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PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY
FOR
1842-43 Ανὴ 1843-44.
VOL. I.
LONDON:
PUBLISHED FOR THE SOCIETY, BY GEORGE BELL, 186, FLEET STREET, LONDON.
35S.
PRINTED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS,
RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET.
ale oa oe
CONTENTS.
“On English Orthography, more particularly with reference to the spelling of the Passive Participle. By James Yates, Esq. .........
Some Remarks on a Statue of Endymion, illustrative of a passage in Lucian, By James Yares, Esq........--...- suesaasbeh Blossnueeriete aieuy
On certain Welsh Names of Places preserved in Engiish Compounds. By Epwin Guest, Esq....... το ΤΡ ν ΤΟ, 8 τα πωο συ ων σελοσσ ἔπ δ ας Mosphees
On the Etymology of the word Trap-rock. By HENsLeIGH Wepe- Ρ Woop, Esq Teer eee eenee Ree Ree eee eee eatvantesobern eteeenre Steen een enw ewe A Notice of European Grammars and Lexicons of the Sanskrit Lan- guage. By Horace Hayman WItson, Esq.......---...ceeeeeeeeeee ees
On the Languages of the Papuan or Negrito Race scattered through the Australian and other Asiatic islands. By Rosert Gorpon
Pa MUSE τ, Ὁ ΠΕ τε diveheadsunlvcabOndevaisbeansisies sbabadeas On the Origin of the Phrase ‘ Wager of Law.’ By Perer Starrorp RNS cvcacapindagnsugehnntessshestengest<s* sian enshes sigue πες: eases
On the Classification of the Chinese Roots. By J. F. Davis, Esq.
On the Derivatives of the Welsh word gwy. By the Rev. Joun War- TERS, Rector of Landough, Glamorganshire. Communicated by
the Rev: Jour: Jonns' τ ΡΥ ΠΡ ΡΎ
On certain Inflexions of the Old-English Adjective. By Epw1n Guust, Esq............. debian ugucdichce diane σα ον τ ΑΛ ὙΜΑ͂Σ ἘΣ, ττῆς,
᾿ On Scythia and the surrounding countries, according to Herodotus. * By Francis W. Newman, Esq. ...222...00:..ss.ceeceeeceeeseeasnnoees eee On Plato’s Number. By the Rev. Joan W. Donatpson ............ On the Languages and Dialects of the British Islands. By the Rev. PURO AM Te: Ἀν. gonna this coats as obi τι, Scientia ον sédena ene app
On the Structure of the Russian Verb. By Francis H. Trituen, Esq. Communicated by Horack Hayman W1tson, Esq. .........
On English Gentile Nouns, and more particularly on their Secondary Use as Names of Districts. By Epwin Guest, Esq. ..........-....
On the probable Relations of the Picts and Gael with the other Tribes of Great Britain. By the Rev. Ricoarp GARNETT .......0eeeeeeeees
δ
‘
iv CONTENTS. «
On the Descent of the Magyar from the Ancient Persians. ἡ By Jos. Von Szané, Prof. of History, Lyceum, Oedenburg. Communi- cated by ΝΑΤΗΑΝΙΕΙ, BLanp, Esq. ....sesseseeeseees socvacnnvene sey amen’
On the Doctrine of the Czesura in the Greek Senarius. By Ropurt Nhs RAGA ΒΟ τοῦ τους ἐφενκ τον ἐόν κεν τ ΚΟ ΤΣ ΤΣ vénssades γον ὅ Ὁ
On the Berber Language of Mount Atlas, generally supposed to be that of the Ancient Mauritanians. By Francis W. Newman, Esq....
On the Languages and Dialects of the British Islands (continued). By the Rev. Ricuarp GARNETT .......006 ΠΥ τ. ζοδεν
On a Greek Inscription lately found in Corfu. By the Rev. Dr. Haw- TREY τι τονο εν ονν savcesssathscasdevnbes spins ayer teammate edivesstsay .
On English Pronouns Indeterminate. By Epw1in Guzsr, Esq. ...... Herodotus and the Athenians. By the Rev. Joun W. Donarpson .
On the Languages and Dialects of the British Islands (continued). By the Rev. RicHARD GARNETT ceccccscesceseceeeecs wep anenpace ΝΣ ἘΣ nee
On-the Evidence of a connection between the Cimbri and the Cher- sonesus Cimbrica. By Rospert G. LaTHam, Esq. «..ss-+s-oeeeese
On certain Lycian Inscriptions copied by the Rev. E. T. Daniell, Edward Forbes, Esq. and Lieut. Spratt, R.N. By Danrer SHARPE, LG seas. ssveccccsiosseccsheonnesonsnactshacahenes aus ees vam τῶν eences
On the Reformation of the English Alphabet. By Danny Fry, Esq.
“On the Ellipsis, and on the Pleonastic Use of the Pronoun Personal in English Syntax. By En win GuEST, Esq. ......ccssseocronsecesoeees say
On the construction of iva, ὅπως, ὥς, with the Past Indicative. By the Rev. O. COCKAYNE ......-.s000. TT ey re ΠῚ Be
On the Reciprocal Pronouns, and on the Reciprocal Power of the Reflective Verb. By Rozert G. Lara, Esq. ......... ces oka ὶ
On the Languages and Dialects of the British Islands (continued). By the Rev. Ricuarp GARNETT......... ΕΟ Υ, κοοοοο οι δὰ νονο δα αζεῖ
On the Use of the Dative in English Syntax. By Epwin Guzsrt, Esq.
On the Origin and Import of the Augment in Sanskrit and Greek. By the Rev. RicHARD GARNETT.......ccccceee scacseererctenees Vesadtaeureetis
On the Formation of the Past Tense in certain of the Indo-European Languages. By F. H. TRITHEN, Esq. ....+..++000e το χε φσοςεξζς κα -
On the Lydian Dynasty which preceded the Mermnade. By the Rev. O, COCKARE Bs 2, 000 .cuscccnsnddetsnerccessdsensne uaequestdaaegensscessasns veces
Page
127 129 135 144
149 151 161
169 181 193 215
217
“297
232
243 251
265
273
274
ν΄ On English Pronouns Personal. By Epwin Gugst, Esq. .........0. 277
PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
Vou. I. NOVEMBER 235, 1842. No. 1.
Professor WILSON in the Chair.
The Chairman briefly opened the business of the evening—the List of Members admitted by the Council would be first read; and afterwards the Rules drawn up for the government of the Society ; if any time remained it would be devoted to the reading of papers.
List of Original Members.
Alexander Allen, Ph. D., Hackney (deceased,—before the Meeting).
Rev. Dr. Arnold, Head Master of Rugby School, and Regius Professor of Modern History, Oxford (deceased).
Rev. T. Kerchever Arnold, late Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.
Rev. Dr. Bandinel, Keeper of the Bodleian Library, Ozford.
Arch. Barclay, LL.D. 54 Burton Street.
Rev. Dr. Beard, Stony Knotts, near Manchester.
Rev. J. C. Bentley, Master of Stockwell School.
Samuel Birch, Esq., British Museum.
W.H. Black, Esq., Assistant Keeper of the Public Records, Rolls Office.
Rev. J. Blakesley, Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge.
Nathaniel Bland, Esq., Randall’s Park, Leatherhead.
Rev. Dr. Bosworth, F.R.S., Nottingham.
Rev. J. Brodie, Monimail, Cupar, Fife.
Rev. R. W. Browne, Professor of Classical Literature, King’s Col- lege, London. ’
Edw. H. Bunbury, Esq., Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.
Rev. Richard Burgess, B.D., Chelsea.
The Ven. Archdeacon Burney, F.R.S.
Rev. Samuel Butcher, Junior Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Dublin.
Rev. Dr. Cardwell, Principal of St. Alban Hall, and Camden Professor of Ancient History, Oxford.
Prof. Carey, University College, London.
Rev. Jos. Carson, Junior Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Dublin.
Rev. W. Carter, Eton.
ΠΡ, J. Chabot, Esq., Spitalfields.
Rev. Dr. Chapman, Master of Caius College, Cambridge.
The Right Rev. the Bishop of Chichester. VOL. I. B
2
The Very Rev. the Dean of Christ Church, Regius Professor of Greek, Oxford.
H. Fynes-Clinton, Esq.
Rev. E. Coleridge, Eton.
Rev. Derwent Coleridge, Principal of the National Society's Training College, Chelsea.
Charles Collier, M.D., F.R.S.
Rev. Thomas De Vere Coneys, Professor of Irish, University of Dublin.
George Coode, Esq., Poor-Law Commission Office, Somerset House.
Rev. G. E. Corrie, B.D., Norrisian Professor of Divinity, Cambridge.
Rev. W. Hayward Cox, B.D., Vice-Principal of St. Mary Hail, Oxford.
Rey. Dr. Cramer, Principal of New Inn Hall, and Regius Professor of Modern History, Oxford.
Rey. Francis Crawford, 51 Harcourt-street, Dublin.
E. 8. Creasy, Esq., Fellow of King’s College, Cambridge, and Pro- Sessor of History, University College, London.
Rev. W. Cureton, F.R.S., British Museum.
The Right Rev. the Bishop of St. David’s.
J. F. Davis, Esq., F.R.S., Hollywood, Gloucestershire.
Rev. Rob. Vickers Dixon, Junior Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Dublin.
Rev. J. W. Donaldson, Head Master of Bury School.
W. B. Donne, Esq., East Dereham, Norfolk.
W.F. Donkin, Esq., Fellow of University College, Oxford, and Savilian Professor of Astronomy, Oxford.
Charles Orchard Dayman, Esq., 10 South-square, Gray’s Inn.
The Right Rev. the Bishop of Durham, F.R.S.
Rev. J. Edwards, Canon of Durham, and Professor of Greek in the University of Durham.
T. F. Ellis, Esq., late Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.
The Very Rev. the Dean of Ely, F.R.S.
Rev. C. Eyres, Fellow of Caius College, Cambridge.
W. Farre, Esq., Homerton College. .
C. Donnington Fletcher, Esq., 17 Old Burlington-street.
Duncan Forbes, Esq., Professor of Eastern Literature, King’s Col- lege, London.
C. J. Foster, Esq., 13 Gray’s-Inn-square.
Rev. Dr. French, Master of Jesus College, Cambridge.
Danby Fry, Esq., 23 Upper Barnsbury: street, Islington.
Rev. Richard Garnett, British Museum,
Sir Isaac Lyon Goldsmid, Bart., St. John’s Lodge, Regent’s Park.
Francis Goldsmid, Esq., 15 Upper Harley-street.
Hunter Gordon, Esq., Essex Chambers, Temple.
Prof. Grant, F.R.S., University College, London.
Prof. Graves, F.R.S, University College, London.
Rev. Charles Graves, Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin.
J. G. Greenwood, Esq., University College, London.
George Grote, Esq., 4 Upper Eccleston-street.
3
Edwin Guest, Esq., F.R.S., Fellow of Caius College, Cambridge.
H. Hallam, Esq., F.R.S., 24 Wilton Crescent.
Sir William Hamilton, Bart., Prof. of Logic, Edinburgh.
Rev. Dr. Hampden, Canon of Christ Church, and Regius Professor of Divinity, Oxford.
J.T. Vesey Hardy, Esq., 45 Camden Street.
The Ven. Archdeacon Hare.
Rev. Dr. Harris, Cheshunt.
Rey. Dr. Hawtrey, Head Master of Eton School.
Sir Edmund Head, Bart.
Douglas D. Heath, Esq., Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.
Rey. J. M. Heath, Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge.
Gilbert Henderson, Esq., late Fellow of Brase-nose College, Oxford.
Dr. Henderson, 7 Curzon-street.
The Right Rev. the Bishop of Hereford.
Thomas Hodgkin, M.D., Brook Street.
Rey. Elijah Hoole, 13 Soley Terrace, Pentonville.
Rev. Mr. Hopper, Eton.
Dr. Hoppus, F.R.S., University College, London.
Rev. Jos. Hunter, Record Office, London.
W. Hunter, LL.D., High School, Liverpool.
Prof. Hurwitz, University College, London.
Rev. Robert Hussey, Professor of Ecclesiastical History, Ozford.
Rev. Dr. Hutton, 5 Hamilton Place.
Prof. Mirza Mahomed Ibrahim, Haileybury College.
Rev. Dr. Ingram, President of Trinity College, Oxford.
Joseph Jansen, Esq., 4bchurch-lane.
David Jardine, Esq., 23 Cumberland Terrace.
Rev. W. E. Jelf, Censor of Christ Church, Oxford.
John H.Jellett, Esq., Jun., Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Dublin.
Rey. W. Jenkins, Canon of Durham, and Professor of Divinity in the University of Durham.
Rev. Dr. Jenkyn, Torrington Square.
Rey. Dr. Jerrard, Fellow of Caius College, Cambridge.
Dr. Johnstone, Edgbaston Hall, Birmingham.
Rey. J. Jones, Professor of Political Economy, Haileybury College.
Rev. J. Jones, (Tegid) Nevern, near Haverford- West.
John M. Kemble, Esq., Addlestone, Surrey.
Rev. Dr. Kennedy, Head Master of Shrewsbury School.
Charles R. Kennedy, Esq., late Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.
Rev. G. Kennedy, Fellow of St. John’s College, Cambridge.
Rev. J. Kenrick, York.
T. H. Key, Esq., University College, London, late Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.
Rev. J. Kidd, Professor of Chinese, University College, London.
J. C. King, Esq., 9 Northwick Terrace, St. John’s Wood.
Rev. Herbert Kynaston, High Master of St. Pauls School.
R. G. Latham, Esq., Fellow of King’s College, Cambridge, and Pro- Sessor of English, University College, London.
Rey. Dr. Lee, Regius Professor of Hebrew, Cambridge.
B2
4
Rev. J. P. Lee, Head Master of Birmingham School. ~
Dr. Lee, F.R.S., Doctors’ Commons.
J. G. Shaw Lefevre, Esq., Board of Trade, late Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.
Dr. Frederick Leighton, 7 Upper Gower-street.
George Cornewall Lewis, Esq., Somerset House.
Rev. Henry Geo. Liddell, Student and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford.
Rev. W. Linwood, Student of Christ Church, Oxford.
The Right Rev. the Bishop of Llandaff.
Rev. J. Lodge, Librarian, Cambridge.
The Right Rev. the Bishop of London.
The Ven. Archdeacon Lonsdale, Principal of King’s College, London.
Edmund L. Lushington, Esq., Professor of Greek, Glasgow.
The Right Honourable T. B. Macaulay, Albany.
Rev. Dr. M‘Caul, Professor of Hebrew, King’s College, London.
Rev. Dr. Major, King’s College, London.
H. Malden, Esq., Professor of Greek, University College, London.
Mr. Serjeant Manning.
C. P. Mason, Esq., 70 High Holborn.
Rev. E. Massie, Durham.
Rev. F. Maurice, Professor of English Literature, King’s College, London.
Rev. C. Merivale, Fellow and Tutor of St. John's College, Cambridge.
Rev. Dr. Mill, Christian Advocate, Cambridge.
Rev. H. H. Milman, Prebendary of Westminster.
Charles Neate, Esq., Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford.
Ἐς W. Newman, Esq., late Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford.
James Charles Newton, Esq., St. James’s-square.
Rev. Dr. Ollivant, Jate Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.
Rev. Thomas Williamson Peile, Head Master of Repion School.
The Very Rev. the Dean of Peterborough, F.R.S.
L. Hayes Petit, Esq., F.R.S., New Square, Lincoln's Inn.
J. G. Phillimore, Esq., Temple.
Rev. G. Phillips, Fellow and Tutor of Queen’s College, Cambridge.
Rev. Mr. Pickering, Eton.
Thomas Pell Platt, Esq., late Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.
Rev. James Raine, Librarian, Durham.
W. Ramsay, Esq., Professor of Humanity, Glasgow.
Richard Rayley, Esq., Upper Berkeley-street, Portman-square.
Rev. H. Jenkyns Rees, Rector of Cascob, Presteign, Radnorshire.
Rev. R. C. Renouard, B.D., late Fellow of Sydney College, Cambridge.
Charles Richardson, Esq., 47 Upper Baker-street.
John Robson, Esq., 3 Medbourn-street, St. Pancras.
Rev. J. Medows Rodwell, 9 Park-terrace, Liverpool-road, Islington.
Rev. Jos. Romilly, Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.
R. W. Rothman, M.D., Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.
Prof. Royle, F.R.S., King’s College, London.
Rev. Rob. Scott, date Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford.
Daniel Sharpe, Esq., 2 Adelphi Terrace.
Prof. Sharpey, F.R.S., University College, London.
5
Rev. J. G. Sheppard, Assistazt Master of Repton School.
Rey. Richard Shillito, Classical Lecturer, King’s College, Cambridge.
Rev. Dr. Singer, Serior Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin.
Rev. J. Smith, Fellow and Tutor of Caius College, Cambridge.
Rev. Philip Smith, Cheshunt.
Rev. Dr. J. P. Smith, F.R.S., Homerton.
Dr. W. Smith, 16 Barnsbury Villas, Islington.
S. R. Solly, Esq., F.R.S., Surge Hill, Kings Langley, Hert
Rev. J. Sortain, Brighton.
Rev. Thomas Stack, Junior Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Dublin.
Rev. Arthur P. Stanley, Fellow ef University College, Oxford.
Sir George Staunton, Bart., M.P., F.R.S. ᾿
Rev. A. C. Tait, Head Master of Rugby School.
H. Fox Talbot, Esq., F.R.S., Laycock Abbey, Wiltshire.
Rev. James Tate, Canon Residentiary of St. Paul’s.
Rev. Dr. Tatham, Master of St. John’s College, Cambridge.
J. J. Tayler, Esq., Manchester.
Richard Taylor, Esq.
Rev. W. H. Thompson, Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Cam-
. bridge.
Benjamin Thorpe, Esq., Richmond.
The Venu. Archdeacon Thorp, Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.
Rev. Dr. Todd, Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin.
C. V. Trevelyan, Esq., Treasury.
Prof. Twiss, University College, Oxford.
W. J. Vaux, Esq., British Museum.
Raymond de Véricour, Esq., Fortescue House, Twickenham.
Jacob Waley, Esq., 22 Devonshire Place.
Rev. Dr. Wall, Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin.
Albert Way, Esq., Piccadillay.
oe Wedgwood, Esq., late Fellow of Christ's College, Cam-
ridge
Rev. W. Whewell, B.D., Master of Trinity College, Cambridge.
Rey. Rob. Whiston, Head Master of Rochester School, and Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.
Rev. Dr. Williams, Warden of New College, Oxford.
Rey. Robert Williams, Llangadwaladr, Oswestry.
Rev. Dr. Williamson, Head Master of Westminster School.
Robert Hindley Wilkinson, Esq., Fellow of King’s College, Cambridge.
H. Hayman Wilson, Esq., Professor of Sanskrit, Oxford.
Rey. W. Wilson, Newbury.
Rev. Dr. Wiseman, President of Oscott College, Birmingham.
H. A. Woodham, Esq., Fellow of Jesus College, Cambridge.
Rev. Dr. Worthington, 3 Mecklenburgh Square.
Rev. Dr. Wynter, President of St. John’s College, and Vice-Chan- cellor of the University of Oxford.
James Yates, Esq., F.R.S., 49 Upper Bedford Place.
Joseph Brooks Yates, Esq, West Dingle, Liverpool.
6
Officers of the Society.
President, the Bishop of St. David’s ; Vice-Presidents, the Bishops of London, Durham, and Hereford ; Ordinary Members of the Council, Rev. Prof. Browne, Rev. Dr. Cramer, Rev. W.Cureton, Τ᾿ Εἰ. Ellis, Esq., Rev. Richard Garnett, E. Guest, Esq., Rev. Dr. Hawtrey, John M.
Kemble, Esq., Prof. Key, Prof. Latham, Rev. Dr. Lee, G. C. Lewis, —
Esq., Ven. Archd. Lonsdale, Rev. Dr. M°Caul, Prof. Malden, Rev. Dr. Mill, Rev. H. H. Milman, Rev. Prof. Whewell, Prof. Wilson, James Yates, Esq.; Treasurer, H. Wedgwood, Esq., 16 Gower Street, Bedford Square ; Secretary, E. Guest, Esq., 4 King’s Bench Walk, Temple.
The Rules drawn up for the regulation of the Society were then read by the Secretary. ὁ _ Professor Malden took the opportunity of stating that some incon-
venience had resulted from the strict wording of the fourth resolu- tion passed at the General Meeting. The Council had completed their number of twenty, and appointed a Treasurer and a Secretary, the former not being one of the twenty Ordinary Members. By the Rules which had just been read, the Treasurer and Secretary ap- pointed by the Society at the next Annual General Meeting would be ex-officio Members of the Council, but he believed the duties of Treasurer could not be efficiently discharged during the present Session, unless the Society would empower the Council to summon that officer to their Meetings.
It was then moved by the Rev. Richard Burgess, B.D.,—That the Treasurer and Secretary, appointed by the Council for the present Session, be ex-officio Members of the Council.
The motion was seconded by the Rev. G. C. Renouard, B.D., and carried unanimously.
The Rules drawn up for the regulation of the Society were then submitted to the Meeting, and, with some slight alterations, were unanimously adopted.
Professor Latham commenced the reading of a paper on the dia- lects of the Papuan or Negrito race, scattered through the Austra-
lian and other Asiatic islands. The paper will be finished at a fu- ture Meeting.
vi δ A Ὶ
PHILOLOGICAL -SOCIETY.
Vor. I. DECEMBER 9, 1842. No. 2.
The Right Rev. the Lorp Bisuor or Sr. Davrn’s, President, in the Chair.
The following communications were read :—
1. A Letter from James Yates, Esq. to the Secretary, containing remarks on English Orthography, more particularly with reference to the spelling of the Passive Participle.
The author considered the adoption of an improved system of orthography by the Editors of the Philological Journal (Camb. 1832) an example worthy of imitation on the part of the Philological Society. Many peculiarities in our present modes of spelling may be traced to the printers, who since the latter part of the last century have exer- cised a general control over English orthography. They have often shown an ignorance of the first principles of our language. Their mode of spelling the passive participle seems based on the supposition, that it was regularly formed from the verb by the addition of ed, and that the use of a simple d or ¢ indicated a contraction of such final syllable. This supposition is clearly erroneous; is contrary to the genius of the English language, and to the analogies which are afforded us by the other Indo-European tongues. By spelling the passive participle as it is pronounced, we should, in many cases, be returning to modes of spelling which were in general use at the be- ginning of the last century. We should also secure many important advantages. The pronunciation of this class of words would be made easy to the foreigner, and our language exhibited in a form that would show its connexion with the cognate tongues, and its accord- ance with the general principles of speech.
Numerous examples were given in illustration of these views. When the verb ended in d or ἐ, the participle was formed by the ad- dition of an ed, as add, added; fold, folded, &c.; the d or ¢ being doubled to indicate the short vowel, as nod, nodded ; fit, fitted, &c. In other cases d alone was added, as stay, stayd; free, freed; seem, seemd ; plan, pland; nail, naiid, &c. But when the final letter of the verb was one of the ¢enues (otherwise surds, cr whisper-letters), zt was substituted, as fiz, fixt ; wrap, wrapt; ask, askt; snatch, snatcht; dash, dasht, &c. ‘The various examples were ranged according to the ending of the verb, and the author entered at some length into the consideration of such cases as were likely to lead to ambiguity, for the most part following out the principles advocated by Mr. Hare in the Philological Journal, vol. i. p. 640.
After the reading of this paper a discussion arose as to the doc- trines advanced in it, and generally as to the best mode of reforming our English orthography.
πε
8
2. Some Remarks on a Statue of Endymion, illustrative of a pass- age in Lucian. By James Yates, Esq.
The recumbent statue of white marble, which is now deposited in the sixth room of the Townley Gallery in the British Museum, was found at Roma Vecchia in 1774. Dallaway calls it a statue of Adonis*. It has also been denominated a statue of Mercury+. But no example or authority has been brought to support either of these two suppositions, and I apprehend none such can be brought. Adonis, if he were ever represented in a statue, might be expected to exhibit something Oriental in his attire, or to show the marks of the boar’s tusk on his thigh; nor is there any reason for making him sleep. Torepresent Mercury asleep would have been as incongruous as to exhibit Somnus awake. There does not appear to be any rea- son why the swift messenger of gods and men should even lie in a recumbent attitude, nor can I recollect any instance in which he wears cothurni.
That this beautiful production of ancient art was intended for Endymion, will, I think, appear from the following considerations :—
The fable of Endymion and the Moon was a favourite subject with the ancient artists. It is found in bas-reliefs}, and is represented in a picture discovered at Portici§. The figure of Endymion is also engraved on gems||. ‘These representations of the story vary in their circumstances; but the most common exhibits Diana, or the Moon, dismounting from her chariot, and advancing towards Endymion with her eyes fixed upon him in admiration, whilst he, in the costume of a hunter or of a shepherd, lies stretched asleep upon a rock. Of these there is one which is more especially applicable to the illus- tration of our present subject. It is a marble bas-relief, formerly belonging to the Giustiniani collection at Rome. An engraving of it was published a.p. 1631, in the Galleria Giustiniani, vol. ii. pl. 110. Another engraving of it appeared (at p. 52.) in Sandrart’s Sculpture Veteris Admiranda, published at Nuremberg in 1680, and this en- graving is copied (at fol. O) in the first volume of the Thesaurus Antiquitatum Romanarum of Gronovius. In the latter engraving, both as published by Sandrart and as copied by Gronovius, the whole piece is reversed, so that the right hand is exhibited as if it were the left. The bas-relief, which is made known to us by these publications, displays the whole story of the discovery of Endymion by the Moon. ‘The goddess is represented descending from her car, proceeding towards the sleeping youth, and surrounded by a train of winged genii and other attendants. Endymion is represented as he is seen in the drawing, No. 24], which is copied from the original engraving in the Galleria Giustiniani. In this we observe the crook,
* Anecdotes of the Arts in England, p. 303.
+ Library of Entertaining Knowledge, Townley Gallery, vol. i. p, 246.
+ Museo Pio Clementino, tomo iv, tav. 16.
§ Antichita d’ Ercolano, tomo iii. tav. 3.
|| Lippert’s Dactyliotheca.
4] Two drawings were exhibited to the meeting in illustration of the subject discussed in this paper.
STATUE
OF ENDYMION ITN THE BRITISH
MI
See Lroceedings of the Phitoboguead Socaety, Vob. Lp’.
USsSKUM,.
9
or pedum, which has fallen from his left hand, whilst his right hand is turned over his head, exactly as it is in the Townley statue. That this position of the right arm and hand was very commonly assumed by the artists of antiquity as characteristic of Endymion, appears from the description of him in Lucian’s Dialogue between Venus andthe Moon. The latter says, in answer to Venus, that her favourite Endymion is particularly beautiful: “oray ὑποβαλόμενος ἐπὶ τῆς πέτρας τὴν χλαμύδα καθεύδῃ, τῇ λαιᾷ μὲν ἔχων τὰ ἀκόντια ἤδη ἐκ τῆς χειρὸς ὑποῤῥέοντα, iy δεξιὰ δὲ περὶ τὴν κεφαλὴν ἐς τὸ ἄνω ἐπικεκλασμένη ἐπιπρέπει τῷ προσώπῳ περικειμένη, ὁ δὲ ὑπὸ τοῦ ὕπνου λελυμένος ἀνα- πνέει τὸ ἀμβρόσιον ἐκεῖνο ἦσθμα.---Ἰλιοίαη, Dial. Deor. ΧΙ. This passage proves that the ancients in their conceptions of the sleep- ing Endymion often represented him with his right arm elevated and turned over his head, or in the exact attitude which we observe in the statue of the Townley Gallery.
The costume, which is very carefully executed in this statue, may be regarded as the costume either of a hunter or of a shepherd, since the dress of these two characters did not differ materially, if at all. It consists of boots (cothurni), a scarf (chlamys), and a petasus tied under the chin. The only circumstance of any importance in which this statue differs from the description given by Lucian, and from the bas-reliefs and painting above quoted, is that the left hand touches the fibula of his scarf instead of holding darts, a hunting spear, or a crook. In its style this statue is elegant and highly finished. It is a representation of human nature, and not of a divine or ideal existence. It is instructive as an example of Greek costume. With regard to its use or destination it is impossible to form any- thing more than conjectures. It may have been deposited as a do- narium in some temple consecrated to Diana, or it may have adorned a garden or a grove attached to the villa of some opulent Roman.
3. On certain Welsh Names of Places preserved in English Com- pounds. By Edwin Guest, Esq.
Orxney.—The Welsh word or¢ signifies that which is extreme, a limit, a border (Owen); and Orc is the name given to the Orkney group in the Welsh Triads.
“The three primary adjoining islands of the Isle of Britain, Orc, Manaw, and Gwyth (that is, Orkney, Man, and Wight); and after- wards the sea broke the land, so that Mon (Anglesea) became an island, and in the same manner the isle of Ore was broken,” &c.
From Orc the Latins got their Orcades. The early English settlers appear to have changed the Welsh name (as they did most other Celtic names of places) into-a feminine substantive Orce, gen. Orcan. Orcan ig would be the isle of Orce.
The word Orkney is used for the whole group of islands.
“In the isles of Orchades or Orkeney, as we now call them, the Gottish or Danish speach is altogether in vse.” (Harr. Deser. of Britt. c. 6.)
“Ὑς must now change the scene from Zetland to Orkney.” (W. Scott’s Pirate, iii. 72.) τς
10
Has this use of a noun singular any reference to the old Welsh tradition, that these islands originally formed but one? Or is ig a neuter noun, and Orkney the representative of an Anglo-Saxon plural ὃ
Ramseatr.—Asser tells us that the Isle of Thanet was called in the British tongue Ruim (Asser de Reb. Gest. Atlfr., p. 7.). The Welsh word rhum signifies that which tends out or projects (Owen) ; and the name seems to have been given to any tract of land that projected so as to form a point or foreland—at least such is the cha- racter of Rum on the Argyle coast, and such appears to have been the character of Rom on the coast of Denmark, if we may judge from the shoals which now surround it. Both these islands were originally Welsh localities.
The gaps in the line of cliff which lead down to the sea are called in Kent gates, or sea-gates (Grose’s Prov. Gloss.). Hence Rams- gate means the gate or pass leading into Ruim.
CANTERBURY is a corruption of the Anglo-Saxon Cantwara byrig, the forts or strongholds of the Cantware—Cantwara being the geni- tive case plural. Cantware meant the men of Cant (Kent), as Wiht- ware, the men of Wiht (Wight), and Lindisware, the men of Lindis, or North Lincolnshire.
The Welsh caint means a plain, or open country (Owen); and it was probably the old Welsh name for the slip of open land lying between the Weald and the Thames. The forest which covered the southern half of this shire is called in the Chronicle Andred, and also Andredes leaga, the lea* of Andred. According to Owen andred signifies an uninhabited district, a weald. It is compounded of the negative prefix an and tred, a town, a hamlet. It seems therefore probable that our English Kent comprises two Welsh districts, the Andred, or uninhabited Woodland, and the Caint, or open habitable country lying beside the river.
From Cantwara comes the adjective Cantuar-ensis.
Wincuester.—The Welsh word Gwent (like Caint) signifies an open country, a champaign (Owen); and it seems to have been a name given to several districts in this island. The capital of such a district was called by the Romans Venta—Venta Icenorum, Venta Belgarum, Venta Silurum, ὅθ. Monmouthshire is still called Gwent by the Welsh, and was called Went by our English Chroni- clers as late as the 16th century. The Welsh name Gwent was changed by the Anglo-Saxons into a feminine substantive Winte, gen. Wintan; and the capital of the Belgic Went was called Winte- ceaster (Wint-city, or Winchester), Sax. Chron. a.p. 897, and also Wintan ceaster (the city of Winte), Sax. Chron. a.p. 648.
From Wintan comes the adjective Winton-ensis.
Worcester.—The Welsh race who lived in Worcestershire were called by the Romans Huiccii; the English, who succeeded them,
* From the way in which leaga is generally used in the Saxon Chronicle, there is some reason to believe it was the old Gothic name for the waste or march, which, aceording to Cesar, always surrounded the territory of a German tribe.— Bell, Gall. iv. 3.
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are called by Anglo-Saxon writers Hwiccas*. This word exemplifies a use of the plural ending not unfrequent in the Anglo-Saxon, and exactly corresponding to a use of the plural ending in the Sanskrit; it may be rendered the Hwic-men. Worcester is men- tioned late in the Chronicle, and the name is then spelt Wigera ceaster (Sax. Chron. a.p. 992). Wéigera is most probably a corrup- tion of Hwic-wara, the gen. plur. of Hwic-ware, the men of Hwic.
The Welsh Guwig signifies a fortress, and the Breton Gwik, a town. This word may have been the old Welsh name for Worcester, cor- rupted by the English settlers into Hwic.
Netiey.—The Chronicle mentions Port’s descent at Portsmouth a.D. 501, and then commemorates a battle fought by Cerdic and Cynric a.p. 508, in which they slew a ‘‘ British King, whose name was Natanleod; then after him was the land named Natanleaga as far as Cerdic’s ford.” The word Netley has been generally consi- dered as connected with Natanleaga; but the attempt to connect Natanleaga with Natanleod, has a good deal puzzled our antiquaries.
I believe both Natanleod and Natanleagu to be compounds. Leod, in our Anglo-Saxon poems, means a chief; and if we suppose Nate to be a fem. subst. signifying a district, Natanleod will mean the Prince of Nate, and Natanleaga the lea of Nate.
Now Wilton, the old capital of Wiltshire, lies at the junction of the Nadder and the Wily. As the Yorkshire river Nydde was αἵ one time called Nyddor (Harrison, Descr. of Britt. i. 15), so in like manner the Wiltshire Nadder may have had a second name Nadd, or in Anglo-Saxon Nate. If this be granted, the river may have given the name of Nate to the capital of Wiltshire, just as the Neath of Glamorganshire conferred its name upon the town by which it flowed—the Nidum of the Romans.
The date and locality have made almost all our historians that the Natanleod of the Chronicle was the celebrated Aurelius Ambrosius. All the accounts we have received of this chief fix him in Wiltshire; and it has even been supposed that Amesbury (the Anglo-Saxon Ambres byrig), which is some eight or ten miles distant from Wilton, was named from him.
The passage then in the Chronicle may perhaps admit of the fol- lowing explanation :—After the slaughter of the Prince of Nate, they named the lea, in which he had so often fought them, the lea of Nate, just as certain districts open to the incursions of the Scots and Welsh were called the Scotch and Welsh marches. As Char- ford (which all admit to be Cerdic’s ford) lies on the very edge of Wiltshire, the boundaries of Natanleaga must have been nearly the same as those of Western Hampshire.
Hence it would seem, that many years after their settlement in the island, our ancestors retained in familiar use several Welsh names of districts; that they called Orkney Orce, Thanet Ruim,
* Anglo-Saxon Gentile Nouns form the gentive in @ and the dative in um, whether they end in as or e. As these nouns are rarely found, except in the
genitive or dative case, it is sometimes difficult to say which of the two endings, as or e, should be given to the nominative.
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the Weald of Kent Andred, the country between the North- Downs and the Thames Cant, the eastern part of Hampshire Winte, Worcester and its dependent district Hwic; and perhaps we may add, that they called Wilton and its neighbourhood Nate, and the adjoining part of Hampshire Natanleaga.
Other Welsh names of districts were retained, but it is now very difficult to explain their meaning. The inhabitants of Bernicia (as the Latinists termed the northern part of ancient Northumberland) are called in the Chronicle Beorniccas, that is the men of Beornic. Beornic is the Brynaic of the Welsh poets, and the Welsh word brynaic signifies the uplands or highlands (Owen). The Yorkshire- men are also called Deras, or men of Der. Der is clearly the Dyver of Aneurin, and the Deira of our Latin historians, but I cannot explain its meaning.
4. On the Etymology of the word Trap-rock. By H. Wedg- wood, Esq.
The name trap (trappa, Swed. stairs) is said to have been given by Bergmann to certain igneous rocks, in consequence of the pecu- liar form (resembling a flight of steps) in which they sometimes arranged themselves. The author was inclined to doubt if such a derivation were the true one, suspecting that the first element of a ‘ compound so familiar as the word érap-dike in English, could not have been borrowed from scientific nomenclature.
It appears from a Paper in the Phil. Trans. for 1719, giving an account of a coal district in Somersetshire, that where the strata are dislocated by a fault, they are said by the miners fo trap up or trap down, accordingly as they are thrown to a higher or lower level, The dike producing such a trapping of the strata, would naturally be termed a trap-dike; and this is the name actually given to it in the case most likely to catch the attention of geologists, viz. where the intrusive rock is of igneous origin. The word trap would easily be applied by those ignorant of miners’ phraseology to the same kind of rock when it made its appearance under other circumstances.
When the strata are said to trap up or down, the idea represented seems to be the sudden change of level in passing from one side of the fault to the other. This agrees with the ordinary meaning of the term, which is used to express anything that acts with a sudden spring or fall. Compare trap, trap-door, &c.
PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
Vou. I. JANUARY 27, 1843. No. 3.
Professor Witson in the Chair.
The eight last Numbers of the Numismatic Chronicle were laid on the table. Presented by the Numismatic Society.
The Chairman announced to the Meeting that letters had been received from Professors J. Grimm and Εἰ. Bopp of Berlin, express- ing the interest they felt in the Society, and their intention of aiding by their communications and otherwise, in the attainment of the important objects which the Society had in view.
A paper was then read by Professor Wilson, entitled, ‘‘ A Notice of European Grammars and Lexicons of the Sanskrit language.”
The author thought it might contribute to the fulfilment of an object which was suggested at’ the General Meeting in May last for the Society's earliest consideration, namely, the ascertainment of the actual condition of philological inquiry, to offer a short no- tice of those publications which within the last half century have been designed to promote, amongst Europeans, an elementary know- ledge of the Sanskrit language. It appeared to him that the sug- gestion to which he had adverted, and for which the Society was indebted to a highly valued colleague, whose opinions must ever be entitled to attention, could be followed out successfully only by a division of labour. A comprehensive whole, consisting of many parts, appears to demand for its investigation the acquirements of different members of the Society, of whom, while there are many who might feel themselves equal to undertake some one subdivi- sion, there are probably few who would not distrust their ability to grapple with so vast an undertaking as a universal survey of the present state of philological research. Under the impression, there- fore, that an object, which was indisputably of no small importance in the outset of the Society’s career—the determination of a fixed point from whence to start—the knowledge of what has been done as a necessary preliminary to what remains to be done—could be most readily attained by separate exertion, he had been induced to enter upon a department which he thought might reasonably be assigned to him, and as prefatory to other branches of an investiga- tion into the existing state of Sanskrit philology, he purposed to submit a brief account of those means of acquiring an acquaintance with the language, which we owed to the talents and industry of European scholars. He might take a future opportunity of offering some notice of the grammatical works of native authorities, and of the labours of European writers, in the elucidation of the affinities which connect the Sanskrit with other cultivated forms of speech.
For a considerable period a notion prevailed that the learned amongst the natives of India were obstinately averse to the commu- nication of instruction in their sacred language to foreigners, and
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that this was the reason why so many years elapsed before an attempt to acquire it was made by those Europeans, who from one motive or other had sojourned in India. The notion was not alto- gether unfounded, although the reluctance which no doubt was en- countered was less insuperable than was imagined, and originated in a misconception from which the most enlightened native scholars were free. There is nothing in the laws or institutes of the Hin- dus which authorizes a monopoly of a knowledge of the Sanskrit language by any one caste or order of the people. The only mo- nopoly insisted upon by the Brahmans was that of tuition. They allowed no other caste to teach—they enjoined the military and agricultural castes to learn, even the holy books, the Vedas. They prohibited the Sudra or servile caste from hearing the sacred books, but they permitted even the mixed castes to read and hear the great historical and mythological poems, and consequently never thought of excluding them from a knowledge of the language in which those books are composed. Their monopoly of tuition, which they most rigorously guarded against aggression, was so far disinterested that it brought with it no pecuniary profit. Even to the present day it is considered derogatory to the purity of the Brahmanical character to give instruction for hire, and although in the service of Europeans the scruple is surmounted, teaching San- skrit to native pupils is very generally gratuitous. The Brahmans had no doubt a design in thus reserving to themselves the seemingly unrequited duties of instruction, but it is not necessary on the pre- sent occasion to inquire what their objects were. It is sufficient to have shown that there was no law to prevent them from expounding the mysteries of their sacred tongue to ears profane, and that Euro- peans, although no doubt regarded as amongst the lowest of castes, might have become familiar with them at an earlier period, had they entertained the wish and adopted the nieans of obtaining instruc- tion.
It might appear somewhat unaccountable that the Mohammedans of India should have been blended with the Hindus for centuries, and should have paid no attention to the literature of their fellow- subjects, did we not know the disdainful intolerance with which they regard the languages and literature of all nations that profess a different religious faith. The first sovereigns of Delhi would have incurred the imputation of being infidels had they shown any favour to the Pandits; and in truth they were not in much danger of under- going such a censure, as they were of a rude race, more addicted to arms than to letters, and commonly dependent upon the former for their thrones and their existence. Their conduct and example were ill calculated to win the confidence of the Hindus, and they were no doubt as backward to impart as the Mohammedans were careless to seek for information. ‘The reign of Akber, in the latter half of the sixteenth century, first wrought a change in this state of public feeling. A friendly intercourse was then first established between both classes of the people, and in imitation of the patronage be- stowed by the monarch upon Hindu literary men, the nobles of his court condescended to express curiosity concerning the national
15
literature, and became the scholars of the Brahmans. The rapidity with which the scruples and reluctance of the latter yielded to the sunshine of imperial favour, must have appeared so marvellous to the Mohammedans, that a fable was invented to account for the alteration. It was said that by the command of the king, Sheikh Feizi, the younger brother of Akber’s able minister Abulfazl, had been palmed in early life upon the Brahmans as an orphan youth of their own caste, and that he was initiated by them unwittingly into their learning and doctrines. The tale, though still current, is not very probable. Feizi is the reputed and, in part no doubt, real author of various translations from Sanskrit into Persian: other translations were made under his superintendence. His competency to the task, and the assistance which he commanded, may easily be accounted for without having recourse to fiction. The enlightened encouragement and royal munificence of Akber were the keys that unlocked the treasures of Hindu lore. The taste which he intro- duced survived his reign, and in Dara Shekoh, the unfortunate son of Shah Jehan, he found a worthy successor. The speculative and supplementary portion of the Vedas, the Upanishads, were translated by his order into Persian*. With the accession of Aurangzib the age of Mohammedan bigotry revived, and the Hindus fell back into their defensive attitude of silence and suspicion.
The first European settlers in India were merchants and soldiers, who troubled themselves little about the intellectual products of the country. The missionaries, however, who followed on their track, speedily perceived the necessity of making themselves familiar with the native languages and writings, and diligently applied them- selves to the study. Their purposes were not literary, and they did not deem it incumbent upon them to impart any of their disco- veries to the European public, although it is not unlikely that the archives of the Propaganda Society at Rome may contain specimens of the early labours of the missionaries of the Roman church. At any rate, it has been recently evidenced by the voluminous compo- sitions in Sanskrit verse upon Christian subjects by members of the Jesuit mission at Madura, discovered at Pondicheri not many years ago, and of which an account} was published in the Researches of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, that some of the members of this mission attained an extraordinary command over the language, and composed in it with an accuracy and an elegance unsurpassed by any later Europeans, and even by modern native scholars. The same proficiency was attained by them in Sanskrit, which they acquired in the vernacular tongues, and which has placed Robert de Nobili and Father Beschi amongst the classics of Tamil literature in the estimation of the natives of the south of India. Indications of this successful study however were few and faint in the west, although they were at length manifested in such meagre compilations as the
* From the Persian a translation into Latin was made by Anquetil du Perron, who ὁ φεῦ τα it under the title of Oupnekhat, seu Theologia Indica. Paris, 1801. 2 vol to.
t Account of a Discovery of a modern Imitation of the Vedas, by F. Ellis. Asiatic Researches, xiv. p. 1.
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‘ Alphabetum Brahmanicum,’ and ‘ Alphabetum Grandonico-Malaba- ricum,’ published at Rome in 1771 and 1772 by the Propaganda Society.
The first systematic attempt to impart a more extended acquaint- ance with Sanskrit to European students, was the publication by Paulinus a Bartholomeo, a German missionary* of the name of Wesdin, of a short and imperfect grammar of the language, to which he gave the title of ‘ Siddharubam, seu Grammatica Samscr- damica,’ Rome 1790. This was followed by a number of works on the Indian languages, and the mythology and history of the Hindus, in which the information given, although tinted by colouring of local origin, and blended with fictions peculiar to the Peninsula of India, where Paulinus spent fourteen years, is in the main correct, and might have been useful had it not been overwhelmed by an ac- companying mass of crude conjecture and misapplied erudition. A more copious and correct grammar was published by Paulinus in 1804, entitled, ‘ Vyaécaranam,. seu locupletissima Samscrdamicze Linguz Institutio.” The original of this was a native grammar, a copy of which had been translated in India by a Danish missionary of the name of Hanxleden, who seems to have been a much better scholar than Paulinus. His papers having come into the pos- session of the latter, were either published by him as in the pre- sent instance, or employed by him for other works, as in the case of the first book of the Lexicon of Amara Sinha, also published by Paulinus with a Latin translation, which-he was enabled to execute, it appears, chiefly by the aid of a manuscript Lexicon, Latin and Sanskrit, compiled by Hanxleden, and appended to the Vyacaranam.
This first grammar of the Sanskrit language, being a translation of an original work, is accurate, although not comprehensive. It is printed with Roman letters in all except the first section, in which the Sanskrit words are expressed in the characters of the Tamil alphabet, of very indifferent typographic execution. The Roman representation of the words in accordance with the original Tamil, is disfigured by corruptions derived from the peculiar pronunciation of the natives of that part of the Peninsula of which Tamil is the vernacular idiom, by whom soft labials are substituted for hard, and soft dentals or semivowels for hard dentals, in certain situations. Thus Somabd is written for Somapd, and bhavadi for bhavati, and nrikshdl for vrikshdt. With respect also to the Roman orthography, a most barbarous-looking equivalent is not unfrequently given for the original, depending partly upon German and partly upon Italian pronunciation, and which it often requires some consideration to identify ; kashtasrita is not at once recognisable in kaszdaschrida. The grammar is followed by two vocabularies, one Latin and San- skrit, arranged according to the analogous senses of the words; the other Sanskrit and Latin, arranged alphabetically. It is not stated by whom they were compiled, but it is probable that both were the work of Hanxleden. The ‘ Vydcarana’ is not without merit, and opened the way to the study of Sanskrit by the scholars of the con-
* See a biographical notice of Paulinus in the Nouveaux Mélanges Asiatiques , par M. Abel Remusat, vol. ii. p. 305.
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_tinent; and Paulinus by its publication established a claim to grate- ful commemoration, although: he cannot be considered to have done more than rendered the labours of a brother missionary accessible to the European public*.
Although not yet known in Europe, the labours of our own coun- trymen in the East, for the dissemination of an accurate knowledge of the Sanskrit language, had preceded the publication of the Vya- carana. The encouragement given to oriental studies by Warren Hastings, the institution of the Asiatic Society by Sir William Jones, and the foundation of the College of Fort William by the Marquis Wellesley, had communicated a powerful impulse and a right direc- tion to the exertions of European scholars in India. Philology could not fail to receive the attention it deserved, and the Asiatic researches were at an early period enriched by the observations of Sir William Jones and Mr. Colebrooke, on various points regarding the structure and nature of the Sanskrit language. The compilation of elementary works expressly for the use of English students, was necessarily one of the first objects of the institution of the College, and it was for the benefit of the junior civil servants of the East India Company attached to the College, that the two first published English gram- mars of the Sanskrit language, those of Dr. Carey and Mr. Cole- brooke, were compiled and printed in Serampore and Calcutta.
Dr. William Carey was a member of the Baptist mission in Bengal. After a residence of eight years in the country, during which he had studied with unwearied assiduity the Bengali and Sanskrit languages, he was appointed Professor of both in the College of Fort William early in 1801. He immediately set about compiling a grammart, and the first part of this work was published in 1803{. It was completed in 1806. It forms an immense volume, extending toa thousand quarto pages. This is in great part ascribable to the size of the Sanskrit types employed, which, in the first stages of Sanskrit printing in India, were of unnecessarily gigantic dimensions. With a due allowance on this account, enough remains to constitute the grammar a singular monument of industrious application. The work is divided into five books. The first explains the forms and powers of the letters of the alphabet, and then treats of what is termed in original grammars Sandhi, or combination ; a series of rules provi- ding for the coalescence or modification of letters when they come into junction or juxtaposition, so as to avoid harshness or hiatus in their articulation ; a subject more minutely investigated and more systematically regulated in Sanskrit than in the grammar of any other language. The second book is appropriated to what native grammarians designate Sabda, literally a sound, or as here under- stood, an articulate sound, a word; under which head are comprised declinable words, whether substantives, adjectives, or pronouns ;
* Schlegel questions his fully understanding the writings of Hanxleden: “ der Pater Paulinus theilte mit was er nur sehr unvollkommen verstand.” Indische Bibliothek, 1. 1. 9.
T Letter to Dr. Ryland, June 15, 1801. Memoir of Dr. Carey, D.D., p- 454.
{ A Grammar of the Sungskrit language, by William Carey. Serampore, 1806. Reviewed, Quarterly Review, vol. i.
VOL. I. c
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and indeclinable words, adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions. The third book treats of the Dhatus or roots, as capable of verbal inflexion ; first, as simple verbs in the ten classes or conjugations under which they are arranged in original works; and secondly, as derivative verbs, causals, desideratives, and frequentatives. The fourth book of ‘ Carey’s Grammar’ describes the formation of deri- vative words and of compound nouns, and treats of the genders of nouns. ‘The fifth book comprehends the syntax and a few pages of exercises. ΤῸ the whole is added, by way of an appendix, an alpha- betical list of roots.
The Sanskrit Grammar of Dr. Carey is modelled upon the plan of the native grammars, and for the most part follows a similar order. The native authorities also are those chiefly current in Bengal, and he was assisted in the compilation by Bengali Pandits ; he therefore speaks their language and adopts their technical phraseology to an extent that is not a little embarrassing to a mere European scholar. It is also inconveniently troublesome in use to a beginner, especially from the separation which it admits between the rules and the ex- amples, so that many pages invariably intervene before the applica- tion of the precept, by which alone its purport is rendered intelligible, occurs. Numerical references from the examples to the rules are inserted, it is true, at the foot of the page in which the former are met with, but the verification imposes extra trouble upon the stu- dent, and is likely to be carelessly made: the want of a definite im- pression in the first aspect of a rule is seldom subsequently supplied. The section which treats of the formation of derivative words is broken up into unnecessarily multiplied subdivisions, which, with an appearance of classification, only render the subject more complicated and reference more uncertain. The exemplifications of the syntax are meagre and uninteresting. On the other hand, the chapters on conjugation are very copious and instructive, affording examples of a number of the most useful verbs in more or less detail. There are some inaccuracies, but they are not of a nature or extent to detract materially from the usefulness of an ample exhibition of conjuga- tional varieties, as the conjugation of the verbs is the only real diffi- culty in Sanskrit grammar. The list of roots is a very serviceable and important addition. The whole is provided with a comprehen- sive index. The ‘Grammar’ is in truth a compilation of very great merit, although, from its adhering so closely to native technicalities, it cannot ever be of much advantage to European students. To scholars more advanced it is calculated to be of frequent service, and to any one who should propose to make himself acquainted with an original grammar of the Bengal School it would prove an invaluable auxiliary.
Shortly prior to the publication of Dr. Carey’s complete Grammar, appeared the first part of a grammar, compiled by the late Henry Thomas Colebrooke, a member of the Civil Service of Bengal, who, throughout a long and active public life in India, in the course of which he ascended to the highest distinctions of the service, culti- vated the language and literature of the Hindus with singular ability, untiring diligence, and unrivalled success. Succeeding to the posi-
19
_tion occupied by Sir William Jones, he proved himself worthy to be his successor, as, if he brought with him to the study an inferior order of scholastic attainments, and a less poetical imagination, he surpassed that distinguished orientalist in the profundity and ex- actitude with which he accomplished all he attempted, and for which he was indebted to a severer turn of thought and a predilection for scientific and mathematical investigation. At the time at which the College of Fort William was established, Mr. Colebrooke held the important office of one of the Judges of the High Court of Appeal of Bengal, but the interest which he felt in the institution induced him to allow himself to be named as Professor of Hindu Law and the Sanskrit Language, and he acted for some time as Examiner in the Persian, Hindustani, Bengali, and Sanskrit Languages. From his connexion with the College originated the grammar now noticed, which was published in 1805.
Mr. Colebrooke’s ‘ Sanskrit Grammar’ forms a small folio volume, extended beyond its due proportion by the same circumstance which magnified the bulk of Dr. Carey’s work—the unnecessary size of the Devanagari types. The general arrangement is much the same as that of Dr. Carey, being regulated by the nature of the subjects explained. There are many essential varieties however in the de- tails. The letters, their several powers, and the changes which they undergo in connexion with each other, are first described. Then follows the declension of nouns. Three chapters succeed, of which one treats of the genders of nouns, one of the formation of the feminine gender, and one of indeclinables. The rest of the work is occupied with the general rules of conjugation, exemplified by a rich collection of the Paradigms, in more or less detail, of all the verbs of the first conjugation, as derived from the best standard authorities, whose variations are carefully pointed out in accompa- nying annotations. No further portion of the grammar was ever published, Mr. Colebrooke considering that, after other entire grammars had been provided, it was not necessary to finish his own work, and his time and interest being engaged in other occupations and inquiries. The only materials which he seems to have collected were the remaining conjugations of the simple verbs, of which he gave the author a manuscript copy. The Paradigms were less fully developed than they would have been if they had been designed for publication. The subjects of derivation, composition and syntax were untouched, much to the regret of all those who are familiar with Mr. Colebrooke’s labours in various departments of Hindu lite- rature and science.
The grammar of Mr. Colebrooke, like that of Dr. Carey, is based upon the writings of Hindu grammarians. He has followed however the authorities of a different school, that of which Benares is consi- dered to be the high seat, and which in its origin is more ancient than the school of Bengal. He has consequently adopted their terminology in the technicalities which he employs and the precepts which he enunciates, but he has arranged the rules according toa classification of his own. The technical language of his rules, as of those of Carey’s grammar, is startling and perplexing to a European
; c2
20
student, and almost incomprehensible without the aid of an inter- preter. The difficulty here also is enhanced by the want of conti- guous examples, by which the rules may be at once illustrated and rendered intelligible. The examples are in a different and some- times in a distant part of the volume, and although references are sometimes specified numerically, yet they are not always inserted, and are never of ready applicability from the nature of the divisions into books, chapters and sections. Thus, as an example both of the phraseology and of the separation of rule and illustration, let us take the following—it is one out of some hundreds. Section 7. chap- ter iv. of Book I. treats of the permutations of finals. Rule I. runs thus :—‘‘ A blank (dopa) is substituted for n final of a crude noun that is denominated pada, except the vocative singular, unless in the neuter gender.” Now here we have first the theoretical peculiarity that a letter is said not to be elided or expunged, but a blank is said to be substituted for it; and secondly, the use of the term pada, by which is meant the crude noun before all inflexional terminations beginning with a consonant, exclusive of those of the nominative case in the three numbers, and of the accusative singular and dual, and also before affixes forming derivatives, and before other nouns forming compounds. ‘The first application of this rule occurs after an inter- val of forty pages, under the declension of nouns ending in 2, as rdjan, a king, which loses its final π, agreeably to the precept, be- fore the inflexional terminations beginning with consonants, as ra- jabhis, by kings; rajasu, in or amongst kings; but keeps it in the vocative, as rajan, oh king. The other applications do not occur in the volume at all, as the work does not comprehend the construction of derivatives and compounds, in which the final of rdjan is equally lost, as rdjya and rdjatva, royalty ; rdja-dherma, the duty of a king. Had these exemplifications been attached to the rule, the obscurity would have been dissipated, and a definite and permanent impression of a very extensively useful precept would have been effected. Where, however, familiarity with the arrangement and with the phraseology is acquired, Mr. Colebrooke’s grammar becomes of inestimable value from its extreme precision and remarkable com- prehensiveness. The rules provide most accurately, and in the shortest possible space, for every contingency of inflexion, whether of nouns or verbs.
Although not exactly in the order of publication, yet it will be convenient, whilst yet in the regions of the East, to notice two other productions of the Calcutta press upon the subject of Sanskrit grammar. The first of these was as early in point of compilation as either of its predecessors, having been prepared in 1804. The author, Mr. Forster, declares however, that subsequently to the ap- pearance of the grammars of Carey and Cvulebrooke, he was so sensible of the-inferiority of his own that he had allowed it to slum- ber longer in the press than was necessary, with a view to its eventual suppression. Mr. Forster was also a member of the Civil Service of Bengal, and was a distinguished Bengali scholar. He was a man of a vigorous and active mind, but without Mr. Colebrooke’s scholarship and perspicacity, and of a more mechanical than even
41 methodical turn. His work is entitled, ‘ An Essay on the Principles
of Sanskrit Grammar*,’ and is illustrative of the author’s peculiari-
ties, displaying great labour and considerable ingenuity. It is, toa great extent, an attempt to give a tabular form to Sanskrit grammar, the exemplifications of the rules for the permutation of letters, the inflexions of declension and conjugation, and the development of derivative verbs and nouns, being collected in tables to which the rules refer. The construction of these tables, the relations that some of them bear to others, and the connexion between them and the rules they exemplify, are not always happily contrived, and the com- plex and troublesome system of the references from the rules to the tables, and from one table to another, renders the work wholly un- available for elementary study. It cuntains however a vast number of useful specifications, and may be occasionally consulted with benefit by riper students. The work, as far as printed, comprises the usual divisions of the grammar; but it was the intention of the author to have given a second volume, in which he was to have in- serted a translation of the ‘ Mugdhabodha,’ the native grammar, which is the standard authority in Bengal, and which is ascribed to Vopadeva, a grammarian of the twelfth centuryt.
The other Sanskrit grammar published in Calcutta is of compara- tively recent date. It is the work of Mr. Yates, a member of the Baptist mission, a body which for its number has furnished a greater proportion of first-rate Sanskrit and Bengali scholars than any other class of persons in Bengal. Mr. Yates’s grammar is constructed
' upon the plan of popular European grammars, with a view to the
simplification of the system and abridgement of time and labour in theacquirement. He has not altogether failed in his object, although it may be doubted if the principles of popular vernacular grammar be applicable to so copious and complicated a language as Sanskritt. Mr. Yates’s grammar forms a moderately sized octavo volume, and may be consulted with facility. It does not seem to have made much way in Europe, its necessity having been superseded by simi- lar productions in this part of the world. At no time however, not eyen at the present, do any of the publications of the Anglo-Indian press penetrate through what may be termed, to use an Indian illustration, the bound-hedge of English literature.
When the Asiatic Society of Calcutta was first instituted, and for a few years following, the inquiries of our countrymen into the lan- guages and literature of India seem to have excited some attention and interest. Much of this was owing to the European reputation of Sir William Jones, acquired in an English university, and main- tained by his correspondence on oriental subjects with the most emi- nent of the continental orientalists. The novelty of the objects in- vestigated, and the attractive though erroneous tendency of some of the Society’s fancied verifications of ancient mythology and scrip-
* 1 vol. 4to, Caleutta, 1810. Reviewed by Bopp in the ‘ Heidelberg Jahr- bucher, 1818,’ No. xxx.
T There is, in the library of Trinity College, Cambridge, a neatly written copy of Mr. Forster’s essay, including, it is believed, the materials of the second portion of his work.
} Indische Bib., vol. ii. p. 11.
22
tural history, contributed also to awaken and to keep interest alive. The public mind was also then at leisure to receive new impressions, as little of novelty or importance in literature was offered for its amusement or instruction about the period when the first volume of the ‘ Asiatic Researches’ appeared, or in 1788. Ina very brief time, however, came the all-absorbing interest of the momentous events springing from the revolution in France, and when literature revived it assumed a more inviting form than archeological conjecture, or philological speculation, busying itself with a distant people and remote antiquity. It is not surprising therefore that no note was taken of the grammatical labours of Englishmen residing in the East, and that they found their way slowly and with difficulty even to the few who stood in need of their aid and longed for their ap- pearance. A striking instance of this occurs in the case of the late Professor Chezy, who until 1810 had not heard of the existence of Carey’s ‘ Sanskrit Grammar.’ In the preface to his excellent edition and translation of ‘Sakuntala’ he has described, in an animated and interesting tone, the wretched means and the unremitting applica- tion by which he acquired his first knowledge of Sanskrit, and the delight with which he welcomed the bulky volume of Carey, and the more elegant and available grammar of Wilkins, which had been published in London at the end of 1808*.
