Huard.
Le Naturaliste Canadien for Jan. 1901, Vol. xxviii, p. 59.
L’Anguille, est elle vivipare?
By Rev. Abbé V. A. Huard.
Le Naturaliste Canadien for August, 1901, Vol. xxviii, pp. 114 and 115.
Powers of Adaptation in Fishes.
By Professor E. E. Prince.
Ottawa Naturalist for Feb., 1901, Vol. xiv, No. xi, pp. 212-217.
An African Dipnoid Fish.
By Andrew Halkett.
Ottawa Naturalist, Nov., 1901, Vol. xv, No. 8, pp. 184-187.
[WHITEAVES] BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANADIAN ZOOLOGY 155
INVERTEBRATA.
Catalogue of the Marine Invertebrata of Eastern Canada.
By J. F. Whiteaves.
Geological Survey of Canada, publication No. 722, pp. 1-272, with two wood-
cuts in the text.
Review of a “Catalogue of the Marine Invertebrata of Eastern
Canada.”
By Vii ER (rnce)
Ottawa Naturalist, Oct., 1901, Vol.xv, No. 7, pp. 165-172.
A “Note on some Errata” in this Review was published in the Ottawa
Naturalist for Nov., 1901.
Notes on some Land and Fresh-water Mollusca from Fort Chimo,
Ungava Bay, Ungava.
By J. F. Whiteaves.
Ottawa Naturalist, March, 1901, Vol. xiv., No. 12, pp. 221-223.
The Clam Fishery of Passamaquoddy Bay.
By Dr. Joseph Stafford.
Supplement to the 32nd Ann. Rep. of the Canadian Department of Marine
and Fisheries, Fisheries Branch, pp. 19-40, pls i-iv.
The Food of the Sea Urchin (Strongylocentrotus).
By Dr. F. H. Scott.
Supplement to the 32nd Ann. Rep. of the Canadian Department of Marine
and Fisheries, Fisheries Branch, pp. 49-64.
MISCELLANEOUS.
Account of the Marine Biological Station of Canada; its Foundation,
Equipment and Work.
By Professor E. E. Prince.
Supplement to the 32nd Ann. Rep. of the Canadian Department of Marine
and Fisheries, Fisheries Branch, pp. 1-8.
La Station de biologie marine du Canada.
By Rev. Abbé V. A. Huard.
Le Naturaliste Canadien for March, 1901, Vol. xxviii, pp. 33 and 34; and for
July, 1901, Vol. xxviii, pp. 97 and 98.
The Canadian Marine Biological Station.
By F. Slater Jackson, M.D.
Canadian Record of Science, Jan.,1901, Vol. vitr, No. 5, pp. 308-314.
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Srcrion IV., 1902 PAS Zz 1 Trans. R. S. C.
1X.— Botanical Bibliography of Canada, 1901.
By A. H. MacKay, LL.D.
(Read May 27, 1902.)
ANDERSON, J. R.
Brue or Soap Berry, in The Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. xv., No. 8, pp. 188,
189, November, 1901, Ottawa.
CAMPBELL, ROBERT.
Additional Notes on the Flora of Cap-a-L’Aigle; reprinted from Can-
“adian Record of Science, Vol. viii, No. 5, pp. 281-295. January, 1901,
Montreal.
CAMPBELL, ROBERT.
The Flora of Montreal Island; reprinted from Canadian Record of
Science, Vol. viii., No. 6, pp. 349-365. August, 1901, Montreal.
CARRIER, J. C.
La Flore de l'Ile de Montréal, dans le Bulletin de l'Académie inter-
nationale de Géographie botanique, 19 Année (3 Serie), N. 140, 141,
142, 143, 145 (pp. 166-283), July—December, 1901. Le Mans (Sarthe),
France, (Awarded the International medal for 1901.)
CRAWFORD, MATTIE ROSE, ef al.
Guide to Nature Study, containing botanical studies within its 350
pages, 5.5 x 8 inches. The Copp Clark Company, Toronto, 1901.
Dawson, Miss M.
On the Structure of “Indian Soap,” in Transactions of Canadian
Institute, pp. 1-6, No. 13, pt. 1, Vol. vii. Toronto, August, 1901.
DEARNESS, JOHN.
An Hour’s Botanizing on the Mountain (Montreal) Side; reprinted
from Canadian Record of Science, Vol. viii., No. 5, pp. 306 and 307,
January, 1901, Montreal.
Also Edible Fungi, in Canadian Horticulturist, 1901.
D’HERELLE, F.
De la Formation du Carbone par les Vegetaux, dans le Naturaliste
canadien, pp. 70—75, No. 5, Vol. xxviii. Mai, 1901, Québec.
DOHERTY, M. W.
New Species of Trimmatostroma; reprinted from the Botanical Gazette,
pp. 400 to 403, Vol. xxx. December, 1901, Chicago.
PAUL dep tlle
The Anatomy of the Osmundaceæ; reprinted from the Botanical
Gazette, pp. 35—71, Vol. xxxii. 1901. Chicago. (University of Toronto
Studies, Biological Series, No. 2.)
FLETCHER, JAMES.
Nature-Study in Education; reprinted from Transactions, Royal
Society of Canada, 2nd Series, Vol. vii., Section iv., pp. 151—159. May,
1901, Ottawa.
188 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
FOWLER, JAMES.
Report on the Flora of St. Andrews, N.B.; No. iv. in Contributions
to Canadian Biology, from ‘ Studies from the Marine Biological Sta-
tion of Canada, 1901” (in Supplement to the 32nd Annual Report of
the Department of Marine and Fisheries, Fisheries Branch), pp. 41—48,
1801, Ottawa.
GANONG, W. F.
Notes on the Natural History and Physiography of New Brunswick
(accasional allusions to the Botany), in Bulletin, Nat. Hist. Soc. of
New Brunswick, Vol. iv., pt. v., No. xx., pp. 427—471, 1901, Saint John.
GREENE, EDWARD L.
New Plants from Alberta, in The Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. xv., No. 2,
p. 42. May, 1901.
GREENE, EDWARD L.
Certain Canadian Violets, in The Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. xv., No. 9,
pp. 191-192. December, 1901.
GUILLET, CEPHAS.
On the Autumn-Flowering of various Wild Plants in 1900, in the
Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. xv., No. 5, pp. 123—126. August, 1901.
HAMILTON, SCIENCE ASSOCIATION,
Report of Committee, Biological Section, 1900-1901, in Journals and
Proceedings, No. xvii., pp. 99 and 100; Hamilton, Ontario, 1901.
HAY, Geo. U.
The South Tobique Lakes (with many botanical observations), in
Bulletin Nat. Hist. Soc. of New Brunswick, Vol. iv., pt. v., No. xx.,.
pp. 472—482, 1901, Saint John.
Also, Report of the Committee on the Botany of N.B., ibid, pp. 496-498.
Also, Cbservations on Plants in Wild Garden, Ingleside, N.B., ibid,
pp. 499-500.
HOLM, THEO.
Allies of Stellaria media (l..) Cyrillo; in The Ottawa Naturalist, Vol.
xv., No. 2, pp. 37—41. May, 1901.
Also, Seme New Canadian Gentians, ibid, No. 4, pp. 110 and 111. July,.
1901.
Also, On Some Canadian Species of Gentian; Sectio Crossopetale,
Froel, ibid, No. 8, pp. 175—182. November, 1901, Ottawa.
HUARD, V. A.
Les Plantes normandes au Canada, dans le Naturaliste canadien, p.
132, No. 9, Vol. xxviii., 1901, Québec.
JEFFREY, EDWARD C.
Infranodal Organs in Calamites and Dicotyledons, from Annals of
Botany, Vol. xv., No. lvii., pp. 135—145. March, 1901, London.
JEFFREY, EDWARD C.
The Anatomy and Development of the Stem in Pteridophyta and Gym-
nospermis—an abstract from Proc. Royal Soc., Vol. 69, pp. 119 and 120..
July, 1901, London.
[MACKAY] BOTANICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANADA 159
LAFLAMME, C.
Jacques-Philippe Cornuti, Note pour servir à L'Histoire des Sciences
au Canada; reprint from Trans. Roy. Soc. Can., 2nd Series, Vol. vii.,
Sec. iv., pp. 57—72. May, 1901, Ottawa.
LEMAY, P.
La Flore du Labrador, dans le Naturaliste canadien, Vol. xxviii, No.
7, p. 107, 1901, Québec.
MacKay, A. H.
1:—Phenological Observations of the Botanical Club of Canada, 1900.
2:—Abstract of Phenclogical Chbservations on the Flowering of Ten
Plants in Nova Scotia, 1900; with
3:—Remarks on their Phenochrons;
reprinted from the Transactions of the N. S. Institute of Science, Vol.
X., pp. 379—398. May, 1901, Halifax.
MacKay, A. H.
Report of the Botanical Club of Canada; reprinted from the Proceed-
ings of the Royal Society of Canada, Second Series, vol. vii., p. 10.
May, 1901, Ottawa.
Macoun, JAMES M.
Botanical Notes, in The Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. xv., No. 1, p. 14.
April, 1901.
Also, ibid, No. 7, p. 164 October, 1901.
Also, Contributions to Canadian Botany, ibid, No. 3, pp. 77—79. June,
1901, Ottawa.
MATTHEW, G. F.
Are the Saint John Plant Beds Carboniferous? The American Geolo-
gist, Vol. 27, pp. 383—386, Minneapolis, Minn., U.S.A., 1901. (Reviewed
by H. M. Ami, in The Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. xv., No. 12, p. 286.
March, 1902.)
MCSWAIN, JOHN.
The Forest Trees of Prince Edward Island, in Halifax Herald, 21st
September, 1901, (2700) words), Halifax.
MULDREW, W. H.
Sylvan Ontario, a Guide to our Native Trees and Shrubs, 64 pp., 7 x 9
inches (i2 pp. of illustrations—leaf forms). William Briggs, Toronto,
1901.
PENHALLOW, D. P.
Notes on the North American Species of Dadoxylon, with special
reference to type material in the Collections of the Peter Redpath
Museum, McGill University, in Trans. Roy. Soc. of Can., 2nd Series,
Vol. vii., Sec. iv., pp. 51—97, 1901, Ottawa.
PENHALLOW, D. P.
Review of “‘Studies in Fossil Botany by Dunkenfield, Henry Scott;
533 pp. (illustrated), London, England, 1901,” in Science, New Series,
Vol. 13, No. 323, pp. 386—389. Sth March, 1901.
PENHALLOW, D. P.
Appendix to Groom’s Elementary Botany, containing a Key to the
Common Plants of Eastern Canada. The Copp Clark Company, Tor-
onto, 1901.
160 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
PoOLE, H. S.
Stigmaria Structure (with Photomicrographs); reprinted from Trans-
actions of the Nova Scotian Institute of Science, Vol. x., pp. 345—347.
May, 1901, Halifax.
SARGENT, C. S.
Notes on Crategus in the Champlain Valley, from Rhodora, Vol. 3,
No. 26, pp. 21—31. February, 1901, Boston.
SARGENT, C. S.
