Spt see ie aera cemmeame ane sin ih Sia natin 4% LA ei a : SA ioc A a Aa NEE Ate ES LS D SRE Ta RRR re a dd été ai hr La ed ht seventies PSP EE SLE hc: BAIL LER SAE OL OLE SAE STE à OE RENE A € a PRE SS RE ER AE TRE SRE D ue Hunt l'es a 56e 2 DE LS de DORE SD SC OS EE LE Ra sey Le VA ET are FR D \ DL a D 4 oe ATEN Bes i DO at 7 11 cut an (2, k { MEMOIRES ET COMPTES RENDUS DE LA SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA TROISIEME SERIE—TOME VII. SEANCE DE MAI 1913 EN VENTE CHEZ JAS. HOPE ET FILS, OTTAWA; LE CIE COPP-CLARK (Limitée), TORONTO BERNARD QUARITCH, LONDRES, ANGLETERRE 1914 FROCEEDINGS AND TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA THIRD SERIES—VOLUME VII. MEETING OF MAY 1913 FOR SALE BY JAMES HOPE & SON, OTTAWA; THE COPP-CLARK CO. (Limirep), TORONTO BERNARD QUARITCH, LONDON, ENGLAND 1914 a D : 2K OTe ae 7 L À AE" CAT ONE ADR “OU LASER TAS WE Ore CONE NlS: List of Officers of the Society for 1913-14. . PR 1 List of Fellows and Corresponding and RAT Me ben SE Le 2-6 SO MT ES TO CIES NEC Sie AIRE tke RERO ES 2s ile TPE aA eg ri UETSIVOp A SSOCLOLED, IS OCLELLES RUMEUR ET cats es RO 8-9 PROCEEDINGS. iishonOpieers and iellowsvpresent LL Ue. eo ewe the I VEDIC OO Len ON A Ns SONS OMIA ed AU er à EE BOM Ws IT Minutes of Annual Meeting, 19t2 confirmed... 0.2... 5). IT Hite ARIS OOM AMEN aM aE Nici NE ARR Rb IT 1. Proceedings and Transactions of the Society, Current DE KAS M A Re RER deh cabin ts AN ee AMM ee SR AE oat LE AAC ON Of NCU MeMbERS a ket ot kien CRE EUR JOG 3. Proposal to Klect Honorary Vice-President............. Ill 4. Deceased Members, M. Errol Bouchette, Rev. William R. Clark, Dr. Alexander Johnson, Rev. George W. Taylor, Dr. George U. Hay and M. Joseph Edmond Roy...... V-XXVIII 5. Purchase of Telescope for Dominion Observatory. ........ XXVIII 6. The Establishment of Research Stations................ XXX 7. Friendly Relations with the Royal Society of Literature of GCM TLC ANG OONT AMENER. NOR, Lee Ae car lev dee cae hae XXXIT Be INGOT MTOR OTR Penn REINS. SHAN Bu idioma Riel es Qe al XXXII 9. The Sealand Diplomaron the Socvety sy Pay Me oe XXXIV 10. Commemoration of One Hundred Years of Peace........ XXXIV Le Lise Ronan MER WA Yon soca hs Mo chy, ants XXXIV 102 AN crimped eerie ee TE ane XXXV 13. Increase in the Parliamentary Grant.......... EN XXXV M Finn ENE SOCte gages = tie dine iene ur 8 pue _XXXVIL- XX XIX GENERAL BUSINESS. Héport OfiC onumcn mraceyved eeu. Ost a RER ARE Day No ads XL Confirmation of Election and Introduction of New Members... XL IT THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Notices of Motion to Amend By-laws: (a) Admission of Female Members................. XL (b) To Appoint Honorary Librarian ................. XL The At Home at Dr. Le Sueur’s residence.................. XLI Presidential Address: 4 ashy) b's SEP ee XLI Report. of Council Adopted. =. + 2% See pees) igi XLI Design for Seal referred back to Council................... XLI Molto: jor: Beal Adopiedse ie TPE RE CIN CE as XLI Committee Appointed to Prepare Design................... XLI Resolution Regarding National Library.................... XLII Resolution Regarding Poisonous Matches.................. XLII istablashment of TesearcnSuauwons; ee elmer XLII Resolution Regarding use of Defective English.............. XLII Henbris:of Associated Societies. LÉ MRIN RE wie a alent er XLITI Popular Lechire by Dr. J: MAC hee. A he etek cate nse :: MERE MER DOTS OF SECTIONS LL 0e US AIMER tae XLIV-LIIT Report of Nominating Committee. RER cca Wide ER LIII Hecion of COPICETB 530252 LAN igs Rg eae ae ye ened ae ee LIII Members of General Printing Committee. .................. LIV Resolutions Regarding New Building for Society............ LIV Dawid Thompson Statite: & ces. ls REA sees se RES LIV Council Empowered to Appoint Representatives at Local Cele- brations of Events of 1812-181b)..0 enone, 2 ee LIV Question of Seal to be Decided by Ballot................... LLY, Committee to be Appointed to Confer with Geographic Board. . LIV V oles of Thanks. 6.2 sia je oes eee Aen OL ae ae eae LIV APPENDICES. A.—PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. History: Its Nature and Methods. By W. D. Le Sueur, Br, BED" ares ere et UC Gna uA Sh na te _ Eve B.—The Dominion Astronomical Observatory. By W. F. KixG, MG, ELD POLE otaiele, sateen) TEE ads ea ec LXXXVII C.—The Meteorological Service of Canada. By R. F. Srupart, Des abs ses x ee Aaa ean CN ad ee ee PISE XCIII D.—Department of Inland Revenue, Laboratory Branch. By Bie MOULE, BA, DSC LD dike SF cue eee eas CXV E.—Marine Biological Stations of Canada. By E. E. PRINCE, LD RBA Ue Ree ces EMA PRET CXXI F.— Department of the Interior, Forestry Branch. By R. H. CAMPBELL. VOUS PAM OR UT AL IENENS CXXVII I, Tk: cE: IV. Me Wis "Aun MILT. IX. Xe. XI. XII. XIII. ATV. BEV. XVI. XVII. XVIII. XIX. XX. Les Colons de Montréal de 1642 à 1667. 10 DENSI OL 8a OAM eats tore A ne nn An ee Les Pays den Haut, 1670. Par M. BENJAMIN SULTE.... Louis Labadie ou Le Maître d’Ecole patriotique, Par M. L’ABBÉ AMEDEE GOSSELIN ..... Isaac et Alexandre Berthier, Capitaines au régiment de Lesclavage au Canada. Le Régime Seigneurial au Canada. PCO BEN LM De dal CR ee CD UM TABLE OF CONTENTS G.—REPORTS OF ASSOCIATED SOCIETIES. Société Historique de Montres oo eel: Natural History Society of Montreal............. Women’s Canadian Historical Society of Ottawa. . . Société D’ Archéologie et de Numismatique......... The Entomological Society of Ontario............. Elgin Historical and Scientific Institute........... Women’s Historical Society of St. Thomas......... INGOGCRO historien DIS OCTOHY 8 TER Re A Ottawa, Field) Naturalists) Clap nano teen The Quebec Society for the Protection of Plants.... Literary and First Historical Society of Quebec... Nota Scotto Historical Society 2 mae eo le Nowa Scotia Instituteof Science: ies ae. ee New Brunswick Historical Soctetij): 200 os san. New Brunswick Loyalists’ Society. . British Columbia Academy of coe Women’s Canadian Historical Society ae Toren) as TS ODM ENTE RONG SELLES de a en AERO NAN DA aera oa United Empire Loyalists’ Association of Canada.. . TRANSACTIONS. SECTION I Par 1824. Par M. Reais Roy.. Carignan. Par Mer. ie A PR © SECTION IL. Townships of the Province of Quebec. III CXXXIII . CXXXVII CXXXIX CXL CXLII CXLIV CXLVI CXLVII CL CLIII CLIV CLVI CLVIII CLIX CLX CLXII CLXIII CLXIV CLXV CLXVI 1765- Par. iy’ ne The American Loyalists in the Eastern Seigniories and By WizBuR H. SIME MMe pa MM Cnet sete 4 AR AN A V THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Practice of Court of Common Pleas of the District of Hesse. By THe HonovuraB_e Mr. Justice Rippezr, L.H.D., David William Smith. A Supplementary Note to the Upper Canada Election of 1792. By C. C. James, C.M.G., A Girl’s Puberty Ceremony among the Nootka Indians. By Epwarp Sapir, Pu.D.. An Organization of the Serine me ton Ay the ee Place-nomenclature of the Maritime Provinces of Canada (Third paper). By W. F. GANONG, M.A., Pu.D....... The Vicissitudes of a Loyalist Clergyman. By SIpvix FRANE, LOCEROR en coy. cet Rea es oa is te oak eee ee Peter Fidler, Trader and Surveyor. 1769 to 1822. By JB, eRe MPA PRESSE helenae ia eae ae From Isle aux Noix to Chateauguay. A Study of the Mili- tary Operations on the Frontier of Lower Canada in 1812 and 1813. By CoLonEz E. A. CRUIKSHANK,..... Notes on the Meeting Place of the First Parliament ‘ Une: Canada, and the Early Buildings at Niagara. By DUNCAN CAMPBEDU SCOTT... (20 ibe ie Se «tere crake SECTION III. Magnetic Observations in the Hudson Bay and Straits Region. By W. E. W. Jackson, M.A.. or he Self Recording Electrometer. By + Pierro M. xe Measurements on the Earth’s Penetrating Radiation Rs a Wulf Electrometer. By Pror. J. C. MCLENNAN and À, ER, ME Tair ae tes sees ac nce SMe ae Leis rete atk On the Electrical Conductivity Imparted to Liquid Air by Alpha Rays. By Pror. J. C. MCLENNAN and Davip Ais 6 0 € RE RO D LC Ne cas te nae Tee On the Temperature of the Mercury Arc. By Pror. J. C. MORIN ue sce RO TE DORE Te CNRS An Application of the Photo-Electric Effect to the Measure- ment of the Thermal Conductivities of Different Gases. Bye ©; ABBURY SA nae wn no) mee meee ean ey ea Stereomicrography. By G. P. Grrpwoop, M.D.......... On Certain Difficulties that Arise in Connection with the Study of Elliptic Functions. By J. HARKNEss, F.R.S.C. On the Gradient of the Penetrating Radiation from the Earth. By Louis V.. Kine; ByA,. ras bes a sc eee 43 Qt ~J 107 39 61 69 79 81 97 TABLE OF CONTENTS On Osmosis in Soils. The Efficiency of the Soil Constituents as Semi-Permeable Membranes. By C. J. LYNDE and EMA GRP MONNIER A RTE UI Pa CIE AE TREN) fo On a New Method of Measuring the Capillary Lift of Soils. By C. J. Lynne anp H. A. DUPRÉ.................. Notes on the Penetrating Radiation due to Radioactive Substances in the Earth. By A.S. Eve, D.Sc., F.R.S.C. The Scattering and Absorption of the 7 Rays ae Radium. By J. A. Gray, D.Sc. Records of Differences on Res one Niort Royal and McGill College Observatory, Montreal (Fifth SEU Selig By PROFESSORS C. H. McLrop A ‘Study a Tron mn ire for Electrical Resistance Thermo- meters. By ARTHUR À. SCOTT, M.Sc.. The Formation of Carbon Mood dd thé Rapid Combustion of Carbon. By F. M. G. JOHNSON and D. Mie inarosen EEC ati srs! ated 23 ate tcl peter he, ios’: On the Amount of Radium and Radium Emanation Present in the Waters of Several Western Springs. Byph.) W. Boye and D. McIntosu, F.R.S.C................:.. The Analysis of Maple Products. Paper I. An’ Hlec- trical Conductivity Test for Purity of Maple Syrup. By de SNEDL 0. IS ie EL AR ET SAR Fhe Ets The Corrosion of Metals by Water. By A. T. STUART, 1 By Gla En FN line EE Oa Airs PRE EEE RE Ob ES ER Transient and Permanent Phenomena in Electric Series Transformers. By ANDREW McNAUGHTON, M.Sc.. Researches in Physical Chemistry carried out in the à versity of Toronto, VII. By PRor. W. LasH MILLER and Pror. Frank B. Kenrick, F.R.S.C.............. The Sensitiveness of the Eye to Light and Color. By ek. | CASTES Ut es ee NPE REIN EE Po CPS RCA CERN te hte Proofs of Certain Theorems Relating to Adjoint Orders of Coincidence. By Pror. J. C. Freups, F.R.S........... SECTION IV. Presidential Address: The Relationship of Medicine to other Natural Sciences. By ALBERT G. NICHOLLS, WT NRIOL SG tas ne AUCs Gn at a, o lagen Hider e Yukonite, a New Horde Arsenate of Iron and Calcium, from Tagish Lake, Yukon Territory, Canada; with a note 161 163 165 VI THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA on the Associated Symplesite. By J. B. TyrReLL, FR:8:C;; and Rv P. Ds GRA ER Some further Observations on the Life Histories of the Pacific Coast Salmon as Revealed by their Scale Markings. By J. PuayrarrR McMurricx, M.A., Px.D., LL.D...... Notes on the Scale-markings of the Halibut, and their Bearing on Questions Connected with the Conservation of the Fishery. By ,J. PuayrarR McMurricx, M.A., À 242 04 Bn FB ee ARS nee arc Pua sh Feat AR TE SEE A Morphological and Cultural Study of Some Azotobacter By. Dan. FT Jonas Behe ey) RAP EN Mee oe The Diatoms of New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island: By L..W.. Parce LD. (hae ie oe On Some New Species of Marine Invertebrates from the Cretaceous of the Queen Charlotte Islands. By Epwarp M BUR wasite. 350) ih. age ie ee ite ne a A Bacterial Soft Rot of Turnips. By F. C. Harrison, B.R.S.C. and WILFRID SADLRR CE Auta e eae ee. The Effect of Low Temperatures on the Frog. By A. T. Casmron and TI: BROWNLEBN 4% 31) boyd. uals sees On the Existence of a Reducing Endo-Enzyme in Animal Tissues. ‘By Prov. D. PRasmR ABRIS ANA RON A Contribution to the Study of Dolomitization. By R. C. WY ASABE 2 vu 12 RO UR ENS PERS Cereal Breeding on the Dominion Experimental Farms During the Past Decade. By Cuas. E. SAUNDERS, PH..D. Bibliography of Canadian Entomology for 1912. By C. GORDON Hem DSC RAP AMENERR ERA INR Bibliography of Canadian Botany for the year 1912. By À. TE MAGIK ay TARN OPA rc eesti g edt Qt, Bibliography of Canadian Zoology for 1912 (Exclusive of Entomology). By Lawrence M. Lamps, F.G.S., GS Ba. ect atid LE Re RESP ae 13 23 van TR uae de apg : LAN TAP Nee rN oy as | ARR LATE NAN PART 14 4 LA ik i «ANR EOIN M ity (te à eN Ms v nn bakit HV FUN NI et pr a SA vi À eon sas vi ù je # } tr "A ¥ hi ANSE AIS AUS REP | QU OMR RUNES RAT cru Taub He ARAL di ae NAH, mes ee 4 (PA (a ice * qu me LM Ws he Aut Peete y! A | | hit de CR Al OL ; , 1 ? | | ; | PL iy Veco je ra | he dns Pe ee ae iy oe | rf THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA FOUNDER: HIS GRACE THE DUKE OF ARGYLL, K.T., &c. (WHEN GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF CANADA IN 1882) OFFICERS FOR 1913-1914 HONORARY PRESIDENT: HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS THE DUKE OF CONNAUGHT, K.G., CS Ce: HONORARY VICE-PRESIDENTS: THE RT. HON. LORD STRATHCONA AND MOUNT ROYAL, G.C.M.G., &c. SIR JOHN MURRAY, K.C.B., &e.. &e. PRESIDENT—F RANK D. Apams, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. Vice-PRESIDENT—SIR ADOLPHE B. ROUTHIER, Kr. FONORARY SECRETARY: 4c. 2 eva De DUNCAN C. SCOTT. HONORARY TREASURER..:.....:............. L. M. LAMBE, F.G.S. HONORARY DIBRARIAN:. <5 ec ce <0 on nie cie D. B. DOWLING, B.Sc. OFFICERS OF SECTIONS: SEC. I.—Littérature Française, Histoire, Archéologie, Sociologre, Economie Politique et sujets connexes. RES TIDE ND & Cala an ala earn © car Sho mie Sone 0 Ce P. B. MIGNAULT, K.C. NACRE PRESIDENT es oye 8 ue bas Con en Er Per Hon. RODOLPHE LEMIEUX SG DT EN I es year tech mee EE LOUVIGNY T. pe MONTIGNY SEC. I1.—English Literature, History, Archeology, Sociology, Political Economy and Allied Subjects. IBRESUD EIN ert Biers tea ies Sere eps Hon. Mr. JUSTICE LONGLEY, LL.D Vice PRESIDENT. NN sh ONE Te R. W. McLACHLAN SORTIR SES PM NN ee ans W. DOUW LIGHTHALL, M.A., B.C.L SEC. III.—Mathematical, Physical and Chemical Sciences. PRE SIDE Nii ee veer ane hea, at Reet Ui ALD ise: Wi GH PRESIDENT EEE Se enr aster In E. DEVILLE, LL.D. SORA RE en Cram Sen ie Te J. S. PLASKET, B.A., D:Sc. SEC. IV.—G'eological and Biological Sciences. PRE SD ENTREE ee EL ae cae DR. A. P. COLEMAN Re RES ee Re ee ear DR. A. H. R. BULLER DORE caren: tbe LUN de COR A2 0 J. J. MACKENZIE, B.A., M.B. ADDITIONAL MEMBERS OF COUNCIL: SIR S. FLEMING, K.C.M.G. BENJAMIN SULTE, Lirr. D. SIR JAMES GRANT, K.C.M.G. W. F. KING, LL.D., C.M.G. W. D. LESUEUR, LL.D. Proc. 1913. 1. THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA LIST OF MEMBERS 1913-1914 The date given is the date of election; c, denotes a charter member. I.—LITTERATURE FRANCAISE, HISTOIRE, ARCHÉOLOGIE, ETC. c—Berarn, Mer. L.-N., Archevéque de Québec, Québec. 1905—Brucuést, Mer. P.-N., Archevéque de Montréal, Montréal. 1902—CHAPaIs, L’HON. THoMASs, docteur és lettres, chevalier de la légion d'honneur de France, membre du conseil législatif, Québec. 1890—Davin, L’HON. L.-O., Montréal. 1885—DeCe ies, A.-D., C.M.G., LL.D., docteur és lettres, Ottawa. 1913—peMontieny, Louvieny, T., Ottawa. 1902—GaGnon, Ernest, docteur és lettres, Québec. 1S98—Gerin, Léon, Coaticooke. 1911—GosseE.1n, L’ABBé AMÉDÉE, maître ès arts, Québec. 1892—GossELIN, L'ABBÉ AUGUSTE, docteur és lettres, St. Charles de Bellechasse. 1909—LANGELIER, L'HON. JUGE Sir FRANCOIS, docteur en droit, Québec. c—LeMay, PamrHILE, docteur ès lettres, Québec. 1908—LEMIEUX, L’HON. RopoLPHE, membre du conseil privé, docteur en droit, che- valier de la légion d'honneur de France, Ottawa. 1911—LOZEAU, ALBERT, Montréal. 1908—MiGxaULT, Pierre BAsILE, docteur en droit, conseiller du roi, Montréal. 1909—Myranp, Ernest, docteur és lettres, Québec. 1903—Paquer, Monsienor L.-A., Québec. 1S99—PorRiER, L’HON. PASCAL, officier de la légion d'honneur de France, Shediac. 1894—Potsson, ApoLrHEe, docteur ès lettres, Arthabaskaville. 1903—PRUD'HOMME, L'HON. JUGE L.-A., St. Boniface. 1908—Rivarp, Apsuror, maître ès arts, Québec. c—Rovruier, Str ApoLrHE B., Kt., docteur en droit et és lettres, Québec. 1904—Roy, L'ABBÉ CaMILLe, docteur és lettres, licencié ès lettres de l’université de Paris, Québec. 1911—Roy, Pimrre-Grorans, Lévis. C—SULTE, BENJAMIN, docteur és lettres, Ottawa (ancien président). [IT.—ENGLISH LITERATURE, HISTORY, ARCHAEOLOGY, ETC. 1901—Brycr, Rev. GeorGE, M.A., LL.D., Winnipeg (ex-president). 1902—Burwasu, Rev. NATHANIEL, 8.T.D., LL.D., Chancellor of Victoria College, Toronto. 1911—Burrer, Lawrence J., F.R.G.S., See’y, International Joint Commission, Otlawa, 1S94—CaMPBELL, W. Wizrkep, | L.D., Dominion Archives, Otawa. 1906—CoYxE, J. H., M.A., LL.D., St. Thomas. 1906—CRUIKSHANK, Cor, E. A., Calgary. c—Denison, Cor. G. T., B.C.L., Toronto (ex-president; life member). LIST OF MEMBERS 3 1905—Doveuty, ARTHUR G., C.M.G., Litt.D., Dominion Archivist, Ottawa. 1913—Earon, Rev. A. W. H., M.A., D.C.L., Truro. 1911—Grant, W. Lawson, M.A. (Oxon), Queen’s University, Kingston. 1913—H1zL-Tour, CHARLES, Abbotsford, B.C. 1902—How ey, Most Rev. M.F., D.D., Archbishop of St. John’s, St. John’s, Nfld. 1913—HurroN, Maurice, M.A., LL.D., University of Toronto, Toronto. 1905—James, C. C., C.M.G., LL.D., 144 St. George St., Toronto. (Life member). 1910—Jonrs, Rev. ARTHUR E., 8.J., St. Mary’s College, Montreal. 1910—Kine, Hon. W. L. MACKENZIE, C. M. G., Ph.D., Ottawa. 1913—Leacock, STEPHEN, B.A., Ph.D., McGill University, Montreal. 1903—LEeSuEur, W. D., B.A., LL.D., Ottawa. (ex-president) 1902—LicHTHALL, WILLIAM Douw, M.A., B.C.L., F.R.S.L., Montreal. 1898—Lone.ey, Hon. Mr. Justice, LL.D., Halifax. 1910—Macrpnait, ANDREW, B.A., M.D., Montreal. 1911—McLacuuan, R. Wattace, F.R.N.S., Montreal. 1904—MorGAN, Henry J., LL.D., M.A., D.C.L., Ottawa. 1913—Puitures-Wo.tey, Cuive, F.R.G.S., Somenos, B.C. 1906—Raymonp, VEN. ARCHDEACON W. O., LL.D., St. John. 1899—Scorrt, D.CaMPBELL, Deputy Superintendent General of Indian Affairs, Ottawa. 1900—Scort, Rev. FREDERICK GEORGE, Quebec. 1906—Suortt, ADAM, C.M.G., M.A., LL.D., Ottawa. 1910—Tuomson, E. W., F.RS.L., Ottawa. 1911—Watker, Sir Epmunp, C.V.O., Toronto. 1905—Woop, Lr.-CoL. WiLLrAM, Quebec. 1908—WROoNG, GOERGE M., M.A., University of Toronto, Toronto. III-—MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL SCIENCES. 1909—ALLEN, Proressor FRANK, M.A., Ph.D., University of Manitoba, Winnipeg. 1899—Baker, ALFRED, M.A., University of Toronto, Toronto. 1902—Barnes, H. T., D.Se., F.R.S., McGill University, Montreal. (Life member). 1913—Burron, E. FRANKLIN, B.A., Ph.D., University of Toronto, Toronto. 1897—Dawson, W. Bett, M.A., Ma. E., D.Se., M. Inst. C.E., Ottawa. c—Devizze, E., LL.D., Surveyor-General, Ottawa. c—Dupuis, N.F., M.A., F.R.S.E., Queen’s University, Kingston. 1891—Eus, W. H., M.D., University of Toronto, Toronto. 1910—Eve, A. $., D.Se., MeGill University, Montreal. 1909—Frexps, Joan CHarzes, Ph.D., F.R.S., University of Toronto, Toronto. c—FLemne, Sir Sanprorp, K.C.M.G., LL.D., C.E., Ottawa (ex-president; life member). c—Grrpwoop, G.P., M.D., McGill University, Montreal. (Life member). 1902—GLASHAN, J. C., LL.D., Ottawa. 1891—Goopwin, W. L., D. Se., Queen’s University, Kingston. c—Hamet, Monstcnor, M.A., Laval University, Quebec (ex-president). 1908—Harkness, JAMES, M.A. (Cantab. & Lond.). McGill University, Montreal. 1911—Herpt, Louis A., D. Se., E.E., McGill University, Montreal. c—Horrman, G. C., F.I.C., M.M.S., LL.D., Ottawa. 1891 —Keerer, T. C., C.M.G., LL.D., C.E., Ottawa (ex-president). 1911—Kenprick, Francis B., M.A., Ph.D., University of Toronto, Toronto; (life member.) 190S—Kune, W. F., C.M.G., LL.D., (ex-president) Dominion Observatory, Ottawa. 1910—KLorz, Orro, LL.D., F.R.A.S., Dominion Observatory, Ottawa. 4 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 1911—LaxG, WizuiaM R., D.Se., F.I.C., University of Toronto, Toronto. c—Loupon, JAMES, M.A., LL.D., Toronto (ex-president). 1913—MACKENZIE, A. STANLEY, B.A., Ph.D., D.C.L., Dalhousie University, Halifax. 1900—McGiLL, ANTHONY, B.Se., LL.D., Chief Analyst, Ottawa. 1909—McInrosu, DoucLas, Ph.D., McGill University, Montreal. 1903—McLENNAN, J. C., Ph.D., University of Toronto, Toronto. 1893—McLeop, C. H., M.E., MeGill University, Montreal. (Life member). 1911—McCLUuNG, Rogerr K., M.A., D.Se., B.A. (Cantab.), University of Manitoba, Winnipeg. 1899—MiLzLER, W. Lasu, Ph.D., University of Toronto, Toronto. (Life member). 1910—PLASKETT, J. S., B.A., D.Se., Dominion Observatory, Oltawa. 1896—Ruttan, R. F., M.D., C.M., McGill University, Montreal. 1899—SauTT, F. T., M.A., F.I.C., F.C.S., Chemist, Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa. (Life member). 1913—STANSFIELD, ALFRED, D.Se., A.R.S.M., McGill University, Montreal. 1901—Srupart, R. F., Superintendent, Meteorological Service, Toronto. 1909—Tory, H. M., M.A., D.Se., LL.D., Edmonton. IV.—GEOLOGICAL AND BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES. 1902—ApamI, J. G., F.R.S., M.A., M.D., (Cantab. and McGill), LL.D., F.R.S.E., McGill University, Montreal. 1896—Apams, FRANK D., Ph.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S., MeGill University, Montreal. 1913—Atcock, NATHANIEL H., B.A., M.D., D.Sc., McGill University, Montreal. 1900—Amt, Henry M., M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S., Ottawa. (Life member). c—Barzey, L. W., M.A., Ph.D., University of New Brunswick, Fredericton. 1903—Bartow, A. E., M.A., D.Sc., Westmount. c—BELL, Ropert., B.Ap.Se., M.D., LL.D., F.G.S., F.R.S., Ottawa. 1910—Bens.ey, Bens. A., Ph.D., University of Toronto, Toronto. 1892—Betuunr, Rev. C. J. 8., M.A., D.C.L., Guelph. (Life member). 1911—Brock, Reainatp W., M.A., F.G.S., F.G.8.A., Director Geological Survey Ottawa. 1911—Bropig, T. G., M.D., F.R.S., University of Toronto, Toronto. 1909—Butier, A. H. ReGiNaz», D.Sc., Ph.D., University of Manitoba, Winnipeg. 1885—Buragrss, T. J. W., M.D., Montreal. (Life member). 1900—CoLEMAN, A.P., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., University of Toronto, Toronto. 1912—Dowt nag, D. B., B.Se., Geological Survey, Ottawa. 1913—FARIBAULT, E. Ropoipue, B.Ap.Sc., Geological Survey, Ottawa. 1912—FauLLz, J. H., B.A., Ph.D., University of Toronto, Toronto. C— GRANT, Sir J. A., K.C.M.G., M.D., F.G.S., Ottawa (ex-president). 1910—Harrison, Francis C., B.S.A., D.Sc., Macdonald College, Ste. Anne de Bellevue, Que. 1913—Hewrrr, ©. Gorpvon, D.Se., F.E.S., Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa. 1913—Hvarp, L'Age Victor A., D.D., Quebec. 1912—Kniaeut, A. P., M.A., M.D., Queen’s University, Kingston. 1900—LamBr, Lawrence M., F.G.8., Geological Survey, Ottawa. (Life member). 1911—Leratues, JOHN B., B.A., F.R.C.$S., B.Ch. (Oxon), University of Toronto, Toronto. 1900—MacALLUM, A.B., Ph.D., F.R.S., University of Toronto, Toronto. c—Macoux, J., M.A., F.L.S., Geological Survey, Ottawa. 1888—Mackay, A. H., LL.D., B.Se., Superintendent of Education, Halifax. (Life member), LIST OF MEMBERS ù 5 1909—MACKENZIE, J. J., B.A., M.B., University of Toronto, Toronto. 1913—McCCoNNELL, RicHarD G., B.A., Geological Survey, Otlawa. 1912—McInnes, WILLIAM, B.A., Geological Survey, Ottawa. (Life member). 1909—McMurrice, J. P., M.A., Ph.D., University of Toronto, Toronto. c—Marruew, G. F., M.A., D.Se., St. John, N.B. (Life member). 1911—Mitirr, Witter G., B.A., LL.D., F.G.S.A., Toronto. (Life member). 1913—Moore, CLARENCE L., M.A., Dalhousie University, Halifax. 1908—Nicuo.ts, A.G., M.A., M.D., MeGill University, Montreal. 1902—Princr, E. E., B.A., LL.D., F.L.S., Dominion Commissioner of Fisheries, Ottawa. (Life member). c—Saunpers, W., C.M.G., LL.D., F.LS., F.E.S.A., Oitawa (ex-president). 1910—TyrRELzLL, JoserH B., M.A., B.Sc., F.G.S., Toronto. 1909— VINCENT, SWALE, M.D., D.Se., University of Manitoba, Winnipeg. 1910—Wuitr, JAMES, F.R.G.S., Conservation Commission, Ottawa. 1912—Wittey, ARTHUR, F.R.S., McGill University, Montreal. CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. His GRACE THE DUKE oF ARGYLL, K.T., G.C.M.G., &c. Bonney, T. G., D.Se., LL.D., F.R.S., London, England. Bryce, Rr. Hon. Jamus, D.C.L., British Ambassador, Washington. CLARETIE, JULES, de l’Académie Française, Paris, France. GANONG, Dr. W. F., Northampion, Mass. Merzcer, W. H., Ph.D., F.R.S., Edin., Syracuse University, Syracuse, N.Y. Ossorn, Dr. Henry Farrriezp, Columbia University, New York, N.Y. OstwaLp, Pror. Dr. WiLHeM, Leipzig. PARKER, Str GILBERT, M.P., D.C.L., London, England. SALONE, EMILE, Sec. Gen’!. Alliance Française, 186 Boulevard St. Germain, Paris, France. SCUDDER, Dr. 8. H., Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A. THOMSON, Sir JoserH J., O.M., F.R.S., Cambridge, England. RETIRED MEMBERS. c—Bourassa, NAPOLÉON, Montreal. CALLENDAR, Hueu L., M.A., (Cantab.), F.R.S., London, England. 1899—CHARLAND, PERE PAUL V., Litt. D., Quebec. 1909—Co py, Cas. W., M.A., McGill University, Montreal. 1897—Cox, Joun, M.A., (Cantab)., London, England. 1894—Dawson, 8. E., C.M.G., Litt. D., Westmount. (ex-president) c—DeCazss, Pauz, Litt. D., Paris, France. 1891—F ow ter, JAMES, M.A., Queen’s University, Kingston. 1904—Gorpon, Rev. CaHArLes W., LL.D., Winnipeg. c—Haanez, E., Ph.D., Director of Mines, Ottawa. 1894—Harrineton, W. H., Ottawa. 1909—Macpripr, Ernest W., M.A., F.R.S., London, England. Marr, CHARLES, Prince Albert, Sask. Mitts, T. Weszey, 45 Warrington Crescent, Maida Vale, London, England. c—Morray, Rev. J. CLarKk, LL.D., Montreal. c—OsLER, Sir W., Br., M.D., F.R.C.P., F.R.S., Ozford, England. Owens, R. B., M.Sc., Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, U.S, 6 ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 1898—Parkxin, G. R., C.M.G., LL.D., London, England. 1900—P001E, H. S., M.A., F.G.S., Spreyton, Stoke, Guildford, England. c—READE, Joun, LL.D., F.R.S.L., Montreal. 1890—Ropserts, C. G. D., M.A., London, England. Ross, Hon. Sir GEORGE W., LL.D., Toronto. RuruHerrorD, E., B.A., (Cantab.), A.M., F.R.S., Manchester, England. c—Warson, J., M.A., LL.D., Kingston. 1900—WILLISON, Str JOHN §., LL.D., Toronto. 1910—Wuson, Haron A., F.R.S., Houston, Texas. c—Wriaut, R. Ramsay, M.A., B.Sc., Bournemouth, England (ex-president). LIST OF PRESIDENTS LIST OF PRESIDENTS 1882-1883. ...... ep oer ee RR Sir J. W. Dawson. RSS KRY. ae oo Aa me gant eter eR eo en L’HONORABLE P. J. O. CHauveau SSAC Syme eee goer ee ny Oe Dr. T. Sterry Hunt. SSD ISSN ATEN A ey UE heen Mee Str DANIEL WILSON. 1886-1887..... = MONSIGNOR HIAMET: US87—1S88 «22. FE BC ace cee Dr. G. Lawson. PERS Oe She nO RE me aE MAUS SMe ett Sir SANDFORD FLEMING, K.C.M.G. SSO = SGOR Rt ee es eee Sone rte L’ABBÉ CASGRAIN. 1890-1891..... ATOUT _-+.+:..-..-. VERY REV. PRINCIPAL GRANT. 1891-1892.......... RU ha dre a ..L’aABBE LAFLAMME. POO SOS ete Gs ce ey Aen LE .... Sir J. G. Bourtnot, K.C.M.G. : Ti SUES SS SIS sg ie ae i reece er Taie Dr. G. M. Dawson, C.M.G. 1894-1895.......... D CAS rote emt ree SIR J. MACPHERSON LEMoIxE. 1895-1896. ....... De CR CC DR AR Ce WYN EME SOC ISO TRE ET ates NE ne RE RARE Most Rey. ARcHBISHOP O'BRIEN. STE TSOS ALL wi ace. oes RENTE ne L’HONORABLE F. G. MARCHAND. SOS ESO OTP RC A de ee hes T. C. Kegrer, C.M.G. SOO TOU ves wis: Mock Soho © 2. REV, WrztiaM CrarK, D:C.L: ICON SSS) TD RSR RER EE L. FRÉCHETTE, C.M.G., LL.D. DS IC TRE ie eee eee ro eae James Loupon, LL.D. HOMZ OO sree se oh iar ees MARS LA TOC ak ‘Str J. A. GRANT, M.D., K.C.M.G. OR AO ee LAURE Cou. G. T. DENIsoN, B.C.L. 1904-1905... Re 0 DNA DR PERTE BENJAMIN SULTE, Litt. D. OO 5=1OOG Rate RER EN cy seed xe eae Dr. ALEX. JOHNSON. 1906-1907..... te i en er er ee Dr. Wn. SAUNDERS, C.M.G. BONO Au ne Bates, LUN Ni as Dr. $. E. Dawson, C.M.G. 19081900 merry bee ices meres, TE Dr. J. Epmonp Roy. NS NOTE «oad, sent th e eee ch. Ses Rev. Geo. Bryce, LL.D. OO STORE RS GR ee R. Ramsay Waiaut, M.A., B.Sc. DOTE TORRENT W. F. Kine, LL.D., C.M.G. TOUS ease ie ssn cet a RS Ce W. Dawson LeSuEuUR, B.A., LL.D. RES RE RER a the oe Gee ac ays vie artes aan Frank D. Apams, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.G.8. ~I œ THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA LIST OF ASSOCIATED SOCIETIES ONTARIO. Hamilton Association for the Promotion of Science, Literature and Art. The Wellington Field Naturalists’ Society. The Hamilton Scientific Society. L'Institut Canadien-Français d’Ottawa. The Women’s Wentworth Historical Society. The Entomological Society of Ontario. L'Institut Canadien d'Ottawa. Women’s Canadian Historical Society of Ottawa. Elgin Historical and Scientific Institute. Women’s Auxiliary of the Elgin Historical and Scientific Institute. Ontario Historical Society. The Huron Institute. Niagara Historical Society. The Ottawa Field Naturalists’ Club. Royal Astronomical Society of Canada. Canadian Institute, Toronto. Historical Society, Kingston. Toronto Astronomical Society. Lundy’s Lane Historical Society. Women’s Canadian Historical Society of Toronto. United Empire Loyalists Association of Canada. Peterborough Historical Society. Canadian Forestry Association. Hamilton Ladies’ College Alumnae. QUEBEC. Société du Parler Frangais au Canada. Société de Géographie de Québec. Société d’ Economie Sociale et Politique de Québec. American Folk Lore Society, Montreal. The Quebec Society for the Protection of Plants from Insects and Fungus Diseases. The Antiquarian and Numismatic Society of Montreal. L'Institut Canadien de Québec. Natural History Society of Montreal. Microscopical Society, Montreal. LIST OF ASSOCIATED SOCIETIES Société Historique, Montréal. Cercle Littéraire de Montréal. Literary and Historical Society, Quebec. British COLUMBIA. The Natural History Society of British Columbia. The British Columbia Academy of Science. Nova SCOTIA. The Nova Scotia Historical Society. The Nova Scotia Institute of Science. MANITOBA. Manitoba Historical and Scientific Society. NEW BRUNSWICK. New Brunswick Historical Society. New Brunswick Loyalists Society. Natural History Association. Natural History Society of New Brunswick. Prince Epwarp ISLAND. Natural History and Antiquarian Society of Prince Edward Island. THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA PROCEEDINGS FOR 1913 THIRTY-SECOND GENERAL MEETING SESSION I.—(Tuesday, May 27). The Royal Society of Canada held its thirty-second annual meetine in the rooms of the Carnegie Library; the Presidential Address and the Public Lecture were held, as usual, in the hall of the Normal School. The President, Dr. W. D. LeSueur, took the chair at 10 a.m., and, having called the meeting to order, requested the Honorary Secretary to call the roll. The following members answered to their names or arrived later during the session :— OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETY. President, Dr. W. D. LeSueur. Vice-President, Dr. Frank D. Adams. Honorary Secretary, Mr. Duncan C. Scott. Honorary Treasurer, Mr. Lawrence M. Lambe. Section I.—Chapais, Hon. Thomas; DeMontigny, L. T.; Gosselin, Auguste; Lemieux, Hon. R.; Myrand, Ernest; Poirier, Hon. P.; Poisson, Adolphe; Sulte, Benjamin. SECTION II.—Bryce, George; Burpee, L. J.; Campbell, W. W.; Coyne, J. H.; Denison, G. T.; Doughty, A. G.; Grant, W. L.; James, C. C.; King, Hon. W. L. M.; LeSueur, W. D.; Lighthall, W. D.; Longley, ‘Hon. Justice; McLachlan, R. W.; Morgan, H. J.; Raymond, W. O.; Scott, D. C.; Shortt, Adam; Thomson, E. W.; Wood, W. SECTION ITI.—Allen, Frank; Dawson, W. B.; Deville, E.; Dupuis, N. F.; Ellis, W. H.; Fields, J. C.; Fleming, Sir 8.; Glashan, J. C.; Hoffman G. C.; King, W. F.; Klotz, Otto; Loudon, J.; McGill, A.; McIntosh,D.; McLeod, C. H.; McClung, R. K.; Plaskett, J. S.; Ruttan, R. F.; Shutt, F. T.; Stansfield, A. SECTION IV.—Adami, J. G.; Adams, F. D.; Bailey, L. W.; Barlow, AL. Brodgeh.. W.; Buller; A: HR; Burgess; T.. J. W; Coleman, A. P.; Dowling, D. B.; Faribault, E. R.; Grant, Sir J. A.; Harrison, ¥. C.; Hewitt, C. G.; Huard, V. A.; Knight, A. P.; Lambe, L. M.; Mackay, A. H.; Mackenzie, J. J.; McInnis, W.; McMurrich, J. P.; Miller, W. G.; Nicholls, A. G.; Saunders, W.; Tyrrell, J. B.; White, J. Il THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Letters of excuse for absence were received from Messrs. Ami, H. M.; Burwash, N.; Cruikshank, E. A.; Dawson, 8. E.; Gosselin, Amedee; Girdwood, G. P.,; Jones A. E.; Langelier, Sir F.; Matthew, G. F.; Mi- enault, P. B.; Poirier, Hon. Pascal; Prince, E. E.; Routhier, Sir A. B.; Roy, Camille; Scott, F. G.; Stupart, R. F.; Tory, H. M. It was moved by Dr. J. G. Adami, seconded by Rev. Dr. George Bryce, that the minutes of the annual meeting of last year, as contained in the printed proceedings of last year in the hands of the members, be confirmed.—Carried. The Annual Report of Council, printed copies of which had been delivered to the members, was then presented by the Honorary Secre- tary. The report was as follows:— REPORT vO COUNCIL FOR THE YEAR 1912-1913 To the Fellows of The Royal Society of Canada The Council have the honour to present the following report on the work of the Society during the past year. The last annual meeting passed off successfully and its proceedings and transactions, which are now in your hands, show that important business was carried through. The By-laws of the Society were entirely revised and the business of the general meeting was probably more im- portant than usual. The attendance of Fellows was rather above the average. The reading of papers and the discussions in the sectional meetings were interesting and the public addresses were well attended. It is encouraging to note that in the number of papers for this year there is no diminution and also that they maintain the standard of quality. The Council have pleasure in stating that the annual popular lecture will be delivered this year by Prof. John M. Clarke, Geologist’ for the state of New York. Dr. Claike’s subject will be “The Mag- dalen Islands and the Bird Rocks.” The lecture will be illustrated and we look forward with pleasure to the treatment by Dr. Clarke of this inteiesting subject. I.—PROCEEDINGS AND TRANSACTIONS OF THE SOCIETY. The current volume, which is now ready for distribution, consists of 918 pages and a number of illustrations. The usual edition (1260) has been printed and 3500 copies of separate papers have been supplied eratuitously to the authors. A larger number than usual of the published volumes have been sold during the year. It is thought that the volume PROCEEDINGS FOR 1913 I for the coming year will be fully equal in quality to its predecessors. The agenda shows the full list of available papers for discussion, from which a selection will be made for publication. Il.—ELectTion oF NEw MEMBERS. This year there are vacancies in all Sections and the nomination papers showed a larger number of candidates than usual, nineteen in all. This was the first election held under the amended By-laws which pro- vide that the majority of votes cast insures election. The Council have pleasure in stating that the following candidates received the majority of the votes cast and their election is submitted for confirmation by the general Society. Section I. M. Louvigny Testard de Montigny. Section II. Rev. Arthur Wentworth Hamilton Eaton, M.A., D.C.L. Charles Hill-Tout. Maurice Hutton, M.A., (Oxon) LL.D. Stephen Leacock, B.A. Clive Phillips-Wolley, F.R.G.S. SECTION III. Dr. Alfred Stansfield. SECTION IV. Nathaniel Henry Alcock, B.A., M.D., (Dublin), D.Sc. Eugene R. Faribault, B.Sc., F.G.S.A. C. Gordon Hewitt, D.Sc., F.E.S. Rev. Abbe Victor A. Huard, D.D. Richard George McConnell, B.A. Clarence L. Moore, B.A., M.A. IIJ.—PRoposaL TO ELECT AN HONORARY VICE-PRESIDENT. Section III of the By-laws gives the Council power to recommend once in every two years for election as Honorary Vice-President not more than two persons whose election it is considered would be a signal benefit to the Society. The name of Sir John Murray, K.C.B., having IV THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA been suggested as Honorary Vice-President, the Council have given the matter full consideration and have decided unanimously to recommend his election. It is thought well to lay before the Society a short record of this distinguished Canadian’s achievement for science, as follows:— Sir John Murray, K.C.B., was born at Cobourg, Ont., in 1841. He received his education at the public schools of London, Ont., and at Victoria College, Cobourg, and later at the High School of Stirling, Scotland, and at the University of Edinburgh. After leaving the University he was appointed Scientific Director of the Scottish Fisheries Board and took part in the scientific investiga- tion of the northern seas. In 1872 he was appointed Naturalist to the “Challenger” Expedition, accompanying that ship in her cruise around the world in the years 1872-76, and on his return was appointed First Assistant on the staff and later Editor of the “ Results of the Voyage of H.M.S. Challenger.” He continued to interest himself in deep sea ex- ploration, taking part in the investigation of the Faroé Channel by the “Triton” and “ Knight Errant” and also extended his investigation to tropical oceanic islands. Later he undertook a bathymetrical survey of the fresh-water lakes of Scotland and in 1910 took part in the inves- tigation of the North Atlantic Ocean, contributing largely to the equip- ment of the “Michael Sars,” the vessel employed by the expedition. He is now interested in a proposed bathymetrical and biological survey of the Great Lakes. He has been the recipient of numerous honours, having received the degrees of LL.D., D.Se., and Ph.D. and he is also a Fellow of the Royal Society of London, a Knight of the Prussian Order Pour la mérite and has received the Grand Cross of the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav. Numerous medals and prizes have also been awarded to him for his scientific achievements, among which may be. mentioned the Cuvier Prize of the Institut de France; the Humboldt Medal of the Gesellschaft fur Erdkunde, Berlin; the Royal Medal of the Royal Geographical Society; the Neill and Makdougall-Brisbane Medals of the Royal Society of Edinburgh; the Cullum Medal of the American Geographical Society; the Clarke Medal of the Royal Society of New South Wales; the Lutke Medal of the Imperial Russian Society of Geography and the Livingstone Medal of the Royal Scottish Geographi- cal Society. Among his publications may be mentioned:—“Summary of the Scientific Results of the Challenger Expedition,” “ Report on the Deep Sea Deposits obtained by H.M.S. Challenger,” “ Reports on a Bathy- metrical Survey of the Fresh-water Lakes of Scotland,” (6 vols.) and numerous shorter contributions on Geography, Oceanography, Marine Biology and Limnology. PROCEEDINGS FOR 1913 Nib IV.—DeEcEASED MEMBERS. We have lost by death six members of the Society since our last meeting, Mr. Errol Bouchette, Rev. Dr. Clark, Dr. Alexander Johnson, Rev. G.W. Taylor, Dr.G. U. Hay and Dr.J. EdmondRoy. In Dr. Johnson we have lost a charter member of the society, an ex-president and one who was vitally interested in all movements to render the Society a factor in the intellectual life of the country. Section I in the death of Mr. Errol Bouchette lost their Secretary and one who was very closely identified not only with the progress of that Section but of the whole Society. Dr. Clark and the Rev. Mr. Taylor were elected in 1891 and 1894 re- spectively, the former being an ex-president. They had both given the Society distinction by reason of the high quality of their literary and scientific accomplishments. The biographical notice of Mr. Bouchette was prepared by Mr. Léon Gérin. Prof. Prince has contributed a notice of his friend and fellow worker, Rev. G. W. Taylor and the Rev. Dr. Clark Murray has written the notice of Dr. Alexander Johnson, as- sisted by Professor Harkness. The Honorary Secretary has com- piled the notice of Rev. Dr. Clark from notes furnished him. Dr. G. F. Matthews has written the notice of his friend Dr. George U. Hay and the Hon. Thomas Chapais, assisted by Mr. de Montigny, that of Dr. J. Edmond Roy. ERROL BOUCHETTE. (1). Mon premier souvenir de Bouchette remonte 4 plus de quarante ans. Dans la capitale improvisée de la vagissante confédération cana- dienne, ancien poste avancé et encore mal dégrossi de la grande ex- ploitation forestière, le Bytown de la veille qui, sous son nouveau nom d'Ottawa, restait encore assez mal pourvu des organes de la civilisa- tion, nous fréquentions l’un et l’autre une école de garçonnets dirigée par les sœurs Grises. Ce n’était pourtant pas un moderne jardin de l’enfance que cette petite école de la rue Rideau, installée dans une salle du couvent; mais, à en juger par la jovialité tapageuse de cette horde de jeunes babares venus de tous les quartiers de la ville et se recrutant dans mainte nationalité et mainte classe sociale; à observer leurs multiformes taquineries aux dépens de ces bonnes maitresses, leur ingéniosité à tourner en comédie toute tentative de correction, on aurait pu croire que tout y était dieposé, comme dans un kindergarten, pour le plus grand plaisir de l’enfant. Au milieu de cette troupe turbulente, Bouchette était déjà grave. Un jour que je lui faisais admirer les formes d’un superbe cheval crayonnées entre deux legons, ceuvre dont l’unique mérite résidait VI THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA dans la ferme intention du dessinateur de copier fidélement la nature, il me reprit, et avec un sourire narquois me déclara qu’une telle hardi- cesse dans le détail ne manquerait pas de m’attirer des supplices éter- nels. Ce simple fait pourra paraître puéril, et cependant un psychologue à la manière de Taine y verrait sans doute l’expression hâtive d’un de ces traits dominants du caractère, autour desquels, comme autour d’un axe directeur, toute une mentalité, toute une vie s'organise. Déjà le moraliste se révèlait en lui, moraliste voilant sa pensée d’un peu de scepticisme et d’ironie, mais moraliste quand même, et c’est ce qu’il resta toute sa vie. Vingt ans se passent et la scène est bien changée. Le vent de la vie a soufflé sur nous et, comme il arrive souvent aux familles de fonc- tionnaires dont le chef prend prématurément sa retraite, nous a disper- sés à droite et à gauche. Nous gagnons prosaiquement notre pain quotidien, moi à Montréal, lui à Québec. Il s’occupe de journalisme, et ayant appris que je me mêle d'écrire, il m’ouvre toutes grandes les! pages de son journal. Il y avait beau jour que mes illusions s'étaient dissipées à l’égard de ce quasi sacerdoce, et que s’était évanoui le rêve, caressé jadis par mon imagination de collégien et d'étudiant, de vati- ciner un jour dans la gazette. Mais l'offre qui me venait de mon ancien camarade, d’ailleurs financièrement incolore, était faite d’un si grand cœur, et avec une si parfaite courtoisie, dans un monde où la courtoi- sie n’est pas monnaie courante, que j'en fus vivement touché. Et c’est encore là, dans l’existence de Bouchette, un de ces inci- dents révélateurs de la personnalité: le frottement avec les nécessités de la vie pratique avait dégagé chez l’écolier moraliste d’hier une faculté nouvelle, celle de la coopération intellectuelle et sociale, qui chez lui s’alliait avec une parfaite distinction de manières. Devenu journaliste, c’est en gentilhomme, et en gentilhomme soucieux de l'intérêt public, que ce fils de gentleman faisait les honneurs de ss maison. Cet esprit de camaraderie, de fraternité scientifique, cette bien- veillance pour le travailleur intellectuel, surtout dans le domaine social, Bouchette en était doué à un degré très éminent, et sous plusieurs formes. I] me fut donné de l’observer à loisir, lorsque, quelques années plus tard, nous nous retrouvâmes dans la capitale du ~~" gipm- © se doute bien que, secrétaire de ministre ou chargé « © © ~ .uon de sociologie française à la bibliothèque du Parlement. ait rien de cette apathie de l’employé, qui chez quelques-uns traduit par le féroce parti pris de se soustraire à toute besogne, et chez d’autres, en plus grand nombre peut-être, consiste à se renfermer dans le cercle d’une routine quotidienne méticuleusement circonscrite. Il était de ceux qui font leur affaire personnelle de toute besogne dont ils se char- ERROL BOUCHETTE PROCEEDINGS FOR 1913 VII gent. Et lorsque, à ce travail, il se mélait quelque chose de propre- ment intellectuel, lorsqu'on recourait à ses lumières, lorsqu'on faisait appel à ses connaissances variées, lorsqu'on mettait à contribution ses études, ses recherches dans le domaine de l’économie politique ou de l’histoire, par exemple, alors son tempérament d’éducateur, de vul- garisateur s’affirmait, son zèle, son dévouement devenaient infa- tigables. Des personnes de tout âge et de toute condition, écoliers ou membres de la députation, pourraient, je pense, en rendre témoi- gnage. Et nous de la société Royale nous savons quel excellent col- lègue il était, comme il avait à cœur les intérêts de notre société, comme sa collaboration était précieuse et savait se multiplier. Cependant, cette sympathie intellectuelle de Bouchette, si je puis m’exprimer ainsi, trouva un jour à s’affirmer d’une manière particu- lièrement frappante et que je tiens à signaler, car elle dénote, sinon plus de force morale, du moins encore plus de vigueur et d’élasticité d'esprit qu’il n’en faut pour jouer le rôle de mentor. Certes, il y a du mérite à consacrer ses heures de loisir, chèrement achetées, à guider, corriger au besoin, l'effort cérébral de débutants, à débattre, contrôler celui de compagnons, de collègues. Mais dans l’un et l’autre cas, il est per- mis de soupçonner que ce dévouement a quelque peu pour mobile les satisfactions d’amour-propre qu’il procure. Toutefois, on ne saurait se contenter de pareille explication lorsque le sujet se montre également disposé, également apte, à coopérer, qu’il s’agisse de communiquer à d’autres les résultats de son avance intellectuelle, ou lui même de réaliser de nouveaux progrès pour son propre compte. La spontanéité, la flexibilité, sont des qualités de l’esprit assez peu répandues, même chez ceux qui se vouent aux études. Il est rare qu’un écrivain d'âge mûr (et l’âge mûr, voire même la décrépitude, arrivent de très bonne heure pour un grand nombre) cherche à augmenter son bagage intellectuel, ou à améliorer ses procédés de tra- vail. Or Bouchette, âgé déjà de plus de quarante ans, et après avoir subi la dure épreuve du journalisme, qui habitue son homme à traiter de tout, à toucher à tout, sans rien approfondir, Bouchette, longtemps après s’étre formé à l’art d’écrire, s’être initié à l’économie politique et avoir lui-même fourni des travaux estimés sur ce sujet (Emparons-nous de l’industrie, l’'Evolution économique de la province de Québec, etc.), découvrit l’école de science sociale de LePlay et de Tourville. Il eut le rare mérite de discerner sur-le-champ la supériorité de leur méthode d'observation sociale. Ce fut le point de départ d’une orientation nou- velle de sa pensée, d’une modification profonde de sa manière d’écrire. De simple moraliste, journaliste, économiste, il devint du coup sociolo- gue, et sociologue à la bonne manière. Désormais, au lieu de procéder par l’élaboration déductive de données générales ou de principes abs- Proc. 1913. 2 VIII THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA traits, il allait recourir fondamentalement à l’observation directe, à l'enquête monographique. Son étude sur les Ecossais du Cap-Breton fut sa première tentative dans ce sens. Il avait rassemblé les maté- riaux d’une deuxième étude, plus poussée celle-là, sur le milieu rural de la vallée de la Chaudière, dans le comté de Beauce, qu’il connaissait bien depuis sa jeunesse. Nous devions ensemble visiter ce pays, en vue de lui permettre de parfaire cette monographie. Hélas, quand vint la date fixée pour notre départ, mon ami était déjà en route pour cet autre pays d’où personne ne revient. Des conditions et influences qui ont concouru à façonner le tem- pérament de Bouchette, il ne faut songer à indiquer ici que les prin- cipales. Elles sont bien caractérisées. Du côté paternel, notamment, nous lui trouvons une suite d’ancêtres distingués. Le premier Bouchet, ou Bouchette, à s'établir au Canada était originaire de la Bretagne, de Saint-Malo, pays de marins. Jean-Baptiste Bouchette, bisaïeul d’Errol, était navigateur sur le Saint-Laurent lorsque la Nouvelle- France fut cédée à l'Angleterre. En 1775, les Américains avaient envahi le Canada et s'étaient emparés de Montréal. Le gouverneur Carleton put à peine s'échapper au dernier moment, et n’aurait pro- bablement jamais atteint Québec pour y prendre la direction des opé- rations contre Arnold et Montgomery, qui déjà assiégeaient la ville, si le capitaine Bouchette, avec un courage et une adresse rares, n’a- vait réussi à lui faire traverser sain et sauf les détachements ennemis qui tenaient les détroits de Berthier, à l’entrée du lac Saint-Pierre. Ce service signalé, rendu en un moment de grand danger pour la colo- nie, paraît avoir attiré sur lui et sa famille l’attention et les faveurs des gouvernants anglais, car on retrouve plus tard Jean-Baptiste Bou- chette commandant la flottille qui opère sur le lac Ontario. Son fils Joseph, grand-père d’Errol, fait à son tour, dans cette région de l'Ontario qui vient de s'ouvrir à la colonisation, l’apprentis- sage de la vie du marin et du militaire, en attendant qu’il remplace son oncle Holland dans la fonction d’arpenteur général. Il fut l’au- teur d'ouvrages sur la topographie du Canada, ouvrages des plus remarquables, surtout pour l’époque, et dont les frais de publication, très onéreux, restèrent en grande partie à sa charge. Il est notre plus illustre géographe. Robert Shore Milnes Bouchette, père d’Errol, était par son édu- cation ainsi que par les alliances et les relations de sa famille, très anglais; mais voilà que dès 1834, il prend une de ces résolutions. chevale- resques dont on trouve maint exemple dans la vie de ses ancêtres, et inopinément se jette à corps perdu du côté de Papineau et des insur- gés, ce qui lui vaut la prison et quelque temps d’exil aux Bermudes. Du côté maternel également, celui qui fait l’objet de la présente PROCEEDINGS FOR 1913 IX notice se trouvait mis en contact avec une classe intéressante de la région québecoise: classe surtout française par ses origines et ses sen- timents, mais aussi très mêlée à la société anglaise, imbue de beaucoup de ses idées, ayant adopté beaucoup de ses manières et de ses pratiques; classe de fonctionnaires, grossissant parfois ses revenus des rentes, plutôt modiques, de seigneuries sises dans la plaine ou les vallées avoisinantes de la capitale, mais vivant surtout des émoluments de charges administratives ou judiciaires. Les membres de cette bour- geoisie coloniale n'étaient pas sans manifester quelque exclusivisme de classe, sans tirer vanité de leurs relations sociales; mais les meil- leurs d’entre eux avaient une haute conception de leurs devoirs de dirigeants. Grâce à leurs lumières plus grandes, et stimulés qu’ils étaient par le spectacle de l’activité des centres urbains et l'influence du milieu anglais plus industriel et plus commerçant, ils auraient pu devenir pour les campagnes les instaurateurs de la réforme économique, n’a- vaient été leur éloignement pour les arts usuels, leurs rapports trop indirects et passagers avec la population rurale, n’avait été surtout la défiance qu’inspiraient à la masse, restée purement française et pay- sanne, leurs alliances, leurs tendances, leurs allures anglaises et ur- baines. Ainsi donc, Errol Bouchette avait trouvé dans son entourage des traditions de fierté, d’initiative personelle, des préoccupations d’in- térêt social (avec l’habitude, cependant, de s’appuyer sur les pouvoirs publics), et aussi le goût des études sérieuses, de la culture désinté- ressée de l’esprit. Et au moment où il entre en pleine possession de lui-même, où toutes ses facultés s’épanouissent, et où il se voit chargé des pleines responsabilités de la vie, ila sous les yeux une société qui présente de frappants contrastes: primitifs en contact avec des civi- lisés, communautaires subissant la poussée de particularistes, campa- enards engourdis dans leur isolement, tandis que les centres urbains retentissent déjà des progrès nouveaux du commerce et de l’industrie, du développement des moyens de transport; en attendant que demain le flot de l’immigration se tourne vers nos bords, que la mise en ex- ploitation des ressources naturelles, que la coucurrence entre groupes et entre races, bref que la grande mêlée sociale prennent une allure quasi vertigineuse. Ce spectacle fait pour retenir l’attention du sociologue le plus impas- sible, est d’un intérêt palpitant pour tout Canadien qui aime son pays. Faut-il s'étonner si Errol Bouchette, petit-fils de savant et fils de pa- triote, s’y soit arrêté? Faut-il s'étonner si, à la suite d’un court séjour dans l’arène politique, où, du fait de son tempérament de moraliste, d’intellectuel, à cause de trop de délicatesse, ou de trop peu de har- x THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA diesse, il n’était pas fait pour réussir, il ait cherché une retraite plus tranquille. Il allait ainsi, tout en assurant le bien-être présent (et, à ce qu’il espérait, le bien-être futur) de sa famille, pouvoir consacrer plus de temps à ses études favorites. Et ne voit-on pas comment toute l’histoire de sa famille et de sa race, et les péripéties de sa propre existence, lui ont suggéré les idées directrices qui sont la trame de tous ses écrits? Importance d’orga- niser sur de nouvelles bases les industries agricoles et autres dans la province de Québec; dans ce but, diffusion, sous le patronage des pouvoirs publics, de l'instruction primaire, organisation de l’enseigne- ment technique et professionnel; établissement de sociétés coopéra- tives; avances faites par l'Etat à des entreprises industrielles ou com- merciales d'intérêt privé ou local. Il n’est pas question pour le moment, on le conçoit, de prendre parti pour ou contre es propositions, qui, du reste, sont aujourd’hui, même la dernière, acceptées et appliquées dans beaucoup de pays avances, y compris le Canada, Mon but en les indiquant est simple- ment de résumer les conclusions qui, à la suite d’études et d’observa- tions couvrant plusieurs années, se recommandaient à un esprit sé- rieux, sincèrement dévoué aux intérêts de son groupe et de son pays. Adieu, cher ami. Hélas! cinquante années de vie, c’est bien peu, dans un âge de grandes exigences et de soucis multiples; vingt-cinq ans de pleine activité, c’est bien peu pour fonder une famille, garantir les chers siens contre la gêne, et mettre à profit les talents reçus du Maitre, entretenir le feu sacré, la flamme brillante de l'esprit. Mais nous qui avons travaillé à tes côtés et qui avons été soutenus par ta chaude amitié, nous savons comme ton coeur était grand, et quelle belle intelligence le servait. Et la postérité, sans doute, te fera une place honorable dans le panthéon des lettres canadiennes, parmi les fervents des études sociales. (2.)—Rev. WizziAM R. CLARK. Rev. William Robinson Clark, the subject of this memoir, was born in Inverurie on the 26th of March, 1829. He began his education at the Grammar School in Old Aberdeen and from this institution passed to King’s College, Aberdeen, from which he graduated M.A., with hon- ours in 1848. Proceeding to Oxford he entered Hertford College and received his B.A. degree in 1863. After leaving Oxford he held two successful curacies for a short period and his exceptional abilities were recognized by his appointment as Vicar of the parish church of St. Mary Magdalen, Taunton. He retained this position for twenty-one years and during a part of the time he was also rural dean of Taunton From the portrait by Wylie Grier, R.C.A. WILLIAM R.CLARK PR = 7 h 0 { e 1 4 "] ie aceon ‘je Li nv i b Mays | er: ai a > | Va r/ 4 ¢ (es Ab le ae b re É FEU ic feta » L (| 7 = FA A 7, " i | È ° x MSA 7 tan f À Md D? HS On | eae fi ve oe i ins à .? M ¥ pre = {e * Crit Plea, a % LA ' PROCEEDINGS FOR 1913 XI and Prebendary of Wells Cathedral. He left Taunton in 1880 and spent two years at literary work in England. He came to America and was connected for a short time with Hobart College, Geneva, N.Y. In 1882 he was appointed special preacher in St. George’s Church, Toronto, and in the following January professor of Mental and Moral Philosophy in the University of Trinity College with which he maintained an un- broken connection till the time of his death, on 12th of November, 1912. When the chair in English was established in Trinity College he became the first professor, holding this chair together with that of Philosophy for several years, till he resigned the latter pursuant to the changes brought about by the Federation of Trinity College with the University of Toronto. To the onerous duties of these two chairs, he added extra courses of lectures from time to time in history and in several branches of theology, a department of study with which he was thor- oughly conversant. In 1908 he retired from active service, with the title of Professor Emeritus, retaining his seat on the Corporation of Trinity College and continuing to attend its meetings regularly as long as his physical strength permitted. Among honours and distinctions which were lavishly and fittingly bestowed upon Dr. Clark by institutions of learning, are the degrees of Doctor of Civil Law, conferred by Trinity College, Toronto: Doctor of Divinity, conferred by Queen’s University, Kingston: and Doctor of Laws conferred by Hobart College, Geneva; his appointment by the University of Michigan to be Baldwin lecturer in 1887, and Slocum lecturer in 1889; his appointment as Honorary Professor of Hobart College, Geneva, in 1888; his election in 1891 as Fellow of The Royal Society of Canada and in 1900 as President of the Society. The Em- pire Club of Toronto owed much to his strong support, and elected him President of the Club in 1905. He took a prominent part in the Synods of the Church and in other representative gatherings of Churchmen and of Litterateurs, where his scholarly treatment of every subject he touched commanded the attention and respect of all. In 1907 he was appointed Honorary Canon of St. Albans Cathedral, Toronto. As a preacher and a public lecturer Professor Clark was very highly esteemed, and his many engagements in these capacities served to make Trinity College favourably known far and near. His sermons were models of forceful argument, logical presentation, and perfect diction, as well as being full of spiritual power. In his class room work and on the public platform he showed not only brilliancy but remarkable versatility, as he did also in his literary productions, which embrace Theology, History and Literature. Of his published works, the best known are “Savonarola,” “Pascal,” “The Paraclete,”’ ‘‘ Witnesses of Christ,” and “The Anglican Reformation.” Important also are his XII THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA translations of Hagenbach’s History of Christian Doctrine, and Heffele’s History of the Councils. His last work was an interpretation of Kings- ley’s Water Babies, an annotated edition of which he published hardly more than a year before his death, embodying in it the substance of a lecture delivered in public by special request more than one hundred times. To do justice to Professor Clark’s personal characteristics—his charm of manner, his keen, refined sense of humour, his lovable disposi- tion, and his generosity of heart—were impossible. He was a gentleman of the courtly old school, whom it was a delight to meet, and with whom it was an inspiration and education to converse. By the accession of such a man to its ranks, The Royal Society obtained the support of a skilled lecturer and one whose interests were ever in the highest planes of literature and life. When he filled the President’s office his personality did much to make the year specially successful, and the meetings of Section II, when he was present, were always interesting, and his contributions to the discussions were most valuable. (3).—Dr. ALEXANDER JOHNSON. In the death of Dr. Alexander Johnson The Royal Society has lost one of its original Fellows, one who had been its president, and had taken a prominent and unflagging interest in its work to the very last. This interest, in fact, has a pathetic association with the circumstances of his death. On the 11th of February, last, he had left Montreal to at- tend a meeting of the council of the Society, and had just stepped from the train on to the platform of the station in Ottawa when he showed symptoms of serious illness. Some of the bystanders came to his assistance and carried him to a drug store in the neighbourhood, but by the time medical aid arrived life was found to be extinct. The external incidents in Dr. Johnson’s life, as in the lives of most academic men, may be very briefly recorded. He was born in Ireland on the first of August, 1830. His higher education was received at Trinity College, Dublin. There in 1852 he won a classical scholarship, but dur- ing his undergraduate course he devoted himself mainly to the mathe- matical sciences. At his examination for the degree of B.A. in 1854 he won a gold medal and a Senior Moderatorship. In 1858 he proceeded to the degree of M.A., to that of LL.D. in 1861. At a later period he was honoured with the degree of D.C.L. from Lennoxville, and with that of LL.D., from the University of New Brunswick. But before these higher degrees were added to his academical honours he had been, in 1857, invited to the chair of Mathematics and ALEXANDER JOHNSON ‘ ' . Le i » *. ~ ¢ M LA i rey } WE ‘ 7 4 \ i i bed: mn wee dr Ai “ A iis : 7 fate iA "A PT ‘ EAU: ; “a a he patie PROCEEDINGS FOR 1913 XIII Natural Philosophy in McGill University, Montreal. The greater part of his life was spent in the work of this chair, though the expansion of the university in later years led to the institution of the department of Experimental Physics, and he was thus enabled to devote his energy more entirely to Pure Mathematics. In addition to his professorship he occupied for many years the position of Dean in the Faculty of Arts and Vice-principal of the University. In these offices the methodical exactness of his mathematical training rendered his services invaluable to his colleagues. But his influence upon the progress of science in Canada was not limited to his professional class-room. Nominated among the original Fellows of The Royal Society, he threw himself into its work with ardent enthusiasm, and no man laboured more zealously for its success. In 1883 he became president of hisown Section, and in 1905 he was honoured with the presidency of the Society itself. His exertions also must be credited, in no small measure, with the movement which led to the in- vitation to Canada of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. In his presidential address he gives a modest account of the service he rendered in bringing about especially the meetings in Toronto and Winnipeg. His intercourse with the great scientific workers whom the Association brought to Canada at its three meetings formed perhaps the most enjoyable episodes of his life. The first of these meetings—the Montreal meeting in 1884—is associated with another service of Dr. Johnson in the promotion of scientific research in Canada, a service which has taken a permanent shape of great value to the mercantile as well as the intellectual interests of the Dominion. To the courtesy of Dr. W. Bell Dawson, Engineer in Chief of the Tidal Survey, I am indebted for the information that the subject of his department was first brought up at the Montreal meeting of the British Association, when Dr. Johnson was appointed chairman of a committee deputed to press the subject on the attention of the Government. As a result the Minister of Marine brought the question before Parliament during several successive sessions, till in 1890 some preliminary investigations were undertaken, and in 1893 the Survey of Tides and Currents became definitely organized. (See First Report on the Survey of Tides and Currents in Canadian Waters, 1894; reprinted 1906). It is but due to Dr. Johnson to add that his devotion to the mathe- matical sciences as his own special field of work did not induce him to favour any narrow ideal of intellectual life. In educational discipline, before any specialisation of study, he insisted on a broad foundation being laid for intellectual power and intellectual sympathy by the variety of culture which the Faculty of Arts represents. (See his brochure XIV THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA entitled The Faculty of Arts—the heart of a university. An address to Convocation, April 30, 1891). It is further due to Dr. Johnson to say that, himself a loyal member of the Anglican Church, he took an active interest in social movements which aim at the promotion of religious life. He was, therefore, always ready with emphatic protest against any teaching which insinuates that scientific discovery tends to weaken the intellectual foundation of faith in the higher nature and destiny of man. This mental attitude is il- lustrated in one of his earliest publications on Science and Religion, which appeared in 1876. The appreciation of Dr. Johnson’s scientific work demands the judgment of a competent specialist, and it is, therefore, a grateful satis- faction to be able to draw upon the generosity of Professor Harkness for this purpose. Dr. Johnson, he says, had the good fortune to be at Trinity College, Dublin, at a time when the mathematical studies of the place were strongly influenced by the views and methods of a brilliant band of Irish scholars, among whom we think at once of Sir William Rowan Hamilton and George Salmon. It was inevitable and desirable that his teaching should be moulded by Salmon’s famous text-books, which have been studied throughout the world with an enthusiasm and appreciation rarely accorded to this class of literature. It was to be expected also that his writings should show signs of Salmon’s influence. That this was the case can be illustrated by his interesting paper on curvature of surfaces (Trans. R. Soc. Canada, 1882). The object of the paper is to apply symmetrical methods of analysis to the proof of familiar standard theorems and to show that this can be so done as to utilize the power of symmetry without sacrificing the elegance asso- ciated with the proofs in Salmon’s Solid Geometry. At all times Dr. Johnson was catholic in his scientific tasks and his range of interest was a wide one. His training on the physical side led to his paper on Newton’s use of the Slit and Lens in forming a pure spectrum; his study of astronomy had made him appreciate the ex- treme importance of determining the solar parallex with the utmost accuracy, as is evidenced by his Report on the Preparation at Montreal for observing the transit of Venus. He devoted from time to time a creat deal of attention to the question of the study of the tides in Cana- dian waters and did valuable service in calling the attention of Cana- dians to the extreme importance from a practical point of view of attending to such matters; but it must not be supposed that he wished to subordinate the purely utilitarian side of such matters to their theor- etical side. On the contrary it was his hope that tidal investigations founded on extensive observations would be justified by the light they would throw on such problems as 1. The determinat’on of the mass of PROCEEDINGS FOR 1913 XV the moon; 2. The rigidity of the earth. 3. The effect of tidal friction in the retardation of the earth’s rotation; 4. A more accurate knowl- edge of the tide-currents over the surface of the ocean; 5. The effect of the wind on the tides from meteorological investigations carried on simultaneously. No one who has studied the work of Lord Kelvin and Sir George Darwin would be disposed to assign a minor part to the study of the theory of tides; or to overlook the part such a study has played in our increasing knowledge of cosmic evolution. Closely allied to his interest in the tides was Dr. Johnson’s anxious wish that greatly increased attention should be paid to coast-sur veys; these surveys would naturally connect with surveys of a more extended character, both geodetic and hydrographic. Any notice of Dr. Johnson’s professional career would be incom- plete were the fact overlooked that he carried the burden of teaching Physics as well as Mathematics for many years and laid the foundation securely at McGill University for the late great developments associated with the MacDonald Physical Laboratory. The importance of this preparatory work was fully recognized by Prof. Ernest Rutherford. That Dr. Johnson’s love for this side of science did not wane with the years was shown by his regular attendance at the meetings of the McGill University Physical Society and by the keenness and enthusiasm with which he watched the rise of the new subject of Radioactivity from the time of the pioneer work of the Curies and Beequerel to its present commanding position. (4).—Rev. GEORGE W. Taybor. The Rev. George W. Taylor, Entomologist, Conchologist, and Mar- ine Biologist, was a man of varied gifts and of untiring energy. He was so little given to parading his very remarkable knowledge of Zool- ogy and other Sciences, including Botany and Geology, that only in- timate friends realized how versatile he was. A warm friend, and the best of comrades in the field, he was undemonstrative and often severe in manner, and created a wrong impression, at times, in the minds of many who met him only occasionally, or in a casual way. He was chosen a Fellow of The Royal Society in 1894,but was rarely able to be present at the annual meeting in Ottawa owing to his resi- dence on the Pacific coast. When last in the capital, in 1908, he had a cordial reception, and saw much of his great friend the lamented Dr- James Fletcher, and of a large circle of Ottawa friends, who were de- lighted to see him once more in their midst. A native of Derby, England, he became connected with the local Museum in that great railway centre and gained a reputation as a XVI THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Conchologist, being highly regarded by such authorities as Mr. John W. Taylor,and Mr. William Nelson of Leeds, while for years he corresponded with Mr. Damon, of Weymouth. He came to Canada in 1882, and taking Orders in the Church of England, engaged in parish work in Victoria, B.C., in Ottawa and finally in Wellington, near Nanaimo, B.C. He had not been long in Canada before he took a prominent place as an Entomologist, and as early as 1883 he was mentioned by Messrs. Brodie and White, in their Toronto Check-List of Insects, as a collector to whom they were much indebted in the preparation of their list. The following year (1884) the late Dr. Fletcher on behalf of Mr. Taylor, made a gift of a fine series of Diurnal Lepidoptera to the En- tomological Society of Ontario at its annual meeting in London, Ont. Of that Society Mr. Taylor became an active and esteemed member and his first paper appeared in the Annals of the Society (1884) with the title “ Notes on the Entomology of Vancouver Island.” To the Can- adian Entomologist (Vols. 35 to 42) he contributed no less than twenty papers, the last in March 1910 on some new species of Mesoleuca. He was a tireless rambler, and collected without cessation. His “Notes for April in Vancouver Island” published in the “Ottawa Nat- uralist,” 1898, illustrate his activity, for he told of forty species of Coleoptera, secured in an afternoon walk, besides Cicadas and speci- mens of Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera and Orthoptera, some of them rare, There never was a more unwearied worker, and hardly did a day pass on which he did not collect specimens illustrating some of his favourite studies, nor was any exertion too great in the effort to obtain unusual specimens. With the late Dr. Fletcher, Professor Macoun, Mr. Tolmie and others, he climbed to the summit of Mount Finlayson, Vancouver Island, in order to secure the rare Chionabas gigas, Butler. It seemed to him that the Micro-Lepidoptera offered a field for original work, and he devoted himself to the Geometridæ, specially the two vast genera (Æupithecia and Mesoleuca). So zealous and suc- cessful was he that his collection has been pronounced the finest extant, and it has been recently purchased by a leading specialist in the United States, to the loss of the Dominion. Eminent entomologists on this continent, and in Britain, France, Germany and other countries, were in constant correspondence with him for he had won for himself a distinguished place as an authority. As early as 1887 he was appointed Honorary Entomologist for British Columbia, by the Provincial Government. Life in the woods always had a great charm for him and for many years he resided on a lonely but beautiful spot at the north end of Gabriola Island, not far from Departure Bay, and was able to carry on dredging in the prolific waters adjacent, and do much shore collecting. GEORGE W. TAYLOIR PROCEEDINGS FOR 1913 XVII He accumulated a vast series of specimens of marine Mollusca, and his fine collection of Patella, including not only Pacific and Atlantic species, but examples from all parts of the world, is probably the best ever made by any naturalist, and worthy of a place in a national collection.* The Anatomy and Embryology of the animals he thus assiduously collected, it was not possible for him to master, nor had he the technical training necessary, but he was a born observer and of their ecology and habits he had a rare knowledge. Those privileged to have his com- panionship on dredging trips will not readily forget his scientific devo- tion. From daylight until long after dark, Mr. Taylor would continue his examination of fishes and Invertebrates brought up on the deck of a Government steamer, in rich profusion, from the deep marine areas, extending from Victoria to Portland Canal on the Alaska boundary. His unusual mastery of Marine Zoology enabled him to identify, without difficulty, a vast proportion of the hosts of Molluscs, Echinoderms, Zoophytes, Tunicates, etc., secured on trips on the Dominion cruisers “Kestrel,” “Georgia,” “Restless” and “ Alcedo.” Long after night had set in he would work on deck, aided by the light of a ship’s lantern, sorting out, naming, and preserving specimens. On the Queen Charlotte Islands, at Port Simpson, Prince Rupert Quatsino Sound, Alert Bay, and numberless other rich localities, he made collections which are now in the laboratories of the Dominion Biological Station, Departure Bay. . The foundation of this station in 1908 realized an ambition long cherished by him, and after his appointment most appropriately, to the Curatorship of the station by the Biological Board, he had just pride in welcoming at its portals leading Biologists, amongst others, President David Starr Jordan, Dr. Barton Evermann, Professor C. H. Gilbert, and others; but the acme was reached, when a large party of distinguished European Scientists visited the station in September 1909, and after being entertained at luncheon in the buildings, spent a couple of days investigating the waters and shores near the station. This party consisted of members of the British Association for the Ad- vancement of Science, who made the journey from Winnipeg and were conveyed in three Government cruisers from Vancouver to Departure Bay. The party included Professor Starling, F.R.S., University Col- lege, London, England; Professor Stanley Gardiner, F.R.S., University of Cambridge; Dr. C. L. Boulanger, British Museum; Professor Junger- sen, University of Copenhagen; Professor Patten, University of Sheffield *His collection of Pacific shells, with that of Dr. C. F. Newcombe, he regarded as ‘‘nearly perfecc as to native species,” and his collection of land and fresh water shells, with those of Hon. Judge Latchford and Mr. Hanham, he spoke of as ‘most complete.”’—(Ott. Nat. Vol. 8, 1895, p. 149.) XVIII THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Professor Harold Wager, F.R.S., University of Leeds; and Professor A. B. Macallum, F.R.S., University of Toronto, and they were ac- companied by Sir Mackenzie Bowell, Dr. G. C. Cossar and the mayor of Nanaimo and others. The Dominion Government appointed him, by Order in Council, a member of the British Columbia Fisheries’ Commission, and in the Commission’s report, 1908, he gave a list of no less than thirty species of edible Mollusca on our Pacific Coast, of which three species only are used for food. While he thoroughly studied the shell-fish of British Columbia, he also devoted much attention to the Pacific Crustacea, and his “Preliminary List of twenty-nine species of British Columbia Decapod Crustaceans” has just been issued by the Dominion Govern- ment (in vol. 3, Contributions to Canadian Biology). A list of small shore-fishes, chiefly Cottoids, so abundant on the British Columbia coast, was nearly completed before his last illness. The list includes many new forms, of which one named A semichthys Taylori, has been described in a paper recently published by Professor C. H. Gilbert, Leland-Stan- ford University, who expressed the pleasure he had “in naming this interesting specimen for its discoverer, Rev. Geo. W. Taylor, Nanaimo, B.C.” The number of species of fishes, molluscs, and insects, named after him by various eminent authorities, sufficiently indicates the orig- inality and zeal which characterized his work. The Mollusca, in spite of his excellent work in Entomology and other fields, held a kind of pre-eminence in his mind. His valuable list of Pacific Marine Mol- lusca, covering eighty pages of this Society’s Transactions (1895) is of great and permanent value; but it is impossible, in this place, to make even the most cursory reference to his fruitful labours in the field of Conchology from the time of his early papers in the ‘Nautilus,’ until his last paper in the “Contributions to Canadian Biology.” As evidence of his assiduity, it may be pointed out that he reported 160 species of land and fresh water shells in Canada up to 1892, (includ- ing a Vancouver Island list and an Ottawa Valley list), but he had in- creased the list to 244 species when he published his “ Preliminary Check-List” (June, 1892), which embraced 148 fresh-water shells and 96 land shells and he still further enlarged it to 250 species, in his re- markably able review, entitled “The Present Condition of Canadian Conchology”’ (Ott. Nat. 1895). This able paper summarizes the work done in regard to the Marine shell-fishes of the Atlantic and Pacific Coasts, and of the land and fresh- water shells of the interior of the Dominion, and includes a very im- portant bibliography. The total number of species of Canadian Marine Mollusca he gave as no less than 524, but as 32 species occur on both coasts, the actual number recorded was 492. A few months later, in PROCEEDINGS FOR 1913 XIX December 1895, he published an article on “The Land and Fresh Water Shells of Alberta,” and named 44 species; but he continued to add to the list, year by year, and occasionally discovered new species, such as the two small Pacific land shells Punctum Clappii and Pristiloma Taylori, named by Dr. Pilsbry (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1899). Any attempt to summarize Mr. Taylor’s labours in various scientific fields is impossible in this place. As already stated he ranked high as an Entomologist, and as an Conchologist, and had he been spared, would have undoubtedly risen to high rank as a Marine Biologist; but his knowledge of Botany, and of Geology, was extensive, and his mathe- matical abilities were such that had he gone from Derby Grammar School to the University of Cambridge, as in early life was intended, he could not have failed to have won distinction in the Mathematical Tripos. The advancement of Science was one of his supreme ambitions and he did his share, perhaps more than his share, in that onerous task. To the last, his ambition continued, and he was active in the found- ing of a “British Columbia Academy of Science,” not long before his final illness. A stroke of paralysis weakened him; but almost up to the last he would drag himself from his home in the forest, a quarter of a mile away, down to the Biological Station on the shore of Departure Bay, to watch the progress of the work. Professor Playfair McMurrich, of Toronto, and other members of the scientific staff, tried to dissuade him from the strain; but he literally died in harness, and doing so could not have more completely fulfilled his own chief desire. (5).—Dr. Grorce U. Hay. Dr. George Upham Hay, who has been a Fellow of this Society since 1894, died suddenly at his home in St. John on the 23rd of April, last. He was a prominent citizen and a well known educator. The late Dr. Hay was born in Norton, King’s County, New Bruns- wick, and was a son of William and Eliza Hay. Through his father he was of Scotch descent, and on his mother’s side was of “United Empire” stock. He was educated in the public schools of New Bruns- wick and after teaching for several years took a special course in Liter- ature and Natural Science at Cornell University. Returning to St. John he was engaged for several years in Jour- nalism, working on the Daily News, first as a reporter and afterward as night editor. He resumed teaching in this city in 1873 and for thirty- four years was a teacher in the public schools. During the last ten years in the teaching profession he was connected with the Victoria XX THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA and the Girls’ High School, the high character and efficiency of which he maintained and increased. He also taught in the Albert School and in 1881 was made English master of the Grammar School. When Mrs. Carr (afterward Mrs. deSoyres) resigned the principalship of the Girls’ High School, he became principal, when however the School Board decided to amalgamate the Girls’ and Boys’ High Schools, Dr. Hay re- signed from the teaching staff and retired from the profession in 1897. In 1876 Dr. Hay had married Frances Annetta Hartt, daughter of the late Jarvis W. Hartt, and sister of the late Prof. Charles F. Hartt, one of the founders of the Natural History Society of New Brunswick, and later known as an eminent geologist in the United States and Brazil. Dr. Hay’s widow survives him. Dr. Hay’s activities were by no means confined to his work in teach- ing: he was a member of the Provincial Teacher’s Institute of New Brunswick from its formation, contributing papers to its meetings and otherwise taking an active part in its proceedings. He also took a pro- minent part in organizing the Dominion Educational Association, in which he was on the first board of Directors. He also served on the Dominion History Committee on Manuscripts from 1894 to 1896. In 1886 he was chosen editor of the New Brunswick Journal of Education, with Inspector Carter as associate editor. At the end of a year this publication was merged into the Educational Review, with Dr. A. H. Mackay as editor for Nova Scotia, and Principal Anderson editor for Prince Edward Island. Dr. Hay’s retirement from the teach- ing profession thus did not diminish his interest in educational matters, for he continued the publication of the Educational Review, and gave full attention to the editorial department, increasing the scope and pur- pose of the magazine. He had entire control of its business and editorial management from the date of its foundation in 1887, and devoted him- self completely to it from 1897. He may be said to have been the founder of Educational Journalism in the Maritime provinces. In addition to his work on the Journal he entered the literary field with several writings of historical import; in 1898 he began the publica- tion of a series of quarterly leaflets on “Canadian History”, which he continued for a number of years. Among other writings may be men- tioned a School History of Canada (used in the New Brunswick schools), a small history of Canada, with several sketches of incidents in Canadian history. These brought him recognition in the literary field; but it is in connection with the study of the Natural History of his own province of New Brunswick that he is best known, and in this also his work is of permanent value. In the Botany of New Brunswick he has long been considered an authority and has left valuable records, notably the lists and notes on various orders and classes of plants which he has con- GEORGE U. HAY = are i 1e : "« # 0) { ae d ‘ . 4 d ve f 7 ’ L hes t L L de 8 sf yas aan, ear ye rae ey mis me | sh Pict, hee yet ay ts à PROCEEDINGS FOR 1913 XXI tributed to the publications of the Natural History Society of New Brunswick. These have been published chiefly in the Bulletin of that association. The plant collections of this Society have been greatly enriched by his large contributions of prepared specimens, and the orderly arrangement of the Herbarium is due to his labours and super- vision. He has also prepared a list of New Brunswick plants for a work on Botany to be published by the Dominion government. Dr. Hay’s death will leave void an important post in the Natural History Society of New Brunswick, where he has filled many offices and for years has been a most active and zealous member; for several years he ‘was President and at the time of his death was one of the Vice-Presi- dents of the Society. In earlier years he was Corresponding Secretary (1884-8) and in later years has taken the burden of arranging the bus- iness for the monthly meetings, giving special attention to the lectures and articles to be read. Thus from the reorganization of the Society in the early eighties until his death, he was untiring in promoting its objects. Since his election to a Fellowship of the Royal Society of Canada in 1894 Dr. Hay has given regular attendance at its meetings. In 1900 he was chosen Secretary of his Section (IV), and in 1904 was advanced to the presidency of that section. Dr. Hay held the degree of Bachelor of Philosophy from the Ilh- nois Wesleyan University, and degrees of Master of Arts and Doctor of Philosophy (honoris causa) from Acadia University in Nova Scotia, and was a member of several learned societies. He was a member of the New England Botanical Club of Boston, and has twice been president of the Summer School of Science of the Atlantic provinces of Canada. Dr. Hay has long been an active member of the board of trustees of the Germain Street Baptist Church in St. John, a member of the Board of School trustees of that city and a commissioner of Rock wood Park. Dr. Hay was well worthy of the honours showered upon him and his loss to the community will be all the more felt on that account. (6).—JosEPH-EpMoNnpD Roy. A la séance de la collation des diplômes de Laval, à Québec, en juin dernier, honorable M. Thomas Chapais a rendu compte des travaux et prononcé l’éloge de feu Joseph-Edmond Roy qui fut l’un des plus estimés professeurs de cette Université, comme il fut l’un des membres les plus actifs et l’un des présidents les plus distingués de la Société Royale. M. Chapais fut l’ami d'enfance de Joseph-Edmond Roy; ils ont marché côte à côte dans la carrière des lettres où ils ont su cueillir, l’un XXII THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA et l’autre, de nombreux lauriers. Nous n’avons done pas cru mieux faire, pour honorer la mémoire de notre collégue défunt, que de prier M. Chapais de faire, pour les comptes-rendus de notre Société, une courte notice de son discours de Laval:— En m’inclinant, il n’y a pas deux mois encore, devant la tombe où M. Joseph-Edmond Roy allait attendre son dernier réveil, je voyais y des- cendre avec lui trente-six ans de relations amicales et de constants rap- ports intellectuels. Et les réminiscences lointaines, les souvenirs vivaces accouraient en foule, assiégeaient mon esprit et remuaient mon cœur. Ces impressions, je les ressens de nouveau en ce moment où j’essaie’ de rappeler en quelques mots ce qu’il a été et quelle fut son œuvre. Et il me faut en refouler le flot tumultueux pour savoir me circonscrire tel qu’il est convenable dans une notice comme celle-ci. Ce qu’il a été! En revenant de ses funérailles, il y a quelques se- maines, ses amis se fécilitaient avec une joie mélancolique de l’extraor- dinaire et magnifique concours qui les avait signalées. Et ils voyaient avec raison un pur hommage, un témoignage sincère et désintéressé rendu à la valeur personnelle, au talent, à l’intelligence, au travail de la pensée, au labeur et aux productions de l’esprit. En effet, ce n’était pas un personnage officiel que l’on escortait au lieu du repos. Joseph- Edmond Roy n'avait occupé aucune de ces grandes fonctions publiques qui, par elles-mêmes, mettent un homme en pleine lumière et le désignent à l’attention de la foule. Brièvement, voici quel était le résumé de sa carrière. Né à Notre-Dame de Lévis, en 1858, après d’excellentes études au séminaire de Québec et à l’Université Laval, suivant l’exemple pater- nel il avait embrassé la profession notariale. Admis à la pratiquer en 1880, il avait paisiblement instrumenté dans sa ville natale pendant un quart de siècle, essayant vainement à trois reprises, —en 1883, en 1886, et en 1896,—de prendre pied dans la politique, et n’atteignant en fait d’honneurs civiques que les fonctions honorables de conseiller et de maire dans la sphère modeste de l’administration lévisienne. Entre temps, il avait usé quelques plumes à faire du journalisme impersonnel et igno- ré. Plus tard, ses confrères lui avaient confié la tâche ardue de rédiger une revue destinée à un public spécial, la Revue du Notariat. Elu mem- bre de la Société Royale en 1891, il en était devenu président en 1908; et c'était là assurément, dans l’ordre littéraire, une distinction flatteuse. Mais presque toute sa vie s'était écoulée dans son étude silencieuse, au milieu de ses dossiers et de ses livres. Durant ces dernières années seu- lement, après quelques hésitations, il avait quitté ce milieu familier pour accepter un emploi d’archiviste-adjoint dans le bureau des archives cana- diennes à Ottawa, où la maladie et la mort étaient venues prématuré- ment le surprendre. Et c'était tout. Je me trompe, ce n’était pas tout. Durant trente ans, cet homme JOSEPH-EDMOND ROY PROCEEDINGS FOR 1913 XXIII avait fourni un labeur immense; avait accumulé des trésors d’érudition; avait projeté des clartés nouvelles sur la vie de nos ancêtres et sur les époques primitives de notre histoire; avait conçu et édifié des œuvres fortes et substantielles, où la science des faits s’alliait au charme du style; avait contribué à donner parmi nous aux études historiques une puissan- te impulsion. On lui devait ces deux ouvrages d’une valeur capitale, l'Histoire du Notariat au Canada, et l'Histoire de la Seigneurie de Lauzon, la première en quatre volumes, la seconde en cinq volumes, qu’un tome posthume viendra compléter bientôt, nous en avons l'espoir. Et outre ces livres considérables, il laissait encore je ne sais combien de savoureu- ses monographies, l'Ordre de Malte en Amérique, Voyages au pays de Tadoussac, le Premier colon de Lévis, Guillaume Couture, Claude de Ber- men, sieur de la Martinière, le Baron de la Hontan, Lettres du Père Du- plessis, Bacqueville de la Potherie, et d’autres encore, sans compter une foules d’articles, d’études et de conférences, éparpillés dans nos journaux et nos revues. On reste stupéfait lorsque l’on considère la prodigieuse somme de travail accompli par ce cerveau fécond et par cette infati- gable plume. Arrétons-nous un instant devant ses deux œuvres majeures. L’ His- toire du Notariat,—nous l’affirmons aux profanes qui seraient tentés d’y voir une aride et indigeste étude technique, —est de nature à intéresser ceux-là même qui ne peuvent réclamer le titre antique de tabellions, conféré jadis aux membres de la profession notariale. Par un procédé qui lui est familier, et que l’on retrouve à chaque étape de son œuvre si vaste, l’auteur élargit son cadre, et y fait entrer, comme par une an- nexion toute naturelle, une foule de sujets qui n'auraient pas semblé d’abord pouvoir y trouver place. On voit des notaires jouer un rôle honorable, dès les premières pages de nos annales. Ils ont été secré- taires, greffiers des gouverneurs et des conseils. Ils ont rempli des fonc- tions de confiance. Ils se sont trouvés mêlés intimement aux dévelop- pements et à la vie sociale de la colonie naissante. Et cela permet à M. Roy de nous tracer des tableaux, de nous rappeler des souvenirs, d’é- voquer à nos yeux des figures historiques, de reconstituer pour nous un passé souvent mal connu, tout en ne s’écartant pas,—ou en s’écartant si peu, —de son sujet : le notariat et les notaires. Heureuse profession! Plus heureuse que sa sœur, pourtant plus ambitieuse, du barreau. Car celle-là est étroitement liée à notre vieille et glorieuse histoire tandis que celle-ci en fut longtemps bannie par un propos outrageusement délibéré, comme l’atteste une solennelle déclaration du Conseil Souverain de Qué- bec, où l’on peut lire en toutes lettres : “il n’y a point d’avocat et de pro- cureurs en ce pays, et il n’est pas à propos d’y en établir.” Heureuse surtout, ajouterons-nous, notre profession notariale d’avoir eu dans son sein un membre éminent, doué du don d’historien, et capable, en écri- Proc OLIS 13: XXIV , THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA vant ses fastes, d’en faire une partie intégrante des annales mémes de la patrie. L’ Histoire de la Seigneurie de Lauzon réserve au lecteur une jouis- sance intellectuelle du méme ordre, mais peut-étre plus accentuée en- core. La Seigneurie de Lauzon, c’est Lévis et ses alentours; et Lévis, nous l’avons vu, fut le berceau de l'écrivain. C’est donc avec une pré- dilection, avec une joie, avec une ferveur spéciale qu’il aborda ce sujet et qu’il écrivit ce livre. Pour celui qui s'intéresse à notre histoire, et, — afin de préciser notre pensée en insistant sur une nuance,—pour celui surtout qui s'intéresse non seulement à l’histoire de notre pays mais à l’histoire de notre peuple, cette œuvre est pleine d’un irrésistible attrait. Des esprits critiques me diront peut-être qu’elle est d’une extraordinaire amplitude, que ses proportions sont bien vastes, qu’elle s’incorpore et s’approprie une pléthore de matériaux, qu’elle nous promène à travers une trop opulente végétation documentaire, et une efflorescence d’éru- dition trop touffue. Sans vouloir m’attarder à discuter ces réserves, je m’empresserai de déclarer que, même en consentant quelques admis- sions, l'Histoire de la Seigneurie de Lauzon est la manifestation d’une merveilleuse capacité de travail, d’une science profonde, d’un rare ta- lent d'écrivain, et qu’elle mérite le premier rang parmi nos grandes mo- nographies historiques. Avec quel charme nous en parcourions les chapitres, à mesure que se succédaient les volumes. On y voit l’éclo- sion d’une de ces cellules nationales dont la lente et progressive agglo- mération a constitué notre peuple. On y voit naître, grandir, s’accroi- tre, un de ces établissements seigneuriaux qui ont servi de base à nos organisations paroissiales, et d’assises à tout notre développement éco- nomique et social durant notre ancien régime. Débuts pénibles de notre œuvre de défrichement et de colonisation, construction de moulins, construction d’églises, constitution de patrimoines, ouvertures des voie publiques, premiers essais d'industrie, coutumes et traditions, mœurs familiales et populaires; tout est là; et tout ce passé de notre race, par lequel nous avons une physionomie, une force, et un nom couronné d’hon- neur et de prestige, revit à nos yeux émus et nous parle de persévérance, de fidélité et de courageux espoir. Veut-on savoir quelle fut l’idée-mère de ce bel ouvrage? Qu’on lise la magnifique préface qui lui sert de péristyle et qui restera l’un des mor- ceaux les plus achevés qu’ait écrits M. Roy. ‘Le simple récit de la vie intime de quelques paroisses perdues au fond du nouveau monde dit-il, ne peut intéresser le grand public. J’ai confiance, cependant, d’avoir fait un travail utile, l’œuvre de celui qui fouille le sol, déblaye le terrain et apporte une pierre à l’édifice commun. Charlevoix, Garneau, Fer- land, Bibaud ont été les ouvriers de la première heure. Ils ont pourvu au plus pressé, ils ont apporté les matériaux, creusé de larges fondations PROCEEDINGS FOR 1913 XXV et construit un vaste édifice sur des assises solides.... Les grands traits étaient dessinés. Il restait à reconstituer la vie de ces masses, de cette collectivité de colons dont on ne parle nulle part et dont pourtant l’en- durance et le dévouement avaient donné un monde à la France. Il fallait faire connaître comment avaient vécu, pensé, agi, ces obscurs. Quels ressorts, quelle influence les avaient fait se mouvoir? Des cher- cheurs consciencieux et patients ont entrepris cette tâche. Ils se sont faits pour ainsi dire les contemporains de ces disparus, ils ont vécu au milieu d’eux, dans les bois, dans les champs, au village, ils les ont suivis à travers les contrées inconnues dont ils devenaient les découvreurs. Ils se sont pénétrés de leurs idées et de leurs sentiments.. Combien d’ignorés ont été ainsi sauvés de l’oubli! Que de noms passeront à la postérité grâce à une mention qui en aura été rapidement faite! Que de collaborateurs importants laissés dans l’ombre ont été replacés sur la scène du monde! Que d’efforts inconnus, méconnus même, ont été glo- rifiés!... Le meilleur moyen de saisir sur le vif la physionomie des temps primitifs, de pénétrer dans leurs mœurs, leur idées, leurs coutumes, leurs croyances, c’est de les étudier chez un groupe quelconque d’indi- vidus organisés et vivant sur un coin de terre, à la lumière des documents manuscrits de l’époque, papier de familles, archive de paroisses, greffes de notaires, dossiers des tribunaux. C’est ainsi que l’on pourra rétablir la chronique primitive du Canada sur sa véritable base et lui restituer le caractère original et pittoresque qui lui est propre.” Dans ces lignes, l’auteur nous révèle toute l'inspiration de son œuvre; il nous expose son objectif et sa méthode; il nous laisse entendre quel est le genre d’histoire qu’il préfère, sans doute parce qu’il le pratique en maître. Et c’est avec une satisfaction non dissimulée qu’il nous cite cette parole de M. Rameau. ‘La vieille histoire solennelle, académique, philosophique, a son utilité et son mérite, mais elle est insuffisante sur l’étude des grands personnages et des intrigues qui s’agitent autour d’eux.”’ L’ceuvre de M. Roy, qui, elle aussi, bien qu’elle n’appartient pas au genre qu’on est convenu d’appeler la “grande histoire”, y confine par un apport constant de faits, de constatations, de démonstrations et d’épisodes qui donnent à ces volumes une valeur inappréciable. D’ail- leurs, ces distinctions de genres ne sont ni absolues, ni inflexibles. Et nous savons tel chapitre de la Seigneurie de Lauzon—prenons par ex- emple, celui où il est question du siège de Québec,—dans lequel l’auteur s’éléve sans effort au ton, à l’allure et au style de “la grande histoire.”’ C’est qu’il avait le double don sans lequel il n’y a pas d’historien véritable: la science et imagination. Oui l’imagination. La science, sl’érudition toute seule,ne font que des collectionneurs de faits et de XXVI THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA dates. C’est l’imagination qui met en œuvre, qui rassemble et dispose, qui colore et anime, qui insuffle une vie nouvelle aux personnages cou- chés dans le tombeau, et qui redonne au passé la figure et l’accent qu’il avait eus un jour avant d’être obscurci par les ombres du temps. Cette faculté que rien ne remplace, M. Roy la possédait sans conteste, et c’est ce qui rend si attachantse ses monographies historiques. Nous avons mentionné plus haut ses relations avec la Société Roya- le. Dans une notice destinée aux Mémoires et Comptes-rendus de cel- le-ci, il convient que nous rappellions combien fut active la carrièré aca- démique de notre regretté collègue. Il avait été élu membre de cette association en 1891, et depuis cette date, il n’a pas cessé de participer à ses travaux. Les Mémoires de notre Société contiennent plusieurs de ses études les plus importantes. Dans François Bissot, Sieur de la Rivière, il lui donnait les prémisses de son grand ouvrage sur la Seigneu- rie de Lauzon. Dans le Baron de la Hontan il lui faisait hommage de la plus com- plète, de la plus émérité monographie qui ait peut-être été publiée sur la vie, les aventures et les écrits de cet imaginatif et remuant gascon. Dans son essai sur Charlevoix, il nous faisait connaître comme personne ne l’avait fait auparavant, la biographie de cet écrivain et une foule de détails sur les années que l’on pourrait appeler préparatoires aux œuvres historiques considérables qui ont fondé la réputation du célèbre Jésuite. Cette notice s’allongerait indûment si nous faisions une revue de tous les travaux dont la Société Royale est redevable à M. Roy. Son éclatant mérite et ses labeurs féconds le désignaient aux suf- frages de cette association pour les plus hautes fonctions dont elle puisse disposer. Au mois de mai 1908, Mr. Roy était élu président de la Socié- té Royale. Et, en cette qualité, au mois de juillet suivant, il organisait une session spéciale tenue 4 Québec, lors des fétes mémorables du troi- siéme centenaire avec unéclat dont le public d’élite présent à cette fête intellectuelle a conservé un trés vivace souvenir. Le discours prononcé par M. Roy à cette occasion, très soigné de fond et de forme, était digne de cette circonstance solennelle. L’année suivante, celui qu’il prononçait encore, comme président, à notre session ordinaire, n’était pas moins remarquable. M. Roy avait choisi pour su- jet la question de propriété littéraire et il le traitait avec une maîtrise et une abondance d’informations admirables. En voilà suffisamment pour indiquer le rôle utile et brillant joué par M. Joseph-Edmond Roy, comme membre de la Société Royale. Il nous faut terminer cette rapide esquisse. Nous espérons avoir réussi à montrer combien fut laborieuse et féconde la carrière de notre collègue défunt. Mais il manquerait à la physionomie que nous avons voulu reproduire un trait essentiel, si nous ne rappelions ce que nous PROCEEDINGS FOR 1913 XXVII avons déjà indiqué, que chez M. Roy le patriote inspirait l’historien. Patriote, il l’était de toute son âme. Il aimait son pays et sa race, et il n’était pas de ceux,—on en rencontre parmi nous,—qui se laissent prendre au goût trop accentué de l’exotisme, et pour qui les cieux étran- gers ont plus d’attraits que les rives natales. Il aurait pu inscrire au frontispice et son œuvre ces vers du poète: A tout préférons la Patrie, Avant tout soyons Canadiens. La patrie canadienne, il lui rendait un culte pieux et fidèle, comme l’atteste son ardeur inlassable à retracer ses origines, à redire ses épreu- ves et ses gloires. Ajoutons que, dans la grande patrie, sa prédilection allait vers sa petite patrie, vers cette ville de Lévis dont les merveilleux horizons avaient ravi ses premiers regards, vers le sol natal qui avait conservé pour lui jusqu’au dernier jour son charme évocateur et toute sa puis- sance d'attraction mystérieuse. Que dis-je! la terre sacrée ot Dieu avait naguère mis son berceau, le domaine ancestral, le foyer des aïeux, il les aimait si passionnément que, déjà touché au front par le doigt glacé de la mort, il voulut partir, par un effort surhumain, franchir une dis- tance immense, dominer la douleur et faire reculer le trépas, pour venir expirer aux lieux que son enfance avait chéris et où s'était épanouie sa jeunesse. L’Hotel-Dieu de Lévis s’éléve sur le site de la vieille maison de son aieul maternel, demeure aimée dont il écrivait, lorsque les bonnes sceurs hospitalières l’acquirent pour leur œuvre de miséricorde : “‘Des pauvres des vieillards et des malades l’habiteront désormais. Je souhaite très sincèrement bon séjour à ses nouveaux maîtres. Je souhaite, avec le poète, que les ombrages deviennent pour eux encore plus frais, les gazons plus verts, les fruits plus savoureux, les plates-bandes plus éclatantes et plus parfumées. Je souhaite surtout qu’ils se prennent d’affection pour le vieux logis transformé en asile de charité. On dit quelquefois que les vieillards reviennent aux goûts et aux habitudes de leur en- fance. Qui sait si, un jour, après avoir traversé les orages de la vie, nous ne viendrons pas à notre tour, Traînant Vaile et tirant le pied, demander la paix et la tranquilité à cette demeure transformée enhô- pital.” Etait-ce un pressentiment qui dictait ces lignes touchantes à notre pauvre ami? Oui, il est venu demander la paix à la vieille demeure transformée. Mais c'était la paix suprême dans laquelle on entre par le portail de la mort. Et il y entra, dans cette paix, avec le calme es- poir d’un croyant chez qui “les orages de la vie” n’ont pas déraciné la foi au Christ Sauveur. XXVIII THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Depuis moins de deux mois, il repose sous les ombrages funéraires de Mont-Marie. Et déjà sa renommée est consacrée par le suffrage de ses pairs, et par l’universel éloge de notre classe intellectuelle. Il incom- bait à la Société Royale de proclamer, par mon humble intermédiaire, que Joseph-Edmond Roy fut l’un de ses membres les plus distingués, et que sa mort prématurée est pour elle un deuil trés profond et une perte trés cruelle. V.—PuRCHASE OF A LARGE TELESCOPE FOR THE DOMINION OBSERVATORY. Pursuant to the direction of the Society, the Government was memorialized on the desirability of purchasing a large telescope for the Dominion Astronomical Observatory. The Memorial presented is printed herewith. The Honourable the Prime Minister replied that the Memorial would have the careful and earnest consideration of the Government, and it has since been decided to make the purchase. The telescope is to have a mirror not less than 60 inches in diam- eter, and as much larger as possible, consistent with practicability of construction, coupled with consideration of cost. The minimum size as above is estimated to cost $50,000.00, exclusive of the building which would have to be erected for it. Authorization has been given to make preliminary enquiries as to best form of construction of the telescope. Mr. Plaskett has already visited a number of observatories and instrument makers in the United States in this regard, and will later continue his inquiries in Europe. Investigations are also under way to determine the best place in Canada, having regard to atmospheric conditions, to instal the instrument so that the best results may be obtained from its use. Ottawa, June 20, 1912. To His RoyAL HIGHNESS THE GOVERNOR GENERAL IN COUNCIL: — The Royal Society of Canada has the honour to bring before the notice of Your Royal Highness the work now being carried on at the Dominion Astronomical Observatory, under the direction of Dr. W. F. King, C.M.G. Chief Astronomer, and to suggest a plan whereby the Observatory can take part in a timely and valuable scientific investiga- tion and thus add to its present usefulness. Although only a short time established the Dominion Observatory has already achieved, in all its departments, an enviable reputation in PROCEEDINGS FOR 1913 XXIX the scientific world. We would beg to be allowed, however, to direct your attention especially to the Astrophysical Division, which, with the smallest telescope employed regularly in this work, has obtained surprising and valuable results in the measurement of the velocities of stars in the line of sight, and in the determination of the orbits of binary systems. The standing already obtained abroad by our National Observatory has been very distinctly shown by the appointment of a member of its staff, Mr. Plaskett, on three important international committees in company with the most distinguished astronomers in the world. These committees are, a Committee on the Classification of Stellar Spectra, a Committee on the Spectroscopic Determination of the Solar Rotation and a Committee on Co-operation in the Measurement of Stellar Radial Velocities. The last mentioned, composed of Directors of the leading observatories in England, Germany and America, has under considera- tion a plan for co-operation in obtaining the radial velocities of all stars brighter than the sixth magnitude. On this work, which is probably the most important and most urgent in modern astronomical research, will finally depend our knowledge of the structure, constitution and motions of the Universe. Unfortunately, however, only two observa- tories, and these only to a limited extent are able to undertake this work which is of sufficient magnitude to require many years’ observa- tions at several institutions. In order that this research may be successfully undertaken a large telescope, one of four or five times the aperture of the small one at pres- ent in use, will be needed. A reflecting telescope possesses many ad- vantages for investigating radial velocities and has the further impor- tant advantage of costing less than a quarter the amount required fora refractor of the same aperture. For a comparatively moderate outlay therefore, a reflecting telescope can be constructed and installed com- plete. Canada would then have the largest telescope in existence and would be able to take probably the greatest share in the important work already referred to. There need be no fear of results when the record already achieved by the present staff with their very modest equipment is considered and the addition of one or two observers would enable them to keep the new instrument in active and efficient operation. The Royal Society of Canada, after careful consideration of the matter, would respectfully beg leave to recommend the installation of a large reflecting telescope for carrying on this important and timely work at the Dominion Observatory. or at some branch thereof to be established should climatic and other conditions warrant. The pos- session of such an instrument would enable our country to take a prom- inent part in this co-operation between the observatories of which XXX THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA mention has been made, and would convince the world that Canada is energetic and progressive in matters which appertain to the acquire- ment of scientific knowledge. And your memorialists nue pray that Your Royal Highness will be pleased to take this important matter into your favourable consider- ation. (Sap.) W. D. LeSueur, President. VI. THE ESTABLISHMENT OF RESEARCH STATIONS. A memorial was sent to the Government on the 17th of October, 1912, setting forth the views of the Society on the desirability of estab- lishing research stations, provided with wireless telegraphic apparatus, throughout the northern parts of Canada. A copy of the memorial follows. The Prime Minister replied stating that the memorial will have the careful and earnest consideration of the Government at an early date. No further progress has been reported. The chief obstacle to this scheme is probably the cost, as to which there are widely varying estimates. Ottawa, Oct. 17, 4012 To His RoyAz HIGHNESS THE GOVERNOR GENERAL IN COUNCIL, In view of the rapid development and utilization of natural re- sources which is now taking place throughout the accessible parts of Canada, and the desirability of preparing for the advance of settlement into those more remote regions which as yet have been but partially explored, the Council of The Royal Society of Canada has the honour, in accordance with a resolution adopted by the Society at their annual meeting at Ottawa in May last, to recommend the establishment and equipment by the Dominion Government of a chain of scientific research stations provided with wireless telegraphic apparatus throughout the northern parts of Canada, and more particularly in the region extending from Mackenzie River eastward to Hudson Bay, and between the Saskatchewan River and the Arctic Ocean. Such explorations as have been made in this region have indicated rich natural resources, minerals, fish, fur-bearing animals and timber. There are many water powers, and long stretches of navigable rivers and lakes, The exploring expeditions however have usually passed along the water communications only, and in a hurried manner, for which reason the information procured by them is fragmentary, and not sufficiently PROCEEDINGS OF 1913 XXXI definite and precise to be of much service to those who would utilize the resources. At the same time, settlement is discouraged by the very prevalent idea that the country is too barren in an agricultural sense to support a population, although it is the belief of those best informed that there are great agricultural possibilities. Moreover, a very serious deterrent to enterprise, either individual or associated, is the want of facilities for communicating with the out- side world. The utility of the proposed research stations in regard to the fore- going is evident. At each station there should be a sufficient staff of men specially trained at our Universities or Colleges in science and agriculture whose duty it would be to explore within a radius of fifty or one hundred miles from the station, making a thorough investigation as to the character of the soil, and the climatic conditions in respect to agriculture, e.g., the temperature, precipitation, number of hours of sunshine, and as to the suitability of the country for the support of cattle, reindeer, etc. They would also enquire into the water powers, the timber and other growth, the minerals, the fisheries, the birds and the fur-bearing animals within their district. They would take scientific observations of various kinds, among which of very high value would be daily meteorological observations at the station to be telegraphed tothe Director of the Meteorological Ser- vice. In this way the research stations would directly contribute to the efficiency of the weather forecasting service of Canada. Facility of communication would be a valuable aid in the admini- stration of law. It is suggested that in the first instance the stations be placed at points selected as central, four or five hundred miles apart. Other sta- tions might be added in the future as their utility became manifest. While each station would doubtless in a short time become a nucleus of population, the establishment of telegraphic communication would serve the interests of settlement in another way, by facilitating the survey of the country. Under the direction of the Chief Astronomer the determination of latitudes and longitudes of pointsthroughout the southern part of Canada has been carried on systematically for many years. These determina- tions are used to correct the maps and to afford points upon which accurate surveys may be based; but the scope of these operations has heretofore been limited by the fact that telegraphic communication is necessary for the determination of the longitude with the requisite precision. XXXII THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA With the establishment of the proposed wireless station, it would be possible for an observer provided with a portable receiving wireless apparatus to travel through the country and determine the precise geographical position in latitude and longitude of any point whatever at which he might place himself. The survey of lands for purposes of settlement is carried on under the direction of the Surveyor General according to a rectangular system of townships and ranges, each township or section corner of which has a definite latitude and longitude. Hence the astronomical observations above referred to could be used to establish these corners, from which townships could be laid out according to the Dominion Lands system, wherever surveys were required, without the expense in money and time of carrying the governing meridian and base lines of the system by tran- sit and chain over intervening and not immediately productive country. Further, in view of the completion in the near future of the Hudson Bay Railway and the consequent inauguration of traffic through the Bay and Straits to Europe, it is recommended that the system of wire- less stations be extended so as to include at least two on the shores of Hudson Straits, one at their eastern and the other at their western entrance. At these stations a systematic study of the ice conditions and the general navigability of the straits, including investigation of the weather conditions, the tides and the currents could be made. The stations, moreover, would be a direct aid to navigation. From a general point of view the association of wireless telegraphy with the research stations would add to their efficiency through inter- change of views between the observers, and through communication with the Departments which have to do with the work, so that their efforts could be directed to the best purpose. Moreover, the rapid com- munication of results to headquarters, impossible under the present conditions when an exploring party may be separated from the nearest post office or telegraph station by hundred of miles of distances and months of time would be of great advantage to the Government and the public. Respectfully submitted on behalf of the Society. (Sap). W. D. LESUEUR, President. VII.—FRIENDLY RELATIONS WITH THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF LITERATURE OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. The correspondence between our Society and the Royal Society of Literature of the United Kingdom has culminated in the letter from their secretary of date Februray 5th, 1913, a copy of which is herewith. PROCEEDINGS FOR 1913 XXXII 20 Hanover Square, London, W. Feb. 5th, 1913. Duncan C. Scorr, Esq., Honorary Secretary, The Royal Society of Canada. DEAR Sir, At the last meeting of Council of this Society it was considered that the most effective way to meet the courteous advances of The Royal Society of Canada would be to pass a similar series of resolutions to that given in your letter of August 2, 1912. I have, therefore, the pleasure of informing you that it has been resolved that— (1) This Society express its desire to extend any courtesies within its power to visiting officers and members of The Royal Society of Canada, and also (2) its willingness at all times to furnish The Royal Society of Canada or any of its members with any information within its field of work or to render them any other service and also (3) its willingness to co-operate with The Royal Society of Canada in any special work that may be agreed upon for the benefit of literature and learning. In the hope that an early opportunity will be afforded for giving effect to the friendly intentions mutually entertained, I am, dear sir, Yours sincerely, Percy W. AMEs, Secretary. VIITI.—Nationat LIBRARY. This question came under the consideration of the Council in con- nection with a resolution that the Council should, on behalf of the so- ciety, recommend the Government to appoint a Royal Commission to inquire into the subject. In considering how the wishes of the Society could best be carried into effect, the Council were led to doubt whether it would be expedient to make a specific recommendation of that nature; and the fact that the resolution had passed without discussion pointed at least to the possibility that, if the Society had the opportunity to reconsider the matter, and perhaps to obtain the report of a committee upon it, its instructions to the Council might take a different form. It happened also that the course of public affairs during the last year XXXIV THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA seemed to render action in the matter inopportune. The desire of the Council to carry into effect to the utmost of its ability the clearly understood wishes, or fully declared policy of the Society will not, it is hoped, be doubted. The Council feel at the same time that a mere formal discharge of any duty committed to them does not fully meet their responsibilities, or do justice to the relation they sustain to the Society: and they venture to believe that the Society will put the best construction on any postponement of action, coupled with request, as in this case, for further instructions, which they may at any time consider to be in the interest of the Society or of the object or objects at which it may be aiming. IX.—THE SEAL AND DIPLOMA OF THE SOCIETY. The committee appointed to consider the above subject has pre- sented a design for the seal, which has been approved by Council and the drawing will be exhibited at the Annual Meeting. A motto has also been selected and the matter is now submitted for final decision by the Society. X.—COMMEMORATION OF ONE HUNDRED YEARS OF PEACE. The attention of the Society is drawn to the commemoration of one hundred years of peace between Great Britain and the United States. Several Fellows of the Society are members of the General Committee and have attended the meetings called by those interested in the pro- posed celebrations. It is thought desirable that the Fellows should take an interest in the project and, if occasion offers, that the Society should be properly represented at any public functions which may be carried out upon the one-hundredth anniversary. XI.—Lister MEMORIAL FUND. A circular has been received from the Honorary Secretary of this fund, Sir John Rose Bradford, K.C.M.G., calling the attention of the Society to the proposed memorial to the late Lord Lister. The circular states that: “It is proposed that the Memorial should be of a threefold character, and consist of (1) a simple marble medallion bearing a sculp- tured portrait of Lord Lister to be placed in Westminster Abbey among the monuments of the nation’s illustrious dead; (2) a larger and more conspicuous monument to be erected in some public place in London, the city wherein he lived and worked; (3) if funds sufficient shall be obtained, the founding of an International Memorial Fund from which PROCEEDINGS FOR 1913 XXXV either grants in aid of researches bearing on surgery or rewards in re- cognition of important contributions to Surgical Science shall be mdea, irrespective of nationality.” The Council has pleasure in drawing the attention of the Society to the proposed memorial of this eminent man. XII.—Tue LIBRARY. The Hon. the Minister of Public Works having most considerately placed at the disposal of the Society room in the Victoria Memorial Museum for the library and having ordered shelving to be installed for the books, the Council have appointed a librarian who is now en- gaged in the preliminary duties of sorting the large amount of printed matter which is in the possession of the Society. It is hoped that the Fellows will have sufficient time to visit the library during the pres- ent session and to become interested in the progress of the work. The notice of motion by the Honorary Treasurer to amend the By- laws to admit of the appointment of an Honorary Librarian is com- mended to the Society. The appointment of one of our members who can devote some time to the supervision of the many details which will be involved in the organization of the library is essential to the proper development of the work. XIIJ.—INcREASE IN THE PARLIAMENTARY GRANT. We have very much pleasure in stating that the Government has consented to increase the annual grant voted by Parliament for the pur- poses of the Society from $5,000.00 to $8,000.00. Attention had been given from time to time to the increase in the expenses of administering the Society and it was thought advisable to bring the facts to the at- tention of the Government. A deputation, therefore, waited on the Hon. W. T. White, Minister of Finance, and presented a letter, copy of which follows. The attention of the Society is specially drawn to the reasons ad- vanced in support of this proposed increase. When a sufficient amount has been set apart for the ordinary expenses of the Society, for the or- ganization and administration of the library, there will still remain a considerable sum which, in the phraseology of the memorial, should be spent in scientific research, to offer inducements for literary works dealing with subjects of public importance, or to guarantee the expense, on specially approved lines, of scientific research and to offer rewards for monographs of merit upon scientific subjects. XXXVI THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA We commend these matters to your earnest consideration and we trust that the Sections may be able to give the Council valuable advice in carrying out the intentions of the Government in so generously coming to our assistance. Ottawa, October 15, 1912. Hon. W. T. WHITE, Minister of Finance. Ottawa. SIR, The undersigned has the honour to bring to your notice a matter which is of vital importance to the future of The Royal Society of Can- ada. The Society was founded by the Duke of Argyll when he was Governor General and was incorporated by Act of Parliament in 1882. Its objects as set forth in this Act are,—first, to encourage studies and investigations in literature and science; secondly, to publish transac- tions annually or semi-annually, containing the minutes of proceedings at meetings, records of the work performed, original papers and memoirs of merit, and such other documents as may be deemed worthy of pub- lication; thirdly, to offer prizes or other inducements for valuable papers on subjects relating to Canada, and to aid in researches already begun and carried so far as to render their ultimate value probable; fourthly, to assist in the collection of specimens with a view to the for- mation of a Canadian museum of archives, ethnology, archaeology and natural history. The Fellows of the Society have endeavoured to promote these objects by meeting each year and by publishing an annual volume of Proceedings and Transactions. The expenses contingent upon these undertakings are met by the fees paid by Fellows and by a Parliament- ary grant of $5,000.00. In the earlier years of its existence the Society was able to meet its obligations with these funds, although it was not found possible to give much, if any, assistance for original scientifie research or literary production, the main source of expenditure being the publication of the annual volume. The cost of printing the Proceed- ings and Transactions has largely increased and it is only by reducing the size of the volume that the cost of production is kept within safe limits. The Society finds itself moreover confronted at the present time with the problem of placing in order a library consisting mainly of un- bound Transactions and other publications of the principal learned societies of the world, received as exchanges during the last thirty years PROCEEDINGS FOR 1913 XXXVII Hitherto these, for want of aceommodation, have been stored in boxes and are entirely unavailable. The Government, we are glad to say, are now affording space and shelving for this collection in the Victoria Museum; but a very heavy expense will have to be incurred for sorting, cataloguing and binding before the unbound publications, numbering many hundreds of volumes. can be placed on the shelves. The need for larger financial resources led the Society two years ago to increase its annual membership fee from $2.00 to $5.00, but the Parliamentary grant has remained the same since the date of founda- tion. The undersigned, therefore, representing the Council of the Society, would request that the annual Parliamentary grant be increased from $5,000.00 to $8,000.00 and that provision be made therefor in the esti- mates of the fiscal year 1913-14. This grant would enable the Society to improve its publications and to meet the growing demand for their gratuitous distribution. It would render it possible to offer induce- ments for literary works dealing with subjects of public importance, to guarantee the expense of specially approved lines of scientific research and offer rewards for monographs of merit upon scientific subjects. It is considered most important that at this time when scientific studies are greatly subdivided and specialized, this Society should be enabled to foster and assist what might be called the side lines of research which are often of the utmost value in contributing to the success of investiga- tions that have some broad and general aim. The library of the Society would also be organized and would become a valuable ally of the Par- liamentary library and the library of the Geological Survey. All of which is respectfully submitted. W. D. LeSueur, President. XIV.—FINANCES OF THE SOCIETY. The Honorary Treasurer’s statement of Receipts and Expenditure is appended. This is furnished under two heads of Government Grant Account and General Account, and has been duly audited by two mem- bers of the Society, Dr. Adam Shortt and Dr. J. C. Glashan, appointed by the Council for that purpose. XXXVIII THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA STATEMENT OF RECEIPTS AND EXPENDITURE OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA, FOR THE YEAR ENDING 30TH APRIL, 1913. GOVERNMENT GRANT ACCOUNT. RECEIPTS. Balance in Bank of Montreal, Bank Street, Ottawa, Interestion amount of. Grants 2 FERRER. Lecce Overdraft on bank (since covered) .................... 5,000.00 $ 6,335.80 $ 6,335.80 EXPENDITURE. Transactions, printing, binding, and distribution of etc. (See Appendix A). GENERAL ACCOUNT. RECEIPTS. Balance in Merchants Bank of Canada............... Membershipifees* anna)... 0.0605. 3 spines ees ie yin Membership fee, life (CDOT AWAG Mallen) EE EEE erratic Transactions sold CAO US EL PAR wets eer Interest; Merchant’s Bank of Canada................. “ Standard Trusts Company of Winnipeg... -.- $ 6,335.80 $ 1,593.16 562.15 50.25 80.15 65.67 486.35 $ 2,837.73 $ 2,837.73 EXPENDITURE. Toward railway fares of Fellows attending Annual Meeting. ict ES CRAN aie er eee Annual Meeting; popular lecture .................. Annual Meeting; popular lecture; hire of palms...... Floral wreath, on occasion of funeral of Alexander John- BORA Ra ene ERO ee RR RE Ae Te a Flowers, on occasion of funeral of Pauline Johnson...... Balance on hand, Merchant’s Bank of Canada, 30th April, 1913 (inclusive of Life Membership Fund $620. 00) TT SR RE MAR M nave Grate sine Audited and found correct. J. C. GLASHAN, Pere ADAM SHORTT, } Auditors. $ 190.00 18.00 3.00 8.00 10.00 2,608.73 $ 2,837.73 LAWRENCE M. LAMBE, Honorary Treasurer PROCEEDINGS FOR 1913 XXXIX APPENDIX A. STATEMENT IN DETAIL OF CHARGE IN GOVERNMENT GRANT ACCOUNT. 1912 May 29—To clerical assistant, for months of March, Apriland May $ 50.00 June 6—The Topley Co., hire of lantern, services of operator, etc., Annual Meeting: ete ete hence lavas latte aoa 17.50 : 7—Postal, foreign distribution of vol. V, of Transactions, Sa tee LL LR ROSE. AIRS, mi ee ls AP One Bs 100.00 ss 10—The Ottawa Electric Co., arc lights and current; Normal Schook Annual Meetings: skys. dia lacie RCE nls ese oe 5.00 A 10—Auditing printing account of The Mortimer Co........ 15.00 x 12—The Mortimer Co., closing account for printing and bind- ing vol..V, Series Siof Transactions: (i). EURE 1,784.50 a 14—Stewart & Co., hire of chairs, Annual Meeting.......... 6. “A 17—C. H. Horton, services at Annual Meeting.............. 3 17—James Black, services at Annual Meeting............... 6 19—The Evening Journal, advertising Annual Meeting. ..... 8 19—The Evening Citizen, advertising Annual Meeting....... 8 19—Ottawa Free Press, advertising Annual Meeting......... 8 19—Canadian Pacific Railway Co’s. Telegraph, telegrams... . 19—James Hope & Sons, printing... ........:.............. 6 25—Toward British and foreign distribution of Transactions. . 3 July 3—To Hon. Secretary, for current expenses.............-. 10.00 22—Caledonian Insurance Company’s premium............. 18 Aug. 20—Crown Lithographing Co., Ottawa, stationery........... 9 20—To clerical assistant, for months of June, July and August. 50 20—To Hon. Secretary, for current expenses.............. 10 Oct. 21—James Hope & Sons, printing cireulars................. 2 Nov. 14—Proof reading, French, vol. V, Series 3 of the Society’s AUWATISACELOMS 1 cars te aie 0 fe te Beate delle ais ehata Ss 40.00 ¢ 26—To clerical assistant, for months of September, October andeNOVEMPDET 6 Nala co sonic ara ARE EEE ete RS 50.00 Dec. 9—Crown Lithographing Co., Ottawa, stationery........... 4.35 ‘ 3 19—To Hon. Secretary, for current expenses............... 10.00 1913. Jan. 2—The Mortimer Co., on account printing vol. VI, Series 3 OL UPANsActlons: ariel ta Eee Eats eae pinnae ets 1,600.00 Feb. 26—To clerical assistant, for months of December 1912 and January and Bebruary. VOUS. cies) «6 siec's,ss, 9a eet 50.00 be 26—To Hon. Secretary; for current expenses............... 10.00 March 3—The Mortimer Co., on account, printing................ 850.00 x 10—John Robertson, storage of exchanges, 12 months to 1st March Gls. and'eartare. Meet ve cleo ease es « 50.00 s 19—James Hope @ Sons; stationery ye cise an acute 9.25 19—The Times Book Club, London, Eng., stationery....... 9.88 April O— bhe Hilectrics Pranster Co. RENE Ne aie SERRE Le 4.00 19— North British & Mercantile Ins. Co’. premium; insur- ance on Society’s property in the Mortimer Co. build- MUN CLUS WER ene A led eee ci Rte eee cleat 24.00 . 21—The Mortimer Co., on account, printing vol. VI, Series 3, of the Society's Transactions: MER MELUN 1,500.00 $ 6,335.80 LAWRENCE M. LAMBE, Hon. Treasurer. Audited and found correct. J.C. GLASHAN, | 4,441 ADAM SHORTT, es Proc. 1913. 4 XL THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA When the Honorary Secretary had finished reading the Report it was moved by Rev. Dr. Bryce, seconded by Dr. A. H. R. Buller, That the Report of Council be received and that the question of adoption be voted on to-morrow.—Carried. It was moved by Hon. Pascal Poirier, seconded by Hon. Thomas Chapais, that the election of M. Louvigny T. deMontigny as a Fellow of Section I be confirmed.—Carried. It was moved by Mr. W. D. Lighthall, seconded by Mr. Lawrence J. Burpee, that the election of Rev. Dr. A. W. H. Eaton, Mr. Charles Hill-Tout, Dr. Maurice Hutton, Dr. Stephen Leacock and Mr. Clive Phillips-Wolley as Fellows of Section II be confirmed.—Carried. It was moved by Mr. J. 8S. Plaskett, seconded by Dr. R. F. Ruttan, that the election of Dr. Alfred Stansfield as a Fellow of Section III be confirmed.—Carried. It was moved by Dr. A. G. Nicholls, seconded by Dr. J. J. Macken- aie, that the election of Dr. Nathaniel H. Alcock, Mr. Rodolphe E. Fari- bault, Dr. C. Gordon Hewitt, L’Abbé Victor A. Huard, Mr. Richard G. McConnell and Mr. Clarence L. Moore as Fellows of Section IV be con- firmed.—Carried. Those of ‘the new members who were present were then introduced to the President. The President then laid before the Society the following notices of motion to amend the By-laws:— By Dr. Adami, That By-law 6 be amended as follows :— That the Fellows shall be persons male or female, resident in the Dominion of Canada. Mutatis mutandis. By Mr. Lambe, That Section V of the By-laws be amended as follows:— By the addition of the words, an Honorary Librarian, after the words, an Honorary Treasurer, in the said Section. That the following new Section be added after Section 15. (15a).—DuTIES oF THE HONORARY LIBRARIAN. The Honorary Librarian shall have the supervision of the Library under such regulations as are made from time to time by the Society or by the Council. A discussion on Dr. Adami’s motion followed. It was moved in amendment by Rev. Dr. Bryce, seconded by Dr. J. C. Glashan, that the matter be referred to a committee of the Society for report. It was moved in amendment to the amendment by Dr. J. P. Mc- Murrich, seconded by Dr. R. F. Ruttan, that the Society hereby place PROCEEDINGS FOR 1913 XLI ) tself on record as interpreting the word “Persons” in By-law No. 6 to mean individuals of either sex. Dr. Adami asked that his motion be withdrawn and Dr. McMur- rich’s be substituted therefor and the consent of the meeting was granted. Dr. Bryce’s amendment was put to the meeting and declared lost. Dr. MeMurrich’s motion was then put to the meeting and declared carried. It was moved by Mr. Lambe, seconded by Mr. Duncan C. Scott, that Section 5 of the By-laws be amended to provide for the appoint- ment of an Honorary Librarian and that to define his duties a new section, 15a, be added.—Carried. The meeting then adjourned until 11.30 a.m. on Wednesday. Tue “AT Home.” The Fellows of the society and the Delegates accepted the kind in- vitation of the President, Dr. W. D. LeSueur, and Mrs. LeSueur to attend an “At Home” at their residence, 326 Waverley St., from 4.30 to 6.30 p.m. A large number of guests assembled to meet the Society and the ‘At Home”’ was a most successful and enjoyable affair. THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. On Tuesday evening at 8.15 the Presidential Address was delivered by Dr. W. D. LeSueur on “History, Its Nature and Methods” (see Ap- pendix A). The chair was occupied by the Vice-President, Dr. Frank D. Adams. At the close of the lecture the thanks of the audience were presented to Dr. LeSueur. SESSION I].—(Wednesday, May 28). The President took the chair at 11.30 a.m. It was moved by Dr. McMurrich, seconded by Rev. Dr. Bryce, that the Report of Council be adopted.—Carried. It was moved by Dr. Adami, seconded by Mr. McLachlan, that the design for a seal for the Society as presented to the meeting be referred back to Council.—Carried. It was moved by Rev. Dr. Bryce, seconded by Dr. Coyne, that the motto suggested “Eodem nitimur ad fructum studio” be adopted by the Society.—Carr:ed. f It was moved by Dr. Hewitt, seconded by Dr. Buller, that the fol- lowing Fellows be a committee to prepare and recommend the design for a seal:—Dr. Sulte, Mr. Duncan C. Scott, Mr. Lambe, Mr. McLachlan, Dr. Ellis and Dr. Hewitt.—Carried. XLII THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA It was moved by Mr. Burpee, seconded by Mr. Lighthall that this Society, recognizing the vital importance to any civilized people of a National Library, organized and maintained upon broad and efficient lines, and particularly to a young, rapidly growing, and ambitious com- munity such as ours; and also recognizing its great usefulness to students in every branch of human knowledge, its practical and economic worth as a general repository of information, now scattered in many libraries, or inaccessible, and its value as a rallying point for the library activities of the whole country; respectfully urges upon the consider- ation of the Dominion Government the early establishment of such an institution for the general benefit of the people of Canada.—Carried. It was moved by Dr. R. F. Ruttan, seconded by Dr. W. H. Ellis, that whereas the use of active or poisonous phosphorus in the manu- facture of matches endangers the health of workers in that industry, and is the cause of the most loathsome of all occupational diseases viz: Phosphorus necrosis of the bones of the face, commonly called Phossy jaw; and Whereas all safe guards have proved ineffective in protecting oper- atives against this disease; and Whereas matches tipped with compositions containing this deadly poison are found in every Canadian home, and are an ever present menace to the lives of little children; and Whereas by their wide distribution these matches present, in a con- venient and inexpensive form, a means of criminal phosphorus poison- ing; and Whereas since the discovery and general use of a harmless substitute called sesqui-sulphide of phosphorus, poisonous phosphorus is no longer necessary in the manufacture of the common match; and Whereas Canada is alone on this continent and almost alone amongst civilized nations in having no legal enactment against the use of active phosphorus in the manufacture of matches; be it Resolved that the Government of Canada be asked to procure an act to be passed, at the earliest possible date, prohibiting the import- ation, manufacture, and use in Canada of poisonous phosphorus matches. It was moved by Dr. W. Bell Dawson, seconded by Dr. W. F. King, that the Council continue its efforts to have wireless research stations established throughout Canada.—Carried. It was moved by Mr. W. D. Lighthall, seconded by Dr. H. J. Mor- gan and Dr. W. W. Campbell, that the Royal Society of Canada instruct its Council to call the attention of the press and educational authorities throughout Canada to the widespread use of defective English, and to appeal for remedial action by specific instruction and increased care.— Carried. PROCEEDINGS FOR 1913 XLII SESSION III—(Wednesday afternoon, May 28). The reports of the following Associated Societies were read :— La Société Historique de Montréal, by Abbé Naz. Dubois, Delegate. Natural History Society of Montreal, by Dr. A. G. Nicholls, F.R.S.C. Delegate. Women’s Canadian Historical Society of Ottawa, by Mrs. J. B. Simpson, Delegate. La Société d’Archéologie et de Numismatique, de Montréal, by M. E. L. Massicotte, Delegate. Entomological Society of Ontario, by W. Lochhead, Delegate. Elgin Historical and Scientific Institute, by Dr. J. H. Coyne, F.R.S.C., Delegate. Women’s Historical Society of St. Thomas, by Dr. J. H. Coyne, F.R.S.C., Delegate. Niagara Historical Society, by Miss J. Carnochan, Delegate. Ottawa Field Naturalists’ Club, by L. H. Newman, Delegate. Royal Astronomical Society of Canada, by R. M. Stewart, Delegate. United Empire Loyalists Association of Canada, by Lt.-Col. E. S. Ryerson, Delegate. Quebec Society for the Protection of Plants from Insects and Fun- gus Diseases, by W. Lochhead, Delegate. Literary and Historical Society of Quebec, by Dr. J. M. Harper, Delegate. The Nova Scotia Historical Society, by Hon. Mr. Justice Longley, F.R.S.C., Delegate. Nova Scotia Institute of Science, by Dr. A. H. Mackay, F.R.S.C., Delegate. New Brunswick Historical Society, by D. R. Jack, Delegate New Brunswick Loyalists Society, by D. R. Jack, Delegate. The following reports were received and taken as read :— British Columbia Academy of Science, Prof. D. Walter Munn, Secretary. Women’s Canadian Historical Society of Toronto, Mrs. Conley, Secretary. The Huron Institute, David Williams, Secretary. The Canadian Forestry Association, James Lawler, Secretary. THE PoPUuLAR LECTURE. On Wednesday evening Dr. J. M. Clarke of Albany, N.Y., Director of the State Museum and State Geologist, delivered the popular lecture before an appreciative audience. Dr. Clarke’s subject was ‘Jacques XLIV THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Cartier’s Islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence; the Gaspe Islands; the Magdalen Islands and the Bird Rocks.” The lecturer dealt with these remote islands of the Dominion in a most interesting way, dwelling upon their history and geology, their flora and fauna and gave novel informa- tion as to the lives of the inhabitants and the prevailing economic con- ditions. The lecture was illustrated by lantern views and a very early portrait of Jacques Cartier in the form of a medallion carved in wood which originally formed the stern shield of a vessel was also exhibited. At the close a cordial vote of thanks was presented to the lecturer. SESSION [V.—(Thursday afternoon, May 29). REPORTS OF THE SECTIONS. RAPPORT DE LA SEcTION I. La section s’est réunie les 27, 28 et 29 mai, aux heures indiquées au programme. LEtaient présents: honorable Rodolphe Lemieux, Vhonorable Thomas Chapais, l’honorable Pascal Poirier, l’honorable L. O. David, M. l’abbé Auguste Gosselin, MM. A. D. DeCelles, Benjamin Sulte, Ernest Myrand, Adolphe Poisson et Louvigny de Montigny. Ont aussi assisté aux séances, M. Eugéne Rouillard, délégué de la Société de Géographie de Québec, et E. Z. Massicotte, délégué de la Société d’Archiologie et de Numismatique de Montréal. Les séances ont été présidées par M. Chapais; M. deMontigny rem- plissait les fonctions de secrétaire. Des lettres ont été reçues de sir Adolphe Routhier, Monseigneur Paquet, M. l’abbé Amédée Gosselin, MM. Léon Gérin, Adjutor Rivard et Pierre-Georges Roy, expliquant leur absence. Les ouvrages suivants ont été examinés et seront publiées dans le volume de la Société Royale, après avoir été revisés comme à l’ordinaire par le comité de lecture qui demeure le même que l’an dernier: 1.—‘‘Les Pays d’en Haut,” par M. Benjamin Sulte; 2.—‘‘Les premiers colons de Montréal” par M. E. Z. Massicotte 3.—‘Les deux capitaines Berthier,” par M. Régis Roy; 4.—“Lettres de Charles-Ovide Perrault,” par M. A. D. DeCelles; 5.—‘‘Le règne de la compagnie de la baie d'Hudson,” par l'honorable L. A. Prud’homme; 6.—“L’Esclavage en Canada,” par Mgr L. A. Paquet; 7.—“Louis-Généreux Labadie,’ par M. Vabbé Amédée Gosselin; 8.—"Histoire d’une Cloche,” par M. Ernest Myrand; 9.—“La Sociologie—le mot et la chose,’ par M. Léon Gérin. 10.—“‘Le régime seigneurial,”’ par l'honorable Rodolphe Lemieux; PROCEEDINGS FOR 1913 XLV 11.—“Le timbre-poste,’ par Adolphe Poisson; 12.—‘‘Les Diatomées d'eau douce de la province de Québec,” par Mgr. C. P. Choquette. Durant l’année qui commence, la Section I serait disposée à élire quatre nouveaux membres, pour remplir autant de vacances qui exis- tent dans ses rangs. Les élections pour l'exercice 1913-14 ont donné le résultat que voici: P. B. Mignault, président; Rodolphe Lemieux, vice-Président; Louvigny de Montigny, secrétaire. Sur proposition de l’honorable Thomas Chapais, appuyé par M. Ernest Myrand, La Section I a émis le vœu que la démission de M. Ernest Gagnon, de Québec, ne soit pas acceptée, et qu’il soit prié de demeurer sur la liste des membres actifs de la Société Royale du Canada qu’il a honoré par ses travaux historiques, archéologiques et littéraires. Sur proposition de M. Louvigny de Montigny, appuyé par M. A.-D. DeCelles, La Section I a émis le vœu suivant: Attendu que le développement des letters, des sciences et des arts dépend essentiellement de la protection qui leur est accordée par Etat; Attendu que les lois canadiennes qui protègent la propriété intellec- tuelle sont de vieille date et correspondent imparfaitement aux princi- pes nouvellement adoptés dans la plupart des pays souverains, tant pour la protection des auteurs nationaux que pour celle des auteurs étrangers; Attendu que, le 6 décembre 1911, le gouvernement britannique a adopté une loi comportant une refonte générale de la législation anglaise sur le droit d'auteur, et que cette loi constituait le loi modèle destinée à inspirer une législation uniforme dans toutes les colonies et possessions britanniques, devant être simultanément mise en vigueur le premier jour de juillet 1912, date de l'application de la nouvelle loi impériale; Attendu que le gouvernement canadien, en avril 1911, a soumis au Parlement un projet de loi nouvelle relative au droit d’auteur, tant pour les auteurs nationaux que pour les étrangers, mais que la dissolution du Parlement a remis les choses en l’état et a laissé à refaire la nouvelle loi canadienne sur le droit d'auteur; Attendu que, comparativement au Royaume-Uni et aux autres pos- sessions britanniques, le Canada se trouve déjà arriéré d’une année dans cette législation, et que le statut à présent en vigueur au Canada ne porte aucun des amendements que la plupart des pays ont jugé à propos d’a- dopter en ces dernières années pour favoriser le développement des let- tres, des sciences et des arts; XLVI THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Que la Société Royale du Canada adresse une requéte au gouverne- ment pour le prier respectueusement de mettre à l’étude cette impor- tante question du droit d’auteur et de décréter, le plus diligemment pos- sible, une refonte amendée et modernisée de la législation canadienne relative à la protection de la propriété intellectuelle, afin d’assurer aux lettres, aux sciences et aux arts, au Canada, une protection plus étendue et plus efficace, en leur permettant de participer aux avantages que com- portent les traités internationaux de date récente et la nouvelle loi bri- tannique sur la matiére. Sur proposition de honorable Rodolphe Lemieux, appuyé par M. Benjamin Sulte. La Section I a émis le vœu suivant: Que la Société Royale du Canada institue une délégation qui soit chargée de se présenter auprés du gouvernement et de lui exposer: Que la Société Royale du Canada n’a pas de local particulier; Qu’il conviendrait qu’une association de cette importance, fondée par un gouverneur-général et subventionnée par |’Etat, constituant ainsi un foyer officiel des lettres et des sciences au Canada, ait un local spécialement affecté à son usage, pour ses convocations, ses séances pu- bliques, ses réunions de sections, pour la conservation de ses archives et de sa bibliothèque, pour aussi recevoir les groupes littéraires et scien- tifiques étrangers qui se réuniraient plus fréquemment à Ottawa, au grand profit des lettres et des sciences canadiennes, si l’on pouvait leur offrir l'hospitalité; Que la Société Royale, dont les progrès dépassent les espérances de ses fondateurs, qui est destinée à activer le développement des lettres et des sciences au Canada et constitue réellement un service publie, doit, pour mener à bien son œuvre nationale, avoir un siège permanent dans la capitale du pays, être pourvue d’un local devant faciliter l’accomplis- sement de ses travaux; Que, en conséquence, la Société Royale du Canada prie instamment le gouvernement d’affecter spécialement à son usage l’un des édifices qui doivent être prochainement construits à Ottawa pour les services pu- blics. L. DE MONTIGNY, Secrétaire Section I. On the motion of l'Abbé Auguste Gosselin, seconded by Dr. A. H. Mackay, the report of Section I was adopted. Report OF SECTION II. The Section met at 12 m. on the 27th of May. Present: Dr. Bryce (in the chair), W. D. Lighthall (Secretary), PROCEEDINGS FOR 1913 XLVII Fellows: Denison, Wood, Longley, King, D. C. Scott, LeSueur, James, Doughty, Campbell, Raymond, Morgan, Coyne, McLachlan, Grant, Burpee, Thomson and Shortt. The Section continued its meeting in the afternoon and the morn- ings of the 28th and 29th. The following were the officers elected for the coming year:— President—Judge Longley. Vice-President—R. W. McLachlan. Secretary—W. D. Lighthall, K.C. The members of the Society’s nominating committee elected to re- present the Section were Messrs. Denison and Wood. Resolutions were recommended for passage by the Society on a National Library, and on the remedying of defective English spoken in Canada. The Section voted to retain the name of Professor Wrong on the list for another year. It resolved to request the right of electing two additional members during the coming year. Regarding the expenditure of the additional government grant the Section recommends that, as the subject requires much consideration, the matter be entrusted to the Council, with request to seek the views of every Fellow of the Society by correspondence or personally. Drs. Grant, LeSueur, Coyne and the Secretary were appointed as Printing Committee. Dr. Dawson’s name was recommended for the retired list, with ex- pression of appreciation of his distinguished services to the Society as President and Secretary. The following papers were read and followed by discussions:— An Organization of the Scientific Investigation of Indian Place- Nomenclature of the Maritime Provinces, by W. F. Ganong, Ph.D., (Third paper). Notes on the Meeting Place of the First Parliament of Upper Canada, by D. C. Scott. Extracts from Correspondence of Archibald Lampman, by E. W. Thomson. Puberty Ceremony Among the Nootkas, by E. Sapir. The Republic of Manitoba, by G. Bryce, D.D. Alexander McNutt, by Dr. Eaton. Defective English spoken in Canada, by W. D. Lighthall. Peter Fidler, by J. B. Tyrrell. Fundamental Processes in Historical Sciences, by H. Bowman, Ph.D. The American Loyalist in the Eastern Townships, by Prof. W. H. Siebert. XLVIII THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA From Isle aux Noix to Chateauguay, by Col. Cruikshank. Our First Representatives in Parliament, by Dr. H. J. Morgan The History of Medicine in Canada, by Miss M. Charlton. The other papers mentioned in the programme were read by title, except No. 11, “Champlain’s Axe.” On the motion of Dr. Coyne, seconded by Sir James Grant, the report of Section II was adopted. REPORT OF SECTION III. Five well attended sessions of the Section were held, two on Tues- day the 27th, two on Wednesday the 28th, and one on Thursday the 29th of May. There were eighteen members present at these sessions, namely, Prof. Allen, Dr. Dawson, Prof. Dupuis, Prof. Ellis, Prof. Fields, Dr. Glashan, Dr. Hoffman, Dr. King, Dr. Klotz, Dr. Loudon, Prof. McClung, Dr. McGill, Dr. McIntosh, Prof. McLeod, Mr. Plaskett, Prof. Ruttan, Mr. Shutt and Dr. Stansfield. Twenty-five papers, many of which were of a high order of merit, were presented to the section and the majority of these were interest- ingly and profitably discussed. A list of these papers in the order of pre- sentation is appended. The election of officers of the Section for the ensuing year vesulted as follows:— President, R. F. Stupart, F.R.S.C. Vice-President, E. Deville, LL.D., F.R.S.C. Secretary, J. S. Plaskett, B.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.C. Dr. King and Mr. Plaskett were nominated as members of the General Printing Committee. The officers of the Section with Messrs. Shutt and Klotz were ap- pointed as the Sectional Printing Committtee. The formal ballot for the election of new members to the section having resulted in two vacancies remaining unfilled, the Section selected by ballot Prof. E. F. Burton and Dr. Mackenzie from the list of candi- dates and as more than one third the members were present and as each received at least two thirds of the vote of those present the Section re- commends that the election of these gentlemen be confirmed by the Society. | It was decided that one new member be elected next year and any vacancies occurring be filled. It was also decided that action under clause 8 of the By-laws be suspended for one year in the case of the three members who had not complied with the regulations regarding attendance or presentation of papers. PROEEDINGS FOR 1913 XLIX The Section recommended that action be taken by the Society to memorialize the Government in regard to the grave dangers arising from the use of white poisonous phosphorus in making matches and to urge them to introduce an enactment prohibiting the importation, manufacture and use of matches tipped with poisonous phophorus. The Section further recommends that the Society make a grant of $50.00 a year-for two years to help meet the expenses in connection with the publication of the Annual International Tables of Physico-Chemical Constant. The question of the most desirable use of the surplus funds referred to in Section XIII of the Report of Council was very fully discussed by the Section and it was decided to make the following recommendations; 1.—That the major portion of the money available be devoted to the encouragement of research. 2.—That a medal be awarded at intervals and only in recognition of scientific or literary work of very exceptional merit. List oF PAPERS PRESENTED IN SECTION. III. 1.—The Solar Rotation in 1912, by J. S. Plaskett, B.A., D.Sc., and R. E. DeLury, Ph.D. 2.—The Formation Carbon Monoxide during the Rapid Combustion of Carbon ,by F. M. G. Johnson and Douglas McIntosh, Ph.D. 3.—The amounts of Radium and Radium Emanation Present in the Waters from Several Springs, by R. W. Boyle and Douglas McIntosh, Ph.D. 4.—The corrosion of Metals by Water with special reference to Relative Corrosivity of ‘‘Mechanically Filtered” and “Raw’’ Waters and to the Effect of Waters on Unlike Metals in Contact, by A. T. Stuart, B.A., presented by Frank T. Shutt, M.A. 5.—Proofs of Certain Theorems relating to Adjoint Orders of Coin- cidence, by J. C. Fields, Ph.D., F.R.S. 6.—Measurements of the Penetrating Radiation from the Earth with a Wulf Electrometer, by Prof. J. C. McLennan, Ph.D., and Mr. D. A. Keys. 7.—On the Electrical Conductivity imparted to Liquid Air by Al- pha Rays, by Prof. J. C. McLennan, Ph.D., and Mr. D. A. Keys. 8.—On the Temperature of the Mercury Arc in a Cooper Hewitt Lamp, by Prof. J. C. McLennan, Ph.D. 9.—An Application of the Photo-electric Effect tothe Measurement of the Thermal Conductivity of Different Gases, by Mr. F. C. Ashbury, presented by Prof. J. C. McLennan, Ph.D. L THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 10.—On the Determination of the Convection Constants of Small Platinum Wires with Applications to Practical Hot Wire Anemometry, by Louis V. King, Ph.D. Presented by Prof. H. T. Barnes. 11.—Note on the Calculated Gradient of Penetrating Radiation with Height in the Light of Recent Radio-active Data, by Louis V. King, Ph.D. Presented by Prof. H. T. Barnes. 12.—Some of the Applications of Stereo-Micrography in studying Microscopic Objects, by G. P. Girdwood, M.D. 13.—Records of Difference of Temperature between Mount Royal and McGill College Observatory, by Prof. C. H. McLeod and Prof. H. T. Barnes. 14.—On Osmosis in Soils, by C. J. Lynde, Ph.D., and H. A. Dupré, Presented by Prof. H. T. Barnes. 15.—On a New Method of Measuring the Capillary Constant of a Soil, by C. J. Lynde, Ph.D., and H. A. Dupré. Presented by Prof. H. T. Barnes. 16.—Notes on the Penetration Radiation from the Radio-active Substances in the Earth, by A. S. Eve, D.Sc. 17.—The Analysis of Maple Products; An Electrical Conductivity Test for the Purity of Maple Syrup, by J. F. Snell, Ph.D. Presented by Frank T. Shutt, M.A. 18.—The Absorption and Scattering of the y Rays of Radium, by J. A. Gray, M.Sc. Presented by Prof. H. T. Barnes. 19.—Iron Wire for Electrical Resistance Thermometry by Arthur A. Scott. Presented by Prof. H. T. Barnes. 20.—A Magnetic Survey of Hudson Bay and Strait by W. E. Jackson, M.A. Presented by R. F. Stupart. 21.—A Self Recording Electrometer, by J. A. Patterson, M.A. Presented by R. F. Sturpart. 22.—Transient and Permanent Phemomena in Electric Series Transformers, by A. McNaughton, M.Sc. Presented by L. A. Herdt, E.E., D.Sc. 23.—The Sensitiveness of the Eye to Light and Color, by T. A. Neelin. Presented by Prof. F. Allen. 24.—Acly Nitro Substitution, by John Harding, D.Sc. Presented by Prof. R. F. Ruttan. 25.—Researches in Physical Chemistry Carried Out in the Univer- sity of Toronto, by Prof. W. Lash Miller and Prof. F. B. Kenrick. On the motion of Mr. Plaskett, seconded by Dr. King, the report of Section III was adopted. PROCEEDINGS FOR 1913 LI REPORT OF SECTION IV. Section IV held four sessions which were attended by seventeen Fellows and several visitors. Twenty-seven papers were read, either in full or by title, a list of which is appended. These papers proved of exceptional interest and were very fully discussed. The Section un- animously passed the following resolutions which are herewith sub- mitted to the Council: — 1.—That Section IV recommend to the Council that two medals be awarded from time to time, one in literature and one in science, al- ternately, on the recommendations of Sections I and II and III and IV respectively, the said medals to be called the Royal Society of Canada medals. These medals to be awarded for work accomplished in Canada, and that the recipient need not necessarily be a Fellow of the Society. 11.—That the Council be requested to consider the pos of voting grants in aid of scientific research. I1I.—That the Council be requested to consider whether addition- al facilities cannot be provided by The Royal Society of Canada for the more extended and rapid publications of the results of investigations carried on in the Dominion of Canada. | The following members were nominated for the Sectional Printing Committee: Dr. Hewitt, Dr. Harrison and Dr. Barlow. Dr. Hewitt and Dr. Harrison to act on the general Printing Com- mittee of the Society. The Sectional Officers for the ensuing year were elected as follow :— President, Professor A. P. Coleman. Vice-President, Professor A. H. R. Buller. Secretary, Professor J. J. Mackenzie. The Section desires to recommend that Dr. Hewitt be appointed to represent The Royal Society of Canada at the Jubilee of the Entomo- logical Society of Ontario in August of this year. Papers READ BEFORE SECTION IV. 1.—A. G. Nicholls.—Presidential Address. The Debt of Medicine to the Allied Natural Sciences. 2.—H. M. Ami.—Bibliography of Canadian Geology and Palæon- tology 1908-1912; and An Account of the Fourteenth Session of the International Congress of Anthropology and Pre-historic Archeology held in Geneva, Switzerland, September, 1912. Read by title. 3.—C. J. S. Bethune.—Bibliography of Canadian Entomology for the year 1912. (Prepared by S. C. Gordon Hewitt). Read by title. LIT THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 4.—A. H. Mackay.—Bibliography of Canadian Botany for 1912. Read by title. 5.—L. M. Lambe.—Bibliography of Canadian Zoology. (Exclu- sive of Entomology). Read by title. 6.—L. W. Bailey. The Diatoms of New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island. Read. 7.—E. M. Burwash.—Some New Species of Invertebrates from the Cretaceous of the Queen Charlotte Islands. Presented by Dr. A. P. Coleman. Read. 8.—Sir J. A. Grant.—Serum Therapy in Canada in 1861. Read. 9.—F. C. Harrison and W. Sadler.—Some Bacterial Diseases of Plants Prevalent during 1912. Read. 10.—D. H. Jones.—A Morphological and Cultural Study of Some Azotobacter. Presented by F. C. Harrison. Read. 11.—H. 8. Poole.—Senecio Jacobæa, Ragwort, Baughlan, Stagger- wort, Stinking Willie. Presented by A. H. Mackay. Read. 12.—J. P. McMurrich.—Some further Observations on the Life Histories of the Pacific Coast Salmon as revealed by their Scale Markings (Illustrated by some lantern slides) ; and 13.—Notes on the Scale Markings of the Halibut and their Bearings on Questions connected with the Conservation of the Fishery. Both read. 14.—W. G. Miller.—The Stratigraphical Relations of Limestones and Dolomites. Read by title. 15.—J. B. Tyrrell and R. P. D. Graham.—Yukonite, A New Hy- drous Arsenate of Iron and Calcium from Tagish Lake, Yukon Terri- tory, Canada, with a Note on the Associated Symplsite. Read. | 16.—R. P. D. Graham.—Notes on the Occurrence of Scorodite at Cobalt, Northern Ontario, Canada. Presented by J. B. Tyrrell. Read. 17.—J. H. Duncan.—On Absorption from the Small Intestine. Presented by T. G. Brodie. Read by title. 18.—P. M. O’Sullivan.—The Excised Lung as an Aerotonometer. Presented by T. G. Brodie. Read by title. 19.—R. C. Coatsworth.—The Tension of the Renal Substance Dur- ing Activity. Presented by T. G. Brodie. Read by title. 20.—J. J. Mackenzie.—The Histological Evidence of Secretory Changes in Damaged Glomeruli in Experimental Nephritis. Read. 21.—A. T. Cameron and T. I. Brownlee.—The Effect of Low Tem- peratures on the Frog. Presented by Swale Vincent. Read. 22.—W. Saunders.—Some Facts relating to the Progress of Cereal Breeding through the Agency of the Experimental Farms, with Special PROCEEDINGS FOR 1913 LII Reference to the Production off varieties of Spring Wheat of Early Ripen- ing and Prolific Habit. Read. 23.—C. E. Saunders.—Cereal Breeding on the Dominion Experimen- tal Farms During the Past Decade. Presented by W. Saunders. Read. 24.—D. Fraser Harris——On the Existence of a Reducing Endo- Enzyme in Animal Tissues. Presented by J. G. Adami. Read. 25.—R. C. Wallace.—A Contribution to the Study of Dolomitiza- tion. Presented by A. H. R. Buller. Read. 26.—A. H. R. Buller.—Some Further Researches upon the Produc- tion and Liberation of Spores by the Mushroom and Other Fungi. Read. 27.—A. H. R. Buller.—The Retention of Vitality by the Fruit- Bodies of the Hymenomycetes. Read. On the motion of Dr. Mackenzie, seconded by Dr. Coleman, the report of Section IV was adopted. It was moved by Dr. Coyne, seconded by Dr. W. Lawson Grant, That in adopting the report of Section II and thus concurring in the proposal to place Dr. S. E. Dawson on the retired list retaining his title, the Society desires to record their deep appreciation of Dr. Daw- son’s work in the past, when his best energies were devoted to the Society for several years in the important office of Honorary Secretary and afterwards as President. The Report of the Nominating Committee was then presented by Dr. Sulte. The following nominations were made :— For President—Dr. Frank D. Adams. For Vice-President—Sir Adolphe Routhier. For Honorary Secretary—Duncan C. Scott. For Honorary Treasurer—Lawrence M. Lambe. For Honorary Librarian—D. B. Dowling. Moved by Dr. Buller, seconded by Dr. Shutt, that Dr. Adams be appointed President for the ensuing year.—Carried. Moved by Mr. R. W. McLachlan, seconded by Hon. Thomas Cha- pais, that Sir Adolphe Routhier be Vice-President for the ensuing year —Carried. Moved by Hon. Thomas Chapais, seconded by Mr. L. deMontigny, that Mr. Duncan C. Scott be appointed Honorary Secretary for the en- suing year.—Carried. Moved by Mr. D. B. Dowling, seconded by Dr. W. G. Miller, that Mr. Lawrence M. Lambe be appointed Honorary Treasurer for the en- suing year.—Carried. Moved by Mr. J. S. Plaskett, seconded by Dr. A. H. Mackay, that Mr. D. B. Dowling be appointed Honorary Librarian for the ensuing year.—Carried. LIV THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA It was moved by Dr. J. P. MeMurrich, seconded by Dr. A. P. Cole- man, that the following Fellows constitute the General Printing Com- mittee for the year:—Dr. Hewitt, Dr. Sulte, Dr. King, Dr. LeSueur, Dr. Harrison, Dr. DeCelles, Dr. Plaskett and Mr. Burpee.—Carried. It was moved by Dr. Sulte, seconded by Dr. J. J. Mackenzie, that a committee be appointed to approach the Government on the subject of securing a building for the use of the Society.—Carried. It was moved by Dr. J. J. MacKenzie, seconded by Dr. Buller, that the committee on this subject be appointed by the President in con- sultation with Dr. Sulte.—Carried. It was moved by Dr. Coleman, seconded by Dr. Coyne, that the committee on the statue to David Thompson be reappointed for another year.—Carried. It was moved by Dr. Hewitt, seconded by Dr. Buller, that the Council be requested to appoint delegates from time to time to represent the Society at the local celebrations of the events of 1812-15.—Carried. It was moved by Mr. Duncan C. Scott, seconded by Mr. Lawrence M. Lambe, that the Society agrees to decide by ballot of the Fellows the question of the seal of the Society.—Carried. It was moved by Dr. Coleman, seconded by Dr. Hewitt, that a committee of the Society be appointed by the Council to confer from time to time with the Geographic Board upon the spelling of place- names.—Carried. Moved by Dr. W. Bell Dawson, seconded by Dr. Buller, that the hearty thanks of the Society be tendered to the Library Board of the City of Ottawa and the Librarian, Mr. Sykes, and to Dr. J. F. White, Principal of the Normal School, for their kindness in providing accom- modation for the meetings of the Society at this session.—Carried. Moved by Dr. A. H. MacKay, seconded by Dr. Loudon, that the cordial thanks of the Society be presented to Dr. John M. Clarke for his kindness in delivering the popular lecture.—Carried. Moved by Dr. Glashan, seconded by Hon. Thomas Chapais, that a cordial vote of thanks be presented to the President and other officers of the Society for their services during the past year.—Carried. It was intimated by the President that as the business of the meet- ing was concluded a motion to adjourn would be in order, whereupon the adjournment carried. APPENDIX A PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS HISTORY: ITS NATURE AND METHODS BY W. D. LeSUEUR, B.A., LL.D. Proc. 1913. 5 HISTORY, ITS NATURE AND METHODS. The subject on which I have undertaken to address you this even- ing—History, its Nature and its Methods—will, I fear seem rather an ambitious one to have been chosen by any one but a professed and ex- perienced historical scholar. I am fully aware of my inability to do any- thing like full justice to it, but I venture to hope that, short of that, I may be able to present some aspects of it to you in a not uninteresting or unprofitable light. Two Sections of this Society, as all here are aware, are devoted to history and literature, one dealing with these subjects as presented in the French, and the other as presented in the English language. But while the scientific sections of the Society, hold a domain into which but few literary men are competent to enter, there is no exclusion of any thoughtful and educated man from the fields of literature and history; and, while I may perhaps rely on this circumstance to create an interest in my subject on the part of all, I feel that it increases the number of my critics in a manner which might be formidable if I did not rely, as I think I may, on your indulgent sympathy. What I propose first to consider is the nature of History, what his- tory is, how we should regard it, and what we may expect from it. The law of development holds good here, as generally throughout human affairs. The modern notion of history could not have existed in any age when there was no specific demand for objective truth. There was a Muse of History in ancient times, but her name, Clio, meant little more than “‘report’’ and report is not a very solid basis for history. As that respectable writer G. F. Daunou once observed, the proper and safe equivalent of “on dit” is “personne n’affirme’’, or “rien ne prouve’’, and as regards most ‘‘on dits” it would be well to make a rule of taking the other side of the equation. “On”? is not a responsible party. Etymol- ogists tell us that it is a shortened form of ‘homme’; but until ‘“hom- me” gives us his name and address, and signifies the source of his in- formation, he is not highly entitled to credence. The word “History”, is of more promise, for it points to enquiry and knowledge founded on enquiry. It is in the sense of enquiry that Herodotus uses it in the opening sentence of his happily surviving nar- rative, in which, indeed, are many things difficult to believe, but which taken as a whole, makes delightful and not uninstructive reading. The idea that history involved investigation was a fruitful one; and, as time went on, the need for objective truth in history was more deeply felt and more strongly affirmed. Not that the progress was unbroken. LVIII THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Allowance must be made for changing times and the varying tempers and capacities of different writers. The bow of a Thucydides could not be bent by a Xenophon, nor yet by a Livy. Each man exercises by preference his own special gifts; and Livy, with his lactea ubertas, aimed rather at literary effect and at flattering the national pride of his countrymen than at analysing political situations. Thucydides ab- stained from flattering the Athenians, though he shows a desire to en- able them to understand and duly value their best national qualities. With the break up of the Roman civilisation and the advent of a new order of things marked by the predominance of supra-mundane con- ceptions and interests, history sank to a far inferior level, from which it had gradually to rise, partly through the revival of letters in the Renaissance, and partly through the later development of the scientific spirit. The idea we all have to-day is that history is a narrative—a true nar- rative—of past events. When a definition is given it is assumed that the terms of the definition are perfectly understood; but sometimes, upon looking into those terms, we find that they give us a good deal to think about. The word “narrative” gives us something to think about, and so does the word ‘‘events.”” If a man is to give us a narrative he must connect his events, as a string of disconnected events is not a nar- rative. Life flows like a stream; it is continuous, not discontinuous, and history must aim at showing us its continuity. When we say his- tory we mean the historian, and it is upon the historian, the man, there- fore, that we must depend to make history intelligible to us. Yet no one man can take a universal point of view. He can only see with his own eyes, measure by his own judgment, and understand with his own heart. Does the heart seem a strange thing to understand with? I seem to remember the phrase ‘‘an understanding heart,” used in a book in which words are seldom misapplied. There must, therefore, always be a subjective element in anything that can be called history. Each man consciously or unconsciously has his own fundamental philosophy, his own insight into human nature, his own standards of the credible and the incredible. Would we strip him of all philosophy, of all canons of judgment? In that case what could he do but stare like an infant at whatever phenomenon happened to be before his eyes? He certainly could not, in any true sense, understand it or make others understand it. But if the narrator is influenced in the presence of events by his own subjectivity, there is more than a possibility that he will also be influ- enced in some degree by his social, political or national environment, or by all three at once. It is now very generally acknow'edged that the histories written in the United States for nearly a hundred years after the conclusion of the struggle with the Mother Country, gave, with few APPENDIX A LIX exceptions, a most partial view both of the causes of the war and of the events that marked its course. To-day conditions have changed, and American historians are presenting a very different, and far juster, pic- ture of the same series of events. Great Britain now appears rather as the patient and indulgent parent, erring in judgment at times, but never sinning past forgiveness, and usually willing to repair her faults as fast as they were pointed out. This more liberal and equitable spirit in which history has lately been written has doubtless acted upon public opinion, but a previous change in public opinion, a growing and deep- ening consciousness of the difficulties which the problems of government present, and of the defects in every form of government, has probably not been without influence on the historians themselves. Allowance must be made for the difficulties attaching to the ob- servation of facts. Pious Aeneas, when he was giving to Queen Dido the tragic particulars of the sack of Troy, was able to say “quorum magna pars fui,” but it is impossible even for a man who is a great part of events to see everything. When you are engaged in street fighting, your at- tention is apt to be much occupied with the matter in hand; and if you happen to have your aged parent on your back, and to be making what speed you can from a scene of carnage, the opportunities for observation are not much improved. Still the pious hero made a thrilling narrative of it, too thrilling indeed for Dido’s peace of mind. Like Desdemona, she loved him for the dangers he had passed, but unhappily he had busi- ness elsewhere. A fragment of Euripides that some one has preserved, says that Ares is favorable to falsehoods; and truly there has been a ter- rible amount of lying, or at least misrepresentation, about battles. After Borodino the Russian general reported that he had inflicted ter- rific loss on the French; putting on the soft pedal he added: “‘La nôtre a été sensible.” “In war,” one of the leading English weeklies lately observed ‘all the strongest passions of man unite to pervert or obliterate the truth.” It assigns the palm for lying, however, to the painters of battle scenes; perhaps because they deliberately, and not under the influence of any excitement, paint into their pictures details that they know had no ex- istence in reality. Examples of this indeed are not far to seek. But in much less exciting and more restricted affairs than battles observa- tion is far from being so simple or so sure a thing as is commonly sup- posed. Eye witnesses differ in their testimony often in perfectly good faith :—-everything depends on what catches one’s attention. We go to see a conjurer, and lo! things without number are taken out of hats that never were in hats, and terrible acts of destruction are wrought on watches and other precious articles, which nevertheless emerge scath- less from their trying adventures. All this is what our captured senses LX THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA tell us; but it is not only when we visit such a performance that our senses are captured. The thing happens more or less every day. A transaction would have to be of a decidedly simple character, the situation of the observer a very favourable one, and his faculties very wide awake in order to preclude the possibility of error in reporting it. History must everywhere accept and make the best it can of human limitations. | History has been vitiated in the past by much of sheer misrepre- sentation; but in the use of so-called ‘‘authorities’’ many other points have to be guarded. The whole science of historical criticism comes in here. By what motives were the writers swayed? What pains, if any, did they take to be well informed? What were their sources of in- formation? What degree of intelligence in the treatment of facts do they display? To what prejudices were they manifestly or probably subject? How far were they free to speak the truth? Truth has al- ways been more praised than popular; and it is a very happy state of things where it can be told without reserve. Bishop Burnet got such a fright over the death on the scaffold of his friend Lord William Russell that he sought the favour of Charles II by offering to represent his ac- tions in the most favorable light in the memoirs he was then writing. Yet, on the whole, the worthy and robust bishop has told a pretty fair story; though his anti-Catholic prejudices betrayed him sadly in the matter of the birth of a son to James II. As to biography the remark was lately made by one of the most prominent writers of the present day, Mr. H. G. Wells, that, speaking generally, it is false with “the worst of all falsehoods, the falsehood of omission,” the reason, we must suppose, being that biographies are frequently written by those who have a direct interest in guarding the reputation of the subject, or by others upon whom they have imposed the obligation to do so. As materials for history, therefore, biographies, when proceeding from the environment of the subject are open to no small amount of legitimate suspicion. They may contain much truth; but how about the truth they do not contain? What says the learned Cujacius? “Quae non est plena veritas, est plane falsitas, non semi-veritas.”” In plain English: “Incom- plete truth is not half truth but whole falsehood.” The claim is put forward in some quarters that literary, as well as personal, reputations must be protected; and that, if a man has ac- quired glory for his nation by his works, that glory should be looked upon us as a national asset, not to be diminished by any belittling criticism. Thus, in the early part of the last century, Chateaubriand made a bril- liant reputation for himself, and reflected glory on his nation, by such works as “Le Génie du Christianisme,” “Les Martyrs,” and “Les Révolutions.” But, from the historical point of view, these works, APPENDIX A LXI notwithstanding their extraordinary eloquence and éclat, were of little value; and M. Jules LeMaître, in a recent series of Conférences, ventured to say so, whereupon a French critic takes him to task as follows: “Supposing even the criticisms made to be well founded, it is just as unsuitable to touch, without due respect, the conception which, for the last century, we have been entertaining of the man, as it is to make too much of the tediousness of certain tragedies of Racine. It is not per- mitted to one of our own people to measure our heritage of glory by his own personal taste. Just as truly as superstitions create life, so preju- dices minister to the moral life of nations. For our own part we are quite content to be blind, if, thanks to that weakness, we retain the power to act.’ This is not the note of “magna est veritas,” yet must it be confessed that a certain enfeeblement of popular ideals may in certain cases result from an unsparing literary or historical criticism. Truth has sometimes to be bought with a price. The fact is that history and criticism to-day are continually at war with the myth-making, legend-forming, tendencies of mankind. It is not what is true that takes the strongest hold of the popular mind; it is what is cast in a mould to fit popular needs; and when the people want to believe a thing it is very hard to prevent their doing so. The story of William Tell was long since proved by a number of historical investi- gators, including several Swiss ones, to be wholly without foundation; yet the popular belief in it is still strong, as is shown by the erection, as lately as the year 1895, of a fine statue of Tell, the work of the Swiss sculptor Kissling, in the market-place of Altdorf, and the opening in 1899, just outside that town, of a permanent theatre, in which Schiller’s play of William Tell is to be represented every Sunday during the sum- mer season.! Neither peoples nor individuals like to be disturbed in their pleasant illusions. Many a time has the hellebore of criticism ex- torted the cry: “Pol, me occidistis amici!” The greatest satirist of the age, Anatole France, touches in the pre- face of his not very edifying book, “‘L’Ile des Pingouins” on this question of the restraints put by popular prejudice on history. He represents himself as having applied to an historian of high repute for some hints as to how he should write a book of his own, which was to be of an historical character. ‘I come, sir,” he said on entering the learned gentleman’s library, “‘to get the benefit of your experience. I am struggling with a work of history, and am not making much head- way.” Shrugging his shoulders the distinguished author replied: “My poor friend, why are you bothering yourself to compose a history, when all you have to do is to follow the general practice and copy the best known ones? If you have any new view or any original idea; ‘Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th edition, article ‘“ William Tell.” LXII THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA if you present men and things in an unexpected light, you will take the reader by surprise, and readers do not like that. They only seek in a history the stupid things they know already. Try to instruct your reader, and you will only humiliate and vex him. Don’t try to enlight- en him; he will cry out that you are insulting his beliefs. Historians copy one another, and thus spare themselves toil and escape being thought conceited. Imitate them, and don’t be original. An original historian is an object of universal distrust, scorn and disgust. Do you think,” he added, “that I should have been considered and honoured as I am if I had put any novelties into my historical works? What are novelties? Impertinences.”’ The satirist here has indulged in a little humorous exaggeration, but he sets in a strong light the truth, that to revise history, where the prejudices, to say nothing of the interests, of men are concerned, is hardly less difficult than to revise a theological creed. Not infrequently history is found to be corrupted in its very source. If an original narrative is false or exaggeraetd it may easily happen that the mistatements it contains will be repeated from age to age by a series of uncritical writers, and thus pass into unquestioned, not to say, unquestionable tradition. Count Frontenac, in a despatch to the French Government gave a greatly exaggerated official report of the Lachine massacre. Charlevoix took his word for numbers and details, and Charlevoix’s account has become classic. It is in all the popular histories. But how do we know that Frontenac exaggerated? Through the careful researches of the late Hon. Mr. Justice Girouard in parish registers. Not half the number reported by Frontenac as killed were missing after the disaster. In this case there were motives for misre- presentation. There was the ever-operative motive of trying to im- press the French Government with the dangers to which the colony was exposed, so as to get more liberal supplies in men, money and material; and there was a special motive on the part of Frontenac who had just been sent back to Canada for his second term as Governor, of showing how terrible a calamity had overtaken the colony in his absence. Denonville, the retiring Governor, had just a few weeks before, ordered the abandonment and destruction of Frontenac’s favourite fort of Cataraqui, and this did not help to put the two men, who already differed greatly in temperament and principles, on better terms. Every student of Canadian history will remember Father Roche- monteix’s criticism of the Relations des Jésuites, a series of annals which, on the whole, like the rest of the world, he highly esteemed. He said in effect that they consisted of carefully selected incidents of a particular character and significance, and did not, therefore, correctly reflect the normal life of the country. What the good fathers had mainly in view APPENDIX A LXIII was to interest their countrymen in the work of missions in Canada. From the despatches of Frontenac and the Relations des Jésuites to the Commentaries of Cæsar is a far cry; but, perspicuous and doubtless, in the main, accurate as those famous writings are, it has been said of them, probably with truth, that they ‘‘were primarily intended to serve an immediate political purpose, and are indeed a defence, framed with the most consummate skill, of the author’s whole Gallic policy and of his constitutional position.” A parallel has been drawn be- tween the position of Cæsar in Gaul and that of Clive or Warren Hastings in India; and it is not difficult to imagine that the admini- stration of the distant dependencies of a great empire, under con- ditions very far from static, might give rise to situations in which it would be practically impossible to keep within prescribed bounds, or meet the demands of a public opinion formed at the seat of empire without any sufficient knowledge of local facts. Hence, no doubt, certain reticences and certain adroit turns in official correspondence, which later the historian or the historical critic must only do his best to discern and understand. Look where you will among the men of action and achievement, and the rule will be found to hold that, while they speak from a point of view of great command, and while what they have to tell us is of the highest interest and often of great moment, they do not tell us everything. They tell us what they consider it is good for us to know, and thus prepare the channels in which they think opinion should run. Asa rule the absolute truth-tellers like Pepys and Rousseau have not been very edifying persons; nor has veracity always been illustrated in their daily lives. After all, what is truth? No more puzzling question was ever asked, and the mathematic that will solve it has yet to be invented. In the year 1668 a French writer, La Mothe le Vayer, who had the honour of being associated with the education of Louis XIV, published a treatise entitled ‘‘Du peu de certitude qu’il y a dans l’histoire,” which has been considered by some as marking the beginning of historical eri- ticism in France. Certainly the beginning of wisdom in historical matters is to recognize with that sage writer the little certainty there is in history, as it has often, we may indeed say generally, been written, and its liability to error at all times. It is not impossible, in most cases of importance, to get dates right; and the same thing applies to names and places and all facts expressible in numbers or otherwise narrowed down to a point. The terms of original documents, treaties, charters, laws, edicts, etc., can be reproduced with exactness; inscriptions can be deciphered and more or less correctly intrepreted; manuscripts can be collated, and texts purified; in all such matters a marked approach to accuracy and finality has been made within the last half century. LXIV THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA There are flourishing schools of historical criticism in France, England, Germany, Italy and the United States; and writers are consequently held to a much stricter account for what they give to the world as history than formerly. It was a most inadequate and commonplace view of history that was put forward by the great Dr. Johnson when he said, teste Boswell: “Great abilities are not necessary for an historian; for in historical composition all the greatest powers of the mind are quiescent. He has the facts ready to his hand, so there is no exercise of imagination. Imagination is not required in any high degree; only about as much as is used in the lower kinds of poetry. Some penetrat- ion, accuracy, and colouring will fit a man for the task, if he can give the application which is necessary.” From the modern point of view to say that the historian has the facts ready to his hand seems hardly less than childish. It would be nearer the truth to say that he has no facts ready to his hand; for the careful sifting of facts is his particular duty. And then, what is a fact? At the outset it was remarked that, while it was easy to say that history was a narrative of past events, the terms of the definition might call for a good deal of consideration. So far we have been discussing what goes to the making of the narrative. Now we are confronted with the question, what is a fact? Is there such a thing as a simple fact? If there is I would venture to say it cannot have any meaning; certainly the nearer a fact approaches to absolute simplicity the less meaning it has. Cæsar was assassinated—let us leave out place and date: is that a simple fact? By no means: it affirms the death of a man called Cesar, but it brings on the scene one or more assassins, on whose part are implied motives of hatred, envy, or patriotism according to the view that may be taken of the matter. They may all have been honourable men, or they may have been men who could not tolerate the sight of real greatness. To aman who had never heard of Cesar, and had no idea when or where he had lived, or how or why he had been put to death, the bare assertion of the fact would be wholly unmeaning. A good many years ago, news was telegraphed from the East that the Akhound of Swat had died. No doubt he was somebody; but so entirely ignorant were our western folk of where Swat was or what kind of person an Akhound would be when he was at home, that the announcement struck a clever New York journalist—a Canadian by the way—as surpassingly funny; and having a leisure moment, he wrote a kind of mock threnody on the sad event, which still survives as a jeu d’esprit of more than ordinary note. Just so might the announcement of the death of a European sovereign have struck the swarthy subjects of the Akhound, except that Easterns, not possessing the same exquisite sense of humour that we do, are not so much disposed to ridicule things simply because APPENDIX A LXV they know nothing about them. East or West, however, it remains true that a fact which calls up no other facts is meaningless. The root of the word “about” is “out.” What lies outside of the thing must be apprehended before the inside of it can be understood. As Carlyle says: “Only in the whole is the partial to be truly discerned.” Only through some knowledge of the state of parties at Rome, of the republican traditions of the state, of the civil struggles of the previous thirty or forty years, of Cæsar’s own career as statesmen and soldier, can we have any true conception of the meaning of his assassination by Brutus, Cassius and the rest. Failing such knowledge he is no more to us than the Akhound of Swat was to the man who set thousands laughing over the not essentially ridiculous fact of his demise. The facts of life form a whole, consequently any analysis of them must be more or less artificial. When and where, for example, did the French Revolution begin? When and where did it end? Some doubt whether it has ended yet. We cannot pick an event ora fact off the tree of history as we pick an apple off an apple-tree. The apple will come off by itself, without necessarily disturbing other apples, and, when we get it, we get the whole of it. The fact does not come off by itself, and whole; it is vitally connected with other facts, and just where to sever it is often a troublesome question. This aspect of the matter must have been present to the mind of Carlyle when he exclaimed: “Consider history, with the beginnings of it stretching dimly into remote time, emerging darkly out of the mysterious eternity!’ And again when he wrote: “By very nature it is a labyrinth and chaos, this that we call human history—an abbatis of trees and brushwood, a world- wide jungle at once growing and dying—you will find the fibrous roots of this day’s occurrences among the dust of Cadmus and Trismegistus, of Tubal-cain and Triptolemus...At bottom there is no perfect history, there is none such conceivable. Histories are as perfect as the historian is wise, and is gifted with an eye and a soul.” If the Sage of Chelsea and the author of ‘The Rambler’ have met in the Elysian Fields, they may perhaps have thrashed out this matter of the nature and bounds of history. Carlyle had the advantage of being born nearly a century later than Johnson and, it must be admitted, was much the profounder nature of the two. The great German historian Droysen speaks of the moral world as ‘‘an endless interlocking of actions, situations, interests and passions.” It is clear that, from such an in- terlocking, facts cannot so easily be disengaged. To isolate a fact ab- solutely is almost as impossible as the task which was set Shylock of taking his pound of flesh without shedding a drop of blood. Let two men work independently on the same period of history; give them access to the same documents and other sources of information, LXVI THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA let them agree as to general methods, and let them be as free from pre- judice as is possible for poor humanity, yet will they not tell you exactly the same tale. On some points they will agree, but not in all. “History”, it has lately been said by an able writer, Prof. Henri Berr of the Univer- sity of Toulouse, “is applied psychology.” Each of us has his own psychology, that is to say his own conceptions as to how the mind of man works, as to the relative force of motives, the inward significance of outward actions. These conceptions we bring to bear on our understand- ing of the present, and these we also apply, with a certain allowance for historical parallax, to our interpretation of the past. This is practically Emerson’s view of the matter. The fact nar- rated, he says, must correspond to something in ourselves before it can be credible or intelligible to us. He holds that there is no age or state of society or mode of action to which there is not something correspon- dent in the life of each of us. The business of history is to bring this correspondence to light. As the psychologies of men differ, so will the “ versions they give us of past events differ. Is this a disadvantage? If it were there would still be no help for it; but fortunately we need not so regard it. On the contrary, if different interpretations are given to us, our minds gain in flexibility, in sympathy, in breadth, by entertain- ing, or at least considering, each in turn; nor are we by so doing, debarred from finally adopting the one that suits our own psychology best. But is it not important, it may be asked, that we should know ex- actly how things happened? Is it not possible to get the truth without any admixture of personal elements? It is to be feared not. In the language of the apostle ‘“Habemus thesaurum istum in vasis fictilibus” —‘“‘we have this treasure in earthen vessels.’’ Give us some sublimated spirit, free from all earthly limitations and passions, to write history for us, and perhaps you might get what you want, and yet after all how could spirits of that kind, who knew nothing of human passion, deal with history that is full of human passion? Very different views of the function and the value of history have been taken by different eminent persons. The great Bossuet, in the introduction to his ‘‘Discours sur l'Histoire Universelle,” written, it will be remembered, for the instruction of the Dauphin, son of Louis XIV, says that, even if history were of little advantage to ordinary people, it should still be taught to princes, as the best means of enlightening them as to the passions and interests of men, as to times and seasons, and the respective effects of good and evil counsels. All that history contains seems to be for their special benefit and guidance. It was Lord Bolingbroke, half a century later, who uttered the maxim that history was philosophy teaching by example. The Abbé Siéyes, on the other hand, had no faith in what he called ‘“‘the alleged truths of history’’— APPENDIX A LXVII “les prétendues vérités historiques ;” he thought the past could never be read aright, and that if it could there was nothing to be gained from it. This was also, practically, Jeremy Bentham’s opinion. Not long ago a leading London weekly, referring to the troubles in Ireland, expressed the idea, in an article entitled “The Curse of History,” that it would be a good thing if all history could be wiped out, so that the memory of old feuds might be obliterated. Napoleon described history as a ‘‘mensonge convenu”. Prince Bismarck is stated to have been devoted to history. “In the full maturity of his experience,” says a writer in the Quarterly Review, ‘he delivered himself of the opinion that a properly conducted study of history must be the necessary foundation of knowledge for every statesman; that by this means alone can he learn what is possible to attain in the various transactions with different states; and that the whole of the diplomatic art lies in the capacity for recognising the limits of the attainable.” Carlyle speaks of history as “the true fountain of knowledge, by whose light alone, whether consciously or unconsciously employed, can the present or the future be interpreted or guessed at.” An able writer of our own time, John C. Crozier, a Canadian by birth, but whose home has for years past been in London, England, agrees that ‘‘the present is ever a mystery to us until it is irradiated by some knowledge of the past’’; he contends, at the same time, that while such knowledge may account for the conditions existing to-day it does not really explain those conditions, or point to the line of conduct which is best to pursue under them. To read history, says another—I forget at this moment who—is to travel through time, the knowledge thus ac- quired being analogous to that acquired by travelling through space. The observant traveller and the thoughtful reader will both be the better and the wiser for their excursions. The historian Froude, thinks that it is an abuse of history to try to make it teach any lessons whatever. “If” he says, “Homer and Shakespeare are what they are from the ab- sence of everything didactic about them, may we not thus learn some- thing of what history should be, and in what sense it should aspire to teach.”” It can teach, he holds, simply by bringing us into close and living touch with persons and events. It is a drama, and should be presented as such without hints as to how, in the opinion of the author, it ought to be interpreted. The authors of avery comprehensive article on History in the Grande Encyclopédie, the MM. Mortet, recognize three stages in its develop- ment, the Rudimentary, the Literary, and the Scientific. In the Rudi- mentary we have songs, epics, sagas, legendary tales, narratives which more or less flatter the pride of princes or the ruling class, family annals, inscriptions, &c. In the literary stage which followed, and which was long predominant, history was regarded as a department of literature, LXVIII THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA and was often written as a kind of literary exercise, or to set forth party views or to support this or that system of thought. The accurate and impartial narration of events was a secondary matter. The third or Scientific stage, upon which History is supposed to have entered half a century ago or more, is the stage of careful and minute investigation, conducted on lines suggested by experience and designed to secure the maximum of accuracy and the best possible presentation of the subject in hand. But if history has entered on its final and scientific stage, all minds inthe community have not entered on that stage, and of course, the minds of the young have not entered on it. A vigorous onslaught was made by one of our university professors not long ago on the historical teaching given in the public schools, and especially on the text books. These, he went so far as to ascribe to a very sinister spiritual parentage. To the ears polite of this audience I shall not venture to name the party he made responsible for them. If the Professor was correctly reported, he said that ‘nothing so perplexed him as to know how to deal with the students who came to him, who were actually hindered by what they had learned in that branch.” It follows that it would be better not to teach history at all in the schools than to teach it by present methods and with the present text-books. But if the methods of teach- ing in this particular subject are so bad, and the text-books of so shocking a character, what is the reason? Is anything wrong with the subject? Rousseau, many of whose views on education were sound enough, said that he had learnt history too soon, and that it had given him false ideas. He recommended that the teaching of it should be deferred till the pupil was fifteen years of age. But fifteen years of age in Rousseau’s time would mean seventeen or eighteen in our day, so greatly has the period of childhood been extended. It may be that children are learning too young the kind of history that is presented to them. It may be that greatly abbreviated history is either falsified his- tory or unintelligible history. I almost think one might venture to say that, the more history is abbreviated, the more knowledge of history it requires to make head or tail of it. In which of its three stages, the Rudimentary, the Literary or the Scientific, may we say that history is most suited to youthful minds? In the first, it can hardly be doubted, though in the second it may also have some attractions and impart some benefit. Boys love to hear or read of battles and of victories won by their own side, if they have a side; and it is a bad sign if they have not. Some modern instructors would tell them, “You should’nt be so much interested in battles. Battles belong to a barbarous age; you should be interested in social progress, the development of political liberty, the advancement of the arts and APPENDIX A LXIX sciences.” This good advice, however, simply means, “You shouldn’t be boys, you should be men, and not ordinary men either, but men of “a superior intellectual type.” Such advice is vain: we must take boys as we find them and adapt our teaching to their condition of mental, and even moral, development. It must be confessed, I think, that the conditions existing in a new country are not favourable to the teaching of history, at least to the young, and that may be part of the difficulty to which our professor referred. In an old country signs and monuments of the past abound. In a new country they are rare, and such as exist do not relate to a very distant past. A past in which our grandfathers lived is almost the present. But, in varying degrees, all historic monuments help to create the historic sense, that sense which makes the past real to us, while it widens and deepens our conception of the life of humanity. A German writer, Otto Jager, the author of an excellent handbook on the Teaching of History, is of opinion that decidely the best means of arousing the historic sense is the teaching of Latin, inasmuch as it brings before the mind, as hardly anything else can do, the existence ages ago of a people, greatly different from ourselves, who spoke that language, a people who did memorable deeds, founded a powerful state, had their own political struggles, their own foreign wars, and who subdued nation after nation till, finally, the whole world as then known was subject to their sway. That our own language should be shot through with words and forms of speech which once came warm from the mouths of Cicero and Cesar or flowed from the stiles of Vergil and Horace and Ovid, tends powerfully to give to the Latin language the double character of that which has been and yet is. Once make one past real, our author contends, and all pasts may become real. The tyranny of the present and actual has been broken. All this may be true; for my part I am disposed to think it is true; but if so it simply means that the best mode of approach to history as a study is not open to the great majority of our young people; for it would be vain to think of introducing the study of Latin into the public schools. There is a further admission to be made which will be regarded, I fear, at least in many quarters—as a most damaging one—that history possesses a certain aristocratic character. Where family traditions and records exist the past is invested with a reality which it cannot have for those in whose personal lives it is practically a blank. Has not “ancient history’? become a popular term of contempt? Again, history in its rudimentary stage, as has already been noted, introduces us to kings and heroes, to individuals who stand out from the crowd by the greatness of their deeds and their uncontested leadership. Homer and Shakespeare have both been denounced as incurable and shameless LXX THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA aristocrats; nor has Walter Scott, in times much nearer our own, wholly escaped the same condemnation. History tells of valiant opposition in times past to misgovernment and tyranny; but the opposers were in most cases aristocrats themselves—the barons who brought king John ~ to terms, the Falklands and Sidneys and Hampdens who withstood the exactions of Charles I, not to speak of the Gracchi who championed the rights of the Roman plebs. It cannot be said, however, that its presen- tation of strong personalities renders history unsuitable to engage the attention of the young, for the contrary is the case; it is only as it deals with striking characters and stirring events that it can interest the young at all. At the same time, if its general tendency is unfavourable to democratic ideas, one can understand a certain instinctive, if not con- scious, objection, or at least indifference, to it in communities like our own, in which the profession of such ideas is de rigueur. As regards school text-books a difficulty presents itself in the fact that they are condemned beforehand to be written in a tone of dreary and passionless neutrality, whenever questions are touched upon in regard to which public opinion is divided, and with excessive glorifica- tion of men who have played a prominent part in the country. In works of this class it is not the good that such men have done that is interred with their bones, but on the contrary whatever in their several records might dim their lustre, or offend their partizans of a later day. This applies particularly to countries whose history does not run back very far. When a country reaches a certain age it can afford to have a few scoundrels in the background. But, even in older countries, the weakness referred to is exemplified. ‘Many text-books,”’ says Herr Jager, speaking of the Prussian system of education, “have found it possible to assure our youths that Frederick the Great was really a sound Christian. I do not know (he adds) whether it is quite true that our nation is free from national pride, but I do know that a healthy nation or an intelligent man must be able to endure the truth.” But again, what is truth? Where public opinion is divided, or where, strictly speaking, there is no public opinion worth mentioning, but only conflicting party opinions, what is the man to do who must perforce, avoid offending either side? Doleful complaints have been made by persons who have written school histories with the best intentions in the world, of the ruthless way in which higher authorities have insisted on rectifying the very slightest divergence from the strict median line. Has our Canadian Professor fully considered all these things? It would be a mistake to suppose that the world had to wait till the nineteenth century for any recognition of the true principles of his- torical composition. Changes of intellectual habit do not come in like a Noachian deluge. It would not be far wrong to say that almost every APPENDIX A LXXI sound historical principle has at one time or other been exemplified, if not formulated, by writers of the so called Literary period. Thucydides had not very much to learn from the moderns. In abatement of the claims of Thucydides and Polybius to be considered scientific historians, it has been alleged that their object was to instruct the reader in public affairs. It is not obvious, however, that such a purpose is inconsistent with the scientific writing of history; on the contrary it seems to call for the most scrupulous accuracy in narration, for how can one instruct in public affairs unless he reports public affairs correctly? In the excellent ‘Histoire de la Littérature Grecque”’ by the brothers Croiset it is remarked that a wrong interpre- tation has commonly been placed upon the expression «rqua és cet applied by Thucydides to his own work. It has been taken in much the sense as Horace’s ““Exegi monumentum”’; but it was not in that same spirit at all that the Greek historian used it. What he meant was that he had written with the express object of producing something per- manently useful, not merely temporarily entertaining, and had conse- quently striven to make his history accurate and trustworthy. It is claimed by the writers mentioned that Thucydides knew the value of documents almost as well as the moderns, and that, as an historian, he is neither an Athenian nor a Spartan but a scholar, a savant, He carefully estimates the material forces of the contestants; but, with characteristic wisdom, endeavours also to estimate their intellectual and moral re- sources, on which the utilization of material elements so largely depends. He is disposed to think, indeed, that the most important factor in na- tional life and development is intelligence, oüveois, an interesting word, as it signifies the throwing of things together, or the establishment of relations, which really is the prime task of the intellect. “He does not believe’’, to quote or rather translate M. Croiset, ‘that history is always a lesson of morality. He sees things as they are with- out any optimistic illusions;.......... He recognizes that interest and force, much more than absolute justice, take the lead in controlling events.” In this attitude of mind also Thucydides approaches the modern school. Thomas Hobbes, it is well known, made a translation of Thucydides, which, if not as exact as modern scholarship could have made it, has a terseness and vigour not unworthy of the author of ‘‘Levia- than.” The great Englishman had a boundless admiration for the great Athenian. “If the truth of a history,” he says in his Introduction, “did ever appear by the manner of relating, it doth so in this history, so coherent, perspicuous, and persuasive is the whole narration and every part thereof.’’ Macaulay declared Thucydides to be the greatest His- torian that ever lived. Nothing, we are told by Macaulay’s biographer, put that great writer so much out of conceit with himself as the sense Proc. 1913. 6 LXXII THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA of his inferiority to Thucydides. In brilliancy of style and in range of knowledge Macaulay had the advantage; and in narrative and construc- tive power he was not inferior. Wherein then lay the superiority of the Greek historian? It must be found, I think, in his wider grasp and more complete command of his subject. While Macaulay seeks for telling antitheses, and entangles himself in arguments from which special pleading is not always absent, Thucydides sets forth his facts with unfailing insight and a calm and luminous impartiality. The first is the unrivalled advocate, the second is the consummate judge from whose decision it were rash to appeal. Much as we admire Macaulay, no one sits at his feet: Macaulay himself was willing to sit at the feet of Thucydides. There are, indeed, many evidences that, in the ancient world, his- tory was not wholly sacrificed to literature. Caesar had the narrative art in perfection and, as a record of facts, his work is of high value. It was probably a serious work that Asinius Pollio had in hand, when Horace addressed him thus in the first Ode of his second Book: “You are treating of the civic troubles that broke out when Metellus was consul; of the causes of the war; the faults that were committed; the changing phases of the struggle; the play of fortune; the fatal coali- tions of leaders; and bring before our view weapons still stained with unexpiated blood—a work full of hazard, for your path lies over fires slightly covered by treacherous ashes.’’ Here are surely the main elements of history. The character of Tacitus as an historian has, it must be acknowledged, been much debated. His style was one studiously designed to catch and hold attention; but clearly he had a sound con- ception of the historian’s art. ‘‘Before I enter on my task,” he says, “it is desirable that I should recall what the situation in the capital was at the time; what the disposition of the troops; what the state of feel- ing in the provinces; what was sound, and what unsound, throughout the world at large; so as to show, not only what particular things hap- pend—a matter largely of chance—but how events stood related to one another and from what causes they sprang.”” The Greek Lucian too, a little later than Tacitus, took a right view of the subject when he said: “A writer of history ought, so far as that is concerned, to be a foreigner without country, living under his own law only, subject to no king, nor caring what any man may like or dislike; but setting forth the matter as itis.” If it had not been for the break which came with the downfall of the Roman Empire, the science of history, so far as it is a science, might have been established on firm foundations much earlier than it was. In spite of the concessions we must make, and should cheerfully make, to the Scientific school, I think it will have to be maintained that APPENDIX A LXXIII the great age of history is the Literary age. Omitting the works of the ancients, it was that age which gave us in England the histories of Clarendon and Burnet, of Hume and Robertson, of Gibbon and Macau- lay, of Carlyle and Froude; and that produced in France those of Bossuet and Fleury, of Tillemont and Montesquieu, of Chateaubriand and Thierry, of Thiers and Michelet. In all these, with the exception perhaps of Chateaubriand, a measure, sometimes a large measure, of the scientific spirit is present; and to Chateaubriand much must be forgiven for the flashes of divination which light up so many of his pages, particularly in the “Mémoires d’Outre Tombe.” These writers have all had their respective points of view; but can history, it may be asked, be written to any good purpose, or at all, without a point of view? Some remarks made by Sir Francis Palgrave on this point may be quoted with advantage, “No person,” he says ‘‘can ever attempt this historical enquiry who does not bring some favorite dogma of his own to the task—some principle which he wishes to support, some position which he is anxious to illustrate and defend—and it is quite useless to lament these tendencies to partiality, since they are the very incitements to the labour... I have exerted myself, (he continues) to see the objects before me clearly and distinctly. I have endeavoured to place them in a proper light; and I have approached them as nearly as I could in order to assure the utmost accuracy.......... and, whilst I am most ready to admit that my eyes may often have deceived me, I hope that those who see differently will admit that they also may, with equal unconsciousness on their part, be labouring under a similar delu- sion.” This was written eighty-two years ago, and the advances that have since been made in historical method have not deprived it of much of its force. At the same time the fact cannot be overlooked that some writers are less judicial in their tone of mind than others, and that some import- ant historical works are strongly marked, not to say marred, by bias. In some cases again critics who were themselves decidedly biassed have raised the cry of bias against works far less open than their own to that accusation. What to one man is bias is to another a fair and natural way of looking at things. Bias, after all, when it is honest, is little else than that psychology of which we have already spoken. Of two ways of understanding a character or interpreting events one may commend it- self to one man and the other to another. This is a matter of constant occurrence in the affairs of life, nor do we always accuse of bias those who differ from us, nor do they necessarily so accuse us. There is, however, a kind of bias, if it may still be so called, which goes beyond mere psychol- ogy, and which causes a man to make rather than to adopt conclusions and to colour his narrative to suit the complexion of his own thought. LXXIV THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Macaulay has accused Hume of this in very round terms. ‘‘Hume,” he says, “is an accomplished advocate: without positively asserting much more than he can prove, he gives prominence to all the circumstances which support his case; he glides lightly over those which are unfavour- able to it; his own witnesses are applauded and encouraged; the contra- dictions into which they fall are explained away; a clear and connected abstract of their evidence is given. Everything that is offered on the other side is scrutinized with the utmost severity; what cannot be denied is extenuated or passed by without notice; concessions even are some- times made, but this insidious candour only increases the effect of the. vast mass of sophistry.” A formidable indictment !—one in which some may think a certain exuberance of verbosity is not lacking. Yet who is the accuser? A man who so wrote history as to draw upon himself censure of identical character. “Though he (Macaulay) practised little in the courts,” says Mr. George Saintsbury in his History of Nineteenth Century Literature, ‘‘he had the born advocate’s gift, or drawback, of inclination to suppressio veri and suggestio falsi, and he has a heavy account to make up under these heads.......... It has to be confessed that independent examination of separate points is not very favourable to Macaulay’s trustworthiness. He never tells a falsehood; but he not seldom contrives to convey one, and he constantly conceals the truth.” Yet Saintsbury fully recognizes the magnificence of Macaulay’s achieve- ment considered asa whole. Of his view of the state of England at the death of Charles II he says that it ‘‘may challenge comparison, as a clearly arranged and perfectly mastered collection of innumerable minute facts, sifted out of a thousand different sources, with any- thing in history ancient or modern.”’ Nor have later writers than Macaulay, whose work was done over sixty years ago, always succeeded in maintaining an impeccable impar- tiality. Taine was trained in a very severe school, and was looked upon some years ago as a brilliant exponent of exact historical science: to-day critics are finding fault both with his methods and with his results. His whole presentment of the French Revolution is violently assailed by M. Aulard; while M. Paul Lacombe says that his generalizations are often mere arbitrary abstractions that twist facts all out of shape. The Ger- man Karl Fritzche is very much of the same opinion. I refer to these criticisms, not as either accepting or disputing them, but simply as showing that there is at least no immediate prospect of finality in the results of historical study. At the same time it would be idle to deny that the rules and methods of correct historical procedure have been developed and formulated within the last generation with a completeness and self-evident authority APPENDIX A LXXV never before attained. The old maxim holds that experience teaches. Men have been writing history now for a very long time. In doing so they have been betrayed into innumerable errors and weaknesses. But, just as these errors and weaknesses have been detected, they have called into existence precepts and cautions for their avoidance. History is full of pitfalls for the unlearned and the unwary; but to-day these pit- falls have all, practically speaking, been catalogued and charted, so that any one who wishes to avoid them, and is willing to take the necessary pains, may do so. Another point to be noticed is that the duty of im- partiality is more fully recognized than ever before, and with results wholly beneficial to the interests of historical truth. It is felt that the writer, in order to be fair to the reader, must afford him, as much as pos- sible, the opportunity to judge for himself in all disputed questions, and not merely guide him to an acceptance of the conclusions he has himself arrived at. A Macaulay leaves his reader no option save that of accept- ing his version of things or everlastingly perishing as an enemy of light. A Gibbon has a superbly ironical smile for all who do not believe that the eighteenth century has said the last word in philosophy. The Leckys and Gardiners and Greens, the Sorels, the Hanotaux and the Vandals, of our own day write more as if the final verdict lay with the reader, and it was no part of their business to force opinion either by an overwhelming eloquence, a crushing argumentative assault, or any assumption of superior wisdom and knowledge. The mere avoidance of errors will not of course make a man an historian, any more than the avoidance of grammatical blunders will make him a distinguished writer; for, after he has got his facts right, he must let the world see how he understands and correlates them. A man of less learning will sometimes discover more meaning in facts and put a better construction on them than a man of greater learning. A word to the wise is more enlightening than many words to the foolish. Emile Reich says of specialists that they have a knack of dwelling on trivialities and neglecting the most important facts. The best way to acquire true historical insight, he thinks, is to knock about the world and come into direct contact with the hurly-burly of actual human life, and so to acquire varied and intense sensorial impressions. Ben Johnson said of Shakespeare that he was “naturally learned”; and his wisdom assuredly did not all come from books. Several excellent works on the technique of history are now av.il- able for the student. The one of highest reputation is, perhaps “Bern- heim’s Lehrbuch der Historischen Methode,” of which, so far as I am aware, no English translation has ever been published. Of great merit is also the “Introduction aux Etudes Historiques” of MM. Charles V. Langlois and Charles Seignobos, both of the Sorbonne. Of this an LXXVI THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA English translation has been published. This work carries out ex- cellently the aim announced in the Preface. “We propose here,” say the authors, “to examine the conditions and the modes of procedure, and to indicate the character and the limits of historical knowledge. How do we contrive to learn what it is possible to learn, and what it is important to learn, of the past? What constitutes a document? How shall documents be treated for historical purposes? What are historical facts? How should they be grouped with a view to historical construction?” Beginners, they state, and persons who have never reflected on the principles of historic method, work instinctively on lines of their own, which, generally speaking, are not, in the full sense, logical, and cannot, therefore, give really scientific results. An excellent work on Historical Synthesis (La Synthése en Histoire) was brought out two years ago by M. Henri Berr, of the University of Toulouse, editor of the ‘““Revue de Synthèse Historique.” Too many historians, the author says, have never reflected on the nature of their science, any more than those unenlightened persons (ces profanes) who ask historians to amuse them. The book is technical and philosophical in character, but is of undoubted value to any one who desires to look closely into the logical conditions for the evolution and exposition of historical truth. A more popular book that has lately come into my hands, dealing with the same subject, is one by Prof. J. N. Vincent of Johns Hopkins University, entitled “Historical Research.” It, too, is mainly a series of warnings against the pitfalls of history referred to a moment ago. MM. Langlois and Seignobos raise the question: what constitutes a docu- ment? Professor Vincent cites administrative documents which prove how far ‘‘official utterances” are from being as ‘‘unanswerable’”’ as was supposed by the Captain of H. M. 8. Pinafore. It would be interesting to cite a few illustrative cases, but time forbids. An important section of the historian’s art is treated by the French authors mentioned under the head of ‘‘Heuristique””, a word which may be Anglicised as ‘Heuristic’, and which signifies the art or science of finding (€vptoxev) what you want in the way of documents or other historical material. If we fail to give adequate attention to this division of our labour, any work that we attempt to do will rest on an insufficient basis, and is likely to contain numerous errors, which a wider consultation of documentary sources would have prevented. A history so written would, in these days, expose its author to no little ridicule. Early writers cannot be held to equally strict account, for they laboured under very great disadvantages in this respect. Such documents as existed were scattered here and there and everywhere, and learned men laboriously corresponded with one another, when as. APPENDIX A LXXVII yet the penny post was not, and travel was not only difficult but dan- gerous, to find out what light one could throw on another’s problems. Precious documents would then be exchanged between literary friends, and anxiety would be great for their safe return. Such collections of documents as existed were mostly in private hands; but, as time ad- vanced, public collections began to be formed and public libraries to be established. To-day there are libraries everywhere; each state has its archives; each administrative department has its records; private libraries are making their manuscript treasures available for the student. The age is an age of catalogues and bibliographies and publications of all kinds. If the historian of former days was straitened for lack of material, his successor to-day is more likely to groan under the Pelions and Ossas of information hurled upon him by an unpitying press. The French Revolution led to a great concentration at Paris, au profit de l’état, of documents confiscated in various places. On the whole this has been advantageous to historical science, though the minor centres still grieve over their despoilment. Napoleon had the grandiose idea, we are told, of concentrating all the archives of the world at Paris; and actually did send thither those of the Vatican, of the Holy Roman Empire, and of the Crown of Castile; but later these were returned. Paris is sufficiently ville lumière as it is, without extinguishing all other lights. It would be interesting to glance at the various analytical, critical, and interpretative processes through which the raw material, if the ex- pression may be allowed, of history has to pass before it is ready for the highest constructive uses; but my time limit renders this wholly impos- sible. It will be admitted, I hope, that history on any important scale, or dealing with any important subject, is not an enterprise to be entered on with a light heart, unless a man is an athlete of the schools and some- thing of a philosopher to boot; and, even then, it is better for him not to be too self-confident. Very odd errors will sometimes creep into manuscripts. Far back in the thirties of the last century the London Morning Post had a cor- respondent travelling in Canada, and sending home the results of his observations. In one of his letters from the Kingston district, quoting the prices of various products, he made, according to the record pre- served in our Archives, the strange statement that whiskey was sold at two shillings currency, or one shilling and nine pence sterling, per bushel, and that the land produced from 25 to 30 bushels per acre. This was indeed a land flowing, if not with milk and honey, with a liquid highly appreciated by many, especially in those ante-(spelt with an e) prohibition, and ante-local-option days. That the document from which the copy now in the Archives was made gave the same reading, is indicated LXXVIII THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA by the word sic in parenthesis after “whiskey”. It hardly needs the highest power of the higher criticism to conjecture that the word ‘wheat’? was intended, and that some one or other, perhaps the correspondent himself, having got so far as “wh,” allowed his mind to wander to another word which began with the same letters. A different kind of error entirely is illustrated by the following example taken also from our Canadian records. The French word “obérer’”? means to burden with taxes. It is not a very common word, and, in copying an important public document in which it was used, some ingenious and well-meaning individual thought it must be a mistake, and so substituted the much better known-word ‘‘opérer,” which he felt sure must have been intended. True, ‘opérer’ made no sense whatever, but that is the last thing to trouble some people. That error again has been traced to an earlier. copy. Operations of this kind, it need hardly be said, do not improve manuscripts. Copyists ought to have more faith in their own ignorance, and go to the dictionary before they decide there is a mistake in the original. This counsel is of wide application: there is nothing like the pride of knowledge for leading into error. I am paying the penalty for having taken too large a subject by finding that one or two aspects of it, even meagrely treated, have practically exhausted the time at my disposal; but, if you can bear with me for a few moments longer, I should like to touch briefly in conclusion on the development of history and historical study in Canada. It can- not be said that Canada is rich in historical works. Canadian writers have hitherto confined themselves almost exclusively to the history of their own country. It is not so amongst our neighbours. Parkman has made a specialty of Canadian history during the French period, and to-day, Canadians, English speaking ones at least, are chiefly indebted to him for their knowledge of, and interest in, that portion of our annals. Prescott has written of Peru and Mexico; Motley of the Dutch Republic and the United Netherlands; Lea, an important History of the In- quisition; Lawrence Lowell notable works on “Government and Parties in Continental Europe”, and “The Government of England”. Ex- tensive lives of Columbus, of Luther, of Cavour, of Napoleon have appeared from American pens. I do not of course, lose sight of the vast disparity in population and resources of the two countries thus brought momentarily into comparison; but literary productivity is not always in proportion to population or wealth. The point, I think, is worth noting that, up to the present time, when Canada’s population is rising rapidly to the eight million mark, Canadians can hardly be said to have ventured as yet into the field of general history, save perhaps in occasional university studies or theses. Of the latter class APPENDIX A LXXIX of writings a very creditable specimen, is the essay by Dr. H. M. Bowman, a contributor both last year and this year to the Trans- actions of this Society, on “‘ The Preliminaries of the Peace of Amiens,” a monograph to which flattering reference is made in Dr. J. H. Rose’s well known life of Napoleon. In the field of Canadian History our greatest name is undoubtedly Garneau. When we consider that Garneau’s first edition was published in 1848, and that no work of entirely equal merit has been produced in the succeeding sixty-five years, we see a proof of the truth just hinted at, that literature does not always wait on population. What Garneau possessed in a superior degree was a sense of historical proportion; but he had also gifts of style and the true historical temperament. His work, as a whole, would have done credit to the literature of any country. It bears, perhaps, a stronger stamp of nationality than any other his- torical work of Canadian authorship that can be named; and this may be accounted for by the fact that the story he had to tell had its roots in a comparatively distant past. The French period of 150 years was his not less than the English period of (at the time) something less than 100. Much expectation has been raised by the announcement of a new edition of this Canadian classic, under the editorship of the historian’s grandson. We may trust that it will give us the original work with all its merits unimpaired, with possibly some errors corrected, and anno- tated in accordance with the fuller knowledge of to-day. Christie’s “History of Lower Canada” produced at about the same time as Garneau’s is a work of decided merit, though written from a dif- ferent point of view, and not taking in the French Regime. It is par- ticularly useful for the original documents it embodies. It is not written in as attractive a style as Garneau’s, but it bears the stamp of reflection and of political experience. The author, it will be remembered, was member for Gaspé in the House of Assembly of Lower Canada, and was five times expelled from the Legislature for offence given to the major- ity. Honourable mention must be made of the “Histoire de la Colonie Française en Canada” by the Abbé Faillon, and of the “Cours d’histoire du Canada” of the Abbé Ferland. Parkman has borne testimony to the value of the former, and the latter is deservedly esteemed as a well- arranged and ably written narrative of the period it covers. Both works, it may be said, rest on a basis of wide research and solid know- ledge. Another work deserving of mention is MacMullen’s ‘‘History of Canada from its First Discovery to the Present Time,” which gives in succinct form a very readable narrative of Canadian history down to the era of Confederation. LXXX THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA The most ambitious work on Canadian History so far produced, I need hardly say, is Dr. Kingsford’s. It is a work which, in spite of defects in style and construction, should be spoken of with respect. The industry and good intentions of the author are visible throughout. It is based on a very considerable study of original documents, and deals more comprehensively with the history of Canada—which, however, it only carries down to the Union of Upper and Lower Canada in 1841— than any other work as yet produced. Still, more might have been told in ten octavo volumes than the author has succeeded in doing, had there been more compression in the manner of telling. Economy in the use of words and a keen sense for essentials are among the prime requisites for the writing of history. Our author did not possess these qualities in any great degree; nevertheless his book is a brave and meritorious attempt to place in the hands of Canadians an adequate record of their country’s history. Some useful contributions to Canadian history have been made by the late Mr. J. C. Dent in his “History of the Rebellion in Upper Canada” and his “Last Forty Years,” embracing the period from 1841 to 1881. The style of these works is attractive, and their accuracy can in general be depended upon. Special pains seem to have been taken by the author to render his account of the Upper Canada Rebellion a very com- plete record of facts. So far as I am aware, no equally detailed account has been published of the Rebellion in Lower Canada. A work of unusual interest on account of the original documents, prints, and plans which it embodies, and the acute manner in which certain topographical and historical details are discussed, is “The Siege of Quebec and the Battle of the Plains of Abraham,” in six volumes by Dr. A. G. Doughty, C.M.G., in collaboration with Mr. G. W. Parmelee, the principal author of which our Society is happy to claim as a member. In the field of Constitutional History Canada must be credited with two works of capital importance. I need hardly say that I refer to the elaborate treatises on ‘Parliamentary Government in England” and ‘Parliamentary Government in the British Colonies” produced by the late Mr. Alpheus Todd, in his life time Librarian of the Dominion Par- liament. For the date of the first, we must go back to the year of Con- federation, 1867, and of the second to 1880. Even the second appeared a full generation ago. Again we are reminded that intellectual pro- ductivity is not altogether a question of population. Constitutional histories differ, however, from general histories in that they deal with institutions and the forms they successively assume, rather than with the the human forces that have moulded them. Useful and indeed indis- pensable as such works are, and calling for the exercise of no ordinary accuracy, sagacity and learning, they can hardly be said to represent APPENDIX A LXXXI history at its highest, because they do not represent, do not aim at representing, the full play and stress of human activity. And here mention should be made of another work which, though not partaking of the nature of general history, deals with a subject of much historical importance. I refer to Col. Denison’s ‘History of Cavalry,” first published over thirty years ago, a new edition of which is just issuing from the press. The circumstances under which this work was produced are well known, yet they may properly be placed on record here, the author being a highly esteemed Fellow and ex- president of this Society, which, however, was not in existence when his first edition appeared. A prize had been offered by the Emperor Alexander II of Russsia, so cruelly assassinated in the year 1881, for the best work on Cavalry. This prize was open to all the world, and was keenly competed for by writers of many different nationalities. Our colleague, with the spirit which distinguishes him, saw no reason why a Canadian should not compete; and, competing, he carried off the prize while, it is hardly too much to say, all the world wondered. His book has been translated into two or three of the principal languages of modern Europe, and continues to carry the highest authority. To the credit of Canadian writers must also be placed a certain number of useful and well-written biographies, chiefly, indeed almost ex- clusively, of persons connected with the history of Canada. Such works as the Abbé Gosselin’s “Life of Bishop Laval; Hon. Thomas Cha- pais’ monograph on the Intendent Talon and his more recent work on Montcalm; some of the biographies in the ‘‘Makers of Canada” series; General Robinson’s life of his father, Chief Justice Robinson; Sir Joseph Pope’s Life of Sir John A. Macdonald, to mention a few that occur most readily to the mind, are all deserving of honourable mention. At this moment a very comprehensive work on Canada is in preparation which it is hoped will constitute when completed a valuable addition to the historical literature of our Country.? In speaking of history in Canada it would be a singular omission not to mention the valuable historical essays to be found within the compass of the Transactions of this Society, monographs by such writers, past and present as Wilson (Sir Daniel), Bourinot (Sir John), Brymner, Bryce, S. E. Dawson, Reade, Dionne, Gérin, Gosselin, Jos. Edmond Roy, Sulte, Verreau, to mention only a few, out of many prominent names among our own members. In addition the Society has had the benefit of the 1Of the twenty authors of these biographies not less than twelve are, or were, members of the Royal Society of Canada. 2“Canada and its Provinces,” edited by Adam Shortt and A. G. Doughty, to be completed in twenty-three volumes quarto. LXXXII THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA labours of many persons, not members, who have contributed useful papers upon historical subjects. Throughout the Dominion there are several historical societies of note that have done, and are doing, much to prepare and publish materials for our coming historians; but special mention should be made of the Champlain Society, which is yearly bringing out, under competent and careful editorship, the texts which lie at the foundation of all our early history. Dr. Kingsford to whom reference has already been made was a diligent student in his day of our Dominion Archives. But it is sixteen years since he laid down his pen, and the Archives of to-day have un- dergone a wonderful development since then. Copyists have been busily employed in England and France reproducing official records bearing on the history of Canada, and not official records only, in the strict sense, but large collections of papers in private hands, as for ex- ample the Selkirk and Lansdowne papers, to mention only two prin- cipal fonds, to use the convenient French term. Diligent search has been made meantime throughout Canada for documents and records, printed or written, of value. Originals have been obtained where possible; in other cases copies have been taken. Thus, from many different quarters, have our Archives been en- riched; and any one who should to-day undertake a history of Canada somewhat on the scale of Kingsford’s, would find far ampler facilities and resources at his command than did that industrious writer. And here, it is satisfactory to be able to note that students from our universities have been repairing to the Archives during the long vacation to do research work, and prepare theses for advanced degrees. Most, if not all, of these young men are honour students in the depart- ment of history, and as a rule have chosen their subjects with the ap- proval, or at the suggestion, of their own professors. The Archives are thus brought into close touch with the Universities, an arrangement that seems at once natural and desirable, from whichever side it may be regarded. And now, what will the harvest be? We are surely entitled to look for no scanty or insignificant harvest from measures so well concerted. Culto stat seges alta solo. What should be the dominant note in history? I can imagine some adherent of the straitest sect of modern historical Pharisees exclaiming: “History wants no dominant note: all she has to do is to tell the truth and go her way.” Well, I shall not revive the question already touched upon as to what is historical truth; but shall simply affirm that history, without being for one moment untrue to herself, may yet have a dominant note, and that that should be a note of appeasement. The past has been full of struggle, some effects of which are with us still. History may tell us of feuds and of battles, but history should not, itself, APPENDIX A LXXXIII be a continuation of feud and battle. From an honestly and humanly written history we should rise with a better comprehension of the causes of past conflicts and of the motives of the participants; with compassion for error and all the effects of human fallibility. In a word history may be, and should be, a school of humanity, and that without the least sup- pression or distortion of facts. It has sometimes been made a school of hatred, and that with both suppression and distortion of facts. Let us hope that this is no longer possible. A great Quinquennial Historical Congress was held only last month in London. Men of the highest renown in historical science were there; and it is gratifying to know that, not only was this idea of the possibility of making history serve the pur- pose of healing breaches and cementing friendships, both between nations and within nations, earnestly dwelt upon by the venerable President, the Right Hon. Mr. Bryce, but that it was heartily responded to by other leading speakers. You will listen with pleasure, I am sure, to the fol- lowing words taken from the President’s address: “Truth and truth only is our aim. We are bound as historians to examine and record facts without favour or affection to our own nation or any other..... Seeing that we are, by the work we follow, led to look further back and more widely around than most of our fellow-citizens can do, are we not called upon to do what we can to try to reduce every source of interna- tional ill-feeling?.... As historians, we know that every great people has had its characteristic merits along with its characteristic faults. None is specially blameless; each has rendered its special service to humanity at large. We have the best reason for knowing how great is the debt each one owes to the other; how essential not only to the material development of each, but also to its intellectual and spiritual advance, is the greatness and welfare of the others and the common friendship of all.” I am glad to be able to borrow for the termination of my very im- perfect discourse sentiments and expressions of this high and noble quality, and to know that they will be received by the members of this Society and the friends who are assembled here this evening with no less sympathy and approval than they were by the distinguished audience to which they were addressed. Min a ee di fai Fa RER a ‘ a brew: rT is | us Pire CEE APPENDIX B THE DOMINION ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATORY BY W. F. KING, ©.M.G., LL.D. THE DOMINION ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATORY AND THE BOUNDARY AND GEODETIC SURVEYS. The work of the Observatory has followed the same general lines as in previous years. Astrophysical Division.—In the Astrophysical Division the work on spectroscopic binaries has been actively continued. During the year 525 spectrograms have been made, three orbits, of £ Persei, d Tauri and 8 Coronae Borealis, have been determined, and further observations of @ Aquilæ, resulting in a good determination of the ratio of the masses of the two components, have been made. Observations of Nova Geminorum and other miscellaneous work have also been carried on. In £ Persei the orbit has been obtained from the sharp H and K lines only, whose velocity differs from that of the other and diffuse lines of the spectrum. Ind Tauri a double spectrum shows an unusually large ratio of the masses about two to one. Coronz has only a small range and gives indications that it is a triple system. The decrease in the number of spectrograms made and orbits determined has been in part due to exceptionally bad observing weather but also to the fact that the stars now under observation are fainter and have orbits less easy of determination than previously. It is a great satisfaction to record that the Government has recognized the value of the work done and the need of a larger telescope for carrying it on effectively and extending its scope by authorizing the construction of a large reflector. In this decision it was undoubtedly largely influenced by the Memorial pre- sented by The Royal Society last year. The grating spectrograph mentioned last year was completed and tested and, although not giving as intense a spectrum as was hoped, will undoubtedly be of value when uniform intensity in a spectrum is required and in the violet and ultra violet where it is much superior to prisms. At the same time a Littrow half prism was tested, also giving very promising results. A further fact obtained from the investigation was the great absorption of the prisms in the violet, and a light flint prism , which it is expected will be of great advantage, will beused shortly. The work on the Solar Rotation has also been actively pushed. Two additional series of plates were obtained last summer, and, although the large amount of measurement required is not quite completed, they tend to confirm the results obtained from the 1911 plates. The value of the rotation and of the law of variation with the latitude is practically the same and no systematic difference of velocity for different lines appears to be present. Proc. 1913. .7 LXXXVIII THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA The mounting of the new photographic telescope was completed last year but the building is not quite ready to receive it. When in- stalled it will be used for photographic photometry and photography of the milky way, comets, etc. The objective prisms which are to be used in this telescope were mounted on the equatorial and experiments looking towards the determination of radial velocities by objective prism spectra were undertaken with fairly promising results. Meridian Circle.—Transit and Zenith distance observations have been continued during the past year on a special list of stars comprising mainly those which have been used for latitude observations throughout Canada by officers of the Observatory in recent years. Work on this list was begun in 1911, and such additional stars have been added from time to time as were being used in the field observations. The number of observations obtained during the year, excluding broken nights, was slightly under 2,000 in each co-ordinate. The weather especially during the autumn and winter months, was the worst experienced for vears. Permanent stone buildings, replacing the temporary wooden sheds, have been erected over the piers for the two meridian marks. The underground reference marks have also been placed in position. Time Service.—Time is furnished to the principal Government offices by electrically operated dials of which there are now 326. A new form of synchronization is being installed which will prevent any possi- bility of stopping the synchronized clock by interference with the syn- chronizing current—an advantage not shared by other methods. Time signals are sent out daily at noon (except Sundays and holidays) to the Great Northwestern Telegraph Company. A time-ball on Parliament Hill is automatically dropped as a signal for firing the noon- day gun. There is an arrangement by which the beats of the clock operated through a sounder can be sent out over the telephone to any one requesting the time. Field Observations.—The geographical co-ordinates of only three stations were determined the past year, the stations being in Northern British Columbia. The registering micrometer was used as in the previous years for transits, while Talcott’s method was used for latitude observations. Geophysics.—The two Bosch horizontal pendulums and the Spind- ler and Hoyer vertical were in operation during the year. Ninety- three distant earthquakes were recorded during the calendar year 1912. Monthly bulletins of the records of these were issued to some 75 seismological stations. APPENDIX B LXXXIX From the exchange bulletins received a good many earthquakes were located in their geographical co-ordinates by means of our stereo- graphic tables. An earthquake was recorded and felt in Ottawa on April 28 last, at about 7h. 30m. in the evening. It was felt on both sides of the St. Lawrence from Montreal to Brockville, covering an area of approxi- mately 25,000 sq. miles. In connection with the International investigation of the deforma- tion of the earth by the moon, a subterranean vault was built at Winnipeg. Winnipeg was chosen by the International Seismological Association as one of the four stations to investigate a certain anomaly in the results so far obtained, because it lies about midway between the Atlantic and Pacific, whereby it is expected that the effect of any possible deformation by the ocean tides will be there avoided. For the further study of micro- seisms an undagraph was obtained, which will be installed at Chebucto Head, outside of Halifax Harbour, and exposed to the broad waters of the Atlantic. It will be the first instrument so placed; the first constructed wave-counter was set up at Tynemouth, in more or less sheltered waters. The magnetic survey of Canada was continued and the three mag- netic elements, declination, dip and intensity observed at 60 stations in Quebec, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. Boundary Surveys.—These have been continued in various parts of Canada. The 141st meridian, between Yukon and Alaska was com- pleted and monumented northward to the Arctic ocean. The area lying along the boundary line between the Nunatak glacier and the Alsek river was photographed. From the photographs a topographic map is made. A triangulation was carried down Portland Canal southward 65 miles, and monuments were planted. The survey and monumenting of the section between the Northwest Angle and Lake Superior was begun at the Northwest Angle by carrying out a triangulation and topographical work as far as Comfield and Big Islands. Along the Quebec-Maine boundary, some 48 miles were run and re-monumented. Precise levels were taken, and the topography, a half-mile on each side, obtained. The survey of the St. Croix river was completed, and some triangulation and traverse connected therewith carried out. Geodetic Survey.—Triangulation was carried on in Quebec to the Maine Boundary; in southwestern Ontario, connecting with the U. 8. Lake survey in the vicinity of Lake St. Clair; in the neighbourhood of Belleville; about Port Arthur, eventually to connect with the inter- national boundary survey at Pigeon river; and in British Columbia between Vancouver Island and the main land. A number of triangles XC THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA were closed and were found to be well within the standard of accuracy adopted, viz: the closure of the triangle within one second of are. A very favorable site for a base-line, about 7 miles long, was chosen near Ladner, B.C. On account of the progress made in signal-building in the preceding season, but few new ones were built in 1912 : A reconnaissance party occupied the field west of Port Arthur; and four parties were engaged in precise levelling during the summer of 1912, in New Brunswick, Ontario and Saskatchewan; together completing approximately 1,260 miles of levels. The standard of accu- racy in levelling is maintained within the limits of .017 ft. multiplied by the square root of the number of miles run. APPENDIX C THE METEOROLOGICAL SERVICE OF CANADA BY Re Po SLuUPaARnT, "FR: SC: Director, Dominion Meteorological Service PU. TU tre JU ] at de ove. tlnlntust matelas Seppe _ | E A : | - ; | THE METEOROLOGICAL SERVICE OF CANADA. The work of the Meteorological Service has progressed satisfactorily during the year. The International Weather Map is, as it is becoming better understood, proving of much assistance in maintaining the efficiency of the Forecasts and Storm-Warnings. The increasing number of enquiries from all portions of the Do- minion for the regular and special forecasts, as well as for statistics of climate, shew that the people of this country appreciate the facilities for information which it is the aim of the Service to maintain. Many enquiries have come from other countries also, especially from intending immigrants, and from various firms intending to open branch offices or factories in the Dominion. Research into the conditions in the Upper Air has been carried on, as last year, by means of kites and balloons. Arrangements have been made with the Printing Bureau so that the publications of the Service will in future be issued with greater dispatch. Puysics BRANCH. The exploration of the upper atmosphere by means of kites and balloons was continued during the year. Balloons carrying meteoro- graphs were sent up on the 29 evenings preceding the International days between the Ist January, 1912, and the 31st March, 1913, from Woodstock, Ont.; 16 of these were sent up between the Ist of January and the 6th July, 1912, and 10 of them have been recovered, but out of the 13 sent up during the remainder of the period, only 4 have been re- turned, and all of them travelled a long distance, one being found at La Tuque, near L. St. John, Quebec. The table on next page gives a summary of the results. The kite station at Agincourt has been in operation throughout the year and some good records have been obtained. The highest point reached was about 6,750 feet above sea level. Observations were commenced during the year on the potential of the air. A small house was erected near the centre of the Observ- atory grounds for the necessary apparatus. The potential is measured by a self-recording electrometer designed by Mr. Patterson; this instru- ment gives a continuous record of the potential of the air when used with a collector; the collector consists of a small deposit of polonium on copper, protected from the weather, and exposed at the end of an insulated rod, 8’.6” above the ground and 9’ from the building. XCIV THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA | DATE A B C | D E F | G 1912 | Jan. 31 4.8 |—64.5 | 5.8 |—67.0 S.E. 114 | S 20° E Mar. 6 6:5..1=825. 14 94028 :0 W. 109 EE April 4 7.1, |=86.0 9.9 |—72.0 N.E. 125 |S 50° E May 1 7 NOLO 8.0": |—89"0 N.W. 118: (NS secs June 5 Tid | 6020 SUP ey N.E. 20318 Sacer July 1 8: alt= e50 S.5> 1830 W. 30 | N 65° W age | 8.9 |—87.0 10 27) “283-0 N.E. 53 | N5° W gy 38 = ot TC Or 4070 N. by E. 88 | N 45° E NA | SG ES 0 10.2 |—81.0 E. 37 |S 70° W pi 988- )—=-8or0 11.7 |—76.0 | Straight 28 | N 45° W up Sept. 4 | S27 70) 9.0 =89.0 N.W. 105 |S 60° E Oct. 3 7.1:|=65:0 7.3 |—60.0 E. 332 | N70° B 1913 | | Jan. 1 6711/7820 PO Veni N.E. 490 | N 50° E Feb. 6 5.9 |—62.0 6.6 |—60.0 E. 170 | S 85° EB A.= Height in miles to beginning of Isothermal. B.=Temperature Fahrenheit at beginning of Isothermal. C.=Greatest height in miles reached by balloon. D.=Temperature Fahrenheit at greatest height. E.= Direction balloon travelled at starting point. F.= Distance in miles of point where balloon fell from starting point. G. = Bearing of point where balloon fell from starting point. The past year has been very unsatisfactory for solar radiation observations. These observations can only be obtained on clear days and in consequence there have been very few during the year. The difficulties were further increased by a thick haze that made its appear- ance during the latter part of June and which has not yet disappeared. This has delayed the completion of the comparison of the Callendar Sunshine Recorder and the Angstrom Pyrheliometer which was com- menced in 1911. In March a few hours were obtained one day to make observations, and it is hoped that comparison will be completed in April. MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. There have been no breaks in the Magnetic records at the Agincourt Observatory during the fiscal year ending March 31st, 1913. The zeros of the photographic recording instruments were determined by absolute observations taken weekly for Declination and twice a month for Horizontal Force. Inclination observations were also made weekly with the Toepfer Earth Inductor. The westerly declination has increased from 6° 12’.6 in March, 1912, to 6° 17’.0 in March, 1913. The Horizontal Force has decreased from 0.16181 C.G.S. units to 0.16148 units and the Inclination has increased from 74° 40’.0 to 74° 40.7. APPENDIX C XCV Maenetic disturbances. were of very infrequent occurrence, and on 230 days the Magnetic curves were classified as normal, and on 126 days as being lightly disturbed, whilst only on 10 days were the disturbances of any magnitude. The larger disturbances occurred in the months of April, May, August and September, 1912. In Declination the greatest amplitude recorded was 54’.9 during the disturbance of May the 11th and 12th, 1912, whilst in Horizontal Force the greatest amplitude was 166, and occurred during the disturbance of April the 15th and 16th. The mean diurnal range of Declination varied from a maximum of 12’.1 in August, 1912, to a minimun of 5’.2 in December, 1912, whilst in Horizontal Force it varied from a maximum of 42y in May, 1912, to a minimum of 18y in November and December, 1912. Ninety-two theodolites with magnets attached were compared with the Agincourt Standard Declinometer and index corrections were determined and supplied to the Surveyor General. Assistance was given to Mr. French of the Dominion Observatory in comparing his instruments with the Agincourt Standards both before and after his field work. . An officer of the Meteorological Service, Mr. W. E. W. Jackson, M.A., was assigned to the Hydrographic Surveys Branch for the summer of 1912, to carry on a magnetic survey of Hudson Bay and Strait. The results obtained are given in Mr. Jackson’s paper on ‘Magnetic Observ- ations in Hudson Bay and Strait”? which appears in this number of the transactions. SEISMOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS The Milne Seismographs at Toronto and Victoria have been kept in successful operation throughout the year. Although no very large disturbances have been recorded, still the total number of earth tremors has been greater than usual, Toronto showing 157 and Victoria 150. Of this number four may be considered of a moderate character, and’ occurred on May 6th, June 8th, 10th, and December 9th. The largest range of motion was 10mm. on June 8th. A prolonged series of small tremors at both stations began on June 3rd, culminating in a marked disturbance on the 8th, at 7.55. The Katmai Volcano, Alaska, was in eruption during this period and earthquakes in the region were of frequent occurrence which resulted in much loss of property in that vicinity. We continue to furnish a number of scientific Societies with tabu- lations of all earth tremors recorded, also copies of important seismo- grams. The British Association are gradually increasing the network of XCVI THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA stations throughout the world and in the discussion of the data recorded our Canadian Stations are considered important links in the system. TIME SIGNALS. The usual exchanges of time signals between Toronto Observatory and Montreal, Quebec and St. John Observatories, have been continued throughout the year ending March 31st, 1913, and the time service generally has been carried on without important change. The Sun has been photographed upon all occasions of appearances of sun spots, but owing to the occurrence of the eleven year minimum of spots very few photographs were taken. The camera used was that described in Vol. V, Third Series of the Proceedings and Transactions. Maps of the Sun’s surface 120 millimeters in diameter have also been made daily whenever possible by projecting the image of the Sun upon paper through the 6 inch equatorial telescope. The driving clock of the telescope enables very accurate drawings to be made and the posi- tions of the N-S-E and W points determined, thus giving the necessary data for positions of the Sun’s axis and equator and adding valuable aid to the photographs. The months of November, December, 1912 and January, February and March 1913, were remarkable for the almost complete absence of Sun spots. PHENOLOGICAL PHENOMENA, CANADA, 1912. The following report of Phenological Observations in Canada during 1912 has been prepared br Mr. F. F. Payne of the Central Office, Toronto. “In 1912 when the Departments of Education of several of the Provinces and other institutions had kindly offered their assistance, great hopes were entertained of a large increase in the number of ob- “servers of phenological phenomena. Forms for recording observations were sent to several hundred school teachers and others in all portions of the Dominion, and it was suggested that the collection of the statistics asked for might be made part of the nature study carried on in many of our schools. A number of new observers were added to the list in this way, but as several of the older observers discontinued and as the total number of observers outside of Nova Scotia was only 61, the result was somewhat disappointing. In the province of Nova Scotia where the Superintendent of Education, Dr. A. H. Mackay, is a botanist great interest in recording phenological phenomena by the teachers aided by the school children has been fostered, and phenochrons giving averages APPENDIX C XCVII for the various districts or regions into which the province is divided, has been kindly supplied for this report by Dr. Mackay.” “Tt will be noticed that the list used for collecting data from all portions of Canada contains only common or well-known plants, etc., which are widely distributed, the object being that the dates of flower- ing, etc., which agree fairly with the Meteorological changes may be compared.” “The statistics from Nova Scotia are numbered separately, and owing to the extensive co-operative system of observing in this pro- vince, the names of observers are not included in the following list.” LIST OF STATIONS AND OBSERVERS: SHIRTS MASSE EE RE Alberni, B.C. JET ON GUS (OY OR ene PRE Re Armstrong, B.C. Vveilivamas Stale sa AR Cie Lie Creston, B.C. PCO mma Wes fo Otte ts Ween say OA ee lges Enderby, B.C. SE oN GITGH Gein Nuts dete Deena ea Keremeos, B.C. NRA Er MP Sa SRL ies Princeton, B.C. SCAN UE tonal crea it MR Quesnel. B.C. Gordon er rOWwh see. eo EE NS Robson, B.C. Bae com DEN AMEN we Pe EGA oaks Rossland, B.C. ee elonsOlte shes a i un, rs Salmon Arm: Bi: CRAN AIRE RENE ne as nr. 0 Yo Prouhalem, B.C. PDO GAMES Le ee 2... Waldo®B:C: Calgary Natural History Society...........Calgary, Alta. CANIRONES MAL APRES. Oe Rare Re Bashaw, Alta. DES Wir RL On hei; ec): i oy oka 54 ali AN ANS SD ESS (Ss to a a ee EEE Rodino, Alta. Phos BW + Pee ov ees +... Wantefield “Alta: MR MERE ee doutes nu Walmer “Altar Ba MCmohE LR MR eau. Alameda, Sask. HEC MERE EME SN OR Ce NE Are Brewer, Sask. INR ORNE RENAN tne res Coxby, Sask. RE Catena EE Le Ne RQ Fort Qu’Appelle, Sask. Close LATE eae Ce ee eee Indian Head, Sask. J: Stewartoy one 7,1 7 > .)hewvali, Sask. CNW: Taivilettene mera ner tier Goede Ghee’ Mistawasis, Sask. Miss Anmie MeeWiacibeads ne ic. <2 sees Oxbow, Sask. NV). El. POrkiinpeemmn tree tole os te Prince Albert, Sask. Willian ivy eerie, in Aes Sica Son Almasippi, Man. NPC EL- EVER Re et uk Isabella, Man. LPS CET MAN SE à LL ONE SERRES Cartwright, Man. XCVIII THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA BÉRSCRAS ET 702101: NN QADE PIRE tee NE SERRE GEI RATE Im Creek, Man. MT Hollande 0e Oe hse Tong aia yeni AGORA: 2,28 405 Sa tee dbs 2022 Oakbank, Man. ye ie NV STB. lu ds Amor ae one Oak Bluff, Man. Dr. My Speechi + sis ees eee eee Pilot Mound, Man. Jas.:D.Plaice: Shaye divs NE SEE eee ae Rapid City, Man. Norman: Criddle: 7.90... 4-3)... St Albans” Man: John Hollingworth. ..0..... 06. sue+....\. Beatrice, Ont. À ETS) MES thes SU USER Le IN sewage aps Mele: QE Cottam, Ont. Bs Je GC EC ON A ete et Le Edenvale, Ont. Miss Smith sud ae Atm eM ae Me earth 2 Frankford, Ont. É:Savase and Pails Es AN Une dr at Hamilton, Ont. PPOs sae HELICES sae site) lV alia ie dit be Jarvis, Ont.‘ WE Me Womalec ss ah a eee ayer en Lucknow, Ont. Charles one Re TA nee (Etes Madoc, Ont. Win PS eG poy.) LR Re Ida AO Miss A: Dawson use re LE Ompah One Lo LOR A ssf kes ie Reese Port Dover, Ont. Miss Annie M. Thomson...... Mrs. M. A. Eberhardt and Pupils......... Miss larme: Miller ce el FH, PANNE de ck hy Amik, mec AA ANR .. Queensboro, Ont. .St. Catharines, Ont. Simcoe, Ont. . Toronto, Ont. DAV Mic eeniaie: | deca es i ree ne eee \bitibi, Que. A. 8. Ogston and Dr. Brittain.............Macdonald College, Que. Rey. tr MA Ibemcr.jne vit ieee ee tae. yA, Ree ome Bis Vs OLA aoe ete, 4. Some, a NEA Westmount, Que. COR PI OUD TLS ss abl eae UR nid ea Alma, N.B. Ris AON ic. ac heb a Sheen ee te Ces ae dee Centreville, N.B. W:.-M:Robertson men os rate nn Chatham, N.B. L. Di; Jones, rs ta nes ae bad ne CE Dalhousie, N.B. Dk TPR eee a es eae ee Fredericton, N.B. 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BY A. McGILL, B.A., B-Se., LL.D., F.RS.C. Chief Analyst PI 1e UN TVAL TMS 21 PU ‘on 2 FEDERAL INSPECTION OF FOOD AND FERTILIZERS IN CANADA. ’ Among the more important changes since my last report to this Society may be mentioned :— I. THE REORGANIZATION OF INSPECTORAL DISTRICTS. DEPARTMENT OF INLAND REVENUE, Orrawa, September 10th, 1912. Sir :— I beg to inform you that by an Order in Council dated the 30th August, 1912, the undermentioned Districts have been established in connection with the administration of the ““Adulteration of Food Act,” VIZ. — NOVA SCOTIA The whole Province. P. E. ISLAND The whole Province. NEW BRUNSWICK The whole Province. QUEBEC Which comprises the City of Quebec, Montmorency, Charlevoix, Chicoutimi, Saguenay, Levis, Dorchester, Bellechasse, Montmagny. L’Islet, Kamouraska, Temiscouata, Rimouski, Bonaventure and Gaspé. THREE RIVERS Which comprises the City of Three Rivers and the Counties of Terrebonne, L’Assomption, Montcalm, Joliette, Berthier, Maskinonge, Three Rivers and St. Maurice, Champlain, Portneuf, Vercheres, Riche- lieu, Yamaska, Nicolet, Lotbiniere. MONTREAL The City of Montreal and the Island. CXVI THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF.CANADA EASTERN TOWNSHIPS Which comprises the City of Sherbrooke and the Counties of St. Hyacinthe, Bagot, Sherbrooke, Stanstead, Drummond and Arthabaska, Megantic, Rouville, Richmond and Wolfe, Shefford, Compton, Brome, Beauce. VALLEYFIELD Which comprises the Counties of Argenteuil, Two Mountains, Vaudreuil, Soulanges, Beauharnois, Laprairie, Napierville, St. Jean and Iberville, Missisquoi, Chateauguay, Huntingdon, Labelle, Chambly, Glengarry, Prescott. OTTAWA Which comprises the City of Ottawa and the Counties of Russel, Carleton, Stormont, Dundas, Grenville, Brockville, Leeds, Lanark, South and North; Renfrew, South and North; Wright and Pontiac. KINSGTON Which comprises the City of Kingston and the Counties of Fron- tenac, Lennox and Addington, Hastings, East and West; Northum- berland, East and- West; Peterborough, East and West; Durham, Victoria and Hailburton and Prince Edward. NORTHERN ONTARIO Which comprises the Counties of Nipissing, Aleoma, Hast and West; Parry Sound, Muskoka. TORONTO Which comprises the City of Toronto and the Counties of Simcoe, East, North and South; York, Centre, North and South; Ontario, North and South. HAMILTON ; Which comprises the City of Hamilton, and the Counties of Halton, Peel, Wentworth, Lincoln, Welland, Haldimand, Dufferin, Grey, North, South and East; Bruce, North and South; Brant, Brantford, Welling- ton, North and South; Waterloo, North and South. APPENDIX D CXVII WINDSOR Which comprises the City of Windsor and the Counties of Norfolk, Oxford, North and South; Middlesex, East North and West; Lambton, East and West; Elgin, East and West; Essex, North and South; Kent, East and West: Perth, North and South; Huron, East, South and West; London. MANITOBA The whole Province. SASKATCHEWAN The whole Province. Aas IR A The whole Province. ROCKY MOUNTAINS Which comprises Nelson, Fernie, Revelstoke, Rossland, Trail, Grand Forks, and extends as far as Kamloops to the West. VANCOUVER Which comprises the territory west of Kamloops to the Coast. VICTORIA The Island of Vancouver. CXVIII THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA II.—Standardization under Sec. 26 of the Act:— | Published In force Maple Products; G994 hse. kato ee. NOV. (8hI9I EN or. Sez ane (This cancels G. 961) Edible Vegetable Oils; (G. 1002)...............| April 9,1912 | May 13, 1912 Lurpentines CLUB 5s): yen sade eet eee ET June 6) 19125 ie eee eee Lard; G. 1040 (Amending G. 931)............. I OCts 22" 10121) sicko 2a eee Erith Producer tcc, MEL Oct. 29,1912 | Nov. 25,1912 Flavouring Extracts (G. 1045).......:......... Oct. 29,1912 | Nov. 25, 1912 Ganned Peng CG AIDAG 7 ea eee on wee Gee Oct. 29,1912 | Nov. 25, 1912 Honey; G. i047 Lane AT cee dee. | Oct. 29,1912 | Nov. 25, 1912 Arsenic—limits in foods, ete. (Gi 1048. ....4} Nov. 41912. | Nov: 25.0912 II.—The establishment of Regulations (G. 1051) to govern Examinations for Certification as Public Analyst under Section 9 of the Act, or as Food Examiners under Section 10. IV.—The following Bulletins have been published since my last report: — No. Sam ple 2297 PAC IMAG ONE UE CCG pate: |. Meee oe nen om head 77 Gai ICanneds Corn. kasd RR Ab One Fr NAA are ce ee ee eS 146 7 Herbiers asisoldes eet are a tee Eh eina, ln oo ds 161 Soo Maple Syrup (Asstudyson)ic p50.) gaae te sot os = Saya aie 456 9 COILS ON OTIS UE RE A Ror nt eR, a eee 152 231 | Stock Feed, Bran, Shorts, Chop Feed.................... 298 230 Hondache Om IE ec CN cs BO ka en ete ae 150 232 Coca-Cola Syrup. . BH he PE RIP corer AP US EE eet Cle NO fe 3 Marine ladite ume 154 4 SDL OMINICTOUSIEGNEL EE RCA EURE Ais fe ee 74 5 WADCDAT apne ator ones Ee ma nape omen el eet eee 151 BA aroun Gin PONT + ens eagle sah RES 151 if LÉ de een Fier esky red, ker, ats RE ee NES Re PR At iis à 268 8 (EU nee MS eee D ACL Pe CP A FRE Le got ae ee 157 9 |) Gder andere AE ne ee SR AR Rs 69 40 BAIE ONE ER eure EE rie re Un ARTE TR 150 1 Registered Stock F AN Fi ee CT UC TE 138 2 Fortilizer mspecion:<:\ ME ES ee nec ee 324 @ | Cacpas s KOHOGOLGLES NET dan 0 ce «ee eee 252 f TU AMIS? 64 oc yc args eee A ee ee 158 6) Vanilla Flavouring ete PT UC SO 6 Canned T OmiahOes =. sex eur ca a en RTE 140 He MDG EBC vecsaire camel es sey Re Lo ae Rte eee ene 141 Soi round binek-Peppen ER SAR AR RAR A CRE 280 9 DO BOIS ete nat Lan Pal Rte de CE SO 200: 2Gronnd Witte Pamper) ei: sis ck aden te RRQ teas ae 273 t | No permanent additions have been made to the analytical staff during the year. APPENDIX E MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATIONS OF CANADA BY E. E. PRINCE, LL.D., F.R.S.C. Proc. 1913. 9 LA “ah Ul vial al 5 { a ' à LEE Gén tabl cb OEE AU iy 7" > Py 7 AL iv | 2 Pe 1 (à 4 ‘5 } ‘ { ag e bale, a fig) dé à ty ON eh eee ih f ia ie ae tas Wa gta i! ' ty ae itd | THE BIOLOGICAL STATIONS OF CANADA The Biological Board of Canada, which was reorganized and placed upon a somewhat independent basis by act of Parliament (2 George V. cap 6, 1912) has charge of the work of the three stations situated at St. Andrews, N. B., at Go-Home Bay, Georgian Bay, Ont., and Departure Bay, near Nanaimo, B. C. The Board, which is under the control of the Hon. the Minister of Marine and Fisheries, Ottawa, consists of representative members ap- pointed by such Universities as may be sanctioned, who are actually engaged in the work of biological research, and at present includes Professors from McGill University, Montreal, the University of Toronto, Dalhousie University, N. S., Manitoba University, Laval University and the University of New Brunswick, with two members appointed by the Minister. During the past year each Station has successfully carried on important researches, special prominence being given to investigations more or less intimately bearing on the fishing industries of the At- lantic and Pacific and the Great Lakes. ST. ANDREWS, N. B. No less than fifteen original workers occupied tables at St. Andrews, the Curator in charge being Dr. A. G. Huntsman of Toronto University, and covered an extensive field of research during the season, including experiments of various kinds of bait, many of them baits not tried by the fishermen or usually used by them, also studies of the mode of escape of small lobsters from traps with various widths of open spaces, a continuation of the food of fishes, an elaborate examination of parasitic Myscosporidia parasitic on fishes, determination of annelids, many of which form of sustenance of valuable table fishes, and various alge and botanical studies. Professor Bailey continued his work on the distribution and abundance of diatoms on the Atlantic Coast with reference to oyster food and oyster culture. Professor Conolly, St. Francis Xavier College, engaged in marine botanical work and Professor Willey, McGill University, studied the plankton and larval stages of asteroid and copepod forms. Dr. Huntsman completed some faunistic labours in addition to labor- ious duties, dredging, townetting, etc., and directing the staff, and reports that the list of marine species of animals in the Bay of Fundy waters recognized and secured already exceeds eight hundred. CXXII THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA A new steamer for biological work is under constraction to replace the “Sagitta’’ which has proved inadequate for the Station’s work. The library has been added to, and the boarding facilities for the staff have been greatly improved. DEPARTURE BAY, B. C. The staff during the season 1912 was smaller than in 1911 when important work was carried on by Miss Pixell, Bedford College, London, England, by Mr. F. A. Potts, Fellow of Trinity Hall, Cambridge, Eng- land, and by Dr. Stafford of McGill University, in addition to Pro- fessor McMurrich, Toronto, and Dr. McLean Fraser and Mrs. Fraser from Iowa University. The lamented death of the accomplished Curator, Rev. George W. Taylor, F.R.S.C., necessitated the appointment of a successor to reside at the Station and Dr. McLean Fraser, accepted the position and in spite of the fact that only occasionally were dredging trips possible on Government steamers, and on a small gasoline yacht hired for the occasion, he has done a large mass of valuable work. Before Dr. Fraser took up the duties, Professor McMurrich, of Toronto University, acted as Curator and actively pursued marine re- searches besides taking a lengthy trip on the D.G.S. “William Joliffe” to the northern halibut fishing banks. Professor McMurrich has completed some very important re- searches on the life-history, habits and peculiar features of the salmon of British Columbia, and has made progress with similar investigations into the life of the halibut and the evidence of age attained by these fishes. The signs of depletion of the halibut supply in Hecate Straits, and the decrease of Salmon in B. C. rivers render Professor McMurrich’s results of vast practical importance. Various distinguished visitors have called at the Station and the British Columbia Academy of Science made a special trip from Victoria, and a numerous party from Friday Harbour Biological Station, Puget Sound, under the control of the Washington University, Seattle, made a visit, and the numerous com- pany of scientists attending on each occasion, expressed themselves as delighted with the position and the research facilities of the Station. GREAT LAKES STATION, ONTARIO Another profitable session was accomplished by the staff of the Georgian Bay Station, Go-Home Bay, near Penetanguishene. Dr. E. M. Walker, of the University of Toronto, fulfilled the duties of Curator, APPENDIX E CXXIII and he was assisted by Mr. T. B. Kurata, of Toronto, as preparateur. Mr. A. D. Robertson, Fellow in Biology, Toronto, completed his two years’ investigation of the Moiluscan fauna of the Bay, and his volumi- nous report with a series of splendid illustrations, is in the hands of the Board. Professor W. T. MacClement, Queen’s University, occupied him- self with the study of aquatic algæ, especially fungi, and the Sapro- legnaccæ were given particular attention. Mr. Wadehouse took up the crustacea, hydrachnide and neurop- teriod larvæ, forming part of the food for fishes. Mr. A. R. Cooper, Fellow in Biology, Toronto, continued his work on fish parasites, especially the Trematodes, Cestodes, etc., while Mr. H. T. White, Science Master, Brantford Collegiate Institute, devoted himself to the Polyzoa of the Go-Home District. Miss Penson and Mr Klugh of Queen’s University, collected and studied fungi, and the latter assisted Mr. Robertson in his Molluscan researches. Dr. Walker completed his elaborate investigations on the seasonal occurrence and ecological distribution of dragon-flies and other aquatic insects. The abundance of fish depends in a measure upon the larval and other stages of water insects and Dr. Walker’s report will have a very practical bearing on the fisheries. Dr. Bensley has put in final form his studies of the fishes of Geor- gian Bay, and his very full report on nearly fifty species, belonging to 37 genera and 20 families is of unusual importance and illustrated by a fine series of photographs of fishes. A new volume of “Contributions to Canadian Biology” forming part IV. of the series issued under the Biological Board is now nearing completion and embraces twenty papers embodying part of the re- searches carried on by the staff during the last three or four years. It will include a large number of scientific plates. It may be added that a number of important scientific memoirs by workers from England and other countries have been published during the last twelve months, in German and British journals, two papers being published recently in the Quarterly J ournal of Microscop- ical Science, one paper in the Zoological Society’s Proceedings, London; one in the annals of Natural History and the Cambridge Philosophical Proceedings and one valuable paper in Spengel’s Zoologisch, Jahrbuch 1912, all these papers containing results of researches at the Canadian Biological Stations. la Ns ‘ MAX iG de © 4 » DA nu f (ig à Mile “eo an hy AL ée ' et | ' er ML iy toits 4! le ‘ hy fl nie. APPENDIX F DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR FORESTRY BRANCH BY R. H. CAMPBELL “oY Bawaeeis The Forestry Branch of the Department of the Interior is carrying out a number of different lines of investigation as follows:— FOREST SURVEYS. Each year parties under charge of a forester and consisting mainly of undergraduates of the School of Forestry are sent out to examine lands which are timbered to obtain information in regard to the quan- tity and quality of the timber and to ascertain what tracts are of non- agricultural character. Seven parties were sent out last year. Much interesting information is being obtained by these parties in regard to the distribution of the different species of trees in the districts covered; the character of the forest and the conditions which affect tree growth. The natural conditions are altitude, precipitation, drainage and soil conditions. The effect of altitude is most markedly shown in the Rocky Moun- tains and in British Columbia. In the Rocky Mountains the Engle- mann spruce, (Picea englemanni), Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga mucronata), and lodgepole pine (Pinus murrayana), are found in the lower altitudes, and as the altitude rises these are replaced by balsam fir (Abies lasio- carpa), limber pine (Pinus flexilis), white bark pine (Pinus albicaulis) and Lyall’s larch (Larix Lyallii). The amount of precipitation is an important factor in many dis- tricts and the effects of a small precipitation is particularly marked in districts like the dry belt of British Columbia where a scattered growth of western yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa) is the most marked character- istic of the landscape. Drainage has the most important effect on the character of the forest and this is well marked in the northern districts where there are very large areas of muskeg. On the borders of the rivers and streams which are well drained there are fringes of white spruce (Picea alba) generally of good size but almost immediately when the bank of the river is left the muskeg con- ditions begin and the growth thereon is black spruce (Picea mariana) or in some cases tamarack (Larix americana). The growth of the trees in these muskegs is very slow and the possibility of reproduction of tree growth on them as a commercial venture is very poor. The growth is slow on account of the covering of moss keeping the soil cold and also on accounnt of the humic acids preventing the trees taking advantage of the moisture which surrounds the roots. CXXVIII THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Many ecological investigations of a similar interesting nature will be carried out by such parties. It may be noted also that the larch sawfly (Nematus erichsonii) which caused such great destruction of the tamarack in eastern Canada has been found in the last two years working in the forests of Manitoba. Forest REPRODUCTION. While the forest may be reproduced by growing trees in the forest nursery and planting them out in the forest the method which will most generally be adopted in Canada owing to the great extent of our forest lands is to allow nature to do the work by distributing naturally its seed supply. The investigation of the ssupply of seed and the con- ditions that affect reproduction are therefore most interesting and con- siderable attention has been given to them. A special bulletin entitled Forest Conditions on the Rocky Mountains, by Mr. T. W. Dwight, Assistant Director of Forestry, dealing with this question was issued during the past year. : As is well known, the supply of seed varies very much from year to year and it is only at intervals of three or four years that most of the coniferous trees at least have very large crops of seed. Consequently the period of rotation of the good seed years has to be investigated so that provision can be made for carrying on operations so as to give the best opportunity for the scattering of the seed supply.. For instance, the year 1911 produced a very plentiful crop of seed of the spruce trees, while last year the crop was quite scanty and probably will be for an- other year or two. The investigations in this matter must also include a study of the condition of the soil is best suited for the germination of the seeds so that timber operations may be carried on with the object of leaving the ground in the best condition for reproduction. The seed will as a rule germinate much better if it comes in contact with the mineral soil and it may be necessary to assist this by opening up the forest in a proper way and by disposing of the debris of lumbering operations so as to leave the soil open to the seed. This also involves carrying out the lumbering operations in sueh a way as to leave trees which will furnish a supply of seed and distribute it properly. One of the difficulties in selecting seed trees to be left is that trees grown in the forest are not strongly rooted and if left isolated are easily thrown by the wind. The trees to be left must also be so distributed that the seed may be carried by the prevailing winds over the area which it is desired to have reforested. In most cases the group system would be the one most likely to be adopted in Canada although on higher ridges and mountains slopes it might be necessary to adopt the strip system. APPENDIX F CXXIX YIELD TABLES. One of the most important matters in the science of forestry is to work out the yield which can be obtained from any tract of timber through a series of years, carefully calculating the cost of protection and administration so as to determine what the final products and profit will be. Studies have been made of a number of the Canadian species although such studies are not sufficiently complete to enable thoroughly reliable yield tables to be worked out. Considerable in- formation of value in regard to the rates of growth of different species and different locations have however been worked out. Considerable of this information was published in a bulletin by Mr. J. R. Dickson on the Riding Mountain Forest Reserve and in a bulletin by Mr. H. R. MacMillan on Conditions in the Crow’s Nest Valley of the Rocky Mountains. On the Rocky Mountains Englemann spruce at thirty years of age was found to average 3.8 inches in diameter at breast height, and to be 32 feet in height. At ninety years it was 12 inches in diameter and 86 feet in height, and at one hundred and thirty years it was 15.7 inches in diameter and 102 feet in height. Lodgepole pine at ten years of age was 3.2 inches in diameter and 23 feet in height, and at ninety years was 11 inches in diameter and 80 feet in height. Douglas fir at thirty years was 2.5 inches in diameter and at one hun- -dred and ten years was 12 inches in diameter. In the Riding Mountain Forest Reserve white spruce at thirty years of age was 2.4 inches in diameter and 16.5 feet in height; and at ninety years it was 12.2 inches in diameter and 64 feet in height. Black spruce at thirty years of age was .3 inches in diameter and 5.6 feet in height. At one hundred years it was 7.1 inches in diameter and 42 feet in height. Jack pine (Pinus banksiana) at thirty years of age was 5.4 inches in diameter, and at one hundred years was 12.6 inches in diameter. FIREs. Fire is the chief influence which interferes with the natural re- production and growth of the forest and it is a very interesting question to investigate what the effect of fire is on the stand of timber. For in- stance, in the Crow’s Nest Valley in the Rocky Mountains the original stand of timber was 70% spruce, 25% pine and 5% Douglas fir, but the reproduction which now occupies the ground after recurring fires is 90% pine, 8% spruce and 2% fir. Factors that would affect this change in the compilation of the stand would be the exposure of the soil, the quantity and frequence of the seed crop, and the adaptability of different species for germination under varying conditions. This gives a great advantage to the lodgepole pine on the Rocky Mountains under ordinary conditions. À t ie . * ul | ‘ $ P £ L i | f i 7 hogy ’ be ‘i | ! à i i - 4 d Pur hij in à iy i i Te: j 7 « ; i ANAT pi lé nai + = ? i} Trait ‘ j ! ¢ (1 a OE 7 ‘ao i) à i i i a rl ; Lo { # A - a ba L 0 tie ‘4 . A LU] hy e A iv iugrinal® Ads r j ii ikea ve @ oT ial ) a à U À ¢ =f 1 a ee DP @. FON . il2r Cue i it ny L un 2 ñ " am UL { : Mr ¥e enr conne! . del; | UT jij ee i oe) i ee DETTE a) ine) RTE mm OMR Go Savior fi rer E as NOR te vee is vw Gi je? neg ri, CP APPENDIX G REPORTS OF ASSOCIATED SOCIETIES bo THE We tia APSR thr Wi Bh, Ls i ~ I.—Rapport de la Société Historique de Montréal. Présenté par ABBÉ Naz. Dusors, Président et délégué. La Société Historique de Montréal, dont la fondation remonte a un demi-siècle, peut à bon droit se flatter d’avoir fait jusqu’ici œuvre utile soit en publiant divers travaux historiques du plus grand intérét, soit encore en précisant d’avantage certaines données de notre histoire nationale. M. le Commandeur Jacques Viger était donc bien inspiré, lorsque, le 11 avril 1858, il réunissait—probablement chez lui—MM. J. U. Beau- dry, plus tard juge de la cour supérieure; G. Baby, avocat, puis juge de la cour d’appel; R. Bellemare, L. H. A. Latour, pour y jeter les bases de la Société Historique de Montréal, incorporée l’année suivante par un acte de la législature. Cette fondation—l’une des premiéres du genre en Canada—dotait la région de Montréal d’une institution importante, réalisant de la sorte les vœux de ceux-là qui à cette époque comprenaient si bien toute l’im- portance des études historiques, Le but que poursuit la Société Historique de Montréal est claire- ment défini dans le préambule de sa constitution, ainsi que l’indique l’extrait suivant: “S’il est important pour un pays d’avoir son histoire écrite, il ne l’est pas moins que cette histoire soit exacte, fidèle et complète. Per- suadés de cette vérité et témoins à chaque instant des omissions et des erreurs qui se glissent dans la relation des faits historiques du Canada, et considérant la nécessité de ne point laisser prendre racine à des er- reurs, qui, souvent répétées, finissent par supplanter la vérité, les sous- signés se sont réunis en association sous le nom de ‘Société Historique de Montréal,” pour travailler à dissiper ces erreurs au moyen de docu- ments authentiques.” “Leur objet est d'acquérir la connaissance des antiquités cana- diennes, et par la recherche des matériaux épars dans les archives des différentes parties du pays, et par la publication de leur travaux, de rétablir l’histoire dans toute sa pureté;....” Rechercher et publier tout ce qui pourra jeter un nouveau jour sur notre histoire, afin de rendre plus facile et plus sûre en même temps la tâche de ceux qui écrivent, telle est donc, en somme, la mission que s’est imposée la Société Historique de Montréal. Mais, pour la réaliser sûrement, cette mission, elle devrait compter avant tout sur des mem- bres disposés à travailler, ou capables de seconder ceux qui travaillent. CXXXIV THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Aussi les membres fondateurs cherchérent-ils dès lors à s’associer autant que possible les personnes qui, par leurs études ou leur travaux anté- rieurs, par leur position sociale et par leur richesse plus ou moins grande en livres ou en manuscrits, pouvaient étre d’un précieux concours pour la Société Historique. Ils ne furent pas déçus dans ce travail d’or- ganisation, car les adhésions les plus encourageantes venaient chaque jour les confirmer d’avantage dans leur patriotique dessein. On se mit sérieusement à l’œuvre, chacun faisant part aux autres, au cours des séances, sinon régulières du moins fort intéressantes tou- jours, de ses réflexions, de ses observations personnelles sur tel ou tel fait historique ou bien à propos de quelque personnage important, appartenant particulièrement à l’histoire: Ces faits et ces personnages demandaient, les uns, une rectification quelconque mais conforme à la vérité, les autres, une appréciation plus exacte peut-être de leur mérites ou des services rendus par eux à la Patrie. De plus on examinait, on étudiait avec intérêt et avec le plus grand soin les documents ou ma- nuscrits que l’on pouvait croire très propres à jeter quelque lumière sur un point quelconque de notre histoire nationale. Les travaux de la Société—nous voulons parler des travaux con- nus, publiés—peuvent ne pas paraitre, en sommes, trés nombreux aux yeux de certaines gens, étant surtout données les cinquante années d’existence qu’elle compte aujourd’hui. Que le lecteur veuille bien cependant remarquer que la Société Historique de Montréal ne dispose d’aucuns moyens pécuniaires par elle-méme, qu’elle ne peut par con- séquent produire ou mettre au jour les précieux documents qu’elle posséde qu’en autant que les pouvoirs publics daignent lui venir en aide. C’est assez, ce nous semble, que les membres qui la composent lui apportent volontiers et gratuitement le généreux concours de leur savoir ou de leur influence personnelle, pour ne pas songer à leur im- poser à une obligation matérielle, si minime soit-elle, quand surtout il n’y a pour eux aucun bénifice pécuniaire à espérer en retour. Aussi, est-il à souhaiter que notre gouvernement provincial, si bien disposé à l'endroit de l'instruction publique s'intéresse, ainsi qu’on l’a fait dans le passé, à l’œuvre de notre Société —œuvre importante puisqu'elle consiste en définitive à rendre justice aux hommes et témoignage à la vérité —et lui accorde au besoin toute l’aide pécuniaire nécessaire. “En Canada, —disait l'Abbé Verreau en 1872 (voir Etat des affaires de la Société Historique de Montréal pour 1872, par l’abbé H. A. Ver- reau.) trop de personnes, mémes des plus instruites, semblent mécon- naitre l’importance des études historiques et des recherches qui vont aux sources mêmes; à leurs yeux, un travail lent, persévérant et mi- nutieux pour arriver à l’exactitude procède d’idée étroites et devrait être dirigé d’un autre côté. Sur ce point, comme sur quelques autres, APPENDIX G CXXXV notre pays est en retard. Partout ailleurs, on a compris, depuis long- temps qu’il faut débarrassé l’histoire de l’espèce de badigeonnage dont l'ont revétue ceux qui pensent que la dogmatisme seul ou des théories plus ou moins brillantes, doivent l’emporter sur les faits.” Ces paroles renferment certes beaucoup de sens et de vérité. La légende ou la fiction dans l’histoire, la partialité par trop évidente de l’auteur dans l’appréciation qu’il donne d’un fait, d’un personnage historique, ou encore le parti-pris de l'historien d’oceasion qui s'emploie de son mieux à fausser l’histoire au bénéfice d’une cause ou d’un prin- cipe politique, sont choses, en somme, le plus souvent très difficile à démontrer, à détruire, et qui pour cela, supposent de patienter recher- cher, des études sérieuses et méthodiques. Nous pouvons sous ce rapport, nous estimer satisfaits du travail accompli par notre Société, de même de celui des sociétés Sœurs que nous comptons en ce pays, en vue d'établir l'exactitude et la vérité dans l’histoire. C’est aussi là, dans ces arsenaux historiques, que le futur historien trouvera ample provision de notes, d'observations utiles, qu’il pourra consulter maints documents plus ou moins rares, maints manuscrits originaux ou copies, souvent sauvés de l’oubli sinon de la ruine, toutes choses, enfin, qui l’aideront sûrement dans l'œuvre qu’il voudra édifier pour l'honneur et la gloire de son pays. MÉMOIRES DE LA SOCIÉTÉ. Les mémoires que la Société Historique de Montréal a publiés, pour n’étre pas nombreux ne manquent pas certes d’intéréts, ainsi que le lecteur peut facilement s’en rendre compte. La série complète de ces mémoires comprend dix cahiers, publiés dans l’ordre suivant: le cahier:—De l'esclavage en Canada, mémoire de M. le comman- deur Viger, complété par Sir L. H. Lafontaine, 1859. 2e cahier:—(a) De la famille des Lauson, par Sir L. H. Lafontaine; (b) Vice-Rois et Lts-Généraux des Rois de France en Canada, par R. Bellemare, 1859. 3e cahier:—(a) Ordonnances de M. de Maisonneuve, par son Hon- neur le juge J. U. Beaudry; (b) Bataille Navale du Lac Champlain en 1814 par un témoin oculaire, par Sir E. P. Taché, 1860. 4e cahier:—Histoire du Montréal par M. Dollier de Casson, vol. de 300 pages, avec notes et addenda de J. Viger, du juge J. U. Baudry et de l’abbé Verreau, 1869. (C’est vers cette époque que la Société Historique reçut du gouvernement provincial une première allocation.) 5e cahier:-—Le Règne Militaire en Canada, ler vol. 328 pages, 1872. [Note.—Le second volume n’a pas encore été publié.] Proc: 1918: 10: CXXXVI THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 6e cahier:—Voyage de M. M. Dollier de Casson et Gallinée, avec notes de M. l’abbé Verreau et deux grandes cartes, 1875. 7e et 8e cahier:—Voyage de Kalm en Amérique, traduits par M. W. Marchand, 2 vols. (1880) 9e cahier:—Véritables motifs de Messieurs et Dames de la Société de Notre-Dame de Montréal (1880) 10e cahier:—Livre d’ordres du maréchal Dieskau dans la cam- pagne de 1755 etc.—(1900) Comme on peut le voir, ces mémoires qui ont trait à l’histoire de notre pays, sont autant de documents précieux, que tout historien peut consulter avec fruit. Mais ce n’est pas tout. D’autres travaux, en effet, ont été publiés sous le patronage de la Société Historique de Montréal, et en partie à ses frais, savoir: 1.—Par l’abbé Verreau: ‘‘Le Journal de Sanguinet, le Journal de Badeaux, et autres documents relatifs à ’invasion américaine. 2.—Par M. R. Bellemare: Les bases de l’histoire d’ Yamachiche, 1703-1903. D'autres membres, enfin, ont publiés à leurs frais personnels, mais toujours sous le même patronage, des ouvrages remarquables, tels que les suivants: 1.—M. le juge Baby: La prétendue émigration et le retour en France des classes dirigeante après la conquête. 2.—M. le juge D. Girouard: Les anciens forts de Lachine et Cave- lier de la Salle; le lac St-Louis, etc. 3.—M. le juge J. U. Baudry: Code des curés, marguillers et pa- roissiens, en 1870. 4.—M. l’abbé A. Desrosiers: Les écoles Normales de la province de Québec et leurs œuvres complémentaires. etc., en 1909. Mais, il est encore un fait qui est au crédit, en même temps qu'à Vhonneur de notre Société, et que nous ne pouvons, par conséquent, passer sous silence: nous voulons parler de I’érection du monument, situé Place Royale, autrefois (Pointe à Calliéres) près de l’édifice des Douanes, à l'effet de rappeler à la population de cette ville l'endroit précis où débarquèrent les premiers colons de Ville-Marie en 1642— Monument dû à l'initiative seule de notre Société. Après un long travail de la part du comité nommé à cet effet en 1891, et composé de M. M. R. Bellemare, W. Marchand, J. Desrosiers, E. L. de Bellefeuille et L. Huot, ce monument, qui est un monolithe de 30 pieds de hauteur, pesant 34,000 livers, fut placé enfin, sur sa base le 17 mai 1894, la veille même du 252e anniversaire de la fondation de Montréal, en présence de M. l'abbé Verreau, R. Bellemare, Son Honneur le juge A. Jetté, J. A. Baudry, J.C. Vincent, D. Rolland, tous membres APPENDIX G CXXXVII de la Société Historique de Montréal, et de M. Ogilvie, président du Bureau de Commerce. Les officiers pour 1913, sont: Président: Abbé Naz. Dubois. Vice-Président: E. Z. Massicotte. Secrétaire: J. O. Cassegrain. Secrétaire adjoint: Nap. Brisebois. Bibliothécaire: R. J. Baulne. II.—Report of the Natural History Society of Montreal. Presented by Dr. A. G. Nicozzs, Delegate. The Natural History Society of Montreal beg to submit this their Annual Report for the year ending May 31st, 1913, being the 86th Annual Report of this Society. We are pleased to be able to state that, notwithstanding some disadvantages, the past year has been one of substantial progress. The various courses of Lectures as stated below, including the Somerville Course and the Saturday Afternoon Talks to Children, have been con- tinued, and the attendance showed a marked improvement over any previous year. So great indeed was the interest shown that in each of the above courses seven lectures were given instead of six as in former years. The papers presented at the Monthly Meetings were of an original character, and of an unusual order of excellence, many of the subjects treating of matters of great economic importance to Canada. The following is the list :— Monday, Nov. 4th, 1912.—A Biography of the Beaver, Dr. Arthur Willey. Monday, Nov. 25th, 1912.—The Fungi of the Past Season, Rev. Robert Campbell, M.A., D.D. Monday, Jan. 27th, 1913.—The Geology of the Island of Montreal, Professor John Stansfield. Monday, Feb. 24th, 1913. Monday, Mar. 31st, 1913.—Oyster Development, and Oyster Culture in Canada, Dr. Joseph Stafford. The Fig Moth, H. Lampard Esq. Monday, April, 28th, 1913.—Mount Royal, An Active Volcano, J. S. Buchan, K.C., B.C.L. Forest Products, Simon Kirsh, M.A.,D.Se. CXXXVIII THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA The Somerville Course of Lectures were as usual well attended, the subjects being particularly interesting. Four of these lectures were given in the Y. M. C. A. Hall, and three in McGill University. We take this opportunity of tendering to the Governors of McGill the deep gratitude of the Society for the use of the lecture halls, and to its pro- fessors for valuable lectures and assistance so cheerfully given at all times. The following is the list :-— Friday, Feb. 7th, 1913.— The Canadian Fisheries, Prof. E. E. Prnce iD) FRS:C: Thursday, Feb. 13th, 1913.—Icebergs, Prof. H. T. Barnes, DSc., FRS. Thursday, Feb. 20th, 1913.—The Ottawa Valley, and French River Waterway, (Georgian Bay Canal), W. J. Poupore Esq, Ex-M.P. Thursday, Feb. 27th, 1913.—Radium, Prof. A. S. Eve, D.Sc. Thursday, March, 6th, 1913.—Rubber and Rubber Plants, Prof. F. E. Lloyd, M.A. Thursday, Mar. 13th, 1913.—Biology and Social Reform, Prof. Carrie M. Derick, M. A. Thursday, Mar. 20th, 1913.—The Place of Nitrogen in Nature, Dr. R. F. Ruttan; BA; FRS:0C. The Half-hour Talks to Children were appreciated better than ever, judging by the attendance and the rapt attention with which these lectures were received. The subjects were well chosen, as the following list will show, and the attendance was a very encouraging feature. Saturday, Feb. 15th, 1913.—Icebergs, Prof. H. T. Barnes, D.S8c., F.R.S.C. Saturday, Feb. 22nd, 1913.—The Birds of Canada, Dr. W. G. M. Byers. Saturday, March, Ist, 1913.—A Lead Pencil, Chas. 8. J. Phillips Esq. Saturday, March 4th, 1913.—Glaciers, Prof. J. Austen Bancroft. | Saturday, Mar. 15th, 1913.—Glass, Prof. Nevil Norton Evans. Saturday, Mar. 22nd, 1913.—Moulds. - Some humble forms of Plant Life, Dr. A. G. Nicholls, D.Sc., F.R.S.C. Saturday, March 29th, 1913.—Indian Corn, Prof. Carrie M. Derick, M.A. The Annual Field Day was held at Belœil Mountain (St. Hilaire) on the 22nd of June and was a most successful function. The Society hopes shortly to proceed with the erection of a new building specially adapted to its purposes, through which even greater success may be expected in its work. APPENDIX G CX XX1X It would not be fair to close this report without paying a well de- served tribute to our Secretay Mr. Alfred Griffin for his energy and loyalty in all matters concerning the Society. He has completed twenty-five years of service, and the fact that the Society is existing to-day is in no small measure due to his efforts. IlI.—Report of the Women’s Canadian Historical Society of Ottawa. Presented by Mrs. J. B. Stmpson, Honorary Recording Secretary, Delegate. The season of 1912-1913 records another year of unabated interest and enthusiasm in the patriotic work of the W. C. H. 8. of the Capital. Thirteen meetings have been held, six general and seven execu- tive, all largely attended. Under the able convenorship of the Printing Committee, our President, Mrs. Thos. Ahearn, the Annual Report for 1911-12 and Vol. V of our Transactions, entitled “Battlegrounds of Canada’’, were issued. We have to deplore the loss of one of our honorary members, M. Errol Bouchette, who contributed so ably at one of our open meetings, a valuable paper on “Early Canadian Geographers’’. Invitations were received through our cor. sec. Mrs. Braddish Bil- lings, for delegates and reports to be sent to the 28th Annual Meeting of the Historical Association in Boston, Dec. 27-29, 1912, and to the International Historical Congress in London, April, 1913, also reply to letter of sympathy from our gracious Royal Patroness, H.R.H. the Duchess of Connaught, who, during her sojourn in Canada has taken a deep interest in the work of our Society. The Treasurer, Miss L. Rothwell’s statement shows—Receipts $365.86, Expenditure $316.46, Balance on hand $49.40. Miss E. Read, Librarian, and convenor of our scrap book committee, reports valuable additions to our archives during the year. Unavoidable delays have not daunted our efforts towards the erection at the Capital of concrete memorials of Colonel By, its founder; and of Confederation, the birth of our Dominion. In regard to the for- mer, the historic stones bearing the crest of the Royal British En- gineers and date of the completion of the Rideau Canal were carefully removed before the demolition of the Sappers Bridge and are now in safe keeping at the Dominion Archives. Four years hence Canada will attain the first half century since the Fathers of Confederation accom- plished their great work and laid the foundation of our national great- ness—the memorial to which historic event our Premier, Rt. Hon. R. L. Borden, has promised to bring before his ministers this session, and yet, we may be in time to celebrate the semi-centennial, Dominion Day, 1917, our Canadian Jubilee. CXL THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Our affiliated Society had the honour of presenting short reports at the May meetings of the Royal Society of Canada; and in June at the Annual Meeting of the Ontario Historical Society in Napanee; the fact that 100 years ago occurred the historic War of 1812 lent more prominence to this convention, of which a full report was given at the November meeting. At the opening meeting in October an illustrated Address on the ‘Indians of Canada” was given by Canon Kittson, and in December an address on the Life and Works of Dr. Samuel Johnson by the Librarian of the Carnegie Library Mr. W. J. Sykes. In January, 1913, our Society took up ‘Treaties’ as their chosen subject for study during the ensuing season, their object being to place on record in clear and compact form all treaties relating to Canada. “The Treaty of Paris, 1763” was prepared and read by Mrs. G. M. Bayly. February’s paper, “The Treaty of Versailles, 1783”, by Mrs. J. B. Simpson; and that of March, ‘The Treaty of Washington, 1871” by Mrs. D. H. McLean. The subject will be resumed when our Society takes up its work again in the fall. Thus, the way is leading from battle grounds—through treaties— to peace—our peace Centenary. May we hope and look for, not only another century of peace, but, on all sides, an ever increasing good-will. 1913-14. List of Officers for the ensuing year: Patroness.—H. R. H. the Duchess of Connaught. Hon. President.—Lady Laurier. Hon. Vice-President.—Mrs. Geo. E. Foster. President.—Mrs. Thos. Ahearn. Vice-Presidents.—Mrs. J. Lorne McDougall, Madame L. N. Rhe- aume, Miss Eva Read, Mrs. R. W. Ells, Mrs. G. H. Newcombe, Mrs. I. J. Christie, Madame Lelievre, Mrs. D. H. McLean, Mrs. Rubige, Mrs. Adam Shortt, Mrs. Walter Armstrong, MrsFOtto' Klotz, Mrs. A. G. Doughty, Mrs. G. M. Bayly. Rec. Secretary.—Mrs. J. B. Simpson. Cor. Secretary.—Mrs. Braddish Billings. Treasurer.—Miss L. Rothwell. Librarian.—Miss Eva Read. Auditor.—Mr. J. D. Fraser. IV.—Rapport de la Société D’ Archéologie. et de Numismatique. PRESENTE PAR M. E. Z. Massicorre. Notre société poursuit ses travaux avec une régularité et une cons- tance qui lui valent l’estime de tous ceux qui s’occupe d’histoire. APPENDIX G CXLI Durant l’année écoulée, divers événements que nous croyons devoir signaler, ont jeté sur notre institution un lustre nouveau. En premier lieu, la société, par une loi, a fait amender sa constitu- tion de façon à assurer ses bienfaiteurs que leurs dons seraient toujours à la disposition du public; par la même occasion, elle a transformé son nom en celui de : “La Société d'Archéologie et de Numismatique.” Ce changement était désirable parce que la société élargit de plus en plus son champ d’action. L’organe de la société a publié, en 1912-13, plusieurs documents inédits de grande valeur, tels que la “‘Relation’’, par lettres, d’un voyage au Canada, durant les années 1792 et 93, dont l’auteur est resté inconnu, mais qui paraît être un Londonnien fort érudit; le testament de Jeanne Mance et l'inventaire de ses biens; le carnet des dépenses de John Halsted commissaire sous le général Arnold, pendant son séjour au pays; puis deux copieuses études critiques sur Dollard et ses compagnons, ainsi que la liste inédite des colons pour Montréal en 1659, avec notes, par le signataire du présent rapport, etc. Durant la même période, la société a eu le plaisir d’entendre d’a- gréables conférenciers et nous pouvons citer: À Paper on the Gaspe pe- ninsula par M. le docteur Clarke; les Registres de la Fabrique de Notre- Dame et À propos de cardes par M. O. H. M. Lapalice; Moeurs et cou- tumes des Esquimaux par M. le major Starnes de la Royal North West Mounted Police; Some Canadian Numismatic Frauds, Biographical notes on Adelard J. Boucher, founder of the Society, et Additions to my Canadian Numismatic collection in 1912, par M. R. W. McLachlan, ete. Parmi les dons faits à la société, nous mentionnerons une série de portraits de Earl Grey et de ses ancétres, présentés par M. John Ross Robertson de Toronto; des costumes et des instruments d’Esquimaux présentés par M. le major Starnes; un portrait gravé de l'historien F. X. Garneau présenté par madame Alfred Garneau; des gravures et des instruments présentés par MM. O. H. M. Lapalice et E. Z. Massicotte, etc. A la fin de l’année 1912, la société a eu le privilège fort apprécié de visiter la chapelle de Notre-Dame de Pitié ainsi que l’ancien pensionnat des Sœurs de la Congrégation Notre-Dame. Les Révérendes Sœurs se sont fait un plaisir de fournir aux visiteurs les renseignements les plus intéressants sur ces vieux édifices historiques dont la démolition a été commencée quelque temps aprés. Mais l’événement le plus considérable de l’année a, sans contredit, été la célébration du cinquantenaire de la société. A cette fête commémorative, notre distingué historien, M. Lighthall, président, M. l’abbé N. Dubois, vice-président et M. R. W. McLachlan, doyen des sociétaires, ont tour à tour retracé, en des études remarqua- bles, les travaux accomplis depuis la fondation, et l’influence que la CXLII THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA société a exercée pour la conservation de quantité de pièces et monu- ments historiques. Puis, afin de laisser un souvenir durable de cette jolie démonstra- tion, on a fait frapper une artistique plaquette en bronze dont l’idée est due à M. McLachlan. En voici une brève description: Avers: Sceau de la société soutenu par un “habitant” et un ‘‘sau- save” dans leurs costumes typiques. Revers: Profil du château de Ramezay suivi de dates mémo- rables. Cette plaquette de forme oblongue mesure 25 x 14 pouces et la frappe en a été limitée à 150 exemplaires. Les officiers pour 1913, sont: PATRON : 5. A. R. le due de Connaught, Gouverneur Général du Canada. Président:—W. D. Lighthall, C.R., M.S.R.C. Vice-Présidents:—Victor Morin, N.P., échevin; Ludger Gravel, Abbé N. Dubois, C. T. Hart, James Reid, 8. M. Baylis. Trésorier Honoraire:-—George Durnford. Conservateur Honoraire:—R. W. McLachlan, M.S.R.C. Sec. Corr. Honoraire:—Pemberton Smith. Sec. Archiv. Honoraire:—C. Harwood, C. R. Bibliothécaire Honoraire:—E. Z. Massicotte, LL.B. Conseillers:—P. O. Tremblay; J. C. A. Hériot; G. N. Moncel; S. W. Ewing; A. Chaussé; R. W. Reford; P. I. Lheureux; Fred. Villeneuve; O. M. H. Lapalice. V.—Report of the Entomological Society of Ontario By W. Locuueran, Delegate. As delegate of the Entomological Society of Ontario I have the honour of presenting the following Report. The work of the Society during the past year has been attended with the usual success. The number of active workers has increased in recent years, due to the demand for investigation into the losses caused by the increased number of insect pests that prey upon the crops of the farm, orchard, garden and forest. The great expansion of agri- culture in Canada and the attendant extension of trade with various parts of the world have brought the study of economic entomology into greater prominence than formerly. New pests threaten us, and old ones demand further investigation. There is a pressing demand for the discovery of more effective methods of control which call for APPENDIX G CXLIIT men of considerable practical knowledge of the various branches of agriculture and a thorough grounding in entomology and related subjects. Fortunately our Agricultural Colleges are turning out such men, but the demand is still greater than the supply. In order to cope with the work in hand, new lines of investigation are being followed. For example, trained men are now located at field stations in infested areas where they are able to study the pests at work, learn their habits and life-history, and work out effective methods of control. Attention is being given also to the breeding of parasitic in- sects which prey upon injurious forms with the hope of restoring the balance which has been disturbed. Along these lines the Society with its many trained men is doing active work. The forty-ninth annual meeting of the Society was held in the Carnegie Library, Ottawa, November 19th and 20th last, with a large attendance of members present. An account of the papers read will be found in the 43rd Annual Report of the Society soon to appear. The titles of the papers are: “Faunal Zones of Canada”, by Dr. E. M. Walker (President’s Address) ; “Review of Canadian Entomology for 1912” by Dr. Hewitt. “The Teaching of Entomology in the Agricultural Colleges”, by Prof. Lochhead. “The Rise in Public Estimation of the Science of Entomology’’, by Rev. Dr. Fyles; ‘‘Bumble-Bees and their Ways,” by F. W. L. Sladen (Public Lecture) ; “The Chinch-Bug in Ontario”, by H. F. Hudson; “The Importation and Establishment of Predaceous Enemies of the Brown-tail Moth in New Brunswick”, by J. D. Tothill; “The Discovery of the San Jose Scale in Nova Scotia”, by G. E. Sanders; “Observations on the Effect of Climatic Conditions on the Brown- tail Moth in Canada”, by Messrs. Tothill and Sanders; “Observations on the Apple Maggot in Ontario in 1912”, by W. A. Ross; “Notes on Injurious Orchard Insects in Quebec in 1912”, by C. E. Petch; “Insects of the Season in Ontario”, by L. Caesar; “Tnjurious Insects in Quebec in 1912”, by Prof. Lochhead; “Forest Insects in Canada in 1912”, by J. M. Swaine; “The Elater Beetles’, by G. Beaulieu; “Aquatic Insects’, by Dr. R. Matheson; “The Entomological Record for 1912”, by A. Gibson; CXLIV THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA “Flea Beetles and their Control”, by A. Gibson; “Insect Pests of Southern Manitoba During 1912”, by N. Criddle; “Some New and Unrecorded Ontario Fruit Pests’, by L. Caesar; “Arsenite of Zine as a Substitute for Arsenate of Lead”, by L. Caesar; “The Canadian Entomologist’, the publication of the Society, under the editorship of Dr. E. M. Walker, has now entered upon its 45th volume, and is recognized as one of the most valuable Entomo- logical Magazines on the Continent. The Society is now entering upon its fiftieth year of existence, and will hold its Jubilee at Guelph at the end of August. Invitations have been issued to the Scientific Societies of America to send delegates to the meeting. It is noteworthy that one of the founders of the Society, Rev. Dr. Bethune, is President for the present year and will preside over the meetings at the Jubilee Celebration. VI.— Report of the Elgin Historical and Scientific Institute. For the year 1912-1913. Presented by Dr. J. H. Coyne, F.R.S.C. President and Delegate. Eight regular meetings have been held and the attendance has been satisfactory. Three new members have been elected. Interesting papers and addresses have been presented. The following is a list of subjects thus brought before the Institute. Oct. 14th.—“General Brock and Queenston Heights.” Addresses by Judge C. O. Ermatinger, Dr. A. Leitch and Rev. Dr. Warner. In connection with the commemoration of the centennial anniversary of the battle and of Brock’s death, the President exhibited a number of original documents of the year 1812, including a holograph letter from Gene- ral Brock, the last letter written by Macdonell a few hours before his death, and a despatch from General Sheaffe on the day of Brock’s burial. Nov. 4th.—‘‘Fenian Troubles in 1866 and 1870”, by Judge Ermatinger. “Cities and Civilization, or City versus Country”, by Her- bert S. Wegg. By way of illustration Browning’s “Up at a Villa, Down in the City’’, was read by Mrs. Curtis. Dec. 2nd.—“‘The City of St. John”, by J. W. Stewart. APPENDIX G CXLV Jan. 6th.—“Oklahoma in 1870-1871”, by A. W. Graham, including some perilous personal experiences as a surveyor with the Comanche Indians. “Railroads and Railroading,’ by W. W. Olmsted of the Wabash Railway. Feb. 3rd.—‘‘Manners and Customs of Upper Canada Pioneers” by Rev. R. I. Warner, M.A., D.D. Followed by a discussion by Dr. Leitch, Judge Ermatinger and the President. March 3rd.—‘‘Some reminiscences of Aldborough and Dunwich Pio- neers’, by Colin St. Clair Leitch. The President read a letter from Singleton Gardiner dated 27th Oct, 1816, giving a graphic account of the settler’s privations and perils. This is believed to be the only extant letter from a pioneer describing conditions in the earliest days of the Talbot Settlement. April 7th.—‘‘Napoleon and the War of 1812”, by W. H. Murch. The President exhibited copies of the first American edition, and of the French version of Sir Alexander Mackenzie’s Travels, the latter translated by order of Napoleon for distribution among his officers in preparation for a pro- posed invasion of Canada in 1802. At two of the meetings vocal musical selections were most accept- ably rendered by, Mrs. Geo. Kennedy and Miss Ermatinger. The Quebec Tercentenary Medal has been received from the Nation- al Battlefields Commission. The Southwold Earthwork was considered by the late Dr. David Boyle to be the most perfect specimen of an Indian fort in Canada, and the only double earthwork left by the aborigines. Private ownership has hitherto maintained it practically intact, but the forest which pro- tected it is gradually disappearing. The Institute has endeavored to interest the public authorities in the preservation of so valuable an ar- chaeological treasure, which might easily be endangered by a change in private ownership of the land or timber. There is reasonable ground for the hope that practical steps will soon be taken for its acquisition in the public interest. The Institute gratefully acknowledges the offer of a plot of land centrally situated in the City of St. Thomas, on which may be erected a suitable structure as permanent quarters for the Society. The build- ing conditions accompanying the offer are now under consideration. The Institute was represented by the President at the Annual Meet- ings of the Royal Society of Canada, The Ontario Historical Society and the American Historical Association. CXLVI THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA The finances are in a satisfactory condition. The following are the officers for the year 1913-1914. President :—James H. Coyne, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.C. Vice-President :—Mrs. J. H. Wilson. Secretary :—Herbert 8. Wege. Treasurer:—W. H. Murch. Editor:—Judge C. O. Ermatinger. Curator:—Mrs. W. St. Thomas Smith. Councillors:—K. W. McKay; John W. Stewart; Mrs. C. O. Erma- tinger; W. W. Olmsted; Mrs. Symington. Advisory Committee:—John F. Langan, F.R.G.S.; Mrs. A. Leitch; Dr. A. Leitch; Rev. R. I. Warner, M.A., D.D.; Mrs. Fessant; C. St. Clair. Leitch; Mrs. J. S. Robertson; Dr. C. W. Marlatt; F. B. Holtby; W. St. Thomas Smith. The treasurer’s Report shows balance of cash on hand $218.16. All of which is respectfully submitted. VII.—Report of the Women’s Historical Society of St. Thomas, Ontario, for the 1912-1913. Presented by Dr. J. H. Cornu, F.R.S.C., Delegate. Hight regular meetings of the Society have been held during the year. These were additional to the 8 Meetings of the Elgin Hfstorical and Scien- tific Institute, of which the Society is an auxiliary, its members being also members of the Institute. The membership of the Society is still limited to one hundred, and there is a large waiting list. Meetings have been well attended, and the year’s work has been full of interest. The papers, which were of a high degree of excellence, and brought out much favourable comment, dealt almost exclusively with the Rebellion of 1837-1838. The writers were all members of the Society, with the exception of Mr. Frank Hunt, Police Magistrate for the County of Elgin, whose kindness was much appre- ciated by the ladies. The following is a list of papers presented: Cause of the Rebellion, by Mrs. J. 8. Robertson, and Miss J. Mc- Adam. The Clergy Reserves, by Mrs. Albert Marlatt. Louis Joseph Papineau, by Mrs. A. Campbell. William Lyon Mackenzie, by Mrs. C. W. Colter. Engagement at Montgomery’s Farm, by Mrs. W. H. Murch. Escape of Mackenzie and Renewal of Hostilities, by Mrs. W. H. Heard. APPENDIX G CXLVII Navy Island and the “Caroline”, by Mrs. Harland McConnell. Windmill Point, by Mrs. Thos. L. Gray. Dr. Charles Duncombe, by Mrs. J. H. Jones. Robert Baldwin and Responsible Government, by Mrs. J. B. Morford. Lord Durham, by Mrs. J. D. Curtis. Lord Elgin, by Mrs. Latornell. The Frome Congregational Church and Churchyard, by Miss Hattie Robinson. John Rolph, by Frank Hunt, Police Magistrate. The usual annual social gathering was withdrawn out of sympathy with our President in the loss of her husband, the late Honorable John Henry Wilson, Senator of Canada. The Society’s finances are in a flourishing condition, the balance on hand being $505.18. The following are the officers for 1913-14. President :—Mrs. J. H. Wilson. Ist Vice-President :—Mrs. Jas. H. Coyne. 2nd Vice-President.—Mrs. John M. Green. 3rd Vice-President:—Mrs. Sweet. 4th Vice-President :—Mrs. J. D. Curtis. Secretary-Treasurer:—Mrs. G. Symington. Assistant Secretary :—Mrs. F. A. Fessant. Assistant Treasurer:—Miss F. McLachlan. Curator:—Miss Langan. VIII.—Report of Niagara Historical Society, 1913. By Miss JANET CARNOCHAN, President and Delegate. Since our last report to your Society we are able to report consider- able progress. And now that we are in the eighteenth year of our ex- istence as a Society and think of our small beginnings we feel -grateful that we have met with such unexpected success, a success not dreamed of by the most sanguine optimist when we began our work. During the winter months we held our usual monthly meetings and the following papers were read: “Emigrants in Niagara in 1847 suffering with ship fever,” compiled from documents of the Board of Health of that day by Miss Carnochan; “Diary of Mr. Henry Woodington while a prisoner in Fort Garry, 1869- 1870.”; “Documents relating to Francis Goring, 1776-1842 obtained partly from the Archives and partly from other sources”; “Extracts from the Antiquarian and Numismatic Journal relating to a visitor to Niagara in 1793 whose name is unknown and to whom he addressed the letters also unknown.”’ CXLVIII THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA At another meeting was read the account of the “Seven historic chairs presented by John Ross Robertson to Convocation Hall of Trent University.” As regards membership we have had a large and indeed an unpre- cedented addition of thirty new members, but we have to deplore the loss of several valuable members. Our membership now is considerably over two hundred and many of these from distant cities. Our annual picnic this last year was held in our Town Park to enable members from a distance to visit our Historical building and over sixty were present, some from Toronto, New York, St. Catharines, Niagara Falls and congratulatory addresses were given by Canon Ker, Dr. Fraser, A.W. Wright and others. This year we have decided to meet at Queens- ton Heights. As the edition of several of our pamphlets is exhausted we have re- printed two which have always been in demand, and in this centenary year of so many interesting events of historic interest we have selected The Battle of Fort George, by Col. Cruikshank, now in its third edition, and the sketch of Sir Isaac Brock, and the Count de Puisage numbers 12 and 15. We are also printing what will be number 25 as our cata- logue may be counted number 24. Many requests have been made for pamphlets from those wishing to complete the set for binding and it has been found difficult to comply with these demands. Several interesting events have occurred here during the year. Two remarkable centenaries were held with which our Society was connected, first the centenary of the Niagara Light Dragoons of which Major Merritt was commander and the centenary of the Battle of Queenston Heights, a grand and impressive ceremony at which over thirty of our members were present. A wreath from our Society took its place among those sent from Toronto, Hamilton, St. Catharines, Niagara Falls. The annual meeting of the Ontario Historical Society at Napanee was another interesting event in which the president of our Society took part. The visit to Adolphustown and the Memorial Church with tablets to so many of the U. E. Loyalists was enjoyed by all. On the anniversary of Brock’s death a visit was paid to our building by the children of the Public School who sang the Maple Leaf Forever, O Canada, and a song composed by Miss C. Merritt “The Men of a hun- dred years ago”, all showing the increased interest in the history of our country. But the event over which we most rejoice is the restoration of Navy Hall for which we had petitioned for many years the Dominion Govern- ment. A grant was given by Col. the Hon. Sam Hughes, Minister of Militia. In our advocacy we were greatly assisted by our good friend John Ross Robertson and the building is now restored as nearly as possible to its APPENDIX G CXLIX former appearance to last we hope another hundred years. For this we return our grateful thanks to the Dominion Government. We are also indebted to the Ontario Government and the County Council for the yearly grants which enable us to print as largely as we do. We receive requests for exchange from many Societies and many letters asking for information. Indeed during the year 240 letters have been written by the President in the interest of the Society and thus many demands on her time are made. From exchange we are acquiring a valuable historical library. A tablet has been placed by the Society on Navy Hall with an ac- curate statement of facts connected with it. Many visitors from many lands have recorded their names in our visitors’ book. Several tablets to early settlers have been added. Different groups of students and military have visited us. Many valuable contributions have been added to our collection, among them a remarkable medal found in a garden, made for the Min- den Masonic Lodge of the 20th Regiment at Kingston in 1847, a model of aman of war made in Niagara in 1830, rigged by an officer of the Royal Navy, the chair of Hon. J. Munro, a member of the Executive Council of 1792, Quebec Gazette of 1791, original letters of Bishop Macdonell and Sir Allen MacNab, Hudson Bay.Scrip, medal of the Nile expedition, necklace of Laura Secord, several interesting articles brought by an old High School pupil, a member of the Lucky Scott Expedition from North Baffin’s Land. Our finances notwithstanding a generous expenditure are in a flour- ishing condition, the sale of pamphlets, several donations as well as the contents of our contribution box all help. We rejoice to know that many heretofore indifferent are awaking to the value and the need of historic research. We thank all who have assisted us in any way and hope for still greater assistance. Officers 1912-1913. Honorary President, Col. Cruikshank, F.R.S.C. President:—Miss Carnochan. Vice-President :—Reyv. Canne Garrett. Second Vice-President :—Mrs. L. F. Best. Secretary :—John Eckersley. Treasurer:—Mrs. 8. D. Manning. Curator Editor Assistant Curator:—Mrs. E. J. Thompson. Second Assistant Curator:—Miss Creed. f Miss Carnochan. CL THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Committee:—Alfred Ball; Mrs. Goff; Wm. Ryan; C. E. Sproule; Miss Clement. Life Members:—Mrs. J. G. Wilson; Arthur E. Paffard; Col. W. H. Merritt; T. I<. Thomson, C.E.; Mrs. C. Baur; R. Biggar Bert; Major W. R. Leonard. HonorRARY MEMBERS: Col. Cruikshank, F.R.S.C. C. C. James, F.R.S.C. John Ross Robertson Newton J. Ker, C.E. Hon. Wm. Gibson Dr. H. L. Anderson Major Hiscott Mrs. J. G. Currie E. À. Lancaster, M.P. Dr. A. H. U. Colquhoun Dr. Jessup, M.P.P. Dr. Alexander Fraser. IX.—Report of the Oltawa Field Naturalists’ Club. Presented by the President, L. H. Newman, B.S.A., Ottawa, Ont. The various activities of the Ottawa Field-Naturalists’ Club have been well maintained during the past year, although nothing unusual has been accomplished or attempted. There has been a net increase of nine in the membership, twenty-one new members having been elected and twelve having resigned. The total number of members is now three hundred and thirty. The Publications Committee has had as its chief mark the publi- cation of “The Ottawa Naturalist’? which has been almost entirely under the direction of the editor, Mr. Arthur Gibson. It has been the aim to select articles carefully and present those of the most interest and value to the readers. While much appreciation of the paper has been expressed, the committee feels that the Naturalist could be very much improved if more funds were available. Under present cir- cumstances it is impossible to spend money on illustrations to any extent, and much valuable material has to be left out because of finan- cial stringency. Volume XXVI of the Ottawa Naturalist has been published reg- ularly during the year. This volume contains twelve numbers and 171 pages, including a number of full-page plates. Space will not permit a complete list of all papers and notes which have been published on the various subjects dealt with under the different sections. Only a brief index of the more important papers is herewith appended as follows: 1. “On Two new Crinoids from the Trenton Formation of Ontario” By W. A. Parks and A. J. Aleock, Toronto University. APPENDIX G CLI 2. “The Evolution of the Worlds,” by J. S. Plaskett, The Ob- servatory, Ottawa. 3. ‘‘Additional notes on the Birds of Newfoundland”, by W. J. Brown, Westmount, P. Q. 4. “List of Trilobites found at Ottawa and immediate vicinity”, by J. E. Narroway, Ottawa. 5. “On the nature of the so-called ‘Covering Plates’ in Proto- palæaster Narrawayi,” by Percy R. Raymond, Ottawa. 6. ‘Some changes in the names of the Genera of Trilobites’’, by Percy E. Raymond, Ottawa. 7. “Additions to the Flora of Vancouver Island”, by J. M. Macoun, Geological Survey, Ottawa. 8. “On Two new Palaeozic Starfish (one of them found near Ottawa) and a new crinoid,” by Percy E. Raymond, Ottawa. 9. “A new Canadian cirripede, parasite on a shrimp’, by Prof. F. E. Prince, Ottawa. The hbrarian has carefully checked over the back numbers of the Naturalist and has been able to compile seven complete sets and there are also many odd old copies available for sale. Arrangements have been made with the Carnegie Library whereby the various publications received through exchange are placed in the stock room with the Club’s library. They are available to anyone on ap- plication to the librarian. The Excursions Committee conducted a number of very successful field excursions last season and a series is being held this spring. Last year the practice of holding the spring excursions weekly, instead of fortnightly, was reverted to and is being continued this season. The excursions were very well attended last spring, when the weather was favourable, and great interest was shown in the specimens collected and in the lectures. The Fall excursions were held in October and were not so well attended. The following excursions have been arranged for this spring: 1. May 8rd, Rockcliffe and McKay’s Lake. May 10th, Leamy’s Lake. May 17th, Britannia. May, 31st Ironsides. June 7th, Points on the Rideau River by motor boat. . June 14th, Stittsville. The Lectures Committee conducted five public lectures during the winter, in addition to the special one arranged for in the spring of 1912 on ‘The Esquimaux” by Mr. Christian Leden, all of which were very instructive and well attended. The following is the list: Proc. 1913. 11 Oo Rw CLII THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA November 29th, 1912.—‘‘School Gardens as a Factor in Education”, Prof. H. L. Hutt, B.S.A., Professor of Hor- ticulture and Landscape Gardening, Ontario Agricultural College, Guelph, Ont. December 10th, 1912.—‘‘Short Talks on Local Natural History”, by members of the Club. January 28th, 1913.—‘‘Modern Museum Work for the Scientist, the Teacher and the Public’, Mr. Harlan I. Smith, Archeologist, Geological Survey, Ottawa. February 11th, 1913.—‘“Heredity: Its Meaning and Application,” C. Gordon Hewitt, D.Sc., Dominion En- tomologist, Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa. February 25th, 1913.—‘‘Some Conditions of Progress in the Plant World”, Prof. W. T. MacClement, D.Sc., Professor of Botany, Queen’s University, Kingston, Ont. March 18th, 1913.—Annual Meeting, President’s Address. L. H. Newman, B.S.A., Secretary, Canadian Seed Growers’ Association, Ottawa. The Botanical Branch, as usual, has been very active during the season. Several meetings have been held in the homes of the members and much interesting material has been presented. The subjects dealt with at these meetings were as follows: “Problems in Horticulture of Interest to Botanists,” by W. T. Macoun. “A Summer in Britain,” illustrated with lantern slides, by R. B. Whyte. “Nature Study of Plants in Relation to their Identification,’ by Dr. M. Oscar Malte. “The Ottawa Flora from an Ecological Point of View,” by J. M. Macoun. “A Trip to Bermuda in January,” by R. B. Whyte. “Common Fungi on Wood,” by J. W. Eastham. “Elevator Screenings as a means of Plant. Dispersal” by J. R. Dymond. “The Shade Trees of Ottawa,” by Dr. E. H. Blackader. “The Effect of Temperature on Fruit and Trees,” by W. T. Macoun. “Hardiness from a Physiological Standpoint,” by L. H. Newman. The Entomological Branch accomplished considerable work during the season in collecting insects throughout the Ottawa District, some of which have been found to be new to science. Certain groups were APPENDIX G CLIII sought after particularly, and many of these have been determined and definite records for the locality obtained. The most important outbreak of an insect which has occurred for many years was that of the Forest Tent Caterpillar, Malacosoma disstria, which devastated miles of forest country in the Gatineau Valley, north of Ironsides, and did much damage throughout the Ottawa District. The foliage of certain trees, particularly poplar and birch, was entirely eaten by the caterpillars, and for a certain period the trains leaving -Ottawa for Kazabazua and Maniwaki were unable to make the grade between Ironsides and Chelsea, owing to the thousands of caterpillars which were present on the rails. The Officers selected at the annual meeting on March 18th, 1913 were: President—Mr. L. H. Newman. Vice-Presidents—Mr. Arthur Gibson and Mr. Harlan Smith. Secretary—Mr. E. D. Eddy. Treasurer—Mr. W. T. Macoun. Members of Council—Dr. C. Gordon Hewitt, Mr. J. W. Gibson, Mr. A. E. Currie, Dr. M. O. Malte, Mr. J. J. Carter, Mr. Andrew Halkett, Miss A. L. Matthews, Mrs. W. D. Oakely. At a subsequent meeting of the Council Mr. Currie was elected librarian and Mr. J. R. Dymond was appointed to the Council to fill the vacancy. ) The Financial Statement submitted to the annual meeting by the Treasurer showed the total receipts of the Club for the year to be $578.15, including a grant of $200.00 from the Ontario Government. The expenditure amounted to $578. 15, and of this $523.18 was in connection with the publication of the Ottawa Naturalist. The balance on hand was $9.79. X.—Report of the Quebec Society for the Protection.of Plants. By W. Locuueap, Delegate. As delegate of the Quebec Society for the Protection of Plants I have pleasure in presenting the following Report :— This Society was organized June 24th, 1908, at a meeting held at Macdonald College. Its object was (1) the investigation of the char- acters and habits of economic insects and fungi, and (2) the dissemina- tion of information regarding insect and fungous pests among the people of Quebec. The Department of Agriculture at Quebec gives a grant of $250.00 a year and publishes the Annual Report, which is printed in both French and English. CLIV THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Four Reports, each containing about 100 pages of matter and well illustrated, have been issued, and a fifth is now in the hands of the printer. Although the membership of the Society is not large, yet the work done by the members has been considerable, and the Reports have been the means of spreading most valuable information relating to the chief insect and fungous pests of farm and orchard crops. As the Society is the only one of its kind in the Province it includes both French and English members. The winter meeting is held at Macdonald College, the summer (field) meeting is held at some outside place selected by the Council. In addition to the publication of a Report the Society is engaged in the preparation of a list of the Insects of the Province of Quebec. Already a “Preliminary List of the Lepidoptera,’ prepared by Mr. A. F. Winn, has been published, which appeared last year as an Appen- dix to the Fourth Report. It is the hope that Lists of other Orders will be published in the near future. The officers are:— President—Prof. Lochhead. Vice-President—Auguste Dupuis. Sec. Treas.—J. M. Swaine. Directors—Rev. Dr. Fyles, Rev. Father Leopold, Rev. Brother Victorin, Rev. Abbe Huard, A. F. Winn, Prof. L. 8. Klinck, G. Cahgnon. Following is the list of papers presented at the last meeting held March 27th:— “The Control of Injurious Insects by Means of their Parasites,” by Prof. Lochhead (President’s Address) ; “The Work of the Division of Entomology, Ottawa,” by Dr. Hewitt; ‘An Old Enemy of the Potato,” by J. C. Chapais; “Winter Injuries in the Orchard,” by F. M. Clement; “The Spraying of Orchards,” by Rev. Father Leopold; “Some Common Farm Weeds,” by P. I. Bryce; “Downy Mildews,” by J. S. Dash; “The Saw-Flies of Quebec,” by Rev. Dr. Fyles; “Slime-Moulds,” by J. W. Eastham; “Fungi Injurious to Forest Trees,” by W. P. Fraser; XI.—The Report to the Royal Society of Canada from the Literary and First Historical Society of Quebec. By J. M. Harper, M.A., Ph.D., F.E.LS., Delegate. I believe I had the honour of presenting the very first report to the Royal Society of Canada from the oldest society of the kind in the APPENDIX G CLV country, namely, the Literary and Historical Society of Quebec; and in the first volume of the Transactions of your Society you will find a memoir from my pen referring to the earliest beginnings of the Society I now represent for a second time after so many years. The members of the Royal Society whom I addressed on that occasion have for the most part passed from their literary labours—men of Canadian talent and literary enthusiasm, to whom all honour is due by the present generation. And it is needless to say that something of the same kind has happened to our Quebec Society, though there is still no lack of literary activity to report about. Dr. James Douglas has now for many years been a prominent bene- factor to our institution, his last donation of ten thousand dollars under trustees providing dividends for the meeting of library expenses and other annual liabilities. Within the last thirteen years the library has had five thousand volumes added to its twenty thousand volumes, and these with the supplementary volumes of the Aylwin Library make up a total of over thirty thousand volumes. The chamber in which the latter is located has been suitably renovated, and the books segregated in divisions and carefully catalogued. A second catalogue is being prepared at the present moment and will be issued in a month or so. The liberality of Dr. Douglas and the Governors of Morrin College has placed the Society on such a sound financial basis that it may expect not only to continue the good work of the past but to enhance its usefulness in the future from year to year. In addition to the support from these patrons of the institution, Mrs. Turnbull’s donation of five thousand dollars has brought the endowment fund up to over eighteen thousand dollars, the dividends from which have added to the other sources of revenue to the point of placing the Society on the most favourable financial basis. The Morrin College Building has been set aside in large part for the use of the members, including the con- vocation hall that can be utilized for lectures, literary seances, and other public gatherings. The lectures have been for the most part free, the expenses and honorariums paid to the lecturers being defrayed by the Morrin College Board. The antiquarian side of the Society has not been much improved of late, the last rarety added being Father Marquette’s Prayer Book, a reprint of said volume having been issued under the auspices of the Society, with Dr. Douglas providing for the expense of the same. The approaches to the rooms have been decorated with the portraits of the past presidents and other engravings. The literary printed contribu- tions continue to be as large as ever, to be taken note of, as they are, in the annual of Transactions and original contributions. This year the society has undertaken the publication of historical documents in CLVI THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA a separate volume provided for the most part by the Archives Depart- ment at Ottawa. In this connection the Provincial Government has given a promise to assist the Society in issuing some such a volume from year to year. The volume of Historical Documents about to be issued will contain the following papers: (1) Letters of Mrs. Alice Cockburn, written from Montreal to a cousin at Canterbury England. (2) Journal of Charles Grey, father of Earl Grey, our late Governor General. (3) Journal of Lady Durham, wife of the Earl of Durham, Gover- nor-General of Canada in 1837. The annual report of the Society for the last year refers to the Course of Lectures given by Professor Stephen Leacock, Professor Welsh, R. J. Wickende, artist, F. M. Hibbard, the President of the Utilities Com- mission, and Dr. Benjamin Sulte, the historian. It also refers to the donations and additions made to the library, the increase in the member- ship to about two hundred, the re-organization of the Aylwin Library, the unveiling of the monument to Montcalm close to the spot where he must have received his last fatal wound on the battlefield of 1759, and the departure from Canada of His Excellency the Earl Grey, who was patron of the Society. Among those who have made late contributions to the library may be mentioned Mrs. Andrew Thomson (214 volumes), Captain Benyon (42 volumes), Hon. Charles Murphy, Lieut-Col. Watson, Dr. John M. Clarke, of Albany, Professor Wrong of Toronto, Mr. Barlow, Cumberland, and several others. Altogether the oldest of the literary and historical societies of Can- ada continues in successful operation, and, through its later representa- tives to the Royal Society of Canada, may be expected to give a good account of itself in years to come. XII.—Report of the Nova Scotia Historical Society. Established 1878. Presented by the Hon. Mr. Justice LoNGLeY, Delegate. The Nova Scotia Historical Society, Halifax, begs to present the following report on its proceedings during the session of 1912-13. The following officers were elected at the annual business meeting held on 11th April, 1913: President—The Ven. Archdeacon Armitage, M.A., Ph.D. Vice-Presidents—David Allison, LL.D.; Joseph A. Chisholm, Major J. Plimsoll Edwards. Corresponding Secretary—Harry Piers. Recording Secretary—William L. Payzant, M.A., LL.B. APPENDIX G CLVII Treasurer—George E. E. Nichols, LL.B. Auditors—Lt.-Col. F. H. Oxley, William L. Brown. Other members of Council—Hon. Mr. Justice Russell; Albert H. Buckley, Ph.M.; W. C. Milner, George W. T. Irving. Library Commissioners—Rev. John Forrest, D.D.; John J. Power, D.C.L.; Alex. H. MacKay, LL.D., F.R.S.C.; James S. Macdonald. Monthly meetings were held from 1st November, 1912, to 2nd May, 1913, at which the following papers were presented :— 1. “Old Dartmouth,” by Hon. Mr. Justice Russell. | 2. “Sketch of Lawrence O’Connor Doyle, a representative of Halifax in the House of Assembly in the early Forties,’ by George Mullane. 3. “Short note on the so-called Norse Stone at Yarmouth, N.S.” by Moses H. Nickerson. 4. “Brief Historical Note on Thomas Williams of Annapolis _ Royal,” by James D. Ritchie. 5. “Latin Edition of Galen, by a Spaniard, Laguna, 1604, in the Cogswell Library, Halifax,” by Prof. David Fraser Harris, M.D., D.Sc., Oe) te De 6. “The Historical Method,” by Prof. James W. Falconer, D.D. 7. “Why the First Settlers came to Nova Scotia,” by the Rev. John Forrest, D.D;; D.C. L., LED: 8. “Brief Historical Note on the French Burying-ground near Rockingham, Bedford Basin,’ by Henry Nicholas Paint. ° 9. “The Finding of Alexander McNutt,” by the Rev. Arthur Wentworth Hamilton Eaton, M.A., D.C.L. 10. ‘‘Reminiscences of the House of Assembly,” by the Hon. Mr. Justice Russell. 11. ‘‘Reminiscences of a Long Life, by John Mackay, of New Glasgow, N.S., 1792-1884,” by Rev. Allan Pollock, D.D. During the present as well as the previous year, a large number of historic sites in Halifax and elsewhere throughout the Province have been marked by the Society with suitably inscribed metal tablets. This has been greatly appreciated by the public. A large number of other sites will be similarly marked in the immediate future. Special efforts are being made to secure portraits of men prominent in the history of the province, as well as photographs of old buildings of note. The membership list has been very greatly increased. Volume XVI of the collections of the Society has been published during the year, and contains six papers on a variety of historic subjects, and a large number of illustrations. Vol. XVII is now in press. CLVIII THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA XIII.—Report of the Nova Scotia Institute of Science, Halifax. Established 31st December, 1862. Presented by A. H. MacKay, LL.D., F.R.S.C., Delegate. The Nova Scotia Institute of Science begs to present the following report on its proceedings during its fiftieth annual session (1912-13). The Society was organized on 31st December, 1862, as a successor of the Nova Scotian Literary and Scientific Society (1859), and the Halifax Mechanics’ Institute (1831), and therefore has just completed a half century’s work in the field of science, during which it has had a very prominent part in making known the resources of the province of Nova Scotia. The results of its labours during that period are pub- lished in fifty annual issues of its “Proceedings and Transactions.” During its existence it has had as its presidents such prominent scien- tific men as, Hon. P. C. Hill, J. M. Jones, Dr. J. B. Gilpin, W. Gossip, Dr. Somers, R. Morrow, Dr. MacGregor, Dr. Murphy, Dr. Lawson, Dr. E. Gilpin, A. McKay, Dr. A. H. MacKay, Dr. Poole, F. W. W. Doane, Dr. E. Mackay, W. L. Bishop, and D. M. Ferguson. Among the re- sults of its efforts may be mentioned the establishment of a Provincial Science Library in 1900, and the foundation of a Provincial Museum in 1868 was largely the result of individual agitation on the part of its members. A commemoration meeting was held on the 20th of January, 1913. The following officers were elected for the year 1912-13: President.—Donald MacEachearn Ferguson, F.C.S., ea officio F.R.MS. First Vice-President.—Alexander Howard MacKay, LL.D.,F.R.S.C. Second Vice-President.—Prof. Howard Logan Bronson, Ph. D. Treasurer.—Maynard Bowman, B. Sc. Corresponding Secretary.—Prof. Ebenezer MacKay, Ph. D. Recording Secretary.—Harry Piers. Librarian.—Harry Piers. Other members of Council.—Parker R. Colpitt; Prof. Clarence L. Moore, M.A.; Alexander McKay, M.A.; Prof. David Fraser Harris, M.D.,C.M., D. Se., F.R.S.E.; Donald Sutherland McIntosh, B.A., M.Sc.; Carleton Bell Nickerson, M.A.; and Watson L. Bishop. Auditors.—George B. Bancroft, B.A.; and William Nickerson. Meetings were held from 11th November, 1912, to 12th May, 1913, at which the following papers were presented :-— 1. “Report on the work of this Institute during the year, and sug- gestions as to work that might be taken up in the future.” By Prof. E. MacKay, Ph. D. APPENDIX G CLIX 2. “Integral atomic weights.” By Frank William Dodd, Assoc. Memb. Inst. C.E. 3. ‘Recent occurrence of a European widgeon (Anas penelope) in Nova Scotia.” By Harry Piers. 4. “A Curious Lightning Freak.” By Watson L. Bishop. 5. “Historical account of the N.S. Institute of Science, and the events leading up to its foundation.”” By Harry Piers. 6. ‘Note on a gastrolith found in a Moose.” By Prof. David Fraser Harris, M.D., C.M., D. Sc., F.R.S.E. 7. ‘Biographical sketches of the deceased presidents and other prominent members of the N. 8. Institute of Science since 1862.” By Harry Piers. 8. “Ventilation: its discovery and discoverer, and its bearing upon tuberculosis.”” By Prof. David Fraser Harris, M.D.,C.M., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 9. “Notes on a granite contact zone near Halifax, N.S.” By Donald Sutherland McIntosh, M. Se. 10. “The irregularity in the occurrence of secondary sexual colours, and deductions thereupon.” By Frank Henry Reid, M.D., C.M. 11. ‘Phenological observations in Nova Scotia, 1912,” By A. H. MacKay, LL.D., F.R.S.C. During the year 1912, the library of the Institute received, 7631 books and pamphlets. The total number received in the same year by the Provincial Science Library, with which that of the Society is incorporated, was 3,385. The total number of books and pamphlets in the Science Library on 31st December, 1912, was 48,882, of which 35,848 (or 73 per cent) belong to this Institute. The Proceedings and Transactions, Vol. XII, part 4, which had been delayed in publication, will be issued in a couple of months. Vol- ume XIII, parts 1 and 2 have been already approved. XIV.—The New Brunswick Historical Society. Presented by D. R. Jack, Delegate. The New Brunswick Historical Society is in a healthy condition financially, and while its meetings have not been as regularly held dur- ing the past year as might have been desirable, some Important work, at least, has been accomplished. The original Muster Rolls of many Loyalist Regiments which have for some years been in the custody of the Society, have, largely through the energetic efforts of W. Jonas Howe, a past president of the Society, been passing through the binder’s hands. Sixty volumes have been CLX THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA bound in good strong serviceable shape. Thus is rendered immediately available a vast amount of biographical data of much importance. We need not be surprised, possibly, if some family traditions long ac- cepted as unquestionable history in many quarters should need careful revision after comparison with this comparatively new source of in- formation. The removal by death of George Upham Hay, Ph. D., a member of the Royal Society of Canada, and at the time of his death President of our Society, naturally somewhat unsettled for a time the routine of our Society. His more active work was along the lines of the Natural History Society, and no doubt in the report from that Society his life and work will receive full attention. Some individual work has been accomplished by our members during the year. One at least has published a volume of about 450 pages in extent after nearly five years of preparatory work. Another, Mr. Clarence Ward, has continued his series of weekly contributions to the St. John Globe, which have been a valued feature in that Journal for the past ten years. The New Brunswick Historical Society not being the owner of a permanent home, has made an arrangement with the Commissioners of the St. John Free Public Library by which its somewhat unpretentious collections of books and manuscripts will be cared for in the Library building, under the supervision of its trained staff. In conclusion, permit me as the representative of the New Bruns- wick Historical Society, to convey to the Royal Society of Canada an expression of the best wishes of our Society for a long continuance in the valuable work which for so many years it has successfully carried on. XV.—New Brunswick Loyalists’ Society. Presented by D. R. Jack, Secretary, (Delegate). The New Brunswick Loyalists’ Society has completed the thirtieth year of its existence. That which has just closed has been by no means the least active since the inception of the Society. The meetings which are held monthly during the greater part of the year, have had a larger attendance than for several years im- mediately preceding. Papers have been prepared and read from time to time by its historian. As has been the custom for several years past, that official prepared a paper which was read in all the publie schools of St. John of grade ten and upwards, at the 130th anniversary of the first landing of the Loyal- APPENDIX G CLXI ists at St. John, then Parr-town, on the 18th of May, 1783. The subject dealt with in the paper for the current year was entitled “The Siege of Penobscot.’”? The material used was largely drawn from the diary of Dr. John Calef. A copy of the original edition of this work, be- lieved to be the only one in existence, will be found in the library of Harvard University at Cambridge, Massachusetts. The 18th of May, 1913, falling upon a Sunday, the annual service was held as usual in Trinity Church, St. John, the Chaplain of our Society, Ven. Archdeacon Raymond, preaching the sermon, and Rev. James White, Millidge, another valued member of our Society, reading the lessons for the day. On the following day, Monday, May 19th, the school children of all grades, in the city of St. John enjoyed a public holiday. A Royal Salute was fired at noon by a battery of the 3rd Regiment Royal Can- adian Artillery, and much bunting was displayed throughout the city. In the evening of the same day a great gathering of the members of the New Brunswick Loyalists’ Society, The Canadian Club, The Women’s Canadian Club, and the Loyalist Chapter of the Daughters of the Empire, was held in the Keith Assembly rooms. The combined membership of these organizations comprises more than 1,200 individuals. Upon this occasion patriotic addresses were delivered. A note- worthy feature of the function was the presence in the chair of W. D. J. Seely, a son of a Loyalist, and president of our Society. Mr. Seely is the last individual in our community enjoying this unique distinction. Mr. Clarence Ward, grandson of Col. John Ward, long known as the “Father of the City,” was also present, and by invitation occupied a seat upon the platform. Mr. Ward is a past president of the New Brunswick Historical Society, and for 25 years continuously its efficient and honoured secretary. The Loyalists’ Society is unfortunately without any publication fund, but efforts will be made during the present year to provide such a fund. Since the first of December last our Secretary and Historian, at the request of the Society, and while in England, made a careful examination of the work of copying the Loyalists’ Records, now in the Audit Office, London, for deposit in the Archives Department at Ottawa. The work is apparently progressing well under the efficient supervision of Mr. E. P. Biggar. This gentleman kindly aided by every means at his command in the desired examination by our representative. An amusing incident of this visit was the action of one of the chief officers in charge of the Loyalists’ Archives, who declined to admit our representative to the privileges desired, upon learning that he was a Canadian, although the regulations expressly state that the privileges CLXII THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA asked for shall be enjoyed by “British Subjects,” without an order from a higher authority. This was soon obtained, but it might be well to invite the attention of the Canadian High Commissioner to the non- fulfilment of the regulations as laid down. A delay of several days was involved, which while not important in this instance, might cause serious inconvenience to other Canadians seeking similar privileges from the same source. ' Our Society desires me to convey to the Royal Society of Canada an expression of their good-will and their interest in your continued prosperity. XVI.—Report of the British Columbia Academy of Science. Presented by D. Wazrer Munn, Secretary. The British Columbia Academy of Science has now entered upon the fifth year of its existence. During the year just closed meetings were held at intervals, as provided by the Constitution, at which papers prepared by the members were read. An excursion to visit the Marine Biological Station at Nanaimo took place in October, at which a number of members and their friends were present. In December a lecture was delivered before the Academy by Mr. M. B. Cotsworth, dealing with the history of the Calendar and the proposed reform, with which his name is associated. An especially interesting series of papers has been arranged for, dealing with the present status, the outlook, and the oppor- tunities for research in British Columbia in the various branches of natural science. Those which have already been read include one on Ethnology and Linguistics by Prof. C. Hill-Tout; one on Marine Biology by Dr. C. McLean Fraser, Curator of the Marine Biological Station, Nanaimo; one by Prof. E. M. Burwash, on Geology; one by Mr. John Davidson, Provincial Botanist of the Province of British Columbia, on Botany; and one on Entomology by Mr. R. C. Treherne, of the Dominion Department of Agriculture. It is hoped to have others of this series during the coming winter. The Publication Committee is arranging for the publishing of these and a number of other papers which have been read before the Academy during the past two or three years, and it is hoped the volume will be ready for distribution during the summer. A number of new members were elected during the year, and the Academy is in a satisfactory position financially. All the meetings have been held at Vancouver, as a large proportion of the members are resident in that city, though the membership includes representatives from all over the Lower Mainland and Vancouver Island. At the annual meeting in April, Dr. T. P. Hall, of Vancouver, was re-elected President APPENDIX G CLXIII for the ensuing year, Prof. Charles Hill-Tout, of Abbotsford, Vice- President, and Prof. D. Walter Munn, McGill University College, Vancouver, Secretary and Acting Treasurer. Officers of British Columbia Academy of Science for year 1913-14. President.—Dr. T. P. Hall, Vancouver. Vice-President.—Prof. Chas. Hill-Tout, Abbotsford. Secretary and Acting Treasurer.—Prof. D. Walter Munn, McGill, University College, Vancouver. Editor.—Mr. J. Porter, Vancouver. Librarian.—Prof. Geo. E. Robinson, Vancouver. Curator.—Dr. C. McLean Fraser, Nanaimo. Executive Committee.—Dr. J. G. Davidson, Vancouver; Dr. Ernest Hall, Vancouver; Mr. R. 8S. Shearman, Vancouver; Mr. E. Baynes Reed. Victoria; Mr. E. O. S. Scholefield, Victoria; Dr. Seymour Hadwen, Agassiz. XVII.—The Women’s Canadian Historical Society of Toronto. Presented by C. L. Corury, Secretary. The membership of this Society remains about the same, two hun- dred members being on our roll. The finances are in a fairly satisfactory condition, the amount on hand for Queen Victoria Memorial Hall Fund having reached the sum of $4,698.40. This year we tried to follow the plan of having, if possible, two papers at each meeting, one compiled from history and one from original matter, relating to the history of Canada. The first one by Dean Pakenham on early schools of Canada was most interesting; one of the great difficulties in those days was to obtain loyal teachers; at the second meeting of the year Miss J. Mac- Callum dealt with the early history of the people of British Columbia, being followed by a paper relating to the Baldwin family; this forms part of our latest transaction; next Miss Merrill prepared a paper on the early discoverers of British Columbia, followed by most interesting gleanings of family history by Miss C. N. Merritt. Our next was an account of an early expedition to Hudson Bay by Mrs. J. B. Tyrrell; the exhibits were a 3-lb. cannon ball picked up on the shore of Hudson Bay and the handle of a cutlass. Mrs. Campbell Meyers also read from the diary of a Botanist, Mr. John Goldie, who walked from Kingston to York in 1817 in search of rare plants. Our last paper was one of unusual interest, exemplified by many early maps showing the early roads of York, by Miss Lizars. All these were interesting and instruc- tive, many additional comments being made by those present. CLXIV THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA XVIII.—Report of the Huron Institute. By Davin WILLIANS, Secretary. The Huron Institute has not been as active in the way of public meetings during the past year, owing to different causes, chiefly that the field has been so fully occupied by other local organizations, never- theless there is still much interest in its work. At an appropriate time the Institute held a Brock Night, at which valuable and carefully prepared papers on the great hero were read by Lt.-Col. G. W. Bruce of the 35th Regiment, and Mr. W. J. Feasby, B.A., of the teaching staff of the Collegiate Institute. Though lectures have not been so frequent, considerable attention has been devoted to the museum, and as a result many valuable acqui- sitions have been received. These comprise maps of the town and dis- trict, some of which are very scarce, photographic views, many Indian relics belonging to the early inhabitants of the immediate neighborhood, also a number of collections of interesting articles belonging to peoples elsewhere. Of these special mention should be made of the contri- butions made by Miss Goodfellow, who has been laboring among the Esquimo for several years; also of a Chinese goddess, said to have been carried from Pekin during the occupation of that city by the allied troops, afew yearsago. There are many more articles of equal interest, all adding to and increasing the historic value of this institute to the town and the Province generally. During the year the equipment of the Institute was added to by the purchase of a modern steroptican, which is now available for use on the occasion of illustrated addresses. This had long been felt a necessity, and its installation will obviate the trouble of the past of borrowing from kindly disposed friends. The financial statement of the year shows the receipts as $262.89, and the expenditures as $123.93, leaving a balance of $138.96 on hand to commence the work of the current year. The officers are as follows:— Hon. President.—F. T. Hodgson. President.—M. Gaviller, C.E. Vice-Presidents.—Miss F. A. Redmond, Mrs. J. R. Arthur. Secretary.—David Williams. Treasurer.—A. H. Cuttle. Curator.—E. R. Carpenter. Directors.—Misses M. Howard and FE. Griesbach, Rev. A. O’ Leary, D.D., Messrs. John Birnie, K.C., G. W. Winckler, F. F. Telfer, G. B. Wescott, Col. G. W. Bruce. APPENDIX G CLXV XIX.—Report of the Canadian Forestry Association. Presented by Jas. LAWLER, Secretary, Delegate. The Canadian Forestry Association was founded in the year 1900 for the purpose of arousing the public to the need of immediate and prompt action in order to save the forests of Canada and to develop them in such a way that those forests now occupying lands unsuited for agriculture may be kept producing a perpetual supply of timber, and also extending their beneficial influence in the way of regulating stream flow, the protection of agriculture both directly and by forming a cover for valuable insectiverous birds.. The growth of the Association and the interest taken in it by men in all walks of private and public life has shown how necessary such a society is in Canada. During the period since its formation the Asso- ciation has striven by means of annual conventions in the different provinces, by illustrated lectures, public meetings and by the issuing of literature, including an Annual Report and the Canadian Forestry Journal, to advance the objects for which it stands. And while very much remains to be done yet the results achieved in the past ten years, and particularly the changed attitude of the public, give much encourage- ment to the friends of forest conservation. During 1912 the work was carried on on the usual lines with vigor. There were two conventions national in scope, the first held in Ottawa in February, and opened in the unavoidable absence of His Royal Highness the Governor General, the Patron of the Association, by the Right Honorable R. L. Borden, P.C., Premier of Canada; and the second in September in Victoria, B.C., opened by the Honorable Sir Richard McBride, Prime Minister of British Columbia. Both these conventions were largely attended, practically all the provinces, as well as the Dominion Government being represented in each, while there was also on both occasions a good num- ber of experienced forest engineers from the United States. At these Conventions the subjects discussed were, forest protection from fire and insects, proper methods of harvesting the timber crop, the most eco- nomical utilization of the trees when cut, the utilization of by-products, the disposal of debris from lumbering operations, forest fire legislation, forest reserves, forestry education, the necessity for a Dominion labora- tory for testing woods, oil-burning locomotives in forest districts, wood preservation, the railways and forestry, Dominion Government tree planting on the prairies, the reforestation of sand lands and the securing of the most efficient personnel in the different forest services in Canada by means of the adoption of such Civil Service regulations as would en- sure appointment and promotion on merit. CLXVI THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA The Directors of the Association, in reviewing the work of 1912, pointed out that the total expenditure on forest protection and develop- ment in Canada by federal and provincial governments and private in- terests amounted to about $1,500,000. The Dominion Forestry Branch, in addition to its protective and tree planting work, had made an examination of areas in British Co- lumbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba of lands to ascertain if they should be put into forest reserves. | British Columbia had put into force a new forest act and organ- ized a strong forest service. In Ontario the government and the limit holders together had over one thousand fire rangers in the field during the danger season. The Province of Quebec had made a beginning in the work of plant- ing denuded sand lands, and had strengthened its protective and de- velopment work. The St. Maurice Valley Forest Protective Asso- ciation had successfully completed its first year’s work. Private efforts in regard to forestry had been greater than ever be- fore, special mention being made of the introduction of oil-burning locomotives by the Canadian Pacific Railway in the Rocky Mountain forest region, and the introduction of telephone systems by a number of limit holders, particularly in Quebec. The Association again pressed for the establishment of a federal laboratory to test the different woods of Canada. Progress was noted in forestry education and the establishment of schools to train experienced and working fire rangers to give them greater efficiency in their work was urged. The need of extending Civil Service regulations to the outside forest service had been pressed upon the governments, and the outlook in this matter was declared to be hopeful. XX—Report of the United Empire Loyalists’ Association of Canada. Presented by CoLoNEL G. STERLING Ryerson, President, Delegate. This Association held eight meetings during the year, of which two were memorial meetings. In September in conformity with a resolution passed by the Executive Committee on April 11th, with a view to com- memorating the centenary of the death of General Sir Isaac Brock at the Battle of Queenston Heights on October 13th, 1813, eighteen patri- otic and historical societies and military bodies were invited to send delegates to form a general committee of delegates to take action. A meeting was held in Toronto at the Canadian Foresters’ Building, on September 25th, when Colonel Ryerson was appointed President, and APPENDIX G CLXVII Miss Helen M. Merrill Secretary, and special committees were struck as follows:— Travelling Arrangements, ete.