The publication of the grammar of the late Sir Charles Wilkins constitutes an important era in the annals of Sanskrit philology. Its European origin and complexion, its distinct and elegant typo- graphy, and the higher merits of method and perspicuity, recom- mended its contents to the notice of continental scholars, and tempted as well as enabled them to embark in a study from which they had previously been repelled by the uncouth form and inade- quate structure of the vessels provided for their conveyance. From the appearance of the grammar of Wilkins may be dated the impulse given to the cultivation of Sanskrit, and, as an obvious consequence, of comparative philology, both in France and Germany, and the somewhat tardy, though it is to be hoped not unpromising emula- tion which the labours of the philologists of the continent have at length aroused amongst ourselves.
Sir Charles Wilkins, like Colebrooke and Forster, reflects lustre upon the civil service of Bengal. Stimulated and encouraged by the example of Mr. Halhed, also a Bengal civilian,—the first English- man who directed his attention to Sanskrit—although better known by his grammar of the Bengali language, Mr. Wilkins engaged about the year 1778 with ardour in the study, and, in despite of the absence of all elementary assistance, soon became profoundly acquainted with the structure of the language, and with its standard literature. An undeniable proof of the success which had rewarded his diligence was manifested in 1784 by the publication of his translation of the
* “Ta bibliothéque du roi possédait bien a la vérité un essai informe du gram- maire, un manuscrit composé a ce que, je crois, par quelque Missionnaire Por- tugais, mais ne renfermant que le paradigme du verbe substantif, le tableau de déclinaisons, une partie du vocabulaire d’Amera et une liste des dhatous; le tout fourmillant d’erreurs les plus grossiéres.”
|
23
_ philosophical episode from the ‘ Mahabharata,’ the ‘ Bhagavad Gita,’ which was printed in London under the patronage of the Court of Directors, at the recommendation of the most illustrious Governor-
| general that British India ever obeyed, Warren Hastings. The dif-
ficulty of acquiring the knowledge of a difficult language, such as Sanskrit, without any other appliances and means than grammars and lexicons in the language itself, and preceptors ignorant of English, and unfamiliar with our notions of elementary tuition, can be conceived by none but those who have been placed in similar circumstances. Fortunately the author’s experience of the difficulty was brief, for had not the grammar of Sir C. Wilkins come to his
_ rescue, whilst guessing at the obscurities of the ‘ Mugdhabodha’
through the equally puzzling interpretation of a Pandit, he would
_ probably have relinquished the task in despair. Such as it was, the
experiment qualified him to do justice to the perseverance and in- dustry by which his precursors in the path have enabled others to follow their route. Upon the return of Mr. Wilkins to England, he brought with him translations of three popular native grammars, and from these, and other original authorities, he compiled a gram- mar, of which the first pages were printed, in 1795. The types of the ‘ Devanagari’ letters employed were cut and cast under his per- sonal direction ; and for the more accurate execution of the work he set up a printing press in his own house. When his preparations were complete, and, as stated, the first pages of the grammar were
_ printed, the house was set on fire; the manuscript books, matrices
and punches were saved, but the types and press were destroyed, and the prosecution of the work was stopped. So many causes of delay retarded its resumption, that Mr. Wilkins at last had deter- mined to abandon his design, when the establishment of the East India College at Haileybury supplied him with a sufficient induce- ment to renew and complete his labours. The grammar was accor- dingly finished, and was published towards the close of 1808.
The general plan of Wilkins’s grammar is, like that of his pre- decessors, suggested by the arrangement of native grammarians. To the alphabet and laws of Sandhi succeed the declension of nouns in the order of their final letters, and then the declension of pro- nouns. The conjugation of verbs, simple and derivative, follows, and then the formation of participles and analogous nouns. The remaining chapters treat of the formation of miscellaneous derivative nouns, of indeclinable words, of the construction of compounds, and of the genders of nouns, and the work ends with the syntax.
The main objects which Mr. Wilkins professes to have had in view in the classification of his grammar and the enunciation of its precepts, are perspicuity and correctness, and it must be admitted that, with some few exceptions of comparatively trivial importance, he has accomplished both. The principal defects of the grammar are an insufficient provision of general principles, and in some re- spects an inconvenient classification. The examples are numerous, and for the most part well selected, but the rules which they ex- emplify do not adequately define existing analogies of construction, a knowledge of which is essential to reduce, connect and simplify
24
what in its present state appears as a somewhat unwieldy and un- retainable mass of incoherent details. An unnecessary multiplica- tion of declensions is one consequence of this want of a connecting principle. In the conjugation of the verbs the separation of the four tenses, to which the analogy of conjugational modification is restricted, from the other six tenses, which according to the author are common to all conjugations, scatters the component members of an individual body over a number of pages, so as to render it a mat- ter of extreme difficulty, and to a beginner almost an impossibility, to trace and reunite them so as to form an entire verb. It is to be remarked, as a consequence of this plan, that the whole grammar does not furnisli a solitary example of an entire verb inflected throughout in its various moods, tenses, and persons, an omission that is particularly embarrassing to a beginner. In regard to the indefinite preterite tense, one of the most perplexing parts of con- jugation, an attempt has beem made to reduce its multiform con- struction to a fixed number of modes, but not with much success, as no general principle has been laid down, whilst it-is very evident that all the essential modifications are resolvable into no more than two, or that this tense comprehends the preter-pluperfect and the aorist past—the inflexions of each of which are diversified upon principles not difficult to be detected. The chapters on the deriva- tion of words are totally devoid of method, and it might be objected to them that the examples are needlessly copious, but that, as no printed dictionary of the language existed when the grammar was published, this copiousness of words was of infinite value, as in some degree supplying the deficiency. Finally, it may be objected to the chapter on syntax, that it is not so ample as could be wished,.nor are the illustrations in general interesting or striking; notwith- standing these exceptions, however, the justice of which may pos- sibly be with reason called in question, the grammar of Sir C. Wil- kins is undeniably a work of great merit and utility, and must ever be regarded as of standard authority *.
The facilities now afforded by the grammatical works on Sanskrit published in the English language, were immediately and zealously applied by men of the highest literary character upon the continent to the acquirement of a knowledge of the language and literature of the Hindus. ‘The success that attended their diligence was speedily displayed in the publication of various interesting disquisitions, either
* Schlegel thus speaks of it: “ Finally, Wilkins has with uncommon clearness and ingenuity reduced, if I may use the expression, the Algebra of Sanskrit gram- mar to familiar arithmetic. It is true that we miss many things in his book, the absence of which, considering the large scale on which the work is pfanned, cannot well be excused. His terminology also is not always happily chosen, but neverthe- less, as a beginning, the grammar is exceedingly convenient and serviceable.” — Ind. Bib, Burnouf observes: ‘ Parmi ces ouvrages (the different Anglo-Sanskrit grammars) c’est encore celui de Wilkins qu’on peut consulter avec le plus de fruit, et, quelques reproches que l’on soit en droite de lui adresser, il reste encore comme un beau monument du savoir de la patience de l’auteur.”—Journ. As. Mai 1825. He quotes also Chezy’s opinions, as expressed in the ‘ Moniteur,’ 1810, No. 30, and says, “ qu’il n’a pas trop dit quand il parle de l’étonnante perfection qui régne dats ce travail, et quand il ajoute que malgré quelques fautes il n’est pas moins digne de l’admiration et de la reconnaissance des savants,”
25
. upon subjects of a general nature, or the structure and affinities of
:
the language, especially by those accomplished scholars, Frederick and Augustus Schlegel, by Professor Chezy of Paris, Bopp of Ber- lin, and Frank of Munich. Some time, however, elapsed before a complete Sanskrit grammar was attempted.
The first Sanskrit grammar published on the continent, after the publication of Wilkins’s grammar in England, and the arrival in Europe of the grammars published in Calcutta, was the work of
‘the late Professor Othmar Frank*, then attached to the University of Wurtzburgh, a scholar of the most extensive erudition, and a critic of the most candid and amiable temperament, but whose judgment was sometimes carried away by that turn for metaphysical specula- tion which is not uncommon amongst his countrymen. From the cultivation of Persian literature and philosophy he passed with avidity to Sanskrit philology and metaphysics, and in the former de- partment took the lead in the compilation of a grammar for German students. It was written in Latin, and published at Wurtzburgh in 1823. The want of a fount of moveable types compelled the author to have recourse to lithography to represent the Devanagari letters ; and as they were not written in the best style, nor always accu- rately, they are very injurious to the appearance of the volume and inconvenient in use. Professor Frank acknowledged his obligations to the works of Colebrooke and Wilkins, but he had also consulted the original grammars printed in Calcutta, which by this time had reached Europe—the ‘ Sutras’ of Panini, and the ‘ Siddhanta Kaumudi.’ He has however chiefly followed the arrangement of Wilkins, modifying, it may be doubted if judiciously, the order of the declensions, and abridging, but not always improving, the chap- ters on conjugation and derivation. He is equally deficient in the enunciation of general principles, and his rules are assertions of the bare fact that words assume certain forms, without any attempt te explain how or why. His principal additions consist of tables exhi- biting the inflexional changes of nouns and verbs in a convenient and readily-consultable manner. The table of conjugations however limits the paradigms of nine out of the ten classes of verbs to the persons of the present tense of the indicative mood, and is of pro- portionably restricted usefulness. This part of the grammar is open to the objection made to that of Wilkins, that the tenses are distri- buted in various places, accordingly as they are formed, with what Prof. Frank denominates primary or secondary inflexions, and that no example is given in the whole grammar of an entire verb. Prof. Frank has taken some pains to explain the meaning of the principal grammatical terms used by native grammarians, derived chiefly from Carey. He has also attempted to build upon the doctrines of the original authorities a theory of the language genetally, and of the analogous construction and offices of the different parts of speech, but he has not developed his views in sufficient detail, or with suffi- cient distinctness, to admit of their being fully comprehended; and it may be doubted, as he has not specified his authorities, whether
* “ Grammatica Sanskrita: edidit Othmarus Frank.” ¢ “ Flexus primi:” “ F. secundarii.”
26
the original grammarians have any where suggested, what he imagines he discovers in them, a typical genius of the language, or its relation to the distinctions of matter and spirit. Speculations of this nature were favourite themes with Prof. Frank, and have sometimes perhaps im- paired the beneficial results of his unquestionable abilities, industry, and learning.
The grammar by which German scholars have been chiefly intro- duced to the acquirement of Sanskrit in their several universities, is that of Prof. Bopp of Berlin. This, which was originally written in German*, was published in parts at the several dates of 1824, 1825, and 1827. The Professor’s own Latin version} of the more considerable portion was published in 1829, and the remainder, with some emendations and improvements, in 1832. The grammar was again published in an abridged and amended form in 1834. This last edition is, like the first, in German.
The first German edition, and the first part of the Latin version, were founded, the author states, upon the grammars of Wilkins and Forster; and he expresses his opinion that the structure of the language may be more fully developed from the materials which they furnish than from any advantage or assistance derivable from the study of the native Sanskrit grammarians. This avowed deprecia- tion of the authorities on which the works that served Prof. Bopp as guides were declaredly based}, contrasted with the title he had given to his own work of ‘ A Critical Grammar,’ has exposed him to some rather severe animadversion on the part of his countrymen ; one good effect of which, however, was to induce Prof. Bopp to di- rect his attention to the original grammar of Panini at least, and to enrich the second portion of his Latin version, and the second Ger- man edition of his work, with many important observations derived from that source. It may be doubted, however, if the prejudice which he seems to have early contracted against native grammarians has not been injurious to the comprehensiveness of his views and the perspicuity of his arrangement.
Although entitled an abridgement, the last German edition of Prof. Bopp’s ‘ Grammar’ can scarcely be regarded as an abbreviation, except typographically. It is printed in a smaller type and more compact shape, but it contains much additional matter, and the dif- ferences which it exhibits are rather alterations than omissions or eurtailments. The grammar has, in fact, been remodelled in many important respects, and so materially improved, that it may be con- sidered to have superseded the earlier editions ;—as it oe presents the author’s latest conclusions upon the subject, it will be sufficient to confine our attention to a brief notice of this particular pub- lication.
* “ Ausfiirliches Lehrgebaude der Sanskrit Sprache.”
+ “ Grammatica Critica Lingue Sanskrite.”
t ‘Cum grammaticam hanc conscribere instituerem, magnaque viderem Wilkinsii et Forsteri de lingua ,Sanskrita merita, facile intellexi, has litteras non tam accura- tiori et copiosiori Grammaticorum indigenarum studio augeri et adjuvari posse, quam libera adhibita critica arte, que rationem et leges, quibus lingua in forma- tionibus suis sit usa, examinare et explicare studeat.”
27
The general arrangement of Bopp’s ‘ Grammar’ conforms to that of
- Wilkins’s, but differs in some of the details. To the account of the
alphabet succeed the rules of literal combination, or Sandhi, or as they are termed of Euphony. Under this head, however, Bopp has included changes not simply euphonic, nor properly comprised within the limits of combination as proposed by the original grammarians. The terms Sandhi or Sanhita, which are applied to this portion of grammar, both denote a holding together, a coalescence or com- bination, which can, of course, alone take place between two or more letters when they are in contact or contiguity. The object proposed by such laws of combination, is to avoid any harshness or hiatus occasioned by the actual or proximate concurrence of incongruous sounds. Prof. Bopp has extended his rules to changes which occur in single letters in the middle of words, having no regard whatever to the sounds by which they are preceded or followed, but depend- ent upon inflexional provisions, upon laws affecting declension and conjugation. How far these are to be treated as merely euphonic changes may admit of question, but most assuredly they are not changes resulting from the contact or contiguity of incongruous let- ters, and are so far inconsistently included under the denomination Sandhi. It may be convenient to bring these literal changes together under one head, and anticipate in some degree the laws of inflexion ; but on the other hand, it confounds things essentially different, and is a departure from the precision and simplicity of the original system.
Y Gates remarks on the character of Sanskrit roots, and the pre- positions with which they combine to form compound verbs, precede the chapters on declension. In the earlier editions, Prof. Bopp, after specifying the general principles upon which nouns were inflected, classed them under six declensions, but in the last edition he has re- duced these to one, to which he has subjoined a long series of what he designates as irregular nouns, classing them in the order of the declensions of Wilkins according to their final letters. The reduc- tion of all nouns to one declension is perfectly consistent with the doctrines of the native grammarians and with their scheme of ter- minations, which is more or less applicable to every case of nominal. inflexion. It may be doubted, however, if the irregular nouns of Bopp: ean be always regarded as deviations from the rule, and their being given separately prevents their analogy of construction, mutually or universally, from being so evident as it might be. There are two principal sources of varieties in inflexion, changes of those letters or syllables which are subjoined to the inflective word or base to express cases or persons, and changes of the inflective word or base itself. The former constitute the essence of declension, and there is little irregularity in them. The changes of the base are peculiar either to individuals or to classes of nouns, but in the latter are founded on common principles, and these can scarcely be denominated irregu- larities. Prof. Bopp has not thought it necessary to advert to this distinction, attaching little or no importance to the scheme of ter- minations given in original grammars ; he has looked to the inflected noun, not in its elements, but as a whole, and has considered any
28
special modifications which it may undergo as deviations from general rules. This method is, no doubt, more conformable to European notions, but it appears to be less simple and less easy of recollection than that of the original authorities.
The declensions of adjectives, numerals and pronouns follow those of substantive nouns, and useful tables are inserted in all the editions exhibiting the forms of various nouns in their several cases, in a con- venient and serviceable manner.
The subject of conjugation is next treated of. More importance is here attached to the technical inflexional terminations of the ori- ginal system than was assigned to those of declension. It may be questioned however if even in this instance the terminations are suf- ficiently prominent. There is also a departure from the technical scheme even as represented by Wilkins, in omitting without remark the indicatory letters of the terminations, that is, certain letters added to the actual termination which are not used to construct the inflexions, but which denote certain invariable modifications of the base to which the inflexional terminations are attached. Thus the terminations of the three persons singular of the present tense are called by Bopp mi, si, ti; in original works they are mip, sip, tip. The p is indicatory, signifying that, for the radical vowel of the base, a Guna letter or diphthong is to be substituted, which substi- tution does not take place before the terminations of the dual vas, thas, tas, or of the plural mas, tha, anti. It is true that this is an instance of what Schlegel calls the Algebra of Sanskrit grammar, and the use of such indicatory letters is purely technical and arbitrary. But what else than technical and arbitrary are significant words when they are employed in a specific and conventional acceptation ? Instead of the Sanskrit sign P, the presence of which requires a definite change, and the absence of which prohibits that change,. Prof. Bopp is obliged to propose different words for the two contin- gencies, and to give to those words significations which they do not naturally bear, in order to apply them to the object in view, and which senses are in this application of the words merely conven- tional. Those personal terminations before which the vowel of the base may be changed he calls light—/eichte—leves ; those before which it is unchanged he terms heavy—schwere—graves. It is obvious that these terms can convey, ἃ priori, a no more precise notion of the in- fluence exercised by the terminations upon the base than any given letter or syllable. Until explained, their purport is unintelligible, and they have this disadvantage, that when explained. their fitness is liable to be disputed. What is the meaning of a light or heavy syllable? Why is mi lighter than mas, ti than tha? The single indicatory letter, the algebraic sign, has its conventional significancy and no other, and its intentiom being once defined, it cannot be mis- taken or misapplied. However unphilosophical therefore it may be thought, the short-hand of the Sanskrit grammarians has in these respects a decided advantage over the proposed designations. It has its own office and no other.
In the classification he first adopted, Prof. Bopp distributed the verbs amongst four conjugations. In his last work he reduces the
29
.. number to two, which is an improvement. He follows however, in
regard to the tenses, the same course as Wilkins, dividing the four conjugationals, which he calls special, from the other six, which he terms general. The rules which he prescribes for the structure of the former under their several classes or conjugations, are illustrated by comparatively few examples, but he has added useful tables of the personal terminations of both orders of tenses, so that the con- struction of a complete verb may be effected with comparative facility. It is however in this part of Sanskrit grammar that the only serious difficulty lies. The peculiarities in the modifications of verbal bases, not of the terminations, are so numerous and anomalous, that when they are scattered over a wide space, and are to be picked up piece-meal, they are very apt to elude the search, and slip from the recollection of the student. It seems preferable therefore to adopt the arrangement observed by Mr. Colebrooke with regard to the first class of verbs, and give examples of all those most frequently recurring, in paradigms, more or less copious, according to the circumstances of each verb. The peculiarities of every verb are thus brought together under their common original, and that may be readily remembered as a whole which can scarcely be acquired by the separate contem- plation of its disjecta membra. Prof. Bopp seems to have felt this difficulty, and in order to enable the student of his Grammar to ad- vert more promptly to an anomalous construction in various in- stances, he has added to the conjugations an alphabetical list of what he terms irregular verbs, with numerical references to the paragraph in which the irregularity is described. The cases may be thus more easily referred to, no doubt, but such reference implies previous knowledge of the irregularity. The reader must know, for instance, that the verb Anja does offer an anomaly, before he attempts to find what that anomaly may be. In fact, he must have already learnt, although he may have forgotten it, and the index is therefore only a supplement to the recollection. Upon the whole, although it cannot be denied that Prof. Bopp’s treatment of this branch of his subject is much more satisfactory than that of his predecessors, Mr. Colebrooke excepted, it leaves much to be desired.
As a specimen of Prof. Bopp’s mode of dealing with the conjuga- tion of Sanskrit verbs, the following view which he takes of the per- sonal inflexions may be cited.
1. ‘‘ The characteristic signs of the persons are the following :— The first person has in the singular and plural m, and in the dual v, the connection of which, with the essential elements of the first per- sonal pronoun, or m in different cases of the singular, and v in the nominatives of the dual and plural numbers, as explained in a preceding passage, is very obvious. In the imperative singular of the active voice the first person substitutes 2 for m, and the deponent voice drops the consonant in all the persons of the singular number, so that md becomes e; ma becomes a; mi, i and ai are substituted for mai or nai. The syllable as in the plural ending mas, is, I doubt not, identical with the termination of the plural nominative of as, so that the personal endings of the verb correspond as to their purport to the nominatives of nouns. The termination mas is therefore tu be
30
resolved into m and as, and the latter appears also in the terminations of the first person dual vas, as ad-vas, we two eat.
«« The dual termination of the nominatives of nouns, or au, is derived from as, of which it is merely an emphatic amplification. (Comp. Gr. § 206.) The abbreviated terminations ma, va, in the subordi- nate tenses, are dependent upon the unabridged terminations mas, vas, as neuters on masculines and feminines. (Ibid. § 231.) As neuter, and in fact dualistic, the dual endings of the middle voice dthe, dte, are in my opinion to be considered as agreeing with the nominative dual of regular neuter nouns, the primitive of which ends in a. So ¢e from dte is identical with the isolated pronoun fe, they or those two, formed from ta with the affix’ Also fe and the agree with the masculine nominatives plural of the pronouns through the analogies comprehended in rule 243-4.
2. **The second person has, through all varieties of number and tense, these characteristic elements, ¢, th, dhv, dh, h, sv, s, of which the last is the widest deviation from the pronominal primitives tva, tve, subordinate from ¢e (in like manner as ov is formed out of τυ, and σι third person out of τι); the closest analogy to the pronoun being dhve, dhvam, of the Atmanepada, the v of which, again, in the second person of the imperative singular is connected with s, as sva. S in truth predominates in the singular, as ¢udasi, thou tormentest ; atudas, thou hast tormented, &c. Th and dd are common substitu- tions for ¢, as prathama for pra-tama, the first; adh-ara for a-tara, lower; and adhama for a-tama, lowest: as further exemplifications of these in the second person take the following. From ἐμά, active voice, second preterite, second person singular, twtoditha; present, second person dual, tudathas ; plural, tudatha ; middle voice, present, second person plural, tudadhve; imperfect, second person singular, tudasva. Ad in the second person singular imperative makes ad-dhi. The transition of as into the dual ending thas, and as in the third person into tas, depends upon the same principle as the formation of mas and vas in the first person of the plural and dual numbers, that is, it is the annexation of the plural termination of the nomi- native case of nouns to the especial sign of the third personal pro- noun, as they were of the same termination to the signs of the first and second personal pronouns m and v.
3. “The third person has, in the three numbers in both voices where the terminations undergo no contraction, the letter ¢ for its characteristic element, the conformity of which with the pronominal t, is as open as day. The development of dm in the dual of the potential, &c., we elucidate through the principle of dvdm, we two ; yu-vdm, ye two; as also in the second and third persons of the Atmanepada, the endings dthdm and dtdm.”
The chapters on conjugation in Prof, Bopp’s grammar contain some interesting analogies between the Sanskrit and Greek inflexions of the verb, but these belong to the subject of comparative philology. There is also some bold and ingenious theorizing upon the construc- tion of some of the general tenses, such as the two futures and the conditional, which he regards as compounded, not simple tenses ; also of the complete development of the substantive verb as, esse, to be ;
31
which is always considered elsewhere as defective. Some of Prof.
_Bopp’s views are rather startling at first, but they are not therefore to be hastily rejected, and may upon further investigation prove to be well-founded.
Consideration is also due to Bopp’s theory of the formation of the infinitive mood, which Sanskrit grammarians always treat as a verbal derivative indeclinable noun; also to his views of the formation of the indeclinable past participle ending in twé and ya, and the ad- verbial participle ending inam, ll these are regarded by Bopp as the objective or instrumental cases of nouns, of which the other cases are defective or obsolete, although traceable possibly in the
᾿ς ancient Sanskrit of the Vedas, of which he has given some proofs ; _ others may be perhaps discovered when our acquaintance with the _ texts of the Vedas is more extensive.
After disposing of those derivatives, which are commonly held by us to be parts of a verb, the Grammar proceeds to describe other ver- bal derivatives, to which, as well as to the preceding, Bopp gives the name of Primitives. To them succeed derivative words formed from nouns, as patronymics, possessives, and the like. In both classes he has, adopted an arrangement equally simple and convenient—an al-
phabetical list of the suffixes employed by native grammarians to
ra ὑκῶνν derivative upon primitive words, illustrated by examples of the words formed upon this principle. In doing this, however, Prof. Bopp has omitted what might by.some be considered as the most useful part of the classification. These suffixes, as well as _ those used in forming the inflexions of declension and conjugation, are composed of two elements, the letter or letters which are really added to or substituted for the original ending of the base, and a letter or letters which are merely indicatory of certain changes in the body of the base: the latter Prof. Bopp omits. Thus, in the first part of his Taddhita, or nominal derivatives, he gives the letter a as forming patronymics, abstracts, collectives and adjectives from primitive nouns, as vdsishtha, son of Vasishtha; sauhrida, friend- ship, from suhrid, a friend; kdpota, a flock of pigeons, from kapota, a pigeon; rdjata, silver or silvery, from rajata, the metal, silver. In these examples it will be noticed the original short vowel of the base is transmuted to a long vowel or diphthong; it is exchanged, in technical language, for its vriddhi, or augmented substitute. The rule that says such change takes place has to provide for each se- parate case separately, but in the notation of the original scheme it is a general rule that an indicatory nasal of the cerebral class in any suffix whatever denotes the increase or vriddhi of the vowel of the base. Accordingly, the affix is here said to be not a, but af, the n _ being the indicatory, the a the essential element; consequently, an being applied to the words particularized, a is either added to or substituted for the proper termination of the primitive, the radical vowel of which also undergoes a definite modification. There is another important consideration to recommend the preservation of the indicatory letter. The essential letter of a suffix may be the same, but the effect upon the base may be different ; in one instance its addition may require, in another prohibit, any change of the
32
radical vowel; two opposite results proceeding from the same ad- junct as it stands in Bopp’s scheme. The cause of the difference is at once seen when the indicatory letter is inserted and its influence is known. Derivatives formed with a alone may or ‘may not change the vowel of the base, but those formed with an do require the change; those formed with an, or a, and the nasal of the guttural class of consonants, never admit it. Siva with ah makes saiva; chiti with az makes chintd. It would therefore have been of benefit to the student, as furnishing him with a key to similarity and dis- similarity of derivation, if the indicatory had been added to the es- sential elements in the alphabetical lists of the suffixes.
The chapters on derivation are followed by those on compound nouns and indeclinables; no chapter on syntax is included in either of the editions. The author in the first edition announced his pur- pose of delaying it until after the publication of the glossary to his edition of-Nalus. It has not yet however appeared, and no notice is taken of the omission in the last edition. The subject could not fail to derive interesting and important elucidation from Prof. Bopp, although, as he justly observes, Sanskrit syntax may be disposed of in a very moderate compass, as the principles of construction arg for the most part conformable to those of general grammar or the gram- mars of kindred languages, and rarely deviate from the limits pre- scribed by the nature of - own copious and perfect system of gram- matical forms*.
From this brief and necessarily imperfect sketch of the Sanskrit grammar of Prof. Bopp, it will no doubt be evident that he has treated the subject with profound attention, and has given to San- skrit students a most valuable and instructive work. The last edition is in particular to be recommended as a compendious and comprehensive guide to the study of Sanskrit grammar, and it fully merits the character which was given to the first edition of it by another distinguished German scholar and critic, Prof. Lassen, when, adverting to the authorities which Prof. Bopp professed to have fol- lowed, he described it as more systematic than the grammar of Wilkins, more perspicuous than that of Forster, and more concise than either.
But one other grammar remains to be mentioned, concerning which the author can say little, as it is his own. It was pub- lished in 1841. Its especial object is to render the acquirement of Sanskrit easy to beginners. How far this is effected remains to be determined. From the remarks which have been hazarded upon some portions of Prof. Bopp’s Grammar, it will be readily inferred that the author has made more use than Prof. Bopp has done of the methods of native grammarians, and he has only to hope that he may not thereby have merited the sentence which was pronounced
* “Syntaxin nondum absolvere potui, ne tamen extensum hac de re opus ex- spectent lectores; Sanskrita enim lingua, apud antiquiores imprimis auctores locu- pletissime et perfectissime sue grammatice raro transgreditur fines a natura con- stitutos, ita, ut qui ea repetere noluerit que ad generalis grammatice pertinent principia, et eodem jure in cujusvis alius ex eadem familia linguee compendio locum habeant, paucis capitibus absolvat syntaxin Sanskritam,”
ω
s
33
upon Mr. Colebrooke’s Grammar, that “ whilst it is of value as an | introduction to the study of native grammars, it is insufficient and excessively obscure as a grammar of the language.” Several works connected with the objects of the grammars which have been adverted to, and which are in an especial degree sub- servient to the acquirement of the Sanskrit language, have been com- piled and published by European authors regarding the Sanskrit radicals. Lists of these are attached to Carey’s ‘ Sanskrit Grammar,’ and to his ‘ Bengali Dictionary,’ and as identical with verbs they are particularized by Wilkins and Forster. The former also published a separate work, in which the roots are arranged in alphabetical order, with the meaning as expressed in original lists, the trans- ‘lation of the original term, a short sentence illustrative of its use, and the indicatory letters denoting peculiarities of conjugation. The chief defects of this publication are occasional inaccuracies and _ general poverty of exemplification.
A work of a similar purport, but superior execution, was subse- quently published by the late Dr. Rosen, and was characterized by that ability, judgement, and learning which he displayed still more conspicuously in his edition and version of the first part of the ‘ Rig- veda,’ and which have ensured to his too brief career the admiration and regret of all Sanskrit scholars. In this compilation the roots are arranged alphabetically by their final and then their initial detters. Their Sanskrit equivalents, as given by two standard native writers, Kasinath and Vopadeva, are inserted and translated by the ‘Latin infinitive. ‘The classes in which they are conjugated are spe- _cified, and short paradigms of the principal tenses are supplied. The ‘most novel and useful feature of the work is the exemplification of the senses of the radicals as they occur in their inflected forms in short but well-chosen passages extracted from the different books which had been printed at the period when the work of Dr. Rosen was compiled. The same plan of illustration is then adapted to another and important novelty, the most useful of the compound ‘verbs, or those in which the inseparable prepositions are prefixed to the radicals, constituting the great body of the verbs that occur in ‘Sanskrit compositions. The examples are referred to the originals whence they are extracted, and are translated into Latin with fidelity and elegance.
A still more elaborate description of Sanskrit radicals has been subsequently published. It was printed at Bonn in 1841, and is the work of Mr. Westergaard, a young but distinguished scholar, whose ardour in the cause of Sanskrit has induced him to repair to India in order to prosecute his studies to still higher proficiency. He has deservedly received for this purpose the patronage of the Danish government. The materials of his list of roots were derived from this country. Mr. Westergaard laboured for some time with most extraordinary diligence in the Library of the East India Company, and drew his information and examples chiefly from the manuscript volumes of the Company’s collection. The roots are arranged alpha- betically according to their final and initial letters. The class and voice in which each is conjugated are specified, and a paradigm more
VOL. I. * D
: 34
or less complete according as authorities warrant the forms, is available. ‘The meanings are then stated and exemplified by cita- — tions from published and unpublished texts, and the structure and use of the derivative verbs are also shown and exemplified. To them succeeds the series of compound verbs according to the order of their prefixes, with passages illustrating their application. Refer- ence to the authorities whence the forms and examples are derived is constant and careful. As the examples are very numerous, and as no facilities exist in Sanskrit manuscripts, such as verbal indices, or any similar auxiliars, the labour and research by which they were collected must have been very great and persevering. They are for the most part judiciously selected, but they are not translated, and — this is a serious drawback from the value of the compilation; for passages detached from the context of a work not familiarly known — and not easily accessible, do not always admit of ready and con- fident interpretation. It would no doubt have materially augmented Mr. Westergaard’s trouble to have given translations of all the pas- sages he has quoted, but it would have proportionably enhanced the usefulness and interest of the compilation if he had followed Dr. Rosen’s example in this respect. A translation by himself is also necessary to support his rendering of the purport of a simple or compound verb, and secure its being acquiesced in by others. It is of infinite importance in the early stages of Sanskrit study, that in all books of an elementary character radical words should be ren- dered by unquestionable and unexceptionable European equivalents. When the native grammarians give the sense of a radical by a word of obvious import, then the European interpreter is tolerably safe, although even here he may be unlucky in his translation, and fail to make use of the most appropriate expression. When, however, he has to deduce the sense of a radical from his own understanding of some of its inflections as they occur in composition, and where usage, licence, or metaphor may have given their own colouring to the primitive signification, it is very possible that the translator may mistake or may be misled as to the sense, and confound a lax or general with a literal and particular meaning. It is true that Mr. Westergaard defines the sense which he ascribes to the verb that he inserts as he understands its use in the example quoted, but then comes the question whether he has understood the passage rightly ; the answer to which, although no doubt in most instances affirma- tive, may sometimes be given with doubt and hesitation.
Of subordinate contributions to the elucidation of Sanskrit gram- mar, independently of the attempts made to illustrate such original works as have been printed in Europe, or to develope the affinities of the language, the author can offer but a brief and passing in- timation. They are scattered through a variety of continental pub- lications on Oriental or general literature, many of which are little known in this country, and of various merits and character, from the Transactions of the Imperial Academy of St. Petersburgh to the ‘Mercure de France’ of Paris. Amongst the richest in articles on Sanskrit philology, not comparative, may be especially noticed a periodical conducted by the illustrious William Augustus von Schlegel,
-"
35
the ‘Indische Bibliothek,’ a work which hasbeen discontinued for some years. Its place in Germany has been latterly taken by a periodical of a more comprehensive character, ‘ Der Zeitschrift fiir die Kunde der Morgenlandes,’ embracing the literature of the East, not of India alone, and conducted by an association of the most eminent German oriental scholars. In the former of these collections may be espe- cially particularized, 1. the observationsof Prof. Schlegel himself upon the actual state of Sanskrit philology in 1820*; and 2. a general view of the state of Sanskrit literature in 1824+; 3. a remarkable and most elaborate dissertation on the verbal derivatives formed with the suffixes Ya and Twd, intended to establish their analogy to the gerunds of the Latin verb by Baron William von Humboldt; and 4. a review of Prof. Bopp’s Grammar by Prof. Lassen. in the * Zeitschrift’ we have a theory of the formation of compound nouns with the interrogative pronoun by Dr. Nesselmann, and a paper on the substitution of the cerebral for the dental nasal under certain circumstances, by Dr. Boetlingk. ‘There are no doubt communica- tions of like tendency and value in other collections with which I am unacquainted. The ‘Journal Asiatique’ of the Asiatic Society of Paris is less rich in contributions to Sanskrit philology than to other branches of Asiatic literature.
Less has been attempted in the collateral branch of lexicography : than in grammar. The character of native lexicons will be more articularly adverted to on some other occasion. It will be suf- icient at present to state that they correspond in their arrangement to vocabularies as we employ the term, rather than to dictionaries, he words being classed in them according to analogy of meaning vithout regard to alphabetical order. They omit also many words | popular currency, as being too familiar to need explanation, and
student. The best work of the class was selected at an early period ‘or publication and translation by Mr. Colebrooke. The ‘Amara Kosha,’ or lexicon of Amara Sinha, was printed at Serampore in 808, accompanied by a marginal translation into English, byillustra- ions and additions derived from the numerous commentaries on the riginal text, and by a most useful alphabetical index. A reprint of the text with a French translation at the foot of the page has re- cently been published at Paris, the work of a young and highly romising Sanskrit scholar, also prematurely lost to the cultivation Hindu literature, M. Loiseleur des Longchamps. At the same time that the vocabulary of Amara Sinha was pub- shed, a dictionary on a more extended scale, and alphabetically ar- anged, was compiled, under the instructions of Mr. Colebrooke and he immediate supervision of one of the most celebrated native holars in Bengal, by a number of Pandits. The main object of his compilation was to bring together the contents of as many of he- original Koshas, or vocabularies as were procurable, to arrange hem in alphabetical order, and add their etymology, according to ammatical authorities. Soon after its completion the author ob- ined a copy of this work, and having carefully collated all the * Vol. i. p. 1. t Vol. ii. p. 1. t Vol. i. part 4. and vol. ii. part 1. ‘ D2
36
words with the authorities whence they were taken, incorporated with them the whole of the radicals as well as other words omitted in the compilation, and transferred the etymologies from the Ben- gali to the Benares terminology. He made a translation of the work, and with the encouragement of the Bengal government pub- lished it in 1819. ‘The plan of the original compilation necessarily left many deficiencies. Shortly before he left India, however, he had an opportunity of making more extensive additions, which remedied in some degree the imperfections of the first edition, al- though no doubt still leaving many accessions to be made. This second edition was published in 1832. Such as it is, this diction- ary is the only one yet published; and although no person can be more sensible than the author how far it falls short of such a lexicon as the study of Sanskrit demands, yet he has the satis- faction of knowing that it has materially contributed to the ex- tension of a knowledge of Sanskrit in Europe. Although no other dictionary has been published, its place has in a great measure been supplied by useful glossaries attached to some of the books edited ‘by European scholars, particularly by Prof. Bopp in the glossary to his edition of ‘ Nalus,’ and Prof. Johnson of the East India College in his editions recently published of the 1st Book of the ‘ Hitopadesa,” ‘Selections from the Mahabharata,’ and ‘Megha Data.’ Prof. Bopp is also engaged upon a glossary on a large scale, of which the first part only is published. When glossaries of this kind, and when verbal indices to standard works, shall have been sufficiently multiplied, it will then be comparatively easy to compile a Sanskrit dictionary that shall place its compiler on a level with Forcellini or Stephens. The author has thus endeavoured to bring before the Society a general view of the advance that has been made in the rudi mental cultivation of Sanskrit philology; and it will probably admitted, even from this brief and imperfect notice, that, considerin the period within which the study of Sanskrit has been prosecu by Europeans, the progress has been creditable, and that no lack intelligence or activity has been displayed in clearing away the im pediments by which the first steps of the acquirement were bese The facilities provided are no doubt far from sufficient; the ap proach may still be embarrassed by perplexing labyrinths, dar passages and cumbrous obstructions; the first labours of the pionee must be necessarily rough and incomplete; but the path has bee
laid open, and it remains for succeeding exertions to smooth, t level, and to embellish it.
PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
Vou. I. FEBRUARY 10, 1843. No. 4.
3 Professor Wizson in the Chair. __ The Rev. Richard Garnett presented to the Society, Archbell’s Bechuana Grammar, Graham’s Town, Cape of Good Hope, 1837; _Macbrair’s Mandingo Grammar, Lond.; Gospel of St. Matthew in Mandingo. Lond. 1837. The following candidates were balloted for and duly elected members of the Society :-— John Scott, M.D., 12 Bedford Square. Thomas J. Clark, Esq., of the Middle Temple, and of Edmonton, Middlesex. ‘ Charles C. Atkinson, Esq., Haverstock Terrace, Hampstead.
Professor Latham then finished his paper ‘‘ Upon the Languages of the Papuan or Negrito race scattered through the Australian and other Asiatic islands.”
__ By the term Negrito is meant those tribes of the Asiatic and Australian islands, who, in one or more of their physical characters, depart from the type of the nations in their neighbourhood, and approach that of the African. The word is more comprehensive than Arafura, Andaman, or Papuan, and less comprehensive than Negro.
Of the Negrito localities the most western are—
The Andaman Islands—A Vocabulary, collected by Lieutenant R. H. Colebrooke, appears in the Asiatic Researches, vol. iv. p. 410. The native name is Mincopie. An historical notice of them appears as early as the ninth century, in the Travels of the Two Arabians, translated by Renaudot.
The Nicobar and Carnicobar Islands.—In the largest of these it is Stated that, in the interior, blacks are to be found. The current assertion concerning the language of the rest of these islands is, that the Carnicobar is Peguan, and the Nicobar Malay.—Asiatic Re- searches, iii. 303.
Malacca.—The Samangs of the interior are Negrito. For the single Vocabulary of their language, see Crawfurd’s Indian Archipe- lago, or Klaproth’s Nouveau Journal Asiatique, xii. 239, where Crawfurd’s Vocabulary is reprinted without acknowledgement. The Orang Benua are zot Negrito; neither are the Jokong Negrito. For thirty words in the latter language, see Thomas Raffles’s Asiatic Researches, xii. 109. In this list twelve words are shown by Raffles to be Malay, and Humboldt states the same of two more. The
38
other sixteen may or may not be of Negrito origin. "The Samangs
are the Orang Udai.—Humboldt, Uber die Kawi Sprache.
Sumatra.—The Battas of Sumatra are Malay, not Negrito (Mars- den’s Sumatra, p. 203, and Rienzi’s Oceanie, vol.i.). The Sumatran of Parkinson’s Journal (p. 198) is the Arabic of Acheen. ‘The true Negritos of Sumatra seem to be,
1. The Orang Cooboo.—These are stated to be pretty numerous between Palembang and Yambee.—Marsden’s Sumatra, p. 35.
2. The Orang Googoo,—who are described by the Sumatrans of Laboon as being more Orang Utang than man.—Marsden’s Sumatra, p. 35. Specimens of the Orang Googoo (Gougon) Rienzi states to have seen. He says that they come from Palembang and Menang- caboo, and he calls them Pithecomorphi.
For an historical notice as early as 960 a.p., probably referring to the Blacks of Sumatra, see Klaproth in Nouveau Journal Asiatique, xli. 239.
Borneo.—The Biajuk of Borneo is not Negrito but Malay (Craw- furd’s Indian Archipelago) ; neither are the Dyacks Negrito. The statement of Marsden and Leyden is, that the Dyacks are whiter than the rest of the natives of Borneo; and the remark of more | than one voyager is, that the Dyacks of Borneo look like South- sea Islanders in the midst of a darker population. Are the Marut, Idongs, Tidongs, or Tirungs of the north of Borneo Negrito? In Rienzi’s Oceanie there is a Borneo Vocabulary which is headed Dyack, Marut and Idaan, the three terms being treated as syno- nyms: of this Vocabulary all the words are Malay. ‘That there are Negritos in Borneo is most probable, but of their language we possess but one word, apiin, father * (and that more than doubt- ful), whilst of their name we know nothing; and in respect to their locality, we have only the statement of Kollf, that in the north of Borneo Blacks are to be found on the Keeneebaloo mountain; a statement, however, slightly modified by the fact of his calling them Idaans or Maruts (see Earl’s translation of the Voyage of the Doorga, p. 417). Compare the name Idaan in Borneo, with the name Orang Udai (applied to the Samangs) in Malacca.
The Sooloo Islands.—There are positive statements that the Soo- loos contain Negritos. They also contain Malays; as may be seen in a Sooloo vocabulary in Rienzi’s Oceanie, vol. i.
-The Manillas.—The Isola de Negros testifies its population by its name. Hervas calls it the Papua of the Philippines. In Panay are the blackest of the Philippine Negritos. Rienzi would term them Melanopygmei. In Bohol, Leyté, and Samar, there are Negritos (Lafond Lurcy, ii. 182.) ; also in Cayagan (Lafond Lurcy, ii. 182.); also in Capul or Abac (Hervas). For the two main islands there are,—Ist. In Mindanao, two wild tribes inhabiting the interior, the — Bantschilen and the Hillunas. The proof of these two tribes being Negrito is the strongest for the Hillunas. They are the Negros del Monte of the Spaniards (Hervas, Catalogo delle Lingue ; Adelung, i. 601). Near Marivéles are the Igorots or Aitas (Agtas of Hervas) ;
* Mithr. i. 598.
39
, and of these we have late and positive evidence, first to the fact of - their being Negrito, and next to the difference of their language
_ from the Tagal.—Lafond Lurcy. Secondly, in Lucon, the Zam-
balen of Adelung are Negrito. ‘These are the Blacks of Pampango. The Blacks inhabiting the other parts of the island are called Ygelots; and Mount St. Matthew, near Manilla, is one of their well-known localities, and the [loco mountains another.. Here they were visited by Lafond Lurcy. They were all alike, and all under four feet six (French measure). Italonen, Calingas, and Maitim, are
_ the names under which the Philippine Blacks have been generally
described. Agta and Maitim are said to be indigenous appellations.
_ —Hervas.
Formosa.—The Formosan language is Malay. In the interior,
_ however, are, according to the Chinese accounts,—1l, the Thou- fan; 2, the Kia-lao; 3, the Chan tchaé chan; 4, the Lang Khiao,
—aboriginal tribes with Negrito characters, each speaking a peculiar dialect.—Klaproth, Recherches Asiatiques.
The Loochoo Islands.—The current Loochoo language is Japanese (Klaproth, Rech. Asiat.). But besides this, Adelung mentions from Pére Gaubil and Gosier, that three other languages are spoken in the interior, neither Japanese nor Chinese ; and we are now, perhaps, justified in considering that, in these quarters, the fact of a lan-
guage being aboriginal, is primd facie evidence of its being Negrito. Java.—Here the evidence of an aboriginal. population at all is
_ equivocal, and that of Negrito aborigines wholly absent. For the
Kalangs, see Raffies’s History of Java. The dark complexions on the island Bali show the darkness, not of the Negrito, but of the Hindoo; such at least is the view of Raffles opposed to that of Adelung (Mith.i.). There is no notice of Blacks in Ende (other- wise Floris), in Sumbawa, or in Sandalwood Island.
Savoo.—If the Savoo of modern geographers be the Pulo Sabatu of Dampier, then there were, in Dampier’s time, Blacks in Savoo. The Savoo of Parkinson’s Journal is Malay. ᾿ Timor.—In this island Negritos were indicated by Peron. Frey- Cinet describes them. Lafond Lurcy had a Timor black as a slave. Of their language he gives four words :—manouc, bird ; vavi, woman ; pina, five; ampou, ten. All these are Malay.
Ombay.—In Freycinet’s Voyage the natives 3 of Ombay are described as having olive-black complexions, flattened noses, thick lips, and long black hair. In Arago* we find a short vocabulary, of which a few words are Malay, whilst the rest are unlike anything either in the neighbouring language of Timor (at least as known by Raffles’s specimens), or in any other language known to the author. Upon what grounds, unless it be their cannibalism, the Ombaians have been classed with the New Zealanders, is unknown. The evidence is certainly not taken from their language.
- Between Timor and New Guinea we collect, either from positive statements or by inference, that, pure or mixed, there are Negritos
* Vide Note A.
40
in at least the following islands :—1, Wetta; 2, Kissa?; 3, Serwatty?; 4, Lette? ; 5, Moa?; 6, Roma?; 7, Damma; 8, Lakor?; 9, Luan; 10, Sermatta; 11, Baba; 12, Daai; 13, Serua; 14, the Eastern Ar- roos; 15, Borassi. (Kollf’s Voy.; Earl’s Translation.) ὶ
The language of.the important island of Timor-Laut is Malay. | From a conversation with the sailor Forbes, who was on the island for sixteen years, the author learned that there are in Timor-Laut plenty of black slaves, but no black aborigines.
Celebes.—In the centre of Celebes and in the north there are Ne- gritos: the inhabitants call them Turajas, and also Arafuras: they — speak a simple dialect and pass for aborigines. (Raffles, History of Java.) Of this language we have no specimen. Gaimard’s Me- nada is the Menadu of Sir Stamford Raffles, and Raffles’s Menadu is Malay. (Voyage de l’Astrolabe, Philologie, ii. 191.) The re- mark made by the collector of this Menadu Vocabulary was, that those who spoke it were whiter than the true Bugis, and that they looked like South-Sea Islanders, a fact of value in a theory of the Dyacks, but of no value in the enumeration of the Negritos.
Bourou, Gammen, Salawatty, Battenta.—For each of these islands we have positive statements as to the existence of Negritus.
Gilolo.—In Lesson’s Natural History the inhabitants of Gilolo are classed with those of Gammen, Battenta, &c., as Negritos. The same is the case in the Mithridates, where the inference is, that in all the Moluccas, with the exception of Amboyna and Ternati, Negritos are to be found in the interior. For Guebé see the sequel.
The Teetees.—The Teetee Islands of Meares, the Jauts or Aeauw of the Mithridates, sixteen in number, are Negrito. (Meares, Voy- age, Adelung.)
Oby.—According to Adelung this island is Negrito. ᾿ The object of what has gone before is less to state where Negritos are to be found than where they are to be looked for. Hence many of the above notices indicate the probable rather than the actual presence of them ; and those statements concerning the Molucca lo- calities that are taken from systematic books (and as such at second- — hand) are all subject to one exception, viz. the fact that the tribes deseribed as Arafura, although in current language Negrito, are not necessarily so. An instance of this has been seen in the so-called — Arafura of Menadu. The same applies to the so-called Arafura of Ceram, (Handboek den Land-en-Volk-kunde van Nederlandsch Indie. P. P. Roorda van Eysinga. Amsterdam 1841; indicated by Mr. Garnett,) which is Malay. In the quarters about to be given
in detail the evidence is less exceptionable.
New Guinea.—Here there is little except Negritos; and here we meet with the name Papua. What is said of the Papuas must be said with caution. Physical conformation being the evidence, there are in New Guinea two nations, if not more than two :—1. Those of the North, with curly hair, which are subdivided into the pure Papuas, and the Papuas that are looked upon as a cross with the Malay (Quoy, Gaimard and Lesson in the French Voyages). 2. Those of the South, with lank hair, called by the French naturalists Arafuras, The
41
author was unable to determine who were meant by the Alfakis οὗ. Quoy (Durville’s Voyage, iv. 746). To the language of these Alfakis are possibly referable the ten words of Lesson. ‘These are the nu- merals, and, as might be expected, Malay. For the South of New Guinea we have not so much as a single vocabulary or a single word. Waigioo.—The Waigioo and New Guinea have been frequently confounded ; we have therefore deferred speaking of the latter until we could also deal withthe former. Without going into the conflict- ing evidence, we may state that there are two Vocabularies wherein _arm is kapiani, and three wherein arm is bramine. Of the first division we have—lst, the Vocabularies of the Uranie and Physicienne Cor- vettes, under Freycinet, in 1817, 1818, 1819, as given in Arago’s (the draughtsman’s) Narrative, p. 273, English translation; and 2ndly, the Undetermined Vocabulary of Dentrecasteaux. Dentre- casteaux, whilst at Boni in Waigioo, saw some strangers who spoke a language very different from the inhabitants of that island; he considered that they came from New Guinea. Now this language is the Waigioo of Arago* ; whilst the Waigioo of Dentrecasteaux is the Papua of Arago. Among the Vocabularies of the second class we have Gaimard’s Rawak Vocabulary, stated especially (Voyage de l’Astrolabe, Philologie, vol. ii. p. 153.) to have been collected at Rawak in Waigioo in 1818: here, arm is bramine. Nowa vocabulary (that will soon be mentioned) of the New Guinea Papuan of Port Dorey was collected during the expedition of the Astrolabe by the same naturalist, M. Gaimard. With this vocabulary Gaimard’s Rawak coincides, rather than with Arago’s Waigioo and Dentre- casteaux’s Undetermined Vocabulary. This makes the third voca- bulary for these islands. The fourth is Gaimard’s Port Dorey Vo- cabulary (Voyage de l’Astrolabe, Philologie, ii. 146.). The fifth, Dentrecasteaux’s (or La Billardigre) Waigioo Vocabulary. This re- presents the same language as those last-mentioned, inasmuch as in it arm is bramine, not kapiani. The sixth vocabulary is the Uta- nata, from Dutch authorities (vide Trans. Geogr. Soc.). The seventh is the Lobo Vocabulary.—Ibid. The eighth is Forest’s Vocabulary. See Forest’s Voyage to New Guinea. Such are the data for New Guinea and Waigioo. Dalrymple’s Vocabulary will be noticed in the sequel. * Guebé.—The Guebé Vocabulary of the Astrolabe (Philologie, ii. 157) is the Guebé of Freycinet’s Voyage in 1818, when it was col- lected by Gaimard. The Guebé of Arago (under Freycinet) also ap- proaches the Guebé of Gaimard. According to D. Durville the Guebé is Papuan. The author however considered it Malay, though there was some resemblance to the Papuan, inasmuch as many Malay terms were common to both these dialects.
From New Guinea westward and southward the Negritos are no longer isolated, The following are Negrito Islands, or Negrito Archipelagos :-—
1. New Britain; 2. New Hanover; 3. New Ireland; 4. Solo-
* See Note B.
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mon’s Islands; 5. Queen Charlotte’s Archipelago; 6. Louisiade Archipelago; 7. Isles of Bougainville; 8. Bouka; 9. New Georgia ; 10. Admiralty Isles, —York, Sandwich, Portlanid's 11. Santa Cruz Archipelago ; 12. Arsacides ; 13. Espiritu Santo, or New Hebrides,— Mallicollo, Erromango, Tanna, Erronan, Annatom; 14. New Cale- donia; 15. Warouka, Bligh’s and Banks’s Island.—Astrolabe. The Ticopian is not Negrito but Polynesian.—Voyage de ]’Astrolabe.
Fiji Islands.—In the Fiji Islands the physical character of the natives is half Negrito and half Polynesian. Here is the Negrito limit to the east; that is, of Negrito tribes as existing at the present moment.
The languages of the list just given are known to us through the following Vocabularies.
New Ireland.—Gaimard’s Carteret Harbour Vocabulary.— Voyage de l’Astrolabe, Philologie, ii. 143.
Durville’s Port Praslin Vocabulary, incorporated with Gaimard’s Carteret Bay Vocabulary.—Ibid.
. Dalrymple’s so-called New Guinea Vocabulary. The word so-called was used because, unless there were natives of New Ireland on the coast of New Guinea, Dalrymple’s Vocabulary is a representative of the Papuan. It coincides with those of Durville and Gaimard from New Ireland: it was collected by Schouten and Le Maire. It is also the New Guinea of De Brosses.
Vocabularies of four small islands are given by Dalrymple and De Brosses, viz. of Moses Island, Moa, Hoorn Island, and Cocos Island. These are the vacabularies of Reland (Diss. xi.), referred to by Adelung.
Manicolo.—In Queen Charlotte’s Archipelago, or perhaps among the Solomon Islands, lies an island in name resembling one of the New Hebrides. Durville called it Vanikoro, but Captain Dillon assures me that the true name is Manicolo. Of the language spoken here we have a vocabulary collected by Gaimard in three dialects ; the Vanikoro, the Tanema, and the Taneanou.—Voyage de |’Astro- labe, Philologie, ii. 164. i
Mallicollo.—Cook’s Island is Mallicollo. A glossary occurs in Cook’s Voyages.
Tanna.—A single vocabulary in Cook’s Voyages.
New Caledonia.—A short vocabulary in Cook. A longer one in © Dentrecasteaux and La Billardiére.
Of the Fiji we have a few words by Cook, a long vocabulary by Gaimard (Astrol. Phil. ii. 136), Port regulations, and MS. Scripture translations, which afford us full and sufficient samples of the language. To deal with this as Negrito the Polynesian element must be eliminated.
In the way of Ethnography Madagascar is Asiatic; since its lan- guage, as has been known since the time of Reland, is Malay. For this island the evidence of physical character gives two or more races, but the evidence of language only one.
Australia.—In this island we have vocabularies for the following localities : (1.) Murray Island ; (2.) Caledon Bay; (3. 4.) Endeavour
43
. River; (5.) the Burrah Burrah tribe; (6.) Limestone Creek; (7.) Port Macquarie; (8.) Port Jackson; (9.) Menero Downs; (10.) Jervis Bay; (11.) Hunter’s River, vide Threlkeld’s Grammar; (12, 13, 14, 15.) Adelaide,— one of these being Teichelmann’s and Schurr- mann’s Grammar; (16.) Gulf St. Vincent; (17, 18, 19,20.) King George’s Sound; (22.) Grey’s Vocabulary ; and a few others.
Van Diemen’s Land.—Here, as in Australia, everything is Negrito. In the way of Vocabularies, we have for the North,—(1.) Gaimard’s _ Port Dalrymple Vocabulary, taken down from the mouth of a Van-
’ Diemen’s-Land woman at King George’s Sound, with an Englishman as an interpreter.—Voy. Astr. Phil. ii. 9. In the South we have, (2.) Cook’s Vocabulary, collected in Adventure Bay, S.E. of Van Diemen’s Land,—nine words. (3.) Dentrecasteaux’s, or La Billar- diére’s Vocabulary. (4.) Allan Cunningham’s Vocabulary, collected in 1819 at Entrance Island. (5.) Dr. Lhotsky’s Vocabulary, de- rived from Mr. M‘Geary, and representing the language of Hobart’s Town.—Journ. Geo.'Soc. ix. Besides these, there is a Vocabulary procured by Mr. Robert Brown when in Australia. It nearly re- presents the same state of language as Dentrecasteaux’s Voca- bulary.
Besides these remarks, another class of facts should be indicated. In the south of Japan, and in the Marianne Isles, there are state- ments that Blacks have been :—Pére Cantova (in Duperrey and Frey- cinet), and Adelung (Mithr.i.). From Rienzi also we learn a state- ment of Liitke’s, viz. that in Pounipet, one οὗ the Carolines, there are abundance of Blacks at this moment; these may be indigenous. The hypothetical presence of Negritos may account also for certain peculiarities of the Polynesian of the Tonga Islands. There are traces of them in the Navigator’s Archipelago. Crozet (see Pritch- ard’s Phys. Hist.) mentions Negritos in New Zealand, and Cook speaks to a tradition of aboriginal Negritos in Tahiti.
Such are the notices of the Oceanic Negritos in respect to their distribution and the amount of evidence afforded by the speci- mens of their language. The current opinion is, that over a cer- tain area Blacks of a certain race or races were aborigines. This opinion there is no reason to disturb or to refine upon; the general question is as to the unity orthe multiplicity of these races; but the more specific object of the present paper is to ascertain how far that question is decided by the comparison of their languages. The safe way is to ascend in the classification, and to begin with determining the uniformity of speech over limited areas, and within natural boun- daries. ‘The most convenient locality to begin with is—
New Guinea.—That four out of the seven New Guinea Vocabularies (supposing them to have been collected independently of each other) represent either dialects of one language, or else languages closely allied, appears on the first comparison. These Vocabularies are,—(a) Gaimard’s Rawak; (6) Gaimard’s Port Dorey; (c) Arago’s Papua; and (d) Dentrecasteaux’s Waigioo. To these Forest’s Vocabul (supposing always that his words have not been incorporated in the
44
vocabularies that came after him) approaches more closely than to the other two.
ENGLISH. Forest. ~- DENTRECASTEAUX, &c, 1 Ranke tok ears CON. “occacoeseges iené, Malay? OND: ἰομις moorsankeen . mazaukéhéné. MAW ss. de otisers sononman ...snoné, Malay? WOMAN .....++ > DENI ὁ. Saas biéné, Maloy ? DN PE εν ΟΣ 5. thease afor. WalCH ΡΘΕ ΕΝ WAL ss caaedesss .. Ouar, Malay ? Band ELI, tes ΨΘΗ asdevcese iené. house ......... womes 2332154 rouma, Malay? ROOK. .000505 οὖν Sofydine ...... sarfedinne. BU gorsh cies nine TASB: δι, νυ scene riass.
Of the two remaining vocabularies the Lobo comes nearer to Forest than the Utanata does. Neither, however, coincide with Forest, as Forest coincides with the first four: nor yet do they coincide so closely with each other.
Again
ENGLISH. Forest. Loxzo. DEF »cs v2 0n si OKOY, «2059 sages larakai. DUE ecccaneses moorsankeen . manoc. ΡΥ ΨΝΝ BOR Sees. ce caes booi, Malay? island ......... MOSSY ........ nusu. OUI. ἐτι κέλαξος PART, οἸοῖξός οὐδεν orak. EROS sisted basis ce kaibus ......... akajuakar. WOMAN ......64+ DID 5.00550 sees mawinna, Malay ? SDALET —o. cen sces WAT: ocscnins .... Malar. MER” inact cavenssertOvensetsesesayess oro.
ENGLISH. Forest. UTANATA. δοῖδι eR TAYRY 5.405030 amuré. Dy cass ada ceils TWAS ice essashas area. SLAVE. ccc cees omini ......... manoki. τ ΣῊΝ ἢ kaibus ......... kai, wood. WALL aseceees WAL w.nseee νον warani, Malay? HOB | Xs 0ase1aes his AQieievctevertseee aroa.