New or little known North American Trees, II. and III.; reprinted
from Botanical Gazette, Vol. xxxi. January, pp. 1—16, and April,
pp. 217—240, 1901, Chicago.
SARGENT, C. S.
Notes on a Collection of Crategus made in the Province of Quebec
near Montreal; reprinted from Rhodora, Vol. 3, No. 28, pp. 71—79.
April, 1£01, Boston.
WATSON LAWRENCE W.
Sarracenia and Drosera in Prince Edward Island Magazine, Vol. iii.,
No. 1, pp. 1—5. March, 1901, Charlottetown.
WHITE, DAVID.
Some Palæobotanical Aspects of the Upper Paleozoic in Nova Scotia,
in the Canadian Record of Science, Vol. viii. No. 5, pp. 271—280.
January, 1901, Montreal. .
WHITE, DAVID.
The Canadian Species of the Genus Whitileseya, and their systematic
Relations, in the Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. xv., No. 4, pp. 98—110. July,
1901, Ottawa.
SECTION IV, 1902 [ 4614 Trans. R. S. C.
X.—Bibliography of Canadian Entomology for the Year 1901.
(Contributed by Rev. C. J. S. BETHUNE, D.C.L., and read May 27, 1902.)
BEAULIEU, GERMAIN.—Scarabéides de la Province de Québec. Le Naturaliste
Canadien, XXVIII, 20-23 (Feb.); ib. 83-86 (June); ib. 99-102 (July,
1901).
BETHUNE, C. J. S.—General Index to the Thirty Annual Reports of the
Entomological Society of Ontario, 1870—1899; pp. 76. Published by the
Ontario Department of Agriculture, Toronto, i900.
BETHUNE, C. J. S.—Editorial Notes and Reviews. Can. Ent., XX XIII, passim
(1901); 31st Annual Report, Ent. Soc., Ontario, 1900.
Birp, HENRY.—New Histories in Hydrecia (describes fully the habits, larve,
etc., of H. inquesita and limpida). Can. Ent., XX XIII, 61-68 (March,
1901).
BRADLEY, J. CHESTER.—The Evaniide of America North of Mexico. Trans-
actions American Entomological Society, Philadelphia, XXVII, 319-
330, plate XI (Nov., 1901). (Descriptions of the following Canadian
genera and species: Oleisoprister resutorivorus and O. Abbottii; Aulacus
rufitarsus; Pammegischia Oullettii, Joliette, P.Q., and P. Burquei, St.
Hyacinthe, P.Q.)
BRADLEY, J. CHESTER.—The North American Oryssidæ, Transactions Amer.
Ent. Soc., Philadelphia, XXVII, 317-318 (Nov., 1901). (Descriptions
of the genus and species Oryssus terminalis and O. Sayi from Canada.)
BUSCK, AUGUST.—A new Canadian Tineid. (Description of Anacampsis
lupimella). Can. Ent., X XXIII, 14-15 (Jan., 1901).
CHAGNON, GUSTAVE.—Etudes préliminaires sur les Syrphidæ de la Province
de Québec. Le Naturaliste Canadien, XXVIII (VII nouvelle série),
10-14 (Jan.); ib. 23-27 (Feb.); ib. 41-45 (March); ib. 55-59 (Apr.); ib.
76-78 (May); ib. 86-91 (June); ib. 102-106 (July); ib. 118-126 (Aug.);
ib. 134-142 (Sept.); ib. 152-159 (Oct.); ib. 168-183 (Nov., 1901).
CHAGNON, GUSTAVE.—Preliminary List of Canadian Diptera. Entomological
Student, Philadelphia, II, 5-8 (Feb.); ib. 13-15 (March, 1901).
CHAPAIS, J. C.—L’Aphis des pois (Nectarophora destructor). Le Naturaliste
Canadien, XXVIII, 17-20 (Feb., 1901).
COCKERELL, T. D. A.—The American Bees of the genus Andrena described
by F. Smith. Can. Ent., XXXIII, 123-4 (April); ib. 149-155 (May,
Cox, D. G.—Notes on Insects of the Year. 31st Annual Report, Ent. Soc.
Ontario, 1900, pp. 39-40.
DEARNESS, JOHN.—A parasite of the San José Scale. 31st Annual Report,
Ent. Soc. Ontario, 1900, pp. 87-88.
162 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Dop, E. H. WOoLLEy, Preliminary List of the Macro-Lepidoptera of Alberta,
N.W.T. Can. Ent., XXXIII, 40-42 (Feb.); ib. 157-172 (June, 1901).
Dop, E. H. WoLLey.—Pyrameis cardui (Unusual abundance of this butterfly).
Can. Ent., XXXIII, 237 (Aug., 1901).
DopGE, G. M. and E. A.—Notes on the early stages of Catocale. Can. Ent.
XXXIII, 221-226 (August); ib. 298-300 (Nov., 1901).
DyAR, Harrison G.—Notes on the genitalia of Halisidota Harrisii, Walsh.
Can. Ent., XXXIII, 30 (Feb., 1901), figs.
DyarR, HARRISON G.—On certain identifications in the genus Acronycta. Can.
Ent., XX XIII, 122 (April); ib. 191-2 (July, 1901).
Evans, J. D.—Notes on Insects of the Year. 31st Annual Report, Ent. Soc.
Ontario, 1900, p. 39.
FISHER, GEORGE E.—Report of the Inspector of San José Scale, 1900. Annual
Report Ontario Department of Agriculture for 1900, Toronto, 1901;
Vol. I, No. 49, pp. 20 (plate).
FISHER, GEORGE E.—The San José Scale. 31st Annual Report, Ent. Soc.
Ontario, 1900, pp. 26-28.
FISHER, GEORGE E.—Remedies for the San José Scale. Farmer’s Advocate,
XXXVI, 125 (Feb. 15, 1901).
FISHER, GEORGE E.—Fighting the San José Scale. 32nd Annual Report
Ontario Fruit Growers’ Association, 1900, pp. 113-122.
FLEMING, W. M.—Silk Culture in Canada. Farmer’s Advocate, XXXVI, 124
(Feb. 15, 1901).
FLETCHER, JAMES.—Report of the Entomologist and Botanist. Experimental
Farms Report, 1900, pp. 195-249 (18 figures).
FLETCHER, JAMES.—Farm pests; fodder grasses. Evidence before the Select
Standing Committee on Agriculture and Colonization, House of Com-
mons, Ottawa, March 19, 1901, pp. 25.
FLETCHER, JAMES.—Injurious Insects in Ontario during 1900. 31st Annual
Report, Ent. Soc. Ontario, 1900, pp. 62-72 (figures).
FLETCHER, JAMES.—The Value of Bees in Fruit Orchards. Annual Report of
the Bee-keepers’ Association of Ontario, 1901, pp. 56-63.
FLETCHER, JAMES.—Description of the full-grown larva of Anacampsis
lupinella. Can. Ent., XXXIII, 15-16 (Jan., 1901).
FLETCHER, JAMES.—Practical Entomology (Review of Dr. L. O. Howard’s
Study of the Insect Fauna of Human Excrement). Can. Ent.
XXXIII, 84-88 (March, 1901).
FLETCHER, JAMES.—Life history of the greenhouse Leaf-tyer. Phlyctænia
ferrugalis. Can. Ent., XXXIII, 140-144 (May, 1901).
[BETHUNE] BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANADIAN ENTOMOLOGY 163
FLETCHER, JAMES.—Farmers’ Friends and Foes (a series containing 60 replies
concerning noxious and beneficial insects). Montreal Weekly Star,
1901.
FLETCHER, JAMES.—The Hessian Fly. Montreal Weekly Star, April 3, 1901.
FLETCHER, JAMES.—The Pea Weevil. Montreal Weekly Star, April, 17, 1901.
FLETCHER, JAMES.—Fleas and Bedbugs. Montreal Weekly Star, May 20, 1901.
FLETCHER, JAMES.—Black Vine-Weevil (Otiorhynchus sulcatus) attacking Straw-
berries. Montreal Weekly Star, May 30, 1901.
FLETCHER, JAMES.—The Powder Post Beetle. Montreal Weekly Star, Nov. 6,
1901.
FLETCHER, JAMES,—The Peach-tree Borer. Montreal Weekly Star, Nov. 13,
1901.
FLETCHER, JAMES,—Ants in houses. Montreal Weekly Star, Nov. 20, 1901.
FLETCHER, JAMES.—The Hawk Louse-fiy (Olfersia Americana). Montreal
Weekly Star, Dec. 11, 1901.
FLETCHER, JAMES,—The San José Scale in Ohio and Ontario. Montreal
Weekly Star, Dec. 18, 1901.
FLETCHER, JAMES,—A Cattle Vick (Boophilus bovis?). Farmer’s Advocate,
XXXVI, 304 (May 1, 1901).
FLETCHER, JAMES,—Invasion of Box-elder Bug (Leptocoris trivittatus). Nor-
West Farmer, Nov. 5, 1901, p. 694.
FLETCHER, JAMES,—A Currant Maggot (Epochra?). Nor-West Farmer, Dec.
by 19015) pil wal.
FRENCH, G. H.—Revision of the genus Catocala. Can. Ent., XX XIII, 12-14
(Jan.); ib. 205-207 (July, 1901).
Fyies, T. W.—Annual Address of the President of the Entomological Society
of Ontario (Discusses the fertilization of plants by insects). 31st
Annual Report Ent. Soc. Ontario, 1900, pp. 29-33.
Fyues, T. W.—The Dragon-flies of the Province of Quebec. 31st Annual
Report Ent. Soc. Ontario, 1900, pp. 52-59 (figures).
Gipson, A.—The breeding of Lepidoptera, with notes on the inflation of lar-
ve. 31st Annual Report Ent. Soc. Ontario, 1900, pp. 79-81.
Gipson, A.—Life-history of the greenhouse Leaf-tyer, Phlyctenia ferrugalis.
Can. Ent., XX XIII, 140-144 (May. 1901).
Gipson, A.—The life-history of Arctia virguncula. Can. Ent, XXXIII, 325-9
(Dec., 1901)..
GREGSON, PERCY B.—Habits of the larve of Dermestes talpinus. 3ist Annual
Report Ent. Soc. Ontario, 1900, pp. 84-85 (fig.).
164 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
GREGSON, PERCY B.—The principal injurious Insects of the North-west for
1900. 31st Annual Report Ent. Soc. Ontario, 1900, pp. 106-108.
GROTE, A. RADCLIFFE.—Systematic arrangement of the North American
Lepidoptera. Can. Ent., XXXIII, 116-118 (April, 1901).
GROTE, A. RADCLIFFE.—Some original descriptions of Guenée {Leucania insueta,
Agrotis ochrogaster, Catocala micronympha and C. Belfragiana. Can. Ent.,
XXXIII, 177-9 (June, 1901).
GROTE, A. RADCLIFFE.—On Types of Acronycta. Can. Ent., XX XITI, 242-245
(Sept., 1901).
HANHAM, A. W.—A list of Manitoba Moths, Part V. Can. Ent., XX XIII,
213-220 (Aug., 1901).