—Colonel Ryerson, Dr. James L. Hughes, Mr. J. Stewart Carstairs and Mr. C. E. Macdonald. Press.—Mr. J. Castell Hopkins, Dr. Alex. Fraser, Mr. F. D. L. Smith and Miss Merrill. On the 12th of October a grand meeting was held at the Brock monument on Queenston Heights and was addressed by Colonel Ryer- son; Mr. A. Claude Macdonell; Honorable R. A. Pyne, Minister of Education; Colonel George T. Denison; J. A. Macdonell, K.C., Glen- garry; Dr. James L. Hughes; Chief A. G. Smith, Six Nations Indians; Warrior F. Onondeyoh Loft, Six Nations and Mr. Charles R. McCullough, Honorary President of the Association of Canadian Clubs. Over three thousand persons attended the gathering, including the following:— Colonel Ryerson, who presided; Major W. Napier Keefer; Rev. Canon Macnab, Mrs. Macnab; Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Van Koughnet; Mr. E. M. Chadwick, K.C.; Lt.-Colonel Frank A. Fleming, Commandant Governor- General’s Body Guard; Colonel J. H. V. Crowe, Commandant Royal Military College; Captain F. 8. Ryerson; Miss Laura Ryerson; Mr. J. Stewart Carstairs; Mr. Charles E. Macdonald; Mr. Gordon J. Smith, Superintendent Six Nations Indians, Brantford; Mr. A. McLean Mac- donell, K.C.; Mr. R. E. A. Land; Colonel Fred W. Macqueen; Mrs. R. A. Pyne; Mrs. Edwards Merrill; Miss Catherine Merritt; Miss Emily Merritt; Mrs. Birdsall and Miss Laura Clarke, (descendants of Laura Secord) ; Mr. A. R. Davis; Captain H. M. Mowat; Mrs. A. E. Gooderham; Mrs. E. F. B. Johnstone; Miss Constance Boulton; His Honour Judge Hardy, Brantford; Mrs. John Calder, Hamilton. The meeting was in every way a success. During the year the following addresses and papers were given :— “Records of a Highlander,” by Colonel A. H. Macdonald, of Guelph; “Fragments of the War of 1812,” an excerpt from Dr. Canniff’s “The Rev. George Ryerson and his family”; “ An Incident in the War of 1812,” by Miss Katharine Lundy; “ Extracts from the Life of Samuel Merwin, U.E.L., Judge of Admiralty,”’ presented by the President; “The United Empire Loyalists’ Movement from the United States to Canada,” by Mr. F. T. Congdon, K.C.; “Who are United Empire Loyalists?” by Mr. Wilfred Campbell, LL.D., F.R.S.C.; “Western Canada and the Empire,” by Mr. J. Castell Hopkins, F.S.S. The Constitution was amended during the year, and it is intended to establish branches throughout Canada; already steps have been taken to this end. Seventy new members were admitted during the year and the finances are in a healthy condition. Proc. 1913. 12. CLXVIII THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA On the 19th of May, of this year, the Annual Luncheon was held to commemorate the 130th anniversary of the landing of the Loyalists at St. John, N.B. The principal speakers were Colonel Hugh MacLean, M.P., the Bishop of Toronto and Dr. J. L. Hughes. The following officers and committees were elected :— President.—Colonel G. Sterling Ryerson, M.D. Vice-Presidents.—Lt.-Colonel G. A. Shaw; Colonel George T. Deni- son; Lt.-Colonel Wm. Hamilton Merritt; Mr. R. S. Neville, K.C.; Mrs. J. S. Dignam. Honorary Vice-Presidents (Distinguished descendants of United Empire Loyalists).—The Right Honourable the Earl of Carnwath; the Right Honourable the Earl of Albemarle; Major General Charles Walker Robinson, C.B.; Brigadier-General Charles Crutchley; Mrs. St. George Littledale; Sir Frederick Borden; Right Honourable R. L. Borden, Premier of Canada; Honourable G. H. V. Bulyea, Lieutenant-Governor of Alberta; Honourable Sir Rodmond P. Roblin, K.C.M.G., Premier of Manitoba; Chief (Ka-nen-kew-yah) Jacob Salem Johnson, Deputy Speaker Six Nations Council; Chief (Annosorhkah) Samson Green, repre- senting the Mohawks of the Bay of Quinté, Tyendinaga Reservation. (Surviving sons and daughters of original United Empire Loyalists).— Peregrine Otway Page, Ridgeway; Thomas C. Keefer, C.M.G., Rock- cliffe, Ottawa; Alexander MaitlandSecord, Toronto; Mrs. J. Y. Cameron, Toronto; Miss Seymour, Ottawa; Mrs. Mackellar, North Bay; Mrs. J. Thorburn, Ottawa; Mrs. John Ridout, Toronto; Mrs. Ellen Sutherland, Lancaster; Major-General Samuel Peters Jarvis, C.M.G., Weston-Super- Mare, England; Major J. G. Beam, Elora; Miss Charlotte F. Leonard, Toronto; Mrs. Perley, Port Dover; Mr. Harrington, Sydney, N.S.; Charles Stayner, Halifax, N.S. Honorary Secretary.—Miss Helen M. Merrill. Honorary Treasurer.—Mr. A. R. Davis. Honorary Chaplain.—Rev. Canon Macnab. Honorary Genealogist.—Mr. E. M. Chadwick, K.C. Honorary Legal Adviser.—Mr. C. E. Macdonald. Executive Committee.—Major W. N. Keefer; Mr. C. E. Macdonald; Mr. E. A. Maclaurin; Captain V. A. Hall; Mr. J. S. Carstairs, B.A.; Mr. F. O. Loft; Mr. R. E. A. Land; Miss Catharine Merritt; Mrs. R. Stearns Hicks; Mrs. Edmund Phillips. Central Council.—The Executive Committee and the following:— Rey. Canon Alfred Brown, Halifax; Mr. George H. Ham, Montreal; Colonel A. H. Macdonald, Guelph; Sir John Beverley Robinson, Edge- water, N.J.; Lt.-Colonel J. J. Gregory, Lacombe, Alta.; Mrs. John J. Gemmel, Ottawa; Egerton B. L. Hill, Vancouver; Lt.-Colonel R. W. Gregory, St. Catharines; Mr. H. 8. Seaman, Winnipeg; Lt.-Colonel H. C. APPENDIX G CLXIX Rogers, Peterborough; Mr. E. B. Merrill, B.A., B.A. Se., Moose Jaw; Colonel Hugh McLean, M.P., St. John, N.B.; Mr. L. V. Chipman, Annapolis Royal, N.S.; Mr. Hugh Munro, M.P.P., Alexandria, Ont. Investigating Committee—Colonel G. Sterling Ryerson, Mr. A. R. Davis, Miss Helen M. Merrill. Ladies’ Committee—Mrs. J. B. Tyrrell; Miss Emily Merritt; Miss Laura Ryerson; Mrs. Forsyth Grant; Miss Strathy; Miss Dickson; Miss Laura Clarke; Mrs. Hicks; Miss Carey; Dr. Amelia Johnston; Mrs. F. O. Loft; Mrs. F. C. Law. LA SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA MEMOIRES SECTION I. LITTÉRATURE FRANÇAISE, HISTOIRE, ARCHÉOLOGIE, Ere. ANNÉE 1913 pec. EL 190s. 1. MO bids TE SL Ee me SE TCI OL EOS th Mee | ib on RON TR EL A TRA NT EM AS EP LI a HOUR NE LR EE EURE Vielen ee) Le rate) a Th oar as a ES Meh : ; SECTION I. [3] Memorres S.R.C. Les Colons de Montréal de 1642 A 1667. Par E. Z. MAssICOTTE. Présenté par B. Sulte (Lu le 27 mai 1913). Nomenclature chronologique et raisonnée des personnes qui ont habité Montréal depuis la fondation de la ville jusqu’au deuxième recense- ment nominal. Depuis qu’on nous a confié la tâche d’inventorier les archives du palais de justice de Montréal et d’en préparer les répertoires et les index nous avons profité de cette occasion favorable pour dresser, année par année, la liste des personnes qui ont habité Villemarie durant son pre- mier quart de siècle d’existence, car nous avions la certitude qu’une telle nomenclature serait utile aux historiens comme aux statisticiens. Dans le but de rendre ce travail aussi complet que possible, nous nous sommes entendu avec M.J.C.O. Bertrand, l’archiviste fédéral qui fait le relevé des documents du séminaire de Saint-Sulpice, ainsi qu'avec M. O. Lapalice, l’archiviste de la fabrique Notre-Dame qui, tous deux, nous ont communiqué des pièces inédites importantes; enfin nous avons essayé de consulter tous les ouvrages imprimés susceptibles de nous renseigner; nous indiquons, du reste, subséquemment, les sources où nous avons puisé. La masse de notes ainsi accumulées étant considérable, on compien- dra qu’il ait fallu nous borner à n’employer qu’une faible partie de notre récolte, autrement, ce travail aurait pris les proportions d’un volume. Néanmoins, telle qu’elle est, cette liste donnera une idée de l’accroisse- ment de la population; elle procurera la date la plus reculée de l’appa- rition, dans les documents, de ceux qui vinrent s'établir en ce coin de la Nouvelle-France, et elle fera connaître la présence de diverses per- sonnes qui, sans être colons, ont séjourné plus ou moins longtemps à Villemarie. A titre de mémoire, nous indiquons, en tête de chaque année, le chiffre des habitants de Montréal, ainsi que le nombre des immigrants que l’on dit être venus, si les renseignements le permettent. Chaque nom est placé à la plus ancienne date trouvée, sauf en certains cas, pour 4 LA SOCIETE ROYALE DU CANADA des époux ou des enfants, lorsqu’il y a lieu de croire qu’ils accompa- enaient leurs conjoints ou leurs parents. Quant aux naissances, on les trouvera rassemblées à la fin de chaque année. Bien que nous nous soyons attaché à signaler plusieurs des erreurs qui ont cours actuellement nous avons systématiquement fait une excep- tion pour-ce qui regarde les dates inexactes du Dictionnaire généalogi- que de Mgr Tanguay, car il y en a trop. Donc, si l’on constate une divergence entre une date de ce travail et celle du susdit Dictionnaire, il y aura présomption que la nôtre sera la bonne....jusqu’à preuve du contraire. Pour dresser cette liste qui contient plus de 1500 noms, nous avons eu recours aux sources suivantes: Manuscrits Greffe du palais de justice: 1. Etudes des notaires: Jean de Saint-Père, R. Lambert Closse, Nicolas Gastineau Duplessis, Bénigne Basset et N. de Mouchy; Actes sous seing privé; 3. Actes de concession de M. de Maisonneuve et de M. l’abbé Souart; Ordonnances des gouverneurset descommandants de Montréal; 5. Procès verbaux d’arpentage; 6. Registres et sentences de la justice seigneuriale et de la séné- chaussée; 7. Registre du tabellionnage. Archives du séminaire de Montréal: 1. Actes de Maisonneuve; 2. Rôles d’embarquement pour les années 1653 et 1659; 3. Actes de gratifications; 4. Promesses de défricher; Rôle de la milice, 1663. Archives de la fabrique Notre-Dame: 1. Registres de l’état civil; 2. Procès verbaux de la fabrique bo BR Imprimés Annuaire de Villemarie. Belmont—Histoire du Canada. Canadian Antiquarian. Dollier de Casson—Histoire du Montréal. [MASSICOTTE] LES COLONS DE MONTRÉAL 5 Faillon—Histoire de la colonie française. Faillon— Vie de Mlle Mance. Faillon—Vie de Sœur Bourgeois. Journal des Jésuites. Jugements et délibérations du Conseil Souverain. Mémoires de la Société Historique de Montréal. Mémoires de la Société Royale du Canada. Relations des Jésuites. Sulte—Histoire des Canadiens-Français. Tanguay—Dictionnaire généalogique. Tanguay—A travers les registres. Etc., etc. Afin que le lecteur sache, pour chaque nom, où nous avons puisé nos informations sans, pour cela allonger le texte démesurément, nous employons des indications sommaires, ainsi: 1. St-Père (ou Basset, etc.) 5-9-49, signifie: Etude du notaire St-Père (ou Basset, etc.) acte du 5 septembre, 1649. 2. Concession, 4-8-50, signifie: acte de concession par M. de Mai- sonneuve. À partir du mois de juin 1665, les concessions sont faites par M. l’abbé Souart. 3. Soldat de la 7è escouade, 1663, signifie que le nom figure sur le rôle de la milice de la Sainte-Famille, dressé par Zacharie Dupuis, en février 1663, conformément à l’ordonnance seigneuriale du 27 jan- vier précédent. 4. Recens, 1666 ou 1666-1667, signifie que la personne figure au recensement de 1666 ou à ceux de 1666 et 1667. 5. Faillon, II, 360, signifie: Faillon, Histoire de la colonie fran- çaise, volume II, page 360. 6. Sulte, III, 44, signifie: Sulte, Histoire des Canadiens-Frangais, volume III. 7. Tanguay I, 179, signifie: Tanguay, Dictionnaire génealogi- que, volume I. 8. | > {i | MA ON AL i aE ) ants Ma COP GH 101 “fiat Wok à me AVA eet i, ity | ” i NT ‘aha +i L, ‘ , LE 7 jf MIT i if | 2) 14 MA MI Lait nue 0 L | ; Mra iae Bid) Foy altel ai He dla té AT Aa ae i : : a Manu NANTES RE Oe Be WRU ea A LA Mi HAE, Hy ree TU rit | hast { evil) id we DA as CA) NAN AOR: | AA OL The: TELE ele UT Cite mia SiGe . 41 LA “A AN a Ro vault 2 Siero Aa DO At NET TO atl sid air mar ME ii, any DF ati F108 vi OIL ON ANT Er Hs De Tae ie ati al 4 Pw bint, gaudy Mn cn Cain ft | un DOLLAMNTTE k lial, ents, Jayla’, i ens ti me nait SAUT vet) is, 1 di hi aL hatin fr at ir aes ‘yi Rial) Vs nand i #4 (BA a sue onan UT bal? ey mie EU (a dE 2 ; myth r * ii ie ] Ayah LA he war ete {oi Ni Lie A HT ee, | AT DATE rc À 1 LE A ni À / ‘| yf ‘ À ‘ . | Heh ee ih vr fi) fs. A Ù 7 ae | i ia ah aft Qu this je / "10 à | ns “ hi Am \ He" 4 Yih meas an vy nel ail ras NOTE Lay : DORE let as ot ee ES oe M THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA TRANSACTIONS SECTION II. ENGLISH LITERATURE, HISTORY, ARCHÆOLOGY, Etc. PAPERS FOR 1913 : AAA MT VOR ALA TOs el eee - | | Ai AMOLEOLAVENT The At Per SN ORNE Li ve Cy iriil Tu Urry masat jen CN or ~ LELÉT MOU RMA AT DE SECTION IL., 1913 [3] Trans. §.R.C. The American Loyalists in the Eastern Seigniories and Townships of the Province of Quebec. By WizBur H. SIEBERT, Onto STATE UNIVERSITY. Presented by Dr. W. D. LeSueur. (Read May 28, 1913.) The great triangular district lying north of New York and Vermont, with the St. Lawrence and the St. Francis forming the other two sides, was a favoured region for loyalist immigration during the Revolutionary War. To the south was the valley of the Hudson filled with adherents of the Crown, while Lake Champlain served as a connecting link between the valley and the River Richelieu, along which were situated several British posts,—the Isle aux Noix on the New York frontier, and at dis- tances farther north, St. Johns, St. Ours, Chambley, and Sorel, the last named marking the junction of the Richelieu and the St. Lawrence. These posts, and others along the St. Lawrence, offered refuge to those whose opinions and activities rendered them obnoxious to such of their fellow-countrymen as espoused the cause of American independence. It is not surprising, therefore, that many sought escape from conditions which they found intolerable by what may be called the Lake Champlain route. However, not all the American refugees who entered the Pro- vince of Quebec came by way of the lake: numbers of those from the Mohawk Valley followed one of several western routes, by way of Oswego or points farther east, whence they passed to the St. Lawrence and so down the beautiful river to Montreal or Quebec. With the beginning of the Revolution the movement of Tories into Lower Canada began. Lieutenant Colonel Allan Maclean fled from Schenectady by the Oswego route in the early summer of 1775, taking with him a party of “Royal Highland Emigrants,” composed chiefly of Scotch refugees and disbanded soldiers, in whose enlistment Guy Johnson had aided. These men were enrolled under instructions from General Thomas Gage, authorizing the formation of a corps of two battalions to consist of ten companies each, each company to com- prise nine officers, two drummers, and fifty privates.* On its arrival in Quebec, the party numbered eighty men. A local officer described them in disparaging terms as “Irish fishermen unacquainted with the use of arms.” In September, Maclean and his men were dispatched Ze eialdimandiapereiraep.l: =) een, ONU 4 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA from Quebec to St. Johns to help resist the invasion of Canada by Richard Montgomery and his force of 1500 Continentals. After marching as far as Sorel Maclean took post there, but when the local militia on whom he depended for support deserted, he sought refuge with his troops aboard armed vessels in the harbor and returned to the capital of the province, arriving just in time to render valuable service in the defence of that place against the attacks of Benedict Arnold.* If Quebec was saved from capture, Montreal was not, and remained in possession of the Americans until the last week in June, 1776. On the day following its re-occupation by the Canadians, Sir John Johnson arrived there with about two hundred followers, having fled from his patrimonial estate in the Mohawk Valley toward the close of the pre- ceding month.f Sir John received a cordial welcome from Governor Guy Carleton, and was at once commissioned to raise a battalion, to be called the King’s Royal Regiment of New York, from among his companions and the distressed people he had left behind. In granting this commission Carleton was acting under the express authority of the home government in England, which had given its approval of the formation of a corps by Sir John in the previous March.{ This shows conclusively that the baronet’s military preparations at Johnstown before his flight were part of a preconcerted plan that might have been thwarted if General Philip Schuyler and his Continentals had taken Sir John into custody in January, 1776, instead of disarming and releasing him at that time.‘ However, when the danger of arrest again threatened Johnson and his party escaped, departing by way of the Sacondaga, thence taking a northwestwardly route to avoid Lake Champlain, lest it might be in the possession of the Americans, and entering the Province of Quebec probably east of the St. Lawrence by way of St. Regis. The corps received frequent accessions from the colonies, the first to be recorded being “parties, some with arms, who had come in at Crown Point for refuge,” and who joined the regiment in November. 5 The spirit of the new organization was warmly commended by Carleton two months later. At the same time, provision was made for the care of the unincorporated refugees with the regiment and for the adminis- tration of the oath of allegiance to all who had thus far arrived. °® *Can. Arch., 1890, State Papers, 65, 66; Sir John Johnson’s Orderly Book, 55, n.; Flick, Loyalism in New York, 101, and the references there given. Can. Arch., 1890, State Papers, 73; Second Report, Bureau of Archives, Ont., Pt. I., 375, 376, 381, 382, 383, 384, 410, 411. +Can. Arch., 1885, 235. 4Stone, Life of Brant, I., 142. 5Can. Arch., 1890, State Papers, 78. 6Can. Arch., 1885, 231, 252. S2suof wrens Moy aa . nel cp ond wy au S 30 NY4 ae el 6 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Very soon after the arrival of Adams, the McDonalds appeared in Canada with a body of a hundred recruits for Maclean’s and Johnson’s regiments. These McDonalds were Alexander and John, the two Tory Scotchmen who had lived on Sir John Johnson’s estate until they were taken captive in January, 1776. Later, they obtained permission from General Schuyler to visit their families, and seized the opportunity to abduct some of the Scotch settlers and German loyalists of the neigh- borhood, effecting their departure in March, 1777.* Early in the fol- lowing April the McDonalds were at La Chine preparatory to taking the field when ordered. t The arrival of these parties of loyalists in quick succession, and their readiness to enlist for service, led Carleton to issue instructions, December 12, 1776, for the formation of corps of refugees. He already had a partial warrant for doing so in the establishment of Sir John Johnson’s regiment under authority from the Colonial Office, and his action anticipated by only a few months new instructions from the same source, dated March 26, 1777, authorizing an invitation to all loyal subjects of the neighboring frontiers to join the King’s forces under the assurance of receiving the same pay and allowances as the other corps raised in America, while to each of those serving until the restoration of peace a grant of two hundred acres of land was promised in addition.t Of the parties mentioned above, those of Jessup and Adams set out -with Burgoyne upon his expedition. Another corps that accompanied Burgoyne was that of John Peters, a colonel of militia and judge of the court of common pleas from Gloucester County, New York. As early as August, 1774, Peters had been ‘mobbed and kept from his house” for eight months, and after returning had received the same treatment. In consequence he fled to Canada, arriving there in March, 1776. In June he was in Montreal, warning the town of the intended attack upon it by the Americans. Thence he went to join the British army at St. Johns. Less than a year later his wife and seven sons came to Canada, after they had been “ plundered of everything excepting their wearing apparel” by the revolutionists. By May 12, 1777, Peters had gathered up twenty-four officers and men. On June 24, he received formal enlisting orders from General Carleton for his batallion, which was to be called the Queen’s Loyal Rangers, and in the following month he was commissioned lieutenant colonel of the new corps.‘ *Can. Arch., 1890, 84; 1888, 643; Stone, Burgoyne’s Campaign, 144; Johnson’s Orderly Book, 56, n. tJohnson’s Orderly Book, 30. tCan. Arch., 1885, 251, 237, 238. ‘Haldimand Papers, B. 215, pp. 209, 210; B. 167, p. 31. [SIEBERT] THE AMERICAN LOYALISTS 7 For us the plan of campaign of the summer of 1777, in which Burgoyne, St. Leger, and Sir William Howe participated, is of in- terest only in relation to the loyalists. The valley of the Hudson, by which Burgoyne was to descend upon Albany, while Howe ascended the river to the same point, was full of loyalists; and so also was the valley of the Mohawk, by which St. Leger, marching from Oswego, was expected to reach Albany at the right juncture. Burgoyne’s advance guard, sailing from Cumberland Bay on June 19, comprised his loyalist or provincial troops. Among the troops that joined St. Leger at Oswego were Sir John Johnson and one hundred and thirty- three men of his corps from La Chine* and Colonel John Butler’s Tory Rangers from Fort Niagara.f Burgoyne, Johnson, and Sir Guy Carleton all expected other bands of loyalists to rally to the support of the advancing forces. Indeed, Carleton furnished General Bur- goyne with blank commissions for the enlistment of two or more corps of rangers, in addition to those already under his command; while the latter sought to assure himself of these accessions, which he hoped to gather in “from Hampshire, Skenesborough and Albany,” by send- ing emissaries into the colonies for the purpose.{ Partly, no doubt, as a result of these precautions, and partly of their own volition, numer- ous provincials joined the British on their lines of march: we learn of their attaching themselves to Burgoyne at Crown Point, Ticon- deroga, Skenesborough, Ft. Edward, Ft. Miller, Saratoga, and other places, and to Johnson’s corps under St. Leger at Oswego and Ft. Stanwix.t The testimony of these volunteers shows that while many of them came in singly, others came in in larger or smaller groups. Thus, Dr. James Stuart, of Ulster County, New York, joined St. Leger at Oswego with fifty-two men and Jacob Miller enlisted with fifty under the same command at Ft. Stanwix.® Paul Heck of Camden, Charlotte County, attached himself to Burgoyne at Crown Point with a company of “thirty-nine farmers”;7 Samuel Perry, of Saratoga, appeared at Ticonderoga with forty-seven recruits;® and, at the same point, Isaac Man, Jr., of Still Water, came in with fifty-seven;° Daniel Jones, of Charlotte County, presented himself at Skenesborough with *Johnson’s Orderly Book, 10, n., 4, n., 82, n. tIbid., 2, n. Can. Arch., 1890, 86. * Second Report, Bureau of Archives, Ont., Pt. II., 923; Pt. I., 398, 462, 422, 409, 439, 444, 414, etc. ; 400, 419, 440, etc. 5 Second Report, Bureau of Archives, Ont., Pt. I., 303. 6 Haldimand Papers, B. 214, p. 123. 7Second Report, Bureau of Archives, Ont., Pt. I., 401. 8Tbid., Pt. 1,46. *Tbid., 335. 8 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA thirty; * John Howard also joined the army at Skenesborough and soon after assisted in collecting and bringing in a hundred recruits.f Hugh Munro enlisted at the same place, was at once appointed to a captaincy in Jessup’s corps, and gathered a number of men who became the nucleus of a batteau company that was formed after the army reached Ft. Edward; { other accessions at the two encampments last named were the result of the activity of Francis Pfister and Robert Leake, who sent in, according to the latter’s statement, eighty men, with a return of the number they had raised;* William and Thomas Fraser, of Tryon County, enlisted at Ft. Edward after escaping from Albany, where, with one hundred recruits they were conducting to Canada, they had been imprisoned; Captain Daniel McAlpin with sixty ‘American Volunteers,’ raised at the instance of Sir William Howe, also enlisted at Ft. Edward;® Gershom French conducted ninety-four men to the army at Saratoga, after arming them by force at the expense of the Americans;® Alexander Crukshank and six others escaped from Esopus jail in Ulster County, New York, to Burgoyne’s camp at Sara- toga, Crukshank’s family coming in soon after;’? Peter VanAlstine, of Kinderhook, Albany County, added thirty men to Burgoyne’s forces, but where is not stated; neither is it stated where a party of the Mo- hawks joined Burgoyne, but the Rev. John Stuart, missionary to this tribe, declares that he sent his congregation of Indians to support the King’s troops, probably the group of 40 o: 50 redmen led in by Joseph Clement of Tyron County.’ Under these circumstances Burgoyne should have had no diffi- culty in forming the extra battalions for which he had blank com- missions, or in filling the ranks of those already under his command. He had sent emissaries into the colonies to secure Tory recruits before he started down Lake Champlain; prominent men who joined him were at once sent back with “beating orders” to bring in such parties as they could raise, and, with no abatement of zeal in this direction, one of his objects in despatching Baum’s expedition to the Connecticut River on August 14, was to complete Peter’s regiment of provincials, which formed part of Baum’s forces.® Before Burgoyne’s advance guard had passed Crown Point, Peters and his corps had been joined by thirty-three men (June 25); on the fourteenth of the following *Second Report, Bureau of Archives, Ont., Pt. I., 398. {Haldimand Papers, B. 214, p. 235. tibid., pp. 210-215. 4]Ibid., p. 41. BTbid., 6. 167, p: 107. SIbid., B. 161, pp. 1-3. 7 Ibid., B. 214, p. 96. 8Ibid., B. 215, p. 96; Second Report, Bureau of Archives, Ont., Pt. II., 965. *Stone, Burgoyne’s Campaign, ap. 278. [SIEBERT] THE AMERICAN LOYALISTS 9 month they received an accession of twenty-six, and two days later— the date on which they took part in the battle of Bennington—sixty- eight more enlisted. Thirty-seven others joined the corps at various times, apparently before Baum’s expedition.* These figures are taken from the muster rolls and seem to show that a total of 164 men joined the corps up to the time of the engagement. That they fall far short of what were probably the facts will appear below. On the day be- fore the battle Francis Pfister and Robert Leake, according to the testimony of the latter, joined Baum with upwards of 200 men. These were less than a third of the whole number which Leake says they had raised under orders from General William Howe.f But Pfister’s father-in-law, John McComb, of Hoosick, Albany County, New York, says in a memorial to Haldimand that Lieutenant Pfister and he engaged upwards of 500 effective men, of whom 318 actually joined Burgoyne. { This continual enlistment of loyalists was shrewdly taken advantage of by the enemy to impose on the credulity of the British leaders. Colonel Baum himself, according to General Riedesel, suffered small bodies of armed men to encamp on his sides and rear under the representation that they were loyalists. Later, stronger forces of revolutionists arrived and attacked Baum’s contingent, which was made up mostly of Germans, whereupon the seeming loyal- ists also began to attack the Germans. The result was that “ Baum suddenly found himself cut off from all his detached posts.” After two hours of hard fighting the German officer was mortally wounded, most of his men were lost, and he was forced to surrender. * In an undated memorial to Haldimand, Colonel Peters states that his own losses at Benningtin (August 16) were one lieutenant, one en- sign and 210 privates killed, one captain, one lieutenant, one ensign and twenty-seven privates taken prisoners.5 Of Pfister’s regiment, Pfister himself fell, and Leake tells us that 121 of Pfister’s men were killed or captured, the remainder retreating to Ft. Miller, where they joined the main body of the army, and were placed under the com- mand of Samuel Mackay. He also states that they were joined within a few days by others of Pfister’s men to the number of 229.5 The muster rolls indicate that six days after the battle about a hundred men left the corps. This was in accordance with the terms of their enlistment, but whether they dispersed or betook themselves to *Haldimand Papers, B. 167, muster roll of Peter’s corps. tIbid., B. 214, pp. 41, 42. tIbid., p. 207. + For Riedesel’s account, see Stone, Burgoyne’s Campaign, 31, 32; for Burgoyne’s account, see the latter’s State of the Expedition. 5 Haldimand Papers, B. 215, p. 210. °Tbid., B. 214, pp. 41, 42. 10 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Canada does not appear.* At any rate, Peters tells Haldimand that in September he mustered 317 men at Saratoga; + doubtless that num- ber included the contingent brought in there by Gershom French, which was incorporated with Peter’s corps. It probably also included whatever remained of Captain Justus Sherwood’s company of Tories, for Sherwood, who had entered Canada in 1776, had raised a com- pany and served under Peters throughout the campaign, returning to Canada immediately after the Convention. t * During the battle of Bennington, Burgoyne and his main army were at Ft. Edward, where they remained until September 13. On that and the following day they crossed to Ft. Miller on the west side of the Hudson, being accompanied by the loyalist companies and corps. It was, indeed, from the corps of Peters, Jessup, McAlpin, and Mackay that Burgoyne supplied the losses of his regiments of the line after an engagement with the Congress troops at Bemis Heights, September 19, ordering the transfer of a hundred and twenty ‘men of tried bravery and fidelity’? for this purpose. That the loyalists suffered in this encounter is indicated by Peters’ statement of heavy losses from certain companies of his own militia regiment, which had joined him. Lieu- tenant Colonel Kingston, who served as Burgoyne’s adjutant and secre- tary, testified before the committee of inquiry of the House of Commons that at the opening of the campaign, July 1, there were no more than eighty-three provincials in the army, exclusive of Canadian troops, and that two months later they had increased to six hundred and eighty, their maximum number, according to his statement. Burgoyne, writing to Lord George Germaine from his camp at Skenesborough, July 11, after mentioning the battalions of Peters and Jessup as being still “in embryo but very promising,”’ said that ‘‘some hundreds of men, a third part of them with arms,” had joined him since penetrating to that place; that some wished to serve to the end of the war and some for the campaign only, and that he had not hesitated to receive them. Skenesborough was one of the earlier camps, but we know that loyalists did not cease coming in after that point was reached. There are reasons for supposing that some did not continue long with the expedi- tion; but on the other hand, many more served Burgoyne nobly on the battlefield, as we have seen. Nevertheless, after the destruction of Baum’s force, the British Commander began to disparage the loyalists *Haldimand Papers B. 167, pp. 17-19. fIbid., B. 215, p. 210. tIbid., B. 228, p. 107; Second Report Bureau of Archives, Pt. II., 218. 4 Burgoyne’s Orderly Book, 116; Kingsford, History of Canada, VI., 249, 250. 5 Burgoyne, State of the Expedition, 97, 113, ap. li. 5 Burgoyne, State of the Expedition, ap. xxxvi, xxxvii. [SIEBERT] THE AMERICAN LOYALISTS 11 both as to character and numbers. Writing to Germaine, August 20, 1777, he was loth to admit that he had more than ‘‘about 400,” of whom he declared not half were armed ‘who may be depended upon,” the rest being ‘‘trimmers merely actuated by interest.”’* It has already been noted that Lieutenant Colonel Kingston’s figures place the loyalist contingent at six hundred and eighty on September 1, or only ten days later than the date of Burgoyne’s statement. We must believe, there- fore, either that Burgoyne gave too small a number, or that a consider- able accession of loyalists took place during the days immediately following Baum’s defeat. In either case, the figures are totally mislead- ing as to the whole number of provincials who joined the expedition. On this point the best evidence we have is the accumulated testimony of the loyalist volunteers themselves, which indicates approximately three times the number mentioned by Kingston, not counting those who joined St. Leger. We may be sure, however, that his own catas- trophe at Saratoga did not improve Burgoyne’s opinion of the loyalists: he not only failed to introduce a word in their behalf into his articles of capitulation, but also “blamed them for his defeat.”’ + Happily, the Tories possessed sufficient prudence to make up for their neglect by their commander-in-chief. Of those who remained with him until the surrender many escaped before the actual capitula- tion, although Lieutenant Colonel Kingston testified that he had never heard of any corps finding its way back to Canada. However, he admitted that the matter of flight had been discussed and that the guides with the expedition had said that those attempting escape must break into small parties and follow the Indian paths. t This is evidently what was done by the majority. Those who first succeeded in getting away to Canada were Captain Mackay and his company, and Captain Fraser. A week before his surrender, Burgoyne had sent Captains Fraser and Mackay with their light troops back to assist in opening a road to Ft. Edward, on the line of retreat. On the appearance of the enemy in considerable numbers Fraser’s men were recalled, while the provincials under Mackay “ran away,” according to Burgoyne,’ that is, started northward for Ticonderoga. On October 19, British the commandant at Mt. Independence reported MacKay’s arrival at the head of one hundred volunteers and Canadians, adding that other small parties had since come in. Captain *Burgoyne, State of the Expedition, ap. xlvi. tIbid., 133, 134, ap. Ixxxiv; Flick, Loyalism in New York, 109, 110. tIbid., 115. ‘Burgoyne, State of the Expedition, ap. xcii. 5 Can. Arch., 1890, 102. 12 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Fraser appeared on the twentieth, bringing with him a copy of the articles of the convention, or surrender, which had occurred three days before. It is said that on the night before the convention was signed, a large number of the remaining provincials, preferring the risks of flight to the conditions of surrender, struck out through the woods for the Quebee country.* Colonel Peters throws more light on the flight of the loyalists at this time by declaring in his memorial to Haldimand that he conducted about 117 privates into Canada in the fall of 1777. He further states that he left Burgoyne’s camp on October 16, “having that unfortunate General’s order, signed by General Philips, to make his escape into Canada, which he had the good fortune to effect, with the greatest difficulty, having his son and a few others, with him.” + That flight involved the fugitive in grave risks is illustrated by the experience of Alexander White of Tryon County, who had the misfortune to fall into the hands of the enemy and to suffer twelve months imprisonment at Albany before he could obtain his discharge. He then betook himself to New York City, whence, with the approach of the evacuation, he secured passage to Quebec in the summer of 1783, f thus arriving in Canada six years after his attempted escape. A large number of Burgoyne’s Tory recruits, who nine or ten years later told something of their story to the British Commissioners of loyalist claims in Canada, do not particularize in regard to the time of their escape, contenting themselves with the indefinite statement that they came to Canada “‘in the fall of 1777,” or ‘‘after Burgoyne’s defeat,” or ‘‘at the convention.’ Others are more explicit, explaining that they were “taken at Saratoga,” or ‘‘were in the convention,” or ‘had under the convention leave to go to Canada.’’> Still others say that they came to Canada “after the convention.’”’® A fraction were, to be sure, taken prisoner in the course of the campaign, languished in confinement for a longer or shorter time, and were thus prevented from getting to the desired haven along with the greater number of their loyalist comrades.” Not a few spent more or less of their time in the States for several years after the convention, before settling permanently in their newly adopted country. As late as 1786, it appears that ‘numbers of {Haldimand Papers, B. 215, p. 211. Second Report, Bureau of Archives, Ont., Pt. II., 1051. ‘Tbid., Pt. I, 86, 328, 330, 336, 337, 338, 344, 345, 449, 451, 457, 466, 474, 483; Pt. II, 1002, 1006, 1084, 1267, 1271. 5 Ibid, Pt. II, 927-8, 949, 953. ‘Ibid, Pt. I, 386, 421, 445, 457, 466, 474, 483, 484; Pt, IL, 940, 942, 943, 944. 7Ibid., Pt. I, 329, 361. [SIEBERT] THE AMERICAN LOYALISTS 13 loyalists” were still residing in Vermont, and it was said that no objection was made to their presence there.* As for Sir John Johnson’s “Royal Greens,” they had no recourse but flight after St. Leger’s disastrous attack on Ft. Stanwix on August 3 and 4, 1777. Contrary to the confident expectations of Sir John, the Mohawk Valley loyalists did not flock to his standards to any great extent, and when consternation struck St. Leger’s camp, Johnston’s corps fled with the rest. Such part of it as was left intact after the precipitate retreat accompanied their leaders back to Oswego and thence to Montreal. Doubtless, the others took their course through the woods to the same point, or to La Chine, whence they had started on the expedition. Not only Johnson’s and Mackay’s corps, but also Peters’, Jessup’s, McAlpin’s, Leake’s, and Adams’ companies made their way to Canada in greater or less numbers. By December 1, 1777, Captain Mackay was at Montreal, whence he made a return of the loyalists there, explain- ing that they were “‘divided into four corps.” ? Four and a half months later, he was at Chateauguay in the angle between the St. Lawrence and ‘the northern boundary of New York with more than seventy of his men.* At the close of January, 1778, Lieutenant Colonel Peters was at La Chine with ninety-four of the Queen’s Loyal Rangers.’ Captain McAlpin’s force in Canada at this time was seventy-eight.5 With forty of these he was sent to Sorel in May, 1779, to succeed Sir John Johnson in the command of several corps of loyalists at that post. Thence he wrote to Haldimand that he was forming a company for Captain Robert Leake, and that one of the Jessups had just left for the River St. Francis with thirty men. According to orders, Leake’s new company was to consist of eighty men, but by June 3 it had an enrol- ment of one hundred and forty-six.’ Toward the close of August, 1778, Captain William Fraser and his company of forty rangers were at the Isle aux Noix. In the following October a blockhouse was estab- lished at Yamaska, a few miles east of Sorel. Here Fraser and his men were placed as a garrison. Early in September, 1780, Ebenezer Jessup was at Quebec prosecuting a plan to raise a new regiment—the King’s Royal Americans—which by the following December numbered *Seccnd Report, Bureau of Archives, Ont., Pt. I, 388, 89. Stone, Burgoyne’s Campaign, 219; Sir John Johnson’s Orderly Book, 97, 98, n. à Can. Arch., 1886, 528. * Haldimand Papers, B. 167, pp. 172, 173. 5 Tbid., 159. 8 Ibid., 107. 7 Can. Arch., 1888, 661, 684; 1887, 442. 8 Haldimand Papers, B. 214, p. 55. Sec. II, 1913—1 14 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA about sixty men.* In 1781, Captain Justus Sherwood furnished a complete company for this corps.f The return of these provincial regiments, which must have been followed closely by numerous other sympathizers with the British cause, was not overlooked by Governor Carleton. In order to supply the refugees with temporary support they were attached to Sir John Johnson’s regiment by an order of January 12, 1778, and were directed to obey the orders of their new commander, whether connected with other corps or not. It was specified, however, that those who had surrendered under the terms of the convention of Saratoga were to do no military duty. Toward the end of the following April they were further provided for by a new order of Carleton’s, which directed that the sum of £6,460 sterling be paid to Sir John “for the present relief of several corps of Royalists belonging to Gen. Burgoyne’s army, and sun- dry other persons who have taken refuge in this Province,” but £1,024 was deducted for provisions issued to them during the previous six months, that is, since the close of Burgoyne’s campaign.‘ The corps thus provided for are duly designated in the records that have come down to us, and the strength of each is given in a series of subsistence : reports issued at bi-monthly intervals from October 24, 1778, to February 23, 1779. The last of these reports shows that McAlpin’s party then consisted of eighty-seven officers and men, Jessup’s party, of one hundred and fourteen, Peters’ party, of sixty-eight, Leake’s party, of one hundred and forty, Adams’ party, of thirty-nine, and that there were in addition thirty-seven persons not attached to parties, making a total of 485.5 Toward the end of May,1778, Johnson’sregiment, with all those attached, was required to march to Quebec,® evidently on their way to the post at Sorel, with Sir John still in command. We find them here a year later, when McAlpin came to relieve Johnson, in order that the latter might devote himself to completing his regiment. In the mean- time, Maclean’s corps of Royal Highland Emigrants had made notable headway since the day of its first appearance in Canada. By March 9, 1779, the muster roll of its first battalion showed 616 men, including officers,’ many of its recruits having come from Sir John Johnson’s old neighborhood in the Mohawk Valley. Maclean’s success in complet- ing this battalion was promptly rewarded by a royal order of April 16 that the corps be placed on the regular establishment and numbered *Can. Arch., 1888, 695. fHaldimand Papers, B. 222, p. 107. tIbid, 21, 743, pp. 45, 49. * Myers, The Tories or Loyalists in America, 51. 5 Haldimand Papers, B. 89, pp. 31, 34-37, 46, 48-51, 65-69. 6 Tbid., 21, 743, p. 48. *Thbid., B. 178, p. 29: [SIEBERT] THE AMERICAN LOYALISTS 15 the Eighty-fourth Regiment. At the same time, the King directed that each of the ten companies be augmented from fifty privates to seventy, the augmentation to be levied in America.* Nine months later, however, Governor Haldimand wrote to Germaine that he de- spaired of Maclean’s being able to accomplish this increase, and declared that even Sir John Johnson, with all his endeavors, had not succeeded in completing his first battalion. t Despite this discouraging report, the depleted ranks of the various loyalist corps that had been in active service now began to fill with the numbers of Tories arriving in Canada. The largest additions appear to have been made by Johnson’s Royal Greens ? and Jessup’s Royal Americans,* but Maclean’s first battalion of the Eighty-fourth Regiment,® McAlpin’s American Volunteers,® Peters’ Queen’s Loyal Rangers,’ and doubtless other corps received accessions. But the corps were not left to be augmented merely by volunteer enlistment. Their commanding officers were soon given permission to send recruiting parties to the colonies, and this method was constantly employed during the remainder of the war. Its success will be sufficiently illus- trated in connection with Jessup’s corps. In July, 1780, according to report, several loyalists were collecting men beyond the borders of Canada.* In the following December, Colonel Ebenezer Jessup, who had already secured a considerable enrolment for his new regiment, was authorized to complete it, and a month later to send men into the colonies for that purpose Major Edward Jessup, the brother of Ebenezer, was urging a continuation of the practice in January, 1782, and in the following May was able to report a complement of seven companies of “more than 66 complete’ (in each company, I suppose he means), at the same time asking permission to form another with John Waltermire as captain, John Ruiter as lieutenant, and Hermanus Best as ensign.” But evidently the organization of new companies did not stop here, for in June the Major sent a letter to Quebec contain- ing a list of proposed officers for two other companies. These were filled during the next four months, a fact evidenced by another letter, *Haldimand Papers, B. 50, p. 80. tIbid., B. 54, pp. 281-283. tSecond Report, Bureau of Archives, Ont., Pt. 1., 352, 357, 369, 370, 386, 419, 428, 439, 449, 459, 479, 575; Pt. II., 940, 942, 1268. 4Ibid., Pt. I, 329, 330, 337, 338, 383, 423, 451, 467; Pt. II, 923, 1002, 1006, 1091. Pibid., Pt Smleret. Thos: 6 Ibid., Pt. I, 414, 457. “tpi. Pt. 1) 228 Pi IT 1268; 8 Can. Arch., 1888, 649. ®Ibid., 692; 1887, 376. ‘Tbid., 1888, 699, 701. 16 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA on October 6, announcing that the corps of Royal Americans was “more than complete.” Nevertheless, small parties of recruits for Jessup’s corps continued to arrive at the Isle aux Noix and Dutchman’s Point as late as March, 1783. With the approach of summer, the regiment experienced a slight loss in numbers, this deficiency being made up by despatching thirty of the men from the Yamaska blockhouse to the Isle aux Noix in June. Judging from the correspondence of the time, the companies under Major Jessup had their headquarters at Verchéres, on the east bank of the St. Lawrence, while those under Colonel Jessup were stationed at St. Johns and the neighboring posts. Toward the close of November the corps was ordered disbanded. While recruiting was being carried on vigorously to complete and to maintain at full strength the existing loyalist regiments, new corps were also being organized. On May 1, 1779, Lieutenant Colonel Robert Rogers was commissioned by Sir Henry Clinton “‘to raise two battalions of able bodied rangers.’”’ Rogers was recommended to Haldimand, and in July asked the latter to grant passports to his officers for the purpose of obtaining recruits in Quebec. Two months later, the Governor General frankly informed Rogers that his officers were ‘only losing time in Quebec, owing to the number of new levies not being yet completed in spite of every exertion to get the loyalists to join.” He also advised the Colonel to go back to Penobscot where the latter claimed to have a force of seven hundred recruits. But, later on, Haldimand permitted Colonel Rogers’ brother, Major James Rogers, to enlist men for one of the proposed battalions, on condition that his operations should be confined to the colonies. In order to complete three companies, recruiting parties were sent to Gloucester, the Green Mountains, and Charlotte and Cumberland counties in August 1780. Women and children were brought in along with the men, of whom one hundred and thirty-three joined Rogers at St. Johns during the next three months in a state of nakedness and great want. In January, 1782, this detachment, which was called the King’s Rangers, numbered one hundred and ninety-three men, the officers being Azariah Pritchard, and Henry Ruiter, in addition to Major Rogers. To the end of April, 1783, the battalion formed part of the garrison at St. Johns, then was made a source of supply of men for service aboard the fleet on Lake Champlain, until the general order for the disbandment of the provincial corps was received in November.* Another corps or company, first organized in July, 1781, was that of John W. Myers, who had previously acted as a recruiting sergeant for Rogers’ detachment. Myers engaged his men in the colonies, *Can. Arch., 1888, 673-682; 1887, 446, 542, 544, 551, 552; 1886, 404; Haldimand Papers, B. 167, 338-341. [SImBERT] THE AMERICAN LOYALISTS 17 and brought into St. Johns at one time the greater part of a company, which he afterwards increased, seeking permission, like many another loyalist officer, to send agents beyond the Canadian boundary for the purpose. In the official correspondence of the time it is expressly stated that Myers’ men were mustered as a company “separate from Rogers’ corps.” * The zeal for recruiting did not abate until the end of the con- test. As late as April, 1783, Major General Riedesel, then com- mandant at Sorel, was urging upon Haldimand the importance of recruiting operations by the various corps, which, he said, were “almost indispensable” in carrying on the fortifications, the scouting, and the secret service. + As a matter of fact, it was not more than four months after this that Haldimand, compelled by the approaching cessation of hostilities, sent out orders to the loyalist officers to cease recruiting. From the preceding pages, it will be seen that much of the loyalist immigration into Canada was military in character; these Tories came in larger or smaller parties under recognized leaders for the purpose of joining the King’s forces. Moreover, it is clear that this phase of the movement continued throughout the war. Not all of the refugee recruits, to be sure, made their way directly to the region north of the states of New Yorkand Vermont. A great part of them entered the Canadian country west of the St. Lawrence and were quartered at various places on that side of the river; but, sooner or later, almost without exception they were sent across the river to garrison the posts along the Richelieu and at other points, to strengthen and en- large the fortifications of this region, to help defend the country from invasion, to carry on scouting and secret service to the south, and to take part in expeditions into the enemy’s country. The effect of Burgoyne’s campaign was undoubtedly to stimulate the Tory move- ment into this section of Canada, both by stirring up the hostility of the revolutionists against the adherents of the Crown to a greater pitch than ever, and by increasing the activity of the loyalist corps in recruiting. Of course, we cannot suppose that all the loyalists who entered Canada previous to Burgoyne’s campaign came as actual or pros- pective members of the provincial regiments then forming. There must have been many, then and later, who entered unnoticed, settled in sundry communities where they could take up the usual course of their life with as little interruption as possible, or shifted about as their necessities required. We hear of such a group living at Sorel *Can. Arch., 1888, 692, 695-699. fHaldimand Papers, B. 138, p. 198. 18 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA from the beginning of the war,* and we know from an endless array of notices, memorials, and petitions preserved in the official correspond- ence of the time that the peaceful element among the refugees, includ- ing Quaker loyalists, was much larger than can ever be traced. By the middle of January, 1776, the number of unincorporated refugees with Sir John Johnson’s corps was already sufficiently large to require the attention of the authorities at Quebec.f Doubtless the other loyalists regiments had their share of dependent refugees, even at this early date. That they had later is apparent from the official enumerations of loyalists, incorporated and unincorporated, at the various posts, these enumerations extending from July 1, 1779, to September 15, 1784. The enumeration of July, as well as several succeeding it, is con- fined to loyalist individuals and families receiving provisions from the King’s stores without charge, and cannot be regarded therefore as a complete census of all the loyalists at these posts Among others, it gives sixty-eight as the number at Sorel, twenty-seven at Chambly, and two hundred and nine at St. Johns. By October 24, there was a falling off of about thirty at St. Johns, while the figures for the other two places remain relatively stationary. ? A week later, or November Ist, a report of the number of loyalists in military service at the posts was issued. This, by comparison, is found to be supplementary to the enumeration just preceding. It gives. one hundred and forty- : eight officers and men for Sorel, thirty-six for Yamaska, forty-four for St. Johns, and omits Chambly altogether. During the next three years, there was a marked increase in the number of families resorting for gratuitous food and shelter to the posts and depots with- in the old district of Montreal on both sides of the River St. Lawrence. On November 24, 1780, this number, which was distributed at seven- teen different points, was 1,368. Ten months later it had reached 1,449, at nine places; by January 24, 1782, it had risen to 1,699, dis- tributed at fourteen different localities, and by March 24, 1783, it had attained the maximum, so far as our statistics go, namely, 1,716, dis- tributed again at seventeen posts and magazines, the next “return,” four months later, showing a decline of about forty. It goes without saying that the principal forts in the territory southeast of the St. Lawrence—the region we are concerned with here—shared in this increase of homeless exiles.5 Many of these persons were from Char- *Haldimand Papers, B. 138, p. 367. Can. Arch., 1885, 252. {Haldimand Papers, B. 166, pp. 9, 10, 14, 15, 32. 4 Ibid., p. 45. 5 Haldimand Papers, B. 148, pp. 155, 157, 164, 169, 170; B. 166, pp. 46, 83, 96, 127, 129. [SIEBERT] THE AMERICAN LOYALISTS 19 lotte and Tryon counties and the City of Albany, in New York State, while a smaller proportion of them came from New England. The lull in this invasion was not to last long, if lull there was. By August 6, 1783, the foremost vessels of the fleet of nine trans- ports, which was to bring in over seven hundred loyalists from New York and its environs, were passing up the St. Lawrence on their way from Quebec to Sorel. New York was then in process of evacua- tion, and so continued for the next four months. When the first transports arrived at Quebec, Haldimand discovered to his alarm that the smallpox had broken out among the passengers. Without delay he sent a physician to Sorel with proper assistance for their relief, and instructions to take every precaution to prevent the spread of the contagion among the inhabitants. He also directed Abraham Cuyler, formerly mayor of Albany, but now a refugee serving as in- spector of loyalists in the province, to visit that post for the purpose of seeing that those newly arrived were adequately lodged and other- wise provided for. At the same time, he sent a message announcing the arrival of another transport with loyalists, which he said, would proceed immediately to Sorel.* The last vessel of the fleet arrived at Quebec on August 29.f In a letter to Lord North two days before, Haldimand referred to the “arrival of 700 from New York,” and spoke in anticipation of measures for their relief and surveys for their settlement in different parts of the province.t Meanwhile, the sick, who had been removed from the fleet, were isolated in the hospital, vaccinated, and soon convalescing to the satisfaction of all con- cerned. A report sent to Haldimand stated that the whole body of loyalists at Sorel seemed contented and pleased with their present situation.t The size of this body, which was duplicated by similar companies at Montreal and other posts on the St. Lawrence, appears from a census taken five months later. This showed approximately seven hundred persons, of whom one hundred and eighty-five were men, one hundred and thirty-five women, and the rest children— together duly recorded as desirous of settling in Canadaÿ About the middle of October two additional transports arrived from New York, bringing Captain VanAlstine and one hundred and eighty-two other loyalists, men, women and children, who were quartered at Sorel.® *Haldimand Papers, B. 139, pp. 349, 350: Gov. Haldimand to Col. Macbean, Aug. 16, 1783; same to same,Aug. 25, 1783. Tlbid., B. 148, p. 176. tIbid., B. 57-2, pp. 564, 565. + Ibid., IIT., B. 138, p. 343: Macbean to Haldimand, Sept. 8, 1783. ibid: B. 168, p..7- 6 Tbid., B. 148, pp. 174; B. 216, pp. 64, 65, 67-69; B. 165, p. 157. 20 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA The enlisted refugees at Sorel, Verchéres, St. Ours, Chambly, and St. Johns were numerically a less constant factor than their unmilitary brethren, and especially the loyalist women and their families. The men belonging to the loyalist corps at these and the neighboring posts were constantly called into requisition for scouting, secret ser- vice, and recruiting parties. Such service had its peculiar temp- tations, especially towards the end of the war, for complaint was made of a disposition among the loyalist soldiers to desert; and Haldi- mand found it necessary, in the spring of 1783, to forbid officers to send parties of them into the colonies without the special permission of the commander-in-chief, and he also warned the loyalists them- selves that any who should presume to leave the province without permission would be deemed deserters and punished accordingly.* That the families of those who withdrew from uncongenial soil accompanied them in many cases, or were led out at an early oppor- tunity in other cases, there can be no doubt.f In numerous other instances, however, families of refugee loyalists were brought into Canada under flags of truce, a system that was in operation on Lake Champlain from the fall of 1778, if not earlier. This method made practicable the exchange of dependents and prisoners of war, and was regularly employed throughout the remainder of the contest. As the British were in control of the lake, their vessels and batteaux were in constant requisition for the conveyance of aggregations of families from Pointe au Fer, Mill Bay, Skenesborough, Crown Point, and other convenient places to St. Johns, whence they were sent under guidance to various localities to join husbands and fathers from whom they had been separated by the exigencies of war. We hear of the arrival of Messrs. Campbell and Stevens at St. Johns about September 20, 1778, under a flag of truce with a loyalist party of eighteen, partly made up of their own families. ? Three days later, a number of families arrived from Albany and the Connecticut River, and were at once placed in charge of scouts to be conducted to Sorel.* About the middle of the following July a similar group, who had re- cently come under flag to St. Johns from Bennington, in southwestern Vermont, were sent to join their connections, some of whom were in the immediate neighborhood, the others being at Sorel. Once more, about September 1, St. Johns served as a gateway to Canada for loyal- *Haldimand Papers, B. 139, pp. 368, 421; unsigned letter to Gen. Riesedel, Dec. 9, 1782; Haldimand to Riesedel, Mar. 13, 1783. fSecond Report, Bureau of Archives, Ont., Pt. I, 86, 329, 444, Can. Arch., 1887, 338. 4 Ibid. 5 Ibid., 344. [SIEBERT | THE AMERICAN LOYALISTS 21 ist women and children led in by two men, probably under the white flag.* Early in March, 1780, a flag arrived at Point au Fer “with 20 sleighs, bringing in seventy-three men, women and children, exclu- sive of drivers.” The letter containing this information adds in post- script that thirty-two persons had just arrived.f Another letter an- nouncing the arrival of families is that of William Fraser to his sons, Captain William, Jr., and Thomas, who were stationed at the Yam- aska blockhouse near Sorel. It is dated ‘‘Near Ft. George, May 10, 1780,” and as the location of the sons was unknown to the parent, the missive was simply addressed to them in the “ Province of Canada.” The revelation of the hardships endured by these fugitives is so typical of the trials of this class in their efforts to reach relatives and friends, who had already claimed the protection of the land of refuge, that the Fraser letter is deserving of more than passing notice. It told the sons that their mother, wives, and children were in good health that their father had got permission in the previous fall to remove to Canada, had sold off a great part of his moveables, but, being delayed, had obtained a pass to send on the women and children. However, the drivers of the two sleds employed for the purpose had found the creeks unfrozen and the roads bad, and had left the party at Lake George, except Mrs. Fraser, Sr., and one of the boys, who had re- turned with the sleds. The letter went on to say that when the ground had become settled Mr. Fraser secured a wagon to take Mrs. Fraser back to the party, in the expectation of a flag from Canada as soon as the lake should be open, but that they had waited so long that they had almost given up hope. The letter stated further that they were living chiefly at the expense of the poor loyalists and closed with the pathetic appeal; “I have Turn’d myself out of Doors for y’r sakes and for God’s sake Don’t you Neglect us But Do y’r Best to get us into Canada.” ? It is pleasant to know that these people reached their destination, found their relatives, and that the aged father was granted a pension, albeit a small one, for his loyalty. Protected by the symbol of amity, additional families from the colonies were brought to St. Johns about September 10,‘ and others were sent back from Pointe au Fer in the following month with a letter to the commanding officer at Albany.® In May, 1781, Colonel Tupper wrote from the latter place that he was sending in women and children who wished to join their husbands and fathers and that he trusted that those in Canada would * Can. Arch., 1887, 346. tIbid., 347. {Haldimand Papers, B. 214, p. 190. # Can. Arch., 1887, 350. 5 Ibid., 352. 22 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA be returned in exchange.* On July 4, the ship Carlton reported the arrival of a flag of truce with families at Crown Point. The group comprised twenty-five persons and was taken to St. Johns.f A month later, other families received on board the Trumbull were sent in. { The Quebec authorities now ordered the families and prisoners of the enemy, detained in Montreal and other posts, to be assembled at St. Johns for deportation to Skenesborough under Major Fay and Wil- liam Marsh. It required six batteaux to carry Marsh’s contingent of one hundred and seventeen people, old and young, and he returned, on September 14, with one hundred and thirteen in exchange, be- longing to twenty-three loyalist families, eight being men, twenty- three women, and eighty-two children.‘ Early in October, the Trum- bull was dispatched to Crown Point to fetch in the Rev. John Stuart, who was waiting there under a flag of truce with fourteen women and thirty-nine children.* At the end of May, 1783, two groups of fami- lies were sent to St. Johns, one under a flag from New York State, the other under similar protection from Vermont. It was officially reported at the same time that “about 200 more” were already assembled at Skenesborough awaiting conveyance and that others were “expected every day.” ® In the following November, Dr. George Smyth and Mr. Man went to the States with a number of families and prisoners for exchange, and the latter is known to have returned with some.” It would be easy to supplement the above list with many other in- stances, but a sufficient number has been cited to indicate the frequency of recourse to flags of truce along the shores of Lake Champlain, and the facility thus afforded to loyalist families to reunite in the land of their refuge. It is no exaggeration to say that these fatherless groups took full advantage of their opportunities in the open season during the greater part of the Revolution, flocking in like parties of summer ex- cursionists, and sometimes braving the severities of a northern winter in their eagerness to leave behind the land of their sorrows and fears and reach the goal of safety and loyalty, where fugitive or exiled kin-. dred were already awaiting them. However the white flag was not the only means of rescuing loyalists from their land of bondage. Governor Haldimand ordered incursions of the Mohawk Valley with the definite purpose of affording such persons *Can. Arch., 1887, 364. tIbid., 1887, 499. tIbid., 500. # Ibid., 322, 334, 502, 335, 360, 361. 5 Ibid., 503, 362; 1888, 808. ° Tbid., 1887, 506. 7 Tbid., 509. [SIEBERT] THE AMERICAN LOYALISTS 23 an opportunity to escape. On March 17, 1780, an appeal of loyalists at Johnstown, New York, was forwarded to Haldimand, in which they asked for a pilot to lead them into Canada. They declared that other- wise they would be compelled to join the enemy, or, refusing, would be sent to Albany in irons, whilst their property was confiscated and their houses destroyed. The Governor communicated this to Sir John Johnson at Montreal a few days later, saying that he would send a vessel “to the lake” early in May to receive these unhappy people.* In reply Sir John proposed an expedition by way of Lake Champlain to Gillis- land, or Split Rock, and thence to his own estates in order “to encourage loyalists to come off and to distress the enemy.” + The date fixed for the departure of the expedition from St. Johns was about May third. { The forces under Sir John’s command numbered five hundred and twenty- eight men, comprising some British soldiers, ‘‘a detachment of his own regiment of Royal Greens, and about two hundred Indians and Tories.” # The invaders were carried by vessel to West Bay, where they landed on May 11, thence to proceed through the woods to Johnstown. This march they accomplished in ten days, moving with such secrecy that they completely surprised the inhabitants, except the resident loyalists at whose instance they had come The expedition was entirely suc- cessful, and by June 3, Sir John was back at St. Johns, having brought off one hundred and fifty loyalists and many prisoners.® He also brought off eight negroes, whom he permitted the Indians to dispose of to “‘in- habitants of Montreal and others.’”’? Apparently, the entire body of rescued loyalists accompanied their liberator on his return to Montreal, and most of them promptly enlisted in his regiment. But, according to Brigadier General Allan Maclean, commandant at this place, about forty of them declined to join any corps. He, therefore, suggested to Haldimand’s secretary the propriety of putting them in prison, on the score that “such a number of loose, idle fellows’ were a menace to the community.® This Haldimand refused to allow, saying that some em- ployment would be found for them.? But, according to Sir John’s report of June 12th, these unincorporated loyalists were already earning *Can. Arch., 1887, 347: (Maj. Carleton to Haldimand). Ibid., 1888, 663: (Haldimand to Sir John Johnson.) Can. Arch., 1888, 648. tIbid., 649. 4 Ibid, 1887, 493; Stone, Border Wars of the Am. Rev., II, 71. 5 Stone, Border Wars of the Am. Rev., IL., 72. 6 Can. Arch., 1887. 474, 546. 7 Ibid., 1888, 649. 8 Thid., 649. 5 Can. Arch., 1887, 300. Tbid., 318. 24 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA their own livelihood, and, with the exception of a few, were costing the government nothing.* At least two later expeditions in behalf of loyalists were authorized by Haldimand, one of which was carried into execution in the autumn of 1780 and the other a year later. The earlier of these, like the one above narrated, was suggested, planned, and led by Sir John Johnson, and was evidently intended by him to bring in a fresh supply of recruits. Sir John was now engaged in raising his second battalion; + and, although he had sent several loyalists into the States to collect men in the latter part of July, he wrote to Haldimand, August 10: “Recruits cannot be expected from the Colonies unless a force be sent to encourage them to come off.” A party of fifteen recruits came in from the Mohawk ten days later, and reported that more would have come but for the approach of the hostile Oneida Indians. ? Meantime, similar parties were constantly arriving at St. Johns and Chambly, and continued to do so during the fall of 1780.4. Some of these men were destined to fill the ranks of Johnson’s corps; nevertheless, there seemed to be suffici- ent reason for sending out the proposed expedition, and, September 9, Haldimand wrote to Sir Henry Clinton that he had ordered a detach- ment of six hundred picked troops, together with a contingent of Indians, to march from Oswego to Schenectady in order ‘‘to destroy the crops and favour the escape of the loyalists.””*® At this time Sir John and his troops were at La Chine, near Montreal, preparing to pass up the St. Lawrence to Oswego.f By October 1, he was at the latter place awaiting the arrival of a body of Butler’s Rangers and another of Mohawks under Chief Brant from Fort Niagara. When ready to move Johnson’s forces, according to Stone,’ consisted of three companies of his own regiment of Greens, one company of German Yagers, another of British regulars, and the Niagara contingents just mentioned. We are not concerned here with the incidents of the expedition, except to note that it failed in its primary object, that is, the securing of a considerable body of recruits. Johnson’s explanation was that the “loyalists and others had been forced into the forts, so that men could not be got.” But he left behind a few trusty guides to bring in such recruits as they might collect, and reported that one of these “had gone off with 20 or 30 men from the back of Conojoharie.” After com- *Can. Arch., 1888, 649. tIbid., 1888, 648. tibid., 650. ‘Ibid., 1887, 350-354, Aug. 20, 23, 27, 30; Sept. 3, 6, 10; Oct. 4, 16, 19, 22; Nov. 1, 22, 25. 5 Can. Arch., 1887, 547. 5 Tbid., 1888, 651. 7 Border Wars of the Am. Rev., II. 105. [SIEBERT] THE AMERICAN LOYALISTS 25 pleting the devastation of the Scoharie and Mohawk country above Schenectady, Sir John retreated to Carleton Island in the River St. Lawrence near Lake Ontario, thence returning to his headquarters at Montreal at the end of October.* Simultaneously with these movements of Sir John, and partly as a diversion in his favour, operations were carried on against the settle- ments south of Lake George and those on the upper Connecticut. The parties engaged in these operations were sent out from St. Johns at the end of September, 1780, under Majors Carleton and Houghton,f and are said to have comprised more than a thousand men, including regular troops, loyalists and Indians. The Lake George region was the scene of Carleton’s activities, and supplied a considerable number of loyalist families who accompanied this officer back to Crown Point after his destruction of Fort George. To bring in these loyalists, who appear to have gathered ‘from different parts of the country,” batteaux were sent to Carleton at Miller’s Bay (probably Mill Bay) in the latter part of October. ? During the following month, refugee families and recruits continued to arrive at St. Johns, whence Major Carleton wrote to Haldimand, November 26, of the expected return of Ensign McDonell with a collection of families'he had been sent for, numbering “about 230 souls.” * The success of these expeditions in rescuing loyalists, while not uniform, cannot be gainsaid. Nevertheless, the results thus attained are not comparable with the results secured through the activities of the small scouting and recruiting parties that were constantly de- spatched into the enemy’s country from the frontier posts up to the very close of the Revolution. The incentive to these recruiting activities lay, of course, in the presence of the loyalist corps in Canada. As long as the ranks of these corps remained unfilled or suffered deple- tion, men were needed to fill them. By employing all the means at his command, that is, by enlisting such fugitives as presented themselves, by sending out recruiting parties, and by conducting rescue expeditions, Sir John Johnson had made such rapid progress in organizing his first battalion that as early as 1778, he felt justified in asking Haldimand’s permission to form a second.5 But on account of various difficulties the matter hung fire until Sir John delivered the hundred and fifty loyalists from Johnstown, New York, in May, 1780. Apparently in recognition of this success, Governor Haldimand added the desired *Can. Arch., 1888, 652. tIbid., 1887, 351; Stone, Border Wars of the Am. Rev., II. 130. Can. Arch., 1887, 352. # Ibid., 354. 5 Can. Arch., 1888, 648. 26 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA second battalion to the King’s Royal Regiment of New York, placing it under Johnson’s command, with Captain John Ross as major.* This action was taken in the latter part of July. As the death of Major Daniel McAlpin, adjutant of the several provincial corps at Sorel, occurred at this time, his men were encouraged to join Sir John’s regiment,f and probably many of them entered the second battalion. ? It is also probable that the men enrolled by Jeremiah French were in- corporated with this battalion. By the end of November, Sir John was able to make the assertion that he had enlisted ‘upwards of a thousand men,” meaning, doubtless, from the beginning of the war.’ Meanwhile, a part of the second battalion under Major Ross, Captain Robert Leake’s Independent Company from Sorel, and other troops were sent to Carleton Island.* In September, 1781, Ross received instructions concerning an intended expedition to the Mohawk River and frontiers of Pennsylvania, in which he and his forces were to par- ticipate in connection with troops and Indians from Niagara.?’ Toward the end of the same month, Haldimand wrote to inform Sir Henry Clinton of this incursion, explaining that it was partly to coerce Vermont into loyalty and partly to ‘afford loyalists an opportunity to escape from the oppression they labour under.’’® On October 4th, Ross with two hundred and fifty troops and about sixty Indians, according to an official report of the time, left Carleton Island for Oswego, where he was joined by the contingent from Niagara under Captain Walter N. Butler, with but few Indians and these of such a character that Ross described them as ‘‘the refuse of different tribes.””® From Oswego the march inland began on the 11th, and was accompanied by the usual devastation of the enemy’s country until Johnstown was reached on the 25th, when Colonel Willett and his Continentals engaged the invaders and forced them to retreat. It was during this retreat that Walter Butler was killed, and Lieutenant Dockstedder, another loyalist, met *Can, Arch;; (1888, 663, 66) :728; 1887, 4442.11.) LUI tIbid., 1888, 665, 661; 1887, 442. tIbid., 1888, 653, 655. # Ibid., 670, 699. 5 Can. Arch., 1888, 653. 6 Ibid., 667. 7 Ibid., 1887, 248, 249. 8 Ibid., 553. 9 Ibid., 283, 284. The numbers given by Stone and Campbell are much larger than those quoted above: Stone says the expedition consisted of ‘four companies of the second battalion . . ., Colonel Butler’s rangers, under the direction of Major Butler, his son, and two hundred Indians; numbering in all, about one thousand men, under the command of Major Ross.” (Border Wars of the Am. Rev,, I1., 168). Campbell reduces the number to 607 men, “477 British and Tories, and 130 Indians.” (Border Warfare of New York, 208.) [SIEBERT] THE AMERICAN LOYALISTS 27 his death in the woods. But there is no evidence to show that the retir- ing force drew a following of Tories in its wake. Scarcely more than a week after Ross’s expedition had left Oswego, the surrender of Cornwallis occurred at Yorktown, and his army of more than seven thousand men became prisoners of war. In the gloom of this disaster the Canadians entertained fresh anticipations of an attack on Canada.* A frontier officer wrote to Haldimand that “only powerful alliances or a miracle’’ could save the country. Scouts and patrols were sent out from Sorel and Yamaska, as well as from the more advanced posts, while recruiting parties were not permitted to terminate their efforts until late in the summer of 1783.+ Meantime, the need of establishing the loyalists in permanent settlements was becoming more and more urgent. In October, 1778, Haldimand had established a loyalist colony at Machiche, on the north side of Lake St. Peter. In November of the year following, Maclean wrote to Quebec that he was being so plagued with “royalists real and pretended” at Montreal that he wished Governor Haldimand would have them all removed to ‘‘Mappish” (Machiche) or Pointe du Lac, which was near by, as they were “doing no good” where they were. { His protest—which was more forcible than elegant in its language— secured prompt attention at the seat of government, and Maclean was accordingly commanded to send a part of his troublesome loyalists to join Captain McAlpin’s Royal Americans at St. Ours, on the east side of the St. Lawrence. At first the persons selected for removal raised objection, on the score of their inability to pay for the conveyance of their families. When this objection was met and conveyance was provided, they flatly refused to go “‘to the number of 36 besides Women and Children,” according to Maclean’s report. Whether this attempted removal was intended to be a temporary arrangement merely, or the beginning of a permanent settlement of loyalists within the territory bet- ween the St. Lawrence and the New York boundary is a matter of doubt. In the fall of 1778, Haldimand had recommended to the English government the purchase of the Seigniory of Sorel with the object of strengthening the post and garrison there, deeming the situation of ereat advantage. This matter continued to be a subject of correspon- dence between the Governor and Lord George Germaine to the end :of March, 1782, when Haldimand received definite instructions from the Lords of the Treasury regarding the purchase, which he was authorized to make. Several months before this decision was reached, Captain AGan. Archi 18872 280 ae aE ENT ea ho ey ye tIbid., 1888, 728, 729, 730, 618, 619. {Haldimand Papers, B. 129, p. 56; B. 131, p. 41. 4 Can. Arch., 1885, 324, 330, 278, 281, 291, 315. 28 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Brehm suggested the Sorel district as an available place for a settlement of loyalists. Stationed at Montreal, the Captain had ample opportunity to observe the hardships endured by the inhabitants among whom the refugees were quartered. He called Haldimand’s attention to the fact that the citizens were required to furnish the loyalists with firewood and with carriages when they moved, while the government would be burdened with the expense of their subsistence until the war should close. He therefore inquired about the feasibility of granting these people tracts of land “either on Lake St. Francis or at the places called the Mullinets and Milles Roches,” where they might build their own houses and cultivate their own lands. He spoke particularly of the number of women and children belonging to the men of Sir John Johnson’s corps, and suggested the possibility of giving them lands in the Seigniory of Sorel, where they might live independently, even while the men were absent on military service. This, he thought, would be in keeping with the Governor’s idea of a military colony to protect the frontier.* The suggestions of Captain Brehm anticipated by about a year and a half the royal instructions relative to the settlement of Sorel. These instructions were received by Haldimand in the summer of 1783, and formed a part of the general instructions for the allotment of lands to such refugee loyalists as were desirous of becoming settlers in the Province of Quebec. Lands were also to be assigned to any non- commissioned officers and privates of the King’s forces, who had been reduced in the province and were prepared to settle there. The special provisions relating to Sorel called attention to the expediency of a prompt settlement of that seigniory by as many persons of approved loyalty as possible, and directed Governor Haldimand to assign small allot- ments of the disposable lands of the district to non-commissioned officers, privates, and other loyalists. The size of the allotments was left to the discretion of the Governor-General. + Soon after the above instructions were received, the contingent of seven hundred loyalists from New York landed at Sorel, and were given temporary lodgings at that post until they should be sent out to form their permanent settlements in various localities. Among these was Captain Alexander White, late sheriff of Tryon County, who had been in charge of the associates aboard the transport Blacket. ? Many of the New Yorkers, including Captain White, were attracted by the advantages of their new location in a reg'on an eady populous, with an excellent harbor on the St. Lawrence, a fine frontage on the River Chambly or Richelieu, and an abundance of government land to be *Haldimand Papers, B, 74, p. 299; Can. Arch., 1886, 544. Third Report, Bureau of Archives, Ont., 1905, Lxii, xiii, Ixiv. tSee ante, p. 19. [SIEBERT] THE AMERICAN LOYALISTS 29 had for the asking. White and his fellow exiles, of whom a large part were mechanics and tradesmen, believed that if a town were established at Sorel, the place would soon become a center of trade, industry, and shipbuilding. Accordingly, at the end of March, 1784, White applied to Haldimand for grants of land for himself and his associates, evidently on condition that a town should be provided. The applicant received a prompt reply that his request for land would be cheerfully complied with, but that the situation of a town would ‘“necessarily require consideration.” * Despite this indefinite understanding, White and a number of others decided to remain and take up farm lots, apparently believing that the town would be laid out within a few months. In May, 1784, John Collins, who was deputy surveyor-general, was sent to Sorel to distribute lots to a few loyalists whose names were specified, and to such others as wanted lands for actual occupation; but he was not to grant to any one more than a single lot of sixty acres. When a town site should be determined upon, mechanics and tradesmen who had settled on farm lots were each to be allowed a town lot. With the exception of Major Jessup, his son-in-law, Mr. Walker, Captain Barnes, Captain Gleissenberg, and Lieutenant French, each of whom was assigned a lot, all settlers were to draw for their lots. They might afterwards exchange these among themselves, if they wished. Similar settlements were established at Chambly and St. Johns within the region southeast of the St. Lawrence, while many other colonies were established outside of this region. A census of the number of disbanded troops and loyalists settled on crown lands in the Province of Quebec, including the St. Lawrence townships, during the year 1784 shows approximately 5,500. Of these settlers, less than eight hundred received royal grants in the neighborhood of the three posts named above, namely, 316 at Sorel, 66 at Chambly, and 375 at St. Johns.f Of the subsequent history of the refugee settlers at St. Johns and Chambly we know nothing. Of those who took up lands at Sorel we catch some later glimpses. When Deputy Surveyor-General Collins distributed lots to the loyalists at this post in the spring of 1784, the site of the proposed town had not yet been chosen, as we have seen above. Nor had it been when Haldimand withdrew from the governor general- ship in the middle of the following November. Then, for almost two years the administration was conducted by temporary appointees in the persons of Henry Hamilton and Colonel Henry Hope. Neither of these officials took it upon himself to establish a town at Sorel. But soon after the arrival of Lord Dorchester (Sir Guy Carleton) as governor general, October 23 1786, some forty of White’s associates made known *Haldimand Papers, B. 165, pp. 136, 137. tIbid., 21, 829, pp. 100, 111. Sec. II, 1913—2 30 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA to his lordship their great disappointment in not securing a town, and ventured to remind him that he had commissioned their leader to fetch them from New York to the province in which they now found them- selves without lands or tools enough for farming, and without the oppor- tunity of following their former occupations. Encouraged by the kindly treatment they had received from Dorchester in the past, these memorialists did not close their petition until they had revealed the whole list of grievances; they told him of the departure from Sorel of many good tradesmen; of the complete stoppage of their provisions since September 1,1786; of the favoritism shown, as they alleged, in the dis- tribution of clothing; of their lack of farming implements, live stock, and tillable land; of their inability to obtain things on credit any longer, since that was gone; of the granting of lots to people who, they said, had no right to them; and, finally, bringing up again their chief grievance, they besought Dorchester to order that a town be laid out for them. During the preceding summer, these and other grievances of the refugees at Sorel had been aired before a board of commissioners, which Lieutenant Governor Hope had appointed to investigate disturbing conditions in several loyalist settlements. These commissioners had reported, among other things, that Governor Haldimand had held out to such tradesmen as should settle at Sorel that a town would be estab- lished and a town lot granted to each, and that the “annual expectation” of this town lot had induced many persons to remain loitering about with nothing better to do than take up imaginary grievances and jealousies. Doubtless this report became known to Lord Dorchester, and, thereby seemed to call for another statement from those with whom it dealt. At any rate, such a statement was forthcoming in December, 1786. It represented that the settlers had fully expected the town to be laid out in 1784, and a supply of materials for building, utensils, and other things to be furnished at the same time. It declared that Haldimand’s intention was to give such assistance as would make Sorel “a city, or at least a trading town.” It complained that the settlers had not yet received the deeds for their farm lots. It repeated the earlier complaints about the poor quality of their land, their lack of farming tools, and their dire need of food and clothing. It closed with an appeal for such relief as would keep the petitioners and their fellow- sufferers from perishing. There can be no doubt that Dorchester, always the friend of the loyalists, answered this memorial with the relief asked; and the accompanying plan shows that he took prompt measures to establish the town, which the refugees at Sorel needed so sorely from the beginning.* *Bundle “Grievances of the Loyalists at Sorel” in the Dominion Archives, at Ottawa, On. [SIEBERT] THE AMERICAN LOYALISTS 31 If the year 1784 was the first of several years of disappointment for the settlers at Sorel, it was a year of fulfilment of hopes for hundreds of other loyalists, who had made their headquarters at this and other stations on and off the Richelieu River. Numbers of these people departed from this region to form settlements at more or less remote points in Upper and Lower Canada. Thus, by the end of April, 1784, Captain William Fraser and his Royal Rangers from Yamaska were moving to Montreal, to be forwarded by way of La Chine * to the upper country on the west side of the St. Lawrence. During the following month, Sorel wa: astir with preparations for the early departure of one large party under Messrs. Van Alstine and Grass up the St. Lawrence to Cataraqui (Kingston), and of another down he river to the Bay of Chaleurs.+ At ihe ame time, St. Johns was the scene of similar activities on the part of the provincial corps under Majors Jessup and Rogers which were soon to settle on the great river in what are now the counties of Leeds, Grenville, and Addington, and in the country about the Bay of Quinté in the Province of Ontario. { Despite this exodus of provincial troops, it must not be supposed that the only loyalists who found homes within the region the rangers were now leaving were the eight hundred at St. Johns, Chambly, and Sorel. Doubtless, many others had settled quietly in various com- munities long before the British government took any steps to com- pensat» American Tories for their adherence, losses, or services. In- deed, there were numbers of “ministerial tools” —as they were some- times dubbed by their foes—who deliberately chose their abodes in localities that Haldimand expressly wished them to shun. To the Governor General’s mind, the Canadian frontier along the New York boundary was unsuited to loyalist occupation. In September, 1782, he had—in his own words—“ received letters from Vermont and the Colonies” reporting that a number of families, rebel as well as loyalist, were coming to settle on the borders of Lake Champlain. He dis- approved of this because, he said, it would afford means of conveying news to the enemy, and create a rendezvous for deserters and rebel emissaries. He therefore undertook, early in November, 1782, to discourage the project by sending word into the States that noth ng of the kind would be permitted.4 One of those who helped to make known this prohibition was Captain Justus Sherwood, who was in command of some loyalists at Dutchman’s Point. On April 4, 1783, the Captain wrote to the authorities at Quebec that he had taken *Haldimand Papers, B. 138, p. 370. tIbid., pp. 374, 379, 383. tLeavitt, Hist. of Leeds and Grenville, Ont., 16-20, 167. 4 Haldimand Papers, B. 139, p. 345. 32 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA every pains to assure Vermonters of Haldimand’s determination to prevent settlements on the frontiers, and had even specified ‘the boundaries beyond which they must not presume to improve, namely, Middlebury Falls, North and East, for the west side, and the chain of the Green Mountains for the eastern boundary of the Connecticut River people.” * This question was raised, of course, by the new waves of immi- gration that flowed in during the closing scenes of the Revolution. In March, 1782, Captain Sherwood transmitted intelligence from Albany that there were great numbers of loyalists “in New York and the Massachusetts provinces” who wished to remove to Canada with their families, provided a place were available where they could settle and support themselves without any expense to government. In the following May, General St. Leger wrote from Montreal to Quebec concerning “many persons under the designation of Loyalists lately come from the colonies” who were travelling about in his neighbor- hood. t In the latter part of June of the same year, word also came from Major John Nairné, at the Isle aux Noix, of people detained there and at the Loyal Blockhouse who wished “above all things for leave to settle in Canada.” In view of the distress of some of these persons, the Major asked permission in future to forward all those of whose fidelity he felt assured.f Early in April, 1783, the Rev. Ranna Cossit, of Haverhill, Massachusetts, sent a communication to Captain Sherwood that his parishioners had stood firm for the Crown in spite of persecution, but that now, terrified by the storms likely to arise, they wished to know if there was not room for them in the King’s dominions. He added, with pathos, that though they had been made poor by the war, all they asked was the protection of the laws.® Haldimand’s objections to the settling of the frontier did not put a stop to the series of petitions requesting his consent for large parties of loyalists to take up their residence there. Only two months after Sherwood’s efforts to desseminate the adverse views of the Gover- nor General, some loyalists presented a memorial for permission to settle on Caldwell’s Manor The manor occupied the larger part of the broad tongue of land between the Richelieu River and Mississquoi Bay at the northern end of Lake Champlain. After another interval of sixty days William Marsh, a Vermont loyalist at St. Johns, sent in (August *Can. Arch., 1888, 837. tHaldimand Papers, B. 138, p. 165. tIbid., B. 130, p. 124. * Ibid., 21,792, p. 199. 5 Can. Arch., 1888, 837. 6 Ibid,. 1889, 73. [SIEBERT] THE AMERICAN LOYALISTS 33 2, 1783,) a description of the country about Lake Memphremagog, lying some forty miles east of Caldwell’s Manor, with a virtual request on behalf of a party of loyalists numbering, he said, ‘‘about one hundred and twenty families and settlers” to be allowed to locate there.* Failing to obtain any satisfaction from Haldimand after more than two months, Marsh wrote again (February 29, 1784), to say that he was disappointed that no settlement was to be allowed at Memphremagog, but that he still entertained hopes, and this time asserted that there were several hundred families ready to go to Canada who “would add to the strength and wealth of the province.” + As though in support of Marsh’s state- ments, Ebenezer Rice and Benjamin Tyler, of Claremont, New Hamp- shire, sent in a petition a few days later in behalf of forty-six families besides their own, in all two hundred and thirty souls, asking to be allow- ed to form a town on the west bank of the Connecticut River or on Lake Memphremagog, on the score of the proximity of the regions. This party was described in the petition as being ‘‘of the Profession of the Church of England,” and “overburdened with Usurpation, Tyrene, and opression,” and therefore impatient to find an asylum in their “Royal Master’s Dominion.” ? Another memorial of this period dated February 19, 1784, was signed by Dr. Isaac Moseley and Captain Ross in behalf of themselves and one hundred and sixty-two other “gentlemen” of Massachusetts, who wished to settle north of latitude 45° between Mississquoi Bay and the Connecticut River.‘ Besides the considerations of convenience in moving and nearness to markets that impelled Tories to select nearby regions for settlement, there were representations growing out of the British attempt to win back Vermont to her former allegiance. For reasons of safety, Vermont encouraged this attempt through the agency of Ethan Allen, who commanded the Vermont troops.? In the latter part of April, 1783, Allen sent a message to Sherwood ‘earnestly requesting that the loyalists in Canada might be settled near Vermont, as the private cab- inet of Vermont had resolved to give every possible encouragement to loyal subjects in Canada to remove to the northern part of the State”? for the purpose—as Allen alleged—of forming a party in opposition to Congress sufficient to effect the union of Vermont with Canada. It was evidently in furtherance of this project that Sherwood was visited by a Mr. Campbel from Boston, who was interested in forming some *Can. Arch., 1888, 706. tIbid., 710. tCan. Arch., 1888, 793; Haldimand Papers, B. 177-2, p. 643; B. 175, pp. 251, 253-255. 4 Haldimand Papers, B. 166, p. 168. 5 Scudder, Vermont, 204, ff. 34 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA plan for the speedy settlement of the northern part of Vermont and the Grand Isle by the distressed loyalists then in the States.* At the same time, several other men came to Captain Sherwood in search of “an asylum for a great number of loyalists’? who were “‘determined to leave a country wholly under the direction of their cruel oppressors.” The Captain promptly reported these matters to the government at Quebec, adding that he was being much embarrassed not only by the many coming in for advice, but also by those who heaped insults upon him, claimed the frontier as “their ground,” and predicted the early denial to Tories of even the “liberty to trade.” + A few days later, Sherwood transmitted word of a new development, namely, the great progress being made by revolutionists in settling the frontiers as far as the Onion and Lemoile rivers. Despite the objections of Governor Haldimand to the occupation of the southern border of Quebec by the loyalists, we find John W. Myers and Thomas Sherwood signing a petition of October 26, 1783, for a grant on the east side of Missisquoi Bay for the benefit of certain Tories named in a list accompanying the document.{ Permission to go to the Missisquoi region was also sought by Colonel John Peters, as the representative of a body of refugees in Canada who objected to the great distance of Cataraqui.* Toward the close of November, Haldimand wrote a letter to Lord North in which he explained that by keeping the frontier east of the St. Lawrence uninhabited as long as possible a rupture with the neigh- boring Americans would be avoided;5 and, in the following April, the King signified his approval of the Governor-General’s position on this question.* Nevertheless, not all of the petitioners could be prevented from carrying out their plans. In February and June, 1784, Captain Justus Sherwood and Major Edward Jessup, respectively, reported that those who had intended to go to Missisquoi had given up their project, but that some still persisted.7 Already, in February, cts were being sold and settlers were taking possession, although some were stopped as they were leaving St. Johns with their personal effects. The proprietors were Captains Azariah Pritchard, John W. Myers, and John Ruiter, Lieutenants Wehr, Ruiter, and Taylor, Ensigns Bird and Best, and Messrs. Martin and Taylor. Most of these men belonged to Major James Rogers’ battalion of the King’s Rangers at St. Johns, - *Haldimand Papers, B. 178, p. 190. Can. Arch., 1888, 839. tIbid., 1889, 74. * Ibid., 76. 5 Haldimand Papers, B. 56, p. 201. ‘Ibid, B. 50, p. 157. 7Ibid., 844, 715. [SIEBERT] THE AMERICAN LOYALISTS 35 and were doubtless associated with others from the same corps.* They claimed to have purchased an old Indian title, but most of the land under this title—according to Captain Sherwood—lay in Vermont and was said to have been extended to the north of the Pike River by what the same officer called ‘‘a trick of the purchasers.”’ The version of the purchase given by Caleb Closson and Oliver Sweet, who belonged to the party, was that the lands had been secured from a Mr. Robertson of St. Johns, who in turn had “bought them from the Indians, nine miles south of the Mississquoi River and nine miles north, bounded [on the west] by the lake.” + According to this description, not more than one sixth of the property lay within the borders of Canada; and the authorities at Quebec, after careful investigation, denied that any of it. did. Nevertheless, towards the end of April, 1784, the settlers of this district were still trying to obtain the sanction of the government, and one of their number sent in the names of three hundred persons who were ready to join them.{ Of these, fifty-five names came from the loyalist colony at Machiche, ten others probably from Sorel, and the rest apparently from St. Johns and its vicinity. Prospective colonizers had been solicited at all of these places as well as at Montreal, and had been promised gratuitous provisions as long as the loyalists settling on government grants should receive them.? Fourteen families had already located at Mississquoi Bay and three more on Caldwell’s Manor, all of these being north of the province line.* Captain Azariah Pritchard, however, finding that Haldimand’s opposition to the settlement was unalterable and that most of the land secured for it lay in Vermont, decided to sever his connection with the enterprise and betake himself to the Bay of Chaleurs. Moreover, Pritchard, who was a man of energy and influence, dissuaded about two-thirds of the King’s Rangers, —according to his own estimate—from settling at Mississquoi Bay. The others would not give up their purpose of doing so.7 In the fall of 1784 the colony made a considerable gain through the accession of a ‘dozen or more families,’ and the disobedient settlers were promptly struck from the government’s provision list. Early in the following February, some of them sent in a petition for the continuance of the King’s bounties, bearing marks of their indignation. They announced *Can. Arch., 1888, 711, 683. Vide ante, p. 16. tIbid., 711. {Haldimand Papers, B. 167, pp. 384-387. 4 Can. Arch., 1888, 714; Haldimand Papers, B. 177, pp. 384, 387. 5 Can. Arch., 1888, 714: Sherwood to Mathews. 6 Haldimand Papers, B. 162, pp. 210, 211. 7 Ibid., pp. 392-397. 8 Thomas, Contributions to the History of the Eastern Townships, 15, 16. 36 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA it as their opinion “that all loyalists, Settling in the Province of Quebec, are Allowed Provision whether on King’s Land or not, if within the Province line,” and they declined to think that it was by any order of King or Parliament that faithful subjects were deprived of government bounties, even excepting ‘‘such and only such, who settle in Particular Places, which Perhapes through the Indication of Selfe interested Gentlemen, has been put into the head of the late Commander in Chief.”’ This petition was signed by Christian Wehr and fourteen others.* A comparison of these names with the nineteen names of families who arrived in the previous fall, or earlier, shows only six names common to both lists. Taking all together, we have a total of twenty-eight different names of families known to have settled east of Mississquoi Bay up to February, 1785. That others should be included is indicated’ by the testimony of various refugees before the British Commissioners of claims at Quebec and Montreal in 1787 and 1788, in which it appears that they were residents of the same region.f Most, if not all, of the men of this group had fought during the war as loyalists, and nearly all of them—as indicated by their names—were of Dutch origin.{ Those who can be definitely traced located on the shore of the bay and in the adjacent country north of the Vermont boundary, in part of the region later known as the Eastern Townships. On the western side of Mississquoi Bay, as we have previously mentioned, lies the peninsula that embraced Foucault or Caldwell’s Manor. Adjoining this on the north was Noyan or Christie’s Manor. - The peninsula was a fertile and well wooded region, and sufficiently isolated from the rebellious states on either side to attract refugee loyalists and neutrals. Hence, many took up their abode there after the Revolution. Among the first to enter was a loyalist group that assembled in Canada and formed a colony on the western side of the peninsula a mile or two south of the Vermont line, where Alburgh now stands. They supposed themselves still within the Province of Quebec. Discovering their mistake when the forty-fifth parallel was accurately defined, most, if not all, of them made haste to recross the line and choose new locations. Among these colonists was William Soles, a *Mississquoi County Historical Society, ‘Third Annual Report, 102. Second Report, Bureau of Archives, Ont., Pt. I., 457; Pt. II., 936-7, 940, 1269. {fhe names appearing on the combined lists are as follows: Christian Wehr, Conrad Best, John Ruiter, Adam Deal, Ludwig Streit, Alexander Taylor, Harmonus Best, Christian Hayner, Alexander Hyatt, Gilbert Hyatt, John Saxe, Jacob Barr, John Mock, Philip Luke, Joseph Smith, Garret Sixby, James Anderson, Frederick Hayner, Peter Miller, Christian Mayer, John Cole, George Feller, Josamind Drow, Ludwig Streit, Jr., Jacob Thomas, Philip Ruiter, John Van Vorst, and James Hender- son. The names of those referred to as submitting claims are: Robert Brisbane, Abraham Hyatt, Duncan Cameron, and John Waggoner. [SIEBERT] THE AMERICAN LOYALISTS 37 native of Rhode Island, who remained at St. Johns and Sorel until the close of the war, when he joined the company going to Alburgh.* A person less prompt in departing from the American side was Captain John Savage, who in a petition to the government, in 1792, stated that he had a farm in Caldwell’s Manor within the American lines, from which Colonel Allen was attempting to remove him for refusing to take the oath of allegiance to the American states.f This appears to have been the same Captain Savage who several years previously had returned with a Mr. Campbell from St. Johns to Vermont to aid Ira Allen in settling loyalists there, pursuant to the latter’s plan. When it became clear that Allen’s real purpose was to incite Congress to admit Vermont into the Union, his colleagues abandoned him, and apparently Allen took revenge by forcing Savage and his associates to withdraw to Canada.t Another loyalist family that suffered persecution in this seigniory was the Martin family whose buildings were burned by rene- gades from the States.* Other refugees, already in Canada, also desired to go to Cald- well’s Manor and memorialized the government for its consent.5 The fact that they were preparing to occupy private lands on the Amer- can frontier constituted a two-fold reason why the authorities at Quebec probably withheld their approval, if they did not actually oppose the request. At any rate, these settlers, like those at Missis- squoi, found it necessary to petition for such supplies,’ but evidently failed to get them, for they were reported as being in distress early in August, 1784, by Stephen De Lancey, inspector of loyalists.7 Among these settlers were many of Burgoyne’s American recruits, including John Church, Captain Henry Ruiter, and John Pickell, Daniel Beagh, Andrew Liddel, Jeremiah Spencer, and John Curtis. These men were from the States of New York and Vermont. Among the civilian pioneers of the district were Moses Westover of Sheffield, Massachusetts, and Rev. William Marsh, who: helped to organize what was probably the first Baptist Church of Lower Canada.’ Chris- tie’s Manor likewise received a number of families driven from their *Thomas, Contributions to the History of the Eastern Townships, 207-8; Day, History of the Eastern Townships, 289. Thomas, History of Shefford, 13, 14. fMississquoi County Historical Society, Third An. Rep., 104, 105. ‘ Ibid. 5 Can. Arch., 1889, 73. Sid onic 7 Can. Arch., 1888, 742. 8 Thomas, Contributions to the History of the Eastern Townships, 158; Second Rep., Bureau of Arch., Ont., Pt. II., 941, 1118, 1119, 1267, 1259, 1268; Thomas, Contributions, 210, 194-5. 38 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA homes by the persecution then prevalent in the States, many of these being of English, Scotch, Irish, or German origin.* From the loyalist settlements of the seigniories and Mississquoi Bay some afmilies scattered throughout the adjoining country east- ward for fifty miles, that is, beyond Lake Memphremagog, and north- ward for thirty miles. This district includes the present counties of Mississquoi, Brome, and Shefford, and parts of Stanstead and Sher- brooke counties. The dispersion was no doubt partly due to natural causes, but it was also stimulated by a new policy on the part of the government of Lower Canada. In 1791, the government gave up its old policy of opposing settlement along the American border with a view to attracting a large class of immigrants from New England. The new policy provided for the granting of a township to a company of associates, who were required to pay the expense of the preliminary survey. The township was then erected, and the lands allotted to the associates. Thus, what are known as the Eastern Townships were created. As the loyalists dwelling on Caldwell’s and Christie’s manors and Mississquoi Bay could not obtain grants there, because these districts were private instead of royal domain, their desire for bounty lands could only be satisfied by their organizing or joining a company of associates; and this was what some of them did.f Robert Manson and Thomas Shepard, of the Mississquoi colony, were given lands in Bolton Township, near Lake Memphremagog, in 1797.{ Captain Henry Ruiter, of the same settlement, received several lots in Potton Township, south of Bolton, and settled there in 1799,* later becoming an associate of Sutton. When the latter township was established in 1802, it was granted to a large number of associates, many of whom were loyalists of the Caldwell and Mis- sissquoi communities. Among the grantees of Mississquoi were Hermanus Best, R. Brisbain, Adam Deal, Frederick Hayner, and Alexander Taylor, whilst among those of Caldwell’s Manor were Ephraim Hawley, Andrew Liddel, Rev. William Marsh, John Pickell, Captain Henry Ruiter, Jeremiah Spencer, Moses Westover, and Wil- liam Huntington.’ Captain John Savage, also of the Caldwell settle- ment, was the leader of the associates to whom the Township of Shef- ford was granted in 1801, other loyalist grantees being his son John, and John Mock, of Mississquoi Bay.® Gilbert Hyatt, another of the *Day, History of the Eastern ‘Townships, 324. tMississquoi County Historical Society, Third An. Rep., 97-99. Thomas, Contributions, 315, 316, 332. * Ibid., 302, 303. 5 Thomas, Contributions, 174, ff. 6 Day, History of the Eastern Townships 343. [SIEBERT] THE AMERICAN LOYALISTS 39 original settlers on the bay, was apparently the agent of the asso- ciates who, in 1803, received portions of Ascot Township in Sher- brooke County. Several of Hyatt’s brothers also received grants in the same township.* In the same year, Roxton Township was erected, and again pioneer settlers east of Mississquoi Bay were among the grantees, including Elizabeth Ruiter, the widow of John Ruiter, together with her six children, and Christian Wehr, junior. The most notable of the loyalist associates of the Eastern Town- ships was undoubtedly Abraham Cuyler, former mayor of Albany, New York, who, after serving as inspector of refugees loyalist in the Pro- vince of Quebec, became the promoter of a loyalist movement to the Island of Cape Breton. In 1782, Cuyler went to London to seek compensation for his losses, and wrote thence to the Canadian authori- ties for the concession of the whole Township of Hemmingford. Fail- ing in this petition, be applied for allotments in Dunham, Stanbridge, Farnham, Shefford, and Stanstead townships. Next, he claimed a part of Montreal, but, as this was not available, he was given 3,600 acres elsewhere, and, in addition, he and his two sons received grants as associates of Farnham in 1798. However, there is reason for be- lieving that the disposable crown lands in this township were exhausted before Cuyler secured his claim. { The extensive district thus widely, if sparsely, seeded with loyal- ist stock lay east of the Richelieu. West of that river lies the elongated County of Huntingdon, adjacent to the New York boundary, and ex- tending clear to the St. Lawrence River. It also received its sprink- ling of loyalist settlers. Those who took up their residence in the eastern part of Huntingdon came from the banks of the Richelieu, from the district of La Colle adjoining, from Alburgh, Vermont, and even from Sorel. Thus, some of the pioneers of the eastern part of Huntingdon were the sons of refugee settlers along the Richelieu, who as they grew up “moved back into the bush” and made clearings for themselves. With them came a few families of loyalists from La Colle and Alburgh. The Township of Hemmingford was opened in this way in the spring of 1800 by James Fisher and his family, of Al- burgh. Several years earlier a small loyalist settlement was begun on the eastern slope of Covey Hill, nine miles west of Hemmingford. So far as known the first member of this communtiy was James O’- Neill, a Tory from Pennsylvania, who served in the Royal Regiment of Highland Emigrants during the Revolution, and emigrated to Can- *Day, History of the Eastern Townships, 376, 377. tIbid, 341. tMississquoi County Historical Society, Third An. Rep., 93; Day, History of the Eastern Townships, 272. 40 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA ada after his discharge. He secured a grant of 200 acres, which he occupied in April, 1797. Nicholas Sweet, of Vermont, arrived in the next year with two brothers-in-law, and simultaneously with a family of loyalists, Gordon by name, who had been at Sorel. A number of other American families joined this settlement, but how many of them were loyalists can not be ascertained. Samuel Covey, after whom the locality was named, was the son of one of the loyalists who founded Alburgh. After nine years on the hill, Covey and his family removed to La Tortue, then to Clarenceville, and finally, in 1830, to Franklin, where lived Samuel’s three brothers, James, Enos, and Archibald. Another resident of Franklin was Jacob Manning, son of a loyalist of Poughkeepsie, who settled for a time at the head of Lake Champlain, but in the spring of 1804 removed with his son to Frankiln.* Among the loyalists living at La Colle, in 1788, were Robert Whitman, formerly of Still Water, New York,f and Angus McBean, formerly of Otter Creek, Vermont. { At the western end of the County of Huntingdon, a large part of Godmanchester Township on Lake St. Francis was ceded to veterans of the American war, as was also a small part of Hichinbrook Township, which adjoined it on the east. The survey of these and other townships in the county was effected in 1788 and 1789, and both officers and militiamen received grants. It is more than likely that some of these were American loyalists, although we have not the information at hand to confirm the conjecture. It appears, however, that the land nearest the lake proved to be undesirable, and that the recipients disposed of their claims, with the exception of perhaps a dozen families who formed a settlement on the second range of St. Anicet. Little is known of the subsequent history of this community, save that they abandoned their habitations at the outbreak of the War of 1812, a fact patent to the immigrants arriving some years later in the dismal testimony of the roofless shanties still standing and the clearings already overgrown with saplings.‘ Among the earliest efforts to propagate the Protestant religion in Canada were those made at Sorel before the war had terminated. They proved unsuccessful for a brief period; owing to the dubious character and conduct of the clergyman in charge, whom a contemporary wittily called ‘the irreverand Mr. Scott.” As this person was chaplain of the Thirty-fourth Regiment, he was under the jurisdiction of Colonel *Sellar, History of Huntingdon, Chateaugay, and Beauharnois, 14, 19, 22, 23, 26, 29, 30. Second Report, Bureau of Archives, Ont., Pt. I., 483. tIbid., 349. ‘Sellar, History of Huntingdon, Chateauguay, and Beauharnois, 16, 17, 158. [SIEBERT] THE AMERICAN LOYALISTS 41 Barry St. Leger, commandant of the post, and was soon silenced by him. Mr. Scott was followed in 1782 by the Reverend John Doty, who asked “for the use of a government building in which to hold services, as the French church had hitherto been used for Protestant worship.” * The loyalists who settled at Mississquoi Bay and thence scattered into the Eastern Townships appear to have received their religious instruction chiefly through the ministrations of Lorenzo Dow and other Methodist clergymen from the neighboring states. Dow visited this region as early as 1799, and within a few years Methodist societies were - formed in St. Armand, Sutton, Potton, and the settlement at Pigeon Hill.+ Previous to this a Baptist church had been organized in Sutton by the Rev. William Marsh, a loyalist.{ Presbyterianism was also represented among these loyalist settlers.* There were few, if any, schools to which the inhabitants of these townships could send their children before 1805.5 In this respect they were some years behind the settlements at Machiche, Sorel, and St. Johns, but the schools established at these and other places were apparently too primitive to do more than furnish the most limited education.® *Mcllwraith, Sir Frederick Haldimand, 256. tTucker, Camden Colony, 87; Thomas, Contributions to the History of the Eastern Townships, 44, 199, 310, 311. , Day, History of the Eastern Townships, 288. * Day, Pioneers of the Eastern Townships, 171. 5 Thomas, Contributions to the History of the Eastern Townships, 18; Day, History of the Eastern Townships, 204. 6 Can. Arch., 1889, xx. } { di fT) OT FA é x HU F 7 iis ha | Lis cas c& Ti j ‘ FAT ivy Lat a VAT L (FAT : i + ) hi À | “il MONTE r iid. an |. 73 : é RL W p A À if: ‘ ait V2 dae A APN 5 NT i iva PA (ia Ti wlio | [ve a (dees | æ Lu DUR EPL wT) | | NN T 177 À , [RAT Ps - ES i! aft? yar a) TELL i , il «ne l'OS ary | ; 1 CON ' L ve LA A i? } i é "ta DLL ) | y à ) NUL 2 i] vy ‘ J ' : ETAT at 1A “1 j ay oi! d { } NL ©. north iin ‘sait 5 | Hu dé Toma Con Ae ‘ iy à , pik ; 1 | PONT! D 20°. 0 Webi; \ vy Ft Vial aon IMC . ‘ AE LE LEE ink y \ { { 1-00 de | A M i FAN DRE LA | EL RAT } TOI fh} , = ré i À L y er AL: 4 fl i i vy à TTL L } $ vr ’ care +4 j i 7! 1! € PA rs a RL wa pe OUVRIERS ph vey a sr M > arti ~ } IA a PAT), / i i" ( yi Lo "Veau c Lie | | à 7 A v0 ree EE oe nee, SE ’ an ft) 4 Mies el MR TNT | SLR ie oe SAD , LVL a ; AR on Wee TR PT times de be To ye RE 1, | RE, eee te”) Me | > Rent MOST ot nine de Le ni RE Del mR. pS on Re nan Pay ine ANS ee aes OT sis Kae thage rs " | Là QU Ur Dis APE Nas veir raw AUS AG MS SECTION IL., 1913. [43] Trans. R.S.C. Practice of Court of Common Pleas of the District of Hesse. By Tue HonouraBte Mr. Justice RippE.u, L.H.D., LL.D., &c. PRESENTED By C. C. JAMEs, C.M.G., LL.D. Read May 28, 1913. A sketch of the first Puisne and fifth Chief Justice of the King’s Bench in Upper Canada has been written by the late D. B. Read, Q.C.; it appears in the Magazine of Western History, Vol. 5, p.375 (1887), and is included in his ‘‘Lives of the Judges.”’ Mr. Read mentions the fact that Powell sat in the Court of Common Pleas at L’Assomption on August 11th, 1791: and says that this appears from the ‘Archives at Osgoode Hall.” The particular volume from which the account is quoted is no longer to be found at Osgoode Hall; * but recently in going over the vault of the King’s Bench for an entirely different purpose, I found a volume containing a record of earlier judicial acts of the future Chief Justice. This volume naturally escaped Mr. Read’s notice, as it purports to be Volume 10 of the King’s Bench Term Books. It is of foolscap size, a parchment bound volume: while the middle part is taken up with the proceedings in Term of the King’s Bench from November 3rd, 1828, to July Ist, 1830, a number of pages, both at the front and at the back, contain a record of the proceedings of the Court of Common Pleas holden at L’Assomption (the word is spelled with an “‘o” not ‘‘u’” in the original). The record begins July 16th, 1789, and continues till September 24th, 1789: then (reversing the volume) the record is from May 19th, 1791, to August 4th, 1791, at which day the Court was “adjourned to 11th inst.” The volume cited by Mr. Read is a continuation of this. Some 36 pages are cut out from before the record of May 19th, 1791—which may have contained the proceedings from September, 1789 to May 1791. The history of the Court is not without interest. In the Royal Proclamation of 7th Oct., 1763, it was stated that until Assemblies should be called, ‘‘all persons inhabiting in or resorting to our said Colonies, may confide in our royal protection for the enjoy- ment of the benefit of the laws of our Realm of England’”’—and the Governor was instructed to “constitute and appoint Courts of Judicature *This volume is now in the Onta.io Archives, and contains the record from August 11th, 1791, to October 20th, 1791—there is also another volume in the Archives containing the record from October 27th, 1791, till January 26th, 1792. Ad THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA and Justice” for that purpose. The “Quebec Act” of 1774 (14 Geo. III, c. 83) reintroduced the French law in Civil matters, leaving the English criminal law still in force. The Royal instructions to Carleton, the Governor, advised him to constitute a Court of King’s Bench for all Crown cases; and a Court of Common Pleas in each of the Districts of Montreal and Quebec to decide all civil suits and actions—further that in addition to these Courts for the Province at large, there should be an inferior Court of Criminal and Civil jurisdiction in each of the Districts of the Illinois, St. Vincenne, Detroit, Missilimakinac and Gaspée, with authority to determine all matters, civil and criminal—the Courts to be called the Court of King’s Bench for such district, and each to have one Judge, a native born subject, and an Assistant or Assessor, a Canadian, to give advice to the Judge but to have no voice in the decision. The only limitation to the jurisdiction of these Courts was that in cases of Treason, Murder or other Capital Felonies, the local Court could only arrest and commit to the gaol at Montreal or Quebec for trial there. While these Courts were in that part of the Instructions called “Courts of King’s Bench” they are in another part called “Courts of King’s Bench and Common Pleas.’ Provision is made for the payment to the Judge of each of these five local Courts a salary of £100 and ‘‘to an assistant or assessor at each post... £50 per annum.” This was in January, 1775. Courts were accordingly established by Carleton in 1776 in Quebec and Montreal; but the troublous times of the Revolution then set in and Courts were a useless anomaly for the time being. The Revolutionary War resulted in the loss of much of the western territory; and the five Courts were not necessary as most of the country they were intended to serve had ceased to be British. Therefore we find that in the Royal Instructions to Lord Dorchester of 23rd August, 1786, the provision for the salary of these Judges and assistants disap- pears. On July 24th, 1788, Dorchester issued a proclamation making a new District Gaspé to the far East and dividing all Canada west of what was afterwards called Lower Canada, into four Districts, Luneburg (not Lunenburg as it is generally spelled), Mecklenburg, Nassau and Hesse—Hesse included Detroit. A Court of Common Pleas was estab- lished in each of these Districts—and it was in the Court of Common Pleas in and for the District of Hesse* in the Province of Quebec that * This was not the first attempt to form a Court for the District of Hesse. Con- temporaneously with the proclamation of July 24, 1788, Dorchester appointed as Justices of the Common Pleas the following gentlemen of Detroit: Alexander McKee, William Robertson and Duperon Baby. In this he followed in principle the advice contained in sec. 15 of his instructions of 3rd January, 1775—he was there advised to erect in each of the Districts of Montreal and Quebee a Court of Common Pleas and “that there be three Judges in each of the said Courts of Common Pleas, that is [RIDDELL] PRACTICE OF COURT OF COMMON PLEAS 45 Powell sat as the first Judge and exercised civil jurisdiction with his head- quarters at Detroit. In addition to this, he received, more hant once, a Commission of Oyer and Terminer and General Gaol Delivery under which he sat to try criminal cases. He was to sit under such a e¢>mmis- sion in Kingston about the time the Act, 31 George III, c. 31, dividing Quebec into Upper and Lower Canada came into force and it was feared that he might refuse to sit in consequence of certain irregularities; he did not refuse to sit but showed his good sense by ignoring technicality. Before this date he had been appointed to the Court of Common Pleas for the Hesse District; he arrived at Detroit in June, 1789, and seems to have opened his Court at L’Assomption (Sandwich) July 16th, of the same year. In the practice of this Court a distinction was made between claims under £10 sterling and those £10 and over—the smaller claims to say two of our natural born subjects of Great Britain, Ireland, or our other Plan- tations, and one Canadian.” ‘This course he had followed in his appointments to the Courts at Montreal and Quebec—and he adopted the same principle for Detroit. Alexander McKee, a native of Pennsylvania, had been from 1772 on, Deputy- Agent of Indian Affairs at Fort Pitt (Pittsburg) and was undoubtedly enthusiastically loyal to the Crown. He was a J.P. and carried on a large and lucrative business before the outbreak of hostilities between the Colonies and Motherland—imprisoned by General Hand in 1777, he was released on parole—being threatened with im- prisonment the following year, he made his escape to Detroit with Simon Girty and others. Thereafter he took a most active part on the loyalist side and was made a Colonel. He went into business in Detroit and was appointed Deputy-Superinten- dent of Indian Affairs, afterwards in 1794 Superintendant-General. He was ap- pointed in 1789 a member of the Land Board of Hesse and was granted land—he died in 1799. William Robertson was also a resident of Detroit—he became a member of the Land Board which held its meetings for some time at his house. He sat on the Board till August, 1790, when he left for England. His name appears as heading the list of the Land Board of the late District of Hesse to be limited to the Counties of Essex and Kent only—being now the Honourable William Robertson—but he did not attend any meetings of that Board. He had been appointed a member of the Legislative Council of Upper Canada in 1791, but never was sworn in, nor did he come to Canada to take his seat. He resigned shortly afterwards. Duperon Baby was of an old French-Canadian family; born in 1738, he became a prominent citizen of Detroit and a trader of great enterprise. He also was ap- pointed a member of the Hesse Land Board, and rendered valuable services in interpreting. He died at Sandwich in 1796. These appointments were very unpopular, for one reason because the appointees were not lawyers: a protest was drawn up and Robertson and Baby carried this to the Governor of Quebec, presenting it October 24th, 1788. It was pointed out that Robertson and Baby were so extensively engaged in trade—Baby being the only French fur trader—that they would be personally interested in ninety per cent. of the cases—and it was suggested to create a Court of Common Pleas with one Judge, a lawyer, who would devote all his time to the duties of the office. This was done— the former appointees never acted—and Powell was the first Judge as we have said. Sec. II, 1913—3 46 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA being disposed of by a simpler procedure. This simpler and summary procedure was abolished in 1792 by the Statute, 32 George III (U.C.), c. 4, on the introduction of trial by jury in all civil cases, 32 George III (U.C.), ¢. 2. But debts of 40 shillmgs and under, Quebec currency (2.e. $8), were made suable before Magistrates in Courts of Requests, provided for by c. 6 of the same Statute. In 1794, the first Parliament of Upper Canada in its third session, 34 George III, c. 2, abolished the Courts of Common Pleas altogether, created an entirely new Court of King’s Bench, removed all cases pending in the Common Pleas into the King’s Bench; and also all the records of the several Courts of Com- mon Pleas were made records of the King’s Bench. No doubt this pro- vision accounts for the note-book to which I have referred being used afterwards in the King’s Bench in Term. The Act of 1794 provided for one Chief Justice and two puisnes. William Osgoode had already been in the Province of Upper Canada for some time with a Commission from the King as Chief Justice; Powell was made a puisne Justice the day of the Act being approved, 9th January, 1794; and the Hon. Peter Russell, a Legislative Councillor, received a Commission several times in a temporary emergency; but a second permanent puisne was not appointed until November 30th, 1798, when Henry Alcock became the junior puisne. It is time now to return to the Court at L’Assomption. In all the cases tried I can find a reference to only one Attorney,* Walter Roe; he appears for the plaintiff in most of the cases. When he does not appear we find Charles Smyth “acting by procuration for the plaintiff,’ or sometimes the plaintiff in person. Thomas Smitht was the Clerk. *Walter Roe was during the Revolutionary War, Warrant Officer in the Marine Department. He was afterwards, in 1790, given Lot No. 25 in the Two Connected Townships (afterwards Colchester and Gosfield). He was practicing at the bar in the Courts at the time of the passing of the Act of 1797, 37, Geo. III (U.C.), ce. 13, establishing the Law Society of Upper Canada, and was accordingly qualified to become a member. He did so, being the third person to sign and immediately after the Attorney-General Johu White and the Solicitor-General Robert I. D. Gray. He appeared in the K.B. in Term at least once, July 17,1797. In Michaelmas Term, 59 George III, Nov. 10th, 1818, at a Trial at Bar before Powell C. J., Campbell & Boulton JJ., of an action in ejectment, Doe dem. Dickson v. Penfield, Mr. Roe was called as a witness but did not answer. The jury found for the plaintiff (William Dickson). tThomas Smith was a loyalist of Welsh birth. In 1776 he came to Niagara with intelligence concerning the revolting colonists: and afterwards settled in Detroit. After the Peace he was, in 1789, made Clerk of the Land Board of the District of Hesse with Headquarters at Detroit—this situation he lost the next year. He had previously acted as Deputy-Surveyor from 8th May, 1787, and continued to act to 1st August, 1789. He received in 1790, 200 acres of land, Lot 30 in the First Concession of the Two Connected Townships. He seems to have been accused of [RIDDELL] PRACTICE OF COURT OF COMMON PLEAS 47 The currency is very varied—sometimes Quebec, Halifax or Pro- vincial currency, or currency of the Province—in this £1 equals $4 of our present money, and 1 shilling equals 20 cents; sometimes New York Currency—in this £1 equals $2.50 of our present money, and 1 shilling (known even in my day as a “ York shilling,” or ‘‘ Yorker’’) equals 124 cents; sometimes livres and sols, the old Canadian French currency—according to a proclamation of Lieut. Col. Irving, 5th July, 1765, 24 livres equal £1, making the livre equal 184 cents (about).* The “Upper Canada Act’’ of 1796, 36 George III, c. 1, makes the livre equal 11 1/9 pence Canadian Currency (equal 184 cents, about). A computation by the Clerk in one case makes the livre equal 17 cents (about). Probably the valuation was somewhat elastic—the livre in any case is about one franc. The practice of the Court is very interesting from a historic point of view. In a case of £10 or over, “The plaintiff by his attorney, Walter Roe, filed his declaration.” The defendant is called —he generally appears in person. He may admit the debt, in which case judgment is entered up against him—or he may claim a set off. If this be admitted by the plaintiff, judgment is entered for the balance. For example, July 23rd, 1789, Meldrum and Park sue Dominique LaBrosse, of the Parish of St. Anne, the declaration is filed, the defendant appears and acknowledges the debt, but claims an account for work done for the plaintiffs to the amount of 180 livres ancient currency of Quebec. Judgment is recorded against him for the balance. Or the defendant admits the debt, note or otherwise, but objects that he never agreed to pay interest—a day is set some time selling the King’s lands, and demanded an opportunity of justifying his conduct— there seems to have been nothing in the charge. In July, 1792, we find him with Elliott and Girty accompanying a deputation of upwards of twenty Indians who waited on the Commissioners of the United States, who were on an island in the Detroit River, and demanded an explicit answer to the question whether they were authorized by the United States to fix the Ohio River as the boundary between the Americans and the Indians. In August, 1792, he was granted Lot No. 12, First Township, North Side River La Franche (Thames)—and next month Lots Nos. 49 and 50 on the Petite Cote. In 1796 he was elected member of the Legislative Assembly (the Second Parliament of Upper Canada) for Kent, but continued to reside at Detroit for some time, prac- tising as a surveyor. He died at Sandwich in 1833. In one of the documents pre- served of the Hesse Land Board, he is described as “Lt. M.” i.e., Lieutenant in the Militia, and it seems clear that he actually had that rank. *The pound sterling was considered equal to $4 4/9—that is the “old par’’ and is still the nominal par. E.g., when sterling exchange is at intrinsic and actual par— that is the pound sterling is equal to $4.8667—exchange is said to be 94 per cent. premium (1.093 of 4 4/9 equals 4.8667). 48 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA afterward for the plaintiff to prove his demand—or the defendant admits his signature to a note, but says he was an infant at the time of signing it—then a day is fixed for him to ‘prove his allegations.” The plea may be clearly bad in law—as when James Heward, of De- troit, Labourer, sues Thomas Heward, of the same place, Gentleman, for wages, and Thomas appears and saying that the debt is justly due and owing, pleads that he hired James, acting as agent for the Miami Company at Sandusky. There being no pretence that James knew anything of this, judgment was entered against Thomas for £14-1-3 “reserving to the defendant his recourse for repayment from his Employers.” And, 19th May, 1791, “George McDougall vs. Jacques Campeau,”’ Roe filed the declaration, the defendant appeared in person and for “a plea says that he expected the plaintiff would wait for payment, as he had not wherewithal to satisfy him—especially as his land was mortgaged for the money.” These are, no doubt, perfectly satisfactory reasons for not paying, especially the first—but the law is inexorable, and as the “defendant acknowledged the obligation,” “judgment was directed to be entered against him for £165-16-8, Hfx., and interest with costs.” These are taxed at £9-6-6, Hfx. ‘“Hfx.’”, of course, means Halifax or Quebec currency. The defendant may appear in person and deny all liability. He may be allowed to plead before a certain time or a day may be set for the plaintiff to prove his demand. Very rarely, indeed, the de- fendant’s Attorney Walter Roe, or Charles Smyth, by procuration, enters an appearance; sometimes, too, the defendant himself “enters appearance.” If the defendant upon being called three times, do not appear in person or by Attorney, “it is ordered that a default be entered against him.” That does not mean that judgment is entered for the plaintiff, however—the defendant has another chance—he may ap- pear at the next Court and plead—or fail again to appear, in which case a second default is entered against him, and a day fixed for the plaintiff to proceed to proof. Let me give an instance. In the case of “Richard Dobie, of Montreal, Merch’t., v. John Martin, of Detroit, Merch’t., on July 16th, 1789 “the plaintiff by Mr. Roe his Attorney, filed his Declaration, and the Defendant being called thrice and not appearing, It is therefore ordered that default be entered against him.” At the Sittings of July 23rd 1789 “Mr. Roe the Attorney for plaintiff, informed the Court that this action was continued last Court day and that the defendant had been then thrice called and not appear- ing, and a Default was recorded against him. The Defendant now being called again and entered appearance and declares he is not in- [RIDDELL] PRACTICE OF COURT OF COMMON PLEAS 49 debted in the sum as set forth in the plaintiff’s declaration. The Court ordered the plaintiff to prove his demand on the 20th of August next.” On August 20th “This action was continued the 23rd of July last for the plaintiff to prove his Demand this day—in consequence Walter Roe, Attorney for the plaintiff filed his Replication the 18th inst. in the office. The Defendant being now thrice called and not appearing thereupon, the plaintiff’s Attorney moved for judgment, the Court ordered the action to continue for eight days en Delibere, and a second default entered against Defendant.” “Eight days” in those days meant a week. On August 27th “ Walter Roe, Attorney for the Plaintiff—the defendant being thrice called and not appearing.” Then appears what we should call reasons for judgment or the opinion of the Court, thus, This is an action the Gist “District of Hesse of which is a record of judgment in another Court: to this the Defendant has pleaded that he owes nothing, but as he has set up no payment or release of judgment, I must presume the mean- ing of his plea to be the proper issue and a Traverse of the Record of judgment. It seems so to be understood by the Replication of the Plaintiff, who again relies upon and proffers the Record. The Evi- dence filed is equally insufficient to support the action upon the Rules of Evidence either of the ancient or present Laws of the Province, the office copy of the Record being neither upon Parchment or under seal. Wherefore the Court considers that judgment be entered as in case of a nunsuit.”’ I do not stay to point out the accuracy 0: otherwise of the Judge’s law; but hasten to another case which is thus intituled:—‘ John Robert McDougall, of Detroit, Gentleman, vs. Isaac Germain.” On July 16th, the inevitable Walter Roe filed his declaration and the de- fendant had a default entered against him: on July 23, the defend- ant again did not appear, a second default was entered against him and the defendant directed to proceed to prove his demand on the 20th August—on August 20th the defendant did not appear and the plaintiff “by his Attorney Walter Roe” called evidence. It was proved that the defendant put certain cattle for agistment upon the plaintiff’s land on Hog Island, agreeing to pay well for them, also that 20 shil- lings a head was the usual price on the Island—‘This action is con- tinued and remains en Delibere for eight days.” On the 27th judg- ment is entered up for £30'— 9- 6 and £9 — 9 — 5 costs, im all £39 — 18 — fi and a Writ of fi. fa. issued 5- 0 £40 — 3 - 11 50 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA And an alias fi. fa. was issued Oct. 2nd for this sum—which writ was returnable the first Court day in June 1790—for £40 — 3-11 and subsequent costs, £1-15- 0 £41 = 18 = 11 The costs seem fairly large; it may be that the Clerk did not tax too stringently—in that respect being unlike a certain English taxing officer. Mr. Quirk, of Quirk, Gammon & Snap, had, we are told, “never been seen actually to shed a tear but once—when five sixths of his little bill (£196 — 15 —4) were taxed off in an action on a Bill of Exchange for £13.” In cases under £10 sterling there does not seem to have been any declaration or written pleading but otherwise the practice does not differ from what I have described. A somewhat curious feature is that the evidence, given as it is, sometimes in English, sometimes in French, is taken down in the language employed by the witness—the orthography in neither lan- guage is unexceptionable and the syntax of the French sometimes is very bad—no doubt what appear to be solecisms are really the expres- sions of the witnesses themselves. The faulty orthography is just that of a man who understands French as spoken, but has no need to write it. For example, on May 26th 1791, in Graham v. McKenzie v. Louis, Campeau, Mr. Roe appears for the plaintiffs: the defendant made de- fault. J. B. Marin was called as a witness and he deposed as follows: (I give the original French and all) “Qu’il est commis actuelment employer par le Demandeur et que de leur part il fut Dimanche dernier chez Defendeur pour lui demander sa raison pour avoir pas acquitté la demande actuel. Pour reponse le Defendeur a dit au Tremoin que ce est bien vrai que lui devoit le vinght trois Ponds pour une Quart * de Romme qu’il a eut téte passé mais peut pas faire ceste somme bien qu’il avoit demander en plusier maison.” Accordingly judgment went for £23 — 16 — 0, N.Y. Cy. with costs—and the formal judg- ment for £14 — 17 — 6, and costs £6 — 8 — 2, in all £21 — 5 — 8, Provincial Currency. The computation here is exact—the judgment was for $59.50 of our present currency. Dollars were not wholly unknown in those days: at a Court holden at L'Assomption, 9th June, 1791, in a case Samuel Edge v. John *This does not mean what we call a quart of rum—the “Quart” as is shown in another case was “more than 30, gallons’’—so that the ‘“Romme’” cost less than $2 a gallon. [RIDDELL] PRACTIC OF COURT OF COMMON PLEAS 51 Vert, judgment was given that the defendant should pay four dollars and a half and costs. Some other cases are worthy of note—for example, as shewing an “Equity” practice in this Court of Common Pleas, at the Court held 19th May 1791 in the case of George Lyons v. Francois Chabut Esquire, we find the following as the proceedings: “That the plaintiff having this day filed the affidavit of James May purporting that the best and only witness to prove his demands are without the juris- diction of this Court, and being willing to refer the said demand to the decisive oath of the defendant, prays that a rule may be per- sonally served on the said Francois Chabut, Esq., requiring him to attend this Court in his proper person on Thursday the 9th of June next, then here to purge himself by his corporal oath from his said demand, failing whereof it shall be admitted and taken pro confesso. The Court order accordingly.” On June 9th the defendant did not appear, the declaration was taken as confessed and judgment was entered “for £26 — 10 — 4, currency of New York, equal to £16 — 11 — 5 currency of Quebec, with costs. The costs were taxed at £6 — 11 — 5 currency of Quebec, Fi. fa. was issued and the money made in full (there is a trifling error in calculation £26 — 10 — 4 N.Y. currency is equivalent to £16 — 15 — 24 Quebec currency). On the 20th August 1789, in the action of Thomas Cox v. Guil- laume Gyeaux of L’Asssomption, ‘Walter Roe for the plaintiff filed his Declaration and the Defendant appeared in person:— “As judgment was rendered the 23rd of July last against the Defendant and Execution the 24th of August, and finding by the Re- turn of the Sheriff that the Defendant’s Goods and chattels, Lands and Tenements are not sufficient to satisfy the said judgment creditor, and the plaintiff’s Attorney suspecting that the defendant had prop- erty secreted in the hands of Joseph Pilet, he was therefore summoned before the Court to give his declaration on oath, whom being called and duly sworn and declared to have no effects of the Defendant’s in his hands at this time, nor have had at the time of the service of the Declaration.” August 20th 1789 “Isaac Dolson of L'Assomption, Yeoman, vs. Joseph Perrier, dite Vadeboncceur of the River of Ecosse, Walter Roe Attorney for the plaintiff; filed his declaration and the Defendant being called and appeared in person and acknowledged that the plain- tiff was in peacable and quiet possession of the land in question, and that he did enter upon the premises in manner and in form as set forth in the Plaintiff’s Declaration, which being duly considered, the Court ordered the Defendant to put the Plaintiff immediately in pos- 52 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA session of the said Premises [this is what we should now call an “ In- terim injunction.”’] and the action to be considered in the mean- time.” On August 27th, on consent, a continuance was ordered for eight days; on Sept. 3rd the defendant not appearing the case was again “continued at the instance of Mr. Roe”: on Sept. 10th the defendant still not appearing, the Declaration is set out and a judg- ment entered for re-entry and £9-17-0 currency of the Province for costs. August 20th “James Fraser, Attorney to the Assignees of Thomas Cox vs. Pierre La Bute, Walter Roe for the Plaintiff filed his Declar- ation and the Defendant being called and appeared in person—and after some altercation, Mr. Roe the Plaintiff’s Attorney moved to discontinue the suit. The Court ordered the suit to be discontinued accordingly.” July 23rd “ Leith & Shepherd of Detroit, and Copartners in Trade vs. Jean Bte. Leduc, fils, of the Parish of L’Assomption, Yeoman.” The Defendant admitted his signature to the note, but pleaded infancy. He was ordered to prove his plea and on Aug. 20th he ‘“ produced his Batistere’’, which proved that he was not a minor at the time of signing the note. His further plea that it was for his father’s debt was equally ineffective and judgment went against him for note, interest and costs. August 20th, “Frederick Arnold vs. J. Bte. Leduck fils, Walter Roe Attorney for the Plaintiff and the Defendant appeared; and by consent of parties, Claude Rheaume and Isaac Dolson, is nominated to estimate the damages in the Detention of the plaintiff’s horses, and to call in the third person in case of Differences, reserving to the Court the right of imprisonment of said horses and to report in eight days.” The action was, Aug. 27th, continued for eight days; Sept. 3rd “the Court took into consideration the Report of auditors upon the matter in dispute who were nominated by consent of the parties to report on their differences” and entered judgment for the plain- tiff, that Jean Bte. Leduck fils should pay him the sum of £10 of the currency of New York, equal to £6 — 5 currency of Quebec (the computation here is exact). September 3rd ‘ Magdalaine Peltier, spouse of Jaques Peltier, vs. Laurent Maure. The plaintiff filed her Declaration and the De- fendant appeared in person. The Court having taken the matter into consideration and find that the plaintiff is under coverture and not authorized by a Letter of Attorney from her husband. It is or- dered that the action be dismissed.” Sept. 3 “Antoine Jalbert v. Jonathan Schiffelin, Charles Smyth, Attorney for the Plaintiff by Procuration filed his Declaration. The [RIDDELL] PRACTICE OE COURT OF COMMON PLEAS 53 Defendant appeared and says that he owes nothing to the Plaintiff, but that he is indebted to him Two hundred and Thirty-one Livres, for which he prays to become an incidental Plaintiff, and filed the Plaintiff’s engagement subscribed by him at Detroit and offers to bring proof that the defendant did not perform his engagement, and also files the account, items of which he begs leave to prove.’’ On the 10th he called “John McGregor of full age and not interested” but all he said was “that he does not know anything respecting the matter in Question.” Then he called Raphael Bellongir who said “Que lui ettoit en compagné avec Antoine Jalbert quant le dite Jalbert avoit laisser le service du Defendeur le dix septieme de mai.” The case came on again Sept. 17th, when judgment was given dismissing the action with costs. It seems that Jalbert claimed that he had been employed by Schiffelin to go into the Indian Country to Saginan an Indian Post, to help him in the fur trade, but was discharged by him and accordingly claimed £20 — 16 — 8, Halifax currency, as wages— the defendant set up that Jalbert did not perform his engagement, and he claimed 231 livres as due him by Jalbert. Nothing is said in the judgment about this counterclaim. August 27th. ‘Catherine Desriviere La Moinodiere Deguindre vs. Her Husband, Antoine Dagnio Deguindre” Declaration filed, defendant noted in default: Sept. 3, second default, Sept. 10 defendant still in default. Plaintiff ordered to produce her evidence next Court day at 9 o’clock in the morning: Sept. 17, the defendant being again absent, the plaintiff produced her marriage contract and called witnesses who gave evidence in French—I give a sample:— “Question 2nd. by Mr. Roe—Si lui connait les Ettat de ces affaire? Ans. Que non.” “Question 4th by Mr. Roe:—Avez vous entendu dire que ce meubles ettes vendû, et par quil? Ans. Que lui avoit entendû dire que l’ont ettè vendû a L’Engon.” “Question 5th by Mr. Roe:—Si l’ont ettè vendû par le Sheriffe? Ans. Je ne sai pas.” This is rather better than the French in another place “il se pas.” There is considerable evidence about ‘une Seizer au chez le De- fendeur;” and then the case stands over till next Court. Sept. 24th it again stands over for eight days—and the record of all further pro- ceedings is lost. Sept. 3. In Thomas Cox v. William Gyeaux, the Sheriff had made a seizure but could not proceed with the sale till “the claims of the different opponents are first satisfied and paid or secured upon the proceeds.” Nicholas Gyeaux, nephew of William, produced witnesses who testified that he “a proposer seminez la Terre de son oncle a motie”’ 54 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA and the witness “croix dans sa conscience s’étté a mottier entre l’oncle et nephew.” So he got half of 12 bushels of oats, 12 of wheat and one of Pease, the other half to go to the Sheriff. Charles Prout produced a witness who swore that the defendant and Prout “lui avez dit que ce derniere étté en Simmenser chez le primiere une Piece de Bled Fromment et une Piece de Voine a son proper profit”—and so Prout got his wheat (blé froment, what is called in the book bled fromment) and the proceeds of an Indian Corn patch, the oats (voine i. e. avoine) no doubt also. Louis Gyeaux offered his brother Nicholas as a witness, the plain- tiff’s Attorney, the ubiquitous Mr. Roe, objected on the ground of relationship, but this objection was overruled—and he proved the case well: “son oncle Guillaume Gyeaux lui a dit que une de ce vache ettoit a Louis Gyeaux que lui a livre la vache a son Frere que lui a laisser sans le Park le opposent avec les otre annimaux de Defendeur, et que cette vache et une de cette prix en execution.” That settled it—Louis got “cette vache.” Alexis Maisonville did not succeed in his claim (perhaps the de- fendant’s family name was Goyeaux, a well-known name of those parts). The same day Phillip Fox obtained judgment against Pierre Durand “that he return the meat of a Hog which he killed, belonging to the Plaintiff (or to pay him three pounds New York currency)— and Francis Latour obtained judgment against Louis Trudell that he pay Ten Pounds currency (or return to the Plaintiff Four hundred and fifty Pounds of Flour). Sept. 10th Jacques Peltier, whose spouse Magdelaine had failed in her action against Laurent Maure the week before now sues him, himself, and gets judgment for £27 — 10 — 0 currency for rent of a house. Sept. 10th “Hyacinthe Latourelle v. William Groesbeek: The parties appeared and the defendant is ordered to give to the plaintiff his account before eight days; and then if the Defendant falls in debt to the plaintiff he has a recourse to the Court’”—and September 17th “the Plaintiff is dismissed from his action and to pay costs of suit.’ What the order of Sept. 10th means I cannot say. Sept. 10th “John Urquhart of Detroit, Gentleman v. John Askin of Detroit, Merch’t, Walter Roe Attorney for the Defendant entered appearance and Charly Smyth acting by Procuration for the Plaintiff, declined to act any further in his behalf” and the Plaintiff, therefore, was thrice called and not appearing “judgment went against him with costs.” [RIDDELL] PRACTICE OF COURT OF COMMON PLEAS 55 Sept. 17th a defendant Joseph Barron of St. Anne got 15 days delay “on account of his family being in a bad state of health.” Sept. 24th Isabella Maholm (almost certainly “ Malcolm”) complains that, her husband James Donaldson detains £50 sterling in his hands sent to her by her friends in Scotland. Mr. Roe for the husband “denies to detain any sum of the plaintiff’s whatever” and “the Court ordered a Rule for trial in eight days” —The same day a case was postponed to get the evidence of Simon Girty, * Isadore Chene + and Captain Caldwell. ¢ * This is the well known Simon Girty, about whom so much has been written, most of it wholly untrue. Born in Pennsylvania in 1741, of an Irish father and English mother, he was in 1756 taken prisoner by the Indians with his mother and brothers. He lived with the Senecas for some three years when he was with the rest of the family delivered up. He took part in the border warfare and when trouble began brewing between the Colonies and the Mother Country, was counted on as well-disposed to the latter. He was for a time Lieutenant in a Virginia Company, but in 1778 finally cast in his lot with the loyalists. With McKee and Elliott who were afterwards to take no small part in Border history, he left Pittsburg, and made his way to Detroit. He became a Lieutenant in the Indian Department (a fact which has escaped Butterfield—History of the Girtys by Consul Willstine Butter- field, Cincinnati, Robert Clarke & Co.,; 1890—who gives the most accurate account of him, but which is attested by the proceedings of the Land Board of the District of Hesse: see Archives Report, Ontario, 1905, pp. 88, 281). He acted as interpreter but not as leader of the Indians as has been represented. He was present at some scenes of torture but there is no well-authenticated instance of his causing or directing it. He wasa hardy, brave and indefatigable border warrior whose name has suffered from his being on the losing side of a civil war. He lived in Detroit and after its surrender in 1796, on the other side of the River, where he received a grant of land. He died there in 1818, about two miles below Amherstburg. tIsidore Chesne was present with Girty and others at the Council held at Detroit in June, 1778, with the Indians, when a plan of campaign was arranged against the rebellious Americans. He seems to have been of a family of original concessionaires who were in 1734 granted lands near Detroit—and he was an ardent supporter of the British cause. Under the name J. Chisne he was awarded Lot 6, not far from Girty’s lot. Captain William Caldwell was by birth an Irishman, but was at the outbreak of the Revolution living in Pennsylvania. He took the loyalist side and made his way to Detroit. There he was given the command of a Company of Rangers who with a number of Indians under Captain Elliott went in 1787 to the help of the Wyandots, who had been threatened by an American force under Col. Crawford. The enemy met at Upper Sandusky, and Crawford was vanquished and his force driven back. Crawford and others were taken. prisoners by the Indians and Crawford tortured to death in Girty’s presence. Caldwell was wounded and afterwards falling sick went back to Detroit, invalided, After peace was declared he applied for and obtained a grant of land in Upper Canada—his petition was the first filed with the Land Board of the District of Hesse —his “fenced field” is spoken of more than once as a starting point. In a memorandum by Patrick MeNiff, Deputy Surveyor, dated at Detroit, September 30th, 1791, he is mentioned as having received 800 acres of the 3,000 acres to which he was entitled, and is called a reduced officer on half-pay. 56 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA The last case reported at length is on June 16th 1791, James May sued Thomas Fleet for taking away an anchor from his yard at Detroit. But the evidence showed that Mr. Williams, mate of the “Felicity,’’ commanding a party of six men, went to Mr. May’s yard, pointed out the anchor to the men and had them remove it to the King's ship-yard—the defendant not being present and having noth- ing to do with the transaction. On June 23rd 1791 “the Court met, but being a great holiday, Fete de Dieu, adjourned to the 30th inst.” June 30 “Jacob Dicks v. Jno. Cray and wife....a witness.... ....proved the allegations as set forth in the plaintiff’s Declaration —the Defendant’s wife acknowledged that she does not know any- thing of the Plaintiff, and that she was sorry for what she had said, and that she was in a passion at the time and did not know what she said, and acknowledging the plaintiff to be an honest man. In con- sideration of the Plaintiff’s relinquishing his claim to the damages, the defendant to pay the costs—allowed witness 2-6 and Ferriage 1-3.” The defendant got off cheap—and with this case of happy ending, I should like to close this sketchy account of Mr. Justice Powell’s first Court—but the very last case I cannot omit: 4th August, 1791 “George Lyons v. Porline Benac, Esquire, Mr. Roe for plaintiff informs the Court that on the second day of July last a writ of fi. fa. was issued from the Court at the suit of the plaintiff against the goods and chattels, lands and Tenements of the Defendant, addressed to the Sheriff of this District who in consequence granted his warrant to Jos. Elam one of his Deputies, who in execution thereof on the Ist day of August instant was violently assaulted and drove off the Defendant’s premises by the defendant in person as appears by the affidavit of the said Jos. Elam filed in Court marked ‘‘A” and the return of the sheriff on the said writ; wherefore prays the Court to award a writ of capias ad satisfaciendum to issue against the Defendant. Court order that a capias do issue accordingly.” And it is hoped that the Defendant received his just deserts for having drove the Deputy Sheriff off his premises. WILLIAM RENWICK RIDDELL. SECTION II., 1913 [57] Trans. R.S.C. David William Smith. A Supplementary Note to the Upper Canada Election of 1792. By C. C. Jamus, C.M.G., LL.D. Read May 28, 1913. In May 1902, I presented to the Royal Society of Canada a paper on “The First Legislators of Upper Canada” in which I gave the list of members of the first Legislature, sixteen in all, assigned them to their various constituencies, and appended such dates as were avail- able at the time. In that paper I set down David William Smith as one of the members for the County of Kent, which included the residents of Detroit, and of all the country north and west as far as the uncertain boundaries of the Province extended. His colleague was William Macomb. Francis or Francois Baby was set down as the member for the adjoining County of Essex (and Suffolk). After the paper had been written and was ready for the printer, an addendum note was attached setting forth the list of members as printed in The Quebec Magazine of December, 1792. This list set down David William Smith as member for Essex and Francis Baby and William Macomp as the two members for Kent. The question arises as to whether Smith was returned for Kent, as is generally stated in historical records, or whether he was returned for Essex as reported in The Quebec Maga- zine. In my paper on “The Second Legislature of Upper Canada” printed in the Royal Society Records for 1903, I assigned Smith to Essex, and there I am disposed to leave him for the present. This paper is presented not merely with a view to disposing of that question, if possible, but also to make available some information as to how elections were conducted in the early days. I might add this note, however, that Mr. C. M. Burton, of Detroit, has stated that Smith ran in Essex on the 20th of August, 1792, was defeated and at once was set up in Detroit and elected on the 28th of August, along with Macomb. Smith himself has left on record that he was elected a member of the first Legislature on 27th August, 1792, but unfortunately be failed to state for what riding he was elected. He simply put the record as follows:—‘“‘ Member of First Canadian Parliament, 27th August, 1792.” The three letters that follow bearing date 26th July, 6th August, and 14th August, 1792, are reproduced through the kindness of Mr. C. M. Burton, Detroit, who has the originals in his collection of the Askin papers. It was in the spring of 1792 that the 5th Regiment of Foot 58 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA was transferred from Detroit to Niagara. John Smith was Major of this Regiment, and his son, David William Smith, was Lieutenant. Smith appointed his old friend, John Askin, of Detroit, as his election agent, and it is to him that the three letters are addressed. The letter of 14th August contains this sentence, which seems to state that the Detroit election came first and that he did not decide to stand for that riding. “Perhaps I should have done better to have set up for one of the seats in Detroit, as I hear only of Mr. Macomb, who is to be proposed; but I did not then know they would be entitled to vote; besides, were I thrown out on the 20th I might have had a chance on the 28th.” Here follow the letters :— NraAGARA, 26 July, 1792. My Dear Srr:—The governor’s proclamations are arrived, divid- ing the upper country. The N. county is called Essex, and is bounded on the east by the carrying place from Point au Pins to the river La Tranche (Thames); bounded on the south by Lake Erie, and on the west by the River Detroit to Maisonville’s mill; from thence by a line running parallel to the River Detroit and Lake St. Clair, at the distance of four miles, until it reaches the River La Tranche, thence up the said river to where the carrying place from Point au Pins strikes that river. This said county of Essex, with the adjoining county of Suffolk (in which there are no inhabitants) sends one member. Those who have certificates (for lands) only, I understand, can vote. This tract com- prehends the new settlers on lake Erie who have generally certificates, Monforton’s, company who have none, except they have received them since my departure, and Maisonville’s company to the mill; in this last space, there are inhabitants on 12 acres front just above the church, who will vote by reason of their having French deeds “en roture,” and those settled on the south side of River La Tranche, a few of whom have certificates, and where I, myself, am a freeholder. This damned election business seems to bind me to the county, for you know I am not fond of deserting any cause I undertake, and that of the public is most dear to me. Should I be returned without an undue election or the appearance of party or bribery, I shall be most happy, and in that case, I beg an ox be roasted whole on the common, and a barrel of rum to be given to the mob, to wash down the beef. You will draw on me for the amount. I should have great pleasure in helping to frame laws for lands which I have had so much pleasure in laying out. Mr. Pollard, who was appointed sheriff, is returning officer. The writs are issued this day and returnable the 12th September. I depend a good deal on your goodness, favor and affection in this business, and hope I need not make many apologies [JAMES] DAVID WILLIAM SMITH 59 on that score. As I have begun the canvass, I am determined to go through with it, and should I succeed, I hope to support my character afterwards. We shall not certainly have the province there four years, so that wherever the seat of government may be, or whatever may be the destination of the regt., I make no doubt that I shall be able to attend the Council and assembly yearly. My having done the settlers’ business without emoluments from any quarter, should be some inducement to them, on the score of gratitude, to return me. I rather think it is intended that the people who have French grants on the garrison side should vote; as the description of the county of Kent comprehends a great deal, and sends two members. It is said to contain all the country (not being territories of the Indians), and not already included in Essex and the several other counties de- scribed, extending northward to the boundary line of Hudson’s bay, including all the territory to the westward and southward of the said line to the utmost extent of the country called or known by the name Canada. Should candidates to represent this county go a-begging, and you find I have no chance for Essex, I shall be proud to be returned for this county, but as the French people know little of me, I have not any hopes on that score. I am very ill at present, myself, or I would certainly go up to Detroit, but if the people are sincere that is unneces- sary, and this will give it a fair trial. You will do me a service by de- livering to Mr. Pollard the names of those capable to vote, which you can get from a small register in the land office, marked or rather endorsed, “Certificates granted,’ and another endorsed “French grants en roture.”’ If any of Monforton’s or Maisonville’s company have received certificates since my departure, I will be thankful to you to use your influence with them. Col. McKee has promised me his interest, so has the commodore (Alexander Grant), and I think I may depend on Captain Elliott, George Leith, and a few others. When I wrote you last, it was expected that Grosse Isle, River Raisin and Rouge would have voted with the settlers, but that is not the case. Jacques Parent, Laurent Parent, Claude Rheaum, Bapt. Le Due and John Bapt. Hortelle, just above the Huron church (Sandwich), may probably ask for an explanation to my letters to them. They had lands “en roture” formerly granted by Mons. Longueil, and they, of course, have indisputably votes. I have therefore addressed them separately. These are the only French deeds acknowledged by the “Tableau des Terres en roture” on that side of the water. J am sure you will forgive me for sending so large a pacquet to you. The most of them are for the freeholders on Lake Erie, all whose names 60 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA I could recollect. The others you will have great goodness by putting in train for their destinations. The governor arrived this day. God assist you prays, D. W. SMITH. Nracara, 6 August, 1792 My Dear Sir,—Your letter which you honored me with gave me great satisfaction. I hope I may not be too much buoyed up with the hopes you give me of succeeding to the election. Your doubts about the right of voting on your side of the water will be removed before this. If, therefore, there is any difficulty in bringing me in for Essex, and one of the Kent seats goes abegging, I should be flattered to be returned for that county. Mr. Baby tells me he wrote to his Brother Francois to set up for Essex. This may perhaps cause some confusion, as the French people no doubt will vote for him; and Capt. Caldwell’s interest may perhaps gain him the settlers on Lake Erie. Their sentiments will I hope be sufficiently known beforehand that I may not be set up without chance. Mr. Baby told me, however, that he rather thought Francois would decline setting up, in which case I should have his interest; and at all events, if Francois had made a party previous to his arrival’ in Essex and was likely to succeed, he would then give me his interest in Kent. I leave the weight of the transaction on your shoulders, and what- ever you do for me therein I shall be perfectly satisfied, and I believe I know you well enough to think you do not require many apologies from me for so much trouble. I will endeavour to repay you in the House of Assembly, if I succeed. I wrote you in my last in case of success to have an ox roasted on the Common and to give the mob a barrell of rum. Mr. Pollard tells me the hustings will probably be held for Essex somewhere about the River’s mouth—this therefore may perhaps be a better site for the beef and rum. I am exceptionally unwell for a long time. I hope, however, to weather through the winter, and should I be elected, I shall pay you a visit in the spring—to be chaired! The Judge I think while here did not wish to give me any hopes of the French people for very plain and substantial reasons, and for this candid behaviour I am obliged to him, as it has prepared me for the worst. I forgot to tell you that before the Governor arrived he wrote to my father that he adopted all that he had recommended on the score of the land business, which was nearly a counterpart of the Board’s Report, so that I hope that everything will go on as smoothly with you there. [JAMES] DAVID WILLIAM SMITH 61 We are all excessively happy at the idea of seeing you here. If you make any house at Niagara your hotel other than the Majors, you are not the same John Askin you used to be. Leith will give me credit for any little sums you may find it necessary to require, such as putting up the hustings, board, cake and wine, Returning Officer’s fee, etc., ete. Love to the good family, Yours truly, D. W. SMITH. MSS. Vol. 2, p. 61, Burton Library. NraAGaARA, 14 August, ’92. My Dear Str:—All the letters I get from Detroit give me favourable hopes, except those I receive from McNiff—they assure me of the Interest and Influence of Messrs. McKee, Macomb, Park, Leith, Sharp, McIntosh, Elliott, Lamothe, McDonnel and several others for Essex. There is, I understand, however, powerful influence against me. However, if I have fair play, I don’t fear, as I am assured that the Settlers on Lake Erie and River La Tranche will vote for me “‘nemine contradicente,”’ at least these are the words in which their assurances are represented to me. Perhaps I should have done better to have set up for one of the seats in Detroit, as I hear only of Mr. Macomb, who is to be proposed; but I did not then know they would be entitled to vote; besides were I thrown out on the 20th, I might have had a chance on the 28th. The French people can easily walk to the hustings, but my gentry will require some conveyance; if boats are necessary, you can hire them, and they must not want beef or rum—let them have plenty—and in case of success I leave it to you which you think will be best to give my friends a public dinner, and the ladies a dance, either now, or when I go up, if you think the moment the best time, you will throw open Forsyth’s Tavern, and call for the best he can supply. I trust you will feel very Young in the occasions, in the dance, and I wish that Leith and you should push about the bottle to the promotion of the settle- ments on the Detroit. The more broken heads and bloody noses there is, the more election-like—and in case of success (damn that “‘if’’), let the white Ribbon favors be plentifully distributed, to the old, the Young, the Gay, the lame, the cripple and the blind—half a score cord of wood piled hollow, with a tar barrel in the middle, on the commons, some powder, pour tirer and plenty of rum. I am sure you will preside over and do everything that is needful, as far as my circumstances will admit. There must be no want, and I am sure you will have every- Sec. II, 1913—4 62 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA thing handsome and plentiful. Elliot I am sure will give you a large red flag to be hoisted on a pole near the Bon fire, and some blue coloured tape may be sewed on in large letters “ESSEX.” Thus talked the woman when she carried her eggs on her head to market. She sat them, she hatched them, she sold them for a crown apiece, and then down she fell eggs and all, and the anticipations of a warm and fruitful imagination were annihilated in a moment; thus, this is the situation of a disappointed Candidate, who is fed up with hopes from those who wish him well. As I am a little better, nothing prevents my setting off for Detroit immediately but the coming of the Prince. He is to be here about the 25th—my fate is to be determined the 28th. Leith tells me you have written to me but the opposite party have got hold of the letter because they guessed its contents. Have proper booths erected for my friends at the hustings, employ Forsyth to make large plum cakes with plenty of fruit, etc. Be sure let the wine be good and plenty. Let the peasants have a fiddle, some beverage and beef. If my absence merely should be mentioned as a bar to my election, you may assure the world that if there is time between the return being made and the meeting of the Assembly, [ will come up to take the sentiments of the County, and I will annually pay Detroit a visit before I go to the Metropolis to meet the Assembly. Forgive me, I worry you out. I have quite an election fever. However, it will soon be cooled, and let the determination be as it will, I shall be perfectly satisfied and equally obliged to all my good friends. God bless you and yours, and believe me unfeignedly, faithfully and affectionately yours, D. W. SMITH. MSS. Vol. 475, p. 12, Burton Library. With the hope of finding some definite information to settle the question as to the riding in which he was elected, I made search through the Smith papers in the Toronto City Library through the courtesy of Dr. Geo. H. Locke, and found a book of accounts and vouchers and herewith reproduce two; one the account of the Returning Officer, Sheriff Pollard; and the other a statement of the candidates’ election expenses. These accounts are the sequel to the letters. The Sheriff’s account is for the election in Essex. It proves that Smith was a candidate in that riding, but it does not prove necessarily that he was elected. These are the only election accounts for 1792 in the collection, and yet that does not clearly prove that there was none for Detroit. If you would know what the “sundries” are you have only to look up in the same volume (B-4) in the Toronto Library the Election accounts of 1796 [JAMES] DAVID WILLIAM SMITH 63 and 1800 for the latter are set out in greater detail. Sundries then, as perhaps in more recent elections, meant meals and liquors. The candi- dates kept open house in the early elections which, as will have been noted continued for a period of several days. Copy of an account delivered of the Sheriff’s Expenses for the election of members for the Counties of Suffolk and Essex. August 10, 1792. Mejcash paid for transport of boards!) )s Etc Mate NOR seh ated eve oe & O00 Sen Stites ONCE TOR VS RE us atege sae IR EE EE CRE S Meee LCR Ap SL 0 MN iandiPark on boards RER EEE arc 5 19,3 “ Telemuny RE OUSIOL EN AIN OAMUS NES EE UT 7. 2 16 0 CICR TOI AVS UU) I/O PE EURE ee NA eee be Sha ays, 800 op Lee « 30 00 “ cash paid a man distributing advertisements, paper, etc............... 2 00 INGE Y= CUrren Cys as ET A ee ee ieee koe £44 9 3 HA oO UN tIDA VIA ES ITA ES ER EEE TR 2 DONS ReMeCENIN OHICET AS PCL OLGSL NAT Mu eu CN PAR € Re PS PE RENE 512.0 £28 13 AP EUC CG IR FANS SORTE PR EE My AGG £20 68 Received May 23, 1794, the above balance. (Sgd. RICHARD POLLARD, Sheriff. John Askin for the expenses of the election of Lieut. David William Smith:— 1792. pumust: le piece sreen ribbon: 151... Me 33 16 0 ee ae ee PIECE pitkemibbons QUE Le PR CE Lie. 18 0 pal We CARS IF Sims iad Ma alee koe | @ i == £ 8 20 iS ——Loslepiece wreen ribbons. 00, yc ace ok fal La) Par 7 Pp oRpIcces PIMC DIDDON sr ter Se ee ANS ee 3 120 — £ 5 40 24 To 2iaallons: sprites) ls sd rien HE £1 1250 ieee IC PONS CHEQUE EME oe eee Gos 3 0 PDA ROME END EC See cat bse arc Pence BA rake | 6 0 2 ON “To cash paid Ellem the constable for 4 days’ ser- vice, and the Ferry’s taking letters to inhabi- tants of new settlements, the 13th inst. ...... Lae) FORO 27—To 1 bottle rum and 1 loaf to Roch for taking a letter to Wins pelby. SERRES eee oe co Ne) “To 1 ditto and 2 loaves to men going over the AVE BA Rann retreated bs tahoe SE 6 0 £ 013 0 64 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA August 31—To Wm. and David Robertson for amount of their account for sundry articles furnished by them and paid Mr. Dolson. «2.4 anc ose: vos £103 3 11 Sept. 8—To amount of Thomas Smith’s acct., Tavern Keeper, Pare HIN. tement ere eee 5 10 6 10 “ amount of Wm. Surrell’s account for sundries furnished iby him. a ne eis ae eet 58 7 6 To James May for sundries per acct. pd.......... 12 15 6 11 To paid Wm. and David Robertson for hogshead DOTUCT er tiie seis cote cd nn ae ele tas eee wets LS 5050 Paid ditto amount of Wm. Scott’s account...... £17 “7 0° (sone £233 4 5 1792. Sept. 21—By your draft on Messrs. Auldjo & Co., at 31 days RIMMED DN, hala che DA kate, anit cis £200 00 24—By Messrs. George Leith & Co. for balance...... 33 45 NAT NOTE CY Ato) Selena spree eh AT LE £233 4 5 In the expense account just given it will be noted that there is, on August 27th, a charge of seven shillings to cover the cost of one bottle of rum and one loaf for a messenger who was sent with a letter to Mr. Selby. This suggests the advisibility of adding two short notes from Mr. Selby to Mr. Askim, written during the early days of the campaign. Mr. Selby resided in Essex. They refer to the voting in that county. It may well be that the messenger of the 27th was a hurry-up request near the close of the poll for the voters, whom Mr. Selby said he could “bring forward at a short notice.” Or perhaps Roch, the messenger, carried a letter conveying the news that Mr. Smith had been elected. Here we give the two Selby letters. Mouth of Detroit River, Friday, 16th Aug., 1792 DEAR Sir :— When I left Niagara I was requested by Mr. Smith to wait on you the moment of my arrival at Detroit, to assure you how sensible he is of the great obligation he owes to you and his other worthy friends who have so strenuously supported his interest in the present contest for a representative in the House of Assembly. Be assured, Sir, that I should have been extremely happy had circumstances permitted me to have made you a personal report of his sentiments on this occasion, but my late sickness rendered it necessary for me to get ashore as soon as possible. Mr. Smith from the experiences, goodness and partiality of his friends, flatters himself with the hopes of success and he purposes in that event to make his acknowledgements in person as soon as his present [JAMES] DAVID WILLIAM SMITH 65 hurry of indispensible business is a little subsided: and, lest he should have omitted to make application to any of the electors, he gave me half a dozen addresses with blank superscriptions which I now beg leave to enclose to you for that purpose. With every sentiment of regard I have the honour to be, Dear Sir, Your most obedient Humble servant, D. SELBY. John Askin, Esq., Detroit. (MSS. Vol. 2, p. 63, Burton Library.) Saturday, 17th August, 1792. DEAR SIR:— When I did myself the honour of writing to you yesterday I forgot to mention that in case Mr. Smith is likely to be hard run, I have some votes to bring forward at a short notice, but I would rather avoid their appearing unless it was absolutely necessary; of this you will be able to judge in sufficient time to send me information. With my best compliments to all your good family, I am, dear Sir, Very faithfully, Yours, &c., D. SELBY. John Askin, Esq., Detroit. (MSS. Vol. 2, p. 64, Burton Library) From the letters we are able to form a very clear idea as to how elections were run in the earliest campaigns in Upper Canada, and from the accounts we learn that the entire expense had, of necessity, to be borne by the candidates—further, that the candidates did not depend for their elections on good wishes and prayers. And now for a concluding note. Having read all the letters and the two accounts, must we not come to the conclusion that David William Smith was elected as member of the Legislature for the county of Essex (and Suffolk) ? The elections continued for a period of six to eight days. Smith’s letter of 14th August was written prior to the holding of the election in Essex. When it reached Askin at Detroit, the election for Kent must already have been started and therefore I conclude that Francis Baby 66 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA had decided to stand for Kent along with Macomb and these two became the first representatives for that county, and that David William Smith stood for Essex and Suffolk, and thanks to John Askin and his liberal carrying out of the orders for free meals and drinks, and with the timely assistance of Selby’s reserves, he headed the poll on the evening of the 27th or the 28th. The green and pink ribbons won.* The bon-fire no doubt was lit and a great carousal held about the hustings near the mouth of the River. The bills of the tavern keeper Smith, and of the traders were settled for promptly, but it was nearly two years before Sheriff Pollard had final settlement of his official account. There is one other question yet to be answered—who went down to defeat against David William Smith? *Green for the Irish and pink for the French? SECTION II., 1913. [67] Trans. R.S.C. A Girl’s Puberty Ceremony among the Nootka Indians.* By Epwarp Sapir, PH.D. Presented by Duncan CAMPBELL Scort, F.R.S.C. (Read May 28, 1913) Puberty ceremonies, both for boys and girls, are widespread and characteristie features of the life of primitive peoples. Among the Nootka Indians of the west coast of Vancouver Island, as among so many Indian tribes of western America, it is the arriving at maturity of girls rather than of boys that is signalized by a definite ceremony and by the observance, on the part of the girl, of various chiefly restric- tive measures or taboos. The point of time that determines the matur- ity of a girl is naturally considered to be the first appearance of menses. Soon after this, generally about two months later, the father or guardian of the girl gives a feast or potlatch, the essential part of which is a religious ceremony, but which is also meant to give the girl a new status in the tribe, that of one entering upon womanhood. This first ceremony is termed ‘aitst!ofa,t which may be translated as ‘“‘menstrual potlatch,” from :aitsciz “to have a menstrual flow.” Though the Nootka Indians, particularly those about Alberni, B.C., are in many respects losing hold upon the traditions of their past, they still cling tenaciously to the observance of girls’ puberty ceremonies, although the rigor of the taboos formerly enforced for a length of time upon the matured girl seems to have been allowed to fall away. During a stay of about two and a half months in the fall and early winter of 1910 among the two *Published by permission of the Geological Survey of Canada. fSomewhat simplified phonetic orthography is here used. a, e, à, 0, u have typical continental (Italian) values; e and o are close, u open, 7 close or open; @ as in father ;%, 0, u are long and close; é, 4, 6, à are long and open. ‘as final vowel (after m or n) is weakly articulated open 7; “ represents u-timbre of breath release following preceding consonant. Some consonants may need explanation. € as in English she; te as in church; q voiceless velar stop, i.e. k pronounced as far back as possible; ©, voiceless spirant of k-position; £, voiceless spirantal {, somewhat like Welsh 1; L, affricative, of /- position, generally heard as ¢l or kl; ’ represents glottal stop or “catch.” ! following consonants indicates that they are glottalized, i.e., pronounced with simultaneous glottal closure but with glottal release subsequent to their own reiease (their acoustic effect is of cracked or broken stops). H and : are difficult consonants that are peculiar to Nootka; they differ respectively from À and ’ in sounding rougher and more strangulated. Breath releases and stress accents are not indicated here. 68 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA tribes of Nootka Indians (7's!ica’atu and Hopatc!as’atu) now living on reserves near Alberni, I was fortunate enough to witness three girls’ puberty potlatches. In order to give some idea of the actual conduct of such a ceremony, I shall here content myself with describing the one witnessed on the forenoon of October 16, 1910, reserving a more generalized account of the various features that go to make up puberty ceremonials among the Nootka for the future. The present ceremony took place in the “‘potlatch house” of the Hopatc!as’ata tribe, to which the people of both tribes had been invited by the father of the girl, Jimmie George; it was he, her paternal uncle (Big George), and another Indian related to her on her mother’s side (Big Frank), that took charge of the potlatch, acting as hosts. In earlier days, when large communal houses were in use, the father or other older male relative conducting the ceremony invited the people to the house in which he lived. The people began to assemble fairly early in the morning, the men, as usual, seating themselves on the board platform along the rear wall of the house and along the left wall (as you enter), while the women disposed themselves along the right wall. Properly speaking, the seats along the rear wall are seats of honour, and in earlier days the nobility among the guests were disposed here, each being entitled to a definite seat according to his rank. Nowadays these matters are not taken so seriously, though even to-day one never sees à woman occupying one of the rear seats in the house. Back of the centre of the room, not very far from the rear wall, was burning a wood fire; a space was left on the bare ground for a fire-place, while the rest of the floor, according to up-to-date fashion, was planked. The floor of the Ts!ica’atu potlatch house is more conservative in this respect, being bare throughout. In front of the fire, that is, on the side towards the door, was later placed a big cauldron in which tea was boiled, to be used at the end of the potlatch to feast the people. Up against the rear wall were placed, side by side, two large rectangular boards painted in white, black, and red. The paintings of each of these boards, disposed in a reciprocally symmetrical arrangement, repre- sented a thunder-bird holding a whale in his talons, a wolf at the upper outer corner, and a He’iL!7k (the mythological serpent-belt of the thun- der-bird, who, as he zigzags through the air or coils about a tree, causes the lightning) at the upper inner corner; beneath the whale there was a conventional representation of billows. The thunder-bird, who lives on the summit of a mountain difficult of approach, is believed, when in need of game, to fly off to the sea and catch a whale, which he then carries off to his home; the heavy flapping of his wings is what we call thunder. The thunder-bird, his serpent-belt, and the wolf are three of the most important supernatural beings of the Nootka, and figure [SAPIR] GIRL’S PUBERTY CEREMONY 69 largely in myth, design, and masked ceremonial. Such boards as have just been described are termed getsat, literally “marked thereon,” a word that is also used to apply to house boards painted on the outside. They aie not restricted in use to puberty ceremonies, of which, however, they seem to be most characteristic, but may also be employed at other types of potlatch. The boards are the property of definite individuals, but, as there are only a very few sets left among the Nootka of Alberni, they have come to be considered as, in a sense, belonging to the tribe as a whole. The designs differ in different sets, but the thunder-bird and whale are nearly always the central subject. When I entered the potlatch house, Mrs. Frank, related through her husband to the pubescent girl, was seated last on the woman’s side of the house, nearest the door, and was engaged in singing, in a loud and high-pitched voice, a ts!