ENGLISH. UranaTa. Loso. DORR ceeccess pigani ........, bingau. cheeks ......... awamu......... Wafiwiriongo. Beathy tecs0. cas namata...,... -. namata, Malay ὃ drink (to)...... nemuka ...... makinu, and also eat. EVENING... 20405 jauw aroa -... urwawa. ἔς ΕΗ .:.mamé ......... matatongo, Malay? feathers ...... Wiest ἧς. τος; wo eru, Malay? WPCA 5...0s45 napitteki ...... nabitteki. ἈΝ <5 92052 sre toe mare ,.,... nimango uta, Malay? POG Jcascoct brane OR issancese yas des booi, Malay? handsome...... NALA crecceecsase nangewie, REVO’. δ τι εν stave Ore is. ἀκ: air: | Eee oepauw ...... umun. BVI ΡΥ ΤΡ purutl ...vseess wurusesi. eee δῖ ἐξούννουι: ... toeri, jor chopping. Lemons ....+++++ munda ,........ munda, Bittle. 7 ον κεν νενὶ . mimiti ......... netie.
long ..... Focaewn marawas ...... Marawas. Fay (t0) 0. aikai............ koekeimanse.
a -
45
ENGLISH. UTANATA. Loso. OEM ΑΑΡΩΝ +» Marowane ...... marowane. mouth ......... ΒΕ τ ΕΣ oriengo. NOON .....:....0.. kameti aroa...... oertoto, evening. RISER s oe ον ξι.}. pigani ............ piring. rain ...... cooeee KOMAK ...0202.00 -. komak. FIVE... .000,008 warari napeteki . walar nabetik, water great. MEET ais scnstnn0- warauw ......... waras. Ὁ kinani .......... .. kakana. STAVE. oncccec see manoki..........++ mooi. $CCR ....... 66.660 matigati ......... nawitik. speak (to)...... TWMET. οἱ op aaensdven iwar. take away (to) namatorani ...... motara.
New Ireland.—As far as we have vocabularies for evidence, the language of New Ireland is one.
Enouise. Port Prastin. CARTERET Bay. DALRYMPLE.
Beard ......... katissendi ...... kambissek ...... incambesser, M. τ πεν τ vena cnpacdbobangasens Bima oo 5060s ncc0s pongliman, M. DONE Sickie ti 05 dazauees Goateaea ὉΔΌΝ Pies tachouner, M. BONY τέῤε..,.:.... Dalang 2.:...0.ccc0 esescecsssesece ...... Dala. Bian cuematoun ἐδ δον, ca ancednas MEME cabaseeacshosknn ΜΗΝΘΠΝΕΙ
GR tos dann aecy TM Scoannosaesacee τοις taps τυ έτος eef.
Sorehead ...... POUSSOU NOUTOU. ....2.....2-2e0e ++... ῬΟΒΒΟῊ arong. buttocks ...... kambali ........- kabalik............
BACB cmnccacdsas ptarou .........+2. tarouk .........0.
Δ radeensxees TOAGEL” .csacecences WUOEONS cangcsasces= sacacsnasbassacass M. ἘΝ ον once cases pala tignai ...... pralenhek......... FOOET oat ciscces pekendi ......... balankeki ......... kekeign.
Finger τς οτος eee ΤΕ oulimak ......... cateling liman. BO Civdesasnee epion ....... dake MOU Kvaewass conn cdun “τὰ κρίνον οὐκ οδν νὰ Α τς ΚΎΜΗΝ ΜΡ SINGT: οὐ δοὺς κὐσσου ie pepe eed
MECN ons... ckeeni kindouroua ...... kondarouak ......
MONT 2 τ νος,..0... mboussou........- kamboussouk ... nisson.
shoulder ...... kamliman ...... kamlima ........-
tooth ....0000- ninissai ..... as SABI cs sae sauces ysangh, 1. τοαξον᾽......... moloum ......... WURIDOME ain ie vin nnoetesntabe aossen MOIR. τς ΜΝ, isaac vecan ansnsnnatea oe Saree kalan.
For the affinities of the dialects of Moa, Moses Island, Cocos Island, Hoorn Island, to those of New Ireland, see Dalrymple’s Island Voyages, ad fin. That the differences in Manicolo are those of dialect, may be seen from Gaimard’s Vocabulary.
Australia.—That the Australian languages are one, at least in the way that the Indo-European languages are one, is likely from hence- forward to be admitted. Captain Grey’s statement upon the subject is to be found in his work upon Australia. His special proof of the unity of the Australian language is amongst the unprinted papers of the Geographical Society. The opinions of Threlkeld and Teichel- manngo the same way. The author’s own statements are as follows :—
(1.) For the whole round of the coast there is, generally speak- ing, no vocabulary of sufficient length that, in some word or other, does not coincide with the vocabulary of the nearest point, the lan- guage of which is known to us. If it does not do this it agrees with some of the remoter dialects. Flinder’s Carpentarian, compared with the two vocabularies of the Endeavour River, has seventeen
46.
words in common*, Of these, three, perhaps four, coincide. Eye, meal, C.; meul, E. R.: hair, marra, C.; morye, E.R.: fingers, mingel, C.; mungal bah, E.R.; breast, gummur, C.; coyor, E.R.
Endeavour River.—Two vocabularies.—Compared with the voca- bularies generally of Port Jackson, and parts south and east of Port Jackson :—Eye, meul, E.R.; milla, L.C.: nose, emurda, E.R. ; morro, L. C.: ears, mulkah, E. R. ; moko, P. Macquarie : hair, morye, E. R.; mundah, B.B.: breast, coyor, E.R.; kowul, P. J.: fingers, mungal bah, E.R.; maranga, B. B.: elbow, yeerwe, E. R.; yongra, Menero Downs : nails, kolke, E. R. ; karungun? P. J.: beard, wollar, E. R.; walo, Jervis’s Bay ; wollak, Port Macquarie. The number of words submitted to comparison was twenty-two.
Menero Downs (Lhotsky), and Adelaide (G. W. Earl).—Thirteen words in common, whereof two coincide.
BORE cass ices's<s morangan, M.D.... murra, Adel.
LONGUE ......... ἘΆΝ ceceusssecs es taling. Adelaide (G. W. Earl) and Gulf St. Vincent (Astrolabe).
Ly a) RR ΤΌ ΡΒ, A sgihncccsats molda, G. 5.0.
ΓΑ ΡΟΣ ΤΗΝ «35 scrabatiesdens << ioure,
SDE a nneaates eas TINUE, -scocstseaptnars tenna,
BOP cissesevces WOR vce tadeancesie’s iouka,
ROR ciccc scenes murrah, ....... «eee. Malla,
ΣΟΙ ΤΡ BHARO; οὐ νυ νους ἀδεμεν ierko,
MOSEL vicceinets TUBS cv ccc pacccoeees mudla,
LOCLTd a5 nesecones TAAL gah satanhsclcotess ta
Gulf St. Vincent (Astrolabe) and King George’s Sound (Nind and Astrolabe) ; fifty words in common.
“000 ...evneee kalla, G.S. V....... kokol, K. 6. 5. mouth eee . a, eeeeeee Pee eeeeseese taa,
RAI occceocereiee fouke)) οὐιύῥιυυσινονιι tchao, ROGET eves mannouolt, ......... wolt,
JINGEr .....ὁ 6... Malla, ...sccccocceeee mal,
water .....06 a HOWE ..cvrecccsssces kepe,
LONGUE ..0cc0ees RAIGINS woacsecasessectt talen,
δε ib. aNsi6s TEND, i eciicee. esate tchen,
STONE. ......000 oo POUT, ω.....ἐεονο sees. pore,
darigh ......... kanghin, ...3.ssecsss kaoner.
(2.) The vocabularies of distant points coincide; out of sixty words in common we have eight coincident.
EneuisH. Jervis’s Bay. Gut St. VINCENT.
forehead ...... holo ει: ἐνόν, Ssiseste ioullo.
PRONE τ... .0.6... MUKA, 5 5446s ΡΣ esses MeiO.
MELE 5 ..0005.0000 AWADDAM .,..0000000. ammenhalo, LONGUE ......... ΒΑΙΘΏ, ies rennesssdscecr ein
NOM: cs iscneyccs maramale............ malla nipple ......00% AMQNANN ....00000.0. amma. ὁ Black ......... mourak ....... +++s+ pouilloul. OLR im aide sdi'e berenou ........008. pere.
(3.) The most isolated of the vocabularies, e. g. the Carpentarian,
* The author explained, that he used the term “in common” as opposed to “ coincident ;” and by the phrase “so many words in common,” meant 80 many words occurring in any two vocabularies, and expressing the same idea.
47
__ if compared with the remaining vocabularies, taken as a whole, has ' certain words to be found in different and distant parts of the island.
ENGLISH. CARPENTABIAN. PIM apace, ovansepeceus MIMI. ...ccavocneuas sues milla, L. Ὁ WOO hasiciceneceeee harroo. .i.0..s.cesc8e morro, L. C.
_ The following is a notice of certain words coinciding, though _ taken from dialects far separated :—
Kaira ἰδυῖα tambamba, Men. D...... tamande, G. S. V. κῶν τυ δὲ jingi, ditto ............... tchindai, K. G. S. forehead ...... SS: a eee ioullo, G. S. V. arnga, Beard ......... yernka, Adel. ......... = } K.G. 8 ἀν ποτ paiandi, ditto ...........- ijeen, di ΜΝ PE ee Gitta ><. i. 2s 5e. 058 ditto. heart ....++.. karlto, ditto ............ koort, ditto. Sea tindo, ditto ............ djaat, ditto -»-. Ali de, SURE age ae dowal, _ ditto ee eee kauwe, ditto ............ kowwin, ditto. γ Ὁ Re ΒΕ ἀὗἴκδο «ἱνιουςςιοες boye, ditto.
In the way of grammatical inflection we find indications of the same unity. We find also differences upon which we should be careful against laying too much stress. The inflection of the num- ber is an instance of the difference. In South Australian—tinyara, a boy; tinyarurla, two boys; tinyar-anna, boys. In Western Au- stralia—yago,a woman; yago-mun, women; goolang, a child; goolang- gurrah, children (gurra, many); doorda, a dog ; doorda-goodjal, two dogs ; doorda boula, many dogs (boula, many). Here there is a dif- ference where we generally find agreement, viz. in the inflectional
(or quasi-inflectional) expression of the numbers. The difference, however, is less real than apparent. The Australian is one of those languages (so valuable in general philology) where we find inflections in the act of forming, and that from the agglutination, not of affixes, suffixes, and prefixes, but of words. In other terms, inflection is evolving itself out of composition. ‘The true view then, of different forms for the same idea, is not that the inflections are unlike, but that the quasi-inflectional circumlocutions differ from each other in different dialects. There is no inflectional parallel between two men in English and ἀνθρώπω in Greek.
Van Diemen’s Land, South.—For the South of Van Diemen’s Land the language seems radically one. The following is what Cook has in common with Dentrecasteaux (or La Billardiére) and Allan Cun- ningham.
EneuisH. Cook. 1803. D.C. A.C. WOMAN.......00 quadne......... cuani ...... ani ἘΣ ΔῊΝ Co ......... nubere ...... nubere ...... escape nammurruck WUE sooccsackesd muidje ......... mugid ...... MUIQUI ...000...002 meoun. cuegnilia ΦΟΥ....0....... koidgi ......... cunglin] Vaigul ... Fees gounreek, ouagui ...
Lhotsky’s Vocabulary stands more alone; with the Vocabulary of
; 48
1803 and Dentrecasteaux’s Vocabulary, it has but three (or two) coin- cident :—tongue, mina, Lh.; mene, Voc. of 1803: water, dugana, Lh.; lia, Voc. 1803; drink, lugana, Lh.; Jaina, Voc. 1803. With Allan Cunningham’s Vocabulary it has fourteen words in common, and three coincident :—nose, minerana, Lh.; meoun, A.C. : tongue, mina, Lh.; mim, A. C.: fire, lope, Lh.; lope, A.C. Brown-and Cunning- — ham coincide a little more than Cunningham and Lhotsky. It is perhaps safe to say, that for the South of Van Diemen’s Land the language, as represented by its vocabularies, is radically one.
Van Diemen’s Land, North.—In Lhotsky’s Vocabulary seven words are marked W, four Εἰ, and one §, as being peculiar to the western, eastern and southern parts of the island. One of the four words — marked E is found in the Port Dalrymple Vocabulary, being the only word common to the two, e. g. wood, mumanara, E.; moumra, Port Dalrymple. The coincidence of the North and South is as follows :—
ENGLISH. Porr DALRYMPLE. LHoTSKY. COP OTE so cn TIDETALIC “ς ες: ςον δε νους pitserata. OYE coitctiys ses vat QIDIDA sicszseehsccedeste lepina. ΔΕ eee τς ΚΣ ΠΣ langana, foot. Rawk ....0008¢ gan henen henen...... ingenana. posteriors...... ἘΥΒΌΓΘΩΘ᾽ τος ζοῦν πο ος ++. wabrede. AEs, coseaarésns VSIA So ise snavcndis cers looudouenne. NIGRE srscceses MVORO! a obssceccessued ee. levira. BEE Pres nciacnses ΠΟ ΠΝ <2, .cvevesssesceer lugana, fresh water. ΤΥ Ὑ8Ώ θ᾽ οὐδε, τὴν ἐξέ κοῦ εν yana.
ENGLISH. Port DatrymMPLeE. Brown & D.C. Belly ...c0s.ce0se magueleni .........+6 lomongui. ΝΕ Bird ...crdcceses ROIA' stescassetececs scant oille. kangaroo ...... FaramMed οὐτούςο οὶ, ἐνὸς tara.
W984 05039505000 MODB | .csonceavssess “6... Mogudilia, NORE Wess vsccsace ΤΡ ΠΟΥ", ον οὐκ φρο, ἐς mugid. BLONG « sevess sae lenn parene .........00 loine. COOTIL asncecses RANG actesotencgcoontaeets canan. πω ileal TETOUlA.<..cnecisecsescec rilia.
About thirty-five words are common to Lhotsky and the Vocabula- ries of Brown and Dentrecasteaux. From the foregoing observations we may conclude that for the whole of Van Diemen’s Land (as far as represented by the Vocabularies) the language is radically one.
Such are the groups as spread over limited areas and confined within natural boundaries. The affinity of speech between different islands is another question.
Preliminary to this we must eliminate the Malay from the Negrito. The full knowledge that this has been done imperfectly, invalidates all that we have arrived at; so that, once for all, it may be stated, that what is asserted respecting the amount of words common to two localities, is asserted subject to the condition of their being true Ne- grito and not Malay.
. Andaman and Samang.—Few words in common; one coincident, and that borrowed in all probability from a third language. ἶ
New Guinea and Waigioo.—By Waigioo is meant the Waigioo of — Arago, and the Undetermined Vocabulary of Dentrecasteaux. ‘They — haveabout forty words in common, and the following are coincident :— _
ENGLISH. Warci00? New Guinea? ὙΗ͂Ρ ΡΤ ΨΟΙ cocanis, De. s.cesns peas oR rere sgnani, Α. ..........-ις sneouar. ee ae oe ganga foni, A.......... gaiafoe. RTS a mansou, A. ........--+. soussou CHET cnc ecevesccusee tagueni, D. .........-.. tadeni. + eyelids ........-... inekarnei, A. ......... karneou. fod. <x. ΜΙ courgnai, A............ oekourae, heel. δας... τὸ ates 2 ee Sees. ap, afor. eee ee senoumebouran, A.... sonebrahene. LEP RR capougi, A. ............ one-pouer. i νος ἀκα τας ὅτ τοι, 85. ἰρθονσξυζος.: meker. ie ON Rate snine, D, ...icdictadanse iene, Malay. ᾿ $ ROBE weeseeseseee souar ὧν Ρ ΕΣ.» ΛΗ Ὶ soidon, mouth. Ψψ. made of i τἰ Sewretedl Male, De. oocic ceases. maran, Malay.
_ New Guinea and New Ireland.—Forest and Dalrymple :—fish, een, F.; hissou, D. Mal.: fire, for, F.; eeff, D. Mal.: sand, yean, F.; pon, D.: sun, ras, F.; nass, D.: star, mak, F.; maemetia, D. ple and Utanata.—Upwards of twenty-five words in com- mon :—Earth, taar, D.; tiri, Mal., Ut. : eat, nam nam, D. ; nemuka, Ut.: tongue, hermangh, D.; mare, Ut. Dalrymple and Lobo.— About thirty words in common :—arms, pongliman, D.; nimango, Ut.; Mal. : belly, balang, D.; kanborongo, Ut.: tongue, hermangh, Ὁ. ; kariongo, Ut. : _ Port Praslin and Carteret Bay (taken together), and Utanata and Lobo (taken together).—For the sake of comparison, the whole of the words that the two (or four) Vocabularies have in common are exhibited, and by their side the equivalents in Latin and in Greek.
Ene.isu. Uran. Los. P. P. ann C. B. μάτιν. GREEK. i MaRS Digits oone dese brachium... ὠλένη. ΚΑΤ τ ΡΨ. ΡΤ πος ΨΡΗΝ τὸ πες clues? MEER UMBanasés γνῶτον. Se pee venter ...,.. γαστήρ ἘΞ ΤΥ MM Napanee Gagnon τα, τ th 5 δλουῦθαι τ τὸ κυ τ ΑΗ͂Σ, ναι. barba ...... πώγων. DORDE ΤΟΝ QV 6002... ὄρνις. προ, τς Εν στὸ ον cab. scolds. so ἘΞ σα pectus ...... στῆθος. TAM oes G8. cece see niger © ...... μέλας lou-koro .........+.. tussis ...... ἠξ ; POUT “ΣΟ θαυ ονονο. ἐοϑεν canis......... κύων. ΝΞ τ ες οακοις τον ον ς τος υυξάκξι; κερο σον salio ......... χορεύομαι. caus δον Sti astute oculus ...... ὄφθαλμος. pouli matandi ...... supercilium. ὀῤφρύς. mi τε νος ον αν βκας - tates auris......... οὖς. Sp osysdnniindass coahan pub edo ......... ἐσθίω. nec dik τ τ δα es cane see henee piscis ....... ἐχθύς. balan keke ..... Wes eis. ποῦς. EX se eee digitus ...... δάκτυλος. MPa PRINGM MIN S055 00: clade! ba 0ctplaccusnienvvoalsree ignis......... πῦρ SRAM elt Wee eCa atte esac sckan¥iasccnesicUusesapasecasce magnus ... μέγας Sete ee IU RMEUEUCR eaten ctun. sduossssecaccescascances crinitus θρίξ. Se ee em ee Ss ea manus ...... χεῖρ Ὅσο ΟΞ ΑΜ. porcus ...... χοῖρος sassecees GCPANW ᾿........ ΤᾺ mt ...... κεφάλη γεν. tangoulou kerenei ne pougaigi ............ ΕΝ Y - δος «Sesesenssieuaneadaus, dughGimiicncarscnctacs se OS .lescoceseee CTOPA. FOOT Oe eee tet entree eee teeere Pret Pee ee eee ee reer eT ees luna weeeseces σελήνη.
50
EneutsoH. Uran. Los. P. P. ann Ὁ. B. LaTIN. GREEK. MEER Sis coscis witescatees ces δδοδον, τ νινενννννσεῦν ΟἿ Ν ἐν ὐθ δὲ collum .....» τράχηλος. ῬΟΒΘ..... 0... cossscccesccsedvdccee: - vavebvsovenbauevestarens NASUS ...... ρίς BD reiveccnses- erccacrecstsedsesrdee’ νον ινυν οὐδόν. ὙΌΣ NOM «oes. .s96e οὐ.
FORD .......ὃ.ς napetiaro ......+6 CATA ....ἐδονςςονονοόοο ruber. ...... ἐρυθρός ΤῊΝ τοι κινοιν. ἀφο τον πος ΠΩ Αι Σ, οτω ξεν γονλτα, δέδεξο ων curro .. τρέχω sugar-cane tongue ...... kariongo ......++ kermea,.....s+s.00000 lingua ...... γλῶσσα ἐλίσα ...... «οοοοοονοναοουοσουθοο -ὐὐνυννοοννονοονθοούῥ θσθε femur ...... μηρ leeth.....0.0 ρον ματα μου nee ΘΒ .......ὄἢὉ ὀδούς
malar /
WALEY ...... waran fcc moloum .......0.6+- AQUA... cc0eee ὕδωρ YEE arecevecs OLO Fe rckestteveee 10 υδονούσνο ον ἐδυθδς IMO. οὐονεῖνθν γαιχί.
With thirty-seven words in common, the two Negrito languages have seventeen coincident ; with thirty-seven words in common, the two classical languages have nine coincident. ‘The evidence, there- fore, of the affinity of the Papua and New Ireland is stronger than of the Latin and Greek, as determined from identical data.
New Ireland and Manicolo.—The Port-Praslin and Carteret Ba Vocabularies being dealt with as one for New Ireland, and the three dialects being treated as one for Manicolo, we have, out of twenty eight words in common, the following coinciding:—yes, io, P. P..; io C. B.; to, Manic.: eye, mata, P. P.; matak, C. B.; mala, maleo, mataeo, Man., Mal.: banana, ounn, C. B.; pounha, ounra, ounro Man., Mal.: canoe, kouan, C.B.; naoure, goia, koure, Manic. Mal.: tooth, ninissai, P. P.; insik, C. B.; indje, Tanean: testes, puen, P. P.; boua, bouinini, bouai ini, Man. : beard, kam-bissek, Ο. Β (incam besser, Dalr.) ; oungoumie, vingoumie, Man., Mal.: breast, boroick, C. B.; berenhenham, Man.; ear, palalignai,P.P.; pralen,C. manbalenhi, Manic: ; hair, nihouge, D.; anaoko, Man.
Manicolo and Mallicollo.—Eighteen words in common, the fol lowing coincident :—Bread-fruit, baloe, Man. ; barabe, Mall. : cocoa nut, venoure, Man.; naroo, Mall.: eye, mataes, Man. ; οὐ J Mall., Mal.: ear, tagnaini, Man: talingan, Mall., Mal. : il menouka, Man.; moero, Mall., Mal.: head, batcha, Man.; dbasain -Mall.: hog, boi boi, Man.; brrooas, Mall., Mal.: no, tae, Man _ taep, Mall.: water, ouine, Man. ; ergour, Mall. : drink, kanou, nano Man.; ~ooae, Mall.
Mallicollo and Tanna.—Sixteen words in common :—cocoa-nut naroo, Mall.; nabooy, Tann.: drink, noaee, Mall.; nooee, Tanny Mal.: eye, maitang, Mall.; manee maiuk, Tann., Mal.: ears, tali gan, Mall.; feeneenguk, Tann., Mal.: bird, méeroo, Mall. ; mano Tann., Mal.; hog, brrooas, Mal.; boogas, Tann., Mal.: nave nemprtong, Mall.; napeerainguk, Tann.: teeth, reebohn, warrew Mall.; *aibuk, Tann.: water, ergour, Mall. ; namawarain, Tann woman, rabin, Mall.; naibraan, Tann., Mal.
Tanna and Mallicollo (taken together) and New Caledonia, Neither with Mallicollo or Tanna alone, nor with Mallicollo ar Tanna taken together, as compared with New Caledonia, do we fir more words coincident than the following :—Cocoa-nut, naroo, Με nabooy, T.; neeoo,.N. Cal., Mal.: drink, noaee, M.; nooee, Το] oondoo, N. Cal: head, noogwanaium, T.; garmoin (Cook), vanguw
51
(L. B.), N. Cal.; yams, oofe, Tann.; oobe, Ν. Cal., Με]. : yes, eeo, Tann.; elo, N. Cal. : no, taep, Mall.; nda, N. Cal.
Next in order comes the comparison between the Vocabularies of Van Diemen’s Land and South Australia.
Port Dalrymple and King George’s Sound (Nind and Astrol.):— Wound, barana, P. D.; bareuk, N.: wood, moumbra, P. D.; pourn, N.: hair, kide, P.D.; kaat, N.: thigh, degagla, P. D.; tawal, N. : kangaroo, taramei, P. i: taamour, N.: lips, mona, P. D.; mele, K.G.S.: no, poutie, P. D.; poualt, poort, K. G. S.: egg, komeka, P.D.; kierkee, K. G.S.: bone, pnale, P. D.; nouil, Κι. G. 5. (bone ‘of bird used to suck up water) N.: skin, kidna, P. D.: kiao? K.G.S.:
_ two, kateboueve, P.D.; kadjen, K.G.S. (N.). Fifty- six words in common.
_ Port Dalrymple and Gulf St. Vincent.—Mouth, mona, P. D.; monde, G.S.V. (a compound word, since faa is mouth, in K. G. 's):
- drink, kible, P. D.; kawe, G.S. V.: arm, anme, P. D.; aondo (also shoulder), G. 5. γι: hawk, gan henen henen, P.D.; nanno, G.S.V.: hunger, tigate, P. D.; takiou, (ἃ. 5. V.: head, eloura, P. D.; ioullo, G.S.V.: nose, medouer*, P.D.; modla, G.S. V.: bird, iola, pallo, G. 5. V.: stone, lenn parenne, P.D.; poure? G.S.V.: foot, dogna, P. D.; tenna, G.S.V.: sun, tegourat, P.D.; tendo, G. 5. V. Seventy words in common. f
Port Dalrymple and Jervis’s Bay,—Wound, barana, P. D.; ka- ranra, J. B.: tooth, tane, P.D.; ira, J. B.: skin, kidna, P. D.; ba- " J. B.: foot, dogna, P.D.; tonaj, J. B.; head, eloura, P. D. ;
lilo, J.B. Fifty-four wordsin common. What follows is a notice of some miscellaneous coincidences between the Van Diemen’s Land and the Australian.
EneutseH. VAN DieMen’s LAND. AUSTRALIA.
Ὁ Ee cuengilia, 1803 ...... gundugeli. Men. D. thigh ......tula, cee <iscaiiancaené dara, Men. D. pure, Adel .... stone eed voye, Κ. 6. 5.“ lenn parene, P. D. breast ...... pinenana, Lh ......... voyene, Men. D. τ eae kidna, B.D eiez......< makundo, Teichelman. GAY ........ MCR, Uh 8... ss Ἐαὶ mangeri, Men. D BR cceseckee mella, Lh...........0... monri, Men. D τς a es weer (PGs e ences τς birre §. little .22...... bodenevoued, P. D...baddoeen, Grey. οἴ ΕΣ πῦον; Pe Weiss cesses tameno (upper lip), ditto. ee komeka, P. D.........: muka. egg, anything round, Teichel. RE moumra, P. D......... worra (forest), Teichel. mout, a kamy, Cook. it ath. = Ciena, Ὁ... [5 kame { πσιὰ J.B speak .. ie ery: J on ae ον BU Fetes lerai. Knee ........Ψ. gorook, ditto ......... ronga, D. C. MOON veers tegoura, P. D.......... rales de Teichelman. ee medouer, P. D. pamdlie,; ditto. moolya, Grey. hawk ....... gan henenhenen,P D.gargyne, ditto. hunger ...... tegate, P.D. ......... taityo, Teichelman.
* Mula, ft Also Moon. ΖΦ tjenne,tidna,jeena. ἔξ Generally toe-nail. E2
52
“ENGLISH. VAN DigMen’s LAND. | AUSTRALIA.
GANG δ᾽ 283 pigné, P. Του ΣΡ τς mengk, Grey.
WOOT sae cece vena, 1835 ....... δ smaceaates yennadah, P. J.
WAY τιν, το MEegTAa, 1835......ccccssvevees karmarroo, ditto.
PTO sssntvase mne, 1803 ° ce. .5As.s re yong, ditto. :
BOD Sis οἷν manghelena, rain ......... menniemoolong. neylucka, Murray, P. D.
water ...... boue lakade....... ἜΑ bado, ditto lucka, Carpentarian.
Such is the similarity amongst the Negrito languages, as taken i in their geographical sequence, and as divided into three groups. Be- tween the Andaman and Samang there is no visible similarity or coincidence. From New Guinea ‘to New Caledonia there is a series” of coincidences ; and there is also similarity between the Australian and Van Diemen’s Land. But it is far from following that, because languages will form groups when taken in geographical succession they will also form groups when the sequence or succession shall be interrupted. Tested by another method there is an affinity as follows:
q
ENGLISH. MANICOLO. } New GuInea. GPM ..:.... me, menini, maini .........nimango, L., Mal. belly οἷς, δ. tchan-hane, tchaene ... pape Ww. i BOW x iieseves OPEN 52. μὴν οὐ κεν εεν αν ΘοΣ cock amure, ΡῈ - : makinu, L drink ...... CANOW 455 ovesecesesnsawessen pees enné, 1 ‘A. μαι. πα ΝΕ mala, τηδίθο............ ΤΆ mame, U.; matatongo, U., Mal. PUK cc skpees OUNOIR Jae ccns ses secsenetese ... Δ, tongue ...... mia, MiMEaEO ..........++008 mare, Ut woman ...... venime, Vignivi .......-. ak et Mal. 5 Ἃς DOR acct nas TO udjaccrscssecathstessteset sup aroa, U., oro, L. Anis kanik, ΡΝ A. CON ΡΣ ἘΡ tagnaini, ragnengo ...... tantougni, W. ζ “| aa. νι, espace ANE; BNIENE \...0'creesceeerers iene, A., Mal. WOKE assess 8 DhElO (05 cde sic edesiescnsee nony, A. J ouara, A., Mal. water ...... OUILE νου νειν ἐν νῦν ἐν δου war, F. feels Gssixce ONQNE ..........cecceesesoeees oualini, analini, W. shoulders ...outalen-buien-hane......... poupouni, Waig. Eneuisn. New CALEeponia. New [RELAND. OE scacccuces BSUS) sdacsacacecoscsoeucaase akan, P. P FODER: sac <a: INOUAN τ ὐὐκλλαὶν εἰποξμη νον φῇ ..insik, C. B., Mal In MCT τ τς 5 cane sasceacephaatarecek mane, C. B., Mal. Ὁ cheeks ...... PORTIAUE 5 oo nese ccvesoexcsosese paring, D. 3 eyebrows ...poutchie-banghie ......... pouli-matandi, P. P. ae Afi, HIOPP .c<...sersscceoeceacd «bia. : kekeign, D. NOOE 1: - εν. bakatiengue............+6+ balaukeke, C2. . knees... bangueligha............ ΕΣ ΤΌΣ pougaigi, P. P. tongue ...... coubmeigha, coumean_... kermea. MOON ..0006 MAGN, 0002 ξο ξένιον» εἰν το φος kalan, P. Ρ. walk...... secOUAMEM . c.cccccccccceseccsese inan. TOIN ......... IB) scuc Wie εν ian tune cates ous, D., Mal. NOSE coseesoee MIBNOBO Ss ecsiscse vdgncyen cavers mboussou, P. P SLICED ......... KINDO <p ascseeasnscersoncadess heim, D black coe ΚΒΏΏΘ. 9... 6. νοον pNedadsnsstes ony SUM, tender ΔΝ csc ctesess vaseesese
i
E 53 Eneuisu. New Caceponta. New Ine.anp. UE cst i SOM Sv anna, anal bauqacensdauava dan (water), D., Mal. | ΤΟΣ nase OM «ns xan ocasssosnan δ ον. ν᾽ ignek, C. B. 3] EneiisH. New CALeponta. “Manico.o. ἵ » back ."....... ἀὐπηνδες νον, dienhane diene. COT «οονννον. INE eee er eeneee ceeeneee Tagnengo. good ......... kapareick............. σὐννονο, kapai. head ...:...4. aR WES oe tetideaaciicivercce batcha. moon ΝΘ Ἐπ de estson a: ene. -..Mele. ee ἘΠ tif edo cacnneescssecpes quienbeigha........-...---.+- boua. fenten NUE So veicwcnetewseecenes bouenini water ...... DO ΣΟ ΒΣ, οὐ δον iwstaviona ouire, Mai. ENGLISH. New Careponra, D. C. Warcioo, D. C., ἂς. C4r 2.8. gunning 0221162. ας 5 ΤΡΕΟΥΣ 6 1.....ςϑ οὐωουροδυδαβοοωκι ἘΣ, ὗραα δ. Mal teeth......--- AUGER 5c hoonulcetnoansnanee p analiné, undetermined, D. C.
‘is evidence of the most unlike of the languages between Waigicv and New Caledonia (inclusive) being not more unlike than the most dissimilar of the Indo-European tongues. ‘That this statement may be enlarged seems probable by the following parallels :-—
perre, V. Ὁ. L. .. feet seeeee a (nails), do. } weneee petiran, Cc. B.
4 , Waig. beard ...... kongine, V. D. L. ...... cole ὑπο: ag ᾿ς 2.353. 2 mouta, V. D.L. ....... --...manouk, Mal.
CRM .-05--5 --kamnena, V. D. L. ......... gambape, Waig. OU tind. ccc MMC, ABEEE.. .2n0cccconsstass matta, Pap. and Mal. canan Ξ ᾿ ν᾽ gani, mouth, Waig., D. tooth ...,iane >V.D.L.......... {§ ik, teeth, P. P., “Mal. forehead ...caberra, Port Jackson...... kabrani, Waig. 200M 2 .205<.: pie, Vi Blac cacasenpseters coon, yean. aod oe Ze nls kaibus, Pap. and Mal. ka ᾿ hair ...... taal } Australia spslanahe nihouge, New Ir. ᾿ς ΡΘΕ ΑΝΟΌΑ, jinji ...... - ; ἜΡΩΣ το τὸ tchindai } Australia γος niangat, N. C. va Ἐπ nonce koyge, V. D. L. ............ gaaineng, N. C 5 ENGLISH. Van teres Ae ici New Cateponta, D.C.. u. δ. mouth ...... OUR | ccucenauncveascvosesd wangue and mouanguia. 4 Ὡς tec os ξύασπα...3...:....3.:: pingue. guy } “ shoulders — Retasesehasioncnaiees < ge ἢ a. ΣΞΆΤῊΝ πθ.------οο τον τνενενκένονν,, 8Η, hiepp, nap, Afal. rangalia et knees ... rouga fot banguiligha. dead ......... mata...... Seeie gee shan toees mackie. τ τ Ὁ ΤΩ͂Ν ΟΝ cnietas 3 ἐὐτακευς ρα nola. COTE .......ὅἢ.. cuegni-lia ...........-.....- guening. nails......... PETCUNGME. 5.5. 005252.<50-00-5 pihin " [Ὁ πρβΞςς ΒΕ ΟΡΗΝ τ 0 Ὑὐοον 05, 51000: bouling, poun ingue
54
Singers ...... DORIS anesesorscssrcnes -....badouheigha. NOSE ...c0000e TOUTE, <.05essaencvectsseannon mandec, vanding. sleep ......00. MAKUNYA ΤΎΡΟΣ kingo.
ENGLISH. ANDAMAN. MISCELLANEOUS.
cuengi, V. Ὁ. L.
ΘΑ τον τον QUEKE coc... ..ttesecseseace gue aha N.C. Rand... ss0<- GODIC “cy sh paveasteaxss teka re gong, Austr., or V. D. L. mouth ...... MOTI. siaceessccrsrsescecsecs mona, V. D. L. ROEE scccseces MellOG ss cteucsesincosi sss par — V. D. L. SUM ..ceccees ahay..... detspdovacopessopeaisd jauw, Utan. thighs ...... POV Ossie vscdscvsconssovseernevs pengue paan, N. C. WOO. ..00000. WAG ciasiannesdaceverese .....tanghee, N. C.
The author concludes his paper with the following observations :—
1. For all that is known to the contrary, the Negrito tongues of Sumatra, Borneo, Timor, the Moluccas, Formosa, and several smaller islands of whose languages we have no specimens, may be in any relation whatever to any other language, and to each other.
2. The Andamanee and Samang may be in any relation to any other Negrito tongue, or to each other, beyond that of mere dialect.
3. The languages hitherto known of New Guinea, New Ireland, the Solomon’s Isles, New Caledonia, Tanna, and Mallicollo, are re- lated to each other, at least as the most different languages of the Indo-European tribe are related.
4. The known languages of Australian are related to each other, at least in the same degree.
5. The Van Diemen’s Land and Australian are similarly related.
6. Classified in divisions equally general with the Indo-European, the Negrito dialects (as far as they are known by their vocabularies) cannot fall into more than four, and may possibly be reducible to one; the data being up to a certain point sufficient to determine radical affinities, hut nowhere sufficient to determine radical differences.
7. The ethnographical divisions, according to physical conforma- tion, coincides with the ethnographical divisions according to lan guage, only so far as the former avoid the details of classification. With the minute subdivision of the French naturalists the latter coincide least. .
8. The distinction between the Negritos and the Malays seems le broad when determined by the test of language, than it does whe measured by physical conformation.
9. The notion of the hybridism of the Papuas, arising from th view of their physical conformation, is in a degree confirmed by th nature of their language ; although even the physical evidence is no _absolute, 7, e. on a par with that respecting the hybridism of th Griquas and Confusos.
10. With two* (if not more) Negrito tribes, whereof the evidenc of language is wholly wanting, physiological differences indicate probability of difference of language, equal to the difference betwee any two Negrito languages of which we have specimens. |
11. Even in the physiological classifications we are far from bein sure that the whole number of Negrito tribes has been described.
* The Blacks of the Philippines and the Blacks of the South of New Guinea. —
25
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56
Nore B. HOS. Cosas oc seosviadcbiares -» kapiani, A.; capiani, Ὁ. CIDR 5.20 aviv sedsen sears seni and senidokaouri, A. ; tiangapoui, D. DOUG <i cnc cab cass toes aks sgnani, A.; iani, D. - κοῖς, dds vitesse duces hamnee's A. ; cateni, D. GIA Trey egrets dunes νον τον gambapi, A. ; capapi, Ὁ. UGE ΣΌΝ ΤΟ ΜΔῸ ὙΠ ΤΡΟΡΡΕ mansou, A.; sou (4osom), D δα. ξὸνλιδεν τῶ conver eats jadjiemouri, A.; taguini, D. JINGETS + .<o.cgenpes ΡΘΕ .-- cantoulili, D. JONG. sos cceshecesseese konkant-ili, A middle...:... οὐὐέλευς kouanti-poulo, A. ———— PING... ce veaee su shoes kouanti-ripali, A. Bt tle Λλιξδοορευ νος. kouanti-lminki, A. ἼΩΝ. astcstasess Reuseates bone kourgnai, A.; caloani, D. BOD τον οξεεξεκενα τε κεῆνον sénoumébouran, A.; pia, D. ΠΑΝ REPRE EET PET konk-afaleni, A.; cocani, D. heel. ..3.008 ΤΕΣ ΟΜ konk-abiouli, A. | er ye Nr Ces konk-apoki, re ροῦν D. Veg...resrercceee GS stgacseepens konkanfai, A.; anga fuini, D. , OSE ΜΡ ΤΡ, ΠΡΡΤΤΡΙ ΥΒ ΣΕ, συ soun, A.; sauny, Ὁ. ὍΝ eS Ἀδξαυκεύεχος cambrene, A.; cabrene, D. ΦΘΟΡΆ. Sissons opincyccsoccstotss OURMI, A's analini, D $00, VCOE so csecscceccsasees kouanti-hel, A. —, second and reser Ss . kouanti-bipali, A. som CRONE Tonausess¢saesenans kouanti-poulo, A. πα EEIE swiss sgccsencetsn pads kouanti-lminki, A. Δ ΣΝ τς σεν ERODE Givi ++. affoloni, A.; enfoloni, or anfoloni, D
PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
Vo. I. FEBRUARY 24, 1843. No. 5.
Professor Matpen in the Chair.
Professors F. Bopp and J. Grimm were proposed to the Society for election as Honorary Members.
The Chairman stated, that reports had been laid before the Council on the claims of these two scholars to be elected Honorary Mem- bers, and the Council after deliberation had permitted the reports to be read to the Meeting.
The reports were then read (in the absence of Professor Wilson and Mr. Kemble) by the Secretary. ΄
The following candidates were balloted for, and duly elected
Members of the Society :-— Lord Lyttelton. Edward T. B. Twistleton, Esq., Poor Law Commissioner, and late Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford. Rev. James Scholefield, Regius Professor of Greek, Cambridge. Joseph Payne, Esq., Denmark Hill, Camberwell.
The following communications were then read :
“On the Origin of the phrase ‘ Wager of Law.’” By Professor Carey.
Saeertoin actions the defendant was formerly allowed, in answer to the plaintiffs case, to swear he did not owe the sum demanded, whereupon he was adjudged to wage the plaintiff his law. The de- fendant then found pledges for the performance of what the court had awarded, and was required to appear in court on a certain day. _ If he appeared, and a certain number of compurgators swore they
believed his oath, he was by this simple process enabled to defeat the plaintiff's claim. In performing that which he had waged, he was said to perfect his law (legem facere vel perficere). The author proposed to trace the history of these singular phrases.
The Norman Customary, c. 67, treats ‘‘des querelles et des loiz parquoy les querelles doibvent estre finees,”” and ch. 121, 122, 124, treat respectively,
De loy qui est faicte par record, De loy prouable, De loy apparissant.
The Jaw which is made by record is in principle the same as our
Trial by Record. If one party assert the existence of a record, and
58
another deny it, the issue is not tried by a jury, but by the produc- tion or non-production of the record, whose existence is in question. In Normandy, however, as there were no written memorials to ap- peal to, the record was merely an oral certificate made by those who had witnessed the transaction.
Loy apparissant.—In the Customary, c. 67, personal actions are divided into simple and criminal, and the latter are said to be de- termined by the Joy apparissant. One kind of criminal suit is the “‘querelle de meurtre,’ which is the same proceeding as the ,“‘ ap- peal of murder” formerly known in this country.. The “querelle de meurtre” was decided by the wager of battle, just as the appeal of murder used to be in this country. Hence it is clear that the Joy apparissant meant trial by battle ; and such is the construction which Blackstone has given to the phrase ler manifesta which occurs in Magna Charta.
Nullus Ballivus de cetero ponat aliquem ad legem manifestam, — nec ad juramentum simplici loqueld sud sine testibus fidelibus, ad hoc inductis.
Loy prouable is said to be of two kinds, affirmative proof on oath, and denial on oath. The first mode of proceeding coincides with the trial by witnesses without jury, as it formerly existed in this country ; the second mode is that styled in this country “‘ Wager of Law.” ‘The latter mode of trial was called in Normandy ‘“ Deraigne- ment,” or “ἴον de deresne ;” and it is defined in ch. 123, to be “a law established in Normandy whereby the defendant in a simple ac- tion shows that he has not done that wherewith his adversary charges him.”
Hence it would appear that the word doy was used to signify dif- ferent modes of trial. But the ἴον de deresne seems to have been en- cumbered with the fewest formalities, and to have been the most popular with the people. Itis accordingly termed in the Customary simple ἴον, and is occasionally expressed merely by the word doy: thus in ch. 123. it is said, “1 the defendant denies that he ever made the engagement and offers to deraign himself of it, la Jo doibt estre gaigée, et terme mis ἃ la faire.”
We see then that the term wager of law was known in Normandy as well as in this country. Butin Normandy, as the term Jaw was applied to several modes of trial, it was generally necessary to qualify it, when speaking of any one in particular. In this country the term was never permanently applied but to one species of trial, and consequently the phrase ‘‘ wager of law” was used without any fear of ambiguity.
«On the Classification of the Chinese Roots.” By J. F. Davis, Esq.
In the fifteenth chapter of the author’s work on China, some mention is made of the 214 roots, or radical and original characters, under which the whole of the Chinese written language is arranged in the dictionaries. It is not easy to overrate the importance of these roots, when we consider that they enter into the composition, and influence the meaning, of every word in the language.
59
The late Professor Abel Rémusat of Paris remarked that, in addi- tion to their uses in lexicographic arrangement, these roots singly represent or express the principal objects or ideas that men have _ occasion to communicate in the infancy of their knowledge ; com- prising within their number the heads of genera and classes in na- ture, and thus affording the elements and means of a philosophic system of arrangement. A fortunate instinct led the framers of the _ language, instead of forming characters altogether new and arbitrary, to express new objects or ideas by the ingenious combination of those elementary symbols which they already possessed. Thus among the roots we find horse, dog, metal, &c., and the addition of some other significant symbol, expressive of some peculiar property — or characteristic, serves to designate the different species comprised under these principal genera, as horse-ass, horse-mule ; dog-wolf, dog- fox; metal-iron, metal-silver, &c., the elementary or generic words horse, dog, metal, being those under which the compounds are arranged in the dictionary.
The obvious analogy which this system (however imperfect in its details) bears to the principle of the Linnzan nomenclature, led M. Rémusat to classify that portion of the 214 roots, consisting of only about 30 in all, which had reference to genera in the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms. Whatever might be the results in a scientific point of view, and in regard to natural history, this sort of classification appeared to the author to possess considerable interest and utility on the score of general philology, and with a view to the particular study of the language in question. He had accord- ingly attempted to perform, for the whole 214 roots, what M. Ré- musat did for that portion to which he confined his attention. ‘In so doing, he had nearly retained M. Rémusat’s classification under the heads of the three natural kingdoms, but extended the number to 33 roots; and the following are (in the first place) the general heads under which the whole 214 roots seemed most readily to arrange themselves :-— Classes.
Human kind, and its relations ..................sseees 14 πο oocinn ciel sooo stb ean tkchanchinerecaneces’ 8 ΙΝ, os tgice neh sbtbestacdéenbodalueiinminb 7 RIO | onan cepa dopeaiovediens 8ox tenckberredamarnnbigns’ 13 PEED sn cuntaanagean sack tibe Tee ghuedbGheantntmaaudaaee 5 BUN CFE. OE τι Ὑν᾽ a raises b dcucacticstannanresybasens 28 Other objects in mature ..........csesecesceeceeceeeeenee 25 ΘΡΙΘΟΝΕ SE GEE scons. sp search tn Sageewid ctdieeatirerecgeenn 41 ἐμὰ νος ΚΡ ροβιονο εξ ραε Ἐπ τ᾿ ΘῈΣ ΕΟ enue 5 Actions (verbs) 37 Qualities (adjectives) ......00c.....cecseoessssecssccnseee 30
213 RE non copesescagegedestiessadcsthelexc¥netectes 1
214
Whatever additional interest and importance the consequences of recent events mayattach tothe language of China on thescore of utility
- 60
alone, its very singular structure entitles it to attention as a part of the history of the human mind, and of philology in general. He had-accordingly been tempted to extend his examination, from the mere classification of the roots, to a computation of the proportion in which each separate root enters into the construction and arrange- ment of the whole language. The dictionary which he selected for this purpose contained about eleven thousand six hundred different words, the really useful and practical mass of the language; all be- yond which is mere pedantry. The following tables exhibit each root arranged under its own particular class, and numbered on the left (for facility of reference) according to its numerical order in all. the dictionaries, by which it may be immediately found in the tables of Morrison’s dictionary. The column of figures on the right shows the total number of compound words to be found under each root in the dictionary examined by the author.
Human «ind and its relations. No. Compounds. No. Compounds. 75. Tree, wood...... ΤΌ ΞΕ seveee 493 αν ΟΝ Cas cot an conpewecnor ns ideas 478 97. Melon......... Pee ioe 16 10. (Another form) ........... ok ΤΟΣ MERI oc ccteseRsomeen sexiécare, Kae 33. Scholar, sage κἢν 16%; TPS. Bamboo ΉΣΑΝ ΣΡ, +» 200 OSs WOMAN I, eee l ates ees od ved 2435) 119. Rice Y aie WY. we thebeats 4 am 85... ὅϑ'ϑη. ἰδ oe dete ΕΗ ἘΠῊΝ 31 | 140. Grass, herbs ........cseeees 470 44. Corpse ......... δούς νος ύσῶν ve 99}}..151 Bean |... ομυξ εν ΣΑΣ 16 4ὃ, Workman. «asasesstess ΑΨ Zi] 179. Onion «2 sckwdeddorseatean’ cits 49, Salt css eckapsias Noasineepunsease - 12] 199. Wheat ........ pavibvanieas ane Τ᾿ 83. Family, kindred ............ 3°] 200. Eloump...xs censdnatrenkagaampey 7 88. Father ...... eraceees heres Bo, 9 102. Millet 3.2.cscececas Aree ΜῈ 6 131. Minister, servant ..... Sipe ΤΩΣ : 199; Belfi cons eas 5 Minerals. 158. Body, person .........cc0008 158 | 82. Earth ........ ΠΡ ἐπ τ κν. 222 194. Ghost, spirit ....ccccesecees 25° | 96. Jade, gem ...ccc.cccsseesece 127 . 112; Stone...) 0d.2. SOA 135 Mammatic. 167. Metal ...... are PS . 207 93. Ox VAS POCCORANCROadES Rae Aad ERS 54 197. Salt pacha ee ar ed ὧς 4 BE, MIO cate hescasehccesteasses pen loG goa? 19: BOEOD ἔρος cesses cegsarsvvesncs 39 Parts, §c. of Animals. ih. 5 Sea nan gape ete 28 | --S0. Mout. cssarptoonnsdgils vee 437 152. Hog... seetereeesesese Φ..... eee 33 58 H da f h 8 187: Horst ἐπι tedacssétecscecs esse 127 0 rete ΟΣ oa saat BORA ERs 108. Deer 93 59. Variegated feathers ...... 11 208. ite δι dhe ar ELE 21 61. τ soi cccccasssepenteeceree SOs . ΠΡΟ aan mere ae ie δι. Hand conic cesscevcnnpeee ove 492. Other Animals. 29. (Another form) ...... esecee 21 149: BONO is. ΤΡ 225 | 82. Short hair, fur ........... - 80 PED? BOWE τὴν τιν νι 38 | 84. Breath......... eteeeee seees 4 172. Birds ...... ἩΑ αν ΚΝ ἐν ΓΑ ἐκ 85) ὅ87..ΝᾺΠ ..0εκενόνννεν κλλλλλλννον 7 LOSER cistscsvsyorsineidsesses 106 | 92. Teeth (incisores) ........ 8 196, Large birds... ...ccssesseees 160 | 104. Disease .........++. tsseeeeee 192 205. Toads. ....,.... pee dues 13 ae oe eeeeesaeeesennneees tee ‘a " Η 5 . Cnesedawesvee sek ὁοοοοδονδοῦο ν 218. ΤΟΥΡΟΝΝΟ, ον ερεγεάκαν δὰ τόνον 5 ὄψα bok ΠΝ ΣΦ ae sis Vegetables. 126. Hair of the face .........06 8 45. Bad's isc; Baar ak Dek aeoaeaea.x es 4h .128. ΒΑ... ες ἐς pint. 36
65. Branch ΡΟ ΕΥ aaielys Gene etttoli LaOe lesb: ὧν ΟΣ τὴν νη δὲν 222
_ No. Compounds 135. Tongue.......0....+- #505335 vat 10 REO Boe g vedas dcnacvchecdeeewn 10 DIVER OUNE του Sddevccecesbetdast a 31 ρου rhs y cicdvoendeesdccsson . 155 BIG. Ἑω ρος, ........ weudiea ταῖς SSE eR 9 181..Head ......... soanetewdanre cor BE 185. (Another form). .........-.. 2 BOG ¢- DONG. Ὁ. δικόν οι casetedscbanee 47 190. Hair of the head ...... Ἐπ αν 4a 209. Nose....-<sccseses Seda voe ewes 9 οὐ δι ee ee eee ἐ:ϑδιλος 37
Other Objects in Nature.
Be ΕΣ ΈΕΞΕΕΡΙ ΡΞ ἘΦ 5 13. Wilderness ....-.. spcadeiepont hl ἘΠ τοῖσι mecs.5-06<5 ἘΠΡΕΘΡΕΤ ΦὌΝ 46 ΠΟ | Sh ey ae 6 ἜΣ TROPRTEACIC. cess νος ἐν νυῦοςΣ 19 23. (Another form) ............ 8 OF Seber ook iseasccssestn =o 29 36. Evening ....0:.ssésessecen++- ll 46. Hill ..... nukadeaasnawdi Wintel ἘΞ 142 47. Water-course ......-...+.+-- 9 54, Journey ...... aenudsbesvecren 5 ΤΟΝ cea cartcnsanananonteistente 154 A PRO cnnpidannnanacedesaa a Sechtion 6, πο snannnns pnason asian sb 548 RINE iednnnsoaiaxaaone odteeka ... 200 ΩΣ ΠΡ aor oe Tee 14
Ἐπ. CAVEG...ccosssicnce ae 51 RY BURY) ὅν ουνουουνφοῦχζοκοικοςοῖ: 1 ἐστ τ τ τὴ ee ΡΣ ΝῊ 90 γον τυ ελοςς inns <r sinnnsennagoenss 88 STU PROUINES Soe sescnoonesenssoes ses 101 ΡΥ ἐν ee ae 67 180. Sound ......... adit το δισίον 9 τοὺς ὦ Wis cicecscendcuvstevesce 23 212. Dragon* (fabulous).......... 2 Objects in Art. 10. 2 τς ἀοτλινοινυ.ῶς aw 9 18. Knife, cutting instrument. 115 Bh. SpOO ..cecevevessecees τον... 9 MAGICAL sacs νυ οὐ δυυλοι cue asec ἐσέ 19 31. Enclosure............ asda 45 Ὁ Inch .....:..<.<. endasista adie AZ. 50. Napkin ............. reer 86 Θ᾽. SMC. . ccccciecccccccrccedscss 6 DOs ἢ τὸ, oon cas ΕΣ 6 ἘΠ ERAW tehadecctadsadicoscécdcess 35
No. Compounds. G24 Banco tencicectees ἔριδες). 37 63. Inner door ...... CHS. . 16 67... Letters.-..:....s.00. MARA 6
68. Measure of capacity ...... 10 69. Measure of weight......... 15 80. Separation, prohibition... 7
98... Tiles. vices mS re = a Ὲ δ 30 102., Biel τς νύ. 3... 8...32.- 16 103. Measure of length ......... 5 108. Dish. ......... Ἔσρεπες " - ᾿ς ό 9... 42 110. Spear ............ eeeceeesese o OAS REL υνδον.. ον ete ees ἄν t 8G 130. ΒΠΙε....ν. CRETE BS. 269 121... Pottery... cicneecedbiocencs tue 20 122. ΝΕ απ ie 90 127..Plongh.: scsissscewVen id . 10 129. Pencil...... Seed Wocteeb sid 6 B34. - Mortar -« coscscssdncgsecdens 16 1S7>Boat. Wet αν τὰ 48 145. Garment.........022...605 ....ὄ 184 159... Wheels, ii0....2640308 ἜΣ τ ΜΘ 127 164. Wine ......... baa «ὁ ες δέ οὐ... OO 166. Chinese mile ............... 5 169. Door, «ccssacrycssscteon pee Bey | 177.. Leather undressed ......... 73 178. Dressed leather ...... ae, | 192..Sacrificial wine ............ + 193. Perfume pot ...........-... 6 206. Tripod........s--csceceeeees 4 DOTS DATE ES. θαυ ον σε acer 8 214. Wind instrument ......... ΕΙ
Numbers.
Be Ron cae inns ten mines ab Ὲ 23
5. (Another form) ............ 11
F. Pwo t re eS ee By Ὁ 12 18. Bagi οὐκ oot tana toed 15 24: Tenf ..... athe anes sueticnes? 88
Actions (verbs).
2: To descend 6i..22i sda. κέν oes 9 Ei: To enter (206357 S55 eeaece 10 14:-To cover side es 15 20: To foldleretovs οὐδδεοκονιξοςς 17 25. To divine τ ΙΑ νος 7 $4:-To follow. -so2200i0i.. vee. 3 35. To walk slow.......... ae eH | 40. To collect-- xi. νι ὦ ρον νος 99 53. To protect -...icess.2.......2. 82 55. To join hands..............- 14
* Heraldic symbol of the emperor, and a type of the watery element.
+ All the other numerals (to nine inclusive) are derived from these, with the exception of four, and that was also, in its original form. The Chinese numerals 1, 2, 3, and 10, are the Roman numerals I., I1., III., and X. turned the other way.
No. Compounds. 60. To pace. ......... ensued 06 0 9Ὲ fs 66. To touch lightly ............ 70 7.3... Ἐ0. BAY. cccarreenrreces Pabseebee 014 0. LO, OWO Gis ἐροτ» sdb ckceseceoneee 56 Tle, LO BOD ieiaes danseeves eee 19 79. TOME ἀξ φέραν εἰς οὐξων ΡΊΝ 18 81. To compare ..... ΑΝ 7 39: To: imitate: . ..s0ssnp shivers. 4
100. To produce, beget ......... 6
191: Fo 190.‘ saessnsacede seedtwachss 4
105. To issue forth ......... ditehes 3
111. To creep. sressooeresesaseetece! 4
113. To admonish ...... asdeicdars 97
UZ. LOLELOCE . i, ocsassueesteet tae 26
ἘΠ. ΤΟ ΠΌΤΟΥ <accecesecas Oe
TR4 00.00. sevesisiavaral ced ἐν 18
146. To overshadow ...... sedie at?! 16
247. To. see .ccose vegans odbursahtas 28
149. To speak, express ....... «. 873
MSG. ΤΟ WALK: .cscocesedisavseves de . 45
18]. To tremble ..,.os<vsivdedies. olin, 4
162. To walk swiftly ............ 145
165. To tear, pluck ..........0.006 4
BBS. 0 ἜΝ cessieess φροξοο ον ελέῤονον 9
184. Τὸ cab ",γεενιξο cts ρον τους sheen τ0
ROT. TO HONE: snsavévescaseateves 11
204. To embroider ............06+ 3
Qualities (adjectives). BBCi Gsssscccessccteccsen esas sso pL O Ὁ, TLOOKCU's ccssacesarves doe dégeeny , ὦ
62
" Νο. Compounds, 19. Strong...... μαροοοδο δε να δος, LOO 28. Crooked λον νἀ de. ΕΝ 37,, ΚΘ ΕΣ cos re eee 42. Little acess cates δ «ὅν εὐνὰς ΤῊΣ 48, Distorted....csacaseessesaseun Eh
52. Slender _ .....«0« ΠΡ 7 ἈΝ 70, Square... <cvvetsucdsudsde ges ΣΑΣ 71, Defective. uiisccseeaetaeehe,. fe te 78. Bad .......»ciksalesatteeaeutes COONe 90. Inclining...... το κυ δήδῳ es, BE 95. Dark-coloured ...sec0.06. 3 99. Sweet ....se-ccadatasten τ tae 106. White ...... ξλοόξασυν ΠΡ ΟΡ 29 125. Aged - ......cceveseoes ΠΟ, ee 133. - Extreme ..... ce Tent 138. Disobedient ............. “8 139. Coloured .......0006 ἘΠ ΎΕ τὰ ἘΝ 4 1δδι. Rediocsictie “Φεο σεν ΩΣ ἐς δ. ε«-Ἅ1ὖ 160. Bitter: .. ΕΣ Peay 168, Long : vw νυν ΕΠ τιν 2 171. Reaching to ............... 3 174, .Green οὕὙὃ0ον ον κου ΘῈ oe
175. “False. δον ΧΩ ventebitliee 186. Fragrant.......... ἐνόουν res 10 189. High. : «οτος ιν weieesnee Siac Te 80] cllowec.cieycasceuted teri. 8 203. Black ...... οὐ ὐ tee B26 ORE 810. TUVEL ὡς, Σ᾽ SL at
Undefined.
[95 ΟΡ ΨΥ ἀν ΥΩ die desc te
Some of the results of the preceding tables are curious, especially the disproportionate importance of different roots in the general con-
struction of the language.
It appears that of the total number of
11,600 words, no less than 8200 are comprised under only thirty-
three roots, viz.—
Compounds, Mair rec εϑοδιί σοι ςειφοιςς ΕΣ ΑΕ ὙΠΈΡ ἃ be ctbch Sa 478 Woman DRE E OAR 1 08 Orman Pepe per ΡΥ nye τοὶ yee Body ΡΥ . jee veces con cnsobeesninadegtsoeesene . 158 Mouths esas ceva sacle sis back dhs δ 437 Pl τς ce ase ee Soteeicc iWin atoes SSeeace ates Se 467 TIAN re yaaa ee ὙΓΟΡΟΒΗΥ tha teaas nseenk Rossen 492 TSCA... <cpacdacbes dees paddles is cae Alsdnne eoendaabaieks 192 Bye op cacvseonsgves Pdsscnsbsedendeessenene peenaessepseoaese> . 186 Wiesh sacle μον ἔτ ἢ δ οὐν τοὺς Nee ἑὴν ae nchaen cannes 222 OGL cosa. diasbac Tb okdsosbals side Qo cbarsecasaapax pewicceshers 155 TID. 5 ysauives sdAcee ἘΣ ΕΥ ΡΣ ΤῊ ghoeasSeneapossnvanipinsdce 136 PRAMEO Crees osc τυ ἐυρεεν χος ἜΑ ERTL OTE ODT TEE 127 τον τιν ρος Saudesectart siiuieseeenveonee ΤΥ ΕΤΕΕ 225 ἘΝ με cen iaesevatovacnes EY he EP aA τὴν tate . 106 Bird ..... Wena uti re nat sae eats PSOE PPP ONY TTY PERCE OR ly
NG NIN Balkin τον, ει Teginnewandep whhetecs tdebe coeoe
63
Compounds.