HARRINGTON, W. H.—Note on Bæus. Can. Ent., XXXIII, 331-2 (Dec., 1901).
HEATH, E. FiIRMSTONE.—Notes on the occurrence of Lepidoptera, etc., in
Southern Manitoba. Can. Ent., XXXIII, 98-100 (April, 1901).
Hinps, W. E.—Notes on the life-history of Alsophila pometaria (Fall Canker-
worm). Can. Ent., XXXIII, 186-191 (July, 1901), plate and figures.
JOHNSON, W. G.—Notes upon the Destructive Green Pea Louse for 1900
(Nectarophora destructor). 31st Annual Report Ent. Soc. Ontario, 1900,
pp. 99-101.
JOHNSTON, JAMES.—Notes on Insects of the year. 31st Annual Report Ent.
Soc. Ontario, 1900, pp. 40-41.
KING, GEORGE B.—Lecanium Websteri, with notes on allied forms. Can.
Ent., X XXIII, 106-109 (April, 1901).
KING, GEORGE B.—The Coccidæ of British North America. Can. Ent.,
XXXIII, 179-180 (June); ib. 193-200 (July); ib. 314-5 (Nov.); ib. 333-6
(Dec., 1901).
LocHHEAD, W.—Report of the Professor of Biology and Geology, Ontario
Agricultural College. Report of the Department of Agriculture for
1900, Toronto, 1901; Vol. I, No. 14, pp. 11-21 (figs.).
LocHHEAD, W.—Report of the Inspector of Fumigation Appliances, 1900,
Annual Report Ontario Department of Agriculture for 1900. Toronto,
1901, Vol. I, No. 18, pp. 15 (plates).
LOCHHEAD, W.—A plea for the systematic and economic study of the Forest
Insects of Ontario. 3lst Annual Report Ent. Soc. Ontario, 1900, pp.
34-37 (figures).
LOcHHEAD, W.—The Silk-worm Industry in Ontario. 31st Annual Report
Ent. Soc. Ontario, 1900, pp. 57-59.
LOCHHEAD, W.—Insects of the Season of 1900. 31st Annual Report Ent. Soc.
Ontario, 1900, pp. 72-75 (figs.).
LOCHHEAD, W.—Nature-study lessons on the Squash-bug (Anasa tristis). 31st
Annual Report Ent. Soc. Ontario, 1900, pp. 75-78 (figures).
[BETHUNE] BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANADIAN ENTOMOLOGY 165
LOCHHEAD, W.—The present status of the San José Scale in Ontario. 31st
Annual Report Ent. Soc. Ontario, 1900, page 87.
LOCHHEAD, W.—The San José Scale. 32nd Annual Report Ontario Fruit-
Growers’ Association, 1900, pp. 112-3.
LOCHHEAD, W.—Crude Petroleum Experiments against the San José Scale.
Can. Horticulturist, XXIV, 20 (Jan., 1901). The Original Home of
the San José Scale; Spraying; ib. 149 (April).
LOCHHEAD, W.—The Buffalo Tree-hopper. More about the San José Scale.
Can. Horticulturist, XXIV, 221-3 (June), figs. Some Raspberry Pests,
ib. 278-9 (July, 1901), fig.
LOCHHEAD, W.—The Hessian Fly. Bulletin published by the Ontario Depart-
ment of Agriculture, August, 1901, pp. 16 (figures). Reprinted in
‘The Sun,” Toronto, Aug. 28, 1901.
LOCHHEAD, W.—The New Peach Pest (Macrodactylus subspinosus), (in peach
orchards at Niagara). Toronto Daily Globe, July 3; Weekly Sun,
July 4, 1901.
LOCHHEAD, W.—The Plum Curculio, Guelph Mercury, June, 1901.
LOcHHEAD, W.—Some Useful Friends (Lady-birds, ichneumons, etc.). Guelph
Mercury, July 6, 1901.
LOCHHEAD, W.—Ants, Buffalo Carpet-beetles and Clothes-moths. Guelph
Mercury, June 27, 1901.
LOCHHEAD, W.—The Hessian Fly again. Farmer’s Advocate, XXXVI, 437
(July 1, 1901), figs.
LYMAN, HENRY H.—Life-history of Xylina Bethune, G. and R. Can. Ent,
CCI 1-3) Wan, 1901).
LYMAN, Henry H.—Notes on Walker’s types of Spilosoma congrua and a few
other types in the British Museum. Can. Ent., XX XIII, 94-98 (April,
1901).
LYMAN, HENRY H.—A New Gortyna (G. @rata) and notes on the genus. Can.
Ent., XX XIII, 317-320 (Dec., 1901).
MACGILLIVRAY, A. D.—Cicadidæ—American genera and species. (Table of
genera and bibliography). Can. Ent., XXXIII, 74-84 (March, 1901).
McINTosH, WILLIAM.—The Hawk and Bombycine Moths of New Brunswick—
introductory list. Bull. Nat. Hist. Soc. of New Brunswick, No. XIX,
1901, pp. 301-2.
Morrat, J. ALSTON.—Notes on the Season of 1900. 31st Annual Report Ent.
Soc. Ontario, 1900, pp. 42-44 (figs.).
Morrat, J. ALSTON.—Parasites in the Eggs of Chrysopa. 31st Annual Report
Ent. Soc. Ontario, 1900, pp. 51-52 (figs.).
Sec. IV, 1902. 9.
166 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Morrat, J. ALSTON.—Anosia archippus, yet again. 31st Annual Report Ent.
Soc. Ontario, 1800, pp. 44-51 (fig.).
MORICE, F. D.—The American Bees of the genus Andrena described by F.
Smith. Can. Ent., XXXIII, 123-4 (April); ib. 149-155 (May, 1901).
Nasu, C. W.—Notes on Danais Archippus. 31st Annual Report Ent. Soc.
Ontario, 1900, pp. 86-7.
NEEDHAM, J. G.—The life-history of Nannothemis bella, Uhler. Can. Ent.
XXXIII, 254-5 (Sept., 1901), figure.
Norris, A. E.—Life-history of the Camberwell Beauty Butterfly (Vanessa
antiopa). Can. Record of Science, VIII, 345-9 (July, 1901).
PALMER, R. M.—Report of the Inspector of Fruit Pests, containing Remedies
and Suggestions recommended for adoption by Farmers, Fruit-
Growers and Gardeners of the Province. Annual Report of the Pro-
vincial Board of Agriculture for 1900, British Columbia Department
of Agriculture—pages 243-338 (figures).
PETTIT, MURRAY.—Report of Committee on San José Scale (and discussion
thereon). 32nd Annual Report Ontario Fruit-Growers’ Association,
1900, pp. 59-64; 93-4.
POLING, OTHO C.—Some recent work in the genus Catocala. (Includes a new
species, C. Frenchii, from British Columbia). Can. Ent. XXXIII, 125-
129 (May, 1901).
REHN, JAMES A. G.—The Linnæan genus Gryllus. Can. Ent., XXXIII, 118-121
April, 1901); ib. 184 (June, 1901).
REHN, JAMES A. G.—Some necessary changes and corrections in names of
Orthoptera. Can. Ent., XXXIII, 271-2 (Oct., 1901).
RENNIE, R. W.—Notes on Insects of the year. 31st Annual Report Ent. Soc.
Ontario, 1900, p. 41.
SANDERSON, E. Dwicut.—Some Plant-lice affecting Peas, Clover and Lettuce.
Can. Ent., XX XIII, 31-39 (Feb.), figs.; ib. 79-74 (March, 1901), figs.
SCUDDER, SAMUEL H.—Cyphoderris monstrosa (description of the female taken
at Banff, Alberta). Can. Ent., XXXIII, 17-19 (Jan., 1901).
SCUDDER, SAMUEL H.—My First Namesake. (An account of Lycæna Scudderii).
Ottawa Naturalist, XV, 121-122 (August, 1901).
SMITH, JOHN B.—Types and Synonymy. (Discusses Spilosoma congrua, Walker,
and certain species of Acronycta). Can. Ent., XXXIII, 146-148 (May,
1901).
SMITH, Joun B.—Acronycta and Types. Can. Ent., XX XIII, 232-234 (August,
. 1901).
SMITH, JOHN B.—Concerning protests and other things. (Refers to changes
in nomenclature, determination of specimens, etc.). Can. Ent.
XXXIII, 276-9 (Oct., 1901).
[BETHUNE] BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANADIAN ENTOMOLOGY 167
TURLEY, Louis W.—Cyphoderris monstrosa (Habits of the Species). Can. Ent.,
XXXIII, 246-8 (Sept., 1901).
TWEDDLE, JOSEPH.—Report of Committee on Codling Moth Legislature (and
discussion thereon). 32nd Annual Report Ontario Fruit-Growers’
Association, 1900, pp. 2-7.
WALKER, E. M.—Notes on some Ontario Acridiidæ, Part IV. Can. Ent.
XXXIII, 20-23 (Jan., 1901).
WEBSTER, F.. M.—Results of some Experiments in protecting Apples from
the attack of the Second Brood of Codling Moths. 31st Annual Report
Ent. Soc. Ontario, 1900, pp. 37-38 (fig.).
WEBSTER, F. M.—Results of some applications of crude petroleum to Orchard
Trees. 31st Annual Report Ent. Soc. Ontario, 1900, pp. 59-61.
WEBSTER, F. M.—Notes on two Longicorn Beetles affecting growing Nursery
Stock. (Saperda vestita and Oberea bimaculata). 31st Annual Report
Ent. Soe. Ontario, 1900, pp. 81-84 (figures).
WEBSTER, F. M.—Observations on several species of Dermestide. sist
Annual Report Ent. Soc. Ontario, 1900, pp. 85-86.
WEITH, R.—The life-history of Nannothemis bella, Ulher. Can. Ent., XX XIII,
252-4 (Sept., 1901).
WIcKHAM, H. F.—Two new blind beetles of the genus Adranes, from the
Pacific Coast. (Describes A. pacificus and Taylori and gives a table
of specific distinctions). Can. Ent., XX XIII, 25-28 (Jan., 1901), figs.
Winn, A. F.—Curious effect of the attack of an Asilus Fly on Colias philodice.
Can. Ent., XXXIII, 330-1, (Dec., 1901).
ou
HU iN
ne
MAS
SecrTioN IV., 1902 [189 ] Trans. R. S. C.
XI.— Bibliography of Canadian Geology and Paleontology
for the Year 1901.
By Dr. H. M. Amt.
(Read May 27, 1902.)
ADAMS, F. D.
The Excursion to the Pyrenees in connection with the Eighth Inter-
national Geological Congress.
Journal of Geology, Vol. 9, pp. 28-46, 3 plates, Jan.-Feb., 1901,
Chicago. Ill.
Notes on the Iron Ore Deposits of Bilboa, Northern Spain.
Journ. Can. Min. Instit., Vol. 4, pp. 196-204, 1901, Ottawa.
George M. Dawson.
Science, new series, Vol. 13, pp. 561-563, 1 pl. 1901.
Experimental Work on Flow of Rocks.
Science, new series, Vol. 18, pp. 95-96, 1901.
ADAMS F. D. and NICHOLSON, J. T.