¢ga song, while her husband, Big Frank, beat a rapid and unbroken drum accompaniment on the other side of the house. The song was the property of her own family, or rather line of descent, the right to sing it being acquired strictly through inheritance. Each family has its és!{qa song or stock of ts!iqa songs, no outsider being permitted to make use of them, unless deputed to do so by the owner. The melody of these songs is, as a rule, rather bald, but they have a peculiar chant-like solemnity of their own, consisting, as they do, of long drawn-out tones that tend to end up, at intervals, in half-spoken little turns that are very difficult to render adequately in notes. There are different types of ts!¢qga songs, some, generally of er ater length and melodic complexity, being used only in the course of the sacred Wolf Ritual (Lokwana). Forme:ly the accompaniment to a ts!¢ga song was executed by a rattle, as is still done in the case of the Wolf Ritual songs of this general type, but the one-sided hand drum or tom-tom has displaced the rattle of late. The purpose of a is!¢ga song seems to be primarily that of indicating that an important or noteworthy event is about to take place; thus they are frequently heard in potlatches preliminarily to the performance of a masked dance or other ceremonial activity the right to which the host has gained as a hereditary privilege (topati). Very frequently several distinct ts!îqa songs can be heard sung at the same time. Any woman may be hired to sing her ts!tqa song at a menstrual potlatch, being paid for her ser- vices by the giver of the ceremony. Mrs. Frank repeated her song at intervals, while the house gradually filled up. Her husband was twice heard to beat the drum accompaniment for her, but towards the end he handed her the drum and she thenceforth accompanied herself. As soon as most of the people had come, ten bundles of long sticks were laid on the ground, each bundle tied together, and one end of each was lit by being placed on the fire. These lighted faggots 70 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA are known as hitema or “torches,” a word that is also used to refer to torches proper, fir branches gummed and lit at one end, that were in earlier days employed to light one on one’s way. The number of ceremonial torches lit at the puberty ceremony is symbolic of the number of months after the ceremony that the pubescent girl is to spend in seclusion and be subject to the menstrual taboos. The number varies between four, six, eight, and ten, according to the tradition of her family; it is rarely less than four, for with two torches the minimum number of four months of seclusion have to be observed, nor is an odd number of torches permissible. Four seems to have been the normal number in earlier days. Each of the ten “torches” were then given to a man apiece, who filed out of the house and arranged themselves in a row, with their backs to the . right wall of the house, and facing the river.* They stood with their torches planted upright on the ground, whence the name of that part of the ceremony that takes place outside the house, hitcapas or “torches standing outside the house.” In the centre of the row of torch-bearers was placed the pubescent girl, on either side of her a thunder-bird dancer. These wore thunder-bird masks (é!itsk!atqov“sim') and were wrapped in blankets that covered everything up clear to the masks, so that nothing of the faces or bodies of the dancers was visible. Meanwhile four other men put down on their hair and bedaubed their cheeks with red paint; down and red paint are often used to symbolize a festive occasion, but have no further significance in this connection. Each of the four held a basin in his hands. One after the other they proceeded to the river, which was but a few yards from the house, dipped up water, returned in the same order to the girl, and each in order rapidly turned a short counter-clockwise circuit in front of her and quickly poured out the water at her feet. The four men, always in the same order, again dipped up water, returned to the girl, turned counter-clockwise circuits, and poured out the water at her feet. These actions were gone through four times in all; four, as among many other West Coast tribes, is the ceremonial or sacred number. At the same time the thunder-bird dancers moved their arms up and down within their blankets to imitate the flapping of the thunder-bird’s wings, while a rattling noise, representing the sound of thunder, was heard to come from inside the potlatch house. The noise, as I learned, was produced by shaking stones in tin wash-basins. As soon as the last basinful of water had been poured out at the girl’s feet, all returned inside the house, the still burning “torches” were extinguished, and the four men that had dipped up and poured out the *Somass River, which flows out of Sproat Lake into Alberni Canal. It runs along the length of the potlatch house. [SAPIR] GIRL’S PUBERTY CEREMONY dal water brushed off their down. This concluded the hitcapas. It may be noted that there seems to be no particular rule followed in the choice of the torch-bearers, thunder-bird dancers, or water-pourers, none of these as such exercising an inherited privilege. I could obtain no explanation of the symbolism of the ritual, which, so far as the Indians of to-day are concerned, is simply accepted as a matter of custom. It is evident, both from the thunder-bird painting and the employment of thunder-bird masks, that there is some association between the arriving at maturity of a girl and the thunder-bird, but I have not as yet ascertained its nature. Not all lines of descent, however, use the thunder-bird. The water-pouring also is clearly symbolic in origin, but it is difficult to say now wherein lies its significance. Perhaps it is permissible to see in it a ceremonial cleansing, a washing away of the impurity that is so uni- versally associated among primitive peoples with the state of mens- truation. The girl played no further part in the puberty ceremony. Properly speaking, she should, immediately after the hitcapas cere- mony was concluded, have gone behind the painted boards, to begin a four days’ wake and fast. In the present case this was dispensed with, the more rigorous features of ceremonial activity tending, on the whole, to disappear first among the Nootka Indians. Only chiefs and wealthy people, it may be observed, possessed such painted board screens, the common people contenting themselves with ordinary mat screens. When all had again seated themselves in the house, Charlie Tlutisi, who acted as the ceremonial speaker (tsiqsagu) for the hosts (the girls father and uncle), distributed the “torches” to ten of the guests. He called out various names, after each of which a young man (yatsmitHsz “one who walks about in the house,” any young fellow that is asked to serve as an attendant for the guests or to carry out the speaker’s directions) took a ‘“torch” and carried it to the one thus designated, laying it in front of him on the ground. In forme: times a gift, such as one or more blankets, was tied on to one end of the “torch.” This time the gift, which should always go with the assignment of a ‘“‘torch,” was given a little later on, during the potlatch proper, in the shape of a coin, the names of the recipients being called out as before and the coins distributed by the same young man. The speaker explained that the money given with the “torches”? was what fell off of the thunder- bird while it caused the thunder by flapping its wings during the hitcapas ceremony. Such fictions or metaphors, it is interesting to note, - are of frequent occurrence in the ceremonial life of the natives. The recipients of the “torches” are supposed to take them home, put them away in a corner at the back of the house, and preserve them for some time for “good luck.” The right to receive a “torch” inheres as a privil- 72 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA ege in certain definite lines of descent and was formerly jealously guarded; in other words, it forms what the Nootka Indians call a topati. The “torches” should be distributed in order, according to the rank of the persons receiving them. Among the Nootka Indians of Alberni it is customary for the holder of a “torch” topati to return the value of the gift with 100 per cent. interest to the donor at a second and more elaborate potlatch given by the latter for the girl some time after the puberty ceremony. ‘This is in accord with the general practice of the West Coast Indians to return potlatch gifts, generally with 100 per cent. interest, at some future time. It is anomalous, however, insofar as it nullifies, from a purely economic point of view, the value of the inherited privilege or topati. There are several other such ceremonial privileges among these Indians that bring with them not emolument, but net loss. However, the Indians say that they are proud in this way to make public their claim on the topati and that they count the trifling loss of no moment in comparison with the upholding in this way of their prestige. The paying back of gifts obtained by virtue of one’s right to a topati is quite likely, however, to turn out to be a comparatively recent development among the Nootka of Alberni, for other Nootka tribes, such as the Ucluelet of Barkley Sound, do not practice the custom. These last, as I was informed, laugh at the Alberni Indians on this account; they do not see the use of having a privilege that nets one a loss. When the “torches” had been distributed, the girl’s uncle and others of the family got together in a small group near the door of the house, ready to arrange a performance that was intended to be a feature of the puberty potlatch. Among them was the young chief Louis of the Ho.ai’atu tribe of Numakamis Bay, who was related to the family of the girl and who had recently come up to Alberni on a visit; he placed himself on a low improvised platform on the left side of the house above the rest of the group and, like the others, stood facing the guests in the rear of the house. Mrs. Frank and another woman, who formed part of the group, each sang a ¢ts!éqa song, thus giving all to understand that a topati performance of the hosts was to take place immediately. Then the girl’s uncle started a song without drum accompaniment, which was very soon taken up by the others in the group, one of them now beating an accompaniment on the hand drum. This song was the property of the girl’s father’s family and none outside of the small group joined in the singing. Often a family song of this type, sung at a girl’s puberty ceremony, was composed for that special purpose and kept secret until it was sprung as a surprise on the guests at the ceremony itself. A few women danced to the song; they held one arm under their shawls, while the other was bent outward [SAPIR] GIRL’S PUBERTY CEREMONY 13 palm up, the dance itself consisting of a gentle swaying or turning by gradual rhythmically ordered steps from side to side for the space of about a quarter circle, not of a series of definitely progressing steps. After the song was completed, the speaker proceeded to explain that a game was to be played, the right to which was held by the host as a topati. A bunch of short sticks was taken and bound together around the middle; they were all white at one end, but two among them were declared to be red at the other. The sticks were handed over to Louis, who, standing on his platform in plain sight of all, -held the bunch with the white ends pointed towards the people. Whoever among the guests succeeded in picking out one of the marked sticks was to receive a dollar from the girl’s father, while the other red, which was specially marked in some way, would win its guesser two dollars. As soon as this had been explained by the speaker, the same song was sung as before. It was sung once again and was then followed by ano- ther family song of the same type, which was sung twice. Meanwhile, while the singing was actually going on, but not during the pauses between the songs, various people walked up, almost always in twos, to try their luck. One of the dancing women pulled out a stick, which, as it turned out to be red, she held up so that everyone might see, con- tinuing with her dance at the same time. When a sufficient number had guessed, the money was paid out as announced, two who had come near to guessing a red being also given something. It is a general practice among these Indians for the host always to do a little better in the way of distributing gifts than he announces, whereby his liberality is made more manifest. At other puberty ceremonies that I have witnessed other such topati games were played. These differ quite con- siderably in detail, but all have in common the giving of rewards to such as make successful trials. In some of these games the element of a test of endurance, strength or skill comes in very clearly, less conspicuously in the game just described. I speak of this because the symbolic idea that lies back of these puberty ceremonial games is the same as the test theme which is so common in aboriginal American suitor myths. In these the hero is not allowed to marry the girl whose hand he seeks until his prospective father-in-law has put him through a series of severe tests, generally such as involve danger of life. So also in the more innocent puberty ceremonial tests, as I was definitely informed, there is present the idea that only such a one will eventually be allowed to marry the girl as will, when suing for her hand, scceed in the test ot trial submitted to him. In actual practice this may be a fiction, of couise. In typical cases the game is a diamatization of a suitor incident in the ancestral legends owned by the family of the girl. Here, then, legend, game, and song form a cohering topati unit, exactly as in the 74 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA case of inherited dances performed at potlatches, where legend, dance, mask, and song form another such unit. After the game was disposed of, the women started in to sing t!ama songs, which are generally sung at puberty ceremonies, though songs of the same style are also in use elsewhere. These have a rather bright and rapid movement to them and are accompanied by briskly executed drum beats. To drum well and precisely for a {lama song, indeed, is considered quite an art. Differing in this respect from so many types of Nootka songs, they are not, as a general rule, the exclu- sive property of particular families, but are popular tunes that may be used by all. One of the women who were seated on the floor beat an accompaniment on the hand drum, while other women beat sticks or clapped hands in the same rhythm. Several women danced or rather swayed as for the other songs, except that both hands were held out and, at certain beats, held to one side of the body and parallel to each other. The texts of {lama songs are in part burdens, in part con- nected words that are often sung out loud while the drum stops beating, so that all may hear clearly. The reason of this is that, while the tunes and burdens are well known and preserved intact, the texts proper (or ‘“‘choruses,” as they were sometimes termed by my interpreters) are very frequently changed to suit the occasion. place two dragoons were encountered on their way to Kingston with despatches. One of them was taken but the other escaped and alarmed an outpost which turned out promptly enough and began firing. After a brief skirmish in which four men of the outpost were wounded and Forsyth had one man killed and another wounded, the remainder of the garrison retired across the creek and the bridge was destroyed by the invaders. A storehouse or temporary barracks was burnt and Forsyth reported the capture of twelve prisoners, four of whom were sick in hospital, and the destruction of forty muskets. When this affair became known at Kingston, Lieut. Colonel Robert Nichol, Quartermaster General of militia for Upper Canada, who happened to be there on his way to Montreal, volunteered to lead a force to cut off the retreat of the raiders. In this he was *Brown to Tompkins, Sept. 17; The War, 1812. 152 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA unsuccessful but landed on Burton’s Point where he discovered an un- finished blockhouse, which was destroyed with a number of boats.* The garrison of Ogdensburg also displayed unwonted activity and on the morning of Sept. 16, nearly succeeded in surprising a brigade of thirty-three bateaux loaded with valuable ordnance stores, escorted by 140 men of the 49th and Royal Newfoundland Regiments under Major Heathcote, which was slowly toiling up the river. During the previous night a gunboat and two large Durham boats, descended the river for about ten miles and landed a strong party on a thickly wooded island where they captured the only male inhabitant, a French Canadian named Toussaint, in whose house three men were posted as a guard to prevent the family from giving the alarm, while the remainder con- cealed themselves among the thickets commanding the channel known as the Upper Narrows, through which the convoy must pass. Soon after daybreak the leading boats came in sight and the guard went to the window to watch their approach. Taking advantage of their negligence, Toussaint stole quietly out of the house and ran to his canoe. He was observed and fired at but paddled rapidly down stream, shouting and making signals. The flotilla took the alarm and put into a bay below where the boats were moored and part of the escort landed. A messenger was despatched to Prescott and others were sent in various direction to call out the militia. The American gunboat came out from its place of concealment behind the island and began firing round shot at the boats, one of which carried off the head of a soldier of the Newfoundland Regiment. After this cannonade had continued for an hour, two row boats filled with men were seen crossing from the island apparently with the intention of landing troops on the point called Presqu’isle. Thirty men of the escort and a party of militia commanded by Cornet George Ault of the Leeds Dragoons were sent to oppose them and began such an effective fire from the cover of the woods that both boats hastily recrossed the channel, one disappearing behind the island while the other ran ashore on the side within view and was deserted by its crew some of whom were apparently shot in leaving it and seen to fall into the water. Soon after this it drifted down stream and was taken by the British party below. Two dead bodies, nine rifles and some knapsacks were found on board. A flank company of the 1st Grenville Regiment of militia arrived and small parties were attracted from other quarters by the sound of the firing. A field gun was brought down from Prescott and about five o’clock in the afternoon, a British gunboat was seen on its way down the river. The American gunboat then ran behind the island and took off the men *Brown to Tompkins, Sept. 21; General R. Dodge to : inkins, Sept. 23; Christie, Military Operations; Albany Argus; York Gazette, 1512. [CRUIKSHANK] FROM ISLE AUX NOIX TO CHATEAUGUAY 153 on shore. Heathcote sent the captured boat to bring off Toussaint’s family and made his way through the Narrows under a distant fire from the enemy. He had lost one man killed and another wounded while one or two of the militia were slightly hurt. The Americans admitted a loss of one man killed and five wounded on board their gunboat but were silent with respect to the loss of their other party which was be- lieved to be considerable. Toussaint’s wife, probably not a very reliable authority, stated that she had counted twenty men either killed or wounded, on the island alone.* In compliance with repeated requisitions from General Dearborn, Tompkins had called out two thousand additional militia for service at Sackett’s Harbour and one thousand to assemble at Plattsburg. Brown was superseded in command of his district by Major General Richard Dodge, who detailed him with three hundred men including the whole of Forsyth’s riflemen, and two field guns to reinforce and take com- mand of the troops at Ogdensburg. Two gunboats were also placed at his disposal to interrupt the communication by water.f Meanwhile a redoubt of considerable magnitude, which subse- quently received the name of Fort Wellington, had been constructed at Prescott and garrisoned with two companies of regular infantry, a detachment of artillery and some local militia. A division of gunboats manned by men of the Royal Newfoundland Regiment and the corps of voyageurs, was assigned for the protection of navigation of the St. Lawrence between Lachine and Kingston. | The repeated attacks upon the line of communication and the arrival of a considerable reinforcement at Ogdensburg, had the effect of deciding Colonel Lethbridge to make a vigorous effoit to drive the enemy from that post and at least diminish their only means of annoyance by depriving them of their most convenient base of op- erations. With this object he assembled 750 men at Prescott, chiefly militia from the adjacent counties of Leeds and Grenville. Early on the morning of October 4, the greater part of this force was embarked in twenty-five bateaux and attempted to cross the river under cover of the fire of two gunboats and some guns on shore. When these boats were in mid-stream, they came under an effective fire of the American artillery mounted in a redoubt and a log breastwork, which speedily threw them into much confusion and compelled them to make a hasty retreat. Two regulars and one militiaman were killed in the boats and a gun burst on shore by which Captain Hamilton Walker and eight *Heathcote to Vincent, Oct. 3; P. Finan, Voyage to Quebec, pp. 207-222; Christie, Military Operations, p. 79; Nile’s Weekly Register, III. p. 80; Hough, History of St. Lawrence County, N.Y., p. 624. fDearborn to Tompkins, August 21; Dodge to Tompkins, Sept. 23. 154 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA men were injured. Twelve hundred men were assembled under arms in Ogdensburg to resist this attack. - They seem to have sustained no loss. The poor judgment displayed by Colonel Lethbridge on this occasion, following close upon other mistakes, led to his speedy relief by Lieut. Colonel Pearson.* Late in September an American post was established at the French Mills, near the mouth of Salmon River and occupied by a small battalion of New York Volunteers, commanded by Major Guilford Dudley Young. Efforts were made about the same time by William Gray, an Indian interpreter in the service of the United States to gain over the St. Regis Indians in consequence of which Colonel Louis, who had held a com- mission in the Continental army in the Revolution, with two other chiefs and several warriors, actually joined the American forces at Plattsburg. To counteract the influence of Gray and watch the movements of the enemy in this quarter, one company from the corps of Voyageurs, commanded by Captain John Macdonnell, and consisting of three officers and forty-seven men was directed to occupy the Indian village at St. Regis close to the frontier, with instructions to repel any predatory incursion, inspire confidence in the inhabitants and ensure their good conduct and fidelity. Macdonell was carefully directed to abstain from offensive action and from giving any provocation to the enemy but as agents and spies were reported to have been intriguing with the Indians for some time with the object of seducing them from their allegiance he was directed to arrest any suspicious persons found within the province. All the warriors residing in the Canadian village, except three, had already joined the British forces at St. Philippe, but a number of those known as American Indians still remained at their homes on the other side of the boundary. Macdonell arrived at St. Regis on October 16 and within a few days was warned that an attack on his command was contemplated and advised to occupy a position on an island in the river, where he would be tolerably safe. This he refused to do as it was contrary to his instructions. Before dawn on the morning of the 23rd, his post was so quietly surrounded by four com- panies of the force stationed at Salmon River commanded by Major Young and guided by Gray, that the first intimation of their approach was given by a volley fired through the windows of the building occu- pied as headquarters, the interior of which was brightly illuminated by a fire of pine logs blazing on the hearth. Lieut. Joseph Rototte, *Prevost to Brock, Oct. 16; Christie, Mil. Oper. 80; Niles’s Weekly Register, III. p. 126; The War, I. 76; Hough, Hist. St. Lawrence Co., 625. tBaynes to Macdonell, Oct. 16. [CRUIKSHANK] FROM ISLE AUX NOIX TO CHATEAUGUAY 155 Sergeant McGillivray and six men were killed, and Lieut. William Hall and several privates were wounded before they could seize their arms. Not a shot was fired in reply. The two surviving officers and thirty-seven men with the Indian agent, M. Louvigny de Montigny, were made prisoners. A flag belonging to the agent, was carried off as a trophy and falsely described in the officials report as a stand of colours.* These trifling successes were as usual considerably exaggerated by the American newspapers and had an inspiring influence on their troops along the whole frontier. Having deliberately decided to reject the proposals for an armis- tice, the American cabinet at the same time determined to under- take the most energetic measures to obtain command of Lakes On- tario and Champlain. On the last day of August the Secretary of the Navy addressed a letter to Captain Isaac Chauncey, directing him “to assume command of the naval forces on Lakes Erie and On- tario, and to use every exertion to obtain control of them this fall.” * As Chauncey had been in charge of the navy yard at New York for the preceding four years he had a perfect knowledge of the resources of the main depot from which he would be obliged to draw his sup- plies. He was then forty years of age, in robust health, a practical seaman of much experience, and particularly well versed in the art of ship building. He was vested with great authority and instructed “to use all the means which he might judge essential to accomplish the wishes of the government.” The crew of the frigate John Adams, which had been condemned as unfit for service, was placed under his command, and he was authorized to enlist volunteers both at New York and Boston. Nearly a month later, Lieut. Thomas Macdonough was appointed to the command of the naval force on Lake Champlain, and Chauncey was directed to supply him with seamen. As a midshipman, Mac- donough had proved his worth in the Tripolitan war, and had been in charge of the navy yard at Portland for some time. Chauncey entered upon the execution of his orders with much zeal and activity. Within thiee weeks he was able to report that he had despatched to Lake Ontario, 140 ship carpenters, 700 seamen and marines, and more than one hundred pieces of cannon, chiefly of large calibre, besides a great quantity of naval stores. Unfortunately for him, these facts were also announced with commendable accuracy in the principal newspapers. f *Young to Bloomfield, Oct. 24; Jacques Viger, Prise de St. Regis, Recherches Historiques, V. 141; Christie, Mil. Oper. 83. tHamilton to Chauncey, August 31. {Chauncey to Hamilton, Sept. 26; Niles’s Weekly Register, V. 127 and 142-3. 156 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA On October 6, Chauncey arrived at Sackett’s Harbour accom- panied by the zealous governor of the State who never lost an op- portunity of rendering assistance. The Oneida was completely ready for service and five of the purchased schooners were in a condition to receive their armament when it arrived. An officer was at once des- patched to Oswego to buy four more lying there, and as the autumn rains had already made the roads nearly impassable, the seamen in charge of the guns and stores coming from New York were directed to alter their route to that port by way of Lake Oneida and its outlet. These schooners were all stoutly built craft ranging in size from seventy to one hundred tons, and although unprovided with bulwarks, were well adapted to carry one or two long heavy guns, mounted on circles, to which, American naval officers of that day were so partial. The con- struction of a large corvette and two large gunboats was well advanced. Macdonough arrived at Plattsburg on October 13, but decided to establish his naval base at Whitehall, where it would be less sub- ject to espionage or attack, and stores from the seaboard could be delivered more conveniently. There he began fitting out two small sloops which he armed with seven guns each and named the Eagle and Growler, and two row gallies each carrying a long twelve pounder. The men Chauncey had been required to send him, failed to arrive, but after some delay he was joined by four officers and twenty-two seamen from New York. He was accordingly compelled to com- plete his crews with soldiers and landsmen. The sloop President had already been armed with eight guns and manned by an indifferent crew under instructions from the War Department, and her commander, an officer of the quartermarter general’s department, refused to obey Macdonough’s orders, in which course he was sustained by General Dearborn. He was consequently deprived of control of the largest and best equipped vessel on the lake, which he complained “was placed in the hands of those who knew not what to do with her.” Three other sloops were fitted out as transports.* Fairly accurate reports of these preparations soon reached Pre- vost. On October 17, he wrote urgent letters both to the Duke of York and the Secretary of War, in which he referred to the recent attempts of the enemy to interrupt his communications with Upper Canada and the “uncommon exertions” they were making to obtain a superiority of force on Lakes Erie and Ontario, the command of which had been of so great an advantage to him, and his inability to provide the vessels of the Provincial Marine with competent officers and adequate crews. He had indeed detailed the Royal Newfoundland Regiment for service on the lakes and the Quartermaster General had *Macdonough to the Secretary of the Navy, Oct. 14 and 16, and Dee. 20. [CRUIKSHANK] FROM ISLE AUX NOIX TO CHATEAUGUAY 157 succeeded in enlisting a few sailors of inferior quality at Quebec, but he was obliged to state that “the officers are in general deficient in experience and particularly in that energetic spirit which distinguishes British seamen. In consequence it will be highly necessary in the event of the continuance of the war with America that tried officers of the rank of heutenants and trusty men from the navy should be appropriated for that service and sent to me as early as possible next spring.” * When definite information of the declaration of war was received in London, the Admüalty with little delay decided to consolidate the all ships of war on the Halifax, Jamaica and Leeward Islands stations into a single command to secure unity of action and Admiral Sir John Borlase Warren was selected for this most important appointment. He was nearly sixty years of age and besides having hada distinguished service at sea, had represented his country with credit on a special mission to the court of St. Petersburg and was believed to possess con- siderable talents as a diplomat. His secret instructions were dated on August 6; he sailed a week later but did not arrive at Haliax until September 20. Before leaving England he wrote a letter to Prevost which he entrusted for delivery to Lieut, Colonel Cecil Bisshopp, who had accompanied him to Russia, and was then on his way to Canada to fill a staff appointment. In this letter Warren intimated that he might be able to supply officers and seamen for service on the lakes. Prevost received it on October 19. Next day he replied. “So sensible have I been of the importance of maintaining our naval superiority on the lakes that I have made repeated representations on the subject to H.M. Ministers. So anxious is the Gov’t of the U. States of the necessity of acquiring the command of those sheets of water that uncommon exertions are making both on Lake Erie and Lake Ontario to obtain an object so essential to their future measures against Upper Canada. Do you consider yourself authorized to afford me the aid you suggest? If you do, I will most readily receive it, and doubt not its enabling me to preserve a superiority which might other- wise decline. ” + Warren had been instructed to propose that the Government of the United States in consequence of the revocation of the Orders in Council which they had so long urged, should now recall their dec- laration of war and agree to an armistice and a peaceful settlement of all points in dispute. In case this proposal was accepted, he was auth- orised to s op all hostilities and give an assurance on behalf of his govern- ment that the same action would be taken in all parts of the world. *Prevost to Bathurst, Oct. 17; Prevost to the Duke of York, Oct. 17. Warren to Prevost, Portsmouth, August 11; Prevost to Warren, Oct. 20. Sec. II, 1913—10 158 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA If this was rejected and “a desire should manifest itself in any consider- able part of the American Union, especially in those States bordering upon His Majesty’s North American dominions to return to their relations of peace and amity with this country,” he was directed to encourage it, and if overtures were made to him for a cessation of hos- tilities with that part of the United States alone, he was authorized to agree to it and enter into an arrangement for the renewal of com- mercial intercourse with the States concerned.* A flag of truce was accordingly despatched to New York with a proposal for a suspension of hostilities to be succeeded by negociations for a treaty of peace. But as the terms proposed included a recall of letters of marque and the withdrawal of American troops from British territory, Warren was obliged to admit that he expected the answer would certainly be in the negative. “It is really extraordinary,” he remarked, “that our friends at home in consequence of Mr. Foster’s representations and others will so long not have believed that the war was actually going on.” He advised Prevost to repair and occupy Fort Cumberland in Nova Scotia, and added that he had detached two sail of the line to accompany a convoy with some troops into the St. Lawrence.f Ten days later he wrote that he had despatched a sloop or war with 100 men of the 100th Regiment with instructions to land them at Bic or as high up the river as the ship could venture at that advanced season “from a perfect conviction of your having occasion for all the troops you can muster.” He intended to leave a senior officer with a strong detachment of frigates and several sloops and schooners in the Bay of Fundy for the defence of the coast and would sail for Bermuda on November 20 to assemble there all the ships of the line in his com- mand. ? Monroe’s reply to his proposal, although dated at Washington on October 27, was not delivered to Warren at Halifax until November 13. The President, Monroe wrote, was anxious to restore peace,-and had at the very moment war was declared, instructed his representative in London, to make proposals with that object. But the abandonment of the practice of impressment from American ships was an indispensable condition. If that were agreed to, he would undertake that in future British seamen would be excluded from the naval and merchant service of the United States. In any event impressment from Ameri- can vessels must be discontinued during the proposed armistice. “It cannot be presumed, while the parties are engaged in a negociation to *Castlereagh to the Lords of the Admiralty, August 6 and 12. tWarren to Prevost, Oct. 10. tWarren to Prevost, Oct. 20. . [CRUIKSHANK] FROM ISLE AUX NOIX TO CHATEAUGUAY 159 adjust amicably this important difference, that the United States would admit the right or acquiesce in the practice of the opposite party, or that Great Britain would be unwilling to restrain her cruisers from a practice that would have the strongest tendency to defeat the nego- ciations.” Warren considered that this answer precluded any further discussion as it “refused an armistice prior to entering into the several points set forth in their declaration of war, unless I was to acquiesce in their opinions relative to the material objects upon which their complaints are grounded.” * By the same ship he received a copy of the President’s message to Congress which he remarked “ breathes sentiments of the most inveterate kind and of active warfare and more particularly stating his intent- ions of obtaining a naval superiority on the lakes, having already employed people for that purpose. Can you not, “he wrote to Prevost,” under these circumstances from the absolute necessity of the case, take upon you to direct a ship of 38 guns, one of 20 and two of 18 in addition to your present force? They might be completed by your Montreal and Quebec carpenters and ready by the spring. I will state in the strongest terms in my power that unless the superiority upon the lakes is preserved the Indian force will be destroyed and your means of defence circum- scribed for Lower Canada and that I earnestly hope, trust and requue that the Government will give immediate orders for the purpose and for sending a post captain and 3 or 4 masters and commanders with 4 or 500 seamen to be conveyed to Quebec in the spring together with car- ronades and sails for the ships to be placed under your command.” He suggested that troops and stores might be forwarded overland from New Brunswick to Quebec during the winter, but made no reference to a loan of officers and seamen from his fleet. He added that he had :ep- resented to the Admiralty the absolute necessity of being permitted to undertake some enterprise against the southern seaboard of the United States with troops and ships from Bermuda, as a diversion in Prevost’s favour. When this lette: arrived at Quebec the winter had set in with much severity and it seemed most improbable that any further invasion would be attempted before sprng.f When the armistice terminated Dearborn received instructions to resume his preparations for an advance upon Montreal in which Chaun- cey was designed to co-operate by gaining command of Lake Ontario and threatening Kingston. One of his first measures was to secure accurate and circumstantial information of the numbers and distri- bution of the troops likely to be opposed to him. The officer employed for this purpose was more than usually successful sanguinely and reported *Warren to Prevost, Nov. 14. E + Warren to Prevost, Nov. 16. 160 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA besides that he felt certain that a force of three thousand regulars and six thousand militia ought to take Montreal with little difficulty in a few days after advancing from Plattsburg. Dearborn was so much elated by this information that he began to talk most confidently of making this conquest before winter set in. Requisitions for the number of militia considered necessary were passed to the Governors of New York and Vermont and the movement of regulars from Greenbush to Plattsburg began. But the militia as usual were extremely slow in assembling and their numbers were much below what had been re- quired. Efforts were then made to enlist a body of Indians and a call was addressed to the Six Nations residing in the State of New York. In reply the wily chiefs expressed their surprise and disappointment that after having been repeatedly advised to remain neutral, that they were now invited to take up arms, yet they were willing to comply, but it was necessary that they should be distinctly informed what was re- quired of them, otherwise “they were afraid that some of their young men might disperse among distant tribes and become hostile.” * By the beginning of October nearly eight thousand men had been assembled in the vicinity of Plattsburg with a considerable train of artillery. Five sloops had been purchased or hired as transports and 150 bateaux constructed to assist in the movement of troops and baggage. Bad weather then delayed the contemplated advance for several weeks and indeed rendered it well nigh impracticable.f As at that season of the year the Richelieu river and the road following its course seemed to be the only possible routes for an invading force of any considerable magnitude, the military post that had been established on Isle aux Noix constituted a serious obstacle in its path. The island was low and flat and not more than fifteen hundred yards by four hundred in extreme width. The channel between the island and the right bank of the river had been obstructed by a sliding boom securely anchored. The other narrower channel had been closed by chevaux de frise. The fortifications consisted of an ir- *Memo. from Colonel Thorne, dated August, 1812: ‘‘There are 300 militia and 60 regulars at St. John; 800 regulars at the Halfway House between Laprairie and St. John, of the 49th and 100th Regiments; 16 pieces of artillery and 400 militia at Laprairie; about 50 at L’Acadie and 20 at Odelltown, 24 miles from the line as a guard. Part of the 103rd, say 300 or 400 arrived Aug. 6 at Laprairie; the Ist Royals have just landed at Quebec, very sickly, 300 strong only. There are three small gunboats at Laprairie just brought from Quebec and thirty others at Quebec and they are hauling three up the rapids at Chambly for use on Lake Champlain. There are 400 Glengaries and 200 voltigeurs and militia and a few regulars at Chambly. On Aug. 5,400 regulars passed Montreal on their way to Upper Canada.” Speech of deputies in Council at Onondaga, Signed by Canastote and fifteen other chiefs. tAlbany Argus, 1812. [CRUIKSHANK] FROM ISLE AUX NOIX TO CHATEAUGUAY 161 regular earthwork on the west side of the island, a tolerably strong redoubt on its east side, and south of these, a third redoubt, whose guns were placed to enfilade the main channel of the river as far as the first bend at Mill Point. The banks in the vicinity were low and swampy, and had been cleared of trees and brush within effective artillery range. The garrison was composed of three hundred men, half of them being regulars of the 8th Regiment, commanded by Major Cotton. Two small gunboats were stationed at the island to assist in the defence.* On either side of the road leading along the river, the country for several miles was densely wooded and so nearly impenetrable that de- serters, who had attempted to make their escape through it, had generally failed and been captured. The inhabitants in general were strongly prejudiced against the Americans whom they commonly referred to as “les sacrés Bastonais,’ and their clergy to a man were actively loyal.f After all preparations for the advance were practically com- plete, it was decided to delay it for a few days longer until the armed vessels could be made ready to co-operate in an attack on Isle aux Noix. As a consequence the naval demonstration on Lake Ontario, which had been intended to be simultaneous, actually began two weeks earlier. At noon on November 2, a strange sail was reported in Hen- derson’s Harbour, seven miles distant from Sackett’s, and Chauncey not unnaturally became apprehensive for the safety of his guns and stores, which were due to arrive from Oswego by water that day. At dark he ran out in the Oneida in the hope of being able to inter- cept the hostile vessel on her return to Kingston. The night turned rainy and became extremely dark with occasional squalls. When day broke, the Oneida was six miles from Kingston and the Royal George accompanied by two schooners was discovered lying at anchor five miles to windward. Chauncey remained in sight of these vessels for four hours without attracting their notice and then stood south- ward in the direction of Oswego, returning along the coast on the 4th to his port, where he was joined within the next two days by four schooners bringing an indispensable supply of ordnance and naval stores. { Surmising that the three British vessels seen off Kingston were bound for Niagara with troops, he made all possible haste to take the lake again with the Oneida and six of his largest schooners armed *Baynes to Brock, Sept. 10; Nicholas, Hist. of Royal Marines. fGray, Letters from Canada; Letter in the Aurora of Philadelphia, dated Plattsburg, Oct. 11. tChauncey to the Secretary of the Navy, Nov. 4 and 6. 162 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA with forty guns of different calibres and manned by 430 seamen and marines exclusive of officers, with the intention of awaiting their return off the False Ducks, a small group of islands near the Canadian coast. Although he decidedly overestimated the strength of the force likely to be opposed to him, he entertained little doubt of success in any encounter with it, after which, he contemplated an attack on Kingston.* Sailing from Sackett’s Harbour on the 8th, the Royal George was seen alone on the following afternoon and chased into the Bay of Quinte. Alternate squalls and calms favoured her escape and she was eventually lost to view when night fell. The Hamilton was de- tached to burn the schooner Two Brothers lying at Fairfield’s ship- yard at Ernestown. Next morning the Royal George was again de- scried entering the narrow channel leading to Kingston and the chase was resumed. The appearance of a squadron of hostile vessels in the Bay of Quinte had been reported during the night to Colonel John Vincent of the 49th Regiment, who had assumed command of the garrison about two months before. Since his arrival several batteries had been constructed for the protection of the port on which some twenty guns were mounted, the largest being nine pounders. The garrison was composed of sixteen men of the Royal Artillery with two field guns under command of a lieutenant; two companies of the 49th, numbering about 100 of all ranks; two companies of the 10th Royal Veteran Battalion, 104 of all ranks, and about four hundred militia, including some boys under twelve years of age and several old men who had borne arms during the American Revolution. The whole force was placed under arms and the batteries were manned before daybreak as reports of formidable naval preparations at Sac- kett’s Harbour had already been received. After escorting the Moira and Simcoe some distance up the lake, the Royal George had remained out until she fell in with the American squadron. Her commander, Captain Hugh Earle, was indeed an ex- perienced navigator, having served in the Provincial Marine since 1792, but evidently lacked the professional knowledge and skill to handle his ship in action. His crew consisted of less than twenty seamen of all classes and sixty men of the Royal Newfoundland Regiment, nomin- ally serving as marines but assisting to work the vessel when occasion required. Recognising the impossibility of contending with success against a force manifestly so superior, Earle lost no time in seeking protection in his port. The ship was moored between the two principal *Chauncey to the Secretary of the Navy, Nov. 6. [CRUIKSHANK] FROM ISLE AUX NOIX TO CHATEAUGUAY 163 batteries and detachments of troops supported by the field guns were detailed to occupy the most likely places for landing.* Some hours were prudently occupied by Chauncey in making a personal reconnaissance. At two o’clock in the afternoon, the Oneida set her topgallant sails, and the whole squadron led by four schooners armed with the heaviest long guns, steered directly for the harbcur’s mouth. A gunboat lying in Collins’s Bay and a fieldpiece on Everett’s Point fired at them without any apparent effect as they swept past. At three o’clock the batteries on either side of the entrance began firing on the leading schooner which went through untouched, followed in quick succession by three other schooners and the brig and at a much greater interval by the two remaining schooners. Ten minutes later a gun burst on the Pert at its third discharge, wounding her commander, a midshipman, and three seamen. This accident put her out of action for the rest of the day, and in going about, the wounded officer was knocked overboard and drowned. The signal “engage closer” was made from the flagship and several of the squadron came within easy range of the Royal George and protecting batteries, upon which they opened fire simultaneously with much vigour. At four o’clock the Royal George slipped her moorings and was hauled in close to the wharf. Firing continued until sunset when the American vessels hauled off in succession and beat out of the harbour to an anchorage under Four Mile Point where they remained over night. The Royal George lost one man killed, a thirty-two pound shot lodged in her hull and her rigging was much cut up. The Oneida had one seaman killed; three others wounded and one gun dismounted; the Hamilton had a gun disabled; the Julia had one man wounded; a round shot passed through the magazine of the Growler without causing any explosion. All of these vessels suffered some injury to their spars and rigging. t No damage of any consequence was done to the batteries on shore as the fire of the assailants was chiefly directed against the Royal George in the hope of destroying her. During the action 230 militia came in from the adjoining country whom Vincent was unable to arm. ¢ As the American squadron worked its way out of the port, the little schooner Mary Hatt, from Niagara, ran into its midst and was taken. The wind blew hard in squalls all night and Chauncey’s chief pilot anxiously warned him to seek safety at a greater distance from shore. At daybreak he made sail and beat out into the lake. Some *Sheaffe to Prevost, Nov. 8; Vincent to Sheaffe, Nov. 11. tT Vincent to Sheaffe, Nov. 11; Chauncey to the Secretary of the Navy, Nov. 13; letter from an American officer in the Statesman of New York, Nov. 23; letter in the Quebec Mercury, Dec. 8. Finan, Voyage to Quebec, pp. 235-241. tVincent to Sheaffe, Nov. 11. 164 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA hours. later a sail was seen which proved to be the Simcoe returning from Niagara. She was immediately chased by three of the schooners, who succeeded in coming within effective range and pelted her with round shot. She escaped by running over a reef into the harbour whither her pursuers dared not follow. A lucky shot then pierced her hull between wind and water and she sank within a few yards of shore where she was easily raised. The gale continued to increase in violence and forced Chauncey to return to port on the night of the 12th. He began at once to take in guns and stores for the army on the Niagara, feeling confident that he could sail to any part of the lake without fear of molestation. Next day the Governor Tompkins came in with another prize, the merchant schooner Elizabeth, and information that she had sighted the Moira near the Ducks. Chauncey weighed anchor in the midst of a blinding snow storm and stood away for Kingston once more in the hope of intercepting her, and actually sighted her just as she was entering that harbour. He was driven back to port by another gale but as soon as the wind fell, sent out four of his schooners with instructions to cruise off the Ducks in the track of vessels passing between Kingston and York, and having repaired the Pert and armed two more schooners declared his readiness to transport troops or stores to any part of the lake. He professed to be perfectly satisfied with the results of his cruises although they certainly fell far short of his original expect- ations. Still he had inflicted considerable damage and given a great scare to the garrison of Kingston.* Vincent became so anxious to gain information of his movements that he resorted to the transparent expedient of sending over a flag of truce to ask for the release of Captain Brock, paymaster of the 49th and brother of the deceased General, who had been captured in one of the prizes. This was granted but Brock was merely able to confirm the report “previously received through several channels of the acti- vity of the enemy in preparing the most formidable means of estab- lishing superiority on the lakes.” Chauncey sailed again on November 19, apparently in the hope of falling in with the Prince Regent which had been busily employed for several weeks in conveying troops and stores between York and Niagara. He was driven back to port by a storm which dismasted the Growler.+ On November 26 his new corvette, the Madison, was successfully launched. He boasted with pardonable pride that this vessel had *Chauncey to Tompkins, Noy. 15; Chauncey to the Secretary of the Navy, Nov. 17; Sheaffe to Prevost, Nov. 23. tChauncey to the Secretary of the Navy, Nov. 26. {[CRUIKSHANK] FROM ISLE AUX NOIX TO CHATEAUGUAY 165 been built in the remarkably short period of forty-five days out of green timber freshly cut in the neighboring woods.* The fact that he had gained command of the lake, even for a few weeks, was sufficient to excite the most serious apprehensions for the future in Upper Canada where there was already a considerable scarcity of such necessary articles as flour and salt. The Executive Council of the province met at York on November 17 and unanimously adopted an address to General Sheaffe, stating their fears and expressing the opinion that it was absolutely necessary for the defence and pre- servation of the country to regain the naval superiority. Sheaffe assured them that every effort would be made that his local resources would afford and informed Prevost that “it would require exertions of the most energetic kind to contend with the enemy for the ascendency on the lakes.” + The attack on Kingston became known to Prevost at Quebec on November 14. Captain Gray was at once ordered to proceed to that post in charge of a brigade of boats laden with artillery stores, ac- companied by an escort composed of one company of the Glengarry Light Infantry and small detachments, not exceeding altogether one hundred of all ranks, as a meagre reinforcement for the garrison. Two other companies of the Glengarry corps, which had been under orders to march to Upper Canada for some time, were unavoidably detained at Montreal owing to the very threatening attitude of the American forces on the Champlain frontier. { Gray was directed to relieve Lieut. Colonel Myers in charge of the Provincial Marine in Upper Canada and begin the construction of two ships at once. Prevost took advantage of this event to reiterate and emphasize his demand for officers and men from the Royal Navy in a letter to the Secretary of War, whom he informed that he had already given orders for building two vessels during the winter for service on Lake Ontario, at the same time quoting that part of the President’s message referring to the efforts he was making to gain command of the lakes. It was next to impossible to find a military officer quali- fied to superintend the construction of ships of war and to direct naval operations with success and he recommended that the Provincial Marine should be converted into a naval establishment controlled by the Navy Board and supplied with properly qualified officers. “Until this measure is adopted,” he concluded, “I fear no exertions which I can make will render that part of the force under my command *Chauncey to the Secretary of the Navy, Nov. 26; Gray to Prevost, Dec. 3. fSheaffe to Prevost, Nov. 23; Sheaffe to the Executive Council, Nov. 24. {Prevost to Sheaffe, Nov. 15; Prevost to Bathurst, Nov. 21. 166 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA as efficient as it ought to be or essential for aiding in the defence of Upper Canada.”’ * When first organized the Embodied Militia had been brought together by battalions in camps of instruction at Pointe Levi, Pointe aux Trembles, Berthier and Laprairie. In July the 8th Battalion from Pointe aux Trembles and the 3rd from Berthier were advanced to Laprairie and St. Jean to strengthen the advanced line of defence for the protection of Montreal. The term of ninety days for which they had been originally embodied would expire on August 15. When the armistice was announced many men belonging to all of these bat- talions openly declared their intention of returning to their homes on that day as they presumed there would be no further need for their services. As soon as this disposition became known to Prevost he took measures to inform them that in the event of invasion or in- surrection, the law authorized him to retain them for one year, and as peace was not yet assured, they would be required to 1emain em- bodied. Many copies of the act were accordingly distributed among them and as a precaution a considerable body of regulars were moved into the vicinity of their quarters. No inclination to disband was apparent among those stationed at either St. Jean or Laprairie, but on the evening of August 14, Lt. Colonel Taschereau, commanding the 4th Battalion at Pointe Levi, made a demand for the support of a body of regular troops next morning, in case of disorder. The flank companies of the Royal Scots and a detachment of Royal Artillery with a field gun crossed the river during the night. At daybreak the battalion was paraded without arms, and information was obtained that one of their number and a habitan had been advising them to disperse, saying that there was no American war, and that it was all a device of the government to get them to become soldiers. These men were at once arrested.f The abrupt termination of the armistice was followed by repeated manifestations of a good spirit among all classes of the militia. Late in September Prevost made a careful inspection of the advanced posi- tions. An order to be on the alert being sent to Major Voyer, com- manding the 1st Battalion of Embodied Militia, and delivered to him at midnight, was misinterpreted to mean that the enemy were ap- proaching. His battalion was instantly placed under arms with the greatest alacrity and the light companies pushed forward several miles before the mistake was discovered. Going a few days later to inspect the Sedentary Militia of the district at Chateauguay, where he expected to find not more than 1,500 men assembled, the Governor *Prevost to Bathurst, Nov. 21. qA. W. Cochran to Rev’d Dr. Cochran, August 17. [CRUIKSHANK] FROM ISLE AUX NOIX TO CHATEAUGUAY 167 was agreeably surprised to find nearly twice that number and to learn that the habitans had received in the most hospitable manner a com- pany of the 8th Regiment, which had been billeted among them and desired that it should be allowed to remain. In some localities the militia had refused to accept the arms provided for them, but in others they were cheerfully taking lessons in drill after their day’s work was done.* A flag of truce arrived from General Dearborn with a pro- posal for an exchange of prisoners of war and a considerable sum of money for the subsistence of the American officers and men already sent to Quebec. The officer with the money was allowed to visit Quebec and Prevost took advantage of the opportunity thus pre- sented to despatch Captain Robert McDouall, one of his aides, to Plattsburg, ostensibly with a reply, but really in the expectation that he would thus be able to secure definite and reliable information as to the strength and probable movements of the force being collected there. McDouall had actually advanced fourteen miles into the enemy’s territory when he was peremptorily detained and marched back under guard to the advanced post at Champlain. He then obtained permission to write a letter to General Bloomfield explaining his mission, but while waiting for an answer he was kept under guard with an officer detailed to eat, drink and sleep in the same room. Bloomfield replied that he must return to Canada at once. This evidence of extraordinary vigilance combined with reports of unusual activity at Plattsburg, decided the Governor to remain at Montreal instead of returning to Quebec as he had intended. Secret agents for the purpose of gaining information had been engaged on both sides of the frontier. One of these, named McLean, had indeed been arrested at Champlain, early in July, and committed for trial. His apprehension, however, did not deter others from sup- plying information. During the first week of October, a spy arrived in Montreal who reported that he had been in the American camp for the past three weeks actually living with their men. He brought with him several newspapers of recent date, and furnished circum- stantial estimates of the strength and composition of their forces, based on personal observation. { Towards the end of the month, the weather became fine and a report was received that the enemy had determined on an immediate *Major C. M. de Salaberry to Lt. Col. Louis de Salaberry; A. W. Cochran to Rev’d Dr. Cochran, Oct. 10. tA. W. Cochran to Rev’d Dr. Cochran, Oct. 10 tGeneral de Rottenburg to Prevost, July 14; A. W. Cochran to Rev’d Dr. Cochran, Oct. 10. 168 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA attack. Prevost visited the advanced posts once more and assured Major de Salaberry that he was perfectly satisfied with his arrange- ments and that he might act according to his own judgment in case of an attack.* On the Ist of November, de Salisbury received a letter from a secret agent residing within the American lines that an offensive move- ment would be commenced next day on three separate routes. This information was probably based on the fact that they had established advanced posts at Champlain, Chateauguay Four Corners and French Mills. The letter was forwarded to headquarters and de Salabeiry lost no time in calling out five hundred men of the local Sedentary Militia which increased his force to about 1200 including two hundied Indians. The remainder of the Voltizeurs, with two companies of the 1st Battalion of Embodied Militia and the chasseurs of L’ Acadie, St. Philippe and St. Pierre were moved forward to support the out- posts of the Odelltown road. The 2nd Batalion was advanced from Laprairie to St. Philippe. Going forward in person to examine the road where it crossed the river Lacolle for the purpose of completing its obstruction, accompanied by a working party and a small escort of chasseurs and Indians, de Salaberry encountered a flag of truce borne by two American officers who informed him that they had a despatch from General Dearborn for Sir George Prevost. Suspecting that their real object was to reconnoitre the road and the state of his defences, he resolutely refused to allow them to proceed.f Dearborn had in fact determined to make a vigorous demonstration against Montreal probably in the hope of preventing the movement of reinforcements to Upper Canada and thus assisting indirectly in the operations being undertaken against that province, for it seems hardly credible that he could have expected to accomplish more at that ad- _ vanced season. On November 10, he removed his headquarters to Plattsburg and took command of the force rather pompously styled the Army of the North. A general order was published announcing the retirement of General Bloomfield on account of ill health and intimating an intention of taking the offensive. A spy estimated his force at 4,512 regulars, of whom five hundred were cavalry, and 4,000 militia, of whom 2,400 had definitely declared that they would not cross the line. Three sloops of war, two gunboats and upwards of one hundred boats had been assembled in the mouth of the river Chazy, which afforded a safe anchorage in close proxinity to the frontier. On November 16, the advance began, but a march of only five miles was *Major C. M. de Salaberry to Lt. Col. Louis de Salaberry, Oct. 26. Prevost to Major de Salaberry, Nov. 1; Major C. M. de Salaberry to Lt. Col. Louis de Salaberry, Nov. 13. [cRUIKSHANK] FROM ISLE AUX NOIX TO CHATEAUGUAY 169 accomplished that day and Dearborn encamped at Rouse’s Point. A report that ten thousand men were advancing by the Odelltown road reached de Salaberry at St. Philippe next morning. The outposts on the Lacolle river were strongly reinforced. Troops from Laprairie were moved forward to L’Acadie, St. Philippe and St. Pierre. The Montreal brigade composed of two companies of the Royal Scouts, seven of the 8th or King’s Regiment, five of the Glengarry Light In- fantry, four of the Montreal Volunteer Militia, the Fifth Battalion of Embodied militia, Platt’s troop of volunteer cavalry and a brigade of light artillery under the command of Colonel Baynes crossed to La- prairie and the town guard was taken over by the Ist Battalion of Mon- treal militia. For three days Dearborn’s force remained inactive. If his scouts crossed the frontier during that time they must have evaded observa- tion. On the morning of November 20, Captain William McKay of the corps of voyageurs, who was officer of the day at Lacolle, went for- ward as usual shortly before daybreak to visit the outlying piquet on the edge of the woods near Odelltown. This piquet consisted of twenty- four men of the Ist Battalion of Embodied Militia and fifteen Indians under Captain Bernard Panet. As McKay approached its post, he distinctly heard a body of men fording the stream and voices of others moving about in the woods and cocking their muskets. He hastened forward to give the alarm. The piquet had barely time to turn out when a volley was discharged at such close range that it set fire to the roof of the guard hut but did no further injury. The men of the piquet fired a few shots in reply and then made their escape so quickly and quietly in the darkness that it was unobserved by their assailants who had already fallen into considerable confusion. The American troops detailed to surprise the British outposts on this occasion was divided into two separate and independent columns, one composed of the regiments of regular infantry commanded by Colo- nels Pike and Clark, who were considered their ablest officers, and a troop of cavalry, numbering in all about six hundred and fifty men; the other consisting of three hundred volunteers and militia, selected with great care and including a considerable part of the battalion lately engaged in the successful raid on St. Regis. Having advanced by different roads they came into collision, each column mistaking the other for the enemy in the dark. They kept up a brisk fire until daylight when he mistake was discovered. Meanwhile the guard- house had been entirely destroyed by the flames and the inmates, if they had not perished in it, as Pike at first surmised, had utterly vanished. The men of both columns were greatly fatigued by their night march and dispirited by its outcome. Pike accordingly deter- 170 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA mined to return to the camp and the retreat was accomplished in such haste that five wounded men were left behind in the woods where they were found and made prisoners by the Indians. Their total loss was unofficially reported to amount to two killed, thirteen wounded and five missing. Some forty deaths from disease contracted on the ex- pedition were subsequently added to the account. Several deserters came into the British advanced posts within a few days and gave the usual exaggerated accounts of the affair in which they represented that more than fifty men had been killed or wounded.* At best Dearborn could scarcely have expected to accomplish. more than the surprise of an unimportant outpost but the actual result was most disastrous to the morale of his troops already much weakened by sickness and unpleasant weather. Three thousand militia had been induced to advance as far as Rouse’s Point but two-thirds of them had positively refused to enter Canada. One company had actually accompanied Pike’s force to the boundary and then declined to go further. The movement from Plattsburg had been made in sufficient strength to indicate that a serious invasion was contemplated, and on November 22, Prevost published a general order warning the whole of the militia of the province to be in readiness for active service. Colonel John Murray was directed to advance on the Odelltown road with a company of the 8th and 300 men of Cuthbert’s battalion of militia. Lieut. Colonel Deschambault crossed the river from Lachine to Caughnawaga with the battalions from Pointe Claire, Riviere du Chene, Vaudreuil and Longue Point and marched to L’Acadie. The sight of several hundreds of prisoners belonging to the regular army of the United States, taken at Detroit at Queenston, passing down the St. Lawrence on their way to Quebec had done much to reanimate the confidence of the people and the sedentary militia assembled with unmistakeable alacrity and good will. The opportune arrival of a transport from England with a large supply of muskets and accoutrements furnished the means of arming and equipping many of them who were quartered in the villages near Montreal. Prevost was no doubt fully justified in declaring that “the whole population manifests the most cheering spirit of loyalty and the most animated determination to oppose with all their might the entrance of the American army into Canada.” } *Prevost to Bathurst, Nov. 21; Prevost to the Duke of York, Nov. 30; Christie, History of Canada, Vol. IT, pp. 52-3; Whiting, Life of Pike; Canadian Courant, 1812; Quebee Mercury, 1812. tIngersoll, Histroy or the War, I, p. 121. {Prevost to de Salaberry, Nov. 21; Prevost to Bathurst, Nov. 21; Prevost to Sheaffe, Nov. 23; Prevost to the Duke of York, Nov. 30. [CRUIKSHANK] FROM ISLE AUX NOIX TO CHATEAUGUAY 171 Cold and stormy weather had again set in and on November 22, Dearborn began his retreat with the avowed intention of placing his troops in winter quarters at Plattsburg, Burlington and Greenbush. This fact was definitely reported to Prevost on November 26 and he immediately disbanded the sedentary militia by a highly complimentary general order On the following day the greater portion of the troops were again withdrawn into cantonments. Major de Salaberry was deservedly praised for his capable conduct while in command of the outposts and was soon after granted a step in rank.* Finding that the American forces had been massed on the extreme right of their line, Prevost had determined some days before the attack upon Odelltown, to create a diversion by a counterstroke on the post at French Mills on their left, which was a standing menace to the navi- gation of the St. Lawrence as well as a source of serious alarm to the Indians of St. Regis. Captain Gray was accordingly instructed to attempt to take it by surprise while on his way to Kingston in charge of a brigade of boats. Gray was accompanied by two senior officers, Major Macdonell of the Glengarry Light Infantry and Major Clerk of the 49th, whose presence seems to have caused him some embarass- ment. On November 22, the convoy arrived at Glengarry House and orders were sent to Lieut. Colonels McMillan and McLean, commanding the 1st Glengarry and 1st Stormont Militia to march to that place with all the men they could collect. As the flank companies of his regiment were in garrison at Prescott, McLean was obliged to call upon the militia residing in the neighbourhood of Cornwall, yet in two hours more than 250 had assembled. He was materially assisted by the energetic exertions and great influence of Reverend Alexander Mac- donell, their parish priest. At 11 p.m. the troops were embarked and two hours later landed below St. Regis whence a road led to the enemy’s position. McLean was detached with his men to occupy St. Regis village and prevent its inhabitants from giving the alarm. The re- mainder of the force, numbering 150 of all ranks, preceded by Rox- borough’s company of the Glengarry Light Infantry, under Major Macdonell, at a distance of sixty paces, as an advance guard began its march through the woods towards the mouth of Salmon river where the enemy had built a blockhouse, which they had named Fort Invincible, in honour of a company of volunteers, who had rather boastfully assumed the title of the Troy Invincibles. The main body was entirely composed of Glengarry militia under Lieut. Colonel McMillan. Thirty Indians commanded by Captain Anderson brought up the rear. Before reach- ing the village of French Mills the column was compelled to pass two bridges. After crossing the first, the advanced guard was fired upon *General Orders, Nov. 26 and 27. 172 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA by a sentry who was promptly shot down as he attempted to escape. When half way across the second bridge another sentry fired at them and was also shot. Several shots were fired from houses and an in- habitant who was detected while deliberately taking aim through a window, was killed in the act. After a few minutes delay, they were informed by a resident that the garrison, consisting of one company of the Troy Volunteers, had been warned of their approach by Indian scouts, and had shut themselves up in the blockhouse, which was not yet roofed in. It was quickly surrounded and three officers and forty- one men surrendered as prisoners of war. Three bateaux and fifty- seven stand of arms were taken. In defiance of the strictest orders the Indians managed to break open and plunder several houses, one of them being owned by the man who had acted as guide and carried a summons to the blockhouse. Gray at once proffered compensation which was paid two months later to the amount of several hundred dollars, being in all probability much in excess of the real loss. The captured bateaux were sunk, the arms broken up and the expedition recrossed the river without loss.* After his arrival at Plattsburg, Dearborn discharged the whole of his militia, whose numbers had already considerably decreased through desertion. Three regiments of regular infantry under Colonel Pike were quartered at Plattsburg; three others commanded by Briga- dier General Chandler were stationed at Burlington, while the cavalry and artillery were withdrawn to Greenbush. Although it was after- wards acknowledged that his movement to the frontier and beyond had been solely intended as a demonstration and was so interpreted by his opponent, his confident tone and the strength of his force had aroused extravagant expectations among his countrymen. The editor of the Aurora, of Philadelphia, Colonel Duane, one of the most in- fluential and presumably best informed of the journalists supporting the administration, had remarked, so late as November 23:— “The army must have entered the enemy’s country about the 20th, and three days will have brought the troops to conflict unless the British make war like the Russians. The gallantry and fidelity of the militia, Green Mountain Boys and brave New Yorkers, will save them from the reproach hitherto cast upon the boasted bulwark of the republic by the brutality and cowardice displayed by idle spec- tators at Queenston, and put to shame the treachery and faithlessness of neighbors in Massachusetts.” Dearborn’s apparently inexplicable retreat without even fairly coming to blows evoked the most caustic criticism from friends as weil *Gray to Baynes, Nov, 23 : Prevost to Bathurst, Nov. 26; Prevost to the Duke of York, Nov. 30; York (U.C.) Gazette, 1812. [cRUIKSHANK] FROM ISLE AUX NOIX TO CHATEAUGUAY 173 as opponents of the government. A rumour soon became current that he had written a letter, which had not been published from motives of policy, stating his opinion that it would be imprudent to attempt to take Montreal with an army of less than thirty thousand men, and that he would rather resign his command than undertake it.* During the autumn his troops had suffered considerably from an epidemic of measles which affected nearly one-third of the regulars encamped at Plattsburg and Champlain. One regiment, originally nine hundred strong, had been reduced to less than two hundred fit for duty by neglect of proper sanitary measures. At one time three hundred and forty men of this unfortunate corps were in the hospital and a large number reported sick in quarters. To preserve the health of the remainder Dearborn attached them to a better disciplined regiment. The weather during December became extremely cold and an epidemic of typhus fever accompanied by pneumonia raged at all three stations. Two hundred deaths occurred among sixteen hundred soldiers quartered at Burlington. The disease then spread among the inhabitants of the town of whom seventy-three died within a month. On December 10, more than one-third of the three regular regiments stationed at Plattsburg were reported unfit for duty. The mortality at that post and at Greenbush was proportionately as great as at Burlington, making the total number of deaths about five hun- dred or practically fifteen per cent of the entire force.f Yet great as the ravages of disease actually were, they were much exaggerated by current reports and numerous bitter complaints of neglect and ill treatment found their way into the Federalist news- papers. *Edward Doyle to Lieut. Colonel Neil McLean, Nov. 29 Mann, Medical Sketches of the War, pp. 10, 39, 45 and 199. NorTe.—Plattsburg, December 10, 1812. 6th U.S. Infantry, fit for duty, 203, sick, 138. [14 15th «“ “ Bagels 286: 16th. * “ fo FIG tio) 120): 839 493 See II, 1913—11 : FOR CANON SN ER CEE re an | ; , ot D pe) he té Ut à Yr Ay MER ; ] bit OLA TONER ai RTL IT br ho) OCR RENNES , wil bea etn | a) lows, aa | has On Nul | Av ‘Avia ( di alte | } ' =e ; F dut te ORE Pris! À | np 2 Oe | de af 4 7, : ‘ ie She, à it My ie Pas RC t it ~~ \ i »} AGE LS Cet : fii | | ot Cu iby in “rk iy al LEONA oi i hawaii si jhe id dele et af AT AA Dh DAT; DOTE ONE M OMAN 0 trou PRES ET Pears ait et) à ; AY Oe md TANT ody nyt (uit gad 4 tir hawk eld eae tn Éh Adi niu) eee SM | MM TE AA CUE RU with chu brel obi el any ate PCT Ha Bae SHI TUE daca ANTON a Ltd oot 9 ata ai Bis te NCA Ebina Gig a ae ee (J'EN 4 i COR RE MON bie Te Spee ep imite elias hafudwtll eee Vee cae ili © Ca PARLE ENT À rie nae be PM aden hie) fy pan he hot NET ae oes COR AN 2 Ma NE Le tavern’ failersi ell! (ain La). colonel eae balan Bi i a Vid Vaal ‘ EL: aE A: ae ALT À mar M r 7 OMR eu tu, MEN mineur: EM ARR paul a ‘ i La hye a ean a k LAN AU Cae dl | aoe ARs, e IP CET MUR PRADA) MT ET SAR CR tA ou Je Pet NOR RAA ARE Lie hy ERA ae LES | Mea de: dos ae ARR Le” ire” "ScaNs ee > u ¢ Mi 2 0 162 | fe ft NN RU |A HUE ; i RS ie, JL LP LISE cea, I A : tage AVS Du: ne Re pui cate DEN jar fl ve ae eae iw ry 4 a: LA SR 7 \ 4 ies th À « SECTION II, 1913. [175] TRANS. R.S.C. Notes on the Meeting Place of the First Parliament of Upper Canada and the Early Buildings at Niagara. By Duncan CAMPBELL Scott, F.R.S.C. (Read May 28, 1913) A great interest has always been manifested in the town of Niagara, the earliest buildings there, in Navy Hall, the residence of the First Lieutenant Governor of Upper Canada, and in the meeting place of the First Parliament of the Province. The west side of the Niagara River is the strip of Ontario territory to which clings the brightest historical memories, the founding of the province, the loyal and de- termined efforts of Simcoe to begin the national life with an impulse which should make it British to the core, and the battles and vicissi- tudes of the war of 1812. In the Life of Simcoe, which I contributed to The Makers of Canada Series, the first residence at Navy Hall of the Lieutenant Governor was described and the meeting places of the first Legis- lature were indicated. I did not think it admissable to enter very minutely into details upon each point in a work that was meant to be a comprehensive view of the first few years of organized Government in the Province of Upper Canada, with sketches of the social condi- tions which surrounded the few hardy people who had made it their home. From one point of view these things are unimportant; it is of no particular consequence where Simcoe uttered the first words to an Elected Parliament as the representative of the King. The words themselves were of importance, and they were given forth with deep earnestness, but the air that took them that has flowed away, the build- ing in which they were spoken has disappeared, and the very soil has changed in a hundred years. But other, and it seems to me better considerations, lead us to mark these historical spots and to venerate them, and it behoves us to choose the correct sites for our national monuments and be certain the claims we set up for both sites and buildings are well founded. Avoiding then an abundance of detail and not wishing to em- phasize the little treasures which I had unearthed in digging into the subject, I did not point out that the scrap of evidence to be found in the Simcoe papers in the Library of Parliament fixed the place in which the Lieutenant Governor called the Legislature to listen to his , first speech. It was a General Order for the 17th of September, 1792. 176 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Navy Hau, NIAGARA, Sept. 16, 1792. General Orders— Major Smith will give directions to Captain Glasgow of the Royal Artillery to fire a Royal Salute when His Excellency Lt.-Gov. Simcoe goes to open the House of Assembly tomorrow morning the 17th. A subaltern Guard of the 5th Regiment* to mount tomorrow morn- ing at Freemason’s Hall. Major Smith. (Sgd.) E. B. LITTLEHALES. Freemason’s Hall had been erected in the previous year by author- ity of the Land Board. It was at the north west corner of King Street; nearer the river and next to it was the Inn or Tavern—a view of these buildings and other dteails with reference to them will be found in Mr. J. Ross Robertson’s History of Freemasonry in Canada. The building had an upper and lower chamber, the former was the Masonic Hall and the latter was used for public gatherings. This lower room was in fact the only convenient place where the ceremony could have been performed. Fort Niagara was in American territory, although the British flag still flew above it; there was no accommodation at Butler’s Barrack’s, as we shall shortly see; Navy Hall was in course of re- construction. At Freemason’s Hall, a new room was available, which had probably not been used at that time for any public purpose. There was stationed the guard of honour and there Simcoe opened the Parliament. He was methodical in his habits and punctilious upon all points of procedure, and, unless we are to think that this well-ordered gentleman became suddenly erratic and, when he went to open the House of Assembly, did not go where his guard of honour was posted, but somewhere else where there was not accommodation, we are bound to say that in Freemason’s Hall Simcoe opened the First Parliament of Upper Canada. But the Lieutenant Governor did not think it proper to make use of such a building as Freemason’s Hall for Legislative purposes any longer than was necessary, and in the early part of 1793 he ordered repairs and additions to the building known as Butler’s Barracks. He explains his intentions very fully to Sir Alured Clark in a letter dated 4th June, 1793. The following is an extract:— *In 1792 one company of the Fifth Regiment was stationed at Fort Erie; half a company at Fort Schlosser; eight and one half companies at Fort Niagara. Simcoe Papers, Library of Parliament, Ottawa. [scorr] MEETING PLACE OF THE FIRST PARLIAMENT 177 “T beg to state to Yr. Exy. that the principles on which I “have proceeded are such as I have thought conducive to the “King’s service. The temporary huts at Queenstown may be “turned to various uses. The houses occupied by myself and “staff and the additions I have made to Butler’s Barrack’s for “the meeting of the Legislature of the country and public offices “are absolutely necessary in themselves, but being in a civil light “only considered as temporary, yet in a military one are to all “intents executive in such a manner as may be preparatory “to the evacuation of Niagara. In that event will become bar- “racks sufficient to hold such troops or people as may be em- “ployed in the garrisoning or construction of such works that “shall be thought necessary to be erected on this side of the river. “In wishing to provide for the erection of these buildings at the “cheapest possible rate to Government, I naturally profited from “the abilities and experience of the Engineer, Mr. Pilkington, “who with the greatest readiness availed himself of the oppor- “tunity of being of public service. His military duty, the nature “of the buildings, temporary in a civil light, but which might be “be hereafter of use in a military one, the very ground on which “they are placed being reserved for military purposes, all point “out evidently the propriety of their having been executed under “military restriction and the strict principles of economy which “pervade that Department. The necessity of giving shelter to “the soldiers and military officers, justify the impracticability “of its being subject to any such delay as the distance between “this place and Quebec must have occasioned and the equal neces- “sity of building some sheds for the temporary accommodation “of the Legislature and Civil Officers attendant on a new es- “tablishment is justified on the same principle, but if Your Exy. “should be the least disinclined to contemplate these latter build- “ings in the view which I have stated them, I certainly can have “no objection whatsoever of replacing the sums which they may “have cost and including them in my public account. “I have the honour to be, etc., J. GRAVES SIMCOE. Ls UDR General Clark, Quebec. Thus the Legislature and the Public Offices were housed during the sojurn of Government at Niagara and here the remaining sessions 178 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA of the First Parliament were held. The building* with the additions were destroyed by fire before 1800. The Lieutenant Governor in remodelling the old Navy Hall buildings formed an assembly hall in one of them, and this is the hall referred to by General Lincoln in his diary, and by the Duke de la Rochefoucauld in his Travels. The largest of the original buildings was 125 by 60 feet; the two smaller buildings were 25 by 81 feet, and 36.6 by 24 feet. As writers upon the early history of the Niagara Peninsula still treat these questions as if there were some doubt as to where the First Parliament was opened and where the sessions were held, I thought it well to make the evidence accessible. When I was re- reading what had lately been written on the subject I found that by praiseworthy zeal the Dominion Government had been induced to spend a sum of money upon an old building which now bears this marble tablet “One of four buildings called Navy Hall, 1787. One was altered for Gov. Simcoe, 1792. He had one, believed to be this one, prepared for the Parliament 1792, called Red Barracks 1840, moved up 1864, almost a ruin 1911. Restored by Dominion Government 1912 by petition of Niagara Historical Society.” It seemed to me highly doubtful that any of the log buildings of Navy Hall could have survived until 1912. When one considers the conditions which prevailed in that vicinity in 1813,it appeared in- conceivable that so perishable structures in such exposed positions could have remained. I began to look into the facts with a feeling that the structure had had honour thrust upon it, but that I must endeavour to establish this legend rather than destroy it. Let us test it, first by the dimensions of the building. The edifice now in situ is 100 by 25 feet. No building on the site in Simcoe’s time was of this size. The large building transformed for his residence was 125 by 60 feet, the two smaller buildings were 25 by 81 feet and 36.6 by 24 feet respectively.f The store-houses marked “G” in Plan I were ordered to be erected in 1799, i.e. three years after Simcoe left Canada and the buildings which made up the Navy Hall group in 1800 are given by Hon. Peter Russell{ in his statement. This is suf- ficient in itself to dispossess the usurper; whatever may be the date of its erection it was not built when Simcoe was in the country. That *Extract from general statement of Public Property in this Province (Upper Canada) by Hon. Peter Russell. ‘The house generally called Butler’s Barracks. This house underwent a thorough repair and two wings were added for the Legislature to meet in. This house has since been burnt.’’ See Appendix for a full copy of this interesting statement, +See plan I. tSee appendix ‘A.’ [ScoTT] MEETING PLACE OF THE FIRST PARLIAMENT 179 evidence is stronger even than the evidence for the destruction of the Navy Hall buildings during the war of 1812, although that is very strong. Lt.-Col. Bruyeres wrote to the Governor General from Kings- ton on 13th of February, 1813, after a personal survey of the fortifications at Niagara and elsewhere:—“The public buildings near the river at Navy Hall should be all removed as soon as possible and rebuilt in a place of security at some distance from, and in the rear of the Fort; the Stores they contain and the buildings themselves are so exposed to immediate destruction that no delay should take place in this service.’”’* The soldiers had about three months in which to accomplish this work, which is described as so urgent, most probably they carried it out and when the Americans opened fire on the morning of May 25th, there were no buildings on the west shore below Fort George. But if there were and if we are to maintain one of them, our log build- ing, in its dignified position we must believe that it was miraculously preserved. The practiced eye of Bruyeres said that they were ex- posed to immediate destruction! Lt.-Col. Harvey was on the spot and on the evening of May 25, 1813, he wrote from Fort George to Bruyeres at Kingston “The enemy’s fire has been wholly (and most successfully) directed hitherto against the Fort, which has been made a complete example of, every log barracks in it being burnt down.” f The belief that any buildings at Navy Hall could have survived this bombardment which made a thorough example of the log barracks in the Fort is quite untenable. While this method of proof was quite satisfactory to my mind, and the legend had disappeared so far as I was concerned, it seemed advisable to supplement it by positive proof asto the date of and the reasons for the erection of the building. The very fullness of the military records in the Dominion Archives would encourage search into so small a matter. The first plan upon which the building is shown, so far as I know, is one signed by H. W. Willson, Lieut. R.E. 2nd May, 1817. It is also shown on the Admiralty Chart compiled from drawings made (by the Royal Engineers?) in 1817. As all the Navy Hall buildings were removed or destroyed in 1813, there was a period of four years in which the building could have been er- ected. Lt.-Col. Durnford, R.E., used Lieut. Wilson’s map in 1823, and accompanied it by detailed sketches of all the buildings at Fort George and vicinity. I have reproduced asmall portion of this map,t *Dominion Archives, Series C. 387., 1813, p. 16. TDominion Archives. Series C., 678. See plan II. 180 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA and the sketch and elevation of the building itself * which is called the Commissariat store-house at Navy Hall. The Ordinance and Royal Engineers series of papers disclosed the reasons for the erection of the building. Lt.-Col. F. P. Robinson reported to Sir George Drummond from Kingston on July 10th, 1815, “T returned from York and Niagara Frontier yesterday, and beg to submit to you my observations on a few leading points. The Church at Fort George is occupied as a Provision Store, which of course cannot be admitted to continue much longer; I have therefore directed the Engineer to send in an estimate for building one by contract.’’t In Appendix “D” will be found a copy of Lieut. Phillpott’s letter to the Acting Military Secretary enclosing an estimate of the cost of building a “Commissariat Store House at Navy Hall.” The build- ing was, therefore, erected about twenty-three years after Simcoe left the country. I have thought it well to reproduce three ordnance plans ? of 1830, 1841 and 1851 respectively. In 1830 the building is called a Commissariat Store, in 1841 Soldiers’ Barracks, in 1851 the Red Barracks. It is quite clear why a large storehouse at that place was not required after 1830. In 1829 the first Welland Canal was opened and the need of trans-shipment at Niagara and of temporary storage room had ceased. There was a sufficiently large warehouse within Fort George. The storehouse was therefore altered into à bariacks, two additional windows were cut through the walls, a partition divid- ed the space into two rooms. Probably the last official trace of this old building is found in a report on the Canadian Barracks written in 1863,§ which will be found in Appendix ‘‘E.” It was, we are inform- ed, moved to its present position about 1865. It is difficult to say whether an interesting inscription could be devised for this building or not, but the present one is erroneous in every particular. Where we should have a monument of some kind is on or near the site of Freemason’s Hall. This inscription would be suitable:—Near this spot in the building known as Freemason’s Hall, Lt.-Gov. John Graves Simcoe opened the first Parliament of Upper Canada, 17th September, 1792. I have thought it of interest to print in full the following papers from the Archives Collection:— Appendix ‘‘A” Hon. Peter Russell’s list of Government Property in Upper Canada in 1800. *See plan III. à tDominion Archives, Series Ordnance and Engineers, Vol. C. 389, 1, 1815, p. 181. tSee plans IV, V, VI. $ Dominion Archives, Ordnance Reports 553 p. 108, et. seq. {scoTT] MEETING PLACE OF THE FIRST PARLIAMENT 181 Appendix ‘‘B’” The Estimate of cost of repairs and additions to Navy Hall. ef “C” Cost of transporting Gov. Simcoe’s effects from Quebec to Niagara, 1792. Receipts for rentals Quebec, 1752. “DPD” Estimate of cost of a Commissariat Store at Navy Hall, 1815. i “E’ Extract from “Report on the Canadian Barracks visited and inspected in October, 1863. ARPENDIEXG 5A? CANADIAN ARCHIVES—Series C. Vol. 1332, p. 99. UPPER CANADA. General statement of public property in this province, commencing with the year 1792, and ending in 1799, expressive of the respective articles of which the same did consist with explanations. Navy Hall.—In 1792, underwent a thorough repair, with very considerable additions; this house was for some time the residence of the Lieutenant Governor. At Navy Hall.—Another house was built as quarters for the Staff of the Province, both of those houses are now, or were till lately occupied by the military stationed at Fort George. The House generally called Butler’s Barracks.—This House underwent a thorough re- pair, and two Wings were added for the Legislature to meet in. This House was since burnt. Queenstown Hutts—Hutts sufficient for quartering the Corps of Queen’s Rangers were built in 1792. These Hutts are now fallen to decay. * Twelve Canadian Horses purchased in Lower Canada.—These Horses arrived at Niagara in the Spring of 1793, but owing to the change of climate and food, added to a distemper then prevalent amongst horses in this country, the greater part of them died, and the remainder were ordered to be sold; the sums received on this head are credited to the public in the Commissary of Stores Half-yearly Accounts. Saw Mill on the Humber.—Built in 1793, it being then contemplated to make York the seat of Government, a Saw Mill was erected on the River Humber for the purpose of obtaining the necessary supply of boards and other lumber required for public service, as could not be procured in a wilderness country distant from any settlement more than fifty miles. This mill has cut the greater part of the boards used for the public service at York and is lett for the current year at one fourth of the lumber she might cut. Garrison at York.—Round Log Hutts were erected in 1793 and 1794 as quarters for the Corps of Queen’s Rangers. 182 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Garrison at York.—A Round Log Hutt was built for the Commissary of Stores and Provisions on the Army Staff in 1794. At the Chippawa.—Timber and other materials were ordered to be provided in the year 1794 for building a Pettiauger at a time when a war between Great Britain and the United States was thought unavoidable; an accommodation having taken place, the Pettiauger was not built; the wooden materials were left there. A Sailing Gun Boat called the Tioga, built and paid for by warrant on the Receiver General.—This Vessel having been suffered to go to decay, and not being wanted, was sold by Mr. McGill, with the President’s permission and the concurrence of the Council; a bond given by the purchasers is now in the hands of the Solicitor General for the recovery of the amount. A Store House and Four Row Gun Boats 40 feet Keel, with Oars and sundry Stores, most of them unserviceable.—This Store House and the Boats were built by Lieut. Governor Simcoe’s Order in 1794, and paid for by Warrant on the Receiver General; a non-commissioned officer from the 24th Regiment was likewise by his directions appointed to have charge of them, and upon the removal of that Regiment, Lieutenant-Colonel Shank at the President’s request, directed the Commandant at Amherstburgh to appoint another from his Regiment, but two succeeding corporals having deserted and it being reported that the founda- tion of the Store House were tumbling into the river, the Magistrates of the Western District were permitted with the concurrence of the Executive Council to remove the Store House to Sandwich, where it was burnt by accident or design in the winter of 1797. The Gun Boats remain at Chatham. York. Two Row Gun Boats with Oars, Rudders and Masts.—Were built in 1794 for the purpose of transporting troops with facility to whatsoever place they might be required; they were to have been manned chiefly with Militia, and to have carried a six pounder in the bow. These two boats are placed under a shed of boards near to the Guard and Store Houses that have been erected on Gibralter Point. Large Scow.—This Scow was built at the same time with the two Gun Boats, for the purpose of landing provisions and public stores, and for the transport of such materials as might be required for the public buildings to be erected at York. This scow is serviceable. Oxen.—Three Yoke were directed to be purchased in 1794 for the public services intended to be carried on at York. These oxen as they became unserviceable were ordered to be sold and the amount creditted to the Commissary of Stores publie account; other serviceable oxen were purchased to replace those sold, as the public service might require; one ox died in 1799; two yoke of serviceable oxen now remain. Dundas Street—Opened from York to the Grand River. Yonge Street—Opened from York to Lake Simcoe. Gibralter Point. Two Block Houses, Store-Houses and a Guard House.—These two Houses are built of square logs and are weather-boarded and have loop-holes in ee 4 [scorT] MEETING PLACE OF THE FIRST PARLIAMENT 183 the second story; they were erected for the purpose of containing the Govern- ment Stores shipped at London in 1792 p the Scipio, &c., and are now employed for their service. This Guard House was built for the accommodation of the Guard necessarily required for the protection of the stores. It is upwards of thirty feet long, divided into two apartments on the first floor with a fire-place in each; the materials are framed, and weather boards filled in with brick, with a gallery the whole length of the house. Schenectady Boats.—Six were purchased in the years 1793, 1794 and 1795; they were made an item in the Commissary Stores Public Account. These Boats are all lost or unserviceable. Large Provision Store House at Garrison York, for the troops. Canal Locks and Wharf at the Garrison of York. These were originally intended to lessen the expense incurred in landing provisions and stores. as well as for the greater security of boats and batteaux. Bridge and a Road.—The Bridge was erected at the Garrison of York, and a Road opened from the Town of York, to the Humber for the better communicating with the Garrison. Head of Lake Ontario, a large Two Story Frame House with Two Wings and an Out House.—Intended for the line of communication between York and the Western District. This House and appendages were ordered to be erected in 1794, at the time when a war between Great Britain and the United States of America was thought inevitable, though the general idea entertained, was that of its being chiefly built for the accommodation of travellers; this was but a secondary consideration, the principal one, provided the exigency of the King’s Service had continued it necessary to have carried the whole plan into effect; being to make it a Depot for Stores and Provisions, as well as a rendezvous for the Militia, and such other troops as it might have been found expedient to have stationed on the line of communication between York, Detroit and Niagara. This House together with -the stores, provisions and such boats as it might have been found requisite for the transport of troops, provisions or stores, was to have been placed under the particular charge of a select officer and party of troops. It is now occupied by Mr. Bates at the rent of one dollar per annum. Town of York, a Log Hutt—Was erected for the artificers and men employed to work upon the public buildings. This Hutt was given with the concurrence of the Executive Government, in exchange for a much larger one laying to the north east of the brick buildings. This Hutt was used last winter for the King’s oxen. Government Park.—Inclosed for the benefit of the King’s oxen when employed. Ground Cleared.—Where the two Brick Buildings are erected in the Town of York. Mills at Kingston and Cataraqui.—One at Kingston for grinding corn and sawing plank, built by Government, and found by Lieut. Governor Simcoe in the possession of Mr. Cartwright, who surrendered it to the Crown; it was then lett on Lease by the Receiver General and the rent regularly credited to Government, 184 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA the present Lessee, Mr. Joseph Allan at £88 P annum; his lease will expire on the 10th of July this year 1800, at which period he will be three years in arrears, the Solicitor General has instituted an action against him and his security for the amount of his debt. The other one, No. 18 in Ernestown, is only a small Saw Mill out of repair, lett from year to year to Mr. Donald McDonell at £15 P annum. His year expires the Ist July. One large Still, part of the Scipio’s cargo.—This Still is in the occupation of Mr. Alexander Clarke of the Bay of Quinté, leased to him by Lieut. Governor Simeoe’s Orders for £20 P Annum. He is considerably in Arrear, and the Solicitor General has consequently orders to institute an Action against him. Garrison of York.—A Powder Magazine of square Hemlock Logs was built in 1795. Batteaux.—Three Batteaux were sent to the Garrison of York in 1793; they have long been unserviceable. A new one was built in 1797 at York, which is since lost. Stoccades.—The intervals between the Hutts were ordered to be stoccaded, and Gates put up with Locks and Bars, likewise a long space afterwards stoccaded in front of the Hutts on the parade. The Salt Springs at the 15 Mile Creek.—On a lot of Land granted to one Culver were taken into the hands of Government by Lieutenant Simcoe in 1792 and put under the care of Mr. Angus McDonell with a Salary as an extra Deputy Surveyor and the Secretary of State applied to for pans and proper persons to work them. Six hundred acres of Waste Land were likewise attached to them for the supply of fuel, &c. But no pans or salters coming out, and Mr. Donell’s management not proving productive, it was judged proper to dismiss him, and . on a petition from the Revd. Mr. Addison (who undertook to get pans and proper persons to work them) they were with the concurrence of the Council, appropriated to the benefit of the Clergyman of Newark for the time being, For particulars reference must be had to the proceedings of Council on this subject. Town of York.—A Log Hutt was erected in the Town of York, in order that a Blacksmith might reside therein: it has hitherto been given rent free, as an encouragement to have a person at hand to do such work as the Public Service might at any time require. Ox Sledges.—Several have been made which are no longer serviceable. Ox Carts.—Four. These Carts were made and used for the purpose of hawling Stones and other materials for Public service at York. Two of them have long since gone to pieces, and the two remaining ones stand in need of considerable repairs. Two Brick Buildings at York, each 40 feet long, with Two other frame Buildings in the Rear.—The Brick Buildings were originally intended as Wings to a House for the Lieut. Governor, and the Houses in the rear of them to be advanced in front tt LES [gcort] MEETING PLACE OF THE FIRST PARLIAMENT 185 for Guard Houses and some other Services. They now serve for the sittings of Parliament, Courts of Justice, and occasionally serve as Churches. Wheel Barrows.—Ten were ordered to be made at York for Public Service. Chiefly all expended. Plow.—One made, which is unserviceable. Harrow.—Two made. One of them stolen in 1799, and the other unserviceable. Boat for Transport of Stone.—This Boat after tryal was found not to answer the service for which she had been built. She was therefore sold for Stones equal to her original cost. Garrison at York.—A large Block House Barrack occupied by the King’s Troops. A light Row Boat.—Built for the use of the Garrison of York. River Credit—A House was built at this place for the accommodation of Travellers passing to and from the seat of Government through the Messisague Tract of of land. This House is in the occupation of Mr. Allan Merchant, under a lease at One Dollar P. annum, and an Obligation to have it properly kept for the accommodation of Travellers. York Garrison.—A Store House of Two Stories for the Indian presents. Jail at York.—With the Jail Yard stoccaded and Gates. Toronto Yacht.—This Vessel was built for the service of the Civil Government of Upper Canada, and to be subject entirely to the order of the Governor, Lieut. Governor, or person administering the Government.—1799. A Block or Defencible Guard House in the Town of York.—This House was built as a Guard House for the Militia of York should the Indian War with which we were threatened in the Winter of 1798, have required their being embodied. Land cleared and inclosed near the Garrison of York.—For the more easy mode of procuring the quantity of Hay required for the King’s Oxen, a Field of from Seven to Eight Acres, was cleared, inclosed, and laid down with Grass Seeds. (Signed) PETER RUSSELL, late Administering the Government of Upper York, 2nd July, 1800. Canada. APPENDIX “B” DOMINION ARCHIVES, SERIES Q. 61. pt. 1 p.214. QUEBEC, 8th Ocroger, 1792. Estimate of the Expence of making such repairs and Additions at Navy Hall as are required for the Accommodation of His Excellency Colonel Simcoe, Ordered by him 26th July, 1792, from the Report of Lieut. Pilkington, Royal Engineer, 186 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Carpenters Works ONE, SAR © piece orate a ae re eee ee £ 80 Bricklayers and Plastererst ASC ROME wie seis los Ro 18 SON: Soe atria act ee Stones are che meee arate Pare PORT NN SCIE EEE 2 Glariers OR ER ARE NE ME MERE PER 2 Painters sut, SAC yng ee ores eee ete eae rete ln ote 2 Tis DOUNCRSE Hi HAA RU APE ot es at ee A see 12 £116 © © © & © © 5 Amounting to One Hundred and Sixteen Pounds, five Shillings cuurry. BENJN. FISHER, oo © © © © o Capt. Comdg. Rl. Engr. Endorsed No. 3. Approved Signed—ALURED CLARKE, By the Major General’s Command Signed Frans. Le Maistre, M.S. DOMINION ARCHIVES, SERIES Q. 61. pt. 1 p. 216. A.C. Estimate of the Expence of sundry Materials necessary for making such repairs and additions at Navy Hall as are requisite for the accommodation of His Excellency Colonel Simcoe, required in Captain Fishers Estimates of the 8th of October, 1792. 600! feet “runng.. Pine (Goby, Sue LP Re AR TRE ee at 3d. 2000 feet. of runng. Scantling; -b by 6.060..." acs ov yam ne at 2d. 4000 feet’ of runng. Scantling, 4 Wy 15.. 4. er at 14d. 20014 ins PE Me PANIERS AREAS TAN ES ETS pee cae ere AR at 1/3 LOO} Tin Chee OAEAS EE RNA ARE NPA PE SERRE AR AR at 1/ea. SOO INCH BOATS: Lee seine wes nee ARE EL ioe ne LUN LT R Tee at 1/ea. SOURS SIN EN DAT AS AMENER COR RE Lee seed EMI NE at 9d./ea. 24 000:-afShinples Pere teem mais ENS ences at 45/p thd. ZDOD:'ON LAURE 56.5 RE TR RE Seat colicin SE de ene at 15/ LS OAs: Of. 50) NAS ER A NO CU A Rte at 6d. p Ib HOMDS Of 20 wall seem ee RES RAT ANT at 6d. p Ib 280PS OT ONIN Atha eee it Score te dis ale Me ee aie et EE at 9d. p Ib. 25 [DSS 02, ae eee oe EN MARRON ALT ENS eee at 8d p. hund A400 ibs OO DIRE NAN RE ec ities Cele eas at 6d p Ib. 140 (ba OP Map NAS CRE trl ect ee eran e at 6d p Ib. BOO MOE 5 ICH OLS He... ate ae eek «os eek san oa eo he Selous at 2d ea. 180 Barrels. of Lise: Jn eee ME MES AOR eee Ce at 9/ea. Zombushels Gl EMIT? 4e He bee boc eho wots aoe Ose SE at 1/6 AOOOMZOL “Brickse ES MN in AMP Ren eerie at 60/- BO CMSs. AOL “SPICED .. Lu de EL SR Miele aimee is ane at 2/- PUB: MU ei. ane he oe ee 0 at 6d. p Ib. Ba2 SPADES Ol GASES TER LI cari me TORRE er at 6d. ea. GE Ibs oR mitre oy Sa). cog AU peer oe at 10d. p lb. SO Mes OL, VNU LS PS PO A RENE at 1/6 p |b. 6 lbs! of BIENS AMEL EE AN PIN acne seein at 7/6 p Ib. 12e Brown “bares odie ecto MAUR om at 2/ p lb. ad 7 16 25 21 5 15 22 54 10 13 0 ET 20ORBRBRODOO0O0MmOBOONOOOOOOOO0O0MmO#8 eee ce [scorT] MEETING PLACE OF THE FIRST PARLIAMENT 187 HE ot Diack Pain UMR RE chs easel Sd nie. ours fe at 8d. p lb. 112720 mallonc bansced On. PR ON lite Let fe at12/-p Gall 4 4 0 BACalon or. opinite of “Lurpemtme. ss. 02 jasc) 3 eee SA t= O0 BVM TPES EGS or Ex IUIGY ana deep nel LEE at 5/- 11040 DID RO REGIS A aia cerns Cinema ect eich ok anata at 3/- IG MO ARS LOCKS I C KE ete aoe scent hed ea ana or) ds RAUE se at 7/6 ONS) O0 UZ OOP MIGOCKS DE rennes en ERR home candle wee ere tele SO at 5/- 3 SME ACLOCK RE PR RL revenir eles ede ur slot ..at 2/6 ONO LE NE KHAN SANS FRERE a ee has ave sins Sa hale ers aates Be at 5/- 3 Ow AR DATA Olas lar FAN OC OSirrs cuicis ute een een eee cie Se at 4/- 2 418000 WIN LO Wares OLGS Mey MN EL es cm AC Lane Lo Net at 2/- 1480 LED OOK OI nn ne manette due re Te at 2/6 1SI0NO MERS ON SCREWE NN rade ten a) tot LR QU SERRE eke at 6d. Ones 0 Sm Wiatchessan die @atchesi tacit susie a creatine rays ois aieisiases at 1/- OMIS 10 DOIDS M OMALARIAE ITON ase cattle aS oe aloe ates oes at 30/— p cwt. 01520 PDS Ie Square Iron, : 20.020. Re at 30/—p ewt. Qs MRO 12 ECS SO 07 Son en ERY a eRe ee at 4/- 0 16 0 SSO E Ones Amounting to Three hundred fifty seven pounds and two pence Currency’ Dollar at five Shillings. JOHN CRAIGIE, Indorsed— Comy. & Q Mr. Gent. A.C. Estimate, &c. £357 O 2 Currency. APPENDIX “C” DOMINION ARCHIVES Cost of trinsporting Gov. Simcoe’s effects from Que»ec to N'agara, 1792. Receipts for rentals Quebec, 1792. His Excellency Lieut. Governor Simcoe Dr. to John Gray for sundry expences attending his journey from Quebec to Kingston and the transport of his baggage. 1792 June 4 Paid Freight of baggage per the Charlotte 125 tons £ 4 15 10 Cartage 24 loads /8 1 ditto /10................... 0 16 10 Pe CUrnins AN GUbbOS 1. 67 2-10 den ae Seale + SN 20 15 lbs. Rope for trunks & Boxes, &c............... 012 6 8 Yards bagging for covering do................... 0%6..:0 An old trunk with lock and key................... O75 0 20 Paid Freight for the Peggy...........%...#a. Our Sy 49 Ent mer the Hope ss. |: 12.0 000 ce eer 0Le5 0 Ditto pertihe Perseverance........ 522.00 8.50) see tu OF1S85 9 Ditpoer the Marie...) 1200 Meme. ie 015 0 Cartage Lalonde, LE CCLe NU M AO DR eet 01012 JE Te arte ARS AE UE ARE RS ECC EE 0246 Cartage to Lachine 20 loads 3/9.................. 3°15 0 Ditton Ditton 2 DICO ER cls ree = 0 10 O ————— £7 0 2 188 22 bo ie) bo io") July 6 23 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Paid Batteaux mens Wages, 2 Batteaux and 2 Men in each boat, the remainder being of the Queen’s Rangers, Provisions for 4 men 15 days each Vizt. £ 8 O0 0 120 1bs-bicubat 10/6 pencwt sitll uses ese reiess Omi Baie ens GH Conca re. os berceime OR STROLL OTK AE ieee ieusherstemedorkas 012 6 3 Gallons 6 pints pease 3/ per bushel.............. 05 2 Gallons spins RU ER ee ke ee 0 12 6 —— £ 919 1 Paid Cartage at the Cedars 6 loads 1/3............ O7 6 Calash hire from Point aux Trembles.............. O7 6 Cartage to Batteaux 10 loads /8 0} Gis Ditto 2 loads to Grants at Lachine................ 0 10 O £ Ave Sundry Provisions for the journey up p account.... £12 4 3 Paid 2iloads.to Srants at Lachine..." 010 O iVordtinonmibe india House si creas CCR ie OMOMS £ 10°85 Paid sloadstor Battesusc: re ere ee ec OBS AJGA Get aehine: Merc, LL re ce eres oe nO £ Oi Carmed TOGWATCs: 7. te. one ici ct er - ——— £38 18 0 Paid Batteaux men’s wages, 3 Batteaux at........ £T£210M0 Provisions for 12 men 21 Days each, including 3 days they waited for His Excellency at Lachine...... 504-lbs: Biseiit-at, 10/6 peri? Wbsw io jy ees Dia sites te Nae ll ove eto dice ER SH coin o BA pias Octo Oo Smet ois 212 6 1 bushel 7 gallons 6 pints Pease, 3/................ 5 10 lOvGallonsy4 pins RUN oii n warren 212 6 DI PACS TOL DISCUML SL Ora. eee = SEC TT CE 7G Paid 12 men waiting at Lachine.................. 1 160 LSL ARE Paid Mr. Craigie Batteaux mens’ Wages from Quebec To Montreal a sees corre ccs Store ne kh anoles ake eRe £21 05.0 John Munro Provisions mor dito. «sm. sieeeae TPE US £28 5 8 Paid Martineau Batteaux men’s wages for two men sent up with the remainder of His Excellency’s baggage and that of sundry officers’ at £7 each.... £14 0 O Paid him extra for taking care of the baggage........ OMG Cartage at the Cedars 6 loads at 1/3............... 0 7 6 Provisions es men 18 days each}... 0... 288 Piseuitat 10/6 per 112 1b;,,.27.2. meer ta. 0 DO MAE OR Ao LS D SN - NW Avo ke KI” Dh. cast Sd oh @ vy PLAN V DS asnopyf PDP Youg $0477 — 7 Ayer pf ee PI | oe P20: =e 3 —— surkeboyr— © 22 u?u fe y mans i ¢/0/ 70. POL Y°°f EE INSEE A 7 LA S Y0490 F° i fo suming 7) 790 60.24) poy, ‘ PER Puy U22 ot £ fo) ANSE M 4, 2 PLAN VI, IYOIT U Payers SYIOMND A 'uusy POIURUÉ a bg AM 155 A) pre L377 0 32) LV of Ja SANNY PAIZTDVN EE = AY ; 4 as orgy LBL À yop SV) OA 21024 | ZEIT gr y yn Sou D Lag f 120141 X J THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA TRANSACTIONS SECTION III. MATHEMATICAL, CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES PAPERS FOR 1913 evr 11 | * “? rd ÿ " te ill . , ri j 5 F à aw. > j { ivy We eve han ar Lu 218, l'A vi r bi ica a ao iw May clit tes ÿ RCE a i SECTION IIL, 1913. : [3] TRANS. R.S.C. Magnetic Observations in the Hudson Bay and Straits Region. By W. E. W. Jackson, M.A. Presented by Mr. R. F. Srupart, F.R.S.C. (Read May 28, 1913) When the Government of Canada decided to open up a trade route from some port on the western side of Hudson Bay to Europe, it became at once necessary to correct the navigation charts, and of these corrections, not the least important was to bring the Magnetic values up to date. The latest admiralty chart was published for that region, originally in 1884, and republished with alterations and corrections up to 1908. However, in view of the close proximity of this region to the Magnetic pole and the lack of sufficiently accurate data for the determination of secular changes, it can readily be understood that the imaccuracies may be of considerable moment. For instance, if an error of 1 degree in the value of the declin- ation existed in the charts, and a ship were proceeding on a course through Hudson Strait determined on the presumption that the charts were correct, at the end of 100 miles run it would be about 2 miles from the calculated position, whilst if the error were 5 degrees, the ship would be almost nine miles from the calculated position, and this of itself might be sufficient to cause disaster. The Hydrographic Surveys Branch of the Department of the ‘Naval Service were therefore asked to secure the necessary data for making these corrections, and in the spring of 1912 the Director of the Meteorological and Magnetic Service was asked by the Navy De- partment to furnish an observer to carry out the Magnetic survey work, and I was deputed to take charge of the expedition, and Mr. W. B. Wiegand, B.A., was appointed as my assistant. The C.G.S. “Arctic” was requisitioned for the Magnetic survey and placed in my charge by the Director of the Hydrographic Survey on the 26th of June, fully provisioned for a cruise of six months. This vessel was built by the Germans in 1901 for their Antarctic expe- dition, and special care was taken in her construction to make her suitable for Magnetic Survey work: No iron was placed nearer than 27 feet from the observing bridge, and the rigging was wholly of hemp. She has a length between perpendiculars of 151 feet, a beam of 36 4 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA feet, a depth of hold of 16 feet, and a displacement of 1,450 tons. She is rigged as a barkentine and is provided with auxiliary steam power in the form of a vertical triple expansion engine of 275 indi- cated horse power, which is capable of driving her at a speed of 7 knots an hour in smooth water. In 1904 she was purchased by the Canadian Government and has made several voyages to the northern part of Canada. There were provided for ocean Magnetic observations a Kelvin Admiralty standard compass and a Ritchie U.S. standard compass, with their usual fittings; and for the determining of position, sextants eraduated to 10 seconds, and five chronometers, whose rates were determined at Quebec before leaving, and again on returning. OcEAN MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. DECLINATION. o LA o / Station:—At Sea. Lat.:—60 55-5 N Long.:—92 37-7 W Date:—Saturday, Aug. 3, 1912. Vessel :—Arctic. Compass:—Ritchie. y Obs’r:—W.E.W.J. Rec’d’r:—W.B.W. Weather:—Fair. Sea:—Smooth Wind:—Moderate. Roll or heel:—0. fu <- = Course SW by 8 Chronometer Comparisons Seales 8609 | AAA — No. |Timeby watch Before After hy) a) 8 be ira Gs hi > Gal) ip 1 19 54 26 287-5 Chr’r 1, 07,00: |. 2 ee a 2 54 38 -4 ©) Cor. — 38 24|— 3 24 3 54 43 5 G.M.T. 1 3 036) 2a 4 54 52 5 E. — 5 58|— 5 58 5 55 8 8 G.A.T 0 °57 38 | Ly hice 6 55 214 8 Long. 6°10 31.) 16201070 7 55 19 9 L.A.T 18, 47 71 ASS 8 55 27 8 Watch 19 50 17 | 20 "00 9 55 34 7 440 L:AJT. =20 3) 10% 0080 10 55 44 7 Sum DD 2876-6 Log Before After Mean 19 55 6-5 287 -66 6-3 6-6 ho Mme Watch time .....:... 19 55 6 Compass bearing of sun: N 72-3 W Watch error ........ -1 3 10 DeVIATIONS nis ieee ares» 2.4 Wly Lint 2 Dey PE SRS ES 18 51 56 Sun’s Magnetic Az.:.... N 74-7 W Hour angle... 2... 2/06 6 51 56 Declination: .......... + 4-4 Sun’s dee’n: 17° 24’ 25” Sun’s true Az.: N 70°-3 W Remarks: Compass fairly steady. For land observations the instruments provided included an Elliott horizontal foree Magnetometer, and a Carnegie Institution Magnetometer, which were used for the determination of horizontal force and declination, and two Dover Dip circles of the Lloyd Creek [JACKSON] MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS > pattern, which were used for the determination of Inclination and Total Force. These instruments were compared with the standard instruments at the Agincourt observatory both before and after the cruise, and their index corrections and constants determined. The method of observation with the land instruments was given in detail in my paper in Vol. V, series 111, of the Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada. The sea magnetic observations consisted wholly in the determination of declinations or variation of the compass. The manner in which these observations were made is given below for a single heading of the ship. Whenever weather conditions would permit the observations were made with the ship’s head in as many of the principal compass directions as possible, and when observations were made on the 16 points with both port and starboard swings, the results were used to determine and control the ship’s deviation. These results were reduced according to the method given in the Admiralty Manual for deviations of the compass. It is there shewn that the Deviation curve may be expressed in the form Deviation—A +B sin 5+C cos 5+D sin 25+ Ecos 25 when the deviation does not exceed 20 degrees on any point and where A is the constant part of the Deviation and is independent of the ship’s head and is due to the lubber line of the compass not being coincident with the ship’s fore and aft amidship line. B,C, D, and E are constants dependent on the strength and location of the permanent and sub- permanent magnetism of the ship. D and E remain constant for change of magnetic latitude, while B and C vary with change of Inclination and Horizontal Force. These changes in B and C are given by the formulæ— B=xtanl +yq4; C =x’ tal + y’ + where x, y, x’ and y’ are constants dependent on the distribution ot the ship’s magnetism, I is the magnetic Inclination and H the Horizontal Force ot the earth’s magnetic field. The constant A was determined at Rimouski for the Ritchie compass to be —1.93 by the method of reciprocal bearings, but the values for the other constants did not prove to be satisfactory and as these could be determined at sea quite as readily, and in fact, the con- ditions would then be similar to the conditions under which sea observations would be made, it was considered inadvisable to remain longer at Rimouski for their determination and also owing to the lateness of the season, it being then June 30, and our instructions being to find out if possible the earliest date that navigation in Hudson Strait would be possible. 6 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA During the season it was our plan to observe whenever weather conditions would ailow on the 16 principal compass points with both port and starboard swings; and if it was only possible to complete a swing with one helm, at the next opportunity a swing was made with the other helm and the means of the positions and values of the con- stants observed were used for the reduction of the observations. The method employed in determination of the constants B, C, D and E from the Deviations on port and starboard helm from the obser- vation of August 3 and 4 is shewn below and following it is given a summary of the values of the constants with the values of H and I for the different locations and the calculation of the constants x, y, x’ and y’ therefrom. These results may be exhibited graphically and it is in this manner that they are most useful. If the values of the constants for the Ritchie compass for Latitude 57° 31’ N, Longitude 59° 57’ W and also for Latitude 59° 44’ N, Longitude 85° 57’ W just determined be now used to determine the deviation on the different points and if these deviations so determined are plotted on squared paper in such a way that 1 division of abscissee represents 1 degree of deviation,—westerly and + easterly, and 1 division of ordinate represents a change of 224° in the direction of the ship’s head, and smooth curves be drawn through the different points for the different positions, then the accompanying curves will be the result, where the one marked X———X is the one for the first position and the one marked O——O is the second. The effect produced on the deviations by change of magnetic latitude is quite pronounced and in an iron ship the effect would be much greater, and this therefore explains the need of navigators being furnished with charts of Inclina- tion and Horizontal Force as well as Declination. The deviation curve having been found for the magnetic latitude the ship is in, the deviation for any heading of the ship may be read off the curve and applied to the compass course for steering purposes, or as in our work it may be applied to the compass bearing of the sun to give the true Magnetic bearing and then from the true bearing of the sun the Magnetic Declination as shown in the example already given. The results of the ocean observations reduced to the mean of the day are given below in table II. Land observations were made at Quebec, Rimouski, Battle Harbour, Marble Island, Churchill, York Factory, Port Laperriere, Nottingham Island, Sugluk Bay, Ashe Inlet, Stupart Bay and Port Burwell and the results are tabulated and given below in table III. At Marble Island the time of a single oscillation of a magnet whose moment was 280 dynes was 8.7 seconds and its deflection of another [sAcKSON] MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS i ; ee similar magnet at a distance of 28 cms. was 58 degrees. At Agincourt the time of a single oscillation of the same magnet is only 3.75 seconds and the deflection at a distance of 20 cms. is only 26.6 degrees. The accuracy of observations of horizontal force by the method of oscilla- tions and deflections is therefore very greatly dim nished where the 8 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA horizontal force is small and where the diurnal range of declination amounts to 14 degrees and where in a few minutes the magnet might pass completely off the scale of the telescope. Greater dependence is placed on results from the total Force instrument in such localities, and yet at Marble Island the two results agreed to within 0.00027 dynes which is less than the probable error of an observation in that region. At all stations in Hudson Bay and Strait both methods for determining horizontal force were used and the results given below are the arithmetic mean of the values from the two methods. At Ashe Inlet and Port Burwell the same observing station was used as in the expedition of 1908-9 and at Stupart Bay the same station was used as that on which absolute determinations were made by Mr. R. F. Stupart in 1884-5 when magnetic observations were carried on for about a year. At these three stations then the most accurate data for secular change was secured. At the other stations the exact location of former observing stations could not be found and consequently secular change data may be effected by local disturbances. However, it would seem that some deductions may be made as to the general changes that are taking place over the Hudson Bay and Strait region. At the Eastern end of the Strait West declinations are diminishing at present at the rate of about 9 minutes a year, whilst the mean rate from 1884 to 1909 was slightly in excess of this. This rate of change diminishes, as you proceed westward, until near the western side of Hudson Bay it reaches zero. The inclination is diminishing very rapidly at Burwell at present, being about 10’ a year, and at Ashe Inlet about half this rate. From 1884 to 1909 the diminution for the whole eastern part of Hudson Strait was at the rate of only about 1 minute per year. Over Hudson Bay the Inclination is probably diminishing about a minute per year, the apparent increase at Churchill being probably due to a different location and the presence of local disturbance. All stations shew an increased value of Horizontal Force, the mean of all being 24 y per year and this would seem to confirm the fact that Inclinations are throughout this entire region diminishing. The data for secular change results is given below in Table I. The values of the elements for 1884 and 1885, except York Factory, are taken form the Report of Lieut. Gordon on his expeditions during those years. That for York Factory is from the report of the Chief Astronomer, Department of the Interior, Ottawa, 1909. The results for Battle Harbour for 1905 are from data furnished by the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution and the value for Churchill for 1910 is from observations made by Mr. Savary of the Hydrographic Survey, Department of the Naval Service. [JACKSON] MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS 9 Riroxie Compass, AUG. 3 AND 4, 1912. DETERMINATION OF Constants, B, C, D anp E. a PP DE PSS ale ad SS TN te ie learn aa ISSN Obser’d Dev’n* Computation SA AEE AS OS | [Ee OE OA ih [ae i a = B sin | C cos | Dsin | E cos |Dev’n|} «_ 2 Port | Starb.| Mean c z 2¢ 24 * C-O ÿ o ° N |-0-97|—1-26|\—1-12|| 0-00\—0-98| 0-00/—0-11/—1-09| +0-03| -0009 NNE |+2-24]+1-81/+42-02] +2-05/—0-91/ +0-88/—0-08|+1-94|—0-08| -0064 +4-36|+4-28|/+3-78|—0-69|+1-25] 0-00/+4-34/+0-06] -0036 ENE |+4-67|/+6-90)+5-78||-+4-94|—0-38] +0-88|+0.08|+5-52\—0-26| -0676 +5-02/+6-29/+5-66]+5-35] 0-00] 0-00/+0-11/+5-46\—0-20| -0400 ESE |+3-65|+5.39/+4.52)| + 4.04 +0-38|—0-88|/+0-081+4-52| 0.00! -0000 +1-81]+4-03|+2-92] +3-78/-+0-69|—1-25/ 0-00/+3-221+0-30| -0900 SSE |+0-86/+3-39| +2-12|]+2-05|+0-91\—0-88|—0-08|+2-00\—0-12| -0144 +0-07|+2-77|/+1-42l] 0-00/+0-98| 0-00/—0-11/+0-87|\—0-55| -3025 —0-99/—0-56|—0-78||—2-05|+.0-91/ +0-88|—0-08|—0-34/+0-44| -1936 —1-85|—1-23|/—1-54||—3-78|+0-69|+1-25| 0-00\—1-84|—0-30] -0900 —2-65|—4 -06|—3 -36|—4 94] + 0.38] +0-88|-++0-08|—3-60/—0-24| -0576 W |-4-39|—7-46/—5-92|—5-35] 0-00] 0-00/-+0-11|—5-24/+0-68| .4624 WNW |—3.62|—7-50|—5-56||—4-94|—0.38/—-0.88!+0-08|—6-12|_0-56| -3136 NW |—4-32|—6-64|—5-48||3-78|—0.69|—1-25! 0-00|—5-72|—0-24| -0576 —3-69|—4-36|—4 - 02||—2-05|—0. 91/0. 88|0-08|3-92|+0-10| -0100 (1) (2) (3) (4) 5 6 Comp’n B Comp’n C No. Head | Dev’n*| Head | Dev’n* 2) Pa) cs (7) |(6)X(7) (8) (6) X (8) a N |-1-12} S |+1-42/+0.30| 2.54) 0.000! 0-00! 1-000|—2-54 b |NNE/+2.02 SSW |—0.78 +1.24 2.80) 0-383/+1-07| 0-924/4+2-59 e | NE |+4-28! SW |—1-54|+2-.74/+5-82| 0.7071+4.11| 0.707 44-11 d | ENE|+5-78| WSW |—3-36|+2-42|+9-14| 0-924/+8-45| 0-383/43-50 e E |+5-66] W |—5-92|—0-26/+11.58| 1-000'411.58| -0000/0 0-00 f | ESE |+4.52 WNW|—5-56\—1-04+10.08! 0-924|4.9-31|-38a|_3-86 g fh SE |+2-92) NW |—5-48|—2.56|+-8-40] 0-707/+5-94|—-707|—5-94 SSE |+2-12) NNW |—4.02/—1-90|/+6-14 0-383 +2-35|—-924'—5 -67 Operation eCompaneD. Le Complain 8B |+42.81| 8C |—7-81 (9)x(10) ae a B |+5-35| © |—0-98 bre 0-707|+1-62| 0-707 dE 1-000/+5-30| 0-000! 0-00! D |+1-25) E |—o-11 d—h. |+43210-707+3-05| 7078.08 | = | I Deviation—A—Deviation*—Bsin 5+(C cos 5+D sin 25+E cos 25. Probable error, single observation—+0:195 x V/Ev2—+ 0-26. Sec. ITI, 1913—1 10 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA SUMMARY OF SEA SWINGS.—RITCHIE Compass. W’t | No. | Lat. | Long.| H I B C D E pe N W. | (CGS) | -10 1 | 57 31| 59 5710-1018] 79-84|/+2-97|/+0-44 +1-18|+0-55| 0-52 -40 2 | 60 38] 92 560-0485] 86-00/+.5-35|—0-98|+1-25|—0-11| 0-26 -53 3 | 59 44] 85 14/0-0495| 85-69/+3-81|—0-59|+1-52|+0-03| 0-23 -96 4 | 62 06] 73 25|0-0600| 84-20|+3-20/—1-28]+1-10|—0-10| 0-17 MASS PE ones OW : EL No. | W't | pB pC pD pe: | tani) tant], |e MER 1 -10 +0:297| +0:044| +0:118| +0-055| 5-580) 31-136) 9-823| 0-982 2 +40 +1-337| —0-392| +0-500} —0-044114-301| 204-519/20-619| 8-248 3 -53 +2-019) —0.313| +0-806] +0-016)13-270| 176-093|20-202|10-707 4 -96 +3-072| —1-229| +1-056| —0-096| 9-845) 96-924/16-667/16-000 x {1-99 +2-480| —0-069 Wt’d mean +1:25 | —0-03 a I Be i ge No. ptan’I | pBtanI PH? geil PH? =| pCtanI| P-H 1 3-114 1-657 5-480 2-916 9-646 |+0-246 |+0-432 2 81-808 | 19-110 117-954 | 27-567 1170-065 |—5-606 |—8-083 3 93-329 | 26-796 |142-083 | 40-794 |216-308 |—4-153 |—6-323 4 93-047 | 30-244 157-523 | 51-201 |266-672 |-12-099 |-20-484 z 271-298 | 77-807 |423-040 |122-478 |662-686 |-21-612 |-34-458 13 yh No. | xtan I YH Be Bc—Bo| x’tan I| YH Ce Cce—Co 1 —1:746| +3:733| +1-987| —0-98 | +1-73 | —2-46 | —0-73 | —1-17 2 —4-476| +7-835) +3-359) —1-99 | +4-43 | —5-15 | —0-72 | +0-26 3 —4-154| +7-677| +3-523) —0-29 | +4-11 | —5-05 | —0-94 | —0-35 4 —3-081} +6-333} +3-252) +0-05 | +3-05 | —4-17 | —1-12 | +0-16 B=xtanI + yq C— x'tan I + yg — xtan Yu — x/tan ya ‘77 -807==271- 298 x +423-040y. (1) —21-612—271 : 298 x’ + 423-040 x, ; nts ae -040 x +662: 686y. (2) —34-458—423 -040 x’ + 662-686 y’ rom (1 121 -325—423-040 x +659-65ly. (3) —33-:700—423-040 x’+ 659-651y’ combining (2) and (3) 1:153—3.035 y —(0: 758—3: 035 y’ +. Y=+0-380 y =—0-250 and x——0:313 and x’ —+0:310 The constants for the Kelvin compass were determined in a similar manner and are as follows: A=—1-6, D=+0-976, E—=—0-028, x=—0- 537, rm 460, x’=+0- 238, y=—0- 145. [JACKSON] MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS 11 TABLE I. Magnetic Secular Variation. Declination. Mean Station Date D Date D Annual Change PortiBarwell. .....:.... 1884-6 | —49° 28’ | 1909-7 | —44° 01’ +13/-0 Port Burwell.......... 1909-7 |—44° 01’ | 1912-7 | —43° 34’ + 9-0 JG 2 1 7). 1909-7 | —52°31’ | 1912-7 | —51° 57’ +11-3 SLA ay roo ores 1885-1 | —54°12’ | 1912-7 | —49° 55’ + 9-2 Nottingham Island..... 1884-7 | —52° 30’ | 1912-7 | —51°10’| + 2-8 Marble Island......... 1884-6 | — 8° 40’ 1912-6 | — 7° 40’ + 2-1 Ghurenls. 2: ni le: 1910-8 | + 9°40’ | 1912-6 + 9°29’ | — 6-1 York Factory.......... 1884-7 | + 6°38’ | 1912-7 + 5°07’ | — 3-2 Battle Harbour........ 1905-6 | —35° 22’ | 1912-5 | —35° 25 | — 0-4 Inclination. I I d Port Burwell.......... 1884-6 | +82° 24 | 1909-7 + 82° 06’ | — 0-7 Port Burwell. oo... Js. 1909-7 | +82° 06’ | 1912-7 +81° 36’ | —10-2 she nets... 41. 1884-6 | +84° 16’ | 1909-7 +83° 56’ | — 0-8 Ahe/fnleb:2:.:..1 42. 1909-7 | +83° 56’ | 1912-7 +83° 40’ | — 5-7 plupsrt Day... .....~; 1885-3 | +84°05’ | 1912-7 | +83° 37 | — 1-0 Nottingham Island..... 1884-7 | +86° 02’ | 1912-7 +85° 06’ | — 2-0 Port Laperriere........ 1884-7 | +85° 54’ | 1912-7 +85° 40’ | —0-5 Marble Island*........ 1884-6 | +87°20’ | 1912-6 + 87° 16’ | — O:1 CASTE Ce nl RER RSR 1910:8 | +84° 33’ | 1912-6 + 84° 40’ + 3-5 York Factory.......... 1884-7 | +83° 47’ 1912-7 + 83° 37’ | — 0-4 Horizontat Force. Expressed in C.G.S. units. H H Port Burwell::::2.:,..- 1909-7 0-08390 | 1912-7 0-08610 | +0-00073 Anke. Inlet ceases et 1909-7 0-06630 | 1912-7 0-06658 | +0-00009 Srupart Bayes nc... k sss 1885-2 0-06240 | 1912-7 0-06694 | +0-00017 Nottingham Island..... 1884-7 0-04340 | 1912-7 0-05184 | +0-00030 [GL iii ecl ei | ROMANE 1910-8 0-06043 | 1912-6 0-06057 | +0-00008 Work Wactorye 1... 1884-7 0-06953 | 1912-7 0-07139 | +0-00007 * Inclination for Marble Island for 1884-6 was published as +84° 20’ but this is probably a typographical error and the value should be +87° 20’ as used for determining the secular variation. 12 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA TABLE II. Summary of Ocean Magnetic Declination observations made on board C.G.S. “Arctic’”’ during 1912, by W. E. W. Jackson, M.A., assisted by W. B. Wiegand, B.A. Declinat’n Declinat’n Date | Lat. N.|Long.W.| + Hast Date Lat.N. |Long.W.| + East —West —West o / ° / o o / ° / o July 2 49 06 | 61 22 —27-7 Aug 8 | 58 59 | 92 21 + 6-7 ï 49 37 | 60 22 —28-3 s 8 | 58 29 | 91 49 + 3-4 ths 50 26 | 58 32 —33-8 + 9 | 57 41 | 91 38 + 5-2 “13 | 56 24 | 56 07 —36-7 “ 14 | 57 07 | 92 35 + 71 eee Is} 56 41 | 56 55 —37-1 SIN ir BO) Ip lO) tas + 1-3 og Ae 57 31 | 59 57 —41-5 “18 | 58 05 | 90 40 + 2-5 Sn 58 27 | 61 48 —42.3 “ 18 | 58 05 | 90 30 + 1-6 > 216 60 42 | 64 08 —43-1 “ 22 | 59 33 | 86 32 —15-9 pie 72 61 10 | 65 20 —47:5 % 23 | 59 30 | 85 20 —15-5 4 161710116672) —45-5 C= 23> || 5930-85-47 —14-0 18 | Gl 100674 —47 5 oy 250122240840 —36-3 “4 19). 6Y. 13%) 68 105 —50-0 “> |: 26 11620304 79702 —43-5 20: 76101311668"106 —47 -5 SO QT GAS 7e 100 —43 -6 “25.4 62,28 |. 72 10 —49-7 “" | 29 1162 36 | 77 56 —40.8 “ 28 | 62 48 | 78 59 —A7-7 30) [nbs 1501077028 —50-7 3429 61 56 | 81 50 —34-9 Se Sl WG229)) | vo 29 —49:1 “ 29 62 04 | 83 14 —32 -4 Sept. 1 | 62 15 | 75 32 —47:1 “7.130 62 10 | 83 38 —32-3 : 6.162 22 | 75,20 —45-5 “ 30 | 62 02 | 84 45 —28-3 & + 10 \u6k 43° | 71122 —48-1 el 62 10 | 87 34 —12-8 alr ails Wo ¥sy | eats} RAI —48 -2 Aug. 3 61 40 | 92 03 + 1-3 RIT AGISSENT ad —48 «4 + 61 15 | 92 20 + 4-8 “ 12 | 60 24 | 64 48 —46-3 “ 3] 60 56 | 92 38 + 4-7 “ 23 | 60 25 | 64 42 —43-2 “ 4] 60 16 | 93 44 +10-3 “ 25 | 60 25 | 64 42 —41-9 “ 4] 59 35 | 93 48 + 9-1 | Oct 6 | 61 15 | 65 02 —45-4 [JACKSON] k MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS 13 TABLE III. Summary of Land Magnetic Observations, made during the cruise of the C.G.S. Arctic to Hudson Bay in 1912, by W. E. W. Jackson, M.A., assisted by W. B. Wiegand, B.A. Declinat’n Horizon’! Station Lat.N. |Long.W.| Date —West Inclin- Force + East ation |C.G.S.units o / Oo i o / ° / Guiehees: = 4-55 46 48 | 71 14 | June 22) —18 24-3} +75 57-8] 0-14749 Ramousks: 22... . 48 30 | 68 31 “« 28} —23 01-0 Battle Harbour ...| 52 16 | 55 35 |July 5) . +76 09-3 = MS i 6| —35 26-1 0-13520 « veg Tete s 7| —35 24-2 Marble Island..... 62 40 | 91 09 | Aug. 2) — 7 39-6} +87 16-0} 0-03031 Churchill. os. sa. 58 46 | 94 10 B 5| + 9 28-8 0-06228 " ie ie 6 +84 39-7} 0-05886 York Factory..... 57 00 | 92 10 “ 15) + 5 6-9 | +83 36-8} 0-07139 Port Laperriere ..| 62 36 | 77 56 rath +85 40-1) 0-04722 i « “ 28} —40 13-5} +85 40-8} 0-04766 Nottingham Is....| 63 15 | 77 24 “30; —51 10-1) +85 06-5} 0-05184 Sugluk Bay....... 62 14 | 75 33 |Sept. 2| —47 42-1) +84 25-1] 0-05896 cs Co i 5| —47 44-5) +84 24-0! 0-05912 Ashe Inlet........ 62 34 | 70 29 : 7| —51 59-8} +83 39-9} 0-06686 . LENS : 8| —51 55-7 0-06631 Stupart Bay... 61/35 071031 s 9] —49 52-5) +83 37-3] 0-06694 à SAR à: “ 10} —49 58-4 Port Burwell...... 60 25 | 64 42 EM +81 34-3) 0-08658 # peer AT Se 18 +81 37-4| 0-08562 É & “ 19} —43 30-3 z os “« 20) —43 37-7 Declination results are the mean of the max. and min. for the day in question corrected for index error as determined at Agincourt. Inclination results are the mean of the observed values. No correction for index error has been applied as this changes with magnetic latitudes. Horizontal Force results are the mean of the values determined independently by the magnetometer and total force instruments, and are corrected for index error to Agincourt standard. i L - a L 1 Fe ; [A ‘ ’ 1 | i \ V ; tb erg | i Arf} Obs « Gi) | Oye. a ate we teh , ti ( } }\ M if i ( a9 PL sl L L IT b Simcill f | HU: Ga ae) dT Li | AU Li Vat ECS | . Oa. bie Gina i Nia ET és ind i | À NAS dE te" 4 PF me | was, TE Il | De a a en + | 1 | oh —“ÿ (TE Human te Sin ihn ley lend PAR AE SA D Ar * | ; CRE L 7 Ge Che, 1? | PORTA CE gel sok at bin ia (tit vu gro it 6. L CN 4 URL Ê P ; ra 4 RAR wi ! y 4 <3 ) CIE LUS TTL. ‘om banal a mr ry Ae ia + 4 ke pi ib Pit) as 7 cy at er PA moiety me SECTION III., 1913. [15] Trans. R.S.C. Self Recording Electrometer. By J. PATTERSON, M.A. (Cantab). Physicist to the Meteorological Service of Canada. Presented by R. F. Srupart, F.R.S.C. (Read May 28, 1913) INTRODUCTION. Benndorf* has designed an electrometer which gives a con- tinuous record by mechanical registration and the Cambridge Scien- tific Instrument Co. has a self recording galvanometer on the same principle, called the thread recorder. In the Benndorf instrument the apparatus for producing the registration is operated by an electro- magnet worked by clockwork, while in the thread recorder it is all done by clockwork. It occurred to the author that the recording mechanism of the thread recorder could also be used for a self record- ing electrometer as well as for a galvanometer. In these instru- ments a boom with a counterpoise is attached to the axis of the needle and the excursions of the end of the boom are registered at stated intervals by a bar dropping and nipping an inked thread or ribbon between the boom and the recording paper, thus leaving a dot, which gives the deflection of the needle at the moment of registration. In this way all mechanical friction is avoided. Preliminary Experiments. Preliminary experiments were made by roughly constructing models of the electrometer in order to design the size of the quad- rants, length of boom, ete.; that would give the most delicate mstru- ment, and at the same time be as compact as possible. Throughout this paper “The sensitiveness of the instrument”? refers to the open- ness of scale. An adjustable bifiliar suspension of silver platinum wire was used in all the preliminary experiments. The quadrants were 5” in diameter and 4” between the faces, and a needle of the dolezelek type 44” diameter was made of silvered mica. The needle was insulated from the boom and was damped by a platinum vane ies OMe ER CN RE! ET ON NOR ere lat: ee SNA PS ee *Akad. Wiss. Wien, Sitzb. d. mathem-naturn. el; c/I. Bd., Abth. Has. 487, 1902. 16 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA dipping in a jar of sulphuric acid, through which electrical connection was made with the needle. Booms suitably counterpoised, 94”, 74”, 64”, and 6” long were tried in turn; the longest being used first, and then the next by cutting off a piece. Joining one pair of quadrants to the positive terminal of an 80 volt battery and the other to the negative, the centre of the battery being earthed, the booms gave a deflection of one millimetre for a potential of 12-6; 8; 6, and 8°3 volts on the needle respectively. Needles 4”, 34” and 3” were also tried with the 64” and 6” booms. The faces of the quadrants were closer together for the smaller than for the larger needles, but the bifiliar suspension was the same in all. The results are given in Table I. TABLE I. Volts on needle per m-m defl with P.D. of 80 volts across quad’ts Length of Boom. 4 4” 4” 3 U 3” needle needle needle needle 64” 6 8-6 10 20 6” 8-3 10 12-1 16-6 Both sets of tests show that the 64” boom and the 44” needle give the best results. Owing to the crude construction of the in- struments, however, it is not possible to make any further com- parison. If the vane is made as light as possible, the weight of the boom, its counterpoise and the attachment to the needle is very much greater than that of the vane of the needle, so that the sensitiveness of the suspension cannot be altered appreciably for the smaller vanes, and thus we get the greater sensitiveness for the larger needles. Owing to the construction of the thread recorder it was not possible without greatly increasing the length of the boom to make the quadrants larger than would suit a 44” needle, so that larger needles were not tried. These considerations suggested that if a second vane were added and double celled quadrants used, the weight of the suspended system would not be appreciably altered, and the deflecting force on the needles would be doubled, thus almost doubling the sensitiveness of the instrument. In testing this the results given in Table II were obtained. PATTERSON] SELF RECORDING ELECTROMETER 17 Table II. Volts on needle per m-m. defl. with P.D. of 80 volts across quadrants. Length of Boom 44 needle 4” needle 3” needle 3” needle Single | Double | Single | Double | Single | Double | Single | Double 63” 6-0 4-0 8-6 6-3 10-0 (oll 20-0 8-6 6” S23 4-4 10-0 4-5 SL 4658 16-6 8.2 There is thus a decided gain in the sensitiveness by using two vanes; but, as before mentioned, the results are only indicative of what might be expected in the finished instrument, and cannot be used for comparative purposes. It may not be out of place here to mention that on testing the openness of scale with one vane and with two vanes in the finished instrument, the former gave a deflection of 11 volts per mm. under the same conditions that the latter gave 5°2 volts per mm.; showing that the double vaned needle gives double the openness of scale. As a result of the preliminary tests the electrometer was constructed with a needle having two vanes 44” in diameter, and a boom 64” long. Description of the Instrument. Plate I, fig. 1 shows a photograph of the needle system with the boom attached. The vanes of the needle are made of aluminium 0°085 mm. thick and in order to give them rigidity the edges are slightly turned up as shown in the photograph. In order to render the instrument fairly dead beat it is neces- sary to have a strong damping attachment, but at the same time it was felt that a system that would do away with the usual dashpot arrangement of a platinum vane swinging in a jar of acid, with the surface tension effects on the needle and the usual troubles incident to this method, was much to be desired. This was accomplished satisfactorily by the Cambridge Scientific Instrument Co. by attaching to the rod of the needle a very light circular vane which swings be- tween the poles of two strong permanent magnets as shown in plate 1, fig. 1. These magnets can be adjusted separately to suit the position of the vane. The method of attaching the boom is shown diagramatically in fig. I. The rod B has a hook on each end to take the suspension and the needle respectively. This rod is insulated by the quartz tube to which are attached the sleeves to support the pointer and its counter- 18 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA poise. In order to adjust the needle to any position with reference to the pointer or boom, the sleeve X can turn on the sleeve Z and is clamped in position by the screw Y. The counter-poise is just a little 0 an? Counlerweight Zi IHL, Sterrup pwoted to X “1 727 À | NZ Sr YY NIN Pointer : À NA — Steeve X ERINT" | =— Sleeve Z «—— Quartz tube more than sufficient to balance the boom, but is prevented from falling below the horizontal position by a stop. This arrangement permits the end of the boom to be depressed without disturbing the needle, or bending the suspension. The weight of the different parts in grammes is — — Weights. ONE VAN nee cle ke eee eee 0-61 g eS SU Te atest PRE ART PAIE CO ete Re 0-62 g Boom, counterpoise, needle rod, etc...... 8-23 g. Dampmie Vane. eres... eee es ee 0-57 g. PORTE. DENT ee RARE Oe oe 10-03 g This shows then that the addition of the second vane only adds 6% to the weight and permits as fine a suspension to be used for the two vanes as for one. Two views of the completed instrument removed from its case and one view with it in its case are shown in plates I and II figs. 2, 3 and 4. Figure 1 Figure 2 Prate I PLATE II 2 S € WANS] f ONO] a | [PATTERSON] SELF RECORDING ELECTROMETER 19 The quadrants are large enough to permit the use of 44” vanes and the faces of the plates are 1” apart.* The recording mechanism is shown in plate II, fig. 3. Just below the boom is an inked thread or carbon paper parallel to the axis of the paper roller L. The bar J. which is operated by a cam attached to the driving mechanism is allowed to drop once every two minutes and in doing so depresses the boom causing the inked thread to strike the recording paper just below the boom, giving a dot which shows the deflection of the needle at the instant of marking. The boom being pivoted as already described does not disturb the needle or bend the suspension. The inked thread gives a short dash instead of a dot on the recording paper, and this is not as satisfactory as it might be when the potential is constantly changing. To obtain a dot instead of a dash, a narrow ribbon of ordinary carbon paper was employed for a time, and a slotted bar with a rod 1/16” diameter resting in the slot had to be substituted for the roller L. when the boom was depressed it hit the carbon paper just above the rod, and left a small dot. This arrangement was very good as long as the room was dry, but if it were damp the boom was very liable to stick on the paper. The difficulties were finally overcome by taking a couple of threads out of a typewriter ribbon, twining them together and then doubling. This was used in the same way as the inked thread and gave good results.f It is a very simple matter to make sufficient thread to last for several months without requiring attention, The thread was stored on a spool and was wound off at the rate of 14” per day on to another spool. Clocks. There are two separate clocks in the clock case, the drum clock and slave clock. The drum clock drives the paper at a definite speed of 14 mm. per hour or 168 mm. per hour according to whichever speed is required, generally the slower speed is used. The slave clock drives the cam wheel which operates the depressor bar at intervals of two minutes. Charts. A continuous paper movement is provided. The paper is stored on the drum P. plate II, fig. 3, and passes up at the back of the drum Q, * The faces of the plates were at first only 3/16” apart, but it was found that when the potential on the needle exceeded 200 volts the attraction between the plates and the vanes of the needle was sufficient to cause the vanes to touch the plates and discharge, owing to the impossibility of adjusting them exactly parallel to the faces of the plates. The plates were then put }” apart, and the trouble ceased. Since going to press it was discovered that as the threads out of a typewriter ribbon were fuzzy the hairs sometimes prevented the boom from registering prop- erly. This was remedied by using fine sewing silk inked by rolling it in a type- writer ribbon and putting them in a press for a day or two. 20 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA over the roller L, down in front of drum Q, between the friction rollers not shown, on to the storage drum S, where it can be fixed by inserting the end of the paper in a slot provided for it. The spindle of $, is pro- vided with a cord the end of which can be fixed in any convenient posi- tion under the case. A weight and pulley, not shown, are then sus- pended on this cord, thus exerting a turning movement to the drum and keeping the paper taut while passing through the instrument. In- stead of using charts ruled with a time scale, blank forms are used and the time is given by an arrangement which brings a small rod under the depressor bar for about 6 minutes before the hour. This rod gives a dot near the edge of the chart every two minutes while it is under the bar, and it is so adjusted that the last dot of the series gives the hour mark. These marks are shown on the chart. Suspension. Phosphor bronze suspensions are employed in the usual manner and it is found that wire 0-002 ” diameter gives good stability. Automatic Zero. The drum Q. makes two revolutions in 25 hours, and advantage was taken of this to attach an arrangement whereby the needle was earthed for about 12 minutes, during each revolution of the drum. The zero position is thus automatically given twice a day. Results. Fig. II gives an actual trace of the instrument for a leakage test. This shows that the insulation is of a very high order. Table III gives some of the tests made on the sensibility. One pair of quadrants was connected to the positive terminal of the battery the other pair to the negative and the centre of the battery was earthed Table III. Quadrants charged to 198 volts on near needle 39-7 V. quadrants Needle rod earthed i Defi. Volts | other Defi. Volts = per | charged A per in in En mm. to wee mm. def. def. 20-0V à 5-5 3-6 2-0V 3-2 0-63 40-0 2-25) 17-8 | 3-65) 11-0 4-5 9-0 10-8 3:7 3-9 6-4 0-61 59-9 Ae Ag am tie A 16-2 3°7 5-9 8-5 0-69 79-6 4-5 17-5 | 6-8 11-7 8-8 9-0 22-2 3°6 9-95 13-7 0-65 119-2 6-4 18-6 {10-4 11-4 | 13-4 8-9 Ae ai 14-0 20-7 0-67 158-8 9-2 17-3 }14-2 11-2 | 18-2 8-7 19-8 28-2 0-70 238-5 14-2 16-7 {22-4 10-7 a Mean 17-6 11-2 8-9 3-65 | 0-66 A 139-0 133-8 141-9 144-9 |131-0 A=Potential difference of quadrants x Volts per mm. deflection. 21 SELF RECORDING ELECTROMETER [PATTERSON] TI 9m LeyLeLl TUT a à Y/ We O/ Z 9 $ Le // ySup DR PI0T fo TETE (Le ee UMMM, SELAH en pt eu LOT OUT Tree QT CTP “beng any, Must og, thay, ann, bo bo THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA These results are plotted in fig. III. In fig. IV the mean deflection per mm. for the different potentials across the quardants are plotted. a ce Be 4 CA e 2 ee NE | Deflection in mm. Fig. 1 The results show that the instrument has a high degree of sensitive- ness and that it is constant within 5% over the range of the scale. The error in taking the tangent instead of the arc is only 2%, but it is necessary of course to calibrate the instrument for the particular po- tentials that are used, [PATTERSON] SELF RECORDING ELECTROMETER 23 The probable error in the readings of the instrument will depend chiefly on the accuracy with which the dots on the charts can be read. This error would not be more than -5 mm. at the most, and would generally be less. Be ol |e 12 Volts per mm. dcflectuwrn Fug,1V. The capacity of the needle and of either pair of quadrants is about 100 cm. In measuring the potential of the air a polonium collector was used. The collector was 8’ 6” above the ground and 9’ from the build- ing, which was 10’ high to the eaves; one pair of quadrants was attached to the positive terminal of a battery of 12 volts, and the other pair to 24 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA the negative, the centre being earthed. A copy of a record of the potential is given in Fig. V. The record was obtained when an area of low pressure was approaching, giving cloudy weather. . see QC oe. 2 . a ZAERO. Hour Marks Figure V Conclusion. The question naturally arises whether it is better to make a needle with two vanes rather than an equivalent single vaned needle. If one increased the sensitiveness by increasing the size of the needle, the best that it would be possible to do, would be to make an instrument that had its plates the same distance apart for the larger as for the smaller needle and that had the needles constructed of ma- terial of the same gauge. In this case, if the linear dimension of the needle were multiplied by u, the capacity would be multiplied by uw. The surface density for the same voltage would not change, nor the electro mechanical force per unit area, nor the moment about the suspending wire of the electric force per unit area. The total moment would then be increased by u’, or the deflecting force on the needle would be multiplied by the increase of area of the needle. Thus if the area of the needle were doubled the weight would be doubled, and the deflecting force doubled. This is the best that it would be possible to obtain. If it is assumed that it is possible to obtain this condition, would it give an instrument as sensitive as one obtained by adding two vanes and using double celled quadrants, Almost the whole weight of the suspended system is in the boom, and its counter- poise and the weight of the vane can be neglected so that by doubling the area of the needle the deflecting force would be doubled also, pro- —— msi [PATTERSON] SELF RECORDING ELECTROMETER 25 vided the boom and its counterpoise were the same as before. Now as the boom and counterpoise are the chief factors in limiting the sensitivenesss of the instrument, it might be assumed that it would have been much simpler to have increased the size of the needle and obtained the same result in that way. The preliminary experiments indicated that the 63” boom was the best. Having used the best length of boom and made the diameter of the quadrants as great as possible for this length of boom, the best arrangement of boom and needle was obtained. Any further increase in the needle would have necessitated a longer boom and owing to the additional weight would have required a stronger suspension, thus largely counteracting any gain obtained by the increased size of the needle. There remained therefore the method, which was adopted, of double decking the quadrants and using a two vaned needle, to obtain the greater sensitiveness. Another question that arises is as to whether an instrument that requires a battery of a few volts can be kept as constant as a battery of 100 volts or more. In this instrument 12 volts P. D. across the quadrants is sufficient for measuring the potential of the air; a reference to the figure will show that a change of 1% in the voltage will cause a change of about 1% in the readings of the instrument. A change of -5 volt in a battery of 12 volts would be large when no current is being used, yet this would not alter the value of the readings by more than 4%. The advantages claimed for the instrument are:— I. Simplicity of construction. II. Little attention required when in working condition. III. High degree of sensibility, enabling the potential of the air to be measured with a battery of only a few volts. IV. Uniformity of scale over the range of the recording paper. Sec. III, 1913—2 ‘4 CURE à ir 18 CONTRER TE Ph Re ne an sa ad bie cali) Alike laa) ae eee Rite cr, iby trees EU QI IE nat 0e TN i ity T jin Veto PAF PA, VE ie wit): pete ie eee 10 a te ese UPS per nl ot nié ee au 71 i ha ote | ANT ; ine j CULV OT à“ PA POLE MCE UE M'A | ov Peer aiid aa eo wat ME AE ; bib PT ; ip aches t ‘ao ta } é bots dif rf radi ! WA ly Lae " PNA ITA fi ern 2 Hire ia An: a iJ wari LE LA ir) NU wae | 4 À # Hite wa tr ADM. ONDE oi ae of” (uh ii ae pede. Gabe val oer Ponte elnt af cho) ergata ANRT ee rie non PU en et TE RL LOUE HE CANTON AN gual eke tive ET OS een CINE NET JTE TOR rh ve Gui à DAS ua ihe! stale) Ras hw ee’ oa CL AR PT TS M PR Mime MRE Galt oy Due see Hi ! * YAR TR SN, eM Pot nie At te fame tat) iow és: ME onde DAT Pa NPA sun i ate gh i gil | 11 LP CTITS ALLER LT roa wt HE RME de fade UN D due bf Bin PTT aT my (gia aes LR Te CAT MRC | ae 216} a pt vat Ll ge LV AE fe pat Tak Pil indy vie Wa! nn ioc he dante QU fut AO) a TU oh ten AT he ; ayes Nees a i i RUES LA Net: La ( | NAN A i LUS icy) ek are a ¢OnethenOceante seers jee testa 4-2 11 Pein faeahe et TE RÉEL DS IE 4.5 Lt dt Oe Ce re AC LS CE LOI hie se 4-1 11 RE EN ere 4-3 TOMATE te od tect PP eae 4-3 20; Ott DBellerlfle. er Caen 4-1 2 OC OO Hemouskt occa. 223 Rla<) ane 4-0 22, “ River St. Lawrence, near Quebec.4-5 ROE. PARA tet rd a ae OA Oe EURE 4-3 ions per ce. per sec. [MCLENNAN-MCLEOD] EARTH’S PENETRATING RADIATION 3] Voyage II. on SS. Megantic. June 24th, 1913 River St. Lawrence...............5-57 ions per ce. per sec. 25th, “ River and Gulf of St. Lawrence..... 5-26 26th, “ Gulf of St. Lawrence and Atlantic 5-07 pda) © SUM AEAKe OX boos odo ode. 4°64 28th; - = ‘ fo) ite age eae eee ade 4-80 29th, 0° : RAS". BUENO Bae ei: 4-41 30th, “ « etal Aa) Se At): 4.20 July 1st “ Off North Coast of Ireland and Irish Dea craic D Di cfa te 4-44 Mean of last three readings—................ 4-35 ions per cc. per sec. The readings taken on the first voyage it will be seen are quite regular and uniformly low. Their average was 4-3 ions per cc. per sec. The lowest reading 4-0 ions per cc. per sec. was that taken on Sept. 21st, the day on which the steamer was passing from the Gulf into the River St. Lawrence. The readings taken on the second voyage it will be seen started at 5-57 ions per ce. per sec. and finally dropped to about 4-35, which is the mean of the readings taken on the last three days. The high initial readings were probably due to radioactive deposits which settled on the ship when in port at Montreal, but it is interesting in - this connection to note that no important drop was observed in the ionisation when the steamer left port in the first voyage. If the pre- vailing winds at Glasgow were south-west ones it might afford an explanation in part at least, of this result. It is interesting also to note that the final readings on the SS. Megantic were practically the same as those taken during the voyage of the Hesperian. This would go to show that the contribution of the ionisation by radiation from the materials and contents of the steamer was practically the same for both ships. Further as Simpson and Wright* had previously obtained 4-1 ions per cc. per sec. for the ionisation in a closed zinc vessel on a small skiff on the Atlantic, this would go to shew that the amount contributed to the ionisation by radiation from the ship was inconsiderable. The mean of the readings taken on the ocean with the Wulf electrometer, viz., 4:33 ions per cc. per sec. it will be seen was 1-7 ions per cc. per sec. less than the mean of the readings previously taken with the Wilson Electrometer and in view of the accuracy and ease with which the readings could be made with the Wulf instru- ment the value 4-33 ions may be accepted as closely representing the true value of the ionisation obtainable on a large ship on the sea. *Simpson and Wright, Proc. Roy. Soc. Ser. A. Vol. LXXXYV, p. 175, 1911. 32 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA IV. Measurements on land. At various times previous to and succeeding the two voyages as well as at times in the interval between them readings were taken with the instrument at a number of points at or near Toronto, and also at a number of places at the other side of the Atlantic. These are summarized in Table III, and along with them are given the readings taken at a number of places with the Wilson Compensating Gold leaf Electrometer. TABLE III. Measurements of penetrating radiation at stations on land. Values of ‘‘q’’==the number of ions produced per sec. in air at atmospheric pressure by the pene- Observation trating radiation. Wulf Wilson Electrometer Electrometer Braunschweig, Germany.................... 8-1 tet Midlothians Scotlands. REC ECM EE EEE ier 9-0 8-32 Cambridge, Hnpland EPA Lee eue CA 9-03 UES re de PT LE 8-26 iG The Physical Laboratory, Toronto........... 8-62 9-08 The Meteorological Observatory, Toronto... .. br 8-88 The University Lave ee folie 8-1 ME In a residence in Toronto made of red brick. 9-4 In a deep pit in the Lorraine Shale in a brick- 12-0 to vad ub Toronto ER eerste Sub Sk 14-8 Close to walls of glacial clay deposits.......... 8-84 On layer of sand and clay, 2-5 metres thick a- DOVE PIONEER Rae 8-67 On surface layer of sandy loam about 30 metres from entrance to opening in clay deposits . 6-83 ste On the surface of Lake Ontario............... 4-93 4-46 Eight metres under the surface of Lake Ontario at a point where it was twenty metres deep 4-77 Mean of measurements taken on the Ocean . .. 4-33 6-03 From the numbers given it will be seen that the readings with both instruments were practically the same at Midlothian, Scotland, at Cambridge, England, and at the Physical Laboratory, Toronto. This combined with the high value obtained for the ionisation on the [MCLENNAN-MCLEOD] EARTH’S PENETRATING RADIATION 33 Ocean with the Wilson Electrometer, goes to shew, as one might have anti- cipated, that it is quite impossible to take readings on ship board with an instrument provided with a gold leaf system with any degree of accuracy. In the course of the observations at Toronto, values between 9 and 10 ions per ce. per sec., with a mean of 9-47, were obtained when the readings were taken in a residential building, the walls of which were constructed of red brick. As values close to 8-62 for “q” were always obtained in the Physical Laboratory, which was constructed of stone and white brick, and as these values were uniformly lower than those obtained in the residence referred to it was thought that possibly the higher values might be due to a measurable excess of radioactive matter contained in the bricks of the residential structure. As the bricks for both structures were made fr om different deposits in the same brick-yard a series of measurements was made in the neighborhood of these different deposits and it was found that the surmise was correct. In this particular brick-yard the surface layer is a sandy loam about one metre thick and below these there is a series of strata of glacial clays, each stratum ranging from 4 to 10 metres in thickness. Below the clay is a deposit of Lorraine shale some 200 metres in depth. This brick-yard which has been worked for over fifty years, now consists of a great opening in the face of a hill and a huge cylindrical cavity in front of this opening and extending down into the shale. The depth of the cavity at present is about 25 metres and the length of its dia- meter is about the same. The sides of the opening in the face of the hill as it stands consist of a series of terraces, each of which consists of one particular deposit of clay. This system of terraces in the clays provided an excellent means of investigating the radiation from each deposit in turn and when readings were taken on each terrace it was found that these gave values for “q” extend- ing from 8 to 9 ions per cc. per sec. with a mean value of about 8-84. In the shale pit, however, much higher readings were obtained. These were taken at different points on the base of the pit and on a number of ledges which were accessible. The values found for “q” in the shale pit ranged from 12 to 14-8 ions per ce. per sec., the lower values being obtained when the stations were taken at points near surfaces which were weathered and the higher ones were the observ- ation stations were close to places where the surface of the shale had been recently exposed. As an illustration of how definitely the comparatively strong radiation from shale producing the high ionization was localized, a particular measurement may be cited. 34 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA The stratum immediately above the shale consisted partly of sand and partly of clay. At one particular point this layer was about 2-5 metres thick, and it extended nearly up to the face of the opening of the pit in the shale. At the very edge of the pit on the surface of the shale the reading was 12 ions per ce. per sec., while on the layer at a point about 6 metres back from the edge it was only 8-67 ions per cc. per sec. This shewed that the layer of sand and clay acted as a screen and cut off entirely the excess radiation from the shale underneath. Another illustration of a screening effect was obtained in the reading taken on the surface of the ground back about 30 metres from the opening into the clay bank. At this station no direct radi- ation could reach the instrument from the shale, and the radiation from the clay deposits could only reach it after passing through the surface layer of sandy loam, which was about one metre thick. The reading at this station was only 6-82 ions per ce. per sec. From this low value it was evident that the sandy loam contained considerably less active matter than the clays and also that it acted as a screen to absorb the radiation coming from the clay lying below it. It may be added in regard to these various deposits that it was the shale which was used in making the red-coloured bricks and the clays that were used in making the light-coloured ones. V. On the penetrating radiation from the atmosphere. In several previous communications by one of us and by C. 8. Wright attention has been drawn to the fact that the ionization in a closed vessel is very much less over the water of Lake Ontario than it is at points on the neighbouring land. Further, in measurements made on the lake with a Zinc receiver of about 27 litres capacity and a Wilson electrometer the value of ‘‘q’’ has been shewn to be about 4-46 ions per cc. per sec. On repeating these measurements with a Wulf Electrometer the mean of a number of sets of observations gave a value of 4-93 ions per cc. per sec., for “‘q’’ which is slightly higher than the value previously obtained, with the larger receiver. These observations were carried out on a small skiff about 2 kilometres from the shore at a point where the water was about 20 metres deep. In a second set of observations made at this point on the skiff the electrometer was placed for protection in a metal box of alu- minium bronze with walls a little over one centimeter thick. In these measure ments, the value of 4.81 ions per cc. per sec. was ob- [a tained for ‘‘q’’. [MCLENNAN-MCLEOD] EARTH’S PENETRATING RADIATION 35 In a third set the metal box containing the electrometer was lowered into the water to a depth of about eight metres, and in these experiments the average reading obtained was 4-77 ions per cc. per second. From this result it would appear that the radiation coming from the air above the lake did not contribute any more to the ionisation in the electro- meter than about -16 ions per cc. per sec. In attempting to ascertain the contribution made to the ionisation in a closed vessel by radiation coming from active matter in the air above the land, measurements are complicated by the effect of radiation from active matter in the soil and from active matter deposited on the surface of the ground from the atmosphere. It would seem, however, since the measurements described above were made at a point only about 2 kilometres from the shoe, that the contribution made to the ionisation in air in a zine vessel by radiation from the active ma‘ter in the air over the land near Toronto cannot be very far from 0-2 ions per cc. per sec. VI. Residual Tonisation. From the measurements which have been described above it would appear that the lowest value obtainable for the ionisation in a closed zine receiver at points near the surface of the earth where the intensity of the penetrating radiation may be considered to have a minimum value, approximates to 4 ions per cc. per sec. This it will be remembered was the mean value obtained for q from the measure- ment made on the SS. Hesperian on Sept. 21st, 1912, and it was also practically the value found for ‘“q”” by Simpson and Wright* on a skiff on the Southern Atlantic. To what then is this residual ionization due? As an attempt to answer this question the following experiments may be of interest. In these the electrometer was placed in the aluminium box used in the experiment under water on the lake and this box was suspended in a moderately-sized tank which could be filled with water and which was situated in the attic of the Physical Laboratory at Toronto. Readings were taken of the ionisation in the electrometer when the tank was empty and also when it was filled with water. With the tank empty the read- ing was 8°05 ions per cc. per sec., and with it filled the reading was 5-82 ions per cc. per sec. The dimensions of the box were 36 x 22 x 18 cm. and those of the mass of water surrounding it were 121 x 90-7 x 83 em. This it will be seen gave roughly a mean of 36-5 cm. as the thick- ness of the water screen surrounding the box. *Loc. cit. 36 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Assuming the water to contain no radioactive matter we may suppose the ionisation in the electrometer to be given by (een aera where / is the coefficient of absorption of the penetrating radiation, d the thickness of the water-screen and x the ionisation in the electro- meter which is not due to the penetrating radiation. We have then Gig ei epee I ee For soft gamma rays Rutherford* gives the value -0558 for # and for harder rays the value +-0472. The measurements of Hess at Vienna on the absorption or gamma rays by air also lead to a value for y for water of -0413. Applying these values we find the value of x to be as follows: 7 x (ions per cc. per sec.). -0558 5-48 -0472 5-33 -0413 5-19 In so far as these measurements go then, it would appear that 5-19 ions per cc. per sec. is the lowest value one should have expected to get for the ionisation in the zinc vessel when all the penetrating radiation was cut off. In view, however, of the fact that 4 ions per cc. per sec. were ob- tained experimentally the above experiments can only be considered as giving a roughly approximate result. They serve to shew, however, that unless there is present at the surface of the earth a radiation of a much higher penetrating power than any yet observed, there must be a residual ionisation in air con- fined in a zinc vessel (of about 4 ions per cc. per sec.) when it is not traversed by any radiation from an external source. It would seem, therefore, that this residual ionisation must be due either to radiation from a minute quantity of radioactive matter still remaining in the zine of which the receiver is made or to a process going on in the gas which results in what may be called a spontaneous dissociation of the molecules. If the residual effect were due to active matter in the walls of the receiver one should expect that the value obtained for “‘q’’ would in- crease if the volume of the receiver were diminished. Since the value *Rutherford, Radioactive Substances and their Transformations, p. 266. tHess. Phys. Zeit. 12 p. 998, 1911. [MCLENNAN-MCLEOD] EARTH’S PENETRATING RADIATION on of 4-1 ions per cc. per sec. was obtained for ‘‘q’’ by Simpson and Wright with a zinc receiver of about 27 litres capacity, and a value of 4 ions per cc. per sec. by the writers with an ionisation chamber of the same metal of only 2 litres capacity, one is led to the conclusion that the experimental results obtained so far lend no support to the view that the residual ionisation obtained in air confined in zinc receivers is due to a radiation emitted by the walls. It would be interesting however to see what resulted if receivers of still smaller capacity than two litres were used. On the other hand it has been shewn by J. J. Thomson* and again recently by Langevin and J. J. Rey f that one cannot acconut for this residual ionisation by supposing it due to collisions between the molecules, for on this hypothesis, the increase in ionisation with a rise in temperature should be enormously greater than any increase which has been observed. The writers wish to acknowledge their indebtedness to Messrs. P. Blackman, G. 8. Campbell, and E. C. Henderson for their kindness in making corroborative measurements at various times during the investigation. The Physical Laboratory, The University of Toronto. *J. J. Thomson, Conduction of electricity through gases, p. 294, 2nd ed. Langevin and J. J. Rey, Le Radium, April, 1913, p. 139. PMP # BY, tite ‘ 0 Oe mis 4 sh LE , iv DATE "a Auot Wa. Nh PUR » j iy At viet ae ig aes L M 1 + mi Ari 40 hp SECTION III., 1913. [39] ‘Trans. R.S.C. On the Electrical Conductivity Imparted to Liquid Air by Alpha Rays.* By Proressor J. C. McLENNAN AND Mr. Davip A. Keys. I. Introduction. In the published account of their experiments on the measure- ment of tke dielectric constants of different liquefied gases, a number of investigators including Linde,t Dewar and Fleming,f and Hasen- éhrl,* have drawn attention to the high insulating qualities possessed by such liquids. In particular Fleming and Dewar have shewn that a small condenser when immersed in liquid air and charged with a Wimshurst electrical machine held its charge perfectly for a period of some minutes. Quite recently too, Zeeman® in studying the Kerr phenomenon in liquid air found when the latter was freed from small ice and carbonic dioxide crystals by filtration, and when precautions were taken to prevent the generation of gas bubbles between the electrodes, electric fields as high as 90,000 volts per em., and even higher ones could be maintained quite readily in the liquid. Fleming and Dewar in the course of their experiments made a determination of the dielectric constant of liquefied air and also of that of liquid oxygen. The latter they found to be 1-495. If we assume the density of gaseous oxygen at 15° C. and 760 mm. pressure to be 0-00134 (and its density at -182° C., consequently to be 0-00424) and its dielectric constant at 0°C and 760 mm. pressure to be 1-00059, it follows by applying the Clausius Mosotti relation—that K—1 is proportional to the density of the gas,—that the dielectric constant of gaseous oxygen at -182°C. and 760 mm. pressure should be ap- proximately 1-0018. Moreover as the density of liquid oxygen is about 1-1375, it fol- lows if we assume the Clausius Mosotti’s Law to hold continuously in passing from the gaseous to the liquid phase, that the dielectric constant of liquid oxygen should be approximately 1-4824. This it will be seen is very close to the value found by Dewar and Fleming in their experiments. *Read before the Royal Society of Canada, May 28th, 1913. fLinde, Wied. Ann. 56, p. 546, 1895. tDewar and Fleming, Proc. Roy. Soc., London, p. 358, Vol. 60, 1896. 4 Hasenôhrl, Leiden. Comm. No. 52, Proc. Ams. Akad., 11, p. 211. * Zeeman, Proc. Amst. Akad, of Se., Jan. 24, 1912, p. 650. 40 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA In view of this continuity in the dielectric property of oxygen in passing through the stage of liquefaction, it was thought to be of interest by the writers to see if any indication of a similar continuity could be obtained in the ionisation of air by alpha rays when passing from the gaseous to the liquid state. P. Curie,* Jaffe,f Cacilia Bohm- Wendt and E. von Schweidlert and Bialobjeski,* have shewn that a conductivity can be impressed on certain dielectric liquids by gamma- rays, but Greinacher® appears to have been the only investigator who has studied the ionasation produced in such liquids by alpha rays. His experiments were made with paraffin oil and petrol ether. Among other results he found :— 1. That the conductivity so impressed wa; independent of the direction of the current and that therefore the mobilities of the positive and negative ions produced in these liquids by the alpha rays were practically identical. 2. That with petrol ether a saturation current was obtained with a field of about 400 volts per cm., but that in the case of petroleum oil complete saturation was not obtained even when fields as high as 10,000 volts per em. were applied, and 3. That the total ionization produced in air at atmospheric pressure when the alpha-rays from a sample of polonium were completely absorbed, was about 2,000 times as great as the total ionisation produced in petrol ether when the radiation from the same polonium was completely ab- sorbed by that liquid. In the following paper an account is given of some preliminary experiments made on the ionisation of liquid air by alpha rays, and from the results which are given below, it will be seen that the findings of others are confirmed in regard to the high insulating power of liquid air. It will be shewn too that the conductivity impressed by alpha rays on liquid air is similar in some regards to that obtained by Grein- acher in his experiments with petroleum and petrol ether traversed by alpha rays. Il. Preliminary Experiments. In order to obtain an estimate of the insulating power of liquid air, a clean copper wire A was connected to earth and suspended in *Curie, C.R., 134, 1902, p. 420. fJaffe, Ann. d. Phys., 28, p. 326, 1909. fBohm-Wendt & Schweidler, Phys. Zeit. 10, 1909, p. 379. * Bialobjeski, Le Radium, p. 293, Aug. 1911. 5 Greinacher, Phys. Zeit. 10 Jahr. No. 25, p. 986. [MCLENNAN-KEYS| ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY 41 a Dewar flask C. A second copper wire B was also suspended in the flask in such a way as to touch neither the wire A, nor the sides or the base of the flask C. The wire B was held in position by care- fully cleaned ebonite supports. It was also connected to the free quadrants of a Dolazaleck electrometer and to one of the armatures of a sulphur condenser of about 2,300 e.s.u. capacity. In one experiment with this arrangement the electrode B and its connected system was charged when the flask was empty to one quarter of a volt by means of an auxiliary battery. The steady de- flection on the scale corresponding to this potential was 99-5 mms. In order to test the insulating power of the system the connection of the auxiliary battery was broken and the leak from the system ob- served for an hour. The rate was found to be -48 mm. per minute, which was not very high considering that the insulated system was supported by a number of pieces of ebonite and that the air in the room possessed a very considerable humidity since the experiments were con- ducted in thesummer time. The Dewar flask was then filled with care- fully filtered liquid air and the electrode B and the connected system again charged to + of a volt. The deflection again was found to be 99-5 divisions and when the auxiliary battery was disconnected the second time, the leak from the system for an hour was found to be only at the rate of ‘56 mms. per minute. This showed that the leak from the whole system was practically the same, when the Dewar flask contained liquid air as when it contained only ordinary gaseous air at atmos- pheric pressure. In a second set of experiments the Dewar flask was in turn filled with amyl, ethyl, and methyl alcohol, and the electrode B and attached system was joined, with each liquid in the flask in turn, to the + volt auxiliary circuit. With the amyl alcohol the steady deflection obtained under these circumstances was only 97-5 mm, with ethyl alcohol 76 mm., and with methyl 63 mm. With these deflections the current from the battery to the electrode was equal to the current from the elec- trode through the liquid to earth. In all three cases when the auxiliary charging current was disconnected, the electrode system at once lost its charge and the electrometer needle immediately returned to the zero position. These experiments shew that of the three alcohols the amyl was the best insulator and the methyl the poorest. The exper- iments also shew that the liquid air was a very much better insulator than any of the three alcohols. In another set of experiments a small air condenser of about 100 e.s.u. capacity was made up of brass plates and inserted in a brass box, the latter being placed in a second box resting on and surrounded with wool. This condenser was charged to a potential of 894 volts with a Sec. III, 1913—3 42 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA battery of small storage cells. When air at atmospheric pressure, carefully filtered liquid air, and xylene were in turn used as the di- electric, and the potential difference mentioned applied to the condenser, the charge obtained in each case was ascertained by discharging the condenser through a sensitive ballistic galvanometer with a specially constructed key supported upon a paraffin block. The deflections obtained in a series of measurements with the three dielectrics are given in Table I. TABLE I. Deflections on scale of galvanometer with different dielectrics Charging potential Air at atmospheric Liquid Air. Xylene pressure. 