Grain «ουοοδοοοθοοοοοουοοοονοδ οονυυδοοσθϑοοοοοοοοσοοοοοσοοδοῦ 144 P iS ΤΥ i Paeeys Pema aes een OA. ST ΠῚ 200 Coren ets 52 ses cane sexsnahactiecadhe eccnhasiadagee se 470 Els BOM on ccasnnangsasoesnendensseapuiemndessssachaneks 127 ἘΝ τ cdlaccntacseaandes πὶ ογδ δέ, δον τορος ὦ ἰβξακφι ἤριανς 207 jo | Rt ἐπ σοι τος δ 222 [τῶ iis cnce cn Ὁ δ᾿ Ἔ 5 ΘΣΥ ἈΦ στον ἘΕΡῚ, Θέξοςτος αὶ Το πο 142 PUTAS (One no Ohi Nast debs udusVsdessdoueacetanenaeeeen 154 PRONE) oc soa ona sak e@dsanskccadanakanedhcnesccncnctvearduaden 548 να was A Pak Pane κε σει ύθος θὰ Relicnngubcauneateuanel 200 DR GRIMED Gods chai ann ἡ τας, idodbudandeatedacdbXcdscuones ess, LOL Knife, cutting instrument ........seseeeseeceeeeeeeeeees 115 BU εν aeus av dak en euntay evesbsseocaesuctas 269 ον consis adecassadannsacroateetsouccbnedantacdndeasnes 184 MERE «cc Seneves tentcatcakccncubeecerecneeoelssescbatar set 127 DOORS Fins wacéactoceduebeneves Gasidanelaseas ΠΡ ΤΕ ἜΣ οὐ Ἐν ΚῺ 373 ρόδον τ Sires ΤΡ ΡΣ 145
An extended analysis shows that the small proportion of only seven roots comprehend under them no less than 3385 words.
ΡΣ o¥, ducbtincddiuvvegedecks daknbadencncntscobanssias 478 IPED S83 cc cane ccldns Ua hutsnaiesstaveduswesukpaneuceunacate 437 EMRE Ss ag ws cain acns ogdedvecnisekibaness sl geaseuet 467 εὐ ΤΑ, ΑΙ anni ahaapsccssdnadacoatens acne cascndet eaten ted 492 ἘΠ WMT. cen atecucietcucssdocdqatcedssnsrdedatrcaaetdale 493 ΠΥ TICE cocnacapevacctanscsanacesceat cdshtacccosudeacds 470 WRUEE Doc Σ, τες dukcdesshdnceveues peak lelececeweda eens 548
It is apparent that the bulk of these 214 roots, or primitive words, consist of nouns substantive, the names of the principal objects in nature or early art; and their generic character seemed to the author to corroborate the opinion of Dr. Adam Smith, in an essay concerning the first formation of languages, appended to his work on the “Theory of Moral Sentiments.” He observes that the assigning particular names to denote particular objects, that is, the institution of nouns substantive, would probably be one of the first steps towards the formation of language. The objects most familiar to two aborigines would have particular names given to them, as a cave, a tree, a river. When they met with other objects, altogether similar to these, they would give the same names rather than invent new ones; and thus these words, which were originally the proper names of individuals, would each of them become the common name of a multitude or class. It is this application of the name of an in- dividual to a great multitude of similar objects that seems to have given occasion to the early formation of those comprehensive classes which we call genera. With the progress of knowledge, the neces- sity for particularising and distinguishing led to the construction of those thousands of compound words or characters which the Chinese ingeniously formed by the combinations of the simple roots, and which are arranged under the roots in their dictionaries as species under genera. We may add that the same principle seems to have
64
been finally extended by them, from sensible objects to abstract ideas. : On the reading of this paper a lengthened discussion arose as to the inferences to be drawn from some of its statements, and more particularly on the question, whether the roots of language were likely to have an abstract or a concrete meaning.
4 PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
z
“a
Vor. I. MARCH 10, 1843. No. 6.
The Rev. Dr. Με, in the Chair.
The following communications were read :—
_ ‘On the derivatives of the Welsh word gwy.” By the late Rev. John Walters*, Rector of Landough, Glamorganshire. Commu- ‘nicated by the Rev. John Jones (Tegid). _ Gwy, a flow, a flood, is seldom if ever used in modern Welsh, except as the name of a river, or in composition. Giy is the Welsh name of the Wye; Cynwy (Conway) means the chief river; Elwy _(Eilwy) the second river; Dowrddwy (Dwrddwy) the noisy rivert; Mynwy (Mainwy) the small river; Liugwy, the clear river, ἅς. The name of the river Towy Mr. Walters considered as formed from the same root, with the addition of the prefix ty. ᾿ς Gwyo, to flow, is also obsolete; but it has left verbal substantives behind it—Gwyad (gwaed) blood, and gwyaeth (contractedly gwyth), an influx, a canal. The channel between the Isle of Wight and the Mainland was anciently called yr wyth, the channel, and the island itself ynys yr wyth, the channel island. Hence came the Latin mame of Vectis, andthe English name of Wight. One of the Cornish hundreds, which lies at the head of a large bay, is called Pen-wyth, that is, Bay-head. Again, amwyth means a surrounding channel, a moat; and Shrewsbury, which is nearly surrounded by the Severn, is called Tref amwythig{t, the moated town. _ Among the other derivatives of Gwy are gwyach (equivalent to wwyog), a king-fisher—ceyzr Latin, κὴξ Greek ; Giach, asnipe ; gwy- ydd (contractedly gWwydd), a goose; gwyar, blood, &c.
=
__ ** On certain Inflexions of the Old-English Adjective.” By Edwin Guest, Esq.
_ The Anglo-Saxon, like the Greek and Latin, often distinguishes number, case and person, by a change in the vowel of the final syllable; in the Old-English these vowels are all confounded ; and in our modern English they are lost. Thus the Anglo-Saxon ath
_* Author of an English-Welsh Dictionary, 4to. London, 1794. _ + Mr. Jones considers this to be a “fanciful” derivation. He observes that the Dwrddwy (the English Dee) is joined by another river soon after it leaves the
Lake; and that the country people consider the name to signify Two-Rivers —dur, a stream, and dwy, two.
ΟΖ Or simply Amwythig. VoL. τ. F
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has athes in the genitive singular, and athas in the nominative plural: the Old-English oth has othes for both cases; and othes is now represented by a monosyllable—oaths. Again, the Anglo- Saxon athe is the dative singular, and atha the genitive plural ; both these cases are represented by the Old-English othe; and our modern dialect, having lost the vowel of the final syllable, has no means of distinguishing these inflected cases from the nominative oath. Again, lufian, to love, has /ufath for the third person singular, and Jafiath for the three persons plural; the Old-English has doveth in both numbers; and for the third person singular our peasantry now say lovth*. It is obvious that either of these changes (and more especially the first) must have brought with it a new dialect. The confound- ing of the vowels of the final syllable was a confusion of number, case and person—in short, of those grammatical forms, to which language owes its precision and its clearness. To prevent ambi- guity, the speaker made the prepositions do the work of the lost inflexions, and habitually employed other modes of speech, which had hitherto been little, if at all, in use. These new forms were ~ both curious and prominent features of the new dialect, but they were not its essential characteristic. The only sure text, which wi enable us to distinguish an Old-English from an Anglo-Saxon ΜΒ.» is a confounding of the vowels of the final syllable. . After this definition of our Old-English dialect, we proceed lay before the reader the common (or as they are sometimes called, the indefinite) inflexions of the Old-English adjective. The adjec- tive declined is god, good :—
Singular. Plural.
m. f. n. m. f. n.
N. god. god god gode. G. godes godre godes godre. D. goden godre goden goden. A. godne gode_ god gode.
All these inflexions may be found in the MSS. of the thirteenth cen- tury ; but there is much inconsistency in the manner of using them, and that sometimes even in the same MS. The only inflexions which” survived long enough to affect the language of Chaucer and hi contemporaries, were those of the nominative and genitive plural To these we shall for the present confine’ our observations.
In the latter half of the fourteenth century our adjectives took th inflexion of the genitive plural only when they followed the geniti plural of the personal pronouns :—
* This inflexion is now only found west of the Parret,—Jennins, West Dial.; but within the last three centuries it was used all over the South ὁ England, and in both numbers. Those poets of the 16th century who we West-of-England men, almost invariably elided the vowel—showth, leapth, &c.—_ just as the Somersetshire peasant does at the present day. The men of the North, _ in whose spoken dialect this inflexion was unknown, generally took it in its uncon= tracted form from the pages of Chaucer.
ae <a
νῷ δα
67
leteii Strokes of michel might oe Thai delten hem betvene That thurch hir brinies bright _ Her bother blode was sene.
ails
: της Sir Tristr. 3. 8, _ 2. The kyng and Roberd his brother, her beyre poer nome. _ And wyth gret ost and strengthe ynou to Engelond come. ὩΣ ay aie Rob. Glou. 2. 388. _ 3. Tho hii come to Guldeforde thys erle Godwyne the ssrewe ~~ Lete thys gultelese men sette al arewe
~ And telleout euere the tethe man and the nyne thoru out he nome.
ve And let smyte of her alre heuedys. Rob. Glou, 1. 327- _ 4, "And right so by theire aller dome ; Thai made him emperoure.of Rome. ; fi ἃ ἐπε: ᾿ Sevyn Sages. 2828. 5. A morwe whan the day began to spring
Uprose our hoste, and. was our aller cok. Chau. Prol.
__ Her bother blode, ex. 1, means the blood of them both, and her
_ beyre poer, ex. 2, the power of them both—beyre being the genitive
_ plural of the Old-English bey, both. In like manner her alre
_ heuedys means the heads of them all, theire aller dome the judg-
' ment of them all, and our aller* cok the cook of us all.
Scotch writers of the fifteenth century sometimes added to these plural genitives the genitival ending is :—
6. The lordis gawe assent thare til And ordanyt wyth thaire allaris will That, &c. Wynt. 8. 35, 178. vs I sall reuenge and end our alleris offence. ‘ Gaw. Dougl. Virgil, p. 406.
See other examples in Jam. Dict., under dilaris and Alleris.
This double inflexion is still used in the genitive plural of our personal pronouns ours, yours, theirs, and is also found in the Danish and the Swedish—varas Sw., vores Dan., ours; deras Sw., deres Dan., theirs. It is not easy to say when these forms first made their appearance in our written language, but they were com- mon in the fourteenth century, when they may have been introduced from some of our Northern dialects.
_ The Anglo-Saxon ure and eower were sometimes considered as the plural genitives of the first and second persons; and sometimes took the. inflexions of the adjective, and became for all purposes possessive, or (as sometimes termed) adjectival pronouns. Our modern grammarians pronounce ours and yours to be genitives, and
* The genitive aller, further corrupted into alder, was used as late as the six- teenth century in the compounds alder-best, alder-liefest, &c. Vid. 2. H. 6. 1. 1. These compounds are met with in great numbers in the Low-Dutch, and are not unfrequent in the High-Dutch, or German. Vid. allerhéchst, allerheiligst, &c.
F2
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our and your adjectival pronouns ; but if we examine our literature, we shall find the only difference in the use of these forms to be, that ours, yours, theirs, &c. are only used absolutely, that is, with- out a substantive, while our, your, their, &c. are found not only before substantives, but also in every construction which admits the pronouns with the double inflexion. In some constructions the — analogies of language would lead us to consider these’ pronouns as — genitive cases, and in others as adjectival pronouns; but for the most part they may be classed as either,—the adjectival inflexions whose presence or absence once fixed their character having long since — disappeared.
In the following examples our, your, &c. are used absolutely :—
8. Gif he passeth with honour— Oure is the deshonour. Kyng Alisaunder, 3867. 9. Oure kyng hath this freke y felde—
Oure is the maistry of the felde. Kyng Alis. 1262.
10. Y kepe nought bote honour— Al the bygate schul be your. Kyng Alis. 2138, 11. Many Sarezyns hadden her fyn , And wenten to Mahoun and Apollyn,
And tho that caugte deth of our Wenten to Crist our Saveoure. Rich. Coer de Lion, 4997.
12. And when the tilieris sighen him, they thoughten withinne hem- self and seiden this is the οἷν, sle we him, that the eritage be our.—_ Wicl. Lue, 20. 4
13. . +. and ye vouchesauf to techen me This noble craft, and this subtilitee, I wol be your in al that ever I may. Chau. Chan. Yem. Tale. 14. Ye fathers and ye mothers eke also Though ye han children, be it on or mo Your is the charge of all her surveance, &c. Chau. Doctoures Tale. 15. Of Synah can I tell thee more And of our Lady’s bow’r But little needs to strow my store, Suffice this hill of our. Spens. July.
In ex. 11 our is an adjectival pronoun, but in the last example it seems to be a genitive governed* by the preposition of, which it may be observed sometimes governs that case in the Anglo-Saxon. The character of a genitive occasionally assumed by these pro-
* That the Old-English of did sometimes govern a genitive, will, I think, appear from the following examples :— 4 Thus thise dragouns with thise knightes Foughten two tides of the nightes. Kyng Alisaunder, 5227. . . . - Maximus, that was an officere Of the Prefectes, and his corniculere.— Chau. Second Nonnes Tale.
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‘nouns is more obvious in the following examples, where we have your noither—neither of you; her eyder—either of them.
16. The steward stirt to him than, And seyd, “" Traitour, fals man, Ataint thou schalt be take! Y seighe it meself this ech day Where that sche in thi chamber lay Your noither it can forsake.” Amis and Amiloun.
17. Her eyder other for to slo Swerdes droghe. Octovian Imp. 1086.
It has been observed that the doubly inflected pronouns ours,
; , theirs, &c. can only be used absolutely. The usage of our iptaie seems to have been long settled in this respect :—
ΔΘ cathe S02 Josue all lith in your plesance My child and I with hertely obeisance Ben youres all. Chau. The Clerkes Tale.
But the use of these forms is not thus restricted in the Danish and the Swedish. In the Danish we may not only say “ det er vores” or ‘‘deres”—that is, ours or theirs—but also ‘‘ vores fader,” our father, and “ deres huus,” their house.
Hers furnishes us with another instance of a double inflexion. _Grimm’s notion (Deutsche Gramm. i. 788) that it is a regular genitive of her, a correct substitute for she, seems to be quite un- tenable. The word, which is put into the mouth of our vulgar, and written fer, is properly hoo—there is no r in its pronunciation. The truth is, we generally drop the r when pronouncing her, and hence have confounded the two words, and mistaken the nominative hoo for its accusative her.
In popular language, our pronouns take aniiiee double inflexion, which appears to be governed by the same laws as the last, and which may be illustrated from the German, as the last was from the Danish and the Swedish. The German relative wer has for its genitive both wess (whose, Engl.) and wessen; the demonstrative der has for its masculine genitive both dess and dessen, for its femi- “Rine genitive deren, and for its plural genitive likewise deren. Now the masculine genitive dessen, the feminine genitive deren, and the
ural genitive deren, are often used absolutely, precisely as our lower classes use his’n, her’n, and their'n; and I think there can be little doubt that the plural genitive deren is identical with the last of these English forms. The principal point in which deren differs from theirn is, that its use is not restricted like that of its English representative; for the Germans not only use deren abso- Tutely, as the English use theirn, but they also put it before a sub- Stantive, as deren kinder, their children. These doubly inflected pronouns appear to have been taken from one of our southern dialects ; and the last of the two inflexions is, in ail probability, that
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of the n declension, of which we shall have to speak in the sequel. They are to be met with in the literature of the fourteenth century :—
19. Blessyd be poure men in spirit, for the kyngdom of hevenes is — herun.—Wiclif. Matt. 5.
20. And some of owren wenten to the graue and thei foundun so as the wymmen seiden, but thei foundun not hym,—Wicl. Luc. 24.
The inflexion of the genitive plural was only occasionally used, and affected only particular adjectives; but the use of the plural inflexion e is so general in our Old-English MSS., that whenever an uninflected adjective is joined to a plural substantive, the exception ought always to be noticed, and if possible explained. The ending e is found in all the cases of the plural, but in our southern MSS. the genitive and dative often take their proper inflexions—at. least — during the thirteenth century. In most of the following examples, the adjective will be found both in the plural and in the singular number, and consequently both with and without the inflexion :-—
21. In these lay a gret multitude of syke men, blinde crokid and drye, —Wicl. Jon, 5.
22, In all the orders foure is non that can So much of dalliance and faire language, He hadde ymade ful many a marriage— ~ His tippet was ay farsed ful of knives, . - τ, And pinnes for to given faire* wives. Chau. Prol.
"
23. And al the cuntre of Judee wente out to him, and alle men of Je- rusalem.—Wiclif, Mark 1.
24, He ghyueth lyf to alle men and brething and alle thingis, and made of oon al the kynde of men to inhabit on αἱ the face of the ee re Dedis of Apostlis, 17.
25. That fadres sone which alle thinges wrought; _ And all, that wrought is with a skilful thought, The Gost that from the fader gan procede Hath souled hem. Chau. The Second Nonnes Tale. .
26. And alle we that ben in this aray And maken all this lamentation, ᾿ We losten alle our husbondes at that toun. Chau. The Knightes Tale. ;
27. A good man bryngeth forth gode thingis of aie Ἰαρἀμδ hier Matt. 12.
28. So every good tre maketh gode fruytis, but an γα: tre maketh yvel+ fruytis. A good tree may not mak yvel fruytis, neither an yvel- may make gode fruytis. Every tree that maketh not good Gent schal ἢ cut down.—Wiclif, Matt. 7. \
* This word fair-e is certainly a dissyllable, and the other faire as clearly a monosyllable. Tyrwhitt spells them both alike, but he had not the least notion the adjectival inflexions. A good MS. would no doubt distinguish between the two + After one of the liquids Wiclif often rejects the vowel of the final syllable He sometimes writes camels, castels, vessels, &c. for camelis, castelis, vesselis, 8c. and in the text he has written yvel for yvele. In like manner the Germ decline himmel, gen. himmels, dat. himmel, instead of himmeles and himmele.
“ eae Serene esr ΘΠ ΒΘΘΒΟΟΒΟΒΟΝ
71
29. Men loveden more derknessis than light for her werkes weren yvele, for ech'man that doeth yvel, hateth the light.— Wiclif, Jon. 3. _ 80. And othere seedis felden among thornes and thornes wexen up and _ strangliden hem, and othere seedis felden into good lond and gaven fruyt, _ sum an hundred fold, another sixty fold, an other thritty fold, &c.—Wiclif, _ Matt. 13. ;
_ 31. Yet the while he spoke to the puple lo Ais mother and ise brethren stonden withoute forth.—Wiclif, Matt. 12. :
32. And hise disciplis camen and token kis body.— Wiclif, Matt. 14.
33. Whan thise Bretons tuo were fled out of this lond
Ine toke his feaute of alle, &c. Rob. Brunne, p. 3- 34. This is thilk disciple that bereth witnessyng of these thingis and
wroot hem.—Wicl. Jon. 21.
᾿ς 88. Seye to us in what power thou doist these thingis, and who is he | that gaf to thee this power.—Wicl. Luk. 20.
_. This, in the Anglo-Saxon, has for its plural ¢has, and in our _ Southern dialect also it generally remains a monosyllable, but in the Northern dialect it was almost always inflected. (Ex. 33, 34, 35.) So likewise fis, in the Anglo-Saxon and in the Old-English Southern dialect, is a genitive; but in the Northern dialect it is often inflected, like the other adjectival pronouns. (Ex. 31, 32.) Again, in the Anglo-Saxon and the Old-English, the past participle was sometimes inflected in the plural, and sometimes not; and the _ same observation applies to adjectives, which stand in the place of _ the passive participle, as— wolcnu—wann with winde
clouds—wan-coloured with wind. Czed, 12.
Hence we need not be surprised at finding blessyd (Ex. 19) and _ ecrokid (Ex. 21) without inflexion. There are also certain adjec- _ tives, which enter very freely into composition, and of course remain _uninflected, when the compound is in the plural number. As the elements of a compound are often written separately both in the _ Anglo-Saxon and the Old-English, we should always be on our guard against the errors which may arise from this source. When _ the number of these rules shall have been increased by a more care- _ ful study of our Old-English dialects, we shall probably be able to explain most of the cases in which the uninfiected adjective is _ Joined to the plural substantive. We must however make some allowance for the blunders of the copyist (particularly during the fourteenth century), and too frequently also for the ignorance of the editor. Many an Old-English MS. has been “corrected” till every trace of inflexion has disappeared.
Besides the declension we have been noticing, the Gothic dialects possessed (and many of them still possess) a second declension of the adjective, which has been called the definite. It was used when the adjective followed the definite article, a definitive or possessive pronoun, or a genitive case. The Anglo-Saxons moreover used it when addressing an individual, and also to express the excess of any
72
quality—for which purpose we now use the definite article, as “Alfred the good king.” In our Old-English dialect, the definite adjective was declined as follows :—
Singular. Plural. m. f. n. τὴ, f. n. N. gode gode ‘gode goden. G.goden goden goden godene. D. goden goden goden goden. A.goden goden gode gode.
In our Southern dialect this declension seems to have been pretty generally followed during the thirteenth century. But MSS. written in our Northern and Eastern counties use the inflexion ὁ in all the cases, and from the earliest period ; and in the fourteenth century, the inflexion en is only occasionally met with even in our Southern MSS. 36. Thereto he was the semelieste man That is or was, sithen the world began. Ch. Manciples Prol. . 37. The nexte houre of Mars folwing this Arcite unto the temple walked is. ; Ch. Knightes Tale. 38. And hom she goth anon the nexte way. Ch. Knightes Tale. 39. But in the sixte monethe the aungel Gabriel was sent from God.— Wicl. Luk, 1. 40. After the thridde day thei foundun him in the temple.—Wicl. Luk. 3.
41. How may any man entre into the hous of a strong man, and take awei his vessels but first he bynde the stronge man, &c.—Wicl. Matt. 12. 42. God save you, that bought agen mankind And you amend, thus said this olde man. Ch. Pardoneres Tale. 43. fire eyen caste she ful low adoun Ther Pluto hath his derke regioun. ; Ch. Knightes Tale. Mel . ΠΡΎΜΟ SoS ONT Odi ae, the yonge sunne Hath in the ram Ais halfe cours yronne. Ch. Prol.
In the following examples, the definite adjective is used to denote the excess of some quality, or else by way of address :—
45. But highe God sometime senden can His grace unto a litel oxes stall. Ch. Clerkes Tale. 46. What axist thou me of good thing ther is 00 goode God.—Wicl. Matt. 19. 47. And lo oon cam and seide to him gode maistir, what good schal I do that I have everlastynge lyf? whiche seith to him, what axist thou me of good thing.—Wicl. Matt. 19. 48. Now good Sire, go forth thy way and hie the. : Ch. Chan. Yemannes Tale.
73
The inflexions of the definite adjectives are those of the mascu-
line, feminine and neuter substantives of the 2 declension ; and the characteristic of this declension is, that the nominative ends
in a vowel, and most of the other cases in π. In the Southern _ counties, the Old-English ove, an ox, had oven not only for its nomi- ᾿ native plural, but also for its genitive, dative and accusative singular. _ The Old-English genitive in en seems to have left traces behind it in _ some of our compounds, for instance in nightin-gale* ; and its in- _ flexion most probably gave their ending to the doubly inflected pro- _ nouns, our’n, your’n, his’n, &c. __ The n declension, more or less developed, makes its appearance in _ many of the Indo-European languages, besides the Gothic. With _ some exceptions the nominative ends in a vowel, and n is found in _ the other cases. The Greek affords us the most remarkable excep- _ tion to the rule, for in that language all these substantives end their ' nominatives in y, thus affording us a striking contrast with the Latin, λέων leo, δράκων draco, Μακεδὼν Macedo, &c. The Anglo- __ Saxon affords us some few instances of nouns which, like the Greek, _ take the 2 in their nominative, as deman, Ced. 229, Sarran, Ced. _ 109; and we need not therefore feel surprise, if sometimes the Old- _ English definite adjective takes en as a nominatival ending. It is however remarkable that our Northern dialects, which so early _ rejected the regular definite declension, not unfrequently afford us _ instances of this curious anomaly. The following examples belong to the thirteenth century :-—
49. ....ure laferrd crist that naggled wass o rode Thurrh that indisskenn hzfedd-follc that he wass borenn offe. . .- - Our Lord Christ that nail’d was on the rood By that Jewish tribe, whereof he was born. Ormulum.
50. He strahte scaft steercne stithimoden king! He levelled the strong shaft stern-hearted king! Layamon.
pest. Fader god of alle thinge Almightint louerd hegest kinge. Corp. Christ. MSS. R. 11.1. 28.
In Ex. 48, enz must be considered as an essential part of the definite adjective iudisskenn, and not the regular inflexion of the definite declension, because in the first place Ormin does not use the inflexion enn, and secondly, because the proper inflexion would be e, not enn, as follc is neuter. In Anglo-Saxon the phrase would be, thurh thet iudisce heafod-folc. In Ex. 51 almightin appears to be the definite form of the Old-English adjective almight.
* The Anglo-Saxon niht does not belong to the n declension ; but many Old- English substantives took inflexions which were unknown to their Anglo-Saxon prototypes.
T In the same poem we have almightin used as a substantive—the Almighty.
Than sal him almighti luven Her benethen and thund abuven. 1. 9.
74
When an adjective qualifies a personal pronoun in Anglo-Saxon, it generally takes the indefinite declension ; but it is also sometimes found in its definite form, as ic selfa, I myself, thu selfa, thou thyself, ὅς. By substituting en for the vowel ending, we see the origin of — those curious Old-English forms, myselven, thyselven, himselven, &c.
52. I wol myselven gladly with you ride Right at min owen coste, and be your pide: .. Ch. Prol. 53. Than sal thou thiselven se
Wha have the wrang, thi wif or he. ἜΑ. Sevyn Sages, 2899. 54, - he wol make him doten anon right
Bui it a fend be as himselven is.
Ch. Chanones Yemannes Tale.
55. Qwhy couth he nocht have in to pes
Haldyn his land, as it than wes,
And hym selwyn owt of daungere. Wynt. 8. 40.
Himsen (contracted from himselyen) was used by Clare, the Northamptonshire poet; and mysen is still used in Craven. Vid. Cars. Crav. Dial. sen.
All the inflexions we have hitherto noticed may be traced, niedi- ately or immediately, to the Anglo-Saxon ; but that which we have — now to treat of has not been met with in that dialect of our language, though it may probably be found in it. Our Northern MSS. not unfrequently assign to the plural adjective and participle the inflexion es. There is nothing exactly parallel to this in the other Gothic © dialects. But as in the Icelandic we find the substantival inflexions — ir, ar, representing our common plural inflexion es or s—as hvalir, — whales, trellar, thralls, &c.—so the adjectival inflexions ir, ar may represent this plural inflexion of our adjective :—
masc. fem. _ neut. Nom. Pl. godhir gédhar godh. The plural inflexion of the feminine adjective in Mzso-gothic is és which approaches the English inflexion more nearly— masc, fem. neut. Nom. Pl. godai godés goda. 56. Ah godd calles te godes briddes of heouene.
But Ged calls the good birds of heaven, &c. Inst. Mon. Titus, D, 18. p. 37.
BY. Thir er fives nobil besaundes. That our lorde be taught his servaundes. Medit. Hiltoni Faust. B. 6. fol. 119 b.
58. Unces grete and leopardes Yénen lie m many assaut hardes, And slowghen many bolde and wighthes Of King Alisaunder knightes. Kyng Alisaunder, 5230.
59. The King there les tuenty knighttes And on and thritty of sergeauntz wighttes. —_‘Ib. 5355,
75
60. Wel sore anoyed was the kyng For he seygh his stedes honestes Dromedaries and other bestes To forne his eighen steruen for thurst— Of al pyne that was hym werst. Kyng Alisaunder, 5056. 6]. In the londe, als I fynde of Ynde : Ben cites fyue thousynde Withouten ydles and castels, And boroughs tounes swithe feles. Ib. 4841. 62. Thou schalt fynde trowes* two Seyntes and holy they buth bo. Ib. 6763. 63. Erles and barouns and alle thay Sayde ““ We ben at on accord To wende with thee Richard our Lord” Quod the kyng “ Frendes gromercy It is our honour, lystenes why, Wendes and graunts the Pope his boon As other Crystenes kyngs have done.” Rich. Coer de Lion, 1374. "Os; ων For Rome quhilum sa hard wes stad, ‘ Qnhen Hanniball thaim wencusyt had, That off ryngis with rich stanys That war of knychtis fyngyris taneys He send thre bollis to Cartage. The Bruce, 2. 605.
_ This curious inflexion of the adjective long kept its ground in the language of Law and Ceremony. Its resemblance to the plural in- flexion of the French and Latin adjective seems to have been the cause.
65. The landes of the Mallettes of Yorkshire, by sales and heirs generales be sore disparkelid.—Leland’s Itinerary, 6. 27.
66. Here foloweth undre correccion a little devyse for the coronacion of the most high mighty and cristen prince Henry the VIIth, &c., by the hole assent of the lordis spirituellis and temporellis and also of all the comons of the land electe—to be king of the same.—Rutland Papers, p. 2.
67. I am denyde to sue my liuerie here, And yet my letters patents give me leave. Rich, 2. 1. 2.
- These phrases have close resemblance to others which still sur- _ vive,;‘and to which they probably gave rise. In the fourteenth cen- tury it was not unusual to qualify one substantive with another, the qualifying substantive always following the substantive qualified.
68. But who that knowlechith me and my wordis in this generacioun
avoutresse and synful also mannis sone schal knowleche him when he schal come in the glorye of his fadir with his aungels.—Wiclif. Mark 8.
When the substantive qualified was put in the plural, the qualify- ing substantive was generally made to agree with it in number :-—
ἜΝ e. trees,
76
69. Yet saw I brent the shippes hoppesteres The hunte ystrangled with the wilde beres, &c. Ch. Knightes Tale.
But neverthelesse suffiseth to the these trewe conclusyons in Englishe, as well as suffiseth to these noble clerkes Grekes these same conclusions in Greke.—Chaucer. The Conclusions of the Astrolabie. ;
70. And hou herden we ech man his language in which we ben borun— of Parthi and Medi—and comelinges romaines, and iewis, &c.—Wiclif, Dedis of Apostlis.
Ti a eee for the woolle of England
Susteineth the commons Flemings, I understand. Hachluyt’s Voy. England’s Policie.
72. Yea thou mayest observe (friendly reader) what privileges the
Danish king Canutus obtained at Rome, for our English merchants adven-
turers of those times.— Hachluyt, Voy. Preface, 2nd Ed.
73. On the left wing likewise there stood fast to the phalangites afore- —
said, 1500 horsemen Gallo-Grecians.—Holland’s Livy, p. 776. Shippes hoppesteres, ex. 69, means the dancing ships—hoppestere,
as Tyrwhitt observed, being a female dancer; and comelinges ro-—
maines, ex. 70, means Roman strangers. Under this class of
idioms must be ranged the phrases Knights-Templars, Knights-Hos- —
pitallers, Friars-Minors, &c.
Before we close the paper, it may be well to call the reader’s.atten- —
tion to a form which is now obsolete, and appears never to have been otherwise than local, but which in a philological point of view is curious and interesting, The North-country relative quhilk gene- rally became quhilkis when it referred to a plural or collective sub- stantive. ; Ξ 74, And bath the eldys has tane end
As in all storys welle is kende
Contenand hale thre thowsand yhere
Nyne scowre and foure ourpassyt clere
The quhilkys as Orosius
Intyl his Cornyclis tellys us
Nere foryhet ware, &c. Wynt. 2. Prol. 75. Above the commoun nature and conditioun of doggis, quhilkis ar —
sene in al partis, are three maner of doggis in Scotland. Bellenden, Descr. of Albion, c. ix.
76. Touching the kyndis of versis, guhi/ks are not cuttit, or broken, but .
alyke many feite in everie lyne of the verse, and how they ar commonlie namit.—King James, Reulis and Cautelis of Scott. Poetry.
3
PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
Vot. I. MARCH 24, 1843. No. 7.
Professor Wixson in the Chair.
᾿ς Professor F. Bopp of Berlin, and Professor James Grimm of Ber- _ lin, were elected Honorary Members of the Society.
_. G. J. Pennington, Esq., late Fellow of King’s College, Cam- _ bridge, and the Rev. John E. Kempe, M.A., Fellow of Clare Hall, Cambridge, were elected Members of the Society.
A paper was read, contributed by Fras. W. Newman, Esq., ‘On Scythia and the surrounding Countries, according to Herodotus.”
The problem is, first, mghtly to limit Scythia by the various nations which Herodotus places round it; next to determine the rivers and other interior divisions marked by him.
The nations bounding Scythia are the following :—(1) the Ge- tans, south of the Danube; (2) the Agathyrsans on the river Maris, the modern Morosk, so that they were separated from Scythia by the Carpathian Mountains; (3) the Neurians divided from Scythia by _ the “‘ great lake out of which the river Tyras flowed” (Her. iv. 51),
probably an overflowing of the Dniester some way below its source, so that the Neurians may be safely placed in Volhynia; (4) the Androphagi, or Cannibals, a word perhaps denoting nothing more than their military prowess, probably between the Pripet and the Dnieper; (5) the Melanchleni, or Black Cloaked Men, due north of the Royal Scythians, and probably in the government of Orlov; (6) east, or south-east of these, the Budinians; (7) south of the Budinians, the Sarmatians, on the eastern side of the Tanais; (8) finally at the south-eastern side a corner was cut off by the Tau- rians ; this was the Crimea, or a part of it. Herodotus seems not to have known that the Crimea was a pe- “minsula. He describes it as an ἀκτὴ, a projecting wedge-shaped piece of land. What he calls “the Rugged Peninsula” (iv, 99), seems to have been the eastern peninsula on which was the city Pantacapeum. ‘‘The Moat” (cc. 3 and 20), reaching from the Meotis to the Tauric Mountains, must have been cut on the Isthmus of the eastern peninsula; for the Tauric Mountains run along the south-eastern coast; and the moat was said to have been dug to stop the Scythians who desired to return from Asia into Europe. ‘The Royal Scythians possessed the north-east coast of the Crimea ; for their territory came down to the moat (c. 20); and we are told also of Scythians who lived “ within the moat” (c. 28), i.e. upon
78
the Rugged Peninsula; who, when the sea was frozen, made war against the Sindians on the opposite shore.
Herodotus supposed the north-west coast of the Sea of Azov to run due north from the Bosporus, so that he calls the Sea of Azov ‘the Eastern Sea” (cc. 99, 100), making it a part of the eastern side of Scythia, which country he describes as a square (ib. and ς: 101). He moreover believed that the Sea οἵ Azov was “not much less”. than the Black Sea (c. 86). Although he makes the Tanais, after the Sea of Azov, the eastern boundary, we cannot tell precisely what his Tanais meant. We have no security that he did not mistake the lower Donetz for the main stream of the Don.
The Sarmatians, who were east of the Tanais, occupied (to speak roughly) the country of the Don Cossacks. To their, north lived the Budinians in a thickly-wooded country. In this same country was “the wooden city” of the Gelonians. North-east of the Bu- dinians, but after seven days’ journey through an uninhabited coun- — try, dwelt the Thyssagetans. The Jurcans and Thyssagetans are said to be “in the same parts;” but, as both were hunters, they must have had separate hunting grounds. Still to the north-east was a tribe of Scythians detached from the main body of the ᾿ nation (Σκύθαι ἀποστάντες) Thus far, says Herodotus, the ground has been a deep mould; but after this it becomes ‘rough and — stony ;” and after much of this rough country the traveller reached — the Argippzeans. Somewhere beyond their country was the region — whence gold was brought ; the locality of which was represented by — the terrible Griffins, a bughear invented to scare away greedy tribes. To the north of the Griffins were the Hyperboreans, who “‘ reached — to the sea” (iv..13); a fact which is stated so simply and positively, as to appear far more like a real report concerning the sea of Arch- angel than a speculation of philosophy. South of the Griffins were — the one-eyed Arimaspians ; south of these the Issedones (ce. 13 and 27), who again were ‘“‘ opposite” to the Massagetans (i. 201), and — east of the Argippzans (iv. 25); and these last had steep and im- — passable mountains to the north of them. ee ae
We seem now to have the clue to all these nations ; for the posi- tion of the Massagetans is extremely well ascertained by the de- scription given by Herodotus in his First Book. They dwelt above thé Jaxartes, or Sirr Deria, and probably wandered to the north as far as pasturage ledthem, ‘‘ Opposite” to these were the Issedones, who therefore must be placed on the river Jaik in its upper course, — where it runs parallel to the Oural chain. ‘The Argippzans, west of the Issedones, will then lie along the river Jaik, where te nearly due west ; and they will have to their north, nearly parallel to the river, a chain of formidable mountains, such as Herodotus describes.- The Ourals, in fact, here make a right angle, just as the river does; and the mountains run to the west with only one break (at Orenbourg) from the 58th to nearly the 50th degree of longi tude. The Western branch is called in our maps the Obchei Siert (in lat. 55°). : 4
79 These nations, as far as the Argippzans, became known from the
a reports of merchants, who brought accounts of them to Olbia, the
Greek city near the confluence of the Hypanis and the Borysthenes (the Boug and the Dnieper). Heeren supposes a caravan to have set out from Olbia, and to have journeyed to the north-east, carry- ing its wares to exchange for furs and gold. This view seems to be borne out by Herodotus, and has been generally approved. Heeren, however, supposes that the gold came from the mountains of Cobi,— a prodigious distance. We now know that gold is found under the Oural mountains, even beneath Mount Kolgan, in latitude 55°.
The caravan came successively into contact with seven nations,
_ so that even the Scythians who accompanied it needed seven inter-
. The first nation was probably the Mzotians. Then came
_ the Sarmatians, whose position has been elready noticed. The
Budinians. seem to have occupied that part of the government of Voronej which is east of the Don. In their country was a lake abounding with otters and beavers, and apparently with seals (iv. 109). Seals are known to exist now, not only in the Caspian and Volga, but in the freshwater lakes of Siberia. The Wooden City of the Gelonians in this region was inhabited by a mixed people, partly Greek, manifestly settlers for purposes of trade. The country to the north-east was wooded, and it abounds with rivers. Travel- ling through it must have been laborious and circuitous with laden beasts. It appears absurd, therefore, to estimate the seven days’
_ journey through the uninhabited country which separated the Bu-
dinians from the Thyssagetans as 140 English miles set off on a map. Consequently there is no reason for supposing the Thyssagetans to have been a very distant nation; and the caravan probably fell in with them not far from Saratov, on the Volga. Through their country flowed four great rivers, Lycus, Oarus, Tanais, and Syrgis (c. 123), all which Herodotus believed to fall into the Mzotis; and the district just named furnishes us with four rivers, which might from their direction have been thus represented,—the Volga, the Medievitsa, the Khoper, and the Vorona; of which the last three, by mingling in the Don, do really reach the Seaof Azov.. Herodotus does not speak of this Tanais as if he believed it to be the same river as he had named before ; but if any one is persuaded that it is, he has only to. suppose that the hunting grounds of the Thyssagetans reached westward tothe Don, which would then separate them from the Melanchleni. The Jurcans were im the same region with the Thyssagetans. They may have hunted from the Saratov northward into Penza, or further still. The Revolted Scythians seem to have been situated on the Volga, north of Saratov; perhaps near Volsk. Then, after much rough country, came the Argippzans. ΑἹ] this agrees perfectly with our map. From Saratov to Ouralsk on the Jaik, a chain of high hills is marked, between which and the Obchei
_ Siert it appears almost certain that the travellers must have passed.
Herodotus describes Scythia as a square, and estimates its depth from north to south as 4000 stadia, or rather more than 400 miles.
80
This must be computed from the Moat on the Rugged Peninsula, which he held to be the southern point of the Royal Scythians’ territory. The latitude of this point is about 454°; so that if we were to count his 4000 stadia as six degrees of latitude, we should be carried only to 514° north latitude. In the real journey the
traveller would have to deviate greatly from the straight line; so
that if we fix the northern frontier between 51° and 52° north latitude, the objection is more to be feared that it is more than Herodotus al- lows than that it is less.
In the latter part of the paper Mr. Newman endeavoured to ac- count for the three rivers-which Herodotus describes as east of the Borysthenes, and especially for the Hypacyris and Gerrhus, which are said to join their streams, and flow into the Euxine near the city Carcinitis. He conjectured that the Desna, which flows into the Dnieper, and the Seim which flows into the Desna, were taken to be the upper part of the Borysthenes; and that the Gerrhus, which is said to be parted off from the Borysthenes (ἀπέσχισται, c. 56), is the Oskol which rises near the Seim, and flows to the south, and the distance. between which and the lower Dnieper cor- responds to the seventeen days’ journey, which Herodotus places between the Borysthenes and the Gerrhus in the lower part of their course. If the Oskol is supposed to be the Gerrhus, the Donetz, into which it flows, is of course the Hypacyris; and the assertion that it entered the Euxine will be anerror. But whatever hypothesis be made about the correspondence of modern rivers with those de- scribed by Herodotus, this error will remain the same; for no consider- able river enters the Black Sea in the Gulf of Perekop; and the structure of the country seems to make it impossible that nar should ever have flowed in that direction.
The paper was accompanied by two manuscript maps, one of which represented the real features of the country with the ancient names placed according to Mr. Newman’s theory; the other was a map according to the idea formed by Herodotus.
After the reading of the paper a discussion arose upon the ethno-. logical relations of the Scythians. It was suggested that the distinct testimony of Herodotus, that the language of the Scythians was akin
to that of the Sarmatians, and the evidence which tends toshow that —
the Sarmatians are the stock of the Sclavonic nations of modern Europe, are irreconcilable with the opinion deduced by Niebuhr from the description given by Hippocrates of the physical peculiarities of the Scythians, that they were a Mongolian tribe.
Ey Eee ae
PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
Vou. I. APRIL 7, 1843. No. 8.
Professor Matpen in the Chair.
_ The Numismatic Chronicle, No. XX., was laid on the table,— 3 ted by the Numismatic Society ; also Letters on the Analogia ‘Lingue Grece, &c., by James Tate, M.A., late Head-master of the Grammar-school, Richmond, presented by the author.
_ The following communication was then read :— “On Plato’s Number.” By the Rev. J. W. Donaldson.
_ There is, perhaps, no single passage in the whole range of Greek authors which has given so much trouble to commentators, or has been subjected toe so much special investigation, as Plato’s descrip- tion of the Number on which would depend the better and worse generations in his imaginary republic. From Cicero’s time* to the present the obscurity of this passage has been proverbial: and though more than one distinguished scholar has lately examined it with all the appliances of modern learning, it seems to be still the prevail- ing opinion that we have not yet arrived at a satisfactory result.
τ In the course of an inquiry into the meaning of the passage, it will be convenient to consider as separate questions :—(I.) What is the Signification of the Greek words as they stand; (II.) What is the number in question, and what are the arithmetical combinations implied ; and (III.) What was Plato’s object and meaning in intro- ducing this calculation into his Dialogue on the State.
I. The passage with which we are concerned stands thus in Plato’s own words, De Republ. p. 546: Χαλεπὸν μὲν κινηθῆναι πόλιν οὕτω σαν" ἀλλ᾽ ἐπεὶ γενομένῳ παντὶ φθορά ἐστιν, οὐδ᾽ ἡ τοιαύτη acts τὸν ἅπαντα μενεῖ χρόνον, ἀλλὰ λυθήσεται. λύσις δὲ ἥδε" οὐ γον φυτοῖς ἐγγείοις, ἀλλὰ καὶ ἐν ἐπιγείοις ζώοις φορὰ καὶ ἀφορία ἧς τε καὶ σωμάτων γίγνονται, ὅταν περιτροπαὶ ἑκάστοις κύκλων τεριφορὰς ξυνάπτωσι, βραχυβίοις μὲν βραχυπόρους, ἐναντίοις δὲ éray- . γένους δὲ ὑμετέρου εὐγονίας τε καὶ ἀφορίας, καίπερ ὄντες συφοὶ Ws ἡγεμόνας πόλεως ἐπαιδεύσασθε, οὐδὲν μᾶλλον λογισμῷ μετ᾽ αἰσθή- ὡς τεύξονται, ἀλλὰ πάρεισιν αὐτοὺς καὶ γεννήσουσι παῖδάς ποτε οὐ δέον. ἔστε δὲ θείῳ μὲν γεννητῷ περίοδος ἣν ἀριθμὸς περιλαμβάνει ἔλειος, ἀνθρωπείῳ δὲ ἐν ᾧ πρώτῳ αὐξήσεις δυνάμεναί τε καὶ δυνα- τευόμεναι τρεῖς ἀποστάσεις τέτταρας δὲ ὅρους λαβοῦσαι ὁμοιούντων καὶ ἀνομοιούντων καὶ αὐξόντων καὶ φθινόντων πάντα προσήγορα καὶ ῥητὰ πρὸς ἄλληλα ἀπέφηναν" ὧν ἐπίτριτος πυθμὴν πεμπάδι συζυγεὶς Ὁ ἁρμονίας παρέχεται τρὶς αὐξήθεις, τὴν μὲν ἴσην ἰσάκις ἑκατὸν * Ad Attic. vii. 13 b. numero Platonis obscurius.
“VOL. 1. ee”
82
τοσαυτάκις, τὴν δὲ ἰσομήκη μὲν τῇ, προμήκη δὲ, ἑκατὸν μὲν ἀριθμῶν ἀπὸ διαμέτρων ῥητῶν πεμπάδος δεομένων ἑνὸς ἑκάστων, ἀῤῥήτων δὲ δυεῖν, ἑκατὸν δὲ κύβων τριάδος. ξύμπας δὲ οὗτος ἀριθμὸς γεωμετρικὸς, τοιούτου κύριος, ἀμεινόνων τε καὶ χειρόνων γενεσέων. ;
Such are the words of Plato, which seem to be correctly written. Let us now proceed to examine them at length as far as the number is described in them. The θεῖον γεννητὸν is ‘‘ the world”—as Plu- tarch expressly says, when quoting this passage (De Anim. Procr.in — Tim. p. 1017 C. p. 142. Wyttenb.): οὐκ ἄλλο καλών θεῖον γεννητὸν ἢ τὸν κόσμον. Consequently, the ἀνθρώπειον γεννητὸν is either “man” himself, ΟΥ̓“ the commonwealth,” of which the philosopher is speaking. The ἀριθμὸς τέλειος is “ἃ number which is equal to” the sum of its parts.” Euclid, lib. vii. defin, 22: Τέλειος ἀριθμός. ἐστιν, ὁ τοῖς ἑαυτοῦ μέρεσιν ἴσος Gv. Plutarch, w. 8.0. 1018 C. (p. 145. Wyttenb.): καὶ ἐστιν ὁ μὲν ς΄ τέλειος, ἴσος ὧν τοῖς ἑαυτοῦ μέρεσι. See — also Euclid ix. prop. 86. The epithet πρῶτος indicates that the number in question is the πυθμὴν or base of the whole calculation. The word αὔξησις means “the multiplication of a number by itself ;”” it is the act of which the result is αὔξη, and this corresponds as © nearly as possible to our mathematical term “ dimension.” Thus, Plato, De Republ. vii. p. 528 A.: viv δὴ γὰρ οὐκ ὀρθῶς τὸ ἑξῆς éhaBo- μεν τῇ γεωμετρίᾳ Πῶς λαβόντες ; ἔφη. Μετά ἐπίπεδον, ny δ᾽ ἐγώ, ἐν περιφορᾷ ὃν ἤδη στερεὸν λαβόντες, πρὶν αὐτὸ καθ᾽ αὑτὸ λαβεῖν" ὀρθῶς δὲ ἔχει ἑξῆς μετὰ δευτέραν αὔξην τρίτην λαμβάνειν. ἔστι δέ που τοῦτο περὶ τὴν τῶν κύβων αὔξην καὶ τὸ βάθους μέτεχον. There is some difficulty in the words δυνάμεναί τε καὶ δυναστευόμεναι. It is suffi- ciently clear that the latter participle is intended to stand for the passive of the former, which, being of a deponent form, is obliged to borrow its passive from another verb. The meaning of the word δύνασθαι in its mathematical use is well known. In this use the verb δύναται may be rendered ‘‘ when squared is equivalent to,” 0 “makes when squared :” thus δύο δύναται τέτταρα, γραμμὴ δύναται ἐπίπεδον; as will appear more clearly from the following passages. Plato, Theetet. p. 147 E: τὸν ἀριθμὸν πάντα δίχα διελάβομεν. τὸν μὲν δυνάμενον ἴσον ἰσάκις γίγνεσθαι τῷ τετραγώνῳ τὸ σχῆμα ἀπεικά- σαντες τετράγωνόν τε καὶ ἰσόπλευρον προσείπομεν .----τὸν τοίνυν μεταξὺ τοῦτου, ὧν καὶ τὰ τρία καὶ τὰ πέντε καὶ πᾶς ὃς ἀδύνατος ἰσάκις ἴσος γενέσθαι, ἀλλ᾽ ἢ πλείων ἐλαττονάκις ἣ ἐλάττων πλεονάκις γίγνεται μείζων δὲ καὶ ἐλάττων ἀεὶ πλευρὰ αὐτὸν περιλαμβάνει, τῷ προμήκει αὖ σχήματι ἀπεικάσαντες προμήκη ἀριθμὸν ἐκαλέσαμεν. ὅσαι μὲν γραμμαὶ τὸν ἰσόπλευρον καὶ ἐπίπεδον ἀριθμὸν τετραγωνέζουσι, μῆκο ὡρισάμεθα" ὅσαι δὲ τὸν ἑτερομήκη, δυνάμεις" ὡς μήκει μὲν ov ξυμ- μέτρους ἐκείναις, τοῖς δὲ ἐπιπέδοις, ἃ δύνανται" καὶ περὶ τὰ στερεὰ ἄλλο τοίουτον. Euclid, lib. x. def. 3: εὐθεῖαι δυνάμει σύ μετροί εἰσιν, ὅταν τὰ ἀπ᾽ αὐτῶν τετράγωνα τῷ αὐτῷ χωρίῳ μετρῆται Def. 5: τούτων ὑποκειμένων. δείκνυται, ὅτι τῇ προτεθείσῃ εὐθείᾳ ὑπάρχουσιν εὐθεῖαι πλήθει ἄπειροι σύμμετροί τε καὶ ἀσύμμετροι, at μὲν μήκει καὶ δυνάμει, αἱ δὲ δυνάμει μόνον. If, therefore, δύναμαι is said of a number squared, its passive will imply the further pro-
oy
§3
cess of cubing. Consequently, αὐξήσεις δυνάμεναί re καὶ duva ᾿ στευόμεναι are “‘ multiplications of the square by its square root,” _ or “raising numbers to the third power.” Just so in De Rep. ix. p. 587 Ὁ: κατὰ δὲ δύναμιν καὶ τρίτην αὔξην : and thus we shall see, _ in the course of this investigation, that in speaking of the process of _ cubing a number, the square is expressly mentioned as part and parcel of it. But these multiplications are described as τρεῖς ἀπο- _ στάσεις, rérrapas δὲ ὅρους Χαβοῦσαι. That the ἀποστάσεις and ὅροι are borrowed from the theory of harmonics appears clearly enough from _ the two following passages of Plato: Timeus, p.43 D: ὥστε ras | τοῦ διπλασίου καὶ τριπλασίου τρεῖς ἑκατέρας ἀποστάσεις καὶ ras Ἷ τῶν ἡμιολίων καὶ Ἐπιτρίτων καὶ ἐπογδόων μεσότητας καὶ ξυνδέσει----- πάσας μὲν στρέψαι στροφὰς, x. τ. A. and De Republ. iv. p. 448 D: τὰ οἰκεῖα εὖ θέμενον, καὶ ἀρξάντα αὐτὸν αὑτοῦ, καὶ κοσμήσαντα, καὶ φίλον γενόμενον ἑαυτῷ, καὶϊξυναρμόσαντα τρία ὄντα, ὥσπερ ὅρους, τρεῖς ἁρμονίας ἀτεχνώς, νεάτης τε καὶ ὑπάτης καὶ μέσης, καὶ εἰ ἄλλα ἄττα μεταξὺ τυγχάνει ὄντα πάντα ταῦτα ξυνδήσαντα, καὶ παντάπασιν ἕνα, γενόμενον ἐκ πολλῶν, σώφρονα καὶ ἡρμοσμένον.
In the next words there is only an apparent difficulty: he says ᾿ ὁμοιούντων τε καὶ ἀνομοιούντων καὶ αὐξόντων Kai φθινόντων, where we _ have three active verbs joined to one neuter, though elsewhere in _ Plato we have passive forms combined with the same neuter verb, as’
in Parmenid. p. 156 B: cai μὴν ἀνόμοιόν ye καὶ ὅμοιον ὅταν γέγνηται,
ὁμοιοῦσθαί τε καὶ ἀνομοιοῦσθαι:---ναί.---καὶ ὅταν μεῖζον καὶ ἔλατ- | tov καὶ ἴσον, αὐξάνεσθαί τε καὶ φθίνειν καὶ ἰσοῦσθαι; but this
need not create any difficulty ; for the neuter verb φθίνειν is sufficient | to determine the intransitive sense in which the others are used; a sense which is not at all uncommon in verbs of this kind: compare the use of ἐξισόω in Soph. Electra, 1194: μητρὶ δ᾽ οὐδὲν ἐξισοῖ, and’ ‘Thucyd. vi. 87: ἐξισώσαντες τοῖς ἄλλοις. The arithmetical use of these words is also pretty clear, although the more common terms” for the αὔξοντες καὶ φθίνοντες are ὑπερτελεῖς Kai ἐλλιπεῖς. Similar ‘numbers are those whose factors, or the sides of the planes or cubes’ which they represent, are in the same ratio: i. 6. as length to length, so breadth to breadth ; dissimilar the contrary : thus 8 and 27, or 2° and 35, are similar numbers; but 12 and 18, or 2 X 6, 3 Χ 6. dissimilar.
ncreasing numbers (ὑπερτελεῖς )are those which are Jess than the sum of their parts ; decreasing (ἐλλιπεῖς) the contrary : thus 12 and 18 are increasing numbers, for they are less than 16 and 21, the sums of their parts ; and 8 and 27 are decreasing numbers, for they are greater than 7 and 13, the sums of their parts*. The words προσήγορα καὶ ει πρὸς ἄλληλα mean that the numbers spoken of are expressible in the same terms (προσήγορα) of one another, (as when we take the’ numbers 8, 12, 18, 27, each of which is 14 of the preceding) ; and all expressible in terms of one another (ῥητὰ), as in the case of the Same four numbers. The next words, ὧν ἐπίτριτος πυθμὴν πεμπάδι συζυγεὶς δύο ἁρμονίας παρέχεται τρὶς αὐξηθεὶς, are perfectly intelli- gible to every one conversant with the terms of Greek music. Every
* See Nicomach. p. 87. Ast.
G2
84."
one knows, that if we take a monochord and place a bridge under the middle of the string, half the string will strike the octave or διὰ πασῶν: if we move it according to the scale, three-fourths of the chord will give the fourth or διὰ τεσσαρῶν ; and two-thirds, the fifth or διὰ πέντε. Accordingly, the octave is represented by 2, the fourth by 4, and the fifth by 3. The adjective éxirpiros (meaning 13) is especially appropriated for the expression of this relation of 4, which marks the fourth; as will be seen from the following passage — of Plutarch (De Musica, p. 1188 E. p. 656. Wyttenb.): ἡ μὲν yap διὰ πασῶν ἐν διπλασίονι λόγῳ θεωρεῖται. ποιήσει δ᾽ εἰκόνος χάριν͵ τὸν διπλάσιον λόγον κατ᾽ ἀριθμὸν τὰ ἐξ καὶ τὰ δώδεκα" ἔστι δὲ τοῦτοτὸ διάστημα ἀπὸ ὑπάτης μέσων ἐπὶ νήτην διεζευγμένων. ὄντων οὖν τῶν ἐξ καὶ δώδεκα ἄκρων, ἔχει ἡ μὲν ὑπάτη μέσων τὸν τῶν ἕξ ἀριθμὸν, ἡ Ce γήτη διεζευγμένων τὸν τῶν δώδεκα. λαβεῖν δὴ λοιπὸν χρὴ πρὸς τούτοις. ἀριθμοὺς τοὺς μεταξὺ πίπτοντας, ὧν οἱ ἄκροι ὁ μὲν ἐπίτριτος, ὸ δὲ ἡμίολιος φανήσεται" εἰσὶ δὲ ὁ τῶν ὄκτω καὶ τῶν ἐννέα" τῶν γὰρ ἕξ τὰ μὲν ὄκτω ἐπίτριτα, τὰ δὲ ἐννέα ἡμιόλια. τὸ μὲν ἕν ἄκρον τοιοῦτο---: τὸ δὲ ἄλλο τὸ τῶν δώδεκα, τῶν μὲν ἐννέα ἐπίτριτα, τῶν δ᾽ OKTW ἡμίολια" τούτων οὖν τῶν ἀριθμῶν ὄντων μεταξὺ τῶν ἕξ καὶ τῶν δώδεκα καὶ τοῦ διὰ πασῶν διαστήματος ἐκ τοῦ διὰ τεττάρων καὶ τοῦ διὰ πέντε συνεστῶτος, δῆλον ὅτι ἕξει ἣ μὲν μέση τὸν τῶν ὄκτω ἀριθμὸν,
ἡ δὲ παραμέση τὸν τῶν ἐννέα. The word πυθμὴν, as it has been already shown, means the basis or fundamental number. ‘The par- ticiple cvZvyeis, which, as will be shown hereafter, implies multipli- cation in this particular place, denotes either multiplication or addi- tion.. The word ἁρμονία, which is always used by Plato and other writers to signify the symphony as distinguished from the time(pv0pds), is also explained by Plutarch: De Anim. Procr. 1017 F. in reference to its meaning here: ra δὲ πέντε καὶ τρίακοντα (οἱ Πυθαγορικοὶ, ἐκάλουν) ἁρμονίαν, ὅτι συνέστηκεν ἐκ δυοῖν κύβοιν πρώτων ἀπ᾽ ἀρτίου. καὶ περιττοῦ γεγονότων, ἐκ τεσσάρων δὲ ἀριθμῶν τοῦ τ' καὶ τοῦ η΄ καὶ τοῦ θ' καὶ ιβ' τὴν ἀριθμητικὴν καὶ τὴν ἁρμονικὴν ἀναλογίαν περιεχόν- των. See also p.1018B. There can be no doubt that τρὶς αὐξηθεὶς means “‘ when it is cubed.” ‘Appoviay ἴσην ἰσάκις, ἑκατὸν τοσαυτάκις is of course ‘‘a square number multiplied by 100.” Ἰσομήκη μὲν τῇ, προμήκη δὲ refers to the cube of the same number, of which tony ἰσάκις represents the square; for every number not a square would be called προμήκης, according to the passage of the Theetetus quoted above*, The next words ἑκατὸν μὲν ἀριθμῶν ἀπὸ διαμέτρων ῥητῶν πεμπάδος δεομένων ἑνὸς ἑκάστων, ἀῤῥήτων δὲ δυεῖν, ἑκατὸν δὲ κύβω
τριάδος, though at first sight somewhat obscure, are easily explained. The following passage of the Politicus, p. 266. A, B., shows clearly enough what Plato means when he speaks of the diagonal nume- rically: τῇ διαμέτρῳ ξήπου καὶ πάλιν τῇ τῆς διαμέτρου διαμέτρῳ .---ἣ φύσις ἣν τὸ γένος ἡμῶν τῶν ἀνθρώπων κέκτηται, μῶν ἄλλως πως εἰς τὴν πορείαν πέφυκεν ἤ καθάπερ ἡ διάμετρος ἡ δυνάμει δίπους ;---καὶ μὴν ἥ γε τοῦ λοίπου γένους πάλιν ἐστὶ κατὰ δύναμιν αὖ τῆς ἡμετέρας
“* He says, ἰσομήκη μὲν τῇ, because the cube number, as described by him, i considered to involve the same factor 100, which is a square number.
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ae διάμετρος, εἴπερ δυεῖν γέ ἐστι ποδοῖν δὶς πεφυκυῖα. This is
a joke on the division of animals into bipeds and quadrupeds. If the side of a square is represented by unity, its diagonal “ δύναται or “is δυνάμει," the number 2, and this is the διάμετρος ἡ δυνάμει δίπους. Again, if 2 become the (side)*, then the (diameter)? is 4. Ac-
_ cordingly, “ the hundred numbers from the commensurable diameters _ of 5, each diminished by one, and two incommensurables, together ' with a hundred cubes of the number 3,” can be nothing else than _ the number 100 multiplied into the three following terms :
(a) (The diameter)? of the square whose side is 5, rendered rational, and diminished by unity, 7.e.48. For 5*-+ 5* = 50, and the nearest
rational number to this is 49.
(Ὁ) Two incommensurables, i. 6. of course the first two irrationals,
Ὁ απ 3.