An Experimental Investigation into the Flow of Marble.
Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., London, Vol. 195, pp. 363-401, pls. 22-25,
1901, London. Reviewed by I. H. O. in Amer. Geol., Vol. 27, No.
5, pp. 316-317, May, 1901.
AMI, H: M.
Synopsis of the Geology of Canada, being a summary of the principal
terms employed in Canadian Geological Nomenclature (Read May
29th, 1900).
Trans. Roy. Soc. Can., 2nd series, 1900-1901, Vol. 6, Sect. 4, pp.
187-225, Ottawa, Can. Reviewed in the Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. 15,
No. 2, pp. 59-62.
Knoydart Formation of Nova Scotia.
Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. 12, pp. 301-312, plate 26 (map), August,
1901, Rochester, N.Y.
On the Geology of the Principal Cities in Eastern Canada. (Read
before the Royal Society of Canada, May, 25th, 1899.)
Trans. Roy. Soc. Can., 2nd series, 1900-1901, Vol. 6, Sect. 4, pp. 125-
173, March 25th, 1901, Ottawa.
Description of tracks from the fine-grained mudstones of the Knoy-
dart formation (Ho-Devonian) of Antigonish Co., Nova Scotia.
N. S. Inst. Sci., Vol. 10, pp. 380-332, 1901.
Notice of Prof. E. D. Cope’s article:—‘‘On Cyphornis, an Extinct
Genus of Birds,”
Can. Rec. Sci., Vol. 8, No. 5, pp. 331-332, January, 1901, Montreal,
Que.
On a New or Hitherto Unrecognized Geological Formation in the
Devonian System of Canada.
Can. Rec. Sci., Vol. 8, No. 5, pp. 296-305, January, 1901, Montreal,
Que.
170
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Addenda and Corrigendum to “ Progress of Geological Work in Can-
ada during 1899.”
Can. Rec. Sci., Vol. 8, No. 5, pp. 329-331, January, 1901, Montreal,
Que.
Annual Address of the President of the Ottawa Field-Naturalists’
Club (giving sketch of life and work of E. Billings, Palæontologist).
Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. 14, No. 11, pp. 197-212, Feb., 1901, Ottawa.
Stratigraphical Note (being note on sub-divisions of Devonian and
Silurian of Arisaig, Antigonish County, Nova Scotia).
Science, new series, Vol. 13, No. 323, pp. 394-395, March 8th, 1901,
New York.
Review of ‘‘ General Index to the Reports of Progress, 1863-1884, by
D. B. Dowling,’ Ottawa, 1900, pp. 475.
Science, new series, Vol. 18, No. 324, pp. 424-425, March 15th, 1901,
New York. Also in Ottawa Naturalist.
(Researches in Paleontology and Stratigraphy).
Sum. Rep. Geological Survey Dept. for 1900, pp. 178-182, April 15th,
1901, Ottawa. Printed by Order of Parliament.
Rrief Biographical Sketch of Elkanah Billings.
The Amer. Geologist, Vol. 27, No. 5, pp. 265-281, May. 1901, Minne-
apolis, Minn., U.S.A., see also: Amer. Geol., Vol. 28, p. 132, 1901.
The Late George Mercer Dawson (with Portrait).
The Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. 15, No. 2, pp. 43-52, May, 1901.
The Royal Society of Canada. (Twentieth Meeting.) ;
Science, new series, Vol. 13, No. 339, pp. 1015-1021, June, 28th, 1901.
(Contains abstracts of geological papers and notes of discussions
thereon.)
Notes on some of the Silurian and Devonian formations of Eastern
Canada, and their faunas and floras.
Abstract, Science, new ser., Vol. 13, pp. 1017-1018, 1901.
On the subdivisions of the Cambrian system in Canada.
Abstract, Science, new ser., Vol. 13, p. 1019, 1901.
A dual classification required in the nomenclature of the geological
formations in different systems in Canada.
Abstract, Science, new ser., Vol. 13, pp. 1019-1020, 1901.
review of ‘‘A Chapter on the Pleistocene Geology of Northern Asia,
by Dr. G. Frederick Wright.”
The Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. 15, No. 7, pp. 172-173, October, 1901,
Ottawa.
Review and Notice of Dr. A. Smith Woodward’s paper entitled ‘ On a
new Ostracoderm (Euphanerops longevus) from the Upper Devonian
of Scaumenac Bay, Province of Quebec, Canada.”
The Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. 15, No. 7, p. 174 (8-4 p.), October,
1901, Ottawa.
Bibliography of Sir John William Dawson.
Trans. Roy. Soc. Can., 2nd series, 1901-1902, Vol. VII, Sect. 4, pp.
15-44, issued Nov. 26th, 1901, Ottawa.
Bibliography of Dr. George Mercer Dawson.
The Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. 15th, No. 9, pp. 201-218, December,
1901, Ottawa; see also: Amer. Geol., Vol. 28, pv. 76-86, 1901.
Preliminary lists of the organic remains occurring in the various
geological formations comprised in the map of the Ottawa district,
[amr] BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANADIAN GEOLOGY 171
including portions of the provinces of Quebec and Ontario, along the
Ottawa River.
(Separate) Rep. Ann. Rep. Geol. Surv. Can., new series, Vol. XII,
pp. 51G-77G, December, 1901, Ottawa.
(Notice of paper read before the Geological Society of America, Albany
meeting, Dec., 1900, by J. F. Kemp), ‘‘ The Knoydart Formation in
Nova Scotia, a bit of the ‘Old Red Sandstone’ of Europe.”
Science, new series, Vol. 13, No. 517, p. 315, 1901, New York city.
BAILEY, L .W.
Summary Report of Geological Investigations in New Brunswick.
Sum. Rep. Geol. Surv. Dept. for 1900, pp. 146-151, Queen’s Printer,
Ottawa, 1901. Printed by order of Parliament.
On some modes of occurrence of the Mineral Albertite.
Atstract, Ecience, new ser., Vol. 13, p. 1018, 1901.
Cn some geological correlations in New Brunswick.
Abstract, Science, new ser., Vol. 13, pp. 1018-1019, 1901.
BARLOW, A. E.
(Summary Report of work in the Muskoka, Haliburton and Dungan-
non Districts of Ontario.)
Sum. Rep. Geol. Surv. Dept. for 1900, pp. 127-129, April 15th, 1901,
Ottawa. Queen’s Printer, Printed by order of Parliament,
BELL, J. M.
(Explorations in the Great Bear and Great Slave Lake Districts.)
Sum. Rep. Geol. Surv. Dept. for 1901, pp. 95-103, April 15th, 1901.
Printed by order of Parliament. ;
BELL, ROBERT.
(On the Geology of Michipicoten district, Ontario.)
Sum. Rep. Geol. Surv. Dept. for 1901, pp. 110-121, April 15th, 1901,
Ottawa. Printed by order of Parliament.
Summary Report of Geological Investigations in the Michipicoten
Mining Districts of Ontaria.
Sum. Rep. Geol. Surv. Dept. for 1900, Queen’s Printer, Ottawa,
1900. Printed by order of Parliament.
(One of Canada’s Explorers), by Charles Hallock.
Extracted from Forest and Stream, Vol. 53, No. 4, pp. 63, July 22,
1889, and reprinted as separate under cover with portrait, as a
private publication, Washington, D.C., Feb., 1901.
On an Exploration on the Northern Side of Hudson Strait.
Geol. Surv. Can. Ann. Rep. new series, Vol. 21, Report M, 38 pp.,
1901. July 18th, 1901, with whole volume, Ottawa.
Laurentian limestones of Eafiinland.
Abstract, Science, new ser., Vol. 13, p. 100, 1901.
BLAKEMORE, W.
Pioneer Work in the Crows Nest Coal Areas.
Journal Can. Min. Instit., Vol. 4, pp. 240-243, 1901, Ottawa.
BREWER, W. M.
Texada Island, British Columbia.
Eng. and Mg. Jour., Vol. 72, pp. 665-667, 2 figs., 1901.
172 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Brock, R. W.
(On the Geology of the Area covered by the West Kootenay Map-
Sheet.)
Summary Report of the Geological Survey Department for 1900,
pp. 62-84, April 15th, 1901, Ottawa. Printed by order of Parliament.
BUCHAN, J. S.
Was Mount Royal an Active Volcano?
Can. Rec. Sci., Vol. 8, No. 5, pp. 321-328, January, 1901, Montreal,
Que. (Reviewed in May, 1901, No. of Amer. Geol., by J. A. Dresser.)
CHALMERS, ROBERT.
(Surface Geology of North-Western New Brunswick.)
Summary Report of the Geological Survey Department for 1900,
pp. 151-161, April 15th, 1901, Ottawa. Printed by order of Parlia-
ment.
The Sources and Distribution of the Gold-Bearing Alluvions of Que-
bec (with one illustration).
The Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. 15, No. 2, pp. 33-36, May, 1901, Ottawa.
Note on the Pleistocene Marine Shore-lines and Landslides of the
North Side of the St. Lawrence Valley, pp. 63 J-70J (illustrated).
Appendix I. to “Report on the Geology of the Three Rivers Map—
Sheet or North-Western Sheet of the Eastern Townships Map of
Quebec,” by Dr. R. W. Ells.
Report J (No. 707), Geol. Surv. Can. Ann. Rep., Vol. XI, new
series, issued July 138th, 1901, Ottawa.
COLE, GRENVILLE A. J.
On Belinurus Kiltorkensis, Baily.
Geological Magazine, No. 440, new series, Dec. 4th, Vol. 8, No. 2,
pp. 52-54, February, 1901, London, Eng. (Reply, to R. W. E., of
Ottawa Naturalist for January, 1900, on a Nova Scotian Species of
Belinurus.)
COLEMAN, A. P.
(Marine and Freshwater Beaches of Ontario.
Bulletin of Geological Society of America, Vol. 12, pp. 129-146,
March, 1901, Rochester, N.Y. (Map.)
Glacial and Inter-Glacial Beds near Toronto.
Journal of Geology, Vol. 9, No. 4, May-June, 1901, pp. 285-310.
(illustrated.)
The Vermilion River placers (Ontario).
Ont. Bureau of Mines Rep. for 1901, pp. 151-159, 1901. Toronto.
Iron ranges of the Lower Huronian (Ontario).
Ont. Bureau of Mines Rep. for 1901, pp. 181-211, pl. 25-28, 1901.
Sea beaches of Eastern Ontario.
Ont. Bureau of Mines Rep. for 1901, pp. 215-227, pl. 29-30, 1901.
CONNOR, M. FRANK, and DRESSER, JOHN A.
On the Petrography of Shefford Mountain. (Chemical analyses of
rocks, by M. F. C.).
American Geologist, Vol. 28, No. 4, pp. 203-213, October, 1901, Minne-
apolis, Minn.
[ami] BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANADIAN GEOLOGY 173
CORLESS:) (C. iV.
The Coal Creek Colliery of the Crows Nest Pass Coal Company.
Journ, Can. Min. Institute, Vol. IV, pp. 154-173, 1901, Ottawa.
CURRIE, P. W.