894 volts 11-75 mm 16-5 mm 21-9 11-75 17-0 22-2 11-4 16-75 23-0 12-0 16-8 23-0 11-6 16-7 24-0 12-0 16-5 21-0 11-50 16-5 23-5 16-4 22-5 16-7 23-3 16-4 24-2 Means 11-71 16-6 22-86 These numbers it will be seen, if we take the dielectric constant of air at atmostpheric pressure to be unity, give 1-95 and 1-42 as the di- electric constants for xylene and liquid air respectively. The value obtained for liquid air is therefore about 5% lower than that given by Fleming and Dewar. Ill. Electrical Conductivity Imparted to Liquid Air by Alpha Rays. (a). After we were satisfied from these preliminary experiments that the liquid air as used was quite free from any contamination which might impart a conductivity to it, a set of measurements was made with the apparatus shewn in Fig .1. In this apparatus two copper plates A and B were supported by two thick copper wires EA and FB. The former was surrounded with a glass tube and the latter with a tube of clear fused quartz. Both were supported by pieces of ebonite carried by two metal rods G and H attached to an earthed metal case which was large enough to contain all the apparatus. [MCLENNAN-KEYS] ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY 43 The wires EA and FB were made about 60 cms long so that when the lower ends were immersed in liquid air their insulating supports carried by the rods G and H were sufficiently far removed to prevent moisture depositing on them through their being cooled below the dew point and so spoiling the insulation at G and H. To Battery To Elecfromefer Fiat re 1 The electrode EA was connected to a battery of small storage cells and the electrode FB to the free quadrants of an electrometer. Before being used the electrodes and their supporting wires were all carefully cleaned. In carrying out these experiments the liquid air was always care- fully filtered and the measurements were made as rapidly as possible. This was done because even when the case was supplied with large quantities of P,0, and concentrated sulphuric acid moisture was always deposited on the glass and quartz tubes surrounding the wires at a point a short distance above the mouth of the Dewar flask, and whenever this deposit had gained a considerable thickness ‘ it was found that small pieces of ice and snow always fell from it into the flask and lowered considerably the insulating power of the liquid air. . In using the apparatus a set of observations was taken immediately after the filtered liquid air was poured into the flask with a series of increasing potentials applied to the electrode EA. In every case it Ad THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA was found on doing this that practically no current passed through the liquid air. A small plate of copper about 1 sq. em. in area having on it a deposit of polonium which had previously been washed in water and dried was then attached to the face of the electrode B with the polonium facing the electrode A. A second series of readings was then taken with increasing potentials applied to EA. After this the copper plate carrying the polonium deposit was quickly removed and a third set of readings taken without it. A slight conductivity was generally obtained in this third set of readings but its amount was found to depend very largely upon the time which was allowed to pass in taking the second and third sets of readings. In the intervals between the first and second sets of readings and the second and third sets, care was taken to see that the deposit ot snow and ice crystals was 1emoved from the glass and quartz tubes surrounding the wires leading to the electrodes. These tubes, the lead- ing wires and the electrodes were also thoroughly dried before they were inserted in the liquid air for the second as well as for the third sets of readings, in order to make certain that no moisture was intro- duced with them into the liquid air. All possible care was taken to prevent ice crystals falling from the wires into the liquid air during the course of the measurements. But it was difficult to make certain that moisture did not deposit from the air upon the surface of the liquid air, and the small conductivity generally observed in the third set of readings was taken as an indication that such deposition was not entirely prevented. TABLE II. Conductivity imparted to Liquid Air by Alpha Rays from Polonium. Potential difference applied to electrode | Deflection of electrometer (volt per BA. min.) 1450 volts (positive) 37-3 x 10 1144 33 -6 À 912 28-5 À 570 26-5 329 24-3 . 81 16-6 i 40-5 11-6 # The readings given in Table II and the curve representing them in Fig. 2 will serve to illustrate the variation obtained, with different a > [MCLENNAN-KEYs] ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY 45 voltages, in the current through the presence of the polonium in the liquid air. In this particular set of measurements the capacity of the electrode and the system connected with it was about 200 e.s.u. and the distance between the electrodes A and B was about 5 mm. From the form of the curve it will be seen that even with the highest voltages used saturation was not obtained. There is, however, a distinct bend shown in the curve in the region corresponding to about 150 volts. LE = x = 3 & 50 o à x HE tt S S = o 20) x NG rH : on 10HF 130 300 250 600 750 900 1050 7200 7350 7500 Volts Field Polential ; 9 Figure 2 It is difficult to give a complete explanation of this bend; but in all probability the phenomenon has to do either with a volume ionisation produced in the liquid air by some unknown radiation of a penetrating type from the polonium, or by beta rays due to some active impurity in the polonium. Possibly too it may have been due in part at least to a diffusion of ions into the body of the liquid air from the thin layer of ionisation produced by the alpha rays close to the plate B. It is clear that moderate fields would in all probability suffice to remove all such ions from the field and so account for the bend. The gradual rise in the curve obtained with fields about 200 volts was no doubt due to the increasing influence exerted by the field in overcoming recom- bination in the ionised layer of liquid. 46 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA (b). In a second set of measurements the apparatus shewn in Fig. 3 was used. This consisted of a plate GH separated from a second plate EF by two small blocks of clean ebonite. The plate EF was provided with an opening shewn in the figure somewhat over 1 sq. cm. in area. A third plate CABD was attached to EF by ebonite supports and was bent so that he portion AB occupied nearly all the space provided by the opening in FE. To Earth et A jo Bathe ry To Electromeïer Figure 3 A polonium coated copper plate about 1 sq. cm. in area was attached in this case to AB, that portion of the plate CABD which lay within the opening in FE with its active face towards GH and with its surface in the plane of EF. With this arrangement CABD acted as an electrode and EF as a guard plate for it. The supports to these plates were heavy copper wires about 60 cms in length. One of them, KC, was surrounded with a tube of clear fused quartz, and the others LF and MG with tubes of glass. In making the measurements the wire L was kept connected to earth, the wire M joined to a battery of storage cells and the terminal K to the free quadrants of the electrometer. The distance between AB and GH was about 5 mm. The capacity of the system including the electrode AB, the free quadrants and the leading wires, was in this case about 200 e.s.u. A number of sets of readings was taken with this apparatus of the conductivity impressed on the liquid air by the rays from polonium and these readings all gave curves similar to those shewn in Fig. 2. [MCLENNAN-KEYS] ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY 47 One set of readings taken in this way is given in Table III, and a curve representing it is shewn in Fig. 4. The shape of this curve it will be seen is practically the same as that shewn in Fig. 2. a ie} TT Ty TT nm H H HH DÉTENTE FFE EEE AE LI 2 [1] Li CELILLI Rise in Volfs per min X10? La is} HT Sat ini) CHRSSEI> G50 DRSEE SUBRE ane! TABLE III. 1050 2 1500 /350 Field Potential ih votes 1200 Conductivity imparted to liquid air by Alpha Rays. Potential difference applied] Current (rise in voltage) to electrodes with positive potential Volts 1367 1069 765 682 645 481 323 251 162 79-2 Current (rise in voltage) with neg. pot. applied to applied to GH. GH. Rise in volts per min. Rise in volts per min. 30-35 x 10 32-7 x 10 21-8 29-24 16-6 20-76 GHG pe A fee NI oat eens 15-2 19-33 14-5 15-27 11-2 9-19 Our Crete 8-95 8-35 7-68 6-80 5-38 5-31 3-91 4-03 SIC | CSN RTS 2-88 3-21 48 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA It is of interest in connection with these readings to note that the conductivity obtained with the negative fields was practically the same as that with the positive. This agrees with the results obtained by Greinacher in the ionisation of petrol ether by alpha rays. As pointed out before, Greinacher in the case of his experiments has drawn the conclusion from his results that the positive and negative ions taking part in the conductivity impressed upon petrol ether by alpha rays have to a very close degree the same mobility. But from some experi- ments to be described later, it will appear that this conclusion can scarcely be drawn from the results obtained in the liquid air experiments just described. IV. Jlonisation in Air at High Pressures by Alpha Rays. In another set of measurements the system MH, LE, and KD with the polonium coated plate AB in position, Fig. 3, was placed in a receiver with thick steel walls and air was pumped into it until a pressure of 101 atmospheres was reached. A set of readings similar to those obtained when the above system was immersed in liquid air was then taken, but in this case, owing to the much greater conductivity which was obtained, a set of sulphur condensers was connected in series with the free quadrants. The whole capacity in this case including quadrants, electrode, condensers, and leading wires was 3635 e.s.u. The readings taken with both positive and negative fields are given in Table IV and the curve corresponding to them is shewn in Fig. 5. TABLE IV. Conductivity impressed upon air at 101 Atmospheres by the Alpha Rays from Polonium. Potential difference applied/Current (rise in volts) with|Current (rise in volts) with to measuring system. positive field. negative field. Volts. Rise in volts per min. Rise in volts per min. 1367 62-2 x 10— 58-25 x 10— 1069 51-3 50-08 839 | 44.3 42-84 688 38-5 38-24 562 33-6 33-86 403 28-4 28-64 242 22-73 20-5 79 15-23 15-31 38 11-73 12-34 20-5 9-15 9-75 [MCLENNAN-KEYS] ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY 49 The curve it will be seen is in this case practically of the same form as that obtained with the ionisation impressed by the rays upon liquid air, and it would appear that here too the form of the curve has its explanation: (1) in the formation of ions in the body of the air by some unknown radiation of a more penetrating nature than alpha rays from the polonium coated plate or by the diffusion of Rise in Volts per min x 10% PH oy S08 Seen ae! iSscedsecccesesescs soe eos sssscscees 43. 1500 Field Polentialin yolts. Figure 5 ions from the thin ionised layer close to the one electrode into the space between the two electrodes, and (2) in the gradual lessening of recombination by the applied fields. As the numbers shew, the currents with positive and negative fields just as in the liquid air experiments were practically the same. In seeking for an explanation of this result one must bear in mind the work of Kovarik* and of Dempster} on the mobilities of ions produced by alpha rays in gases at high pressures. In his paper Kovarik * has shewn that with the air used in his experi- ments the mobilities of both kinds of ions varied inversely as the pressure from one to seventy-five atmospheres, and that for the same range of pressures the mobility of the negative ion was about 1-4 times greater than that of the positive. Dempster’s f results, too, shew that at 100 atmospheres the mobility of the negative ion in air was about twice *Kovarik, Proc. Roy. Soc. A. Vol. 86 p. 154. tDempster Phys. Rev., Vol. XXIV, No. 1, 1912, p. 53. 50 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA that of the positive ion, but his results indicate that while the mobility of the positive ion varied inversely with the pressure up to 100 atmos- pheres, the mobility of the negative ion decreased less rapidly as the pressure was increased than it should if it followed the inverse pressure law. With moist carbon dioxide on the other hand, Kovarik found that the mobilities of positive and negative ions were approximately equal to each other for pressure up to 57 atmospheres and that the mobilities of both ions decreased with increase of pressure much more rapidly than would be warranted by supposing the inverse pressure law to hold As the air in the present experiments was obtained from a liquid air compressor and no special pains were taken to dry it, other than passing it through a chamber filled with potassium hydrate, it is possible that the equality in conductivity indicated by the results in Table IV might, in small part at least, be traceable to the presence of moisture in the air. It would appear, however, from some work which was done later, and which is described in section VI, that the equality in the conduc- tivity obtained with positive and negative fields in the experiments just described was due in great measure to the particular form given to the apparatus used in making the measurements. For it was found when the apparatus was considerably modified, that results were ob- tained which clearly pointed to the mobility of the negative ions pro- duced in air at high pressurer by alpha rays being considerably greater than that of the positive. In taking the readings given in Table IV the capacity of the system was 3635 e.s. units and as the capacity of the system in the liquid air measurements was only 200 it would follow that the conductivity obtained in the air at 101 atmospheres with the highest fields used was about 36 times that obtained with the same field when the ionisation was produced in liquid air. This difference was no doubt due to the rapid recombination of the ions which must have taken place in the liquid air. The layer of ionisation in the liquid air would be considerably narrower than that in the air at the high pressure and consequently the tendency to recombination would be very much greater in the case of the former than in that of the latter. V. Lonisation in Air at Atmospheric Pressure by Alpha Rays. In another set of measurements the polonium coated plate used in the experiments with the liquid air and with the air at the high pressure described in sections III and IV, was attached to the end of an electrode provided with a guard tube and inserted at the centre of a cylindrical [MCLENNAN-KEYS| ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY 51 with the complete absorption of the same radiation by air at 101 atmos- pheres and consequently about 576 times greater than the greatest copper ionisation chamber about 10 cm. in diameter and about 12 cm. in length. The air in this cylinder was kept at atmospheric: pressure and as the range of the alpha rays from polonium is about 3-8 cm. in air at this pressure, it is clear that the dimensions of the receive: were such as to insure the complete absorption of all the alpha radiation emitted by the plate. The electrode was connected as before to the quadrants of the electrometer, and the currents were measured with different fields applied to the region traversed by the rays. Here again it was found necessary to attach a sulphur condenser of high capacity to the quadrant system in order to take the readings con- veniently. The total capacity of the measuring system used in this case was 8142-e.s.u. A set of readings taken with this arrangement both with positive and negative potentials applied to the cylindrical receiver is given in Table V, and the curves corresponding to these are shown in Fig. 6. TABLE V. Ionisation produced in air at Atmospheric Pressure by the Alpha Rays from the. Polonium. Potential applied to receiver Current (rise in volts) with|Current (rise in volts) with positive field negative field. Volts Volts per min. Volts per min. 730 3-71 4-23 538 3-71 4-18 445 3-66 4-23 382 3-76 4-18 213 3-32 3-98 130 3-06 3-55 79 2-71 3-00 38-5 1-96 1-85 20-5 -96 -93 10 -35 -34 Here it will be seen the readings obtained with negative fields were considerably higher than those obtained under corresponding voltages with positive fields. This no doubt arose from the mobility of the positive ion being less than that of the negative. With both fields it will be seen saturation currents were obtained with potentials of approximately 400 volts applied to the cylinder. As the capacity of the measuring system was 8142 e.s.u. it will be seen from the readings given in the table that the maximum conductivity in this case was about 16 times greater than the maximum obtained 52 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA conductivity measured when the same radiation was absorbed by liquid air. The general results of these measurements therefore agree with those obtained by Giernacher with the liquids which he used in eee à i pie | [TI LIT TS =: ess = R L v4 & Be $ ei aH . pu TT : Re HE x HE i PS iF Beg iz anus, ws Li oH HE ETF ji HE HR Ha ET EEE HE HE RER ati Figure 6 as much as they shew (1) that it is very much more difficult to obtain saturation currents with ionisation in liquid air by alpha rays than when the ionisation was produced by the same radiation in air at ordinary pressure and (2) that the currents obtainable with a given field under ionisation by alpha rays are very much less with liquid air than with air at ordinary pressures. VI. Mobilities of Ions Produced by Alpha Rays in Air at High Pressures. In order to clear up if possible the question of the relative mobilities of ions produced by alpha rays in air at high pressures, the apparatus, shewn in Fig. 7 was used. To Electromerer To Earrh 7e Barrery Figure 7 AB was a brass plate about 8 cm. long carrying a boss of the same metal, CD about 2 cm. in diameter. MN was a second brass plate attached to AB by insulating supports. This plate was provided with a circular opening as shewn in the diagram and acted as a guard plate [MCLENNAN-KEYS' ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY 53 to the boss CD. A third brass plate GH carried a polonium coated plate PQ with the coated surface facing the boss CD. EF was a plate of ebonite provided with a circular opening and inserted between the polonium coated plate PQ and the guard plate MN and the boss CD. Care was taken in putting this apparatus together to see that the boss CD did not touch either the plate MN or the ebonite plate FF. The diameter of the opening in EF was 1-06 cm, and the distance between the boss CD and the face of the plate PQ towards it was 1 em. This apparatus was placed in a strong steel cylinder and air was pumped into the latter until the pressure stood at 120 kilograms per sq. cm. The plate AB was attached to an insulated wire leading through the cylinder and passing on to the quadrants of a Dolazaleck electrometer. The plate M was connected directly to the steel cylinder which was kept joined to earth and the plate GH was connected by an insulated wire passing through the cylinder to a battery of storage cells. It should be added that the apparatus was put together initially without the polonium-coated plate PQ in position and was found to insulate perfectly when surrounded with air in the steel cylinder at 120 kilograms per sq. cm. pressure. With the polonium-coated plate in position one had with this arrangement a layer of highly ionized air close to the plate PQ. More- over the field between the plate PQ and the boss CD was a uniform one and the dimensions of the field through which conduction could take place to the electrode CD were perfectly defined. When this apparatus was put together and air pumped into the cylinder, it was left intact for a period of over five months and at inter- vals during this time sets of readings on the current between CD and PQ were taken with series of gradually increasing potentials both positive and negative applied to GH. Throughout the whole of this period the currents for selected fields up to about 750 volts remained practically the same, which shewed, since the intensity of the radiation from the polonium must have diminished by over one half in this time, that the current was independent of any variations which took place in the ionization layer. For such a case as this Rutherford* and Child} have shewn that the mobilities of the ions (expressed in electrostatic units) taking part in the conduction may be deduced from the relation p- 32:r.d.1 (1) 9V? where 7 is the current per sq. cm. cross section, d the distance and V the potential difference between the electrodes. *Rutherford, Phys. Rev. 1901, Vol. 13 (6) p. 321. Child, Phys. Rev., 1901, Vol. 12 (3) p. 137. 54 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA If practical electromagnetic units be used the mobility is given by rs heats a LUE 72 2 fii —32 soars. em. a sec. per volt acm. (2) where à is expressed in amperes, V is in volts and d in cms. If c be the capacity in E.S.U. of the electrode AB together with the leading wires, quadrants and attached condensers to which it is connected; r the radius of the opening in the ebonite plate EF, x the number of scale divisions which correspond to a potential of 1 volt applied to the quadrants and y the number of scale divisions per min. corresponding to the current between the two electrodes for a given applied field, then 7 in equation 1 is given by we ea ARE du 9.10% 602 17° amperes and therefore eal Been mn Al ay) ye Ve RTs DOUTE ONE RU cies L304 EN SE Since with the apparatus used d = 1 em. and r = 53 em. it follows that k is given by [oa © Hi "RE For a selected pressure this relation shews that y should be pro- portional to V?- TABLE VI. No. of scale divisions per volt—x—4100 Positive Field Negative Field V V2 We V2 Values of y| (in volts) (in Volts) | Values of y| (in Volts) (in Volts) 2:3 83-1 6,905-6 3-9 80-0 6, 400-0 107 162-0 26, 244-0 11-3 160-0 25, 600-0 25.5 242-0 58 , 564-0 35-2 243-0 59 , 049-0 51-6 328-0 107 , 584-0 71-4 328-0 107 , 584-0 74-5 410-0 168, 100-0 104-7 410-0 168, 100-0 101.6 490-0 240, 100-0 130-0 490-0 240 ,100-0 147-3 564-0 318 ,096-0 164-3 505-0 319, 225-0 202-8 630-0 396 , 900-0 220-6 630-0 396 ,900-0 247.8 732-0 535 ,824-0 275-8 730-0 532 ,900-0 292-8 882-0 777 , 924-0 [MCLENNAN-KEYS] ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY 55 One set of readings from a number taken with this appar- atus is given in Table VI, and curves drawn from them are shewn in Figs. 8 and 9. In both diagrams the values of y are taken as ordinates but the values of v are taken as abscissee in Fig. 8 and the values of v’, in Figs. 9. TABLE VII. Mobility of positive ion—k, Mobility of negative ion ke Pressure—116:1 atmospheres. Positive ion. Negative ion. eS P k= k Pk, = 0-005294 , 0-06152 0-0006217 , 0-07224 Ratio k2/k,—1-18 Kovarik’s Results for pressures up to 75 atmospheres P k,=1-346. Pk2—1-.89. From the numbers given in Table VI and from the curves in Figs. 8 and 9, it will be seen that for potentials up to about 800 volts, the relation between y and V? is practically a linear one, and surrent (arbitrary scale) = #. NE 300 200 100 fo) 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 Volts Figure 8 that the mobility of the negative ion is about 18% greater than that of the positive. This would go to show that one is warranted in applying the Rutherford-Child relation to the present experiments. But the absolute values of the mobilities which have been deduced 56 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA from the numbers given in Table VII are much smaller than one should expect them to be if the inverse pressure law held up to as high as 116 atmospheres. Kovarik has shewn that this law applies in the case of air up to 75 atmospheres, and for positive ions up to this limit he finds pk, = 1-346 and for the negative pk, = 1-89. The mobility for the positive ion deduced from these experiments is there only about 1/22th and that of the negative ion 1/26th of what one should expect Current (arbitrary Goo 200 100 0 100 400 500 600 700 800 %0 40 Figure 9 to get if the inverse pressure law held between 75 and 116 atmos- pheres. If the results obtained be correct it would follow that the in- verse pressure law does not apply in this region. On the other hand, it is just possible that one is not justified in assuming the effective cross section of the flow of currents between the electrodes to be the area of the opening in the ebonite plate EF. There would be a tendency for the ions in passing across the field to diffuse to the walls of this opening and if such diffusion did occur, the effect would be to reduce the effective area of the opening. This would result in the values of the mobilities deduced as above being smaller than they really should be. However, one would scarcely expect the reduction from values calculated on the basis of the in- verse pressure law to be so great as that indicated by the numbers given in Table VII. [MCLENNAN-KEYS] ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY 57 A circumstance which seemed to point to diffusion exerting an influence on the readings was a time effect which was observed es- pecially when low fields were used. With fields below 60 volts a centi- metre this was particularly marked and it occurred with both positive and negative fields. Where such fields were applied after the various parts of the apparatus had remained uncharged for some time, a gradual diminution in the intensity of the current was always observed in taking a series of successive readings. It required about half an hour to elapse after the field was applied before the current reached a limiting value and the diminution in current amounted to from 12 to 20%. With fields above 60 volts a centimetre the effect gradually disappeared and when fields of 250 volts a centimetre and higher were applied no diminution in the current was observed. This effect would seem to indicate that the walls of the opening in the ebonite plate gradually became charged by ions diffusing to them. One effect of this action would be to pro- duce a partial neutralisation of the field and this in turn would account for the falling off in the current. As this effect was absent when the higher fields were applied it is not clear why such small values were obtained for the mobilities. It may be added that the readings given in Table VI were all taken immediately after the application of the field. It was the intention of the writers to use the apparatus to de- termine the mobilities of the ions produced in liquid air by alpha rays, but in view of the small values obtained with it for k, and k, in air at the particular pressure of 116 atmospheres it seemed advisable to defer these measurements until more extended observations were made on the mobilities of the ions in air at a series of high pressures. The polonium coated plate used above was of rather small dimensions, but it was all that was available at the time the experiments were made. With a larger plate the effects of diffusion should be lessened. The experiments made so far show that there should be no great difficulty in finding the mobilities of ions produced in air up to and even beyond 150 atmospheres. The difficulty in determining the mobili- ties in liquid air will be largely one of getting rid of the formation of air bubbles in the field and of preventing the liquid air from becoming contaminated with ice crystals. In order to ascertain the mobilities of the ions in liquid air and over as large a range of pressures as possible, and especially to clear up any doubt regarding the results obtained in the present experi- ments on the mobilities at 116 atmospheres, the investigation is being continued with a polonium coated plate of larger area. Sec. III, 1913—4 58 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA VII. On the Existence of a Penetrating Radiation Emitted by Polonium. In the earlier portion of the paper when dealing with the con- ductivities represented by the curves shewn in Figs. 2, 4 and 5, it was suggested in explanation of the bend in the curves that pos- sibly this effect might be due to a small volume ionisation in the field due to a penetrating radiation from the polonium. That such a vol- ume ionisation did really exist was shewn by means of the apparatus given in Fig. 7 before it was put together for the experiments de- scribed in section VI. In place of its being constructed as shewn in the diagram the ebonite plate was not inserted but in its place a sheet of finely meshed gauze was fixed parallel to the two plates GH and MN, and about half-way between them. The edges of this gauze sheet were turned down and soldered to the plate GH. The polonium coated plate was close to the plate GH, and so within the space between it and the gauze. The apparatus as constructed in this way was placed in the steel receiver, which was then filled up with air to over 100 atmospheres. The distance between the gauze and the plate PQ was about 3-5 millimetres, and as the alpha rays emitted by the polonium could not have a greater range at this high pressure than a fraction of a millimetre it is clear that these rays could not produce any ionisation in the space between the gauze and the plate MN. On applying a potential difference, however, between the gauze and the plate MN, a well-marked, though small current was obtained which reached saturation with a field of about 20 volts, this current was obtained with positive as well as with negative fields, and with both fields its maximum intensity was the same. This result combined with the fact that the mobilities of the ions are exceedingly small at the high pres- sure used would seem to shew that the current had its origin in ioni- sation produced in the space between the gauze and the plate MN by a penetrating radiation from the polonium rather than in ions diffusing through the gauze into this space from the ionized layer close to PQ. The apparatus was not suitable for testing whether this radiatoin was magnetically deflectable or not but in view of the ex- periments of Chadwick* which shew that gamma rays are produced by alpha rays in certain circumstances, the results would seem to point to the existence of gamma rays accompanying the alpha rays from polonium. The probability of this conclusion being correct is in- *Chadwick, Phil. Mag. Vol. XXIV, p. 594, 1912. Phil. Mag. Vol. XXV, d. 193, 1913. SS es te lin [MCLENNAN-KEYS] ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY 59 creased when it is remembered that the experiments were made with a layer of polonium, which had been deposited on the copper plate PQ about nine months previously. This interval should have been sufficient for any beta ray product to have died out, which with any likelihood might have originally contaminated the polonium deposit. VIII. Summary of Results. (1) In a number of experiments it has been shewn in agreement with a number of other experimenters that liquid air when freshly filtered is an extremely good insulator, and that its conductivity in the absence of any ionising radi- ation other than that from the earth is much the same as that of ordinary clean air at atmospheric pressure. (2) The dielectric constant of liquid air was found to be 1-48. (3) The saturation current obtained in air at ordinary pressure by the complete absorption of the alpha radiation emitted by a plate coated with polonium was found to be about 16 times the maximum current obtained with the highest fields used when the radiation was absorbed in air at 101 atmospheres and about 576 times the maximum current obtained in liquid air when the ionization was produced by the same radiation. (4) The mobility of the positive ion produced in air at 116 atmospheres by alpha rays was found to be 0-0605294 cm. sec. per volt per cm., and that the negative 0-0006217 em. sec. per volt per cm. the latter being about 1-18 times the former. (5) Evidence has been found in the course of the investigation of the existence of a penetrating radiation emitted by the layer of polonium which furnished the alpha rays. In conclusion the authors wish to acknowledge the kindness of Professor H. A. Dawes and Mr. P. Blackman, who assisted in taking readings during the course of the investigation. 2h ease “a Le. ue AE RENTE L HW) HAT { ATTTON stam AU | HE mi, t 7 Au “EL HY 4 i REA FANS MA (à >) 0) Ge ‘Se 7. ; « ni i Ê ar i 1! os é { } { "| 4 7 Ths a # : j A fi bli 3 mt i) | pui i} tie? Te yi ‘4 4 mo : F Ate À ei AR wh) | 450 Qui fi can ha ag no Ris any ra dsp f : ( TOR afl 7 ui . ne CAT A pal aa = AT fy f Ih, fa F Len nto | ie pas 7 AUD US ie net NAME git Ca ME ie . SUE M EU PU 114 ny wee | dae ALT no + CU ET Loue iles NT a ay poi, het ii RAL We nh elt et) 1 DE ret. is : ih il dub di si i . SECTION III., 1913. [61] TRANS. R.S.C. On the Temperature of the Mercury Arc By Proressor J. C. McLENNAN, University of Toronto. (Read, May 28, 1913.) In the course of some experiments recently carried out by the writer on the fluorescence of iodine vapour under stimulation by the light from the mercury arc, it became necessary to know the tempera- ture to which the iodine vapour was submitted during the exposures. As there appeared to be no information available on the temperatures obtainable from such types of mercury arcs as those used in the fluorescence experiments mentioned a few sets of observations were made with the special form of tube used and an account of these is given in the following note. The tube consisted of two parts and is shown in Fig. 1. The outer portion was of glass and had the form of the ordinary Cooper Hewitt lamp provided with an extension at one end. The inner tube was of clear fused quartz with walls about 1-5 to 2 mm. in thick- ness. It was inserted axially in the outer tube and sealed into the latter with ordinary mastic wax. In studying the fluorescence of vapours the quartz tube was provided with a crystalline quartz win- dow sealed on with mastic to the projecting end, and exposures were made by directing the collimator of the spectroscope at this window. In order to investigate the temperatures to which the vapours were subjected by the mercury arc the crystalline quartz window was removed and one junction of a nickel iron carefully insulated thermo- couple was inserted in the inner tube. When the mercury arc was established the other junction was kept at O°C by melting ice, and the electromotive forces of the thermocouple were measured by means of a standard Siemens and Halske potentiometer. In studying the fluorescence of the vapours the tube in action was of course maintained in a horizontal position, but in taking the temperatures the tube was inclined at the angle indicated in the dia- gram, so as to have the closed end of the quartz tube dipping into the mercury at the negative terminal of the arc. Before commencing to take the temperatures of the arc the thermocouple was calibrated by keeping one junction at the tempera- ture of melting ice and the other, first at this temperature, and then 62 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA in turn at the temperatures given respectively: by (a) water (b) naphtha- lene, (c) mercury and (d) sulphur boiling at atmospheric pressure, and finally (e) at the temperature of melting zinc. Figure 1 These temperatures and the corresponding electromotive forces obtained with the couple are given in Table I. A calibration curve drawn from them is shewn in Fig. 2. TABLE I. CALIBRATION READINGS. : Electromotive-force of thermo-couple Temperature in degrees Centigrade P in volts. (1) Boiling point of water....... 100°C 31 x 10 (2) Boiling pt. of naphthalene... .218°C 67-6 (3) Boiling pt. of mercury....... 36 -7°C 100-5 (4) Melting point of zinc......... 419-4°C 109-1 (5) Boiling pt. of sulphur........ 444 .7°C 111-0 This curve it will be seen is linear only over the lower ranges of temperature and indicates that a maximum electromotive force would in all probability be obtained with the thermocouple at or slightly above 500°C. The values usually given in the tables for the electro- motive forces given by a nickel iron thermo-junction shew that the relation between temperature and electromotive force for this couple should be a linear one. Such results, however, were obtained no doubt, with nickel and iron which had been specially purified. In the present investigation, the nickel and iron wires used were those [MCLENNAN] TEMPERATURE OF THE MERCURY ARC 63 obtained in the ordinary way from the dealers, and in all probability were not pure. They gave fairly high electromotive forces, however, and consequently did very well for the use to which they were put. In taking the temperatures in the arc the one junction of the couple was kept at 0° C with melting ice, and the other was placed at different points in the quartz tube, commencing with the end of the tube dipping into the mercury at the cathode. In each position the junction practically took up at once the temperature in the tube at that point. The temperature at any given point was found to increase with the consumption of energy passing in Vo Its ° Of ane ay HH 48H en Figure 2 the arc, but when the energy expended in the latter was maintained at a uniform rate the temperatures at the different points in the quartz tube were found to remain quite steady. The results obtained in one set of observations are given in Table II. When taking these readings a difference of potential of 45 volts was maintained between the terminals of the lamp and the current passing was 5-4 amperes. In this table the numbers in column I give the distance in centimetres from the closed end of the quartz tube at which the heated junction was placed, and in column II are given the electromotive forces of the couple obtained with the junction at these various points. Column III gives the temperatures deduced from the calibration curve which corresponded to these different electromotive forces. These temperatures plotted against the distances of the points of observation from the closed end of the quartz tube are shewn in Fig. 3. THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 80 Centimetres 48 56 64 72 40 Je 24 Hu a TE 16 : HAE a pr i i i i E FA fosssssasessusss Figure 3 TABLE II. Electromotive force of ther-| Temperature in degrees Distance from negative end mocouple in volts Centigrade. of exploring tube in em. ITI IT 49-2 x 10 50-7 M | © m1 AN M + 19 © EE 00 © © mrt N [æ) st Le) 311-0 SO OS Sr © 0e Me Se BÉNRRRNGLÉNIMANNSR S BE © © © OO © OO OO OO OO OO OO OO CG A OHO © Q © M Du 5 S 1Q 1Q mo @ © N oO wad 10 © © 4 64 [MCLENNAN] TEMPERATURE OF THE MERCURY ARC 65 One point which is emphasized by the measurements is the marked difference between the temperature of the liquid mercury at the cathode and that of the mercury vapour in the arc. The former it will be seen reached only 158-2°C, while the latter rose as high as 326° C. The anode in the mercury tube was 60 cms. from the closed end of the quartz tube and the luminosity in the are extended through- out the whole of the vapour from the mercury cathode up to the iron anode. It will be seen from the curve that while a maximum tempera- ture was reached at a point about 15 cm. from the end of the tube, the temperature was about the same over the whole length of the are and varied only from about 305 to 326 degrees. On the other hand the curve shews that the temperature gradient was very steep in the neighbourhood both of the cathode and of the anode. While these numbers give the temperature to which the thermo- couple was subjected at different points along the tube it is not to be RES Figure 4 understood that they represent even approximately the actual tem- perature of the luminous mercury vapour in the arc. Geiger* who has studied the temperatures in electrical discharges in hydrogen, nitrogen and atmospheric air at low pressures in Geissler tubes pro- vided with Wehnelt cathodes has shewn that with currents of about an ampere passing in the tubes temperatures beyond 1000° C have been observed with thermocouples directly exposed to the discharge. These high temperatures were also found to characterise the discharge in the mercury are when a thermocouple was exposed directly to the luminous vapour. To bring out this point a tube of the form shewn in Fig. 4 was used and measurements were made on the discharge in it with a platinum platinum-iridium thermo-couple, b, d, e, sealed into it with one junction, b, situated at the axis of the tube. The terminals d and e were joined directly to the compen- sation apparatus referred to above and this gave the electromotive forces of the junction when discharges of different intensities were sent through the tube. *Geiger, Inaug. Dissert., Erlangen, July, 1906. 66 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA In making the observations the tube was joined to the 110 volt D.C. supply circuit with a variable resistance in series which enabled one at will to modify the strength of the current in the arc. TABLE III. CALIBRATION READINGS. ca . : Electromgtive force of thermocouple in femperature in degrees Centigrade HOME ü ne volts. (i) relia eeices rene 0-°C —2-0 x 10— (2) Boiling point of water........100-°C 8-7 (3) Boiling point of naphthalene.218-°C 23-5 (4) Melting point of zine....... 419-4°C 51-0 (5) Melting point of silver alloy ...935-°C 123-0 (6) Melting point of potassium Sulphate wen ise ce RCI 1070-°C 145-0 Before sealing the wires into the tube the thermo-couple was calibrated by exposing the junction, b, to a series of temperatures given by (1) melting ice (2) water and naphthalene boiling at atmos- 10" Vours pheric pressure and (3) zinc, coin silver, and potassium sulphate at their respective melting points. The electromotive forces determined by these temperatures were measured and are given in Table III. A calibration curve drawn from them is shown in Fig. 5. [MCLENNAN] TEMPERATURE OF THE MERCURY ARC 67 The results obtained in one particular set of observations with the arc established in the tube are given in Table IV. In making this set the fall of potential between the two terminals of the tube was measured simultaneously with the strength of the current pass ng through it. At the same time the corresponding electromotive forces were read off from the compensation apparatus. Column I in Table IV gives the energy, expressed in watts, consumed by the arc, and column II the corresponding electromotive forces given by the junction. Column III gives the temperatures corresponding to these as deduced from the calibration curve in Fig. 5. TABLE IV. TEMPERATURE OF Mercury ARC. Energy supplied to mercury |Electromotive force of ther-| Temperature in degrees are in watts. mo couple in volts. Centigrade. I II III 90-18 63 x 10 520 110-16 71-3 578 130-2 80-0 630 153-7 91-0 718 158-46 92.2 725 176-46 97-3 760 196-0 102-6 798 221-1 109-9 850 228-8 114-5 878 274.5 121-0 920 nin, 298-3 126-0 955 GG CA : 333.75 134-0 1000 PES 354-75 141-0 1042 fe; 97 "OX 376-7 147-0 1083 f + 0 4 403-0 152-5 1120 [lui js 5 424.0 158-0 1160 \= \ 454-0 165-0 1200 Veg. \ 469 - 26 170-5 1235 eo, ™ 472-4 174-0 1260 \# is 507 -6 182-0 1318 oe 555-36 189-0 1352 0 1370 Qt Q0 © — pd © [en] © — ER © © From the numbers given in this column it will be seen? that a temperature of 1400° C. was reached. This was obtained when a current of 10-6 amperes was passing through the tube and it was 68 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA deduced by supposing that the calibration curve was rectilinear be- yond 1070° C., the highest point of calibration. Platinum, platinum- iridium thermo-couples are not generally used in measuring tempera- tures higher than 1100° C. or at most 1200° C. but in the present case it was found that the couple still remained intact when an electro- motive force of 196 x 10-* volts was reached and this was taken from the curve as representing approximately 1400° C. It is quite clear that with a platinum platinum-rhodium thermo- couple still higher temperatures might have been recorded, but after the maximum current of 10-6 amperes had been running for a short time the tube cracked and the investigation was not carried further. Among other things the investigation shews:— (1) that with a moderate consumption of energy the luminous vapour in the mercury arc may attain and easily exceed a tempera- ture of 1400°C. and (2) that when the mercury arc is made to surround a silica tube such as that inserted in the lamp shewn in Fig. I the temperatures at points inside the silica tube are not nearly so high as that of the luminous vapour surrounding it. The investigation suggests, too, that in all probability the temp- eratures indicated by a thermo-couple when exposed directly to the discharge are still very much below that corresponding to the mean molecular kinetic energy of the luminous vapour. The most satis- factory way, though a difficult one, to ascertain the tempera- ture, would be to investigate the form and variation in width of a selected spectral line when the consumption of energy in the arc is varied. The Physical Laboratory,, University of Toronto. May 15, 1913. SECTION III., 1913. [69] TRANS. R.S.C.. An Application of the Photo-Electric Effect to the Measurement of the Thermal Conductivities of Different Gases. By F. C. Assury, B.A., Assistant Demonstrator in Physics, University of Toronto PRESENTED BY PROF. J. C. MCLENNAN (Read May 28, 1913) A well-known experiment to illustrate the difference in the con- ductivity for heat of various gases, consists in filling two incandescent lamp bulbs with hydrogen and carbon dioxide respectively and heating the filaments by means of an electric current. When maintained at the same potential difference, the filaments, if possessing the same resistance when cold, differ greatly in appearance. That surrounded by carbon dioxide at atmospheric pressure glows fairly brightly, whilst that enclosed in hydrogen at the same pressure is just suffici- ently luminous to be visible. In this manner the comparatively great conductivity for heat of hydrogen is strikingly exhibited. As far as the author has been able to find out, no quantitative results have been obtained for this experiment. It was, accordingly, thought worth while to investigate the conditions a little more care- fully, and especially to observe the variation, under change of pres- sure, in the intensity of the light emitted from the glowing filament when the latter was surrounded by different gases. A photo-electric method was used to determine the intensity of the light from the filament. I. Experimental Method. Although at first an ordinary incandescent lamp filament was employed, it was soon found preferable to use a platinum wire. This was placed axially in a glass bulb, containing, in succession, various gases, and heated by an electric current. The difference in potential between the ends of the platinum wire was kept constant and the variation in the intensity of the visible radiation was observed as the pressure of the surrounding gas was reduced. Now we see that, at ordinary pressures, if the thermal conductivity of the gas surrounding the filament be comparatively large, heat will be conducted away freely and the wire will glow only dimly; if, how- 70 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA ever, the conductivity be small, the heat produced by the electrical energy will raise the temperature of the wire until it glows brightly, and the photo-electric current will, in consequence, be large. Let us now see what effect reducing the pressure should have. According to the kinetic theory,* the heat conductivity of a gas at constant temperature is independent of the pressure until the mean free path of the gas molecules becomes comparable with the dimen- sions of the containing vessel. Further, the loss by thermal radiation will also be independent of pressure and the convection effect will gradually become more and more negligible as the pressure is re- duced, its influence depending, however, on the shape and size of the containing vessel.f This holds, of course, only when the gas is kept at a constant temperature, and the ideal course would be to enclose the glow-lamp in a thermostat. Owing, however, to the nature of the experimental method, this was impracticable. Let us then investigate briefly the nature of the photo-electric current—pressure curve to be expected under the actual conditions of the experiment. First, we see that, as time goes on, and the containing vessel becomes heated, the temperature gradient will decrease, the amount of heat conducted away will drop off, and the platinum wire will glow more brightly. This effect, of itself, at constant pressure, would soon end in a condition of equilibrium between the containing vessel and the outer atmosphere. | But, as noted above, the transfer of heat by convection will de- crease to zero as the pressure decreases, and will depend, moreover, on the dimensions of the containing vessel. There will thus be a gradual rise in the temperature of the wire, quite apart from the time- effect mentioned. Since the photo-electric current will depend on the visible radiation only, and since this latter will obviously form a larger and larger fraction of the total energy emanating from the wire as the temperature rises and the wire passes from dull red to in- candescence, we see that the resultant curve between photoelectric current and pressure will exaggerate the increase of temperature with decrease of pressure. Thus, instead of the theoretical straight line, parallel to the pressure axis, and indicative of constant conductivity we must look for a curve tending more and more abruptly from the axis of pressure. II. Apparatus. For the investigation, a photo-electric cell of the Elster and Geitel type was employed. It is shown in Fig. 1 and consisted of a surface of *The Kinetic Theory of Gases, O. E. Meyer, p. 287. tKundt and Warburg, Pogg. Ann. Bd. 156. be [ASBURY| —/3 volts. \ ee lili Ci es Cp Oe PS Se ante THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES To Electromerter. ~ = CS eee ee eee Te peme i 1 : Lx En D St en = ep ) ESS SRE um = = = —— ! 1 ! il ! — — — hr — EE Figure 2 71 72 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA colloidal potassium enclosed in a glass bulb containing helium at low pressure. The potassium surface was kept at a negative potential of about 13 volts and the central electrode was connected to the electro- meter. The cell was enclosed in a light-tight box and the metallic surface illuminated directly, through a narrow slit, by the light from the glowing wire. The slit was largely protected from illumination by outside light and in all cases, the net effect, due to light from the glow-lamp alone, was used in obtaining the results given below. III. Preliminary Measurements. 1. The cell was first illuminated by light from a Nernst lamp sent through a monochromatic illuminator, and the photo-electric current measured for successive portions of the spectrum. The re- sults obtained are shown by the curve in Fig. 2. It will be seen that the light effective photo-electrically with the glass cell used lay be- tween the wave-lengths 2500° A.U. and 7500° A.U., with a maxi- mum due to light intensity and cell sensitiveness, acting in con- junction, at about 4600° A.U. 2. In order to gain familiarity with the apparatus, an ordinary 32 c.p. incandescent lamp was attached by a glass tube, sealed into the top, to a mercury pump. The bulb was next exhausted, and hydrogen from a Kipp apparatus admitted through the pump; the process was then repeated and the readings finally taken. The lamp was attached to the 110 volt mains and the times of deflection over a fixed portion of the reading scale were taken as the pressure was varied in the bulb. The result of the readings is given by the curve shown in Fig. 3. Detailed readings for a typical set of observations are given later. Approximate results were also obtained for nitrogen in a similar bulb. It was, however, impossible to work satisfactorily with the ordinary incandescent filament; hence, for the readings with nitrogen and air, two glow-lamps were constructed by fusing similar pieces of platinum wire axially in bulbs of different dimensions. These bulbs were of the shape indicated in Fig. 4, and their greatest diameters were 2 and 7 em. respectively. The length of the wire was about 3°5 cm. This type of lamp was used throughout the remaining experi- ments. A potential difference of 3-5 volts was constantly maintained between the ends of the filament, and the lamp, attached to the mer- cury pump, was so placed in front of the narrow slit that the light from the glowing filament fell upon the sensitive surface of the photo- electric cell. Measurements were then taken of the photo-electric [ASBURY] 20 16 EN ) Se Sure On Cr ES S Pres: o. THERMAL CONDUCTI VITIES “050 075 ‘100 IS 50 Figure 3 Figure 4 B Sec. IIT, 1913—5 74 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA current under diminishing pressure. As a typical example, the read- ings for nitrogen in the smaller bulb are given in full in Table I. The curve in Fig. 5 illustrates this set whilst those marked a and b, in Fig. 6 show the results obtained for air in the smaller and larger bulbs respectively. Mitroper Stall bulb. $0 er ge eee nens HUE jus MEN ae HE ae papa Hise gate eee iii ai doles rie oo cas ani ee RE [T1] Fes He ue nor FREE PE + Jo RE HAE HET ÉTÉ RE OH AOF AT IEEE fn SEE DL Rp betas pee rH EE cr a ÉD LEE LEVÉE RITES CREER FE HAE a PTE) ps ers See acer tea ates (a) of . [ASBURY] THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES I] Qt a —S ma// pus: PATRON e Du/p. 20 He] BSSSSSE COUR8 FRESE SEUDSDUSES CESSs SEE SEER CUBE SEBSSERREE ET PRRSSBBES 10 ene Figure 6 76 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA TABLE I. NITROGEN, SMALLER BULB. Electrometer Needle:—147 volts. Field:—14-1 volts. P.D. over lamp: 3-5 volts. : 2: ae PM Press Current Interval pie Corr’n | Net Rate Fs M tin 75-9 -690 53 sec. -0188 -0165 -0023 31700 56-3 -675 52-9 -O189 -0164 -0025 3°26 “ 32-3 -670 40-0 -0250 -0162 -0088 3:30 “ 21-9 -655 32-5 -0308 -0161 -0147 3:35 ‘ 11-7 -643 20-0 -0500 -0160 -0340 3:39 “ 6-2 -623 10-0 - 1000 -0159 -0841 SCO 0 3-2 -607 2-54 -3937 -0157 -3780 Nore :—Readings of the deflection with no light were taken as follows:— DE DDR AVS AR sea Jessy NU RURALE 59-9 (OU68 cc 2th ae D CSD RENE PE Pr nied Bar RTE 61-3 OL63!. TT eee APC) ER Pine RS Rta ss 65-6 101527 AS ELEC eee From this data the corrections given above, in Column 6, were calculated. Column 1 gives the time at which the reading was taken. Column 2, the pressure of the gas in the bulb. Column 3, the current in amperes through the wire. Column 4, the observed time of deflection of the electrometer over a fixed interval on the scale. Column 5, the reciprocal of this time. Column 6, the correction, as explained above, and Column 7, the resultant net rate. The relation between pressure and net rate of deflection is shown in the accompany- ing graph in Fig. 5. In the same figure is also shown the correspond- ing curve for total energy expended, as obtained from the current readings recorded above. The difference of potential between the ends of the wire was, it will be remembered, kept constant. The scale is an arbitrary one. IV. Conclusions. It will be noticed that the general type of curve is the same for all the gases used—air, nitrogen, and hydrogen; and also that the curves for air in the larger and smaller bulbs are of the same type. This type is that to be expected from the considerations outlined in a preceding paragraph. A comparison of the conductivities for heat of the gases, hydrogen and air, for example, may readily be obtained by measuring the photo- electric currents, at atmospheric pressure, under similar conditions [ASBURY] THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES 77 of voltage and position for the glow lamp used. The comparatively great conductivity of hydrogen may thus easily be demonstrated. Further, the effect of the size of the containing vessel is apparent from the final pair of curves, in which the readings for the two bulbs are brought to the same scale by comparison of the deflections ob- tained at higher pressures. Thus, summarising briefly, we may say that the above experi- ments though they do not furnish the absolute values, nevertheless indicate the comparative measures, of the thermal conductivities of the gases used, they demonstrate the existence and nature of the more important factors influencing this conductivity under a diminu- tion in the pressure of the surrounding gas and also show the nature of the growth, under similar circumstances, of the light intensity, with total energy expended in a glowing wire. Finally, I must here express my thanks to Prof. J. C. McLennan, at whose suggestion the above work was undertaken, for his kindly interest and advice throughout the course of the investigation. Physical Laboratory, University of Toronto, May Ist, 1913. 1 Nin nh i , 4 (0 Ape iA : | i ’ sl T4 { 1 s i ) re à Nr ide! 7 À Th 4 ul ' i ! : { Li EC LE NRA CP Le À ay eh Hi We pad : th { PAM doa À 0 ER Pada BER a EAN, rie ut ni ne, HA CONNUE LT EUR td | | | ie EAN TR Pe We Ys LA is SECTION III., 1913. [79] TRANS. R.S.C. Stereomicrography. G. P. Grrpwoop, M.D., F.R.S.C. (Read May 28, 1913) The objects in view in these few remarks are to bring the art of stereomicrography before the Society and to point out to what uses it may be applied. It frequently occurs in cases of forgery that the question arises where some part of the handwriting is found to cross over another portion and it may become necessary to determine which ink is super- ficial, the superficial ink being that which is of later date writing, indicating that the superficial ink was written after the under layer of ink. Such a case may be where a draft or a cheque has been raised by interpolating a word, or a figure, or the tracing of a signature whereon one ink has inadvertently flowed over some line previously written, examples of which are given. In such a case a microstereo- eraph would at once show which line was superficial and therefore written last, because if superficial, it must be above the other, and there- fore written after the other. Instances of this are given in the series of microphotographs. These are made in the different conditions. A gentleman gave his friend some notes, one of which was made out for five hundred and odd dollars, the word five being written with a small “f.” After the friend had signed the note it was taken away and the word ‘Forty’ inter- polated in front of the word five, and by accident the tail of the “y” crossed inadvertently the tail of the “‘f,”’ also inadvertently the word Forty was written in copying ink, which dries with a gloss on the surface. This gloss not mixing with the dry ink underneath revealed the differ- ence in the upper and lower inks; also the difference of surface and the difference in the two inks were revealed by examination with the microscope. But to make more certain, the crossings, under the above circumstances, were imitated and then stereomicrographs were made and copies printed, and under the stereoscope they show clearly which ink is superficial, the conditions being—the word five written and allowed to dry and the word Forty written so that the tail of the “y” crosses on to the “‘f’’ and allowed to dry. The reverse—the word Forty written first and then allowed to dry, and then the word five afterwards and also allowed to dry. Then the two words were written one after the other and both words blotted off as soon as written and allowed to dry. 80 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA The stereographs were then made by the author’s rocking stage described in the Royal Microscopical Society’s Journal for November, 1901. The writer recently thought of applying this same process of making stereographs for examining anatomical microscopic preparations such as bone sections, vegetable tissue, as pitted tissue in coniferous woods, stellate cells in the water lily, crystals, etc., and then these latter as seen by plane polarized light, and lastly in colours by autochrome plate and with a selenite plate, such as cotton and linen fibre, crystals and blood globules. The author desires to acknowledge with thanks his indebtedness to the kind assistance of his daughter, Miss Girdwood, and his friends Mr. Bryce Scott of Moncton, and Mr. Malone of Antigua, and without whose assistance the beautiful pictures shown the author himself could not have made in consequence of his loss of sight. In the course of the making of these microstereographs some improvements in the original rocking stage were found necessary; it was requisite to have the knife edges of the stage in line with the optical axis of the microscope, to have the rocking stage pressed up against the knife edges quite tight so as to have no slack. This was done by putting a piece of soft vulcanized rubber under the rocking stage, to have it screwed firmly to the main stage of the microscope by two small screws underneath. When using the higher power, such as the 6th and the 12th oil immersion, it was found that the angle of the lens was so narrow that it was not possible to get a sufficiently large angle of rocking, namely, 7-5 degrees each way. With my 6th with which the red blood corpuscles were made, we had to be content with only 6 degrees altogether. Still they are stereoscopic and show the cup- shape. With the 12th oil immersion still less rocking is available but it is hoped to rectify this by another means not yet tried out. SECTION III., 1913. [81] TRANS. R.S.C. On Certain Difficulties that Arise in Connection with the Study of Elliptic Functions. By J. Harkness, F.R.S.C. (Read May 28, 1913) In preparing material in connection with the article on Elliptic Functions in the Encyklopädie der Mathematischen Wissenschaften (Elliptische. Funktionen mit Benutzung von Vorarbeiten und Ausarbeitungen der Herren J. Harkness in Montreal, Canada, und W. Wirtinger in Wien von R. Fricke in Braunschweig) the writer was impressed by the inadequacy of the treatment of fundamental ques- tions in many of the text-books, and by the scattered nature of the material in cases where no objection is to be raised on the score of logical rigour. Also methods of great importance for the particular subject of elliptic functions are more or less masked by being pre- sented in connection with the larger theories of multiply periodic functions of many variables, or by being used incidentally in connec- tion with problems of a different character. It has accordingly seemed to him that it might be useful to discuss, from the most modern point of view, some of the difficulties that arise in treating of the inversion problem and the subject of systems of periods, and to show how they have been overcome. It has not been thought necessary to include many references to authorities. THE INVERSION PROBLEM. Let the basis equation be y = a (x-a,) (x-a,) (2) (K-a,), where the a’s will be supposed finite and distinct, but capable of taking complex values. The Riemann surface T attached to this equation may be constructed in the ordinary way by connecting the two sheets along two branch-cuts, going e.g. from a, to a, and from a, to a: On this surface the pair of cross-cuts A, B, may be drawn in a variety of ways. For instance, A may be taken on the upper sheet round the branch-cut a, a, and B round a, a, so that it lies partly in the upper and partly in the lower sheet. The surface T, when dissected by A, B, becomes a simply connected surface T!, bounded by a single contour. In the second of the accompanying figures the two banks of A, B ae 82 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA slightly separated, to show that the complete contour can be described continuously by a point moving in the sense of the arrows. In the first figure the banks of A, B are coincident; the arrows in figure 1 correspond to the arrows along the outer banks in fig. 2. Hav- ing made this choice of arrows, the outer banks of A, B in fig. 2 furnish the senses of the arrows for fig. 1, and with reference to them, we call the outer banks of A, B the left banks, and the inner banks of A, B the right banks. Figure 1 Figure 2 For many purposes it is desirable to contract A, B till A les in its limiting position along the branch-cut a,a,, and B becomes an infinitely thin oval, coincident with a line from a, to as. The integral of the first kind is nowhere infinite on T! and is one-valued, that is, its value at a place (x, y) on T! is independent of the path from the initial place (Xp, yo). Along A, B the values on opposite banks are unequal, but the difference of these values is constant along a cross-cut. For instance U,-U, = u,-u, = u,-u, = / du taken on T! from q to por from s tor. The values at opposite points of the left and right banks of A, B may be denoted by uw, u,; the difference u,-u, along a cross-cut is called the modulus of periodicity of the integral at the cross-cut. Denote these moduli of periodicity at A and B by 20, 2'. Then the modulus of periodicity at B is equal to the value of the integral / du round A in the sense of the arrow and the modulus of periodicity at A is equal to the value of / du taken round B in the sense opposite to that of the arrow, where the arrows are those in Fig. 1. Hitherto we have been considering T!, not T. On T suppose that A is crossed from left bank to right bank by the path of integration. The value of the integral on the right bank is now not u, but u, = u,+(u—u,) =u,+20. This shows that the effect of m crossings of A [HARKNESS] STUDY OF ELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS 83 and m! crossings of B, all from left bank to right bank, is to increase u by 2m@ + 2m! w!. Since the integral defined by fe? dx U= Xo; Yo in which the initial values of x, y are x,, Yo, admits infinitely many values, it is obvious that the one-valuedness of x, y as functions of u is a fact of fundamental importance. It is surprising to find how inadequately the necessity for a rigorous proof of this theorem has been recognized by many of the writers of accepted text-books. The probable reason is that many of the logical possibilities are of a kind that easily escape attention. We propose to examine some of the methods by which the problem of inversion has been successfully attacked, and incidentally to point out the character of the difficulties to be overcome. Since we wish to express x, y as one-valued doubly periodic functions of u with the moduli of periodicity of the integral serving as periods of the functions, it is essential that the ratio w!/w should not be real. This can be established at once by putting u=v+iw and integrating / vdw over the complete contour of A, B in the sense of the arrows. If 20=a+ib, 2w'=c-+id, the contributions of the two banks A,, A, (fig. 1) of A we du, Le du, NE du (since du, =du,) = a i USE ose the Wontribution of the two banks of B is — a Thus / vdw = ad-be ; but the integral can also be put in the form x) =) dxdy, taken roy Nn eek (Ee le (a over the surface of T! and is, therefore, essentially positive. Hence ad-be >o and consequently w'/w has the coefficient of 1 positive. This is, of course, Riemann’s proof. It still seems the simplest, though the matter has been examined from many points of view. Another preliminary point relates to the expansions in terms of u-—u! for all places (x, y) in the immediate neighborhood of a place (x', y'), where u! is the value of u at (xt, y'). For this purpose we introduce a parameter t defined by x—x'=t ;x-—a, =t?j;x =1/t. according as (x!, y!) is an ordinary place, a branch-place (a;, 0), or a place for which x! = «. In these three cases we can express 1/y or 1/VR(x) in the forms P (t) ; t? P (t?) ; t? P (t) by ordinary algebraic processes and in each case the power series begins with a constant S4 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA term. Then u—u' in each case takes the form of a power series beginning with the first power of t. By reversion of series, we see that t+=c, u—w) +c (uw) F2 (CoS = 0) is It follows at once that x—x' = a power series in u—u!, no matter whether x! belongs to an ordinary place, or a branch-place, o1 is situ- ated at oo. There is a similar conclusion for y—y'. The fact that in all cases u—u' = P (t) shows that u is every- where finite on the Riemann surface T, and also is a holomorphic function of x in the neighbourhood of the place (x', y'), in the sense that it a holomorphic function of t in the neighborhood of t = 0, where t is the parameter attached to (x', y'). The fact that in all cases x—x!= P (u—u!) shows that x (u) is also a holomorphic function of u in the neighbourhood of u—u’. What is established is that the surface which arises from T! by means of u must cover only a finite part of the plane, and that this surface has no branch-points. We have not proved that there is no multiple covering of the u-plane. By Cauchy’s theory of integration, as applied to the surface T!, u can take only one value u' at the place (x', y!) ; but there is no reason a priori why it should not take the same value u! at another place x", y. In this case x—x! and x—x", by what precedes, are power series (u—u') P (u—u'), (u—utt) P (u—u"), and the places (u', x'), (u', x!) on the surface that gives the u-region are covertical (the u-plane being regarded as horizontal). I. Method Employing the properties of Differential Equations. In this method x (u) is considered in connection with the differ- ential equation ek 2 Diese) which is supposed subject to the condition that x =x, when u=o, and that y, or VR (x), = y, when u=o. Cauchy proved the following theorem by means of his calculus of limits:— If the differential equation dx oi) in which f (x, u) is a holomorphic function of x, u in the neighbourhood of x =x), U=Uy, is subjected to the initial condition that x=x, when u=U,, it is satisfied by a function x (u) which is holomorphic in the neighbourhood of u, and takes the form x—x,=(u—u,) P (u—u,) . If f (x, u) is holomorphic within and upon the circumferences of circles of centres x, and u, and of radii R and r, and M=the maximum [HARKNESS] STUDY OF ELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS 85 absolute value of f (x,u) for this range of values in the x and u planes, then the circle of convergence for the power series for x (u) in the theorem is at least r (1—eR/2Mr), This theorem of Cauchy’s shows readily that there is only one holomorphic integral that reduces to x, when u=u,. This theorem has been supplemented by the further theorem that there are no solutions x= F (u) that satisfy the condition F (u,) =x, and are of the following pe. (a) at all points u', within a sufficiently small neighbourhood of u,, F(u) —F (ut) = (u — ut) P (u—ut,) (b) lim F (u1,) = F (u,), when u, tends to u!, as limit along a path 1, which may be finite or infinite in length. [This path may e.g. tend towards u, along a spiral. The path 1 must, however, be such that € having its usual meaning, there shall be a point on | beyond which every point of | is at a distance less than € from u, .] (c) F (u) — F (u,) is not expressible as a power series in u — Uo. Another supplement to the theorem takes account of the case where f (x,, u,) is infinite, whilst 1/f (x, u) is holomorphic about x = x,, u = u,. In this case the differential equation has an integral which reduces to x, when u = u,, and this integral is of the form x —x, = ¢,(u—u,)"+ €, (u—u,)?P+...c + 0, h a positive integer. This integral has an algebraic critical point at u = u,. Furthermore this is the only integral which tends to x, when u tends to Uy. With these theorems in mind let us return to the elliptic differential equation. Starting at the ordinary place (x,, y,) on T, which gives us the lower limit for the elliptic integral of the first kind, apply Cauchy’s theorem to the differential dx/du = R (x) = y, for which the initial condition is x = x, and y = yy). When u = 0, we see that the equation admits a holomorphic integral x (u) which reduces to x, when u = o, and whose derivate then takes the value y,. The region of definition of this integral is, at first, only the domain of con- vergence of the power series for x — x, in terms of u, but this power series can be continued, bit by bit, by the aid of Weirestrass’s process of analytic continuation, and these continuations satisfy the differential equation. If every point u, ( + oo) of the u-plane can be reached by these continuations, so that u, lies inside the domain of one of the power series in the aggregate of power series formed by the primary one and those derived from it, then x (u) is one-valued in the finite part of the plane. 86 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA The first values of u to be considered as possible singularities of x (u) are those values u, of u at which x = a,, a, a3, a4, or oo, for the expansions of ./R(x) in terms of x — a,, x — ay, ete. do not conform to the conditions imposed on f (x, u). We have seen, already, in another connection that the proper way to treat the neighbourhoods of these points is to use the transformation x — a; = t?, or the trans- formation x =1/t. When this is done the resulting differential equation in dt/dx conforms to the requirements of Cauchy’s theorem. Hence t — o and therefore x — a, or 1/x, are expressible in the neighbourhood of such points by power series in u — u,. Observe that in the latter case (that of 1/x) the expression for x is a power series preceded by a polar part. If these values u, were the only ones to be taken into account, it would be legitimate to conclude, without further discussion, that the whole finite u-plane can be covered by continuations from the primary power-series, except those points u, for which u is infinite. Thus x (u) would have been proved to have the character (which it actually has) of a function that is meromorphic over the whole of the finite u-plane. This conclusion was drawn by Briot and Bouquet. In speaking of the values u, that lead to singularities of x (u) we have assumed that the analytic function x (u), derived by the process of continuation, must take a determinate value at each point of the plane; briefly, to every u an x. The only u’s that required special examination were those associated with values x (u) which were = a,, a,, Az, ay, ©. But this overlooks the possibility that a singular point u, might have no determinate value of x corresponding to it. Singularities of this kind do not present themselves in our case of the elliptic differential equation, but as soon as we pass to different al equations of the second order, the ignoring of these singularities might lead and has led to erroneous results. Painlevé’s equation— dx _ (oxy? f 6m a due (3) (= SEs abe MIE ea of which the solution is x = p (a + log (u + b) ), where a, b are arbi- trary constants, illustrates the points involved. Let u, be any finite value and x}, x}, any two values, finite or infinite; if a solution x, (u) tends to the limit x}, and x, (u) to the limit x}, when u tends to u, along a certain path L, then the function is certainly holomorphic or mero- morphic in the neighbourhood of u,. If now we make the same inference that Briot and Bouquet made in the simpler case, we should conclude that p (a+log (u+b)) is one-valued, whereas for general periods of p it is infinitely many-valued. The weak point in the reasoning lies in the assumption that some value of x must correspond to u; for where u= — b, the integral is indeterminate. [HARKNESS] STUDY OF ELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS 87 Suppose that u, is a singular point of the kind just considered at which x (u) becomes indeterminate and that it bars the hitherto un- interrupted process of continuation along a line that started from u,. As we approach u, the radii NS à pov ae of convergence tend to zero. Accordingly we can find points on L such that circles with as small Le radil as we please shall contain u, in their interior. Such a circle includes therefore a point at which x (u) is indeterminate. This conflicts with Picard’s theorem that we can always describe, from an arbitrary point u' as centre, a circle with a fixed radius, such that within this circle the integral u shall be one-valued. II. Method based on conformal representation. When a,, a5, 43, à,, or a, b, c, d as we shall now call them, are real, there is no difficulty about effecting the conformal representation of Tt on arectangle. The two branch-cuts must lie along straight lines connecting branch-points if the sides of this rectangle are to be stiaight lines. The case where a, b, €, d lie on a circle is easily reducible to the above case. In the case where a, b, c, d do not lie on a circle it is easily seen that the contour of T!, composed of the two banks of A and the two banks of B, along which the values of u differ by 2, 21 respectively, must map on to a figure composed of four curves. The curves that arise from the banks of A are congruent with regard to 2@; i.e. the one is derived from the other by a translation 26. A complica- tion that arises is the possibility that a curve may be cut by another that is congruent to it. In such a case no region would be afforded by the curvilinear parallelogram. This difficulty would be avoided by choosing the cross-cuts A, B so that they shall map into straight lines. That this can be done was shown by Schwarz in his memoir Conforme Abbildung der Oberflache eines Tetraeders auf die Oberfläche einer Kugel (Ges. Werke II. p. 84) This memoir is concerned primarily with a problem which does not concern us here and deals with an integral u which contains the elliptic integral of the first kind as a special case. We shall select from it those parts which provide the material for effecting the inversion and add the necessary complements to complete the solution of the inversion problem. Reta ea Ea Nan Gena ue dx where a, b, ec, d are distinct complex numbers, and a, B, y, 6 are real numbers lying between 0 and 1 and such that a+8+7+6=2. From a, b, e draw lines L (ad), L (bd) L (ed) which shall not cut themselves or one another. Let the plane of x be cut along these lines, 88 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA and let this dissected plane, including the point at o, be called X. In the figure the banks are drawn slightly apart and d is replaced by d', d't, d™. b A branch of the integrand is selected and the path from x, to x is confined to X; this branch is finite at a, b, c, d, oo in virtue of the restrictions on a, B, y, 6. Now consider the map of X on the u-plane. The points a, b, c map into A, B, C; the points d‘, d“, d‘ into DD Dea Points on opposite banks of a line L map into distinct points on the u-plane; the two banks of the cut which meet at a at an angle 27 map into two curves of like form which meet at A at an angle 2am. This is easily seen by taking h as initial point and connecting it with k by the loop hpqk round a, and remembering that near a u —u= (x — a)” [Ky+ Ky (x ~ a) +K, (x - a+ |, Ky $0 and that (x Ee is multiplied by Laem after the description of the small circle round a. Similar considerations apply to the maps of the banks of the other cross-cuts. The boundary, then, of X maps into a curvilinear hexagon AD" BD! CD" A. The two sides which meet at a corner A, are the same curve, but in different positions owing to the rotation at A. Similarly for B, C. The angles at A, B, C are 2ar, 2Br, 2yr, and the sum of the angles at D', D", D' is 267. The region that maps X does not contain u= o, and it is unbranched, since du/dx+o when x is finite and within X, and since x= oo does not furnish a branch point. Let us now pass to the case of the elliptic integral by putting a =8 =7=0=3. We wish to show that the cuts da, db, de can be so chosen that their maps shall be straight lines. The curvilinear hexagon is now replaced by a triangle D' D' D't whose sides are bisected by A, B, C; e.g. the half sides D't A, D A arise from one another by a rotation about A. By hypothesis a circle through three of a, b, c, d will not pass through the fourth. We can, therefore, by a bilinear transformation project any three into 0, 1, o and the 4th into some point z off the real axis and discuss the inversion problem for the case LT. RER CERN Men APE Ne Let z lie in the negative half of the x-plane; also let the lines L (0, 2), L-(1, 2), L (o, z), into which the earlier cuts have been transformed, [HARKNESS] STUDY OF ELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS 89 lie wholly in the negative half-plane, and let X, for the present, refer to the dissected plane with these cuts L (0, z), ete. For all values of x interior to X the functions log du/dx, logx, etc., that enter into the equation d log = = — 4 [log x + log (x = 1) + log (x - 2) | are one-valued and continuous functions of x. Schwarz uses the theorem to prove that the positive half-plane of x is thereby mapped on a simply connected region, U (0,1, œ), or U,, which forms a part of the complete map of X; and the boundary of U (0, 1, æ) is everywhere convex to the outside. The proof is simple. Let x proceed along the real axis from — 00 to + oo, then u traces out the contour of U,. To an element dx corresponds an element du and the angle @ between dx, du is the angle 6 of slope of U, at the point at which the element du is situated. From the equation it follows that =the coefficient of i in log. We can therefore follow the variation in the angle of slope by following the variations in the coefficient of iin — + [log x + log (x — 1) + log (x — z2)]. These variations are entirely due to the third term, except at x =o and x=1 where there is an abrupt increase in each case of 7/2. The variation due to — 4 log (x —z) is a continuous increase. When x describes the whole of the real axis beginning at — o, passing successively through 0, 1, + ©, and ending at —oo, the point u describes a curvilinear triangle U, whose angles =7/2 and whose sides are everywhere convex to the outside; and the total increase in the angle of slope=2z. Hence the contour of U, cannot be intersected by a straight line in more than two points. Returning to the integral in the form which it had before it was subjected to the bilinear transformation, the positive half-plane must be replaced by the region interior to, or the region exterior to the circle through a, b, c; the interior region if d lies without the circle, otherwise the exterior region. Call this region of the x-plane (a, b, c) and let its u-map be called U (a, b, ce). In U (a, b, c,) we have a curvilinear triangle which is everywhere convex to the outside; its angles are right angles. Similarly if we had used a, b, d instead of a, b, ce, we should have obtained a region (abd) in the x-plane, which is bounded internally or externally by the circle through a, b, d, according as c lies outside or Sec. ITI, 1913—6 90 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA inside the circle. The map is a curvilinear triangle U (a, b, d) which is everywhere convex to the outside. These two regions U (a b c), U (abd) have a region U (ab) in common; its contour passes through A, B and is everywhere convex to the outside. Hence the straight line A B lies within U (ab) and must therefore be the map of a line within the region common to (abe), (abd). Having proved that there are in the x-plane curves AD, BD, CD that map into straight lines in the u-plane, it follows that the map of X is the rectilinear triangle D! D' D with A, B, C at the middle points of the sides. The problem of the inversion depends on the conformal repre- sentation of the whole of a dissected Riemann surface T'. We may take this surface to be that in the figure; the lines connecting d with a, b, c being L (da), L (db), L (de). Let the dissected sheet considered by Schwarz carry the value u, and below it place another sheet so that below each place x, y is another place (x, —y). Let the lower limit for u be placed at (d, o). Then exactly corresponding paths on these two sheets give the values u, and u'= —u. Now establish a connection of the two sheets along the bridge L (de) but maintain the cuts along L (da), L (db), treating these as cuts along B, A, when B, A have been shrunk to L (da) and L(db). We have now the dissected Riemann surface T. The effect of the barriers on the upper sheet of T! and absence of barriers on the lower sheet is that a path from d on the lower sheet will have above it a path from d that crosses A, B; hence the values of u, u! attached to the two covertical places will u, u!= —- u+2me+2m!'o! where m, m? are integers. The values of m, m! are shown to be 1 by placing x at c, where u=u'=o+o', The relation u+u'=20+420! shows that the join of u, u' is bisected by © +! and hence that the ageregate of values of u! forms a triangle which combines with the u-triangle to give a rectilinear parallelogram of periods. By allow:ng free passages over A, B, we see that the map of T is the network of parallelograms of periods. IT. Weierstrass’s Method based on Abel’s theorem. 7 d d neo er) DE os ake = so that x takes one POM ie cae keer of the values a,, a,, a,, a,foru=o. It has to be shown that x, y are one-valued functions of u for all finite values of u, with no singula- [HARKNESS] STUDY OF ELLIPTIC FUNCTIONS 91 rities other than poles, except at u=o. There is a certain neighbour- hood of u=o, of radius R,, to each value u of which corresponds one and only one place (x, y); to u=o corresponds (a;, 0). For the branch place (a;, o) we use the parameter t, where +? So a a R’ (a;) ; sous ifs then y = R(x) = R (a: a ea) = Vt? + terms in t*, t®, etc. =t[1+t&P(t)] By insertion of these values for x, y in the integral, we find that M CPE CU 1 eee , where c,+o. Reversion of the series for u in terms of t, gives a series for t in terms of u in which the first power of u is present. When this is sub- stituted in the equation connecting x, y with t, we have for x, y two power series in u, say <—o jy — (u), which give the place (a;,0) when u=o, and which satisfy the dif- ferential equation ns identically when | u | does not exceed R,. These one-valued representations of x, y in terms of u have only a limited range of validity in the u-plane. But they can be replaced by others with an arbitrarily great range by the use of Abel’s theorem (or, what comes to the same thing, Euler’s theorem of addition). For let R be an arbitrarily great positive number and let the positive integer n be chosen so that R ae i gies ARTE hes i a AU dons Wi a ne i an FL FAT: We LADA LIL F1 his iri PAL me ty Fe sch vi 4 A nus FH SECTION III., 1913. [105] Trans. R.S.C. On Osmosis in Soils. The Efficiency of the Soil Constituents as semi- Permeable Membranes. By C. J. Lyxpe, Professor of Physics, and H. A. DuPré, Research Assistant under the Dominion Grant for Agriculture, Macdonald College, P.Q., Canada. PRESENTED BY PROF. H. T. BARNES, F.R.S.C. (Read May 28, 1913) The object of the work herein described was to compare the efficien- cies of the different soil constituents as semi-permeable membranes. The results show that the finer the particles in a soil constituent the greater is the efficiency of the soil constituent as a semi-permeable membrane, when used with a clay subsoil solution. Porous cup with membrane Figure 1. Pfeffer’s Apparatus. Before describing the experiments, we will for the sake of clearness review briefly the work of Pfeffer on osmotic pressure and the work on osmosis in soils carried on in the years 1911 and 1912 in the physics * laboratory of Macdonald College. In 1877 W. Pfeffer* measured the osmotic pressure of various solutions and showed :— *Osmotische Untersuchungen, Leipzig, 1877. Sec. III, 1913—7 106 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA (1) that with dilute solutions of the same substance, the osmotic pressure is directly proportional to the concentration of the solution. (2) that for a given solution, the osmotic pressure increases with the temperature. Pfeffer used the apparatus illustrated in Fig. 1. The semi-per- meable membranee was a precipitate of copper ferrocyanide deposited within the walls of an unglazed porcelain cup. The solutions used were chiefly solutions of cane sugar in water. The deductions made by van’t Hoff and Arrhenius from the results of Pfeffer’s work laid the foundation of modern physical chemistry and are familiar to all. Osmosis in Soils. In 1911 while investigating the movement of moisture in soils, I was gradually led to the conclusion that, in producing the movement of moisture in soils, there is some agency at work other than those already known: namely, gravitation, surface tension, and heat. In considering what this agency might be I was led to the following theory. Theory that soils act as semi-permeable membranes. It is possible that: (1) soils act as semi-permeable membranes; (2) the greater the depth of the soil, the greater is its efficiency as a semi-permeable membrane, up to the point at which it becomes a perfect semi-permeable membrane; Figure 2. Modification of Pfeffer’s experiment. Clay subsoil is used as the semi- permeable membrane. (3) a soil solution moves through the soil by osmotic pressure from points where the solution is less concentrated to points where it is more concentrated. RÉ [LYNDE-DUPRÉ| ON OSMOSIS IN SOILS 107 To test the validity of this theory I made experiments * with the apparatus illustrated in Fig. 2 The semi-permeable membrane was a layer of heavy clay subsoil held in the tube by one thickness each of cotton cloth and of wire gauze. The solutions used were at 10 per cent. sugar solution and a 10 per cent. potassium sulphate solution. The rate at which the distilled water moved up through the subsoil and into the solution was measured by the movement of the liquid column in the horizontal tube B. The results obtained from these experiments show :— (1) that this clay subsoil acts as a semi-permeable membrane; ANT EC PA GAË LA [eermme Figure 3. Modification of Pfeffer’s experiment. The semi-permeable membranes are 6, 4 and 2 grams of clay subsoil respectively. The solution is that formed by boiling clay subsoil in distilled water. (2) that water moves through the clay subsoil towards a solution; (3) that the rate at which the water moves increases with the temperature. In 1912 we carried on a series of experiments + with the following objects in view :— *C. J. Lynde. Osmosis in Soils. Soils act as Semi-Permeable Membranes. Journal of Physical Chemistry, Vol. 16, No. 9, December, p. 750 (1912), and Pro- ceedings of the American Society of Agronomy, Vol. 4, 1912. tC. J. Lynde and F. W. Bates. ‘Osmosis in Soils.” Journal of Physical Chemistry, Vol. 16, No. 9, December, p. 766 (1912), and Proceedings of the American Society of Agronomy, Vol. 4, p. 108, 1912. 108 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA (1) to determine again whether soil acts as a semi-permeable membrane; (2) to determine whether its efficiency as a semi-permeable mem- brane increases with the depth of the soil column; (3) to measure the total osmotic pressure in each case; (4) to find the influence of change of temperature upon the total osmotic pressure obtained in each case. The apparatus used is shown in Fig. 3. The experiments were made in duplicate. In two tubes the semi-permeable membrane was 6 grams of clay subsoil; in two others, 4 grams, and in the last two, 2 grams of clay subsoil. The solution in all was that formed by boiling clay subsoil in distilled water. The results showed that, for the clay subsoil used, the following is true:— (1) the soil acts as a semi-permeable membrane; (2) the efficiency of the soil as a semi-permeable membrane in- creases with the depth of the soil column; (3) water moves through the soil towards a solution and develops a certain osmotic pressure; (4) the osmotic pressure developed increases with the temperature. Experimenis. The object of the following experiments, as stated above, was to compare the efficiencies of the different soil constituents as semi- permeable membranes. The soil constituents used were as follows:— Table 1, giving the soil constituents used in these experiments. Soil constituents Diameter of the grains Medium, ganda: atta ie Garmion 5 25 rau, BMG Game ee ene ei a 25 -1 RER: Very nets pere eree 1 05 / es oh gre ed ARE et ANNE EU -05 005 CIAYAUMNN, ALLER MARS AT Le -005 OOL SELS Pine: Olay TE TN oon ae OI ak How the soil constituents were obtained. The soil constituents were obtained from different soils from the Macdonald College farm, by the usual operations employed in the mechanical analysis of soils. The sands were obtained from a sandy loan and the silt from a clay loan. It will be noticed that there are two clays, which we have called “clay” and “fine clay’’ respectively. The origin of these clays is as follows. We obtained the “clay” from a clay subsoil, the “‘fine clay” from a clay loam. We noticed that the ‘‘fine clay”? was much finer than Mrs. [LYNDE-DUPRE} ON OSMOSIS IN SOILS 109 the ‘‘clay”’ and decided to make a separate experiment with it. This “fine clay’? gave us remarkable osmotic pressures and led us to make experiments with still finer clay which in turn gave us much more remarkable osmotic pressures (see below). The grains of soil in the ‘“clay’’ were chiefly between -005 and -001 m.m. diameter. The grains of soil in the ‘‘fine clay” were for the most part less than -001 m.m. diameter. Apparatus. The apparatus used with the sands, silt, and clay was similar to that shown in Fig. 3. The apparatus used with the fine clay was the same also in the beginning, but the osmotic pressure was greater than we had anticipated and the solution ran out at the MERCURY THERMOMETER SOIL SOLUTION 2S a ee CRE CL LL LL PAPAL TALEO Figure 4. Apparatus used with the “‘fine clay.”’ top of the tubes. We then used the apparatus shown in Fig. 4. This is the same as the apparatus shown in Fig. 3 except that an open arm mercury manometer is used in place of the vertical glass tubes. The tubes A (Fig. 3) are of glass approximately 1 cm. inside di- ameter, and 15 em. long. The lower end of each is covered with one thickness of cotton cloth. The tubes B are between 1 and 2 m.m. inside diameter and 15 ems. long. How the apparatus was set up.—Duplicate 6 gram samples of the air dry soil constituents were weighed out. Each sample was placed in a test tube with about 25 c.c. of distilled water, shaken up and allowed to stand over night. The test tubes with their contents were then placed in a larger vessel of water and the water was boiled for three hours. This helped to disintegrate the soil, sterilize it and free it from air. 110 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA In the meantime the tubes A, the rubber stopper and the tubes B were sterilized in boiling water. The hot mixtures of soil and water were then poured into the tube A; the tubes were placed in the centri- fuge cups and the cups were filled with boiling water to the level of the liquid in the tubes A. The centrifuge was then run at top speed for 15 minutes to settle the soil. The centrifuge made 1300 revolu- tions per minute and the middle of the soil columns when settled was 25 cms. from the centre of the axis of the centrifuge. The liquid above the settled soil constituents was then emptied out and replaced by a clay subsoil solution, except in the case of the fine clay. In this case the solution was the liquid left above the fine clay when settled. The rubber stoppers and tubes B were then inserted and the tubes were placed in a large vessel of distilled water. The level of the dis- tilled water at the beginning was made higher than the level of the liquid in any of the tubes B. Daily observations were made on the level of the solutions and the tubes B for a period of 6 weeks. In determining the final osmotic pressure, we made corrections for the height the water rose in the tubes B by surface tension. In the case of the open arm manometer we made corrections for the length of the column of solution in the short arm of the manometers. TABLE 2. Giving the osmotic pressures, obtained with the different soil constituents used as semi-permeable membranes. Soil constituent Depth of soil Osmotic pressure Column in cms. in grams. Médinisands. "#22 7: 0 FINS SANG, cc" wearer 7: 0 Very Dne sad... 7: 0 pL RI Gh SR teereett eaten r? conusused 8: -2 SGD) 5 MORE eee lost ae CLE LYS 253 bce pent eaten eee 6-5 4-4 CAVE) hes tava RATE EU 7-2 4-4 Bite Oly nn Le ae 5.5 ‘ 42-1 Be ln (2) args ae, oe 5-5 42-0 These results show that: (1) for the solution used the sands do not act as semi-permeable membranes, but the silt, clay and fine clay do so act; (2) The finer the soil grains in a soil constituent the greater is the osmotic pressure it supports. [LYNDE-DUPRÉ] ON OSMOSIS IN SOILS 111 To test the constancy of these osmotic pressures, we proceeded as follows. After the osmotic pressures had become constant we allowed the level of the distilled water to fall by evaporation. The solutions fell also, but in all cases the osmotic pressures remained constant. We then raised the level of the distilled water; the solutions rose also and in a few days gave the former osmotic pressures. It will be noticed that in the case of the fine clay, a soil column 5-5 ems. long supports an osmotic pressure equivalent to a water column 42-1 em. long. That is, a water column nearly 8 times as high as the soil is deep. This remarkable result led us to make experiments with soil columns composed of still finer clay. For the soil columns we used clay which had remained suspended in water for 1 week. With a soil column 6 cms. deep we have obtained an osmotic pressure of over 315 grams per square centimeter. This pressure is equivalent to a water column over a 315 cms. high, that is, a column over 50 times as high as the soil is deep. The pressure is still increasing and the final results will be given in a later paper. The efficiency of the soi constituents as semi-permeable membranes. To determine the efficiency of the soil constituents as semi-perme- able membranes we proceeded as follows. (1) We compared the electrical resistance of the soil solutions with that of a 0-0 2 N. K Cl solution. (2) We calculated the osmotic pressure which each solution should develop if the soil constituents were perfect semi-permeable membranes. (3) From these and the observed osmotic pressures, we calculated the efficiency of the soil constituents as semi-permeable membranes for the solutions used. Method of Calculation. The molecular lowering of the freezing point of a KCl solution containing 0-02 gram molecules per liter is 3-58° C. The molecular lowering of the freezing point of a dextrose solution containing 0-0198 gram molecules per liter is 1-84° C. The abnormal effect of KCl upon the freezing point is due to the fact that the KCl is dissociated in solution. A KCl solution contain- ing 0-02 molecules per liter has the same effect as a dextrose solution containing 0-0198 X 3-58 aes = 0-038 gram molecules per liter. 112 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Norre.—It must be noted here that we determined the resistance of a 0-02 N. KCl solution, that is, of a solution in which 0-02 gram molecules of KCl are dissolved in 1000 cc. of solution, whereas the molecular lowering of the freezing point given above, was determined for a solution containing 0-02 gram molecules of KCl in 1000 ce of water. This introduces a slight error. But an assumption which we make later, namely, that the salts in the soil solution are dissociated to the same extent as the 0-02 N solution of KCl, probably introduces a greater error. We, therefore, cannot claim that the results of these calculations are more than an approximation. Since the freezing point lowering and the osmotic pressure of a solution are both proportional to the total number of particles (mole- cules and ions) in a given volume of the solution, a 0-02 N. KCl solu- tion produces the same osmotic pressure as a dextrose solution con- taining 0-038 gram molecules per liter. One gram molecule of dextrose dissolved in 22-4 liters of water at 0° C. produces an osmotic pressure of 1 atmosphere or 1033-6 grams per square cm. Therefore -038 gram-molecules in 1 liter of water at 16°C. produces an osmotic pressure of:— 1033-6 X -038 X 22-4 X 289 273 This is the pressure which should be developed at 16° C. by -038 gram-molecules of sugar in 1 liter of water or by a 0-02 N. KCl sol- ution if the semi-permeable membrane were perfect. Let us assume that the salts in the soil solutions are dissociated to the same extent that the 0-02 N. KCl solution is. We can then calculate from their electrical resistances the osmotic pressure that these solutions should develop with a perfect semi-permeable mem- brane, and then the efficiency of the soil columns as semi-permeable membranes. Example.—From Table 3 below we learn that the solution of clay (1) has a resistance of 1400 ohms and 0-02 N. KCl a resistance of 250 ohms at 16° C. If the soil were a perfect semi-permeable membrane, the solution should develop a pressure of :— = 931-4 grams per square cm. pat eee = 166-3 m . ne grams per sq. cm. The osmotic pressure observed is 4-4 grams per square cm. Therefore the efficiency of clay (1) as a semi-permeable membrane is 4-4 X 100 = ÿ 166-3 6% [LYNDE-DUPRÉ| ON OSMOSIS IN SOILS 113 Similar calculations for the other soil constituents give the fol- lowing results :— TABLE 3. Giving the efficiency of the soil constituents as semi-permeable membranes. Soil constituent Depth of soil Resistance of solu- | Efficiency per cent. column ems tion in ohms 16° C SUCER 8 850 -07 (CI AUDE 6-5 1400 2-6 Ca SRE 7-2 1300 2.4 Pine clay (A): 5-5 1500 27-1 Fine clay (2)....... 5-5 1420 25-6 Resistance of 0-02 N. K Cl solution at 16°C—250 ohms. Conclusion.—The finer the soil grains in a soil constituent, the greater the efficiency of the soil constituent as a semi-permeable membrane, when used with a clay subsoil solution. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER INVESTIGATIONS The theory on which we have been working is as follows:— It is possible that :— | (1) soils act as semi-permeable membranes; (2) moisture moves through the soil by osmotic pressure. We have substantiated this theory only for a particular clay subsoil and certain soil constituents, prepared in a certain way. It remains yet to show whether the theory applied to soils under field conditions. A theory, in the beginning, is valuable in so far as it suggests further lines of investigation. We find this theory valuable in this respect. If we consider the theory in relation to the ordinary operations of cultivation we find it suggests many lines of investi- gation. If subsoils act as semi-permeables membranes, any operation which makes the concentration of the soil solutions in the surface soil greater than that of the solutions in the lower soil should bring about an upward movement of water through the subsoil by osmotic pressure. Let us consider this in relation to the ordinary operations of cultivation namely: tillage, drainage, the application of manure and mineral fertilizers, the use of the soil mulch, and the operations used in dry farming. 114 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Does tillage bring about an upward movement of moisture through the subsoil by osmotic pressure? The operations of tillage: plowing, harrowing, &c., open up the soil and thus increase aération. This makes the conditions more favorable for the growth of bacteria. The bacteria thus produce more plant food, that is, more salts soluble in water. If these salts make the concentration of the soil solutions in the surface soil greater than that of the solutions in the lower soil, they make the osmotic pressure of the former solutions greater than that of the latter. This should cause an upward movement of the moisture through the subsoil to- wards the surface soil by osmotic pressure. Does the application of manure to the surface soil cause an upward movement of moisture by osmotic pressure? Experiments made by King* show that manure applied to the surface soil increases the amount of moisture in the upper 2 or 3 feet of soil at the expense of the lower 2 or 3 feet of soil. This cannot be due to a greater capillary rise of moisture because manure added to water decreases the surface tension of water. Our theory offers an explanation. The manure added to the land increases the amount of food available for bacteria and also increases the number of bacteria. The bacteria thus produce a larger supply of plant food in the form of salts soluble in water. If these salts make the concentration of the surface soil solutions greater than that of the solutions in the lower soil, they make the osmotic pressure of the former solutions greater than that of the latter. This should bring about an upward movement of moisture through the subsoil by osmotic pressure. Do mineral fertilizers when added to the surface soil cause an upward movement of moisture by osmotic pressure? If mineral fertilizers increase the concentration of the soil sol utions in the surface soil, either directly or indirectly through chemical or bacterial action, they increase the osmotic pressure of these sol- utions. This should cause an upward rise of moisture by osmotic pressure, as noted above. In this connection it should be noted that certain fertilizers tend to floculate the subsoil and thus make it more open. This may tend to make the soil less efficient as a semi-permeable membrane. On the other hand, certain fertilizers tend to defloculate the subsoil and thus may make the subsoil more efficient as a semi-permeable membrane. *King, F. H. Wisconsin Station Report, 1893, pp. 167-200. [LYNDE-DUPRE]| ON OSMOSIS IN SOILS 115 Does underdrainage bring about an upward movement of water by osmotic pressure ? It is well known that crops on drained land receive more moisture than crops on undrained land. This may be due to a deeper root system, but it may be partly due to osmosis, as follows. In drained land the water level is lowered to a depth of 3 or 4 feet below the surface. This permits air to enter to this depth. This makes the conditions more favorable to the growth of bacteria. The bacteria thus procure more plant food, that is, more salts soluble in water. If these salts increase the concentration of the soil solutions in the upper 3 or 4 feet of soil, they thereby increase the osmotic pres- sure of these solutions. This should cause an upward movement of moisture by osmotic pressure, as noted above. Does the use of the soil mulch bring about an upward movement of mois- ture by osmotic pressure? A soil mulch conserves the moisture in the soil. Our theory suggests another way in which the moisture under the mulch may be increased. Bacteria thrive where there is moisture as well as heat. If the soil is dry the bacteria remain dormant. Under the mulch the soil is moist and warm. These are the ideal conditions for growth of bacteria. Under the soil mulch, then, the bacteria thrive and produce an abundance of plant food in the form of salts soluble in water. If these salts increase the concentration of the soil solutions under the mulch, they increase the osmotic pressure of these solutions. This should cause an upward movement of mois- ture through the subsoil by osmotic pressure, as noted above. Do the operations of dry farming cause water which has percolated below the reach of the roots, to be drawn back by osmotic pressure? In dry farming it is the practice, in some cases, to plant a crop every other year and maintain a mulch on the land in the off year. The explanation of the benefit of this is that the moisture is held over for the crops of succeeding year. It is possible that osmotic pressure plays a part here. The deeper subsoil in dry farming areas is usually very dry, the water available for crops being rain water which has percolated into the soil. It is possible that some of this rain water penetrates below the reach of the roots, and is brought back to the roots by osmotic pres- sure as follows. In the fallow year the surface soils become rich in soluble salts. If these increase the concentration of the soil solutions 116 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA in the upper soil they increase the osmotic pressure of these solutions. This may cause an osmotic rise of moisture from greater depths than would take place if the surface soils had not been made rich in soluble salts by fallowing. Other suggestions. Does the increase in temperature of the soil in summer bring about an upward movement of moisture by osmotic pressure? If the rise of moisture in soil is all brought by capillary action, then the supply in summer should be less than that in spring or fall, because the surface tension of water decreases with an increase in temperature. That is, the supply of moisture to plants should be least when they most need it. It is true that the decrease in surface tension is offset to some extent in two ways: by the increase in con- centration by evaporation of the solutions near the surface, which increases the surface tension, and by the increase in fluidity of the water at higher temperatures. If, however, the rise of water is due partly to osmotic pressure, the supply of water would be increased by an increase in temperature in a number of ways: (1) If the increased evaporation increases the concentration, and therefore the osmotic pressure of the solution near the sur- face, it should increase the amount of water raised through the subsoil. (2) The increased bacterial action, at higher temperatures, should increase the concentration and osmotic pressure of the soil solutions. This should increase the amount of water raised through the subsoil. (3) With increase of temperature more soluble salts would be dissolved in the soil solution, and their osmotic pressure should there- by be increased. This again should increase the amount of water raised through the subsoil. (4) The osmotic pressure of any solution is increased by an increase of temperature. - This should be the case with the soil solution. We see then that the osmotic pressure of the soil solutions near the surface should be increased in a number of ways by an in- crease of temperature. This should increase the amount of water raised from below through the subsoil. That is, in summer when the plants need more water, they should receive it by osmotic pressure. [LYNDE-DUPRÉ| ON OSMOSIS IN SOILS 127 Does the subsoil become more eficient as a semi-permeable membrane the longer the surface soil is cultivated? When rain falls on newly cultivated soil it washes some of the finer particles into the subsoil. But we learned above that the finer the particles of a soil the greater is its efficiency as a semi-permeable membrane. The gradual washing of the finer particles of soil into the subsoil should therefore increase its efficiency as a semi-permeable membrane. Is moisture brought to the root hairs by osmotic pressure? If the root hairs by taking water from the soil increase the con- centration of the soil solutions near them, they increase the osmotic pressure of these solutions. Thus water should move towards these solutions by osmotic pressure from points at which the soil solutions are less concentrated. a at ° a AS sie ong PT Lo Bg Se ss | a DA | € ES 2: ee - i,t \ arsine ER «2 eee. 6? ae Fe is a LUS TS) pe OU he a i oS ’ | —— RL Le a Lune La (Sea 4 = Srecrion III., 1913. [119] TRANS. R.S.C. On a New Method of Measuring the Capillary Lift of Soils. By C. J. LyNDE, Professor of Physics, and H. A. DuPré, Research Assistant under the Dominion Grant for Agriculture, Macdonald College, P.Q., Canada. PRESENTED BY PROF. H. T. BARNES, F.R.S.C. (Read May 28, 1913) By the term capillary lift we mean the maximum vertical height in centimeters to which the soil can raise water under a pressure of one atmosphere. For the sake of clearness we have divided this paper into four parts. In Part I. we give a description of a new method of measuring the capillary lift of soils and a comparison of this method with the old method. In Part II. we give the results obtained in measuring the capil- lary lift of the soil constituents. In Part III. we give results which indicate that the pressure of the atmosphere limits the lift which can be measured by this method. In part IV. we discuss the question—“Can soils lift water to heights greater than ten meters, or 34 feet, the height to which water can be raised by atmospheric pressure?” PAT: A New Method of Measuring the Capillary Lift of Soils. In the usual method of measuring the capillary lift in soils a glass tube is covered at one end with cloth; the tube is filled with soil and the covered end is placed in water. The disadvantages of this method are as follows:— (1) The soil must be used in a fairly dry condition. (2) It takes months to make an experiment with a fine soil. (3) The results obtained with fine soils are of little value, because friction stops the rise of moisture before the maximum lift is reached. 120 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA The advantages of the method described below are as follows:— (1) The moisture moves through a wet soil. (2) The moisture passes through a very short column of the wet soil and thus friction is reduced to a minimum. (3) The time required to make a measurement is reduced from months to hours. (4) The final measurement is a fairly accurate measure of the capillary lift of the soil. SOIL COTTON CLOTH FILTER +— RUBBER TUBE WATER SEAL CAPILLARY TUBE BOILED DISTILLED WATER MERCURY MERCURY CUP Figure 1. Apparatus used to measure the capillary lift of soils. The apparatus used is illustrated in Fig. 1. It consists of an ordinary glass funnel about 4 cms. in diameter across the top. This is joined to a thick walled capillary tube about 90 cms. long, by a piece of rubber tubing. The lower end of the capillary tube is placed in a cup of mercury. The water seal consists of a glass tube, 2 ems. di- ameter and 15 ems. long, closed at the bottom with a rubber stopper through which the capillary tube passes. The seal is filled with water and prevents air from entering about the rubber tube. How the apparatus was set wp.—Duplicate 6 gram samples of soil were placed’ in water and allowed to stand over night. They were then boiled for a short time to expel air. The funnels were fitted with cotton cloth filters, cut into the form of circles 2 cms. diameter and folded filter fashion. Two cups of a centrifuge were then filled with distilled water previously boiled to expel the air; the funnels, with their filters, were placed in the cups, being supported by the top rim of the cups. Part of the hot mixtures of soil and water was [LYNDE-DUPRE| CAPILLARY LIFT OF SOILS 121 poured into the funnels and the soil was settled in the centrifuge. More soil and water was then added to the funnels and the soil settled in the centrifuge. This was continued until the soil was well above the edges of the cotton cloth filters. The capillary tubes, with the rubber tubes attached, were then filled with water previously boiled to expel air and the funnels were inserted into the rubber tubes. In doing this we took care to prevent air from entering the funnels or tubes, also we carefullly avoided dis- turbing the soil. The lower ends of the capillary tubes were then placed in cups of mercury and the water seals were filled with bolied distilled water. How the experiment works.—If, at the beginning, there is a layer of water above the soil, it gradually percolates through the soil and water comes out on the surface of the mercury in the mercury cup. That is, percolation takes place. When the water disappears from the surface, however, the meni- scuses in the soil pores begin to act. We picture this action as fol- lows. Water molecules leave the surface of the meniscuses by evap- oration and are replaced by water molecules from beneath the meni- scuses. This brings about a decrease in pressure beneath the meni- scuses and mercury is forced up in the capillary tube by atmospheric pressure. This apparatus is similar to that used by Askenasy,* the chief difference being that we use a layer of soil instead of a plate of gypsum. The maximum capillary lift produced by the soil is found as follows. Measure the length of the mercury column in cms., multiply this by 13-6 and add the length of the water column in ems. from the top of the mercury column to the middle of the soil layer. To test this method we used a clay subsoil, the mechanical an- alysis of which gave the following results:— Table 1, giving results of the mechanical analysis of the soil used. Ging pene Ooo. cs LASER 74-38% SES SR cts TR 20-007, Sand\lesstthan 2 mm.) RES 1-4% Sand, greater than 2 m.m........ 6% Oreanic matter... Here 3°7% *Verhand. a.d. Naturalist. Med. Vereins Heidelberg, N.F., Bd. V, 1895; and N.F., Bd. V, 1896. Sec. III, 1913—8 122 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA The results obtained were as follows:— TABLE 2. Giving three capillary lifts produced by the soil mentioned above. Lift. Experiment |——_—————_ Time required ems. Hg. ems. H,O feet, H,0 hours. (1) 67-5 918 30-1 20 (2) 65-4 889 29-1 22 (3) 63-6 865 28-3 23 Comparsion of the new method with the old method. As far as we are aware, the greatest capillary lift measured by the old method is that of Loughridge.* He used quartz tailings, 016-005 m.m. diameter, and obtained a capillary lift of 10-17 feet, the time re- quired being about 18 months. By the method described above we have been able to measure a capillary lift of 30-1 feet and the time required was 20 hours. That is, this method has enabled us to measure a capillary lift approximately three times as great as the maximum lift observed by the old method and the time required was reduced from months to hours. Advantages of the new method. As stated above the advantages of the new method are:— (1) The moisture moves through a wet soil. (2) The moisture passes through a very short column of the wet soil and thus friction is reduced to a minimum. (3) The time required to make a measurement is reduced from months to hours. (4) The final measurement is a fairly accurate measure of the capillary lift of the soil. Part II. The Capillary Lift Produced by the Soil Constituents. The soil constituents were obtained from different soils of the Macdonald College farm by the regular operations used in the mechanical analysis of soils. *Hilgard, ‘Soils’ p. 203. Ee [LYNDE-DUPRE| CAPILLARY LIFT OF SOILS 123 Method.—The apparatus was set up in duplicate for each soil consituent in the manner described above, with the following exceptions. With medium sand, which has a low capillary lift, we did not use a capillary tube, we simply stood the funnels in the cups of mercury. With fine sand and very fine sand we used short capillary tubes. Results. TABLE 3. Giving the capillary lift produced by the soil constituents. Diameter of Lift. Donne RSS ETS mM. |e Gales Tel ems. Hg ems. H,0 feet H,0 Medium sand. ... -5—-25 2-2 29-9 98 2-1 Fine sand... -25—-1 4-0 54-4 1-78 3-9 Very fine sand... -1—-05 9-1 123-7 4-05 8-8 STUNG APP -05—-005 22-4 304-5 9-99 21-3 CLL i -005— 60-1 817-0 26-8 55-9 Comparison of the calculated and observed values of the capillary lifts of the soil constituents. To calculate the effective diameter of the capillary pores of the soil, we used the following formula derived by King.* Dee ‘| -2623 a T Where D =effective diameter of soil pore. d =diameter of soil grain. We then calculated the limits between which the capillary lift of each soil constituent should fall. We used the formula:— *King, F. H., “Physics of Agriculture,” p. 164. 124 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Where H = capillary lift in cms. T =surface tension of water in dynes per linear centimeter = 75 dynes. D = effective diameter of soil pore. S = specific gravity of water =1. g = 980 dynes. In making these calculations we assumed that the soil grains have the attraction of glass for water, and that the triangular pores of the soil are capable of lifting water to the same height as circular pores of equivalent cross section. TABLE 4. Giving a comparison of the calculated and observed capillare lifts of the soil constituents. Soil constituent Diameter of grains | Calculated limits of | Observed capillary m.m. capillary lift, ems.,| lifts, ems., H,O. H,0. Medium sand....... -5—-25 21-2— 42-4 29-9 Fine sand.......... -25—-1 42-4— 105-9 54-4 Very fine sand...... 1—-05 105-9— 211-8 123-7 lier aerate -05—- 005 211-8—2118-0 304-5 lays eens Re -005— 2118 .0— 817-0 Conclusions.—(1) The finer the grains of a soil constituent, the ereater is the capillary lift of the constituent. (2) The observed capillary lift falls between the calculated limits in every case except that of clay. The case of clay is considered in Part III. Port, 117. The pressure of the atmosphere limits the capillary lift which can be obtained by this method. When we began these experiments we believed that we might be able to observe a capillary lift of over 10 meters or 34 feet; that is, a greater lift than the length of water column supported by a pressure of one atmosphere. This we have been unable to do. We have made many experiments with soils, the calculated lifts of which are greater than 10 meters, but the greatest lift we have observed is 30.1 feet. In the work described in Part II the observed ees [LYNDE-DUPRÉ] CAPILLARY LIFT OF SOILS 125 capillary lift of the soil constituents fell between the calculated limits in all cases except that of clay. The lowest calculated lift for clay is 2118 cms. or about 70 feet, but the observed lift was only 817 cms. or about 26-8 feet. From these results we concluded that, with the apparatus arranged as above, the pressure of the atmosphere limits the capillary lift which can be observed. To test this conclusion we decided to measure the capillary lifts produced, under pressures equal to, greater than and less than one atmosphere, by a soil the calculated lift of which is greater than the length of water column supported by one atmosphere. We reasoned that, if it is the pressure of the atmosphere which limits the capillary lift observed, then with a pressure greater than one atmosphere we should obtain a greater lift, and with a pressure less than one atmosphere we should obtain a less lift, then we obtain when the pressure is one atmosphere. Experiments We carried out experiments of this nature with the soil constituent, clay, mentioned in Part II. The lowest calculated capillary lift for this soil is 2118 cms. Apparatus.—To obtain the lift under a pressure of one atmosphere the apparatus was set up as shown in Fig. 1. — FROM AIR PUMP PRESSURE GAUGE LARGE GLASS TUBE Figure 2. Apparatus used to measure the capillary lift produced by a soil under a pressure greater than one atmosphere. 126 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA To obtain the capillary lift produced by a soil under a pressure greater than one atmosphere we used the apparatus shown in Fig, 2. The apparatus was set up as in Fig. 1. It was then placed in a large glass tube closed at the lower end by a solid rubber stopper and at the upper end by a stopper with two holes. A continuous stream of air was forced into the glass tube through one hole. It passed out through the other and into the pressure gauge. The clip of the pressure gauge was so adjusted that although air passed out continuously a “ae CLIP = TO FILTER PUMP. VACUUM GAUGE. — LARGE’ GLASS TUBE. MERCURY Figure 3. Apparatus used to measure the capillary lift produced by a soil under a pressure less than one atmosphere. certain pressure greater than one atmosphere was maintained in the apparatus. Thus water evaporated from the surface of the soil and the capillary lift was produced, under a pressure greater than one atmosphere. . To measure the capillary lift produced by the clay under a pressure less than one atmosphere we used the apparatus shown in Fig. 3. This apparatus is similar to that used in Fig. 2, except that air was drawn through the large glass tube by means of a filter pump. The clip was so adjusted that although air passed in continuously, a certain pressure, less than one atmosphere, was maintained in the large glass tube. Thus water evaporated from the soil and the capillary lift was produced, under a pressure less than one atmosphere. [LYNDE-DUPRE| CAPILLARY LIFT OF SOILS 127 Results The results obtained were as follows:— TABLE 5. Giving the capillary lift produced by the soil constituent, clay, under pressures equal to, greater than and less than, one atmosphere. Pressure, ems. Hg. Lift, ems. Hg. 7e. à Oneratmosphere eat en Ce | ee ce | 5 , Greater than one atmosphere...... ie 9 un 1- ; Less than one atmosphere......... À Sa a Conclusions. These results indicate: (1) that the capillary lift observed is limited by the pressure of the atmosphere; (2) that therefore the maximum lift observed by this method under a pressure of one atmosphere cannot exceed 10 meters or 34 feet. Part: PV. Can soils lift water to a greater height than 10 meters or 34 feet? By the method described above the maximum observed capillary lift has been increased from 10-17 feet to 30-1 feet. This is nearly the height to which water is raised by a pressure of one atmosphere. This brings up the question—‘‘Can soils lift water to heights greater than 10 meters or 34 feet?” This question can be answered only by further experiment. There are two ways, at least, in which water might be raised by soils to heights greater than 10 meters, namely, by surface tension, in conjunction with the stability of water under tension, and by osmosis. Surface tension and the stability of water under tension. The lowest calculated capillary lift of clay is 2118 cms. or 70 feet and the calculated lift is greater the finer the grains of the clay. If then water can be raised by tensile stress, as seems probable from the 128 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA work of Dixon and Joly* and that of Askenasy, it is possible that water can be raised by soils to heights greater than 10 meters, or 34 feet, by surface tension and tensile stress. Osmosis.—In recent work carried out in this laboratory it has been shown:f (1) that one clay subsoil, at least, acts as a semipermeable mem- brane; (2) that its efficiency as a semi-permeable membrane increases with its depth; (3) that water moves through this subsoil towards a soil solution. In more recent work, the results of which have just been sent to the press, it has been shown that the finer the grains of soil in a soil constituent the greater is the efficiency of the soil constituent as a semi-permeable membrane. If under field conditions subsoils act as semi-permeable membranes and if the concentration of the soil solutions in the upper layers of soil is greater than that of the soil solutions in the lower layers of soil, it is possible that soils may raise water to heights greater than 10 meters by osmotic pressure. Summary Part I—The new method of measuring the capillary lift of soils has enabled us to measure a capillary lift approximately three times as great as the maximum lift measured by the old method. The ‘ime required for the experiment was 20 hours instead of 18 months. The advantages of this method are:— (1) the moisture moves through a wet soil; (2) the moisture passes through a very short column of the wet soil and thus friction is reduced to a minimum; (3) the time required to make an experiment is reduced from months to hours; (4) the final measurement is a fairly accurate measure of the capillary lift of the soil. Part IT. (1) The finer the grains of a soil constituent the greater is the capillary lift of the constituent. *Proe. Roy. Soc., Vol. LVII, No. 340 (1894), also Annals of Bot., Vol. VIII; Phil. Trans., Vol. 186, 1895 (B). tC. J. Lynde and F. W. Bates. “Osmosis in Soils.” Journal of Physical Chemistry, Vol. 16, No. 9, p. 766 (1912), and Proceedings of the American Society of Agronomy, Vol. 4, p. 108, 1912. [LYNDE-DUPRÉ| CAPILLARY LIFT OF SOILS 129 (2) The observed capillary lifts of the soil constituents fall between the calculated limits in every case except that of clay. Part III. (1) The capillary lift observed is limited by the pressure of the atmosphere; (2) therefore the maximum lift observed by this method under a pressure of one atmosphere cannot excced 10 meters or 34 feet. Port IV. Can soils lift water to heights greater than 10 meters or 34 feet? « L 4 | (ie ñ al RL t , uy JE 7 4 ae DM rT AD VA URL D TT teal nie PT AE LES 4 - à } os f a" 4 ‘ ; Le L: \ = ‘ : \ at À + 1] ; A ù 4 | L fit bé py ae ‘ el 4 ys vA CLES) y LA 12414 DAMES i, tae 1 F7 RARE ai t Nis Co rt SATA tt f aL à i 4 rt eh heb j Sy ee \ À À “ x PDA AUTRE vi hae) Nana) int Ro if LM AE LL oo ‘ . j Fey OTe RARE à adn 4 oF Sales te 1 1 Teen ae Pt flv ou. DOUANES : MAS AU MA aPC ye 7 A HA ui a ae ea a CPE “ll ae a AA: se a oe in i Nails Rae ibe SECTION III, 1913. [131] TRANS. R.S.C. Notes on the Penetrating Radiation due to Radioactive Substances in the Earth. By Ave. Hive D'SE EF R.S.C. (Read May 28, 1913) In June, 1912, some measurements were taken in the Old Library of the Macdonald Physics Building, McGill University, and large variations were found in the so-called ‘natural ionization” of testing vessels placed over a Wulf Electrometer. The variations fluctuated in magnitude against the barometer, so that the ionization current was large when the barometer was low, and conversely. The variations of q, the num- ber of ions generated per cm* per second, were from 12 to 22. The results are shown in figure 1, where the upper curve gives the time changes of the barometer, and the lower curve those of the ionization current. Further measurements were made in the Autumn of 1912 in the same room and with the same instrument, in every case using a testing vessel which rested on the platform of the instrument, so that it fitted closely, but was not hermetically sealed. With one strongly marked exception (Sept. 14th) for which I cannot account, the same effect was observed. The ionization currents were large or small, as the barometer was low or high respectively. The fluctuations in q were between 10 and 28 (See fig. 2). No such large fluctuations were observed out of doors, or in the Chemistry Building, and it appeared certain, therefore, that the changes observed were due to emanations diffusing into the old library from other parts of the Physics Building. If the instrument was taken from the Physics Building into the Chemistry Building, the high readings continued for some time, so that the emana- tion was diffusing into the testing vessel and, with subsequent products, producing the ionizing effects from within, and not mainly by means of y rays penetrating the walls of the vessel. The chief radium preparations in the building are kept hermeti- cally sealed, but there are many, smaller in quantity, which are not in air-tight receptacles. It seemed then that the emanation escaped more readily from these when the barometer fell, and diffused into the library, and also the testing vessel. It occurred to me that similar effects might be detected out of doors, : on a smaller scale, due to the radium emanation diffusing from the ground more readily at times of low atmospheric pressure. 132 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA The Wulf electrometer was placed out of doors near the tennis court stands on the College Campus. The subsoil was Saxicava Sand with low radium contents (0-2 X 10—”) grammes of radium per gramme ng WwW HF Lu > 30: i 29:7 y 22 Oo 7 N D a 0 Z 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 JUNE (9t2 Figure 1 of rock. The surface soil was thin, and its radium contents were not tested, nor were the thorium contents of the soil or subsoil known. The testing vessel was of copper 2 mm. thick, carefully cleaned, 31 cm. high, 17 em. in diameter, about 7 litres in volume, and although the electric capacity was high, the readings were remarkably reliable, and [EVE] RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES IN THE EARTH 133 free from erratic variations. The whole apparatus was placed within a wood-lined lead-covered box on the ground. The wood lining was 2 em. thick, and the lead covering 6-5 mm., so that the walls were equivalent to about -73 em. lead. It was found that the walls cut down the 7 rays from 14 mg. radium bromide, passing through 4-5 em. of lead, from 100 to 66, whence y = -56. 11 13 Is Nhe The readings were taken from 4 p.m. to 9 a.m. and the results are shown in figure 3. There was clear evidence of fluctuations opposed to the barometer, the range being from q=9-2 to q=10-1; difference 0-9. The readings were extended over a fortnight excellent for obser- vations, as there was continuous frost, with no risk of error due to rain, thaw, snow, or fog. MEAN BAROMETER IONIZATION 134 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 2] 18 [74 = = | Q ere | e ee | 4 A EE KT É ite) ü + fe) w le] Sani Bu D ER nn Wulf* obtained a similar result, thus— Barometer................... 770-765 764-760 759-755 754-750 Penetrating Radiation........ 4-6 5-0 5+5 5-65 Difference 1-05, closely agreeing with my value. *Le Radium, T VII. June, 1910. Figure 3 [EVE] RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES IN THE EARTH 135 Again Simpson & Wright found on the ocean— q (a) q (b) Barometer.....above 30-2 6-36 6-15 below 30-2 6-70 6-40 Ditrerence.) 44.2. +34 +25 It is somewhat difficult to account for these variations at sea, as the radium contents of seawater are minute. (Satterley Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc.) They may possibly depend on the radium contents of the ship. As regards land observations, the variation against the barometer may be now regarded as established, at least with the vessels not her- metically sealed. In the case of vessels not tightly closed, there is the possibility that the emanation may diffuse into the testing chamber and the direct effect of the a particles within may be as important as the 7 radiation from without. In order to determine the relative magnitudes of these two causes it would be necessary to compare two vessels, one sealed the other not, at the same time, on two different electroscopes. Shortly after writing the above sentence, I found that this experi- ment had been tried by E. V. Schweidler* at Seeham, with a zine vessel not sealed, and a copper vessel, hermetically sealed, on shore and above the shallow water of Lake Mattsee. The two apparatus did not agree, even when close together. This disagreement, unless due to diffusion of large ions, may be due to emanations diffusing into the unsealed vessel. Since the known amount of emanation in the air is subject to variations as large as 1:5 or 1:10 (Eve, f Satterley t), and since the aver- age amount of emanation present is capable of producing 2 or 3 ions per em per sec. due to ionization by a rays, it is clear that a variation of -3 to -7 in the value of q may be expected. The diffusion of large ions, if pronounced, might be amore potent agent in diminishing ionization within the unsealed vessel. Nevertheless it must be remembered that Wulf obtained the variations against the barometer, with vessels carefully closed and made tight with tap grease, and he attributes the fluctuations to the rise and fall of the emanation to the upper layers of the ground, as the atmos- pheric pressure decreases or increases, with consequent deposit of radium C at different levels. *Akad. Wiss. Wien. Ber. 121. pp. 1297-1304. TPhil. Mag. Dec. 1907. {Phil. Mag. July 1910. 136 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Screening. On the tennis court by placing lead sheets beneath the electro- scope, a small but distinct reduction in the ionization current was obtained. No effect that could be detected was produced by placing similar sheets above the apparatus. Similar results have been obtained by Wulf, and theory and experiment both indicate that the penetrating radiation comes almost entirely from radioactive matter in the ground, that in the air being relatively negligible. In the Chemistry Building on the other hand it was easy to screen from above, and also, or independently from below. In this case much of the radiation comes from radioactive matter in the bricks, as Wulf found and noted in the papers above named. On this account it is impossible to obtain satisfactory evidence of the decrease of the penetrating radiation with altitude within or near a tall building. Magnitude. In order to determine the amount of decrease of radiation due to the wood and lead box, the Wulf electroscope and testing vessel were placed within it, and readings were taken when the y rays from 14 mg. of radium bromide caused ionization (1) through a side of the box. (2) with the side removed. The radium was two or three metres from the centre of the box. The results are given below. Lead surrounding Nature of Percentage Radium, testing reduction by Valueiss Thickness in em. vessel wall of box m +7 Iron 1 mm. 63+ -62 7 Lead 2 mm. 62-5 -65 4.5 Copper 2 mm. 64: -62 4-5 Iron 1 mm. 66-2 Dt 4-5 Lead 2 mm. 66-2 Shy 4 From these results it appears that the lead and wood of the box cut down the very penetrating radiation of radium from 100 to 66. However when the radium was placed in lead 2 mm. thick within a thin tinned vessel, 17 em. in diameter, full of sand, with the radium in the centre of the sand, the diminution due to the side of the box was from 100 to 58, [EVE] RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES IN THE EARTH 137 Many readings were then taken of the natural ionization, when the radium was removed, with the electroscopes both within and without the lead and wood box. The average difference was q =1-1 for a copper vessel 2 mm. thick. If this difference is 34 per cent. of the total pene- trating radiation, then the full value for a copper vessel is, 3-2 and for an aluminium vessel 2-7. This is a low value for the penetrating radiation, but it will be remembered that the Saxicava Sand has a low radium content. It might well be that in other localities the value of q for the penetrating radiation might be as much as 3 or even 6, as other observers have found. The method here described appears to be promising, the only drawback being the great weight of the box. In conclusion it may be added that there was evidence of diurnal variations, which has not however, yet been studied. A comparison is needed between two vessels side by side, the one closed, the other hermetically sealed. Sec III, 1913—9 Tr l'IA EE ‘ RS EN heal . Le rl f Lt = f Fat ri } i +, r 4 4! Mari dir? { , utÿ4 1 iti 4 L : ; | t 1 d » 114 j Ay a M L A DEL (11 75) | td 4 2 hes an (Vs { j ai {; é 27 Section III., 1913. [139] Trans. R.S.C. The Scattering and Absorption of the y Rays of Radium By J. A. Grav, Disc. Presented by Prof. H. T. Barnss, F.R.S.C. (Read May 28, 1913) It was discovered by Eve* that secondary y rays were emitted by any body or radiator through which the y rays of radium passed, the secondary rays being less penetrating than the primary rays.f Investigations on the nature of these secondary rays have since been carried out by Kleeman,{ Madsen‘ and Florance the experiments of Florance giving us perhaps the most definite information. Florance ascribed the secondary 7 rays to scattering of the primary rays, as the quality of the secondary rays appeared to be independent of the nature of the radiator. He obtained the important result that the secondary or scattered rays became less penetrating as the angle of scattering increased. It appeared as if more y radiation was scattered in the emergent direction than in the incident direction, the scattering being apparently similar to that suffered by a pencil of a or B rays. As the primary rays were heterogeneous, Florance explained his.results by assuming that the softer rays were scattered through larger angles than the primary and this is the explanation usually given.f The writer’ came to the conclusion that y rays could be directly scat- tered but further consideration of the experiments of Madsen and Florance showed that the interpretation of the scattering of y rays given above was probably not sufficient, as it appeared that when the intensity of the primary rays was diminished by lead, the softer scattered rays were not cut down so quickly as one would expect (see tables given below). In consequence, experiments were carried out to test the interpretation. The results obtained show that y rays are not scattered *Eve, Phil. Mag. 8., p. 669, 1904. tNorse.—In this paper y rays striking a body or radiator are referred to as primary rays, rays coming off from the radiator in a different direction as secondary Trays. 2 tKleeman, Phil..Mag., 15, p. 638, 1908. * Madsen, Phil. Mag., 17, p. 423, 1909. 5 Florance, Phil. Mag., 20, p. 921, 1910. 6 Bragg, “Problems in Radio-activity”’; Rutherford, ‘‘Radio-active Substances and their Radiations.”’ 7 Gray. Prce. Ray. Soc. A. 87 p. 489, 1912. 140 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA like a pencil of a or B rays and that the main explanation of experi- ments on secondary 7 rays is that when 7 rays are scattered, the scattered rays are softer, the softening being greater the greater the angle of scattering. In support of this view it may be stated that Sadler and Mesham* have found that when homogenous X rays are scattered in carbon the scattered rays are less penetrating. Below are given a description of the experiments and a discussion of the results and their bearing on absorption experiments. Experimental arrangements and results. Figure 1 (which is drawn to scale) shows a horizontal section of the apparatus used. For a source of y rays, 15 milligrams of radium bromde was used. This was enclosed in a sealed glass tube, the latter Figure 1 & F being placed in a lead cylinder, the lead being 1-7 mms. thick. A,, A, represent different positions of the active material, R,, R, corresponding positions of the radiators, 8,, 8, blocks of lead to screen the electroscope E from direct radiation, L,, L, lead plates to cut down the intensity of the primary radiation and M a lead plate to test the penetrating power of the scattered radiation from the radiator. The electroscope E was a 14 cm. cube and all sides except the vertical sides BC and DF were of iron 1 mm. thick covered by lead 2 mm. thick. The scattered rays entered the electroscope through the side BC and this was closed by aluminium 1-60th mm. thick, and in front of the aluminium was placed a carbon plate P, 2-7 cms. thick. The carbon cut off the B rays from the radiators and only a small percentage of y rays. The side DF *Sadler and Mesham, Phil. Mag., 24, p. 138, 1912. [aray] RAYS OF RADIUM 141 was closed by aluminium 1-60th mm. thick, and behind this was placed a plate of carbon 1 cm. thick and a lead plate 2 mm. thick. The electro- scope and radiators were supported by as little material as possible, and all supports were covered by lead to reduce the effect of any second- ary radiation from them. In the position A,, R, the angle of scattering was about 50°. Three radiators were used, viz., A carbon radiator 12-5 cms. high, 7-5 cms. broad and 5-84 cms. deep, mass, 923 grammes. An iron radiator 12-9 cms. high, 8 ems. broad and 1:28 cms. deep, mass, 1,020 grammes. A lead radiator 11 cms. high, 7-6 cms. broad and 0-88 cms. deep, mass, 840 grammes. In the position A,, R, the angle of scattering was about 110°, and the following radiators were used: A carbon radiator 15 cms. high, 15 cms. broad and 6-4 cms. deep. An iron radiator 15 ems. high, 15 ems. broad and 1-7 cms. deep. A lead radiator 15 cms. high, 15 cms. broad and 0-3 cms. deep. Readings were taken with and without the radiator, the difference being due to the scattered radiatoin. The intensity of the primary rays was measured directly. The readings are given in tables 1 and 2, in divisions per minute. TABLE 1. Angle of scattering 50° (a) Intensity of primary rays 100, Lead L, 0-0 mms. Intensity of scattered rays. Thickness of lead M aa —_ —— Carbon Tron Lead 0-0 5-40 4-90 1-64 1-0 mm. 3-61 3-50 ilo 3-0 mms. 2-39 2-35 1-00 @o@) 1-54 1-50 0-72 Geo) 0-92 ilsol0) 1% 0-48 (b) Intensity of primary rays 42-4, Lead L,, 1-29 cms. Int nsity cf scattered rays Thickness of lead M. Carbon Iron Lead 0-0 1-93 1-80 0-70 1-0 mm. 1-36 1-32 0-60 6-0 mms. 0-67 0-64 0-35 142 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA (c) Intensity of primary rays 23-0, Lead L,, 2-58 ems. Intensity of scattered rays Thickness of lead M. ae Sh eee Carbon Iron Lead 0-0 0-85 0-89 0-36 1-0 mm 0-66 0-67 6-0 mms 0-38 0-39 TABLE 2. Angle of scattering 110° (a) Intensity of primary rays, 100. Lead L,, 0-0 mms. thick. Intensity of scattered rays Thickness of lead M. Ph a ee ee Carbon Iron Lead 0-0 4.37 3-67 0-57 1-0 mm. 1-35 1-34 0-36 3-0 mms. 0-37 0-38 (b) Intensity of primary rays 60. Lead L,, 0-74 ems. thick. Intensity of scattered rays Thickness of lead M. pe ten jo eee Carbon Iron Lead 0-0 1-94 1-85 0-34 1-0 mm. 0-74 0-70 3-0 mms. 0-23 0-23 (ce) Intensity of primary rays, 32-5. Lead L,, 1-84 ems. thick. Intensity of scattered rays Thickness of lead M. SSS ae Carbon Tron 0-0 1-05 1-00 1-0 mm. 0-47 0-47 ee MT TT [GRAY] RAYS OF RADIUM 143 (d) Intensity of primary rays, 19-0. Lead L,, 2-94 ems. thick. | Intensity of scattered rays Thickness of lead M. si. Carbon Iron 0-0 0-56 0-54 These figures show at once that the usual explanation of the scattering of rays cannot be correct. Take table 2. The scattered radiation is reduced to about 12% of its value by a lead plate 3 mms. thick. If these rays were due to the softer rays being scattered through larger angles, we would expect that a lead plate 3 mms. thick placed before the active material would cut down the scattered radiation to the same extent. It takes, however, about 3 cms. of lead to do this. Similar results are to be obtained from Table 1. It is therefore evident that some change must take place in the quality of the y rays when they penetrate matter, either direct or by scattering. The possible production of characteristic radiations is not considered as the quality of the secondary rays is very nearly independent of the nature of the radiator. There seem to be two possible explanations. (1) y rays become softer the more matter they penetrate, not taking into account any possible effect due to scattermg. We would then have a continuous production of soft y rays and the former explanation of scattermg might hold good. (2) When homogeneous 7 rays are scattered there is a change in quality, the scattered rays being softer the greater the angle of scattering. With respect to the first possibility there is not evidence of such a transformation. Experiments on characteristic X radiations indicate that the rays are homogenous and suffer no change in direct transmis- sion through matter except by being diminished in intensity. Even admitting this possibility there are other difficulties. In the experi- ments of Madsen and Florance the scattered rays had to pass through a certain amount of lead before entering the electroscope. As lead absorbs the incident rays so much more quickly than the harder emerg- ent rays their results may not give a fair comparison. To test this the following experiment was made. Readings were taken of the relative intensities of the radiations scattered from a carbon radiator in directions making angles 35, 90, 130° with that of the primary rays. The carbon radiator was the one used previously in the scattering experiments (Table 1). The same 144 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA electroscope E was used, the scattered rays entering and leaving the electroscope through carbon plates equidistant from the radiator. A,, A,, À, represent three positions of the active material. The electroscope was screened as before. The absorption of primary rays in the radiator was about the same in each case. The readings obtained are: A,, angle of scattering 35°, scattered radiation =1-40 Ja\ “5 “ “ “ 90°, “ “ == 0 5 61 Ag, “ “ “ 130°, “ “ =()-63 We should correct for absorption of the scattered radiation in the radiator and in the carbon plate in front of the electroscope. Correcting for absorption in the latter plate the numbers become 1-77, 0-82, 0-99. oA, © A. <— /4 CMS —> Figure 2 It thus appears! as if less radiation is scattered through 90° than through other angles and as if very little more radiation was scattered in the emergent direction than in the incident. The similarity to the scat- tering of X rays will be noted and although the experiments are only approximate we can say that the scattering of a beam of y rays is not at all similar to that of a pencil of a or B rays. There is little doubt that the scattering of X and y rays is the same in character there being probably gradual changes in the quality and distribution of the scattered radiation as the X or y radiation increases in penetrating power. With the different types of y rays at our disposal there is probably very little change in the distribution of the scattered radiation as the . penetrating power varies, although the softer the rays the more they are scattered per unit mass. The primary rays in the present case are always heterogeneous and if we suppose there is no change in quality produced .by scattering and neglect absorption in the radiator, the scattered rays would be softer on the whole but there would be no change [GRAY] RAYS OF RADIUM 145 in quality as the angle of scattering increased. Further after passing through a few millimeters of lead the scattered rays would be of about the same penetrating power as the primary. We are therefore forced to the second explanation and this is quite sufficient. The change in quality is probably very small when the angle of scattering is small as experiment shows that in this case the scattered rays do not differ much in penetrating power from the primary. A certain similarity to the scattering of a rays may here be noted. When an a ray is scattered through a large angle there is little doubt that it loses velocity, the loss being greater the greater the angle of scattering. It was stated above that Sadler and Mesham found that X rays were softened by scattering. The change in quality appeared to be greater the greater the penetrating power of the X rays and this point is sup- ported by the present experiments, the y rays scattered through an angle of 110° being not much more penetrating than the y rays excited in lead by the 8 rays of radium E. It seems quite probable that the change in quality is small for very soft X rays. It will be seen that the rays scattered through 50° are still much softer than the primary rays even after passing through a centimetre of lead so the softening must happen to every type of y ray scattered. We can deduce the following results from the tables. 1. The quantity of radiation scattered per unit mass is approxi- mately independent of the nature of the radiator. At first sight it would appear that lead y scattered much less radiation per unit mass than either carbon or iron. This, however, is mainly due to the fact that lead absorbs the scattered radiation so much, that less of it escapes from the radiator. Consider Table 1 (b). The primary rays pass through the radiator approximately normally, the scattered rays at an angle of 50° with the normal. If yw is the absorption coefficient of the primary in the radiator, that of the scattered rays, y the density, A the area, d the depth of the radiator, the amount of scattered radiation entering the electroscope will be approximately proportional to 1 —px —A(d—x)sec 50° A 2 f. ee (d— x) sec 50 ee |_ Ad sec 50°) =5§, say, For carbon p=1-68 A =94 sq. ems. d=5-84 cms. u=0-074 A=0-118 S =444 “iron, p=7-7 A=104sq.cms. d=1-28 cms. u=0:.30 A=0-62 S =468 ulead. p=11-4 A =84 sq. ems. d=0-88 cms. u=0:56 A=1-83 S=212 146 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA These numbers (8) agree fairly well with the experimental values. Carbon and iron give about the same value and lead about 45% that of iron. The scattered radiation from the lead is about 40 % of that from the iron . Now consider Table 2 (b). In this case the scattered radiation leaves the radiator from the same side as the primary rays enter and make about the same angle with the normal. Assuming the radiators to be thick enough to give the maximum amount of scattered radiation, the intensity of scattered radiation will be approximately proportional to p/B+X p & and À having the same meanings as before For carbon p = 1-68 u=0:074 A=0-132 p/w+r=8-2 eWirdny igi nT u=0-30 A=0-75 P/ptrA=7°3 Sodendirp =i 24 w=0-56 A=6-90 p/M+A=1-5 or about 5 times as much radiation should escape from the carbon and iron radiators as from the lead radiator and this is what is found experi- mentally. The quantity scattered is therefore approximately inde- pendent of the radiator. 2. The quality of the radiation scattered depends on the angle of scattering and not on the nature of the radiator. The tables show very well Florance’s result that the greater the angle of scattering the softer the radiation. Florance found that after the rays passed through six millimetres of lead the quality of the scat- tered radiation was approximately independent of the radiator. In the present case the rays for the lead radiator are on the whole more penetrating but this is mainly due to the much greater absorption of the softer rays in the lead radiator. 3. The softer the y radiation the greater the percentage of it is scattered per unit mass. It is well known that when the y rays of radium pass through lead they become on the whole more penetrating, (See figures for in- tensity of primary rays). As the primary rays are “hardened,” the scattered radiation should become more penetrating. This has been proved by Madsen and Florance and can be seen in Tables 1 and 2. If the softer rays are scattered more per unit mass than the harder rays and we compare the intensity of the scattered radiation with that of the primary, the ratio of the two should decrease as the rays become “harder.” The ratio does decrease, e.g., when the primary rays pass through a lead screen 1-29 cms. thick, the intensity of the scattered [GRAY] RAYS OF RADIUM 147 rays from carbon is reduced from 5-40 to 1-91 or to 35 % while the intensity of the primary radiation falls to 42%. Similar results are to be obtained from Table 2. In the case of the scattered radiation from lead the much greater absorption of the softer rays, both primary and scattred, vitiates this comparison. The fact that softer rays are scattered to a greater extent is, of course to be expected. In a previous paper the writer introduced a coefficient S ,/p,S, dx representing the fraction of the radiation scattered from a parallel beam in a layer of thickness dx, between the angles 90° and 270°. In the case of X rays S,/p is of the order 0-100. In the case of y rays of radium E 8,/p is of the order 0-050. In the present case a special experiment showed that a carbon radiator reflects about 12% of the y rays of radium and it is easy to prove that if w represents the absorption coefficient of the primary rays in carbon, 7 the absorption coefficient of the ‘‘reflected”” rays and P the the fraction of rays reflected. S,/p=P (4 + A)/p For carbon u/p = 0-044 /p=0-080 P=0-12 S,/p=0-015 showing that scattering decreases as the y rays become harder. The numbers, although approximate, are sufficiently accurate to show that the scattering of y rays is quite marked in comparison with direct absorption. For this reason it practically impossible to separate the primary and scattered rays, and these scattered rays play a great part in absorption phenomena. Absorption of y rays. When examined by most materials, the y rays of radium become more and more penetrating, this being particularly marked in the case of absorption by lead and other substances of high atomic weight. After passing through a certain amount of any material the absorption becomes exponential, Russell* finding that the absorption in mercury is exponential for a thickness of 1 em. to 22-5 ems., the intensity dimin- ishing in the ratio 360,000 to 1. The tables show us that even though the absorption may be exponential, the rays are not homogenous owing to scattered y rays being softer than the primary. Ordinarily we would expect the rays to become more and more penetrating and ultimately homogenous. That this is not the case is of course explained by the fact that although the softer rays are more quickly absorbed their place is taken by other *Russell Proc. Ray. Sec. A. 87, 1912. 148 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA rays produced by scattering. Consider a homogenous beam of y rays. As a certain fraction of these rays is scattered per unit mass, the rays coming through any absorption plate would become less and less penetrating as the thickness of the plate increased. Ultimately, however, the absorption would be come exponential as only a definite fraction of the unscattered primary rays, which would be unchanged in quality, could be scattered per unit mass and we must reach a stage where the production of softer y rays is balanced by their absorption. A certain similarity to the problem of the absorption of B rays will be noted. In the case of B rays the slower B rays are produced by the faster B rays losing velocity as they pass through matter. One dis- tinction must be drawn however. In the case of B rays, true absorption only takes place to any great extent when the 8 rays become very slow, whereas in the case of y rays absorption can take place at any point of their path. The writer has shown that an exponential law for g rays can only be approximate and the question arises as to whether the same thing may not be true for 8 rays. This depends on the question: Can 7 rays be directly scattered? Crowther has shown that of a pencil of B rays every g ray is scattered through a small angle after passing through very small thicknesses of matter and Geiger has shown the same, thing for a rays. If something similar took place in the case of 7 rays, we would have the result that y rays, as a whole, must become less and less penetrating so that like 6 rays, an exponential law could only be approximate, the absorption ultimately becoming greater and greater. If on the other hand we start with a beam of + rays and a definite percentage of these rays is scattered per unit mass the remaining keeping their direction unchanged, the exponential law can be an accurate one. The fact that Russell found the absorption in mercury exponential over a range of intensity of 360,000 to 1, shows that this is very nearly the case and this has been tacitly assumed above. Al- though it must be admitted that Russell obtained evidence that Y rays could not penetrate more than 26 cms. of mercury. The tables show that much less scattered radiation escapes from a lead radiator than from a carbon radiator, consequently when the rays are exponentially absorbed by the two materials, the rays coming through the carbon will be more heterogeneous than those coming through the lead. Consequently if y rays are being exponentially absorbed by carbon or aluminium, the issuing rays will not be expo- nentially absorbed by lead as they contain too great a proportion of soft rays. When examined by lead these softer rays will be cut out until the y rays are exponentially absorbed by lead, i.e. lead will “harden”’ therays. Evidence for this is found in recent experiments of Rutherford [GRAY] RAYS OF RADIUM 149 and Richardson* who found that y rays exponentially absorbed by aluminium are “hardened”? by lead. We may generalize this result by saying that rays which are absorbed exponentially by any material are “hardened”’ by substances of higher atomic weight. On the other hand rays which are exponentially absorbed by lead would probably be “‘softened’’ when passed through carbon or, y rays which are absorbed exponentially by any substance are “‘softened”’ by substances of lower atomic weight. Here the terms “softened”? and “hardened”’ are used to indicate a greater or smaller proportion of softer rays. These results only apply to the cases where it is safe to say that as the y rays become softer the absorption per unit mass increases with the atomic weight of the absorber. Summary. 1. When y rays are scattered, there is a change in quality, the scattered rays being less penetrating the greater the angle of scattering. The change is gradual and is small when the angle of scattering is small. 2. A similar explanation must be given of the scattering of X and y rays. There is probably very little direct scattering of X and 7 rays. 3. The quality and quantity of the scattered radiation is approx- imately independent of the nature of the radiator. 4. The softer the type of 7 rays, the greater the percentage scattered per unit mass. 5. A discussion is given of the bearing of the results on absorption experiments and it is shown why an exponential law signifies heterogene- ity of the rays. In the case of X rays, scattering is in most cases so small compared with absorption that an exponential law probably signifies homogeneity. *Rutherford and Richardson, Phil. Mag., 25, p. 722, 1913. SECTION IIL., 1913. [151] Trans. R.S.C. Records of Differences of Temperature between Mount Royal and McGill College Observatory, Montreal. By Proressors C. H. McLeop AND H. T. BARNEs. Fifth Communication. (Read May 28, 1913) In four previous communications we have had the honour to submit the results of the series of records which we have been making of the differences of temperature between the summit of Mount Royal and McGill College Observatory. These records have shown two important facts, 1.e.: (1) The variations of the difference curve give valuable indications of the approach of temperature changes at Montreal. (2) A study of the average differences for each month shows that’ some important relation exists between the average monthly tempera- ture difference between the two levels, and the deviation of the tempera- ture at the lower level from the average of the previous 38 years. Unfortunately during the year 1908 the Mountain cable became defective at several points, and after a heavy thunder storm was practi- cally destroyed. The observations were perforce discontinued until such time as a new cable could be procured. Thermographs were established on Mount Royal and comparisons made of the records at the high level with those at the lower level. Our attempt to maintain the continuity of the observations, which was so important, was not successful owing to the difficulty of making the self-recording thermographs accurate enough. For two summers a station was maintained on the summit and at the base of Abbotsford mountain, where Dr. Barnes gave personal attention to the records, For this purpose two self-recording thermographs were used. While the general results of our thermograph comparisons were entirely in accord with our previous results, it was again found impossible to ensure sufficient accuracy in the instrument for the object in view. In our opinion no comparison of records taken by separate instruments can yield the information which is readily obtained on a single recorder giving the differences on one sheet. Present Equipment. During the Summer of 1912 a new cable was installed through the kindness of Mr. R. F. Stupart, Director of the Meteorological Service. 152 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA This cable was larger, and embodied improvements which our previous experience had found necessary. In the Autumn of 1912 the observations were resumed. The same thermometers have been used, but a new Recorder, built by the Cam- bridge Scientific Instrument Co., has replaced the old Callendar instrument. The records have proved unusually good, and we trust that a new series of curves will now be obtained, which will enable us to continue our study of the changes in the monthly differences. The observations so far reduced are those for the months of Decem- ber, 1912, January, March, and April, 1913. These are given in the following table. Table of Monthly Differences between the summit and base of Mount Royal. Deviation ot the tem- Difference in perature at the obser- Month degrees Fahr. vatory from 38 years average Dect tO See —1-37 + 5-35 dene aL Ua ee ees oe —1.-49° +10-00 Feb. PR ee HE IS ee Rope — 3-07 Marc ee wae —1-96° +3-58 136 3) la ie rc = — 2.59 +4-65 In the last column we give the deviation of the average temperature for each month from the average for the same month during the past 38 years taken from the observatory records. It is of interest to notice that all the five months, except one, show high temperatures. January is as much as 10 degrees above the average, and this must be regarded as abnormal. Associated with these high temperatures, we find that the differences between the summit and base of the Mountain are adnormally small. Comparison with the values we previously obtained shows that the average for December is the smallest monthly difference we have ever observed. This is associated with abnormally high temperature conditions for this and the succeeding month, as shown by the readings at the observatory. Only a few records were obtained during the month of February owing to a defective contact, which resulted from the drying out of the wood on the recorder. It was some time before the trouble was located owing to its gradual appearance, and difficulty of location. SECTION III., 1913. [153] Trans. R.S.C. ee A Study of Iron Wire for Electrical Resistance Thermometers. By Arruur A. Scorr, M.Se. Demonstrator of Physics, McGill University, Montreal. Presented by Pror. H. T. BARNES (Read May 28, 1913). The following paper describes an investigation of the exact relation between the resistance and the temperature of pure iron wire; to ascertain if iron can be employed as a resistance thermometer. Platinum is the only substance that has been extensively used in this connection. Invented by Siemens, and subsequently modified by Callendar and Griffiths, the platinum thermometer was fully investigated and established as a standard instrument by Callendar. Platinum possesses the following advantages. It can be obtained pure. It will operate between wide limits of temperature. Although its increase of resistance does not strictly follow a linear law, the indicated tempera- tures can be reduced to true temperatures by a simple parabolic formula. It has been frequently observed in this laboratory that when a platinum thermometer is allowed to remain out of use for some time, its resistance at any given temperature will not remain constant until it has undergone a number of cyclical changes of temperature. It is possible that this anomalous behaviour is due to the well-known property platinum possesses of occluding gases. For precise measurements at ordinary temperatures, it is of interest to determine if a substitute for platinum can be obtained which does not suffer from the disadvantages of a change of zero, and yet answers the requirements of a resistance thermometer. The electrical properties of pure iron wire have been investigated for this purpose and the following advantages have been observed; the temperature coefficient is almost twice as great as that of platinum. Iron is very much cheaper, and it is possible to use much greater resist- ances of it. If R, is the resistance of a thermometer at O° C, and R is its resistance at a temperature t, then R,=R, (1 + at) By putting t equal to 100° C, we obtain R00 os R; LOUER, Sec. III, 1913—10 a = 154 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA This value of a is called the temperature coefficient. Substituting it in the first formula, we obtain the following expression for the tempera- ture in terms of resistance. 100 (R,—R,) aioe Since any calculation of temperature involves the quantity (R,,,—R,) this factor is called the fundamental interval or F.I. The temperature indicated by a resistance thermometer will be the true temperature, if the change in resistance follows a linear law. Hence the indicated temperature must undergo a correction, the amount of which depends on the constants in the equation expressing the above law, and on the temperature. In the case of a platinum thermometer, Callendar found that the correction would be given by— Pe ors E Do ( 100 =i) T=true temperature. p=Platinum temperature. 6=a constant depending on the quality of the wire. To obtain the 0, the thermometer must be accurately observed at three different temperatures. Since O° C is given by melting ice, and 100° C by steam under standard pressure, these are adopted as standard temperatures, the comparison temperature usually being the boiling point of sulphur. A formula, analogous to the one above is assumed to hold for iron. The value of the d is then obtained as follows. The resistances of an iron and a platinum thermometer are obtained when at the same temperature. The true temperature is calculated from the platinum reading by the formula above, and is used in a similar formula in conjunction with the iron indication, thus giving a value of the 0 for iron, when that particular comparison temperature is used. This scheme is carried out at different temperatures and the values of the 6 are then plotted. The behaviour of the iron wire is recorded in this way, for temperatures between O° and 100° at intervals of 10°. The apparatus is arranged on the Wheatstone’s bridge principle, and consists of a battery B, an external resistance R, two equal ratio resistances P and Q, an adjustable arm composed of two resistance boxes, and the thermometer, the last two arms being joined by a bridge wire. The galvanometer is connected to the middle point of the two ratio coils and to a movable contact on the bridge wire. The ratio arms each consist of three ohms of manganin wire, and are adjusted to equality. Since the ratio is unity, all connecting wires on opposite sides of the galvanometer contact are made equal in resist- ’ [scorT] ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS 155 ance. When balance is obtained, the resistance of the thermometer coil and its segment of bridge wire is equal to the unplugged resistance and the rest of the bridge wire. The adjustable resistance consists of manganin coils whose true resistances are accurately known. The plugs and their contacts were cleaned with emery paper, and thoroughly tested to insure good contact. All connections were soldered. In taking readings,*the position of the bridge wire contact was read (3a) Bre. 1: by a vernier to 0-001 em. On a suitable scale was made to fall a spot of light from a Nernst lamp by a lens and reflected by the galvanometer mirror. This indicated the movements of the galvanometer needle. The values of a deflection of one scale division in terms of the bridge wire, and of unit change of the bridge wire contact in ohms were obtained Thermo-electric effects were eliminated by reversing the current through the entire bridge. Exact balance points were obtained by interpolation from galvanometer deflections when contact was made at the two adjacent millimetre marks. To obtain the fundamental interval of a thermometer, its resistance was measured first in a melting ice mixture and then in a hypsometer. 156 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA The pressure was obtained from a Fortin barometer, and the true temperature of steam calculated. The true fundamental interval was then given by the formula 100 (Ry— R,) B where B is the calculated temperature of steam. When the iron and the platinum thermometers were compared, each was connected to a separate key in the circuit, so that either could B F.I. = F cust. be quickly placed in the bridge. A pail of water, heated by a gas burner and stirred by a screw paddle, constituted the temperature medium. This could be adjusted to undergo a slow steady rise or fall or tempera- ture at any point between 0° and 100°. To compare the two, measure- ments were made on the platinum thermometer at two definite times, —_—~P 0 [scorT] ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS 157 and between these the iron thermometer was measured. The corres- ponding platinum resistance was obtained by interpolation from time differences. When comparing the two thermometers, the following rearrangement of the correction formula was employed, the 6 for the platinum being 1-5. FASO Den \ (10302-25—6t,) | 3 The temperature coefficients of a number of specimens are tabulated below. The purer the specimen, the higher its temperature coefficient. Specimen. ax 0: Mont Pure Le CU «gees va OP O20 (UWO) 6-34 No. 1 Annealed.............6-16 (two) Non? Pure’ (hard): oo... 2. 5-11 No. 3 Annealed.............6-14 (two) 1) Cis C.S A ee 4-75 (many) 4.87 (two), 4-88, 4-86. No: 5) Annealed... 0.2... 4*75 Riectroly ties. 3.0) ln. 0 250. 852656 Elec. Annealed..............6-42 Nes Mure nto ER EME 6-24 Specimen No. 5. T Correction 10-894 1-038 10-69 21-03 1-78 10-72 31-34 2-38 11-06 40-17 2-72 11-32 50-62 2-93 ter 60-6 2-83 11-85 70-19 2-58 12-33 80-56 2-04 13-02 Specimen No. 1. a Correction ô 10-65 0-925 9-72 22-66 1-89 10-78 30-39 2-36 11-15 40-94 2-78 11-50 51-85 2-96 11-86 60-60 2-91 12-19 72-27 2-58 12-87 79 +83 2-07 12-85 91-25 1-03 12-90 158 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Specimen No. 7. a Correction Ô 10:76 1-01 10-52 21-8 1-90 11-14 32-98 2-47 11-18 41-59 2.90 11-94 Bao 2-83 11-34 61-20 2-75 11-58 71-50 2-42 11-88 81-04 1-90 12-30 91-72 0-92 1202 The curves show how the iron temperature corrections and the corresponding values of 6 vary with the comparison temperature. There is a slow rise in 6 as the temperature rises. On working out the. probable errors which occurred in the determination of 0 it was found that the displacement of the values of 6 from a straight line may be entirely due to errors in the observations and apparatus. This undoubtedly means the probable rectification of the points when increased accuracy and improved observation are attained. Assuming that 6 varies linearly with the temperature, the following formula will then express this variation: 0=A+eT where A and € are constants, and can be obtained experimentally from two observations, similar to those tabulated, using two different auxiliary temperatures. A complete knowledge of the thermometric constants of a specimen of pure iron wire involves altogether four true temperatures, two of which are the standards 0° and 100°. The com- plete correction formula for an iron thermometer is— Ab us 1.0 100 The magnetic properties of some specimens of pure iron wire were ob- tained and are tabulated below, namely the maximum permeability pw and the Steinmetz coefficient 7. Magnetic Properties. Specimen m 7 x 108 Not 1a Pure, kid Annealed: «os. 6 cae CIPS 1283 7-07 NO. St Pures. oot estate eee eee 3-93 nn. Ou. —10 mA | TRUE TEMPERATURE. HE Registered Of ren AY UOT S ne qe PORT SER Ne PES CARE TO TERRE Emer + FR Pd pe es pt mms pompe Grp ti er te a Sa. “ase a ‘« i ee ee pombe od sat t spo dm we MERpERTE ape ph pg tee mee | mentee bit or by fe eme te de dentate portage bites 2 erie eran inant es Ÿ ; L L i eeectit. 2 arene arm one — CTTrÉ Seapets ag me 8 + w«y rentree: os FrEI + + LIL e7 ste oF ore 3 3 4 ores FÉERIES ” $= {+3 Hp ie! CRETE [22 7 + x = : a LHREREETTE A ee 14 Fret EE het Oe eb ee 2 re Pees: h eee ë PrEtre ésre—s CELLLIELILLS a «(tb ty ab Fe Ride ee de 16 éd dE RTE TETE TTT PTT ES ECTIPENTTPETETT AVE PPO OOOO TT. MARTIAL vrie nent Ve I he 02 07 pui be OP ONG Hee we Peer Tee a Là be OU be 5.4 6e ew de o Dh dt aim sons cn CLIIT 1111) Set escent tae Pee Cte Dee ee pe [scoTT] ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE THERMOMETERS 159 Noes 4) Pure. PR dicate: 608 8-28 Non 4: Annealeds 70 20702521 2-75 NON 3s eS PT Ne 844 5-80 No. 5 Annealed..... 1374 4.20 NON Garner a LR RE 697 7:25 SCORE nr ee RE 501 13-47 Kanlbäum's (hard)... 365 13-98 It is apparent from these figures that when a specimen is annealed, the permeability is increased, while the Steinmetz coefficient is dimin- ished. These quantities change with the purity of the iron in the same way as the temperature coefficient. Pure iron when used at temperatures in the neighbourhood of 0° C, and in measurements involving small differences of tempera- ture, is in our experience superior to platinum in showing smaller changes of zero. nl in 0 Mau | 2 iv 7 F : | L rn ain k : L - : : » i È DU ti » ear ao ra ARE DA ites ] Ci Sons es ” : SNMP SECTION III, 1913 [161] Trans RS.C. The Formation of Carbon Monoxide during the Rapid Combustion of Carbon. By F. M. G. Jonnson and D. McInrvosu, F.R.S.C. Presented by D. McIxrosx, F.R.S.C. (Read May 28, 1913) When carbon or a compound containing carbon mixed with an excess of an oxidizing agent is ignited the carbon is, in general, completely oxidized to carbon dioxide. Thus in the residual gases of black or smokless powder, only a trifling amount of carbon monoxide is found. In some analyses which we have made of the gases resulting from the combustion of a mixture of potassium chlorate and carbon, a considerable amount of carbon monoxide associated with much free oxygen was noticed. This is surprising, since at 1027°C the decomposition of carbon dioxide amounts to only 0-004%; while at 1000° carbon monoxide in the presence of carbon is in equilibrium with 0-4% carbon dioxide. We have made a few experiments on this incomplete combustion by mixing an excess (about 35%) of potassium chlorate with wood charcoal, pressing into lumps and igniting, either in a vacuum or in a vessel containing air. The gases were then withdrawn and analysed by the ordinary Hempel methods. The carbon monoxide was determined in some cases by cuprous chloride; in others by oxidation with a hot platinum spiral after removal of carbon dioxide; and occasionally by explosion with electrolytic gas, and subsequent absorption of the carbon dioxide. Carbon monoxide was found in all cases as the following results show. 1 (vacuum) 2 (air) ec A Ss dn ations. eyes 43 -6% 51-4 Oe eis roc om FOR Ie 37-9 OO ER PR ae Bi Se oon et 8-9 6-2 irre ne ET ee die = 4.5 The gases were further tested for carbon monoxide by passing them into a chamber containing a white mouse. In a few minutes the mouse showed all the symptons of carbon monoxide poisoning. Blood shaken with the gases showed the shifting of the absorption bands when treated with yellow ammonium sulphide, so that the pres- ence of carbon monoxide may be looked as certain. 162 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA The temperature of combustion was low—probably not above 1000°. These experiments confirm the view that the first stage of the combustion of carbon is the formation of the lower oxide. The minia- ture explosion in this reaction may have removed the carbon monoxide from the seat of the reaction so quickly, that its temperature was too low for the complete formation of carbon dioxide, although oxygen was present in excess. We hope to extend our observations on this incomplete combustion. SECTION III, 1913 [163] Trans. R.S.C. On the Amount of Radium and Radium Emanation Present in the Waters of Several Western Springs. By R. W. Boyze and D. McInrosx, F.R.S.C.. Presented by D. McInrosx, F.R.S.C. (Read May 28, 1913) While a number of Canadian rocks and minerals have been shown to contain a minute amount of radium, as far as we are aware the only determinations of this element in waters have been made by Dr. A. 8. Eve in his study of the Caledonia Springs. (Trans. Can. Roy. Soe. lv. p. 55). We have examined the waters of three Western springs, and as two contain radium and radium emanation, the results of our analyses may be put on record. The samples were from Fairmount, Sinclair and Banff. All these waters are warm and contain considerable amounts of calcium salts. The Sinclair water in its salt content is much like that of Bath, England. 500 c.c. of the water were acidified with hydrochloric acid, and the gases containing the radium emanation removed by boiling and collected over mercury. After absorption of carbon dioxide the gases were transferred to an electroscope, and the rate of the fall of the gold leaf determined. The flask was sealed, and after several weeks the radium emanation was again boiled off and determined. The electroscope was standardized on several occasions by means of radium bromide or by autonite of known uranium content. The results given in the following table are expressed in millionths of milligrams of radium per litre of water. Emanation in equi- librium with Radium. Radium SOU Tee nh ec a en gee 4.0 trace. BMPROUNH. M es 3 3's 3.5 0-10 (?) [Rita ARE ie eee ee ? trace. The content of radium in two of these springs is from ten to twenty times that in the Caledonia Spring waters. ’ i ~ Z ’ 1 ’ ‘ , ‘ Û [44 1 ‘ , 57 A : ’ + a EE lit | ee ht «Se i DAT, NU ni ttrd he AE gash a ROUE AU Sint RE oe Pea, à DE ' PC A oa Py St arin ay i = bal | Saat on eee sr on Ma SECTION III., 1913. [165] TRANS. R.S.C. The Analysis of Maple Products. Paper I.—An Electrical Conductivity Test for Purity of Maple Syrup.* By J. F. SNELL. Presented by Frank T. Suurt, M.A., F.R.S.C. (Read May 28, 1913) The most commonly used adulterant of maple syrup is granulated sugar, which is, of course, chemically identical with the predominating constituent of the pure material. For the detection of such adulteration we are dependent upon measurements of the small quantities of the non-sugar constituents, the percentages of which in the syrup are necessarily decreased by the addition of the practically pure sucrose, together with the proportional quantity of water necessary to convert it into asyrup. The ash, the soluble and insoluble ash, the alkalinities of these, the malic acid value, and the amounts of precipitate produced by lead subacetate and by normal lead acetate are alike lowered by such adulteration, though not necessarily in proportion to the amount of adulteration. t Sucrose being a non-conductor of electricity, and the salt consti- tuents conductors, it is reasonable to anticipate that maple syrups adulterated with granulated sugar in more than very small quantities will show materially lower conductivities than pure maple syrups. Since, with suitable apparatus, a measurement of electrical conductivity can be made in a few seconds, a method based upon such a measurement would have a decided advantage in point of rapidity over any of the methods now in vogue. t * This test was described at the Washington meeting of the American Chemical Society in December, 1911, but publication was deferred until further experiments could be made, particularly (1) upon the effect of adulteration on the conductivity value and (2) upon the relation between the conductivity of the syrup and that of its ash solution. This later experimental work has been carried out under my direction by Mr. J. M. Scott, to whom my thanks are due for very competent assis- tance. This assistance was rendered possible by the Dominion Government grant for the Advancement of Agriculture. + The effect of such adulteration upon the various analytical values will be discussed in a later paper. t As long ago as 1889, E. Reichert, Zeit. Anal. Chem. 28, p. 14, (1889), and more recently Hugh Main, International Sugar Journal, 11, p. 334 (1909), Zeit. Ver. Zuckerind., 59, p.783 (1909), Chem. Abstr., 3, p. 2249 (1909), and A. E. Lange, Z. Ver. 166 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA The most rapid methods hitherto proposed have depended upon precipitation with lead subacetate and measurement of the volume of the centrifugally-settled precipitate.* No great delicacy has been claimed for these methods, and even they require more time than a conductivity measurement. The Conductivities of Undiluted Pure Syrups. Measurements of the conductivities of the undiluted syrup have been made upon 43 samples, all of Canadian origin. Eleven pairs of early and late products from the same or adjoining woods were sent me by the makers from various parts of the Province of Quebec in the season of 1911. Thirteen samples from Ontario and six from Quebec, all of the season of 1911, were kindly forwarded to me by Dr. Anthony McGill, Chief Analyst of the Inland Revenue Department, Ottawa, as fairly representative of the 450-odd samples collected by the Depart- ment for the purpose of establishing a standard of purity for maple syrup. Each of these was accompanied by a declaration of genuineness signed by the maker.f The remaining two samples of the 43 were made from identical sap, one by rapid boiling in a modern evaporator having a corrugated pan, the other in an iron kettle, not entirely free from rust, with very slow boiling. A summary of the variations of the specific gravity and of the electrical conductivity of 42 of these 43 syrups is given in Table I. The syrup omitted from this summary is one of the Inland Revenue Depart- ment samples, which was of extremely low density. Its specific gravity — was 1-279, its moisture content (according to the analysis made in the Inland Revenue Laboratory) 38-59%, and its conductivity (x x 105) 45-0. As a general rule, the syrups of high density showed low conduc- tivities and those of low density showed high conductivities. This indicates that in undiluted syrups the concentration of the sugar has more influence upon the conductivity than has the concentration of the electrolyte components. Zuckerind., 60, p. 359, Chem, Abstr. 4, p. 1554 (1910) have proposed methods of estim- ating the ash of sugars and syrups from their electrical conductivities. These methods appear to have given.good results in the hands of their authors but have been ad- versely criticised by others—Reichert’s by Fock and Plath, Zeit. Ver. Zuckerind., 39, p. 710 (1889), Main’s and Lange’s by A. Trenkler, Oesterr-ung. Zeit. Zuckerind., 39, p. 437, Chem. Abstr., 4, p. 308 (1910). * Hortvet, Journal American Chemical Society, 26, p. 1543 (1904) Bureau of Chem. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bulletin 107, p. 72; Jones, Vermont Agr. Expt. Station, 18th Annual Report, p. 322 (1904-5). ? See Bulletin 228 of the Laboratory of the Inland Revenue Department. (1911). The syrups examined were Nos. 184-191, 193-195, 211-214, 263, 278, 281 and 284 of that Bulletin. [SNELL] ANALYSIS OF MAPLE PRODUCTS 167 The syrup made in the iron kettle had a specific gravity of 1-326, and a conductivity of 25-9, while that made from the same sap by rapid, shallow boiling in an evaporator showed a specific gravity of 1-334, and a conductivity of 22-4. This is in harmony with the general rule of lower conductivity accompanying greater density. The minimum conductivity (9-6) was shown by the syrup of maximum density (1-355), while the maximum conductivity (33-6) was found in a syrup of density 1-311. The Effect of Dilution. The results of the above measurements indicate that as the water- content of maple syrup increases the conductivity increases. In other words, the more dilute the solution the greater the conductivity. This is not in line with the usual behaviour of aqueous solutions of electrolytes. In general, the specific conductivity of such solutions decreases with dilution. The thought, therefore, suggested itself, that if one continued to dilute maple syrup with water a point of dilution must eventually be reached at which the conductivity would cease to increase and begin to decrease—a point of maximum conductivity. This proved to be the case, the maximum occurring at a dilution of one volume of syrup to two of water, 1.e., in a mixture containing 334 per cent., of syrup by volume, or 39-6% of syrup of normal density (1-320) by weight. Table II and Diagrams I and II give results typical of the effect of dilution upon the specific conductivities of maple syrups. On each side of the point of maximum conductivity there is a considerable range of concentrations, within which the conductivity differs very little from the maximum. This renders it possible to measure the maximum conductivity of diluted maple syrup without observing much precision in making up the mixture of maple syrup and water. This is a point of great practical advantage in relation to the rapidity of the method. It is not necessary to weigh the syrup nor to reduce it to a definite density. An ordinary 25 cc. graduate can be used to measure the syrup, the two portions of water subsequently measured from the same graduate serving to rinse out the syrup which adheres to the sides. The range of variation of the conductivity of pure maple syrups thus diluted with two volumes of water is much narrower than that of the conductivity of the undiluted syrups. The mean conductivity at 25° C. (x x 10°) of the diluted solutions of the 42 syrups of Table I was 153—over 8 times the mean conductivity of the same syrups in the undiluted state. The minimum was 120, the maximum 203—tho latter being the conductivity value of the syrup made in the iron kettle. The minimum deviates from the mean by 21 per cent., as against 49 168 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA per cent., in the undiluted syrup; the maximum by 33 per cent., as against 80 per cent., for the undiluted syrup. We have thus a total range of 54 per cent., for the diluted, as against 129 per cent., for the undiluted syrup. The forty-third syrup, omitted from the summary in Table I, on account of its extremely low density, and high conductivity gave a perfectly normal conductivity value (167) when diluted with two volumes of water. The maximum conductivity, or, more strictly speaking, the con- ductivity of the mixture of one volume of syrup with two volumes of water is, accordingly, made the basis of the method here proposed. Method. Measure out into a small beaker (or directly into the conductivity cell) a suitable quantity (15 c.c.) of the syrup, allowing thorough draining. Using the same graduate, add two successive portions of water, each equal in volume to the syrup taken. Mix thoroughly, : pour into conductivity cell, bring to 25° C., and make the measurement. Divide the constant of the cell by the observed number of ohms and multiply the result by 100,000. Genuine syrups have given values of 110 to 200, but further exper- ience may extend these limits a little.* Syrups giving conductivity values distinctly outside these limits may be condemned. Those giving normal values are not necessarily pure, and they should be further examined by well-established tests. Apparatus. The essential features of the apparatus are:— 1. A low voltage electrical current operating an induction coil. 2. A conductivity cell of a form suitable for liquids of low conductivity, and with electrodes not easily displaced. 3. A Wheatstone bridge with telephone. 4. A device for exact regulation of temperature. In the present work a Kohlrausch Universal Bridge bearing the name plate of Messrs. Philip Harris & Co., Birmingham, England,f has been used. The induction coil with which this bridge is fitted, was operated by two lead accumulators, connected in series. A small Deveau telephone was found to give better results than a Bell, With bushes of Ontario and Quebec and intend determining the limits of conductivity value in these both at 25° and at 20° C. t No. 7072 in this firm’s Physics Catalogue, Vol. I. [SNELL] ANALYSIS OF MAPLE PRODUCTS 169 this very convenient bridge and telephone there was no difficulty in obtaining a sharp minimum of sound. The conductivity cell used at first was of the form represented in Fig. 295 (p. 402) of Ostwald & Luther’s “‘Physiko-Chemicher Messungen,”’ 2nd edition (1902). Its capacity was about 50 c.c. It had electrodes of 2-5 cm. diameter set 1 cm. apart, which maintained their position satisfactorily, as was demonstrated by repeated determinations of the cell constant. Later, a special cell of the same type with extra heavy electrodes and with a thermometer set in the cover was made for me by Messrs. Eimer and Amend of New York. The platinum electrodes of this special cell are of B. & S. gauge No. 27, and are 3-2 cm. in diameter. They are adjustable as to distance, but are firmly held in position by set-screws. The thermometer range is 20° to 30°, graduated in tenths. This type of cell has proved perfectly satisfactory for the purpose. In routine work it might be advisable to have a considerable number of cells fitting the same pair of electrodes. These could be filled with the different samples and set in a thermostat to come to the required temperature, when measurements of all could be made in rapid succession. I have not used a thermostat in this work, but have regu- lated the temperature by placing the conductivity cell in a beaker of water of a suitable temperature, a fraction of a degree above or below that desired, and stirring the contents of the cell with the electrodes until the thermometer within the cell showed the correct reading. The cell constant was determined by use of 0-1, 0-02 and 0-01M potassium chloride solutions, made up at 18° C. from the ignited C.P. salt, assuming for these at 25°C. the conductivities 1289, 276-8 and 14-2 x. 10 5, Range of Variation of the Conductivity Value in Genuine Syrups. In addition to the 43 syrups referred to above, the conductivity value has been determined on 22 syrups made in this laboratory in the season of 1912. See table III. These syrups were all made from the sap of ten trees—six hard and four soft maples. They represent the runs of different days from April 6th to April 29th, and some were made from the sap of the soft maples alone, others from the hard maples only, though the majority represent the mixed sap of the ten trees. They were boiled down in basins on gas stoves with the exception of one (No. 5) which was evaporated on the steam bath. These 22 syrups show a range of 119 to 164, average 143. This is a total range of 31-4%. This is about the same range of variation as is shown by the total ash, * Ostwald-Luther, Physiko-chemischer Messungen, 2nd edition, p. 407. Sec. IIT, 1913—11 170 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA and a much lower range than those shown by the soluble ash, the insoluble ash and the alkalinities. Table IV includes analytical data for twelve of the Quebec syrups included in the summary given in Table I. These were examined to determine whether this apparent advantage of the conductivity method held for syrups of various origin, as well as for those from a single bush. It will be seen that among these 12 syrups the range of the conductivity value is much narrower than that of the total ash and narrower also than that of any of the other data except the Canadian lead nuntber. If this narrowness of range shall be found to be characteristic of the conductivity values of pure maple syrups in general, it will be a point of advantage for this method. I have also examined three syrups made at the Vermont Agricul- tural Experiment Station under the supervision of Prof. C. H. Jones, who advised me that they were prepared with great care “every oppor- tunity being given for the malate of lime to settle out.” These syrups were exceptionally light in colour. As received they were of exception- ally high density, as indicated by Prof. Jones’s refractometer readings, viz., No. 1 at 243°; 1-4632; No. 2 at 214°; 1-4651; No. 3 at 243°, 1-4623. For my own analyses they were diluted with water, boiled to a boiling point of 219-220°F., and filtered through double 8. & 8. No. 597 filters.* Their densities at 15°C were then 1-325, 1-321 and 1-332 respectively. Two of these Vermont syrups gave lower conduc- tivity values than any of the Canadian syrups, viz., 110 and 115. The third gave a value of 122. The ash values of these three syrups were also exceptionally low. Complete data for these syrups, as obtained by Professor Jones and myself, are given in Table V. 110 is the minimum value yet found in a genuine syrup. The max- imum of 203 obtained with the syrup prepared in the iron kettle has not been reached in any other pure syrup. The highest value yet found in a syrup actually prepared for the market is 197. The limits of variation of the conductivity value of genuine syrups may, therefore, be tenta- tively set at 110 to 200. The mean conductivity of the 68 syrups may most fairly be esti- mated by giving the mean of the 22 syrups made from the trees on the Macdonald College Farm a weight of 2—the same as one pair of early and late run syrups. We thus obtain for the 48 syrups—46 actual and 2 theoretical—a mean conductivity value of 150. This is approxi- mately equal to the electrical conductivity of an -01M aqueous solution of potassium chloride (141-2). 167, p. 470, (1912). eS [SNELL] ANALYSIS OF MAPLE PRODUCTS 171 The Relation of the Conductivity Value to the Ash Data Since the salt components of maple syrup are undoubtedly re- sponsible for the electrical conductivity, relations between the con- ductivity value and the ash data are worthy of investigation. From the investigations of Hortvet,* Jones { and Bryan f it is clear that maple syrup ash consists largely (viz., to the extent of about 85 per cent.) of the carbonates of calcium and potassium, the two metals being present in about chemically equivalent quantities. The three investi- gators are in close agreement as regards the lime content, which is in the neighbourhood of 22 per cent. Bryan finds an average of 38 per cent. of potash in 100 syrups, Jones one of nearly 35 per cent. in 6 syrups, two of which were composites of a number of samples, while Hortvet finds about 31 per cent. in each of two syrup ashes. Hortvet alone has determined carbonic acid. His results show an average of about 30 per cent. in the two samples. The proportions of these three constituents of the ash may accordingly be placed at the following figures as a rough estimate: Per cent. Molecules. AGO Sessa sige tanh ce tah 35 -37 | sum CAGE IN IE wl Oe aa 2 +39 f -76 UNG te Pee ere RL Neer eee ee 30 -68 SAT RENE PE amit ads EN EEE 87 These results indicate that organic salts of potassium and calcium are the chief electrolytes of the syrup. Potassium, having a higher ionic conductivity than calcium, may be expected to contribute a little more than an equal share to the conducting power of the syrup. But its preponderance is not such as to justify a confident prediction that the conductivity value will be more closely related to the soluble ash (consisting mainly of potassium carbonate) or its alkalinity than to the total ash or its alkalinity. I have, therefore, made calculations of the ratios of several of the data of Tables III and IV and present these ratios in Tables VI and VII. Considered by themselves the ratios of Table VI would indicate that the closer relationships are those between on the one hand con- ductivity and weight of the total ash and on the other hand conductivity and alkalinity of soluble ash. It is to be remembered, however, that these syrups were all from the one bush, and were manufactured on a *Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc. 26, p. 1541 (1904). + Vermont Agr. Expt. Sta. 18th Annual Report p. 331 (1905). {Bureau of Chemistry, U. S. Dept., Agr. Bulletin 134 (1910). 4 Magnesium and sodium salts are present in minor proportions. 172 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 4 small scale in the laboratory. As will be pointed out later, they are also peculiar in their ratios of the alkalinities of soluble and insoluble ash. Table VII, which refers to more representative samples, shows no material difference in the variability of the ratios. If anything, the conductivity is more closely related to the total alkalinity than to the separate alkalinities of either the soluble or the insoluble ash. The range of variation of any of these ratios is somewhat wider than that of the ratios of the alkalinities to one another. Conductivity Value of the Ash. Among the data of Tables III and VI is included for 19 syrups a figure designated ‘‘Conductivity Value of the Ash.” This was deter- mined according to the following method: 5 grams of syrup are ashed ina platinum dish. The ash is boiled with 30 c.c. water for two minutes, filtered through a 7 cm. filter and washed with hot water to a volume of nearly 50 c.c. (the residue is ignited and weighed as the insoluble ash). The cooled filtrate is made up to exactly 50 c.c. and the conductivity measured at 25°C. The solution is washed out of the conductivity cell and titrated for alkalinity of soluble ash. This method departs from the conventional one for determination of soluble and insoluble ash in maple products in using only 50 c.c. of hot water on the ash of 5 grams of syrup, instead of 100 c.c. Possibly it might be preferable to adhere to the conventional method of separat- ing soluble and insoluble ash and to make the determination of conduc- _ tivity value of ash in a volume of 100 c.c. instead of 50 c.c.* To determine whether there is any material difference between the results obtained with the two different quantities of wash water, Mr. Scott has repeated the determinations upon syrups Nos. 2, 5 and 11 using 100 c.c. of wash water: The results obtained by the two methods are compared below: Alkalinities as determined with use of Syrup No.| Date made 50 c.c. wash water 100 c.c. wash water Sol. ash | Insol. ash | Ratio | Sol. ash |Insol.ash| Ratio 2 Apr. 7- 9 50 92 - 54 46 82 -56 5 . 12 47 83 +57 52 86 -60 11 ae 25 47 84 -56 52 84 -62 AVéTACEN ales entrain sls ec aces el teen aaa -56 - 59 * In the A. O. A. C. provisional method for saccharine products in general, only 60 c.c. of water are used. See U. 8. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Chemistry, Bulle- tin 107, p. 68 (1908). Hortvet followed this method. [SNELL] ANALYSIS OF MAPLE PRODUCTS 173 I infer from these results that the difference between the two methods of washing is of little consequence. As intimated above the syrups upon which the determination of the conductivity of the ash was made are peculiar in their low ratio of alkalinity of soluble to that of insoluble ash. They average -54. On the 47 syrups examined by Jones the average value of this ratio is -98; on the 13 upon which Hortvet made these determinations it is -91; Bryan’s general average for 481 syrups is -81, although for the 100 syrups selected by him for ash analysis, I find the average to be-87; and the average for the 12 sryups of Tables IV and VII of the present paper is 1-05. It is clear, therefore, that the syrups made in the labora- tory (Tables III and VI), are of exceptional character. Under these conditions I do not feel justified in drawing any conclusions from the results obtained in the determination of the electrical conductivity of the ash solution. This property is, however, worthy of further study. The Conductivity Values of non-maple Syrups. Table VIII gives the conductivity values of a number of non-maple syrups. It will be seen that syrup made from granulated sugar is practically a non-conductor, that syrups from partially refined cane sugar may give values within the limits found for pure maple syrups, and that all of the others give conductivity values distinctly above the limits for maple. It is clear, therefore, that values either above or below the limits for genuine maple syrup may be produced by adultera- tion. Syrups yielding values either abnormally high or abnormally low may be condemned without further examination. But it is clear that the possession of a normal conductivity value is not in itself ade- quate evidence of the purity of a syrup. Usefulness of the Method. In Table IX are given the results of analysis of 34 syrups as found upon the market in the Provinces of Saskatcheman, Alberta and British Columbia in 1911 and 1912. The modified Winton lead number was determined upon the quantity of syrup containing 25 grams of dry matter. It will be seen that the conductivity method would condemn 15 of these samples, and that every one of these 15 is also condemned by a complete analysis. Syrups 32 and 34, however, which would pass the conductivity test, are condemned by the other determinations, and Nos. 3, 4 and 29 which are near the limit in conductivity value and which, being of the same brand as Nos. 9, 19, 21, 22, 24 and 28, 174 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA are probably adulterated, are also near the limits of the Canadian standard in respect to the other analytical data and are below the Vermont standard in total ash. When one considers that all the ordin- ary analytical work on the 15 samples might be omitted, the usefulness of the conductivity method is apparent. Summary. 1. A rapid method of detecting adulteration of maple syrup with commercially pure sucrose is described. 2. The ‘conductivity value” is defined as 100,000 times the specific conductivity at 25°C. of a mixture of one volume syrup with two volumes water. 3. The limits of conductivity value for pure maple syrup are tenta- tively set at 110 to 200. 4. The relation of conductivity value to ash data is discussed. 5. The usefulness of the test is illustrated. [SNELL] ANALYSIS OF MAPLE PRODUCTS 175 TABLE I. Summary of Densities and Conductivities of 42 Genuine Canadian Maple Syrups. Sp. Gr. x x 105 15°C. 25°C. IN [SFA yg aad el Cte TER Orn LAN EL RAA US, oe 1-333 18-7 Jy PAF Gm tpg hells ae tol ed Res SPL Pe SEA SRO sin ie A 1-305 9-6 RO RE ioe US Spee Ricca Ae mere do pale Seino tts 1-355 33-6 Percentage Deviation of Minimum from Mean ......... —2-1 —49 Percentage Deviation of Maximum from Mean ........ + 1-6 +80 TABLE II. EFFECT oF DILUTION UPON CONDUCTIVITY OF SYRUP. Syrup I. Per cent. Maple Syrup by | Per cent. Maple Syrup by Conductivity at 25°C. Volume. Weight. x x 10° 5 6-6 62 10 13-0 100 20 25-1 147 25 30-9 163 30 36-5 171 334 40-1 175 40 47-2 169 50 57-3 153 60 66-8 123 70 75-8 99 80 84-3 63 90 92-3 A+ 100 100-0 32 Syrup II. Conductivity at 25°C. Per cent. Maple Syrup by Weight. x x 105 20 127 30 141 39-9 148 40 147 60 127 834 69 100 26 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 176 ‘quomjiedag enusaey puvluy uBIpeURD eu} Jo A1oJU1OQUT ‘SG ‘yng ‘AniAs ‘3 ez uodn Jo pvoysul 1094481 Arp “3 ¢Z uodn poutuiieyeq (2) 8-28 9°SI 6-81 6-2I I-61 PE 8-ç 8-81 To Seeded Rata pa 559" "UBeUT ULOIy WNUITUTU JO UOIJBIAOP JU99 194 8ST 9°SI 8-SE c-29 ZS 6°ZE 0-09 8-8P LES NIORT renee © UOTE! MON UINUITXBUL JO UOTYBIAVp JU99 194 Z0-% TE eg -0 9¢-0 OT-I F£-0 &9-0 96-0 OST: CASE Mae". 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ANALYSIS OF MAPLE PRODUCTS ae Analyses of 3 Vermont Syrups by C. H. Jones and by J. F. Snell. P ent Per cent. er : = Insolubl ee Analyst |Total Ash oes 2 Dry Basis Dry Basis il. Jones -70 -37 Snell -71 -59 2 Jones -68 -33 Snell -83 -32 3. Jo’es -64 +25 Snell -70 -23 Alkalinity Soluble Ash 5) -37 +39 -42 -36 -37 Alkalinity Insoluble Ash +45 “44 - 44 -50 -35 -38 Conducti-| Malic vity Acid Value Value -44 115 -45 122 -39 110 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 178 1°96 6°81 L:9G PST Li oe TE°G 92: 6G:€ ce s8-& Use ‘[oSut yse [Os TeV TeAIV —S8 "fos | US [8707 TEATV We H/9 D/L Po T 66 8°61 8°66 6°86 L°€€ POT £8 SéT IST OST O8 ect LIT GLT yse ‘[0S yse yse “[OSUr AFUTBATV 2[qn10s AYUTEATV —yse USB —dniAs APATY AYrAT} APAT} -onpuoy) -onpuoy -onpuoy D/d d/a H/V P°PI T'ET 896 PSE £TE yse ‘[0S AFUTTEATV +dnids AYIATY -onpuoy D/V NET Sr 6 LET OIL use [807 AHUENTV — dniis AYTATY -onpuog A/V e[qnros —+dnids AYIATY -onpuoy d/V TPIOL —dniis Ayrat} -anpuoy O/V weer l'"""-........ ueeur wox UINUITUIU JO UOIJBIA9P JU99 194 Te2zt [oo “+++ WReUE UIOIJ UINUITXBUI JO UOTPBIAVP FU99 Jaq ata Drees ee eee eres ess OMUITOTY zoe dl". cesse > CUNUITKRyy 8S°% ere ee sara a ee ere ne SO OE yse AJrAt} -onpuog --dn14s AyrAt} -onpuog a/V “(III AIAVI, AAG) AUOLVUOHVT NI MAVJU SAAHAQ ZZ YOU VIVE ‘IVOILATIVNY ŒHIL AO SOILVY—JA @IAV], [SNELL] ANALYSIS OF MAPLE PRODUCTS 179 TaBLE VII—RaATIOS OF THE ANALYTICAL DATA FOR THE 12 QUEBEC Syrups oF TABLE IV A/C A/D A/E A/G A/H F/G G/H fey a, CE 2 © Pye “= z= eos of SENS MENU 5 a Sve NAN ALI à à NES 2 Sg ai D mord le een |) 6 ga aa Bt) eS Betis ead ot AICHE 5 Bien aa ME Peel sie 159 245 139 273 284 1-97 1-05 Per cent. deviation of max. (rayne Ses eae eee 18-2 18-0 18:7 19-8 22-2 14:7 28-6 Per cent. deviation of min. ALOT ACR tee Tee ls leiete 19-5 18-0 17-2 24-9 19-4 11-7 24-8 TABLE VIII. ConpuctTIviry VALUES oF NoN-MAPLE Syrups. Number Description Specific Gravity | Conductivity Value hs Corn Syrups. )./: 1-40 251 2: Golden Syrup..... 1-44 414 3. Mo'asses sha bake Begs 656 Syrups DILUTED TO Density OF MAPLE Syrup. No. 1 Diluted Corn Syrup....... 1-339 253 4. COED! SYEUD 0e 1-320 359 Bye | COPD ES YIups ia. a: 1-320 209 No. 2 Diluted Golden Syrup..... 1-320 427 6. Golden Syrup..... 1-320 392 rie Golden Syrup..... 1-320 403 8. Molasses EURE 1-320 1121 9. Molasses...:..... 1-320 1280 10. Molasses......... 1-320 604 Lie Molasses ......... 1-320 1250 19? Cane Sugar Syrup from Granulated DURANT. ts 2 2-2 1-314 0-5 13. Cane Sugar Syrup from Pale Brown | >) ee 1-329 178 14. 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See eee Es CL ei DO HE HAE EEE EE EEE RER RE RHIN EEE © job HER RE ER RE ZOPE RER RE 70 EEE EEE EEE AE SSS SES RER RER EE EEE EEE SO 1 Eu : El ÉRRRERERREE os FRERE SEDC CSSS BSS 2 MISE MEME DRS TAN 3 7 60 70 80 90 100 PER CENT MAPLE SYRUP sy WEIGHT SYRUP I THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 182 a ES AB ae 2 LA ÉLECELLERS Dk A A EAP ALP kT TS A ot al LB EE D 22 AN LL A ED LEA A CL TITIWMIITIITTT. EE DR 40 See eaelaees HEbRE Da /SE SE GS SSGBS Ree 00S RERESRE SERNDESEN |?) RTT To BSP. EPA HU eeeaee Di © | SE > o> © À 8 4) HE NEED eee ALIAILONAGNOD SYRUP II SECTION III., 1913. [183] TRANS R.S.C. The Corrosion of Metals by Water. With special reference to relative corrosivity of ‘‘mechanically filtered” and “raw” waters and to the effect of water on unlike metals in contact. (Summary). By al. OTUART, Ban Presented by FRANK T. SHUTT, M.A., F.R.S.C. The object of this investigation was primarily to ascertain the effect that “mechanical filtration” or treatment with alum might have on the corrosivity of the Ottawa River water. In the course of the work other points of interest suggested themselves and were included. Without attempting to give here even a brief review of the sub- ject of corrosion, it may be stated that the “electrolytic theory” is now generally accepted as furnishing an explanation of the various phenomena. We may imagine the water itself, more or less, and especially such substances in solution as carbonic acid, being partly dissociated into ions carrying positive and negative charges of electricity. The hydrogen ions, carrying positive charges, attack the metals in contact, giving up their positive charges of electricity, and, changing from the ionic to the molecular or gaseous condition, are expelled from the sphere of action. In the case of iron, the metal goes into solution in the ferrous state carrying a positive charge of electricity. If oxygen be present the iron is oxidized to the ferric state and precipi- tates out as hydrate in the comparatively neutral state of some waters. It is this precipitate, which is quite apparent to the eye, that is the cause of the so-called “red water trouble” common to certain water systems employing the alum treatment of purification. On the other hand, in some waters iron remains in a state of either ordinary or colloidal solution and, not being so apparent, does not render the water so objectionable as a household supply. Further complications, however, than those so far outlined, ensue when other materials than the pure metal are to be considered. In actual practice there is no such thing as pure metal; all contain greater or less amounts of foreign admixtures. For example, iron in the arts and manufactures always contains silicon, sulphur, phosphorous, manganese and carbon. All the various elements exhibit a difference 184 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA in potential between one another in the presence of an electrolyte. Careful research has produced a list of the metals in the order of their potential. In our experiments we considered the following only, calcium, magnesium, aluminium, zinc, iron, lead, hydrogen and copper. These are named in the order of ascending potential and in this order is their power to displace one another. Thus in the presence of water even a single “commercial” metal will set up “local currents” which are active agents in corrosion. The foregoing formed the chief consideration which governed the plan of the enquiry, but there were several other features, such as abrasion of the metals, differences in temperatures at various points of the metal, points of contact of the metal with containing vessels, &e., &e., that were found necessary to take into consideration. It may be mentioned incidentally that complete analyses of raw and treated waters were made, and it might be interesting to note that, when the treatment is skilfully and carefully carried out, the alumina content of the filtered water is practically identical with that of the raw water. It was also found that “mechanical filtration ” removed approximately 60 per cent. of the dissolved organic matter. In view of interesting figures respecting corrosion later obtained, it may be mentioned here that magnesia (MgO) was experimented with as a coagulent for peaty waters. This compound was found particularly effective as a decolorizing and clarifying agent, yielding a perfectly colorless and clear water after a few hours sedimentation. From what has already been said relative to the electrolytic theory of corrosion, the importance of the measurements of electrical conductivity might be surmized. However, this factor becomes so seriously involved when comparing waters of different character, from the fact that the various mineral salts contained therein are variable conductors of electricity and yet in themselves may be even anti-corrosive, that it is very difficult to draw definite conclusions as to the corrosivity of a water from its conductivity alone. Read- ings of this nature gave figures in the following ratio—treated 125, raw 87, purest water to be obtained 2 to 3. From these figures it is seen that ‘“ mechanical filtration ” increases conductivity from 25 to 50 per cent. Methods of Experimentation. In carrying out these experiments care was taken to make con- ditions in all cases uniform, so that the results, though perhaps not absolute, might be at least comparative. The metals used were em- ployed in the form of wire. These were cleaned and polished and cut in equal lengths of 18 inches. They were accurately weighed, and [STUART] THE CORROSION OF METALS BY WATER 185 suspended by threads, completely immersed in 400 ce. of the water to be examined. The bottles were of equal size and corked, with equal air spaces at the top. One set of bottles stood seven days at room temperature (about 22° C.) and the other set for a similar period at 60°C. At the end of that time the wires were removed, adhering rust and products of corrosion rubbed off with a cloth and then weighed again. Loss in weight was recorded as a measure of corrosion. The agreement obtained from duplicates was surprising. In order to ascertain the effect of corrosion of unlike metals in contact several sets were taken, each comprising two metals of greatest difference in potential. The wires were wound around each other, then coiled and suspended as before. These constituted the “couples” mentioned hereafter. First, a series of tests were made to find the necessary amount of alum required to effectively decolorize the Ottawa River water. Results showed at least 50 p.p.m. to be necessary, which by the way, on a daily pumping supply of 20,000,000 gallons would amount to 5 tons a day. In the treated water no precipitate of alumina was obtained with the usual reagents, indicating that the natural alkalin- ity of this water is sufficient to entirely decompose all the sulphate of aluminium used. In addition to water prepared in this way, samples of raw and treated water were used which had been obtained from a city waterworks in the United States employing this method of purification. Conclusions. Corrosion of Iron in Raw and Treated Water. In the first experiment no appreciable differences were found between the treated and the untreated waters as regards their action on iron, in other words the loss in weight of iron wires, alone or in couples, was essentially the same for both waters, under similar con- ditions of time and temperature. The second series of experiments, using Ottawa River water, treated and raw, gave results leading to the same conclusion. Singularly the index of corrosivity was found to be the same in all four samples. Although these figures are prac- tically identical, there are extreme and important differences in the character of these waters. Thus, it was found that raw waters although corroding iron to the same extent, do not coat the iron with as much flocculent material nor do they allow it to settle out, as is the case with treated waters, but retain a great proportion in solution, per- haps in a colloidal state. Treated waters at ordinary temperatures became very murky and opaque and, when hot, large amounts of Sec. III, 1913—12 186 ‘THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA brownish-red rust appeared. This is popularly known as the “red water trouble.” However, it must be noted that our figures indicate that the actual amounts of iron corroded were the same for treated and raw waters. Apparently the state assumed by the iron corroded from the metal is a much more important question from the stand- point of a city supply than the actual amounts. The conclusion in this connection is that the so-called mechanical treatment of water is very liable to bring about some discoloration. In all these experiments it was noted that raising the temperature greatly accelerated corrosion. Corrosion of Metals in Contact. In the experiments on metals in contact, corrosion of iron alone - was first determined. The effect of contact with aluminium is to diminish the corrosion of the iron, the degree of corrosion decreasing with the rise of temperature. As might be expected the effect of contact with copper is the reverse of that with aluminium, corrosion of the iron being greater at ordinary temperatures as well as at higher temperatures. On the same methods being employed, replacing the iron with lead, we find the effect of the aluminium much less marked, but nevertheless in the same direction, the contact of the aluminium decreasing the corrosion of the lead. On the other hand, the effect of copper is to enormously increase the corrosion of the lead. A ref- erence to the figures would be very interesting. For illustration, we have them roughly plotted in the accompanying diagram. In this diagram we have located each line by only two points and consequently it is not strictly correct to make a straight line. It would indeed be interesting to definitely trace these lines, especially in that direction towards which they meet and cross. The great difference of potential between copper and aluminium sets up an active attack on this somewhat inert metal, covering it with a gelatinous hydrate AI,(OH),. Another interesting point noted was that on some of the bottles there were heavy precipitates of silica (SiO,)—products of attack of the glass, which perhaps acted also to set up a potential difference. Incidentally, in the course of the work certain interesting ob- servations were made which may be briefly recorded. It is interesting to note that boiled distilled water has little or no effect on iron; this is accounted for by the fact that the conductivity of such water is very low—i.e., there are very few hydrogen ions in solution. A curious fact is revealed in one experiment, where it is seen that the corrosion at 50°C. is much greater than at 60°C. Most of these wires carried ——CORROSION IN GRAMS 1100 1000 0900 ‘0800 0700 ‘0600 ‘0500 se 8 fe) [A] Q O [e) où [e) ‘0100 — TEMPERATURE t F + ie | +f ea CET H 4 rf oo H t EEE DST EEE SEE HH | TT = oo . an OU hay) 20 50° 188 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA a large number of tubercles, at the centre of which the iron was nearly eaten away. It appears quite likely, from what has been said by some investigators, that these tubercles are cultures of iron dissolving bacteria or alge. It is quite possible that they thrive better at a medium temperature and consequently the iron was attacked much more vigorously at 50°C. than at 60°C. Very interesting figures were obtained for water which had been treated by magnesia as pre- viously noted. Not only at ordinary temperatures is corrosion less than for any other water examined, but the effect of the increasing temperature is to still further reduce this until it is one third of that of the raw or otherwise treated water. An explanation is here offered in that the electrical potential of magnesium is very low and hence the tendency is to keep iron out of solution. The use of light powdered magnesia (MeO) is therefore suggested as a possibly suitable pigment in anti-corrosive paint. A study of the wires under the microscope revealed scars at cer- tain points, as if pieces had been bitten out. Again, highly significant markings were seen on wires which had been wound together. In nearly all cases two marks were seen on either side of another of slightly different appearance, indicating location and direction of “local currents.’’ Varying shades of tarnish were also noted. SECTION III., 1913. [189] TRANS. R.S.C. Transient and Permanent Phenomena in Electric Series Transformers. By ANDREW McNauauron, M.Sc. Presented by Dr. L. A. Herpt, F.R.S.C. (Read May 28, 1913) ““The use of the Current Transformer in connection with the measurement of Transient and Permanent Phenomena.” The Series or Current Transformer, consists of a Primary Circuit through which the Line Current passes, and of a closely coupled Secondary Circuit, insulated therefrom and closed through the current coil of an Ammeter, Watt meter, Watt hour meter, or of a Relay. The object of the use of the current transformer is to insulate the connected instruments from the line and to reduce the current to a value convenient for measurement. In order to determine the Primary Current from the reading of the Ammeter in the Secondary it is necessary that the TRAE ee UE known Secondary Current and it is desirable that this ratio remain constant and independent of the current through the range of measurement. When the Current Transformer is used in connection with a Watt meter for the determination of Power, or with a Watt hour meter for the measurement of Energy, in addition to the Ratio, the Phase of the Secondary Current with reference to the Primary must be known. This angle should preferably be small and independent of the current. Furthermore, when the Primary Current contains Transients, certain terms are introduced into the Secondary Current by the Trans- former itself, and in connection with the Oscillograph it is important to know the magnitued of, and the correction for the errors so involved. The object of this paper is to discuss the errors introduced by the use of Current Transformers in connection with Electric Measuring and Recording Instruments. Both Transient and Per- manent Phenomena are considered. The subject is developed mathematically on the assumption that the circuits involved have constant Resistance, Self and Mutual In- ductance and negligible Capacity. 190 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Oscillograms and Curves, of the performance of Iron Clad Trans- formers with various kinds of Transient and Permanent Phenomena, are shown, and are compared with values calculated on the assumption of simple cireuit constants. No correction is made for the Inductance of the Oscillograph leads, the Inertia and the Elasticity of the moving system and the Voltages generated by the motion of the suspension in the magnetic field. The errors so introduced are generally small at low frequency. The principal one being an oscillation at start if the vibrator is even slightly underdamped. The source of this is easily recognized from the frequency of the disturbance and the mean curve through the oscillation is approximately correct. The Current Transformer. —yor— 1 | M PIE TTL R — Resistance L = Self Inductance d, M = Mutual Inductance N = Number of Turns age i = Current oo K = Arbitrary Constant The suffix, indicates the primary and the , the secondary. Equating E.M.F.’s in the Secondary circuit (1) Lie Rady Nets dt Ne dt di, + R,i1,=— M N, di, ibe blue L,yN, dt The general solution of which is ss = t (2) i,=Ke É and (3) The particular solution is - M N, di, L, Ng at a D+ R, L, Where D = dis dt (1) [MCNAUGHTON] ELECTRIC SERIES TRANSFORMERS 191 The interpretations of this equation for i, a Single and Double Exponential, Oscillatory, Harmonic and Constant are considered. Case 1. Single Exponential Transient of Current. Let —at (4) TA Gere ) Then —at (5) di= +Aae dt and substituting in Equation (8) and writing the particular solution —at = ME NG) ue PANe (6) i, =< ——__—_ Sire se QUE L, and hence the complete solution is —at —R, t MIN Anas € ibe Liga (7) INR — — —— — a + R, L, Let i, = 0 when t = 0 MON} Ag Then i NS 1 a PR cae Re SG EUR i, which substituted in Equation (7) gives (8) WI SIAL, a Liat Ns — Rt —at iS Se NE +R, L, 192 ‘HE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA The relation of the Primary and also of the Secondary Currents to Time is shown in Figure (2) for various values of a. From this figure it may be seen that, while the Primary Current is a simple ex- An id RY lo hy heal OCR ss ponential zero at zero time and of a finite value at infinity, the Secon- dary, always of negative sign, is a double exponential zero at zero time and at infinity. Oscillogram No. 57 gives an actual record of a Transient of this nature, the Oscillograph Vibrators being connected across non-inductive Shunts in the Primary and Secondary of a 10—5 Ampere Instrument Transformer. [MCNAUGHTON] ELECTRIC SERIES TRANSFORMERS 193 Case I1.—Double Transient of Current. For this case Let Lat — Bt (9) ge WN € — € O , Then i = AG — Bt (10) di, = A — ae + Be dt Substituting these values in Equation (3) and writing the com- plete solution. \ CN ONE —R,t —ae Be (l1)i, = Ke L,- M N, A |———— + —— be N, HEC R;t ni R, il jm Then RE MING x = @ i B (12) teh —a+R, Ch = L, L, And hence [ ate, 8 — at —6t M N _ JS RCO an Bie ea) ee lc 2 N, 7 : ROME MM Er 2 2 Ie bs The relation of Primary and of Secondary Currents to time is shown in Figure (3). The Primary Current is a Double, and the Second- ary a Triple Exponential of Reversed Sign. Both are zero at zero time and at infinity. It is interesting to note that (for the assumed values) at t = 21-6, the secondary current reverses and is of the same sign as the Primary. 194 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Bl Ta Ce Dl LÉ MERE EE ASCOT Bil bak Oca oa | PIP, cmt lene Ba et CaP aE PIRE ER 2 fo Ja + icone sae rity ory Cerren 7 Corfen] Q À a vw, ee ia SEEGER EAE ee ENSGP AR: Sermeecccy stacd GU Hi Sea CIM Vor 29 Fig. 3 This is not an oscillation : the Secondary current changes sign once only, reaches positive maximum and dies away exponentially. Oscillogram No. 60 is a record of a Double Exponential. Case Ila. The Primary Current Oscillatory, that is the exponents a and g are complex numbers. ÉTÉ AT a — x— Jy B = x +J y and J = 1-1 [MCNAUGHTON | ELECTRIC SERIES TRANSFORMERS 195 Substituting in Equation (13) (14) MN, —(x—Jy) (x +J y) Ret =1,L, N, A fer —(x+Jy)+RJe L — ies L —xt}] —(«x—Jy) WE (x+Jy) — Jyt © I= G-In+R GIP +R, it fe Rationalizing the denominator and abbreviating by writing X for (Pp. — x L, Then (15) a Eat Ad Li Je) Coy) LINE dee L, EN | gee cry) IY. y) Gedy) Coesy, —xT +Jyt —Jyt e Ce Je M Cet) dre Expanding:— (16) ÿ=MN, A eee eee LN. OS + y?) 2 Jy(X+x) € L, fe f Xa y?) Jy + (X + x) € (xX yy —| x X—y’—Jy (X+x) | € Collecting terms:— (17) MEN: A —R,t st — Jyt +Jyt S-iLN, O¢+y)| 2 Jy (Ki € B= e kX—yie — € 196 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Writing in Harmonie form:— ,=MN, A Et geet } LN Cary 2 oy +S) ce ES € —2J (xX--y?) Sin yt + 2 Jy (X+x) Cosyt | Taking J outside as a coefficient to A and writing in full:— MIND TA —R;t TL 2, 02 y R, L, —xt 13s a x+y! —X7 |Sinyt + 2 y Cos y t (20) a No | bo M . ie Ie i,t) +R — xt i (re — le r n (y 1 2 | Fe | | i € Tie Le & Ÿ J —2 ay = = L, ie Where AE BSc j = Tan L, ger? 0 Re ER The Primary Current is — at — Bt 1 = À é — € ) which is an inconvenient form for calculation in the case of an oscil- latory current. [MCNAUGHTON] ELECTRIC SERIES TRANSFORMERS 197 As before for a and 6 substitute (c—Jy) and (x+Jy). Then A à (21) | — (z—Jy)t = (eda = A | € — € (22) —xt +Jyt Sai = € — € (23) xt Ie Sin yt. In this case the constant A is essentially imaginary so combination with J gives a real coefficient only. nit be Vio re LA £6 R 4] ï dre ey Caiees Penn Ni) See) NS a 0 7 os TENSPARRRRRENRNNNENRRNN : 2a non Ma DPF ETAT TR UMA acta SS ee eee a ee 0) TT eee La BS 410 1% 14 16 15 20 22 2426 713 Jo 3% 34 36 Le . “2 = {a9 a. = ; 5 NON RENE esa 7-0 Na Fig. 4 The start of an Oscillatory Current is given in Figure (4). The : VA : Primary Current has a frequency of f Den and is zero at zero ZT 198 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA time and infinity. The Secondary Current is oscillatory with the same frequency as the Primary, but advanced in Phase by the angle. (24) ne il "M — Tan iB "2 1 72 LE He GA i and is also zero at zero time and at infinity. Case III.—Aliernating Currents. Let (25) Lit ASIN wt + B ) Then (26) di, = Aw Cos ( wt + B ) dt the general solution is (27) aR and the particular solution is M N, Ao Cos (ot+8) 2 = — —— eee hy 3 NON eee L, Where arp as Shs dt Hence the complete solution is (29) | —R, A ‘ =t Mw N, — Sin (ot +B8+a) + ile Se TR 4 ee Where oe —' R a=) Tan : L,o Let i, = 0 when t = 0 [MCNAUGHTON| ELECTRIC SERIES TRANSFORMERS 199 Then So) 2 Vo ae N | ee Sin. (8+ a) sta A ONE and (32) 1 MwA N, ees R, a A Re eee N, |e L, Sin (@+ a) —Sin (or + 8+ a) This consists of (A) a current proportioned to the Primary Current by the ratio Mo N, de Lo? NG and leading it by the angle —1 R, L, Tan and (B) The Starting Transient MoA N R nie) — which is a maximum when TRE NUE re il qe se Il B + a = Pry 4 Te ea ( T and zero when B+a — (OEM RARE GRR UT n T The start of a Harmonic current is shown in Figure (5) for B+a= — andfor B= 0 2 pa Records No. 67, No. 69, No. 70 and No. 71 show the start of cur- rents of various final wave forms in the Primary and Secondary of a 20—5 Ampere Instrument Transformer. The vibrator recording 200 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA A EURE SAT RUE . SENECA EEE AA EE GRRE | MEL ET ET Eapcieck edenr JT ES RE MUNIE RE Som [MCNAUGHTON] ELECTRIC SERIES TRANSFORMERS 201 the Secondary current is underdamped as may be seen by the oscil- lation at the start and the greater prominence given to the harmonics 9 Lead 9 20 Effect nef Ey: on Ke7vo : FRS En & in Record No. 70. The other vibrator, which records the Primary current, is slightly overdamped, which tends to smooth out the wave. T A 80 IN to? c vw Gou à = Et Bb re fe) ~ Sore 207 ° ~ jo. O Effe<7 of Resislence on/fettà, Phase + Time Conslent Figure (6) shows the effect of Frequency on the Ratio and Phase of the Alternating component of Secondary current. Figures (7) Sec. III, 1913—13 e Secondary 202 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA and (8) show the result of increased Resistance and Inductance on the Ratio, Phase Angle and Time constant. {aed | real || ze a Eee | eb ee oe Qo Secondary heed ¥ Time ConS7ant So Bo 120 160 200 Ap 2%0 Effect of lhnducTancece on TlaTio, rho sed linze Cons7an7 ee The Ratio and Phase Angle Curves for 400- to 5- Amp. Iron clad transformer are given in fig. (9). The effect of frequency on these quantities is shown in fig. (12). HR ” Fig 9 The results of the open and short circuit tests of this Transformer are given in fig. (13). The curve marked Open Circuit gives the re- [MCNAUGHTON] ELECTRIC SERIES TRANSFORMERS 203 rahe hs lation of E.M.F. to Current in the Secondary Winding: with the Pri- mary open. From this is obtained the Impedance curve by dividing Volts by the corresponding Amperes. These curves show the low part of the Saturation Curve on which the Iron of industrial Series Transformers is usually worked and also the marked increase of Inductance with Current. THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 204 REP ro a ee EEE © 30 40 so Go To Fra Dee TV : L NE SRB | CRETE = x a ih x Ea a a BS CES PEL fa Rom Seaman | EN His Eee eal acl meee ee cl à | meee er | | ° Tmpedance OC ae ier |< |) SSS aaa Vaeaee ll) SSS SSR LR | || oe ST NS FENTE RERO A2 5. MRIXS SRE TA Ru [MCNAUGHTON] ELECTRIC SERIES TRANSFORMERS 205 The Curve marked Closed Circuit shows the relation of Volts generated in the Secondary winding to Current flowing therein under ordinary load conditions. The reading of Voltage is obtained by using an open circuit auxiliary winding wound over the Secondary and of the same number of turns. The Current is read directly on the Secondary ammeter. From these results the Phase Angle may be calculated, for any Secondary Current, by substituting the corresponding value of Open Circuit Impedence (which is approximately wL,.) into equation (30). The Phase Angle so calculated is shown by the dotted curve of fig. (9). No allowances has here been made for the change of the effective value of Resistance due to increased iron loss at the higher Flux Densities. The ratio cannot be calculated on account of the unknown value of M (the Mutual Inductance) in equation (32). Case IV. di (34) Let i, = constant. Then (35) ae = © and MEN 0 es ; Rist EN, 38) LM ete Te Pere DER L, ie — R,t = € iz angeat t = 0) let, — o hence Keo and 1, = 0 always. That is there is no competent of Secondary current corresponding to the Constant Primary Current. Figure (10) shows the effect on the Ratio and Phase Angle of a Direct Current superimposed on the Primary Alternating Current. The deformation and large Phase Shift of the Secondary wave may be seen by comparison of Records No. 67 and No. 68. Figure (11) shows the effect on the Ratio and the Phase Angle of a constant Direct Current for different values of alternating cur- rent. Ratio and Phase Angle decrease with increase of Alternating 206 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Current Load, but even with full load, and as small a Direct Current as 27% of the Primary Alternating Current, the Phase Angle has been increased from 1°-1 to over 12° and the Ratio from 80 to 84. When the Direct Current is removed, there is a residual effect, which may result in an increase at light load of Ratio of 2 to 5% and of Phase Angle of 40 or 50%, both of which decrease with increasing load. Residual magnitism may be also imparted to the transformer if the Secondary is opened under load or if a large Alternating Current is broken in the Primary at other than the zero value. The most convenient way to eliminate errors due to this cause is to open the Secondary and pass through the Primary full load alternating current, which is then continuously reduced to zero. As an example of the distortion due to the Transient of Secondary Current of a Series Transformer, Record No. 51, shows the current flowing into one anode of a Mercury Are Rectifier as recorded by means of Resistance Shunts in the circuit and in the Secondary of a Current Transformer. Due to the superimposed Direct Current, the Phase Shift is large and hence the Secondary Current has a con- siderable negative value when the Primary current reaches zero and stops. This Secondary current dies away as a Single Exponential Transient. Record No. 50 gives a clearer representation of the Secondary wave. In conclusion it may be stated that the Iron Clad Current Trans- former does not introduce into the measurement of Symmetrical Phenomena of equivalent Frequency of 20 — 100 cycles any serious error which cannot be easily corrected as long as care is taken to not unduly increase the Resistance and Reactance of the Secondary Circuit. Resistance in particular is objectionable since both the change of Ratio, and the distortion due to Phase Shift, depend upon it. External Reactance while affecting the Ratio has a corrective effect on distortion. In the case of Transients the Secondary Current is of one degree higher order than the Primary. When combinations of Transients, or of Transients and Permanent Phenomena, occur they may be treated separately in the case of the circuits of simple constants and the various components added to give the final result. Not so with the Iron Clad Circuit, where the effects of Saturation and Hysterisis have to be considered and the so called circuit constants of Resistance and Inductance are really variables. Unsymmetrical Phenomena, such as Rectified Waves and superimposed Direct Current, introduce errors in Ratio and Phase Angle of un- certain magnitude, and for which it is difficult to correct. Oscillogram No. 50 Oscillogram No. 51 ~ O09 PUR LG ‘SON STUBISOIIOS() secon es ee es Oscillograms Nos. 68 and 67 LE Ne =. = SC 69 ‘ON WRASOT[IOSC) tex" LE TANT SECTION III., 1913. [207] TRANS. R.S.C. Researches in Physical Chemistry carried out in the University of Toronto, WEE: Communicated by Pror. W. LasH MILLER, and Pror, Frank B. Kenrick, F.R.S.C. (Read May 28, 1913) No. 1. Frank B. Kenrick:—The hydrates and acid salts of ferrous sulphate. The compositions of a number of ferrous sulphates and their ranges of existence with sulphuric acid solutions at ordinary tempera- tures have been determined. The composition of the solid phase was obtained by a combination of two methods of indirect analysis, each of which alone was insufficiently accurate for the purpose. In the first method, the analyses of liquids and corresponding wet solids gave the values of a and b in a number of equations to straight lines: y = ax +b y = ax + bi etc. in which y represents the amount of ferrous oxide (Fe0) and x the amount of water (H,0) to unit quantity of sulphuric anhydride (SO,), and the points on which correspond to possible compositions of the solid phase. In some cases the values of x and y representing the values of the actual solid, could be determined from the cutting point of these lines; in others the smallness of the angles made this impracticable. In the second method, each analysis ot liquid and wet solid gave the value of y fairly accurately, although the value found for x was too inaccurate to be of any use. By combining the two methods and substituting the value of y given by the second method in any of the equations obtained by the first, the value of x could be determined. The following chemical compounds were identified:—FeO. SO,. H,0, stable in contact with solutions of composition varying from SO,: 2-186 H,0 to SO,: 7-93 H,0 at which point the heptahydrate was formed. 2FeO. 3S0,. 2H,0 (?) stable with solutions SO,: 1-637 H,0 to SO,: 2.186H,0. FeO. 2S0,. H,0 existing with solutions SO,: 1.342 H,O to (about) SO,: 1-595H,0. FeO. 4S0.. 3H,0 stable with solutions ranging from strongest one investigated viz.:— SO,: 1:122H,0 to about SO,: 1:342H,0. (Jour. Phys. Chem. 12, pp. 693-705, 1908). No. 2. W. Lash Miller and R. H. McPherson:—The behaviour of colloidal suspensions with immiscible solvents. A study of the behav- iour of colloidal suspensions of arsenious sulphide, etc., in different 208 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA solvents, with a view to discovering, if they exist, cases of equilibrium analogous to the distribution of iodine between ether and water. It seemed a priori probable that such equilibria would most likely be met with in the case of colloids with marked power of diffusion, and immis- cible solvents which approach each other closely in properties and composition, such as those near the “critical solution temperature” in two-component systems, or the solutions near the plait-point of the binodal curve in three-component systems. The Winkelblech effect (coagulation of the colloid at the boundary between the solvents) interfered with the observations in the case of silver hydrosol and phenol, amyl alcohol, or isobutyl alcohol; two ex- periments shewed the dependence of the Winkelblech effect on ca- pillary forces. Chloroform and alcohol did not coagulate the hydrosol of arsenious sulphide, but no distribution was observed even at the plait-point; this is not due to “passive resistance.” The same is true when the alcohol was replaced by acetone; but if ether or ethyl acetate were substituted for the chloroform distribution readily occurred, whether alcohol, acetone or propyl alcohol was employed as consolute liquid. In this connection a rapid method of determining the binodal curve, tie-lines, and plait-point was worked out. Antimony trisulphide, like the sulphide of arsenic, distributed between the two liquid phases in the system water-ether-alcohol; but not in the system water-chloroform-alcohol. Copper sulphide did not distribute in the system water-ether-alcohol. (Jour. Phys. Chem. 12, pp. 706-716, 1908). No. 3. W. Lash Miller: —The theory of the direct method of deter- mining transport numbers. The impression has gained ground among experimental workers in this field, that “directly”? determined transport numbers need not necessarily agree with those determined by Hittorf’s method. The theory of the direct method was first developed by Kohlrausch from equations involving the mobilities of the ions concerned; it is possible, however, to avoid all reference to rates, mobilities, current and other functions involving time, and to shew that transport numbers properly calculated from observations of the movement of the meniscus must be identically the same as those obtained from the analytical method; in fact, that the meniscus method is but a modification of the method of Hittorf, in which the amounts of the various constituents of the solution transported are determined by volume measurements instead of by quantitative chemical analysis. (Zeit. phys. Chem. 69, pp. 436-441, 1909). No.4. J.D. Barter:—The sulphates of barium. Freshly precipitated barium sulphate was washed several times with sulphuric acid and [MILLER-KENRICK] RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY 209 finally shaken with sulphuric acid of various concentrations for four weeks, when the liquids and moist solids were analysed. The com- position of the pure solids was determined from these analyses by the graphic method. Besides the ordinary sulphate BaSO,, a compound of the composition 3BaSO,. 8SO,. 7H,O was indicated, stable in contact with acids of composition varying from 69-8 % to 75-5% of sulphur trioxide. The crystals were very minute, but appeared under the microscope to be tetragonal.. A third compound consisting of fine silky needles, the twinning of which seemed to indicate that they were rhombic, was obtained in contact with strong acids. The formula of this compound was uncertain, but is approximately 4BaO. 5SO,. 6H,0. (Winter, 1908-9). No. 5. L. T. Acton:—Catalytic action of ether on the oxidation of arsenious acid by air. In connection with measurements of the dis- tribution of arsenious acid between ether and water, Mr. Acton observed that the oxidizing action of dissolved air on arsenious acid is greatly accelerated by the presence of a little ether. The reaction is not instan- taneous, but is quick enough to vitiate analytical determinations made in the ordinary way. (Winter, 1909-10). No. 6. J. S. Laird:—The toxicity of solutions containing phenol and salts. A number of measurements of the rate of poisoning by phenol solutions containing salts were made with anthrax and with micrococcus pyogenes aureus; and the distribution of the phenol between the salt solutions and purified petroleum was determined. In the case of the anthrax, relatively strong phenol solutions were used and the results agreed with the theory set up by Lash Miller and Mac- kenzie (these Transactions, Vol. IX, Sec. III p 51). With micrococcus however, an observation made the year before by Dr. W. S. Lemon was confirmed, viz:—that very weak phenol solutions are rendered less toxic by addition of salt. It was found that salt solutions isotonic with such dilute phenol solutions are themselves poisonous; thus in experimenting with susceptible microbes “osmotic” poisoning may be superadded to the action of the toxic agent. Finally the distribution ratio was determined for each of the eleven solutions (containing phenol and various salts) whose relative toxicity had been determined by Paul and Krénig; and in every case the toxicity of the solution was found to run parallel to the chemical potential of the dissolved phenol. (Winter, 1909-1910). No. 7. D. A. Welsh:—Electrolysis of solutions containing ferric salts and potassium iodide. If a cathode is introduced into a solution in which ferric chloride is being slowly reduced by potassium iodide, the electromotive force thermodynamically “necessary” to reduce the ferric salt is obviously less than that needed to reduce the free iodine 210 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA liberated by the reaction. Mr. Welsh’s experiments shewed, however, that in point of fact iodine and not ferric salt is reduced. This result has an important bearing on the theory of electrolytic reduction of ferric salts; it led to the experiments of Burt-Gerrans described below. (Winter, 1909-1910). No.8 T. R. Rosebrugh and W. Lash Miller:—Mathematical theory of the changes of concentration at the electrode brought about by diffusion and by chemical reaction. Owing to the chemical changes which accompany electrolysis, the composition of the electrolyte at the electrodes is different from that in the body of the solution. Dif- fusion currents are consequently set up which tend to remove these differences; and if convection be avoided, the concentration of any constituent at any point in the solution will depend only on the initial composition of the solution, and on the amounts which have been carried to or from the electrodes by diffusion and by electrolytic migration. In the simpler cases, at all events, these changes of concentration are susceptible of mathematical treatment; Weber and Sand have considered the case of electrolysis with constant currents, and War- burg has deduced an equation for the stationary state on electrolysis with a sinusoidal current through a diffusion layer of ‘infinite’ length. The present paper deals with the whole problem in a systematic manner, and includes the discussion of electrolysis with intermittent, successive, and sinusoidal currents, without restrictions as to the dura- tion of the electrolysis or the length of the column of liquid through which the diffusion takes place. The increasing application of the oscillo- graph to the study of instantaneous conditions at the electrode, led us to pay particular attention to the changes which take place within the first fraction of a second after throwing on the current, while Richards’ work on electrolysis with alternating currents, followed by the interesting experiments of LeBlane and of Reichenstein with copper electrodes in cyanide solutions, induced us to include the case of non-instantaneous chemical reactions between the primary pro- ducts of electrolysis and the other constituents of the solution. Ex- perimental methods are suggested by which, in suitable cases, the velocity constants of such reactions might be determined. (Jour. Phys. Chem. 14, pp. 816-884, 1910). No. 9. W. H. Eastlake:—Distribution of acetic and succinic acids between water and solutions containing two organic liquids.— Measurements of the distribution of any analytically determinable substance between two immiscible solvents furnish a means of de- termining the effect of concentration on the chemical potential of the given substance in one of the solutions if it is known for the other. [MILLER-KENRICK] RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY 211 This method has been applied hitherto only where both solvents were chemical compounds; as ether, water; chloroform, water, etc. It is, however, equally applicable when one or both of them is a solution; so that a good set of distribution measurements would show the effect of the percentage of ether, say, in an ether-benzene solution on the polymerization or dissociation of acetic acid etc., dissolved in the solu- tion of ether and benzene. Mr. Eastlake’s measurements established the feasibility of the method, but were interrrupted before a complete set of data had been obtained. (Winter 1910). No. 10. H. A. G. Willoughby:—The sulphates of calcium. The sulphates of calcium stable at ordinary temperature in contact with sulphuric acid solutions of various concentrations were investigated by a method similar to that used with the farrous sulphates (see Frank B. Kenrick, above), partial separation of the solid phases being effected by centrifuging through a loosely fitting glass valve in a tube closed by a ground-glass stopper. The extreme slowness with which equi- librium was established made a complete investigation impossible, and renders some of the results somewhat doubtful. The following compounds were identified :— CaSO ,:—stable with solutions containing less acid than corresponds to the formula SO,:2-1 H,O. The crystals were very minute, and the consequent difficulty in separating them from the viscous mother- liquor made the determination of an upper limit of the acid concen- tration unreliable. 2CaSO ,.H ,SO,:—consists of coarse irregular granules, some of which appeared to be fragments of rhombic plates. It exists with liquids ranging from about SO,:H,O to SO,:2-1 H,0. CaSO,- H,SO, (?):—Observed under the microscope in a drop of the mother-liquor, this substance appeared as irregular granules inter- mixed with small prisms, probably triangular in section. Exposed to the air it changes to a mass of very fine granules. Its range of existence is practically that of the 2CaSO,-H,SO, No conclusive evidence was obtained as to which of these two is the stabler form. CaSO,-3H,SO,:—This was not obtained pure, but was observed as fairly large transparent crystals mixed with a fine-grained paste of extremely fine granules in an acid of approximately the composition SO,: 0-94 H,O. Some of these crystals were picked out and analy- zed, giving results pointing to the formula assigned; they retain their transparency for some minutes when exposed to the air, and then slowly disintegrate into fine granules. The solubility of these calcium sulphates in the acid liquids was in every case small, but increased with increase in the concentration of the acid. The highest value obtained was for a liquid in equilibrium 212 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA with CaSO,-3H,SO,, which contained SO,: 0-94H,SO,:0-07CaO (Winter, 1910-1911). No. ll. W. D. Bonner:—Experimental determination of binodal curves, plait-points, and tie-lines, in fifty systems, each consisting of water and two organic liquids.—As it was desired to study as many different systems as possible, and as organic liquids are in general costly, it was necessary to develop a method of working which would not necessitate the use of more than a few grams of material in each experiment. The difficulties of analysis were avoided by adopting a modification of Bancroft’s method of ‘‘quantitative synthesis,” and the positions of the tie-lines and plait-points were determined by a graphic method described in the paper by Lash Miller and McPherson referred to above. (Jour. Phys. Chem. 14, pp. 738-789, 1910). No. 12. W. W. Evans:—The rate of propagation of flames.—The rate at which a flame spreads along a circular wick moistened with a combustible liquid was determined by measuring the rate at which a dise of millboard (dipping in the liquid) must be rotated in order that the flame may remain stationary. For a standard size of flame, occupying a fixed position on the wick, the rate was found to be a linear function of the initial temperature of the liquid. Curves were obtained for 22 pure liquids and solutions, with “seconds per revolution” as ordinates, and initial temperatures as abscissæ. All showed a slight concavity, most marked at temperatures near the flash-points. (Wdanters 1910-1912). No. 18. Saul Dushman:—The behaviour of copper anodes in chloride solutions.—Having found that it was possible to make copper dissolve anodically in hydrochloric acid wholly as cupric or wholly as cuprous salt or as a mixture of these in any desired proportions de- pending on the concentration of acid, current density, rate of stirring and rate of circulation of the electrolyte through the cell, a series of quantitative measurements was undertaken to see whether there was equilibrium at the electrode between the cupric salts, cuprous salts, hydrochloric acid, and metallic copper. As the concentrations at the electrode were very different from those in the body of the solution—sometimes they were twenty times as great—they had to be calculated from the latter by allowing for diffusion, and methods had to be devised for obtaining the constants needed in these calculations. Electrolyses were carried out in which the concentration of the hydrochloric acid, the current, the anode area and the rate of circu- lation of the electrolyte through the cell were varied; the fraction of the copper dissolved as cuprous salt varied from 25% to 74 %, and agreed within the experimental errors with the fraction calculated [MILLER-KENRICK] RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY 213 on the assumption of equilibrium, using Bodländer and Storbeck’s value for the equilibrium constant. (Jour. Phys. Chem. 14 pp. 885- 908, 1910). No. 14. W. L. Argo:—The velocity of sound in nitrogen dioxide gas.—The relation between the pressure, temperature and density of nitrogen peroxide is satisfactorily expressed by the statement that there is equilibrium between two gases with formula weights corres- ponding to N,0, and NO,. Up to the present no experiments have indicated that any appreciable time is required for establishing equi- librium after an alteration of pressure. The object of Mr. Argo’s investigation was to ascertain whether, in extremely rapid changes of pressure, any evidence of incomplete equilibrium could be ob- tained. Since the peroxide dissociates according to the equation MOL 12 NO: the adiabatic changes of pressure due to stationary sound waves will cause local dissociation and association. The actual behaviour of the gas under such changes of pressure will conform to a condition which lies between those represented by the two following limiting assum- tions, viz:—(a) that the dissociation is so rapid that complete equi- librium exists at every moment in spite of the sound waves, and (b) that the rate of dissociation is so small that no change in dissociation takes place during the rapid change of pressure. The change of density with pressure, dp/dp, may be caiculated for each of these two assumptions and compared with the actual value found experimentally from the velocity of sound in the gas. Since nitrogen peroxide attacks rubber and many metals, a modi- fication of Kundt’s apparatus for determining the velocity of sound had to be devised. An apparatus was constructed entirely of glass and platinum, and graphite powder was used for producing the dust figures. The only two experimental results obtained up to the pres- ent, gave a value for dp/dp lving between those calculated from the assumptions (a) and (b) above. It seems probable, therefore, that the reaction between the two forms of the peroxide is not instantaneous.* It is proposed to continue these measurements, and to determine if possible whether traces of water vapour have any effect on the rate. (Winter 1911-1912). *Since this article was sent to press Mr. Argo has completed the investigation. The results show definitely that the rate of dissociation is so great that there is no appreciable “lag” in the reaction following changes of pressure caused by the sound waves, in the case of both dry and moist nitrogen peroxide. The results will appear shortly in The Journal of Physical Chemistry, Vol. 18. 214 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA No. 15. J. T. Burt-Gerrans:—The electrolysis of acid solutions of copper sulphate with alternating current.—Mr. Redman’s work (These Transactions Vol. II, Sec. III p. 244) having shewn the appli- cability of the equations deduced by Rosebrugh and Lash Miller (see above) to the electrolysis of solutions of copper sulphate in maxi- mum conducting sulphuric acid, Mr. Burt-Gerrans undertook a simi- lar study with alternating current, using a Siemens and Halske oscil- lograph, and inferrmg the concentrations at the electrode from the voltage curves. In every case be found that the reduction of con- centration by the alternating current—whether with pure sine current or with direct current superposed—was less than that calculated from the mathematical theory. As, however, experiments with in- terrupted direct current gave results at the cathode in fair agreement with the calculations, a study of the anodic behaviour of copper in this solution seems needed to clear up the situation. (Winter 1911-1912). No. 16. H. P. Corliss:—The distribution of colloidal arsenious sulphide between the two phases in systems containing ether, water, and alcohol.—In continuation of the work of Lash Miller and McPherson, and of Bonner, referred to above, Mr. Corliss made accurate determin- ations of the binodal curve and tie-lines for the system water-ether- alcohol at O°C, and quantitative measurements of the distribution of arsenious sulphide between the two phases. The results, as in all work with colloids, depend largely on the age of the colloid, the order of mixing the reagents, etc., and, as was to be expected, the distribution became less equal as the tie lines receded from the plait-point. They shew clearly, however, when standard conditions are adhered to, that within a wide range the distribution of the colloid is fairly inde- pendent of the concentration of the arsenious sulphide; and furnish the first instance in which an equilibrium of this kind has been fol- lowed out. (Winter 1911-1912). No. 17. Chas. G. Fraser:—Improvement in the technique of toxi- city experiments.—The experience of Mr. Laird and of others who have worked here on the rate at which microbes succumb to phenol solu- tions and other poisons, shews clearly that the chief experimental difficulty in carrying out such experiments lies in the lack of some quickly applicable criterion of death. To find out how many micro- cocci, for instance, have been killed in a given culture, it is customary to pour gelatine or agar plates and to wait a couple of days until those surviving grow into colonies large enough to count. In many in- stances the results only shew that either all or none have deceased, and that the work must be done all over again. To overcome this difficulty, Mr. Fraser has developed a technique involving staining and examination under the microscope, which [MILLER-KENRICK] RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY 215 enables the percentage of deaths to be ascertained with fair accuracy by a few minutes’ work; plates can then be poured if needed, with the certainty that none will be wasted; or microphotographs may be made and counted at leisure. The time needed for a given poison to make a yeast cell stainable is a little longer than that required to des- troy its power of reproduction; the nature and extent of this dif- ference are now being studied. (Winter 1911-1912). No. 18. W. Lash Miller:—The chemical philosophy of the High- school text books.—Hand in hand with the study of chemical equili- brium, the idea of continuity between chemical and “physical” changes has entered chemistry, and is transforming it. The high- school text-books, however, as a class, in their tendency deny this continuity in toto. In order to be ‘‘up to date,’ however, they in- clude much of the experimental evidence which has forced this con- ception into the science, with the result that they contradict them- selves, and involve the whole subject in a maze of vagueness and mystification wholly foreign to the scientific spirit. Numerous illustrations are given, and the importance of a change is insisted upon. At present, children are being trained to accept obscure, equivocal, and dogmatic statements in place of clear and exact thought, and high-school ‘‘chemistry’’ is fast earning a place among that group of pedagogic processes which Huxley characterized as the “direct and preventable cause of most of the world’s stupidity.”’* No. 19. J. C. McRae:—The distribution of temperatures during the solidification of undercooled liquids.—By means of a fine thermocouple and a quick-acting oscillograph, the temperatures in a supercooled solution were measured at different distances in front of an advancing column of crystals. When the crystals once reached the wire, of course, the temperature remained stationary until the solidification was complete. A differential equation was set up to describe the temperature distribution. (Winter 1911-1912). No. 20. W. B. Wiegand:—The effect of an external heat source on the rate of propagation of flames. Mr. Evans’ experiments (see above) were checked and amplified by studying the effect of heat supplied by a gold wire heated by a measured current and held at fixed distances in front of the flame. Platinum could not be used because of its catalytic action. (Winter 1911-1912). No. 21. Frank B. Kenrick:—Lantern experiments on reactions in non-homogeneous systems.—(i) Working model of the “piston and cylinder” used in thermodynamic argumentation; the main difficulty was in making an air-tight frictionless joint between the piston and the cylinder. This was overcome by a mercury packing, kept in place by surface tension. (77) Modification of the above to shew the proper- * Science, 34, 257-263 (1911). CARO ar SA Mn ri a 216 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA ties of a liquid in equilibrium with its vapour. (iii) Simpler form of apparatus for working at atmospheric pressure. (iv) Decomposition temperature of calcium-chloride-ammonia (+) Delayed reactions supersaturation, etc. (Jour. Phys. Chem. 16, pp. 519-526, 1912). No. 22. Frank B. Kenrick:—Some lecture experiments on surface tension.—(t) Mechanical model, shewing surface tension balanced by a movable weight. (ii) Two drops, analogous to the well-known experiment with large and small soap bubbles. (ii) Surface tension and solubility; optical device to shew the difference in solubility be- tween coarse and fine gypsum powder. (iv) Surface concentration in saponin solution; shews that a freshly formed surface of saponin so- lution has practically the same surface tension as pure water. (v) Sur- face concentration of methyl violet solution; the foam has a different composition to that of the body of the solution, shewn by double cell in lantern. (vi) Oil films and water; (Jour. Phys. Chem. 16, pp. 513-518, 1912). No. 23. W. Lash Miller:—The influence of diffusion on the electro- motive force produced in solutions by centrifugal action. In Tolman’s account of his measurements of the electromotive force produced in solutions of potassium iodide and free iodine by centrifugal action, the equations were deduced without allowing for any possible differences in concentration at the two ends of the tube produced by the whirling. As, in some of his experiments, these differences would become very considerable if the rotation were sufficiently prolonged, it seemed pos- sible that even in a few minutes the “concentration cell” effect might become measureable, and that it might perhaps account for the “residual electromotive force” observed by him. The calculations shewed, however, that the polarization produced by concentration changes in short periods of centrifuging was very slight; as it chanced that the effects produced by the iodine and the iodide almost neutralized one another. As no previous attempt has been made to calculate the rate at which diffusion would take place under the influence of centrifugal force, the assumptions made in the calculation are being checked in this laboratory. (Trans. Am. Electrochem Soc. 21, pp. 209-217, 1912). No. 24. J. T. Burt-Gerrans:—Electrolysis of solutions containing Jree iodine and potassium iodide together with chromic, arsenic, or arseni- ous acid. These experiments , carried out with students in the electro- chemical laboratory, were suggested by the work of Mr. Welsh, above. They shew that in solutions containing chromic or arsenic acids, the iodine instead of the acid, is reduced by a cathode, while in solutions where arsenious acid is being oxidized by iodine an anode oxidizes the potassium iodide instead of the arsenic. Experiments with similar [MILLER-KENRICK] RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY PAW) results were carried out by placing electrodes in solutions where iodide and iodine were in equilibrium with ferric and ferrous salts, or with arsenic and arsenious acids. (Winter 1912-1913). No. 25. K. E. Burgess:—The toxicity of solutions containing phenol and sodium benzoate. Using the stain method (referred to under Mr. Fraser’s name above) as a guide, Mr. Burgess studied the effect of pure water, sodium benzoate solutions, and solutions con- taining both phenol and sodium benzoate on micrococcus pyogenes. His results furnish a satisfactory confirmation of the explanation given above (see Laird) for the “abnormal” effect of salts in very dilute phenol solutions. (Winter 1912-1913). No. 26. N. J. Ireland:—The nature of the cathodic silver deposit. A series of microphotographs were made of the silver deposited from silver nitrate solution, with different current densities, concentrations, temperatures, and rates of stirring. Preliminary determinations of the “limiting current” made it possible to plan the experiments so that each differed from the next in one respect only, e.g., either in con- centration at the electrode, or in current density, not in both together, as has been the case in previous work. (Winter 1912-1913). No. 27. Frank B. Kenrick and R. L. McGregor:—Thickness of the surface layer in solutions of surface active substances. From the change of the surface tension with the concentration of a dilute solution it is possible to calculate, by Gibbs’ equation, the “surface accumulation” of dissolved substance per unit area of surface. If the concentration of the dissolved substance in the surface layer were known and if an assumption were made as to the law according to which the concen- tration changes in a direction normal to the surface, the order of magnitude of the thickness of the surface layer could be calculated. In order to obtain information as to the concentration of the surface layer, some property of that layer must be measured, and the value compared with the corresponding values for solutions of known con- centration. Two properties suggested themselves as suitable for this purpose :— (i) the surface tension of the liquids, (à) the critical angle of reflection, from which it was hoped the refractive index of the surface layer might be obtained. A measurement of the surface tension of the liquid by one of the static methods gives the value of this property for the sur- face layer of composition corresponding to equilibrium; while the de- termination of the surface tension by the oscillating jet method gives the value of this property when the composition of the surface ap- proaches that of the body of the liquid, whose concentration is known. It was hoped that a comparison would lead to an estimate of the con- centration of the surface layer. Sec. III, 1913—14 218 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Mr. R. L. McGregor undertook this part of the experiments. The measurements with the jet proved to be unexpectedly difficult, and Mr. McGregor was compelled by illness to discontinue his work before final results were obtained. (Winter, 1912-1913). No. 28. Rk. T. Elworthy:—The critical angle of reflection from solutions of surface active substances. The measurements of the critical angle referred to above were carried out by Mr. Elworthy, and al- though the results are disappointing, in so far as they do not shed much light on the problem for the solution of which they were under- taken, they are quite definite. Aqueous solutions of amyl alcohol, phenol, aniline, and propionic acid were investigated. | The measurements were made by observing, through a Nicol, the image of a uniformly illuminated slot, about 2 em. long, reflected from the surface of the solution. The Nicol was held at the end of a movable wooden arm, which was adjusted until the black spot seemed equidistant from the upper and lower end of the slot. In every case the critical angle gave a refractive index for the surface layer only slightly different from that calculated (and determined by Pulfrich’s refractometer) for the body of the liquid. The slight deviation from this value, was, it is true, in the direction to be expected from the assumption of an accumulation of solute in the surface, but its magni- tude suggests another interpretation of the results, viz:—that the surface layer is too thin to give the true value of the refractive index from the critical angle of reflection. (Winter 1912-1913). No. 29. W. J. Fawcett:—Rate of solution and crystallization of gypsum. A crystal of gypsum was protected with wax so that only 3 cm.’ of a freshly cleaved surface was exposed. This was rotated in unsaturated and supersaturated solutions of gypsum, the concentration of the liquid being determined at intervals by conductivity measure- ments. The supersaturated solution was prepared by shaking a sol- ution with finely ground gypsum and rapidly filtering through macer- ated filter paper until the liquid was almost optically empty. A strik- ing difference was noted in the behaviour of the unsaturated and the supersaturated solutions. In the former the concentration increased rapidly, with decreasing velocity, until the normally saturated solution was produced. In the case of the supersaturated solution, on the other hand, a comparatively rapid separation of gypsum appeared to take place at first, followed by an almost stationary condition in which no appreciable change in concentration occurred during a week’s stirring, although the solution was as much as 10% supersaturated. The same phenomenon was observed with a solution 6% supersaturated. In neither case could any change in the smoothness of the crystal be detected with the microscope. Whether the stationary condition is [MILLER-KENRICK] RESEARCHES IN PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY 219 brought about by a change in the crystal or in the solution has not yet been definitely settled. Winter, 1912-13. No. 30. W. J. Fawcett:—The absence of supersaturation of liquids in liquids.’ In connection with the peculiar results found for the rate of solution of gypsum (See No. 29 above) it was thought that by investigating the rate of solution and precipitation in the case of a solution of a liquid in a liquid, where the complicating factors of sol- idity and crystal form were excluded, some explanation of the be- haviour of gypsum might be reached. Here the unexpected difficulty was encountered that even slightly supersaturated solutions could not be prepared. This fact is established by the following experi- ments. A nearly saturated solution of one liquid in another was sealed up in a tube of thin glass. This was clamped in a glass thermostat parallel with a similar tube containing a slightly weaker solution to serve as a blank for comparison. The apparatus was encased in a black cloth, a beam of light being admitted through a slit in the side. The tubes were observed endwise through two small holes in the front. The temperature of the bath could be changed or kept constant to within 0-1°C. The temperatures at which turbidity appeared and at which it vanished were compared for solutions of phenol in water, valeric acid in water, aniline in water, chloroform in water with alcohol, ether in water with alcohol. In every case the temperature at which the turbidity disappeared was higher by one or two tenths of a degree than the temperature of precipitation, but the difference was of the order of magnitude of the experimental error, the slight permanent opalescence observed in all liquids making accurate read- ings difficult. Since it was thought that suspended particles might act as nuclei for the precipitation of the liquids, several methods were tried for freeing the solutions of these suspensions. Neither filtering through macerated filter paper nor repeated precipitation and re- moval of the precipitated liquid, even when this was carried out with- out exposure to the air, led to any increase in the tendency of the liquids to form supersaturated solutions. (Winter, 1912-13.) No. 31. W. H. Martin:—The Tyndall effect in liquids. All liquids show more or less opalescence when traversed by a bright beam of light. Experiments were undertaken with a view to finding out to what extent this opalescence could be removed by various methods of purification. The following methods were investigated: (a) Repeated distillation, in vacuo, in an all-glass apparatus, without ebullition. Various kinds of glass were used. (b) Fractional distillation in vacuo, with the same precautions as in (a). 220 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA (c) Envelopment by precipitation of the hydroxides of alumi- nium, zinc and cadmium, and by colloidal arsenic sulphide. (d) Cataphoresis. The general result was that the light beam in water and in aqueous alcohol—the two liquids most thoroughly investigated—consists of two parts; a part which is removed by each of the methods of puri- fication and a part which is not removed by any of the methods and which 7s constant in intensity irrespective of the method of purification used. This permanent part is faint and is plane-polarized, and can be seen only if the room is dark, the light beam very intense, and the vessel clean and free from striæ. The intensity of the permanent opalescence of water was not affected by change of temperature. It was also unaltered by the addition of hydrofluoric acid and is therefore not due to silica. A sample of water, purified by method (a), was cooled in a tube 2 mm. in diameter to -26°C before it froze. Ordinary distilled water under the same conditions froze at -11°C. (Winter 1912-1913). Section IIlI., 1913. [221] TRANS. R.S.C. The Sensitiveness of the Eye to Light and Color.* By T. A. NeeLiN, M.A. Presented by Pror. FRANK ALLEN, Ph. D., F.R.S.C. (Read May 28, 1913) In an extensive paper on “The Luminous Equivalent of Radiation,” Nutting f thus summarizes some of the more important characteristics of the visual response to radiation: I. “Sensibility to Slight Differences in Wave Length, has two pronounced maxima, one in the yellow and one in the green; and two slight maxima in the extreme blue and red. These maxima vary considerably with the mdividual and probably also with the intensity of the radiation used.” Il. “Sensibility to Radiation of Varying Intensity: Sensibility falls off steadily with increasing intensity. It is approx- imately inversely proportional to the intensity over a wide range. The ratio of optical intensity to intensity of radiation increases more rapidly for red than for blue and green (Purkinje phenomenon).”’ Ili. “Sensibility to small Differences in Intensity”: The least perceptible increment measured as a fraction of the whole is approximately: (1) Independent of Intensity (Fechner’s Law). It is about -016 for moderate and high intensities and greater for very low and extremely high intensities. (2) Independent of Wave Length (Konig’s Law) at constant luminosity, extremes again excepted. (3) Independent of the Individual.”’ With the exception of number I the above characteristics of the visual response to radiation have been verified by several observers. But concerning the sensibility of the retina to slight changes in the wave-length of the light no investigation of a very exhaustive nature appears to have been conducted. Perhaps the best recent data are those due to Dr. Olga Steindler;{ but even there a spectrum of only one intensity appears to have been considered. With a view then, in the first place of verifying results already obtained by Steindler and others, *To be printed also in the Physical Review. pins var, à TP. G. Nutting: Bulletin of the Bureau of Standards, 1908, Vol. 5, No. 2, page 265. Wien Sitz.: IIa, 115, pp. 1-24, 1906. 222 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA and in the second place, of investigating the behaviour of these maxima with changes in the intensity of the radiation used, the following obser- vations were made. When it was found that all of the chief characteristics might be investigated by the apparatus to be used in the case of number I, and in view of the fact that it appeared to be an original method, it was decided to investigate all three cases. It was thought that the accuracy with which the well known phenomena were established might indicate the reliability of the results obtained in the first case. Historical * Mandelstamm + appears to have been the first to investigate the color sensitiveness of the human eye for slight differences in the wave length of light observed. By shifting the plates of an ophthalmometer so as to give a just perceptible color difference, he obtained a means of observing sensibility in different parts and obtained in this way maxima of sensibility in the region of the D and F lines. Dobrowolosky ? came to the same conclusion by similar means. Peirce’ investigated the sensitiveness of the eye to slight differences of color by having two identical spectral bands one immediately above the other, the upper one of which might be shifted. The object of the experiment was to see how small a displacement could be infallibly detected and named in direction by the observer in different parts of the spectrum. He found maxima situated similarly to those found by other investigators. More accurate results were first obtained by Kônig and Dieterici.2 Uhthoff® also investigated the differences in wave length for just observable color differences: Brodhun,’ himself color blind, gives measurements after the method of Konig for mean intensities. Exner® also gives a single service of measurements on a widely dispersed spectrum. In this connection also Steindler® reports observations upon twelve subjects. A spectrum with a dispersion of about 85 cm. at the point observed was obtained by means of an arc light and a concave grating. The light. from the spectrum at this point fell upon two totally reflecting prisms placed vertically one above the other and after reflections from a second *Historical references taken from Dr. Steindler’s paper. TGrafe’s Archiv: Bd. 13, p. 399. {Ebenda, Bd. 18, p. 99. 4 American Journal of Science, Vol. 26 (1883), p. 299. 5 Annalen der Physik und Chemie, Bd. 22, p. 579. 5 Grafe’s Archives, Bd. 34, 4, p. 1. 7 Zeitschr. für Psych. und Phys. Bd. 34 (1892), p. 89. +120; p.87b: ® Wien Sitz.: IIa, 115, pp. 1-24, 1906. [NEELIN] THE SENSITIVENESS OF THE EYE TO LIGHT 223 larger prism two adjacent fields appeared in the eye-piece. Since the upper of the two smaller prisms was moveable along a horizontal scale light of the same or slightly different wave length might be viewed in the field. In this way the amount of change necessary to produce a just perceptible but distinct color difference was measured. Values thus obtained were mean values for at least ten observations made by the same person on the same portion of the spectrum. Description of Apparatus. One arrangement of apparatus was found sufficient for all investi- gations and is essentially that used by Allen* to measure the luminosity of the spectrum. The general arrangement is shown in Fig. 1. The light from an acetylene flame A after concentration by lenses B and Bt, passed through the opening C from a light proof chamber M; then through two nicol prisms (E and F) arranged with their principal Fc sections horizontal; thence through the spectrometer G and was finally viewed in a Hilger eye-piece H in which all the light of the spectrum except a narrow central band was cut off by means of adjust- able shutters. The observer was therefore able to subject his eye to a light stimulus of any desired wave-length. A constant gas pressure was taken to indicate a constant luminosity in the source of light. The intensity of the spectrum was controlled by rotating the polariser. The principal plane of the analyser remained horizontal for all investi- gations in order that the displacement of the light waves as they met *Frank Allen: Phil. Mag. 1911, Vol. 21, No. 125, page 604. 224 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA the prism might be perpendicular to its face. In this way it was thought to avoid a variation in intensity of light through reflection from the surfaces of the prisms. The spectrometer used was of the Hilger Automatic type with four prisms equivalent to three sixty degree prisms and giving a dispersion slightly in excess of twelve degrees. LE Each characteristic of the visual response to radiation as outlined in the commencement of this paper, was treated as a separate investi- gation. Observations were made to show: 1. Whether sensibility to slight difference in wave length has two pronounced maxima, one in the yellow and one in the green, and two light maxima in the extreme blue and red. 2. Whether these maxima vary with the intensity of the radiation used. 1. In the investigation concerning spectra of varying intensity, other conditions remaining constant, spectra of six different intensities were examined. Only observations made with my own eye (the right) which seems quite normal as to color sensations, are considered in this paper. Upon the spectrum of maximum intensity in all parts, which for present purposes, has been represented by unity, and upon a spect- rum of intensity -25, observations were made to determine the minimum decrease in intensity by which the initial intensity was changed in effect- ing a change in sensation that was just perceptible. In the case of spectra at all other intensities considered, the minimum increase in the original intensity necessary to produce a just perceptible change in the sensation was determined. Method of procedure. The principal sections of the nicols were horizontal and so gave the brightest spectrum obtainable with the chosen arrangement of ap- paratus. Observations were made upon thirty-two portions of this spectrum; these are given in Table I. Light of wave length -42/ was first observed. This was allowed to act upon the retina for four seconds. Then the polariser was rotated at a uniformly rapid rate; an effort was made to keep the rate at which the polariser was rotated, approximately constant for all observations. As soon as a change in the sensation of light was perceived the rotation was stopped. The angle through which rotation had taken place was noted. This was denoted by a; since unity had been taken to repre- sent the amount of light passing through the prisms before the polariser [NEELIN] THE SENSITIVENESS OF THE EYE TO LIGHT 225 was rotated, the difference between 1 and Cos? à i.e., Sin? à will repre- sent the amount by which the original intensity of the light was diminished in effecting a change of sensation that was just perceptible. The reciprocal of this value (sin’a) taken to represent the sensibility of the eye has been plotted as a function of the corresponding wave length. This is shown in Curve 1, Fig. 2. The other chosen portions of the spectrum were observed in rapid succession in a similar way. A dimmer spectrum was next considered. This was obtained by setting the polariser before each observation so that its principal plane made an angle of 51° with the horizontal, i.e. with the plane of the analyser. This initial angle was denoted by f. Since Cos ? B=Cos? 51° is equal to +395, it was considered that each portion of the spectrum chosen for investigation was 39-5% of the intensity of corresponding portions in the spectrum at maximum intensity. With this initial arrangement light as observed in the eye-piece was, as before, allowed to act upon the retina for four seconds. Then the polariser was rotated so as to increase the intensity of the light. As soon as the intensity had just noticeably increased the rotation was stopped. The angle between the planes of the nicols was read and denoted by a. Since Cos?51° represents the intensity of the stimulus at the begining and Cos? a the intensity of the light affecting the eye at the moment of perceptible change, Cos’a—Cos’51° will represent the amount by which the original intensity (which for each observation is 39-5% of the maximum intensity of the spectrum at the chosen-point) was increased in affecting a change of sensation that was just perceptible. As before, the recipro- cal of this value was taken to represent the sensibility of the eye and has been plotted as a function of the corresponding wave length. The results are shown graphically in Curve II, Fig. 2. The portions of the spectrum observed and the observations made upon each are given in Table II. Upon the spectrum of intensity -25 observations were made to determine the least perceptible decrease in the initial stimulus necessary to produce a noticeable change in the sensation of light. This was done by following the method described for the spectrum at maximum intensity. The results are given in Table ITI and are shown graphically in Curve III, Fig. 2. The spectrum of intensity -25 was obtained by setting the plane of the polariser at an angle of 60° with the plane of the analyser. In the case of other spectra investigated observations were made for the least perceptible increase in the initial stimulus, following the method used upon the spectrum second in order of brightness, as de- scribed above. These spectra were of relative intensities -060; -025 and +0054 respectively,—the spectrum of maximum intensity being JAN ADA + 4 CTY OF Ik * SOC ROYAL + 4 THE 6 22 PHS HT Gera i trriel RTE zl ct 3 : He Hi AnH “HAE HN EH 2e sos ea HE HE ese Bett ed His ÉMIS HER HE HE ae cae roti RE Li Here Hie Hitt Hit . ! HH “A Ht ite tt} pH il Hi i Hi … itl i HEHE a a att Hy Hifi Va NS 64 66 68 70 72 74 56 ET "HE 5 5o -44 46 48 42 I [NEELIN] THE SENSITIVENESS OF THE EYE TO LIGHT 22 considered as equal to unity in all parts. The initial conditions to give spectra of such intensities for each observation were the inclination of the principal planes of the nicols to each other at angles of 75° 45’; 80° 45’ and 85° 45’ respectively. The results are given in Tables IV, V and VI and shown graphically in Curves IV, V and VI, fig. 2. Tables of data. In Tables I to VI À indicates the wave length of light observed. The column headed ‘‘Scale Readings” gives the observed reading on the attached scale, after each rotation. With each new intensity the zero of the scale was observed and taken into account to find the angle between the principle sections of the nicols. These values will be found in the column headed (q). Since # denotes the initial angle between the principal sections, in the column under Cos’ will befound the inten- sity of the spectrum considered in each case. In the columns under Sin?g Table I and under Cos ?8—Cos *a Table II will be found the amount by which the initial intensity was diminished to effect the minimum noticeable change of sensation. In Tables II and IV to VI, under Cos? g —Cos’f are given the amounts by which the original intensity (as shown under Cos’8) had to be increased to effect a change of sensation just perceptible. Under “Sensibility” are the values of the reciprocals of the amounts of minimum perceptible change in in- tensity. In order that the various curves might be plotted in one figure these reciprocals, which are the ordinates for the different curves, have been multiplied by arbitrary constants as indicated in the figure and then plotted to the scale shown. 2. A Spectrum of Equal Luminosity in all parts. When measuring the luminosity of the spectrum Allen * took obser- vations upon nineteen portions of it, determining in each case the angle which the principal plane of the polariser should make with the horizon- tal, i.e., with the plane of the analyser in order that each portion as viewed in the eye-piece should have equal luminosity. Therefore since the apparatus used in the present investigation was also used by Allen in approximately the same arrangement with the same gas jet, gas pressure and slit width, it was considered that, by observing these same portions and setting the plane of the polariser at the corresponding angle for each, equality of luminosity in the parts observed would be obtained. This would it was thought be equivalent to observing a spectrum of equal luminosity in all parts. The next problem considered, then, was that of determining the sensibility of the eye to slight UFR Ma Ma Volek; DOM Lastly Pik. iti? tt, Oman 228 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA differences in intensity when the light stimulus was of equal intensity at each point of observation. For this purpose observations similar in principle to those already described, were made upon this “Equivalent of a Spectrum of Equal Luminosity.” Method of procedure. The method of procedure was first to adjust the telescope of the spectrometer for light as near the ultra-violet as it was possible to make an observation. This was of wave length -460y4. The plane of the polariser was adjusted to make an angle of 35° with the plane of the analyser. This gave to the light as viewed in the eye-piece a luminosity equal to the luminosity of the spectrum where the light waves were -4144—the principal sections of the nicols then being parallel. This latter luminosity was taken as the standard of bright- ness since all portions observed were first reduced to this luminosity. After the manner of former observations the light as viewed in the eye-piece was allowed. to act upon the retina, the polariser rotated and the angle after rotation noted. This angle was denoted by a. If 8 denote the initial angle (35°) between the planes of the nicols, then since a was taken to denote the angle between the planes after rotation, (Cos’a—Cos’f) will be proportional to the amount of light by which the initial intensity was increased to effect a noticeable change in the sensation. This amount of light (Cos’a—Cos°B), will be a fraction of the total intensity at the point considered. But since the luminosity of each part was reduced to that of the standard, it is reasonable to expect that, at those points where the spectrum is brighter and therefore more intense, a smaller portion of the total intensity will be required to produce a noticeable change in the sen- sation than will be required where the total brightness is much less. That is: the brighter the spectrum at the point of observation the smaller the fraction of total intensity necessary to effect a noticeable change in the sensation. Hence we may say that the luminosity of each part of the spectrum is inversely proportional to the portion of total intensity required to effect a noticeable change in the sensation— the sensation in each case being the result of a light stimulus varying only in wave length. Therefore, plotting the reciprocals of the various values of (Cos’a—Cos’8) as functions of the corresponding wave lengths a luminosity curve for the spectrum should be obtained. This is shown in Fig. 3. In the above case the reciprocals of the various portions of total light added cannot represent sensibility because in one instance we may take the reciprocal of a large quantity of light at low intensity and [NEELIN] THE SENSITIVENESS OF THE EYE TO LIGHT 229 =) 020 Figure 3 in another the reciprocal of a small quantity at high intensity. And while the reciprocals differ vastly in value the actual illuminating power of the two quantities may be indentical. In the one the incre- ment of light was added at low intensity and therefore more of it was required; in the other it was added at high intensity and less of it was 230 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA required. Hence before calculating reciprocals for the purpose of showing sensibility, the various increments of light were first reduced to a common standard of intensity. This was the intensity of the standard of brightness, viz., the intensity of light of wave length ‘414 as observed in the eye-piece while the principal sections of the nicols were parallel. Method of Reducing to a Common Standard of Intensity. We may assume that the luminosity of any portion of the spec- trum is proportional to its intensity. But the luminosity is inversely proportional to the fraction of total intensity, at the point considered, that will give a luminosity equal to the luminosity of the standard of brightness. But this fraction of total intensity is proportional to the square of the cosine of the angle between the principal sections of the nicols—the light going through giving a luminosity equal to the lumin- osity of our standard of brightness. That is: the luminosity of any portion of the spectrum is inversely proportional to the square of the cosine of the angle between the principal sections of the nicols when the light going through from that portion gives a luminosity equal to that of the standard. Therefore, taking the luminosity of the standard as unity, the luminosity of the spectrum at any point considered in terms of this standard is given by 1/cos°8 where f is the angle between the principal sections of the nicols when just sufficient of the light considered is going through to give a luminosity equal to the lumin- osity to the standard. And since intensity is assumed propor- tional to luminosity, the intensity of light at any point in the spectrum in terms of the intensity of the standard is given by 1/Cos’f. Again, a denotes the angle between the principal sections of the nicols after the rotation already explained. Therefore, the fraction of total intensity by which the initial intensity 1.e., that represented by Cos’, was increased to give the least perceptible change in the sensation, may be represented by (Cos?a—Cos’?8). The intensity of any given portion of light depends upon its position in the spec- trum. Therefore, the fraction of total intensity will have an intensity depending upon the position of the point in the spectrum at which it was added, i.e. depending upon the value of the angle f. But it has been shown that the intensity of light from any portion of the spec- trum may be expressed in terms of the standard of brightness by multiplying by 1/Cos.28. Henceit was thought that by multiplying (Cos’a —Cos’8) by 1/Cos’8 the various increments of light added to produce a perceptible change in the sensation in each case would be of equal intensity i.e., they would have an intensity equal to the in- [NEELIN] THE SENSITIVENESS OF THE EYE TO LIGHT 231 tensity of the light in the standard. The reciprocals of this product it was thought would represent sensibility. The portions of the PRE EEE ARPTRS ANSE SSSR CSBEEE BASES EE ce DÉS RRRREEE ‘ spectrum observed with the corresponding data and calculations are given in Table XV. The sensibility in each case was plotted as a function of the corresponding wave length as shown in Curve 1, Fig. 4, 232 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA thus showing sensibility to slight differences in intensity using the equivalent of a spectrum of uniform luminosity. Table of data. In Table XV, indicates the portion of the spectrum upon which observations was made. “8” denotes the inclination of the plane of the polariser to the plane of the analyser. In the column under “a”? will be found the inclination of the plane of the polariser to the plane of the analyser after rotation has taken place. Cos’B will represent the amount of light going through the nicols before the rotation of the polariser, and Cos’g the amount of light going through when this rotation was completed. In the column under “Least Perceptible Increments” will be found the value of (Cos’a —Cos?f) which will represent the fraction of total intensity which had to be added to the initial intensity (Cos’f) to effect a change of sensation that was just perceptible. The reciprocals of those values plotted as a function of the corresponding wave length gave the luminosity curve found in Fig. 3. As explained above those increments were reduced to light of uniform intensity by dividing by Cos?f in each case. The recipro- cals of these latter results were taken to represent sensibility and will be found under ‘“Sensibility.” Under Di/(1+Di) will be found the value of the least perceptible increment divided by the total intensity (after rotation) which was used to get curve 2, Fig. 4 to demonstrate Kônig’s Law. i Sensibility to Radiation of Varying Intensity. As a demonstration of the steady falling off of sensibility with increasing intensity and to show that it is approximately inversely proportional to the intensity over a wide range, observations were made as follows: The same apparatus as used in the preceding was used in this; and the same arrangement. First, the telescope of the spectro- meter was adjusted for light of a given wave length, for example -420 w (see Table VII), and rigidly fixed. The nicols were then crossed so as to exclude all light from the eye-piece. The angle indicated on the attached scale was read and this reading was taken to indicate an inclination of 90° between the principal sections of the nicols. The polariser was then rotated and at the first sensation of light ex- perienced through the eye-piece, rotation was stopped. The angle indicated on the attached scale was again read. Let a,, denote this [NEELIN] THE SENSITIVENESS OF THE EYE TO LIGHT 233 angle which is necessarily less than 90°. Now Cos*90=0 and Cos’a, which is slightly greater than 0 will, as explained in the fore part of this paper, represent the amount of stimulus necessary to produce a sensation of light. This amount of light (Cos’a,), as an initial stimulus was allowed to fall upon the retina and the polariser further rotated. As soon as the sensation of light as experienced from the initial stimu- lus was perceived to change rotation was again stopped, and the angle indicated on the scale read. If a, denote this angle, Cos’a, will repre- sent the amount of light going through the nicols when rotation was stopped. But Cos’a,, represents the amount of light going through the nicols before the last rotation began. Therefore (Cos’a,—Cos’a,) will represent the amount of lght by which the initial stimulus (Cos’a,) was increased to produce a change in the sensation that was just perceptible. Observing again the amount of light now in the eye-piece (Cos’a,) and further rotating the polariser until as before another change of sensation was experienced we obtained the angle a. Since in this case Cos? a, represents the initial stimulus (Cos’a, —Cos’a,) will represent the increment of light necessary to produce a change of sensation that was just perceptible. In this way the light going through the nicols at the end of each observation was the light upon which each subsequent observation was made until full brightness was reached. That is: the intensity of light used for any observation is represented by Cos’a, and the increment added by (Cosa, , 1 — Cos? a) where n represents the number of obser- vations made from the crossing of the prisms. In this way several portions of the spectrum were examined. The radiation observed in each portion varied only in intensity and hence the sensibility to radi- ation of varying intensity was obtained. The reciprocal of (Cos’a, , , —Cos’a,), taken to represent sensibility, was plotted as a func- tion of the corresponding initial intensity, Cos? a. The re- sults are shown in Fig. 5. The radiation used in obtaining the different curves is indicated in the figure. The portions of the spectrum observed with the data obtained and the calculations made from them are given in tables VII, VIII, X, XII, XIII and XIV. Starting with the spectrum at maximum brightness and observ- ing the least perceptible decrease in intensity at each step till com- plete darkness was reached, data were obtained from which the curves indicated in Fig. 5 as “‘curves of decrements,” have been plotted. These data are to be found in Tables IX and XI. These curves seem to indicate that the increase in sensibility with decreasing intensity follows the law for decreasing sensibility with increasing intensity. Sec. III, 1913—15 234 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA ee HHH TREAT MR RSEIEnE He HRA Hatt naa att ERA Bet aati a He RR RE HEHEHE oe RE EE ae Hans af pa i oe Hh en ie ii FRA DE HE Figure 5 Tables of Data. In Tables VIL to XIV “a” indicates the angle between the planes of the nicols for each observation; ‘“Cos’æ” the intensity of the light upon which the observation was made. In Tables IX and XI ‘‘Least perceptible decrement” is the amount by which the intensity of the light “Cosa” was diminished in effecting a change in the sensation [NEELIN] THE SENSITIVENESS OF THE EYE TO LIGHT 235 that was just perceptible. In the other tables of this part “Least perceptible increment’’ is the amount by which the intensity of the light was increased in effecting a change of sensation that was just perceptible. ‘‘Sensibility”’ is the value of the reciprocal of the least perceptible increment, or decrement, as the case may be. LE Sensibility to small differences in Intensity. 1. Without further observation it may be shown from the data in Tables VII to XIV that the least perceptible increment or decre- ment measured as a fraction of the whole is approximately independent of intensity. It has already been shown (II) that, with any constant wave length, the intensity of the light used for any observation say, the nth, may be represented by Cos’a, and the least perceptible incre- ment by (Cos’a, , ;—Cos’a,). Let Cos?a — Cos’a ee =k or Cos’a, , , — Cos’a, =k Seri Fee There appears to be a difference of opinion as to whether the de- nominator here should be Cos’a, or Cos’a, ; ,. Substituting the proper values for a,, curves have been plotted as shown in Fig. 6. It was impossible in some cases to mark all points on the curve be- cause of their coming so close when the intensity was low and so repre- sentative points are shown. 2. Again, from the data given in Table XV it may be shown whether ‘‘the least perceptible increment measured as a fraction of the whole is approximately independent of the wave length (Kônig’s Law) at constant luminosity.” For since the data given in this table were obtained by making observations upon different portions of what was thought to be the equivalent of a spectrum of uniform luminosity, we may infer that while the wave length varied with each observation, the intensity of the light as observed in the eye--piece of the spectro- meter remained constant for all observations. Take for example, the data furnished by the third observation in the table referred to above. It is shown there that the amount of light going through the nicols at the beginning of the observation is represented by -1170, while the amount of light going through at the end of the observation is represented by -1849 showing that -0679 of the total intensity of the spectrum where the wave length equaled -4914, had to be added to 236 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA -1170 of total intensity to produce a change in the sensation that was just perceptible. This portion of light reduced to the intensity of the standard of brightness at the polariser was found to be represented BIER SERS ESSE essed fiat B38 SSSES S385 Sese8 85583 seuss \ SSS S853 3508 SETTER: INTENSITY by +58 as shown in the table, which gives us the least perceptible in- crement with an intensity at the polariser equal to the intensity of the standard. Now, as already stated, the intensity of the light under Figure 6 [NEELIN] THE SENSITIVENESS OF THE EYE TO LIGHT 237 observation is represented by -1170 of the total intensity of the spec- trum in portion observed. But this fraction of total intensity gives a luminosity in the eye-piece equal to the standard of brightness which in this paper is represented by unity, and all portions of the spectrum, as observed, were of equal brightness. Therefore, we may represent the luminosity of each of those portions by unity, and hence also their intensities as observed in the eye-piece by unity. Now Kônig’s Law stated mathematically is of the form Di/({+ Di) =k where Di represents the least perceptible increment and I a constant in- tensity in the source of light as first observed. Hence making the proper substitutions in the above formula from data in Table XV and plotting, Curve 2, Fig. 4 was obtained. Discussion of Results. In general, we may conclude that the experiments described in part I of this paper strongly support the view that, except in the case of spectra from light at very low intensity, the general character of the sensibility curve does not vary with varying intensity of the source. If, however, the spectrum is one of very low intensity the two pro- nounced maxima, one in the yellow and one in the green tend to diminish while the two slight maxima in the blue and red apparently maintain their prominence. When the spectrum is of uniform intensity in all parts these maxima appear either to disappear entirely, leaving a uniform curve parallel to the horizontal axis, or to become scarcely more than noticeable. Referring to Table XV it will be noticed that in the regions of w=-564 and w=-648 slight maxima still persist. I do not know whether these indications have a real physical signifi- cance or are due to inaccurate observations. I am inclined to adopt the latter reason for their appearance. This could only be settled absolutely by the work of several observers upon uniform spectra at different intensities. If, indeed, these maxima really exist in how- ever slight a degree, we are forced to conclude that Kénig’s Law as interpreted in this paper is not absolutely correct, for these maxima still persist as is shown under Di/(1+Di), Table XV. Conclusions reached regarding the steady fall in sensibility with increasing inten- sity, and the application of Fechner’s Law, are quite in accord with accepted results. I desire to acknowledge my indebtedness to the kindness and valuable advice of Professor Frank Allen, director of the Department of Physics, University of Manitoba, at whose suggestion the investi- gations described in this paper were undertaken; also to Dr. R. K. 238 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA McClung of the same department for valuable discussions and kind interest shown. The method employed is also due to Professor Allen. Department of Physics, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba. Notr.—A most comprehensive study conducted by Dr. H. E. Ives and several assistants, has lately appeared in a series of five papers (Phil. Mag., Vol. 24, 1912, pp. 149-188; 352-370; 744-751; 845-863) under the general title “Studies in the Photometry of Lights of Different Colors.” Because of the fact that the writing of the present paper was completed before the publication of Dr. Ives papers no reference has been made to them. I should like to point out however, that, though in obtaining the Luminosity Curve for the Spectrum, I was dependent upon other means to get a spectrum of uniform luminosity, the human eye when undisturbed by the presence of a second color is capable of distinguishing changes in luminosity to a very fine and uniform degree of sensitiveness as is shown by the smoothness of his luminosity curve. TABLE I. 2 Scale a Sin?a Cos? B Sensibility 4 Reading i -42u 34° 4 Ae 2 -1648 1: 6-04 -43 33 23 -1521 6-55 +4 33 ae 23 30 - 1584 6-31 -45 oo 25 -1780 5-64 -46 33 A 23 30 -1584 6-31 -47 31 su ail Sp -1339 7-44 -48 30 20 -1169 8-55 -49 29 30 19 30 -1108 9-17 +50 29 19 -1056 9-46 -51 28 30 18 30 - 1004 9-94 -52 29 19 - 1056 9-46 -53 29 ao 19 80 -1108 9-17 +54 30 20 -1169 8-55 -55 30 ao 20 80 -1225 8-16 - 56 31 21 -1281 7-8 -57 32 22 -1398 7:25 - 08 30 20 -1169 8-55 -59 29 19 -1056 9-46 -60 28 18 -0954 10-48 -61 27 30 17 30 -0900 11-11 -62 27 17 -0852 11-73 -63 26 16 -0756 13-33 - 64 27 a Ws -0852 11-73 -65 28 18 -0954 10-48 -66 30 20 -1169 8-55 -67 29 19 -1056 9-46 -68 30 $0 20 80 -1229 8-16 -69 31 21 -1281 7-80 -70 31 30 21 30 -1339 7-44 -71 32 22 +1398 7-25 -72 34 24 -1648 6-04 -73 38 28 -2199 4-54 [NEELIN] THE SENSITIVENESS OF THE EYE TO LIGHT 239 TABLE II. S : : 2a— Re À oe a Cos’a Cos? a . 8 Sensibility -43u AO 38° 30/ -611 -395 -216 4-6 - 44 50 41 - 568 -173 5-7 -45 50 41 - 568 -173 5-7 -46 49 40 - 586 -191 5-2 -47 AS eo 39) ew - 594 -199 5: -48 49 30 40 30 -577 -182 5-4 -49 SUR 41 30 -559 -164 6- -50 Hil Se 42 30 -543 -148 6-7 -51 Se 8 44 15 -512 -117 8-5 -52 54 30 45 30 -490 -095 10-5 - 53 56 10 47 10 -461 - 066 15-1 + 54 DO 47 30 -455 - 060 16-6 -55 55 46 -481 -086 11-6 56 47 -465 -070 14-2 -56 57 48 -447 -052 19-2 -57 y 48 15 -442 -047 21-2 - 58 DO 48 30 -438 -043 23-2 -59 ay ake 48 50 +432 -037 27- -60 Ry ae 4S) 55 -431 -036 27-7 -61 yeh a 49 10 -426 -031 32-2 -62 RS ae AQy 20 -423 -028 35-7 -63 ne EM ASS -438 -033 30-3 -64 aye 48 -447 -052 19-2 -65 56 47 -465 -070 14-2 -66 56 47 -465 -070 14-2 -67 56 47 -465 -070 14-2 -68 54 45 -499 -104 9-6 -69 52 43 - 534 -139 7-1 TABLE III. 2 a = ones E Costa Cos? Fe: Sensibility -A2u TO 102 -1169 225 -1331 7-5 -43 69 69 -1281 -1219 8-2 - 44 69 30 69 30 -1225 -1275 7-8 -45 70 70 -1169 -1331 LOGS -46 71010 70 3° -1108 -1392 7-1 -47 F0) 2e TO -1149 -1351 7-4 -48 68 15 68% -1369 -1131 8-8 -49 (G7 Se 67 3° +1459 -1041 9-6 -50 66 66 -1648 -0852 11-76 -51 65 65 -1780 -0720 13-8 - 52 65 65 -1780 -0720 13-8 -53 66 3° 66 3° -1584 -0916 10-9 - 54 Gi Gite -1489 -1011 9-89 -55 67 67 -1521 -0979 10-21 - 56 66 66 -1648 -0852 11-73 -57 65 65 -1780 -0720 13-88 240 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA TABLE III.—Continued. | ; S > 20a — te À re a Cos?a Cos? a ie 2B | Sensibility | 58 64 64 -1918 -0582 17-18 - 59 Cane CHE -1989 -0511 19-56 -60 63 63 -2052 -0448 22-32 -61 62522 6245 -2088 -0412 24-27 -62 622 62 15 -2162 -0338 29-58 -63 62) = (74 -2190 -0310 32-25 -64 Glee (OIL 22 -2227 -0273 36-63 -65 62) 50 62728 -2079 -0421 23-75 -66 64 64 -1918 -0582 17-18 -67 64 # 64 % -1840 -0660 15-15 -68 64 64 -1918 -0582 17-18 -69 65 65 -1780 -0720 13-88 -70 67 67 -1521 -0979 10-21 ay fal 69 69 -1281 +1219 8-2 -72 71 71 -1056 -1444 6-9 TABLE IV. à 2a— Etre À Reading a Cos?a Cos?B ce 8 Sensibility -45 SIC rh QE re -097 -060 -037 27 -46 82 (ey ES -087 -027 ot -47 Slee HAE -089 -029 34-4 -48 Sl) 72 -095 -035 28-5 -49 sl 4 7230 -090 -030 33-3 -50 82 Ul Pde 3 -087 -027 37: -51 Fe PEN PA 82 -086 -026 38- +52 rey a 73 -085 -025 40: - 53 CPL los - 084 -024 41-6 - 54 CP) fie -083 -023 43-4 -55 82 30 13 15 -082 -022 44-9 -56 SAR TS -081 -021 47-6 -57 CPE ase -080 -020 50: -58 $27 50 73 3 -079 -019 52-6 -59 82 4° Ue -081 -021 47-6 -60 RIT oo -083 -023 43-4 -61 SARL fer 2 -081 -021 47-6 -62 82) 50 Tay ee -079 -019 52-6 -63 83 73 4 -077 -017 58-8 -64 By ale 74 5 -075 -015 66-6 -65 83 la 2 -077 -017 58-8 -66' | 82 * 73 30 -080 -020 50- -67 82 50 fe * -079 -019 52-6 -68 83 73 -077 -017 58-8 -69 82 foe 45 - O87 -027 37 -70 Si a5 (Oy ee -092 -032 1-2 [NEELIN] THE SENSITIVENESS OF THE EYE TO LIGHT 241 TABLE V. 2, — . ey a ae a a Cos?a Cos?8 es 8 Sensibility 45u SO do 7 -052 025 027 aif 46 SOLS Oe -046 021 47 47 87 UG -044 019 52 48 Some Ul = -048 023 43 49 87 Tan E -044 019 52 50 Siamese 78 -043 018 55 51 Te Us a -042 017 58 52 À as -041 016 62 53 Et fer ee -040 015 66 54 SH Te ae -038 013 76 55 88 de 2 -038 012 83 56 kr Thy -036 O11 90 57 88 Ths) A -037 O11 90 58 88 (ie -038 012 83 59 Un CE Fe) 0 -038 013 76 60 ER) © Te Mat -037 O11 91 61 88 % 79 -036 010 100 62 88 * a) BY -035 009 111 63 88 3° TQ) 2 -034 008 125 64 So Ta @ -136 O11 91 65 Same HS -038 012 83 66 Sy They 9 -041 016 62 67 En da -044 019 52 68 En 2 CSS -042 017 58 69 88 de -038 013 76 70 87 % | 78 16 .041 016 62 71 83 73 # .077 052 19 TABLE VI. À se : a Cos’a Cos?8 | Cos’a— Cos? | Sensibility o LA Oo / 45 93 ea -0116 0054 0062 16-1 46 GE) 84 30 -0090 0036 PHOT 47 Ome 84 15 -0100 0046 21-7 48 93 Some -0116 0062 16-1 49 vey ee 84 -0108 0054 18.5 50 GE, 20 84 5 .0106 0052 19-2 51 GE) © 84 15 -0100 0046 21-7 52 GE © 84 20 -0096 0042 23-8 53 LE 4 San -0094 0040 25). 54 JE oe 84 3° -0090 0036 27-7 55 GE Gb 84 55 -0088 0034 29-4 56 OB} ke 84 ‘4° -0084 0030 33-3 57 By 84 55 -0088 0034 29-4 58 Ry 22 |) eRe ay -0090 0036 27-7 59 WB) ab 84 3% -0088 0034 29-4 60 Gey te 84 ‘0 -0084 0030 33-3 61 94 84 ‘#5 -0082 0028 39-7 62 94 5 S45 25° -0081 0027 37-0 63 94 10 84 55 -0077 0023 43-4 64 94 84 * -0082 0028 35-7 65 BE 84 *% -0094 0040 25- 66 LE C0 84 1 -0100 0045 21:7 67 By 84 -0108 0054 18-5 68 WB) © 84 30 -0090 0036 27-7 69 92 Sey -0158 0104 9-6 70 89 78) 2 -0313 0259 3-8 242 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA TABLE VII. Least perceptible increment as observed upon light of varying intensity and of wave length—=-42u. Scale = Least percep’ble ey iae Reading 4 Coste Increment Sensibility ° /, Oo / 99 90 -0210 47 90 ty 81 30 -0210 -0121 82 88 30 79 30 -0331 -0249 40 85 ACTE -0580 -0374 26 81 72 -0954 -0567 UZ 76 67 -1521 -1131 8 68 59 -2652 -1823 5 57 48 -4475 -2716 3 41 32 -7191 -2809 5 9 0 1-0000 TABLE VIII. Least perceptible increment as observed upon light of varying intensity and of wave length—45y. Scale : Least percep’ble Fe Reading 3 Coste Themen Sensibility o / o / 99 90 0 -0004 2500 97 ap 88 ‘5 0004 -0008 1250 97 88 0012 0013 769 96 ¥ 87 : 0025 0029 344 94 ao 85 a5 0054 0055 181 93 84 0109 0122 81-9 90 2 81 oS 0231 0166 60-2 87 40 78 a 0397 0188 53-1 85 76 0585 0260 38-4 82 p 73 ~ 0845 0324 30-8 79 70 1169 0369 27 75 ce 66 Ns 1538 0364 27 73 . 64 = 1902 0448 22.3 70 61 2350 0457 21-8 67 58 2807 0983 10-1 61 52 -3790 +1559 6-4 52 “5 43 - 5349 -2150 4-6 39 30 7499 2391 4-1 [NEELIN] THE SENSITIVENESS OF THE EYE TO LIGHT 243 TABLE IX. Least perceptible decrement as observed upon light of varying intensity and of wave length—-45y Seale i Least percep’bl are Reading os Cos‘ Dee, F Sensibility oO 7 O° LA 0 0 1- -1530 23 23 -8470 - 2603 3-8 40 40 - 5867 -1992 5: 51 80 Fil 30 -3875 -1562 6-4 RG 15 61 ue -2313 -1144 8-5 70 70 -1169 -0663 15: A A -0506 -0313 31- 82 82 -0193 -0117 85: 85 85 -0076 -0043 232. 86 =o 86 oe -0033 -0011 909: 87 18 87 a5 - 0022 -0007 1428. 87 45 87 ce -0015 -0005 2000: 88 10 88 10 -0010 -0005 2000: 88 40 88 40 -0005 -0003 3333- a 10 de 10 . ee -0002 5000- TABLE X. Least perceptible increment as observed upon light of varying intensity and of wave length—.52 y. Scale Reading a Case Least percep’ble nt Sensibility o / O / 90 90 0 -0001 10000 89 ue 89 ee 0001 0003 3333 89 89 0004 0004 2500 88 at 88 qu 0008 0004 2500 88 88 0012 0008 1250 87 Bo 87 a8 0020 0008 1250 87 87 0028 0010 1000 86 sa 86 ce 0038 0010 1000 86 86 0048 0013 769 85 ao 85 qu 0061 0015 666 85 85 0076 0016 625 84 aS 84 SE 0092 0022 454 83 ~ 83 + 0114 0036 277 83 83 0150 0069 145 81 a6 81 ae 0219 0054 185 80 ao 80 60 -0273 0123 81 78 ty 78 $0 0396 0085 117. UT 15 77 15 0481 0169 59 75 2 75 oy 0650 0125 80 73 2 73 be 0775 0233 42 fat du 71 ele 1008 0237 42 69 69 i 1245 0282 36 67 67 1527 0327 30 64 ap 64 ze 1854 0300 33 62 ae 62 5 2154 0347 28 60 60 2501 0790 12-6 55 55 3291 0842 11-9 50 50 4133 0955 10-4 44 a0 A4 80 - 5088 -1457 6-8 36 36 -6545 -1796 5-6 24 24 8341 -1358 7-3 244 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA TABLE XI. Least perceptible decrement as observed upon light of varying intensity and of wave length =-52v. Scale Reading a Cosa Lee pete epable Sensibility Le) / o / 39 29 -763 -160 6-25 49 39 -603 -122 8-2 56 46 -481 -112 8-9 62 du 52 Bu -369 ‘O74 13-5 67 57 +295 -053 18-8 70 op 60 32 -242 -043 23-2 73 gi 63 PR -198 -038 26-3 76 22 66 2 -160 -026 38-4 78 ok 68 ot -134 -018 55-5 80 . 70 -116 -021 47-6 82 12 -095 -015 66-6 83 he 73 $0 -080 -013 76-9 84 me 74 = -067 -010 100 86 . 76 5 -057 -015 66-6 88 78 -042 -012 83-3 89 Be 79 2B -030 -007 142-8 91 us 81 5 -023 -008 125: 92 82 = -015 -003 333: 93 ep 83 50 -012 -002 500: 94 Me 84 20 -010 -004 225- 95 x 85 $0 -006 -003 333” 96 By 86 zn -003 -001 1000- 97 a5 87 ae -002 TABLE XII. Least perceptible increment as observed upon light of varying intensity and of wave length —:57u. Scale Reading a Cosa Least Foi gue Sensibility o / o / 90 90 97 x 88 an -0004 97 ae 88 a8 -0007 - 0004 2500- 97 3 88 = -0011 -0006 1666 -6 96 i 87 35 -0017 -0008 1250: 96 87 L -0025 -0011 909 95 e 86 -* -0036 -0012 833 95 86 -0048 -0015 714 94 = 85 26 -0063 -0017 588 93 2 84 a -0080 -0020 526 93 34 84 as -0100 -0032 312 92 = 83 = -0132 -0037 270 91 aD 82 80 -0169 -0047 213 90 = 81 ae -0216 -0056 178 89 s 80 30 -0272 -0070 142 88 bs 78 aD -0342 -0082 122 87 . 78 6 +0424 -0091 109 85 Le 76 ae | +0515 -0110 90 [NEELIN] THE SENSITIVENESS OF THE EYE TO LIGHT Scale Reading 84 $f 75 83 & 74 81 7 72 79 SE 70 78 15 69 76 20 67 74 15 65 72 63 69 5 60 66 so 57 63 45 59 te 50 55 48 46 50 ou 41 43 34 33 24 1lÿ so 8 TALBE XII.—Continued. Least perceptible increment as observed upon light of varying intensity and of wave length =-57y. 30 Cos?a -0625 -0750 -0900 - 1062 -1256 - 1482 -1747 - 2052 -2410 - 2830 -3329 - 3994 -4692 -5595 -6872 -8335 -9781 TABLE XIII. 245 Least percep’ble Increment -0125 -0150 -0162 -0191 -0229 -0265 -0305 -0358 -0420 -0499 -0665 -0698 -0903 -1277 - 1463 - 1446 Sensibility © ND O0 © I I O ~] © Co O0 w Least perceptible increment as observed upon light of varying intensity and of wave length —-63x. Scale Reading Least Percep’ble Increment Sensibility a nw 45 246 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA TABLE XIV. Least perceptible increment as observed upon light of varying intensity and of wave length—=- 69. Seale Reading a Cos?a po ble Sensibility o “à ° L 99 90 0 -0169 59:1 91 i 82 ae 0169 -0130 76-9 89 80 0299 -0225 44-4 85 5 76 2 0524 0376 26-5 81 ae 72 oY 0900 0439 22-7 77 Be 68 20 1339 0579 17-2 73 64 1918 0652 15-3 68 Jt 59 st -2570 0794 12-5 63 ze 54 eo -3364 ata 9 57 48 -4475 1392 7-2 48 40 5867 1771 5-6 38 29 7638 1848 5-4 247 THE SENSITIVENESS OF THE EYE TO LIGHT [NEELIN] LSE GG°G 6€: &6'I 68° 9¢-T GT: GGT 6€: 9S-T 98- CL 68° $91 OF: LV'T OF: LAIT 9° CLT GP° Ge°T Sy: OG:'T 9€: GL-I 9€: CLAT 06: 66°G Ce: 9¢° Ia+I Id Aqyiqisueg eee M m1 NN © 10 © © © © 1 00 OÙ 1 O 19 © © © Ayisourwunry VSG" [629° 9Z9T: FGCE: &GS0: 9T80: I0€0: P9EO: 0200: 6010- 800: 8F00: GTOO: &G00- TTO0: 9T00- TTIO0: 9T00- 6100° £€00: 6600: 6200: LLAUE 8FIO: I0€0: Gago” 6290: OLTT- 6680: 0906: &GS8T: TT29> JUOWOIDUT dS09 o[,d99194 4svarT “AX A'T4VL of ST aT (08 er i 5 LR CA à Srcrion III, 1913. [249] Trans. R.S.C. Proofs of Certain Theorems Relating to Adjoint Orders of Coincidence. By Pror. JuCsFirips; RSS: (Read May 28th, 1913.) In the present paper the method of the deformation of a product is employed to prove certain elementary theorems relating to orders of c_incidence. When one considers the left-hand side of the funda- mental equation as represented in formula (2) and when one remem- bers that any rational function of (z, #) can be written uniquely in the form (4) it is not unnatural to attempt to co-ordinate factors in the products (2) and (4) with reference to the orders of coincidence of the latter product and this immediately suggests the method of the deformation of a product. As here employed the method appears to better advantage than in the writer’s book! on the algebraic functions where it was first made use of, so that on this account and because of the possibility that the method may still have its uses in other connections it is perhaps worth while to give the proofs which follow, although other and probably preferable methods of proof of the theorems here in question have been furnished elsewhere? by the writer. et (ya) =u" fit it... +f,=0 be an algebraic equation, reducible or irreducible. The degree in (z, u) of f(z, u) we shall indicate by N. We can write Chas(su)= (4 Pr eu PZ) where P,,...,P, are n distinct series in powers of z—a (or 1/2) with exponents integral or fractional. A finite number of these exponents may happen to be negative. Any rational function of (z, #) can be written in the reduced form (3) HS) here Re CRU, where the coefficients h,-1, ...,, are rational functions of z. Adding f(z, u) to the reduced form here in question, we can write identically (4) f(z,u)+H(z, u)=(u—Q,) . . . (u—Qn) where Q:,...,Q, are series in powers of z—a (or 1/2) with exponents integral or fractional. A given rational function of (z, #) will have a certain set of orders of coincidence with the #7 branches u—P,=0,...,u—P, =0. The orders of coincidence of the function 1Theory of the Algebraic Functions of a Complex Variable. Mayer & Miiller, Berlin, 1906. 2A method of proving certain theorems relating to adjointness. Proc. London Math. Soc., Ser. 2, Vol. 11, pp. 127-132. On the Foundations of the Theory of Algebraic Functions of one Variable Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., 1912. Sec. III, 1913—16 250 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA (5) fu (z, 2%) =) (u—P;) ... (u—Pe-1)(u— P41)... (u—P,) t=1 with the 2 branches we shall indicate by the symbols wi,..., Un respectively. Evidently y, is also the order of coincidence of the product (6) (u—P;) 2... (u—Pr-1) (u—Pru) ... (u—P,) with the branch # — P; = 0. The x branches group themselves into a number 7 of cycles, whose orders we shall indicate by the symbols mn, ..., respectively. The orders of coincidence of a rational function with the branches of a cycle will all be the same. The orders of coincidence of the function fz (z, u) with the branches of the r cycles we shall indicate by the symbols ju, ..., « respectively. These numbers, with repetitions it may be, will then in some order coincide with the ~ numbers w:,...,u,. Orders of coincidence with the branches of the several cycles which do not fall short of the numbers (7) Fee PES OMA cman ae es Vi Vy, respectively, we designate as adjoint orders of coincidence. If the orders of coincidence of a function with the branches of the several cycles corresponding to a given value of the variable z are adjoint, we say that the function is adjoint for the value of the variable in question. To say that a rational function of (z, w) is adjoint for a value of the variable z, is evidently equivalent to saying that its orders of coincidence with the branches of the several cycles are greater than the numbers w—1,...,u, —1 respectively. This also amounts to saying that the orders of coincidence of the rational function with the # branches u—P,=0,...,u—P, =0 are greater than the numbers fi—1l,..., px —1 respectively. We shall now consider a rational function which is adjoint for a value z=a (or z=). Representing the function in the form (4), we may suppose that we have assigned the suffixes of the P’s, so that the branch 1 — P, =0 has at least as high an order of coincidence with the factor w—Q, as has any of the other #—1 branches, so that u—P,-1=0 has at least as high an order of coincidence with the factor u—Qn-1 as has any of the n—2 branches u—P,=0,..., u—Pn-2=0, and in general so that the branch u—P; = 0 has at least as high an order of coincidence with the factor ~—Q; as has any of the ¢—1 branches u—P,=0, ..., w—P+-1=0. Choosing our notation then in the manner just indicated, each factor #—Q, in the product on the right-hand side of (4) is coordinated with a corresponding branch u—P; =0. In the product in question we now successively replace the factors ~—Q,, u—Qn-1, ..., #—Q:41 by the factors u—P,, u—P,-1,..., U—Pr4;. At no step in the process do we diminish the crder of coincidence of the product with any one of the # branches. The orders of coincidence of the product (8) (uw—Q;)...(u—Q: ) (t— Pros)... (u—Pra) [FIELDS] ADJOINT ORDERS OF COINCIDENCE 251 with the # branches u—P,=0, ..., u«—P, =0 are therefore greater than the numbers u1—1,...,u, —1 respectively. We shall now rearrange the series P:,..., P:, indicating the new arrangement by the notation Px,, Px,, ..., Px,. The notation is here so chosen that each of the ¢ branches w—P,,=0 has with the corresponding factor # —Q; in the product (8), an order of coincidence which is at least as high as the order of coincidence of any of the t--z branches u—Px,,,=0,...,%u—Px, =0 with this factor. We further- more replace successively in the product (8) the factors w—Q,,..., Z— Oe DY ERO actors a Fe, Ue. At no step. imthe process do we diminish the order of coincidence of the product with any of the # branches. The orders of coincidence of the product HART ES ENTER O0) NOTES) ee 2) with the # branches 4—P;=0,...,u—P, =0 are therefore greater than the numbers w1—1, ..., u, —1 respectively. In particular, the order of coincidence of the product (9) with the branch u—P,x,=0 is greater than 4, —1, and therefore the order of coincidence of the factor #—Q, with this branch must be greater than —1. The order of coincidence of the factor # —Q, with the branch x — P; =0 was however, as we saw, at least equal to its order of coincidence with any of the branches u—P,=0,...,u—P;_,;=0 and therefore not less than its order of coincidence with the branch u—P,,=0. The order of coincidence of the factor u—(Q¢ with the branch w—P; =0 must then be greater than —i. We can consequently write Q; =P; +(z—a)™ S;, or Q; =P; +(1/z)%.S; where ais > —1,and where S;is a series in powers of s—a or 1/z none of whose exponents is negative. The argument holds where ¢ has any one of the m values 1,...,n. The identity (4) therefore takes the form (10) f(z, uw) +H(z, u) ={u—P,—(z—a)"S,} ... {u—P,—(2—a)%5,} Or ¢€ (10a) f(z,u)+H(z,u) ={u—P,—(1/z)"S,} ... {u—P,—(1/z) %S,, } in the case where H(z, u) has orders of coincidence with the # branches u—P,=0,...,u—P,=0, which are greater than the correspond ng numbers #i—1,...,u,—1 respectively — the exponents a; being> —1, and the series S; involving no terms with negative exponents. On effecting the multiplications indicated on the right-hand side of the identities (10) and (10a), the products can evidently be written in the forms (11) (u—P;1)...(u—P,)+(2—-a) G(z—a, u) and = (lla) (u—P1)...(u—P,)+(1/2) G(1/2, wv) where the exponent a is > —1, and where in G(z—a,u) and G(1/z, u) the coefficients of u”—! are integral relatively to the element z—a and 252 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA e element 1/z respectively. Bearing in mind the identity (2), we then derive from (10) and (10a) the identities (12) H(z, uw) =(s—a)*G(z—a, u) and (12a) H(z,u)= (1/2) GO /z, 2). The lowest exponent in the coefficient of u*~! in the reduced form H(z, u) must then be > —1, if the orders of coincidence of the func- tion for the value z=a (or z=) are severally greater than the corre- sponding numbers wi—l, ..., u, —1. The coefficient in question however being rational, its lowest exponent cannot be fractional and must therefore be>0. In the reduced form of a rational function which is adjoint for the value z=a (or 2= ), it follows that the coefficient of u*-! must be integral with regard to the element z—a (or 1/2). If the equation (1) is integral relatively to the element z—a, the series P;, ..., P, corresponding to the value z=a are also integral relatively to this element. In this case, representing in the form (4) a rational function of (z, 4), which is not only adjoint for the value z=a, but whose orders of coincidence with the # branches u—P,=0, .,u4—P,=0 are greater than the numbers y, . . . , u, respectively, we successively deform the product on the right-hand side of (4) into the products (8) and (9) precisely as before. As before, the order of coincidence of the product (9) with the branch u—Px, =0 will be at least as great as the order of coincidence of the product (4) with this branch, and must therefore in this case be > BK, It follows that the order of coincidence of the factor #—Q, with the branch in question must. be>0. As before however, the order of coincidence of the factor # —Q, with the branch u—P; =0 is at least as great as its order of coincidence with the branch u—P, =0, and must therefore be >0. We can then write Q; =P; +(z—a)%S; where a is >0 and where S; is a series in powers of z—a none of whose exponents is negative. The identity (4) will then take the form (10) the exponents a; in the case here in question being all>0. Effecting the multiplications indicated on the right-hand side of the identity (10), it is clear that all terms in the result which are not divisible by a positive power of s—a are included under the product (u—P;)...(u—P,). On subtracting this product from the right- hand side of the identity and f(z, #) from the left-hand side, we see that the reduced form H(z, u) on the left-hand side is identical with an aggregate of terms on the right-hand side, each one of which is divisible by a positive power of z—a. The reduced form H(z, u) of a rational function is then divisible by a positive power of z—a, and therefore by the factor z—a, if the orders of coincidence of the func- tion with the # branches v—P,=0,..., uw—P, =0 are greater than the numbers y, ..., wx respectively. The product of s—a and the reduced form of a rational function which is adjoint for the value z=a, will have orders of coincidence with the 7 branches which are greater than the numbers y:1,...,u, respectively, and must therefore [FIELDS] ADJOINT ORDERS OF COINCIDENCE 253 be divisible by z—a. It follows that the reduced form of a rational function which is adjoint for the value z=a, must be integral with regard to the element z—a in the case where the equation (1) is in- tegral with regard to this element. In like manner a rational function which is adjoint for the value 3=< must, in its reduced form, be integral with regard to the element 1/z, if the equation (1) is integral with regard to this element. Whether the equation (1) is integral relatively to the element Z—a or not, a rational function of (z, u) in its reduced form will be divisible by the factor z—a, if the orders of coincidence of the function with the z branches corresponding to the value z=a are simultane- ously sufficiently great. If namely all 2 orders of coincidence are indefinitely great and if the function is represented in the form (4), each of the # branches # — P=0 must have an indefinitely high order of coincidence with some one of the factors ~—Q, and with one only, since two of the branches cannot simultaneously have indefinitely high orders of coincidence with the same factor. It immediately follows, that the product on the right-hand side of the identity (4) can be written in the form which appears on the right-hand side of the identity (10), the exponents a, which appear in this latter form, being at the same time all indefinitely great. Subtracting from the right-hand side of the latter identity the product (4 —P:)...,(u—P,), and from the left-hand side the function f(z, w), we see that the reduced form H(z, u) is divisible by an indefinitely high power of z—a. It follows that a rational function whose orders of coincidence for the value z=a are simultaneously sufficiently great, will in its reduced form be divisible by the factor z—a. From the identity (10a), we can readily see that the degree of the reduced form H(z, u) of a rational function must be —1. Each factor u—P; — (1/z)%4S,, on the right-hand side of the identity, consists of the sum of two elements u—P; and—(1/z)%S,. The former element is evi- dently of degree = 1 in (z, ), the latter element of degree <1 in 3 and therefore of degree less than that of the former element. On effecting the multiplications on the right-hand side of the identity and sub- tracting the product (4—P;) ...(u—P,) from the result, we evi- dently remove the terms of highest degree from the total. The pro- duct just referred to however has for its degree N—the degree of the function f(z, u)—as we see from the identity (2). On subtracting the product (u—Pi)...(u—P,) from the right-hand side of the identity (10a), the degree of the remainder must then be < N. This remainder is however identical with the reduced form H(z, u) which appears on the left-hand side of the identity. The degree of the reduced form H(z, «) must therefore be(OH),.5EÆL0, where Ca,: Fe? = 2 : 3. The mineral fuses readily, with intumescence, giving off white fumes of arsenious oxide and leaving a black magnetic globule. In the closed tube small fragments decrepitate violently and fly to pieces; water is first given off and at a higher temperature white arsenious oxide is deposited on the sides of the tube; when mixed with charcoal a black arsenical mirror is obtained instead. The only well defined arsenates of iron and calcium at present known are arsemosiderite, 2Ca,As,0,.Fe% As,0,.3Fe% (OH), and mazapilite, Ca,As,Og. FeAs,O,.Fe™,0,(OH),. The mineral described here can not be referred to either of these as regards its chemical composition, and it is further quite distinct from them in its physical characters. Neglecting the water of hydration, the com- 18 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA position is in a way comparable with that of arseniosiderite, the ratio of the total arsenate molecules to the ferric hydroxide being in each case 1:1. In the case of arseniosiderite, the ratio calciwm arsenate : ferric arsenate as usually given in the text-books is 2 : 1. Published analyses however fail to support this, but show that the percentage of lime pre- sent is never high enough to conform to this theoretical ratio, the cal- cium and iron present in the form of arsenate, as actually found, being more nearly in the proportion Ca,: Fe} = 1 : 1, or even approaching 1:2. It would thus seem more in keeping with the facts to refer arseniosiderite to the general formula (Ca,,Fe%") As,O,.Fe(OH),. The Yukon mineral may then be expressed by the same general formula, with the addition of five molecules of water, and for such hydrous arsenates of iron and calcium the name Yukonite is proposed, in allusion to the locality in which the mineral now described is found. It may be remarked that some pitticite (a hydrated ferric arsenate and sulphate of doubtful composition) closely resembles this mineral in colour, lustre and other physical characters. The soft yellow ochreous material in which the mineral is embedded was not analysed quantitatively, but it contains the same constituents and has possibly been largely derived from its alteration; except for the fact that it is not fibrous, it might well be arseniosiderite. There is in addition a small amount of an apple or bluish-green mineral which occurs as minute rosettes of radiated fibres within the yellow substance, and also often forms a thin coating or film between the latter and the mineral described above. This could not be obtained in sufficient quantity for an analysis, but a qualitative test indicates that it is an arsenate. As seen under the microscope, the needles are strongly pleochroic, greenish-yellow for light vibrating along their length and bluish-green for transverse vibrations; between crossed nicols they usually show inclined extinction at angles up to 40°, and compensation takes place when the quartz wedge is inserted across their length. In all these characters, as well as in its general appearance and occurrence as fine radiated fibres, this mineral resembles symplesite (Fe”,As,O,. 8H,O) and there can be no doubt that it is to be referred to this species. So far as the writer is aware, the occurrence of symplesite in North America has not been hitherto recorded. Mineralogical Laboratory, McGill University, Montreal. Note on the Occurrence of Scorodite, etc., at Cobalt, Northern Ontario, Canada. By R.-P. D. GRAHAM. A substance which resembles yukonite very closely in general appearance has recently been found by Mr. J. B. Tyrrell at Cobalt, Northern Ontario (Vein 49 of the Nipissing Mine). This material has a coffee-brown colour, paler than yukonite, and is occasionally banded in different shades; like yukonite, also, it is amorphous, breaking with a conchoidal tracture, and the lustre is vitre- ous: fo: resinous. MH =,3 — 4; Sp. “G.. =.2:83. Together with a paler yellow ochreous substance, it encrusts mas- sive nickeliferous smaltite (or chloanthite), and there are also associated with it erythrite and on one of the specimens, a few minute crystals of scorodite. The erythrite, in the form of small botryoidal masses composed of radiated needles, is often seen forming a coating over the amorphous brown substance, and has probably been derived from its alteration. The association with erythrite is interesting in view of the fact that yukonite is accompanied by symplesite (which is isomorphous with erythrite, containing iron in place of cobalt); and it was thought pos- sible that the substance from Cobalt might be a Co-Ni compound an- alagous to yukonite, since the two materials are so much alike physi- cally, and give rise to such nearly related decomposition products. A preliminary examination showed that it is easily soluble in hydrochloric acid, and that it contains As, Fe, Co and Ni, but no Ca; there was no reaction for a sulphate or phosphate. When heated in a small blowpipe flame, it is easily fusible to a strongly magnetic mass, and in the closed tube it yields much acid water and a white deposit of arsenious oxide, the reaction taking place more readily when the sub- stance has been previously mixed with charcoal powder. In the analysis, the arsenic was precipitated as tri-sulphide from the reduced solution, dissolved and converted to magnesium pyro- arsenate. The cobalt and nickel, after removal of the iron, were de- posited electrolytically from an ammoniacal solution of their sulphates, and after the deposit had been weighed and dissolved, the cobalt was separated by precipitation with potassium nitrite, and both it and the nickel were then determined by precipitation with potash and bromine water. Owing to the small amount of material available, only one 20 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA analysis, on 0-3392 grms., was made, and the water was estimated by difference. Found. Calculated. HELD Chaser ee ee ee: See: Par Meee 21-55 N10::: RMC MC MERE CI s 1 RENE MAC ARE À 8 +94 Cour EP RON RER HN fla ea enters e 4.49 ‘AsO NE OS ALADOE en EURE 41-31 HO (CB yeti moran DR OD ai Pe ey ae 23-71 The figures obtained do not lead to any very simple formula, but agree in a general way with those calculated for R’,(AsO,),.8H,O; this is the general formula for erythrite (R’’ = Co, Ni, Fe) and also for forbesite (R’’ = Ni, Co, H,), the former being a normal arsenate, and the latter an acid salt, which is described as a substance of greyish- white colour and dull to silky or resinous lustre (Dana, 6th Ed. p. 834). The figures given in the second column above have been calculated for an acid arsenate of general composition R’’,(AsO,),.7H,O, where R” is represented by (H,, 5Fe, 2Ni, Co) in the proportions here given. This as nearly as possible represents the result of the analysis of the material, though there is no special reason for believing it to be an acid salt, related to forbesite, rather than a normal hydrous salt. The substance is mainly of interest as an unusual oxidation product of smal- tite, and also from its physical resemblance to yukonite. The associated scorodite isin the form of almost microscopie crys- tals not more than 0-2 m.m. in diameter; they were identified by measurement on the goniometer and by a determination of the specific gravity. This mineral has not been hitherto recorded from Canada. The crystals are pale yellowish, transparent, with a very high lustre; in habit they are prismatic, terminated by pyramid faces, the only forms present being d 4 120 } and p { 111 } a common combina- tion with scorodite. The angles as measured are not identical with those usually given for scorodite, as the following axial ratios will show: 4 b c rose eeorodite 2.77 0-8658 : 1 : 0-9541 3-1—3-3 Crystals from Cobalt OSST85 Sl © 1+0555 3°235 Of these, the ratio a : b is probably about correct for the crystals, since the prism angle can be measured with fair accuracy and was observed on four crystals. The length of the vertical axis, c, is more doubtful, owing to the extremely small size of the pyramid faces. It is possible that in these crystals, the iron may be in part replaced by cobalt, and this might account for the fact that the interfacial [GRAHAM] YUKONITE Dil angles are not identical with those of normal scorodite. Kobalt-scorodite is reported by Lippmann as occurring at Schneeberg in bluish crystals which were not analysed (Dana, 6th Ed. p. 822). A borax bead test seemed to confirm the presence of cobalt in the crystals from Cobalt; but owing to the small amount of material used, and bearing in mind the fact that the associated minerals are all highly cobaltiferous, the result is considered doubtful. The specific gravity was found to be 3-235, using methylene iodide and the Westphal balance. The prism angle being nearly 60°, a rough measurement of the re- fractive index by the M.D. method was made, and gave a mean index of 1-76, with strong dispersion. There are apparently no published determinations of the refractive index of scorodite with which to com- pare this result. The writer is indebted to Mr. J. B. Tyrrell for supplying the material described in the above note. Note.—Since the above was written, Mr. Tyrrell has obtained some additional material from Cobalt, and the writer hopes to be able shortly to publish a fuller description of the brown amorphous substance described here. Mineralogical Laboratory, McGill University, Montreal. i site A AAP aie ail gti - ir ibes hie 2 ms if | Hi? | ARRET 7 UE lth; Beet] ir Lal a RS = Tie à ad ee std iv ib fth> et Pati '\? oon ri LT lu py CARTE QU, a at yeah 71 ial TU D, i ae plu! tt ' } IL Al i wl Min Ae eee it. Nae RS ae CEE, UT té aa ty | Lua Aveo ae een iv dst Ou erie TENT ; he AT RABAT EEE 20 MONT 2: a liad thread" niga rie Qe | AN CAE ET | | LUTTER JAPON as bh Sang tha) i ON LE 227 ; 2 té alee à et ot dite delle. LIRE | ‘ a if Ue? tr y 7 nee ni È NAT LT + ; "| SRE vue nn : a ; - r te | Ar a pha! i - ie © _— 3 | v pro nn. = p> , TL: 7 | =A 7 SR. AD nn 0 PE, wes or ae lp eau iiGede ate Ra ai Ve DATI pareil Fit 7 dl + ‘ _ Es . ete SECTION TV., 1913. » [23] Trans. R.S.C. Some Further Observations on the Life Histories of the Pacific Coast Salmon as Revealed by their Scale Markings. By J. Puayrarr McMurricg, M.A., Px.D., LL.D. (Read May 28, 1913) At the last meeting of the Royal Society of Canada I presented an account of* observations upon the scale markings of the various species of Oncorhynchus occurring upon the Pacific Coast, and pointed out the conclusions as to the life cycles of these fish that were to be deduced from the markings. During the summer of 1912, while acting as Director of the Biological Station at Departure Bay, B.C., I was able to obtain additional material for the confirmation and ex- tension of my earlier observations, and for the opportunity for so doing I am especially indebted to the courtesy of Rear-Admiral Kingsmill and Captain Holmes Newcomb and to the managers of the various canneries that I was able to visit. In my former paper I showed that the scale markings of the various species of Oncorhynchus indicate that the members of this genus may be divided into two groups, according to the typical lengths of their life-cycles. Thus the markings indicate that the Spring Salmon (0. tschawytscha), the Sockeye (O. nerka), and the Dog Salmon (O. keta) have a typical four year life-cycle, a few individuals of at least the first two species, however, becoming precociously mature and returning to the spawning grounds in the second year as grilse. On the other hand the Coho (O. kisutch) and the Humpback (O. gorbuscha) all return to the spawning grounds in their second year; their life-cycle is one of two years and they do not pass beyond the grilse stage. My conclusions as to the age of the spawning Coho have been criticized on the ground that while the fish studied may all have been in the grilse stage, they did not represent fully grown individuals, and it was therefore possible that these latter may really have a four-year cycle. My original observations were made on fish varying in length from 44 cm. to 69.5 cm., the measurements being taken from the tip of the snout to the root of the tail in each case, and since the major- ity of the fish examined were over 60 cm. in length the suspicion of immaturity seems to be unfounded. To make the matter more certain, however, I obtained scales during the past summer from ten additional *MeMurrich, J. P.—The Life Cycles of the Pacific Coast Salmon Belonging to the Genus Oncorhynchus, as Revealed by their Seale and Otolith Markings, in Proc. and Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada. 3rd Ser. Vol. VI. 1912. 24 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA fish varying in length from 55 cm. to 83 cm., six of the ten being over 79 cm., their measurements being 74 em., 75 cm., 78 cm., 79 cm., and 83 cm. There seems to be no room for suspicion that fish of these sizes were not fully grown, and in every one of them the scale mark- ings told exactly the same story (Fig. 1). There was only one winter or check band on the portion of the scale formed during the life in the sea, just as was the case with scales from the 44, 55, and 64.5 cm. fish, and the conclusion is unavoidable that all full-grown Coho are two-year old fish, that the life-cycle of the Coho is a two-year cycle. In my earlier paper I also described markings on the scales of a Dog Salmon that seemed to indicate that the fish had spawned as a grilse, had again returned to the sea and had been captured in its fourth summer, apparently on its way to the spawning grounds for the second time. Such a life-history was so markedly at variance with what seems to be the rule for all the species of Oncorhynchus, namely that they spawn but once in their lives, that it seemed worth while to ex- amine the scales of a greater number of Dog Salmon, to determine, if possible, whether the behaviour of this particular fish was an indi- vidual peculiarity, or an example of what was of relatively frequent occurrence in this species. Unfortunately I was able to obtain for examination only eighteen fish, which with those previously examined made a total of twenty-two, but of these only the one individual showed the peculiarity under consideration; the remaining twenty-one, ranging in length from 61.5 cm. to 83 cm., were all four-year fish when captured and showed no indications of having spawned previous to their capture. The number of fish examined is perhaps hardly sufficient for a final determination of the question, but as far as my observations go they indicate that the Dog Salmon, like the other species, spawn as a rule but once. The single individual that showed a spawning scar in the summer of its grilse year was probably a rare exception, and merely serves to emphasize the probability of the general belief that the im- mense majority of individuals of all species of Oncorhynchus die on the spawning grounds. It has already been pointed out that the chances for returning to the sea after spawning are greater in the case of the Dog Salmon than in that of any of the other forms, since this species runs relatively later in the year and finds its spawning grounds in the smaller rivers and streams, frequently at no great distance from the ocean. But, nevertheless, every fish examined was apparently four years old and only four. If it be true that the life-cycle of the Dog Salmon is completed in four years the probability that this is also the case for the Sockeye and Spring Salmon, whose spawning grounds are [McmMURRICH] PACIFIC COAST SALMON 25 relatively far from the sea, is still greater, even without the evidence presented by their scale markings. The occurrence of a grilse spawning mark even in a single fish is, however, of interest as showing that grilse occur in the Dog Salmon, as well as in O. nerka and O. tschawytscha. I did not succeed in obtain- ing any grilse Dog Salmon, nor was their occurrence known to those fisherman whom I questioned This lack of knowledge of them may have been due, however, to the fact that my inquiries were made in districts where seine fishing alone is practised, since by this method the small grilse would be apt to escape capture. Since they occur in the other two species with a four-year cycle they are certainly to be expected in O. keta, especially since the fact that the Coho and Hump- back never pass beyond the grilse stage seems to indicate that this is an important stage in the life-history of the genus. Since this paper was written I have received by the courtesy of the author a copy of a paper by Professor Gilbert* on the “Age at Maturity of the Pacific Coast Salmon of the Genus Oncorhynchus. ’’ Professor Gilbert’s results, which were also based on a study of the scales, differ greatly from those I obtained, inasmuch as he main- tains that the Sockeye reaches maturity in either its fourth or fifth year, the grilse being in their third year; that the Spring Salmon spawn normally in either the fourth, fifth, sixth or seventh year, the grilse again being in their third year; that the Coho spawn only in the third year; the Dog Salmon in either their third, fourth or fifth year; and the Humpback only in their second year. Thus his results show an inde- finiteness in the age at maturity, except in the cases of the Coho and Humpback, which contrasts strongly with the definiteness of my interpretations. Professor Gilbert was fortunate in having a much larger supply of material for study than that at my disposal and some of the discre- pancies in our results may be due to this, since variations are to be expected in all biological phenomena. But I still believe that the definiteness I described is the typical condition; it alone will har- monize with the conditions shown, for example, by the Fraser River Sockeye. The most definitely established fact with regard to these fish is the four-year periodicity in their runs and the conclusion seems to be inevitable that the ova from the fish of any big run furnish the fish for the big run of four years later. Professor Gilbert, however, maintains that of the fish developed from the ova of a given year a little more than one-half run as mature individuals in their fourth year and a little less than one-half in their fifth year. Such a state of affairs would inevitably and quickly obliterate any such definite periodicity *Bull. U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, XXXII. 1913. A se 26 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA in the size of the runs as is shown by the Fraser River fish and yet it is well known that this periodicity has been maintained for very many years. Any interpretation of the scale markings of the Sockeye that fails to give results in harmony with this phenomenon is open to grave suspicion and this is the case with Professor Gilbert’s results. He criticizes me, indeed, for having taken the periodicity as a basis for the interpretation of the scale markings, complaining that by so doing I have failed to add anything to our previous knowledge as to these fish. I need hardly apologize for having adopted the scientific method of proceeding from the known to the interpretation of the unknown. The periodicity of the Fraser River Sockeye was the known, the inter- pretation of the scale markings the unknown, and granting that the markings are a record of the life-history of the fish, the problem I set myself was to interpret those markings in harmony with what was definitely known as to the life-history and so obtain a basis for under- standing their significance in other species of Oncorhynchus. I took as the starting point for the interpretation of the scale markings the well established fact of the four year periodicity of the Sockeye; Pro- fessor Gilbert did not do so and arrived at results that make the occur- rence of the periodicity, of what actually does occur, an impossibility. I do not propose now to discuss the details of Professor Gilbert’s results, but would point out that it is to his interpretation of the group of fine lines that immediately surround the scale nucleus that the most important discrepancies between his results and mine are due. He regards these lines as formed after the fish has reached the sea and to represent, at least in the Sockeye, Spring Salmon and Coho one year and a half of the life of the fish, while according to my interpretation they represent the portion of the fish’s life spent in fresh water, and therefore only a portion of its first year. The grounds upon which I adopted this interpretation of these lines were (1) their markedly different quality as compared with the later formed rings, which un- doubtedly represent marine life, and (2) their close similarity to the lines which represent the fresh water period of life of the Atlantic Salmon and also to those seen on the scales of Cutthroat and Rainbow trout, which have never been in salt water. The fact that they are of a different quality from the sea-formed rings is most evident and Professor Gilbert’s interpretation of them furnishes no explanation of this difference. Furthermore, if they represent a year and a half of the life of the fish they ought to show a winter check band, such as is to be seen in the narrow-lined zone of the scales of the Atlantic and Steelhead Salmon, this zone in the former being definitely known to represent the growth of a year and a half, or two years in fresh water, and having presumably a similar significance in the latter. In the [MCMURRICH] PACIFIC COAST SALMON 27 Oncorhynchi there is, however, no such winter check visible in the narrow-lined zone and so long as Professor Gilbert’s interpretation fails to explain not only its absence, but also the existence of the entire zone, this interpretation must be regarded with suspicion. Since the lines of similar quality and position in the scales of the Atlantic Salmon are definitely known to represent the period spent in fresh water, it is but natural to assume that they have the same significance in the closely allied Oncorhynchi. In at least two important points, then, I believe Professor Gilbert’s position to be untenable, namely, in that his interpretation of the scale markings fails to harmonize with the known periodicity of the Fraser River Sockeye and in that he fails to explain the marked difference in quality of the narrow-lined zone immediately surrounding the nucleus. I am pleased, however, to note that in another point, which, it seems to me, is the most interesting result yet obtained from the study of the scales of these fish, we are in essential agreement, namely, that the Coho and Humpback salmon never pass beyond what may appropriately be termed the grilse stage. The Steelhead (Salmo Gairdneri Richardson). The life-histories of the various species of Oncorhynchus differing so markedly in several respects from what has been worked out for the Atlantic Salmon, it became a matter of considerable interest to determine whether the Steelhead salmon of the Pacific coast shared in the peculiarities of the Oncorhynchi or resembled more closely its Atlantic congener. The Steelhead and the Atlantic salmon are both representatives of the genus Salmo and in the streams of the Pacific coast two other forms, generally recognized as distinct species of Salmo, also occur, namely the Cutthroat trout (S. mykiss) and the Rainbow trout (S. irideus). So far as I have been able to discover very little is definitely known as to the life-histories of any of these Pacific coast Salmo and this was a further reason for the study of the scale markings of at least one of them. The Stee:head Salmon does not run in anything like the numbers characteristic of the various species of Oncorhynchi, and at present, where the facilities exist, they are generally preserved in cold storage instead of being canned. To this practice I am indebted for most of the material I studied, the great majority of the fish from which I obtained scales having been those in the cold storage plants of the Claxton Cannery and the St. Mungo Cannery of New Westminster. To the managers of these canneries I am under great obligations for many courtesies. I have examined the scales from twenty-two fish Sec. IV, 1913—2 28 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA varying in length from 63cm. to 104.5 cm., the measurement in each case being from the tip of the snout to the base of the caudal fin. Ac- cording to their scale markings these fish may be classified into three groups, and since there is a marked correlation between the differences in the scale-markings and the sizes of the fish, the former may justly be regarded as indicative of the age of the fish. Thesmallest and presumably the youngest fish obtained ranged from 63 to 68 cm. in length, and of these I had four examples for study. The scale markings are practically identical in all and presented the arrangement shown in fig. 2. On compar.ng such a scale with one from one of the Oncorhynchi, a Coho for example (Fig. 1), a striking difference is to be noticed in the extent and number of the fine lines which indicate the period spent in fresh-water. Indeed the measure- ment of the radii of the fresh-water areas of a number of scales showed that those of the Steelhead were on the average approximately twice as long as those of the Oncorhynchus. While my experience especially with the Spring Salmon, does not lead me to place any great reliance upon the number of lines on a scale as an index of the age of the fish and still less upon the theory that a definite number of lines are formed annually, (Malloch),* nevertheless it must be admitted that the number of lines indicate the amount of growth of the fish. A comparison of the fresh-water lines of the Steelhead and Coho would accordingly indicate one of two things, either (1) that both species spend the same length of time in fresh water, but that during that period of their lives the Steelhead grow twice as rapidly as the Coho; or, (2) that the rate of growth of the two species is essentially the same, but the time spent by the Steelhead in fresh water is twice as long as that spent by the Coho. That the second supposition is the correct one is shown by the fact that in many Steelhead scales one can clearly recognize a division of the fresh-water area into two distinct zones (Fig. 3). The lines formed during that portion of the life of the fish that is spent in fresh water are always very close together, and it is consequently somewhat difficult to distinguish in some cases the slightly greater concentration of those formed in winter as compared with those formed in summer. But in the majority of cases the the diffe ence can be made out, and one then finds that a band of lines, closer together than usual, and *P. D. Malloch.—The History and Habits of the Salmon, Sea-trout and other Fresh-water Fish. London, 1910. Miss Esdaile (Mem. and Proc. Manchester Lit. and Phil. Soc. Vol. LVI, 1912) has recently shown that the absolute number of rings upon different scales of the same fish may vary considerably, so that the application of Malloch’s method of determining the age, by dividing the number of rings by a definite number, supposed to represent the annual increment, would give the anomalous result of different ages for different portions of the body of a fish. [MCMURRICH] PACIFIC COAST SALMON 29 therefore indicating -a check in growth, occurs somewhere about the middle distance between the nucleus of the scale and the periphery of the fresh-water area, a second similar check band also occurring at this periphery. This same arrangement occurs in the scales of the Atlantic Salmon, and is there interpreted, on the basis of what is directly known as to the life-history of that fish, as representing the two years spent in fresh-water. The same interpretation may justly be applied to it in the case of the Steelhead and it may be concluded that the fish spends the first two winters of its life in fresh-water, agreeing in this respect with the Atlantic Salmon, but differmg from the Oncorhynchi. In the scales from the fish now under consideration, those ranging between 63 and 68 cm. in length, the area occupied by the fresh-water rings is succeeded (Fig. 2) by a broad zone occupied by rings widely separated from one another, and to be taken as representing the first summer spent in the sea. This zone is bounded peripherally by a well-marked band of closely set lines, indicating a check in growth and accordingly to be interpreted as representing the first winter spent in the sea; and, finally, beyond these and extending to the margin of the scale is a second zone of widely separated lines, representing a second summer in the sea. The life-history, then, of these fish, as revealed by their scale markings, may be summed up as follows,—The ova were spawned probably during the late autumn and throughout that winter, the following summer and the following winter the fish remained in fresh water. In the spring of their second year they proceeded to the sea, where they remained throughout their second summer and the following or third winter, and were caught in their third summer. So far as the time spent in the sea is concerned these fish are comparable to grilse Spring Salmon or Sockeye and to adult Coho and Humpbacks, but they were a year older than these, since they spent an additional year in fresh-water. On the other hand they are exactly comparable to the grilse Atlantic salmon, which are three year old fish, having spent two winters and one summer in fresh-water as fry and parr, have descended to the sea in their second summer as smolt and returned in their third summer as grilse. | Passing now to the consideration of the second of the groups into which, on the basis of their scale markings, I have divided the Steelhead examined, it is found to contain the great majority of the fish studied, sixteen out of the twenty-two. The fish belonging to it vary from 74 em. to 94 cm. in length, and, compared with the grilse already described, each shows upon its scales an additional check band (Fig. 3), indicating an additional year spent in the sea. These then are four year old fish, 30 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA having spent two winters in fresh-water and two ih the sea. They are of the same age as the fully grown Sockeye, Spring and Dog Salmon, and if the fact that so many of the fish that I examined belonged to this group is an indication that the great majority of Steelhead return to fresh-water in their fourth year, it is interesting to note that the spawn- ing run of this fish occurs typically when it is of the same age as the three species of Oncorhynchus just mentioned; that is to say, the major- ity of Steelhead running in any year will be fish from ova spawned four years previously. But while the Oncorhynchi spend but one winter in fresh-water, and three in the sea the Steelhead spend two winters in each environment, agreeing in this respect with the Atlantic Salmon. A very characteristic feature of the life history of the Oncorhynchi is its definiteness. Apparently the life cycle does not typically extend beyond four years, or, in the cases of the Coho and Humpback, beyond two years, nor except in rare exceptions does any fish spawn more than once in its lifetime. With the Atlantic Salmon the cycle is much more indefinite. For it is known from the observations, especially of Johnston, Dahl, Calderwood, Hutton, Malloch and others, that a considerable number of these fish delay their return to the spawning grounds until their fifth or even their sixth year. Furthermore, a certain number of fish spawn more than once during their lives; not a great number apparently, for Miss Esdaile,* from the records of 1,678 fish, after excluding all grilse and small Spring Salmon, found that only 6.4% of the remainder showed a spawning mark on their scales and only about 0.4% showed two such marks. Since it may be assumed that the presence of these fish in the river was an indication that they were on their way to the spawning grounds, we have the result that only 64 fish out of every thousand spawn more than once in their lives. Nevertheless this proportion is probably far greater than that which obtains for the Oncorhynchi, although the number of these that have so far been examined is not sufficient to allow of a numerical statement. In view of the similarity of the life-history of the Steelhead to that of the Atlantic Salmon it is interesting to note that agreement also obtains in the two points just mentioned. For out of the twenty- two Steelhead examined there were two whose life-histories had evi- dently extended beyond the usual four years, and these fish constitute the third of the groups that I have recognized. One of them measured 104.5 cm. in length and its scales (Fig. 4) showed, in the region repre- senting the period spent in the sea, three check bands, instead of two, *Miss P, C. Esdaile—The Scientific Results of the Salmon Scale Research at Manchester University. Mem. and Proc. Manchester Lit. and Philos. Soc. Vol. LVII, 1913. {McwuRRICH] PACIFIC COAST SALMON 31 the conclusion being that the fish, when caught, was in its fifth year. There is no indication on the scale that this fish had ever spawned; it had apparently merely postponed its return to the spawning ground for one year beyond the typical four. In the second fish, however, a spawning scar was distinctly visible upon the scales. The fish measured only 87.5 cm.,a length that would suggest its reference to the second group, but an examination of its scales showed that it was a five-year-old fish, its small size being proba- bly due to the fact that 1: had already spawned once. The scales (Fig. 5) show the usual fresh-water area, and this is succeeded by the sea area in which two check bands are quite evident, indicating the third and fourth winters of the fish’s life. The band representing the fourth winter is followed by a small number of widely separated lines repre- senting the first part of the fourth summer and then follows a distinct sear, which may be traced around the entire scale, even upon the exposed portion. From analogy with what is known as to the significance of such markings on the scales of Atlantic Salmon this must be interpreted as a spawning scar, and it was evidently formed in the latter part of the summer and the autumn of the fourth year. The scar is followed by a very narrow check band not evident in all parts of the scale, but quite distinct toward the exposed portion, and this, which may be taken to represent the fifth winter, is followed by a number of lines representing the fifth summer. The life-history of this fish, as revealed by its scale markings, may be summarized as follows. Assuming that the Steelhead spawn usually in the late autumn and adopting the terminology applied to the various stages of the Atlantic Salmon, the ovum from which this fish developed was spawned in the autumn of 1907, and the young fish remained in fresh water until the spring of 1909, entering upon what corresponds to the parr stage in the autumn of 1908. In the spring of 1909 it assumed the smolt form and descended to the sea, where it passed the winter of that year and was a grilse in the summer of 1910. It remained n the sea throughout the following winter and in the late summer of 1911 returned to the spawning grounds as a four-year-old fish. It spawned in the autumn of that year and returned to the sea as a kelt in the early winter. During the remainder of that winter and a portion of the summer of 1912 it remained in the sea,and in that summer, when it was a five year-old fish, it was captured, probably on its way back to the fresh-water to spawn for the second time. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. oot a SA THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Legends for Figures. Scale of Coho 74 em. in length. X10. Scale of grilse Steelhead, 63 cm. in length. X13. Scale of Steelhead, four years old; length 76.5 em. X11. Scale of Steelhead, five years old; length 104.5 cm. x8. Scale of lee. five years old and showing spawning: scar; cant Si-em, elle A os) 5 © (a) A +5 c f=} : a=} is ra F4 = (e] az) a= tn a © [= Ce aS es ve des) in me Fig. 1 st winter in fresh water. 4 resh water. f 2nd winter in lst winter in sea. Fig. 2 1st winter in fresh water. 2nd winter in fresh water. Ist winter in sea. 2nd winter in sea. 2nd winter in fresh water. lst winter in sea. 2nd winter in sea. 3rd winter in sea. Spawning scar. 2nd winter in fresh water 3rd winter in sea. 1st winter in sea. 2nd winter in sea. SECTION IV., 1913. [33] Trans. R.S.C. Notes on the Scale-markings of the Halibut and their Bearing on Questions Connected with the Conservation of the Fishery. By J. PuayrarR McMurricx, M.A., Pa.D., LL.D. (Read May 28, 1913) The importance of the Halibut fishery on our West Coast, surpassed only by that of the Salmon, makes a knowledge of the life- history of the fish a matter of some importance, especially in view of the probability that regulation of the fishery is necessary if the supply is to be maintained. And yet at present our knowledge of the essential facts regarding the life-history of the Halibut is almost a blank. Thus, to quote only one of the authorities on our marine fishes, Professor Goode, after pointing out the great uncertainty as to its spawning season, says* “It is not known whether the eggs float or rest upon the bottom, nor is it known how long is the period of incubation, nor what the rate of growth of the fish.” The remarkable definiteness of the story that may be deciphered from the markings of the scales upon the Salmon led me to undertake an examination of the scales of the Halibut, in the expectation that these also would reveal in their markings a more or less clear account of the life-history of the fish. And they undoubtedly do so, but my hopes of working the story out in detail were disappointed by the fact that of scales collected from thirteen fish only those from three were perfect, the rest showing more or less extensive injuries which ab- solutely obliterated portions of the record. This condition is probably correlated with the fact that the Halibut, like other flat-fishes, is a bottom fish and the scales thereby liable to injury, but the frequency of its occurrence necessitates the collection of material from a large number of fish, if a series of perfect scales, sufficient for the determina- tion of the details of the life-history, is to be obtained. But even from the small amount of satisfactory material that I was able to collect, certain facts concerning the life-history of the fish are clearly revealed, and the imperfect scales, so far as they give information, confirm the story told by the perfect ones. These facts are of such importance that it has seemed advisable to place them on record, leaving the filling in of the details of the story for future and more complete observations. The scales of the Halibut are elongated structures and are more deeply imbedded in the skin than usual. In addition to the concentric *q, B. Goopr.—American Fishes. 2nd Edn. 1903. 