(9) The cube of 3 or 27. II. Having now explained the Greek of the passage, the next
_ step is to determine what the number in question really was. And first, for the θεῖον γεννητόν : it is stated that this was a perfect _ number ; the first perfect number is 6; and we have express author- _ ity for believing that this was the perfect number in question. And _ first Plutarch (De Anim. Procr. 1017 C.) says: ἐν δὲ τῇ Πολιτείᾳ περὶ τοῦ ἀριθμοῦ, ὃν γάμον ἔνιοι καλοῦσιν, and then comes an
extract from this passage. Again the same Plutarch says imme- diately afterwards (p. 1018 C.) that the number 6 is a perfect
number; καὶ γάμος καλεῖται διὰ τὴν τοῦ πρώτου ἀρτίου καὶ περιττοῦ
᾿ σύμμιξιν.
All the properties predicated of the ἀνθρώπειον γεννητὸν are im- plied in the number 216=6°%, and there is express testimony for the importance of this number in the Pythagorean philosophy, and for its relation to the numerical system of Plato. Anatolius (in the Theologumena Arithmetice, p. 40. ed. Ast.) tells us that this number 216 is the period of the Pythagorean metempsychosis: ᾿Ανδροκύδης
“δὲ “ὁ Πυθαγορικὸς ὃ περὶ τῶν συμβόλων γράψας, καὶ Ἐῤβουλίδης ὁ
Ἠυθαγορικὸς καὶ ᾿Αριστόξενος καὶ Ἱππόβοτος καὶ Νεάνθης οἱ κατὰ τὸν ἄνδρα ἀναγράψαντες σιστ' ἔτεσι τὰς μετεμψυχώσεις τὰς αὐτῷ συμβε- κυίας ἔφασαν γεγονέναι" μετὰ τοσαῦτα γοῦν ἔτη εἰς παλιγγενεσίαν ἐλθεῖν Πυθαγόραν καὶ ἀναζῆσαι, ὡσανεὶ μετὰ τὴν πρώτην ἀνακύκλωσιν καὶ ἐπάνοδον τοῦ ἀπὸ ἐξ ψυχογονικοῦ κυβοῦ. To the same effect also Nicomachus Gerasenus (Jnstitutio Arithmetica, lib. ii. p. 148, ed. Ast.) explains the ἀποστάσεις and ὅροι in the passage of Plato as referring to the two mean proportionals between two cubes, such as 8 and 27, which are included in 216 for 6* = 2° x 3°. So also Euclid, lib. viii. prop. 12: δυὸ κύβων ἀριθμῶν δύο μέσοι ἀνάλογόν εἰσιν ἀριθμοί, καὶ ὁ κύβος πρὸς τὸν κύβον τριπλασίονα λόγον ἔχει ἤπερ ἡ πλευρὰ πρὸς τὴν πλευράν. It is natural that Plato should select the two least cube numbers for this purpose, and these two are 8
and 27 ; the mean proportionals between which are 12 and 18: the proportion therefore is Ξ 2. 59 EBs 5-27
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These are the four ὅροι : the three intervals or ἀποστάσεις are 4, 6; 9. Now each of the ὅροι is to the preceding in the sesquialtera ratio, and consequently the same is the case with the ἀποστάσει ; for 8.3.12, τς 19 6/48 )..6¢ DSc ei tie ee and 4.2; 6. i483 «6.44 Dros $2.523.3 Therefore they are all προσήγορα καὶ ῥητὰ πρὸς ἄλληλα. They are also similar and dissimilar, increasing and decreasing numbers, as we have shown above. )
Let us now see if this number 216, which applies to the first part of the description, will also answer to the second. “Οἵ which,” says Plato, ‘‘ the fundamental 4 combined with the 5 furnishes, when it is cubed, two harmonies,” &c. Both Aristotle and Plutarch have referred to these words in particular. Aristotle says (Polit. v. ο. 12, ὁ 7.): ἐν δὲ τῇ Πολιτείᾳ λέγεται μὲν περὶ τῶν μεταβολῶν ὑπὸ τοῦ Σωκράτους, οὗ μέντοι λέγεται καλῶς" τῆς τε γὰρ ἀρίστης πολιτείας καὶ πρώτης οὔσης οὐ λέγει τὴν μεταβολὴν ἰδίως. Φησὶ γὰρ αἴτιον εἶναι τὸ μὴ μένειν μήθεν ἀλλ᾽ ἔν τινι περιόδῳ μεταβάλλειν, ἀρχὴν δ᾽ εἶναι τούτων ὧν ἐπίτριτος πυθμὴν πεμπάδι συζυγεὶς δύο ἁρμονίας. παρέχεται, λέγων ὅταν ὁ τοῦ διαγράμματος ἀριθμὸς τούτου γένηται στερεὸς, WS τῆς φύσεώς ποτε φυούσης φαύλους καὶ κρείττους τῆς παιδείας. Plutarch’s words are (De Iside et Osiride, p. 878 E.): Αἰγυπτίους δ᾽ ἄν τις εἰκάσειε τῶν τριγώνων ὃ κάλλιστον, τούτῳ τὴν TOU παντὸς φύσιν ὁμοιοῦντας" ᾧ καὶ Πλάτων ἐν τῇ Πολιτείᾳ δοκεῖ προσκεχρῆσθαι, τὸ γαμήλιον διάγραμμα συντάττων. ἔχει δ᾽ ἐκεῖνο τὸ τρίγωνον τριῶν τὴν πρὸς ὀρθὰς καὶ τεττάρων τὴν βάσιν καὶ πέντε τὴν ὑποτείνουσαν, ἴσον ταῖς περιεχούσαις δυναμένην. Ἑϊκαστέον οὖν τὴν μὲν πρὸς ὀρθὰς ἄῤῥενι, τὴν δὲ βάσιν θηλείᾳ, τὴν δὲ ὑποτείνουσαν ἀμφοῖν ἐκγόνῳ. From a comparison of these two passages it is sufficiently clear that Plato is understood by both philosophers as speaking of the right-angled triangle, of which the sides are 8, 4,5, and 5° + 4° - 85 ΞξΞ 65, The same is also stated by Proclus, and Aristides Quintilianus, Proclus (Comment. super Primo Euclidis, lib. iv. p. 111) says: Aérrwy δὲ ὄντων τῶν ὀρθογωνίων τριγώνων, τῶν μὲν ἰσοσκελῶν, τῶν δὲ σκαληνῶν, ἐν μὲν τοῖς ἰσοσκέλεσιν οὐκ ἄν ποτε εὕροιμεν ἀριθμοὺς ἐφαρμόσαι ταῖς πλευραῖς. οὐ γάρ ἐστι τετράγωνος ἀριθμὸς τετραγώνου διπλάσιος, εἰ μὴ λέγοι τις τὸν σύνεγγυς. ὁ γὰρ ἀπὸ τοῦ ζ΄ τοῦ ἀπὸ τοῦ ε' διπλάσιόν ἐστιν a’ δέοντος. ἐν δὲ σκαληνοῖς δυνατὸν λαβεῖν ἐναργῶς ἡμῖν δείκνυται τὸ ἀπὸ τῆς ὑποτεινούσης τὴν ὀρθὸν ἴσον τοῖς ἀπὸ τῶν περὶ τὴν ὀρθήν. Τοίουτον γάρ ἐστι τὸ ἐν Πολιτείᾳ τρίγωνον, οὗ τὴν ὀρθὴν περιέχουσιν ὅ τε τρία καὶ ὁ τέσσαρα, ὑποτείνει δὲ αὐτὴν ὁ εἰ" τὸ γοῦν ἀπὸ τοῦ εὖ τετράγωνον ἴσον ἐστι τοῖς ἀπ᾽ ἐκείνων. τοῦτο μὲν γάρ ἐστιν εἰκοσιπέντε, τὰ an’ ἐκείνων δὲ, τὸ μὲν ἀπὸ τοῦ γ΄, θ΄, τὸ δὲ ἀπὸ τῶν δ΄ ἑκκαίδεκα. Aristid, Quintil. (De Musica, iii.p.152): ἀλλὰ καὶ τῶν τεσσάρων λόγων ἐστι τὸ σχῆμα δεκτικόν" ἡ μὲν γὰρ ἐκ τριῶν εὐθεῖα διαιροῖτ᾽ ἂν εἰς τὸν διπλασίω λόγον" [ἡ δὲ ἐκ τεσσάρων εἰς τὸν ἴσον" ἡ δὲ ἐκ πέντε εἰς τόν ἡμιόλιον" αἱ δὲ τὴν ὀρθὴν περιεχούσαι δηλοῦσι τὸν ἐπέτριτον. τούτου δὴ καὶ Πλάτων φησὶν ἐπίτριτον πυθμένα πεντάδιε συζυ- γέντα. The two ratios with which the Greeks were best acquainted — from their musical scale, were 4 and 3, representing the 4th and 5th,
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_ which, when multiplied together, gave the number 2, or the repre- ᾿ sentative of their diapason. There can be no doubt then that Plato desired to show how these ratios were implied in the number which he has selected for the περίοδος of his state. Now this number 216 is the product of the cubes of 2 and 3, which are the two last terms _ in the Platonic tetractys. The Pythagoreans (according to Plutarch, _ p. 1017 E. quoted above) gave the name of ἁρμονία to the sum of
_ these two cubes, i. 6. to the number 35. The period of the me-
tempsychosis was the product of the same two cubes, or the number 216. And Plato here speaks of two ἁρμονίαι resulting from the quotients of the same two cubes and the corresponding squares. He thinks fit to express this in terms of the right-angled triangle referred _ to by Aristotle and Plutarch, expressly stating that the number 100 _ is a coefficient of each expression. Thus, the first ἁρμονία is ἴσην ἰσάκις, ἑκατὸν τοσαυτάκις : in other words
4 8 25 (ξ Χ 5) = 10xXz%, “And the second adppovia, a cube of the same root, is described as one hundred multiplied by (1), the rational diameter of 5, diminished _ by unity, 7. e. as shown above, 48; (2) two incommensurable dia- meters, i. e. the first two irrationals, or 2 and 3 ;,and (3) the cube of 3, or 27 : thus we have (48 + 5 + 27) 100 = 1000 x 2°. Of course this second harmony is to be the cube of the number, of which the former harmony is the square, and therefore must be divided by the cube of 3. In other words, the whole expression will be S900) as the former was 490. Consequently the two ex- pressions stand in this symmetrical ratio to one another :—
le. 52 = i 102 Oz. = =. 10°
If it be asked why Plato has thought it necessary to describe the numbers of which the numerator of the second harmony is the sum, _ it may be remarked that 3 2 48 : é 4
= = —___ = —,, i.e. ἴδ the duplicate ratio of —.
27 ἘΚ Ss 27 3 But 42 + 3° = 52; so that we have here another combination of the three sides of the γαμήλιον διάγραμμα.
On the whole then there is no difficulty in ascertaining what is the number referred to in this celebrated passage, and in pointing _ out the arithmetical combination here implied. Expressed gene- rally, this is what Plato says: The period of the world is defined by the perfect number 6; that of the state by the cube of that number, _ or 216, which is the product of the last pair of terms in the Platonic tetractys; and if we take this as the basis of our computation, we shall haye two cube numbers (αὐξήσεις δυνάμεναί re καὶ δυναστευό-
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μέναι), namely, 8 and 27, and the mean proportionals between these, namely 12 and 18, will furnish three intervals and four terms, and these terms and the intervals stand related to one another in the sesquialtera ratio, i. e. each term to the preceding as 8. Now if we rememher that the number 216 = 8 x 27 = 33 + 48 + 53, and that 3° + 4° = 5°, we must admit that this number implies the numbers 3, 4, and 5, to which musicians attach so much importance. And if we combine the ratio 4, with the number 5, or multiply the ratio of the sides by the hypotenuse, we shall, by first squaring and then cubing, obtain two expressions which denote the ratio of the two Jast pairs of terms in the Platonic tetractys, the former multiplied by the square, the latter by the cube, of the number 10, the sum of the first four digits, which constitute the Pythagorean tetractys.
III. As it appears then, that it is possible to ascertain the meaning of Plato’s words, and to point out the arithmetical details to which he refers, it only remains that we should be able to show why he
has thought it necessary to introduce this calculation into his dialogue —
on the state.
The importance which Plato attached to numbers in general,
especially as far as they are connected with the theory of harmonics, is sufficiently obvious to the most careless student of his philosophy, and if any one wished to convince himself on the subject, it would only be necessary to refer him to the first chapter of Theo-Smyr- nexus (Περὶ ᾿Αριθμητικῆς, c. i. p. 2 segg., ed. Gelder.). But Plato did not merely believe in the immutable truth of harmonic propor- tions; he thought, with many of his countrymen, that there was
something fatal in numbers—that good luck and bad luck actually .
depended upon them,—and in general that they were types of the fixed and invariable. The main part of his Republic rests on this assumption. He assumes that the whole province of virtue is exhausted by the four (so called) cardinal virtues, justice, prudence, fortitude, and temperance; that there are three, and only three, parts of the human soul, the reason, the will, and the appetite; and three classes of citizens, regulated by these; namely, the philoso- phical rulers corresponding to the reason; the valiant soldiers representing the will; and the turbulent populace answering to the appetite: and as the virtues of prudence, fortitude, and temperance represent the active virtues of the three classes in the state, as well as of the three divisions of the soul, justice, according to Plato, is that harmony which keeps them all in due subordination, so that the higher faculties exercise a proper control over the lower, and the whole is moulded into one concord. It thus appears that there can be but one perfect state. But there were four several varieties of government among the Greeks, the timocracy, the oligarchy, the democracy, and the tyranny; and as there was one just man exem- plifying the perfect state, so there are four men differing more or less from that exemplar, and corresponding respectively to the four im- perfect polities. Now, in the passage before us, Plato is speaking of the causes which might induce a deterioration of his commonwealth, and he connects these causes with the transition of the best form of
EA τος τς
Ἐπ εὐ μονὴν PF PPR 4
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5 government to the successive stages of corrupt and imperfect consti-
tutions. The primary cause of this transition is the intermixture of classes in the state, or the interference on the part of one with the
_ proper business of the others; and in the individual the falling off from justice is similarly described as a predominance of some one of _ the lower faculties, and its intrusion into the province of govern-
ment properly assigned to the supreme faculty of the reason. Thus,
ambition produces timocracy, avarice begets oligarchy, intemperance
gives birth to democracy, and tyranny springs from an overflow of
lust and passion.
From this it is evident that the numbers 3, 4, and 5 are essential
_ to the details of Plato’s system. ‘There are three faculties of the
mind, three classes in the state, four virtues, and five forms of govern- ment. The harmony which keeps the state together is 4, or the
_ relation between the four cardinal virtues and the three faculties of _ the soul; and this ratio, compounded with the number 5, which _ represents the five forms of government, might be supposed, from
fanciful analogies it must be owned, to represent in part the condi- tions of change from the perfect state. The number 10, and its
_ square and cube, which appear as coefficients of these expressions, _ are important in the Pythagorean numerical system. The number
10 is the sum of the first four digits, which constitute the Pythago- rean tetractys. The number 100 = 10? is, according to Plato, the proper terminus of human life. And the number 1000 = 105 is the proper terminus of the life of the state; since, according to Jean Paul, the race of men lives as many thousand years as the individual lives years, or, to express it in the language of the text, the numbers upon which we reason in our political essays must be cubes, as these numbers alone contain a durable basis of harmony. The cube itself implies all the harmonic numbers; for it consists of twelve sides, eight angles, and six planes, and these numbers stand related to
_ one another in harmonic proportion. Besides, the number 6 itself, _ as the combination of the first odd and even, was of importance in
the musical theories of the ancients. It seems to have been consi- dered the first of harmonies, and was therefore called ’Adpodirn,
_ from the goddess of love, who was the mother of Harmonia: whence | the size in the game of hazard was called the Venus throw. The } reason then why Plato introduced this calculation seems to be simply | this: he found that the diatessaron multiplied by 5, and the product
_ cubed, is equal to the triplicate ratio of 10 to the diapente. Now
the product of the diatessaron and the diapente constitutes the dia-
_ pason for 4 X } = 2; and this diapason represents the harmonic
power of political justice*. Consequently, as the cube in question contains only one or the other of the two constituent parts of the
* Plato, De Rep. iv. 431 ε, p. 443 E. Comp. Cicero De Repubi. 11. 42, § 69.
| Shaksp. Henry V., Act I. Scene 1.---
’ “ For government, though high, and low, and lower, Put into parts doth keep in one concent, Congreeing in a full and natural close,
Like music.”
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diapason, it does not contain the principle of permanence, or, in other words, it represents, in terms of the cause, the period fatal to the permanence of distinct classes in the state.
It must be admitted that all this is an idle though ingenious play with numbers: but there are many instances, as well in other writers as in Plato, of the existence of this tendency. Thus, not to go any further, we find Plato, in this same dialogue (De Rep. ix. p. 587 C.), distinctly asserting that the tyrant is 729 times more un- happy than the sovereign of his perfect state; for the order of the governments is as follows: the (1) aristocracy, or perfect government; (2) the timocracy ; (3) oligarchy ; (4) democracy ; and (5) tyranny ; the oligarch then is third from the aristocrat, therefore he is thrice as wretched as the aristocrat; the tyrant is third from the oligarch, therefore he is thrice as wretched as the oligarch; the tyrant there- fore, is nine times as wretched as the aristocrat; and if we cube this number, according to Plato’s plan, in order to complete the calcula- tion, we shall find that the number 729 is the representative of his ag- gravated misery. Again, in the Laws(v.p. 737), we find Plato limiting his citizens by the number 5040: ἀριθμοῦ τινος ἕνεκα προσήκοντος. Now this number is only the continued product of the first seven digits; and the number 7, as the sum of 4 and 8, the sides of the γαμήλιον διάγραμμα, is of frequent occurrence in these fanciful calcu- lations: for the Platonic tetractys consist of seven terms: 1,2,3,4,9,8, 27, and the sum of the first six terms is represented by the seventh, the number 27, which is also equal to the sum of the first six digits after unity.
In general, not only among the Greeks but even more so among ~
other nations, great importance was attached to numbers. The reverence paid to the number seven by the Jews (compare Herod. iti. 8. with the Hebrew root Pty “ to seven,” i. e. ‘to swear ;” and see Gen. xxi. 28; Numbers xxiii. 1. 29, &c.), and the political num- bers of the Etruscans, Latins, and others, are exemplifications of the same feeling. And if Plato, with all his genius, was not exempt from a similar bias, though we may regret that it was so, yet we cannot be surprised that, living when he lived, and educated as he was, he could not refrain, like the king BhAang&suris in the San- scrit poem (Nalus, book xx.), from interrupting his long and earnest journey in order to display to the world his much-prized skill in arithmetic.
PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
> Vox. I. MAY 12, 1843. No. 9.
The Right Rev. The Lorp ΒΙΞΗΟΡ or St. Davin’s, President, in the Chair.
Tertulliani Liber Apologeticus, with a Preface intended as an in- | troduction to the study of Patristical and Ecclesiastical Latinity, by _ H. A. Woodham, Esq., Fellow of Jesus College, Cambridge, was laid on the table,—presented by the author. _ Duncan Farquharson Gregory, Esq., Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, was elected a member of the Society. The following communications were then read :— _ 1. ‘*On the Languages and Dialects of the British Islands.” By the Rev. Richard Garnett. The author believed that many members of the Society felt a par-
_ ticular interest in the investigation of the languages and dialects now
or formerly current in the British islands; and he proposed from time to time to submit a few remarks on such points connected with them as appeared most worthy of notice. The Celtic dialects have obviously the first claim on our attention on the ground of priority : and it is, moreover, a matter of curiosity to inquire what influence they have exercised upon our present forms _ of speech. It is also of some importance to the general philologist to ascertain what place they occupy in the European and Asiatic families of languages. Till lately they were supposed by various eminent scholars to form a class apart, and to have no connexion whatever with the great Indo-European stock. This was strongly _ asserted by Col. Vans Kennedy, and also maintained, though in rather more guarded terms, by Bopp, Pott, and Schlegel. The re- searches of Dr. Prichard in ‘ The Eastern Origin of the Celtic Na- tions,’ and of Professor Pictet of Geneva, in his truly able work, * Sur P Affinité des langues Celtiques avec le Sanscrit,’ may be considered as having settled the question the other way; and as proving satis- factorily that the assertions of the philologists above-mentioned were those of persons who had never properly investigated the matter, and were consequently incompetent to decide upon it. The demonstra- tion of Pictet is so complete, that the German scholars who had _ previously denied the connexion, now fully admit it ; and several of them have written elaborate treatises, showing more affinities be- tween Celtic and Sanscrit than perhaps really exist. This may serve to show the danger of dogmatizing in philology upon insufficient data. _ It is but justice to the memory of a meritorious Celtic scholar,
92 Ξ
Edward Lhuyd, to observe that he clearly pointed out the affinity between the Celtic dialects and such Indo-European languages as were then known, nearly a century and a half ago. Sanscrit had at that period scarcely been heard of in Great Britain; but the many coincidences which Lhuyd incidentally shows between Welsh, Gaelic, &c. and the Greek, Latin and Teutonic tongues, prove that he was well aware of the affinity between them. One instance which he gives is so creditable to his sagacity, and withal so instructive, that we may be permitted to dwell a few moments upon it.
No German or English philologer had, as far as the author knew, given a satisfactory etymology of the term summer. Lhuyd justly observes that it is, etymologically speaking, the same word as the Welsh hav; and that the proof of this may be found in the Irish forms samh and samradh, the Gaelic s answering to the Cymric ἡ. Professor Pictet has observed the affinity between the Sanscrit root *sam and the Irish samh, both involving the idea of mild, soft, gentle; samhradh being literally the mild or genial quarter. The Sanscrit term is recognised by the German philologists as the root of the ancient Teutonic samft=English soft: and the author thought it afforded a more likely etymology for the Greek adjective ἥμερος, mild, tame, and for ἡμέρα, day, than has hitherto been offered. It would seem very unlikely, ἃ priori, that day and night could be de- rived from the same root; yet there is reason to believe that such is the case in one instance. ‘Samani, confessedly from ’sam, is a San- scrit term for night, apparently on account of its stillness; as summer, and ἡμέρα, supposing them to be from the same root, convey the idea of a mild genial temperature. An analogy of this kind between such apparently remote languages as Welsh, German, Greek and Sanscrit, is calculated to suggest a variety of important reflections.
It is scarcely necessary to adduce the testimonies of Cesar and Tacitus as to the similarity between the ancient British and the Celtic of Gaul. The declaration of Cesar that the language of the Belge differed from that of the other Gauls, is explained by Strabo, who describes the different tribes as μικρὸν παραλλάττοντες ταῖς y\wooas,—slightly diverging in language; in other words, the dif- ference was merely dialectical. Several elaborate attempts have been made to show that the language of the Gauls and other conti- nental Celts, and consequently that of a majority of the Britons, was in fact Gaelic; the Armoric and Cymric dialects being peculiar to the Picts. Though our materials for deciding this question are not very copious, it is believed that, if fairly examined and used, they will be found sufficient. Besides many proper names, Greek and Latin authors have preserved several hundred Gallic words, many of them appellations of plants and other common objects. A consider- able proportion may be identified as still subsisting, or capable of explanation in living Celtic tongues; but as far as they go, they do not afford much countenance to the Gaelic hypothesis. Some of them are undoubtedly found in Gaelic, but very few exclusively so; and what may be considered as decisive of the question is, that the forms
93
_. of the most remarkable words cannot be reconciled to the peculiari-
ties of the Gaelic dialects.
The following instances, to which many others might be added, may perhaps be regarded as affording some countenance to this assertion :—
Petorritum, a four-wheeled carriage ; adduced as a Gallic word by Cicero, Quintilian and others: Welsh, peder, four, and rhod, a whieel.
Pempedula, according to Dioscorides, Apuleius, and other ancient medical writers, the Gallic name of the Quinguefolium, or cinquefoil. In Welsh, pumdalen; from pump, five, and dalen, a leaf. We may here observe the analogies of the Zolic πέμπε, five, and the San- serit dala, leaf.
Candetum, according to Columella, a Gallic measure of 100 feet.
“Welsh, cant, a hundred.
The above etymologies may be considered as certain; and it is equally certain that words including those elements.could not be Gaelic, to the genius and structure of which they are totally foreign. The Gaelic terms for four, five, hundred, are respectively ceathair, cuig, cead; it is therefore as impossible that the words we have ad- duced should be Gaelic, as that τετραφύλλον, πενταφύλλον; and éxa- τόμπεδον should be pure Latin.
Again, Epona, a deity said to be adopted from the Gauls, was the goddess of horses; Eporedia, now Ivrea in Piedmont, and its inhabit- ants, the Eporedices, were so called from their devotion to horse- racing and skill in horse-breaking, Jp. is not extant in Welsh as a simple term for a horse, but Pelletier gives it as ancient Armorican, and it still subsists in compounds and derivatives : ebran, horse-pro- vender ; ebol, a colt (equuleus), and some others. Rhedu and rhedeg are the common Welsh terms for to run ortorace. The Gaelic word for horse is each; whence we may infer that the Eporedices did not employ that dialect, but one analogous to that of the Cymru or Ar-
_ moricans.
Further, Halle and Hallein are names of various places in Southern and Middle Germany possessing salt-works ; and in some localities Hail is used as a simple appellative, denoting any place where salt is manufactured. It is well known that Southern Germany was long occupied by Celtic tribes, many of them emigrants from Gaul, and this at once points out the Cymric and Armorican hal, halen, salt, as the etymology of such places. ‘The Gaelic sal-ann, and the German salz, are equally out of the question.
A great mass of collateral evidence might be adduced from conti- nental proper names, ancient and modern; such as Nantuates, Nan- touin, Nanteuil, and many others,—obviously from nant, a valley, a word unknown in Gaelic: from words still current in France, er. gr. goelan, a gull, Breton gwelen, Welsh gwylan, Gaelic faelan; goemon, sea-weed, Welsh gwymon, Gaelic feaman; and from the fact that most of the words preserved by ancient authors agree more nearly with the Welsh or Armorican equivalents than with the correspond-
94
ing terms in the Irish or Highland dialects. Velarus, water-cress, would appear at first sight to come nearer the Gaelic diolar than the Welsh berwr. But the truth is, that dbiorar (from bior, water) is the ancient and genuine Gaelic form; velarus and biolar being mere euphonic modifications to avoid the unpleasant concourse of two r’s. At all events, the Armorican form beler comes as near as the Gaelic. It is right to observe, that there is one ancient Gaelic term which, as far as our present information goes, can only be explained from the Gaelic, namely, carbidolupon, the Plantago major, or broad-leaved plantain. ‘The plant in question had the credit of possessing vul- nerary properties ; and, supposing carbidolupon to mean wound-wort, it readily resolves itself into the Gaelic cearbadh, wound or cut, and lubh or luibh herb,—-a term not foundin Welsh. Beliocanda, Achillea millefolium, or yarrow, might bear either the interpretation of hun- dred-flowers or hundred-leaves. In the former case, the first portion of the word would appear to be the Gaelic billeog, leaf; in the latter, - the Welsh d/oen, flower, would come as near as any Gaelic word; but in every case the latter half, canda, hundred, would be non- Gaelic. Scobiis, the elder-tree, is plainly the Breton skao and Welsh ysgaw. The Gaelic word is droman. One of the most re- markable among the few relics of ancient Gaulish that we possess, occurs ona tablet found at Paris a.p. 1711, representing a bull, with three birds, and bearing the inscription TARWOS TRIGARANOS. I'he monument is supposed to have reference to the mythology of the ancient Gauls : the words of the inscription are (bating the ter- minations os) Welsh to a letter; tarw, bull, tri, three, and garan, crane. In Gaelic, tarbh, bull, and tri, three, agree pretty well; but corr, or corr-mhonadh, is a totally different word from garan. We may here observe the obvious analogy between garan and the Greek γέρανος, and may also remark that the Celtic word is signifi- cant, being derived from gar, a shank, and consequently is not a borrowed word, though the Greek term possibly may be. If we have succeeded in establishing the point that the language of the ancient Gauls bore a general analogy to the dialects of Wales and Armorica, it will follow, as a corollary, that the same analogy extended to the language of South Britain. It has already been ob- served that attempts have been made to deny this, and to show that the ancient South Britons were Gael, and that the Welsh language was, before and during the Roman period, confined to the provinces north of the Forth and Clyde. Much stress has been laid on the testimony of E. Lhuyd, who thought he could detect in the names of rivers and other local appellations in South Britain, traces of an older Gaelic population. It may here be observed, that by those ancient Gael (or Gwyddel as he calls them) Lhuyd neither means the Scott nor the Britons of the Roman period, but a primitive race whom he supposes to have preceded the Cymru in Britain and the Milesians in IreJand, and whose existence in the former country, though possible enough, is purely hypothetical. It is more to the point to observe that Lhuyd’s premises do not bear out his conclu-'
95
_ sions, scarcely one of the terms which he alleges being exclusively
Gaelic. One on which he lays great stress is Wisk, the name of several British rivers, which he observes is the Gaelic uisge, water. But though wysg in Welsh does not now precisely mean water, it means a stream or current, and, metaphorically, course, career; an analogy of import sufficiently close to justify the belief of its being of the same origin as the Gaelic word. It would be easy to show that all the other words which he alleges are known to the Welsh or Armorican dialects, either as simple terms or in compounds and derivatives ; consequently the hypothesis attempted to be founded on them falls of itself to the ground.
It is not meant to be asserted that the language of the Southern Britons was, strictly speaking, Welsh. The Cymric or Welsh was not the whole British language, but a particular dialect, chiefly pre- valent in certain northern and western provinces. Cesar informs us that many Belge were established in the southern parts of the island, and the Welsh themselves make a distinction between the Lloegrians and the Cymru. Giraldus Cambrensis, speaking of the Welsh and Cornish languages, expresses an opinion that the latter bore the most analogy to the speech of the ancient Southern Britons; and there are plausible reasons for believing that idea to be well- founded. That the ancient South British could not be Gaelic, is shown abundantly by the topographical nomenclature of the country, both ancient and modern. ‘The non-Gaelic terms pen, pant, nant, comb (W.cwm), a valley, chevin (W. cefn), a ridge, and many si- milar ones, occur in almost every county; while, on the other hand, peculiar Gaelic terms found in almost every barony in Ireland, such as cluain, plain, sliabh, mountain, are totally unknown in England. Another argument may be deduced from Celtic terms still current, especially in provincial dialects, which it is believed are more nu- merous than is commonly supposed.
The pointing out of particular instances will belong to a subsequent branch of our inquiry; at present it may be observed, that though the Cornish and Breton regularly correspond with the Welsh in forms (which is the most certain proof of affinity), it is not to be denied that they not unfrequently agree with the Irish in particular words. For example, Ir. athair, serpent; Bret. aer. Ir. alacht, with young; Bret. ala, to calve, yean. Ir. baobhalta, simple, stupid ; Bret. bavedik. Ir. bochd, poor; Corn. bochodoc. Ir. faobhar, edge of a sharp instrument; Corn. fyvar; with many others. We are not, _ however, to regard such words as borrowed from the Gaelic (of which there is no proof), but as collaterally descended in both classes from the ancient Celtic. The Breton asrech, Corn. edrak, edrege, Ir. aithrighe, repentance, are remarkable for their resem- blance to the Gothic idreigon, to repent, which the Teutonic phi- lologists know not well how toanalyse. Another word of unknown _ origin used by Ulphilas, viz. air, gift or offering, bears a strong likeness to the Welsh aberth, sacrifice. These instances might al- most lead one to suspect that our present text of the Gothic Gospels
96
was revised in some locality where Celtic theological terms were current : but it would be unsafe to erect a theory upon so slender a foundation. , Some eminent scholars, particularly Adelung, and Price (the editor of Warton’s ‘ History of Poetry’), have expressed an opinion that Welsh was, in fact, the language of the Belgic Gauls, and state as a proof of this, that it exhibits strong symptoms of admixture with Teutonic. ‘There appears to be no solid foundation for this hypo- thesis. ‘There are undoubtedly a number of Teutonic words in the Armorican dialects, and still more in the Irish, which may have been derived from the Belge of Gaul or Britain, or the Firbolg, said to have preceded the Scoti in Ireland. But the Cymru proper were, of all known Celtic tribes, the most remote from Germanic influ- ence. It is not to be supposed that Belgic immigrants in Hamp- shire and Wiltshire could influence the language of Strath Clyde, Cumberland, or North Wales; and excepting a few terms adopted at a comparatively recent period from the Anglo-Saxon or English, there is nothing in the whole compass of the language that can be proved to be borrowed from the Teutonic. Words with Germanic prefixes and affixes are totally unknown; and where the terms are cognate, the peculiarity of form proves the Welsh ones to be genu- ine. For instance, cas, to hate, is not borrowed from the German hassen, nor hal, salt, from salz, any more than the Greek @As is bor- rowed from sal, or ἕρπω from serpo, or vice versd. One obser- vation appears to be nearly conclusive as to this point. It isa well- known peculiarity of the Germanic tongues, that they abound in words beginning with s, followed by one or more consonants; and similar combinations are also admissible in Gaelic and Armorican. But no such union would be tolerated in Welsh. An initial s is — invariably followed by a vowel; and when the etymology would re- quire the concurrence of a consonant, it is either elided, as in sereny star, Armorican steren; or the pronunciation is softened by pre- fixing a vowel, as ysnoden, a band or fillet, Lowland Scotch snood. This remarkable peculiarity is scarcely to be reconciled to the idea of a strong admixture of German blood and German language. The fact is, that Adelung set out with a preconceived idea of the radical non-affinity of the two classes of tongues; and whenever he met with a Celtic word resembling a German one, directly concluded that it must have been borrowed. For example, he takes it for granted that the Celtic abhall (afall), apple, was borrowed from the German apfel, though the word is found in all the Celtic, Teutonic and Sclavonic dialects, and does not in reality belong to one more than another, having descended to all from some common source.
2. “On the Structure of the Russian Verb,” by Dr. Trithen of Rugby. Communicated by Professor Wilson,
The Russian grammar of Gryech enumerates no less than seventy- two classes of verbs, each of which has its peculiar system of inflexions. Other grammarians have endeavoured to reduce the number, but
97
number of exceptions. The infinitive is considered as the verbal root, from which the other verbal forms are derived according to certain rules. The present tense alone has its proper personal end- ings, the preterite being expressed by a participle, and the future _ by means of the infinitive and a verb substantive. ___ Schmidt has attempted to arrange all the Russian verbs, as regards their conjugation, into two classes :—the first of these forms, the Ist Ἐ Ρετε. sing. of the present indicative, as follows :—
When the inf. ends in The Ist pers. pres. t. ends in
have effected their object only by creating a most inconvenient .
OP yA REE ES γα ayu, ποτ τ τ κ᾿, OE CREPE οὐ yayu, ea te aie QUEL. Ute. esha wns i ἢ ΑΝ Aare δ μετα... ae yuyu, rege: See ot’ yu, ea) ae OE as AR τ τροπῆς. uyu, Bee nd hades cox τὸς. ORE ere oyu, Pome hee apna ἊΣ PRES I CR, PAP OE yeyu, EE Be τὰς a, zu Bah eRe zt RARER I ρα. : οι τ τοὶ τόν 3 stint τῷ ὅν ἐροφν νει ρόνο: du, sti Sree CPS ey ater ἸΌΝ σπτθ ku.
Verbs of the second class consist of two or more syllables, and “the scheme according to which they form their present tense is as _ follows :—
When the inf. ends in The Ist pers. pres. t. ends in
ne eee re ee GFelisvias ὁξουξ, εὶς ban. yu, νυ veartta che! <4 is ‘dines HST wan eck Sted zhu, νι Daiasd sas astek be pyet plyu, OE cies Sere Tap. Ape!» ines; ed τὸ Pema shu, πεν ὐὐευυϊο ΩΣ as: ψο . te chu, eee sels Gicarnvxdedthines.c us yu, store! cnet co < ‘ate bil): athe banks ta ase blyu, Ε.:8. bs WHS sudtiv at σε ποΐξ © vlyu, 9 pit sion ἢ plyu, nN 1g koe S's ma < OE Li statins Steele zhu, 1 ae Jesh, seg cP ass ate a a SEs τε RAs cee shu, 13. B20 δυο δχοσν δὲ chu, πος; πριν uw be Mitts vrs οὐ bites: shchu
_ The exceptions however are numerous, and the arrangement is in
er respects imperfect and unsatisfactory.
The author considered that some light might be thrown on the
ature of the Russian inflexions, if the verbs were ranged in conju-
gations corresponding to those of the Sanskrit. In the latter lan- * Both the letters err’ and er’ have been represented by an apostrophe (’), and
aconsonant before the err has been doubled. Zh represents the sound of Ζ ἴῃ
azure, and ch and sh have their common English pronunciation.
VOL. I. Η
98 ᾿ς guage the personal endings are joined to the verbal root, either | immediately, or by the aid of certain auxiliary vowels. The compo- — sition of the Russian verb is similar to that of the Sanskrit; but the Russian verbs which use the auxiliary vowels are comparatively few, while in Sanskrit they greatly outnumber those which join the endings immediately to the root.
The following table exhibits the personal endings in Russian, — Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin.
Russ. Sans. Greek. Lat. a Sing. 1 pers. u mi s μ᾽ ο ναι oh si 5 Β ἄυνδι , = ti τι t Plur. 1° pers. mm’ mah pes mus, te tha TE tis, ϑ0; utt? anti οντι unt.
When any one of the Sanskrit endings, beginning with m or v. follows an a, it always lengthens that vowel, as bhavd-mi I am, but bhava-si thou art, bhava-ti he is; and Bopp compares this long a with the Greek ending w and the Latin ὁ. The author considered that an m was latent in the Russian ending w, as also in the accusative of Russian nouns in a: rozu, rosam Lat., muza, musam Lat.
Before we examine the conjugational forms, under which the per- sonal endings are added to the root of the Russian verb, it may be expedient to discuss certain laws of letter-change which prevail in” the two languages, Russian and Sanskrit.
In Sanskrit the short vowels a iu have been considered by gram-— marians as units, and the long vowels @ 7 % as double their value, that is, as equal to 2a, 2%, 2u. The Sanskrit diphthong ὁ ἢ is a combination of a andi; and when ὁ is followed by a, it is resolved into its elements, and e “t- a becomes aya. Under similar circum- stances the diphthong o is likewise resolved into its elements, and o + abecomes ava. The Hindoo grammarians call 6 the Guna (i.e. the strength or power) of i, and o the Guna of u ; and they are phy- siologically correct, for e is nothing but 7 pronounced with an in- creased volume of voice, and ois the natural result of u, when spoken with greater force. The author considered Bopp as perfectly justified in his assertion, that the Guna of i or w was nothing more than @ prefixed to ¢ or ut, inasmuch as every increase of sound was pro- duced by the addition of the most natural and original vowel.
When a Sanskrit vowel is raised to the highest degree of intensity, the result is called its Vriddhi (i. 6. increase). The Vriddhi of any
vowel is nothing more than the Guna of that vowel itself subjected to Guna, Thus the Vriddhi of 7 is the Guna of e, and may be repre- sented bya +e=a+a+i= di, This diphthong has a sound — closely resembling that of our long i. Again, the Vriddhi of wis the
* The vowels are supposed to be pronounced as in Italian,
+ This notion is countenanced by the change which takes place in the Sanskri r-vowel. When acted upon hy Guna, it becomes ar.
ἱ
'
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t Guna of o, and may be represented by a + 0 ora + a + u=au. In like manner the Guna of the r-vowel is dr. The change of the Sanskrit vowel into its Guna or Vriddhi diphthong plays an import- ant part in Sanskrit grammar; and it is necessary to take some
notice of these letter-changes before we discuss the changes in the
_ Russian vowels corresponding thereto.
_ The Russian vowels are generally divided into three classes :—
Hard vowels, a 0 τ ui - Soft vowels, ya e yu i Half vowels, ye () ().
__ The vowel wi changes to its soft vowel i, when it follows one of the gutturals g, k, kh, or one of the palatals, zh, ch, sh, shch ; and when combined with one of these-palatals o becomes e.
In Russian, as in Sanskrit, the persona] endings occasion certain aaah in the final consonant of the root :— ὰ d and z become 2h,
δας 35 ie Se δας, sh, ees χ δῶν ch, st. Pe ee . shch,
; Pisaving discussed these letter-changes, we may now proceed to ‘the examination of the principles on which the present classification of the Russian verbs is founded. It has been already observed that ‘the infinitive is considered as the verbal root. The Russian in- finitive is formed by adding the termination ? to the root, either ‘immediately or with the aid of some auxiliary vowel. The author proposed to strip the infinitive of these accessories, and then by allowing for the vowel changes which have already been the subject ‘of comment, to exhibit the verbal root in a form analogous to that ‘of the Sanskrit dhdtu. Thus from kovat’ to forge, and zhevat’, to ‘chew, he would get kov and zhev, and considering ov and ev as ‘the expansion of a Guna diphthong, he would obtain ku and zhu as ‘the verbal roots. The verbs ku and zhu may be classed together, the Ὁ being converted into e in zhevat’, owing solely to the influence of ime palatal zh.
_ The first conjugation of the Sanskrit inserts a between the root and the personal endings, and changes the i or u of the root to its ~ Guna rdiphthong. The Russian verbs which belong to this conju- gation and end in consunants, are all of them accented on the first Syllable. This accent the author considered as an indication that the root had once been subjected to Guna. In some few cases the
has also left traces of its influence upon the vowels :—
, to hobble (khromat infin.) kram, Sansk., to go. The Jabial m
requires an / after it, and we have for the 2nd person present
_ kkroml-e-sh’, and for the 3rd person khroml-e-tt’. .The Sanskrit
_ root kram lengthens the @ when it takes the personal endings, as
krama-si, krama-ti, ἄς. (Vide Wilson’s Gr. p. 159.) The author
considered the broad vowel of the Russian root as representing this long a of the Sanskrit verb.
Η 2
100
Pech, to cook ; pach, Sansk. id. ; pechet’, 3rd pers. ; pachati, Sansk. —
Pad, to fall ; pat, Sansk. id. ii
Br, to take up (6rat’, infin.); br, Sansk. to bear ; berett, 3rd pers. ; bharati, Sansk. Here the change of the r-vowel to its Guna is obvious.
Smye, to smile (smyeyat’sya, inf.*) shmi, Sansk. id. ; smyeett’sya, 3rd_ pers. smeyate, Sansk. id.
In the second Sanskrit conjugation the personal endings are joined to the root without the intervention of any auxiliary vowel :—
Es, to be; as, Sansk. id. The three persons sing. are esm’; est (for es-si?); est’; and in the Sansk. as-mi, asi (for as-si), and as-ti.
Ruid, to cry; rud, ‘Sansk. id.
Liz, to lick ; ih, Sansk. id. The 1st person οἵ: the Russian verb is” lizhu, according to a letter-change which has been already noticed. The third Sanskrit conjugation reduplicates the first syllable of
the root. In Russian the reduplication has been lost; and Russian
verbs answering to Sanskrit verbs of this conjugation are all οἵ. them conjugated according to the first conjugation.
The fourth conjugation joins the personal endings to the root, b means of anintervening ya. In Russian this characteristic is obvious in the verbal derivatives. In both languages most of the verbs be- longing to this conjugation are passives or neuters.
Lyub, to love (lyubit’, inf.) ; lubh, Sansk., to desire, to covet.
Mn, to think; man, Sansk. id.; mnyenie, opinion, meaning, is a deri- vative. , The fifth Sanskrit conjugation inserts zu; and to this conjugation
belong the Greek verbs δείκνυμι ζεύγ' vat, ῥήγνυμι, ἃα. The author
considered the ‘‘ semelfactive verbs,” as Heard calls them, to rep sent the Sanskrit verbs of the fifth, seventh, and eighth conjugations
Chi, to gather (chinit’, inf.); chi, Sansk., to heap; 180 pers. pres. is chinu ; chindmi, Sansk.
Du, to blow (dunit’, inf.); dhu, Sansk., to shake. The 3rd pers is dunett’ ; dhunute, Sansk.
Str, to spread ; str. Sansk. id. ; razpro-stranyu; strndmi, Sansk. | The sixth Sanskrit conjugation inserts a like the first conjugatio
but does not change the radical vowel to its Guna :—
“Κα, to forge (kovat’, inf.); ku, Sansk. to sound by striking on anvil. Here indeed we have traces of Guna in the infinitive, bi the vowel is not affected in the three persons of the present, kuyu kuesh’; kuett’.
Gud, to sound ; guj, Sansk. id. The 8rd person is guditt’; gujate, Sansk. The seventh Sanskrit conjugation inserts ἢ before certain endings
Russian verbs corresponding to Sanskrit verbs of this conjugatio
are declined according to the fifth conjugation.
The verbs also answering to the Sanskrit verbs of the eighth co
* This is a reflective verb, hence the addition of sya. + Vid. Heard’s Russian Grammar, St. Petersburgh, 1827. p. 141.
ae
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_jugation may be classed under the fifth, for most of the verbs end
with an “inorganic 2,” i. 6. with an z that does not properly belong to the root. The ninth Sanskrit conjugation inserts πῶ. There are very faint
_ traces of this conjugation in Russian.
The tenth conjugation inserts 7, which takes Guna before a vowel.
_ The Russians insert y u, which becomes ov before a hard vowel, but _ not before the soft vowel of a termination. The Russian verbs, like _ the Sanskrit, are mostly derivatives from nouns :—
: Mudr, to be wise (mudrovat’, inf.); mantr, Sansk.
Among the Russian derivatives from nouns we have voruyu, I steal.
_ from vor’, a thief, as the Sanskrit chorayami, from chéra, a robber.
We have already observed, that the Russian preterite is represented
bya participle. This participle is formed by adding / to the root
with the aid of the auxiliary vowel; and it admits of three genders.
_ Thus dyelat’, to do, has for its preterite dyelal, masc., dyelala, fem., and
dyelalo, neut. The plural is the same for all genders, dyelali, we.
did. This form however expresses only the imperfect tense ; to show
the action is finished, the prefix s or pro is added. The future is expressed by adding the present tense of the verb
_ substantive duit’ to be, to the infinitive of the verb.
The present imperative is formed by adding an 7 to the root or
auxiliary vowel, as dyelai do; and by prefixing s the Russians get
the imperative perfect corresponding to the imperative of the Greek
aorist.
There are also two classes of derivative verbs which should not
7 pass without observation, the Semel-fuctive and the Iterative, as gram- “marians have termedthem. The first expresses the sudden and single
occurrence of an action, as ya tronull’, I touched once only; the
second expresses iteration, and is formed by inserting iv after the Toot, as shagivall’, 1 have made many steps. .
Many other analogies might be pointed out between the verbal forms of the Sanskrit and the Russian; but till the laws of letter- have been more fully investigated—more particularly as they
relate to the Slavish languages—all speculations of this kind must
be subject to doubt and uncertainty. The Russian government has
lately sent out commissioners to investigate the languages, &c. of
‘the cognate races. The result of their labours can hardly fail to be
interesting and important, and when published, will no doubt enable us to carry still further those laws and analogies, the discovery of which has already given to Philology the character of a science.
iF,
Pe Mraz
a _— ΠΣ Pre: " er “ὶ < τὸ ὋΣ “Ὁ Ὁ ΤΌ ὄν. δι “-
* “" Camel -
PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
: Vou. I. MAY 26, 1843. No. 10.
The Rev. W. Jenxins Ress in the Chair.
The following works were laid on the table :—
“Uber die Verwandtschaft der malayisch-polynesischen Sprachen mit den indisch-europaischen, von Franz Bopp, Berlin, 1841 ;” pre- _ sented by the author.
. ** Apposition, St. Paul’s School, 1843, and Prolusiones Literariz _ premiis quotannis propositis dignatz et in D. Pauli Schola habite, A. S.H. mpcecxui. ;” presented by the Rev. H. Kynaston.
A communication was then read :—
**On English Gentile Nouns, and more purticularly on their Se- _ condary Use as Names of Districts,” by Edwin Guest, Esq. Anglo-Saxon gentile nouns are declined according to three dif- _ ferent forms: the first is said to be peculiar to this class of words ; _ the second is the common plural of the masculine noun; and the third is the plural of the n declension: Engle the English, Wealas _ the Welsh and Searan the Saxons, may serve as examples.
N. Engle Wealas Seaxan, G. Engla © Weala Seaxna, D. Englum Wealum Seaxum, A. Engle Wealas Seaxan.
As these nouns are mostly found in the genitive and dative cases, _ in which the three declensions so nearly resemble each other, it is sometimes difficult to say what is the proper termination of the _ nominative. Many of them also have more than one declension— we have Englan as well as Engle, Wealan as well as Wealas, and _ Seaze as well as Seaxan;—and in the Old-English, some of these nouns take nominatival endings, to which they were altogether _ strangers in the Anglo-Saxon. The gentile noun was very commonly used as a name for the _ district, and in such case generally retained its plural inflexions. _ Noré Hymbre, in its primary sense, signified the Northumbrians, S. Chr. 954; but this plural noun was not unfrequently used in its _ secondary signification, and under the date 924, we read of the _ people that dwell in Northumbre—“ Pe on Nord hymbrum bugead.” _ So also Sué Seaze meant the South Saxons; but we are told that in _ the year 1009 the Northmen harried and burned everywhere in _ South Seaxe and in Hamton-shire, and in Bearuc-shire—* eghwer on Sud Searum, and on Hamtun scire, and on Bearuc scire.” Again, all the Somersete—“ Sumerszete ealle ”—met Alfred when he rose _ against the Danes, a.p. 878; but this plural noun is also very fre-
va
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quently used to signify the shire—‘‘on Somerseton®,” in So-— merset.
Sometimes however the Anglo-Saxon nouns in e, when used as names of districts, seem to have been considered as nouns singular of the masculine gender. In our Old-English dialect these nouns in e are rarely found with any but their secondary meaning.
1. Angle. ‘Of Anglet comon. se 4 sidSan stod westig betwix Jutum and Seaxum, East Engle and Middel Angle and Mearce,” &c.—Saz. Chron. 449.
From Angle, which ever since hath stood waste betwixt Jutes and Seaxe, came the East Engle and the Middle Angle and the Mearce, &c.
2. East-Angle. “The Denes adde the maystre, tho al was ydo: And by Est Angle and Lyndeseye hii wende vorp atte laste, And so hamward al by Kent and slow and barnde vaste.” Rob. Glou. 160. 3. Northumbere.
“The king of West Sex and of Kent and of Norpomber the predde.”—Rob. Glou. 3.
4. ‘* Syx kynges hii were some tyme, as of Kent, of Westsex, Of Estangle, of Norpomber, of the Marche, of Estsex.” ) Rob. Glou. 227. 5. ...- “ Osricke underking and chief lord of this shier, Which after, as we read, was king of Northumbere.” Abbot Malvernes Account of Glou. Abbey.
6. Northweye. ‘‘ So pat hii wonne al clene Norpweye atte laste.” Rob. Glou. 182.
7. Norwaye. ‘‘Sume ferdon to Norweget, sume to Irlande.” Sax. Chron. 1070.
Some went to Norway, some to Ireland.
8, * Pan was he king of Denmark, Ingland and Norwaie.” Rob. Br. 50.
In the following example Wale seems to be used in its primary signification, as a gentile noun :—
* The dative plural sometimes ended in an or on, instead of its regular inflexion um. + In ‘The Gleeman’s Song,’ and in certain parts of the Chronicle a distinction seems to have been made between the name of the district—Angle or Ongle, and the name of the people—Engle. Bede in his version of the above passage gives us both the primary and the secondary meaning of the word Angle, “Porro de An- glis, hoc est de illé patrid, que angulus dicitur, et ab eo tempore usque hodie ma- nere desertus, inter provincias Jutarum et Saxonum perhibetur, orientales Angli, ὅταν, sunt orti.”—Hist. Ecc, 16.
t The plural noun is also very commonly used, as ‘into Norwe@gum,” into Norway, 5. Chr. 1030. The first part of Nor-wege appears to be an early corrup- tion of an old adjective nortier, of which we shall have more to say shortly.
>
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9. Wale “ Pis tiping com him eft how Wale him betrayed Perfor is Gascoyn left, and per at werre delayed.” Rob. Br. 263. 10. Cornwalle. «« Neuer in his lyue a fote of land he les Scotland and Cumberland and Wales he had in pes Cornwalle, Lyndsey, and Kent.”— Rob. Br. 28. 11. Itaille. ‘“ Swilce ic wes on Eatule mid lfwine.” The Gleeman’s Song. Likewise I was in Italy with Alfwine. 12. ** Redeth the grete poet of Jtaille, That highte Dante.”—Chau. Monkes Tale. 13. Somersete. ‘*He nom sumer-sete and he nom dorsete.”—Layamon. He took Somerset and he took Dorset.
14. Dorsete. ‘“ Dorsete and Wiltschire and Somersete also.” _ Rob. Glou. 3. 15. Sax’. ‘ Our changes (i. e. of language) are all professedly owing to the conquests, especially of Sar and Normandy.” —Coles’ Pref. to his Dictionary. 16. Southsex’. ‘‘ The Bishopriche of Salisbury and al Southsex* he hadde also.”—Rob. Glou. 5.
Eatule, in Ex. 11, seems to be merely a secondary application of a gentile noun, derived from the Latin Jtali, according to the same analogy as Romane the Romans (5. Chr. 418), from Romani. In the Old-English there are a vast number of names of districts formed on this model:—Ynde, Ch. Squieres Tale, K. Alis 2589; Lyde, Ch. Monkes T., K. Al. 2588; Medet+, K. Al. 1694; Egipte, K. Al. 270; Perse, Ch. Monkes T.; Frise, K. Al. 1698; Ruce, Ch. Prol.; Pruce, ib.; Grece, K. Al. 7915; Assyre, K. Al. 3869; Spaine, Ch. Monkes T., &c. The gentile nouns, corresponding to these names of districts, must have been known to our language from a very remote period; and they may be found (at least in their inflected cases) in some of the earliest of the Anglo-Saxon writings. The datives Moidum, Persum, Egyptum, Frysum, Froncum, Creacum, &c., are found in ‘ The Gleeman’s Song,’ in company with the nominatives Engle, Dene, Swefe, &c., and most probably belonged to the same declension. Our language is sufficient to account for the existence of these names of districts ; but the only thing we can positively assert respecting them is, that they were of Gothic origin. As many of them occur for the first time in the twelfth century, and for the most part in our Romance poems, it is possible they were some of
* In the latter half of the 14th century our language was beginning to feel the changes which resulted in our modern dialect. Rob. of Glou. very commonly re-
jected the final vowel when it followed a liquid, but very rarely in other cases.
He always writes, however, South Sex, East Sex, &c. instead of South Sexe, East Sexe, &c.
Polemon and Amyntas, The kings of Mede and Lycaonia.— Ant. ἃ Cleop. iii. 6.
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the Gothic elements of French Romance, imported into this country by the Normans. But, on the other hand, it may be observed that our language has exerted upon the Romance of Ομ an influence far greater than has hitherto been supposed, and that the names corre- sponding, in the other Romance languages, to the French names in e, generally retain the classical ending ia. Thus the French has U’'Inde, la Souabe, la Norwéege, la Saxe, la Perse, la Friese, la Prusse, la France, la Gréce, &c.; but the Italian and Spanish have India, Suevia, Persia, Frisia, Prussia, Francia, Grecia, ἃς. The few words which follow the French analogy, may perhaps have been borrowed from that language, as the Italian Allemagna, Provenza, &c., or the Spanish Noruega, Cornualla, &c. It will be seen that these district names in e, which the Anglo-Saxon appears to have treated as masculine nouns, are considered as feminine nouns in our Romance dialect. This was no doubt owing to the circumstance, that in that dialect e was the feminine ending. The e was changed into ain the Italian and Spanish, according to the analogies which prevail in those languages.
In many of the foregoing examples the final e may be considered not so much an inflexion as the element of a compound, or, to speak more precisely, of a derivative. Our national name of Angle is derived, by Bede, from the nook* ‘ Angulus,” in which our fore- fathers lived on the continent. Angelin Anglo-Saxon means a hook, and in the Gothic languages it seems to have meant anything that ended in a point; angel, a hook, asting, an ear of corn, &c. (Kilian.). The Angli of Tacitus, as is well known, lived at the point where the coast of the Baltic trends suddenly to the northward+. Northumbere (Ex. 5.) primarily meant the North Humbermen ; and so closely were the men of the north associated in popular opinion with the estuary of the Humber, that Northumberland is often called in old English Humberland simply. (Rob. Glou. 263, 269, &c.) Again veg-r }, in the Icelandic, means a way, and Norveg-r, Icel. means Norway, as Austurveg-r means the eastern district, or Russia. The Anglo- Saxon Norwege, old English Norwaie (Ex. 8.) must be considered as a derivative of Norveg-r, and as denoting primarily the men of Norway. Our modern term Norway isa mere corruption of Norwaye, and not the correlative of Norveg-r. Wale (Ex. 9.) is connected with the Anglo-Saxon adjective wealh§, foreign, and has nothing in common with the Latin Galli, as has been supposed by some writers. The compound Corn-walle (Ex. 10.), shows that Cornwall, besides
* This etymology was remembered long after Bede’s application of it was for-
gotten. When Wace has driven his Saxons into Thanet, he adds— La furent Saison en anglé Por ce furent Englois clamé, &c.—Rom. de Brut. 7293.
+ We must not however infer that Angle (Ex. 1.) is the dative of Angel. That its nominative was Angle appears as well from the analogy which is afforded us by other Anglo-Saxon district-names, as from the Old-English name of East-Angle
Ex. 2.). : t He r in vegr is merely a nominatival ending. § This old adjective is still retained in the compound wal-nut.
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its present Welsh name of Cernyw (whence the Latin Cornubia), had a second name Corn, a word, which, according to Owen Pugh, still signifies ‘‘ anything projecting out, a horn*,” &c. The derivation of Somersete and Dorsete (Ex. 13, 14.) is involved in great difficulty. The ending sete means inhabitants. It is to be found in several Go- thic dialects, though never, it is believed, out of composition. With respect to the element Somer, we might suppose that as Somerton, the old capital of the shire, lies at the extremity of the great inlet, which formerly made Glastonbury an island, Somer was a corruption of South-mere. But the Anglo-Saxon orthography of Sumersete and Sumurtun (S. Chr. 733), is strong against this hypothesis, aud Somer will probably turn out to be a Welsh word. Dorsete, the inhabitants of Dor, answers exactly to Ptolemy’s Δουρότριγες. Cam- den supposes this word to signify dwellers by the sea; dwr (Welsh), water, and ¢rigiaw+ (Welsh), to dwell; but dwr properly means a stream, and Durinum (Dorchester), the capital of the Durotriges was an inland town, situated on the Frome, the river which drains the county. Possibly dwr may have been an old name for the river. The etymology of Seare is even more obscure than that of Somer- sete and Dorsete.
The old English names πάρ, Lyde, Mede, &c. may have been formed according to an established analogy, from the Latin Indi, Lydi, Medi, &c.; but from a tendency which is constantly shown to accommodate Scriptural names to Anglo-Saxon forms, we may conjecture that Assyre was formed on the Scriptural Assur rather than on any classical term. Frise may have been a derivative, or (if we choose so to term it) the plural, of a word still to be found in the low Dutch—Fries, a Frieslander. Ruce seems to bear the same relation to Rost, the ancient name of the people, and pro- bably the same word as our English Russe.
17. “‘ The Russe, if he be a man of abilitie, neuer goeth out of his house in the winter, but upon his sled, and in summer upon | his horse.” —Jenkinson’s First Voyage. Hackluyt.
18. “‘ Cazan is a faire town after the Russe or Tartar fashion,—it hath bene a citie of great wealth and riches; and being in the hands of the Tartars, it was a kingdom of itselfe, and did more vexe the Russes in their warres than any other nation.” —Jen- kinson’s Voyage, A.D. 1558. Hackluyt.
Our gentile nouns in es were seldom used as names of districts, though we have some notable examples in Wales, North Wales, and South Wales. Wales in our early Romance poems was called Gales, a
* Geoffrey of Monmouth speaks of Cornwall as the country which “a cornu Britanniz, vel per corruptionem predicti nominis Cornubia appellatur.”
T Several compounds and derivatives are formed from this verb; as érig-ad, an abiding; trig awl, dwelling; trig-va, a dwelling-place, ma, a place; frig-le, a dwelling-place, lle, a place, ὅτε.
Ζ The Byzantine Greeks, to whom we owe the earliest mention of the Russians, generally call them ‘ Ρῶς"--- Δάναπρις ποταμὸς ἐξ οὗ καὶ οἱ Pas διέρχονται πρός τε Μαύρην Βουλγαρίαν, &c.—Const. Porphyr. 42.