On the Ancient Drainage at Niagara Falls. (Read before the Can-
adian Institute, March 9th, 1901.)
Transactions Canadian Institute, Vol. 7, No. 13, Part 1, pp. 8-14,
August, 1901, Toronto. (Illustrated.)
Day, REGINALD A.
The Physiography of Acadia. {
Bull. Mus. Comp. Geology at Harvard Col, Vol. 38, Geol. series,
Vol. 5, No: 3, pp. 71-104, eleven plates, March, 1901, Cambridge,
Mass. (Reviewed in Amer. Geol., Vol. 27, No. 5, pp. 317-318.)
(Paper on Concretions of Kettle Point, Lambton Co., Ontario, re-
viewed by W. O. Crosby in Amer. Geol., Vol. 27, p. 253, 1901).
Notes on oceanography.
Science, new ser., Vol. 13, pp. 951-954, 1901.
Davis, W. M.
Abstract of paper by Prof. Ganong on the physiography of New Bruns-
wick.
Science, new ser., Vol. 13, pp. 471-472, 1901.
Current notes on physiography—Character of the plain of the St.
Lawrence Valley.
Science, new ser., Vol. 13, pp. 698-699, 1901.
Review of report by A. P. Low on South Shore of Hudson Strait.
Science, new ser., Vol. 14, p. 779, 1901.
Review of Dowling and Tyrrell’s report on Lake Winnipeg.
Science, new ser., Vol. 14, pp. 856-859, 1901.
DAWSON, GEORGE MERCER.
Summary Report of the Geological Survey Department.
(Annual Summary Report of the Geological Survey Department for
the year ending December 31st, 1900), pp. 1-37, April 15th, 1901,
Ottawa. Printed by order of Parliament. (Posthumous.)
Geological record of the Rocky Mountain region in Canada.
Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., Vol. 12, pp. 57-92, 1901.
Physical History of the Rocky Mountain Region in Canada.
Science, new series, Vol. 13, No. 324, pp. 401-407, March 15th, 1901.
(Concluding section of the address of the President of the Geo-
logical Society of America, the late Dr. G. M. Dawson, read before
the Society, Dec. 19th, 1900.)
Geological Survey of Canada, Annual Report, new series, Vol. XI,
parts A, D, F, G, I, L, M, R and S, 856 pages of reports besides
an index of 30 pp., numerous plates and four folded maps in separ-
ate cover, July 13th, 1901. Reviewed by W. U. (Warren Upham)
in Amer. Geol., Vol. 28, No. 5, pp. 321-322, Nov., 1901.
DONALD, J. T.
The Composition of some Canadian limestones.
Can. Mining Review, Vol. 20, pp. 67-68, 1901.
Can. Mining Inst. Jour., Vol. 4, pp. 152-154, 1901.
174
ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
DOOLITTLE, DR. P. E.
Mining Development in the Kootenays, British Columbia.
Mining and Metallurgy, Vol. 24, No. 2, pp. 33-34 (illustrated by
three half-tone cuts). Los Angeles, New York and Chicago.
DowLiING, D. B.
On the Geology of the West Shore and Islands of Lake Winnipeg.
Geol. Surv. Can. Ann. Rep., new series, Vol. XI, Report F, 93 pp
(July 13th, 1901, whole volume). Illustrated. Ottawa.
(See) J. B. Tyrrell’s Rep. Geol. East Shore of Lake Winnipeg.
The Physical Geography of the Red River Valley.
The Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. 15, No. 5, pp. 115-120, August, 1901,
Ottawa, Canada. Separate.
DRESSER, JOHN A.
A. hornblende Lamprophyre dyke at Richmond, P.Q.
Can. Rec. Sci., Vol. 8, No. 5, pp. 315-320, January, 1901, Montreal.
Preliminary Note on the Amygdolerdal trap rock in the Eastern Town-
ships of the Province of Quebec.
Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. 14, pp. 180-182, January, 1901, Ottawa.
On the Petrography of Mount Orford.
American Geologist, Vol. 27, No. 1, pp. 14-21, January, 1901, Minne-
apolis, Minn.
(Geology of Shefford Mountain, Province of Quebec) Summary Report.
Geol. Surv. Dept. for 1900, pp. 141-143, April 15th, 1901, Ottawa.
Printed by order of Parliament.
Review of paper by J. S. Buchan: ‘‘ Was Mount Royal an Active
Volcano?”
Can. Rec. Sc., Vol. 8, No. 5, pp. 321-328, 1901.
In Amer. Geol., Vol. 29, May, 1901.
DRESSER, JOHN A., and CONNOR, M. F.
ELLs,
On the Petrography of Shefford Mountain.
American Geologist, Vol. 27, No. 4, pp. 203-213, October, 1901, Minne-
apolis, Minn.
Ee Wi
(On the Geology of Portion of the Ottawa Valley.)
Summary Report of the Geological Survey Department for 1900,
pp. 129-139, April 15th, 1901, Ottawa. Printed by order of Parlia-
ment.
The Physical Features and Geology of the Paleozoic basin between
the Lower Ottawa and St. Lawrence Rivers.
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Ancient Channels of the Ottawa River (with Map).
The Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. 15, No. 1, pp. 17-30, April, 1901, Ottawa.
The Devonian of the Acadian Provinces.
Can. Rec. Sci., Vol. 8, No. 6, pp. 335-343, July, 1901, Montreal.
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[AMI] BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANADIAN GEOLOGY 173
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176 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
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[amr] BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANADIAN GEOLOGY 1272
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178 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
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Hyolithes gracilis and related forms from the Lower Cambrian of the
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Abstract of paper read before Roy. Soc. of Can., Science, new ser.,
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(Correspondence.)
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[amr] BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANADIAN GEOLOGY 179
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Parliament.
MILLER, W. G. ;
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McCoNnNELL, R. G.
(Observations in the Klondyke Region.)
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180 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
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An experimental investigation into the flow of marble.
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OBALSEI, J.
Note on the Magnetic Iron Sand of the North Shore of the St. Law-
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PARKINSON, J.
Some Lake Basins in Alberta and British Columbia.
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(Geology of the Muskoka Map-Sheet of the Ontario Series.)
Sum. Rep. Geol. Surv. Dept. for 1900, pp. 122-127, April 15th, Ottawa.
Printed by order of Parliament.
PENHALLOW, D. P.
Notes on the North American Species of Dadoxylon, with especial
reference to type material in the collection of the Peter Redpath
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Trans. Royal Soc. Can., 2nd series, Vol. 6, Sect. 4, pp. 51-97, 1901,
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Review of “Studies in Fossil Botany,’ by Dunkenfield Henry Scott,
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Science, new series, Vol. 13, No. 323, pp. 386-389, March, 8th, 1901,
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A Decade of North American Paleontology, 1890-1900. Address of
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Science, new series, Vol. 18, No. 318, pp. 161-176, 1901, London.
Review of “the Mesozoic flora of the United States.”
Science, new ser., Vol. 13, pp. 904-906, 1901.
ROBERTSON, W. F.
Mineral Production of British Columbia.
Report of the Minister of Mines, L, Edward VII, pp. 701-1027, for
the year ending December 31st, 1900.
SCHUCHERT, CHARLES.
On the Helderbergian Fossils near Montreal, Canada.
Amer. Geol., Vol. 27, No. 4, pp. 245-253, April, 1901, Minneapolis,
Minn.
ScUDDER, S. H.
4. Additions to Coleopterous fauna of the Interglacial clays of the
Toronto district, with an appendix by A. D. Hopkins on the Scolytid
borings from the same deposits.
Geological Survey of Canada, Contributions to Canadian Palæon-
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1901, Ottawa.
[AMI] BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANADIAN GEOLOGY 181
SMITH, L. H.
The Extinction of the Elk in Ontario.
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Mines and Mining in Eastern Ontario.
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TAYLOR, EF. B.
Glacial phenomena in Eastern Ontario.
Abstract, Science, new ser., Vol. 13, p. 138, 1901.
TYRRELL, J. B.
Report on the East Shore of Lake Winnipeg and the adjacent parts
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Preglacial erosion in the course of the Niagara gorge and its relation
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The Toronto and Scarboro Drift Series.
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Am. Geol., Vol. 28, pp. 321-322.
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Observations made in 1900 on glaciers in British Columbia.
Phil. Acad. Sci., Proc. for 1901, pp. 213-215.
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1901, Ottawa.
Wancorr, C: D:
Cambrian Brachiopoda; Obolella subgenus Glyptias, Bicia, Obolus,
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WALKER, B. E.
List of the Published Writings of Elkanah Billings, F.G.S. Palæon-
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Can. Rec. Sci., Vol. VIII, No. 6, pp. 366-388, July, 1901, Montreal.
Sec. IV., 1902. 10
182 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
WATSON, LAWRENCE W.
At Rocky Point. 1
The Prince Edward Island Magazine (Double number), Vol. 8,
Nos. 9 & 10, pp. 318-323, November and December, 1901, Charlotte-
town, P.E.I.
WILLIS, BAILEY.
Oil of the Northern Rocky Mountains.
Eng. and Mining Jour., Vol. 72, pp. 782-784, 3 figs., 1901.
WILLMOTT, A. B.
The Michipicoten Huronian Area.
Amer. Geol., Vol. 28, p. 14, July, 1901, Minneapolis, Minn.
WILSON, ALFRED W. G.
Physical Geology of Central Ontario (Read before the Canadian Insti-
tute, April 20th, 1901). }
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WHITE, DAVID.
Some Palæobotanical Aspects of the Upper Palæozoic in Nova Scotia.
Can. Rec. Sci. Vol. VIII, No. 5, pp. 271-280, Jan., 1901, Montreal.
Separate, issued 1900.
The Canadian Species of the Genus Whittleseya and their systematic
relations.
The Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. 15, No. 4, pp. 98-110, July, 1901, Ottawa.
WHITEAVES, J. F.
(Researches in Paleontology and Zoology.)
Sum. Rep. Geol. Surv. Can. for 1900, pp. 176-178, April 15th, 1901,
Ottawa. Printed by order of Parliament.
Note on a Supposed New Species of Lytoceras from the Cretaceous
rocks of Denman Island in the Strait of Georgia.
The Ottawa Naturalist, Vol .15, No. 2, pp. 31-32, May, 1901, Ottawa.
Description of a new species of Unio from the Cretaceous rocks of
the Nanaimo Coal-Field, V. I.
The Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. 14, No. 10, pp. 177-179, Jan., 1901,
Ottawa.
Catalogue of the Marine Invertebrata of Eastern Canada.
Geol. Surv. Can., No. 772, 271 pp., Ottawa.
YOUNG, G. A.
(Geology of Lake St. John Map-Sheet, Province of Quebec.)
Sum. Rep. Geol. Surv. Can. for 1900, pp. 143-146, April 15th, 1901,
Ottawa. Printed by order of Parliament.
SECTION IV., 1902 [183 ] Trans. R. S. C.
XII.— George Mercer Dawson.
By B. J. HARRINGTON.
(Read May 26, 1902.)