34 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA lines, which indicate successive increments of growth, they present also a number of radiating grooves, that divide the various concentric lines into segments and complicate somewhat the study of the scales. And this complication is increased by the fact that the scales are small and the number of annual periods represented great as compared with the scales of a Salmon, for instance, and because, especially in older fish, the scales are so thick as to obscure the distinctness of the markings. In a fish measuring 66.5 cm. from the tip of the snout to the root of the tail, each scale (Fig. 1) showed clearly a nucleus, situated very excentrically near one extremity, and immediately succeeding it were a number of lines (I) very close together, which may be taken to repre- sent a winter’s growth. These were succeeded by a zone in which the lines were appreciably farther apart and which may be assumed to repre- sent a summer’s growth and accordingly this, together with the initial zone of narrow lines, represents the growth of the fish during the first year of its life. This annual area is succeeded by a second narrow band of fine lines (2) and this by a second zone of broader ones, the two to- gether again representing the growth of the second year. So, passing along the longest axis of the scale, one finds zones of narrow and broad lines alternating with one another, the scale ending with a zone of broad lines indicating the growth of the summer in which the fish was caught. Starting with the narrow lined zone immediately succeeding the nucleus, it was found that in all seven such zones could be distin- guished upon the scale, and, assuming that each of these represents a winter’s growth, we reach the conclusion that the fish was in the seventh year of its age when caught. Throughout the entire scale no indication of any marked inter- ruption of growth, such as might be produced by spawning, was to be seen, and the evidence of the markings is to the effect that the fish required seven years to reach a length of 66.5 cm. and that up to that time it had not spawned, in other words, that it required at least seven years to reach maturity. The next fish from which uninjured scales were obtained measured 122 cm. in length. The markings upon its scales (Fig. 2) were essenti- ally the same as those on the 66.5 em. fish up to the seventh summer zone, except that the fifth winter band (5) was much broader and the lines comprising it greatly broken and indistinct. Beyond the seventh summer zone are the markings representing the additional growth, the additional age of the larger fish. These show first a narrow band of fine lines (8) representing the eighth winter and then follows a broad zone in which the lines are broken, somewhat indistinct and closer together than are the summer lines in the older portions of the scale. [MCMURRICH] SCALE-MARKINGS OF THE HALIBUT 35 Nevertheless four (9-12) or possibly five narrow bands in which the lines are still closer together may be indistinctly seen in this zone, apparently indicating that it represents the growth of as many years, during which there was a considerable disturbance of the normal growth processes, probably to be attributed to a prolonged period of sexual maturity. If the enumeration of the winter zones be correct the periphery of this indistinct zone represents at least the twelfth winter of the life of the fish and it is followed by a final zone of considerable breadth, in which the lines have the spacing typical of summer growth; this may be taken to represent the twelfth summer in which the fish was captured. If then the evidence supplied by the scale markings of this fish be summed up, its life-history was probably as follows:—It was hatched from an ovum spawned in 1900 and for a period of seven years its metabolic activities were principally devoted to bodily growth, so that by the summer of 1907 it had reached a length of between 60 em. and 70 cm., if the size of the first fish described may be taken as typical for fish of this age. Throughout this period the scale markings show no evidence of reproductive activity, unless the slight irregularity in the fifth year represents a precocious and transitory exhibition of it; but in the eighth year, 1908, a spawning period began, which lasted, apparently without any decided interruption, throughout the succeeding four or five years. During this period the growth of the fish proceeded at a much slower rate than formerly, but with the beginning of 1912 the spawning ceased and a period of very rapid growth began, lasting until the fish was captured in the summer of that year. I desire to emphasize the fact that this life-history must be regarded to some extent as a tentative one, owing to the small amount of satis- factory material at my disposal. But the reliability of the scale mark- ings as indices of the various phases of growth in other fish is so well established, that I have ventured to assume their reliability in the present instance and to interpret them in accordance with the exper- ience derived from the study of other fish, hoping thereby to establish a working hypothesis as to the life-history of the Halibut, which may serve as a basis for future observation. There still remains for consideration a third fish, measuring 152 em. in length, and its scales reveal the same history up to the eighth winter band (Fig. 3), a regular alternation of winter and summer bands without any irregularities that might be ascribed to a spawning period. Beyond the eighth winter band, however, the story seems to differ a little from that of the preceding fish. The next two winter bands (9, 10) are much closer together than either those that precede or those that follow them, the indications being that during the eighth 36 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA summer and ninth year there was a decided diminution of the growth of the fish. This may be interpreted as due merely to poor feeding conditions, but from comparison with the 122 cm. fish it seems more probable that it represents a spawning period, which however was of much shorter duration than in the younger fish, ceasing with the tenth winter band instead of being continued to the twelfth. In the tenth summer the number and wide spacing of the lines indicate a rapid growth, which was continued during the succeeding year, and then there follows a broad zone in which the lines are all greatly concentrated, but in which seven winter bands (13-19) are quite distinct in some scales. It cannot be said that this entire zone represents a continuous period of repro- ductive activity, for the intervals between successive winter bands vary in width and the lines in some of the intervals are much less distinct than in others. More probably periods of reproduc- tive activity alternated with periods of normal, though diminished, growth throughout the seven years represented by the zone; indeed it would seem that the first three years were essentially reproductive periods, and possibly the fifth year also, but this cannot be stated with certainty. A band of summer lines succeeds the last winter band of the zone just described, and if no error has been made in the count of the bands the fish was in its nineteenth year when captured. Two facts of special importance are revealed by these observations: 1. The growth of the fish is relatively slow. A length of 66.5 em. represents a growth of seven years, that of 122 cm. twelve years, and that of 152 cm. about nineteen years. 2. The fish does not become sexually mature until about its eighth year. In this connection mention may be made of some observations by Holt* on Halibut from Iceland and the Faroé Islands, in which from an examination of the reproductive organs he comes to the conclusion that male fish reach maturity when about 30 in. in length (72.5 cm.), and females when they are at least 36 in. (90 cm.). Owing to the conditions under which my observations were made, I was not able to determine the sex of the fish examined, but leaving this point aside, Holt’s obser- vations correspond fairly well with those obtained from the examination of the scales, my results indicating that maturity occurs in fish some- where between 66.5 em. (26.6 in.) and 122 em. (48.8 in.); but the scale examination adds the important information that such fish are in their eighth year. *Hour, E. W. L.—North Sea Investigations. Journal Marine Biol. Assoc. N.S. II, 1892. [MCMURRICH] SCALE-MARKINGS OF THE HALIBUT 37 The bearing of these facts on the question of the conservation of the supply of Halibut on our Western Coast is evident. The longer the time required by a fish to reach maturity, the greater is the danger of the exhaustion of the supply by overfishing. And that such a danger threatens our Halibut banks on the Pacific Coast is evident both from the past history of the banks and from recent statistics. Indeed the Inspector of Fisheries for District No. 2, British Columbia, states in his report for 1907-8* that “It is an admitted fact by all who are com- petent to judge that our Halibut banks are being rapidly depleted.” That areas in which Halibut were at one time abundant are now ex- hausted is well, known to those who are familiar with the history of the fishing industry of the West Coast, and, furthermore, statistics seem to indicate that the maximum productivity of the banks now being fished has been reached and, what is more serious, has been passed. In 1905 the take of Halibut recorded at the port of Vancouver amounted to 89,014 cwt., and in 1910 it had risen to 219,063 ewt., an increase of 246 per cent. in five years. The amounts caught in suc- cessive years, together with the increments over preceding years are shown by the figures in the annexed table, compiled from the reports of the Department of Marine and Fisheries, Ottawa. Year | 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 Total | 89,014 | 114,167] 143,047) 175,125) 217,060} 219,063 196,486) 125,211 amt. | ewts. Differ- ence TOME eee ee + 25,153) + 29 ,880)+ 32 ,078/+ 41,935! + 2,003|—22,577|—71,275 pre- ceding year From this it will be seen that the catch has increased from 1905 to 1909 at an enormous rate, the excess of that of 1909 over that of 1908 amounting to nearly 42,000 cwt. In the succeeding year, 1910, the excess still continued, though greatly diminished in amount, having fallen to about 2,000 cwt. and in 1911 an actual diminution of 22,577 ewt. occurred. But this is of but slight importance as compared with 1912, the figures for the catch of that year, which I owe to the courtesy *Forty-first Annual Report of the Department of Marine and Fisheries. Ottawa. 1909. 38 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA of Chief-Inspector Cumingham, showing an amazing diminution, amounting to 71,275 ewt. as compared with 1911, the total catch being only about 57% of that of 1910. There may be many factors, whose relative importance I am at present unable to determine, contributing to this remarkable diminution, but the statistics as they stand point very strongly to the beginning of a rapid exhaustion of the banks, especially when it is considered that the figures of the above table represent only the fish taken under Can- adian licenses and make no account of the unlicensed catch, which is undoubtedly very great. At present the Halibut are taken entirely by line-fishing, and it is probably due to this fact that for the most part only large fish are brought to the market. The young fish escape and, as a fact, our knowledge of the habits of the young fish is almost nil. But long before the immature period of seven years has elapsed the fish have reached a size sufficient for capture and a very considerable portion of the catch is made up of immature fish; every such fish, taken before it has con- tributed its share to the maintenance of the supply, means an absolute loss from the standpoint of conservation. Furthermore, within the last year there have been repeated rumours to the effect that new methods are to be introduced into the industry by the importation of deep sea trawlers, and should such methods be adopted the outlook will become even gloomier. For while the larger and more powerful fish might be able to escape from the trawl, it is unlikely that the smaller ones would do so, and the trawl, sweeping over large areas of the bottom, would gather in just those immature fish which it is to our interests to preserve. There is, however, another side to this part of the question which should be mentioned, namely, that in the waters of British Columbia there are several other species of flat fishes, which will probably become of commercial importance when fished by trawls and, furthermore, there is the possibility that the Halibut in the early stages of growth are not found in association with the older fish. For we know nothing about the habits of the fish in these early stages and since the problem in connection with trawling on our West Coast will be to protect the young Halibut, while permitting the capture of other flat fishes, it becomes of very great importance that the complete life-history of the Halibut should be worked out. I have already quoted a statement by the late Professor Goode that serves to indicate our ignorance of the life-history of the Halibut, but it may be well to state again some of the crucial points of the life-history upon which information is greatly desirable and sadly lacking. The observations of Holt* and ~-*E. W. L. Hour.—Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc. N.S. II. 1892, p.399. [ MCMURRICH] SCALE-MARKINGS OF THE HALIBUT 39 McIntosh* indicate that the ova of the Halibut are probably pelagic, but so far as I am aware they have never been taken in plankton collec- tions, or, at all events, have not yet been identified. And this is all the more remarkable, since the ova have a diameter of over 3 mm. and would therefore be conspicuous objects in a plankton collection. No sueh ova were taken in collections that I made in September last in the vicinity of the banks, off Rose Spit at the northern end of the Queen Charlotte Islands and off the West Coast of Vancouver Island, but these collections were limited in number and were possibly made at an unfavourable time of the year. The more extensive collections made in European waters, have, however, failed to reveal them and the problem of the habitat of the Halibut ova is still an open one. Secondly, definite information as to the spawning season of the Halibut is highly desirable. The information on this point obtained from fishermen is too varied to have any great value, nor do the scales that I have examined give certain information, although it is possible that the study of a greater number may throw some light on the ques- tion. In the perfect scales that I studied, the nucleus was surrounded by a band of very narrow lines, which probably indicate a winter’s growth, the conclusion being that the fish from which the scales were taken were spawned either in the late fall or early winter. The number of cases is, however, too small to allow of this evidence being taken as conclusive and as applying to all fish. Nor do the spawning marks upon the scales give the desired information, since, as has been pointed out, they do not affect a portion of a single year’s growth but include that of several years. It would seem that the ripening of the Halibut ova is a gradual process and that the spawning is not a matter of a few days or even weeks, but is prolonged over, it may be, several years. But here again the number of fish yielding satisfactory scales was too small to allow of deductions as to possible seasonal variations in the spawning periods. The fact that the spawning periods are of long duration may, however, be an explanation of the discrepant state- ments of fishermen already referred to. The study of scales from a long seies of fish, combined with the examination of the reproductive organs of adult fish at all seasons of the year is necessary for the solution of this part of the problem. Finally, reference may again be made to the desirability of definite information as to the habits of the young Halibut from the time they are hatched until maturity supervenes in their eighth year. Do the young fish frequent the banks in company with the adults and, if not, what are their habits? This is a most important question, especially *W. C. McInrosx.—Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., 1892. 40 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA in connection with the employment of trawls, and at present no data are available from which even a tentative answer may be given it. We know nothing of the habits of the young Halibut, and until these are known we cannot estimate with any degree of certainty the effects of trawling upon the Halibut banks of our West Coast. If, however, the young fish do live on the banks in company with the adults, then in view of the condition indicated by the statistics of the Halibut catch given above, if the trawling method be introduced, we can only look forward to the speedy depletion of the banks and the extinction of an industry which has, in the past, furnished an important supply of excellent food-material and an annual return of over a million dol- lars to those engaged in it. [McCMURRICH] SCALE-MARKINGS OF THE HALIBUT 41 Legends for Figures. Fig. 1. Scale from a Halibut 66.5 em. in length. X35. Fig. 2. Scale from a Halibut 122 cm. in length. X30. Fig. 3. Scale from a Halibut 152 cm. in length. X16. In all the figures the numbers refer to the winter bands. It should also be stated that the photographs were made from preparations mounted dry and the markings under such conditions are less distinct than on the fresh scales. ? à ii Mop OGRRKD A UL aS Aa List ait Pp i, 1! ‘ . “= i ) 1] Î aA 4% | 4 i) y . 1 | iy rf 4 rise - L + CC A D ut 4 ou f sy A ti tb JP } ra Ads Jets 10 ol PATES Si Pre, th) ; nie ise DS a OE lag iis un a) > aol ati 20a SE SUL a Men LR ~ Nie 1 L i] it) (fa ir silt ot? LM SUR EN Fear | D OT peng ring TAP QUE “ad Aig wees tee fe ee wr Pe eres eal Pea RLU vio relie bath Hess 4 > a 3 a) > due | ron dé 3 . J oi) i Hid, i . 4 | } Ma ro Mis ofl 0 U pue PR bs SECTION IV., 1913. [43] TRANS. R.S.C. A Morphological and Cultural Study of some Azotobacter. Dan H. Jones, B.S.A., ONTARIO AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, GUELPH. Presented by Dr. F. C. Harrison, F.R.S.C. (Read May 28, 1913) In November, 1910, various samples of soil were obtained from the kitchen garden of the Ontario Agricultural College for the purpose of studying their azotobacter content. The samples were as follows: Rich surface loam in a high state of cultivation. Subsoil 18 inches deep—sandy gravel. Subsoil 30 inches deep—sandy gravel, hard packed. Old compost well rotted. New compost not rotted. Road sand rain washings from College drive. tions of each soil were made in sterile water blanks, and from these dilutions inoculations were made into Erlenmeyer flasks of Ashby’s solution and plates poured with Ashby’s agar. All cultures were incubated at 25°C. (Ashby’s solution is composed of mannite 20 gms, K,HPO, 0.2 gms, MgSO, 0.2 gms, NaCl 0.2 gms, CaSO, 0.1 gm, CaCO, 5 gms, distilled water 1000 c.c. For Ashby’s agar, 14 per cent. agar was added to the solution.) ee Se ete. ee Flask Cultures. After six days, growth was present in the flask cultures made from surface loam, subsoil 18 inches, subsoil 30 inches, and road sand, but not in those made from compost, either old or new. The growth in each case where it occurred appeared as a whitish, granular, flaky pellicle, easily broken and falling in zoogloea masses to bottom when disturbed. The medium was characterized by cloudiness and there was a flaky, granular precipitate and some gas production was in evi- dence. The growth in the thirty-inch depth sample was much slighter than in the other samples. Microscopic observation of hanging drop preparations showed: 1. Azotobacter as large, coarsely-granular, irregular spheres and short thick rods with rounded ends in ones, twos, threes, fours and dense masses, some forms motile. | 2. Various rod-shaped bacteria, many motile. 3. Some amoeba and other protozoa. 4. Some fungus mycelium. Sec. IV, 1913—3 11 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Mounted in iodine-potassium-iodide solution, the azotobacter stained golden brown, giving the glycogen reaction, a few of the rods gave the bluish-black starch reaction, and the other forms did not stain. When four weeks old, the growth on these cultures had become variously coloured brown, and a thick, irregular, pasty ring was present. There was still no growth or change of any kind in the old compost culture, but a very light granular pellicle in patches had formed on the surface of the unrotted compost, this being composed of fine fungous mycelium, higher bacteria, and some small rod bacteria; body of medi- um clear. Each culture was tested for presence of ammonia with Nessler’s solution, for nitrite with sulphanilic acid, and nitrate with phenol- sulphonic acid, the result being positive but varying in strength for ammonia and nitrate, and negative for nitrite in all cultures where azotobacter had developed, and negative in each case for controls. Plate Cultures. An examination of the plate cultures made when they were seven days old showed various types of bacteria colonies present, including azotobacter, Ps. radicicola and others and some moulds. 1. Surface loam plates showed an azotobacter count of about 400 per gram of soil. These colonies varied from 4-8 m.m. diameter were raised, glistening, generally coarsely contoured, pasty-viscid, colorless, antl semi-transparent. Preparations examined under the microscope showed many of these colonies to be mixed cultures of azotobacter and rod forms, both varying in size and shape. Mounted in Iodine-potas-iodide solution—Azotobacter stained golden yellow; rods not stained. St. aq. fuchsin—Azotobacter appeared as irregular spheres, vary- ing in diameter from 2-104; some stained evenly dark; others evenly light; most were encapsulated in a thick, slimy capsule and they occurred in ones, twos, fours and irregular groups. Rod forms varied in size and shape, some being positive and others negative to stain. 2. Subsoil 18 inches. About 100 small azotobacter colonies on plate, giving a count of 10,000 per gram of soil (abnormally large num- ber when compared with other subsequent tests). Some were white, pasty, raised, perpendicular at edge, contoured on surface in concentric rings; the smaller ones, especially those most crowded together, were dark Vandyke brown in color, but similar in shape to those described. [JONES] STUDY OF SOME AZOTOBACTER 45 Examination of slide preparations showed these to be azotobacter, staining golden yellow with iodine solution and being very granular, granules varying in size and mostly spherical and well defined. Cap- sules were not much in evidence. A few contaminating rods as in the surface loam cultures were present. Some of the azotobacter colonies were a bright yellow. It was later found that this coloration was due to a yellow pigment-producing rod that was difficult to eradicate from cultures. Some colonies of streptothrix and others of the higher bacteria were present, also a few moulds. 3. Subsoil 30 inches. No azotobacter colonies developed. A few very small, very moist, colorless, bacterial colonies, also very small, red, pink and yellow colonies, also some colonies of higher bacteria were present. 4. Old compost. One azotobacter colony found, giving a count of 100 per gram of soil. This was similar in appearance to those described in surface loam. There were also present a few colorless, viscid colonies of rod bacteria which dissolved calcium carbonate, a few colonies of higher bacteria, and some fungi. 5. New Compost. Nothing but a few colonies of the streptothrix type and some moulds. 6. Road Sand. Azotobacter, two colonies, giving a count of 200 per gram sand. These were 8 m.m. diameter, raised, glistening, wrinkled, pasty-viscid, colorless, semi-transparent, and similar in every respect to those described from surface loam. When three weeks old, the azotobacter colonies from all plates had become brown to a varying degree, the larger, moister colonies being less intensely colored than the smaller, pasty, drier colonies, the latter in some cases being almost black. Isolation of Azotobacter. For further study, sixteen azotobacter colonies varying more or less in appearance were selected from these cultures,and inoculated into flasks of Ashby’s solution and repeatedly replated in Ashby-agar until eventually pure cultures of azotobacter were obtained. A comparison of these pure cultures showed four types, varieties or species of azoto- bacter to be present, and subsequent observation of a large number of reinoculations covering a period of more than two years shows the differential characters of these four types to be practically constant. For convenience, they have been tentatively named A,, A,, Aj, Ay. 46 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA A, and A, bear somewhat of a resemblance to Azotobacter chroococcum and A, and A, bear somewhat of a resemblance to Azotobacter agilis, as described by Beyerinck in the Centralblatt fiir Bakteriologie, II Abte., Vol. 7, 1901. Description of Varieties. Cultural Characteristics: Growth on Ashby’s Agar,— A, Young surface colonies (1-2 days) at 25°C., having been plated from active growing cultures not more than seven days old, are transparent, colorless, moist, slightly convex, entire, round and about 1 m.m. di. When one week old, colonies that are not thickly seeded may be from 1-2 c.m. diameter, raised, convex, smooth, white, semi-opaque, moist-viscid, glistening, the masses having a tendency to flow, giving irregularity in outline with an entire edge. See Pl. I, Figs. 1 and 3. Increase in size usually ceases after two to three weeks and a brown pigment is slowly developed like streaky clouds within the viscid mass. As the culture dries with age, the surface becomes irregularly contoured with broad depressions. Streak cultures on Ashby agar plates have a similar development to that of the colonies except that after two to three weeks the mass of growth is so great and moist that it frequently flows over the entire surface of the medium. If the streak is on a slanting surface, the growth will flow to the bottom, where it will slowly accumulate until growth on the slope ceases. A,. Surface colonies and streak cultures on Ashby’s agar are at first very similar to those of A,. Later, however, they differ in that they have only a slight tendency to flow over the surface of the medium, being firmer or more pasty, the growth accumulating in a raised mass, with the surface coarsely contoured, more or less concentrically. The mass is first milky white, after two or three weeks it becomes Vandyke brown and later frequently black. See Pl. I, Figs. 2 and 4. A,. Surface colonies and streak cultures differ from A, and A, in being drier and pasty rather than moist and not having any tendency to flow but developing with upright edges into a raised mass deeply and closely contoured on surface in a rugose manner, often radiating from centre. Cultures at first white, soon turning brown then black. The maximum size of the colonies is considerably less than the maximum size of colonies of A, and A,. See Pl. I, Figs. 5 and 7. A,. Surface colonies and streak cultures have a somewhat similar development to those of A,, but differ in being smaller, more discreet, drier, frequently being cretaceous in texture, the surface becoming [JONES] STUDY OF SOME AZOTOBACTER 47 verrucose with fine indentations and the black pigment is produced earlier and is usually more intense. See Pl. I, Figs. 6 and 8. Growth in Ashby’s Solution. Cultures of each of the four varieties grown in Ashby’s solution in Erlenmeyer flasks at 25°C. produce a more or less flaky pellicle, rather thick, easily broken when disturbed, an irregular rim rising slightly up sides of flask and a cloudiness in the body of the medium which may also obtain zoogloea flaky masses detached from the pellicle which slowly accumulate at the bottom of the flask. The pellicle produced by A, and A, is smoother and more moist than that produced by A, and A,, that of the latter being more flaky and somewhat dry and granular, as compared with that of the former. After three or four weeks, the pellicle and ring becomes brown and the body of the medium becomes clear and pale golden in color, the pigment production being least in A, and greatest usually in A,. The pigment slowly intensifies with age. Cultures in Various Media. (All four strains are alike in the following media). Beef Extract Agar + 5°. Growth is restricted; surface colonies even when thinly seeded do not attain a diameter greater than 2 m.m. After 24 hours at 25°C., they appear as small round colonies .5 m.m. or less, greyish, thin, entire, and finely granular under the lower power lens, moist in consistency. They attain their maximum size in three or four days, become light brown in color, are very slightly raised, smooth surface and soon become tough in texture, later becoming hard and adhering to surface of medium like drops of dried varnish. Streak cultures are linear and have the same characters for consistency and appearance as described for colonies. Beef Extract Bouillon + 5°. After seven days at 25°C., cultures of each variety show a light granular pellicle, with occasionally a slight granular growth extending irregularly down sides of tube, no ring, medium clear. After two months, the appearance is the same plus a slight granular precipitate. Stab Cultures in Beef Extract Gelatin + 5°. No liquifaction of the gelatin occurs. After two weeks at 20°C., the growth is linear, finely serrate, greater at surface than in depth, with a depressed nail-head growth at top, firm, almost horn-like in consistency, and smooth. Pale brown color. 48 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Potato Slant. No growth occurs. Milk. Very slow growth. No change in appearance occurs until after two weeks at 25°C. Later a brownish, slight, flaky pellicle develops and the milk slowly clears without coagulation. Litmus Milk. An alkaline reaction is slowly produced, the medium being deep blue after six weeks. Loeffler’s Blood Serum. Moderate growth occurs, slightly raised, linear-spreading, echin- ulate, glistening, rugose surface, compact. The growth is greater than on beef extract agar but not so great as on Ashby’s agar. Smith Fermentation Tube Cultures. There is no gas and no acid produced by any of the four varieties in peptone water plus the various sugars called for in the chart of the American Society of Bacteriologists. There is growth—finely to coarsely granular in the open bowl in each case, but no growth in the closed arm. The greatest growth occurs in the mannite solution and the least in glycerine. Nitrate Broth. There is slight growth, but no reduction to nitrites or ammonia. Uschinsky’s Solution. There is clouding and formation of a light, flaky pellicle. Cohn’s Solution. A slight growth occurs. Fermi’s Solution. There is clouding and formation of a light pellicle. Morphology. The morphology of the organisms in each variety varies very considerably with age and cultural conditions. On Ashby’s media, young cells from 24 to 48 hours old cultures appear mostly as motile, short, thick rods with rounded ends, 2-4 x 5-10, in ones, twos, [JONES] STUDY OF SOME AZOTOBACTER ae 49 aa and occasionally threes. The internal protoplasm is mostly homo- geneous; occasionally, however, a spherical body which may be nuclear in character is present, and when fission of the cell occurs fission of this body usually takes place also, but not always, see Pl. IV, Figs. land 2. After four days, many of the cells gradually become coarsely granular, being filled with spherical granules. See Pl. IV, Figs. 6 and 8. These granules are of at least two kinds. The one kind which pre- dominates gives the golden brown coloration of the glycogen reaction when treated with iodine-potas-iodide solution, but is not stained with the anilin dyes. The other kind of granule, which, by the way, does not always appear to be present, does not give the glycogen reaction but does stain with various of the anilin dyes. At this stage in actively growing cultures many of the organisms disintegrate, the granules bursting from the enveloping membrane. The scattered granules of the number one type which give the glycogen reaction slowly disappear, whilst those of the second type begin to grow and multiply by fission. They are sometimes motile and delicate flagella have been observed on them. See Pl. V, Figs. 9, 10, 11, 12. From their staining reactions, it would appear as though they were of the same substance as the aforementioned supposed nuclear body. In cultures of A, and A, after about three days, the organisms produce large soft capsules. At first these capsules are negative to certain aniline dyes, whilst the organism within is positive. Later, however, this order is reversed, the capsule becoming positive and the organism negative. The capsule is never positive to the glycogen reaction but the organism is always so, though when young only slightly, giving a stronger reaction as age increases. Fission may occur a limited number of times within the capsule, thus giving within a capsule a cluster of organisms varying in number from two to six or eight, usually adhering together in more or less irregular groups. See Pl. II, Figs. 4, 5, 6; and PI. III, Fig. 2. The capsular material, being positive to the stain, forms a dark back- ground for the organisms, many of which are at this stage negative to the stain. As the culture ages, the capsules appear to merge together into a common slimy matrix from which the organisms become more or less readily detached when smears are made for staining purposes. In cultures of A,, capsules are but little in evidence, and in cultures of A, they are not present at all. These organisms in cultures of from four to ten days old are more granular than are those of A, and A,, and not being enveloped in capsules they disintegrate more readily, so that if at this stage smear stains are made, granular organisms in all stages of disintegration are observed, also many loose granules some positive and some negative to the stain. See Pl. III, Figs. 5 and 8. In cultures that are three weeks old and older, whilst we may 50 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA find organisms in all the stages already mentioned, the majority will appear as irregular spheres in clusters varying in size, shape and num- ber of individuals to the cluster. In A, and A,, these clusters are very irregular in shape, sometimes occurring as short chains. See Pl. II, Fig. 7; and Pl. III, Fig. 3. In A, and A, they are more of the conventional tetrad and sarcina forms with the faces of contact flat- tened. See Pl. III, Figs. 6 and 9. Involution forms occur in old cultures of each variety. These are often many times larger than the normal organism and are very irregular in shape, being usually much swollen in one or more parts and constricted in others. They are usually granular and give the glycogen reaction. Chains of ten to thirty cells are common in Ashby’s liquid cultures after two weeks cultivation. Very striking involution forms occur in cultures incubated at 37°C., most particularly so with cultures of A,. With this variety, many of the organisms elongate into long threads, 30-604 x 4-8 y, varying in thickness and in the appearance ‘of their internal contents, which may be granular with spherical granules varying in size or more or less homogeneous. See Pl. II, Figs. 8 and 9. They also vary in response to stains. When the temperature is reduced to 25°C., the involution forms once more gradually approach the normal shape and size, the long thread forms becoming constricted at intervals, thus forming chains. Motility. Motility is common in young cultures 24-48 hours old on Ashby’s agar and in liquid cultures. A few motile cells may also be found in older cultures. The motility of the A, and A, varieties is, generally speaking, more rapid and vigorous than that of the A, and A, varieties. Flagella stains of 24 hour old cultures on Ashby’s agar, made according to Moore’s modification of Loeffler’s flagella stain, show each variety to possess two kinds of flagella. The one kind is long and delicate and in each variety appears to be produced in considerable numbers, 5-20, preceding disintegration of a cell. There seems to be a close relation- ship between these flagella and the motile gonidia which are dispersed on disentegration of a cell. See Pl. V, Figs. 2, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11,12. The other kind is comparatively short, except in the case of A,, relatively strong and stains deeper than the first mentioned kind and appears to be more permanent in character. See Pl. II, Fig. 3, and Pl. V, Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6. With A,, this second kind is long, being comparatively thick near the body of the organism and tapering to a delicate thread at the other extremity. See Pl. V, Fig. 1. The flagella, whilst they [JonEs] STUDY OF SOME AZOTOBACTER 51 are found projecting from any part of the body are most common at the poles, and vary in number from one to five or more. With the A, variety, polar tufts of flagella are common. Moist Chamber Cultures. Many moist chamber cultures were prepared in the ordinary way without any growth occurring in them. After further attempts had been made in which the conditions were changed, it was eventually found that lack of aeration in the ordinary moist chamber was the inhibiting factor. To overcome this difficulty, cell rings with an inter- ior diameter of one inch and cover glasses ;% inch wide by 24 inches long were used. The cover slip with the prepared culture on it was placed over the cell and fixed there, leaving a space of 4 inch between the edges of the cover slip and the inside wall of the cell ring on each of two sides. This gave ample aeration and when loss of moisture occurred by evaporation or in any other way, it could be made good by adding sterile water with a fine pointed pipette. In such moist chambers growth occurs readily, and the development of a colony from an indi- vidual cell can be witnessed through the oil immersion lens. Photo- micrographs of such colonies were taken as they were developing. See Pl. IV. When moist chambers are made from cultures from one to ten days old, the majority of the cells used for innoculation produce colonies. When the inoculating material is taken from older cultures there is a percentage of cells which do not reproduce, the percentage of such increasing with the age of the culture. Young cells begin to reproduce in four or five hours, older cells do not show signs of germina- ting for several days. In the case of young cells where the internal plasma is homogeneous, there is simple elongation of the cell followed by fission. Frequently, the aforementioned supposed nuclear body . is present and sometimes it can be seen to divide at the same time as the cell—fission of the two being in the same plane and simultaneous. See Pl. IV, Figs. 1 and 2. If the inoculating cells are old and granular, multiplication, when it does take place, is a phenomenon something like the germination of a spore. The cell membrane appears in some cases to rupture and from amongst the granular mass homogeneous protoplasm encased in a thin membrane emerges and a short thick rod develops. At other times, the cell enlarges, granules of the No. 1 type which may be closely packed together practically filling the cell will be slowly pushed apart, and fission of the cell ensues, each of the daughter cells retaining some of the granules. See Pl. III, Fig. 7. As multiplication continues, these granules sometimes disappear as though they are used up by the cell activities, until when the colony consists of 52 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA twenty cells or so all the cells will be filled with homogeneous proto- plasm. After two or three days, the colonies become too large to be seen entire under the oil immersion lens. At this stage, the cells become granular and some of them disintegrate as before described, and in the case of A, and A,, the organisms produce their large cap- sules. Pigment Production. The brown and black pigment characteristic of azotobacter cultures is produced apparently only when there is a lack of suitable available nutrient material, when the organisms in the area where the pigment is produced have ceased to multiply, and when the culture is aerated. In plates that are thickly seeded, the maximum growth of the colonies under such conditions is soon attained and pigment production at once begins. In plates that are thinly seeded, the maximum growth of the colonies is longer in being attained and pigment production is correspondingly deferred. If the medium is unevenly spread over the plate, the pigment production occurs early with the colonies that are situated where the medium is scant and where the medium is plentiful the pigment produc- tion by the colonies does not occur until later. If streak cultures are made on tubes of Ashby’s agar and growth is allowed to take place until pigment production is just commencing, and then some of the tubes are sealed up with wax and others left unsealed, pigment production will cease in the tubes that are sealed and continue rapidly in the tubes that are not sealed. The pigment is produced and retained within the bacterial cells, It does not occur in the capsules nor in the medium. If a preparation mounted in water is made from a pigmented colony, the mature organisms seen in clusters under the oil immersion lens present a smoky brown or black appearance, something after the appearance of the mature spores of Aspergillus niger. Staining Reactions. Of the stains tried the following four gave the best results :— 1. Saturated alcoholic solution of Gentian Violet. This stains the young homogeneous cells evenly violet; with older cells that are granular, the granules of the No. 1 type are not stained and the granules of the No. 2 type which are not always in evidence are stained. The most striking reaction of this stain is with the capsules. The capsules of young cells are negative and the organism of the centre is positive, later the organism becomes slowly negative and the capsule strongly positive. See Pl. II, Figs. 4, 5, and 6; Pl. III, Fig. 2. [JONES] STUDY OF SOME AZOTOBACTER 53 2. Neisser’s Blue. This stain has only a very faint action on the capsules but a strong action on the stainable parts of the organism. Young homogeneous cells are stained a bright blue. Granules of the No. 1 type are not stained, but granules of the No. 2 type are very strongly stained and frequently present the appearance of cocci within pus cells. 3. Saturated alcoholic solution of Rosanilin Violet. The action of this stain is very similar to that of Neisser’s blue but is a little weaker on the stainable parts of the organism and a little stronger on the capsule. 4. Safranin (Babe’s). The action is very similar to that of the Rosanilin violet. Of the other stains tried, aqueous fuchsin stains similar parts to the above, but less distinctly. Alkaline methylene blue stains similar parts but very faintly. Carbol fuchsin is unsatisfactory, staining darkly and giving no differentiation. Bismarck brown stains, but the differentiation is not good. Hematoxylin was tried a number of times, but the preparations always washed off during the process. The organ- ism is negative to Gram’s; gives the glycogen reaction with iodine- potas-iodide solution, in young cells weakly, old cells strongly, the granules of No. 1 type in the old cells being the parts giving the strongest reaction. Treatment with osmic acid never revealed any fat drops present. Temperature Relations. 25°C. gives the greatest and most rapid growth. 37°C. gives very slow growth, the organism increasing in size and changing very markedly in shape but multiplying very slowly. 20°C. growth similar to that at 25°C. but slower. O°C. very slow growth occurs. Thermal death point is between 55°-60°C. Test tubes containing 10 c.c. of Ashby’s solution inoculated sever- ally with loopful of cultures from plate colonies of each variety one week old and four weeks were heated in duplicate for ten minutes at various temperatures from 40°C. to 95°C. All cultures heated to 55°C. and under developed and grew well; all cultures heated to 60°C. and above were killed. Fixation of Atmospheric Nitrogen. Cultures of each variety in Ashby’s solution when one month old gave the nitrate reaction with the phenolsulphonic acid colorimetric 54 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA test. As the cultures get older, up to several months, there action to the test gets slightly stronger. This nitrate is retained almost. alto- gether in the bodies of the organisms. Cultures filtered through Berke‘eld filter gave only a trace of nitrate in the filtrate and a strong reaction in the mass of organisms which did not pass through the filter. The filtrate plated out showed that some of the organisms had passed through the filter. But as it took about ten days to filter enough for a test, it is possible that the organisms had grown through the filter in that time. Probably the presence of a small number of organisms in the filtrate was responsible for the trace of nitrate in the test. Mass growths on Ashby’s agar when mature gave a strong nitrate reaction. Ammonia was occasionally found when cultures were treated with Nessler’s solution, but in such cultures some contaminating denitrify- ing rod bacteria proved to be present. Nitrites have not been found in any test made. Relation to the Atmosphere. Thorough aeration is essential for growth in any culture media. In cultures sealed up after inoculation, there is no development. If later such cultures are unsealed, growth takes place. If cultures are allowed to develop a little and then are sealed up, growth ceases. Spore Formation. In an article in the Centralblatt fiir Bakteriologie, March, 1912, Prazmowski of Krakau states that spore formation is common to the Azotobacter. He says that several are produced in a cell, and that these are responsible for the irregular packet and sarcinae forms found in mature cultures. Observations of cultures of these four varieties leads to a different conclusion. The packet forms and irregular clusters appear to be formed by simple fission of the cell. They develop, so far as observed, only when there is a mass of growth and when the nutrient material is not very accessible to the cell, and when the cell is more or less hedged about by its neighbors. As already described in the case of A, and A,, clusters of cells are commonly produced by fission within a single capsule. There is a possibility that the granules of the No. 2 type, already referred to as arising from a splitting-up of the supposed nuclear body, act somewhat as gonidia spores, and that when the cell disintegrates in actively growing cultures, these gonidia de- velop into new cells, proceeding to multiply by simple fission. Possibly if these are retained in the mother cell owing to failure of the mother cell to disintegrate, they will later appear as the endospores of Praz- mowski. [JONES] STUDY OF SOME AZOTOBACTER 55 Relation to Drought. These organisms proved to be fairly resistant to drought, as some were found active on plate cultures twelve months old, that had been dried out for several months, the medium being shrunken, dried, hard and peeling off the dish in horny flakes with colonies on the surface like pieces of dried varnish and not removable from the medium. Smears, made in water on cover slips and then allowed to dry, showed living organisms present in some cases after two months, producing good cultures when dropped into flasks of Ashby’s solution. They were found to be alive in considerable numbers in a small Petri dish full of dried soil that had stood in the laboratory in front of a south window for two years. Further work with these organisms is intended. ies Vege, Hh) ae | ni € * (MGA We kee Era | d LUTT Nii; cal vi ies nm ae TA SUPER PATENT > Lan ty Whe a 4 thi tcavtel Cone Wd, lt Pizena D Ol i AD 104 ns CG sad alt cir Th ler WRI aly, bts a 0 Th va nee Penile PE ti tay PU CT #9! 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LA retry. Leer. #8. we DE pute ns : ¢ Nr PLATE IIL. Nore.—All figures uniformly magnified 1000 di., Zeiss apochromat. lens, 1-5 mm.; apert. 130, Homog. Immers., Compens Ocular 6. Figs. 1, 2,3. Smears from culture of A2, 1 day, 7 days, and 3 weeks old respec- tively, at 25°C. Stained with saturated alcoholic Gentian violet. Note the capsules in Fig. 2, fission taking place within them. Figs. 4, 5,6. Similar preparations to the above from culture of A3. Note the granulation and disintegration in Fig. 5. Figs. 7, 8, 9. Similar preparations to the above from culture of A4, except that Fig. 7 is mounted in Lugol’s solution instead of being stained. III ATAIT um &- 1 ,enol .tectordsogs aeioXN ..ib OOOL bettiagem ylomotiou zona ILA—.aro .8 tsly00 enoqmo) ..er9erml .gomoH 0&1 .iroqe -seqes1 blo 249ow & base aysb Ÿ .ysb I SA to owsluo mort etsome € $C I agi sit st0oM .tsloiv neïtnsn oilodools betewise diiw benisia .0 GS te ,ylovit todd aidtiw soelq gaites noieeñ € ail ni aolueqes adt st0V .6A to owls mort svodse odt où anoïisreqorq relié .8 (6 + agi 6 .2f1 ai coitergotaietb bas noïteluaerg jadi tqsox9 2A to owtlus mort svods odd of anoitersqorq relié 0 ,8 .Y agi .beateta gniod to bsotent noïtulos e‘logud ai betavom eï Ÿ .giT PLATE IV. Nore.—All figures are moist chamber colonies growing in Ashby’s agar at 25° C., uniformly magnified 1000 di., Zeiss apochromat. lens, 1-5 mm., Apert. 130, Homog. Immers., Compens. ocular 6. Fig. 1. Young colony of A3, 16 hours after culture was prepared. “ 2,1 Same young colony 24 hrs. after culture was prepared. « 3 “ “ “ 36 “ “ “ “ 4 “ “ “ 60 “ “ “ “ “ “ 5 “ “ “ 84 “ “ “ “ “ . “ 6. Portion of the edge of a spreading colony 4 days old; granulation and all stages of fission is represented. 7. A compact colony 4 days after culture was prepared. 8. Motile forms that were observed to break away from a colony and swim around for twenty minutes or so in water of condensation which accumulated at edge of colony; photographed when quiescent. VI ATAIT «7 CC je 1ege e‘yddeA ni yniworg esiaolos 19dmado seiom o16 eowgit [A—.aToV OEIL .d1oqZ om G-[ enol .temormloogs eeioN ..ib 000! boitingem ylortotiay .0 1slus0 .2n9qm109 ,.e1smiml .2omoH beisqeig sew owitlyoe 19318 ewod 81 .€A io yaoolos gayoY .I .gil .beieqorg esw owiluo t93is .erd RC yaoloo gavoy smea © * à à ” à» es ” à à & » . à à à à u 09 à à à } Me à » LE » » Le à » » ra à . lls bae ooijsluastg :blo eyeb + yaoloo gnibssige & 10 sgb9 sd io noijro4 8 * .boïnoeorqor ei aoizeit to aogste .borsqoiq esw ssvtluo 19318 eysb $ yuolos Jjosqmioo A FT * miwe bas yaoloo s moti yews Asord où bovrsedo s19w tedd eorsot olitoM .8 * boielumuoos doidw moitsensbaoo io 19sew oi oe 10 eotuniot yinswi 101 bawose Jussesiup modw bodqergotodg ;yaoloo to sybs is >, ™ ra we er L *; «rss + 4 ve F£, # Air toire = “ pa 4 oe SY ot > ~~ ‘ al yar . PEAY, PEATE WE Nore.—All figures uniformly magnified 1000 di., Zeiss apochromat. lens, 1-5 mm., apert..130, Homog. Immers., Compens. Ocular 6; stained according to Moore’s modification of Loeffler’s flagella stain, from cultures 24 hours at 25° C., which had been inoculated from*active cultures 6 days old. Figs: 1 and 2." Flagellated forms of A2; clusters of flagella such as in Fig. 2 appear to precede disintegration. Figs. 3, 4, 5,6. Flagellated forms of A4. Figs. 8, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12. Klagellated forms of A3; a series selected from the same smear to show production of flagellated granules (gonidia) and dissemination of these by disintegration of the mother cell. (7) A cluster of actively growing cells, the lower one of the group producing the cluster of flagella preceding disintegration. (8) Disintegration of mother cell in progress. (9) Disintegration of mother cell complete, four flagellated granules (gonidia) can be seen. (10, 11, 12) Flagellated gonidia freely motile. V ATA om 6-1 adel .temordooqs &isX ,.ib OOOL bottiagem ylorrotinu exw [A—.aToU 2'9100M où ynibioooe bonisie :9 18090 .aneqmo) roma] .xomoH 0&8! .d19qe doidw ..O °8£ te aewod £€ eowdlyo mort mise ellogeh eMail to aoïteoñibom .blo aveb 0 eowtluo ovitos sort botelusoni ased bed 189qq8 € ail ni es dove silogsh to a19taulo (SA to anrro botsilogel1 .€ bas I agi .noitergoinieib 9b9991q où AA jo ammrot boisllogel'l .0 6 4 6 .egil omse odd mort baisslse asirse & : 62 io entiot botellsgel SI II OL ,0 ,8 ,8 .egid uoitenimsezib bas (sibinog) esluaerg boisllsgeR 10 aoijouborq wode ot 169m8 Iso t9dtom odd to noitergosaicib yd seodà to gaiouborq quotg odd to 910 19wol odd ellso gaiworg yievitos to roteulo A (5) moissrgotaizib yaibsoso1q silozef to soteulo odt .eesr2o1q ni [os todtom to noïtereotnieiŒ (8) (sibiaog) 2olunsrg botsllogeh awot ,stslqmos [Iso rodiom to noïjergstaieiQ (€) .1998 od 189 liom ylost) sibinog botsllogs!1 (SE EE 01) : SE, ea ens MP Boe oe È 3 4042 3 1 CL 3 ede. : Fa PAPER N'a" a ae PA TEA etn Ne SECTION IV., 1913. [57] TRANS. R.S.C. The Diatoms of New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island. By L. W. Barrey, LL.D. (Read May 28, 1913) So far as known to the writer very little study has as yet been given to the Diatoms of any part of Canada. It is at least certain that, so far as eastern Canada and the maritime Provinces are concerned, there were, prior to the year 1910, exceedingly few published references to the subject. Probably the earliest of these was a short list of species from Halifax, N.S., given by the late Prof. J. W. Bailey in the Smithsonian Contributions for 1853. Ten years later the writer published in the Bulletin of the Natural History Society of New Brunswick a paper on the Diatoms of the Kennebecasis River, N.B., giving a list of about sixty species. In 1908 Dr. J. G. Baxter gave several short lists of forms, observed by him in the vicinity of Chatham, N.B., and in 1897 Dr. A. H. Mackay published in the Proceedings of the Nova Scotia Institute of Science a list of nearly one hundred species found in the Infusorial earths or Tripolite deposits of that Province. Still later, in 1907, the same author published, in the ‘“‘Contributions” of the Marine Biological Stations of Canada, a list of about seventy species observed by him at Canso, N.S.; but so far as New Brunswick was concerned no advance beyond what is stated above was made until the year 1910. About this time the Atlantic Biological station became permanently located at St. Andrews, N.B., and having, in connection with his duties there, become attracted by the opportunities offered for Diatom collection, he was led to resume a study previously neglected for nearly fifty years. The desirability and the results of the investigations thus originated will be evident when it is stated that whereas, prior to 1910, the total number of forms recorded from New Brunswick was not more than seventy, the list of identified species is now between three and four hundred. In view of these investigations having embraced the entire sea-board of New Brunswick, together with that of Prince Edward Island, while the results have been published only in the Bulletins of the local Natural History Society, the writer has thought that it would not be out of place to give to these results, in a condensed form, the wider circulation afforded by the publications of the Royal Society, and thus enlist the interest of others in this interesting subject. In the carrying on of his investigations, the writer has had, in addition to the aid afforded by the Biological station and its staff, the 58 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA assistance, more particularly in the indentification of species, of Dr. A. H. Mackay, of Halifax, and Mr. Oliver Kendall, Jr., of Providence, R.I., both special and successful students of Diatoms. The literature available on the writer’s part for the work embraces all the early writings of Prof. J. W. Bailey, of West Point, N.Y., the earliest student of Diatoms in America; Smith’s British Diatoms; Van Heurck’s Diatoms of Belgium; Wolle’s Diatoms of North America; Gran’s Nordisches Plankton; Schmidt’s Atlas der Diatomaceen-Kunde; the ‘‘Diatomiste,”’ the Journals of the Microscopical Society of London and Pritchard’s Infusoria, besides somewhat numerous papers by Mann, Cleve. Walker- Arnott, Greville, Gregory, Edwards, Lewis and others. He has also had the advantage of possessing many slides, drawings and descriptions prepared by the late Prof. J. W. Bailey, representing in many cases the original types from which a large number of forms, first named and described by him or by Ehrenberg, were derived. As Diatoms, like other plants, are directly affected by their environ- ment, it is proposed in this paper first to give some account of the physical conditions which characterize the region from which the col- lections were made, and secondly to give a classified list of the forms so far observed, with critical notes upon the latter. It would seem at first that a natural division might be made between fresh water and salt water forms. But practically this is impossible. For while of course typically marine genera, such as Coscinodiscus, Triceratium, Biddulphia, &e., are not to be found in fresh-water lakes and ponds, they are nevertheless found in the rivers many miles from the sea, while on the other hand, such forms as Navicula viridis, Stawroneis phenicenteron, Cocconeis Placentula, Epithemia turgida, Nitschia sigmoidea, Synedra ulna and many others, ordinarily regarded as fresh- water forms, not only occur in the brackish waters of estuaries, but also in purely salt waters at many points along the coast. The late Rev. William Smith, in his classical work on the British Diatomaccæ, says that these ‘inhabit the sea or fresh water, but the species peculiar to the one are never found in the living state in the other locality, though there are some which prefer a medium of a mixed nature, and are only to be met with in water more or less brackish’; but these views are cetainly not in accordance with the facts as observed in New Brunswick, as they have also been shown to be incorrect in other parts of America. The late Prof. Bailey, of West Point, found marine Diatoms in Lake Monroe, Florida, two hundred miles from the sea and on the Hudson at a distance of nearly one hundred miles, while in New Brunswick the writer has found such forms as Doryphora Boeckii, Triceratium alternans Grammatophora marina and Coscinodiscus eccentricus at points from ten to fifteen miles above the mouth of the St. John river. Navicula [BAILEY ] THE DIATOMS OF NEW BRUNSWICK 59 didyma occurs alike in St. John Harbor and at the mouth of the Nerepis, ten or twelve miles inland from the latter. The conditions, other than those of salinity, which affect the distribution of Diatoms are, in New Brunswick as elsewhere, depth and purity of the waters containing them, the temperature of the latter, the abundance or scarcity of ordinary Algae, and the existence or other- wise of powerful tidal currents. In all these respects a contrast may be noticed between the two coasts, southern and northern, along which most of the collections have been made. The Southern or Bay of Fundy coast of New Brunswick is almost everywhere bordered by high bluffs of very hard crystalline rocks, the ledges at the base of which are thickly mantled with Fucus and other littoral forms of marine alge. The water is usually deep quite to the base of the bluffs and beaches are of rare occurrence. Tidal pools, however, are not uncommon, and these serve to protect their contents during the interval between the ebb and flow. Passamaquoddy Bay, near which the Biological Station has been established, and where many collections were made, is separated from the main body of the Bay of Fundy by a chain of islands, but excepting these and the larger islands of Campo Bello and Grand Manan, few islands are to be met with. The tide about the mouth of the bay and in Passamaquoddy is subject to a rise and fall of about twenty feet and here the tidal currents are of great force and rapidity, but at St. John the change is about thirty feet, while at the head of the Bay, the change varies from forty to sixty feet. The waters throughout most of the Bay are quite clear and free of sediment, but towards the head become very turbid with suspended mud derived from the softer rocks which there border it. Everywhere the waters are very cold though somewhat warmer in Passamaquoddy Bay than in the Bay of Fundy outside. The rivers which debouche into the main bay have something of the character of fiords, but with the exception of the St. John they have no great volume. The St. John is unique from the fact that there is a barrier at its mouth, which by damming the tide, causes an inward fall and flow, of which the effect is felt for some eighty or ninety miles above its outlet. The conditions for the study of estuarine forms are here, therefore, unsur- passed. On the other hand the so called ‘North Shore” of the Province is almost everywhere low. The adjacent waters are shallow, often for considerable distances from the actual shore-line; islands and sand bars, shutting in lagoons, are of common occurrence; large tracts are occupied by growths of eel grass (Zostera) ; the rise and fall of the tide does not exceed five or six feet, and through the summer months the temperature is quite high. Tidal currents are feeble, while the Sec. IV, 1913—4 60 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA rivers which drain the adjacent land, such as the Miramichi and Nepisiquit, are not only of considerable size and volume, but expand near their mouths into broad bays. Owing to the easy disintegration of the comparatively soft rocks which border much of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the bottom is usually sandy, and the waters more or less muddy and opaque. This latter condition is somewhat un- favourable for collecting, but the Diatoms of the North Shore are both more numerous and more varied than those of the Bay of Fundy, and this fact, in connection with the comparative warmth of the waters, has doubtless had something to do with the profuse growth and high quality of the oysters for which portions of this coast are famous. These are wholly absent from the Bay of Fundy. In Prince Edward Island the conditions are more nearly like those of the north shore of New Brunswick than those of the Bay of Fundy. Low bluffs form many portions of the coast, but the waters near the latter are generally shallow, while there are numerous long arms of the sea, generally known locally as rivers, which extend far into the interior of the island and in one instance almost bisects it. In these there is generally an abundant growth of zostera and other aquatic plants, and in association with these the growth of Diatoms is abundant. The waters are comparatively warm, there is but moder- ate tidal change or movement, and marine mollusca, such as clams and oysters, are common and of the best quality. In the several regions examined the collection consisted of harbor muds, obtained by the use of a special sounding apparatus, scrapings from wharves and the piers of bridges and buoys, while in deeper waters plankton gatherings. were made by the use of silken tow-nets. To these were added a variety of forms obtained from tidal pools, as also others derived from the stomachs of fishes, mollusca and Echinoderms. The collections are by no means exhaustive, es- pecially as regards the Bay of Fundy, but having been obtained from a large number of points, may be regarded as fairly representative of the Diatom-flora of this part of America. The gatherings were in most instances cleaned'by the use of nitric and sulphuric acids and chlorate of potash, and were studied both in the dry state and as mounted in styrax or balsam. For details of distribution reference may be made to the Bulletins of the New Brunswick Natural History Society (Vol. VI—1910-1911). “Infusorial Earths’ or ‘‘Tripolites’” occur at a number of points in New Brunswick, and the species found in them are included in the systematic list which follows. No such deposits have as yet been reported from Prince Edward Island. [BAILEY] THE DIATOMS OF NEW BRUNSWICK 61 Diatoms of New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island. Synopsis. CLASS CRYPTOG AMIA SUB-CLASS ALG NATURAL ORDER DIATOMACEZÆ RAPHIDIEZÆ. Family 1. Amphora ovalis-Kutz affinis-Kutz lanceolata—Ehr. rimosa gastroides-K. cuspidata-K. heteroplenia—Kg. a Ehrenbergii-Kg. Cocconema lanceolatum—Ehr. : cistula—Ehr. Encyonema ventricosum—K. coespitosum-K. Cymbella “ Family 2. Mastogloia Smithu—Thw. elliptica—Ag. apiculata exigua—Lewis lanceolata-S.B.D. acuta—W.S. anceps-Ehr. : Baileyi—Ehr. a salina—W.S. phoenicenteron-Ehr. À pulchella—W.S. obliqua spicula—Dickie aspera Navicula acuta amphisboena—Borg. humerosa—Breb. Navicula bombus-Schm. “ nodosa—Ehr. “ Cymbelleae. Amphora costata—W.S. 4 obtecta-H.L.s. 5 salina—W.S. Cymbella Cistula-Hem. lanceolata-Kutz Colletonema subcoherens-Thw. < eximium Naviculee. Navicula amphigomphus-Ehr. acrosphenia—Kg.—Kg. amphirhynchus aspera—Keg. cuspidata—K. cyprinus-Ehr. dactylus-Keg. directa 3 distans—A.S8. a didyma—Kutz. discremens-Kg. elegans—W.S. elliptica—Kutz. forcipata-Grev. gigas-Ko. = Hennedyi-W.S. viridis-Kutz major-Kutz maculata—Bail 62 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Navicula ovalis—W.S. “___ humerosa-Breb. = divergens-Ralfs. “__ liber-W.$. “ permagna-Bail convexa “ peregrina—K. “ Baileyana—Grun. pelagi-A.8. stauroneiformis—Lewis Jennerii acrospheria—Kg. firma—Kg. semen—Kutz “ — Smithii-Ag. polyonca-Breb. palpebralis-Breb. radiosa—Ke. Lyra-Schm. brevis—Greg. marina bilobata Pleurosigma Aestuarii-W.S. : angulatum—W.S. a attenuatum—W.S. É Balticum—W.S. - fasciola-W.S. * strigilis—W.S. pulchrum-Grun. Schizonema crucigerum—W.S. ÿ Grevillei-Ag. “ « - ee AR vulgare Plagiotropis vitrea-Grun. Amphiprora alata-Kutz ca ornata Bail. decussata—Grun. lepidoptera—Bail. conserta Rhoicosphenia curvata—Grun. “ “ “ ramossissimum—Ehr. Navicula mesolepta-Ehr. i nobilis-Ehr. formosa-Greg. ‘ardinalis-Ehr. rhyncocephala-Ktz. serians—Breb. sillimanorum + trinodis-$.B.D. tumescens-Grun. viridis-Kg. longa-Ralfs. granulata—Breb. . producta—W.S. . rhomboides-Ehr. interrupta cruciata-Cleve ag Smithii-Ag. minuscula Pleurosigma strigosum—W.S. pulchrum-Grun. macrum " elongatum—W.S. # delicatulum—W.S. 6 obscurum—W.S. < spenceri-W.S$. “ acuminatum hippocampus-W.S$. formosum-W.8. affinis decorum . angulatum—W.S. Amphipleura pellucida-Kutz sigmoidea—W.S. Amphiprora paludosa—W.S. [BAILEY] THE DIATOMS OF NEW BRUNSWICK Family 3. Gomphonemeae. Gomphonema acuminatum—Ehr. Gomphonema constrictum-Ehr. capitatum-Ehr. = geminatum—Ag, “ angustatum marinum 5 exiguum Family 4. Acnanthee. Acnanthes brevipes-Ag. Acnanthes subsessilis-Kutz 3 longipes—Ag. Family 5. Cocconeide. Cocconcis scutellum—Ehr. Cocconcis pediculus-Ehr. “ “ placentula—Ehr. pseudo-marginata-Greg. disrupta-Greg. “ PsEUDO—RAPHIDIE. Family 6. Fragillarie. Epithemia argus—W.S. Licmophora Lyngboei-G. 4 gibba-Kutz F flabellata—Ag. i Hyndmaniu-W.S. tincta-Grun. e musculus—Kutz turgida—Ehr. Fragillaria capucina—Des. > zebra—Ehr. Harrisonii—Grun. 5 ventricosa ° virescens=Kaltz. Pacifica? Grev. Eunotia monodon—Ehr. construens—Grun. L diodon-Ehr. < tetraodon—Ehr. Diatoma tenue—Ag. diadema z: hyemale-Lyn. major-Rab. pectinalis incisa—Greg. @ lunaris—V.H. Plagiogramma Gregorianum-Grev. Fe a decussatum Raphoneis amphiceros-Kutz. : Boeckii-W.S. 64 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Himantidium arcus—W.S. majus.—W.S. gracile-Ehr. Asterionella formosa-Hass. = Berkeleyi? x pectinale Synedra ulna-Ehr. ‘ bidens “ undulata-Bail. fa undulatum “« yadians—W.S. « salina—W.S. “ — Junaris-Ehr. “« ~ longissima—W.S. “ pulchella-Kg. Rhiphidophora “ acus—Kg. “sigma “ biceps “ longissima—W.S. “ acuta—Ehr. “ — robusta-Ralfs. Family 7. Tabellarie. Tabellaria fenestrata—Kutz. Odontidium Harrisonii L flocculosa—Kutz. 4 mesodon—Kutz Grammatophora marma-K. i mutabile-S. B.D. ¢ serpentina—Ehr. K Tabellaria—W.J. : stricta-Ehr. € hyemale—K.B. Striatella unipunctata—Ag. Climacosphenia curvata Rhabdonema Adriaticum—Kutz. : clongata—Bail. 3 arcuatum-K. Meridion circulare—Ag. minutum-K. “ intermedium-H.L.S8. Family 8. Surirelleac. Cymatopleura apiculata—W.S. Campylodiscus bifurcatus—A.8. 4 tumida Ê parvulus-W.S. 4 latistriata = Thuretii os argus—Bail. Surirella biseriata—W.S. % cribrosus-W.S. “ elegans-Ehr. i Echineis-Ehr. “ constricta spiralis-W.S. “ Febigerii-Lewis à Ralfsii-W.S. “ gemma-Ehr. Hodgsonii-W.S. “ intermedia-Lewis Bacillaria paradoxa-Gmel. Mollerianum-Grun [BAILEY] THE DIATOMS OF NEW BRUNSWICK Surirella ovata-Kutz Nitschia bilobata—W.S. “__ splendida-Kutz. OT dubia striatula-Turp. “ circumsuta—Bail. ovalis-Breb. closterium cruciata—A.S. Febigerii—Grun. crumena—Breb. Hungarica-Grun. “ Brightwelli-W.S. “__ Jinearis?-W$. minuta-Breb. longissima-Ralfs. * craticula-Ehr. “ plana-W.S. Tryblionella scutellum—W.S. “ sealaris-W.S. i. gracilis-W.S. “ sigma—W.S. “ coarctata Nitschia Tryblionella-Han. vermicularis-Han. punctata-Sm. sigmoidea—W.S. angularis-S.B.D. granulata-Grun. paradoxa-Grun. “ thermalis-Grun. = Vhittoralis “ constricta? “~~ levidensis—W.S. “ lanceolata-S.B.D. “ vitrea-T.M.S8. “ seutellum-$.B.D. “gracilis “ spectabilis-Ralfs. Cymatopleura scutellum ss apiculata—W.S. Homeecladia filiformis—W.S. sigmoidea-Ehr. striata-Ehr. a capitata—H.L.S. CRYPTO—RAPHIDIEA. Family 9. Chetoceree. Rhizosolenia setigera—Br. styliformis-Br. Syndendrium diadema-Grev.' Chætoceros didymus-Ehr. boreale—Bail. decipiens—Cleve. dicladia Ditylum chryophyllum-Cast. Family 10. Melosiree. Melosira nummuloides-Ktz. Skeletonema costatum-Grev. “ Borerii-Grev. granulata-Ralfs. “ 65 66 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Melosira distans-W.S$. orichalcea-Ken. sulcata-Ehr. varians—Ag. F subflexilis-Kutz. Jurghensii—Ag. marina Family 11. ROUE aurita—Breb. Baileyi-W.S. - d Roperiana-Grev. rhombus-Ehr. pulchella- Gr. leevis—Ehr. Family 12. Eupodisceæ. Auliscus cœlatus-Ball. “ ~~ sculptus—Ralfs. Family 13. Heliopelte. Actinoptychus undulatus—Kutz. À subtilis-Greg. cs planus Family 14. Coscinodiscee. Hyalodiscus subtilis-Bail. Cy Fo compta—Kg. Kutzingiana-Thw. Meneghiniana-Ke. striata-Thw. « « Actinocyclus crassus-W.$. Coscinodiscus oculus-iridis . Americana a s centralis—Ehr. À concinnus—W.S. id “ relatus Biddulphee. Triceratium alternans—Ehr. sculptum ?-Sehad. Isthmia enervis—Ehr. - nervosa-$.B.D. Coscinodiscus asteromphalus—Ehr. eccentricus—Ehr. lineatus—Grun. marginatus—K.B. minor—Ehr. minutus radiatus-Grun. subtilis-Ehr. nitidus-Gray. pellucida-Grun. griseus-Grev. concavus- Grev. Pyxidicula compressa—Bail. Stephanodiscus Niagaree—Ehr. [BAILEY] THE DIATOMS OF NEW BRUNSWICK 67 NOTES ON THE MORE IMPORTANT GENERA. (ARRANGED ALPHABETICALLY). ACNANTHES.—Of the three species observed A. longipes is much the most abundant, and is found at most stations both along the Bay of Fundy coast and that of the North Shore—also in Prince Edward Island. ActinoprycHus.—No diatom is more commonly met with than this, alike in each of the several districts compared. It exhibits also great diversity of dimensions, varying, as seen with a {th inch objective, from an apparent size of a five cent piece up to that of a quarter of a dollar. The other two species—(A. subtilis and A. planus) are very rare. ActinocycLus.—This genus, as represented by A. crossus, has been found at two localities in New Brunswick and two in Prince Edward Island, but is rare in both. AMPHIPLEURA.—Two species occur, vizt., Am. pellucida Kutz and Am. sigmoidea— W.S., both in the Kennebecasis and the latter at St. Martin and Chatham. AMPHIPRORA.—This genus is represented by six species, as listed, but of these one only (A. alata, Kutz), is at all common. Owing to the delicacy and transparency of the frustule they are readily overlooked. A. ornata Bail and A. lepidoptera Bail are rare forms. A. paludosa is from P.E. Island. AMPHORA.—This genus is represented by six species of which A. ovalis, Kutz, is the only one of common occurrence. It is also more common about the Bay Chaleur than elsewhere. A. rimosa has been found at Souris, P.E.I. ASTERIONELLA.—A freshwater species (A. formosa—Hass) occurs in the waters of Chamcook Lake, and a marine form (believed to be As. Berkeley’) was found in large numbers in certain plankton gatherings from the Bay of Fundy. Au.iscus.—Represented, and that only rarely, by Aw. sculptus—Ralf, found in the - Bay Chaleur, and Au. spinosus? at Shippegan. Au. celatus occurs in P. E. Island. BactLLaria.—This is a typically estuarine genus, and clusters of B. paradoxa Gmel. illustrating its peculiar movements, were observed in the lower parts of the St. John river as well as on the North Shore at Bathurst, Dalhousie, and other points. It has not been noticed on Prince Edward Island. BipputpuH1a.—Of the four species of this genus, as listed, B. aurita—Breb., is much the most common, being found, and sometimes in large numbers, in nearly every gathering whether from the Bay of Fundy or from Prince Edward Island—B. Mobilensis or B. Baileyi, while not usually found in littoral gatherings, is often met with in those of deeper and clearer waters. It is a typically planktonic species and sometimes occurs almost to the exclusion of everything else. B. rhombus-Ehr., is much more rare. B. pulchella has been observed at Souris P.E.I., and B. lacvis at Newcastle, N.B., and Souris, P.E.I. CALONEIS SCHUMINIANA-Lewis. Very rare. As yet on North Shore only. CampyLopiscus.—This interesting genus is represented in this region by at least six species. C.cribrosus, W. Sm, is the most common, especially on the north Shore. It has not been observed in the Bay of Fundy, but occurs in the brackish waters of the lower St. John, and also P.E. Island. The other species listed are also from the North Shore—but are rare. Some undetermined forms of the genus have also been met with. The rare species Campylodiscus Thuretii was found at Souris, P.E.I. Cua@toceros.—This is the most characteristic and by far the most abundant of the typically planktonic genera. Its most common species, Ch. decipiens- 68 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Cleve., occurs in vast numbers in the waters of Passamaquoddy Bay and the Bay of Fundy, and, though less commonly, in those of the Bay Chaleur and of Charlottetown Harbour, P.E.I. Ch. boreale, Ch. didymus and Ch. chryo- phyllum also occur, but more sparingly. The forms known formerly as Dicla- dia capreolus have been observed in the Bay of Fundy, but it is now thought probable that these are sporangial forms of Chætoceros. The genus is one as to the synonymy and relationships of which much uncertainty still exists. CLIMACOSPHENIA.—Only two species have been observed, each from one locality only, vizt., Richibucto and Campbelton. Cocconnts.—This is a very abundant genus, found in all marine and estuarine gatherings. The most common species is C. scutellum, which was found in almost every locality examined, but in individuals it is exceeded by C. Placentula, which in several gatherings about Campo Bello Island was found in groups or clusters of one hundred or more. C. pediculus is much less common. CoccoNnrEMA.—This genus is chiefly represented by C. lanceolatum-Ehr. Like its associate, C. Cistula-Ehr., it is usually regarded as a fresh water species and is found in Chamcook and other lakes; but it has also been found in the brackish waters of the lower St. John as well as the salt waters of Chatham and Newcastle. CoLLETONEMA.—Of the two species representing this genus, one, vizt., C. subcoherens- Thw., has been found both in the Bay of Fundy and about Chatham and Bath- urst, clustered in considerable numbers. C. eximium has so far been observed only at Shippegan in the Bay Chaleur, and the harbor of Charlottetown, P.E.I. Coscinopiscus.—This conspicuous genus has so far afforded about twenty distinct species. Of these the most common are Cos. asteromphalus-Ehr., C. radiatus— Grun., and C. eccentricus-Ehr. In the Plankton collections about the lower part of the Bay of Fundy these are exceedingly abundant and often of very large size, while they are also common on the North Shore and in the harbors of Prince Edward Island. The others named in the classified list are much more rare. C. oculus-iridis—Gr., is probably identical with C. asteromphalus. Though the genus is essentially marine, it is rather common and represented by several species in the freshened waters of Kennebecasis Bay. CoscINODISCUS CONCINNUS.—Is not uncommon in the water of Charlottetown Harbor, P.E.I., but owing to the very large size of the valves and their fragile character, chemical treatment almost invariably leaves them in a fragmen- tary condition. The radial divisions and marginal spines or dots are usually evident. CycLoTELLA.—Four species have been observed, mainly in estuarine gatherings, from the northern and southern shores, and especially in the waters of Kenne- becasis Bay. C. compta-Kg., and C. striata-Thw., are the most common. CyMATOPLEURA.—Observed as C. apiculata-W.S., at one locality only, on the Kennebecasis, and also as Cy. scutellum, Cy. elliptica was found at Camp- belton. Cy. tumida and Cy. litistriata occur on P.E. Island. CyMBELLA.—The most common species is Cy. cuspidata found in the St. John river and at several points on the North Shore. The other four species listed are rare. Dirytum.—l’orms closely resembling those of Ditylum Brightwellii—Bail., were found in the Plankton of the Bay of Fundy. Dickiga.—The single species D. pinnata-Ralfs., has been found at several points on the North Shore, but not elsewhere. ENCYoNEMA.—Found as C. cæspitosum and C. ventricosum in the lower St. John River and at Campbelton, but is rare. / [BAILEY] THE DIATOMS OF NEW BRUNSWICK 69 Draroma.—The two species, D. tenuis-Ag., and D. hyemale-Lyng., are freshwater forms, but occur in the brackish waters of the Kennebecasis. D. hyalinum occurs at Richibucto. EpITHEMIA.—Seven species have been observed. All but one, Æ. hyndmani, occur in the brackish waters of the Kennebecasis while the latter, together with Æ. turgida, E. gibba, E. musculus and E. zebra are common on the North Shore. E. ventricosa occurs in St. John Harbor. Æ. zebra, E. turgida and E. gibba are found in Summerside Harbor, P.E.I. Eunorra.—This is a fresh water genus, but five of the species listed were observed in the brackish waters of the Kennebecasis. These are Hu. lunaris, Eu. monodon, E. diodon, E. major and E. pectinalis, while E. tetraodon is found in quite salt water at Bathurst, Newcastle and Campbelton. Eu. diadema was observed at Bathurst. The genus is very rare in the waters of P.E. Island. FRAGILLARIA.—The species of this genus found in the district under review are F. capucina, F.construens, F. virescens—Ralfs., and F. Harrisonii-Grun., the first at several points around the Bay Chaleur, the second in infusorial deposits, the last two at northern points. A form doubtfully referred to F. pacifica- Grun., was found in the brackish waters of the Kennebecasis. GOMPHONEMA.—The four species listed are all freshwater forms, and occur, quite abundantly, in ponds and lakes, but G. acwminatum was also found in the brackish waters of the Kennebecasis and of the Miramichi river at Nelson. G. constrictum was found also in brackish waters at Nelson, Bathurst and New- castle. G. geminatum—Ag., occurs in the Kennebecasis and lower St. John, while C. capitatum, with one exception (at Nelson) is confined to fresh water. All four species abound in infusorial earths. Himantipium.—Four species occur, all of which are found in fresh water ponds and lakes, as well as in infusorial deposits; but H. arcus and H. majus were also found in brackish water at Richibucto and H. undulatum.W.$., in the lower St. John. H. pectinale and H. bidens have also been observed. GRAMMATOPHORA.—Two species, G. marina—Kutz., and G. serpentina—Ehr., occur on both shores of New Brunswick, the first being the most common of the two. G. stricta has been observed at several points in Prince Edward Island, and on the North Shore of New Brunswick, but is comparatively rare. Homazc.iapia.—H. filiformis-W. $S., has been observed in the Kennebecasis and at several points in the Bay Chaleur, while H. sigmoidea is especially abundant in the North Shore Harbors of Richibucto, Chatham, Bathurst, &e. H. capitata has been observed only in Passamaquoddy Bay. Hya.opiscus.—One only species, H. subtilis, has been observed. It occurs both in Passamaquoddy Bay and in the Kennebecasis and again at Richibucto, Chatham, and other northern stations and on P.E. Island. The forms are generally small. IstHm1A.—Two species only and these rare. J. nervosa was found in pure sea water in and about Passamaquoddy and Campo Bello; Æ. enervis-Ehr., also at Campo Bello and the lower part of the St. John river. Neither has been seen on the North Shore, but Æ. nervosa occurs in the waters of Prince Edward Island. LicmopHora.—L. Lyngbei-G., has been gathered in brackish water at Matthew’s Cove onthe Kennebecasis, L. flabellata at Richibucto and L. tincta at Shippegan, on the Bay Chaleur. The genus is not easily distinguished from Podosphenia and Rhipidophora. 70 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA MasroGLora.—M. Smithii-Thw., and M. elliptica-Ag., occur in the Kennebecasis but are rare. Several specimens of M. exigua were found in the brackish waters of the Kennebecasis and also at Shippegan. Metosira.—This is probably the most generally distributed and most abundant of all Diatoms, representatives in large numbers being found in nearly all gatherings. M. varians occurs in the fresh waters of Chamcookand other lakes, but also at many points on the coasts. M. numm uloides is found at all coastal points and also in the lower St. John and Kennebecasis. M. Borerii is less common as are the other species listed. Meripion.—T wo species occur. M. circulare is common in lakes, ponds and brooks and is a fresh water form. M. intermedium occurs in the Kennebecasis and in the Bay Chaleur. Navicuza.—Of this prolifie genus not less than fifty species have been identified with a fair degree of certainty. N. viridis, more commonly known as Pinnu- laria viridis, is very common in fresh water gatherings as also in infusorial earths, but it is also frequently found in the brackish waters of the lower St. John and even in distinctly salt water along the coast, being probably floated out from adjacent streams. With it are found, but less commonly, Nav. major Kutz. N. ovalis and N. elliptica are widely distributed, both being probably varieties of N. Smithit. N. didyma occurs at many points, but only in salt water. N. maculata-Edwards (—Stauroneis maculata,—Bail) occurs in consider- able abundance in the brackish water of the Kennebecasis and again at several points on the Bay Chaleur. It is interesting as showing a wide distribution, the species having been found first by J. W. Bailey in Florida. N. peregrina oceurs both in the Kennebecasis, Passamaquoddy Bay and points on the north shore. N. nodosa occurs at Chatham, and P. permagna-Bail. in the Kenne- becasis, as well as about the Bay Chaleur. P. peregrina-K., though not com- mon, is found at widely separated points, such as Passamaquoddy Bay, Chatham, Newcastle and Campbelton. P. polyonca is noticeable for its rarity, one spe- cimen only, but a very typical one, having been obtained from the fresh waters of Chamcook Lake. Several species, such as N. firma, N. semen, N. radiosa, N. Sillimanorum, N. granulata, N. producta, N. longa, N. Baileyana, and N. Americana-Ehr., have as yet been found only about the Bay Chaleur. JN. viridis, N. Brebisonii, N. rhyncocephala, N. amphigamphus, N. firma, N. dilatata, N. dactylus and N.mesolepta are found in infusorial earths. N. Lyra has been found at several points on the north shore of New Brunswick and on the coasts of P.E. Island. N.humerosa is common in the waters of Souris and Summerside, P.E.I. Nitscu1a.—This genus, like Navicula, is a very prolific one—not less than thirty species having been observed. Of these probably the most generally distri- buted is N. sigmoidea, being found in Passamaquoddy Bay, St. John Harbor and the Kennebecasis as well as nearly all the North Shore stations. JN. vermicularis is almost equally common, but mainly on the North Shore. N. Tryblionella is of less frequent occurrence yet found both in the Kennebecasis and at several points on the Bay Chaleur. The same is true of N. scalaris—W.5., and of N. circumsuta-Bail, and N. bilobata-W.S., the latter ranging all the way from Passamaquoddy Bay to Campbelton, while also found in the St. John river twelve miles above its mouth, and in infusorial deposits. N. closterium has been obtained both from Passamaquoddy Bay, St. John Harbor and several north shore points. N. longissima has a similar wide range, but is much more common in the water of the Gulf and about P.E. Island than those of the Bay of Fundy. The other species listed are all of rare occurrence. [BAILEY] THE DIATOMS OF NEW BRUNSWICK 71 Opontip1uM—Four species occur in New Brunswick waters, but excepting O. mutabile-S.B.D., and O. hyemale found in the Kennebecasis, they are confined to north shore points, and are of infrequent occurrence. PLaciorropis.—This genus is represented by the single species Pl. vitrea—Grun, which was found at St. Martin on the southern coast and at several points on the Bay Chaleur. It is rather common in the harbors of Charlottetown, Sum- merside and Souris, P.E.I. PLAGIOGRAMMA.—The species Plag. Gregorianum has been found at Malpeque and Charlottetown, P.E.I. but has not yet been observed in New Brunswick waters. PLEUROSIGMA.—This genus, also known as Gyrosigma, has many species, of which some are found in most gatherings. Pl. attenuatum-W$., and Pl. spenceri- W.S., are fresh water forms, both being found in Chamcook Lake and in infusor- ial deposits, but also in Passamaquoddy Bay. P. Baltium is a common and conspicuous form, occurring in the St. Croix River and Passamaquoddy Bay and again at most north shore points. It abounds in the waters about Prince Edward Island. Pl. fasciola-W.S., probably comes next both in range and in abundance, being found at the same points as P. Balticum, but only in salt or brackish waters. The other species listed are less common, and mostly confined to the salt waters of Passamaquoddy Bay. Five species, including some of the above, are found in the brackish waters of the lower St. John, and nine about the shores of Prince Edward Island. PoposPHENIA.—In the absence of stipes it is not easy to distinguish the species of this genus from those of Rhipidophora, but it is believed that both P. Jurghensii and P. Lyngboei are represented among the New Brunswick Diatoms, both occurring in salt waters at Campbelton. PyxipicuLa.—One species only, vizt., Pyx. compressa—Bail., has so far been observed. It was found at Matthew’s Cove on the Kennebecasis in slightly brackish water, but is rare. Also in salt water at Campbelton, and the harbors of Prince Edward Island. RaAPHONEIS.—This genus, also known as Doryphora, has, in the region here considered, two species, viz., R. Bæœckii and R. amphiceros-Kutz. The former is the more common and is of frequent occurrence on the North Shore. Though naturally marine, it is found abundantly in the Kennebecasis even at consider- able distances from the sea. R. amphiceros, though more rare, has the same distribution. RHABDONEMA.—The species of this genus, which are here three in number, are confined to salt water. Rh. arcuatum-K.., is found in nearly all marine gather- ings, often in filaments. Rh. Adriaticum is much less common and so far known only from the North Shore. Rh. minutum was observed in St. John Harbor and Malpeque, P.E.I. RuIPIDOPHORA.—Several specimens, believed to be of this genus, have been obtained in the waters about Passamaquoddy Bay, but the species was undetermined— As stated in connection with Podosphenia they are not easily distinguished from forms of that genus. RHIZOSOLENIA.—This is peculiarly a plankton genus and is represented by two species, Rh. styliformis and Rh. setigera. The former occurs abundantly, along with other plankton forms, in the waters about the lower part of the Bay of Fundy, also at Bathurst and around the shores of Prince Edward Island. Rh. styliformis—Br., was found at Newcastle. RHOICOSPHENIA.—Rh. curvata—Grun., occurs in the Kennebecasis; also at Chatham and several northern points, as well as Charlottetown, P.E.I. 72 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA ScoLtiopLeuRA.—Found, as Sc. tumida, only once, in waters of Passamaquoddy Bay. Scu1zoNeMA.—Three species occur, but are rare, two, viz., Sch. crucigerum-WS., and Sc. Grevillei having been found in Passamaquoddy Bay, while Sc. ramosis- simum—Ehr., was found in the Kennebecasis. The genus is essentially marine. SKELETONEMA.—This is another plankton genus, found only in salt water. It occurs rather abundantly in the waters about the Western Isles, near Passa- maquoddy Bay, and was also obtained in the harbor of Summerside, P.E.I. The species is Sk. costatum. STAURONEIS.—This genus is by many regarded as inseparable from that of Navicula, but the writer prefers to regard it as distinct. Of its species St.phanicenteron is the most common, and is frequent in fresh water collections and in infusorial deposits. Though naturally fresh, however, it occurs in the brackish waters of the Kennebecasis, and not infrequently in and about the harbors of the northern coast. St. obliqua and S. spicula—Dickie, were found in Passa- maquoddy Bay; the others, but only rarely, along the North Shore. St. gracilis was observed at Bedeque, P.E.I. S. aspera is very common in the waters of Charlottetown and Souris, P.E.I. STRIATELLA.—The single species S. unipunctata-Ag., is usually found in marine gatherings, but also in the brackish waters of Kennebecasis Bay. STEPHANODISCUS.—Found only, as S. Niagare-Ehr., in the salt waters of St. John Harbor. STEPHANOPYXIS.—A single specimen, of undetermined species, was obtained at Benjamin River—on the Bay Chaleur. SyNDENDRIUM.— This curious genus has been found, as Sy. diadema-—Gr., in Passama- quoddy Bay and at several points around the Bay Chaleur, but is very rare in all. SURIRELLA.—This beautiful genus has a large representation in the Diatom flora of the maritime Provinces. In New Brunswick not less than eighteen species have been obtained, of which eleven have been found in Newcastle Harbor alone. SS. striatula Turp., occurs in most of the northern stations and also in the Kennebecasis. Next in abundance and wide distribution is, perhaps, the species S. ovata-Kutz., followed closely by S. Mollerianum-Grun. S. splendida—Kutz., usually regarded as a fresh water form, occurs in the brackish waters of the Kennebecasis, and also in salt waters at Richibucto, Chatham, and Newcastle. The others listed are comparatively rare. S. ovata-Kutz. and S. Brightwellii, brackish water species, were found at Souris, P.E.I. S. splendida and S. biseriata-W $., ‘occur in “infusorial earths.” SyNEDRA.—The most common species is S. ulna-Ehr. It is naturally a fresh water form and is common in all ponds and lakes, but it was also found in the Kenne- becasis, St. John Harbor and all of the localities on the North Shore, notwith- standing the saltness of the waters. The same is true of S. radians-W. Sm., S. salina-W.S., is wholly marine. S. undulata-Bail., has not yet been observed on the southern coast but has been found, though rarely, at Richibucto, Dal- housie and Campbelton—also rather commonly, at Souris, P.E.I., along with S. longissima. S. lunaris has been observed at Richibucto and Newcastle, N.B., in both cases in salt water. S. biceps was found in the fresh water of Bocabec Lake. Several specimens of the rare species Sy. robusta, were found at Bedeque near Summerside, P.E.I. TABELLARIA.—T’. floceulosa—Kutz, and T. fenestrata-Kutz., both fresh water species, abound in streams, ponds and lakes, as well as in “‘infusorial deposits,’’ but often also reach saline waters, as at Chatham, Bathurst, &e. T. fenestrata in the latter situation is the more common of the two. [BAILEY] THE DIATOMS OF NEW BRUNSWICK 73 THALLASSIOSIRA.—This very rare genus, represented by Th. Nordenskioldii was found at one station only, namely, in the Bay of Fundy, off La Tete, in Charlotte county. It is a typically planctonic form. TRICERATIUM.—This genus is represented by Tr. alternans.—Bail., found in Passa- maquoddy Bay and at St. Martin, on the Bay of Fundy shore; also in brackish water in the Kennebecasis River, about fifteen miles from the sea, also again in the harbors of Charlottetown and Summerside, P.E.I. Another species not certainly determined, but bearing resemblance to Tr. cinnamomeum was found on the shore of the Bay Chaleur, and others resembling Tr. Brightwellir or T. undulatum in the plankton of the Bay of Fundy. TRYBLIONELLA.—Tr. scutellum-W.Sm., probably the same species as Nitschia circumsuta—Bail., is found in the brackish Kennebecasis waters, and again at Richibucto, Newcastle and Campelton. C. gracilis—-W.S., has the same distribution. Zxaoceros.—The single species Zyg. Mobilensis—Bail., is probably identical with Biddulphia Baileye-W.Sm., and occurs in large numbers in the plankton of the Bay of Fundy. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. Some general conclusions of interest may be drawn from a review of the facts stated above. 1. The remarkable richness of the Diatom flora found about the New Brunswick coasts. The total number of species is between three and four hundred, representing not less than seventy genera, mostly marine. It is doubtful whether so large a number has been reported from any similar length of coast line along any portion of the Atlantic sea board. As many as seventy species, representing over forty genera, have been obtained from a single locality on the Kennebecasis River. 2. The remarkable commingling of fresh water and salt water spectes. This, as has been explained, is largely accounted for by the remarkable tidal phenomena of the Bay of Fundy, which, as in the case of the St. John, cause a stemming of the outward fresh water flow, and the de- termination of estuarine conditions many miles above the outlet of the river. On the other hand, when the tide is low, the powerful outflowing streams undoubtedly carry many fresh water forms out into the sea, where they are distributed by tidal and other currents. As the collections consisted largely of bottom muds, and the specimens were not living when gathered, it cannot be said that the fresh water forms thus found are indifferent to the presence of saline conditions, but, considering the number, it seems hardly possible to suppose that they do not, for some time at least, survive the changed environment to which they are subjected. 3. The Character of the Plankton.—Prof. W. A. Herdman, F.R.S., in his report on the Diatoms of the Irish Sea, gives seven genera as especially characterizing the Plankton of those waters, viz., Chetoceros, 74 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Rhizosolenia, Skeletonema, Asterionella, Bacteriastrum, Biddulphia, and Thalassiosira—and it is interesting to notice that all of these, except- ing Bacteriastrum, have been found in the waters of the Bay of Fundy and Gulf of St. Lawrence. With these Coscinodiscus asteromphalus, C. radiatus and C. eccentricus should be classed as of markedly Planktonic character and exceedingly abundant, while Synedra undulata and Nitschia longissoma, though less frequently met with, show in their extravagantly elongated forms, a marked adaptation to flotation. Whether any variation in the relative number of these genera at different seasons of the year, such as have been found by Prof. Herdman in the waters of the Irish Sea, is to be found here as well, has not yet been determined, continuous observations with special apparatus being necessary to determine this point. 4. The relations of the Diatoms to each other and to other forms of life. Apart from the fact that the Diatom flora of purely fresh waters is markedly in contrast with that of the sea—such forms as Pinnu- laria, Stauroneis the Epithemias, Eunotias, the Tabellarias, Himan- tidium and Diatoma being characteristic of the one, while the discoid forms, such as Coscinodiscus, Cyclotella, Actinoptychus, and Hyalodiscus, together with Triceratium, Isthmia, Acnanthes, Grammatophora, &c., and the various planktonic forms, such as Chetoceros, are equally characteristic of the other, there would appear to be a certain asso- ciation of genera with each other. Thus, among salt water forms, Acnanthes, Rhabdonema and Grammatophora are usually found together. The Nitschias and Synedras are similarly usually associated in the same localities, as are the Melosiras, Gomphonemas and Licmophoras. The fact that Diatoms constitute the food of various shell fish is now well established, and Diatoms usually abound where there are natural sets of clams and oysters. Hence it may be inferred that the abundance of Diatoms in the harbour and along the shores of eastern New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island may have some- thing to do with the further fact that these same shores, as at Shediac and Buctouche, and of the Island, at at Malpeque, are also famous for the abundance and excellence of their oyster supply. Diatoms were also found in considerable numbers at the Biological station at St. Andrews in the stomachs of sea urchins, scallops and Ascidians, as well as those of fishes, not less than fifteen genera having been ob- tained from the stomachs of flounders. , It may here be noted that, accompanying the Diatoms in salt waters, especially in Plankton gatherings, one is almost sure to find specimens of the Infusorian, Distephanus speculum, formerly known as Dictyocha and regarded as being itself a Diatom, also such forms as Amphorella and Tintinopsis, often in great numbers. Copepods and [BAILEY] THE DIATOMS OF NEW BRUNSWICK 75 other Crustacea also abound. Foraminifera, such as Rotalia, Discor- bina and Spirillina, are much more rare. Sponge spicules, of con- siderable variety, were common in nearly all the collections. 5. Contrasts between the Diatom flora of the Bay of Fundy and Gulf of St. Lawrence. About eighty species collected on the North Shore have not yet been observed in the waters of the Bay of Fundy; while about thirty-six occurring in the latter have not yet been found about the Gulf. The far greater profusion of Diatoms in favourable localities on the North Shore and about Prince Edward Island as compared with the southern coast, of New Brunswick, is a noticeable feature. In the lower part of the Miramichi River, about Chatham, Nelson and Newcastle, where the shallow waters abound in eel-grass, Diatoms occur in far greater numbers than ever seen at any one locality on the southern coast. In the brackish waters of the Kennebecasis, however, as at Matthews’ Cove and Rothesay, where there are great areas of Potamogeton, the Diatom flora is most remarkable, alike for its variety and for the numbers of individuals—over 80 species having been col- lected from Matthews Cove alone. 6. Geographical Distribution. Of 340 species found along the New Brunswick coast and adjacent estuaries, 104 species eccur also in connection with the oyster beds of Narragansett Bay, R.I., while 126 species found in the latter have not yet been observed in New Bruns- wick. Of the 455 species described in Smith’s synopsis, as occurring in England, 172 occur also in New Brunswick, but more recent obser- vations in Great Britain would add materially to the list of those com- mon to the two countries. Of the 82 genera given by Wolle as oc- curring in North America, 62 have been observed in New Brunswick. The number of species so far found in Prince Edward Island is 130. 6. Generic and Specific Distinctions. There has of late years been a tendency to reduce the number of genera and species of Dia- toms. No doubt this is very desirable, many Diatoms, and especially those named by Ehrenberg and Kutzing, being insufficiently described or poorly figured, but some of the proposed changes are certainly open to objection. The author agrees with Dr. Mann that it is certainly to be regretted that a form so well and so long known as Pleurosigma, and of which the latter name is so distinctive, should have to be replaced by that of Gyrosigma, notwithstanding the law of priority. The same applies to the names Pinnularia and Stauroneis, which, though un- doubtedly Naviculac, are yet, as a rule, so readily distinguished from the other forms referred to this group. Such changes are also unjust to those by whom the species were first described. Thus, the beautiful form first figured and described as Stauroneis maculata by the late Sec. IV, 1913—5 76 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Prof. J. W. Bailey, is now Navicula maculata of Edwards, though the latter had nothing whatever to do with its discovery or description. Perhaps less objection is to be made to the change from Zygoceros Mobilensis, Bailey, to that of Biddulphia Baileyi, for the name of the discoverer is still associated with the species first described by him. The name Doryphora, as used by Smith in his synopsis, is, in the writer’s opinion, preferable to that of Raphoneis. As regards specific distinctions it is also the opinion of the writer that too much importance is being given to mere variations of di- mensions and to the measurements of striation. In the collections examined by him he finds great diversity and little constancy in either respect. Thus in a single mount may be found varieties of Actin- optychus undulatus of which some are three or four times as large as others. Hyalodiscus subtilis as found in New Brunswick waters, is always much smaller than are the representatives of the same species as found further south on the Atlantic coast. Grammatophorae in the same gathering vary greatly in size, as do the Pinularias and Synedras, though representing the same species. Doryphora Beckii. Sm, according to measurements made by Dr. Mackay, varies from a length of 106 microns to 166 m.; Stawroneis anceps—Ehr., from 54 to 100 m. N. Smithi-Ag., from 40 to 57 m.; N. maculata—Bail., from 96 m. to 208 m.; Cocconcis Placentula—Ehr., from 16m to 31m.; Eptthemia gibba- K., from 70 to 125m.; N. Borerii-Grev, from 26 to 50 m.; and also in many other instances. The striation, as regards the number of striae or dots in ten microns, is almost equally variable. Probably many species, especially Navicule, which have been separated on the above grounds, will have to be discarded. The whole subject of the classification and synonymy of the Dia- tomaceæ is one which requires careful revision. New Species. Several forms have been met with which are believed to be new. One of these is a Coscinodiscus, which Dr. Mackay, its dis- coverer, has provisionally named as C. Baileyana. He describes it as 106 microns in diameter, with a central rosette of six cells 3 nfic long. The surrounding cells are 6 in 10 microns. The marginal cells 8 in 10 microns. Another form thought to be new is a T'riceratium. It is triangular in shape, the slightly concave sides having an outer hyaline margin and the interior faintly divided into three equal sections by a cor- responding number of lines meeting in the centre. The apices of the tri- angle are conspicuously rugose, and may have been provided with spines. The endochrome, as seen in a fresh specimen, was remarkable for its bright green color. The specimen was found at Nash’s Creek. It may be a sporangeal form of Tr. spinosum—Bail. No areolation was evident. SECTION IV., 1913. [77] Trans. R.S.C. On some New Species of Marine Invertebrates from the Cretaceous of the Queen Charlotte Islands. By Epwarp M. Burwasu. Presented by Dr. A. P. Coteman, F.R.S.C. (Read May 29, 1913) Collections of the fossils of Skidegate Inlet, Q.C.I., have pre- viously been made by James Richardson in 1872, by G. M. Dawson in 1878, and by C. F. Newcomb in 1895 and 1897. These were described by Whiteaves in Mesozoic Fossils, Vol. I, Parts I, III and IV. The specimens on which the present paper is based were collected by Mr. Arthur Church, who visited the islands about the year 1905 as a mem- ber of the Field Columbian Museum ethnological expedition. The writer is indebted for the use of the material to Associate Professor Stuart Weller, of the University of Chicago, in whose possession the collection is now. The Cretaceous system of the Queen Charlotte Islands has been divided by Dawson and Richardson into five distinct horizons* which are described as follows: A. Upper shales and sandstones................ 1500 feet Be@odrse conelomeravesnrmrt aici tinat ng ote 2000 “ C. Lower shales, with coal and iron ore.......... 5000 “ We MH TOMATE per LR Run oan ake 3500 “ ee GOWGleSAMe SL OMES 5.1), RUE MENU Re A CPI Le, 1000 “ OGC kat OSs RER Nr ee en 13000 “ The series as a whole rests unconformably on rocks which are considered to be of Triassic age. In all of the subdivisions except C, fossils are extremely rare, although not entirely absent in any. Sub- division C, on the other hand, contains an abundant marine fauna, as well as a bed of anthracite coal near the base. It consists of blackish or gray shales interbedded with gray or yellowish-gray sandstones, and numerous layers composed of sandy argillaceous material intermediate in character between shale and sandstone. The bedding is generally regular, and certain zones are characterized by large calcareous mod- ules, generally lenticular.f “There are no conglomerates, but the sand- *Geol. Survey of Canada—Reports of Progress for 1872-3 and 1878-9. TG. M. Dawson, Geol. Surv., Can., Rep. Prog., 1878-9, p. 66B. 78 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA stones predominate in the lower part of the series and the shales in the upper part.” The conditions during the period of deposition there- fore indicate a marine advance. The fossils are abundant throughout, “occur both in the sandstones and shales, and frequently are specially abundant in the calcareous nodules.* “The rocks” of subdivision C “form a synclinal in Alliford Bay and fringe the north-eastern part of Maude Island, crossing it with considerable width about the middle, and running thence to the south- east end of South Island. They constitute the whole north shore of Bearskin Bay and the greater part of Lina Island.” It is evident from the accompanying map that the localities from which Mr. Church made his collections lie wholly within Dawson’s subdivision C. Ar- ranged in order of stratigraphic sequence, as nearly as possible, they are: Approximate distance No. Collecting ground. RS 7 Maple stain 25 on AE RE en D ee 2840 feet 5-6 North shore of Bear-skin Bay............. 1200 to 2540 “ 4 N-E-point of Maude Island: 5.1.5 890 “ 3 Robber Point, Maude Island. ............. 740 1“ 2 J MIMO OBEN Cos Ce SR nS Brie 490 “ 1 Point on N.-W. shore, Maude Island........ 1252 These stratigraphic positions, calculated from Dawson’s map, f appear to show that the fossils are mainly from the lower half of sub- division C, which has a total thickness of 5,000 feet. As no great care was exercised in noting the precise locality from which many of the fossils were obtained, it is impossible to distinguish fanual horizons, further than to say that the fossils from Alliford Bay and Maude Island represent the lower 900 feet of the sub-division, while those from Bearskin Bay and Maple Island lie between the 1,200 and 3,000 foot levels. These measurements take no account of the differences in horizon at the base of the series due to progressive overlap, and it appears that the waters encroached landward from the west, and that the deposits of corresponding level are therefore older in the more westerly part of the field. The new species described in this paper appear to belong entirely to the lower of these two horizons, and unless otherwise placed, may be taken as occurring on the shores of Maude Island. They are littoral or shallow-water organisms, with the exception of the Cephalopoda, and *Ibid, p. 68B. tGeol. Surv., Can., Rep. Prog. 1878-9, p. 63 B. 3 ap 2 Q CON | ee! sn Sntete EN) ee Os) v Buypy272 (€)| LWA 8 (SSI) SSI IE ÇSMEG Wd 42747 190 LITIM 71WIDT0INS SO SAVW 80 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA thus correspond with the earlier stages of submergence represented by the lower part of the sub-division C. About 75 species have been distinguished from Mr. Church’s collection, most of which have been previously described by Whiteaves from material secured in the same locality. Of the remainder, six are small pelecypods which are not included in this paper. Ptiloteuthis foliatus appears to be the species described under that name by Gabb, and is here figured and described as being previously unknown in this locality. The two Goniomyas’ may also be identical with species already described from the interior of the continent. The Gervillia figured is probably, though not certainly, Whiteaves’ G. newcombii. The remaining ten are undoubtedly new species. DESCRIPTION OF NEW SPECIES. CRUSTACEA. A few fragments of pitted crustacean tests of quite undeterminable character. MOLLUSCA. CEPHALOPODA. (Dibranchiata). Ptiloteuthis cf. foliatus (Gabb), see Geol. Surv. Cal. Paleontology, vol. II, p. 128. Two specimens of the gladius. (Plate I, Fig. la, b) The largest specimen secured is imperfect, both at the ends and along the lateral margins, but appears to have been originally about six inches long as compared with a total length of 3-5 inches in the specimen figured and described by Gabb. The width must have been about 3 inches. A smaller specimen preserves the posterior end which was previously unknown, but is here shown to be rather evenly rounded with a margin somewhat crenulate in part. In this specimen, however, there are some indications of a knotted or cordate structure in the radiating ridges. These ridges also appear narrower in proportion to the intervening ‘wrinkles’ than in the other specimen, which may be explained by supposing that the exposed surfaces of the two specimens represent opposite sides of the gladius. On the other hand it is quite possible that the smaller specimen is of another species. Locality, south side of Alliford Bay. [BURWASH] NEW SPECIES OF MARINE INVERTEBRATES 81 (Tetrabranchiata). Haploceras churchi (sp. nov.) (Plate I, Fig. 2) This species is represented by about a third of the outer volution without the aperture. The shell is obliquely compressed laterally, rounded on the venter and dorsally impressed. The height, measured from the venter to the umbilical edge is slightly greater than the width, but slightly less if measured from the venter to the center of the dorsal furrow. The sutures are not shown. The surface is smooth, but crossed by about nine rounded costæ in each volution, each of which has a groove- like constriction of the shell on each side of it. The costæ pass directly across the venter and down the sides for some distance, but are bent backward as they approach the umbilical edge. The greatest width is near the umbilical edge, which is rounded. This species differs from Desmoceras planulatum (Sowerby) in the absence of ribs in the wider intervals between the constrictions. GASTEROPODA. Turritella tricarinata (sp. nov.). (Plate I, Fig. 3) The specimen described is partially embedded in the matrix. It has a total length of about 9 mm., and consists of eight whorls. The apical angle is about 14°. The interior casts of the whorls show a flat upper surface projecting outward from the suture to a Narrowly rounded shoulder, from which the upper middle part of the whorl descends parallel to the axis to about the middle line of the whorl, when it slants inwards with a slightly convex surface from a second shoulder to the suture at the base of the whorl. In the younger whorls the shoulders are not so distinct, and the profile from the upper suture to the lower in each whorl is that of an ogee curve, of which the upper half has the larger and the lower a smaller radius. The revolving ridges which distinguish the outer surface of the shell can be seen only on part of the body whorl, where some of the shell remains. They are three in number, one on the upper and one on the median shoulder, and one, less distinctly seen, on the basal slope of the whorl. Nothing can be seen of the aperture, nor of the umbilicus, and it is therefore impossible to assign this species to its appropriate sub-genus. 82 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA PELECYPODA. Genus—Goniomya. Goniomya uniangulata, cf. G. americana (MEEK).* (Plate III, Fig. 1) This species is represented by three very imperfect specimens, the largest of which appears to have been about 25 mm. in length by 17 mm. in height. The coste converge along the flanks without horizontal cross bars, and are well shewn, but the concentric lines of growth in the best preserved specimen are only faintly suggested, while the bead-like granules described by Meek in G. americana were not seen. Goniomya transversicostata (sp. nov.), cf. G. duboisi. (Plate III, Fig. 2 Of this species there is only a fragment comprising the umbonal part of a left valve. The converging coste are united by horizontal crossbars toward the beak, but toward the ventral margin they continue until they meet, without a crossbar, at an angle of about 32°. A line drawn from the beaks through the points of convergence of the costae, or bisecting the crossbars, would be inclined backwards from the vertical about 10° or 15°. A well-marked escutcheon is present, and a ridge extends backwards from the beak just below the cardinal margin, from which it diverges slightly, leaving an area between itself and the edge of the escutcheon. The costæ of the posterior part of the shell cross this ridge, but fade out before reaching the escutcheon. Concentric lines of growth can be clearly seen with a lens as fine sharp ridges crossing the costae, and the granular surface discribed by Meek in G. americana appears also to characterize this species. Genus—Trigonia. Sub-genus Scabræ (Agassiz). Trigonia flexicostata (sp. nov.) cf. T. scarburghensis Ÿ (Plate III, Fig. 3) The material on which this species is based consists of two casts, both of the interior of left valves. The total length from front to rear is 65 mm., the maximum depth from beak to ventral margin, 42 mm. The beak is prominent and distant from the anterior end from a fourth *U..8:G, 8; Ter fPalæontographical Soc., Vol. 26, British Trigonia. [BURWASH] NEW SPECIES OF MARINE INVERTEBRATES 83 to a third of the total length. The anterior margin extends in a broad curve from the beak to a point on the ventral margin somewhat posterior to the beak and thence a reversed curve carries the margin out to the narrow elongated posteal end of the shell. On the dorsal side the margin from the beak to the posteal end is a convave curve, which is interrupted in the casts by a notch which represents the thickening of the shell on the internal surface just in front of the adductor muscle. The dorsal and ventral margins are united posteally by a convex curve. The shell gaped slightly at this end, and the aperture was constricted in the middle by a sharp ridge, which projected from the interior of the shell and is represented by a groove in the cast. This groove extends forward from the posteal margin with an upward curve to a point in the dorsal side about half way from the posteal end to the notch. There is no lunule, but a well developed escutcheon extends nearly to the posterior end of the shell. The surface of the shell adjacent to the cardinal margin has a non-costated area which extends downward to the ventral side near the posteal end, and is bounded below by a line extending from this point on the ventral margin, with a slight downward convexity to the inner posteal side of the beak. This area is marked by fine growth lines. The first eight costæ, counting from the posteal end, are narrow, tuberculated and close together, and extend vertically from the edge of the non-costated area to the ventral margin. Anterior to this the next costa, after extending downward from the dorsal margin at the adductor scar nearly to the ventral margin curves rather sharply forward and upward, then downward and forward until it terminates at the anterior margin. The succeeding costæ extend lesser distances downward before curving forward, until those near the beak have no vertical part, but cross the umbonal region in a sigmoid curve. The costation, which is shewn very well in the younger of the two specimens, differs from that of 7’. scarburghensis, the most nearly related species known to the writer, in being less coarsely tuberculate, while the costæ are more numerous, and the vertical costæ of the pos- terior region of this species are not present in 7’. scarburghensis, where their place is taken by a comparatively few diagonally arranged rows of tubercles. The area is also much broader in the English species as figured, and is marked by rows of small tubercles which are not represented in the Queen Charlotte Islands specimens. Trigonia recticostata (sp. nov.) (Plate III, Fig. 4) Cf. T. navis (Lam.) from clays of the inferior Oolite (lowest zone) in southern Germany—see Palæontographical Society, vol. 26 (1872), 84 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA also Agassiz’s Trigonies, Tab. 1, and Quenstedt, ‘Der Jura,’ Tab. xLIv, fig. 3. In this species, which is represented only by a cast of the left valve, the beaks are very far forward, being less than one fourth of the length from the anterior margin. The total length of the specimen is 41 mm., which may be slightly less than the original length, the depth is 32 mm., and the convexity of the cast of one valve about 10 mm. The general shape is trigonal. The cardinal margin is concave from the beaks to the posterior end, and is moreover slightly indented by the interior buttress on the anterior side of the adductor scar. The anterior margin forms a continuous curve from the beak to a point directly beneath it, where a narrower curve joins the anterior to the ventral edge. The latter is slightly convex. The posteal end is not well shown. The cardinal area is in a poor state of preservation and the escutch- eon cannot be seen throughout its length. A lateral curved ridge, extending from the beak to the posterior end, bounds the sub-cardinal area. From this the costæ extend vertically to the ventral margin. They are about nine in number and are continuous, with only slight evidence of tuberculation. They do not diverge posteally as in T. diversicostata (Whiteaves). In the region anterior to the beaks the costæ are arranged horizontally in the upper part, where they are smaller than the vertical costæ of the posteal region, In the lower part they appear to slant downward and backward from the anterior margin toward the vertical costæ, with the first one or two of which they form a rounded junction. Trigonia reniforme (sp. nov.) (Plate II, Figs. 1a, b) Cf. T. signata, Paleogr. Soc., Vol. 26, Plate II, from which this species differs in the more rounded outline of the posterior end, and in the non-costate ventral area shewn in the casts, of which there are three in the material examined. The most perfect specimen is 65 mm. long by 44 mm. deep, measured from the centre of the ventral margin to a point on the hinge-line about 13 mm. behind the beaks, which are broken off. The greatest thickness is 31 mm. and is situated just be- low the beaks, which are close to the anteal end. As viewed from above the cast is bluntly rounded in front of the thick- est part and tapers backward toward the posteal end, which is much more narrowly rounded. Viewed laterally the general out- line of the cast is a broad kidney-shape, interrupted by the beaks, which project near the forward end. The dorsal margin is in gen- [BURWASH] NEW SPECIES OF MARINE INVERTEBRATES 85 eral slightly concave, with a projection along the hinge-line in the central part, and the anteal, ventral and posteal margins form a continuous curve, of which the ventral part is more broadly curved, the anteal segment less so, and the posteal still more narrowly than the anteal. There is also a slight suggestion of a rounded anteo- ventral angle. The dorsal part of the posteal margin curves some distance forward before its junction with the dorsal margin, whose length is only slightly more than half of the total length of the speci- men. The beaks are about 15 mm. distant from the anteal end. In each valve there is a sub-cardinal non-costate area, whose lower edge extends in a convex curve from the beaks to a point on the ventral part of the posteal margin, There is also an anteo-ventral non-costated area, which extends also from near the beaks in a.crescent- shape to a point near the posterior end of the ventral margin. The zone lying between these two areas is crossed by eight short costae which are curved backward in the middle. The sub-cardinal area has a scimitar-shaped pit extending posteally from the beaks in each valve, which represents the buttress anterior to the adductor scars. The latter are well shewn, and crossed by two sets of ridges. The pallial line also crosses the adductor scar from front to rear and is clearly traceable throughout its extent. These are also Scabre—as shown by the interior areal ridge—which, however, is not very pronounced. Trigonia paucicostata (sp. nov.) (Plate III, Fig. 5) This is a small species represented by two interior casts of the left valve, which are 21 and 25 mm. in length by 16 and 17 + mm. in depth. The beaks are anterior in the smaller specimen and nearly so in the larger. The sub-cardinal area has a median groove which represents a ridge on the interior of the shell dividing the incurrent and excurrent channels of the siphon, as in other Scabre. The re- mainder of the valve is marked by five or six prominent costæ. Those of the posteal region are short and nearly parallel with the edge of the sub-cardinal area, those further forward radiate from the umbonal region and are curved downward and forward in their ventral ends. They are not nodose and are traversed by concentric lines of growth which are also visible crossing the area. The greatest convexity of a cast of one valve is 5 mm., and is situated well forward. The outline of the valve is crescentic, and has a somewhat regular curve extending from the beak throughout the an- terior and inferior part of the margin, while the posterior end has a somewhat narrower curve with a rounded angle at the intersection of 86 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA the lower edge of the sub-cardinal area. The dorsal margin is regularly convex from the beaks to within a short distance of the posteal ex- tremity, where it joins the posteal margin. In the larger of the two specimens the anteo-ventral part of the margin is more sharply rounded and projects farther in advance of the beaks than in the smaller. Gervillia cf. newcombii (Whiteaves). (Plate II, Fig. 2) A cast of the interior of a Gervillia with none of the test, little of the posterior, and none of the anterior alation remaining. The lateral surfaces are characterized by a longitudinal ridge, on the dorsal side of which they fall away in a doubly concave form to a thin plate extending to the hinge line. On the ventral side the surfaces are convex, and meet at a comparatively large angle along the ventral margin. A broadly elliptical adductor scar is visible on the dorsal side of the ridge. The ridge forms an angle of about 30° with the hinge line, and is straighter than that shewn in Whiteaves’ figure of G. newcombii, which has a sig- moid curvature and makes an angle of over 40° with the hinge line.* MOLLUSCOIDEA. BRACHIOPODA. Terebratula grahamensis (sp. nov.) (Plate TIT, Fiss’ 6a, ‘b; ¢) The general outline is roughly quadrate. The length is 30 mm., extreme width 28 mm., convexity 14 mm., of which 9+ mm. are referable to the pedicle valve and 4+ mm. to the brachial. From the prominent beak of the pedicle valve the posterior margins diverge in concave curves to near the greatest width of the shell, which lies rather more than a third of the length from the beak to- wards the anterior margin. At this point the lateral margins curve rather sharply toward the front forming shoulders, between which the outline of the lateral and anterior edges sweeps round in a continuous curve. The pedicle valve has a decidedly incurved beak which projects 4 or 5 mm posteriorly beyond that of the brachial valve, and a fairly well-defined cardinal area extends on either side of the beak to about half the distance from the apex to the greatest width of the shell, and the part of the posterior margin of the pedicle valve bordering this * Mesozoic Fossils, Vol. I, Part IV, p. 297, Plate X XIX, 1. [BURWASH] NEW SPECIES OF MARINE INVERTEBRATES 87 area curves outward somewhat beyond the parts to right and left of it, while the corresponding margin of the brachial valve is recessed to re- ceive the projection. The deltidium and pedicle opening are not well preserved. Along the mesial line from front to rear the pedicle valve has a strongly arcuate profile, which is somewhat less prominent toward the anterior margin than in the umbonal region where there is a median ridge whose rounded summit falls away to the lateral margins in resupinate curves. The brachial valve is less prominently arched in the umbonal region than the pedicle and curves from thence resupinately toward both the lateral and anterior margins. While a mesial sinus cannot be said to exist, when viewed anteriorly there is a wide but shallow curvature of the anterior margin toward the pedicle valve. The shell is largely exfoliated, but the surfaces of both valves appear to have been marked by numerous rather fine radiating striæ, and by indistinct concentric lines of growth at much greater intervals. The puncte are arranged in fairly regular rows, those adjoining in a given row closer together than are the adjoining rows. The specimen is distinguished from 7’. skidegatensis (Whiteaves). By (1) its greater proportionate breadth. (2) the more prominent and sharply-rounded postero-lateral angles, and (3) the arrangement of the puncte, which in T. skidegatensis are not closer together along a given row than at right angles to the row. The name is derived from that of the principal island of the Queen Charlotte group. Rhynchonella undulata (sp. nov.) (Plate III, Figs. 7a, b, c) Cf. R. limbata (Schlotheim)—see Davidson, Fossil Brachiopoda, Vol. I, Plate XII, fig. 3. The outline of this specimen apart from the beaks is transversely elliptical—the major (transverse) axis being 24 mm. Both beaks project posteriorly beyond the ellipse, into which they merge with concave lateral curves. The total length from front to rear is 21-6mm. The total convexity is 11 mm., of which about 6 mm. is assignable to the pedicle valve and 5mm. to the brachial. These measurements are those of a cast from which the shell has been al- most completely exfoliated. The beak of the pedicle valve projects about 2mm. beyond that of the brachial, and has a well-marked cardinal area extending laterally to points about half way from the apex of the beak to the lateral extremities of the shell. Within the 88 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA cardinal area the hinge line is curved on each side of the centre so that the margin of the pedicle valve has two projections, which correspond to embayments in the margin of the brachial valve. The pedicle open- ing is small and apparently transversely elongated. The beak of the pedicle valve is prominent and slightly incurved, but not so as to project over that of the brachial valve. There is no distinct sinus, but the forward part of the pedicle valve is of flatter form in the mesial portion than at the sides, producing a broad upward flexure of the anterior margin. The brachial valve is more convex toward the front than the pedicle, but can scarcely be said to have a distinct mesial fold. Both valves appear to have been marked by numerous rather faint concentric lines of growth interspersed with stronger ones at intervals of about two millimetres, and have also on the interior numerous fine radiating striæ. Plications are almost absent in this shell except at the lateral margins where two or three faint folds can be traced about two thirds of the distance from the margins to the beaks. The anterior margin is wavy as viewed from in front, but the plications cannot be traced backward from the edge except the mesial one in the brachial valve, which extends as a shallow groove nearly to the beak. Rhynchonella non-sinuata (sp. nov.) cf. R. plicatilis (Sowerby) * (Plate III, Figs. 8a, b) R. plicatilis is reported by Eichwald as occurring in the Aleutian Islands, and several specimens in the present collection seem more closely related to this species than to any other whose description is known to the writer. The specimens are roughly sub-trigonal, with concave postero- lateral margins and an outline which is otherwise transversely ellip- tical. The greatest width is 18 to 19 mm., the length from beak to anterior margin 15 mm, the convexity 7-5 to 9-5 mm., about equally divided between the two valves. There is no distinct sinus or mesial ridge in either valve, but the anterior margin is broadly curved toward the brachial side. The beak and umbo of the pedicle valve are rather prominent, and the curvature of the surface from the centre of the umbo to the lateral margins is resupinate. The plications are well- marked, extending to the beaks, and are from fourteen to sixteen in number. The brachial valve has a somewhat bolder arch, which extends from side to side without resupination. *Sowerby, Min. Conch., Vol. V, p. 167, table 503, fig. 1; Davidson, British Cret. Brachiopoda, Pal. Soc., Vol. 1, 1852, p. 75, Plate X, figs. 37-42. [BURWASH] NEW SPECIES OF MARINE INVERTEBRATES 89 Rhynchonella magnicostata (sp. nov.) (Plate III, Fig. 9, a, b, c) Cf. R. gnathophora,* from which, however, it seems to be quite distinct. The species has also some similarity to R. plicatilis (Sowerby). The general outline is trigonal, and the maximum width lies about one-third of the length from the anterior margin measured toward the beaks of the pedicle valve. The lateral margins are more narrowly rounded than the anterior, which extends in a broad curve from side to side. The postero-lateral margins are slightly concave and diverge from the beaks to a point nearly opposite the middle of the mesial line of the shell. The beak of the pedicle valve is not well shewn in the material collected, but appears to have been fairly prominent. The cardinal area extends about half way from the beaks to the ex- tremities of the postero-lateral margins. One of the specimens has a fairly well-marked sinus involving four plications and extending about half the length of the shell, and a corresponding mesial ridge on the brachial valve on which are five plications. The total number of plications is about twelve in each valve. Both valves are marked by fine concentric growth-lines, which recede toward the beaks in crossing the plications, and develop a tendency to rugosity toward the anterior margins. One or two much stronger growth-lines cross the valves between a third and a half the distance from the beaks to the anterior margin, and enclose an area betwen them and the beaks in which the plications are much less distinct than further forward. *Pal. Cal., Vol. 1, p. 39, Plate 8. { {M Lan il ras { ¥ ‘ # ¢ { . iM fa ‘ i it i + } : 1 \ L i ai 0) \ à: + 1m d D P û 4 : 4 0 1 x. > i { Au ; à 4 AME CL. i À ey Pye f i f 4 F2 ; : F ; . Price > 4 . 4 Bi VW | LEA - fe | : 4 Nr "Le, 4 i y a | i EX f er j Fa ry gat TOO A EN oe : Toe TP Pet MIE bap, etes À Hea ae NA ARRET AL GTR te FAP TEL Laat ay PHM " 8 cute ME a AT] AT tr tr DS ARS LS | NE A TARN OR EE ¢ à Po LL Er», { QE TEE AU ivr é PLATE I. Ptiloleuthis cf foliatus. Fig. 1a.—Posterior end of gladius of a small specimen. The dotted outline indicates the probable form when complete. Fig. 1b.—Larger specimen, in which little or none of the margin remains. Haploceras churchi. Fig. 2.—Left side of outer whorl. The aperture missing. Turritella tricarinata. Fig. 3.—Enlarged four diameters. Cast of interior, with little of the shell remaining. I gragd pile 20 asso A eotsotbai eniltuo bottob odT séchées titre lets hé ae 3 4 .dolquros codw ariot oldedo1q odt A ee hows entssolgn i .guieeion owstregs aff .odw 19iuo to sbie ted sit -gnimiemer Hore odd io sltiil dtiw toitetai to des) .arstom RS PLATE I PL mm 7 PLATE II. Trigonia reniforme. Fig. 1a.—Cast of right valve, interior. The pallial line is recognizable, but the cos- tation is not well shown in the figure. Fig. 2a.—Dorsal view; anterior end uppermost. Cast of interior. Gervillea cf. newcombit. Fig. 2.—Cast of interior of left valve. The upper straight edge represents the hinge- line. The rounded ridge extending from end to end is the cast of the body-cavity. AI ararld SHTLOYSHOT HSKOQSTT -209 oct tud ,sldesiagoos: ai gail Isilleq edT -10it9¢ni ,ovlev tdgit to tes0—.al gi ouvre odd of awoda [low don at noïtst aoïotni to ta80 .teomroqqu bas romotne ;woiv [sero —.a& .3iF ssdsnosusos .to nollsyto -oguid odd ednoesrqr ogbe édaierte 19qqu edT .ovlav del to 1oiroi ri 10 de89—< .gi ot to tesgo ot ei bas où bao mort gaibastxe ogbir bsbauor sdT .sail itiveo-ybod PLATE II Puare III. Goniomya uniangulata. Fig. 1.—Left valve. Goniomya transversicostata. Fig. 2.—Enlarged four diameters.—Part of left valve. Trigonia flexicostata. Fig. 3.—Cast of interior of left valve. Trigonia recticostata. Fig. 4.—Cast of interior of left valve. Trigonia paucicostata. Fig. 5.—Cast of interior of left valve. Terebratula grahamensis. Fig. 6a.—Cast of interior of pedicle valve. Fig. 6b.—Cast of interior of brachial valve, part of shell remains on anterior margin. Fig. 6c.—Left lateral view of cast. Rhynchonella undulata. Fig. 7a.—Left lateral view. Fig. 7b.—Pedicle valve. Fig. 7c.—Brachial valve. Rhynchonella non-sinuata. Fig. 8a.—Pedicle valve. Fig. 8b.—Brachial valve. Rhynchonella magnicostata. Fig. 9a.—Cast of interior. Left lateral view. Fig. 9b.—Cast of interior. Pedicle (ventral) valve. Fig. 9¢.—Cast of interior. Brachial or dorsal side, showing median septum. ATT gwraad ntoblisysmsims Door) ovisv ttoI—.f .9if DIDIZoOsSeTOVZNHDW DOI) svlev ttel to dre T—.arstomeib wol bogtslod—.& gil ninteoosnsll, ossrogirT ovisv fol to roïrstni 10 tes0—.€ .gi'l ninizoossiost ossrogiyT evisv tisl to 10i19tai to ta89—.8 .gif Hinieoosswng ossoger'l .svlev titel to roïrotni to te80—.6 .gi'A eresosodong olisinidorvs'T .eviav sloibsq to t0i19tai to tesO—.20 gf ILE TOs} as AO eniemro Iode to #req ,ovlev [sidoetd to roïrotai to tesO—.dd .gff .taz9 to woiv Lerotel tiaT—.08 .gif ninlisbsas pilssrosdosngtA woiv lerstsl flal—.87 gif .ovlev sloibsI—.d¥ .gif .ovlev Isidost€@—.o¥ .gi'l ndossatse-srose plososlosesstil ovisv sloibebI—.s8 .gi .ovlev leidos14—.d8 .gi ninteoossrpoow oiosvostosnygtA woiv lerstal tial .roirotni to tes0—.£@ .giT ovlev (isttasv) sloibed .roirotni 10 tesO—.d@ .gi muiqe sgibem paiwode, »bia Isatob 10 [sidos1H 1oï1odai 10 das9—.90 oi PLATE III SECTION IV., 1913. [91] Trans. R.S.C. A Bacterial Soft Rot of Turnips. F. C. HARRISON AND WILFRID SADLER. Bacteriological Laboratory, Macdonald College, P.Q. (Read May 28, 1913) Occurring more or less frequently according to season and varying in destructiveness with the meteorological conditions, the so-called “Soft-Rot’’ of such vegetables as turnips, carrots, cauliflowers and cabbages is the cause of serious economic losses to farmers and vegetable growers, and hence has attracted the attention of numerous investi- gators to the disease and the organisms producing it. As a resumé of the literature has been recently published it seems unnecessary to give any extensive citations. Suffice it to say that M. C. Potter’, L. R. Jones!, A. Spieckermann’, C. J. J. Van Hallf, F. C. Harrison’, H. A. Harding and W. J. Morse’, and F. C. Stewart® have described in considerable detail the action of various organisms associated with the soft rots of some of the fleshy vegetables. From the practical standpoint it is sufficient for the grower to understand that the disease is caused by a bacterial micro-organism; but from the point of view of the biologist there is considerable interest in defining as closely as may be the relationship of the various organisms isolated and described by investigators who have worked on the disease as it occurred in the field and on the various vegetables attacked. As a rule, organisms associated with a well defined disease are recognized with a certain degree of ease, but in the case of the ‘soft rot’ organisms there seems to be no end to the making of species and varieties, and lest we should be accused of the itch of species making, let us state that the present study was undertaken in order to attempt to find out some facts in connection with the relationship of these bacteria with a view of establishing a type, and, the proof of the patho- genic nature of the organism in turnips. Harding and Morse’ have attempted to minimise the number of species by bringing these organisms into a few main groups describ- ing their cultures by a plus or minus reaction in certain media, and by using decimal numbers for the description of each combination. This system, however, ignores the relation of the organism to its host plant, and obscures the natural phylogenetic relationship of bacterial Sec. IV, 1913—6 92 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA types; nevertheless such an effort is of great use in routine description, and for arranging and cataloguing cultures. In the present study we have worked out in detail the pathogenicity of an organism belonging to the ‘soft rot’ type, which was the cause of a rotting disease in turnips, and we have described its morphological and cultural features in detail. Several important peculiarities have been noticed, and as far as possible these have been photographed. Our attention was first directed to this disease by Mr. Paul A. Boving, B.A., B.S.A., assistant in the cereal husbandry department of Macdonald College, and in charge of all the root experiments. Mr. Boving has contributed the field notes of the disease, and has given a number of excellent photographs of the naturally occurring disease, one of which, Fig. 12, is reproduced. Field Notes on the Disease. The disease was observed during the first week of September, 1912, and the outbreak continued until the end of October, when all roots were pulled and the diseased ones thrown aside. The percentage of diseased plants is shown in the following table:— Per cent. diseased plants in turnips of different classes during 1912: 6 varieties globe-shaped, white fleshed............................... 12-09, + é long < ty Pie ree Sd RAE re RE Gatto BAN Oe dG 5 8-5% A ES lobe Qué Gryellowy: | Se vai cca ties ec PRET AR RE 13-7% 7 ts long % os OO RD à RD Rene 5-49, AIVRTADE Late nt Be RIM EE ER eee Pire CUITE 9-5 From this it would appear as if the long-shaped, yellow fleshed were more resistant against the disease than the others. If, however, the figures for the duplicate plots of this class are examined more closely, we find in some cases a greater difference between two plots of the same variety than between any two classes compared with each other. Per cent. diseased plants in the long-shaped, yellow-fleshed class of turnips, 1912. A-plots B-plots Yellow Tankard, Pajbjerg 2 (Helweg)..................... 4:9% 14% dé Fi 5 (Rig Der esc crises she. ssa Nr see Aree 41% 8-4 % ‘3 7 (SARL ANR ES re oe eet A 0:-7% 2:1% Bortfelder Wa) nth eet ek Ako Garena kee 2:1%13-:7% t CATO TA Tee sed li die are 6-2 % 10:0 % i (BRA AE else à Et 287 93% © (SMS NN AT AE ENS RTS 0.77% 9:3% AVOIR: + 25 RER Re RATES 3:07% 7:74 [HARRISON-SADLER] A BACTERIAL SOFT ROT OF TURNIPS 93 Both Yellow Tankard (S.F.A.) and Bortfelder (Sv.) show only 0-7 per cent. diseased roots in the A series. In the B series, again, the Yellow Tankard strain still has a comparatively low figure, or 2-1 per cent. diseased roots, but the Bortfelder strain has been badly attacked in this part of the field, showing 9-3 per cent. diseased roots. The B plots in general suffered more from the disease than the A plots. Although all classes were more or less attacked in different parts of the field, the figures seem to indicate that the long-shaped turnips in general possess a slightly higher power of resistance than the globe- shaped. This may perhaps be accounted for by the circumstance that the relative proportion of ‘true root’ or primary root is higher in the long-shaped turnips, whereas the ‘hypocotyl dominates in the globe- shaped varieties. There is at least an indication that the hypocotyl part of the root is less resistant against the disease than the true or primary part of the root. Thus the lower part (the true or primary root) of a long-shaped turnip which has been attacked by the soft rot is still sound in many cases, but a globe-shaped turnip (mainly consisting of hypocotyl) is generally entirely destroyed. The outside bast layer of the turnip withstands the attack fairly well, and instances were found when an outwardly sovnd root was absolutely hollow inside of a thin layer of skin and bast. Another feature worth mentioning is that the crown very often keeps green even after the greater part of the inside root has been destroyed. The infection seems to spread from the pith of the root and often starts from the middle of the hypocotyl. How the organisms gain entrance to these deep tissues has not been demonstrated experiment- ally. Whilst the rot appears in dry as well as wet years, the seasons 1910 and 1912, which may be described as wet years were characterised by much soft rot. On a rough estimate, 40 per cent. of the turnips in 1910 were diseased. The conditions of the trial plots on the College farm were similar to those found on farms throughout the country, and we have received many reports of the prevalence and destructive- ness of this rot from Quebec and Ontario. Signs of the Naturally Occurring Disease. Early manifestations of the disease are rare. In an advanced stage the leaves wilt, hang down, dry and wither. The rotted material at times breaks through the skin, giving rise to a very distinctive and putrid smell. The natural turnip odour seems to be exaggerated to offensiveness. In many cases the root looks sound on the outside, and the crown of leaves is erect and healthy looking; but a smart tap 94 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA of the foot will cause the collapse of the turnip, and the interior will be found to be composed of a soft, pulpy dark mass. In such cases the leaves evidently obtain their supplies by the bast ring, which is not diseased. Isolation from naturally infected plants was easily carried out in ordinary media. The rotted portion of infected turnip was crowded with an organism practically in pure culture, and high dilutions were necessary in order to obtain discrete colonies. After isolation from the initial set of plates, the organism was again plated and replated. After working out the morphology and cultural characteristics, a series of growing turnip plants was inoculated. These plants were grown under glass. The soil used was from rotted turf and sand. Experiments with Growing Plants. In the first trial, the crown of a turnip plant was punctured with a sterile needle and then the inoculation was made with material from a young agar culture. Two days later the point at which the moculation had been made showed an exudation of liquid to such an extent as to leave no doubt of the disease producing power of the culture. One week later the plant showed signs of having the disease badly; the stem supporting the leaves was almost fallen away from the root, needing only the slightest pull to bring that about. The leaves had withered and the plant had a dying appearance. On being cut up the turnip had the t pical appearance of the original disease; from the crown downwards to half the depth of the root was completely rotted, except that the shell of the root remained sound. Microscopic examination of the diseased portion showed the organ- ism in large numbers and evidently pure. Plate cultures were made from the diseased part of the root and the organism re-isolated was in all respects identical with the one originally isolated. In a second series of inoculations the root itself was inoculated with organisms from a young agar culture by means of a needle puncture. After the same interval had elapsed as noted above, an examination was made. The appearance of the top part of the plant differed very much from the appearance noted in trial I. The leaves appeared quite normal and, to the eye, the root also seemed to be quite sound. On the root being cut open, the whole of the centre of the turnip was rotted, the disease having in every respect the typical characteristics. [HARRISON-SADLER] A BACTERIAL SOFT ROT OF TURNIPS 95 Both microscopic examination and replating on gelatine plates and other media, yielded results which proved beyond doubt that the artificially produced disease was identical with the original. It is.of interest to note at this point that turnips may be badly diseased and yet the appearance of the leaves and stem be such, that any other than a careful ocular examination will fail to discern any symptoms until the root is pulled or lifted. This condition, produced and noted experimentallly, is quite usual in the field, and is shown well by Fig. 12. In both these trials the control plants which had been pierced with a sterile needle did not show any sign of disease. The specimens obtained experimentally, in addition to roots which had become naturally infected in the field have been successfully preserved for museum purposes in a 10% solution of 40% formaldehyde. At a later date, further trials were made with growing plants, in- oculations being made from young agar cultures of the organism re- isolated from the artificially produced disease described immediately above. Fig. 7 is a photograph of one of the healthy turnip plants with which these trials were carried out. Inoculations made in the crown of the turnip, caused a rapid production of the disease, and in five days the condition as shown in Fig. 8 was obtained. The leaves had drooped and withered to such an extent that they hung over the side of the pot, and the root was so badly rotted that it could not be lifted out of the soil. Fig. 9 represents a turnip which had been inoculated on the same day as the one just described. In this case the inoculation was made by needle puncture in the root, and twelve days later when the photo- graph was taken, the leaves were all withered and partially rotted, while the root was completely rotten. Fig. 13 is a photograph of a turnip which had been inoculated by needle puncture in the crown, and while in 12 days time it looked apparently healthy, sufficient evidence had already accumulated to show that the condition of the leaves may not necessarily be a guide as to the soundness of the root. When this photograph had been taken, the turnip was cut in two and the rotted condition as shown by Fig. 14 was made evident. Replating on gelatin from these rotted turnips invariably yielded an organism identical in all respects with the original culture. Fig. 10 is a photograph of a healthy cauliflower which was subsequently inoculated by needle puncture in the heart and in the stem with the turnip organism. 96 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA In 14 days time the heart of the vegetable had rotted to a con- siderable extent, while the effect on the stem had been such that several leaves had died and fallen off, as shown in Fig. 11. While we anticipate a continuance of these inoculation trials in growing plants, as the different varieties are available in season, we recognise that the practical application centres around the effect on the soil after a crop of turnips infected with this disease has been dis- posed of. In view of this, as a preliminary trial, we prepared a series of pots with soil, and sterilized them in steam under pressure for three hours. A strong culture of the organism was grown in beef bouillon, and, the maximum growth having been obtained, we mixed with the culture a proportionate amount of a synthetic medium—Uschinsky’s. With this mixture the soil in one series of pots was treated. The soil in the control series of pots was treated with a mixture of sterile beef bouillon and Uschinsky’s medium. In each of the pots, control and contaminated, an equal number of turnip seeds was carefully sown, and from that time onward the whole of the series watered with sterile water. In ten days time the plantlets were considered to have attained a suitable size for demonstration, and they were accordingly photo- graphed as shown in figure 15. Pots II and IV contained contaminated soil, Pots I and III being the controls. There is sufficient evidence in the results of this preliminary trial to warrant further investigation along these lines, particularly in view of the economic importance of this phase of the question. Experiments with Fresh Vegetables. A large variety of fresh vegetables was cleaned, dried and then cut with sterilised knives in slices of an average thickness of 3-1 inch, placed in sterilised Esmarch dishes and inoculated with one oese of material from an agar culture. The results briefly noted are as follows:— Red Carrot. Softening and water-soaked appearance in 24 hours; in a week, rotted through and centre quite black; a few days later, rotting complete and slimy. White Carrot. In 24 hours softening beginning, with . water- soaked appearance; vascular circle brownish; action much the same as on red carrot, except that the centre becomes dirty white and not black. [HARRISON-SADLER] A BACTERIAL SOFT ROT OF TURNIPS 97 Potato. Very rapid action; in 24 hours a soft creamy looking growth closely resembling sputum. Potato completely softened. Turnip (White). In 24 hours considerable growth and softening to a depth of 5-6 mms. In 96 hours the softening increases to a depth of 14 cms., the turnip having a dirty white appearance. Beet. Growth on surface, but no softening. Swede Turnip. In 48 hours typical softening with water soaked appearance; 24 hours later large beads of moisture on the surface; rotting much increased, and the development of a smoky black color. Cabbage. In 24 hours abundant growth; considerable softening and water-logged appearance. In 96 hours the stem much rotted and leaves reduced to a soft pulpy mass. Artichoke (Jerusalem). In 24 hours rapid growth, with softening and black appearance of diseased portidh. Mangold. Very slight growth on surface, and no softening. Sugar Mangold. Very slight growth on surface and no softening. Sugar Beet. No softening. Parsnip.—In 24 hours softening commences with whitish growth. In 96 hours the softening has increased to a depth of 14 cms., the growth later assuming a brownish and finally a decidedly black tint. Celery.—Rapid softening, and in 48 hours almost entirely rotted: the color is dirty white and whitish appearance on the surface. Cucumber.—Very rapid softening and exuding of milky looking fluid on the top. In 24 hours the softening reached a depth of 1 cm. and extended over the entire surface. In less than a week the slice of cucumber is entirely reduced with an objectionable odor and a yellowish colour. Tomato (Green).—Rapid softening, but not quite so complete as in the cucumber: in 24 hours a depth is reached of 4 to 1 em. The rotted tomato assumes a deep grey colour, and a dark brown . liquid exudes. Hubbard, Crook Neck and Winter Squash.—These varieties of squash have been inoculated and in each case perceptible softening occurs within 24 hours. In 96 hours this has increased to the extent of 24 cm. in depth. Onion.—Rapid and complete rotting: the onion has a yellowish white appearance and a vile putrid odour. Lettuce.—In 48 hours the heart of the lettuce is completely rotted. Sweet Potato.—The organism has a very rapid effect. In 12 hours, at 25-30°C, the potato assumes a yellowish appearance at the point of inoculation and softening has progressed to the extent of 1 mm. A very strong and agreeable smell or perfume resembling oil of citronella is perceptible. 98 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA In 24 hours the yellow appearance has deepened to a dirty white and the softening has increased to a depth of 2-3 mms., while the odour has become much more pronounced. Radish.—In 24 hours there is softening of both stem and foliage, and in 48 hours a young radish is completely rotted, with a distinctly objectionable and putrid odour. Banana.—In 24 hours growth and softening: in 48 hours pieces of banana ? inch thick completely rotted with a waxy appearance and formation of gas. Rhubarb.—Whitish growth on surface, but no softening in 24 hours. Asparagus.—Brown stain on all cut surfaces, no softening in 24 hours. The media used in the eultural work consisted of — Beef peptone gelatine, à Ÿ agar, Potato gelatine, and ial: In preparing the two former, the standard methods of the American Society of Bacteriologists were adhered to, the reaction to phenol- phthalein being adjusted to 1-5 % acidity. To obtain the latter, healthy sound potatoes were grated and the juice thus obtained strained through fine cloth and at once heated for half an hour in the steamer at 100°C. After standing for a few hours a comparatively clear liquid was obtainable. This poured off constituted with the addition of 5% of Nährstoff Heyden and 12-5% gelatin or 1-5% agar, the potato media. The media was cleared in the usual way, and after adjusting the reaction to 1-5% acidity (phenolphthalein) sterilisation was accom- plished by intermittent heating for three successive days. A medium was prepared from healthy turnips by methods similar to those adopted with the potato medium; the results, however, were not such as to make the using of turnips of any advantage. In testing for the percentage of gas present, a gasometer chart was used and the amount of gas expressed in per cent. of the total volume of the closed arm of the fermentation tube. | All sugar tests have been done in quadruplicate, and all other cultures made in duplicate, and in many cases in quadruplicate. In addition to the above vegetables a number of cultivated plants and weeds were collected, prepared and inoculated in the same manner as the vegetables. These experiments were carried out by Mr. F. L. Drayton, a senior student in biology. All inoculations were done in triplicate. [HARRISON-SADLER] A BACTERIAL SOFT ROT OF TURNIPS 99 CRUCIFERAE. 1.—Stock (Matthiola incana, Br.) Softens the epidermal layers to a mucilaginous mass without any discolouration. No effect otherwise. 2.—Flaxweed (Sisymbrium Sophia, L.) An earthy smell observed, which seemed to be an intensified smell of the culture itself on potato agar. No discolouring or softening. 3.—Peppergrass (Lepidium apetalum, Willd.) The greenish central portion of the stem very much softened and the cambrium region slightly so, after 21 hours. These conditions much intensified after another 24 hours—the tissues becoming mucil- aginous. 4.—Shepherd’s Purse (Capsella Bursa-pastoris, Mench). Slight softening of the epidermis, no effect otherwise. 5.—Wormseed mustard (Erysimum cheiranthoides, Linn.) Growth of organism over the stem with very slight softening of the wood, but the epidermis attacked vigorously and softened to a _ mucilaginous mass. 6.—Wild mustard (Brassica Sinapistrum, Boiss.) The epidermal layer and the central portion at the crown softened badly without any discolouration or bad smell. White filmy growth over the crown. 7.—Tansy mustard (Sisymbrium incisum, Engelm.) Attacked vigorously, softening the epidermal layers and the portion at the crown to a pulpy mass. In younger parts the whole is softened. 8.—Rape (Brassica Napus, Linn.) Extensive softening of the greenish central portion at the crown, also in the region between the woody part and the epidermis, after 16 hours. Further intensified by another 24 hours. 9.—Sweet Alyssum (Alyssum maritimum, Lam.) Central greenish portion of the stem softened, also much softening of the root and stem epidermis. 10.—Watercress (Nasturtium officinale, R. Br.) Practically no action, just a slight softening of the central pithy portion. COMPOSITAE. 1.—Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale, Weber.) Attacks it vigorously, forming in the older roots a greenish mass in the centre, and causes the central portion to curl, soften and shred longitudinally. A musty smell is also noticeable. In younger portions it softens the whole crown and root without discolouration. 100 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 2.—Chicory (Chichorium Intybus, L) Attacked strongly—softened, with brown discolouration and sour smell. Attacks the central portion especially, causing in the younger roots a white surface exudation. 3.—Burdock (Arctium minus, Bernh.) Fairly old root stocks used and causes no effect except a slight discolouration. 4,—Sow Thistle (Sonchus oleraceus, L.) Strongly attacked causing a yellowish green discolouration, also very much softened especially in the epidermal and central portions. 5.—Canadian Thistle (Cnicus arvensis, Hoffm.) Slight grey discolouration and surface growth, with very slight softening. 6.—Goldenrod (Solidago canadensis, L.) Brown discolouration after 21 hours; after another 24 hours, very slight softening in the centre observed. 7.—Aster sp. Epidermis strongly attacked and softened, the whole discoloured reddish brown. 8.—Ragweed (Ambrosia artemisifolia, L.) Destroys the natural pinkish colour of the stem and root, leaving it white with the epidermis discoloured black and softened. The central portion at the crown also softened and the wood unattacked. Peculiar sweetish odour. 9.—Fleabane (Erigeron canadensis, L. Attacked strongly, destroying the natural pinkish colour of the root. Softens without discolouration all the tissues except the wood. 10.—Ox-eye Daisy (Chrysantemum Leucanthemum, L.) The central portions softened with slight brown discolouration. 11.—Chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum Sineuse, Sabine.) Softening of the pithy centre of the stem, but otherwise unaffected. 12.—Wormwood (Artemesia Absinthium, Linn.) All blackened and the whole softened except the central woody strand. A slightly older one not attacked so vigorously. The natural smell much accentuated. SOLANACEAE. 1.—Jerusalem Cherry (Solanum Pseudo-Capsicum, L.) A slight surface growth of the organism, but no apparent effect on the plant. 2.—Petunia (Pitunia nyctaginiflora, Juss). Attacked strongly, particularly the central part of the stem giving a soft light-green mass of mealy material—no discolouration. A young [HARRISON-SADLER] A BACTERIAL SOFT ROT OF TURNIPS 101 side shoot is much softened, almost to a mucilaginous mass. The epid- ermis is also affected, but has little or no effect on the wood. 3.—Salpiglossis (Salpiglossis sinuata, Ring & Pav.) No effect CHENOPODIACEAE. 1.—Lamb’s Quarters (Chenopodium album, Linn.) No effect. 2.—Spinach (Spinacia oleracea, Mill.) Surface growth causing slight discolouration and very slight softening of the crown—practically no effect. CONVOLVULACEAE. 1.—Bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis, L.) Attacked slightly with small amount of softening and brown dis- colouration. Pleasant sweetish odour. UMBELLIFERAE. 1.—Fennel (Foeniculum officinale, All.) No effect. 2.—Water Hemlock Cicuta maculata, Linn.) Practically no effect—very slight brownish discolouration. 3.—Wild Parsnip (Pastinaca sativa, Linn.) The merest trace of discolouration and softening—practically no effect. LILIACEAE. 1.—Trillium (Trillium grandiflorum, Salish.) The whole bulb very much softened, with creamy discolouration and a putrid, objectionable smell. 2.—Tulip (Tulipa Gesneriana, Linn.) Brown discolouration and a peculiar sweetish earthy smell, also very much softened after 25 hours. After another 24 hours most of the scale leaves were black. 3.—Lily (Lilium sp.) Slight softening and brownish discolouration. The stem portion unaffected. The peculiar medicinal odour, natural to the bulb, is much accentuated. 102 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA CUCURBITACEAE. 1.—Melon (Cucumis Melo, Linn.) Softened considerably with light brown liquid exudation on the cut surface of the fruit. Smell of putrid fish. Action very strong. Morphology. Vegetative cells on beef peptone agar and on potato agar 15 hours old and grown at a temperature of 30°C. are short rods on each medium; varying when grown on potato agar at 37°C. to long fila- mentous rods. Limits of size grown at 30°C. are 1-3 mu to 4 mw long, the majority having a length of 2 um; the average width is 7 4. At 37°C. on potato agar the length varies from 6-5 w to 51-6 w, the width being -96 u. On beef peptone agar incubated at 37°C. the length varies from 1-3 to 5-1 u, the majority being 2 4-2-5 py long, while the width is 9 x. Cultural Characters. ° Agar Stroke at 37°C. Iridescent, scanty growth, effuse, flat, glistening, smooth, translucent and of a butyrous consistency; brown by transmitted light. At 30°C. a rapid and moderate to abundant growth obtained; otherwise, similar to above. Potato Agar Stroke at 37°C. Growth more abundant than on beef agar; of a butyrous consistency; lustre dull to glistening and colour porcelain white. Agar Stab at 37°C. Scanty growth on the surface and along the track of the needle; line of puncture filiform. Potato Agar Stab at 37°C. Moderate growth on surface and along the track of the needle; line of puncture filiform and medium much darkened. At 30°C. the growth on beef agar and particularly on potato agar was moderate to abundant, much better than when grown at 37°C. Norr.—As shown by the photographs the temperature and medium used have an important influence on the organism. These variations or involutions are interchangeable in accordance with the variation of temperature and medium. From a beef agar culture grown at 30°C. inoculations were made on beef agar and potato agar. Although subcultures had been made for two transfers the micro- scopic appearance of the organism on beef agar and potato agar at [HARRISON-SADLER] A BACTERIAL SOFT ROT OF TURNIPS 103 30°C. were essentially as before, and as shown by the photo-micro- graphs 3 and 5. On the other hand, the potato agar culture incu- bated at 37°C. was entirely different, as the illustrations 1 and 6 depict. If the inoculations are reversed, some of the potato agar culture grown at 37°C. being transferred to agar or potato agar and incubated at 30°C., the short rod form is in two transfers again observed. Each microphotograph was made from a stained specimen prepared from cultures 18 hours old. Gelatin Stab. Growth uniform and liquefaction commences in 24 hours; liquefaction saccate and complete in 7 days with a heavy white flocculent growth at the bottom of the tube. Potato Gelatine. In six days liquefaction, which is of a saccate nature, is complete; a more rapid and much more luxuriant growth is obtained than in beef gelatin. The medium takes on a brownish tint, and at the bottom of the tube there is a heavy flocculent pre- cipitate. Gelatine Stroke. In 24 hours only slight growth can be observed, with an aggregation of minute discrete colonies and a beginning of liquefaction; in 8 days the gelatin is completely liquefied. Potato Gelatine Stroke. Rapid growth; liquefaction saccate, and complete in 6 days. Nutrient Broth. In 24 hours slight clouding of the medium. In 48 hours growth and clouding increase with the formation of a ring and the deposition of a flocculent sediment. Milk. In 24 hours no change is perceptible, the milk gradually thickening, and in 6 days coagulation is complete and of a weak nature. Expression of whey follows, but little or no peptonising, after three months the appearance is the same. Litmus Milk. The action of the organism is similar to the above, and when in six days coagulation is complete the milk is “lilacinus”’ in colour. Nitrate Broth. No reduction of nitrate has been obtained when tested after 4 days with the naphthylamine and sulphalinic acid so- lutions. Dunham’s Solution. The organism does not produce indol, tested after ten days’ growth. Blood Serum at 30°C. Growth in this medium is good and rapid, spreading over the surface and perceptible softening of the serum being noticeable. This softening increases, the whole of the sloped surface gradually becoming liquefied. Ferm’s Solution. Slight clouding and growth in 24 hours at 30°C. Cohn’s Solution. No growth. 104 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Uschinsky’s Solution. In 24 hours’ growth: in 48 hours’ growth copious and precipitation of sediment: in four days perceptible clearing of the medium is observed. After a period of three months a heavy sediment is present, the liquid having a milky looking cloudy appearance. Preparation of Sugars. In preparing the sugars especial care was taken in order that any likelihood of chemical change during sterilis- ation should be reduced to a practical minimum. The standard broth used was made up of. Tap water Witte’s peptone, 2% Sodium chloride, .5% The reaction to phenolphthalein was not adjusted and on being tested showed .06% of acidity. The Smith fermentation tube was used, and the various sugars—saccharose, glucose and lactose having been added in the ratio of 1%, the sugar broths were filled into the fermentation tubes and sterilised intermittently for three successive days. The glycerine broth was prepared similarly. In the case of the Dulcite, Mannite and Raffinose broths a slight variation in the manner of preparation was made. The peptone broth, prepared as before, was filled into the fer- mentation tubes and sterilised at 100°C. intermittently for three days. Solutions of the three sugars respectively were made in water of such dilution that 1 cc. of the water solution added to 10 c.c. of the prepared broth in the fermentation tube gave a peptone broth sugar solution of 1%. The sugar solutions were then sterilised intermit- tently for three successive days and immediately before inoculation 1 c.c. was pipetted into the fermentation tube containing 10 c.c. of the previously prepared peptone broth. SUGARS. Dulcit. In 24 hours growth in both open and connecting tube: closed arm clear, no gas: alkaline reaction to litmus. Mannite. Turbidity throughout in 24 hours. In 72 hours 5% gas: acid reaction to litmus. Raffinose. Turbidity throughout in 24 hours. In 72 hours 8% gas: neutral to litmus. Glucose. Turbidity throughout in 24 hours with sediment. After 72 hours no gas: acid. Lactose. Turbidity throughout in 24 hours: after 72 hours 8.5% gas: acid reaction to litmus. Saccharose. Turbidity throughout in 24 hours: after 72 hours no gas: acid reaction to litmus. . [HARRISON-SADLER] A BACTERIAL SOFT ROT OF TURNIPS 105 Glycerine. After 72 hours clear in closed arm: no gas: alkaline reaction to litmus. Aesculin Agar. Black in 24 hours. Neutral Red Glucose Broth. No ring: no gas: no colour change. Gelatine Colonies.—48 hours—rapid growth—colonies not dense, semitransparent: under the % objective, organisms are seen moving en masse: edges of colony ciliate, liquefaction saucer shaped: diam- eter of surface colonies up to 4 mms. Potato Gelatine Colonies: 48 hours: growth rapid, round colony, diameter up to 5 mms: outside margin of colony dark zone and de- posits of bacteria in various parts of the colony: edges ciliate. In 72 hours the potato gelatine plates are completely liquefied, while the beef gelatine plates have a distinct turnipy smell, the colonies having increased in size to 15 mms. in diameter. To the naked eye the colonies appear myceloid, with deposits in the centre. In 120 hours the gelatine colonies have a diameter of 25 mms. and in plates where the dilution has been such that not more than one colony is present there does not seem to be any reason why if given time a single colony will not spread throughout the whole plate. Agar Colonies. In 48 hours the colonies on the surface are 1-2 mms. in diameter, and the deep colonies punctiform. The surface colonies are convex to capitate: glistening with a metallic lustre, with edges entire and gyrose markings in the centres. Potato Agar Colonies. In 48 hours the surface colonies are 2-4 mms. in diameter: convex to pulvinate; round, glistening and with edges entire. The growth is much more massive than on beef agar. The optimum temperature for growth is 30°C. Experiments relative to the length of time which the organism will exist on specific media have been conducted, but further work will be done. For the present it is sufficient to say that beef peptone gelatine and potato gelatine are more suitable for long continued growth than are beef peptone agar and potato agar. Inoculations have been made from 14 weeks old gelatine and agar cultures respectively into beef peptone broth, and incubated at 30°C. After 6 days heavy growth the formation of a ring is obtained in the broth inoculated from the gelatine culture, while the broth in- oculated from the agar culture shows very slight cloudiness and growth. As is to be expected, much more luxuriant growth and a far greater virulence is noticed when a culture of the organism is used which has been passed through a number of growing plants. 106 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA REFERENCES. 1. Jones, L. R. Bacillus carotovorus n. sp., die Ursache einer weichen Faulnis der Mohre. Centbl. Bakt. u. Par., II, 7: 12-21; 61-68, 1901. Also, Jones, L. R. A soft rot of carrot and other vegetables. Ann. Rep. Vt. Agr. Expt. Station 13: 299-332, 1901. 2. Potter, M. C. Ueber eine Bakterienkrankheit der Ruben (Brassica Napus). Centbl. Bakt. u. Par., II, 7: 282-288: 353-362, 1901. 3. Spieckermann, A., Beitrag zur Kenntniss der bakteriellen Wundfaulnis der Kulturpflanzen. Landw. Jahrb., 31: 155-178, 1902. 4. Townsend, C. O. A soft rot of the calla lily. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, B. P. I., Bul. 60., 1904: 5. Harrison, F. C. A Bacterial Disease of Cauliflower (Brassica oleracea) and allied plants. Cent. f. Bakt. II Abte. 13, p. 46 and 185. 6. van Hall, C. J. J. Das Faulen der jungen Schosslinge und Rhizome von Iris florentina und Iris germanica, verursacht durch Bacillus omnivorus v. Hall und durch einige andere Bakterienarten. Ztschr. Pflanzenkr., 13: 129-144, 1903. 7. Harding, H. A. and Morse, W. J. The Bacterial Soft Rots of certain vege- tables. Tech. Bull., No. 11, Geneva, N.Y., 1909. 8. Harding, H. A. and Stewart, F.C. A bacterial soft rot of certain cruciferous plants and Amorphophallus simlense. Science, N.S., 16: 314-315, 1902. 9. Saccardo, P. H. Chromotaxia seu nomenclator colorum. Patavii, 1894. Turnip Rot bacil- lus, from culture on Potato agar 15 Fours at 37° C. 1000. Figure 1, Prem p Purnia Rot bacil- Rot bacil- lus, from lus, from culture on culture on beef pep- beef pep- tone agar, tol e agar, 16 hours 15 hours at 30° C. at 36° C. Van Er- x 1000. megen’s method. X 1000. Figure 2. Figure 3. Figure 4. Same preparation eg Figure 2. X 2090, AL » ees ’ : . Det PO | “4 Day bh | 7 a ©. 3 > Re iN k Ÿ NUE 4 À 4 Leek. Ta) Sys eee | | A 7 ' FF | ‘ - 4 0,179 “! ik we À 03" yh. is mr ° “thes YA AL H . . a Fr ou, 6 ois 9s BE an, Sarees t À QE L Le 7 he, . Y CU AR ES ss > wo” D < - + ‘ 0 A fe: ad » Ps) Le * ~ a ‘> ts ."® a è a “ > t - ,. s LA . aed + 4 ë,; - “le 3 ’, act =, CE 1 Pad L 2 ® * . s wes ¢ » e egies * 7 x Vif ~ . #7 "See, Ss ° AE 42 » => 4 > b aha ve LP A A + as = > e & L 4 . + 2 .7. . 4 ‘7 » oA as 4 ‘ 2. “ Ê + e ‘ + L Ve . de t: a ‘NY o* » ae < 2% VA LL ey De + ~ a + : = *« i wt ee © & « Figure 5. Turnip Rot organism from B. p. agar g § p. ag Ato Ue Oem lOOO! Figure 6, Turnip orgarism from Potato agar AUS AC a0) Figure 7. Healthy Turnip plant. Figure 8. Turnip plant inoculated in erown Figure 9. Turnip plant inoculated in root with culture isolated from diseased turnip . : : € ; , with culture obtained as for Figure 8. produced in laboratory. ee , L 5 Ne (12 days after inoculation) (5 days after inoculation Figure 10. Healthy Cauliflower plant. Figure 11. Cauliflower. (14 days after inoculation with Turnip organism in crown and stem) Figure 12 Diseased turnip plant obtained direct from field. Figure 15. Turnip seeds sown in contaminated and un- contaminated soil. Pots II and IV contaminated. Figure 13. Turnip plant. (12 days after inoculation with turnip organism in crown) Figure 14. Same turnip as Figure 13 cut in half. SEcTION IV., 1913. [107] TRANS. R.S.C. The Effect of Low Temperatures on the Frog. By A. T. Cameron and T. I. BROWNLEE. Presented by PRoFrEssoR SwALeE VINCENT, F.R.S.C. (Read May 28, 1913.) In spite of the rapid changes of temperature met with in central Canada, the sudden onset of winter, and the extremely low temperatures which occur at fairly frequent intervals over a period of four or five months, frogs appear, in full activity, within a few days of the frequently sudden thaw. Further, in this locality (Winnipeg), it is not uncommon to hear statements that occasionally, during digging operations in winter, frogs are found in a stiff, frozen condition, and that, removed to a warmer atmosphere, they subsequently revive completely, the inference being that they have survived a temperature at any rate comparable with that of the external atmosphere, and well below the freezing point of water. Examination of the literature dealing with the limits of extreme cold which poikilothermic animals can survive at first sight shows evidence apparently supporting such statements, and, since it suggests an immunity to, and power of survival of prolonged low temperatures, seems to yield an explanation for the survival and early appearance of frogs after a Manitoban winter. Pembrey has summed up the available evidence as follows: (Schäfer’s Text-book of Physiology, volume 1, p. 817 et. seq., 1898). “The limits of extreme cold are generally reached when the water in which the animals live, or the lymph of their tissues, isfrozen. Fishes live in salt water when the temperature is below zero, but usually die when the water is frozen. “Boyle* exposed lampreys in a vessel of water to an exceedingly sharp frost, and found next day that one lamprey was frozen to the ice; when the ice was partly broken and partly thawed the animal was at first motionless, but in a few minutes recovered, and dragged after it a large mass of ice in which its tail was fixed. Similar experi- ments were made with similar results upon gudgeons and frogs. Hunter} found by experiment that the internal temperature of a frog and an eel could be reduced to —0-6°, and that, although the animals *“Philosophical Works,” Shaw’s edition, Vol. 1, p. 688. “Works,” Palmer’s edition, London, 1837, vol. IV, p. 131 et seq. Sec. IV, 1913—7 108 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA appeared to be dead, they revived when the temperature rose. Regnard * found that carp will live in water containing 24 per cent. of magnesium sulphate, even when the temperature is a degree or two below zero; at—2° the fish appear to be asleep, and at—3° their vitality is so greatly reduced that they seem to be dead, but revive when the water is grad- ually warmed. Pictet* exhibited at one of his lectures frozen goldfish, pike, and frogs, and at the next lecture the same animals alive and well after gradual thawing. According to this observer, fishes can be rapidly frozen so hard that they can be snapped in two, and yet other fishes frozen equally hard recover when slowly thawed. It has been observed by Marcet + that gold-fish completely embedded in the ice show no signs of life on thawing, but one fish, which was partly encased in ice and was surrounded by a little water, appeared lifeless, but recovered perfectly in a short time. Observations and experiments made by Gaymard{ and Gavarret* show that toads and fishes may be frozen perfectly stiff and yet revive when gradually thawed; according to the former observer the freezing must be gradual, otherwise the animals are killed. During Franklin’s explorations® in the Arctic regions it was observed that fish frozen completely hard recovered when they were thawed; a carp, which had been frozen for thirty-six hours, was able when it had been thawed to leap about with much vigour.” And again (p. 823) ‘The eggs of silk-worms and of other insects may be exposed for a long time to temperatures 20° to 30° below zero, and yet will develop into larvæ when removed to warm surroundings.® The Arctic explorer Ross exposed caterpillars to a temperature of —42°, and found that they recovered when slowly thawed. Colasanti? observed that hens’ eggs could be exposed for two hours at a temperature of—4°, and for half an hour to a temperature of —7° to-10°, and yet developed normally when placed in an incubator.” According to Bachmetjew® there is no minimal temperature for cold-blooded animals below which continued existence is impossible. The possibility of revivification, especially with hard-frozen insects, *Compt. rend. Soc. Biol., 1895, p. 652. fMarcet, Croonian Lectures, Brit. Med. J., 1895, I, 1367. fBiblioth. univ., Genève, 1840, 26, 207. ‘ “De la chaleur produite par les êtres vivants.” Paris, 1855, p. 502. 5 Franklin, “Journey to the Polar Sea,” 1819-1822, 2nd edit., Vol. II, p. 17. ® Reaumur, ‘‘Mem. sur les insectes,’’ tomes II et IV; Spellanzani, ‘“Opusc. de phys. anim.” tome I, pp. 82-85; Bonafous, Biblioth. univ., Geneva, 1838, tome XVII, p. 200; Ross, ibid., 1836, tome III, p. 423; Pictet, Arch. se. phys. nat., Genéve, 1893, (3), 30, 293. 7 Arch. f, Anat. Physiol. u. wissensch. Med., 1875, p. 477. # “De la température vitale minima chez les animaux dont la température du sang est variable.” Arch. Se. biol. St. Petersbourg, 8, (III), 242, Zentr. f. Physiol. 1901, 15, 282. [CAMERON-BROWNLEE] LOW TEMPERATURES ON THE FROG 109 depends on the most different conditions, as rapidity of freezing, dura- tion of cooling, water content of tissues, and especially on the super- cooling of the body-fluids. He states that the body-size of the cooled insect is of influence in so far as supercooling will be slighter the larger the body, since with this increases the probability of formation of the first ice crystals. In the case of the frog Gadow * takes a distinctly conservative view. “Many Amphibia and Reptiles can endure a surprising amount of cold. and during hibernation their temperature may sink to freezing-point. This power of endurance does not apply to all alike; tropical species can stand less than those which live in temperate and cold regions. In spite of many assertions to the contrary, it may safely be asserted that none of our European frogs, toads, and newts survive being frozen hard. They may be cooled down to nearly —1°C., and they may be partially frozen into the ice. Circulation of the blood is suspended in such cooled-down frogs; their hmbs may become so hard that they break like a piece of wood, but the citadel of life, the heart, must not sink much below freezing-point, and must itself not be frozen, if the animal is to have a chance of recovering. The protoplasm resists a long time, and so long as some of it is left unfrozen the rest will recover. Hibernating frogs are lost if they are reached by prolonged frost during exceptionally severe winters. Every frog will be killed in an artificial pond with a clean concrete bottom, but if there is sufficient mud, with decaying vegetable matter, the creatures survive, simply because they are not absolutely frozen. A severe winter not infrequently kills off all the younger creatures, while the older and more experienced hide them- selves more carefully and live to propagate the race.” Amongst the most recent experiments are those of Fraser Harris f who has carried out experiments on the pithed and normal frog. His pithed animals did not survive an internal temperature of —2°C., or even a prolonged lowering of the internal temperature to 0°C., while normal frogs frozen in water survived external temperatures of an hour’s duration or longer varying from -6° to -11°C. He thinks that the minimal temperature is above —2°. In view of the apparent indefiniteness of many of the above state- ments, and their lack of agreement, it seemed to be very desirable to carry out further experiments on the frog. Accordingly, Mr. W. L. Mann, B.A., working in this laboratory two winters ago, subjected frogs to external temperatures varying between—10° and—15°C. for short periods. He found that they would survive exposure to a temp- *‘Amphibia and Reptiles’ (The Cambridge Natural History), 1901, p. 68. + “Observations on Frogs at Temperature below Zero,” Proc. Physiol. Soc., liii-iv, J. Physiol., 40, 1910, 110 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA erature of —12° for an hour, but not exposure to —14° for the same period. This winter we decided to carry out further experiments. But before proceeding to a description of our results it will be convenient at this stage to consider also some experiments which have been carried out on the limit of temperature which can be survived by different exsected organs of the frog. Of. the numerous experiments which have been carried out with frog’s muscle only the more recent need be mentioned. According to v. Bunge* frog’s muscle is irritable between the temperatures of + 40° and —4-0°C. Heubel f exposed and ligatured frog’s hearts (emptied of blood) and froze them to complete rigidity within 30 seconds with ether spray. In experiments in which the temperature varied between —1° and —3°C. over a period of from 5 minutes to an hour, the hearts recovered and commenced to beat after removal of the sinus-ligature, and refilling of the ventricule with blood. Jensen and Fischer { have shown by ex- periments on the gastrocnemius of À. esculenta that exposure to a temperature of —1° until the greater part of the ‘free water” was frozen produced little damage; further cooling affected to greater and greater degree the irritability and conductivity of the muscle, which as a rule fell to zero at —3°, the temperature at which, according to these authors, the fast-bound water of the muscle (das festes gebundene Wasser des Muskels) begins to separate. Very accurate experiments have been carried out recently by H Brunow, working in Jensen’s laboratory. In these experiments the temperatures were measured exactly by thermoneedles fixed into the muscles. The duration of each experiments was between 15 to 30 minutes. Brunow summarises his results as follows: “The isolated Gastrocnemius of À. fusca survives a temperature of —2-9°C., without completely losing its irritability. The death-point lies at -3-0°C., just as in the case of À. esculenta. “With lower temperatures rigor mortis sets in immediately after ‘thawing, and more rapidly the lower the muscle has been cooled. “The muscle of R. fusca remaining in the animal and normally perfused survived a temperature of —4-06° and was still irritable after thawing. Its death-point lies between —4-1° and —4-2°C. “Perfused muscle therefore survives a temperature at least one degree lower than does isolated muscle.” * Lehrbuch der Physiologie des Menschen, Leipzig, 1901, Bd. I, 8. 308. +‘‘Die Wiederbelebung des Herzens nach dem Eintritt volkommener Herz- muskelstarre.”’ Pfliiger’s Archiv., 45, 563 ff. 1889. t “Der Gefriertod der Muskeln,” Zentralb. f. Physiol., 23, 297, 1909. ‘Inaugural Dissertation: “Der Kältetod des isolierten und durchbluteten Froschmuskels.”’ Géttingen, 1912. [CAMERON-BROWNLEE] LOW TEMPERATURES ON THE FROG 111 There is close agreement therefore between the death-point of the muscles of two different species of frogs, R. fusca and R. esculenta. Experiments on frogs’ nerves have shown on the other hand that marked differences may exist with different species. According to Boycott * the frog’s nerve conducts well up to the moment of freezing. He found that the lowest temperature at which conductivity takes place is 7°. Bihler’s results are in good agreement.t Howell, Budget, and Leonhard{ obtained the remarkable result that sometimes in spring nerve-iritability was lost at +5° or even at +15°C. Garten and Sulze have recently studied side by side À. esculenta and the Indian frog, R. hexadactyla.# They find that in the sciatic nerve of the latter ir- ritability ceases at +5°, while in À. esculenta stimulation at —9° still produces an effect. It would therefore appear from these experiments that there are marked differences in the temperature effect on the nerves of frogs from tropical and temperate climates, and further that the death-point of the sciatic nerve of Æ. esculenta is certainly below —9°, since the freez- ing-point is below this; results with muscle suggest that the death- point will he distinctly lower than the freezing-point. We have found from repeated experiments that a frog freezes in a manner very similar to that of a corresponding amount of saline iso- tonic with its blood. This is clearly shown by the curves in figure 1, corresponding to experiment 13. In this experiment a frog had the bulb of a small thermometer inserted into the stomach through the gullet. In a small beaker of water an equal amount of Ringer’s solution was placed and a similar thermometer placed within it. Both vessels were subjected to an almost constant external temperature of about —10°. In the figure time and internal temperature are plotted against each other. It will be observed, as might be expected, that the freezing points of the two solutions are identical. The frog freezes more rapidly. This is probably to be attributed to the smaller amount of fluid and the much greater surface. Nevertheless a very considerable time elapses before freezing is complete and the temperature commences to fall further. This clearly gives a clue to the results of Mr. Mann’s experi- ments (p. 109) and explains those of Professor Fraser Harris. Mr. Mann’s results do not indicate in any way the actual internal tempera- *“On the influence of temperature on the conductivity of nerve,” J. Physiol., 27, 488, 1902. Cp. aso, Tait, Proc. Physiol. Soc., xxxv-vi, J. Physiol., 34, 1906. t ‘Ueber den Einfluss tiefer Temperaturen auf die Leitfähigkeit des motorischen Froschnerven,’’ Engelmann’s Archiv., 1905, p. 239. t ‘The effect of stimulation and of changes of temperature upon the irritability and conductivity of nerve fibres,” J. Physiol., 16, 298, 1894. ‘“Ueber den Einfluss niederer Temperatur auf die Nerven einer tropischen Kaltblükers (Rana hexadactyla),” Z. Biol., 60, 163, 1913. 