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name which quickly passed into the Romance dialects of the conti- nent, in which it is still preserved. The French Cornuailles (now more generally used than Cornuaille) points to an English Corn- Wales. This name must have been soon lost in our language, for it is not met with in our Old-English dialect; but in the Anglo- Saxon we frequently have the gentile noun used, with its plural inflexions, as the name of the district, “8. per gehergodon, egder ge on Corn-Wealum ge on Noré-Wealum & on Defenum,” and there they harried both in Corn-Wales, and in North-Wales, and in Devon. ; 19. Engles. ‘* Pe Engles of this lond pe lordship pei toke, & haf it 310 in per hand, pe Bretons forsoke.”— Rob. Brunne, 8.
20. Wales. ‘‘ With Wales did he so, and pei were neuer trewe, When he had most to do, pei mad him sorow newe.” Rob. Brunne, 281.
21. North Wales. ‘‘ Didius queene Cartismanduas friend, Venutius rival,—Nero sends Veranius next, Silures fall Both aym’d at, but North Wales and all Paulinus foil’d.’”’— ‘ Slatyer’s Pale. Albion, p. 140.
22. Perses. ‘ Of Affryc, and of Grece, of Spayne, and of Syrie, Of Medes, and of Perses, of Ytours, of Lybye.” Rob. Glou. 201.
23. “‘ Divided is thy regne and it shall be To Medes and to Perses geven.’’—Ch. Monke’s Tale. 24. Egyptes. “that chas
Dat pe Egyptis maid so felle Vpon the folk of Israelle.”—Wynt. ii. 23.
25. Macedons. ‘ So Macedons against the Persians fare.” — Grimoald, Death of Zoroas.
26. Arragons. ‘‘ That tyme that this crie com of pese barouns, Com Sir Ion Vescy fro the kyng of Arragons.” Rob. Brunne, 262.
27. Norways. ‘‘ And there michel wel geslogon, ge Norweis, ge
Fleming.” —Saz. Chron. A.D. 1066. And there great slaughter made they both of Nor-
ways and Flemings.
28. “ After the time of Edwine, the Scots gat the possession again, and held it (the Isle of Man), till the Danes and Norwaies won it.”-—Harr. D. of Brett. i. 12.
29. “ Sweno the Norways king craves composition.” —Mac- beth, 1. 2.
30. Crimes. ‘‘ An island called the Island of Merchants, be-
cause it was wont be the place, where all merchants as well
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Russes and Cazanites as Nogayans and Crimmes, and divers other nations did resorte.”—Jenkinson’s Voy., 1550. Hackluyt. 1. Lettowes. “The Emperour is of great power; for he hath conquered much, as well of the Lieflanders, Poles, Lettoes, and Swethens, as also of the gentiles called Samoeds.”—Jen- kinson’s First Voyage. Hackluyt. 32. Hanses. ‘‘ Since the loss of the Narve, the Russ hath devised by all meanes how hee could to dissolve the trade that way, &c., being assured by the Hanses, Neitherlanders, and French- men that,” &c.—Dr. Fletcher’s Report to Sir W. Cecil: El- lis’s Lett. of Lit. Men. : Hanses meant the men of the Hans, or Association of the Hans Towns ; the Lettowes were the men of Letto, or Lithuania.
33. “Τὴ Lettowe had he reysed, and in Ruce.”—Chau. Prol.
34. “ His enemies with whom he hath warres, for the most part are these; Litto, Poland, Sweden,” &c.—Jenkinson’s Voyage. Hackluyt.
Crimes, in like manner, were the men of the Crim, or as we now call it, the Crimea. The Crim is so called from a town of that name which is supposed to represent the ancient Cim- merium.
Gentile nouns in az were very common in Anglo-Saxon—Englan the English, S. Chr. 473; Noré Hymbran the men of Northumber- land, S. Chr. 1081; Frysan the Frieselanders, S. Chr. 885, &c. These nouns are also found in the singular, as ‘‘ Wulfheard Frysa,” (S. Chr. 897), Wulfheard the Frieselander. In our later dialects they occur but seldom.
35. Northeren. ‘‘ Upon the kyng Alfred werre son began,
Bot Por3h pe gode Norperen slayn wer ilka man.” Rob. Brunne, 26.
36. Southron. ‘‘ He saw the Sothroun multipliand mair,
And to hym self oft wald he mak his mayne.” Wallace.
These two names appear to be formed on the now obsolete adjec- tives norther and souther. ‘That our language once had adjectives corresponding to the Dutch noorder, zuider, wester, &c. might be inferred from the derivatives northerly, southerly, westerly, ἄς. ; but we are not altogether left to speculate on the matter, for some of them may be found in our literature, though not in our dictionaries.
37. “The cell a chapell had on th’ easterne side,
Upon the wester side a grove or berie.” —Har. Orl. Fur, 41.57.
38. “* And all the easter parts were full of light.” —Jb. 23. 6.
The Anglo-Saxon plurals in an were not unfrequently used as names of districts, thus we have West Searan, Wessex, S. Chr. 1033, “486 cyng ledde fyrde into Wealan*,”—S. Chr. 1081 ; the king led
* Wealan here seems to be the accusative, a case which sometimes follows the preposition into. Wealan, it is believed, never stands for the dative Wealum.
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a force into Wales. But the only instances which occur in our later dialect are Sweden and Ripon. The men of Ripon were called Hreopsetan, inhabitants of Hreop; and the same root must have produced Ripon, but it is difficult to explain its meaning.
Most of the other Gothic languages abound in thesenames. The German Schwede a Swede, Sachse a Saxon, Pole a Pole, Preusse a Prussian, Hesse a Hessian, &c., answer to the Anglo-Saxon nouns in a, and have for their plurals, Schweden, Sachsen, Polen, Preussen, Hessen, &c., while the neuters singular Schweden, Sachsen, Polen, Preussen, Hessen, &c. signify the districts.
Nouns belonging to the z declension sometimes take the n, not as an inflexion, but as an organic or essential element. Hence we have Southron, a man of the South, and Swethen, a Swede.
39. “1 sent, in company with the Russes goods, all your worship’s ‘goods, with a mariner William August, anda Swethen*,” &c.— Thom. Alcock’s Second Voyage. Hackluyt.
Many gentile nouns were formed from adjectives in ise; Englisce the English, 5. Chr. 924; Denisce the Danes, ib.; Flemisce the Flemish, 5. Chr. 1080, &c. ‘These nouns were sometimes declined like the plural adjective; see “‘ Pera Deniscra,” 8. Chr. 894; and sometimes took the regular inflexions of gentile nouns in e: see “« Englisca,” S. Chr. 1066. The final e was long preserved in the — Old English.
40. Welshe.
‘‘ Hii wonede her bi uore anon to Excestre ry3t, And Welsse were in Engelond vorte he yt adde dy3t.” Rob. Glou. 276.
41. Corn-Welshe. <‘‘ Ac natheless the Brutons and the Cornwa- lysse of ys kinde Wenith he be aliue 3ut.”—Rob. Glou. 224.
42. Englishe. ‘Saxons and pe Hnglisse and her compaynye, Adde po of pis londe, al clene pe maystrye.” Rob. Glou. 227.
43. Danishe. «Tt sawe, Henglishe ant Denishe, heye ant lowe.” Havelock, 2945.
There is one district-name belonging to this form, which however, in all probability, came from the Danish. In that language Dansk means Danish, and de Danske the Danes. Our English writers of the sixteenth century, according to the blundering orthography of that period, use Danske+, both as an adjective and as a name for the country. .
44
«© He makes a noise, when he’s on horseback
Like a Danske drummer.” — White Devil, &c. Dodsley’s Old Plays, 6, 264.
* Vide also Swethens, Ex. 31.
+ From Danske came Shakespeare’s Dansker (Hamlet, ii. 4.). The word, it is believed, is at present unknown to the Danish, though formed from Dansk, accord- ing to the same analogy as 7'ydsker a German, from T'ydsk German.
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! _ 45. ‘© Oftentimes have I seene of their workes, made of that oak, so fine and faire as most of the wainescot that is brought hi- ther out of Danske.’’— Har. Descr. of Br. 2, 24.
Besides the form in isce, we have a second in iscan, vide Deniscan the Danes, S. Chr. 897. ‘The singular noun in a* was very common, vide SuS-Searisca the South Saxon, 5. Chr. 1009, and Hamtunisca (for Hamtunisce) the Hampton Lady, 5. Chr. 1035. &c.
Other gentile nouns appear to be formed from adjectives in ig; thus in Beowulf, 539, we have the phrase Deniga frea, lord of the Denige or Danes. Again, in the Chronicle we have Suthrige the Southrons, ‘“‘and Cantware him to crydon, and Swd-rige and Sud- Seaxe,” 5. Chr. 823,—and the Cantware turned to him, and the Suthrige, and the South Seaxe, &c.; ‘‘and he sealde his suna /®pelstane Cantwara rice and East Seaxna rice and Swuprigea and Sué Seaxna.” S. Chr. 836,—and he gave to his son A®thelstan the kingdom of the Cantware, and the kingdom of the East Seaxan, and of the Suthrige, and of the South Seaxan. This plural noun was also used to signify the district. We read that a great force was collected ‘*zegder ge of Cent ge of Sudrigum ge of East Seaxum,” S. Chr. 921,—both from Kent and from Suthrige and from East Seaxe. Suthriget was also used as a singular noun.
46. Surreie. ‘And Ealdbryht wrecca gewat on Suprege, and on Sud Seaxe.”—S. Chr. 722. And Ealdbryght went an exile to Suthrege and to South-Seaxe. 47. “‘Kyng Egbry3t was po prout vor ys segnorye, Adelwolf ys sone he sende myd vayre bachelerye, To wynne Kent and Estsex and Sothereye myd maystrye.”’ Rob. Glou. 258. 48. ‘Scotland and Cumberland and Wales he had in pes, Cornwalle, Lyndsay, and Kent, Dorsette and Surreie.” Rob. Br. 28. 49. Normandye. ‘‘ And $a hwile com Willelm, Earl of Normandige into Pefnesea on Sce. Michaeles meesse efen.”’—S. Chr. 1066. And meanwhile came Willelm, Earl of Normandige to Peven- sea, on the eve of St. Michael’s mass.
50. “ He 3ef that lond of Normandye Bedwer ys boteler, And that lond of Aungeo Kaxe ys panter.”—Rob. Glou. 187.
51. Lombardye. ‘‘ And on Octab. Sce Johannis Euangelistz wes seo. mycele eardbyfung on Lumbardige.”—S. Chr. 1117. And on the Octave of St. John the Evangelist was the great Earthquake in Lombardige.
* From these nouns in a, we get the Old-English nouns singular, an Englishe, a Welshe, a Frenche, §c., some of which survived in our modern dialect to the close of the 16th century: And not a French then present, but doth swear To kill an English, if enough there were.—Drayt., Batt. of Agincourt. + So in the Swedish Norige is Norway.
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52. —— ‘The noble man Eneas To Lombardye com, and our first fader was.” —Rob. Glou. 65. 53. Picardy. ‘‘ The false revolting Normans thorough thee Disdain to call us lord, and Picardy Hath slain their governors.” Hen. VI. Part. II. 4. 1.
Although hath was used as a plural verb (in certain constructions) as late as the time of Shakespeare, we should not be justified in con- sidering Picardy in the last example as a gentile noun, for collect- ive nouns are often met with during the sixteenth century in the very same idiom. The Picards also, according to French antiqua- ries, were so called about the year 1200, on account of the quarrels and bickerings in which they were always engaged at the university of Paris; and whether we admit this derivation or not, the name appears to have originated at too late a period to allow of an English gentile noun in ye as one of its derivatives. Normandye (Ex. 50.) is formed from a Danish word which was early adopted into thé Old English—Normand a Norman.
54. ‘* Toward pis land pei drouh to auenture his chance, Wip Normandesinouh of Flandresandof France.” —Rob. Br.70.
We have also gentile nouns in igan, thus at the beginning of his laws Cuut is styled “ Norérigena cyning,” king of the Northrigan. With this form we may compare the German collective pronouns ; meinigen my friends or people, deinigen thy people, thrigen your people, &c., as with the form in ige, we may compare the Dutch sommige some people.
This collective ending ige was represented by the Old English ye and the modern y; and it appears to have played a much more im- portant part in our language than has hitherto been supposed. Philo-
logists consider the ending y as representing in general the Latin ~~
ending ta ; but in Anglo-Saxon, the distinction between the Latin and English forms is clearly marked, and ve constantly find the Latin terms Italia, Sicilia, Sct5pia, Hibernia, &c., brought into juxta- position with Suprige, Menige, Normandige, Lombardige, Assirige, &c. The distinction seems to have been long preserved in the Low Dutch: Kilian writes Asie, Sicilie, Bretanie, Campanie, &c., but Nor- mandije, Lombardije, Barbarije, &c.
In some Anglo-Saxon words ¢ was occasionally used as a substi- tute for g, and the endings ige and igan appear to have been some- times represented by ice and ican. Dorchester was called in Anglo- Saxon Dorka-cester, the city of the Dorce, S. Chr. 1067, and also Dorce ceaster, ὃ. Chr. 897, and Dorces ceaster, the city of Dorce, S. Chr. 636. Dorka appears to represent the gen, of the gentile noun Dorige, the men of Dor*; Dorces is the genitive of the district- name Dorige, and Dorce-ceaster seems to be a mere compound. Again, the Chronicle tells us, that King Edward went in the year 924, ‘“‘on Peac lond to Badecan Wylian,” into Peak-land to Bake-
* As to the derivation of Dorset, see p. 107.
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_ well. Badecan-wylle appears to be a compound—the well of the Badecan ; and the modern name of Bakewell to be a corruption of ' another compound Badice-wylle, the well of the Badice. There are "some remarkable remains of Roman baths, still to be seen at Bake- _ well; and Badice, in all probability meant the Bath-people.* | The Cenomani were a Gaulish tribe, settled in the ‘province of _ Maine, and more particularly in the district comprising the diocese _ of Manst. Some centuries before Christ, a portion of this people ' migrated into Italy, and several parts of Britain appear to have been | colonized by them, probably at a still earlier period. The Cenimagni _ of Cesar are generally considered to be the same race as the Iceni _ of Tacitus; Gale fixes a branch of this people near Portsmouth, _ where their name seems to be still preserved in the hundreds of East and West Meon; and traces of them may be discovered in South Lancashire, Pieeiive. and some of the adjoining districts. The _ Chronicle tell us, that in the year 1099 King William drove Earl _ Ehias “ of there Menige{”’ from Maine; and in subsequent entries _ Menige is corrupted into Mannie. This word Menige was also the name of more than one English district; for in 923, King Edward ordered ‘‘ Menige ceaster” in Northumberland to be manned and fortified; and in 1099, Ethelred’s fleet harried Menige in the expe- dition against Cumberland. Menige-ceaster is considered to be | Man-chester, the Man-cunium of the Romans; and Menige is said _ to be Anglesey, the Mona of Tacitus, and the Welshman’s Mwn. It may be observed that the Cornavii, who built the Warwickshire Manceter or Manchester (the Latin Man-duessedum), are traced to _ Cheshire by our Celtic antiquarians. We may conjecture then that _ a branch of the Iceni called the Man (or by a Latinized compound | Ceno-mani) peopled South-Lancashire, Cheshire, and Anglesey ; and _ perhaps we shall not go too far in supposing they formed the ori- _ ginal Welsh population of the Isle of Man, the Mona of Cesar§. If _ we suppose Manige to be pronounced Manice, Manz will represent _ the plural in as—Manicas. 55. “Camden says of the απ: that the richer sort imitate the gen- try of Lancashire,” &c.,—Acc. of the Isle of Man. Newaeee: 1809.
That our gentile nouns in ige had correlatives in igas seems to be _ probable from the following considerations :—
In our Romance poems we often meet with the Gentile nouns _Norreis, Surreis, Londreis ||, &c. i.e. the Northerns, the Southerns, the
__ * The importance which was attached to the old Roman baths by our Anglo- _ Saxon forefathers is sufficiently evident from the name given to the town of Bath. This town was also called ace mannes ceaster, the invalid’s city.
+ In the 11th century the whole earldom was called Mans.—S. Chr. 1807.
Ζ Here Menige is treated as a feminine noun.. From the form of the genitive
, we might perhaps infer that Dorce was masculine ; but even feminine nouns
' Occasionally made the genitive in es. ᾿ς § The Welsh called it Menaw, whence Pliny’s Monapia or Monabia. | This ending is variously spelled by our romance writers, ois, ais, ets, oys, ays, : &c.; but the most common mode of spelling it is the one adopted in the text.
Ϊ σον. I. I
oS EEE BEETLE TTY
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Londoners, &c. ; these forms may also be found in the old English poems of the fourteenth century. ;
56. Norreis. ‘‘ Inglis and Danes and pe gode Norreis, Duke, erle, and baron, and other knyghtes curteis.” ; Rob. Br. 27.
57. Surreis. ‘‘ Adelard of Westsex was kyng of pe empire, Of Noreis and Surreis, guyour of ilk schire.” Rob. Br. 6.
58. Londreis. ‘‘Ac pe Londres seyn Mellyt ac (al?) clenliche vorsoke, Ac huld hem to her hepenesse.”—Rob. Glow. 241.
59. “Vnto the Londreis pei told pat pei had fonden an hayre, Was Edmund kosyn the kyng, pe Londreis wer in speyr.” Rob. Br. 72.
Our Romance writers certainly considered Norreis, Surreis, Lon- dreis, &c., as belonging to the same class of words as Franceis, Daneis, Engleis*, &c. ; and Robert of Brunne seems to have been of the same opinion, for he has once used Weséreis as a noun singular, just as the Frenchman makes Anglois signify the individual Englishman, /’ An- glois, as well as the race collectively, les Anglois.
60. ‘“‘Syward pe gode Westreis, Edald pe Vavasoure, Wilaf kyng of Merce, he com to pat stoure.”—Rob. Br. 17.
But a confusion of different forms was almost as common in our Ro- mance dialect as in our modern English, and there is reason to be- lieve that Norreis, Surreis, &c., are of native growth. When we find the phrase ‘‘ Earl of Surrey” rendered (sometimes even in the same MS.), both ‘“‘ Counte de Sorays” and ‘‘Counte de Soraye,” it is difficult to avoid the conclusion, that the two words Sorays and So- raye are intimately connected with each other, and as we know that Soraye represents the Anglo-Saxon plural in e, Suthrige, it seems fair to conclude that Sorays represents an Anglo-Saxon plural in as, — Suthrigas, in like manner as Norweis (Ex. 27.) represents the plural Norwegas. Londreis must be a corruption of Lond’ner-eis +.
Our Romance writers carefully distinguish between Londreis the Londoners, and Londres the town of London; and though Londreis be common in our Old-English dialects, there is probably no case in which an English writer has used the thoroughly foreign term of
* The French ending ois, the Italian ese, and the Spanish es have been generally - looked upon as representing the Latin ensis.
+ There is a passage in the ‘ Roman de Brut’, which (if it be rightly transcribed) throws some light on the pronunciation of the word London in the 12th century. After tracing its various supposed corruptions, Lud, Lodoin, Londoin, Wace adds
Et Londe en Englois dist l’on,
Et nous or Londres \’apelon.—Rom. de Brut. 1275. We know our countrymen never called their capital Londe, but this orthography may be a Jerseyman’s mode of expressing the pronunciation Lond’ne. London was called in Anglo-Saxon both Lunden and Lundene—vide Lundene-waru. 8S. Chr. 1016.
See a rai ΠΩ
ea eee ee eee ἡ
ee φῦ»
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_ Londres. Yet although Londres be of foreign, it is in all probability
of Gothic origin, and some observations on its etymology may throw light on the structure of other uames of places, which have long since been admitted and are still familiarly used in our language.
The Flemings called Flanders Viaendere and Guelders Ghelre or Gheldre* ; while the Dutch named them respectively Viaenderen and Gelderen. Our Anglo-Saxon chroniclers called Flanders Flandran till the close of the eleventh century ; but under the year 1100 we meet with the name of Flandres, probably the earliest date at which it appears in any existing dgcument. In our Romance poems we have both Flandres, Londres, &c., and also Flandre, Londre, &c., and the name of Flandre is not unknown to our Old-English dialect.
61. “Vor Coste Harold broper pat he drof er into Flandre By kynges day Edward hym selue to gret sclaundre He com anon po vppen hym.”—Rob. Glou. 354.
We will first endeavour to trace the origin of the endings ere, eren, and ers.
The er in Londoner, Norwicher+, &c., represents an Anglo-Saxon ending ere, which in the plural becomes eras; but in other early Go- thic dialects the plural was sometimes formed by a change in the final vowel, as in the High Dutch we have Romari a Roman, plu. Romara. Hence, allowing for the confusion of the vowels of the final syllable, we may understand how it is, that Swedish nouns in are remain un- changed in the plural, so that the word Romare in that language sig- nifies both a Roman and also the Romans collectively. The Danish seems to have rejected the vowel ending in the singular, but to have retained it in the plural, so that Romer, a Roman, Greker, a Greek,
&e., make in the plural Romere, Grekere, &c.; and the modern
German rejects the vowel in both numbers, so that Rémer a Roman, remains unchanged in the plural. If we assume that the vowel in-
_ flexion was known to the early Low-Dutch dialects, as it was to the _ early High-Dutch, then we may perhaps infer that Viaendere and
Gheldre are plural nouns, and that the Dutch Viaenderen and Geldren and our own Flanders and Guelders are formed from them by adding a second plural inflexion; much in the same way as from the Old English brethre or brothre (for we find both forms) we have now got
_ brethren and brothers.
But there is a second mode of explaining the formation of these endings, ere, eren, ers ; and, as these speculations tend to throw light on the all-important subject of inflerion, no apology can be needed
_ for its investigation. Certain Anglo-Saxon neuter nouns, cild a
child, eg an egg, cealf a calf, &c., form their plurals in ru, cildru, egru, cealfru, &c. Cildru became in Old-English childre (now childer) ; but the ending ru was more generally superseded in that dialect by
_ a double inflexion ren, and in the Old-English we have the plural _ nouns children, eyren (ey Old-Engl. an egg), lambren (Wiclif, Jon. 21),
ἃς. These neuter plurals in ren are common in the Dutch; kinda
* See Kilian. + Forby introd. 131. 12
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child, ei an egg, kalf a calf, lam a lamb, blad a leaf, lied a song, rad a wheel, volk a people, &c., make in the plural kinderen, eijeren, kal- veren, lammeren, bladeren, liederen, raderen, volkeren, &c.; and there are also some nouns belonging to the other genders which form their plurals in like manner, as rund masc., an ox, runderen oxen; hoen, fem., a hen, hoenderen*, fowls, &c. Some of these nouns hada second plural in ers, as hinders children, eijers eggs, hoenders fowls, &c. Hence we may perhaps consider Viaendere, Gheldre, &c., as plural nouns with an inflexion re (instead of a mere vowel inflexion), and the Dutch and English equivalents asynouns with a double in- flexion.
Having now discussed the endings, we may add a few words as to the other parts of these district-names. The root of Fland-ers ap- pears to be the same word as flemd exiled, fugitivet. Flemd by a common letter-change became the Old-English fend, which by a fur- ther corruption was sometimes represented by fleyn.
62. ‘* Vor hys broperen were aslawe, oper yfleynd echon.” Rob. Glou. 342.
63. “-------- Thulke tyme pat ych was As man fleyne in Normandye, me com mony god cas.” Rob, Glou. 350.
The root of Guelders is not an obvious one; that of Londres is Londe, in which form the Normans appear to have represented the English pronunciation Lond’ne. There are many other names of places end- ing with the termination res. Lang-res was the ancient capital of the Ling-ones.
The collective form in ry is pronounced by philologists to be wholly Romance in origin, but that some of the nouns are of pure English growth is more than probable. In the examples,
64. “ὙΠΟ Chirche he let halwy as a childery masse day,” - Rob, Glou. 349.
65. ‘ Your aiery buildeth in our aierys nest,”—Rich. III. i. 3.
we must certainly consider childery and aiery (a brood) as forma- tions running parallel with children and eyren (eggs); and as chil- dren and eyren are formed from the Old-English plurals in re by adding a second plural inflexion, so childery and aiery may be formed by adding the collective ending y, of which we have already spoken. That lad-ry (Jam. Dict.), nunne-ry (nonne Ang. Sax., a nun), yeoman-ry, &c., were formed according to the analogy afforded by childery and aiery, is probable, for this reason—that we have examples in which these collective nouns, instead of ry take the ending reis, just as our gentile nouns, instead of the ending y, representing the Anglo- Saxon ige, sometimes take eis, the supposed representative of the Anglo-Saxon igas.
* The d is merely intrusive, as in our English word thunder, thunor, Ang. Sax. + The Flemings have been considered by some writers as the descendants of the conquered Saxons, removed from the Elbe by Charlemagne.
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66. “‘ He foundit the colleige of Bothwell and the Nuareis of Lyn- clowden, quilk wes eftir changit in ane colleige of preistis.”-— - Bellenden Chron. 16, 12.
Gentile nouns in ry are sometimes, though but rarely, used as names of districts.
67. Jewry. <“‘ Thise ‘seating er atteynt of falshed and folie, Now comes a new pleynt to destroie pe juerie, pe king was enquere of per wikked dedes So many per were dome on pam salle nedes.” Rob. Br. 247.
68. “Τὴ Jewry is God known, his name is great in Israel.” _ —Ps. 76. 69. Danesry. “‘ Dardan hight pe cheftayn of pat company, Sadok sonne of Danmark kyng Danesry.” Rob. Br. 16.
70. Welshry. ‘‘ With lordes pat were nehi he held his parlement Al 3ole at Denebeghi, after pam alle he sent, To fend the Walschrie with him at per powere.” Rob. Br. 244.
The gentile nouns Jriskry and Englishry were used up to the close of the sixteenth century, vide Todd’s Johns. Dict. The root of Danesry is an adjective formed from Daze, as Scots from Scot ; and, for a grammatical reason, which we have not at present time to dis- ' cuss, Danesry (in Ex. 69.) must be a district-name.
Ing was a common ending of Anglo-Saxon patronymics; thus in the genealogy of the kings of Wessex we have the passage “‘Se wes Cuthaing, Cutha Cynricing, Cynric Cerdicing,” &c. He was son of Cutha, Cutha son of Cynric, Cynric son of Cerdic, ἄς. The same ending was used to form gentile nouns, as Ersyringas, the men of Assur (‘ The Gleeman’s Song’) ; /dumingas, the men of Edom (ib.) ; Eoferwicingas, the men of Eoferwic (York); Centingas, the men of Kent (S. Chr. 1092), &c.* These nouns were very generally used as names of districts.
71. ‘‘ Hi hefden pa ofergan East-Engle, &c., and be sudan Temese ealle Centingas and Sud Seaxe ἃ Hestingas, &c., & micel on Wiltun scire.”—S. Chr. 10, 11.
They had overrun East-Engle, &c., and south of Thames all Kentings (Kent) and South-Sexe and Hastings, &c., and much in Wilton-shire.
_ The name of Hastings, which primarily signified the men of East
Sussex, is now the name of their principal town, the Hestinga ceaster
of the Chronicle, i. e. the city of the Hastings.
_ What is the meaning of the root, on which Hast-ings has been
_ formed, is unknown ; but as to the ending ing, we may observe that
* The name of Fleming affords us another example. It is generally derived i from the Anglo-Saxon verb fyman to exile.
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ung-r (Icel.), yng-i (Icel.) and ung (Dan.), mean a youth; and déngi (Icel.) and wnge (Dan.) the young of an animal.
There remains yet another form of English district-names derived from the gentile noun. From folk Icel, a people, is derived fylki Icel, ΄" ashire. The Anglo-Saxon fole in composition took the same se- condary sense.
72. Norfolk. Nord fole, Ang. Sax. “The Wantsume riseth in North-folke at Galesend in Holt Hundred, &c.”—Harr. Descr. of Brit. 12, 1.
73. Suffolk. Sud folk, Ang. Sax.
“Elfride had a kosyn, that ὍΝ was of schelde _ Northfolk and Southfolk of Elfride he held.” —Rob. Br.
PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
Vou. I. JUNE 9, 1843. No. 11.
The Rev. James Tare in the Chair.
The following Candidates were elected Members of the Society :—
Horatio Waddington, Esq., late Fellow of Trinity College, Cam- bridge.
Matthew Davenport Hill, Esq., Queen’s Counsel.
George Sloane, Esq., 6, Pump Court, Temple, Special Pleader.
Sir Thomas E. Colebrooke, Bart.
Montagu Webster, Esq., Penns, near Birmingham.
Rev. T. O. Cockaigne, King’s College, London.
The following communication was then read :—
«* On the probable Relations of the Picts and Gael with the other Tribes of Great Britain.” By the Rev. Richard Garnett.
It is scarcely necessary to observe, that there are few points of ethnology on which historians and antiquaries have been more at variance with each other, than respecting the real race of those in- habitants of a portion of Caledonia popularly known by the desig- nation of Picts. The difficulty arising from this discrepancy of opi- nion is increased by the scanty and unsatisfactory nature of the ma- terials now available to those who wish to form an independent judge- ment. No connected specimen of the Pictish language has been preserved; nor has any ancient author who knew them from per- sonal observation, stated in direct terms that they approximated to one adjoining tribe more than another. They are indeed associated with the Scots or Irish as joint plunderers of the colonial Britons ; and the expression of Gildas that they differed in some degree from the Scots in their customs, might seem to imply that they did bear an analogy to that nation in certain respects. Of course, where there is such a lack of direct evidence, there is more scope for con- jecture; and the Picts are pronounced by different investigators of their history to have been Germans, Scandinavians, Welsh, Gael, or something distinct from all the four. The advocates of the Ger- man hypothesis rest chiefly on Tacitus’s description of their physical conformation. Dr. Jamieson, assuming that the present Lowland Scotch dialect was derived from them, sets them down as Scandi- navians; Bishop Lloyd and Camden conceive them to have been of Celtic race, probably related to the Britons; Chalmers, the author of ‘ Caledonia,’ regards them as nothing more than a tribe of Cam- brians or Welsh; while Skene, one of the latest authors on the sub- ject, thinks he has proved that they were the ancestors of the present race of Scottish Highlanders.
There is no reason to doubt that there was some point of distinc-
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tion between the Picts and the adjoining tribes. Nennius describes them as one of the four nations then inhabiting Britain ; and Bede represents them as distinct from the Britons and the Scots, both in nationality and language. Innes, who was almost the first to throw a little light upon the chaos of ancient Scottish history, considers them to have been those ancient Caledonian tribes who retained their independence ; and that their language differed from that of the co- lonial Britons in having remained unmixed; while that of the latter was partially Romanized. This supposition is probably not far from the truth. That the Picts were actually Celts, and not of Teutonic race, is proved to a demonstration by the names of their kings; of whom a list, undoubtedly genuine from the fifth century downwards, was published by Innes, from a manuscript in the Colbertine library. Some of these appellations are, as far as we know at present, con- fined to the Pictish sovereigns; but others are well-known Welsh Ὁ and Gaelic names. They differ, however, slightly in their forms from their Cymric equivalents; and more decidedly so from the Gaelic ones; and, as far as they go, lead to the supposition that those who bore them spoke a language bearing a remote analogy to the Irish with its cognates, but a pretty close one to the Welsh.
In the list furnished by Innes the names Maelcon, Elpin, Taran (i. e. thunder), Uven (Owen), Bargoit, are those of personages well known in British history or tradition. Wrgust, which appears as . Fergus in the Irish annals, is the Welsh Gwrgust. Talorg, Talor- gan, evidently contain the British word Tul forehead, a common ele- ment in proper names; ex. gr. Talhaiarn, Iron Forehead ; Taliesin, splendid forehead, &c. Taleurgain would signify in Welsh golden or splendid front. Three kings are represented as sons of Wid, in the Irish annals Foit or Foith. In Welsh orthography it would be Gwydd, wild; a common name in Brittany at the present day, under the form of Gwez. The names Drust, Drostan, Wrad, Necton (in Bede Naitan), closely resemble the Welsh Trwst, Trwstan, Gwriad, Nwython. It will be sufficient to compare the entire list with the Irish or Highland genealogies, to be convinced that there must have been a material distinction between-the two branches. Most of the Pictish names are totally unknown in Irish or Highland history, and the few that are equivalent, such as Angus and Fergus, generally differ in form. The Irish annalists have rather obscured the matter, by transforming those names according to their national system of orthography ; but it is remarkable that a list in the ‘ Book of Bally- mote,’ partly given by Lynch in his ‘Cambrensis Eversus,’ agrees closely with Innes, even preserving the initial w or u where the Gaelic would require f. ‘This, by the way, is an independent testi- mony of the authenticity of the Colbertine list, which, there is reason to believe, was compiled at or near Abernethy, in the very heart of the Pictish territory, and consequently from original materials.
The philological inferences to be deduced from this document may be thus briefly summed up ;—1. The names of the Pictish kings are not Gaelic, the majority of them being totally unknown both in the Irish and Highland districts, while the few which have Gaelic equi-
ΡΥ ae
121 valents decidedly differ from them in form. Cineod (Kenneth) and
᾿ Domhnall or Donnel, appear to be the only exceptions. 2. Some
of them cannot be identified as Welsh; but the greater number are either identical with or resemble known Cymric names; or approach more nearly to Welsh in structure and orthography than to any other known language. 3. There appears nevertheless to have been a di- stinction, amounting at all events to a difference in dialect. The Pictish names beginning with w would in Welsh have gw, as Gwrgust for Wrgust, and so of the rest. There may have been other differ- ences, sufficient to justify Bede’s statement that the Pictish language was distinct from the British, which it might very well be without any impeachment of its claim to be reckoned as closely cognate.
The remaining direct evidence as to the character of the Pictish language unfortunately lies in a very small compass. Almost the only Pictish word given as such by an ancient writer is the well- known Pen val (or, as it appears in the oldest MSS of Bede, Peann Sahel), the name given by the Picts to the Wall’s End, or eastern termination of the Vallum of Antoninus. It is scarcely necessary to say the first part of the word is decidedly Cymric ; pen, head, being contrary to all Gaelic analogy. The latter half might be plausibly claimed as the Gaelic fal; gwall being the more common term in Welsh for a wall or rampart. Fal, however, does occur in Welsh in the sense of inclosure, a signification not very remote.
There is a collateral evidenge on this subject which does not ap- pear to have been sufficiently attended to. In the Durham MSS of Nennius, apparently written in the twelfth century, there is an in- terpolated passage, stating that the spot in question was in the Scottish or Gaelic language called Cenail. Innes and others have remarked the resemblance between this appellation and the present Kinneil ; but no one appears to have noticed that Cenail accurately represents the pronunciation of the Gaelic cean fhail, literally head of wall, f bemg quiescent in construction. -A remarkable instance of the same suppression occurs in Athole, as now written, compared
with the Ath-fothla of the Irish annalists. Supposing then that
Cenail was substituted for Pean fahel by the Gaelic conquerors of the district, it would follow that the older appellation was not Gaelic, and the inference would be obvious. It is proper to observe that the terminus of the wall of Antoninus is commonly placed at Carri- den, several miles to the eastward. There are, however, strong reasons for believing that Kinneil was the real termination, which it would be foreign to our particular province to discuss.
Another evidence, and a decisive one if admitted in its literal im- port, is that the Irish missionary St. Columba was obliged to employ
an interpreter when preaching to the Northern Picts. Skene, who _ regards the Picts as Gael, endeavours to get rid of this by making _ the interpretation refer to the Latin Bible, not to the saint’s dis- _ course; and quotes Adamnanus as saying merely ‘‘ verbum Dei per
interpretatorem recepto.” The entire passage, as it stands in Colga- nus, is as follows ;—‘ Alio in tempore quo Sanctus Columba in Pictorum provincia per aliquot demorabatur dies, quidam cum tota
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plebeius familia, verbum vite per interpretatorem, sancto predicante viro, audiens credidit, credensque baptizatus est.”-— Adama. ap. Col- ganum, 1. ii. c. 32. Here it will be observed, Adamnanus does not say ‘‘verbum Dei” which might have been construed to mean the Scripture, but ‘‘verbum vite, sancto predicante viro,” which can hardly mean anything but “the word of life, as it was preached by the saint.” A subsequent biographer will inform us how he under- stood the passage. There is a voluminous Irish life of St. Columba by Magnus O’Donnell, who states that he diligently consulted all sources of information then extant (i.e.abouta.p. 1500),among which wére some very ancient vernacular biographies, In the abstract of O’Donnell’s work given by the Bollandists, the transaction already referred to is described in the following terms :—‘‘ Demorante viro sancto in preedicta Pictorum regione, ac verbum vite gentili populo annunciante, inter alios adfuit quidam plebeius percupidus intelli- gere que predicabantur. Et quia idiomatis, in quo verba salutis proponebantur, erat ignarus, accivit interpretem, per cujus expositi- onem mysteria fidei a sancto predicata attente intelligens, ac aure ac animo devota excipiens, ipse cum uxore, liberis ac tota familia fidem Christi amplexus, salutari lavacro a viro sancto regeneratus est.”—O Donnell, 1. ii. c. 75. Here the biographer plainly asserts that the plebeian Pict did not understand St. Columba’s language, “idiomatis erat ignarus,”’ consequently his vernacular language was not Gaelic.
Chalmers, who perhaps maintain§ the absolute identity of the Picts with the Welsh rather too strongly, observes, that the ancient topographical appellations of the Pictish territory can in general only be explained by the Cymric dialects, giving as one strong point the number of local names beginning with the Welsh prefix αὖον, which he remarks was in several instances subsequently changed by the Gael into inver; Inverin, previously Aberin; Invernethy, for- merly Abernethy. Skene, who felt the force of this argument, tries to get rid of it by maintaining that aver is essentially a Gaelic word, being compounded of ath, ford, and dior, water ; and intimating that it cannot be similarly resolved in Welsh. We shall not stop to re- mark on the utterly gratuitous nature of this etymology, nor to in- quire whether the estuary of a large river is a suitable place for a ford; but shall merely observe that the term may be much more satisfactorily accounted for by a different process. ‘There are three words in Welsh denoting a meeting of waters ; aber, cynver and ynver ; respectively compounded of the particles a, denoting juxtaposition, cyn (Lat. con), and yn, with the root ber flowing, preserved in the Breton verb Jeri to flow, and all virtually equivalent to our word confluence. Inver is the only term known in any Gaelic dialect, either as an appellative or in proper names ; and not a single local appella- tion with the prefix aber occurs either in Ireland, or the Hebrides, or on the west coast of Scotland. Indeed, the fact that inver was substituted for it after the Gaelic occupation of the Pictish territories, is decisive evidence on the point; for, if aber was a term familiar to the Gael, why should they change it?
* |
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It will be sufficient to mention two more local appellations which can only be explained from the Cymric, viz. the Ochil Hills in Perth- shire, Welsh uchel, high; Gael, uasal; and Brun Albain, according
.to the author of the tract ‘De Situ Albanie’ (supposed to be Gi-
raldus Cambrensis), the name of the Dorsum Britanniz, or ridge dividing the Picts from the Scots; Welsh bryn, aridge. The well- known Gaelic appellation is Drum Albain. Ochiltree in Ayrshire, within the limits of the Strath-Clyde Britons, is easily resolved into uchel, high, and ¢tref or tre, hamlet or habitation; and is only men- tioned here for the sake of the analogy. Bryneich was the British name of the province of Bernicia, quasi regio montana.
The Celtic terms adduced by Chalmers from the old Scottish ro are not so conclusive; most of them admitting of explanation from the Gaelic. Those from the Lowland Scotch dialect would be of some weight, if we knew precisely in what part of Scotland they ori- ginated; respecting which there is a lack of information. A suffi- cient number of Cymric words proper to the district between the Forth and the Frith of Murray, would go a great way towards de- termining the points in dispute; and it is believed that such might be found, if properly sought for.
Respecting the territorial limits of the Picts, we may observe that much confusion has arisen from regarding Galloway as one of their ancient provinces. It is certain that in the age of Bede, and long after, there were no Picts in Galloway, which is uniformly represented as a British province (occasionally encroached upon by the North- umbrian Saxons), from the fifth to the ninth century. It is believed that Jocelin, abbot of Furness in the tenth century, is the earliest author who describes it as a Pictish territory ; and subsequently, the Picts of Galloway are tmhentioned by several authors, down to the twelfth century. Innes supposes them to have been refugees from the Scottish invasion; and Chalmers regards them as emigrants from Ireland, where there were several tribes of Cruithne, of whom little is known except that they were regarded as distinct from the Irish proper. We have now no materials for deciding this question, any further than by remarking that in this later period the term Picts was applied with some laxity of signification. After Kenneth Mac Alpin’s conquest, the Scottish kings are often called Pictish kings,
_ and kings of the Picts, because they then ruled over the Pictish ter-
ritory; and their subjects in Lothian are sometimes called Picts, though the majority of them were probably Saxons. It is therefore possible that the inhabitants of Galloway might be called Picts, though they were not properly such; as the English are popularly called Britons from inhabiting Great Britain.
There has been some dispute respecting the import of the various terms by which the Picts have been designated. ‘The idea that they were called Cruithneach by the Gael, because they were eaters of wheat, appears to have no sufficient foundation. Both Lhuyd and O’Brien concur in regarding the word as equivalent to brithneach, variegated, from their custom of staining their bodies. Chalmers ingeniously suggests that the Brython, mentioned in the Welsh
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Archeology as a tribe distinct from the Lloegrians and the Cymru, were no other than the Picts; and that Cruithne is merely the Gaelic form of Brython, substituting as usual the guttural for the labial. Cruitbneach may however be regularly derived from cruth, figure or shape, and in this case both terms, as well as the present name of the Bretons, Brezounek, from Brez, Welsh brith, variegated, would be synonymous with the Latin Picti. This appears more probable than Owen’s interpretation, Peithwyr, quasi, inhabitants of the plains, which we know many of them were not; but, on the contrary, te- nants of the most rugged mountain districts in all Britain.
It will be easily understood from the preceding remarks, that the writer considers Skene’s hypothesis of the substantial identity of the Picts with the present Highlanders as totally ungrounded. There are, probably enough, descendants of the Picts both in the Highlands and the Lowlands; but that the Scoto-Irish race gained the predo- minance in the former district, is demonstrated by the language, which does not differ in any essential point from that of the oppo- site coast of Leinster and Ulster; bearing, in fact, a closer resem- _ blance than Low German does to High German, or Danish to Swedish. The Albanic Duan, of the twelfth century, follows the analogy of the Irish Grammar throughout, and a recent Gaelic grammarian (Munro), observes that Knox’s Liturgy and other compositions of the sixteenth century do not differ from the Irish of the same period. It is believed that no instance exists of a similar identity of speech between tribes of different origin, as the Picts are allowed to have been, separated by their geographical position and living for cen- turies under a distinct government. If we suppose the Dalriadic Scots, whose migration from Ireland to the west coast of Scotland in the fifth century is a well-ascertained historical fact, to have even- tually become superior in numbers to the Picts, as we know they did in military and political power, the final prevalence of their language is easily accounted for.
The subject of the general relation of the Irish or Gaelic to the other Celtic tongues, is too copious and difficult to be fully discussed at present. It resembles the Welsh in many points of grammatical structure, in a considerable proportion of its vocabulary, and in that remarkable system of initial mutations of consonants which distin- guishes the Celtic languages from all others in Europe. On the other hand, it differs in several material points, particularly in having a distinct genitive and dative case; the latter, in the plural number, bearing an evident analogy to the Sanscrit and Latin, to which lan- guages it also approximates in many affixes and other formatives, unknown in Welsh. ‘To determine its exact place in the Indo- European family is perhaps the most difficult problem in philology. When all has been separated which can be fairly considered as ana- logous to the Cymric and Armorican, there still remains a great preponderance of terms which cannot be satisfactorily referred to any one race known to have inhabited Europe. Some are found in Finnish ; many more in Slavonic and the Romance dialects; while those corresponding to Sanscrit vocables are perhaps the most nu-
125
merous and remarkable of any. Some philologists have expressed an opinion that the Scoti or Milesians were of Germanic race ; or at all events had been subjected to Germanic admixture: and the lan- guage, as we now find it, certainly gives some countenance to that hypothesis. For example, teanga is the only word current for tongue, totally different from the Welsh tavod; and Jleighis, to heal, leagh, physical, are evident counterparts of our Saxon term leech. The following words, constituting a very small proportion of what might be produced, may serve as further specimens of the class ;—
Beit, both.
Coinne, woman, quean.
Daor, dear.
Dorcha, dark.
Dream, company, people; A.S. truma; O.E. trome. Drong, throng.
Faigh, to get, obtain; Dan. faae.
Feacht, fight.
Lab, lip.
Laoidh, poem, lay ; Germ. lied.
Lasd, loading, ballast; Germ. last.
Leos, light; Isl. lios. .
Lumhan, lamb.
Sar, very, exceeding; Germ. sehr. Pa Seadha, saw.
Seal, a while, space of time; A.S. sael, sel. Seam, a peg or pin; Dan. som, nail.
Sgad, loss, misfortune; Dan, skade. Sgaoil, separate, disperse; Sw. skala. Sgeir, rock in the sea, skerry; Isl. skér. Sgarbh, a cormorant; Jsi. skarfr.
Snaig, creep, sneak.
Sneachd, snow.
Sliochd, family, race; Germ. geschlecht. Slug, swallow ; Germ. schlucken.
Smachd, power, authority ; Germ. macht. Smeoraich, smear.
Snaidh, cut; Germ. schneiden.
Spaisdrich, walk ; Germ. spazieren.
Spar, a beam or joist.
Sreang, a string.
Sreamh, a current, stream.
Steagaim, parch, fry; Sw. steka, to roast, fry, broil. Strith, strife; Germ. streit.
Trath, time, season; A.S. thrag; O.E. throw.
_ Some of the above terms may have been introduced in the ninth
and following centuries by the Northmen; but many of them occur in the oldest known monuments of the language; they are also ac- _ companied by many compounds and derivatives, which is commonly _ regarded as a proof of long naturalization ; and are moreover cur- rent in Connaught, where the Danes never had any permanent set- tlement. One of the most remarkable indications of a Teutonic affinity is the termination nas, or nis, exactly corresponding to our
126
ness in greatness, goodness ; ex. gr. breitheamnas, judgement, fiadhnis, witness, &c. ‘This affix is too completely incorporated in the lan- guage to be a borrowed term, and it moreover appears to be signifi- cant, in the sense of state, condition, in Irish, though not in German. As far as the writer knows, it is confined to the Gaelic and Teutonic dialects. The Irish sealbh, property, possession ; adj. sealbhach, pro- prius, would also furnish a plausible origin for the German selber, self, a word which has no known Teutonic etymology. These ap- proximations and various others which might be pointed out, not only to German but to Latin, Sanscrit, and other languages of their class, seem to show that the distinctive portion of the Gaelic tongues is of comparatively later introduction into the west of Europe, and — that the Cymric and Armorican have more faithfully preserved the peculiarities of the ancient Celtic. For instance, the entire want of cases in Welsh, Cornish and Breton, is a mark of antiquity exhibited by no other European tongue, in its original condition.
Respecting the affinity of the Gaelic dialects to each other, it will be sufficient to say that Irish is the parent tongue; that Scottish — Gaelic is Irish stripped of a few inflections ; and that Manks is merely Gaelic with a few peculiar words and disguised by a corrupt system of orthography.
PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
Vou. I. JUNE 23, 1843. No. 12.
The Rev. James Tate in the Chair.
The Chairman stated that the Council had been furnished, through the liberality of Mr. Yates, with two or three hundred copies of a lithograph, intended to illustrate a paper, which appeared in Abstr. No. 2, entitled ‘‘Some Remarks on a Statue of Endymion, illus- trative of a Passage in Lucian.” The lithograph could not be transmitted through the post, without being folded and thereby _ injured, but any member might procure a copy, on application at _ the London library.
John Hills, Esq. Barrister at Law, was elected a member of the
Society.
Professors Herman, Lassen, and W. K. Grimm were proposed to
the Society for election as Honorary Members.
The Chairman read the report, which had been laid before the _ Council, agreeably to Rule VI. on the claims of Professor Herman ;
_ after which the reports on the claims of Professors Lassen and W. K. Grimm were read (in the absence of Professor Wilson and
Mr. Kemble) by the Secretary.
A paper was then read :— _ _ “On the Descent of the Magyar from the Ancient Persians.”’ _ By Joseph Von Szabé, Professor of History, Lyceum, Oedenburg. _ Communicated by Mr. Bland. _ The author considered the name of Magyar to be a compound— _ Mag-ar. The first element of this compound is the same word as _ the Μάγοι of Herodotus (i. 101), and Ar probably represents the name of “Api (vii. 61). The Mahometans still use the name of Mug as a term of contempt for the Parsis; and the ancient Magyar used to call such of their countrymen as continued heathen, Mokany.
Herodotus mentions a Median race, the Sigynnz, as dwelling in _ his time north of the Danube, and probably in the country of the Magyar ; but the author considered his countrymen as “ the descend- ants of the Magi Ariorum, that is, of the Medes, Persians, Parthians,
+ and Neo-Persians, who were driven out by the Arabs, in 636, to the
— Caucasian mountains.” Although Constantinus Porphyrogenitus _ generally gives to the Magyar the name of Τοῦρκοι, yet he also ex-
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pressly states that they were called Σαβαρτοὶ ἄσφαλοι (c. 38), that is Sabean Persians, for Herodotus tells us that the Persians were formerly called ’Apraio: (vii. 61). Procopius mentions the Magyar _ under the name of Zafepol*, a word which may be resolved in like manner—the Sabean “Apioct ; and the country round Tiflis, in all probability, got its name of Sabarato as having been one of the localities inhabited by this people. Cinnamus, in his History (vol. i. p- 1), says: The Magyars were τοῖς Πέρσαις ταυτοφρονοῦντες, and that those who remained in Greece, in one of the early expeditions were called Σώβα, Magyarst.
The Greek word Ovyypol, and Latin Hungari may perhaps be a compound—Hunni Gurii, that is the Huns of Georgia.
The author believed that most of the Persian names would be found to be significant in the Magyar language. He considered Smerdis to be the Magyar word esmeretes§, known; and Ochus to be okos, wise. Ormuzd was the Magyar Erjemeszti, contractedly Ormeszté, the quickener, one that gives life; and Ahriman was Armdny, whence the expression te armanyos, thou sly one! Κάνδυς, the name of a Persian garment, was the same word as kéntis, a coat.
Many of the terms of worship used by the Parsis are also to be found in Magyar. Thus:—‘ Daroun= Magyar Tarhonya, eine auf der Sonne getrocknete Mehlspeise ; Tchepie= Mag. Tsipé Vas, pin- cette de fer, Zange ; Miezd = Mag. Miiveszet contr. miiészet, fructifi- catio; keish = Mag. 4éz, kaum; Atishdan = Mag. a’tiiz tanya (now Tiizhely) der Herd ; Aderan = Mag. A’derunye, das Dammerungs- licht ; Sourak = Mag. Sziirdke, seicher ; Barsom = Mag. Berzseny, Fiirbesholz ; Barashnom no shabe = Mag. Verdsziinomo szoba, con- tractedly Veraszuno szoba, das Wachtzimmer; Havan=Mag. Kédvdn, cinctura putei superne; Mobed = Mag. Miihvéd; Herbed = Mag. Orvéd, Beschiitzer (Conf. Wahl, 194, 294) ; Destur = Mag, Tisztur, Amtherr or Amtmann; Desturan destur = 7iszturon tisztur, ein Amt- mann uber den Amtmann, &c. Conf. Anquetil du Perron.—Zend Avesta, iv. p. 529, et seq.”
Many names of towns, hills, rivers, &c. are found alike in Hun- gary and in Persian districts. Kirmend may be compared with Kérmind ; Tarku with Tarké ; Badakhshan with Badacsony, a wine mountain in the Zala district; Sagh with Sag, a mountain in the Eisenburg district; Baskiri (Sogdiana Antiquorum) with Vaskdriek, where vas is iron; the name of the river Cyrus with Kdérdés, &c.
The author stated that he had been able to explain, to a great —
* De Bello Persico, i. 15, and De Bello Gothico, iv. 11. See also Agath. Schol. iv. 85: καὶ Οὑννοὶ Σαβειροι.
+ Conf. Yon Hammer. on the origin of the name of Sujis, in the Wiener Zeit- schrift, ἅς. May 1828.
1 Conf. Anonymi Hist. Ducum. 1.
§ It may be observed, that the Magyar sz is pronounced like s; s, like sh; es, ts, like our ch; cz, tz, like the German x; and that the y of gy, ly, ny, ty, performs the part of a liquid, and does not constitute a distinct syllable.
129
_ extent, the Persepolitan inscriptions, as given in Lassen’s Keilin- _ schriften (Bonn, 1836). He believed them to be pure Zend, but the inflated style rendered them very difficult to translate, A passage _ was given, as a specimen, in the old Persian, accompanied with _ translations in Magyar and German.
᾿ς After the reading of this paper a discussion arose upon the ques- _ tion, how far the arguments which had been laid before the meeting _ could be considered as shaking the generally received opinion, that _ the Magyar was one of the Finnish languages.
__ The following paper was read before the Society on the 9th of June, but, owing to accidental circumstances, did not appear in the | abstract of the proceedings of that evening. _ _ “On the Doctrine of the Cesura in the Greek Senarius.” By Professor Latham. _ In respect to the cesura of the Greek tragic senarius, the rules, _ as laid down by Porson in the Supplement to his Preface to the | Hecuba, and as recognized, more or less, by the English school of _ critics, seem capable of a more general expression, and, at the same | time, liable to certain limitations in regard to fact. This becomes | apparent when we investigate the principle that serves as founda- _ tion to these rules; in other words, when we exhibit the ratio- nale, or doctrine, of the czsura in question. At this we can arrive _ by taking cognizance of a second element of metre beyond that of ‘quantity. __ It is assumed that the element in metre which goes, in works of | different writers, under the name of Ictus Metricus, or of Arsis, is _ the same as accent, in the sense of that word in English. It is this that constitutes the difference between words like fy'rant and re- _ 8time, or siirvey and survéy; or (to take more convenient examples) between the word Azigust, used as the name of a month, and au- ‘gést, used as an adjective. Without inquiring how far this coin- cides with the accent and accentuation of the classical gram- ‘Marians, it may be stated that, in the forthcoming pages, arsis, ‘ictus metricus, and accent (in the English sense of the word), mean one and the same thing. With this view of the arsis, or ictus, we “May ask how far, in each particular foot of the senarius, it coincides ith the quantity. _ First Foot.—In the first place of a tragic senarius it is a matter “of indifference whether the arsis fall on the first or second syllable ; ‘that is, it is a matter of indifference whether the foot be sounded as ly'rant or as restime, as Adigust or as augist. In the following lines the words ἥκω, παλαι, εἴπερ, rewas*, may be pronounced either as
* The mark (7) placed over a syllable indicates the arsis. In order to exhibit this, it is convenient to omit the grammatical accentuation altogether. Beyond this
Ὁ other points may here be noticed:—1. That no account is taken of trisyllabic ‘eet; the sixth syllable meaning the last part of the third foot, even though that ‘Portion of the line, owing to the presence of tribrachs, dactyles, or anapzsts, _ VOL. I. K
{ ® Ἐ
130
iy'kw, παίλαι, εἰπερ, τινας, or as ἧκω!', παλαι', εἰπερ', reva's, without any detriment to the character of the line wherein they occur.
ἥκω νεκρων κευθμωνα και σκοτου πυλας. παΐλαι κυνηγετουντα Kat μετρουμενον. εἰπερ δικαιος εσθ᾽ εμος τα πατροθεν.
τίνας ποθ᾽ ἑδρας ragde μοι θοαζετε.
or,
ἥκω! νεκρων κευθμωνα και σκοτου πυλας. παλαι' κυνηγετουντα και μετρουμενον. εἰιπερ' δικαιος εσθ᾽ ἐεμος ra πατροθεν.
“ reva's ποθ᾽ édpas τασδε μοι θοαζετε.
Second Foot.—In the second place, it is also a matter of indiffer- ence whether the foot be sounded as Avigust or as augist. In the first of the four lines quoted above we may say either ve'kpwy or vexpw'y, without violating the rhythm of the verse.
Third Foot.—In this part of the senarius it is no longer a matter — of indifference whether the foot be sounded as Adigust or as augtst; that is, it is no longer a matter of indifference whether the arsis and the quantity coincide. In the circumstance that the last syllable of the third foot must be accented (in the English sense of the word), taken along with a second fact, soon about to be exhibited, lies the doctrine of the penthimimer and hepthimimer cesuras.
The proof of the coincidence between the arsis and the quantity in the third foot is derived partly from ἃ posteriori, partly from ἃ priori evidence.
1. In the Supplices of AXschylus, the Perse, and the Bacchze, three dramas where licences in regard to metre are pre-eminently common, the number of lines wherein the sixth syllable (i. 6. the last half of the third foot) is without an arsis, is at the highest sixteen, at the lowest five; whilst in the remainder of the exta dramas the proportion is undoubtedly smaller. ;
2. In all lines where the sixth syllable is destitute of ictus, the iambic character is violated : as
Θρηκὴν περασαΐντες μογις πολλῳ πόνῳ.
Avo γεροντοιΐν de στρατηγειται φυγή.
These are facts which may be verified either by referring to the tragedians, or by constructing senarii like the lines last quoted The only difficulty that occurs arises in determining, in a dead la guage like the Greek, the absence or presence of the arsis. In thi matter the writer had satisfied himself of the truth of the two f
lowing propositions :—1. That the accentuation of the grammarians denotes some modification of pronunciation other than that whic
should coincide with the seventh or eighth syllable. 2. That words followed by | enclitics are deait with as single words. It is well known that both these modes of expression are in accordance with the current views of the Greek metres.
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constitutes the difference between Avgust and augist ; since, if it were not so, the word ἄγγελον would be sounded like mérrily, and _ the word ἀγγέλων like disdble ; which is improbable. 2. That the _ arsis lies upon radical rather than inflectional syllables, and out of _ two inflectional syllables upon the first rather than the second; as _ βλείπ-ω, βλεψ-αίσ-α, not Prex-o', βλεψ-ασ-α΄. The evidence upon _ these points is derived from the structure of language in general.
_ The onus probandi lies with the author who presumes an arsis (accent in the English sense) on a zon-radical syllable. Doubts,
however, as to the pronunciation of certain words, leave the precise number of lines violating the rule given above undetermined. It is considered sufficient to show. that wherever they occur the iambic _ character is violated.
_ The circumstance, however, of the last half of the third foot re- quiring an arsis, brings us only half way_towards the doctrine of the ᾿ς cxsura. With this must be combined a second fact, arising out of _ the constitution of the Greek language in respect to its accent. In _ accordance with the views just exhibited, the author conceives that _ no Greek word has an arsis upon the last syllable, except in the _ three following cases :—
1. Monosyllables, not enclitic; as σῴωΐν, ra's, χθωΐν, dpw!'s, vol y, ᾿ γυΐν, &e.
_ 2. Circumflex futures; as vepw', τεμω!, &c.
3. Words abbreviated by apocope ; in which case the penultimate _ is converted into a final syllable: dw'p’, φειδεσ' θ᾽, κεντει τ᾽, εγω! γ᾽, &e.
3 Now the fact of a syllable with an arsis being, in Greek, rarely final, taken along with that of the sixth syllable requiring, in the _ senarius, an arsis, gives as a matter of necessity, the circumstance _ that, in the Greek drama, the sixth syllable shall occur anywhere _ rather than at the end of a word; and this is only another way of ' saying, that, in a tragic senarius, the syllable in question shall gene- rally be followed by other syllables in the same word. ΑἹ] this the _ author considers as so truly a matter of necessity, that the objection to his view of the Greek cesura must lie either against his idea of _ the nature of the accents, or nowhere; since that being admitted, the rest follows of course.
As the sixth syllable must not be final, it must be followed in the _ same word by one syllable, or by more than one.
1. The sixth syllable followed by one syllable in the same word.— This is only another name for the seventh syllable occurring at the _ end of a word, and it gives at once the hepthimimer cesura: as
"ες"
‘Hew νεκρων κευθμωΐνα καὶ σκοτου rudas. Ἱκτηριοις κλαδοιίσιν εξεστεμμενοι. Ὅμου τε παιανωΐν τε Kat στεναγματων.
2. The sixth syllable followed by two (or more) syllables in the same _word.—This is only another name for the eighth (or some syllable after the eighth) syllable occurring at the end of a word; as
K 2
132
Οὗμη Bporewy ai'warwy με προσγελα. Δαμπρους δυναστας εμ'πρεποντας αιθερι.
Now this arrangement of syllables, taken by itself, gives anything rather than a hepthimimer ; so that if it was at this point that our in- vestigations terminated, little would be done towards the evolution of the rationale of the cesura. It will appear, however, that in those cases where the circumstance of the sixth syllable being followed by two others in the same words, causes the eighth (or some syllable after the eighth) to be final, either a penthimimer cesura, or an equivalent, will, with but few exceptions, be the result. This we may prove by taking the eighth syllable and counting back from it. What follows this syllable is immaterial: it is the number of syl- lables in the same word that precedes it that demands attention.