Twenty years have elapsed since the inauguration of the Royal
Society of Canada, and in that time many of those who were wont to
gather with us have been called to the majority. Sir William Dawson,
our first President, died in 1899, ripe in knowledge and in years, but
no one then thought that he would so soon be followed by his distin-
guished son, Dr. G. M. Dawson. To the latter, years of usefulness and
honour seemed to remain; but how little do we know of what lies be-
fore us! Life is ever uncertain, and Dr. Dawson realized this when
he wrote:
“Life is a bubble on the sea,
The ocean of eternity;
It floats awhile in glittering pride,
It may o’er many billows ride.
There comes a moment, none knows why,
No cloud o’erspreads the summer sky,
Some little breath, some hidden thing,
Perhaps a spirit on the wing,
Touches the orb—it melts away,
The sea receives its little spray; —
No mark, no memory left behind.
The everlasting sea, the wind — flow on.”
Dr. Dawson was the second son of the late Sir J. W. Dawson, and
was born on the Ist of August, 1849, in Pictou, Nova Scotia. In 1855
his father, who had for some years been acting as Superintendent of
Education for Nova Scotia, received the appointment of Principal of
McGill University, Montreal, and with his family took up his residence
there. Instead of the magnificent structures of to-day, there were
then on the college grounds only two “unfinished and partly ruinous
buildings, standing amid a wilderness of excavators’ and masons’ rub-
bish, overgrown with weeds and bushes. The grounds were unfenced
and pastured at will by herds of cattle, which not only cropped the
grass, but browsed on the shrubs, leaving unhurt only one great elm,
which still stands as the ‘ founder’s tree,’ and a few old oaks and but-
ternut trees’. Surroundings of this kind were not ideal from a uni-
versity point of view, but made an instructive environment for an in-
telligent boy. The numerous wild flowers, the birds’ nests, the fossil
1 Fifty Years of Work in Canada — Autobiographical Notes by Sir Wil-
liam Dawson, p. 98.
184 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
shells in the blue clay, the waste waterway, where leaves and twigs
became “petrifactions,” the lively brook where mimic fleets could be
navigated and dams constructed—these and many other objects of
interest were there, and with the guidance and encouragement of an
ever-ready father, the boy’s inborn love of nature was daily stimulated
and increased.
At ten years of age Dawson entered the Montreal High School,
remaining there for one year and taking a high place in his classes.
Subsequently, however, owing to ill-health, his education was carried
on for the most part under tutors; and while this system, no doubt,
cut him off from some advantages, it gave him on the other hand
wider opportunities for pursuing and mastering subjects which had
special attractions for him. Surrounded by books, chemical appar-
atus, paints and pencils, the days were never too long, and photo-
graphy, book-binding, painting magic lantern slides, and even cheese-
making, afforded him fascinating occupation and amusement. One
who knew him well at that time says: “He seemed to absorb know-
ledge rather than to study, and every new fact or idea acquired was
at once put into its place and proper relations in his orderly mind.
He was always cheerful, amusing and popular, other boys flocking
around him and invariably submitting to his unconscious leadership.”
At the age of eighteen, Dawson entered McGill College as a par-
tial student, attending lectures on English, Chemistry, Geology, &c.,
during the session of 1868-9. The summer of 1869 was spent at
Gaspé and much time devoted to dredging for foraminifera, which with
material from other sources formed the basis of his first scientific paper,
published in the Canadian Naturalist in 1870, and in the Annals and
Magazine of Natural History of the following year. While a student
at McGill he wrote a poem on Jacques Cartier which, while but a boyish
cffort was thought very well of by his instructors and gave evidence of
his keen love of nature and poetic instinct. The view from the sum-
mit of Mount Royal, whither Cartier was conducted by the red men of
Hochelaga, is thus described:
“Far on the western river lay,
Like molten gold, the dying day.
Far to the east the waters glide
Till lost in twilight’s swelling tide;
While all around, on either hand,
Spread the broad, silent, tree-clad land;
And in the distance far and blue
Long swelling mountains close the view.”
In 1870 Dawson went to London and entered the Royal School of
Mines, at that time on Jermyn street. He was fond of the sea, and on
=
[HARRINGTON ] GEORGE MERCER DAWSON 185
{his occasion made the passage in a sailing ship, he and another young
man being the only passengers. During the voyage he amused himself
making observations on the surface life of the ocean , and the phen-
omend of phosphorescence. He also studied navigation under the
captain, and the knowledge then acquired afterwards stood him in good
stead when he had to navigate a schooner along the dangerous coasts
of British Columbia and the Queen Charlotte Islands.
At the School of Mines he took the full course of study, extending
over three years, and passed as an associate. At the end of his second
year, he carried off the Duke of Cornwall’s scholarship, given by the
Prince of Wales, and on graduation stood first in his class, obtaining
the Edward Forbes Medal and Prize in Paleontology and Natural His-
tory, and the Murchison Medal in Geology. During his course he paid
special attention to the study of geology under Ramsay, Huxley and
Etheridge, but also devoted much time to chemistry and metallurgy,
under Frankland and Percy respectively, and to mining under War-
rington Smyth. Even in his holidays he was never altogether idle, and
during most of the summer of 1871 he was attache to the British Geo-
logical Survey, and worked with the late J. Clifton Ward in the Cum-
berland Lake-District. While in England he made many warm friends,
with some of whom he corresponded regularly for years afterwards.
On returning to Canada in 1872, he was engaged for some months
examining and reporting upon mineral properties in Nova Scotia, and
subsequently went to Quebec, where he delivered a course of lectures
on chemistry at Morrin College, which was attended by a large and
appreciative class. In 1873 he was appointed Geologist and Botanist to :
Her Majesty’s North American Boundary Commission, which had been
constituted to fix the boundary line between British North America
and the United States, from the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky
Mountains, and which had been carrying on its labours for about a
year. From early boyhood Dawson had been keenly interested in
travel and exploration, and in the Canadian Northwest he saw a region
ready to yield up a rich harvest of discovery. There was the charm of
novelty afforded by a well-nigh untrodden field, and the many hard-
ships to be encountered only seemed to lend attractions to the expedi-
tion. In those days no Canadian Pacific trains rolled across the con-
tinent. Fort Garry, now the fast-growing city of Winnipeg, with more
than 40,000 inhabitants, was then practically the last outpost of civiliza-
tion, and the great prairies had to be traversed on horseback or on
foot, provisions and equipment of every kind being carried in Red River
carts, drawn by oxen or ponies with shaganappy harness. The two
years of Dawson’s connection with the Boundary Commission were for
186 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
him years of incessant activity, but the results of his work were of great
scientific value. They were embodied in a report addressed to the
head of the Commission, Major (now General) D. R. Cameron, R.A.,
and published in Montreal in 1875.1 The volume, which is now looked
upon as “one of the classics of Canadian geology,” is a model of what
such reports should be—scientific facts being clearly and succinctly
stated and the conclusions logically drawn. The main geological result
arrived at was the examination and description of a section over 800
miles in length across the central region of the continent, which had
been previously touched upon at a few points only, and in the vicinity of
which a space of over 300 miles in longitude had remained even geo-
graphically unknown. The report discussed not merely the physical
and general geology of the region, and the more detailed characteristics
of the various geological formations, but also the capabilities of the
country with reference to settlement. The whole edition was long ago
distributed, and the volume is now exceedingly scarce and difficult to
obtain. While attached to the Boundary Commission, Dawson made
large collections of natural history specimens, which were forwarded
to England and found a home in the British Museum, as well as at Kew
and elsewhere. The British Museum obtained no less than seventeen
species of mammals not previously represented in its collections.
More or less in connection with the above work were published
papers on the “Lignite Formations of the West,” the “Occurrence of
Foraminifera, Coccoliths, etc., in the Cretaceous Rocks of Manitoba,”
on “ Some Canadian Species of Spongillæ,” on the“ Superficial Geology
of the Central Region of North America,” on the “ Locust Invasion of
1874 in Manitoba and the Northwest Territories,” etc.
When the work of the Boundary Commission was brought to a
close, Dawson received an appointment on the staff of the Geological
Survey of Canada and began in that connection the long series of
explorations of the Northwest and British Columbia, which brought
such great credit to himself and his country. In 1883 he was made an
Assistant Director of the Survey, and later, on the retirement of Dr.
Selwyn, in 1895, became head of the department, a position which he
occupied until the time of his death on the 2nd of March, 1901.
Throughout his connection with the Survey his reports were always of
a high order, bearing evidence of his striking powers of observation
and deduction. Though thoroughly scientific, they always took account
of the practical and economic side of geology, and accordingly com-
? Report on the Geology and Resources of the Region in the vicinity of
the Forty-ninth Parallel, from the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Moun-
tains, with Lists of Plants and Animals collected and Notes on the Fossils.
[HARRINGTON ] GEORGE MERCER DAWSON 187
manded the attention and confidence of mining capitalists, mine mana-
gers and others interested in the development of the mineral resources
of the country. When in the field, geology was, of course, the princi-
pal object of his investigations, but his wide knowledge of collateral
sciences enabled him not merely to collect objects of natural history in
an intelligent and discriminating way, and to discuss the flora and
faunas of different districts, but also to make important observations
on the habits and languages of Indian tribes, to keep continuous mete-
orological records and to determine latitudes and longitudes. We
accordingly find that his reports generally conclude with a series of
most valuable appendices, giving special information which could not
well be included in the body jof the document.
In an elaborate notice of his report on the Queen Charlotte Islands,
published in Petermann’s Mittheilungen (Vol. 27, 1881), the writer,
after calling attention to the fact that the report dealt not merely with
the geology of the islands, but also with their topography, natural his-
tory, climate and ethnology, says: “One is amazed at the rich results
which he brought back in all these branches, especially as he had only
one assistant, Mr. Rankine Dawson, and remained in the islands only
two and a half months, from the 12th of June to the end of August,
and that in most unfavourably wet weather.”
In addition to his field books proper, he kept copious journals
which contain much interesting information. He had a habit too, of
jotting down notes and sometimes verses on scraps of paper or on the
backs of telegraph forms. In the wilds of British Columbia, for exam-
ple, he writes:
“Contorted beds, of unknown age,
My weary limbs shall bear,
Perhaps a neat synclinal fold
At night shall be my lair.
Dips I shall take on unnamed streams,
Or where the rocks strike, follow
Along the crested mountain ridge
Or anticlinal hollow;
Or gently with the hammer stroke
The slumbering petrifaction,
That for a hundred million years
Has been debarred from action.
We can fancy him, too, sitting by his lonely camp fire on the
shorcs of the Pacific and penning the following .ines:
“To rest on fragrant cedar boughs
Close by the western ocean’s rim,
While in the tops of giant pines
The live-long night the sea-winds hymn,
And low upon the fretted shore
The waves beat out the evermore.”
188 | ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
In common with British subjects in all parts of the world, he was
deeply stirred by the occurrences of the South African war, and after
the battle of Paardeberg (February 25th, 1900), in which his fellow
countrymen played so conspicuous a part, he wrote as follows :—
“We know to-day our tale of dead,
Spent on the sun-baked windy plain,
Our best, who left us without dread,
But may not now return again.