112 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA tures at which the frogs perished. They show that exposure to a certain low temperature (—12°) for a period of one hour does not suffice to reduce the internal temperature of the frog to the death-point. In certain other experiments the initial cooling effect is clearly evident in the frog, (compare for example experiments 20 and 22) though in this case it is shown in the solution only.* The actual freezing- point temperature according to the most exact experiment (20) which Figure 1 we have performed is —0-44° = 0-02°C. This is in good agreement with similar experiments with frog’s muscle by Brunow,t who obtained the freezing-point—0-42°. He also has obtained curves for the ex- sected muscle very similar to that in figure 1. *This supercooling effect is apparently a general phenomenon. Thus Bach- metjew (Zeit. f. wiss. Zool., 66, 521; Zentr. f. Physiol., 13, 776, 1899) has obtained the same effect for butterflies (Saturnia pyri) and other insects. He is of the opinion that this property is of importance for species which survive the winter. Since, as will be seen later, a frog can survive the solid state, his views on the importance of supercooling seem exaggerated. Loc. cit., p. 8. Cp. also Jensen and Fischer, Zentr. f. Physiol., 23, 296-7, 1909. [CAMERON-BROWNLEE] LOW TEMPERATURES ON THE FROG 113 Our experiments have dealt with the intact frog, and the exsected frog’s heart. The species used was À. pipiens, obtained from a Chicago dealer, who informs us that the frogs were obtained in the neighbourhood of Chicago, in part caught in running water, and in part dug from sandy soil. It will be convenient to consider the results for the frog’s heart first. These show clearly that the hearts will recover after exposure for two hours to a temperature varying between —2° and —2-5°C. (experiment 12). They will not recover exposure to a temperature of —3-0°C. for one hour (experiments 9 and 10). The death-point there- fore lies between —2-5° and —3-0°C. At the higher of these tempe- ratures the hearts are frozen completely hard. Reference to experiment 14 shows that prolonged cooling to —2-75° kills the normal frog’s heart, while in experiment 19 it survived in vivo a temperature of —2-4°C, This suggests that here also the death-point lies between —2-5° and —3-0°C., and that unlike the gastrocnemus muscle there is no difference between the exsected and perfused heart (unless, indeed, Brunow’s results are to be explained as simply due to the necessity of a longer freezing period for equilibrium, and hence a pseudo-lowering of the temperature, due to the circulating blood bringing heat to the limb). These results for R. pipiens are in good agreement with Heubel’s for European frogs, (p. 110). The experiments on the intact frog show that it survives subjection to its freezing-point temperature for such a long period that it seems certain that all the “free-water” has been frozen (see especially experi- ment 22). Further that after two hours cooling, exposure for a shorter period to a temperature between —0-8° and —1°C. does not kill (ex- periments 18 and 21). And finally that after exposure to a temperature of between —1-5° and —1-8° for two hours, the frog no longer regains coordinative movement, although heart, muscle, and peripheral nerves are apparently undamaged (experiment 20). The fact that a distinctly less low temperature suffices to kill the frog than is necessary to kill its heart, its striped muscular tissue, and especially its peripheral nervous system, suggests that the death of the frog is really due to a specific temperature effect either on the brain or on the cord. This does not altogether agree with Gadow’s hypothesis* that the heart is the essential organ concerned, especially since our experiments have demonstrated that the heart can be frozen stiff for long periods and survive. It would be very difficult to test our hypothesis directly. It has no direct bearing on our initial prob- lem. We have carried out no direct experiments on exsected muscle. Our experiments show no results disagreeing with Brunow’s except perhaps experiment 14. *See page 109 114 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA It will be observed that we are at present unable to give very exact determinations for the minimal temperature which a frog can survive. As will be explained later, this is due to the fact that cooling for pro- longed periods at fairly constant temperatures is essential, and up to the present time we have been unable to devise a cheap self-regulating thermostat for the requisite range of temperature. Further, until such a constant-temperature apparatus is available, it will be impos- sible to test frogs of the same species for slight individual variations. It is interesting to attempt to conceive the conditions of the tissue cells when the body is completely frozen, and while it is yet unkilled. Experiment 1 gives an idea as to the gross condition of the frog at this stage. His abdomen is full of ice particles. His limbs are frozen stiff, and the muscular tissue is full of ice, so that it cuts like cheese, or like hard ice cream. Both physical theory and our actual experiments support the view that the blood and lymph contain large amounts of ice crystals. Unless these separate simultaneously in the tissue cell and the lymph bathing it, it seems possible that none separates in the cell before it is killed. Should ice separate out first in the lymph, then the increased osmotic pressure of the remaining solution would result in passage of water outwards across the cell membrane. This would prevent freez- ing at a temperature of —0-44°C. The process would continue until much of the water of the lymph was frozen, i.e. until the concentration of the lymph and cell fluid was high. At a corresponding low temper- ature—perhaps in the neighbourhood of 3°C. (corresponding to a con- centration of 5 per cent. NaCl) for muscular tissue—ice commences to separate in the cell, but the cell solution is so concentrated that the separation irretrievably damages the cell-protoplasm and death re- sults. Consideration of the effects of cold on certain plant species—also poikilothermic organisms—lends some support to this hypothesis. In most plants, and in potatoes, beet-roots, and apples, the formation of ice is followed by death. The ice is usually formed in the inter- cellular spaces and not within the cells themselves. ‘“The mode of freezing is due to the fact that the thin film of water which covers the outer walls of the cells lining intercellular spaces freezes first. This causes more water to be withdrawn, and this again freezes. As water is withdrawn from the cell, the cell-sap concentrates, for the salts are kept back by the protoplasm, so that the ice formed in the intercellular space is nearly pure.”’* According to Miiller-Thurgau + and Molisch ¢ *Pfeffer’s “Physiology of Plants,’ trans. Ewart, 1903, vol. II, p. 240. fLandw. Jahrb., 1886, 15, 534. tMolisch, ‘Das Erfrieren der Pflanzen,’’ 1897, p. 534. i 2 [CAMERON-BROWNLEE] LOW TEMPERATURES ON THE FROG 15 - death of the protoplasm is directly due to withdrawal of water through ice-separation. Recently however Apelt* has shown, in experiments with the Potato, that the freezing-point of the cell-sap is always higher than the death-point of the cell. Voigtlander} finds as the result of numerous experiments that many species can be supercooled far below the specific death-temperature. Ice must be formed in the tissues before death takes place, but the formation of ice is in itself insufficient. Death takes place only when the temperature falls below a certain minimum, specific for each species, and which can in certain cases lie far below the eutectic point of the salt mixture in the cell-sap. His results therefore do not agree with the Müller-Thurgau hypothesis, and he is of the opinion that the actual cause of death is not yet known. It is at any rate evident that the phenomena described bear many resem- blances to those exhibited by the cooled frog. Jensen and Fishert have attempted, by studying the slight dif- ference of curvature by plotting temperature against time (as in figure 1) for frog’s muscle and 0-7 per cent sodium chloride solution gradually cooled, to determine the relative amounts of ‘‘free”’ water and water absorbed in the colloid of the muscle. They conclude that the latter amounts to only a few percentage of the whole amount, from which it would appear that considerable variations of concentration of the cell-fluid may be possible without damage to the cell-protoplasm. Our experimental results are in substantial agreement with Gadow’s views (p.109) and appear to show conclusively that the frogs experimented on—f. pipiens from the neighbourhood of Caicago—will not survive a temperature of -1-8°C. It would therefore appear highly probable that the Manitoban frog, although it has to survive a severer winter, survives only when it is not subjected to a temperature of —1-8°C. Two possibilities are conceivable under which exposure to a lower temperature would not be fatal. The first is that, for frogs at a depth of several feet of earth the rate of freezing might be so gradual as to introduce some compensating factor, some new phenomenon. The apparently definite death-temperature of the various tissues does not appear to warrant this assumption nor can any physical chemical process be advanced in support of it. The second supposition is that there is a fundamental difference between the Manitoban and Illinois *“Neue Untersuchungen über den Kältetod der Kartoffeln,” Beitr. zur Biol. der Pflanzen, 9, 215, Zentr. f. Physiol., 22, 538, 1908. + ‘“Unterkühlung und Kältetod der Pflanzen,” Beitr. zur Biol. der Pflanzen, 9, 359, 1910; Zentr. f. Physiol., 24, 271, 1910. Compare also Rein (Untersuchungen über den Kältetod der Pflanzen,” Zeit. f. Naturwiss., 80, 1; Zentr. f. Physiol., 23, 85) who concludes that the death-temperature is completely independent of the osmotic pressure in the cell. t ‘Die Bindung des Wassers im Muskel,” Zentr. f. Physiol., 23, 296, 1909. 116 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA frogs—due perhaps to adaptation—sufficient to permit the tissues of the latter to survive a temperature several or many degrees below that fatal to the former. This assumption, which would apparently suggest considerable chemical difference in the structure of the protoplasm, seems to us very unlikely. Although there is evidence that differences may exist between frogs from vastly different climates (we know however of no data bearing on the death temperature of the tissues of frogs from tropical climates) the extreme temperatures of the two districts concerned are not so markedly different as to warrant this assumption. We are therefore of the opinion that, until definite scientific data can be adduced, there is no evidence for belief in statements that frozen frogs have been found at temperature lower than —2°C., which subse- quently recovered. It must be borne in mind that even above this temperature long exposure will cause total solidification and every appearance of death, and that frogs found several feet below the surface of the ground may, at such a depth, have undergone no greater lowering of temperature, and may, therefore, if removed to a warmer temper- ature, subsequently revive. The results of this paper suggest that similar experiments applied to other cold-blooded animals would also lead to some modification of present views. We hope especially to carry out some experiments on fishes in this laboratory. Experimental Results. It is convenient to record the experiments according to their nature and results, and not to deal with them chronologically. A. The general effect of freezing the frog. Experiment 1. Feb. 26th, 1913. Six frogs were placed together in a glass ves- sel in the external atmosphere, at a temperature of —25°C. After three-quarters of an hour the external (skin) temperature of the frogs was —1°, and after one hour this was unaltered. Two of the frogs were then removed to room temperature, and examined immediately. They were quite rigid, and appeared to be frozen solid. A wedge was cut out of the gastrocnemius of one frog, and the muscle (which cut like cheese) was found to be frozen and full of ice. The abdomen and thorax contents in this frog were not frozen, and the heart was beating. The second frog recovered completely after two or three hours. At the end of one and a half hours the external temperature of the remaining four frogs was —3°C. Two more were removed and examined. They were found to be frozen hard. The gastrocnemius of one frog was cut, and found to be full of ice crystals. The abdomen contents appeared to be frozen. This frog recovered completely in the anterior part of the body, but the hind limbs were dead. (This phenomenon, as will be seen, was repeatedly observed, especially when the hind limbs were frozen in a stretched condition; it is easily explained by their relatively [CAMERON-BROWNLEE] LOW TEMPERATURES ON THE FROG 117 greater surface, and in the subsequent experiments by the fact that they were nearer the bottom of the freezing mixture, and probably subjected to a temperature lower than that registered by the thermometer). The abdomen of the second frog was not completely frozen but the frog never recovered. Stimulation showed one hind limb irritable, the other dead. The heart was beating normally, and some of the muscular tissue of the thorax was apparently normal. After two hours and ten minutes the external temperature of the remaining frogs was —7°C. (the atmospheric temperature being —23°). The frogs were re- moved, and one was examined immediately. The skin was frozen, but the muscular wall of the abdomen was not frozen. Ice was found in abundance in the pericardium and all round it, and also in the heart substance. The other frog had not recovered after three hours. Examination showed that many of the reflexes were present in the fore-part of the animal. The heart was beating. The hind limbs were dead. B. Experiments on exsected hearts. These were carried out on several hearts at a time; they were placed in a test tube which was cooled by immersion in a freezing mixture. Temperatures were taken with a mercury thermometer. Experiment 2. Jan. 30th. Two hearts were frozen in normal saline, and kept for one hour between —6° and —7°C. After warming slowly to room temperature there was no recovery. Experiment 3. Feb. 7th. Four hearts, moistened with saline, were frozen, and kept for two hours at temperatures between —4-75° and—7°C. None recovered. Experiment 4. Feb. 6th. Four hearts were frozen in normal saline solution, and kept for 24 hours at temperatures between —3° and —5°C. None recovered. Experiment 5. Feb. 11th. Three hearts were frozen in saline and kept for two hours between —3-5° and —4-3°C. None recovered. Experiment 6. Feb. 11th. Three hearts were moistened with saline, frozen, and kept for two hours between —3-5° and —4:0°C. None recovered. Experiment 7. Mar. 18th. Three hearts were moistened with Ringer’s solution, and frozen. The temperature sank in 20 minutes to —4°C., and the hearts were observed to be beating feebly, the Ringer’s solution being still unfrozen. Two minutes later, freezing commenced and the temperature rose to —1°, remaining constant for 8 minutes, then sinking slowly. The hearts were kept at —4° for one hour. They were allowed to warm up to room temperature slowly, but none recovered. (The observed temperature of supercooling was undoubtedly lower than that of the heart substance.) Experiment 8. Mar. 13th. Four hearts, unmoistened, were frozen as usual, and kept at —4° for 1? hours. None recovered. Experiment 9. Mar. 18th. Four hearts, unmoistened, were frozen as usual, and kept at —3° for two hours. None recovered. Experiment 10. Feb. 12th. Two hearts, unmoistened, were frozen, and kept for two hours at —3°C. Neither recovered. Experiment 11. Feb. 12th. Two hearts were frozen in saline, and kept for two hours between —2-5° and —3°C. After warming to room temperature, the auricle of one heart commenced to beat feebly but regularly. Experiment 12. Feb. 22nd. Two hearts, unmoistened, were frozen, and kept for two hours between — 2° and — 2°5°C. Two hours after thawing the auricles were beating quite vigorously and regularly, but the ventricles were not beating and gave no response to stimulation. 118 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA The above experiments show that the frog’s heart can survive a temperature of — 2-5° but cannot survive a temperature of — 3°C. C. Experiments on the manner of cooling of the frog. Experiment 13. A medium sized frog, weighing 31-5 grams, was bound, and the bulb of a small thermometer inserted through the gullet into the stomach. An equal weight of Ringer’s solution (NaCl, 0-7%; KCl, 0-08%; CaCL, 0-025%) was placed in a beaker, and a thermometer placed so that the bulb was in the centre of the solution. The frog and beaker were placed side by side in a large glass jar, and exposed to an external temperature which during the experiment sank from — 10° to —11-5°C. Temperature readings were taken every few minutes with the follow- ing results:— Time Temperature Time Temperature Frog Ringer Frog Ringer 10-00 a.m. +14 °C LE 12-05 p.m. —1:5°C. —0-5°C. 15 4 6 15 2-0 0-75 25 3.9 4-9 25 À 0-75 35 1-9 3-9 35 4-5 0-8 45 0-5 0-75 45 5-5 1-0 55 — 0-5 —1-0 55 7 1-0 11-05 0-5 0-5 1-05 8-5 1-0 15 0-5 0-5 15 9-5 1-0 25 0-5 0.5 25 10 1-2 35 1-0 0-5 55 11 1-5 45 1-2 0-5 2-40 11-5 + 55 1-5 0-5 Curves, plotting temperature against time are shown in figure 1. The deductions from this experiment are dealt with on p. 111. They were confirmed by Experiment 14. Mar. 19th. This was carried out ia a manner precisely similar to the previous experiment. Time Temperature Frog Ringer External 11-15 a.m. +17-2°C. +17-0°C. 0.0°C 20 10 11 — 1 25 fé 9 il 30 4 8 2 35 2 6 40 1 5 45 0-0 4 50 —0:2 3 55 0-5 2 12-00 : ] 05 ke 1 10 “ 0-5° 15 f 0-2 20 a 0-0 25 # 0-0 30 Ê —0:2 35 i 0-5 —2 s [CAMERON-BROWNLEE] LOW TEMPERATURES ON THE FROG 119 Time Temp:rature Frog Ringer External 1-20 —0-5° —0-5 —2° 25 ‘ 0-6 39 ? si 0-6 45 : 0-7 —2 2-15 7 0-7 —1 At this point the external temperature was changed. Time Temperature Frog Ringer External 2-25 p.m. -0-75°C. —1-0°C. — 5°C. 35 0-75 ‘- 8 55 0-8 4 s 3-00 0-9 * Fs 05 1-0 i s 15 1 > 2 “ “ 18 1-5 + : At this stage the frog was removed to room temperature in its containing vessel. Time Temperature Frog Ringer External 3-20 p.m —2-0 —1-0°C. — 8° 25 2-5 0-8 3° 30 2-75 5 1 35 2-75 FS 0 40 2-5 +1° 45 2-3 cS 2 4-10 1-5 0-5 4-5 35 1-2 0-0 6 5-15 1-0 +2-5 8 45 0-4 6 9 6-05 +0-5 7-2 10 20 0-5 10 At 8 p.m. there was no sign of life. The heart was exposed, and found to be still. The gastrocnemius did not respond to stimulation. It is therefore evident not only that the frog freezes in a manner analogous to that of an isotonic solution, but that prolonged freezing to a minimal temperature of —2-75°C. kills both frog and the heart tissue. (The gastrocnemius muscle, under the conditions of the experiment, had probably reached a distinetly lower temperature.) D. Experiments on the normal intact frog. A series of initial rough experiments were carried out. In these the frogs were enclosed in a small jar, which was immersed in a freezing mixture. The internal temperature of the frog was measured by the insertion of the bulb of a small ther- mometer into the stomach through the gullet. The external temperature was usually much below this, so that probably, after the temperature had fallen below the freezing-point of the body fluid, the body-temperature exhibited a marked gradient from the exterior inwards. 120 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Experiment 15. Jan. 22nd. A frog was exposed to an external temperature of between —5° and —9°C. for four hours. The internal temperature remained between —5° and —7°C. for two hours. There was no recovery, and all muscular tissues were killed. à Experiment 16. Feb. 5th. A frog was exposed to an external temperature of between —10° and —5°C. for 6 hours. The internal temperature sank to —0-5°, remained constant at that temperature for two hours, and then fell slowly to —6-5°C. There was no recovery. Experiment 14. (q.v.) shows that frogs do not survive a temperature of —2-75°C. À Experiment 17. Feb. 4th. A frog was kept in an external temperature varying between —8° and —12°C. for three hours. The internal temperature varied between —1° and —2°C. for 13 hours. The frog was then removed from the cooling chamber and slowly regained room temperature. It did not recover co-ordinate movement. After two hours external stimulation gave the usual response throughout. After 41 hours the thorax was opened, and the heart found to be beating strongly. Stim- ulation of the sciatic nerve evoked no response (Cp. experiment 1). Experiment 18. Mar. 18th. A frog was exposed to an external temperature varying between —12° and —13°C. for 14 hours. The internal temperature varied between —0-8° and —1-3°C. for one hour. The animal was allowed to warm up slowly, and completely recovered. E. Exacter experiments on the normal intact frog. In order to carry out very exact experiments, it is necessary to eliminate as far as possible a temperature gradient in the animal, and therefore it is essential to obtain some self-regulating apparatus in which a temperature constant to at least 0-2° and varying at will between —1° and —4°C. can be maintained for several days if necessary. We have made repeated attempts to devise such an apparatus using a modified form of the ordinary thermostat, with supplies of warm and cold air, but we have not yet succeeded in devising an instrument sufficiently delicate. A constant low temperature apparatus has been constructed by Cotton * bus this is not only very large, but is also very costly to construct. We have had to content ourselves with an arrangement regulated by hand The frog was enclosed in a thin copper cylinder, and protected from the metal by a paper sheet. The cylinder was enclosed in a glass bottle, just fitting through the constricted neck of the bottle, so that around it was considerable air-space. The bottle was immersed to the lip in a jar containing strong brine, and this again in a freezing mixture. The brine was usually kept at a temperature between —8° and 12°C., under which condition the temperature of the air adjacent to the copper cylinder varied between —2° and —4°C. Slight variations in this could be produced by adding warm brine. Round the bottle was tightly coiled a copper spiral tube, through which warm air could be aspirated at will, and this also produced a very rapid, though slight effect on the interior temperature of the bottle. The temperatures of the frog’s interior and exterior were measured by iron- constantan thermo-needles, placed, the one in the frog’s stomach (with a glass protecting sheath) the other in contact with the skin. The thermo-currents were *J. Econ. Entomol., 3, 140, 1910. [CAMERON-BROWNLEE] LOW TEMPERATURES ON THE FROG 121 measured with a D’Arsonval galvanometer. The following experiments were per- formed with this apparatus :— Experiment 19. April 3rd. Time Temperature External Internal 1-10 p.m. +1-3°C. +1-4°C. 25 —0-7 — 0-2 40 1-0 0-6 2-25 1-1 « 45 1-0 a 3-15 1-0 ¢ 40 0-9 . 4-00 0-8 i 20 1-0 0-7 45 1-5 i 5-00 1-6 i 10 1-8 0-8 20 1-9 0-9 30 1-9 0-9 50 2-1 ileal 6.00 2-2 lai 10 2-3 ie 20 2-4 ike} 30 2-0 1-3 40 2-0 1-4 50 2-1 1-5 7-05 2:1 1-7 15 2-1 1-8 25: 2-2 2.0 39 2-0 2-1 45 1.8 2-1 55 1-9 2-2 8-05 1-9 2-2 15 1-8 ' 2-2 30 ilo7 2-4 40 oe 2-4 50 1-6 2-4 9-00 1-5 2-4 At 9.00 p.m. the frog and cylinder were removed from the cooling apparatus. At 10.45 p.m. the frog was still not completely thawed. The internal temper- ature was -0.4°C. The abdomen contained ice apparently. The limbs were soft. At 11.35 p.m. there was still no sign of life. The heart was exposed, and found to be beating slowly. On stimulation it commenced to beat more rapidly. The hind limbs were dead. The muscles in the fore-part of the animal still responded to stimulus. The frog therefore will not survive a temperature varying from—2° to —2.4°C. for 14 hours. 122 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Experiment 20. April 23rd. Temperature. Time External Internal. 2.00 p.m. —1-1°C. +0:37° C. 15 1:3 —(0-46 30 1-5 0-49 45 1-6 0-46 3.00 127 0-44 15 ws É 30 1-7 t 45 1-8 ~ 4.00 1-8 “ 15 1-9 se 30 2-0 45 2-1 z 5.00 2-4 0-60 25 2-8 0-75 45 3-1 - 0-91 6-00 3-0 0-94 15 2-8 1-14 6.30 p.m. —2-8°C. —1-36°C. 45 2-9 1-69 7-00 1-2 178 15 2.0 1-83 30 1-4 1-69 45 1-9 1-65 8-00 1-9 1-73 15 1-9 1-82 30 1-0 1-53 45 1-3 1-48 Cylinder and frog removed. 9-00 —1-22 15 0-98 30 0:78 45 ; 0-67 10-15 0-24 45 +1-05 55 2-68 1 6-36 At 12.45 there was no sign of life. The heart was exposed but found to be beating. The hind limbs were dead. The muscles of the fore part of the body responded to stimulation. The frog therefore does not survive being kept for two hours at a temperature between—1-8° and —1-5° C. This experiment shows the initial supercooling. We consider that the tem- perature measurements in this, the final experiment in point of time, are the most trustworthy. The estimated error is 0-02°, so that the freezing point of the frog used was —0-44°+0-02°C. [CAMERON-BROWNLEE| Experiment 21. i) 2. Time .30 45 .00 15 30 50 .00 10 20 30 40 50 .00 10 20 30 40 50 .00 10 20 30 40 50 00 pm. LOW TEMPERATURES ON THE FROG Mar. 28th. External —0-5°C. 1-1 WWD ND ND ND BB bi bi bi bi it id BR bd bi id Hé Hi RHONNNOCHOONHSAARKRERKRAO Temperature Internal —0 0: 0- Q- Or 0: 0: see © Se ei) AO 6 © «© 00 00 = G Où Gr Où où où x 1 1 1 HR & & & & AOD 123 The frog was removed at 5.00 p.m., had partially recovered at 6.30 p.m., and completely recovered at 8.00 p.m. —1-0°C. It can therefore survive slow cooling to Experiment 22. April 8th. In this experiment the frog was cooled_as usual. The internal temperature showed an initial supercooling effect. Time External 1 3510) 1-8 bo bo Ww bo Temperature Internal +0 —0 0 0 -5°C 3 -8 5 The internal temperature then remained constant at —0:5°C. till 11.30 p.m. a period of over eight hours. During this time the external temperature was kept between —1-3° and 2-5°C. The frog was removed from the apparatus at 10:45 pm. At 12-55 a.m. it had almost recovered, and at 10.15 a.m. of the 9th April it had completely recovered. The frog will therefore survive prolonged cooling atits freezing point temperature. During the period of freezing it is completely stiff. Sec. IV, 1913—8 124 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA SUMMARY OF RESULTS. (1) Frogs freeze at a temperature of —0-44°0-+02°C., in a manner very similar to that of solutions isotonic with their tissue-fluids. (2) Specimens of À. pipiens obtained from the neighbourhood of Chicago will survive a temperature of -1°C. They will not survive a temperature of —1-8°C. (3) The heart-tissue, whether exsected or in vivo, of these frogs survives a temperature of —2-5°, but is killed by a temperature of —3-0°C. (4) Since this is the case, and since similar experiments by other observers have shown that muscular tissue will survive a temperature of ~2-9°C., while the peripheral nerves are not killed by much lower temperatures, it appears probable that the cause of death is connected with a specific temperature effect on the brain or cord. (5) It is unlikely that frogs survive the low temperatures of the atmosphere, and superficial layers of the earth, of a Manitoban winter. Their winter quarters are probably situated in a layer of mud or soil which retains a temperature above or in the neighbourhood of O°C. We desire to thank Professor Swale Vincent for his continued and stimulating interest in these experiments. This work has been carried out in connection with a Committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, appointed to consider “The effect of low-temperature on cold-blooded animals.”’ The expenses of the research have been in part defrayed by a grant to Professor Vincent from the Government Grant Committee of the Royal Society of London. Section IV., 1913. [125] TRANS. R.S.C. On the Existence of a Reducing Endo-Enzyme in Animal Tissues By D. Fraser Harris, M.D., C.M., D.Se. F.R.S.E., PROFESSOR OF PHYSIOLOGY AND HISTOLOGY IN THE DALHOUSIE UNIVERSITY, HAaLirax, Nova.Scoria Presented by Dr. J. G. Apami, FRS.C: (Read May 29, 1913) I. Historical. It has for many years been recognised that both living and “sur- viving ” animal tissues possess deoxidising or reducing powers. Hoppe-Seyler ! in 1883 was the first to draw attention to the pres- ence of powerful reducing processess in living tissues. He suggested that, through reduction, molecular oxygen was rendered active by conversion into nascent oxygen and thus enabled to oxidise certain constituents of tissues after the manner in which hydrogen-saturated palladium-foil can oxidise indigo. Paul Ehrlich ? two years later published his researches on the reducing powers of tissues during life and at the moment of death. He classified tissues as regards their oxygen-avidity as follow — 1. Those in which indo-phenol blue remains unchanged; these he regarded as saturated with oxygen. Examples: heart, renal cortex and the grey matter of the central nervous system. 2. Those which reduce indo-phenol blue to indo-phenol white, but not alizarine blue to alizarine white; Examples: striated and non- striated muscle, gland-parenchyma. 3. Those which reduce alizarine blue to alizarine white, that is those with the greatest oxygen-avidity. Examples; lung, liver, fat- cells and the gastric mucosa. Ehrlich injected the pigments subcutaneously intra vitam; he noticed that a certain degree of heat arrested the reducing-power, but he did not suggest that tissue-reduction was due to an enzyme. Between 1888 and 1909 J. de Rey-Pailhade * wrote on a substance he called ‘‘philothion” which he regarded as one of the mercaptans and indistinguishable from cysteine. To this substance he attributed great importance in the fixation of oxygen by tissues. Spitzer? in 1894 noticed that after the death of the animal, while the reducing powers of the tissues increased, the oxidising capacity 126 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA rapidly disappeared. He also noticed that the temperature of 100°C might not always destroy the reducing power, whereas it always des- troyed the oxidising. In 1895 Sir Victor Horsley and A. Butler Harris made a report to the Scientific Grants Committee of the British Medical Association on the appearance of tissues of animals injected subcutaneously intra vitam with methyene blue. In the milk and in the urine a leuco form was found. On faradisation of the living cortex cerebri, these workers demonstrated a state of reduction around the stimulated spot at a time when the blue coloration elsewhere was at its height. The de- coloration was not due to ionised hydrogen at the kathode, for when the cortical excitability had disappeared, the reduction of the pigment at a stimulated spot could no longer be obtained. These workers therefore recognised the simultaneous activity of two processes, oxidation and reduction, the precise colour at any mo- ment being the result of the relative predominance of the one process over the other. Frequently they found that oxidation prevailed over reduction. In 1896 I* found that living tissues of cat and rabbit—kidney, liver, heart, glands—reduced the blue potassium ferric ferrocyanide in the Prussian blue and gelatine injection mixture to the green or white leuco state of the di-potassium ferrous ferrocyanide which on ex- posure to air slowly, or by treatment with hydrogen peroxide rapidly, became blue again. The pigment was reduced only in the washed out, smaller vessels and capillaries; in presence of blood not washed out of the larger vessels, the Prussian blue remained unreduced. The colour of the blood was therefore a purple. In 1899 the term ‘‘reductase” as indicating a tissue-ferment capable of effecting reduction-processes, was first used by Abelous and Gerard.’ Pozzi-Escot® in 1902 published the results of work on the reducing action of vegetable and animal tissues on solutions of indigo, litmus and Prussian blue out of contact with air. He confirmed Rey-Pailhade in finding that the tissues could form hydrogen sulphide from sulphur, and could reduce potassium iodide when out of contact with air. He held that a reductase might be suspected when a living tissue decomposes H, O,, but does not affect a mixture of guaiacum and H,0,. C. A. Herter® in 1904 and 1905 published two papers on the reducing powers of living tissues. He injected methylene blue intra vitam. He stated that ‘ ‘the liver usually retains a high grade of reducing activity for several hours after death”. He found lung, suprarenal capsule and ~ *At this date I had seen only Ehrlich’s paper on oxygen avidity. [HARRIS] A REDUCING ENDO-ENZYME, 127 grey matter of central nervous system all reduced the blue to the leuco state. An animal which was chilled by wet cloths or ice ‘ ‘exhibited the powers of reduction much diminished by cold”. Herter showed that, conversely, the reducing power of the tissues of an aminal injected with the microorganisms of a specific fever was increased. Underhill and Closson’? in 1905 confirmed Herter’s views and came to the conclusion that their experiments demonstrated the simul- taneous action of both oxidative and reducing processes in the animal organism. In 1906 Professor J. C. Irvine and I" showed that the intra vitam reduction of Prussion blue was not a deoxidation, but the removal of an ionic charge. By perfusing the surviving kidney of a sheep with the Prussian blue mixture, I obtained from the ureter an absolutely colourless artificial urine which was blued immediately on treatment with H,0,. Authors with increasing frequency are recognising the existence of reductase. Oppenheimer”, for instance, in his large work on ‘‘Ferments” does so: most of the authors of text-books mention the reducing power of tissues even when they do not recognise ‘‘reductase”’. Some, however, frankly postulate a reducing ferment, thus G. P. Mudge" writes, ‘‘If an albino does carry a chromogenous body which only needs the influence of an oxidising or reducing ferment to cause it to produce pigment”, etc. II Materials used in Judging of Reduction by Tissues. These may be classified as:— I. Those containing, and those not containing oxygen. II. Those which are and those which are not pigments. A. Pigments: 1. Containing oxygen, haemoglobin; methaemo- globin; sodium-indigo-disulphonate. 2. Not containing oxygen; methylene blue; Prussian blue. B. Non-pigments: 1. Those with oxygen, e.g., sodium nitrate. 2. “ without oxygen, e.g., ferric chloride. III. Methods of Studying the Reducing Powers of Tissues. All the following methods of bringing the pigments and other substances into contact with the tissues or tissue-juices or other prep- arations of tissues have been tried: (a) immersing pieces of surviv- ing organs in the test substances; (b) mixing the liquids with the press-juice of disintegrated organs; (c) mixing the liquids with aque- 128 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA ous, saline or dilute glycerol “solutions” of reductase; (d) injecting surviving organs with the Prussian blue and gelatine mixture; (e) perfusing this injection mass or, for instance, ferric chloride through the vascular system of a surviving organ; (f) perfusing the blood- vessels and obtaining in the case of the kidney, artificial urine, in the case of the liver, artificial bile. As might be expected, the method merely of immersing pieces of tissue was by far the most unsatisfactory. No good results, com- parable with those of Dr. Vernon" in the case of oxidase, were ob- tained; but in this respect reductase resembles glycogenase, an un- doubted endo-enzyme. The routine method followed was to use the press-juice from a Klein’s press. This was kept sterile under toluene. Its reducing power gradually declined in energy, until at the end of three months it had vanished. Various extracts of organs were made—aqueous, saline and elycerol—but as their reducing power was considerably weaker than that of press-juice, these were not so extensively used in examining the properties of reductase. Injection of the Prussian blue and gelatine mixture into the blood vessels of organs was not used on many occasions. It was, however, originally by this method that my attention was drawn to tissue re- duction, as I suspected that the “fading” of the mixture in the capil- laries of the parenchyma of liver and kidney was chemically of the nature of a reduction. This does not constitute a convenient method owing to the lability of the gelatine to ‘“‘set” if the proper temperature is not maintained. The revival of the blue colour in an injected and almost color- less kidney or liver cut open and exposed to the air or to the action of H,0, is striking when seen for the first time. The vessels on the cut surface begin to show up like letters written in “sympathetic” ink. It was by this method that I obtained an artificial, gelatinous leuco urine from the sheep’s ureter; it became blue on treatment with H,O,. The method of injecting ferric chloride through the portal system and examining both the hepatic emergent fluid and the contents of the gall-bladder for ferrous chloride, in both of which it was found, proved a satisfactory method. IV. Preparation of the Juice. The following may be taken as typical of the technique. A liver removed from the animal (rabbit, cat, dog, pig) before the heat has left it, is perfused through the portal vein with tap water at 40°C. [HARRIS] A REDUCING ENDO-ENZYME 129 or with 0-75% NaCl until the water from the hepatic vein is color- less. The organ is then rapidly cut into large pieces from which a good deal of water is allowed to drain away. The pieces are then cut up into much smaller bits and forced into the juice-press in which they are crushed under considerable pressure. A fawn coloured, viscid liquid drips out and is-received under toluene. This juice is subsequently ground up with powdered glass and filtered through two layers of cheese cloth to free it from connective-tissue and the debris of blood-vessels, etc. Some preventative of putrefaction must be used, although any such substances may reduce the energy of tissue-respiration. V. Description of a Typical Observation. Three cubic centimetres of absolutely fresh press-juice, prepared as just described, were shaken in a test-tube with 10 c.c. of 0-05% solution of soluble Prussian blue at room temperature (about 17°C.) The blue colour began to disappear immediately, and in less than a minute, after passing through light blue, light green and greenish grey, the mixture became light grey in colour. No trace of pigment remained. When the same volume of boiled juice was used, no decrease in the intensity of the blue colour of the solution was observed at the end of several hours. The reducing activity of the juice was found to diminish somewhat rapidly with time. With a mixture containing 3 c.c. of the press-juice 24 hours old and 10 c.c. of 0-05% Prussian blue solution, it was found that ten minutes elapsed before its colour be- came green-grey, and two hours before it became completely color- less (grey). VI. Examination of Possible Fallacies. Since the change from the coloured to the leuco condition is the sign of reduction having taken place, one must guard against con- fusing the fading of pigments through reduction with fading from causes other than chemical reduction. (a) The earliest criticism offered was that the fading of the Prussian blue was due to the presence of “alkaline salts.’ Now free alkali, which undoubtedly fades Prussian blue, does not exist in the tissues or their juices. The inorganic salts of tissues and tissue-juices do not bring about any fading of soluble Prussian blue. Ringer’s solution added warm to Prussian blue produces no change of colour beyond that due to a corresponding dilution with water. 130 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA None of the salts of the tissues, NaCl, KCl, Na,CO,, Ca, 2(PO,), Na,PO, in strengths under 1% solution added warm, singly or in any kind of combination, caused any fading to the green or to the leuco condition, whereas the subsequent addition of such a reducer as pyro- gallol at once caused fading through green to white. When the gelatine and Prussian blue mixture is used to inject organs still living, the pigments is reduced, as I believe, by the agency of the living tissues; and some histologists, aware of this fading, at- tribute it to “contact with the alkaline salts of the tissues.”’ Thus Rawitz'® recommends that a little acetic acid be added to the injection-mass to prevent the ‘fading’ by alkaline tissues. Naturally, this criticism applies only to pigmentary substances, and has no applicability to non-pigmentary salts used to demonstrate bio-chemical reduction. (b) The next source of fallacy one must bear in mind is the pos- sible putrefaction of the proteins of press-juice in specimens of juice kept for more than a few days. Toluene was the antiseptic used for all press-juices; some kind of antiseptic is absolutely necessary, although Battelli has emphasised the inhibitory effect of antiseptics on the enzymic and respiratory powers of tissues. The antiseptic used had obviously to be one which would not of itself bleach or reduce the pigments or other substances and would not act as an activator or inhibitant of the enzyme. Sodium fluoride and many other substances had to be rejected on some of those grounds. Toluene apparently prevented putrefaction in the press-juices used. Had the reductions in old juice (two to six weeks old) been due to putrefactive or autolytic substances, then the reducing power should have steadily increased with the age of the juice. But exactly the opposite was found; the longer the juice was kept under toluene, the less it reduced, until after ten weeks or so it did not reduce at all. But putrefaction would have been progressive, and therefore reduction due to putrefaction would have been more marked as time went on. I had, however, positive evidence of the absence of putre- factive micro-organisms in a specimen of liver juice three months under toluene, which was examined for me by Dr. Sholto Douglas of the University of Birmingham and pronounced sterile. It seems of clear, then, that the reductions studied were not brought about by the products of putrefaction or autolysis. As regards fallacies another point to be remembered is that the substances employed, Prussian blue, ferric chloride, etc., are all more or less poisonous. We cannot therefore expect the living tissue to reduce unlimited quantities of such substances whether pigmen- tary or not. [HARRIS] A REDUCING ENDO-ENZYME 131 Hence only the earlier portions of liquids emerging from perfused organs, or being secreted into the gall-bladder or ureter, should be examined for reduced material. Because a kidney, perfused indef- initely long with ferric chloride, does not continue to produce unlimited quantities of ferrous chloride is no evidence that it was not originally able to reduce some of it, for such substances, even in dilute solution, are more or less toxic to living protoplasm, especially in experiments in which the protoplasm is receiving no blood at all. (c) The last criticism is that of A. Heffter!?, which is directed not so much against the methods of judging of reduction by the fading of pigments as against the whole conception of tissue-reduction being en- zymic in nature. Heffter holds that the labile H of colloids in such a erouping as cysteine is able to effect all the reductions observed. He says that crystallised egg-albumen can bring about many reductions. Heffter’s contention is that proteins apart from life can actively reduce. Confining ourselves first of all to Prussian blue, it is certain that all proteins do not cause this pigment to fade, at least within times meas- ured by hours. For one thing, gelatine itself even without acid, does not cause soluble Prussian blue to fade even before it is injected into an organ. It is well known that this injection-mass mixed with the blood- proteins in the large vessels of mammals at body temperature is not re- duced or caused to fade. Neither is methylene blue; tlose pigments remaining blue produce along with the red of the blood a purple colour. If Heffter be correct we should expect the blood-proteins to reduce these pigments to a pale green or leuco condition; this they certainly do not do. If one mixes a saline solution of pure serum-albumen or serume globulin with Prussian blue, no fading takes place at room temperatur- within 24 hours. In 1912 my co-worker at that time Dr. H. J. M. Creighton", of the Dalhousie University, Halifax, N. S., investigated this subject with very great care, and published his results in the Transactions of the Nova Scotian Institute of Science. Dr. Creighton showed that if one mixes 10 c.c. of a 15% solution of ege-white in dilute NaC1 with 10 c.c. of a 0-05% solution of soluble Prussian blue (Potassium ferric ferrocyanide), and keeps the mixture at 60°C, the colour will have faded at the end of an hour. The fading is gradual. Dr. Creighton writes, “With pure white-of-egg at a high temperature, the decoloration of the soluble Prussian blue was found to proceed with greater rapidity”. On the other hand, white-of-egg solution and 0-05% Prussian blue, mixed and kept at room temperature, showed no fading or change of colour at the end of six hours. 132 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Dr. Creighton further showed that the iron ion originally trivalent in the soluble Prussian blue is divalent in the colloidal complex of al- bumen and the pigment. There has therefore been reduction. Further, this colorless colloidal complex can be boiled for a short time without its coagulating. For convenience, I call these phenomena, “The Creighton effects”. Now there is one significant difference as regards the interaction between pure proteins and soluble Prussian blue and the interaction between press-juice and that pigment, namely, that whereas there is no fading of the blue in the presence of protein at the end of many hours, the blue in contact with fresh juice fades at once. These are clearly not the same phenomena; for, for one thing, in the case of the protein mixture the concentration of protein is very much greater than it is in press-juice, but its effect 1s very much slower. Further, if the fading of the pigments is due to protein, then the juice kept for three months in which the protein is well preserved and is sterile, should reduce as well, or almost as well, as fresh juice; but this is noticeably not so. Again, the rapid falling off in potency as regards reduction within the first day would have no meaning as a phenomenon due to mole- cular groupings and labile Hydrogen, whereas it has.a meaning with reference to the deterioration of the bio-chemical activity of a ferment. The fact that glycerol extracts of dried liver and of dried kidney possess some reducing power, is more in accord with the conception of that reduction being due to an enzyme than to a protein, for the gly- cerol extract of dried liver had some recognisable reducing power, and it could have taken up very little protein in “solution”. Glycerol by itself has no reducing power. Again, glycerol extracts deteriorate in potency with time for which there is no particular reason if protein be the active substance. Blood at 40°C does not reduce ferric chloride, but liver-juice at this temper- rature reduces it to ferrous chloride. There are proteins in both. While giving due weight to Heffter’s contentions and indeed recognising certain phenomena of the fading of pigments in contact with proteins which I have called “The Creighton effects,” I still believe that vital reduction is something distinct from these and is probably enzymic. VII. Indications that a tissue Endo-Enzyme exists. 1.—The first consideration regarding reduction being due to an enzyme is that whereas quite fresh juice vigorously and older juice more gradually reduces several different kinds of chemical substances, boiled controls do not do so at all. [HARRIS] A REDUCING ENDO-ENZYME 133 2.—The behaviour of the juice in regard to temperature is the next point indicating the presence of an enzyme. Its optimum is between 42°C and 46°C. Thus Herter found re- duction processes were accelerated in the experimentally induced fever of hog-cholera. As the temperature falls, the rate of reduction is dim- inished, until at zero reduction is entirely inhibited. But at a temp- erature as low as minus 14°C, the reducing power is not destroyed; it ismerely kept in check. I have kept under observation a mixture of absolutely fresh liver- juice and Prussian blue, surrounded by a freezing mixture for 24 hours, without noticing the least degree of fading of the deep blue colour. On removing the tube from the freezing mixture, the colour was completely discharged by the time the juice had reached room-temperature 17°C. Herter found in the intact animal that “the power of reduction was much diminished by cold”. A typical experiment may be quoted in connection with tempera- tures. Three water-baths were brought to (a) between 40° and 41°C; (b) between 42°C and 43°C, and (c) between 44° and 45°C respectively. In each bath a tube was placed containing 3 c.c. of raw hepatic juice shaken up with 20 c.c. of Prussian blue all under toluene. In 6 hours the tube in (a) was green, that in (b) was green-white, the one in (c) was quite white; twenty four hours later the tube in (b) was white. The behaviour of tissue juice is compatible with its active con- stituent being an enzyme. 3. As judged hy the Pozzi-Escot test, a reducing ferment is present in certain tissues, for pieces of tissue, but better their juices, decompose H,0, without affecting a mixture of guaiacum and H,0,. That press-juice, for instance of liver, is more active than pieces of liver is in accordance with the findings of other workers on ferments. J.J. R. MacLeod * noticed this in the case of glycogenase, an undoubted endo-enzyme. 4, The reducing action is accelerated or augmented by the pres- ence of alkaline salts of the tissues, which behave as adjuvants. Pro- fessor Irvine and I" concluded that reductase acted after the manner of pyrogallol, an organic reducer, in an alkaline medium. 5. In my recent work” on the action of protoplasmic poisons on reductase, I found that the acidity (concentration of H ions) was a more profound inhibitant of the reducing power than was toxicity. Concentration of H ions is well known as an inhibitant of the activity of certain enzymes, to this reductase would not form any exception. The fact that reductase is not inactivated by certain virulent protoplasmic poisons—chloroform, sodium fluoride, nitrobenzene, form- 134 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA alin—makes reductase comparable with the ferment in the laurel leaf studied by Dr. Waller.** Chloroform was found to kill the leaf, but to set free an enzyme which liberated HCN. 6. As a ferment, reductase is rather easily inactivated by drying the juice in vacuo at 15°C, and by precipitation from juice by absolute alcohol. As might be expected, drying and alcohol injure it less in tissues than in press-juice. It clings with considerable tenacity to the cell-proteins which evidently guard it from inactivation by heat, by drying and by alcohol. In regard to its sensitiveness towards alcohol, reductase is in marked contrast with glycogenase which can be obtained in an active state even from livers which have been for months under alcohol. This power that colloids have of protecting enzymes is a well known property of the interaction between these two classes of bodies. As judged by the criterion of solubility, reductase is comparatively insoluble; it will not, for instance, dialyse away from the cell-proteins. But in that it can in some measure pass into solution in dilute glycerol, it cannot be regarded as entirely of an insoluble nature The insoluble endo-enzyme is now fully recognised. Professor Adrian Brown tells me that phyto-enzymes of a non-soluble order exist; and according to Vernon” the oxidase of the liver is insoluble. He adds that its insolubility does not preclude its enzymic nature, as there is a good deal of evidence pointing to a similar property in some lipolytic enzymes. VIII. Remarks on Tissue Respiratory Ferments. Besides deductase, at least two other types of enzyme exist in the liver, to confine our attention only to the liver in the meantime, namely a catalase and an oxidase or a number of oxidases. A catalase has long been recognised in the blood and tissues; Creighton and I” recently wrote :— “The existence of a catalytic enzyme in the mammalian liver is fully confirmed. The decomposition of H,0, is effected by this enzyme, and is not due to the presence of proteins or other organic matter in the press-juice. ”’ Boiled juice gives rise to no decomposition of H,O,; and the amount of H,0, decomposed bears no relation at all to the amount of protein in the juice, for a few drops of a very dilute juice reduced 97-2% of H,0, in the first five minutes. No doubt it is possible that the two enzymes, catalase and reductase, may co-operate in hepatic reductions. The presence of an oxidase, more probably of oxidases, must be remembered when one is working with the reducing ferment. As Dr. [HARRIS] A REDUCING ENDO-ENZYME 135 Vernon has shown, there are oxidases in the liver which must of necessity work in the direction opposite to that taken by the reductase. Hence when we obtain a less distinct reduction than we expect, we have to remember that the oxidase may have been active. We have, in fact, the converse of the difficulty to which Dr. Vernon!“ alluded when investigating “The quantitative estimation of the indophenol oxidase of animal tissues ”, he wrote—‘ The unavoidable presence of reducing sub- stances, some of which are possibly enzymes or “reductases”, acts in direct antagonism to the oxidases, and under certain conditions entirely overpowers them. Hence the absence of an oxidising action cannot be held to indicate the absence of oxidase, unless the conditions are so chos- en to give the oxidase the best possible chance of exerting its activity.” At an early stage I had noticed that in a tube in which the Prussian blue had been completely reduced to the leuco state, a re-establishing of the colour was evident from about the end of the first week onwards. A mixture of fresh liver juice shaken up with pigment of suitable strength would begin to become blue again in spite of the fact that the mixture was covered by a layer either of toluene or of oil to the depth of an inch. In the routine observations, I made no attempt to eliminate the oxidase of press-juice; but in one experiment Dr. Lovatt Evans and I definitely arranged to exclude the physiological activity of that ferment. Accordingly we kept a sealed up mixture of liver-juice and Prussian blue at room temperature under an atmosphere of pure hydrogen in a com- pletely reduced state for three and a half months. It never showed the slightest re-blueing; on breaking the tube and adding H,0,, the con- tents immediately became bright blue. Exposed to the air produced the same result more slowly. Evidently the activity of the oxidase was prevented expressing itself owing to there being no oxygen for it to deal with. According to Spitzer, the vigour of oxidase declines post mortem, whereas that of reductase increases for a time, but is possible that the former phenomemon is the cause of the latter, the increase in the energy of the reductase being only apparent and due to the diminution in that of the oxidase working in the opposite direction. Dr. Vernon", fixing his attention on the tissue-oxidases, regards reducing ferments as troublesome intruders into his experiments; I however am forced to recognise oxidases as forming as much a part of the cellular respiratory enzymic mechanism as are reductases. In some manner with which we are far from being fully acquainted, catalase, oxidase and reductase are all acting simultaneously in the living cells, carrying on the work of tissue-respiration. I have eliminated the activity of the oxidase for a sufficiently long time to allow the reductase untramelled activity; and consersely Dr. Vernon in his studies 136 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA on oxidase has to make due allowance for the presence of reducing substances. Dr. Vernon and also Prof. B. Moore * have pointed out several respects in which oxidase differs from reductase. It is perhaps too soon to formulate any theory of tissue-respiration; but when the scheme is outlined it must be one taking cognisance of all three respiratory types of enzymes and not a scheme framed in terms of oxidase alone. ?rovisionally, one might say that by reductase oxygen is abstracted from oxyhaemoglobin and brought within the sphere of the activity of the oxidase which applies it to the oxidation of the carbon, hydrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, etc., in, or in the neighbourhood of, the living protoplasm. With regard to hemoglobin, I have direct evidence that liver- juice can reduce this pigment from the fully oxidised two-banded condition to the fully reduced one-banded within three hours at 41°C. The quantities used were a test-tubeful of solution of oxyhæmoglobin from freshly drawn defibrinated rabbit’s blood, and three grammes of freshly disintegrated liver squeezed before the animal heat had left it. This mixture was shaken up from time to time to distribute the juice, and within a minute or two, the solution had begun to lose its brightness which it steadily continued to do. The two bands in the spectrum became progressively hazier, until at the end of three hours they had disappeared and been replaced by the single band of hæmo- globin; shaking this pigment at once made the two bands re-appear; it was, therefore reduced, but still oxidisable. A control, similar in all respects except that the juice was boiled for five minutes, showed no signs of being reduced at the end of 72 hours, a period twenty-four times as long. This solution never did become reduced, but passed normally into the state of methæmoglobin. A period of three hours may seem a long one in which to have to wait for reduction to hemoglobin; but we must remember that in vitro we have the entire mass of the solution finally fully reduced, while in vivo we never have the oxyhemoglobin fully reduced in con- sequence of contact with the living tissues during only one transit of the blood. The blood is only fully reduced after the many transits of asphyxia. I think, then, that we are fully justified in regarding the reductase as the respiratory ferment of the living tissues, the endo-enzyme through whose reducing power oxygen is split off from the oxyhemo- globin in the several capillary districts. It would seem to be the ferment which starts the process of in- ternal respiration, oxidase that which continues and completes it. [HARRIS] A REDUCING ENDO-ENZYME 137 IX. The Chemical Powers of Reductase. In conclusion, I should like to point out the true reducing character of the reductase of animal tissues. (a) In the first place it is a typical deoxidiser in that it removes oxygen from osmium tetroxide and from such substances as oxy- hemoglobin, which is fully reduced, and methemoglobin,” which is reduced to the oxy condition. (b) Substances containing oxygen, but not in a form wholly removable, can be reduced from the higher to the lower state, as when sodium nitrate is reduced to sodium nitrite,” or when sodium indigo- disulphonate and sodium alizarine-sulphonate are respectively reduced to their pale chromogens. (c) The reductase can also reduce metallic salts containing no oxygen from their higher to their lower forms, as when ferric chloride is reduced to ferrous chloride.” Here the change involved is the removal of an ionic charge from the trivalent ferri-ion which becomes the di-valent ferro-ion. (d) Finally, certain pigments containing no oxygen, such as sol- uble Prussian blue and methylene blue, are reduced to the pale or white chromogenic conditions of the di-potassio-ferrous-ferrocyanide and methylene white respectively. In all these reductions, the endo-enzyme is behaving after the manner of an inorganic reducing agent in an alkaline medium. (The expenses of this research were met by a grant from the Government Grants Committee of the Royal Society of London, which is hereby gratefully acknowledged.) BIBLIOGRAPHY. 7. Abelous and Gerard, Comp. Rend. Vol. CX XIX, p. 164, 1899. 23. Battelli, Comp. Rend. Vol. CXX XVII, p. 1079, 1903. ‘¢ Journ. de Phys., Vol. IX pp. 1, 34, 328, and 410, 1907. 10. Closson, O. E. and Underhill F. P. Amer. Journ. Phys. Vol. XIII, No. V., p. 358, 1905. 18. Creighton, H. J. M. Trans. Nova Scotia; Instit. Se. Vol. XIIT Pt. 2, 1912. 2. Ehrlich, Paul, Das Sauerstoff-Bedürfniss des Organismus. Berlin, 1885. 6. Harris, D. Fraser, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin. Vol. XXI. p. 383. 6. 2 Journ. Anat. and Phys. Vol. XXXI, p. 381. 19: cy Science Progress, No. 4. April 1907. 21. É Bio-Chem. Jrl. Vol. VI pt. 2. p. 200. 1912. 11. Harris, D. Fraser and Irvine. J. C. Bio-chem, Jrl. Vol. I. nos. 8 and 9, p. 355. 15. Harris, D. Fraser and H. J. M. Creighton, Bio.-Chem, Jrl. Vol. VI Pt. 4. 25. Harris D. Fraser and H. J. M. Creighton, Proc. Roy. Soc. B. Vol. 85, 1912. 17. Heffter, A., Medizinisch-Naturwissenschaftliches Archiv; Bd. I, Heft I, p. 81. 138 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 17. Heffter, Archiv f,expr. Path. und Poarm. Festschrift f. O. Schmiedeberg, p. 253, 1908. / 1. Hoppe-Seyler, Berichte. d. deut. chem. Ges. Vol. CXVII, p. 1917, 1883. 5. Horsley, V. and Harris, A. B. Brit. Med. Journ. Vol. IT, p. 205, 1895. 9. Herter C. A. Ho Joe Phys. Vol. XII, p. 128. 1904. SA " oY ES pt 457; F905. Oa) os Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. Vol. II, 1905. 9. Herter C. A. and Richards A. N., Amer. Journ. Phys. Vol. XII. p. 207, 1904. 11. Irvine J. C. and Harris D. Fraser, Bio-Chem. Journ., Vol. I Nos. 8 and 9, p 355. 20. Macleod, J. J. R. Amer. Journ. Phys. Vol. XXV. No. 5., 1910. 26. Moore B. and Whitley E., Bio-Chem. Journ., Vol. IV, nos 3 and 4, p. 136, 13. Mudge, G. P. Proc. Phys. Soc. Vol. XXXVIII. p. 67. 12. Oppenheimer, C., Die Fermente und ihre Wirkung. Leipzig. Vogel, 1909. 8. Pozzi-Escot, Ann. Chem. Anal. Vol. VII, p. 280, 1902. 3. re ere J. de, Comp. Rend. Feb. June and July 1889. Bull. de la Soc. fr. de Chim. pp. 165, 523, 1051, 1907; pp. 159, 568, 1908: p. 133, 1909. 16. Rawitz quoted in Physiological Histology. G. Mann. Oxford, p. 160, 1902. 4. Spitzer, Berlin, Klin. Woch. p. 949, 1894. 23. Stern and Battelli, Journ de Phys., Vol. LX, pp. 1, 34, 228, 410, 1907. 10. Underhill, F. P. and Closson O. E. Amer. Journ. Phys. Vol. XIII No. 5, p. 358, 1905. 14. Vernon, H. M. Intracellular enzymes, pp. 135-144, London, Murray 1908. Fe Jrl. phys. Vol. XLII. Nos. 5 and 6, 1911. 24, Waller A. D. Proc. Phys. Soc. June 18, 1910. Jrl. Phys. Vol. XL.. 22. Vernon H. M. Jrl. Phys. Vol. XLIV. No. 3, 1912. Physiological Department Dalhousie University Halifax Nova Scotia. March 1913. SECTION IV., 1913. [139] TRANS. R.S.C. A Contribution to the Study of Dolomitization. By R. C. WaLLaCE, UNIVERSITY oF MANITOBA, WINNIPEG. Presented by Dr ATH. -R; Buzrer, FURS:C. (Read May 29, 1913) INTRODUCTORY. A recent investigation carried out by the writer into the cause of the mottling of certain Ordovician limestones in Manitoba * has raised some points of interest in relation to the much discussed question of dolomitization. The limestones are characterised by irregular markings of a dark brown or slightly bluish colour, which are found to represent recrystallised areas with a much higher magnesia content than that of the grey setting in which they are placed. The dolomitization was in all probability a contemporaneous phenomenon, taking place while the calcareous ooze was still in the process of hardening, and is not to be ascribed to magnesia-bearing waters effecting the transformation as they percolated downwards through already hardened limestones. The Mg salts were most probably derived from decomposing algae, which became buried in the gradually accumulating ooze at the bottom of a quiet sea of only moderate depth. The increase of Mg ions in the waters which permeated the ooze in the immediate vicinity of the algae gave rise to a purely local mineral transformation. The deepening in colour is due to the presence, in the dolomitized areas, of haematite and limonite, which are to be ascribed to the same source as the salts of magnesium. Two facts arising out of this investigation should be emphasised. The first is that the mineral transformation has taken place under con- ditions of temperature and pressure which have effected no recrystal- lisation in the surrounding limestone: and in this connection it must be borne in mind that the process has not taken place at the surface of the sea. The second is that although microscopic examination proves the darker material to be composed of homogeneous crystals which react for dolomite optically and with Lemberg’s solution, the proportion of MgCoO, to CaCO, was found on analysis to be less than 1: 3 (MgCO, 23,35% CaCO, 71.03%). In the voluminous literature which has grown up round the question of dolomitization, these two points may be *Journal of Geology, XXI, 5, 1913, p. 402. Sec. IV., 1913-9 140 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA found explicitly or implicitly referred to, but a fuller insistence on their meaning may lead to a clearer conception of the fundamentals of the problem. THE CONDITIONS OF STABILITY OF CALCITE AND DOLOMITE A concise formulation of the probable process of dolomitization is that recently suggested by Linck* in his article on the formation of the carbonates in the first volume of Doelter’s Handbuch des Mineralchemie, a work of reference gladly welcomed by all who are interested in ques- tions of mineral statics. The statement is as follows: ‘Dolomite is formed in the presence of CaCO, in solution or in the presence of labile modifications of CaCO, as solid phase: it is the product of equilibrium between MgCO, in solution and in solid form, while CaCO, goes simultaneously into solution.” Linck seems to consider that though CaCO, is not stable in the presence of dolomite, MgCO, may be present as stable solid phase when the dolomite is in process of formation, He suggests that in cases where MgCO, is present in small quantity in a limestone, the dolomitization may be due to the dissolving of the CaCO, and recrystallisation of the remainder into dolomite. Skeatsf shares this opinion with reference to the dolomitization of calcareous algae. On the other hand the view may be advanced, as was done in the in- stance of local dolomitization above referred to, that the Mg salts present in the algae go into solution, till the concentration of Mg ions in the solution is sufficiently great to cause the precipitation of the double salt. For purposes of simplicity, we shall at first leave out of con- sideration the possibility—indicated above—of the formation of mixed crystals between CaCO,, MgCO,, and CaCO,. MgCO,, and shall assume that these three salts are completely nonmiscible in the solid state. It is evident that under the same conditions of temperature dolomite —or at any rate limestones with high percentage of Mg—may form in one place and ordinary limestones in another. The concentration of Mg ions in the solution is evidently the determining factor in certain instances of dolomitization. This is undoubtedly the case in the limestones investigated in Manitoba. It will serve our purpose then, in investiga- ting the dolomitization process, to deal mainly with constant temperature and pressure, and to consider the effect of different concentrations of Mg ions in the liquid phase. CaCO, in the form of calcite is stable in presence of seawater of normal composition under low or moderate pressure, and even in pre- sence of a saturated solution of calcium carbonate in water. Dolomite *Doelter’s Handbuch der Mineralchemie, Bd. I, 133. {Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology (Harvard) 42, 53. [WALLACE] STUDY OF DOLOMITIZATION 141 is stable in presence of seawater with a fairly high Mg percentage. The stability seems to be most marked in presence of ammonium salts, par- ticularly ammonium sulphide. But experiments carried out by Pfaff * show that dolomite may be obtained from solutions containing CaCO,, MgCO,, and NaCl. We may then consider that in seawaters of normal temperatures and at moderate depths the stability of calcite or dolomite depends mainly on the concentration of Mg salts. With regard to mag- nesite, the difficulties encountered in obtaining the mineral experi- mentally render its stability limits a matter of speculation. At ordinary temperatures and pressures, salts with water of crystallisation are obtained: under pressure of CO,, more frequently at high temperatures Figure 1 and in presence of NaCl, the solid phase has been found to be magnesite. Some natural occurrences, such as the Hall dolomites of the Tyrol, point to the probability that magnesite has been formed at comparatively low temperature by the interaction of highly concentrated Mg salts with dolomite: but the mineral unquestionably owes its origin in the majority of cases to metamorphic processes. — Incorporating in a diagram the above facts on the stability of the minerals with which we are concerned, and taking the vertical and horizontal lines as repsesenting concentrations of Ca and Mg ions respectively in a normal seawater from which the Ca and Mg ions have been removed, we obtain a figure of the general type represented by Fig. 1. The vertical line represents a seawater with no Mg ions, but.a regularly increasing amount of Ca ions from O (where no Ca ions *Neues Jahrb. für Miner., &c., 9, Beilbd., 485 (1894). 142 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA are present) to X, where the Ca ions are in equilibrium with calcite as solid phase for that particular temperature and pressure. Similarly the horizontal line represents a seawater with no Ca ions, but an in- creasing amount of Mg ions from O to Y. Between these lines all variations in the concentration of Mg and Ca in the seawater may be represented. We are concerned here particularly with the relation- ship between calcite and dolomite; and the conditions of stability of these solid phases are represented at normal temperature and moderate pressure diagrammatically by XP and PQ respectively. There is no attempt at quantitative accuracy, but the final conditions of equi- librium must be somewhat as indicated. The solubility of CaCO, is probably not lowered by MgCO, when NaCl is present.* On the other hand, unstable phases of CaCO,—particularly aragonite—may form.+ The solubility curve for aragonite lies however, above that for calcite; and under conditions of maximum stability calcite is the solid phase, even in presence of a certain amount of Mg”. The stability of calcite in normal seawater at ordinary temperatures and moderate depths indicates that the equilibrium curve for calcite must under these conditions extend considerablely beyond the bisector of the angle XOY, as the proportion of Mg to Ca in normal seawater is roughly 3:1. The actual position of the intersection of the two curves is undoubtedly considerably affected, not only by temperature and pressure, but also by the character of the seawater.{ The nature of the curve PQ in its extension towards the OY axis, and its intersection with equilibrium curves for Mg salts, are problematical; but with this we are here not specially concerned. Three Dolomitization Processes. With the aid of the diagram, three dolomitization processes may be considered. I. Dolomitization of the type suggested in the paper on the Manitoba limestones, where the process is supposed to be due to magnesian salts liberated from the alge. II. Dolomitization due to evaporation and concentration of the waters of inland seas. III. Dolomitization due to percolation of Mg-bearing waters through. limestones (subsequent dolomitization). It is not to be understood that these three typical cases are meant to embrace all dolomitization processes. Many cases of dolomitization may be due to the leaching of calcium carbonate out of elevated limestones by presumably acid meteoric waters. This process is specially emphasized by Clarke. *Hofmeister Journ. Prakt. Geol. 2, 14, 176. tLinek Jenaisch. Zeitschr. f. Naturw., 1909, 267. tSee Pfaff’s Experiments, 1. c. *Data of Geochemistry, p. 541. [WALLACE] STUDY OF DOLOMITIZATION 143 We are dealing here only with the final product of equilibrium between a normal or concentrated seawater and the solid phase, no matter whether the original deposition be due to a purely chemical or to a biochemical action. Owing to the relative insolubility of the calcite and dolomite, equilibrium conditions can only be established after long continued contact between solid and liquid phases. Case I. Here the concentration of the seawater, before solution of Mg salts takes place, is represented by the point A (Fig. 2). Calcite as solid phase is stable in presence of this solution. MgCO, or other Mg salts are, however, unstable, and will gradually go into solution, the composition of the solution moving along AP to P. The stable O À d Figure 2 phases are now calcite and dolomite, and a certain amount of dolo- mite will be precipitated. If evaporation and concentration does not take place, the amount of dolomite precipitated will be small, and the composition of the solution will remain constantly that repre- sented by the point P. With a larger amount of Mg salt to go into solution, or with slight concentration, calcite becomes unstable and goes into solution, more dolomite is formed, and the composition of the solution moves from P towards Q. It is to be noted then that if MgCO, is present in small amount in calcareous algæ in a seawater represented by A, dolomitization would take place, not by the dissolv- ing out of the excess of CaCO,, but by the dissolving of MgCO, and precipitation of the double salt out of solution. The only way in which dolomite can be conceived to have formed is as a precipitate out of a solution saturated for the salt. 144 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Case II.—In the case of an inland basin exposed to solar concen- tration, the initial stage may be represented by a solution of composition A (Fig. 3), which has not yet reached equilibrium with the calcite which has been deposited by organic agency: or, it may be, by a so- lution of composition C. with no solid phase in contact with it. On concentrating, the solution changes in composition along the line AB (or CD); continuous precipitation of calcite now ensues, till the water is represented in composition by P. when dolomite a so forms. With continued operation, dolomite continues to form, calcite becomes un- re) | £ Y Figure 3 stable and passes into solution, and the composition of the solution moves from P towards Q. Case III.—In this case Mg-bearing waters descend (or ascend) into limestones which are in contact with relatively small quantities of underground water, and where the stable solid phase is calcite, for which the water is saturated. The composition of the underground water may be represented by A. With the introduction of the meteoric (or abysmal) water the composition of the solution will suddenly change to some point B, where dolomite is the stable phase. Calcite will go into solution, and dolomite will form. If calcite continues to dissolve, the concentration of the solution will gradually change to P, where calcite and dolomite are both stable. In none of the cases considered, does the dolomitization take place by the dissolving of excess of CaCO,, and consequent increase in relative [WALLACE] STUDY OF DOLOMITIZATION 145 proportions of MgCO, present in the solid state. Reasoning based on the law of mass action * must be somewhat modified by the consideration of the solubilities of the solid phases possible. If the premises on which the deductions are based be granted, the conclusions are of some im- Figure 4 portance in connection with dolomitization in general, and with™the transformation of calcareous algae in particular. The diagrams also explain why a slight increase of Mg ions may lead to a very considerable amount of dolomitization. Whether the inference that dolomite and calcite may, in certain instances, both occur as stable phases can be held to explain the occurrence of magnesian limestones, isa matter that will be discussed later. ISOMORPHISM OF CALCITE, DOLOMITE, AND MAGNESITE. The foregoing is based on the assumption that calcite, dolomite, and magnesite do not form mixed crystals. The second fact emphasized in the investigation referred to in the introductory part of the paper leads us, however, to enquire more closely into the relationships, iso- morphous or otherwise, of the three minerals. A lack of precision on this point has led to a certain amount of haziness in the conception of the problems underlying dolomitization processes. Retger’s classical work on the three minerals +} was mainly concerned with specific gravity values, *Van Hise. A Treatise on Metamorphism, pp. 805, 806. }Zeitschr. f. phys. Chem. VI, 230. 146 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA from which he concluded that dolomite was not a member of an isomorphous series of which calcite and magnesite would be the end members, but an isolated compound. He also considered calcite and magnesite to be practically immiscible. His conclusions seemed amply substantiated by the discovery that dolomite crystallises in a less sym- metrical class of the hexagonal system than calcite and magnesite, and by the large number of analyses of the three minerals that show only very small amounts of impurities. The result has been that analyses showing both CaCO, and MgCO, have been thrown aside as representing ‘ ' ‘ 1 ' 1 Ü ' 1 ‘ ! \ ' ! l ' | 1 ' ine e of Paw, Pod feet eae on 1 A AnBn B Figure 5 mechanical mixtures of two minerals. The advances made in the study of isomorphous relationships during the last decade have been such that the evidence of specific gravity values alone would not now be taken as conclusive. Besides, the rigid application of Retger’s law of the direct proportionality of specific gravity to molecular weight in the case of an isomorphous series is hardly justifiable.* It assumes that the two components of the mixed crystal occupy each the same volume in the isomorphous mixture that they would occupy as independent crystals. In the case of Type III of Roozeboom (Fig. 5.) it may happen *Wallerant. Fortschritte d. Mineralogie, Krystallographie u. Petrographie II, 1912, 86. c.f. also Day and Allen: the isomorphism and thermal properties of the felspars, p. 73. [WALLACE] STUDY OF DOLOMITIZATION 147 that m and n are simple integers (e. g m=n=I). In such a case A B may be taken as a true compound in the isomorphous series, with a constant melting temperature like other compounds. It is not unreason- able to suppose that the formation of a compound AB would take place with contraction owing to the simple stoichiometric relations between the two similar compounds A and B. The specific gravity curve might here be represented as the dotted curve in the figure: and Retger’s reasoning with regard to the relationship of dolomite to calcite and magnesite would not hold. It is impossible to apply the ordinary methods of thermal analysis to the problem at issue owing to the in- stability of the compounds at higher temperatures: even under pressure of an atmosphere of CO, fusion is a matter of difficulty. We are of necessity thrown back on independent considerations. The considerable difference in the molecular volumes of the three salts has been frequently pointed out. This is due to the much closer packing of the atoms in the molecule of MgCO, than in the others, as shown by the fact that the mineral of least molecular weight has the greatest specific gravity: but the gradation in molecular volume is constant in direction, and is not more considerable in magnitude than in the case of the simple sulphates K,SO,, Rb,SO,, Cs,SO,, which Tutton has shown to be a true isomorphous series. The changes in rhombohedral angle and in topic parameters are such as would support the theory of complete isomorphism. Against this must be placed the fact that Ca salts occasionally stand rather apart crystallographically from the salts of other elements that are closely related chemically: and the further fact, already referred to, that the symmetry of dolomite is lower than that of calcite and magnesite. The lowering of symmetry may be accounted for by the lowering of symmetry of the actual structure of the molecule.* The subject of continuous isomorphous mixtures has not yet been gone into sufficiently fully from the crystallographical standpoint; but it is not improbable that when work is directed to this specific problem, it will be found that the mixed crystals of com- paratively simple substances, while showing continuous gradation in molecular volume, angles, and topic parameters, possess a lower sym- metry than the simpler components owing to a less symmetrical structure of the complex molecule or of the interlocking point systems. Considering all the facts, we feel justified in taking calcite, dolomite and magnesite to be an isomorphous series, though not a eutropic group in the sense of the word understood by Linck. With regard to the possibility of mixed crystals between the various compounds, experimental work furnishes as yet somewhat contradictory evidence. Linck considers *Becke: Tsch. Min.-Petr. Mitt. Bd. II, 1890, 257. 148 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA that calcite crystals with small percentages of MgCO, and dolomite crystals with slightly too large percentages of CaCO, represent “solid solutions” and not true mixed crystals: and that dolomitic limestones are either mixtures of dolomite and calcite or regular intergrowths of both minerals. Linck and his pupils have found a true isomorphous series only in the form of the third (Vaterite) modification of CaCO, with the corresponding MgCO, modification and with intermediate mixtures. These occur in spherulities which have no counterpart in nature, and which seem on rise of temperature to go over into calcite, dolomite and magnesite.* On the other hand, Pfaff f obtained homo- genous rhombohedra which gave on analyses percentages varying from 6-93 to 12-77 CaCO, as impurities in a magnesite, and in another case a fine powder consisting of 66-76% MgCO, and 26-48% CaCO. It is of interest to note also in this connection that the proportion in which FeCO, occurs in dolomite (in the mineral usually known as ankerite) is variable, and that it occurs replacing the MgCO, of the dolomite. In any discussion on this subject, however, particular weight must be laid on the conclusion arrived at by Gossner{ as a result of his in- vestigations, viz. that only those members of an isomorphous series are widely miscible with each other, which possess molecular volumes of closely comparable magnitudes. The most probable interpretation, in the opinion of the writer, of the evidence that has accumulated is that which would be repre- sented diagrammatically by Fig. 6, if the carbonates could be subjected to thermal analysis. CaCO, (A) takes up a limited amount of MgCO, (B) in isomorphous mixture: MgCO, (B) a limited amount of CaCO,: and CaCO,. MgCO, (AB)—a true compound—a limited amount of either. In each case the limits of miscibility are in all likelihood narrow. Out- side these limits aggregates are formed. For instance, a carbonate of the composition x represents presumably aggregates of p and q— that is, calcite and dolomite with in each case the limiting amount of isomorphous admixture. The results of the study of two component systems by the aid of the methods of thermal analysis have amply demonstrated that miscibility—limited or complete—is the rule and not the exception among isomorphous substances. The diagrams discussed on the assumption that the three minerals are completely immiscible would be somewhat modified if miscibility is possible.t If the miscibility is limited in extent, the main features of the discussion remains unchanged. The order of precipitation *Doelter’s Handbuch der Mineralchemie I, 125. ile Gs +Zeitschr. f. Kryst. u.s.w., 43, 1907, 130. ‘See Bancroft’s Phase Rule, p. 203. [WALLACE] STUDY OF DOLOMITIZATION 149 would remain as explained under the different cases: but instead of the minerals calcite and dolomite, the solid phases would represent minerals varying in composition from A to p and from AB to q respectively. We do not know how such mixed crystals would react under the tests used to distinguish calcite and dolomite. Again the solubility of the components in the mixed crystal may be somewhat different from that of the isolated components.* For instance, in a erystal of composition x it is impossible, though not highly probable, { i] ' i ‘ ! t ' ‘ { i] ' ' ' ! ! ! ‘ ‘ ' ' ‘ ' ' ‘ ‘ ‘ 0 ‘ t t ! 0 A A,B, B Figure 6 that the CaCO, may dissolve more readily than the MgCO,, and that the composition of the crystal may consequently approach more closely that of dolomite. In this way dolomitization could proceed as Linck considers that it actually does take place. It is of importance in connection with the problem of the process of dolomitization, that the limiting values x and y he determined, and that the solubility of those mixed crystals be ascertained under con- ditions that resemble as closely as possible those obtaining in nature. There is required an experimental study of this aspect of the question, and such an investigation is now under consideration. *Muthmann u. Kuntze: Zeitschr. f. Kryst. u.s.w., 23, 1894, 368. poh. Aan ee bint ay tal ; A i Ny . # aI Los x À! y ti Mi rr, a ie Miah Adah SE ety; hs made auf { PARU SECTION IV., 1913. [151] TRANS. R.S.C. Cereal Breeding on the Dominion Experimental Farms During the Past Decade. By Cuas. E. Saunprrs, Ph.D., Dominion Cerealist. Presented by Dr. W. Saunpers, C.M.G., F.R.S.C. Read May 28, 1913. When in the year 1903 the experimental work in cereals and some other grains was removed from the Director’s immediate care and organized into a separate Division (in charge of the writer of this paper) two principal tasks were immediately undertaken. The first was the careful and systematic study of the large mass of material which had been accumulated during the previous years by importation from foreign countries and by cross-breeding at Ottawa and some of the branch experimental farms. Though a good deal of selection had been done, and many varieties of grain, both new and old, had been rejected, the material had been accumulating at a rapid rate, and re- quired not only thorough study but drastic elimination as well. The second task was to cross the best new and old varieties in as many different and promising pairs as ‘possible. Inasmuch as mass selection had almost invariably been employed in the earlier years, the varieties of cereals which came into the writer’s hands were chiefly mixtures of related but by no means identical types. Reselection was therefore required in order to produce uni- formity of appearance and—what was even more important—to isolate the very best strains which had arisen from the crosses, or which were to be found in the old varieties of commerce. For several years—but especially in 1903—the writer devoted much time to choosing the best heads or plants from the various plots. These choices were necessarily only provisional in the first instance; for it is impossible to accurately judge the qualities of a variety or strain by the appearance of a single plant. From each plant a separate strain was propagated. No mixing of strains was allowed, no matter how much alike they appeared. Each was studied separately through a series of years, the inferior ones being rejected from time to time, as their inferiority became evident. Of course, as in all such experiments, most of the selections were ultimately rejected; so that after a few years there was very little left of the original material of 1903. Even the named sorts which had 152 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA been introduced to the public, and some of which were already favour- ably known, were subjected to the same treatment and many of them were discarded. This great reduction in the number of varieties under test was necessary in order to concentrate our attention and that of the farmers of Canada on the very best sorts available. Among wheats the chief results of these studies (other than the rejection of material) were the isolation of two early-ripening strains of Red Fife, and of improved strains of the cross-bred varieties Huron, Preston and Stanley, and the discovery of the now famous variety, Marquis. The work in oats and barley was not pushed so rapidly, because it was considered less urgent. There is therefore, less to mention in regard to these grains; although the introduction of a selected strain of the Banner oat and of Manchurian barley are by no means unimportant matters. Reference may also be made here to the Arthur field pea, which was reselected at this same period and which is now gaining recognition as the earliest and most productive variety known for most parts of Canada. Beyond all doubt Marquis wheat was the most important dis- covery which the writer made in dealing with the descendants of the early crosses. Some account of the pedigree and achievements of this variety will perhaps be appropriate, in view of the world-wide attention which it has attracted. Marquis wheat comes from a cross made in the year 1892 by Dr. A. P. Saunders who was acting for part of the year as one of the Di- rector’s assistants. The parents of the new wheat were Hard Red Calcutta (female) and Red Fife (male). The cross was made on one of the branch experimental farms and the cross-bred seeds, or their progeny, were subsequently transferred to Ottawa. Here some se- lection was done, but the work was not carried far enough to separate out simple, fixed types. It was therefore a mixture, lacking in uni- formity, which came into the possession of the writer when he took charge of the Cereal Division. By a careful study of individual plants selected from the plot, and especially by applying the chewing test to ascertain the gluten strength and probable bread-making value, radical differences in quality were found, and a few of the most promis- ing plants were used as the foundation of new strains. These strains were propagated (each separately) for some years until they had been sufficiently studied to ascertain which was the best. This best strain was named Marquis. Its high bread-making strength and colour of flour were demonstrated in the baking tests made by the writer at Ottawa in the early months of 1907, and all the surplus seed was at once sent to the Experimental Farm at Indian Head, Sask. for propa- gation. [SAUNDERS] CEREAL BREEDING ON EXPERIMENTAL FARMS 153 It will be seen from the above account that we do not know the exact year when Marquis wheat came into existence; but it was prob- ably between 1895 and 1902. It remained, however, mixed with other related strains until isolated in 1903. It was first grown in pure con- dition in 1904, when a few seeds were sown in a sheltered garden on the Central Experimental Farm. But its fine qualities were very im- perfectly known at that time; and it was not until the baking tests of 1907 were completed that the decision was reached to send Marquis to Saskatchewan for trial under prairie conditions. The response of Marquis to its new environment was phenomenal. The year 1907 was decidedly unfavourable for most varieties of wheat owing to the prevalence of rust and of cool, wet weather. Marquis had a great advantage, because of its early-ripening habit and its ability to resist rust to a certain extent. It yielded more than any other sort, both in the plots and in the fields. In the plots it gave 32 bushels per acre, while the old standard variety, Red Fife, gave 12 bushels. In the field Marquis yielded at the rate of 42 bushels per acre, and stood far ahead of any other sort. The following season Marquis was tried also on the Experimental Farm at Brandon, where it succeeded exceptionally well. In subsequent years it was distributed to farmers all over Canada. While it has given good results at almost all points, its greatest successes have been in the provinces of Saskatchewan, Alberta and Manitoba, especially in Saskatchewan. Taking the average of the past six years (1907 to 1912 inclusive) Marquis has produced 35 per cent. more crop than Red Fife in the uniform trial plots at Indian Head. At Brandon in a test for five years years (1908 to 1912 inclusive) Marquis has yielded 7 per cent. more than Red Fife. The chief points in favour of Marquis for these provinces are its productiveness, its earliness in ripening (generally from 6 to 10 days earlier than Red Fife), its strength of straw, its comparative freedom from rust, the heavy weight per bushel and fine appearance of the grain, and the excellent colour and baking-strength of the flour produced from it. The best field crops of Marquis on the experimental farms have been obtained at Brandon and Indian Head. In 1909 a field of 43 acres at Brandon gave more than 52 bushels per acre. In 1910 a field of 54 acres at Indian Head gave a little over 53 bushels per acre. Several very high plot records have been secured with Marquis, the most re- markable being at the rate of over 81 bushels per acre on a plot of one- fortieth of an acre at Indian Head in 1912. This probably constitutes a world’s record for spring wheat. 154 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA It is difficult to overestimate the value of this new wheat to the farmers of the prairie provinces. Without attempting to give any exact calculation, one needs only to mention that in the year 1912 there were grown in these three provinces about 183,000,000 bushels of wheat, a large proportion of which was Red Fife. If Marquis had been sown instead, the yield would have been on the average at least one-fifth more, and the wheat would have been as a rule of a higher grade. One- fifth more crop and a few cents better price per bushel would have meant a very large sum of money. In 1911 the advantage of Marquis would have been even greater than in 1912. I am happy to state that Marquis is now being so widely grown that the disasters of 1911 will not be repeated unless a still more unfavourable season should at some time occur. No review of the history of Marquis wheat would be complete without mentioning its successes in seed fairs and exhibitions. Not only has Marquis carried off nearly all the best prizes in the seed fairs in the three provinces during the last two years; but it has twice won the highest award in international competitions open to the whole continent of America. At the New York Land Show in the autumn of 1911, Mr. Seager Wheeler of Rosthern, Sask., gained the first prize in wheat with an exhibit of Marquis; and at the International Dry- Farming Congress at Lethbridge last autumn the same variety, grown by Mr. Henry Holmes of Raymond, Alberta, gained the highest award. While the reselection of all the material available was being carried on so as to discover and isolate the best strains which had arisen from the crosses made in the earlier years of the history of the Experimental Farms, very many new crosses were effected in 1903 and the following years, to take advantage of the new possibilities by using the cross- bred varieties as parents, as well as to follow out other lines of breeding which had not been sufficiently tested before. These more recent crosses soon gave rise to an immense amount of interesting and valuable material, the study of which is still going on and seems likely to occupy much time for some years to come. Only one variety of wheat (and none at all of any other kind of grain) has yet been introduced from among the numerous descendants: of the writer’s crosses of 1903; though it is expected that several other new varieties will be found among these of sufficient merit to warrant their introduction, before the possibilities of rigid and repeated selection applied to this immense amount of material have become exhausted. The new wheat referred to has been named Prelude on account of its extraordinary earliness in ripening, for it precedes all other varieties of wheat yet introduced into Canada. [SAUNDERS] CEREAL BREEDING ON EXPERIMENTAL FARMS 155 In spite of its marvellous successes, Marquis cannot be heralded as the ideal wheat for all parts and all soils of Saskatchewan and the neighbouring provinces. Throughout some very large areas this variety 1s by no means early enough to be secure from frost in average seasons, when sown on summer-fallowed land. Such land usually contains a considerable amount of muisture, co that in à voavva with normal rainfall there is a tendency towards the production of very long straw and the ripening of the grain is considerably delayed. For these conditions an extremely early-ripening wheat is essential. Ever since the Experimental Farms were first established the quest for early varieties has been going on; but all the extra early wheats which have hitherto been tested (whether introduced from abroad or bred at home) have possessed some fatal defect which made it impossible to recommend them for general cultivation in the districts where very early sorts were required. Systematic efforts have, however, at last brought about the desired result, and the writer had the keen delight, during the past winter, of inaugurating the general distribution of a most satisfactory variety, Prelude, which ripens at the very begin- ning of harvest, almost with the early sorts of barley. Prelude has not been produced in one season, but is of rather complex pedigree, three different crosses having been made before it was obtained. The first of these was made in 1888 between a Russian variety obtained from near Lake Ladoga and the well-known White Fife. From this cross was obtained a variety which was named Alpha. In 1892 Alpha was crossed with a wheat obtained from India in a com- mercial mixture known as Hard Red Calcutta. The name of Fraser was given to one of the varieties produced from this cross. In 1903 Fraser was crossed with a very early-ripening variety from India, obtained under the name of Gehun. Prelude is one of the selections made from among the various types produced from this cross. The niain characteristics of Prelude wheat are as follows. It is of extremely early-ripening habit, being usually ready for harvesting (in the districts for which it is especially recommended) about two weeks before Marquis, that is to say about three weeks before Red Fife. The heads of the wheat are bearded and rather small but the spikelets are well filled. The straw is short, and of rather feeble appearance. It stands up exceptionally well in the field, however, and quite belies the judgment of those superficial observers who have pronounced it weak. The shortness of the straw is a great advantage in the regions referred to, where most varieties grow altogether too tall; but this feature will limit the usefulness of this wheat in dry districts, where it will be of value only on exceptionally moist land, if at all. The kernels of Prelude are red, rather exceptionally hard, and of remarkably Sec. IV, 1913—10 156 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA heavy weight per bushel. The flour produced from this wheat is of the popular, granular type and of very high baking strength. In several series of baking trials Prelude has surpassed Red Fife in baking strength, and in one season it stood at the head of the list of all varieties tested. The colour of the flour is slightly deeper than Red Fife or Mar- quis, hut the difference is not sufficiently marked to be of much signi- ficance. Prelude gives a good yield, but is not expected to compete with Marquis or Red Fife in this regard under conditions which are quite favourable to these later sorts. It will certainly outyield the later varieties in any localities visited by destructive early frosts. During the three years in which Prelude has been grown in the regular test plots at Ottawa it has ripened on an average in 89 days from the date of sowing. The average date of ripening was July 22nd, though it was always ready to cut at least two days before this. Aver- ages for two years at Brandon give 904 days and the average date as Aug. Ist. At Indian Head it required 114 days, the average date of ripening being Aug. 6th. During these same years Red Fife wheat ripened on the average 18 days later than Prelude at Ottawa, 22 days later at Brandon and 23 days later at Indian Head. Tests made at other points last season show that in districts north and north-west of Indian Head the advantage of Prelude in time of ripening is likely to be still greater. About a year ago a few small samples of Prelude wheat were sent to farmers in Saskatchewan and Alberta so that a better idea might be obtained as to its adaptability to various districts. The season was peculiarly unfavourable for quick-developing varieties, because ex- cessive heat and drought prevailed during the early part of the summer: conditions which proved very trying to all grain crops which were mod- erately well advanced. Those sorts which develop more slowly were not so seriously injured. In one or two cases small plots of Prelude were almost totally destroyed during this period; but on the whole the record of the new variety was most satisfactory, the yields in some instances being really remarkable. Two special cases may be mentioned. A farmer near Melfort, Saskatchewan (at about latitude 53 degrees) sowed five pounds of Prelude wheat on one-fifth of an acre of land and threshed 603 pounds. Another farmer at a point about 30 miles north- west of Calgary, in a district where spring wheat is usually struck with frost, sowed one pound of seed on a relatively large piece-of land, and secured 123 pounds of clean grain. The conclusions drawn from the experience of the past season confirm those of previous years. Prelude wheat can be confidently re- commended as the earliest wheat yet introduced, and the only variety which can be depended upon to ripen in many of the districts where early autumn frosts are common. [sAuNDERS] CEREAL BREEDIMG ON EXPERIMENTAL FARMS 157 The regular distribution of Prelude wheat to farmers was begun during this past winter, over two hundred samples being sent out. As with all new varieties the demand was many times greater than the supply. Under the circumstances it was necessary to refuse the majority of the applications and confine the distribution to those districts where the need of an extremely early wheat was greatest. Provision has been made for a good acreage of Prelude wheat on the Experimental Farms this season; and it is hoped that next winter there will be a large enough stock of seed to meet the needs of the free distribution, and leave a reserve stock for sale to farmers in two-bushel lots. But while Marquis and Prelude are revolutionising wheat-growing in the great Western provinces, and will be of incalculable value, they are by no means the last word in wheat breeding. Without aiming to displace either of these wheats, and without adding unduly to the num- ber of varieties under cultivation, there is still need of additional sorts which shall be better adapted to the requirements of certain districts. The writer is making it his chief business to produce these desired va- rieties. He hopes to introduce, in the near future another very early- maturing variety, which, though not quite so early as Prelude, will produce somwhat longer straw, and thus be available for localities where great earliness is necessary but where the rainfall is not sufficient to produce a good length of straw, except in the case of varieties which are naturally rather tall. A very early-maturing wheat with decidedly long straw will perhaps always be an impossibility. There is also needed a variety resembling Marquis as far as possible in most respects but ripening about a week earlier. Such a wheat would have a great advantage over Marquis for many districts and might at the same time surpass Prelude in yield and in flour colour. There are now under test a good number of candidates for this enviable position; and it is by no means improbable that within a few years one of these may be introduced—with perhaps greater benefit to the coun- try than either of its predecessors. But one dare not attempt to pro- phesy. While the needs of the western provinces in regard to varieties of wheat are receiving the first attention, the other provinces are not being forgotten. Some valuable introductions have already been made, and considerable effort has also been put forth to discourage the growing of inferior varieties, for which the eastern farmers often seem to have a strange predilection. To the work which is being done with oats, barley, field peas, beans and flax it is impossible to refer at length within the limits of this paper. A good start has been made in all these different lines of work. Among the cereals proper, next to wheat, the greatest amount of attention has 158 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA been devoted to barley. The special objects in view are the production of high-yielding, early-maturing sorts which shall possess greater stiff- ness of straw than the common barleys of to-day. Special attention is being paid to the breeding of beardless sorts for which there is a general demand on the part of the farmers, but which up to the present have always been characterized by poor field characters. Hulless varieties are also often asked for. Many of the new cross-bred sorts now under preliminary test are both beardless and hulless; and some of them give promise of exceptional usefulness. With oats less work has been done. Attention is, however, being given to the need for a good oat which shall thresh out free from hull, and thus make possible the realization of the dream in which some of us occasionally indulge: the dream of porridge free from husks. Many cross-bred hulless oats are now under test, some of which are decidedly promising. Before closing this paper a brief reference should be made to the methods of selection and study employed in the Central Division; as the success which is being achieved is due in part to the improved system under which the work is carried on. When dealing with unfixed material of cross-bred origin, or when trying to isolate the best strains from old varieties, each chosen plant is harvested separately and its seed sown separately (every year) until a perfectly uniform group is found. So long as the group of plants obtained by sowing the seeds of a selected mother-plant shows any distinct variations, the seed of each plant retained is sown as a separate group. This system is diametrically opposed to the obsolescent but still too popular method of mass selection in which the seed from all similar plants is retained. The latter system never gives fixed types and usually involves many years of patient and per= sistent ‘“‘rogueing” before a reasonable approximation to fixity is reached. When a fixed and desirable type has been obtained propagation is begun. In the second year of propagation the little plot is sown under ordinary field conditions, and a systematic record of the conduct of the variety is commenced. The next season there is usually enough seed to sow a regular test-plot of one-sixtieth of an acre. In this size most of the new varieties remain for a few years, until their average yield, earliness, strength of straw and other important characters have been sufficiently observed. An effort is made to reach a decision as soon as practicable in regard to the value of each sort, and many of them are rejected after only two or three years’ trial ; but in other instances final decisions are necessarily delayed for many years. All the more promising sorts are tested at some of the branch farms as well as at Ottawa before they are introduced to the public. In addition to the study of what may be called field characters all the varieties of wheat intended for flour making are subjected to [SAUNDERS] CEREAL BREEDING ON EXPERIMENTAL FARMS 159 milling and baking tests before being sent out. These tests are con- ducted at Ottawa in laboratories provided with special apparatus. It is perhaps scarcely necessary to point out that in most of the work of grain breeding and selection the chief objects have been of what is called a practical rather than a scientific character. In other words the production of valuable varieties with the least possible delay and with the least possible expense has been the purpose, rather than to study the laws of heredity and accumulate a store of facts which might in the long run prove of immense value. , I am not attempting to express any opinion as to the wisdom or unwisdom of the course followed; but it seems necessary to mention it in order to explain the curious circumstance that while contributing so enormously to the immediate prosperity of the country, the work that has been done has added comparatively little to our knowledge of the fundamental principles which underlie the breeding of cereals. This is much to be regretted, especially on account of the large amount of valuable material which has been thrown away almost every year, as soon as it appeared that it was not likely to be any practical use to the Canadian farmer. Some deductions of value to science have, however, been drawn from time to time, but I cannot refer to any of them in this paper. The practical utility of these researches must remain their chief justi- fication. And certainly that utility has already been amply demon- strated. But we are much nearer the beginning than the end of this work, and he would be a wise and daring prophet who could predict within even a few hundreds of millions of dollars what will be the net profits to Canada, during the first half of this century, from the modest sums spent on researches in cereals. kb bf wi Pie pu a. i) P LA 1/1 : P 4 14 | L i! 14e ao iis j ‘ 1 ) TU l i} ; } L ~ | Lot Tue LA ia ~ Ty Be : = - 2 Cm i fu? \ TT tad à va sf | oo in: LE TS Pr) À APS iati a.” a fin mir UT i ane Tai \4 T# i N En si.‘ t ’ P (> ee: , ; Pas Lie Tori ii “ace . is i Meteora ee ee dei mi "A dt PPT ain hal fiat, Vig TANT bial a. movil ions: 16 9h oe at Se ni LT MEL EU 44 À Avr 47 nf iby | fe « i? ik F, : RTE L ~ D oii 2 . edit CS EE ii EE chy 2 on Fig sear ÉTAT ÉMIS . MMS RAS NC 7e Set ele a Per les Mars : | AN Tae Hing * ey nye" F 4 bei’ | j i) Ga lo Carat AW) ar fn 4 i 7 iC Cy Lhe ( (Mem ats i irony Lu nuire es Gi a buf oie iy pode sao % ayer PO atrbé" | ONE SUPER SET Baer Sth Tr = du PP" iby dt taeda meen ee l'A Be y ÿ Pré ees i | re ts a rn Ana rue in ‘1 A pate 10 due ane | 7 ‘Om OAS A SECTION IV., 1913. [161] TRANS. R.S.C. Bibliography of Canadian Entomology for 1912. 3y C. Gorpon HeEwirt, D.8c., F.E.S., Dominion Entomologist, Ottawa. (Read by title May 28, 1913) SUBJECT INDEX. General: 7, 21, 31, 32, 33, 47, 65, 109. Insects and Plants: 17, 78. Obituary Notices: 29, 39, 51. Orthoptera: 107. Odonata: 93, 108. Hemiptera: 88, 102. Lepidoptera: 2, 3, 4, 23, 24, 25, 31, 40, 42, 43, 45, 48, 50, 70, 89, 98, 111, 116, 118, 119, 120, 121. Coleoptera: 9, 27, 69, 75, 85, 94, 106. Hymenoptera: 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 19, 28, 46, 54, 62, 68, 81, 90, 91, 92, 105, 117. Diptera: 26, 55, 56, 63, 64, 71, 73, 74, 83, 84, 99. Mallophaga: 73. Arachnida: 16, 82, 112. Economic Entomology. General: 1, 5, 8, 18, 20, 34, 58, 59, 66, 76, 77, 79, 80, 86, 87, 101, 104, 114, 115. Beneficial Insects: 6, 30. Forest Insects: 38, 53, 62, 95, 98, 110. Fruit Insects: 10, 36, 44, 72, 96, 100. Insects Injurious to Field Crops: 35, 37, 40, 41, 57, 61, 113. Insects Injurious to Man and Animals: 49, 52, 56, 60, 63, 64. Legislation against Insects: 22, 67. TITLES. 1. Anderson, E. M. Entomological Report for the Victoria district, B.C. Proc. B.C. Ent. Soc., N.S., No. 2, pp. 9-11., 1912. (Insect notes and captures for the year.) 2. Barnes, Wm. and McDonnough, J. H. Contributions to the Natural History of the Lepidoptera of North Am- erica, Vol. 1, No. 1—Revision of the Cossidæ, 35 pp., 7 pls. Vol. I, No.2. The Lasiocampid genera Gloveria and its Allies, 17 pp., 4 pls. Vol. I, No. 3—Revision of the Megathymidæ, 43 pp., 6 pls. Vol. I, No. 4— Illustrations of Rare and Typical Lepidoptera, 57 pp., 27 pls. Vol. I, No. 5—Fifty New Species: Notes on the Genus Alpheias, 44 pp., 5 pls. Vol. I, No. 6—On the Generic types of North American Diurnal Lepidop- tera, 13 pp. Decatur, IIL., 1912. 162 3. Qt 6. “J 10. joie 13. THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Barnes, Wm. and McDunnough, J. H. On the larval stages of certain Arctian species. Can. Ent., Vol. 44, pp. 188-191, 1912. (Contains additional data on Apantesis phalerata Harr.) Barnes, Wm. and McDunnough, J. H. Notes on Taylor’s Types of Geometridæ. Can. Ent. Vol. 44, pp. 270- 275, 1912. (Detailed notes on the types of about 65 species in the col- lection of G. W. Taylor). Brittain, W. H. Injurious Insects noted in the Okanagan District (B.C.) during 1912. Proc. B.C. Ent. Soc., N.S., No. 2, pp. 13-16, 1912. Brittain, W. H. Beneficial Insects. Proc. B.C. Ent. Soc., N.S., No. 2, pp. 32-37, 1912. (A general account.) Bush, A. H. Mountain Fauna. Proc. B.C. Ent. Soc., N.S., No. 2, pp. 79-80, 1912. (Discusses the distribution of Insects). Cesar, L. Insects of the season in Ontario. Forty-second Ann. Rept. Ent. Soc. of Ont., pp. 28-36, 1912. (Contains many original observations on insects affecting orchard and field crops and forest and shade trees.) Casey, Thos. Memoirs on the Coleoptera, III. Lancaster, Pa., 386 pp., 1912. (This treats of the following: The American Byrrhide, including 15 new species from Canada; the American genera of the Tenebrionid tribe Asidini; North American Longicornia, including 5 species and one sub-species from Canada.) Chapais, J. C. The New York Plum Scale (Lecanium cerasifex) Fourth Annual Rept., Quebec Soc. Protection Plants, pp. 60-63, 1912. (Records the occurrence of this species of Lecaniwm in Kamouraska Co., Quebec, and describes life-history and control.) Cockerell, T. D. A. Names applied to Bees of the Genus Nomada, found in North America. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., Vol. 41, (No. 1852), pp. 223-243, 1912. (The list contains references to Canadian species.) Cockerell, T. D. A. : Names applied to Bees of the Genus Osmia, found in North America. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., Vol. 42, (No. 1897), pp. 215-225, 1912. (The list contains referencecs to the Canadian species.) Cockerell, T. D. A. Names applied to the Eucerine Bees of North America. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., Vol. 43, (No. 1932), pp. 261-273, 1912. (Refers to Canadian species of this group of the Anthophoride.) — [HEWITT] BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANADIAN ENTOMOLOGY 163 14. 16. 17. 1e 1 20. 21. 22. 23. Cockerell, T. D. A. Two bees new to Canada. Can. Ent., Vol. 44, p. 293, 1912. (Describes Chelynia ricardonis sp. nov. from B.C.) Cockerell, T. D. A. Canadian Bees in the British Museum. Can. Ent., Vol. 44, pp. 354-358, 1912. (Contains, in addition to a number of records, descriptions of the following new species: Megachile vernonensis from B.C.: Osmia nove- scotie from N.S.; O. subaretica and O. tersula both from Hudson’s Bay.) Comstock, J. H. The Spider Book.—A Manual for the Study of the Spiders and their near relatives, the Scorpions, Pseudoscorpions, Whipscorpions, Harvestmen and other members of the class Arachnida found in America North of Mexico, with analytical keys for their Classification and popular accounts of their Habits. New York,, xv + 707 pp., 771 figs. 1912. Cosens, A. A Contribution to the Morphology and Biology of Insect Galls. Trans. Canad. Inst., Vol. 9, pp. 297-387, 13 pls. 1912. (An exhaustive and valuable account of the morphology of Insect and Arachnid Galls with observations on the biology of the gall-producers.) Cosens, A. Report on the Insects of the year 1911 in the Toronto District, Ont., Forty-Second Ann. Rept. Ent. Soc. Ont., pp. 15-17, 1912. Crawford, J.C. Notes on some Canadian Bees. Can. Ent., Vol. 44, pp. 359-360. 1912. (From a collection made in Alberta the following new species are described: Phileremulus mallochi and Perdita canadensis.) Criddle, N. Injurious Insects of 1911 at Treesbank, Man. Journ. Econ. Ent. Vol. 5, pp. 248-252, 1912. (Contains original observations on the prevalent insects injurious to cereals and other crops.) Criddle, N. Insect Migration at Aweme, Man. Forty-Second Ann. Rept. Ent. Soc. Ont. pp. 74-76. (Discusses the question of migration of insects not gen- erally supposed to migrate.) Cunningham, T. Address on Quarantine Measures. Proc. B.C. Ent. Soc. N.S., No. 2, pp. 50-67, 1912. (The author discusses fully and quotes the United States Quarantine Act and the quarantine orders of certain States of the Union in support of the adoption of quarantine measures to protect the fruit industry of British Columbia.) Dawson, H. Some notes on Hepialus hyperboreus. Forty-Second Ann. Rept. Ent. Soc. Ont., pp. 81-82, 1912. 164 bo or 26 bo “J to 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Day, G. O. Notes on Xanthia pulchella Smith. Proc. B.C. Ent. Soc., N.S., No. 2, pp. 38-40. 1912. (Notes on life-history and description of larva.) Day, G. O. Notes on Schizura unicornis, Smith & Abbot. Proc. B.C. Ent. Soc., N.S., No. 2, pp. 40-41, 1912. Felt, E. P. The Indentity of the Better Known Midge Galls. Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. 25, pp. 164-167, 181-188. 1912. (Describes the commoner galls formed by Cecidomyids). Fenyes, A. Remarks on Gnypeta Thoms, (Staphylinidae Col.) Can. Ent. Vol. 44, pp. 105-112, 1912. (Contains references to Canadian species). Franklin, H. J. The Bombidae of the New World. Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. Vol. 38, pp. 177-486, 1912. (This paper contains the first part of an exhaustive sys- tematic monograph on the Bombi of America). Fyles, T. W. Obituary notice of the Rev. George W. Taylor. Can. Ent. Vol..44, pp. 285-287, 1912. Fyles, T. W. Our Insect and Other Allies. Fourth Ann. Rept. Quebec Soc. Protection of Plants, pp. 28-32, 1912. (A popular account of the parasitic and pre- daceous enemies of insects). Fyles, T. W. Notes on the season of 1911. Forty-Second Ann. Rep. Ent. Soe. Ont., pp. 36-38: 1912. (Contains a description of a new Gelechian, Gnoromos- chema septentrionella and other notes). Fyles, T. W. The Stream. Forty Sec. Ann. Rep. Soc. Ont., pp. 65-70,1912. (A poetic account, containing references to insects). Gibson, A. The Entomological Record, 1911. Forty-Second Ann. Rept. Ent. Soc. Ont. 1911, pp. 89-112, 1912. (References are given to literature appearing in 1911, which is of interest to students. Under ‘‘Notes of Captures” many notes on insects in the different orders, taken in Canada, are recorded. New species described from Canada in 1911 are included). Gibson, Arthur. Insects of the year in the Ottawa District. Forty-Second Ann. Rept. Ent. Soc. Ont., 1911. pp. 9-15, 7 figs, 1912. (An account of the occur- ence of a munber of insects of economic importance.) [HEWITT] BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANADIAN ENTOMOLOGY 165 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. Gibson, Arthur. Blister Beetles. Forty-Second Ann. Rept. Ent. Soe. Ont. 1911, pp. 83-85, 8 figs, 1912. (Notes on sixteen species are given of the genera Epicauta, Macrobasis, Pomphopea, and Cantharis. Most of these are of economic importance). Gibson, Arthur. Some insects of the Apple. Report Quebec Pomological Society, 1912. (An economic treatment of the Codling Moth, Plum Curculio and Apple Maggot with methods of control). Gibson, Arthur. Cutworms and How to Control them. Fourth Ann. Rept. Quebec Soc. Protection of Plants, pp. 25-27, 1 fig. 1912. (A brief account with remedies of the common species occurring in Quebec). Gibson, Arthur. The Battle with the Brown-tail Moth. East and West, Toronto, April 20th, 1912, 3 figs. (An account of the work being carried on in the control of this insect). Gibson, Arthur. Obituary. John Bernardt Smith. Canadian Entomologist, Vol. 44, pp. 97-99, 1 pl. 1912. Gibson, Arthur. Cutworms and Army-worms. Bull. 70., Ent. Bull. 3, Experimental Farms, Dept. Agric. Canada., pp. 1-29, 10 figs, 1 pl. 1912. (Treats at length of the injurious cutworms and army-worms of Canada. Thirteen species are dicsussed. Chapters on Nature of Injuries, Life-history, Natural Enemies and Methods of Control are given). Gibson, Arthur. Insects Attacking Vegetables: Cutworms, Root Maggots, Turnip Flea- beetle, Striped Cucumber Beetle, and Blister Beetles. Farmers’ Advo- cate, London, May 2, May 9, May 16 and Aug. 1, 1912. (A series of four articles describing above insects and giving remedies for their control). Gibson, Arthur. Description of mature larva of Estigmene prima Sloss. Can. Ent., Vol. 44, p. 222, 1912. Gibson, Arthur. Arctiids or Tiger Moths. Macdonald College Magazine, Vol. III, Oct-Nov. 1912. pp. 12-15, 7 figs. (A popular account of some of the commoner forms of these moths and their caterpillars). Gibson, Arthur. The Railroad Worm. Canadian Horticulturist, Nov. 1912. p. 254. (An account of this insect with methods of control). 166 46. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Gibson, Arthur. An addition to the list of Toronto Butterflies. Ontario Natural Science Bull., No. 7, p. 58, 1912. (Argynnis idalia Drury is the species added. All other known Canadian records are also given). Girault, À. À. Notes on the Parasitic Hymenoptera. Can. Ent., Vol. 44, pp. 5-12. (Des- cribes a new Canadian species: Rhopoideus fuscus and the occurence of Physcus varicornis Howard and Prospaltella aurantii Howard in Canada; these are coccid parasites). Grant, C. E. Report on the Insects of the year 1911 in the Orillia District, Ont. Forty- Second Ann. Rept. Ent. Soc. Ont., p. 15, 1912. Grossbeck, J. A. Miscellaneous Notes and Descriptions of North American Geometridae Journ. N.Y. Ent. Soc. Vol. 20, pp. 282-292, 1912. Hadwen, 8S. Preliminary Note on the finding of Hypoderma bovis at Agassiz, B.C. Together with notes on the biology of the fly. Proc. B.C: Ent. Soc., N.S., No. 2, pp. 81-82, 1912. (Records for the first time the occurrence of the species in North America.) Hampson, Sir George F. Catalogue of the Lepidoptera Phalaenae in the British Museum, Vol. XI. Noctuidae, 689 pp., pls. 174-191. 1912.( Deals with the sub-families Eutelianae, Stictopterinae, Sarrothripinae and Acontianae; 8 species are recorded from Canada). Hanham, A. W. and Fyles T. W. Rev. George W. Taylor. Proc. B. C. Ent. Soc., N.S., No. 2, pp. 1-4, 1912. (An obituary notice.) Hewitt, C. Gordon. The Transmission of Typhus Fever by Lice. Can. Ent., Vol. 44, pp. 103-104, 1912. (A review of recent work.) Hewitt, C. Gordon. Investigations on Forest Insects and Forest Protection. Can. Forestry Journ., Vol. 8, pp. 35-38. 1912. Hewitt, C. Gordon. The Honey Bee. A Guide to Apiculture in Canada. Bull. 69, Exptl. Farms, Dept. Agric., Canada; being Bull. 2, Division of Entomology; 45 pp. 2 pls, 10 text figs. 1912. (A guide for beginners in apiculture des- cribing the management of bees and their economic value, etc.) Hewitt, C. Gordon. Observations on the Range of Flight of Flies. Repts. Local Government Board on Public Health and Med. Subjects, N.S., No. 66. Further Reports [HEWITT] BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANADIAN ENTOMOLOGY 167 56. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. (No. 5) on Flies as carriers of infection. London, pp. 1-5, with map, 1912. (An account of experiments carried out at Ottawa to determine the range of flight of the house-fly.) Hewitt, C. Gordon. An account of the Bionomics and the Larvae of the Flies Fannia cani- cularis L., and F. scalaris Fab., and their relation to Myiasis of the In- testinal and Urinary Tracts. Ibid. pp. 15-22. 1 pl. 1912. (Gives observ- ation on the life-history, etc., of these species and a review of cases of Myiasis due to them.) Hewitt, C. Gordon. Control of Grasshoppers and Locusts. Census and Statistics Monthly. Dept. Agric., Canada. pp. 157-158, 1912. Hewitt, C. Gordon. The Division of Entomology. Can. Ent., Vol. 44, pp. 267-269. 1912. (Cur- rent notes on progress of work.) Hewitt, C. Gordon. Some of the work of the Division of Entomology in 1911. Forty-second Ann. Rept. Ent. Soc. Ont., pp. 25-27. 1912. Hewitt, C. Gordon. Insect Scourges of Mankind. Forty-second Ann. Rept. Ent. Soc. Ont., pp. 46-50. 1912. (A popular lecture on Malaria and Sleeping sickness.) Hewitt, C. Gordon. Thrips affecting Oats. Forty-Second Ann. Rept. Ent. Soc. Ont., pp. 63-65. 1912. (Describes the injury of Anaphothrips striatus Osborn.) Hewitt, C. Gordon. The Large Larch Sawfly, with an account of its Parasites, other natural enemies and means of control. Bull. 10, Second Ser., Entom. Bull. 5, Exptl. Farms, Dept. Agric., Canada, 42 pp., 26 figs., 1 col. pl. 1912. (An account of the author’s investigations on this insect and its life-history and depredations, ete., in Europe and North America. The natural enemies and means of control are fully discussed.) Hewitt, C. Gordon. Fannia (Homalomyia) canicularis Linn., and F. scalaris Fab. Parasitology. Vol. 5, pp. 161-174, 7 figs, 1 pl. 1912. (An extended account of subject treated under No. 56.) Hewitt, C. Gordon. House-flies and how they spread Disease. Cambridge Univ. Press. (En- gland); xii + 122 pp., 19 figs. 1912. (An account of this subject written in a popular style for the Cambridge Manuals of Science and Literature.) Hewitt, C. Gordon. The International Congress of Entomology. Can. Ent., Vol. 44, pp. 343-346. 1912. 168 66. 68. 69. 70. File 74. 75. THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Hewitt, C. Gordon. The Control of Insect Pests in Canada. Bull. 9. Sec. Ser., Ent. Bull. 4, Exptl. Farms, Dept. Agric., Canada. 13 pp. 1912. (Reprint of an address on entomological work in Canada.) Hewitt, C. Gordon. Legislation in Canada to prevent the Introduction and Spread of Insects, Pests and Diseases destructive to vegetation, with Regulations regarding the Importation of Vegetation into Canada. Bull. 12, Sec. Ser., Entom. Bull. 6, Exptl. Farms, Dept. Agric. Canada. 36 pp. 1912. (Contains all the Dominion and Provincial Statutes on the subject enacted and in force up to date.) Hooker, C. W. The Ichneumon Flies of America belonging to the tribe Ophionini. Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc., Vol. 38, pp. 1-176, 3 pls. 1912. (A systematic account of the whole group in which known Canadian species are also treated.) Hyslop, J. A. The False Wireworms of the Pacific North West. Bull. No. 95, Part 5, Bur. Ent., U.S. Dept. Agric., pp. 73-87, figs, 1912. (Gives occurrence of Eleodes pimelioides in British Columbia.) Hyslop, J. A. The Alfalfa Looper. Bull. No. 95, Part 7. Bur. Ent., U.S. Dept. Agric., pp. 109-118, Figs. 1912. (Records the occurrence of Autographa gamma californica Speyer in British Columbia.) Johannsen, O. A. The Mycetophilidae of North America. Part III.—The Mycetophilinae. Maine Agric. Expt. Sta., Bull. 196, pp. 249-328, 5 pls. Part IV. (Conclusion) Bull. 200, 1912. (These memoirs conclude the author’s studies and con- tain eight new Canadian species.) Johnson, F. and Hammar, A. G. The Grape-berry Worm. Bull. No. 116, Part 2. Bur. Ent. U.S. Dept. Agric., pp. 13-71, figs. 1912. (Refers to the occurrence of Polychrosis viteana Clem. in Ontario.) Kellogg, V. L. and Mann, W. M. A third collection of Mallophaga from Alaskan Birds. Ent. News, Vol. 23, pp. 12-17. 1912. (A list of Mallophaga collected at Norton Sound, Alaska; two new species included.) Krober, O. Die Therividen Nordamerikas. Stett. Ent. Zeitung, 73 Jahrg., pp. 209-272, 1912. (Contains description of a new species T'hereva ustulata from Quebec in addition to other Canadian records.) Leng, C. W. The Geographical Distribution of Cicindelidae in Eastern North America. Journ. N.Y. Ent. Soc., Vol. 20, pp. 1-17. [HEWITT] BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANADIAN ENTOMOLOGY 169 76. Lochhead, W. Presidential Address. Fourth Ann. Rept. Quebec Soc. Protection of Plants, pp. 12-17. 1912. (Discusses general topics relating to weed and insect control.) Lochhead, W. Three Pests threatening Quebec. Fourth Ann. Rept. Quebee Soe. Pro- tection Plants, pp. 33-38, 1912. (Includes an account of the Brown-tail Moth, Æuproctis chrysorrhoea.) I I 78. Lochhead, W. Bees as Friends of the Agriculturist. Fourth Ann. Rept. Quebec Soc. Protection Plants. pp. 64-70, 1912. (Discusses the fertilisation of num- erous economic plants by bees.) 79. Lochhead, W. Insects injurious to farm, garden and orchard crops. Fourth Ann. Rept. Quebec Soc. Protection of Plants, pp. 71-95, 1912. (A popular and sum- marized account of the means of determining the more common injurious insects.) 80. Lyne, W. H. Carbon Bisulphide Fumigation. Proc. B.C. Ent. Soc., N.S., No. 2, pp. 28-31, 1912. (An account of the author’s experience in the use of the fumigant.) 81. MacGillivray, A. D. New genera and species of Xyelidae and Lydidae. Can. Ent., Vol. 44, pp. 294-299. 1912. (Contains descriptions of two new Canadian species of sawflies: Cephalia criddlei from Manitoba and Pamphilius fletcheri from New Brunswick.) 82. Macnamara, C. Gossamer Spiders. Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. 25, 153-154. 1912. (Notes on the thread-spinning of these spiders.) 83. Malloch, J. R. New American Dipterous Insects of the Family Pipunculidae. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., Vol. 43, (No. 1934), pp. 291-299, 1912. [Contains descriptions of the following new species collected in Canada: Pipunculus occidentalis, (Alta); P. stigmatica, (B.C.); P. exilis, (Alta); P. inconspicuous (Alta); P. trochanteratus, (B.C.); P. caudelli, (B.C.)] 84. Malloch, J. R. The Insects of the Dipterous Family Phoridae in the United States National Museum. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., Vol. 43, (No. 1938), pp. 411-529, 1912. [A full systematic account of this group containing descriptions of the following new species from Canada; Paraspiniphora trispinosa, (B.C.) Aphiochaela conglomerata (B.C.); A. ursina, (B.C.); A. monticola (B.C.); A. dubitata, (B.C.); A. atomella, (Sask. and Alaska); A. borealis, (B.C.); A. perplexa (B.C.); A. dyari, (B.C.); A. fuscopedunculata, (B.C.); Plast- ophora curriet (B.C.)] 170 O0 Qt 86. Co a 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Matheson, R. The Haliplidæ of North America, North of Mexico. Journ. N.Y. Ent. Soc., Vol. 20, pp. 166-193, 1912. (The following new species are de- seribed as occurring in Canada: Haliplus connexus, n. sp.; H. vancouver- ensis, n. Sp.) Middleton, M.S. Entomological Report from the Kootenay District, B.C. Proc. B.C. Ent. Soc., N.S., No. 2, pp. 17-19, 1912. (Notes on injurious insects of the year and measures of control.) Nash, C. W. Report on the Insects of the year 1911, in the East Toronto District, Ont. Forty-second Ann. Rept. Ent. Soc., Ont., pp. 17-19, 1912. Patch, Edith M. Aphid Pests of Maine; Food Plants of the Aphids; Psyllid Notes. Bull. No. 202. Maine Agric. Expt. Sta., Orono, Me., pp. 159-234. pls. [The third of these papers contains descriptions of the following new species of Psyllids from Canada: Aphalara fascipennis, (Ont.); Trioza aylmerie (Que.) T.forcipula, (Ont.); T. stylifera (Ont.)] Perrin, J. and Russell, J. Catalogue of Butterflies and Moths collected in the neighborhood of Halifax and Digby, N.S. Trans. Nova Scotia Inst. of Science, Vol. 12, pp. 258-290. 1912. (The authors list 530 species and varieties.) Rohwer, S. A. Some Canadian Sawflies collected by Frederick Knab. Can. Ent., Vol. 44, p. 276, 1912. (A list of species collected chiefly in Saskatchewan in 1907.) Rohwer, S. A. New Sawflies in the Collections of the United States National Museum. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., Vol. 41, (No. 1866), pp. 376-446, 1912. (Contains many diagnostic tables. The following new Canadian species is described: Dimorphopteryx abnormis from Ottawa, Ont.) Rohwer, 8. A. Notes on Sawflies with descriptions of new species. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., Vol. 43, (No. 1930), pp. 205-251, 1912. [Contains descriptions of the following new species from Canada: Pamphilius nigritibialis, (Sask.) ; Tenthredo (Labidia) anomocerus, (Alta.); Paracharactus nigrisomus, (Sask.) : Monophadnus truncatus, (Sask.) ; Enura serissime, (Ont.) ; 2. nigrella, (Ont.) ; Pontania lucide, (Ont.); Amauronematus knabi, (Sask.)] Root, F. M. Dragon Flies collected at Point Pelee and Pelee Island, Ont., in the summers of 1910 and 1911. Can. Ent., Vol. 44, pp. 208-209. 1912. Swaine, J. M. New species of the family Ipide (Coleoptera). Can. Ent., Vol. 44, pp. 349-353, 1912. (Includes Trypophloeus nitidus, n. sp. from Nova Scotia.) [HEWITT] BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANADIAN ENTOMOLOGY 171 95. 96. 98. 99. 100. 101. 102. 103. 104. Swaine, J. M. The Care of the Farm Wood-lot. Fourth Ann. Rept. Quebee Soc. Pro- tection of plants, pp. 18-21, 1912. (Contains practical advice on the care and treatment of the wood-lot on the farm and the protection of the trees from insect attack.) Swaine, J. M. Injurious Insects of the year 1911, Macdonald College, Que. Forty- second Ann. Rept. Ent. Soc. Ont., pp. 72-74, 1912. (Records insects chiefly injurious to orchard and small fruits.) Swaine, J. M. Popular Entomology. The Engraver Beetles (Family Ipide). Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. 25, pp. 141-145. Vol. 26, pp. 110-115, figs., 1912. (De- scribes the life-histories, habits, ete., of many of the common Scolytid beetles.) Swett, L. W. Geometrid Notes.—Two new Hydriomenas. Can. Ent., Vol. 44, pp. 195-196, 1912. (Describes H. transfigurata: paratype from Newfoundland.) Tothill, J. D. Systematic notes on North American Tachinidæ. Can. Ent., Vol. 44, pp. 1-5, 1912. (Describes a new Canadian species, Winthemia fumiferane, and gives a key for the separation of the N. American species of this genus.) Treherne, R. C. Life-history of Otiorynchus ovatus, the Strawberry Root Weevil, under Lower Fraser, B. C. conditions. Proc. B. C. Ent. Soc., N.S., No. 2, pp. 41-50, 1912. (An account of the author’s observations on the life-history, feeding habits and control measures in an investigation at Hatzic, B. C.) Treherne, R. C. Reports on the Insects of the year 1911 in the Niagara District, Ont., Forty-second Ann. Report, Ent. Soc. Ont., pp. 19-25, 1912. (Gives many original notes on certain of the more abundant fruit insects.) Van Duzee, E. P. Synonymy of the Provancher Collection of Hemiptera. Can. Ent., Vol. 44, pp. 317-329, 1912. (A valuable comparison of the author’s series, with those in Provancher’s collections at Quebec, which the latter de- scribes as in his “Petite Faune Entomologique du Canada.’’) Van Duzee, E. P. A Few Days’ Work and Play in Canada. Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. 26, pp. 68-70, 1912. (Observations on collections of Hemiptera made in the districts around Ottawa and Montreal.) Venables, E. P. Entomological Report from the Okanagan District, B. C. Proc. B. C. Ent. Soc., N.S., No. 2, pp. 11-13. (Notes on the more prevalent insect pests in 1912.) Sec. IV, 1913—11 106. 107. 108. 109. 110. 115 a 16 112. 113., 114. THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Viereck, H. L. Descriptions of Five New Genera and Twenty-six New Species of Ichneu- mon Flies. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., Vol. 42, (No. 1888), pp. 139-153, 1912. [Contains descriptions of the following new species from Canada: A pan- teles fumiferanæ (Quebec); Meteorus trachynotus, (Quebec); Conoblasta fumiferanæ, (Quebec); Phygadeuon plesius, (Quebec); Epiurus innomin- atus, (B.C.); Mesochorus diversicolor, (B.C.)] : Wickham, H. F. and Wolcott, A. B. Notes on Cleridæ from North aud Central America. Bull. State Univ. of Iowa, Vol. 6, No. 3, pp. 49-67, 1912. (Contains numerous Canadian records.) Walker, E. M. The Blattide of Ontario. Can. Ent., Vol. 44, pp. 171-172, 1912. (A descriptive list of the eleven species found in Ontario.) Walker, E. M. The Odonata of the Prairie Provinces of Canada. Can. Ent., Vol. 44, pp. 253-266, 1 pl., 1912. (A detailed account of the distribution of the ‘Dragon-flies in this region together with the description of Cœnagrion angulatum sp. nov.) Walker, E. M. Presidential Address. Forty-Sec. Ann. Rept. Ent. Soc. Ont., pp. 51-55, 1912. (Discusses the possibilities of future development of Entomology in Canada.) Walker, E. M. Some injurious Forest Insects at De Grassi Point, Lake Simcoe, Ont. Forty-Second Ann. Rept. Ent. Soc. Ont., pp. 55-63, 1912. (Contains notes on prevalent sawflies, bark beetles and borers, Coccidæ, etc.) Wallis, J. B. Notes on Vanessa californica at Peachland, B.C., in 1912. Can. Ent. Vol. 44, pp. 368-369, 1912. (An account of an abnormal outbreak of this insect. ) Webster, F. M. The Clover Mite, Bryobia pratensis Gorman. Journ. Econ. Ent., Vol. 5, pp. 290-295, 1912. (Gives a number of references to insect’s occurrence in Canada.) Webster, F. M. The Spring Grain-aphis or “Green Bug.” Bull. No. 110, Bur. Ent., U.S. Dept. Agric., pp. 153, 9 pls., 48 figs., 1912. (A complete account of the life-history, habits and control, ete., of Toxoptera graminum Rond. refers to its occurrence in Western Canada.) Wilson, T. Entomological Report for 1912 from the Vancouver District. Proc. B.C. Ent. Soc., N.S., No. 2, pp. 6-8, 1912. (An account of the more prevalent injurious insects of the year.) [HEWITT] BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANADIAN ENTOMOLOGY 173 115. Wilson, T. Presidential Address. Entomological Society of British Columbia. Proc. B.C. Ent. Soc., N.S., No. 2, pp. 74-77, 1912. 1G] Wann, AR A Preliminary List of the Insects of the Province of Quebec. Part I.— Lepidoptera. Supplement to Report Quebee Soc. Protection of Plants, 103 pp., 19 figs. (A full list of the Lepidoptera of the Province of Quebec, giving localities and food plants of species and characters of the families.) DIM NN Ate re A Hymenopterous Parasite of Hepialus thule. Vorty-second Ann. Rept. Ent. Soc. Ont., pp. 70-71. (Records the rearing of Zchneumon decinctor Say from this host.) 118. Winn, A. F. Lepidoptera from Yukon Territory. Can. Ent., Vol. 44, pp. 213-125, 1912. (A list of sixty species captured in 1910 and 1911.) TOS? Wann, As 2. Notes on the Life-history of Estigmene prima Slosson. Can. Ent., Vol. 44, pp. 221-223. (Egg, larval and pupal stages described.) 120. Wolly-Dod, F. H. Further notes on Alberta Lepidoptera. Can. Ent., Vol. 44, pp. 33-39, 1912. (Comparative notes on a number of species.) 121. Wolly-Dod, F. H. | Smerinthus cerisyi and Smerinthus ophthalmicus. Can. Ent., Vol. 44 pp. 299-300, 1912. ; ; PARTY LAD AL \ Aaiial oy 4 ys" ON La ? i, 2 i i NEA ity TI hea a ï y ] re | REY, 1 , Wn i i hes É LAPS Wie un f vty 4" 1 A ait ey r \ At à \ / RARES Maat a SANT ae Lath Pdi ae MAIS | si 4 i ur My ( IN (Lac A ¥ NA ae | \ NU FENTE UN FA AR A AE 4 roi 5 - ret) {i aera AU R Oe OF ALU 114 . Ny Hes NÉ itis MAG am Ha NU aa | aged (NBI N'a QUE ; A hat 6 | 1 (LES Lo t fen (ii { ae ; A A ON A id ; ; ates GIE ANNE ‘ : i Me a (ru ; ‘ i" Me r/) i L à a WN } DST bp aa ee we Sn. iy bine PR Gite Ly ‘4 4 , MAN Aa (ax my ing ta ‘ AN 11 Ho DA hit aN MAL es M ann yO italy ' rt 1114 SECTION IV., 1913. [175] Trans. R.S.C. Bibliography of Canadian Botany for the year 1912. By A. H. MacKay, LL.D. (Read by title, May 27, 1913.) ANREP, A. ‘‘Investigation of the Peat Bogs and Peat Industry of Canada.’’ Vol. 10 x 7 inches, pp. 61, Photograv. 19, fig. 1, Maps 12. Govt. Printing Bureau, Ottawa, 1912. ARTHUR, J, C. ‘‘Cultures of Uredineae in 1910.” (References to Canadian species and work —especially the work of W. P. Fraser, Pictou, Nova Scotia.) Mycologia IV:I, pp. 7-33. Jan 1912, New York. ARTHUR, J. C. ‘Cultures ot Uredineae in 1911.” (References to Canadian species and work—especially of J. Dearness of London, Ontario and W. P. Fraser of Pictou, Nova Scotia.) Mycologia IV: 2, pp. 49-65, Mar 1912, New York. ARTHUR, J. C. ““Aecidiaceae’’—Continuatio. (References to Canadian species). N. Am. Flora VII:161-187, 211-268, 1912, New York. Barcey, L. W. ‘Some Recent Diatoms.’’ (From the vicinity of St. Andrews, New Bruns- wick—1, Maine, Passamquoddy Bay; 2, Brackish, Kennebacasis River; 3, Table showing their distribution on coasts; 4, Plates XXV & XXVI with 25 and 28 fig. respectively.) Cont. Can. Biology, 1906-1910, XV: 243-264, 1912, King’s Printer, Ottawa. BAILEY, L. W. “Diatoms of New Brunswick—III. ’’(Forms from North Shore, Bathurst, Harbour, Chatham, Buoy No. 10, Miramichi River, Wharves at Newcastle, Wharf above Nelson, Red Bank, Chaleur Bay, Shippegan, Miscou, Le- megue, Carraquette, Campbelton, Dalhousie, Benjamin River, Jacquet River, Restigouche, Richibucto, Cocque River and Shediac.) Bull. Nat. Hist. Soc. N.B. VI: 387-417, 1912-13, Saint John. BARBOUR, J. H. ‘Sacred Plants of India.’’ Proc. & Trans. Nova Scotia Inst. of Sei. XIII: XXVIII—-XLII, Aug. 1912, Halifax. BLACKADER, E. H. ‘Report, Botanical Branch, Ottawa Field Naturalists’ Club, 19 Mar. 1912.” Ott. Nat. XXVI: 10-11, Apr. 1912, Ottawa. 176 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA BLACKFORD, J. T. ‘‘Forests of the Oxford House District, N.W.T.’’ Can. For. Jour. VIII: 31-33, Apr. 1912, Ottawa. Buarr, W. SAxBy. ‘‘The Vegetable Garden.” (Read before the standing Committee of the Senate on Agriculture and Forestry). Pp. 17, King’s Printer, Ottawa. BROADHURST, JEAN. ‘“‘The genus Struthiopteris and its representatives in NorthAmerica—I.”’ (References to Canadian forms and habitats.) Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, XXXIX: 6, 257-278, June, 1912, New York. BROADHURST, JEAN. ‘The genus Struthiopteris and its representatives in North America—II.’’ Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, XX XIX: No. 8, pp. 357-385, Aug. 1912, New York. Brown, NELSON, C. ‘‘Reproduction of Lodgepole Pine in relation to its management.”’ For- estry Quarterly X:17—23, Mar. 1912, Toronto. CAMPBELL, R. H. ‘Report of the Director of Forestry for the year 1912.” (Contains rep. of about 38 sub-officials on Forests, rep. on Irrigation and over 40 illus- trations.) Vol. 18 x 7 inches, pp. 269, phot. 40, Govt. Pr. Bureau, Ottawa. 1913. CANADIAN FORESTRY ASSOCIATION. ‘‘Thirteenth Annual Report, 1912.” (Many valuable papers and dis- cussions which are well indexed.) Vol. 10 x 7 in pp. 123, with illustrations, 1912. Kingston, Ontario. CANADIAN SEED GROWERS’ ASSOCIATION. ‘Its Work, Constitution, By-Laws and Regulations.’ 64 pp. Illustr. 15, Feb., 1912, Ottawa. ’ 10 x 7 inches, CANADIAN SEED GROWERS’ ASSOCIATION. ‘‘Kighth Annual Report.” (For the year ended 31 Mar. 1912—Part I— Minutes of Annual Meeting; Part I]—Addresses and Contributions.) Vol. 10 x 7 inches, pp. 142 pl. 6, Govt. Printing Bureau, Ottawa, 1912. CoLLiNs, FRANK. S. ‘‘The Botanical and other papers of the Wilkes Exploring expedition.’’ (References to papers of Canadian botanical interest.) Rhodora XIV: 57-68, Apr. 1912, Boston. Coins, FRANK. S. ‘The green Algae of North America.’’ (Supplementary paper. Refer- ences to Canadian species.) ‘Tufts College Studies III: 69-109 pl. 1, 2. Apr. 1912. [MACKAY] BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANADIAN BOTANY 177 Couuins, J. F. \ Preston, H. W. / ‘‘Tilustrated Key to the wild and commonly cultivated trees of the North- eastern U.S. and adjacent Canada.” Vii + 184, figs. 279. Henry Holt & Co. New York, 1912. Cloth $1.35, Leather $2.50. CoMMISSION OF CONSERVATION, CANADA. ‘Third Annual Report.’’ (Contains references to forest botany.) Vol. 10 x 7 in. pp. VI+154, 1912. Montreal. CosEns, A. ‘A contribution to the morphology and biology of insect galls.” Trans. Canadian Institute, IX: 297-387 with 13 pl. Nov. 1912. Toronto. CrRIDDLE, NoRMAN. “Wild Oats and False Wild Oats.”’ (Their nature and distinctive char- acters.) Dept. Agr. Br. Bull. S-7. pp. 11, plates 4, Feb. 1912, Ottawa. Crow, J. W. ‘Winter injury to Fruit Trees.” O. A.C. Review XXV: 1-3, Oct. 1912, Guelph. DEANE, WALTER. “‘Tinum catharticum in Maine.” (Noted also at Pictou and Sydney, Nova Scotia, and at Birchy Cove, Newfoundland.) Rhodora XIV: 56, Mar. 1912, Boston. DEANE, WALTER. ‘‘A further note on Euphorbia Cyparissias in fruit.” (References to Canadian habitat.) Rhodora XIV: 193-196, Oct. 1912, Boston. DEARNESS, J. ‘‘On Fundy’s Shore.” Ontario Nat. Sci. Bull. VI: 3-6, 1910, Guelph. DeCeEw, Jupson, A. ‘‘Canadian Pulp Woods.” (The species useful for paper manufacture and their qualities.) Can. For. Jour. VIII: 48-50. Apr. 1912, Ottawa. DrWo tre, L. A. ‘‘Botany for Public Schools.” Educational Review XXV. No. VI pp. 161,162 Jan. 1912 Educational Review XXV. “ VII “'194,195 Feb. “ “ « SS VEL ess 2140 Mar & Ly “ = DIE DE 241, 242 April “ # S # « xe “ 274, 275 May “ “ “ « “ at “ 9, 10 June « “ “ “ and July “ “ “ XXVI Botany for August, pp. 40, 41 Roadside Botany for September, pp. 69, 70. Woodland Botany for October, pp. 92, 93. Botany for November, pp. 114, 115. \ Nature Study for December, pp. 141, 142. 178 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA EASTHAM, J. W. ‘The Myxomycetes of the Ottawa district—a preliminary list.” (Forty species with comments.) Ott. Nat. XXV:11, pp. 157-163, Feb. 1912. Ottawa. EDUCATIONAL REVIEW ‘‘Preservation of Wild Flowers.” Ed. Rev. XXV: 212, Mar. 1912, Saint John, N. Brunswick. Evans, ALEXANDER. W. ‘‘Notes on New England Hepaticae—IX.’’ (References to Canadian species and habitats.) Rhodora XIV: 1-18, Jan. 1912. Boston. EVANS, ALEXANDER, W. ‘Notes on New England Hepaticae—X.’’ (References to Canadian habitats.) Rhodora XIV: 209-226. Nov. 1912, Boston. EXPERIMENTAL FARMS. ‘‘Reports for year ended March, 1912.” (Central Farm at Ottawa, others at Nappan, N.S.; Brandon, Man; Indian Head, Sask; Agassiz, B.C. and Stations at Charlottetown, P.E.I.; Cape Rouge, Q; Rosthern, Sask; Scott, Sask; Lethbridge, Alta; and Lacomb, Alta.) Vol. 10 x 7 in. pp. 446. phot. several. King’s Printer, Ottawa, 1912. Feut, E. P. “The identity of the better known Midge Galls.” (Fifty-five species.) Ott. Nat. XXV: 181-188, Mar., 1912, Ottawa. FERNALD, M. L. “An early collection of Salix balsamifera.”’ (By Michaux, 14th July, 1792, at Batiscan, Champlain Co., Quebec.) Rhodora XIV: 69, 70. Apr. 1912. Boston. FERNALD, M. L. “Viola renifolia and V. Brainerdii.”’ (References to Canadian species and habitats.) Rhodora XIV: 86-88, May, 1912 Boston. FERNALD, M. L. WieGAND, K. M. ‘A blunt-spiked variety of Carex scoparia.” (Var. subturbinata, Newfound- land, Nova Scotia, Michigan and Tennessee.) Rhodora XIV: 115, 116, 1912, Boston. ! FERNALD, M. L. Wieaanp, K. M. ““Alehemilla Alpina and A. vulgaris in North America.” (References to Canadian habitats.) Rhodora XIV: 230-234, Dec., 1912, Boston. FERNOw, B. E. “Forest Conditions of Nova Scotia.” Vol. 10 x 7 in.pp. X +93+5+ numerous maps and illustrations. 1912. Comm. of Conservation, Canada, © Ottawa. [MACKAY] BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANADIAN BOTANY 179 FIxTER, JOHN. “Growing Roots.” (Read before the Standing Committee of the Senate Ottawa, on Agriculture and Forestry). pp. 8. 1911, King’s Printer, Ottawa. FORESTRY QUARTERLY. “Forest Biology.” (A section of Editorial notes on the botany and zoology of the forest.) For. Quarterly X: 83-86, 281-286, 514-518, 729-731, 1912, Toronto. FRASER, W. P. “Cultures of hetercecious rusts.’”’ (The following life histories are worked out for the first time: Neciwm Farlowii Arth., Pucciniastrum minimum (Schw.) Arth., Melampsoropsis Pyrolæ (D.C.) Arth., Uromyces Spartine Farl., Melampsora artica Rostr., and M. Meduse Thüm.?) Mycologia IV: 175-193, July, 1912, New York. FULLER, GEORGE D. “Germination and Growth of the Cottonwood upon the sand dunes of Lake Michigan near Chicago.” (A Canadian observer on the other side of the Lakes.) Reprint,Trans. Illinois Academy of Science, 5th Am. Meet. pp. 8, pl. 6, 24 Feb., 1912, Bloomington, Il., U.S.A. FULLER, GEORGE D. “Evaporation and the stratification of Vegetation.’ Bot. Gazette LIV: 5, pp. 424-426, fig. 1, 1912. FyLes, Farru. “A Swamp.” (The botany, etc., of a swamp 44 miles from North Wake- field Station on the shore of Lake Johnson near Ottawa.) Ott. Nat. XXVI: 17, 18, Apr., 1912, Ottawa. FyLEs, FAITH. , “First record of Amaranthus spinosus L in Canada.” (At Swansea, On- tario, 23rd Aug.) Ott. Nat. XX VI: 116, Dec., 1912, Ottawa. Ganone, W. I. “Notes on the Natural History and Physiography of New Brunswick.” (References to botanical features.) Bull. Nat. Hist. Soc. N.B. VI: 419-451, with sketch maps, 1912-13, Saint John. GatEs, REGINALD R. “An Onagraceous stem without internodes.” New Phytologist, vol. XI: pp. 50-53, plates 2, Feb., 1912, London. Gates, REGINALD R. “Mutations in Plants.” Botanical Journal, 4 pp. 1 pl., Oct., 1912. Gates, REGINALD R. “Somatic Mitoses in Oenothera.” Annals of Botany, vol. XXVI, No. CIV, pp. 993-1010, double plate with 38 mitotic fig. Oct., 1912. 180 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA GREENE, EpwaArp L. ‘“Accessions to Canadian Botany—l.”’ (Melanidion boreale and Anemone Cairnesiana.) Ott. Nat. XXV: 10, pp. 145-147, Jan., 1912, Ottawa. GRISDALE, J. H. “Corn for Ensilage and the Silo.” (Read before the Standing Committee of the Senate on Agriculture and Forestry.), pp. 16, 1912, King’s Printer, Ottawa. GRISDALE, J. H. “Crop rotation and Soil cultivation.’’ (Read before Standing committee of the Senate on Agriculture and Forestry), pp. 13, 1912, King’s Printer, Ottawa. Gussow, H. T. “The nature of parasitic fungi.’”’ (Their influence on the host plant.) Gard. Chron. LI: 183, Mar., 1912. Gussow, H. T. “Potato Canker imported into Canada.” (Chrysophlyctis endobiotica introduced from England.) pp. 4, Farmers’ Circular No. 1, 1912, Ottawa. Gussow, H. T. “Report of the Dominion Botanist.”” (Year ended Mar., 1912. Diseases of cereals, potatoes, turnips, apples, cherries, tomatoes, raspberry, etc. Morels, Equisetum palustre and arvense, Broom Corn, Sable Island.) Exper. Farms Rep. 1912, pp. 191-215, ph. and fig. 6, Ottawa. Hewitt, C. GORDON. “Investigations on Forest Insects, and Forest Protection.” Can. For. Jour. VIII: 35-47, Apr., 1912, Ottawa. Howe, C. D. “Distribution and reproduction of the forest in relation to underlying rocks and soils.” In Fernow, B.E., Forest conditions of Nova Scotia, 43-93 (Ilust. with maps.) 1912, Ottawa. Howe, R. H., Jr. “A monograph of the North American Usneaceæ, Ann. Rep. Missouri Bot. Gard. XXIII: 133-146, pl. 7, 1912. Husparp, F. Tracy. “Nomenclatorial changes required by some Graminee of the Seventh edition of Gray’s Manual.” Rhodora XIV: 165-173 and 184-188, Aug. and Sept., 1912, Boston. Kuvueu, A. B. “The Alg@ of a marshy pond.” (On Barriefield Common, near Kingston, Ontario—37 species.) Rhodora XIV: 113-115, June , 1912, Boston. [MACKAY] BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANADIAN BOTANY 181 Kuueu, A. B. “Notes on the Alge@ of the Rideau, Ontario.” (Twenty-two species found in a preliminary exploration of the Rideau canal.) Rhodora XIV: 236, 237. Dec., 1912, Boston. Kuueu, A. B. “Notes on the flora of the St. Croix River Valley and Passamaquoddy Region, New Brunswick.” (Hydrophytes, Helophytes, Oxylophytes, Halophytes, Lithophytes, Psammophytes, Conifers, Mesophytes, and pl. 27-29). Cont. Can. Biology, 1906-1910, XVI: 265-276, 1912, King’s Printer, Ottawa. KNECHTEL, A. “The Aspen Tree in the Northwest.” Can. For. Jour. VIII: 109, Aug., 1912, Ottawa. LANGTON, THOMAS. “Partial list of Canadian fungi.” (Collected chiefly in the neighbourhood of Toronto and in the districts of Muskoka and Parry Sound—193 species.) Trans. Can. Inst., IX: 69-81, May, 1912, Toronto. Lewis, R. G. “Tight and Slack Cooperage.’’ (Forest products of Canada, Forestry Branch—Bulletin No. 31), pp. 13, Govt. Pr. Bureau, Ottawa, 1912. Lone, Bayarp. “Galium Labradoricum in Pennsylvania.” (Reference to Canadian habitats.) Rhodora, XIV: 199, 200. Oct., 1912, Boston. MacKay, A. H. “Phenological Observations in Nova Scotia, 1911.’’ N.S. Inst. Sci. XIII: 175-187, 26, Aug., 1912, Halifax. MacKay, A. H. “Local Nature Observations.” (Made in the schools of Nova Scotia, and compiled in the Education Office for the year 1911.) Jour. Education— 3rd series, vol. VII, No. 4, pp. 184-194, 12, Oct., 1912, Halifax. MACKENZIE, K. K. “A new Carex from Alberta.” Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, X XV: 51, 52, Mar., 1912. MACNAMARA, CHARLES. “Poison Ivy.” (Rhus toxicodendron and Zanthoxylum americannum. Antidotes.) Ott. Nat. XXVI: 35-37, May, 1912, Ottawa. Macown, W. T. “Small Fruit Culture.” (Read before Standing Committee of the Senate on Agriculture and Forestry.), pp. 35, 1912, King’s Printer, Ottawa. 182 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Macoun, W. T. “Report of the Dominion Horticulturist.” (Year ended Mar., 1912.) Exper. Farms Rep. 1912, pp. 81-111, phot. 1, Ottawa. ‘ MALTE, M. O. “Variation in plant life, its biological significance and practical value.” (Synopsis of a lecture.) Ott. Nat. XX VI: 26-28 May, 1912, Ottawa. MATTHEW, G. F. “Sketch of the History of the Natural History of New Brunswick.” Bull. Nat. Hist. Soc. N.B. VI: 457-474, 1912-13. Saint John. MatrHew, G. F. “Were there Climatic Zones in Devonian Times.” (References to pal- æobotanic species.) Trans. R.S.C. 3rd 8., Vol. V: Sect. IV, pp. 125-153, 1912, Ottawa. MacMitian, H. R. “Wood-using Industries, 1912.” (Agricultural implements and vehicles, furniture and car veneers. Forestry Branch—Buli. No. 24.) pp. 42. Govt. Pr. Bureau, Ottawa, 1911. MacMiuuan, H. R. “Lumber, square timber, lath and shingles.” (Forest products of Canada. Forestry Branch—Bull. No. 25.) Pp. 39. Govt. Pr. Bureau, Ottawa, 1911. MacMiuan, H. R. “Pulpwood.” (Forest products of Canada—Forestry Branch—Bull. No. 30.) Pp. 17 with graphics. Govt. Pr. Bureau, Ottawa, 1912. McNEILL, A. “Fruit Crop Reports,” (No. 2 in June, No. 5 in Sept. 1912, for all Canada.) No. 5. pp. 13, King’s Printer, Ottawa. MiITcHELL, A. “Tree planting in Southern Alberta.’ Can. For. Jour. VIII: 42-47 with map. Apr. 1912, Ottawa. Moore, C. L. “Some Nova Scotian aquatic fungi.” (The Saprolegniæ.) Trans. Nova Scotia Inst. Sci. XII, 217-238, Mar. 1912, Halifax. MurriLzz, W. A. “Tilustrations of Fungi—XI.” (four of which are new to science.) Myco- logia IV: 163-169, New York, 1912. Murrizz, W. A. “Illustrations of fungi—X.” (References to Canadian species.) Mycologia IV: 1, pp. 1-6, Jan. 1912, New York. [MACKAY] BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANADIAN BOTANY 183 MurriLz, W. A. “The Agaricaceæ of the Pacific Coast—1.’’ (References to Western Can- adian species.) Mycologia IV: 4, 205-217, July, 1912, New York. Murkizz, W. A. “The Agaricaceæ of the Pacific coast—II.”’ (References to Canadian species and work.) Mycologia IV: 5, pp. 231-262, Sept, 1912, New York. Murrizz, W. A. “The Agaricacee of the Pacific coast—III.”’ References to Canadian species habitats and work.) Mycologia IV: 6, pp. 294-308, Nov. 1912, New York. Murrizz, W. A. “Tilustrations of fungi—XIJ.” (References to Canadian species.) Mycol- ogia IV: pp. 289-293, Nov. 1912, New York. Newman, L. H. “Plant Breeding in Secandinavia.’”’ The system at Svalof, Sweden, and a summary of work done, specially in breeding Autumn and Spring wheat, Oats, Barley, Peas, Clover, Grasses and Patato.) Vol. 10 x 7 in. pp. 193, fig. 63. Canadian Seed Growers’ Association, Ottawa, 1912. Price $1.00 net (cloth $1.50). - NEewmaAN, L. H. “Evidence before Standing Committee, House of Commons, Feb. 1912.” (Work of the Canadian Seed Growers’ Association, etc.) pp. 42, 1912, King’s Printer Ottawa. Nrcxozs, G. E. “Notes on Connecticut Mosses—III.’”’ (References to Canadian species and habitats.) Rhodora XIV: 45-52, Mar. 1912, Boston. Nunnick, F. C. “Agricultural Survey, 1911.” (Reprint from 3rd Ann. Rep. Com. on Con- servation. Shows proportions in each Province of weed-spread, wood, manures, yields, rotations, etc., etc.) pp. 33-34, 1912, Ottawa. Orton, C. R. “Correlation between certain species of Puccinia and Uromyces.” (A new sp. P. uniporula, was found on Carex pubescens, collected at London, Ontario.) Mycologia IV: 194-204, pl. 70 and 71, New York, 1912. OTTAWA NATURALIST, J. W. E. “Excursions.” (Botany near Wychwood Station, 4th May, 1912.) Ott. Nat. XXVI: 65. Aug-Sept. 1912, Ottawa. PLUMMER, FRED G. “Forest Fires:” their causes, extent, and effects with a summary of recorded destruction and loss.” (By the Geographer of the U.S. Forest Service— Bull. 117. Canadian references.) 9 x 6 in. pp. 39, ill. 6. Govt. Printing Offices, Washington, D. C. 23 Oct. 1912. 184 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA RoBERTSON, JAMES W. “Improving Canadian Agriculture.” (Reprint from 3rd Ann. Rep. Com- mission of Conservation, 1912.) pp. 1-32, 1912, Ottawa. ROBERTSON, JAMES W. “Evidence before Standing Committee on Agr. and Colonization, Com- mons, Canada.” (Proper seeds, weeds, national danger, ete.) pp. 25, 1912, King’s Printer, Ottawa. Rosrnson, C. B. “Philippine contact poisonous plants.” (Nova Scotian Botanist.) Bull. Manila Med. Soc. III: 5, 6, Jan. 1911, Manila. RYDBERG, P. A. “List of plants collected on the Peary Arctic Expedition of 1905-6.and 1908-9 with a general description of the flora of northern Greenland and Ellesmere Land.” Torreya XI: 249-259 Jan. and XII: 1-11, 1912, New York. RYDBERG, PER AXEL. “Studies on the Rocky Mountain Flora—XXVI.”’ (Containing references to western Canadian species.) Bull. Torr, Bot. Club XXXIX: 3, pp. 99— 111. Mar, 1912, New York. RYDBERG, PER AXEL. “Studies on the Rocky Mountain flora—XXVII.” (References to Can- adian species.) Bull. Torr. Bot. Club XXXIX: 7, pp. 301-328, July, 1912, New York. SACCARDO, P. A. “Notae mycologicæ, Series XIV.” (Species from Canada.) Ann. Mye. X: 316-322 June 1912. SAUNDERS, CHARLES E. “Report of the Dominion Cerealist.” (Year ended Mar. 1912.) Exper. Farms Rep. 1912, pp. 113-137, Ottawa. SAUNDERS, Cuas. E. “Results obtained in 1911 on the Dominion Experimental Farms.” (From trial plots of grain, fodder, corn, field roots and potatoes.) Vol. 10 x 7 in. pp. 74, Dec. 1911, Ottawa. SCHUYLER, R. “Longevity of Alfalfa in Haldimand County.” (Ontario.) O.A.C. Review XXIV: 476, 477, June, 1912. Guelph. SEAVER, FRED J. : “The genus Lasiosphaeria.” (References to Canadian species, habitats and work.) Mycologia IV: 3, pp. 115-124, pl. LXVI, 18 figs. and pl. LXVII 19 figs. May, 1912, New York. [MACKAY] BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANADIAN BOTANY 185 WIEGAND, K. M. “The genus Amelanchier in Eastern North America.” (A comprehensive monograph of Eastern Canadian forms.) Rhodora XIV: 117-161 with plates 95 and 96, showing forms of leaf and fruit—59 figs. July, 1912, Boston. WIEGAND, K. M. “Notes on Amelanchier.” (Variations of A. Canadensis). Rhodora XIV: 239-241, Dec. 1912, Boston. ‘ ne Hiatt A 5 " M, 40 ae ‘ | ll | th wi FLY ARS lyre RT PANISREN NPA bk Se = - th 4864 Fi AV} PANNE. À Lt a { 1 hed t nf Nad } n i \ h | CAL" a i ' n F ; : | + sul ' ’ jae 4 0 L Late * ’ . * " Ae . v1 } i ‘ À à ii j | A 1 fj i 1 i} 4 i { lé \ } L ia AR AIRE Ra AR MV ARE AIS me Pane ec ANNE WAN aH AA ERA LP Seid a À 4 [AUX | fi A y i , NT il | en 4 ’ | L , AN RE ff" N BY il BA Wi A wie hina AA jie Lo oi 4 eh ut DA: Mr À see ‘ a4 “tH Sm shi Ma tt sa a sib bhi Son à iw an ane wet cn a Lou we A yi ee, man eee aed ry AIR AN 4 rie N'a to it ni iy Ay ee Re SECTION IV., 1914. [187] ) LTRans: RCE Bibliography of Canadian Zoology for 1912 (Exclusive of Entomology). By Lawrence M. Lamps, F.G.S., F.G.S.A. (Read May 27, 1913.) INVERTEBRATA. CŒLENTERATA (ZOOPHYTES). McMorricu, J. PLAYFAIR. | Notes on the Actiniæ occurring in the neighbourhood of the Biological Station, St. Andrews, N.B. Contributions to Canadian Biology (Marine Biological Stations of Canada, 1906-1910), 1912, pp. 33-35. Bryozoa (Pozyzoa). OsBuRN, Raymonp C. Bryozoa from Labrador, Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, collected by Dr. Owen Bryant. Proceedings of the United States National Museum, 1912, vol. 43, pp. 275-289, pl. 34, with bibliography. 4 Mollusca. BARTSCH, PAUL. Additions to the West American Pyramidellid Mollusk fauna, with descriptions of new species. Proceedings of the United States National Museum, 1912, vol. 42, pp. 261-289, plates 35-38. Among the species are some from the coast of British Columbia. A zoogeographic study based on the Pyramidellid mollusks of the west coast of America. Idem, 1912, vol. 42, pp. 297-349. Gives the geographical range of each species, with a map of faunal provinces. In the North Temperate province is included the waters of the British Columbia coast. Kemp, ERNEST. Report on Oyster Culture by the Department's expert, for the season of 1911, Appendix No..17, 45th Annual Report, Department of Marine and Fisheries, 1911-12, l'isheries, pp. 343-347, 1912. Sec. IV, 1913—12 188 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA L., F.R. (LATCHFORD). Notes—Conchological and otherwise. The Ottawa Naturalist, March, 1912, vol. XXV, No. 12. pp. 189-190. Refers to his discovery, in Renfrew county, Ont., of specimens of Musculium described in the January number of Nautilus by Dr. Sterki under the name M. declive. MacBripg, E. W. Oyster culture and clam fishing, Prince Edward island. Contributions to Canadian Biology (Marine Biological Stations of Canada, 1906-1910), 1912, pp. 217-220. MATHIESON, J. A. Oyster fisheries of Prince Edward island. Commission of Conservation, Canada: Sea-fisheries of eastern Canada, 1912, pp. 78-85. STAFFORD, J. Conservation of the Oyster. Idem, 1912, pp. 25-49, with one plate, and a diagram illustrating the oyster production in Canada from 1871-1911. On the recognition of bivalve larvæ in plankton collections. Contributions to Canadian Biology (Marine Biological Stations of Canada, 1906-1910), 1912, pp. 221-242, pls XX-XXIV. Supplementary observations on the development of the Canadian oyster. The American Naturalist, January, 1912, vol. XLVI, No. 541, pp. 29-40. STERKI, V. Musculium declive, n. sp. The Nautilus, January, 1912, vol. XXV, No. 9, pp. 103-104. See Latchford, F. R. ARTHROPODA (ARTICULATES). CaLMAN, WILLIAM T. The Crustacea of the order Cumacea in the collection of the United States National Museum. Proceedings of the United States National Museum, 1912, vol. 41, pp. 603-676, text-figures 1-12, with bibliography. Includes a number of species obtained from Canadian Atlantic waters. Founp, W. A. The Lobster fishery of Canada. Commission of Conservation, Canada: Sea-fisheries of eastern Canada, 1912, pp. 50-77. Happon, KATHLEEN Hersilia (Clausidium) vancouverensis. Annals and Magazine of Natural History, July, 1912, vol. 10, eighth series, No. 55, pp. 84-86, pl. II, figs. 1-3a. \ [LAMBE] BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANADIAN ZOOLOGY 189 Describes the above new species found abundantly in the gill cham- bers, and over the body, of Callianassa pugetensis at Hammond bay, near Nanaimo, Vancouver island, B.C. MacDonatp, D. L. On a collection of crustacea made at St. Andrews, N. B. Contributions to Canadian Biology (Marine Biological Stations of Canada, 1906-1910), 1912, pp. 83-84. Miter, F. R. Contributions to the physiology of the American lobster. The Physiology of the intestine. Idem, 1912, pp. 277-280, pls. XXX—XXXV. Scort, FLORA M. On a species of Nymphon from the north Pacific. Annals and Magazine of Natural History, August, 1912, vol. 10, eighth series, No. 56, pp. 206-209, pl. VII, figs 1-11. Nymphon pixellæ, sp. nov. is described from Departure bay, Vancouver island, B.C. Tayior, GEORGE F. Preliminary list of one hundred and twenty-nine species of British Col- umbia decapod crustaceans. Contributions to Canadian Biology (Marine Biological Stations of Canada, 1906-1910), 1912, pp. 187-214. WIiLsON, CHARLES BRANCH. Parasitic copepods from Nanaimo, British Columbia, including eight species new to science. Idem, 1912, pp. 85-101, pls. III—IX. Tunicata. Huntsman, A. G. Ascidians from the coasts of Canada. Transactions of the Canadian Institute, May, 1912, vol. IX, part 2, No. 21, pp. 111-148. The ascidians described or referred to in the above paper were obtained at the two marine Biological stations of Canada, in 1908 and 1909 at Departure bay, British Columbia, and in 1910 at St. Andrews, New Brunswick. In the west collections were also made at Ucluelet on the outer coast of Vancouver island. Holosomatous ascidians from the coast of western Canada. Contributions to Canadian Biology (Marine Biological Stations of Canada, 1906-1910), 1912, pp. 103-185, pls. X—XI. Describes two genera and seventeen species as new. VAN NAME, WILLARD G. Simple Ascidians of the coasts of New England and neighboring British provinces. Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, August, 1912, vol. 34, No. 13, pp. 439-619, plates 43-73, with 43 text-figures, and a bibliography. 190 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA The region dealt with extends from the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the Banks of Newfoundland southward to, and including Long Island sound. VERTEBRATA. Pisces (FISHEs). BurKE, CHARLES VICTOR. A new genus and six new species of fishes of the family Cyclogasteride. Proceedings of the United States National Museum, 1912, vol. 43, pp. 567-574. Among the new species described is Careproctus gilberti found in British Columbian and southeastern Alaskan waters. CorNISH, GEORGE A. Notes on fishes of Tignish, Prince Edward Island. Contributions to Canadian Biology (Marine Biological Stations of Canada, 1906-1910), 1912, pp. 78-81. Founp, W. A. Fish culture in Canada. Commission of Conservation, Canada: Seafisheries of eastern Canada, 1912, pp. 140-149. GILBERT, CHARLES H. A new genus and species of cottoid fish from Departure bay, Vancouver island. : Contributions to Canadian Biology (Marine Biological Stations of Canada, 1906-1910), 1912, pp. 215-216. Describes Asemichthys taylori, gen. et sp. nov. McGuire, T. H. See PRINCE. Patton, M. J. ( White fish of the Great Lakes. Commission of Conservation, Canada: Seafisheries of eastern Canada, 1912, pp. 13-24, with four maps shewing white-fish areas. ‘Prince, E. E. The Shad fishery of Canada. Idem, 1912, pp. 120-139. Prince, E. E., McGuire, T. H., Siszey, E. Dominion Alberta and Saskatchewan Fisheries Commission, 1910-11 Report and recommendations with appendices. 1912. Ropp, J. A. Fish breeding. Appendix No. 19, 45th Annual Report, Department of Marine and Fisheries, 1911-12, Fisheries, pp. 351-368, 1912. SISLEY, E. See Prince. [LAMBE] BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANADIAN ZOOLOGY 191 AMPHIBIA. CALVERT, E. W. Food habits of the Bullfrog. The Ontario Natural Science Bulletin, No. 7, 1912, pp. 52-53. Aves (Brrps). ALLAN, JOHN, JR. The Yellow-breasted chat at Alma, Ontario. Idem, No. 7, 1912, pp. 60-61. The White-breasted and Red-Breasted Nuthatches. Bird-Lore, September-October, 1912, vol. XIV, No. 5, pp. 316-319, with coloured plate. ALLEN, FRANCIS H. The White-breasted and Red-breasted Nuthatches. Bird-Lore, September-October, 1912, vol. XIV, No. 5, pp. 316-319, with coloured plate. ‘ARNOLD, EDWARD. A short summer outing in Newfoundland. The Auk, January, 1912, vol. XXIX, No 1, pp. 72-79. | The writer gives the results of his study of bird life in the island and supplies a list of sixty-eight observed species. Bancs, OuTRAM. A new subspecies of the Ruffed Grouse. Iden, July, 1912, vol. XXIX, No. 3, pp. 378-379. Description of Bonasa umbellus thayeri, subsp. nov. Type from Digby, Nova Scotia. Beat, F. E. L. and McArsz, W. L. Food of some well-known birds of forest, farm, and garden. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers’ Bulletin 506, September 25, 1912, pp. 1-35, with 16 text figures. Brat, F. E. L. See McArer. Bent, A. C. A new subspecies of Crossbill from Newfoundland. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, PRE 12, 1912, vol. 60, No. 15, pp. 1-3. Describes Loxia curvirostra percna, the Newfoundland crossbill. Brooks, ALLAN. Some British Columbia records. The Auk, April, 1912, vol. XXIX, No. 2, pp. 252-253. Furnishes notes on ten species of birds observed, setae at Okanagan. 192 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Brown, W. J. Unusual nesting site of the Pigeon Hawk in Newfoundland. The Ottawa Naturalist, Aug.-Sept., 1912, vol. X XVI, Nos. 5 and 6 pp. 70-71. Additional Notes on the Birds of Newfoundland. Idem, November, 1912, vol. XXVI, No. 8, pp. 93-98. A list of the birds observed includes fifty species. A note of warning is given concerning the ruthless destruction of both coast and inland birds. CALVERT, E. W. Notes on the winter birds at Guelph, Ontario, in 1911-12. The Ontario Natural Science Bulletin, No. 7, 1912, pp. 61-62. Spring bird notes from Oakville, Ontario. Idem, No. 7, 1912, p. 64. CALVERT, J. F. Bird Notes, 1912. The Ottawa Naturalist, December, 1912, vol. XX VI, No. 9, p. 115. A brief notice of birds observed in February and March in the county of Middlesex, and in Victoria county, in August. C., F. M. (Frank M. CHAPMAN). Bird-Lore’s twelfth Christmas bird census. Bird-Lore, January-February, 1912, vol. XIV, No. 1, pp. 18-44. Includes the results of observations in the province of Ontario at Guelph, Homings Mills, London, Millbrooke, Reaboro, Toronto, High Park and Humber Bay, and in British Columbia at Okanagan Landing and Vancouver. CHAPMAN, FRANK M. Notes on the plumage of North American sparrows. Thirteenth paper. Idem, January-February, 1912, vol. XIV, No. 1, pp. 47-48, with coloured frontispiece. Descriptive of Crossbill (Loxia curvirostra) and of White-winged Cross- bill (Loxia leucoptera). Notes on the plumage of North American birds. Fourteenth paper. Idem, March-April, 1912, vol. XIV, No. 2, pp. 105-106, with coloured frontispiece. Descriptive of the plumage of the White-throated sparrow (Zono- trichia albicollis), the White-crowned sparrow (Zonotrichia leucophrys), and the Black-chinned sparrow, the last a resident of the western United States. Notes on the plumage of North American sparrows. Fifteenth paper. Idem, May-June, 1912, vol. XIV, No. 3, p. 162, with coloured frontis- piece. Describes the plumage of the Black-headed Grosbeak (Zamelodia melanocephala) and of the Rose-breasted Grosbeak (Z. ludoviciana). Notes on the plumage of North American sparrows. Seventeenth paper. Idem, September-October, 1912, vol. XIV, No. 5, p. 290, with coloured frontispiece. [LAMBE] BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANADIAN ZOOLOGY 193 The Towhee (Pipilo e. erythrophthalmus) and the Arctic Towhee (Pipilo maculatus arcticus). Notes on the plumage of North American sparrows. Eighteenth paper. Idem, November-December, 1912, vol. XIV, No. 6, p. 346, with coloured frontispiece. Pine Grossbeak (Pinicola enucleator). Handbook of birds of eastern North America. With introductory chap- ters on the study of birds in nature. Revised edition, New York and London, D. Appleton and Co., 1912, pp. XXX-+530, 24 plates in colours and black and white, 1 map, 1 colour chart, 136 text figures, 12 mo. Cooke, WELLS W. The peculiar migration of the Evening Grosbeak. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences, January 19, 1912, vol. IT, No. 2, pp. 60-62, with map shewing distribution (fig. 1). The migration of North American Sparrows. Fourteenth paper. Bird-Lore, January-February, 1912, vol. XIV, No. 1, pp. 45-47 Relative to the Red Crossbill and the White-winged Crossbill. The migration of North American sparrows. Fifteenth paper. Idem, March-April, 1912, vol. XIV, No. 2, pp. 98-105. Gives the spring and autumn migration of the White-crowned spar- row, the White-throated sparrow, and the Black-chinned sparrow, the last named not coming as far north as Canada. The migration of North American sparrows. Sixteenth paper. Idem, May-June, 1912, vol. XIV, No. 3, pp. 158-161. Black-headed Grosbeak and Rose-breasted Grosbeak. The migration of North American sparrows. Eighteenth paper. Idem, September-October, 1912, vol. XIV, No. 5, pp. 287-290. The Towhee and the Spotted Towhee. The migration of North American sparrows. Nineteenth paper. Idem, November—December, 1912, vol. XIV, No. 6, pp. 345-346. Pine Grosbeak. Passenger Pigeon (Æctopistes migratorius) in Alberta. The Auk, October, 1912, vol. XXIX, No. 4, p. 539. Quotes from the Earl of Southesk’s ‘‘Saskatchewan and the Rocky Mountains,” as regards the shooting of pigeons near Lobstick river. CrIDDLE, NoRMAN. Popular and Practical Ornithology. JII.—The Marsh Hawk. The Ottawa Naturalist, January, 1912, vol. XXV, No. 10, pp. 147-151. Popular and Practical Ornithology. III.—The Upland Plover. Idem, Aug.-Sept., 1912, vol. XXVI, Nos. 5 and 6, pp. 61-65. Date, MELVILLE. See WATSON. DEARBORN, NED. The English Sparrow as a pest. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers’ Bulletin 493, April 20, 1912, pp. 1-24, with 17 text figures. 194 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Far ey, F. L. Camrose, Alberta, Bird notes. The Ottawa Naturalist, October, 1912, vol. XXVI, No. 7, p. 92. Records the occurrence of the Red-breasted Nut-hatch, the Blue Jay and the Magpie in the Camrose-Lacombe district. FLEMING, J. H. The Ancient Murrelet (Synthliboramphus antiquus) in Ontario. The Auk, July, 1912, vol. XXIV, No. 3, pp. 387-388. The Niagara Swan Trap. Idem, October, 1912, vol. XXIX, pp. 445-448. Forgusx, Epwarp Howe. The Chickadee. Bird-Lore, November-December, 1912, vol. XIV, No. 6, pp. 372- 375, with coloured plate. GRINNEL, JOSEPH. The Willow Ptarmigan. Idem, November-December, 1912, vol. XIV, No. 6, pp. 376-379, with coloured plate. Grou, HERBERT. The Bartramian Sandpiper breeds near Guelph. The Ontario Natural Science Bulletin, No. 7, 1912, pp. 38-40. JEWETT, STANLEY G. Stray notes from New Brunswick. The Auk, April, 1912, vol. X XIX, No. 2, pp. 251-252. , On six species of birds at or near Fredericton. JONES, LYNps. A study of the Avifauna of the Lake Erie islands. With particular refer- ence to the migration phenomena. The Wilson Bulletin, March, 1912, vol. XXIV, No. 1, pp. 6-18; and June, No. 2, pp. 95-108. A study of the Avifauna of the Lake Erie islands. The birds of Pelee island, Ontario, Canada. Idem, September, 1912, vol. XXIV, No. 3, pp. 142-153; and December, No. 4, pp. 171-186. Kivucx, A. B. A late migration of the Evening Grosbeak in Ontario. The Ontario Natural Science Bulletin, No. 7, 1912, p. 62. MACNAMARA, CHARLES, The Canadian Ruffed Grouse. | The Ottawa Naturalist, November, 1912, vol. XXVI, No. 8, pp. 101-102. ‘ [LAMBE] BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANADIAN ZOOLOGY 195 McAtsz, W. L. and Brat, F. E. L. Some common Game, Aquatic, and Rapacious Birds in relation to Man. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers’ Bulletin 497, May 6, 1912, pp. 1-30, with 14 text figures. The majority of the birds mentioned are found in Canada during part of the year. MCATTEE, W. L. See Brat. Moore, RoBerT THOMAS. The Least Sandpiper during the resting season in the Magdalen islands. The Auk, April, 1912, vol. XXIX, No. 2, pp. 210-223, plates XIII and XIV. NoBLE, J. W. A chipping Sparrow’s nest on the ground. The Ontario Natural Science Bulletin, No. 7, 1912, p. 62. yA large colony of Bank Swallows’ nests. Idem, No. 7, 1912, p. 63. OBERHOLSER, Harry C. A revision of the subspecies of the Green Heron (Butorides virescens [Linnæus]). Proceedings of the United States National Museum, 1912, vol. 42, pp. 529-577. The northern limit of the range of Butorides virescens virescens (Lin- næus) is given as southeastern Canada from Nova Scotia to south- eastern Ontario. A revision of the forms of the Great Blue Heron (Ardea herodias Linnæus). Idem, 1912, vol. 43, pp. 531-559. Rey, J. H. : Birds, collected or observed on the expedition of the Alpine Club of Canada to Jasper park, Yellowhead pass, and Mount Robson region. The Canadian Alpine Journal, special number, 1912, pp 47-75. Roserts, THomas §. The Yellow-headed Blackbird. -Bird-Lore, July-August, 1912, vol. XIV, No. 4, pp. 250-253, with coloured plate. SAUNDERS, W. E. The Yellow-breasted Chat and the Carolina Wren in Ontario. The Ottawa Naturalist, January, 1912, vol. XXV, No. 10, pp. 152-153. Harris’s Sparrow in Ontario. Idem, November, 1912, vol. XX VI, No. 8, pp. 100-101. SPEECHLY, H. M. The Gray or Arkansas King Bird. Idem, March, 1912, vol. XXV, No. 12, p. 188. A note on the occurrence of the above bird at Pilot Mound, Man. 196 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA Swartu, H. S. A visit to Nootka sound. The Condor, January-February, 1912, vol. XIV, No. 1, pp. 15-21, figs. 8-11 (landscape views). Gives a list of 45 birds seen at Nootka sound, Vancouver island, B.C., between 23 July and 11 August. TAVERNER, P. A. ; Two interesting records for Canada. The Auk, July, 1912, vol. X XIX, No. 3, pp. 396-397. The subjects of this notice are three specimens of Arquatella maritima couest (Ridg.), the Aleutian Sandpiper, taken by Wm. Spreadborough at Clayquot, Vancouver island, B.C., May 11, 1907, and two young specimens of Scotiaptex nebulosa (Forster), the Great Gray Owl, taken by Mr. Kelly, mayor of Powassan, Ont., in Chisholm township east of Lake Nipissing. TERRILL, L. Mcl. Bird Notes. The Ottawa Naturalist, Aug.-Sept., 1912, vol. XXVI, Nos 5 and 6, pp. 71-74. The writer refers to the winter visitors, and lists the spring arrivals from 10 march to 8 April, in the Montreal district during 1912. TOWNSEND, CHARLES W. Notes on the summer birds of the St. John valley, New Brunswick. The Auk, January, 1912, vol. XXIX, No. 1, pp, 16-23. Lists eighty-one species, with notes. | The validity of the Red-legged subspecies of Black duck. Idem, April, 1912, vol. XXIX, No. 2, pp. 176-179. WALTER, ALICE Hau. The Hairy and Downy Woodpeckers. Bird-Lore, March-April, 1912, vol. XIV, No. 2, pp. 127-130, with coloured plate. Watson, C. G. and DALE, MELVILLE. Records from London, Ont. Idem, May-June, 1912, vol. XIV, No..3, p. 166. WHEELER, Davin E. Notes on the spring migration at timber line, north of Great Slave lake. The Auk, April, 1912, vol. XXIX, No. 2, pp. 198-204, with map shew- ing timber line. After referring to the caribou and to the species of trees observed, the writer gives a list of birds with dates when first seen, etc. Wricut, MABEL OsGoop. The Ruby-throated Hummingbird. Bird-Lore, May-June, 1912, vol. XIV, No. 3, pp. 186-189, with coloured plate. [LAMBE] BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANADIAN ZOOLOGY 197 MAMMALS. BIRDSEYE, CLARENCE. Some common mammals of western Montana in relation to agriculture and spotted fever. U. $. Department of Agriculture, Farmers’ Bulletin 484, March 9, 1912, pp. 1-46, with 34 text figures. As most of the mammals mentioned in the above bulletin are also found north of the international boundary, the information it contains will be of use to farmers in southern Alberta and Saskatchewan. Brown, Barnum. Where the beaver is protected. The American Museum Journal, April 1912, vol. XII, No. 4, pp. 145- 147, with 3 photographie views. Notes on the beaver observed in Red Deer river, Alberta. HoLLISTER, N. New mammals from Canada, Alaska, and Kamchatka. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, February 7, 1912, vol. 56, No. 35, pp. 1-8, pls. 1-3. Describes Marmota sibila, sp. nov. and Rangifer fortidens, sp. nov. from the head of Moose Pass branch of Smoky river, Alberta. Mammals of the Alpine Club Expedition to the Mount Robson region. The Canadian Alpine Journal, special number, 1912, pp. 1-44, pls, 1-13. Kuveu, A. B. Notes on the Mammals of the Bruce peninsula. The Ontario Natural Science Bulletin, No. 7, 1912, pp. 58-60. MILLER, GERRIT S. JR. List of North American land mammals in the United States National Museum, 1911. Smithsonian Institution, United States National Museum, Bulletin 79, 1912, pp. 1-455. The names of the large wolves of northern and western North America. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, June 8, 1912, vol. 59, No. 15, pp. 1-15. The names of two North American wolves. Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington, May, 4, 1912, vol. XXYV. p. 95. MISCELLANEOUS. ALLEN, J. A. Zoology of the Stefansson—Anderson expedition—A preliminary estimate. The American Museum Journal, November, 1912, vol. XII, No. 7 p. 237. 198 THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF CANADA AMERICAN Museum JOURNAL, THE. R. M. Anderson in unexplored Arctic America (editorial comment on the zoological work of the Stefansson—Anderson Arctic Expedition and quotations from Dr. Anderson’s letters. Idem, November, 1912, vol. XII, No. 7, pp. 238-241. * CopELAND, G. G. The temperatures and densities and allied subjects of Passamaquoddy bay and its environs. Their bearing on the oyster industry. Contributions to Canadian Biology (Marine Biological Stations of Canada, 1906-1910) 1912, pp. 281-294, with map, diagram, and eight tables. Cow1eE, J. J. Sea-fisheries of eastern Canada. Commission of Conservation, Canada: Sea-fisheries of eastern Canada, 1912, pp. 94-119. Evans, Kezzy. Final report of the Ontario Game and Fisheries Commission, 1909-1911, appointed to enquire into and report on all matters appertaining to the Game Fish, the Fisheries, and the Game of the province of Ontario, pp. 5-304, with numerous plates and text-illustrations. Printed by order of the Legislative Assembly of Ontario. Toronto, Ont. 1912. HALKETT, ANDREW. Natural History Report. Appendix No. 18, 45th Annual Report, Department of Marine and Fisheries, 1911-12, Fisheries, pp. 348-350, 1912. HOLLISTER, N. List of Reptiles and Batrachians of the Alpine Club Expedition to the Mount Robson region. The Canadian Alpine Journal, special number, 1912, pp. 45-46. Kwiaut, A. P. Fishery Bait Experiments. A preliminary report upon the comparative merits of different kinds of bait used in cod fishing along Gaspé penin- sula. Contributions to Canadian Biology (Marine Biological Stations of Canada, 1906-1910), 1912, pp. 23-32. McGuire, THomas H. See PRINCE. PENHALLOW, D. P. Report on the Atlantic Biological Station of Canada, St. Andrews, N.B for 1908. ; Contributions to Canadian Biology (Marine Biological Stations of Canada, 1906-1910) 1912, pp. 1-21, pls, I and II. [LAMBE] BIBLIOGRAPHY OF CANADIAN ZOOLCGY 199 PRINCE, E. E. Obituary. Rev. George W. Taylor, F.R.S.C., Nanaimo, B.C. The Ottawa Naturalist, Aug.-Sept., 1912, vol. XXVI, Nos. 5 and 6, pp. 74-76. Refers to the life work of the late Mr. Taylor as an enthusiastic zoologist, and to the principal results of his study of the marine life of British Columbia. SCHARFF, R. F. Distribution and origin of Life in America, pp. viili+497 with 21 maps. The Macmillan Co., New York, U.S.A. Reviewed in the American Naturalist, August, 1912, vol. XLVI, No. 548 by T. Barbour. SISLEY, Euston. See PRINCE. STAFFORD, J. On the fauna of the Atlantic coast of Canada. Second report.—Mal- peque, 1903-1904. Contributions to Canadian Biology (Marine Biological Stations of Canada, 1906-1910), 1912, pp. 37-44. On the fauna of the Atlantic coast of Canada. Third report.—Gaspé, 1905-1906. Idem, 1912, pp. 45-67. On the fauna of the Atlantic coast of Canada. Fourth report. Idem, 1912, pp. 69-78. SWARTH, Harry $. Report on a collection of birds and mammals from Vancouver island. University of California publications in zoology, February 13, 1912, vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 1-124, pls. 1-4. HS Interesting observations are made on one hundred and eleven species of birds, and twenty of mammals. TAVERNER, P. A. On the collection of zoological specimens for the Victoria Memorial Museum, pp. 1-56. | Department of Mines, Geological Survey, Ottawa, 1912, 12 mo. A hand-book, of a size convenient for the pocket, with directions regarding the collecting of large and small mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, insects and land and fresh water shells, with notes on a collector’s equipment, and the preparation and care of specimens in the field. WRIGHT, R. Ramsay. The Progress of Biology. Transactions Royal Society of Canada, vol. V, third series, 1911 (1912), Presidential Address, appendix A. pp. XXXVII-XLVIII. 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