1. The eighth syllable preceded in the same word by nothing.—This is equivalent to the seventh syllable at the end of the preceding word; astate of things, which, as noticed above, gives the hepthimimer ceesura.
Ανηήριθμον γελαίσμα παμ[μητορ de yn.
_ Ὡ, The eighth syllable preceded in the same word by one syllable.—
This is equivalent to the sixth syllable at the end of the word pre- ceding; a state of things, which, as noticed above, rarely occurs. When however it does occur, one of the three conditions under which a final syllable can take an arsis, must accompany it. Each of these conditions requires notice.
a). With a non-enclitic mono-syllable the result is a penthimimer cesura; since the syllable preceding a monosyllable is -necessarily final.
‘Hew σεβιζων ov'y κλυίται[μνηστρα Kparos.
No remark has been made by critics upon lines constructed in this — manner, since the czesura is a penthimimer, and consequently their © rules are undisturbed.
8). With poly-syllabic circumflex futures constituting the third foot, there would be a violation of the current rules respecting the cesura. Notwithstanding this, if the views of the present paper be © true, there would be no violation of the iambic character of the senarius. Against such a line as
κάγω To cov νεμω! ποθειϊνον αὐλιον
there is no argument ἃ priori on the score of the iambic character being violated ; whilst in respect to objections derived from evidence” ἃ posteriori, there is sufficient reason for such lines being rare.
y). With poly-syllables abbreviated by apocope, we have the state — of things which the metrists have recognized under the name οὗ quasi-caesura ; as
Κεντειτε μη φειδε' σθ᾽ eyw [recov Παριν.
3. The eighth syllable preceded in the same word by two syllables.— ἢ
ἶ 133
_ This is equivalent to the fifth syllable occurring at the end of the word preceding; a state of things which gives the penthimimer cxsura ; as
Οδμη Bporewy αἵ'ματων] pe προσγελα. Λαμπρους δυναστας εμ 'πρεπουΐτας αιθερι. Αψυχον εἰκω προ'σγελωΐσα σωματος.
_ 4. The eighth syllable preceded in the same word by three or more __ than three syllables.—This is equivalent to the fourth (or some syllable ἡ preceding the fourth) syllable occurring at the end of the word pre- _ ceding; a state of things which would include the third and fourth _ feet in one and the same word. This concurrence is denounced in _ the Supplement to the Preface to the Hecuba; where, however, the rule, as in the case of the quasi-cesura, from being based upon a empirical evidence, requires limitation. In lines like
Και τάλλα πολλ᾽ exer!
or ae imaginary example), Tots σουισιν ἀσπιδη' στροφοισὶιν avdpact,
κασαιΐ δικαιον ny,
_ there is no violation of the iambic character, and consequently no _ reason against similar lines having been written; although from the _ average proportion of Greek words like εἐπεικασαι and ασπιδηστροφοι- σιν, there is every reason for their being rare.
After the details just given, the recapitulation is brief. 1. It was essential to the character of the senarius that the sixth _ syllable, or latter half of the third foot, should have an arsis, ictus _ metricus, or accent in the English sense. To this condition of the iambic rhythm the Greek tragedians, either consciously or uncon- sciously, adhered.
2. It was the character of the Greek language to admit an arsis _ on the last syllable of a word only under circumstances comparatively
ᾧ 8. These two facts, taken together, caused the sixth syllable of a line to be anywhere rather than at the end of a word.
_ 4. If followed by a single syllable in the same word, the result _ was a hepthimimer cesura.
ὃ 5. If followed by more syllables than one, some syllable in an earlier part of the line ended the word preceding, and so caused _ either a penthimimer, a quasi-cesura, or the occurrence of the third and fourth foot in the same word.
6. As these two last-mentioned circumstances were rare, the eral phenomenon presented in the Greek senarius was the occur- rence of either the penthimimer or hepthimimer.
ΒΕ 2. Respecting these two sorts of cesura, the rules, instead of “being exhibited in detail, may be replaced by the simple assertion that there should be an arsis on the sixth syllable. From this the rest follows.
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8. Respecting the non-occurrence of the third and fourth feet in the same word, the assertion may be withdrawn entirely. eo
9. Respecting the quasi-cesura, the rules, if not altogether with-— drawn, may be extended to the admission of the last syllable οὗ circumflex futures (or to any other polysyllables with an equal claim to be considered accented on the last syllable) in the latter half of the third foot.
4 Bore Py
PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
Vou. 1. NOVEMBER 24, 1843. No. 13.
Professor Maxnpen in the Chair.
The following works were laid on the table :—
“Organism der Sprache von Dr. Karl Ferdinand Becker. Zweite neubearbeitete Ausgabe. Frankfurt am Main, 1841.” Presented by the author.
“The Numismatic Chronicle, ” No. 21. Presented by the Nu- mismatic Society.
The Chairman read the Report which had been handed in to the Council, agreeably to Rule 6, on the claims of Professor Immanuel Bekker to be elected an honorary member of the Society.
The following communications were then read :— 1. “Οἱ the Berber* Language of Mount Atlas, generally sup- posed to be that of the ancient Mauritanians.” By F. W. Newman,
Since the publication of Shaw’s Travels, information has gradually accumulated as to the wide geographical surface occupied by the dialects of the Berber tongue; and it appears to be now recognized by ethnographers as an established fact, that setting aside the im-- ported Arabic, this single idiom spreads over North Africa southward to the furthest limit of the Great Desert, and eastward till it meets the tribes of the Tibboos in the longitude of Fezzan. Although Venture’s Vocabulary (which is said to be of considerable extent) and a few complete sentences of the language have been for many years accessible, yet the author believed that no materials were at hand in Europe for entering on a critical analysis of its structure and relations until the year 1833, when the Bible Society published the first twelve chapters of the Gospel of St. Luke in the Berber The English Americans claim the merit of having effected this object. From the first Number of the American Oriental Society it appears that Mr. Du Ponceau instituted investigations into the sub- ject, first through the late Mr. Shaler, American consul at Algiers, who furnished copious specimens of the language, and afterwards
* These Berbers must not be confounded with the Nubians of the Nile, who are often called by a similar or identical name.
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through Mr. Hodgson, late consul at Tunis. Under the superin- tendence of the last gentleman, who is a zealous inquirer into African ethnography, the version of St. Luke already alluded to was made, by a Kabyle Berber of the mountains near Algiers (Penny . Cycl. art. Berbers) ; and Mr. Hattersley is also named as having su- perintended the publication of the MS. when the Bible Society had purchased it of Mr. Hodgson. The author’s attention having been called to this version in 1835 by Dr. J. Cowles Prichard, he compiled, in 1836, an ‘ Essay towards a Grammar’ of the language, which was printed in the West of England Journal; but having lately, through the kindness of Mr. Jowett, Editorial Superintendent to the Bible Society, obtained the loan of the Berber MS. of the four Gospels, written as it would seem by the same hand, and alike obtained through Mr. Hodgson, he was now induced to modify some of the conclusions at which he formerly arrived, and he thought his inves- tigations would not be altogether without interest to the Philolo- gical Society. He should probably hereafter publish as extended a dictionary and grammar as his materials would enable him to do; believing that a well-defined acquaintance with this tongue would afford an advantageous fixed point for ethnographers in proceeding towards the languages of Soudan. ἧ
The general conclusion at which the author had arrived was, that the Berber tongue has the most deeply-seated and all-pervading analogies with the Hebrew and Arabic; from which nevertheless it differs in vocabulary, probably quite as much as German from Greek. In conformity with the terms Indo-European and Syro-Arabian, (as Dr. Prichard styles the languages generally called ‘“ Shemitic,”) he proposed to employ the adjective Syro-African, to include (with the Syro-Arabian) the Berber and other African languages which answer similar conditions. If, as is probable, the Amharic shall be judged, like the Gheez, to belong to this group, it would be a matter of much interest to learn whether the chain of kindred lan- guages is or is not broken, between Abyssinia and the highlands of Atlas. The nation of the Tibboos intervenes, whose physical pecu- liarities may prepare us to believe that they, like the Berbers, are to be associated more with the Moor and the Arab than with the Negro; and if any traveller could procure ample specimens of translation into that tongue, it would be a useful addition to our knowledge.
The details on which the author founded his opinion concerning the Berber were the following; and tedious as they may seem, they afford the only means by which a right judgement can be formed on the subject.
§ 1. On the Sounds of the Language.—The consonants demanded by the Berber language are nearly identical with those of Arabic. The P is wanting in both. The two harsh letters of the latter
tongue, Dad and Za ( ys and \5), are deficient in the Berber ; and in-
sofar it approximates to the Hebrew; on the other hand, it has not only the Ain, so characteristic of the Syro-Arabian, but also its kindred Ghain ; and the Kha as well as λα. It distinguishes D
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and T from their aspirates*, yet not as the Arabs do; for with the latter the distinction is radical and significant, but with the Berbers, as with the Hebrews, it is purely euphonic. In fact, except in a very few words in which the accuracy of the transcript may be doubted, it would appear that in Berber the aspirate falls away from D and T when doubled, according to the well-known law of Dagesh Forte in Hebrew, Within the limits of Arabic itself, the Καὶ and G are known to have two different sounds, exactly the same as in Ita- lian, though without reference to the nature of the vowel following them; the Arabians preferring the soft and the Africans the hard sound: moreover the deep soft K of the Arabs, formed at the root of the tongue (which we call Koph or (δῇ), is apt to change into a corresponding G-sound in the region of Bagdad and the Persian Gulf, and probably in other parts. These three (K, G, Q) are precisely the letters as to which the native Berber words fluctuate most in orthography ; in fact, the Berber, as the Persian alphabet, has five different characters to replace the two (K and G) of the Arabs: namely, so as to include the sound of the French J with the four sounds of Kand G. Nevertheless, the author was disposed to believe that
the French J (or 7) has no legitimate place in a Berber book. It
seems to denote a mere accidental and fugitive modification either of soft Gor of Sh. It may be added, that with regard to the G-sound dialectally given to Q, which facilitates its degenerating into Ghain, the accuracy of the MS. cannot be safely trusted, for the two letters Ghain and Qaf (zand 3), as written by the Berbers, are so similar in the middle of a word as to be easily mistaken. On the whole we may say, that the Berbers have no sound foreign to the Arabic. It is true, that if the soft pronunciation of G or K should appear to be significant, radical and primitive, so as to add two new consonants to the alphabet, this would be peculiar, yet not more remarkable than the notorious differences of Arabic and Hebrew in this part of ‘their grammar. Hitherto however the evidence would incline us to believe that the soft and hard G have no radical distinction of sense, and that the soft K (or Tch), which is very rare, is, like the French J above noticed, only a dialectal variation, sometimes of Sh and sometimes of G.
The general laws of euphony, as to the formation of syllables, agree with the above. According to the strictest rule of pure Arabic two consonants cannot commence a Berber word, nor (with one or two doubtful exceptions) can more than two consonants anywhere come together in the same word. At the end of a word the Berber freely uses two consonants, and, compared with the ancient Arabic, appears hereby harsh and abrupt; but it probably is in this very point less harsh than the modern spoken Arabic. For the phenomenon is con- fined principally to the following cases :—(1.) feminine nouns ending in ¢ or th impure, as thagshishth, a girl, from agshish, a boy ; (2.) the termination πὲ or nd in the third pers. plur. of many verbs; (3.) the syncopated subjunctive of certain verbs, where a final vowel falls away.
* Our double sound of th, as heard in this and thistle.
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On the whole, the tendency of the Berber tongue seems to be towards a softer pronunciation than is established in Arabic. The author observed the Hh and the Q of Arabic words to fall away in Berber, where they formed a harsh combination: and he had counted six words either genuine Berber or else early Arabic importations, in which the Ain had been obliterated ; and in fact, this letter, as also the Hh and Kh, is decidedly far rarer in true Berber words than in Arabic or Hebrew.
In regard to the doubling of the consonants, if the MS. be ac- cepted as sufficient evidence, the Berber differs from the other two languages with which it was compared, in treating this (at least very often) as a mere matter of euphony. Much confusion in con- sequence arises in dealing with those Arabic words in which the duplication of a consonant modifies the sense. At the same time, even if this never happens with the Berbers (which the author would not assert), there can yet be no doubt that they understand and practise the peculiar dwelling of the voice on a consonant (unknown to the English, French, and Germans), in which the Arab duplication and Dagesh Forte of the Hebrews consists.
The entire vowel system of the Berbers is, at least on paper, iden- tical with that of the Arabs. The whole MS. is carefully pointed, but the uncertainty of the vowels is in many words so great, that we must suppose either that the Arab notation is ill adapted to the Berber speech, or (what is quite as probable) that the pronunciation is very unfixed. In fact, with a different notation, nearly all the labour of the vowel-points might be saved.
§ 2. On the Roots and their Inflexion.—Proceeding from this general agreement in consonants and the laws of syllables, the Ber- ber further displays a genius emphatically Syro-Arabian in the for- mation and inflexion of its verbal and nominal roots. It has a di- stinction of letters for this purpose into servile and non-servile, nearly identical with that of Hebrew and Arabic ; as also into robust and weak. The weak letters of course are W, Y, and A. I cannot positively ascertain whether A (or rather Elif-Hamza) is ever counted as a radical letter in any Berber verb; I suspect however that the sound is wholly unknown, since the translator prefixes the Hamza to every word (Arabic or native) that begins with a vowel, as regularly as the Greeks their spiritus lenis. Be this as it may, at least the letters W and Y are often radical with verbs, and are then liable to become vowels, or to vanish in many of the inflexions, exactly as in the Syro-Arabian; and yet, however long their disappearance, they never fail to come back in other derivatives. What is equally cha- racteristic, two radical letters never so cohere as to be inseparable in a whole family. Even when they fall into juxtaposition for a while, it is felt that “‘they meet but to part again.” ‘The Gesm (or Sheva) which is then placed between them denotes in the opinion of some, nothing; in the opinion of others, a very short vowel, as in the English word suddén. ‘Though it may be said to unite, it as truly keeps them apart, and hence perhaps we may account for another phenomenon, distinguishing the Berber and the Syro-Arabian from
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most Indo-European tongues, viz. that consonants in juxtaposition modify one another so little. Combinations such as Ab-iu, Adj-tcha, though pronounceable by us, are justly regarded as harsh; they however do not appear to offend the Berbers any more than the Arabs or Hebrews. Having been led to this point, I may add, that the tendency of N in Hebrew to become assimilated to any consonant that follows it (a tendency only very partially existing in Arabic), shows itself in a few Berber words. Thus from Naggar, “last,” comes Thaggara and Thagra, “last state, at last,”’ instead of Thangara. This however seems to be the exception in Berber, and not the rule.
As to the constitution of syllables, the Berbers appear to carry Syro-Arabian principles quite to anextreme. Syllabic arrangement is with them a mere means to pronunciation of the consonants ; and, as such, is liable to be at any moment broken up and reconstructed, on a shifting of the accent. If an enclitic pronoun or particle be appended to a verb, the effect may be to introduce an entire new division of the syllables. For example, we have ’Alman, ‘they knew;” Ur-’alman, “ they knew not :” but if we add the particle -ara, which is equivalent to the English ‘‘ ever,” and often follows the negative Ur, as in Greek πότε follows ov; we get, not Ur-’alman-ara, but Ur- a limn-ara, ‘‘ they never knew,” or “‘ they knew not at all.” It will be conceded that this tendency is in accordance with the Syro- Arabian genius.
Although the positive evidence offered by many Berber verbs, aided by the strong analogy of the Hebrew and Arabic, would lead us to believe that the Berber roots are generally or universally tri- literal, we cannot assert this as a proved fact. A singularly large proportion of them are on a superficia] view biliteral, owing, perhaps, to the suppression of a weak letter. On this matter the author had not entered into numerical reckonings; but experience had taught him, when he met with a triliteral verb, to conjecture that it might be Arabic, even if he did not know it as belonging to that language. He thought he was within the truth, im saying that for one full trili- teral root the Berbers have three apparently biliteral.
§ 3. Structure of Verbs.—The Berber introduces into its verbs a distinction of gender, at least in the third person singular; exactly as do the Arabic and Hebrew. It has two principal tenses, the use of which seems to be identical with that of the (so-called) Past and Present of the other languages; and the habitual forms of its syntax are such, that there is little doubt of the possibility of trans- lating an entire Arabic book into Berber so as to retain word for word in the same position, with tense answering to tense, by an unchanging law. The verb regularly begins a sentence; the nomi- native case follows, and the accusative stands last. The same phe- nomenon predominates, which has given rise to the doctrine of Vau conversive in Hebrew, and Lam, &c., conversive in Arabic. The author was well aware that this is regarded by excellent judges as a highly unphilosophic and ever absurd doctrine; but that need not here concern us. It is enough that facts of the language exist which make’ this,—at least as a mechanical rule,—convenient to the
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learner and plausible to the teacher, and that closely analogous facts exist in Berber. Thus Ninna, when isolated, must be trans- lated, ““we have said; but should the particle Ma, “if” or ‘‘when,” precede it, the combination gives Maninna, ‘‘if or when we shall say.”” No more words are needed to show how deeply the same feeling has worked at the basis of the Berber and of the Arab verb. :
The mechanical forms are likewise to a certain extent similar, though not identical. Several dialects of Arabic have generated a new tense (besides those formed by auxiliaries), so that we have in all four uncompounded tenses, viz. the Imperative Mood, a Pre- terite, a Present or Aorist, and a fourth peculiarly Future. Such exactly is the case in Berber. Still more remarkable is it, that in many biliteral verbs a modification of the simplest Berber tense takes place, by dropping the final vowel, so as to produce exactly what De Sacy has named in ancient Arabic the “ Syncopated Sub- junctive.” Again, all other recognised languages of the Syro- Arabian stock produce derivative verbs, nearly such as we call Voices in Greek and Latin; for instance, the Niphal, Hiphil, Pihel, &c. of the Hebrew. A similar phenomenon is discovered in Berber. Owing to the numerous sources of possible error, the author felt diffident on the question whether the passive voice is ever denoted in Berber by mere vowel change, as it was in ancient Arabic and is in a few still subsisting verbs; but if this could be established, it would obviate some very perplexing difficulties. Hitherto he had ascertained the following derived forms of the Berber verb :—
(1.) Primitive: I[phal*, he wrought.
(2.) Causative: Ispahhal, he caused to work.
(3.) Passive : Ittapahhal, it was wrought ; and in its participle,
Addi for Atti.
(4.) Izpahhal: perhaps an accidental variety of the 2nd.
(5.) Ishpahhal (if the MS. can be trusted, in a few verbs).
(6.) Impahhal ; derived from a verbal adjective.
(7.) Igpahhal; (denoting, it seems) he wrought tho- roughly, That which is here registered as the 3rd form is closely similar in its structure to the 5th of the Arabic, while its meaning is as in Gheez; for there the passive is produced by prefixing ta to the root. The 2nd form, which prefixes Js, deserves remark, as pre- senting a correspondence with the spoken language of Southern Arabia, according to the information of Mr. F. Fresnel. This ap- pears only from Gesenius’s paper on the Himyarite Language, in which it is not stated what is the meaning of that form. That which is placed 6th is opposed to Syro-Arabian analogies; but there seems to be positive evidence of the fact. Another coinci- dence not to be overlooked is, that the Berber produces what in Hebrew and Arabic are called Mimmated vérbals: as, from Aksaw,
* This verb is invented, to conform with the received method of denoting the derived forms in Hebrew. -
ap TEs; .
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“ carpere, colligere, pasci,” comes Maksaw, “pastor; from J/ul, * natus est,” Milul, “ partus,” Mithlul, “ natalia.” Nouns of action or Gerunds are also derived from the verbs, and appear (as far as they have been met with) to be as irregular as in Arabic; but it is not wonderful that they are not frequent, since in the spoken Arabic they seem to be undergoing the same gradual extinction as the Infinitive Mood has suffered in Greek.
The Berber participle active not only is unlike to Hebrew or Arabic in form, but has even a European aspect, as it ends in an and sometimes ant. Its use however is thoroughly Syro-Arabian, since it habitually supplies the place of a Present Tense in all three persons, the words 4m, he Is, &c. being, as would appear, under- stood.
§ 4. Pronouns.—In the first personal pronoun, and in the suffix for the second person, there is a close relation between Berber and the Syro-Arabian tongues; and it is worth while also to compare the Coptic :—
I We Thee You Hebrew. Anoki Anahhnu k kem, ken. Arabic. Ana Nahhni k kum, kun. Nakni Berber. Nakki { suffix) nagh \ k kun. | (prefix) agh Coptic. reer } Anon k ten.
A glance at the first column will show that the Berber pronoun has not been introduced from the Arabic. With such a similarity in the pronouns, it need not surprise us that the personal endings of the verbs are very similar to those of the Syro-Arabian ; but it is remarkable that the chief exception is in the first person singular, which ends in igh, a termination, beyond a doubt, coming from the k of Nakki, which, in another dialect, must have been sounded Naghi. Here also we learn from Gesenius (Allgemeine Literatur- Zeitung, July 1841, p. 371), that the final k performs the same pur- pose in the Himyarite language, in the Gheez, in the Maltese, and in the later Samaritan.
As to the third person of the verb, the author was not disposed to believe that in Arabic or Hebrew the inflexions have anything to ἡ do with pronouns at all. It was sufficient to say that in both gen- ders of the singular it is identical with Arabic and Hebrew, while in the plural it agrees with the ancient but not with the modern Arabic. The third personal pronoun of the Berbers is,— Natta, he, ille; Nattath, she, illa; pl. Nuthni, they, illi, ille, illa. The simi- larity of these to the Coptic, though not very close, is too close, we may conclude, to be accidental. We there find—
Néthof, he; Néthos, she; Néthéd, they.
A point of some interest, as assimilating the Berber to the Coptic, and contrasting it with the Arabic and Hebrew, is found in its taking affix or infix pronouns before the root of the verb as well as after. ‘his may be looked on as an African peculiarity, according
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to a remark of Dr. J. Cowles Prichard, that the African languages are prone to inflexions at the beginning of words. Hazardous as it is to lay down a law on the subject, the author would venture the re- mark, that the principal verb of a Berber sentence takes its dependent pronoun suffixed, while a secondary verb in a dependent clause has its pronoun as a prefiz. One example will suffice :—
Winna akkun-irzan, irzan-i; winna ay-irzan, natta Is-qui vos-accipiens, accipiens-me; is-qui me-accipiens, ille irza winna ayidd-ashay’an accepit eum-qui me mittens.
This may remind us of a well-known rule of German syntax.
Even adverbs in Berber occasionally take suffix pronouns after them. One such instance is in striking analogy to Arabic idiom, viz. the particle Agla, which is employed principally to mark the apo- dosis of a sentence (nearly as Lo! in antique English), and annexes to itself in a suffix form the pronoun which is needed as nominative case to the following verb. This is a perfect counterpart to the use of Enna in Arabic.
The relative pronouns and their adverbial derivatives present several points of coincidence with the Syro-Arabian; but the only thing that deserves to be made here prominent is, that the same in- artificial and rather clumsy substitute is employed as in Hebrew, &c. for a true declinable relative; just as though in Latin, instead of saying, Is, quem Deus misit, we were to express ourselves, Js, quod Deus misit eum. At the same time, the Berbers have two different words, each uniting the idea of antecedent and relative is-gui, ea- que, id-quod, &c., so as often to give much clearness and concise- ness to the phraseology. This has a close correspondence with the Coptic.
§ 5. Nouns.—Berber substantives have a distinction of gender into masculine and feminine, but no neuter; and the feminine is generally denoted by the termination ¢ or ¢h. This is Syro-Arabian. The th also often precedes, as in Thagshishth, “ἃ girl;” Thamdint, “ἃ city;” Thabhhirth, ‘a lake; Thamshahuth, “ἃ parable.” It is stated in the Penny Cyclopedia (article Berbers) that the initial Th is the definite article, but there ere many difficulties at- tending such a supposition. If however it be so, it would seem to be the feminine definite article, as in Coptic; for it does not appear to attach itself to all nouns, but, as I think, to the feminine ones only, and to some of these it seems to be inseparably united. At the same time, the Berbers appear to have gratuitously incor- porated the Arab article ΕἾ (or 1.) with many nouns, and it is conceivable that a like corruption of their native article may have taken place. Masculine nouns appear te take W at the beginning nearly ad libitum;.as Agshish or Wagshish, a boy; but never Thagshish. It may be worth remarking, that in the Amharic lan- guage the definite article is O, which is looked on as a degenerate pronunciation of H/. In the Berber there are occasional indications that W and U have the same power; but this must be left for
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further inquiry, especially as the initial U (written ot) is in Coptic the indefinite article. ;
Very characteristic of the Syro-Arabian genius is the use of nouns in regimen to make up for the want of a genitive case. The same thing exists occasionally in Berber, even with native nouns; although, since (just as in Chaldee and most dialects of modern Arabic) a particle has been produced equivalent to the English of, the Berbers are not obliged to resort to this method. What may deserve remark, the MS. often uses a redundant suffix pro- noun (which is a Turkish* idiom) to point out which noun is in the genitive case; saying ‘‘ Brother of him, Peter,” instead of ‘Brother of Peter.” In two marked instances, namely Baba, “father,” and Yamma, ‘‘ mother,” the forms of the nouns before a suffix pronoun alter into Babath and Yammath. These, however, are exceptive cases, and point rather to a past than a present state of the language.
The syllable Edh, or single consonant DA, is perpetually attach- ing itself to the beginning of Berber nouns, with a close analogy to the Hebrew τὰ and Oth, popularly called the sign of the accusative. This indeed occurs so often as to vitiate the use of vocabularies, if it be not carefully rejected from the beginning.
§ 6. Remark on the Vocables of Berber—A large portion of Arabic has naturally been introduced into the Berber. Indications nevertheless appear, that many words which are common to the two languages are not importations, but a part of the native stock. In illustration of this we may quote the following examples, in which the Berber approximates rather more to the Hebrew than to the Arabic :—
Arabic. Berber. Hebrew. Qari, to read. Qara, to call, &c. Qara, to call, &c. Qadas, to be holy. Qadash, to minister Qadash, to be holy. in holy things.
Zid, to be excessive, Zid, to sin. Zid, to sin boldly. or in surplus.
Ghazh (012), to be Laghtat (ΩΡ), Ghit or’It (OY), to enraged. rage. be enraged.
Hharath, to meditate. Hharash, to be wise Hharash, to medi- or circumspect. tate.
Sig, market, street. Shig, ditto. Shig, ditto.
Zhill (110), shade. Thili, ditto. Ssill (YY), ditto.
It must at the same time be added, that various words which were at first supposed to be genuine Berber, have since been recognised as corrupted Arabic; and in the course of a thousand years many successive importations may have taken place, which are now greatly discui
On these grounds the author rested the claim of the Berber to be regarded as a sister-tongue to those of which the Hebrew is the
* Only that in Turkish the order is reversed ; as “‘ Petri, frater ejus,” for “Petri frater.”
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oldest literary type. It may be added however as remarkable, that the native Berber numerals are totally alien to those of Hebrew and Arabic. Of these numerals only the first is found in the Berber MS. of the four Gospels, all the rest being borrowed from the Arabic ; but the Shiluah dialect of the Berber, spoken further in the interior, retains an entire and distinct set of numerals, which, there can be no doubt, are the true Mauritanian roots.
On the reading of this paper a discussion arose on the question, whether the Berber of Algiers was not so corrupted with Arabic as to afford a very unsafe means of testing the peculiarities of the Berber language generally. But it was observed, that Mr. Hodgson* had arrived at conclusions in some respects resembling those of Mr, Newman, from an extensive examination of the Berber dialects ; and it was also stated that the Rev. R. C. Renouard, who had paid particular attention to the study of these dialects, considered the Berber language as one of decidedly Shemitic character+.
2. “On the Languages and Dialects of the British Islands.”— (Continued.) By the Rev. R. Garnett,
The remarks already made on the Celtic languages have been made partly with the view of stating some of the apparent grounds for considering them as branches of that great family of tongues which has spread itself from Central Asia to the extreme west of Europe. One of the latest writers on the subject, Mr. Johnes, though he re- gards Asia as the cradle of the race, thinks it probable that the Celts did not, as is commonly supposed, pass by the Euxine and the Danube in their progress westward, but by Syria and Africa into Spain, and afterwards into Gaul. The serious objections to this hypothesis are:—1. There is no mention whatever in ancient his- tory of Celts either in Syria, Egypt, or Mauritania. 2. Ancient writers uniformly represent the Celts as intruders from the eastward — upon the Iberians. 3. There is no positive trace of Celticism in any known African language; while every Indo-European dialect, from Hindostan to Portugal, shows unequivocal proofs either of admixture with Celtic elements or of a community of origin, and not unfre- quently of both. In the Romance languages, and some of the Germanic dialects, this phenomenon may be easily explained on historical and geographical data; but there are languages exten- sively prevalent, spoken by tribes remote, as far as we know, from all direct Celtic influence, that nevertheless exhibit many remark- able correspondences with that class of tongues, some of which are apparently too close to be explained by a remote collateral affinity. It will be sufficient to give a few select instances from the Armenian and the Slavonic, both of which differ as strongly from Celtic in
* Trans. of the Amer. Phil. Soc. Philadelphia, vol. iv. New Series, 1834.
+ In the course of the evening it was mentioned that a vocabulary of Berber words might be found in Host’s Account of Morocco, translated from the Danish into German, A.D. 1781 ; and a vocabulary of Si’wah words in Minutoli’s Travels to this Oasis. Venture’s Vocabulary, already alluded to, was appended to Langlés’ Translation of Horneman’s Travels, but no copy of this translation has been found in the London libraries.
* G. Gaelic; W. Welsh; Bret. Breton.
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- their organization and general characteristics as any members of the Indo-European family differ from each other :—
ARMENIAN. CELTIC.
* dsiern...... hand .....+..- G*.& W. dourn,,dorn, jist. khuir ...... ἀΥΝΕΟΥ: ζοοςςς Υ. — chwaer. ΝΡ Ὁ water -..... W. ἀντ. τσ, Dae ae DRT soe ΠΝ W. arth. GRATE . i. cea! SPBE: See ὐς — derw, oak. MiS 2.200... flesh .... soese — mes, dish, meal. datel ...... tojudge...... — dadilen, to litigate. ᾿αεϊ,ς........ δοοαῖϊ....0..ώ.. Bret. brao; G. breagh. Pag-anel... fo salute...... W. G. pog, a kiss. ἔσῃ ......00¢ λοιέε........: G. dun, a fort; W. din. phaic ...... τοοοά!......... G. fiadh; W. gwydd. BUR, ......... Do) agen G. W. am, time. ES BONES axeiane W. asgwrn. gloukh ... head ....,.... W.. clog, in pen-glog; G. cloghan, skull. τὰς ΤΆΩΝ ἀόνον αν W. 6. serch. MIE δρό, ish) MGB. sevsctsen G. fear; W. gwr. amis ...... month .. W. mis. lousin πὴ" . TROON ...«...... Ἐπ lloer. khoz ..... . SWIRE........0 — hwceh. ajat os. 225 sileer.......<. G. airgiod. amarn,..... SUMMEF ...,.. — samhradh. boun ...... trunk, stock. Pw. bon ; G. bun. I werah ... over, upon .. — gwor, gor; Ὁ. for. Kin .......0. WOMAN ...... G. coinne. ter, lord; gen. tearan ... W. teyrn. khagzr ... sweet......... — chweg. ail ......... διιέ..........οὃὄ- α. ail, other. (Cf. Gr. ἀλλά. )
The coincidences with the Slavonic dialects are much too nu- _ merous to be here given at length. In the following list an attempt __ is made to point out some of the most remarkable :—
SLAvonic. CELTIC. Se Ὁ an old woman ........ : Ir. badhbh, sorceress. 4 blag wweweweee ROOM ....... PURO R eee eee eee = breagh ; Bret. brav. blesk ...... brightness............0++ — blosg, light. blejat (Rus.) to bleat.......00..+...+ « W.. bloeddiaw, to cry out. aesines GEG 5. ccncadsce seacthdee — Haid. bodat (Rus.) prick, δὴν i: Aaron pent os pwtiaw, to butt, poke. i DOU; ......,. TAghe Geieeascccudtecss . Ir. borr, victory ; borras, soldier. TED cine scans OGttle ᾿᾿.......ὲ.0.... ess» στ braine, captain, chief. eta τις τος ΙΝ ΑἿΣ ἀνμαρλξνις W. byrrau Zo crop. Se Drs Ὡς quick .......206 erekieut — pres; Ir. brise; E. brisk. WN Ss ἈΠ bank, shore ......... ... 6. braighe; W. bre, high ground ; Sc. brae. | eae UCTOT veesereveceeee We. buddyg me νἱδρα......... MOUSEUTE sereeeereereees στ gwhych; Ir. fliuch. Wladuika ... ruler...ecc.ccccccesseseee -- gwledig; Ir. flaith. ΝΣ τὰν IEE Seceunesaskctandscges — gwallt ; Ir. folt. τς eee τς wolf ....... wevcssovescoee Ir. breach. “eee wool....... Ἐς ΣῈ ἘΥΝΕΗ ἈΝ W. gwian; Ir. ollan. “Wran ......... raven, Cr) ae Ir. bran. raven, black ; W. bran, raven. ἱ -yriema, gen. vriemene, time....... -. Bret. breman, now. _ Varit (Rus.). to boil ......... vee senene W. berwi. ee upwards; vuisok,high Ir. was, up; uasal, high, noble. a ee eee — gort.
τ The medial comma represents the hard jerr. A soft jerr is ites by (1).
= I.
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SLAVONIC. Cexrie. Wiera.......06 fAith cisccccsscsesseese We gwir; Ir. fior, true. BIN GA = oak) BEE i éesssssaenens res aed — pen-glog; Ir. clogan, skui?,. Oe eee δ ΣΥΝ ΝΣ Bic does ssnaceds W. silais. - gor’kui...... τὴν sia onsncedan se «+. Ir geur, sour, sharp. ΡΟ coe... ChUNAET ...000.ceess -»- Bret. kurun (κεραυνός). EDEL: ον RCH Sees. is Rebsaeaes ΘΝ le ROW
dlani_ ..,... palm of the hand ... W.G. dourn. ©
ΠΡ ριον κὸς, Gebt. casersser ππδυ ει Ir. dlighe; W. dyled.
OO etn se” UAUEY tecsencedtessiee. Wn, ὍΝ,
drozd, drozg thrush........... Pas — tresglen.
Otbri,......0. Valley s....ceeeceeenee — dyffryn.
zima......0.. winter seeese => Qauav, anciently gaem. ΚΑΘ ἜΣ ...... cough .co.cssereceseeee G. cas; W. pas. kobuila...... MATE sesosssereseeeeese —— capull; W. keffyl, horse. KolienOse.... Amee .....sceereeeeeeee —= . glun; W. glin.
MOVED creer SITE easnecp nests veer Wie ον" τ"
kradu ......, 1 steal .........00000. G. creachaim:
oe: Pee ee» blood ...... δροξαο λα. WV soi γα CLAt. eruory. krag(Polish) circle ......... wali asae — crwn, round,
Tiek ...ccsece MEDICINE soesecseeeeceee Ir. leigheachd.
Neg πον τος BTOVE sesreesees sessesee W. Iwyn ( Rom. λόγγος). mal ....... SU 11} oc och aces cncuech + πὸ mal, small, light.
MOM νος... 2 PASS scsskessscks tosses —= myned, fo go.
TAC Seacce A MIU vscnscmuneacdenes Ate 2 DIE,
MOTE. oesceeee SEG .ccrccenseecconsesvee, We @ ΤΩΟΙ:
MAS cesccssse SESH cveccsecccsesevees We mes, ὦ meal; E. mess. ταῦ ..........ὄ WILLING aesrecsererseee ——>> Thad, free, gratuitous. pani (Illyr.) érunk of a tree ...... — bon; Ir. bun.
FOUNO ...... CECE weeseeceseeeeeeess W. rhawn; Ir. ron, hair of animals. BAO vised, bp Κ ΟΣ ἐν wiapanvees ct cigs; eS ἘΜΜΝ
Slob ......... weak, infirm ......... W. οἷον.
Βα να, τ)... QlOTY sevesseoeseevseeee Ir. cliu (Gr. wdéos).
SIUG sescesces SCTUANE cssseeseseseeee —— sgolog (Ger. schalk). Slied ....c.00- JOOESEEP ceescoeceesvees — _ sliocht (E. slot).
snieg ...... SNOW ..cacvcccsssceveee == sneacht.
soloma(Rus,) straw ....sessessseeeee We αἶαν.
son (Russ.). sleep ...sssssseereeeeee G. suain.
BUCH co νον OT Y ana cscsedehncaitenss εἰς Wes, |. SION,
SIZE. ...... BEATE ...c0csecsesisesss Gs! cridhe,
Srieda ...... Middle...cecccesecsesese We craidd.
CIN σοι, τ... ΛΟ 6 ..cccssseses. séses MGS dun, fort.
ΒΟΥ «νον WOTM cccvsssarviscsavns — crumh.
shirok ...... broad ......... γεν ύν εν — sir, long.
shui .....006. left, sinister ......... W. aswy.
Many of the above terms have undoubtedly only a collateral affi-- nity, as they co-exist in Sanscrit and other languages; but others are, as far as is at present known, peculiar to Celtic and Slavonic, and exhibit an absolute identity of form and meaning such as we should hardly expect, ἃ priori, to find in languages so remote from — each other. Among the former class may be noticed the root cas — (cough), as a good example of the agreement as well as of the dif- — ference of the various members of the great Indo-European family of tongues. The Sanscrit kas, Gaelic cas, Lithuanian hosulys, a cough, kostu, I cough, and Slavonic kushelt, exhibit the guttural initial ; the German Austen, Lowland Scotch host, Armenian huz, the aspirate; the Welsh and Armoric pas, and Greek βὴξ, the labial; | and the Latin tussis, the dental. The Kurdish goka bears a singular | resemblance, not only to the upper German kauchen and the En- 9)
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. glish cough, but also to several Finnish dialects; Finnish proper, kihka, kékhi; Esthonian kohhi; Hungarian kiéhe; Lappish fossas. We may here remark, by the way, that this and a variety of similar instances would lead one to suspect that the Finnish and commonly so-called Indo-European languages may be more nearly related to each other than the generality of philologists seem willing to allow. Another word, appearing in both lists; Armenian tun, house, Slavonic tuin, a hedge, is deserving of notice for its probable identity, not only with the Celtic dun, din, but also with the German zaun, a hedge; Anglo-Saxon tun, a hamlet; and lowland Scotch town, a homestead. The radical idea is that of inclosure, as is proved by the primary verbs ; Anglo-Saxon tyzan (still extant in the Lancashire tyne, to shut), and Irish dunaim, I shut, inclose, barricade. Another remarkable word is—Russian son, Gaelic suain, sleep. Though these words are undoubtedly cognate with the Sanscrit swapna, it is worthy of notice that they agree closely in form with the Pracrit suna, produced, agreeably to the genius of that dialect, by the elision of the medial consonants. The Greek and Welsh have duplicate forms: Gr. ὕπνος, W. hep, from swapna; and Gr. εὐνὴ, W. hun, from suna. A similar phenomenon may be observed in the Pali and Pracrit pati, Doric ποτὶ, Armenian pat ; compared with Sanscr. prati, Ionic πρότι, ordinary Hellenic πρός. It is possible that a careful analysis of Pali and Pracrit forms, for which there are unfortunately few facilities at present, might lead to the discovery of analogies be- tween Sanscrit and the languages of Europe which have not hitherto been suspected.
The extensive affinities of worm, which is found in one form or other in nearly all languages of the class, have been repeatedly
ο΄ noticed by German philologists as examples of the interchange of
the guttural initial (Sanscrit Arimi, Lithunian krimis) with the pa- latal (Slavonic cherv) and the labial (Latin vermis, Engl. worm, Welsh pryv). They appear to have overlooked our grub, which has a decidedly Celtic aspect, and, rather an unusual phenomenon in English words, agrees more closely with the Gaelic form crumh than the Welsh pryv. This however does not prove it to be adopted from the Gaelic, since, though the Welsh prefers the labial form to the gut- tural, ithas in many cases duplicate forms, 6. g. crys and pres, haste. Cruv may therefore have existed in the Lloegrian British though not now found in Welsh.
With respect tothe second class of terms, namely those appa- rently peculiar to Slavonic and Celtic, the resemblance of such terms as vran and bran, raven ; kovatz and gof, smith ; v/aduika and gwledig, chief, illustrious ; is too obvious to be here insisted on. It is diffi- cult to say how far they may or may not be borrowed, as we have scarcely any data for ascertaining the ancient juxtaposition or ab- solute separation of the tribes. Tacitus informs us that the language of the A®stii* approximated to that of the Britons. If that were really the case, it might be conjectured that there is at least one relic of their speech in the Lithuanian merga, maiden (Welsh merch),
* The name of Zstii may have been given to some of the neighbouring tribes, as well as to the Finnish race, which is represented by the modern Ests.
L2
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a term which has not a little puzzled the native etymouwgists. Ge-- nerally speaking, however, the Lithuanian and Lettish languages show fewer correspondences with Celtic than are found in the ecclesias- tical dialect, or ancient Slavonic. This, there is reason to believe, was the language of the Pannonian provinces, where it is possible those who spoke it might have more or less intercourse with Celtic tribes.
A remarkable word found in all the Slavonic dialects, but admit- ting of no etymological explanation within their limits, is bolvan, an idol or statue. Pott, in his ‘ Dissertation on the Lithuanian Language,’ after giving the forms of it in the different dialects, adds— Mihi etymon vocis ignotum.” Grimm also points it out as a very pecu- liar word in the last edition of the ‘ Deutsche Mythologie,’ without attempting to account for it. An etymology, appearing at least plausible, is furnished by the Armorican peulvan, of which Pelletier gives the following account in his ‘ Dictionnaire de la Langue Bre- tonne’ :—‘‘ Peutvan: a long stone, erected perpendicularly in the form of a pillar or post; a rough unwrought column. ‘This word is current in Basse Cornouaille, towards Audierne, where several of those stones occur on the high roads and in waste places. It isa compound of peul—post or pillar—and man, figure, personage, ap- pearance ; signifying perhaps the appearance of a man standing upright ; the form of the first plural (peulvanet) denoting beings that are animated, or reputed to be so. May not our ancestors have placed those stones as objects of some sort of worship or religious ceremony, and as a kind of idol?’ The idea that those monuments were objects of religious reverence in the Druidical times is generall adopted by the antiquaries of Britany, and it is stated that the peasantry have still some vague superstitions respecting them. We may here remark, that the Wallachian balavanu, evidently the same as the Slavonic word, simply means a large stone, thereby approxi- mating more to the Celtic peulvan in material import. If we admit the identity of the terms, it would follow that the Slavonians have been the borrowers in this instance, the component parts of the word being significant in Celtic but not in Slavonian ; nor, it is believed, in any other Indo-European language. This might lead to an in- teresting inquiry whether, and to what extent, the mythologies of the two races appear to be connected. The setting-up a pillar of stone or wood as a rude symbol of some deity appears to have been a practice almost universal with pagan nations.
The occurrence of Celtic words in the Albanian language may be easily accounted for, as we know that Celtic tribes were intermixed with the Thracians as late as the time of Trajan. One of the most remarkable coincidences is the term for egg: Albanian Bei (pro- nounced vi), Cymric wy. Here again the Gaelic ubh is more remote, though it accords very well with the Latin ovum and Greek ὠὸν (olic &Fév). Groua, woman, may be referred either to the Gaelic gruag or Welsh gwraig. Dovre, hand, is more analogous to the Welsh or Gaelic dourn than to the Slavonic dlani. Most of the words common to Celtic and Albanian are however identical with those already pointed out in the Slavonic dialects, and may have been in- troduced from that quarter.
_ Several members of the Society having expressed. a wish that notice should be given of the subjects to be discussed on particular _ evenings, the Council have ordered it to be announced, that on Fri- _ day, December the 8th, the following papers will be read :
lL. “On the Languages and Dialects of the British Islands” (con- _ tinued). By the Rev. R. Garnett. _ 2. “On English Pronouns Indeterminate.” By E. Guest, Esq.
Ε.
PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
Vor. I. DECEMBER 8, 1843. No. 14.
The Right Rev. the Lozp Brsuor of Lranparr in the Chair.
Professors Herman, Lassen, and W. K. Grimm were elected ho- norary Members of the Society.
The following communications were then read :—
1. “On a Greek Inscription lately found in Corfu.” By the Rev. Dr. Hawtrey.
The inscription, of which a fac-simile is here given, was found on a broken tomb near the site of ancient Corcyra, in the month of October 1843. It was received from Corfu about five weeks since. It is not difficult to collect from the words the following history :
Tlasias, the father of Menecrates, in whose honour the monument was inscribed, was a native of (Eanthe, a town of the Locri Ozole. That tribe was one of the most uncivilized in Greece, even so late as the Peloponnesian war. Thucydides, in that short and lucid sketch which he has prefixed to his History, after speaking of the islanders in general as pirates, and as not ashamed of their predatory lives, but as rather proud of them, adds this—«xai μέχρι τοῦδε πολλὰ τῆς Ἑλλάδος τῷ παλαιῷ τρόπῳ νέμεται, περί τε Λοκροὺς τοὺς Ὀζόλας
.++kal τὴν ταύτῃ ἤπειρον" τό τε σιδηροφορεῖσθαι τούτοις τοῖς ἤἠπειρώ- ταις ἀπὸ τῆς παλαιᾶς ληστείας ἐμμεμένηκε. They probably differed little from the modern Κλέφτες, and their country may have been as unsafe for strangers as the Albanian and Mainote mountains are at the present day,
Tlasias however seems to have been the father of two sons, who had inherited or learned more peaceful habits. Even in this wild country the beneficial institution of private xpotevia (for we can hardly suppose that any public regulation yet existed) had been established, and Menecrates had become the πρόξενος of the mer- cantile people of Corcyra. This colony of Corinth maintained the habits and rivalled the wealth of its metropolis, and though Dorian in race, had the enterprizing character of Ionians. To obtain native protection in every port to which commerce might direct the ships of Corcyra, must have been very desirable, and among a race of pirates and robbers peculiarly so. It is probable that in the relation of πρόξενος Menecrates often defended the Corcyrean merchants from the injuries of his rude countrymen, and it is natural that he should occasionally visit, perhaps as a merchant, the people on whose gra- titude he had a claim. It seems that in one of these voyages he was drowned, but that his body was carried to the shore of Corcyra.
The friendship of the δῆμος, who were always the most powerful party in the maritime nations of Greece, honoured their benefactor
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with a public funeral and a marble monument. His brother Praxi- menes may possibly have been saved from the storm, in which Me- necrates perished ; at all events he arrived in time to join with the Corcyreans in paying the last honours to his brother, and in com- memorating their joint act by the verses which were inscribed on the tomb. The verses in more modern letters are as follows: the lacune are filled up from conjecture in smaller letters.
© HYIOY TAAZIAFO MENEKPATEOE TOAE ZAMA,
ΟΙΑΝΘΕΟΣ FENEAN: TOAE A AYTO! AAMOZ ENOIEI- ΕΣ FAP ΠΡΟΞΕΝΕΟΣ AAMOY ΦΙΛΟΣ: AAA ΕΝ! ΠΟΝΤοι OAETO: ΔΑΜΟΣΙΟΝ AE KA®:ixEro πένθος ἕκαστον" ΠΡΑΞΙΜΕΝΕΣ A ΑΥΤΟΣ γαίας ΑΠΟ ΠΑΤΡΙΔΟΣΈΝΘΟΝ. ΣῪΝ ΔΑΜΟΙ TOAE ZAMA KAZIFNETOIO ΠΟΝΕΘΕ.
On this inscription it may be remarked :—
1. That the form of the characters, compared with that of other early letters, seems to belong to a period as early as that of Pisistratus.
2. That the choice of heroic rather than elegiac verse is also a mark of antiquity.
3. That, though early, it is not among the earliest inscriptions, be- cause it possesses the letters 0, 2, and ᾧ, which are expressed respectively by two characters in the following inscripticn on a co- lumn. It is the third in Boeckh’s Collection :—.
ΠΑΙ ΔΙΟΣ EKNHANTO? AEKZAI TOA ΑΜΕΝΠΗΕΣ ATAAMA: ΣΟΙ FAP ENEYKHOMENOZ TOYT ETEAEZZE TPONHON.
[Boechk would read [PO®QN, as a harsh Dorism for TPA®QON, “the sculptor ;” it is perhaps better to consider Tpépwy the name of the artist, and”Exgayvos the name of the dedicator. The form of the first letter, in the inscription, has more the likeness of a broken T than of a 1.7
4. That this inscription is read throughout from right to left, not βουστροφηδόν. I believe this to be very unusual.
5. That we find in this inscription a complete alphabet, with the exception of B, Z; X, ¥, which letters happen not to be wanted in ~ any of the words. O, E, serve for both vowel sounds of the respect- ive letters, and H has its original power as an aspirate.
6. That there is something very singular in the use of the digam- ma, indicating a period in which the letter was passing into desue- tude, and rather carelessly employed. 10 does not take the place of Y in αὐτός. The word Oiaréos, genitive of Οἱανθεὺς, which pro- bably was originally written Oiay6éFs Oiar6éFos, is in this inscrip- tion read as a trisyllable. I believe that no instance can be found in the Homeric poems of such a contraction. . Again, the penultima of πρόξενος is lengthened, not as we find in Ionic, Doric, and Attic poets by the insertion of « after e, or by adding the F in the same place, but by introducing the F after ν. Now this is altogether dif-
πε - -- ee,
AOE AT,
,
EBs ττως
κ᾿ τῶν Fes
= ESI iw ἡ
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ferent from all usage of that letter as hitherto found. It has gene- rally been considered as a radical letter, which after a time indeed was lost to the language, but which, in no age, was inserted ad libi- tum. In this word, had the letter preceded the ν, all would have been plain: πρόξεξνος would have had its penultima common, as the vowel precedes a mute and a liquid. The letter would never have interfered with the quantity; whereas its present place in πρόξενξος would have made the e necessarily long, and the letter could not have remained there, if the word were used, as it commonly must have been, for a dactyl.
7. That the ε in Τλασίας is lengthened arbitrarily. Tdacias, were
‘the dialect not Doric, would have been Τλησίας from τλάω, as
Κτησίας from crdéw* ; but in neither word could the « have been length- ened, unless ἐν ἄρσει, whereas here the syllable is ἐν θέσει.
8. The aoristus passive πονήθη is used for the aoristus middle ἐπονήσατο. I can neither find nor recollect any instance of a similar usage. In every other part of the inscription the Doric change of ἡ into a is observed, but here we have πονήθη for πονάθη. One might almost be tempted to believe that the workman employed to cut the letters spoke a different dialect from that in which the verses are composed. The Doric genitive, -w for -ov, is not used in this in- scription.
2. “ On English Pronouns Indeterminate,” by Edwin Guest, Esq.
In Anglo-Saxon the word man often takes the place of a pronoun indeterminate, as man geaf him they gave to him, man mihte geseeno one might see, &c. In the Old-English the use of the plural noun seems to have superseded that of the singular, and we meet with such phrases as men it herd they heard it, men sais they say, where sais represents the plural of the northern conjugation. At the beginning of the twelfth century another pronoun indeterminate made its appear- ance, which has left very marked traces behind it in our literature. The Old-English me was used in the same constructions, and for the same purposes as the Anglo-Saxon man, and some philologists would not scruple to term the one a mere corruption of the other. But there are no questions in philology more difficult than those which relate to the n-letter, and the inquiry could only end by involving us in all the perplexities of the mysterious Nunnation. Perhaps we may more safely consider this pronoun as the second element of the Latin ne-mo and ho-mo, and consequently also of the Anglo-Saxon gu-ma a man, which of course must be identical with ho-mo. From which of our spoken dialects it worked its way into our written lan- guage does not very clearly appear, but as it was known to the Low- Dutch, and is earliest found in our Southern MSS., the probability is that it came from one of our Southern dialects.
1. “Νὰ me pe brings per Su beon scealt.” Now man thee bringeth, where thou shalt bide.—The Grave.
* Of course it is not meant to speak of these as verbal forms in use, but merely as those from which the respective futures are etymologically deduced.
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2. “Dises geares me began exrost to weorcenne on pan niwan mynstre on Ceortesege.” This year they began first to work on the new Minster in Chertsey.—S. Chron. A.D. 1110.
3. ‘First lord he was in Engolond, of whom me spekip 3et.”” R. Glou. 11.
4, «Wo so were of take myd hert oper myd hynde Me ssolde smyte of hys heuede, 3yf me my3te hym fynde.” R. Glou. 414.
5. “Plenty me may in Engelond of alle gode y se.” R. Glou. 1.
6. “The kyng asked drynk of that present— Me broughte hit him in a coppe of gold, The kyng therof drank, that he ne schold.”—K. Alis. 7857.
7. ‘* Ne me teendeth not a lanterne and putteth it undir a bushel but on a candelstick,” &c.—Wiclif, Matt. 5.
8. “ Thou that prechist that me schal not stele, stelist—thou that techist that me schall not do lecherie, doist lecherie.”—Wiclif, Rom. 2.
9, “The emperour tho het in haste : Me schold here into prison kaste.”—Och. ὩΣ 218.
10. “« Me levede noght that sche seide.”—Jb. 230.
In place of this indeterminate pronoun, the-Friesish has two forms, min and me, the latter of which seems to be always used as a suffix* to the verb, as momme one may, somme one should, ‘&c. These phrases are seldom, if ever, made use of by modern Friesish writers, though found in almost every page of the old poet Gysbert Japicx.
ΤΣ ** Sjogh dy greate maesters holle Momme uwt socken kraeg naet sjean In dear efter him dy dolle Iz troghackle’ oer al sijn klean.”
See the great masters noll !
Out of such a ruff one may not see—
And there after him the fool,
Is beslash’d o’er all his clothes.—Jolle in Haytse-jem.
12. ** Gietme den ford ijnne tjercke ὃ Nee: mar aerne to jier-mercke.”
Gee they then forrad to the kirk ? Nay! but somewhere to the fair.—Jb.
13. “‘In hier sjochtme dat de hijmmel yeu besondre foarsorge oere minschen het.”
* In old Dutch writers, however, and also (it is believed) in the present boor- speech of Holland, we occasionally find this pronoun used precisely as in Old-En- glish, dewijl m’ ons zeide, because they told us, &c.
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And here one sees that Heaven shows a wonderful watchfuf- ness o’er men.—Dorilis in Cleonice.
The same construction was occasionally used in our own language.
14. “Right story can me not ken, pe certeynte what spellis.” Rob. Br. 25.
and it no doubt gave rise to those curious idioms which are no- ticed by Pegge in his ‘ Anecdotes of the Engl. Lang.,’ p. 217. This writer, whose evidence to a_ fact we may avail ourselves of, whatever we think of his criticism or his scholarship, quotes the following as forms of speech then prevalent among the Londoners :—“ and so says me I,” “‘ well what does me J,” “ so says me she,” “‘ then away goes me he,” ‘‘ what does me they,” &c. Here it is obvious that me is the indeterminate pronoun, and represents the subject, while the personal pronoun is put in apposition to it, so that “says me I” is equivalent to one says, that is I. These idioms are not unknown to our literature.
15. “ But as he was by diverse principall young gentlemen, to his no small glorie, lifted up on horseback, comes me a page of Am- phialus, who with humble smiling reverence delivered a letter unto him from Clinias.”-—Pembr. Arcad. B. iii.
Other idioms, which have generally been confounded with those last mentioned, have the indeterminate pronoun preceded by a nomi- native absolute—that curious form, which plays so important a part in English grammar, and which has been so generally overlooked by
our grammarians.
16. “1, having been acquainted with the smell before, knew it was Crab, and—goes me to the fellow, who whips the dogs,” &e.— Two Gent. of Verona, 4. 4.
17. “‘He—thrusts me himself into the company of three or four gentlemanlike dogs under the Duke’s table.” —J0.
18. “« He—presently as greatness shows itself Steps me a little higher than his vow Made to my father, when his blood was poor.” Shakespeare*.
19. “Του (i. e. the enemy) had planted me three demi-culverins just in the mouth of the breach,” &c.—B. Jons. Ev. Man in his Humour, 3. 1.
But of all our pronouns indeterminate, the one most familiarly used is the neuter pronoun it. This pronoun often takes a plural signification.
* Johnson considers the me in Ex. 16, 17, 18 to be the oblique case of the first personal pronoun, and treats it as “a ludicrous expletive.” It is difficult to say how he would have parsed Ex. 16 on such a hypothesis.
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20. *‘ Herbes he tok in an herber, And stamped them in a morter, And wrong hit in a box.” —K. Alis. 333.
21. “ The grones of Sir Gauan, Ait dose my hert grille.” The Antur of Arther at the Transwathelan, 49.
22. ‘Take to you handfuls of ashes of the furnace and let Moses sprinkle 7¢ toward the heaven,” &c.—Ez. 9. 8.
In the following examples, it serves as subject to the verb, and refers to a plural or collective substantive.
23. “Do Adam was first ymad, and his ofspring wex wyde Heo bygonne at pe on ende of pe world al in pe est syde Seppe ἐξ wex wyde a boute fro londe to londe So pat in pe predde age it wes, ere it come to Engelonde.”” R. Glou. 9.
24. « Walles wyde and strong ynow, casteles as hit were.” R. Glou. 18.
25. «Ethelbert held Estsex, Southsex and Kent For homage and feaute tille Adelwolf it went.”
R. Br. 19. 26. **... Inglis and Normant er stalworth men in stoure, It is folk valiant, ouer alle thei bere the floure.” —R. Br. 116.
27, “He was ware of Arcite and Palamon That foughten breme, as it were bolles two.” Ch. The Knightes Tale.
28. “Ὁ is two or three my lord, that bring you word Macduff is fled to England.”—Macbd. 4. 1.
29. “’T is these that early taint the female soul.”——Pope.
The same pronoun is also used to represent any one of the three persons, or of the three genders.
30. “‘ Madam, an if my brother had my shape And I had his, Sir Robert his, like hin— And to his shape were heir to all his land, Would 1 might never stir from off this place, I'd give it every foot to have this face— 1: would not be Sir Nob, in any case.” —K. John, 1. 1,
81, “°T is I, that made thy widows.”’—Cor. 4. 4.
32. «Say not we brought it— How was it we.”—Cor. 4. 6.
* It would was changed to I would in the second folio; and this new reading has been generally adopted by later editors. Mr. Knight however follows the reading of the old folio, and construes the passage thus, ‘It (the face) would not be Sir Nob (i.e. Sir Robert’s head), &c.”. The pun may possibly have tempted Shakespeare to use the pronoun indeterminate, but ἐξ would in this passage is equivalent to 7 would, '
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33. “And heo swor by hire Godes anon in pe place : Pat he ne scholde mid hire be, bute ἐξ one were*.” R. Glou, 33.
34. «Sire they saide nys no fole sclaunder, That goth by way of Alisaunder, Jt is an hardy flumbarding, Wis and war in alle thing.”—K. Alis. 1788.
35. « _,.. he wol maken him doten anon rightes, But ἐξ a fend be as himselven is.” — Chau., Chan. Yem. Tale.
36. “1 take it, she that carries up the train, Is that same noble lady, Duchess of Norfolk It is, and all the rest are countesses.”—H. VIII. 4. 1.
In certain cases, it takes a meaning so general and indeterminate, that it seems to refer to any thing or person connected with, or even to all the surrounding circumstances of, a transaction. In some of the following examples we might, without altering the sense, sub- stitute there for it.
37. «Wel may men knowen, but ἐξ be a fool That,” &c. Chau., The Knightes Tale.
38. « And who is founde hond-habbing— Jt is non nede of witnessing.”’—Seuyn Sages, 692.
39. “What hit feol that night, hit was” (was this) T. Κ. Alis. 379.
40. “« How eagerly ye follow my disgraces As if it fed ye! ”—Hen. VIII. 3. 2
This pronoun has, for the most part, the same general meaning, when placed before what are called the impersonal verbs, as in the phrases “‘ it seems that,” &c., “‘it pleased him to,” &c. In the Old- English phrase “it says,” ἐξ signifies the book or writer alluded to, and in the phrase “‘ it passes,” it refers to the subject of conversation, as in Ex. 40.
4l. *« It sais in a storie, the bible may not lie, That,” &c.—Rob. Br. 290.
42. “Τὴ pat 3ere, it sais, pe pape had grete despite Porgh pe Columpneis,” &c.—Rob. Br. 322.
43. “‘ You both love your own houses as ἐξ passes ἢ Harr. Ep. ii. 24.
* That is, but he were alone. + The use of ἐξ as a demonstrative is not uncommon in our language. “T grant the lif, if thou canst tellen me What thing is ἐξ, that women πιοβὲ desiren.”—Chau. W. of Bathes Tale.