But pride is mingled with our tears,
The seed grows to the stately tree;
We know that in the tide of years
We sow for empire yet to be.
Our loss our gain — nor sorrow felt
As rising in the east we see
The day flood all the waiting veldt.
But fathers, mothers, sisters, wives,
Your loss is more than you can bear;
For you those young, exultant lives
Gone out, is darkness everywhere. :
We grieve with you, we stand to aid.”
* * * * * * *
And yet his view of the war was not a wholly one-sided one, his
fairness and his admiration for the Boer being evidenced by the fol-
lowing lines:
“The silent Boer that lies a clod,
He was a father or a son
Upon his dry, grey Transvaal sod
Among the rocks that we have won.
His narrow soul was true and strong,
To fend us from his home and kraal
He gave his life — we know him wrong,
But find him worthy after all;
And when in days to come the song
Of later harvests shall be sung
He will have part in that South land
As elder brother, true and strong.
Each spring that rises on the veldt
Will cast its wreath of self-sown flowers,
Will breathe its fragrance and be felt
About his grave as over ours.
Not all is lost if life be spent,
For it is good to truly die,
To give to that extreme extent
If so be freedom lives thereby.
The things not seen, beyond the veil,
Have harvest also full and true,
And loss we reckon but by tale
Is measured there—to each his due.”
Dr. Dawson’s geological work was carried on chiefly in the region
of the great prairies of the Northwest and ‘British Columbia, but he
was thoroughly informed as to the geology of all parts of the Domin-
jon. in the Northwest he paid particular attention to the relations of
at
[HARRINGTON ] GEORGE MERCER DAWSON 189
ihe Cretaceous and Laramie formations; and he discovered the presence
in the Cretaceous of Southern Alberta of an important series of rocks
— the Belly River group — which, he says, “must be considered on the
whole as a fresh-water formation.” The Kootanie group was also rec-
ognized by him as constituting a portion of the early Cretaceous in the
Rocky Mountain region. His study of a large area in the interior pla-
teau region of British Columbia established the existence there of a
great series of mica-schists and gneisses supposed to be of Archean age,
and succeeded by Cambrian, Ordivician, Silurian and Carboniferous
strata; while in the Cordilleran region of the same province he
described the occurrence of great deposits of contemporaneous volcanic
rocks, in various stages of metamorphism. While working in connec-
tion with the Boundary Commission also, he studied the crystalline
rocks in the Lake of the Woods district, and concluded that a consid-
erable portion of the Huronian formation there consists of metamor-
phosed volcanic rocks. He was a careful student of glacial phenom-
ena and, according to Dr. G. J. Hinde,’ was the first to describe the
glacial origin of the Missouri Coteau, and in the’ interior of British
Columbia, he has shown that at one period of the Ice Age there was a
confluent ice-mass, the surface of which stood at a level of 7,000 feet
above the sea, and that it must have been at least from 2,000 to 3,000
feet in thickness. He further established the fact that the movements
of the glacier ice in this region were not only to the south and south-
east, and through the transverse valleys and gaps of the coast ranges
to the ocean, but that it had also a northerly flow, and passed down the
valleys of the Pelly and Lewes branches of the Yukon river. Dr. Daw-
son also maintained that the northern part of the great plains had been
submerged, and that their glaciation was in the main due to floating
ice.
With regard to his ethnological work we cannot do better than
quote from Mr. W. J. McGee’s appreciative notice in the American
Anthropologist. Mr. McGee says: “ While several of Dr. Dawson’s
titles and the prefatory remarks in some of his papers imply that his
ethnological researches were subsidiary to his geological work, and while
his busy life never afforded opportunity for monographie treatment ot
Canada’s aborigenes, it is nevertheless true that he made original obser-
vations and records of standard value, that much of his work is still
unique, and that his contributions, both personal and indirect, materi-
ally enlarged knowledge of our native tribes. It is well within bounds
to say that in addition to his other gifts to knowledge, George M. Daw-
1Geol. Magazine, May, 1897.
190 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
son was one of Canada’s foremost contributors to ethnology, and one of
that handful of original observers whose work affords the foundation
for scientific knowledge of the North American natives.
Dawson’s most notable contribution to ethnology was undoubtedly
his memoir on the Haida Indians of the Queen Charlotte Islands, but
he also published “ Notes on the Indian Tribes of the Yukon District
and Adjacent Northern Portion of British Columbia,” a valuable
memoir entitled “ Notes and Observations on the Kwakiool People of
Vancouver Island,” “ Notes on the Shuswap People of British Colum-
bia,” and other papers.
When in 1884, the British Association appointed a committee to
study the physical characters, languages and social conditions of the
Northwestern tribes of Canada, Dr. Dawson was made a member, and
it devolved upon him to organize and administer the work of the com-
mittee. The work was carried on for years with much success and
small money expenditure, and when, in 1896, an Ethnological Survey
of Canada was instituted, Dawson was chosen as the head of the survey
committee.
Not the least of his services to his country were those in connec-
tion with the Behring Sea Arbitration. He was one of the commission-
ers, and was sent by the British Government to the North Pacific Ocean
to enquire into the conditions of seal life there. Subsequently, his evi-
dence and forcible arguments undoubtedly secured for the British side
of the case a much more favourable finding than would otherwise have
been obtained. Lord Alverstone (now Lord Chief Justice of England)
writing of him in this connection says: “It is not possible to overrate
the services which Dr. Dawson rendered us in the Behring Sea Arbitra-
tion. I consulted him throughout on many questions of difficulty and
never found his judgment to fail, and he was one of the most unselfish
and charming characters that I ever met. I consider it a great pleasure
to have known him.” In recognition of his services on the Arbitration
Dr. Dawson was made a C. M. G.
He received the degree of D. Sc., from Princeton in 1887, and that
of LL.D. from Queen’s University in 1890, from McGill University in
1891, and from Toronto University some years later. In 1891 he was
awarded the Bigsby Gold Medal by the Geological Society for his ser-
vices in the cause of geology, and was also elected a Fellow of the Roval
Society. In 1893, he was elected President of the Royal Society of
Canada, and in 1897 was President of the Geological Section of the
British Association for the Advancement of Science at the Toronto
meeting. In 1897 he was awarded the gold medal of the Royal Geo-
[ HARRINGTON | GEORGE MERCER DAWSON 191
graphical Society. In 1900, he was President of the Geological Society
of America, and gave his retiring address at the Albany meeting in
December, choosing as his subject “The Geological Record of the
Rocky Mountain Region in Canada.” This address was published as a
bulletin of the Geological Society of America, and will be prized as giv-
ing a summing up of his latest views on some of the problems connected
with the complex geology of the west. Many other distinctions which
cannot be enumerated here fell to his lot, and he won for himself the
esteem and confidence of his fellow-countrymen in all parts of the
Dominion. Nowhere was he more beloved than in British Columbia
— the province in which he had done so much of his best work, and in
which, he sometimes said to the writer, he would like to spend his last
days.
After the Toronto meeting of the British Association, in 1897,
he accompanied a party of the members on a trip across the continent,
and all were struck with the warmth of the welcome everywhere
accorded to him. “ Among the many distinguished visitors,” wrote the
Victoria Colonist, “ by whose presence Victoria has been honoured dur-
ing the past few days, none holds a higher or more deserved place in
the esteem of Canadians than George M. Dawson. In one sense he is
the discoverer of Canada, for the Geological Survey of which he has
been the chief, has done more than all other agencies combined to make
the potentialities of the Dominion known to the world. He has been
engaged in the work so long that he can look back over it with the pro-
found satisfaction which comes from the knowledge that his judg-
ment on points of extreme interest and value has been justified ny
events. The development of Kootenay, the hydraulic mines of Cariboo,
and the gold mines in the Yukon are all foretold in the interesting
pages of Dr. Dawson’s earlier reports. Therefore, when we find in the
voluminous products of his pen, wherein the results of his observations
are recorded, anticipations of great mineral development in parts of the
province that are as yet unexplored, we feel almost as if such develop-
ments were guaranteed. A careful observer, a conservative reasoner, a
skilful writer, Canada possesses in Dr. Dawson a public servant the
value of whose services can never be over-estimated. His name car-
ries authority with it on any subject on which he speaks. That a long
career may be before him is the hope of all, for we all know how much
that means to the Dominion.”
Dr. Dawson was a ready and prolific writer and a brilliant conver-
sationalist. His quiet humour was infectious, and any dinner party
‘which numbered him among the guests was sure to be a merry one.
192 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Hé seemed to have an inexhaustible fund of information, not merely
about his own special lines of work, but covering the widest range of
subjects. The marvel was how in his busy life he had acquired so much
and such varied knowledge. For one of apparently delicate constitu-
tion, his powers of enduring prolonged physical exertion were as
remarkable as his capacity for continuous mental activity. He was at
work at his office until two days before his death, the immediate cause
of which was capillary bronchitis. The secret of Dr. Dawson’s wide-
spread popularity, no doubt, lay in his downright unselfishness and in
his sunny and sympathetic nature.
Bibliography of Dr. George M. Dawson.
By Dr. H. M. Amt.
1870.
On Foraminifera from the Gulf and River St. Lawrence. Canadian Naturalist,
N.S. Vol. vii, No. 5, pp. 172-180, June, 1870. Montreal. (Also separately, pp.
1-8.) Also in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History, 8vo. 4th series,
Vol. VII, pp. 83-90, February, 1871. London, Eng.
1874.
The Lignite Formations of the West. Canadian Naturalist, Vol. vii, No. 5, pp.
241-252, April, Montreal. (Also separately with the next.)
Note on the Cccurrence of Foraminifera, Coccoliths, etc., in the Cretaceous
Rocks of Manitoba. Canadian Naturalist, Vol. vii, pp. 252-257, April. Mont-
real. (Also separately, with the foregoing.)
Marine Champlain deposits on lands north of Lake Superior. American Journal
of Science, 3d series, p. 143 (1-4 p.).
The fluctuations of the American Lakes and the Development of Sun Spots.
Nature, 4to., pp. 504-506, April, 1874. London. Also in Canadian Naturalist,
Vol. vii, No. 6, pp. 310-317, November. Montreal.
Report on the Tertiary Lignite Formation in the Vicinity of the Forty-ninth
Parallel. (British North American Boundary Commission.) Svo. pp. 1-31.
Montreal.
(Abstract, American Journal of Science, 8rd series, Vol. 8, pp. 142-143, 1 and 1-2
p. 1874.)
1875.
Report on the Geology and Resources of the Region in the Vicinity of the
Forty-ninth Parallel. (British North American Boundary Commission.)
8vo. pp. I-XI and 1-387. Dawson Bros., Montreal.
On some Canadian Species of Spongillæ. Canadian Naturalist, Vol. viii, No. 1,
pp. 1-5, November. Montreal. (Also separately, same pagination.)
On the Superficial Geology of the Central Region of North America. Quarterly
sine
[amr] BIBLIOGRAPHY OF DR. GEORGE M. DAWSON 193
Journal Geological Society, 8vo. pp. 603-623, November. London. (Also sep-
arately, same pagination.).
1876.
Communication in J. A. Allen’s Monograph, ‘The American Bisons, living
and extinet,’’ 173-174, with map on p. 173. Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool., Harvard
College, Cambridge, Mass. Vol. 4, No. 10, 1876.
Notes on the Locust Invasion of 1874 in Manitoba and the North-West Terri-
tories. Canadian Naturalist, Vol. viii, No. 8, pp. 119-134. Montreal. (Also
separately, pp. 1-16,) :
Review of ‘‘ Report on the Geol. & Resources, etc., Forty-ninth Parallel.”
(Anon.) Canadian Naturalist, Vol. viii, No. 2, p. 118. 1876.
1877.
Notes on the Appearance and Migrations of the Locust in Manitoba and the
North-West Territories, Summer of 1875. Canadian Naturalist, Vol. viii.
No. 4, pp. 207-226, April. Montreal. (Also separately, pp. 1-20.)
Notes on some of the more recent Changes in Level of the Coast of British
Columbia and adjacent regions. Canadian Naturalist, Vol. viii, No. 4, pp.
241-248, April. Montreal. (Also separately, pp. 1-8.)
Mesozoic Volcanic Rocks of British Columbia and Chili. Relation of Volcanic
and Metamorphic rocks. Geological Magazine, 8vo. pp. 314-317. July. Lon-
don. (Also separately, pp. 1-4.)
Note on the Economic Minerals and Mines of British Columbia. First List of
Localities in the Province of British Columbia, known to yield Gold, Coal,
Iron, Copper and other Minerals of Economic Value. (Appendix R.) Re-
port on Surveys, Canadian Pacific Railway, Svo. pp. 218-245. Ottawa.
Note on Agriculture and Stock-Raising and Extent of Cultivable Land in
British Columbia. (Appendix $S.) Report of Surveys, Canadian Pacific
‘Railway, 8vo. pp. 246-253. Ottawa.
Report on Explorations in British Columbia. Report of Progress, Geological
Survey of Canada. 1875-76. 8vo. pp. 233-280. (Abstract American Journal
of Science, 3rd series, Vol. 14, page 70, 1-8 p.)
1878.
On the Superficial Geology of British Columbia. Philosophical Magazine, Vol.
4, p. 237, 1877. Quarterly Journal Geolcgical Society, London, Vol. 34, pp. 89-
123, February. (Also separately, same pagination.)
Travelling Notes on the Surface Geology of the Pacific Coast. Canadian
Naturalist, Vol. viii, No. 7, pp. 389-399, February. Montreal. (Also separ-
ately, pp. 1-11.)
Notes on the Locust in the North-West in 1876. Canadian Naturalist, Vol. viii,
No. 7, pp. 411-417, April. Montreal. (Also separately, pp. 1-7.)
Erratics at High Levels in Northwestern America.—Barriers to a Great Ice
Sheet. Geological Magazine, Svo. pp. 209-212, May. London.
Report of Explorations in British Columbia, chiefly in the Basins of the Black-
water, Salmon and Nechacco Rivers, and on Francois Lake. Report of
Progress, Geological Survey of Canada, 1876-77, 8vo. pp. 17-94. Montreal.
. Report on Reconnaissance of Leech River and Vicinity. Report of Progress,
Geological Survey of Canada. 1876-77, 8vo. pp. 95-102. Montreal.
194 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
General Note on the Mines and Minerals of Economic Value of British Colum-
bia, with a list of localities, with appendix. Report of Progress, Geological
Survey of Canada, 1876-77, 8vo. pp. 103-145. Montreal. (Also separately,
same pagination.) Abstract, American Journal of Science, 3rd series, Vol.
16, p. 149. (1-2 p.) 1878.
1879.
On a Species of Loftusia from British Columbia. Quarterly Journal Geological
Society, 8vo. pp. 69-75, February. London. (Also separately, same pagina-
tion.)
Notes on the Glaciation of British Columbia. Canadian Naturalist, n. s. Vol. ix,
No. 1, pp. 32-39, March. Montreal. (Also separately, pp. 1-8.)
Sketch of the Past and Present Condition of the Indians of Canada, Canadian
Naturalist, Vol. ix, No. 3, pp. 129-159, July. Montreal. (Also separately, pp.
1-31.)
Preliminary Report of the Physical and Geological Features of the Southern
Portion of the Interior of British Columbia. Report of Progress. Geo-
logical Survey of Canada, 1877-78. 8vo. pp. 1B-187B. Montreal.
Abstract, American Journal of Science, 8rd series, Vol. 18, pp. 482-483. New
Haven, Conn.
1880.
Memorandum on the Queen Charlotte Islands. British Columbia. (Appendix,
No. 9.) Report Canadian Pacific Railway, 8vo. pp. 139-143. Ottawa. :
Notes on the Distribution of Some of the More Important Trees of British
Columbia. Canadian Naturalist, Vol. ix, No. 6, pp. 321-331, August. Mont-
real. (Also separately, pp. 1-11.) Reprinted with additions and corrections
as an Appendix to Report on an Exploration from Fort Simpson, etc. Re-
port of Progress, Geological Survey of Canada, 1879-80, pp. 167B-177B (with
map). Montreal, 1881.
Report on the Climate and Agricultural Value, General Geological Features
and Minerals of Economic Importance of part of the Northern portion of
British Columbia and of the Peace River Country. (Appendix 7.) Report
Canadian Pacific Railway, 8vo. pp. 107-151. Ottawa.
Report on the Queen Charlotte Islands. With Appendices A to G, etc. Report
of Progress, Geological Survey of Canada, 1878-79, 8vo. pp. 1B-39B. Mont-
real. (Abstracts, American Journal of Science, 3rd series, Vol. 21, p. 243
(7-3 p.) 1881. American Naturalist, Vol. 15, p. 647, (1-3 p.) 1881.)
On the Haida Indians of the Queen Charlotte Islands. Report of Progress,
Geological Survey of Canada, 1878-79. Appendix A to Report of the Queen
Charlotte Islands, ete. (G. M. Dawson.)
Sketch of the Geology of British Columbia. (See 1881.) British Association
Report, Vol. 50. Transactions, pp. 588-589, 1880. Canadian Naturalist, Vol.
9, n. s. pp. 445-447. ,
Vocabulary of the Haida Indians. Report of Progress, Geological Survey of
Canada, 1878-79. Appendix B to Report on the Queen Charlotte Islands,
etc.
1881.
Note on the Geology of the Peace River Region. Canadian Naturalist, Vol. x,
No. 1, pp. 20-22, April, 1881. Montreal. Also in American Journal of Science,
8vo. pp. 391-394, May, 1881. New Haven.
D
[Amr] BIBLIOGRAPHY OF DR. GEORGE M. DAWSON 195
Report on an Exploration from Fort Simpson to the Pacific Coast, to Edmon-
ton, on the Saskatchewan, embracing a portion of the northern part of
British Columbia and the Peace River Country. Report of Progress, Geo-
logical Survey of Canada, 1879-80, 8vo. pp. 1B-177B. Montreal, 1881. Illus-
trated.
Meteorological Observations in the Northern Part of British Columbia and the
Peace River Country. Report of Progress, Geological Survey of Canada,
1879-80. Appendix II to Report on an Exploration from Fort Simpson, etc.
(G. M. Dawson.)
Note on the Latitudes and Longitudes used in preparing the map of the Region
from the Pacific Coast to Edmonton. Report of Progress, Geological Sur-
vey of Canada, 1879-80. Appendix III to Report on an Exploration from
Fort Simpson, etc.
Der Queen Charlotte-Archipel. Petermann’s Mitt., Vol. 27, pp. 331-347, map. 4°.
On the Lignite Tertiary Formation from the Souris River to the one hundred
and eighth meridian. Report of Progress, Geological Survey of Canada,
1879-80, Svo. pp. 12A-49A. Montreal. Abstract, (Philadelphia Magazine, n.s.,
Vol. 14, pp. 70-71. (1-3 p.) 1881.)
1882.
The Haidas. Harper's Magazine, Vol. xlv, 8vo. pp. 401-408, August. New York.
Descriptive Note on a General Section from the Laurentian Axis to the Rocky
Mountains north of the 49th parallel. Transactions Royal Society of
Canada, Vol. 1, Sec. 4, 4to, pp. 39-44, 1883. (Also separately, same pagina-
tion.
1883.
Notes on the more important Coal-seams of the Bow and Belly River Districts.
Canadian Naturalist, Vol. X, No. 7, pp. 423-435, March, 1883. 8vo. Montreal.
Note on the Triassic of the Rocky Mountains and British Columbia. Transac-
tions of the Royal Society of Canada, Vol. 1, Sec. 4, 4to. pp. 143-145. (Also
separately, same pagination.)
Preliminary on the Geology of the Bow and Belly River Region, North-West
Territory. With special reference to the Coal Deposits. Report of Pro-
gress, Geological Survey of Canada, 1880-82, 8vo. pp. 1B-23B. Montreal.
Glacial deposits of the Bow and Belly River Country. Science, Vol. il, pp.
477-479.
List of Elevations. Report of Progress, Geological Survey of Canada, 1882-
83-84. Appendix I to Report on a region in the vicinity of the Bow and
Belly Rivers, N.W.T. (G. M. Dawson.)
Abstracts, Canadian Naturalist, n. s., Vol. 10, pp. 423-435. Science, Vol. 1, pp.
429-430.
1884,
On the occurrence of Phosphates in Nature. Transactions Ottawa Field
Naturalists’ Club, 8vo. pp. 91-98, February. Ottawa.
(and Selwyn, A. R. C.) Descriptive Sketch of the Physical Geography and
Geology of the Dominion of Canada, 8vo., pp. 1-55. Montreal.
(and Tolmie, W. F.) Comparative Vocabularies of the Indian Tribes of British
Columbia. With a map illustrating distribution, S8vo. pp. 1-131. Montreal.
(Abstract, Science, Vol. v, pp. 156-157 (4-5 p.) New York City.
Recent Geological Observations in the Canadian North-West Territory.
Science, Vol. 3, pp. 637-648.
196 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA
Notes on the Coals and Lignites of the Canadian North-West. 8vo. pp. 1-21.
Montreal Printing and Publishing Co., Montreal.
1885.
On the Microscopic structure of certain Boulder Clays and the Organisms con-
tained in them. Bulletin Chicago Academy of Science, Svo. pp. 59-69, June.
Chicago. (Also separately, same pagination.) i3th Annual Report Geo-
logical and Natural History Slrvey Minnesota, pp. 150-163. St. Paul.
The Dominion of Canada. (Part thus entitled in ‘‘ Macfarlane’s American
Geological Railway Guide.’’) 8vo. pp. 51-83, June. D. Appleton & Co., New
York. (Also separately, same pagination.)
The Saskatchewan Country. Science, Vol. 5, pp. 340-542, with map, 1885.
Report on the Region in the vicinity of Bow and Belly Rivers, N.W.T. Report
of Progress, Geological Survey of Canada, 1882-84, 8vo. pp. 1C-169C.
Montreal. :
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[amr] BIBLIOGRAPHY OF DR. GEORGE M. DAWSON 199
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MERUA i LIBKARY,
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