“ Imagine that which you would most deplore And that which I would speak, is ἐξ or more.””—Dryden.
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In the phrases it rains, it hails, it thunders, &c., it refers to the face of external nature, which is supposed to be within the notice of all parties. Hence these phrases are perfect in themselves, and require nothing antecedent or consequent to explam them. The same presumption of mutual consciousness is necessary to explain some other constructions into which this pronoun enters.
44, «How is it with our general ?”—Cor, 5. 5.
When the sentence admits two nominatives, we now make ἐξ the subject of the verb, Ex. 28, 29, 31,32. This idiom appears to have been introduced into our written language about the close of the fourteenth century, and probably from one of our northern dialects. The Anglo-Saxon, like the modern Dutch and German, in such cases makes it the predicate, and the Old-English, in this particular, follows the Anglo-Saxon.
45. it am {τ That loveth so hot Emelie the bright That I wold dien present in hire sight.” Chau. The Knightes Tale.
46. «« Who coude rime in English proprely His martyrdom? forsoth ἐξ am not I.” —Ibid.
47. πεν, a ae my wittes chaungen And all lustes fro me straungen, That thai sain all truly And swere that it am not I.” —Gower.
48. “‘wreeche man that tu Ait art Hwerto wultu wrestlen wid pe worldes wealdent ?”’ wretched man that thou art! Wherefore wilt thou wrestle with the world’s ruler ? St. Catherine, 2063.
49. “beo smart, Alisaunder thyseolf thow hit art.’—K. Alis. 4161.
50. “Ο arm of the Lord, awake!—art thou not it, that hath cut Rahab ?—art thou not it, which hath dried up the sea, the waters of the great deep ?””—Isaiah li. 9.
51. “ And he seide to hem, ye ἐΐ ben that justifien you before men.” Wicl. Luk. 16.
52. “For it ben not ye that speken, but the spirit of youre fadir, that speketh in γου."--- Wiel. Matt. 10.
53. «Pi leor is meiden lufsum and ti mud murie and witti, And wise wordes hit weren, 3if ha neren false.” . Maiden thy face is lovesome, and thy mouth sweet and witty, And wise words were they, if they were not false. St. Catherine, 318.
ST ey eer ye νυ,. .-΄.
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54. “ Po kyng bi huld hem faste ynou (for it muchel men were).” Rob. Glou. 111.
55. “‘ Hyt were men of a god land, pat hem so coupe agaste.” Rob. Glou. 52.
56. ‘* Tho, at the last espied I That pursevauntes and heraudes That crien riche folkes landes It weren.” —Chau. H. of Fame.
57. “‘ For many it ere that strange Inglis In ryme wate never what it is.”—Rod. Br. Prol.
58. “« Thai said if I in strange it turne To here it many on suld skorne For it ere names full selcouthe That ere not used now in mouthe,” &c.—Robd. Br. Prol.
59. “* Hit ar the clippes of the sonne I herd a clerk say.” Sir Gaw and Sir Gal. 1. 8.
Clippes in the last example is a corruption of eclipse. The poet considers is to be a plural substantive.
In some of our eastern and northern dialects the word the is used as synonymous with it.
60. “ The child will cut theself.”"—Forby, Voc. theself.
61. “‘There is neuer a sin the alone, but ay the mair greate and heinous that the sinne be, it hes greater and warse sinnes fol- lowing on it.”—Bruce’s Sermons.
62. ‘Ta crumble all ta pieces.”— Moor, Suffolk Words, ta. :
As the change of the initial th to ¢ is common in our eastern dialect, there can be little doubt that ¢a in the last example repre- sents the*. In the form of ta, this pronoun is very frequently made use of, as ta frize, ta thow, ta snew, &c., it freezes, it thaws, it snowed, &e.—Forby and Moor, fa. Forby also suggests that this pronoun: enters into the phrases ’t is, *t was, ἕο. But these contractions are much too widely spread in our language to be explained by the pe- culiarities of so confined a dialect, and the Dutch het, in like manner, often becomes ¢ before the verb substantive, as *t is koud,
- *t is warm, it is cold, it is warm, &c.
It would be difficult to distinguish between this English pronoun ta and the German da, in such phrases as da war keiner, der, &c., there was none who, &c. Nevertheless in such cases most German philologists consider da to be the adverb (Adelung, Dict. da; Grimm’s D. G. 4. 226), though they generally recognise its pronominal cha-
* As to the change from the narrow to the broad vowel, it may be observed, that the Anglo-Saxon pe, in the nominative plural became pa, which was repre- sented in the Old-English by po. But we sometimes find the Old-English po used in the singular. See Rob. Οἴου. passim, and cases may be found in the Anglo- Saxon where pa is also used in that number.
ss
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racter in the adverbs da-bey, da-fiir, da-zu, &c., thereby, therefore, thereto, &c. The English adverbs corresponding to those last- mentioned have the for their first element; thus in our northern dialect we have the-furth, the-but, the-ben, &c. used as synonymous with thairfurth, thairbut, thairben, &c., i.e. abroad, without, within*, &c. Vid. Jam. Dict.
That, which both in Anglo-Saxon and in Old-English represents the neuter of the definite article, is also used as a pronoun indeter- minate. Forby, in his illustrations of ta, gives us the following spe- cimens of Norfolk-speech :—‘*‘ ta freeze? yes, and that hail too;” “40 it freeze? no, that dont freeze now, but ta wull at night.” In the Icelandic, Danish and Swedish, we have the same idiom; for instance, in the latter language, det regnar it rains, det haglar it hails, det dundrar it thunders, &c. Indeed in the northern languages, the representatives of the English that may be used for almost every purpose, to which we have seen ἐξ applied in our own language; the corresponding idioms are rare, though not altogether unknown in English.
63. “He sauh out of pe firmament an armed knyght com down, That was S. Edmunde, cruelle als a lion, Suerd girded, and lance in hand,” &c.—Rob. Br. 44.
‘When the sentence admits of two nominatives, the present usage of our language seems to require that to be the subject; and we should say that’s we, that’s you, &c. In the Swedish also the same idiom generally prevails; though occasionally when the other nomi- — native is plural, we find the verb agreeing with it in number, agree- ably to the German usage in such phrases as sind sie das, is that you, &c. In like manner, we often find that treated as the predicate in the Old-English.
64. ‘nay not so— Another she hath tane her to, That am I, that thou seest here.” —Jppom. 1787.
65. ** He spake to hem, that wild life parfitly And Lordings by your leave, that am not I.” Chau. Wife of Bathes Prol.
66. ‘* And ahengen peer swa fela thefas swa neefre er ne weron, thet weron on pa litle hwile ealles feower and feowerti manne.”
And there hung they so many thieves, as never were before, that
is in alittle while, four and forty men in all.—Saz. Chron. 1124,
67. ‘“‘For hire fet eau’ ase don the ost’ces, that arn hire lustes, drahen to the eorthe.”’ For their feet ever, as do the ostriches, that is, their lusts, drag on the earth.—Jnst. Mon. Titus, D. 18, f. 37.
* The prepositions but and ben are used with especial reference to the outer and inner room of the labourer’s cottage, “gae but (or ben) the house.” See Jam. Dict. and Brockett’s Gloss.
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Such phrases as there is, there lived, &c., are very widely spread throughout the Gothic languages. They may be found alike in the Northern, the English, and the Low-Dutch dialects. Most philo- logists consider there in these phrases to be the adverb, but Molbeck describes it (and it would seem more satisfactorily) as “ἃ kind of pronoun indeterminate.”
The German der is used both as a demonstrative and as a relative, but only in the masculine gender. The Danish relative der is used for all the three genders, and for both numbers; and there seem to be traces of there having been used as a demonstrative in our own
language. :
68. “ Ther was a verey light which lightneth ech mon, that cometh into this world.” — Wiel. Jon. 1.
69. “« They 3ede bi partise, disputed per a3ein.”——Rob. Br. 302.
70. “« Therwhile sire that I tolde thi tale, Thi sone mighte tho lie dethes bale.” —Seuyn Sages, 701.
71. “ Of this bodily reverence of God in his Church the government is moderate ; God grant it be not loose therewhile.”—Layd.
Ther a3ein in Ex. 69, belongs to the same class of phrases as the
Anglo-Saxon per to, per on, per of, &c. ; and corresponding phrases
are to be found in almost every one of the Gothic dialects. The pronominal character of per appears to be very generally admitted by philologists. Therwhile in Ex. 70, 71, is synonymous with the while, or meanwhile; and the first element of this compound seems to be the same pronoun as enters into the composition of thereto, thereon, &c.
When the sentence admits of two nominatives, and the second of them is in the singular number, there is generally treated as the
_ subject, there’s I, there’s you, &c. ; and this idiom was formerly used,
even when the second nominative was a plural noun.
72. “‘ There’s two or three of us have seen strange sights.” Jul. Ces. 1. 3.
73. “‘ There is three carters, three shepherds, &c. that have made themselves all men of hair.” — Wint. Tale. 4. 1.
74. “* There’s daggers in men’s smiles.”—Macb. 2. 3.
75. “ There's properer women in London, than any there I wiss.”
Beau. and Filet. Kn. of the Burning Pestle, 4. 2.
In the Danish we have the same construction ; der siges it is said, der er dem som, &c. there’s they who, &c., der har veret mange som,
_ &c. there has been many who, &c. (Molb. Dict. der). But some-
times, when the second nominative is plurul, der is treated as the predicate, as der ere de som mene, &c. there are they who think, &c. VOL. I. M
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(Rask’s Dan. Gr. Sect. 41.) This is the idiom which is now gene- rally used in our own language*.
If the first element of the compounds thereto, thereon, &c. be a pro- noun, where and here must also be pronouns in the compound ad- verbs whereto, &c. hereto, &c. Now the German wer, answering to our who? and also to our he, she, or they who, is both masculine and feminine, singular and plural; and from the Icelandic hver who? are regularly formed the neuter Aver-t, the genitive hver-s, the ac- cusative hver-n, &c. Hence there seems to be little difficulty in recognising the origin of the above-mentioned compounds. The here in hereto, hereon, &c., seems to be the German er he, which was for- merly written fir. Grimm’s D. G. 1. 794.
* In such phrases as “ there live thousands who,’’ &c., there seems to be the object of the verb. In like manner the pronoun ἐξ is sometimes joined to neutral verbs as the object, as ‘the mole courses it not on the ground,” &c. Addison; “Let the music knock it,” Hen. VIII, 1. 3; “to queen it,” Hen. VIIL, 2. 3., &c, These idioms are common in almost all the Gothic dialects; in German we might ay, “es kommen viele freunde,” &c. there come many friends, &c.
1 tay ᾿ς
PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
Vor. I. DECEMBER 22, 1843. No..15.
Professor T. H. Key in the Chair.
Professor Im. Bekker was elected an honorary member of the Society.
The following communication was then read :—
«Herodotus and the Athenians.” By the Rev. J. W. Donaldson. Among the meagre and scanty notices of the literary history of Herodotus which have come down to our times, it is refreshing to meet with an anecdote of unquestionable authenticity which con- nects him with the great name of Sophocles. This anecdote has not been neglected by the philologers who have written about either Sophocles or Herodotus, but no one seems to have appreciated its full value as a contribution to lite history ; for if we combine it with other testimonies which refer to the frequent intercourse of Herodotus with the Athenians in general, we may perhaps draw some important inferences as to the manner in which Herodotus composed his history, and the sources from which it was derived. On the present occasion it is not intended to follow out this in- vestigation to its fullest extent; but it may do some good to indi- cate a few steps of the process. It appears that Sophocles, in the fifty-fifth year of his age, com- a lyric poem for Herodotus, the ξένιον of which began as follows (Plutarch, an seni, &c., c. 3. iv. 153, Wyttenb.) :-— Ὠιδὴν Ἡροδότῳ τεῦξεν Σοφοκλῆς ἐτέων ὧν πέντ᾽ ἐπὶ πεντήκοντα. Ἶ : Now Sophocles was born 8.0. 495 ; consequently he wrote this ode in B.c. 440. This year marks an important epoch in the life of So- phocles: at the Dionysia of this winter he brought out the most beautiful of his plays, the Antigone; and in consequence, as we are told, of the sound political sentiments developed in some of the speeches, the poet was immediately afterwards elected one of the Strategi, or preiors, in which capacity he sailed to Samos as the col- league of Pericles, and assisted in carrying on the war against the
_ aristrocrats, who had returned from Anza, in B.c. 440,439. Accord-
ingly, if Sophocles wrote an ode for Herodotus in 8.0. 440, he
must have done so either before or during the Samian war in that
year ; for the siege of Samos lasted nine months, and it is more than
probable that Sophocles did not return to Athens till 8.c. 439. The
fact that he wrote such a poem, proves that he had some intercourse
or intimacy with Herodotus at that particular time. Herodotus, M2
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therefore, was either at Athens or in Samos in Β.0. 440, for Sopho- cles could not have met with him elsewhere.
From the year 8.0. 452 till about the commencement of the Pelo- ponnesian war, we must consider Samos as the home or head-quar- ters of the great traveller of Halicarnassus. Lygdamis, the grandson of Artemisia, and tyrant of Halicarnassus, had put to death Panyasis the epic poet, who was. the maternal uncle of Herodotus, and had compelled the historian to fly from his native city. Herodotus took refuge in Samos, and though he afterwards succeeded in putting down the tyranny of Lygdamis, he was not able to re-establish him- self at Halicarnassus, but settled in the home of his adoption, and in consequence of this became first an Ionian and afterwards an Athenian.
The frequent communication between Athens and Samos might lead us to expect that Herodotus, who was so fond of travelling, would occasionally put himself on board a merchant-ship and visit the city of Pericles. We are told that he was there at the great Panathenea in 8.0. 446, when he recited a portion of his history, which was so flattering or agreeable to the Athenians, that ten talents from the public treasury were voted to him on the motion of Anytus (Plutarch de malignit. Herodot.c. 26). Another of the pane- gyrists of Athens, Pindar, was similarly rewarded ; and we may well imagine, that as his works were well known to Herodotus, there may have been some passages between them of which history is silent. Sophocles, at any rate, who was then at the height of his reputation, could not have failed to-make the acquaintance of a man to whose literary merits his countrymen had awarded so high a re- compense.
Honoured and rewarded by the people of Athens, Herodotus, it might be supposed, would take up his residence there: but there is no evidence for this supposition, and it seems much more probable that he continued to reside at Samos; so that Sophocles, when he went to that island in sp.c. 440, would find his friend there, and as he seems to have preserved his constitutional tranquillity and cheer- fulness in the midst of his official and military occupations, he may have amused himself in some leisure moment with writing the fu- gitive poem which has furnished us with this important date.
It is well known that Herodotus was ultimately one of those who joined the great Grecian settlement at Thurii. . Now this colony was conducted by Lampon, 8.0. 443, and it is clear that Herodotus must have been at Athens after B.c. 437 (see Herod. v. 77). It appears the most reasonable inference that Herodotus, after the taking of Samos in B.c. 439, became ἃ μέτοικος at Athens, and, like other μέτοικοι (Lysias, Polemarchus, &c.), joined the Thurian colony about the commencement of the Peloponnesian war.
This view of the successive settlements of Herodotus appears to contribute materially towards a simplification of his biography. For the first thirty-two years of his life (8.0. 484-452) he was a subject of the king of Persia, and as such possessed the greatest advantages for travelling in every satrapy of the Persian empire. If Halicarnassus had
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been a free state, it would never have been immortalized by the name of its only great historian. For the next twenty years (from 8.6. 452 to the beginning of the Peloponnesian war) we must consider Herodotus as a distinguished foreigner settled at Samos,—an ho- noured friend of the Athenians. For the rest of his life he was an Athenian μέτοικος, living chiefly as an Athenian colonist at Thurii, aud engaged in systematizing and harmonizing into one great whole the historical narratives and traveller’s tales by which he had gained. his great reputation.
Plutarch charges Herodotus with partiality to Athens. We, who live at this distance of time and place, are all partial to Athens: we would conceal all her faults and exaggerate all her virtues: how then can we blame the true-hearted Halicarnassean if he was dazzled by the brilliancy which sometimes imposes even on our northern vision ?
But Herodotus was an admirer, not only of Athens in general, but of Sophocles in particular. Herodotus was, perhaps, of all the Greeks the most cosmopolitan,—the most free from Hellenistic pre- judices: still he could not have failed to appreciate the most Greek of all the Greeks.
The more we read Herodotus, the more we must be convinced that the writings of Sophocles were wel] known to him. He was a great traveller and observer, but he was, for those days, a great reader also. He frequently refers to the writings of other poets,
«Pindar, Alczus, &c.; but the chief subject of his meditations must have been the profound and difficult poetry of that great Athenian. This may be inferred from the circumstance, that while he quotes other writers by name, he introduces his imitations of whole pass- ages of Sophocles without so much as alluding to the author. Some of these quotations are so minute and circumstantial, that the hypo- thesis of accidental coincidence is altogether inadmissible.
To begin with the least doubtful of these citations, we find that, in the third book of his history, which contains more references to Samos than any other, Herodotus introduces the story of Inta- phernes, whose wife gives the following reason for preferring her brother to the other prisoners (iii. 119): “Ὁ king, I might get an- other husband if I had good luck, and other children if I were to lose these; but, as I have no longer any father or mother, I know no means of getting another brother.” Now in the Antigone of So- phocles, which was acted just before the tragedian went to Samos, where he probably met Herodotus, we find Antigone arguing in precisely the same manner. Since the whole argument is a conceit, it is much more reasonable to suppose that Herodotus introduced it into the speech which he made for the wife of Intaphernes, than that Sophocles borrowed it from a history, which, for all that we know, was not published till many years after. “Even supposing that He- rodotus wrote his third book before the performance of the Antigone, and supposing that Sophocles was well acquainted with that portion of his history, how unlikely is it that he would recollect the terms and phrases of a prose narrative, and preserve in his iambic dialogue the
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sentences of a λέξις εἰρομένη! If, on the other hand, we adopt the more reasonable supposition, that the third book of Herodotus was written subsequently to the performance of the Antigone, and that Herodotus was acquainted with that play, we shall at once under- stand how Herodotus converted into Ionic prose the lines which had made an indelible impression upon his memory, and how he was led - by the parallelism of circumstances to commit one of the most ex- cusable of plagiarisms. Scholars in general think that Sophocles borrowed from Herodotus; but one cannot understand how this could be, and Valckenaer, who first remarked the resemblance be- tween the two passages, seems to have made it clear, by the com- parison which he instituted, that Sophocles was the original author of the sentiment. If any competent scholar will place each line in the passage from the Antigone (v. 924) by the side of the corre- sponding clause in the narrative of Herodotus, he will find that the latter is a prosaic paraphrase of the former, and nothing more :—
Soph. πόσις μὲν ἄν μοί, κατθανόντος, ἄλλος ἦν. Herod. ἀ»ὴρ μέν μοι ἂν ἄλλος γένοιτο, εἰ δαέμων ἐθέλοι. Soph. καὶ παῖς ἀπ᾽ ἄλλου φωτὸς εἰ τοῦδ᾽ ἤμπλακον. Herod, καὶ τέκνα ἄλλα εἰ ταῦτ᾽ ἀποβάλοιμι.
Soph. μητρὸς δ᾽ ἐν “Αἰδονυ καὶ πατρὸς κεκευθότοιν. Herod. πατρὸς δὲ καὶ μητρὸς οὐκ ἔτι μευ ζωόντων. Soph. οὐκ ἔστ᾽ ἀδελφὸς ὅστις ἂν βλάστοι ποτέ.
Herod. ἀδελφεὸς ἂν ἄλλος οὐδενὶ τρόπῳ γένοιτο.
e
Surely no one can read this without seeing that Herodotus must have based the passage on a recollection on the lines of his friend Sophocles.
But this is by no means the only passage in which Herodotus evinces a recollection of the writings of Sophocles. The celebrated saying of Solon (Herod. i. 32) must surely have been more familiar to his countrymen than to Herodotus. It is absurd to suppose that the dialogues and speeches in Herodotus have a real histo- rical foundation. We can prove that some of the compositions are made up of γνῶμαι borrowed from Greek poets. The speeches of the Persian conspirators in book iii. 80 sqq., in spite of the ἐλέχθησαν δ᾽ ὧν of the author, must be regarded as pure fabrications; indeed they are absolutely Greek throughout. Similarly with regard to the saying of Solon, it is likely enough that Herodotus borrowed it from Sophocles (see Gd. Tyr. v. 1528 sqq., and Trach. init., where it is called ‘‘ an ancient saying”). Lift
Again in iii. 52, 53, among many other references to Greek poets who lived long after Periander, there are four distinct imitations of the phraseology of Sophocles :—(*) c. 52: κήρυγμα ἐποιήσατο, Os ἂν ἢ οἰκίοισι ὑποδέξηταί μιν, κι τι A. Cf. Soph. Cid. Τ΄ 285: μήτ᾽ εἰσδέχεσθαι, k. τι Χ. (ἢ) ο. δ8 : βούλεαι τήν τε τυραννίδα ἐς ἄλλους πεσέειν, καὶ τὸν οἶκον τοῦ πατρὸς διαφορηθέντα (cf. i. 88). Soph. Aj. 510: εἰ νέας τροφῆς στερηθεὶς σοῦ διοίσεται μόνος ὑπ᾽ ὀρφανιστῶν μὴ φίλων. (°) ibid. φιλοτιμίη κτῆμα σκαιόν. Cf. Soph. Antig. 1015 : αὐθαδία σκαιότητ᾽ ὀφλισκάνει. (*) ibid: μὴ τῷ κακῷ τὸ κακὸν ἰῷ.
165 Soph. Aloade, ap. Stob. iv. 37: ἐνταῦθα μέντοι πάντα τἀνθρώπων
νοσεῖ, κακοῖς ὅταν θέλωσιν ἰᾶσθαι κακά. ᾿
Another instance of a similar imitation of Sophocles is found in iv. 129, where the ὀρθὰ ἱστάντες τὰ ὦτα is supposed by Valckenaer and others to be a citation of the celebrated passage in Soph. Electra, 27: ἀλλ᾽ ὀρθὸν οὖς ἵστησιν. As in the passage last quoted, so in this the historian seems to have had Pindar in his eye as well as Sophocles. Herodotus, in speaking of the braying of the asses, uses the singular phrase: ὑβρέζοντες ὧν ὄνοι ἐτάρασσον τὴν ἵππον τῶν Σκυθέων. That by ὑβρίζοντες he means the braying of the asses, is clear from what follows: μεταξὺ ὅκως ἀκούσειαν οἱ ἵπποι τῶν ὄνων τῆς φωνῆς ἐταράσσοντο. Now Pindar in his tenth Pythian ode, which was written before the birth of Herodotus, speaks thus of the asses led to sacrifice by the Hyperboreans (v. 36): ᾿Απόλλων γελᾷ ὁρῶν ὕβριν ὀρθίαν κνωδάλων, i.e. “ he laughs when he sees the loud- voiced wantonness of the asses.” If it is objected that ὁρῶν cannot refer to the sense of hearing, some might justify the confusion by quoting κτύπον δέδοοκα, &c. But it seems more probable that: the poet refers generally to the spectacle of an ass in a state of ὕβρις, of which the most remarkable feature is its bray, and it must be owned that this is a spectacle ridiculous enough in the eyes of men and gods. Pindar, then, would mean by ὕβρις that the ass was in a state of clamorous and amorous excitement, implying by the epi- thet ὀρθέαν that he was braying ; and Herodotus, copying him, would take the more general word in the particular signification. This appears to be a proof that he was the copyist of Pindar and not the originator of this peculiar use of the verb ὑβρίζω. Similarly, one might infer that Hesiod’s phrase ἐπέων νομὸς (Op. et D. 403) was borrowed from the longer and more elaborate parallel passage in Homer, Ji. xx. 244 sqq.
But if the style of Herodotus was affected by his acquaintance with the context of older writers, and of Sophocles in particular there were at least two Athenian writers—if we can call them Athe- nians—whose style received a tinge from the Herudotean λέξις εἰρομένη. There can be little doubt that the ἀφελὴς λόγος of Lysias, no less than the κοινὴ διάλεκτος of Xenophon, were based upon He- rodotus; for while there is no other style which they so much resemble, the presumption of an intercourse between Lysias and Herodotus, who were fellow-citizens of Thurii, and, with regard to Xenophon, the express testimony of the rhetorician Dionysius (de precip. Histor. p. 777 Reiske), may induce us to believe that this resemblance was not accidental, but intentional in both cases. Lysias was an Athenian in the same sense as Herodotus :—originally a μέτοικος, he joined the colony of Thurii, and afterwards returned to Athens, the home of his adoption. That Herodotus became ac- quainted with Lysias at Thurii and noticed his early promise, as he is said to have done in the case of Thucydides, is not stated, but it is at least possible that such was the case. It is, however, a most probable supposition that Xenophon, ‘a traveller like Herodotus, would endeavour to appropriate the style which had made the Halicar-
166
nassean’s history so popular. It is true, that as Herodotus was con- nected with a family of epic poets, he would introduce into his style more of the epic or Ionic dialect than could be expected from the would-be Athenian philosopher, to whom all rhapsodies and all poetry were an abomination. But set this aside, and we cannot fail to recognise in the writings of Xenophon, and especially in his later works, as strong a resemblance to the diction of the ‘‘ nine Muses,” as the ungenial and unpoetic soul of the banished mercenary could devise or execute.
The inferences to be drawn from these and other indications of a contact between the Athenians and Herodotus are the following :—
First, Herodotus must have regarded that part of his work which he originally composed as a sort of epopea, and he must have recited it as such at the public assemblies of the Greeks. What Cheerilus attempted in verse, Herodotus more successfully achieved in prose, namely an account of the Persian war, which won applause from the Greeks assembled at Olympia, and obtained very solid marks of approbation from the Athenians, when the author made it the sub- ject of an epideixis at the great Panathenzan festival.
Secondly, the work, as we now have it, was composed in accord- ance with a much more comprehensive plan. The author having retired to Thurii, as an Athenian μέτοικος, proceeded, im the leisure which he there enjoyed, to put together the results of all his previous investigations. ‘The great work which he there composed embodied the smaller books which he had previously recited or published: but even these books were much enlarged and improved before they were incorporated in the greater history. In general he seems to have written this Thurian history, not only as an Athenian (he called himself ὁ Θούριος, Aristot. Rhet. iii. 9), but for the Athenians. Almost all the references which he makes to events which occurred subse- quently to the Persian war are taken from Athenian history, or based upon information which he must have derived from Athenians. It is pretty clear from the phraseology of certain passages that he was not and had not recently been in Greece at the time when he composed his history as we now have it (cf. v. 77, viii. 121, &c.), but that he was in Italy and in the southern part of the peninsula (iv. 15, 99). In his hand-book for Scythia he speaks as one who would write for the information of Athenian navigators,—as a geo- grapher in fact, and not as a traveller. For example, in iy. 18, when he describes the position of the ‘YAa/y or ‘‘ woodland district,” he says: ἀτὰρ διαβάντι τὸν Βορυσθένεα ἀπὸ θαλάσσης, πρῶτον μὲν ἣ Ὑλαίη, i.e. ‘if you pass the Borysthenes coming from the sea, the first district on the other side of the river is the Hylea.” It is clear that the Hylea must have been on the right bank of the river, but this position would have been differently described if the author had spoken as a traveller journeying by land from the Danube to the Don. It is also a reasonable inference that, as Herodotus makes no mention of Rome, or of any other great or nascent power in Italy, he did not travel a great deal after he had once settled down at Thurii. He seems to have spent the latter half of his long life in
“oa NSE 0 Ano 0 eam
φόμν ἡδὺν =
167 .
comparative quiet and seclusion, studying such books as he could get, and reducing to writing, by the aid of an excellent memory, all the observations which he had made during his earlier and more ac- tive years. In a word, we are to consider Herodotus as one, who, having discovered his literary faculty in the brief epideixis which he wrote on the Persian war, and having, perhaps in consequence of this, become a favoured μέτοικος of the Athenians, spent the long years of leisure which he enjoyed as an Athenian subject, in group- ing around that original centre the results of all his manifold jour- neyings and observations, making them all tend to that, and stringing every successiye episode on the connecting thread of the interna- tional contacts of the Persians and the Greeks.
On Friday, January the 26th, the following paper will be read :—
“On the Languages and Dialects of the British Islands” (con- tinued). By the Rev. R. Garnett.
PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
Vou. I. JANUARY 26, 1844. No. 16.
Professor Wrson in the Chair.
The Chairman announced that a letter had been received from Mr. Cornewall Lewis, calling the attention of the Council to a sub- ject of great importance, namely, the compilation of a dictionary devoted to the archaic and provincial terms of the English language. - The Society certainly possessed within itself facilities for carrying such an object into effect, which were not probably at the command of any single individual; still many difficulties presented themselves, and the Council would not commit themselves to the recommenda- tion of any specific plan without the most mature deliberation. He was, however, authorized to state, that they would gladly receive, either from the members of the Society or other sources, any infor- mation which might tend to illustrate the past or present condition of our provincial dialects. It was believed that many gentlemen had made collections of provincial words, used-in their respective neighbourhoods, which were little likely ever to be published in a separate form, but which would be of the greatest service in the compilation of a dictionary such as the one contemplated. ΑἹ] lists of this description entrusted to the Society would be preserved with care, and might eventually be made available for the above-men- tioned design.
The following paper was then read :—
“On the Languages and Dialects of the British Islands :’”—Con- tinued. By the Rev. R. Garnett.
We now come to the portion of the subject most immediately in- teresting to ourselves,—the inquiry how far the Celtic dialects ap- pear to have influenced the current language of England. Though this at first sight appears a simple question, it is not without its difficulties ; at least, there are many points on which we cannot arrive at absolute certainty. Our parent language, the Anglo-Saxon, is, as a whole, very distinct from Welsh, or any other Celtic dialect;
“still there is a certain affinity between them, and it is necessary to distinguish carefully between what has been derived from what is merely collateral. Again, where terms have been actually adopted, it is not always clear which was the borrowing party. When dif- ferent races are in contact there is generally some interchange of vocables, and after a lapse of many centuries it is not in every case practicable to ascertain the original proprietorship. Moreover, Welsh and Armorican are partially Romanized languages, yet having many original roots closely cognate with the Latin; so that, in at-
170
tempting to eliminate mere Latinized words, it is often difficult to know where to stop. Adelung, the author of ‘ Mithridates,’ appears to have regarded the Germanic and Celtic languages as radically unconnected with each other; and, in pursuance of this idea, gives _ a long list of terms ostensibly borrowed by the Celts from their neighbours. On this one of his countrymen, much his superior as a comparative philologist, makes the following judicious remarks :—
«« Adelung’s comparison of modern Celtic words with Latin and German is very far from satisfactorily establishing the point which among others he attempts to deduce from it, namely, that the Cymru are undoubted descendants of the Belge, who are described by Czesar as much intermixed with Germans; and who consequently, on their emigration to Britain, brought with them many terms adapted from the Low German. Now many of the words alleged by him are not borrowed at all; and respecting others, it may be questioned whether they were not, on the contrary, borrowed by the Germans from the Celts. ‘To answer such nice questions properly requires a more profound and comprehensive investigation than has hitherto fallen to the lot of this class of languages. In some words the determination is easy; in some difficult ; in others, perhaps, ab- solutely impossible. In future it will be necessary carefully to se- parate what is really extraneous from the Celtic tongues before they can be safely employed for ethnographical or philological purposes. Little attention has hitherto been paid to this matter, and conse- quently a helpiess confusion has arisen with respect to these lan- guages and their genealogical relation to other branches, which it will cost endless trouble to unravel*.”
It is net our present purpose to enter upon the comprehensive field here pointed out, though we may furnish afew hints and data to- wards its fuller exploration. The inquiry with which we are more im- mediately concerned is, whether the Germanic tribes, and more parti- cularly the Anglo-Saxons, adopted words of Celtic origin, and to what extent? That some such process did take place is probable in itself and confitmed by the experience of many parallel cases. The Ro- mans themselves adopted various Gallic words; and our intercourse with the East has served to introduce a number.of Persian, Indian and even Chinese terms into our own language. It is, moreover, evident from the account given by Cesar and others, that the Gauls, though inferior to the Greeks and Romans in civilization, were more advanced than the Germans; and we know that the colonial Britons, prior to the breaking up of the Roman Empire, had acquired all the useful and ornamental arts of the Romans. The invading Franks” and Anglo-Saxons consequently found many implements, processes and artificial productions, of which they previously knew little or nothing; and what is more likely than that they should partially adopt the names by which they were designated ? We may also easily conceive that they would be occasionally struck by the apparent oddity of the words current among the conquered race, and employ
* Pott. (ap. Ersch and Gruber’s Encyclopedia); Art. INDOGERMANISCHER SPRACHSTAMM,
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_ them themselves in a familiar or ludicrous sense, in the same way that
flash terms are frequently used by educated Englishmen. An in- stance of each description will help to illustrate our meaning. We know from Martial that bascauda was a British word in the time of Domitian; and there is not the smallest reason to doubt that the Welsh basgawd and our own basket are perfectly identical with it in origin. Again, the verb to bother is seldom used by ourselves except in the comic or familiar style; but in the Irish, from which we originally adopted it, it is a perfectly serious word, and occurs repeatedly in the Scriptures in the sense or mente affligi or coniurbari. The same observations might be extended to other classes of words ; but to proceed to our immediate object of showing how far those influences have operated upon our current speech, we shall first produce a select list of terms relating to the ordinary arts of life, such as agriculture, masonry, carpentry, cookery, needle-work, &c., &c., which appear to be of Celtic origin. A few French, Italian and Germanic terms will be given for the sake of illustration, as also some apparently of Latin origin, when there appears reason to believe that they were adopted from the Celtic inhabitants of the island, ‘and not from the Latin or Anglo-Norman.
Welsh. ἘΝ Wit Panes 6 35 See ees basket. ow » Be She button. brag, malt, whence............ brasium, Lat. barb. bragedlyn, spiced wort ........ bragget. bran, skin of wheat............ bran. brat, clout, rag ...... ee brat, a child’s pinafore, Yorksh.
brodiaw, to darn, embroider .... broder, Fr. broider, E. " brywes, bread dipt in dripping, &e. brewis, Yorksh.
πε Ratchet... 5 8 oS Ger. beil ; E. bill. cab, caban, fut ...... Pere wee cabin. cae, enclosure, hedge .......... quay. ἀν TONE cee eee eres __ Ital. camino; Fr. chemin. : caned, applied to vinegar, ὅς., 2 eee ee ee full of white flakes. Cawg, Cup ..6. ΒΕ * COpere; Se νι προ Spo iiwc cs oo τος, cobble. clwt, paich, clytiaw, to patch clout : Ὁ ΟΝ OE δος ει τὸ ee GSO: cad schwag ἜΑΣΟΝ, inh craff, clasp, brace..........-.... cramp-iron ; Fr. agraffe. crampoez, Br. Com. campewae) crumpet. crochan, a pot. . ceee-ceees » Crock, crockery. - ES Serre ᾿ς. crook. crogi, to hang, suspend ........ Fr. crocher, accrocher.
* The Celtic terms in the following lists are Welsh, except when otherwise spe- . ified. Ff represents the ordinary f. Single f is pronounced like v. Abbreviations: —W. Welsh; G. Gaelic; Br. Breton; Fr. French; Ital. Italian; Ger. German; Sc. Lowland Scotch ; Prov. Provincial.
172
Welsh. ᾿ CEWG, Ὁ Πα δΖ | oa εχέν ὁ 0160: ale# τὰ Fr. crouste. ewch, boat........ cock-boat. ewysed (from ewys, ridge, furrow) gusset. ΟΥ̓}, GARGS. αν <05-0s Sunbln ave Sc. gully. OW ΟΥ̓Χ: 5... Ὁ bieebioms. wie Se kill, Proy.; kiln, Eng. chwiogen, cake, manchet..... .». whig, Yorksh., a sweetened cake. dantaeth, choice morsel........ dainty. darn, @, patch oie oainsiaonm ξεῖν darn. deintur, frame for stretching cloth tenter. dref, bundle; drefa, 24 sheaves .. threave. fase, αὐ. τοὶ ψο εις Ὡν Ja0ee fadge, Yorksh. fflaim, cattle-lancet..........+. fleam.
flasged, large wicker vessel .... flasket, Yorksh., a pail. flaw, shiver, splinter.......... flaw.
fixis, nan of cloths). 2... xsnvs os frieze. _ ffynel, air-hole, chimney........ funnel. μα τοῖν, JECk 16's σις xeeeis he gavelock, iron crow. gardas (gar, shank, tas, tie) .... garter. gefyn, fetter «os του τοι δὲν Yves greidell, tron baking-plate ...... griddle. grual ...... bette eee eee eee gruel. gwain, @-carriage ..........0.- wain. gwall, ranipart 0... 23+ 5 sias!siee wall. gwald, hem, border........ eos. ‘welt. gwdyn, awith.... ......se.... woodie, Sc.’ Swislen, 4 TOG. . 00002 ceo sy osi0\s gaule, Fr. gwiced, little door .......... wicket. ° gwlanen (from eel, wool)., flannel ; Heref. flannen. gwlhyb, Hguor . .-. 5 04.0002 60,00190 flip. EWN, TOOE τὸ s ded sp < fod aafds gown. ΑΝ a ane ee Br one wire. windle, measure of capacity, gwyntell, basket.... 2.2.00 abe ERA, Pp ty gwyth, channel, water-course. . ari Pa aaa also a river
heislan, heisyllt, instrument to tree hetchell. hschie: Dian desee son dsp ohebhape
eee DONG fin 53:5 Shes oop hem.
hob, measure of capacity........ hoop, gr. of a peck, N. Yorksh. |
hws, a covering ; hwsan, a hood.. housing.
DOWN, AOE as. >\d assy pices PP howve, O. Eng.
kadak, Br. (G. adhag) shock of hattooki' Verksh;
COTM cece cs cwseweetcovens
Hath, 70d .ososcne--+s csones lath. llogell, drawer, partition........ locker. Ilwyar, @ Spoon ..8}.....Ὁ Ὁ... ον 106], Ger. llymry, jelly made with oatmeal.. flummery. masg, stitch in netting .......- mesh.
magl, stitch in knitting ........ maille, Fr.
Welsh. Pe ames is ξοννβοι ee ees mattock.
mop, mopa, maukin, &c......... mop. mwrthwyl, hammer,........... martello, Ital. ΠΥ με. καὶ ἀρῶ: pail.
peep bles aid nc. εἸρϑᾶν.ς pan. acts fal. inclosure .......... park parsel, shooting-butt .......... bersaglio, Ital. peg, @ measure ........ peck. peled, ditile ball, bullet ........ pellet. picyn, a small hooped vessel .... _piggin. piser, a jug (Bret. picher)...... pitcher. potes, a cooked mess .......... pottage. : plymwriaeth, Jead-work........ bloomery «melting fiermace,,fawa- posned, saucepan ............ posnet, Yorksh. thail, a fence, mound .......... rail. thasg, a slice..-............. rasher. thasgliaw, to slice off, rasp...... racler, Fr. thic, rhig, notch, groove........ ridge.
« thigol, trench, drain .......... rigole, Fr.
et a a nee drill. rhim, raised edge or border...... rim. rhuwch, rough garment ........ rug. sawduriaw, to join, cement...... solder. Sarat; σαν ς΄ . . danish seam, lard, Prov soch, sink, drain.............. sough. ἴ sopen, lump, buach............ sop, Prov. lump of hay. swmer, a beam .............. summer-tree, syth, stiffening, glue, &e......... size. tacl, instrument, tool .......... tackle. taradr, an auger...... . tarriére, Fr tasel, fringe, tuft.............. tassel. teddu, fo spread.............. ted, to spread hay. υρβείρας literally, tail-trade, lowest tinker ; cf. Sc. caird. 7 torth, loaf, Br. tartez, cake...... tart; Fr. tourte. tres, chain or strap for drawing.. trace. trul, a borer. . ae act tA dena, drill ; Ital. trivella ystwe, shock of corn .......... stook, N. Eng.
Some thousands of familiar terms, to all appearance Celtic, might be collected from the various Romance and Germanic languages, especially from the provincial dialects. The following list, selec from a much larger one, may serve as a specimen :—
anterth, forenoon ............ oandurth, . enderv, Br., afternoon ........ yeandurth, } Lancashire. asbri, trick, mischief .......... spree ?
baldorddus, prating .......... balderdash.
174 a
Welsh. bas, low, shallow.......... -... bas, Fr.; base? bamein, Br., to bewitch, cheat.... bam, imposition. blew, hair of animals.......... flew, O. Eng. ; fur. bléd, Dan., soft (metaph., soft,
lod; Br., soft, tender, τς τον ως timid ; Soxblate:s
bourd, Br., trick, jest.......... bourd, Se.
braoued, Br. ; potio cocta ...... brodo, Ital. ; broth.
broud, Br., goad, point ........ prod, Prov. | oe burel, Br., coarse cloth ........ borel, O. Eng.
bwg, hobgoblin .......... ..+. bug, bugbear.
bwegwl, ditto ...... igi. -bople, Sei
bygylu, to threaten............ bully.
byrdew, short and thick, squabby.. purdy, Durham. carawl, (properly love-song).... carol. cebyr, rafter (Br. kebr, a couple) chevron.
cecys, hemlock: 202 i... 2. Hi kex. cefn (Br. kein), back.......... chine. ceitlen, smock-frock .......... kittel, Ger. cic, foot; ciciaw, strike with the ki ick.
bo. LOT iT ΕΝ ie ee cil, eee Senge .. gill, N. Eng., α ravine.. cluder, heap, pile........
loi ger ina ee \ -++. Cluther, Yorksh.
onipws, @fillip .. .. cae eves st nawp, Yorksh. cnoc, ἃ rap...... δος knock. endl, round summit, hillock. . τος knoll. cnul, cnull, passing bell........ knell; knoll, Yorksh. cob, a thump ....... seeeeeeee Cob, cobbing. coblya, G:6prile 4. τ τους οὐ τοῖϑος goblin ; cf. Ger. kobold. coctu, to tadulge. . 06... ζώνας cocker. cog, truncheon; cogel, short staff cudgel. crim, crimp, ridge ...-.. : crimpiaw, to raise in ridges se cris, scale, crust; crisb, crisp coat-
ing; crisblu, crumbling ...... } re
crwth, fiddle.. crythwr, fiddler ee eevee ervretee erwoan, to bead; crwcwd, ἘΠῚ crouch
crowd, crowder.
ting ; cwre, cwrewd, id... .... cwrian, to τρία ΕΔ, cower. cwta, short. . Fra eines ΤΣ MOMs Re cwtws, a lot ........ cut (draw cuts). cwll, separation ; cyllu, separate. . cull. Chwanit, Gears --. cceee recess Walt. chwap, smart stroke .......... Whap. chwedleua, to prate, gossip...... twaddle. dwn, dusky (Gael. don, brown).. dun. elv, Bret., white poplar ......+. alb, Ger.
esmwyth, even, soft ...... νον. smooth.
Welsh. fagl, blaze, flame...........--. fackel, Ger. torch. filawg (properly starting, skittish), filly.
@ young πιαγϑο.. 009 Ὁ foriwr, explorer, scout.........- foriere, Ital. Ne fudge. LR Ieee τὸς fog ; Yorksh. eddish; Sc. moss. fwrw, fwrwr, down..........-.- far. fwtog, scut, short tail......-... fud ; Prov. Ger. and Se. gil, fermentation. .........--- .« gyle-fat, Yorksh.; wort-tub. glwth, voracious.............. glouton, Fr.; glutton. PRO eg EI Ee ie Se glen grawn, roe of fishes............ rawn, N. Eng grymialu, fo murmur.......... mble gwammalu, to waver .........- wamble, wabble gwastel, Bret., cake ..... . wastel; O. Fr. gastel gwariaw, to spend ....... ware, Yorksh gwas, youth, servant .......... vassus, vassallus, Lat. barb.; gwasawl, serving ........ eas vassal.
gweddu, to yoke, unite, marry.... wed. gwics, to.corryabout for sele\ sk hawker.
gwicawr, pedlar.......... .
_ gwichyn, a pole-cat............ fitch, fitchet.
| Se ee Pere Se τα οδεναδπακξ,. 5 6 o:00ins ode vee wanker: Ger. gwylaw, to τοεὲρ... 0.2... ὑπ 24.. wail hebog, accipiter .. ..........-- hawk hecian, to halt, limp ...:..--.. hitch. herlawd, a youth. .......-. 2+. harlot, O. Eng. ; @ man servant. herlodes, a hoyden..........-. harlot, meretriz. hochi, to erpectorate .....+...- hawk. πού νει d cia. s sids bead hoyden hwch, @ swine....... We νυν hog Machiaw, to cudgel............ lick law, hand ; lawf, palm. . lofi, Isl. ; loof, Se See οἷς lad eT oe eee Perr eee lass. Εν to glide, slip........-. slidder, Prov.
ug, partial; in comp. e. gr. llugdwym, tepid. . . τον ated } “1 Inkewerm, llumon, chimney...........-.- lum, Se. loumber, Br. ditto...........- loover, Prov.. maadredd, μος 5... ὉὕὉὌὍὙτ matter. Mollt, a wether ..........4..- moulton, O. Fr. ; montone, Ital. ; aram; mutton.
mwygl, tepid, sultry ........-- muggy. Mugiaw, to shake.............- nudge Osi, to attempt, venture ........ oss, Lancash. pan, down, fur, nap............ pane, O. Eng. paneg, penygen, entrails........ paunch.
VOL, I. N
Welsh. ‘piciaw, to throw. «εν. τὲ ss90 vl pigwn, turret, alarm-tower, &c... pine, smart, gay.......-.0++-s posiaw, to interrogate, embarrass priawd, possessed, owned, spouse. . priodas, marriage; priodi, to marry pwea, hobgoblin........ valet pwmp, round mass; dim. pwmpl RROD SGis oc + ἐπ δῆς σίνος εν εἰ ὔιρὰ
pwtian, to thrust, butt.......... rhawd, a drove, heap .. 4“ ruth, Gorn., dette ..0.55.3% 5s 50 rhwyb, to tear, snatch ........ rhwyg, ditto skor, Br., prop, stay ....<e+-- skourjez (fr. skourr, branch, 8c.) ΙΒ, 5 BEL GIGON οι εν dine aie x's souba, Gr. to dip .
soegi, 60, BECEP. . oie io ss 8a ts 450 stanka, Br., to dan up, obstruct. . tal, lofty, of high stature. . : tariaw, to loiter, stay.......-.. tasg, a job, piece-work, ...
tociaw, to cut short.... ἐς topyn, @ crest, ..... 2. ccccdacs tosiaw, to jerk, throw...... TE tripiaw, to stumble. . Εν troddi, move forward, “progress . 2: trwyn, @snout........ 0006.5 oe wyna, oena, to bear lambs......
The above examples, which are not a twentieth part of wh
a bride.
᾿ \ bump, pimple.
pink, to adorn, &e. pose, puzzle.
puck.
put, pote, Prov. ; to poke, butt. rout, O. Eng., a-crowd. = routh, Sc., abundance. rive.
rug, Sc., to tear.
shore.
scourge.
sile, Yorksh.
sop, soup.
soak
stanch.
tall.
tarry.
task.
dock.
toppin, Yorksh.
toss.
trip ; cf. Fr. trebucher. - trudge. . τε trogne, Fr. «ἃ yean. ;
might be alleged, will, it is presumed, show how necessary it is for
the etymologist to take the Celtic element into consideration in the investigation of the languages of Western Europe. lieved that most of the above terms are genuine Celtic, though it is possible that in a few cases the counterparts given may not he de-
It is be-
rived from them, but only collateral. It may, however, be observed, that the finding an isolated term in an Anglo-Saxon or German yo- cabulary by no means proves it to be vernacular to that language.
Many words occur in ‘ Lye’s Dictionary,’ for instance, derived fr om. the glossaries of the eleventh century, which are notoriously not g nuine Anglo-Saxon, and cannot be traced to any known roots in th he For instance, we find comb, a valley, which i
Germanic tongues.
not Saxon nor ever was, being evidently the Welsh cwm. It is ¢ *
vious that many other terms may be in the same predicament; ey the presence of a word in a number of ancient dialects does πὸ t prove it to belong to that class of languages. for the present to adduce a single example.
It will be sufficient
|
177
The word Jeather, in one form or other, occurs in all the Celtic and most of the Teutonic dialects ; the question, therefore; is to de- termine in which it is most likely to be vernacular. It is to be ob- served in the first place, that the manufacture of leather was un- doubtedly more extensively practised by the Gauls than by the Germanic tribes, as described by Tacitus. Secondly, the word is of ancient currency among the Celts, as is shown by its appearing in all the dialects, and in the earliest known compositions; for ex- ample, in the poems of Taliesin, believed to be of the sixth century. Moreover, there is strong evidence that it never was a vernacular Anglo-Saxon term. It scarcely ever appears as a distinct word, its occurrence being nearly confined to a few compound names of ma- nufactured articles, for which A‘lfric’s glossary is almost the sole authority. Finally, it is important to observe that it is significant in Celtic, being derived from W. lled, G. leathan, broad, flat; while in the Germanic dialects it has no known etymology. Should all these considerations lead us to conclude that the Germans borrowed the word from the Celts, it is obvious to infer that the same process might take place with respect to. many other terms of similar import.
The various speculations connected with general philology de- ducible from the subject which we have been considering, would lead us into too wide a field at present. Some of them may perhaps afford matter for a subsequent paper; it will be sufficient on this
_ occasion to advert briefly to a single class of words, which appears to
present some interesting phenomena.
Words with initial gw in Welsh or Breton generally correspond with the Sanscrit and German initial w, Latin v, Italian gu, French 5, and Gaelic f: e. gr. W. gwéu, to weave; Sansc. wé; Bret. gwasta, to ravage; Lat. vastare; Ital. guustare; O. Fr. gaster; Eng. waste; Gael. fasaich. Some words of this class deserve to be more par- ticularly adverted to. It is well known that a number of vocables in the Teutonic dialects begin with gu, or some equivalent combina- tion ; and it is remarkable that a great proportion of them correspond to Cymric terms with initial gw or cw. The Meeso-Gothic, the oldest Germanic language, exhibits in its present state eleven lead- ing words of this class, eight of which may be referred with great probability to Cymric or Armorican counterparts.
qvainon (or in Gabelentz’s ortho- graphy, qainon, to whine; Du. >W. cwyno. BW YDEN). <6 o-oo eves
“Qairnus, guern or “hand-mill ; in| gwyraw, to revolve. (cf. North
Holstein, quarr............ Frisic, querdel, a weathercock.)
gairrus, placid, mild; Swed. qvar. gwar, id.
gal (u. v. subjugation) ; A.S.cwaele, _ destruction, &c.; cwellan, to >gwalla, to injure, destroy. ΠΟ MUD Ἐς sk ct qens, a woman................ gwen (properly a fair one), female, githan (O. Germ. quedan, to say) gwedyd. n2
178
qivs, alive (vivus) ...... eee gwio, Br., vivacious. qistjan, to destroy ......-. 006 gwasta, Br., id.
The three remaining terms giman, to come, githus, the womb, and gramms, wet (Dan. klam, Eng. clammy), may possibly be connected with W. camu, to step; ceudawd, the womb or inside; and gwlyb, moisture, Bret. gleb; but they do not manifest the strict parallelism of form which appears in the other words. ° The following coincidences with Anglo-Saxon and the Low Ger- man dialects may also be noticed :—
ewacian, to quake, A.S......... gwegiaw, to totter. cwartern (custodie domus), prison gwared, to guard. cwanian, to pine, languish...... gwan, weak, feeble.
quad, Low Germ., bad ........ gwaeth, worse. quaddern, to prate............ chwedleua, id. quarke, the throat ........... . gwar, the neck.
quinka, to flutter, start ........ gwinka, Br., to wince.
quide, to complain(A.S.cwythan) gwyth, wrath, indignation.
quasse, Prov. Dan., to squeeze .. gwasga, id.
quakka, to croak, quack,....... gwacha, Br., to croak.
cuthe, A. S., known .......... gwydd, knowledge.
quaint (O. Fr. coint), smart, spruce, &c.; N. Yorksh., whent, >gwaint (Br. koant), neat, trim. Strange ...... bee ble ὃ ὁ Sie Site
quip, sarcasm, δὲ gwib, sudden course; chwipyn, —
quick turn. quibble, verbal evasion, &c....... gwibl, a turn, quirk. quer, Germ. athwart.......... gwyr, oblique, awry.
quarl, Low Germ., pustule, ster) warble, a swelling in cattle caused by insects. qwill, Swed., evening.......... gwyll, darkness. queelder, Du., low ground outside \ gwaelawd, low ground, a bottom; Re GRO 6568s Ls Sb ats gwaelder, lowness.
Pel
:
i
ἿΣ werbel, Bret., a tumour; ch
es
4
>
»
The above and similar words may furnish a useful clue for tracing — the origin of many French and Italian words commencing with g and gu. For example, the comparison of galopper and gualoppare, — shows that u or w was an original portion of the word; and this di- rects us to W. gwilhobain, literally to make quick jumps, an excellent — analysis of the meaning of the term. The Scottish wallop is the same word with the loss of the guttural. *
Many more coincidences might be produced, particularly from the — Romance and provincial German dialects; but the above are suffi- cient to establish the analogy. Commonly the above initials corre- spond to a simple w in Sanscrit: for instance, wad, to speak, is the root agreeing with the W. gwedyd, and O. Germ. quedan ; but some- |
times a different characteristic appears: 6. gr. jiva is the Sanserit representative of Goth. givs; hansa (goose) of Bret. gwaz and harit (green) of W. gwerdd. It may, therefore, be suspected that those
179
and similar words have emanated from primitive forms resembling ᾿ the Celtic, and that the prototype of Aarit, for example, was more like W. gwerdd than the Latin viridis. Something analogous ap- pears to have existed in some of the older German dialects ; at least Paulus Diaconus assures us that Woden was called Gwoden by the Langobardi. The resemblance of the Langobardic form to the Gwydion of Welsh mythology is not unworthy of notice. O’Brien’s etymology of Dia Ceadaoine, the Irish name of Wednesday, gq. d. the day of Gwodan, is specious enough, but will not bear examina- tion. It is merely cead, or ceud aoine, the former fast; Friday, simply called aoine, the fast, being regarded as the more consider- able one.
The initial chw in Welsh words is in some cases a mere mutation of gw, but in general it corresponds to the Sanscrit and German sw, swasri, sister, W. chwaer; swadu, sweet, W. chweg; swid, to sweat, W. chwysu. The W. chwech, six, in conjunction with the remark- ‘able Pushtoo spash, would imply that the Sanscrit shash was ori- ginally swash, or something like it. The Gaelic generally preserves the sibilant and drops the labial; e. gr. sior, sister, sant, desire (W. chwant), which again would suggest a suspicion that a similar pro- cess may have taken place with the Sanscrit s’ans, desiderare. A root swans, supposing it to have ever existed, would exactly har- monize with W. chwant, desire, chwennych to wish, according to the usual law of permutation. The Germanic dialects, it is well known, agree most faithfully with the Sanscrit in this combination. The _ Slavonic ones, including Lithuanian and Lettish, stand in the next degree of proximity, but occasionally manifest a disposition to drop the labial. The other cognate languages either substitute a guttural or an aspirate, harden the w into p, vocalize it, or drop it altogether, as will be rendered manifest by tracing the Sanscrit swid, to sweat, and swid, white, through their various affiliations. Pictet refers the Gaelic speur, sky, firmament, to Sanscrit swar ; if it really is of that origin, and not, as there is room to suspect, a mere disfigurement of sphera, it is a remarkable instance of the hard or Median form in a western dialect. Piuthar, G., sister, in which the sibilant appears to be dropt, seems to give some countenance to its genuineness. Compare W. yspyddyn, the white thorn ; Armenian spid, white; Pers. sipid, &c., ὅς.
There are some remarkable coincidences between Welsh and Ar- Morican words commencing with gw., and Sanscrit roots with initial s’w (palatal s), which it would exceed our present limits to discuss more particularly.
On Friday, EOMTBAEY, the 23rd, the tila: papers read :— f ty
1. “On the Language of the Ancient | Lycians.” ‘By ae Esq. “On the Reformation of English Orthography.” ai iy, Esq.
ce See eae
PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
Vou. L. FEBRUARY 9, 1844. No. 17.
Professor Key in the Chair. The following works were laid on the table :—
The Numismatic Chronicle, No. 22. Presented by the Numis- matic Society.
Dictionary of the English Language, by C. Richardson, Esq. Pre- sented by the author.
The following paper was then read :—
“Οπ the evidence of a connection between the Cimbri and the Chersonesus Cimbrica.” By Professor Latham.
It is considered that the evidence of any local connection between the Cimbri conquered by Marius, and the Chersonesus Cimbrica, is insufficient to counterbalance the natural improbability of a long’and difficult national migration. Of such a connection, however, the iden- tity of name and the concurrent belief of respectable writers are prima facie evidence. This, however, is disposed of if such a theory as the following can be established, viz. that, for certain reasons, the knowledge of the precise origin and locality of the nations conquered by Marius was, at an early period, confused and indefinite; that
“new countries were made known without giving any further informa-
tion ; that hence, the locality of the Cimbri was always pushed for- wards beyond the limits of the geographical areas accurately ascer-
_ tained ; and finally, that thus their supposed locality retrograded con-
tinually northwards until it fixed in the districts of Sleswick and Jut- land, where the barrier of the sea, and the increase of geographical knowledge (with one exception) prevented it from getting farther. Now this view arises out of the examination of the language of the historians and geographers as examined in order, from Sallust to Ptolemy.
Of Sallust and Cicero, the language points to Gaul as the home of the nation in question; and that without the least intimation of its being any particularly distant portion of that country. ‘‘ Per idem tempus adversus Gallos ab ducibus nostris, Q. Czpione et M. Manlio, malé pugnatum—Marius Consul absens factus, et ei de- ¢ereta Provincia Gallia.” Bell. Jugurth.114. ‘ Ipse ille Marius—in- fluentes in Italiam Gallorum maximas copias repressit.” Cicero de Prov. Consul. 13. And here an objection may be anticipated. It is undoubtedly true that even if the Cimbri had originated in a locality so distant as the Chersonese, it would have been almost impossible to have made such a fact accurately understood. Yet it
182
is also true, that if any material difference had existed between the
Cimbri and the Gauls of Gaul, such must have been familiarly known
in Rome, since slaves of both sorts must there have heen common. Cesar, whose evidence ought to be conclusive (inasmuch as he
knew of Germany as well as of Gaul), fixes them to the south of the
Marne and Seine. This we learn, not from the direct text, but from inference: ‘‘ Gallos—a Belgis Matrona et Sequana dividit.” Bell. Gall. i. ‘‘ Belgas—solos esse qui, patrum nostram memoria, omni Gallia vexata, Teutones Cimbrosque intra fines suos ingredi prohi- buerunt.” Bell. Gall. ii. 4. Now if the Teutones and Cimbri had moved from north to south, they would have clashed with the Belge first and with the other Gauls afterwards. The converse, however, was the fact. It is right here to state, that the last observation may be explained away by supposing, either that the Teutones and Cimbri here meant may be a remnant of the confederation on their return, or else a portion that settled down in Gaul upon their way ; or finally, a division that made a circle towards the place of their destination in a south-east direction. None of these however seem the plain and natural construction; and I would rather, if reduced to the alterna-
tive, read “" Germania” instead of ‘‘ Gallia” than acquiesce in the
most probable of them.
Diodorus Siculus, without defining their locality, deals throughout —
with the Cimbri as a Gaulish tribe. Besides this, he gives us one of the elements of the assumed indistinctness of ideas in regard to their origin, viz. their hypothetical connexion with the Cimmerii. In this recognition of what might have been called the Cimmerian theory, he is followed by Strabo and Plutarch.—Diod. Sieul. v. 82. Strabo, vii. Plutarch. Vit. Marit.
The next writer who mentions them is Strabo. In confirmation of the view taken above, this author places the Cimbri on the north- ernmost limit of the area geographically known to him, viz. beyond Gaul and in Germany, between the Rhine and the Elbe: roy δὲ Γερ- paver, ὡς εἶπον, ot μὲν προσάρκτιοι παρηκοῦσι τῷ ᾿Ὠκεανῷ. Γνωρίζον- ται δ᾽ ἀπὸ τῶν ἐκβολῶν τοῦ Ῥήνου λάβοντες τὴν ἀρχὴν. μέχρι τοῦ “ ks Bus. Τούτων δὲ εἰσὲ γνωριμώτατοι Σούγαμβροί τε καὶ Κίμβροι. Τὰ δὲ πέραν τοῦ Αλβιος τὰ πρὸς τῷ ‘Oxeavg παντάπασιν ἄγνωστα ἡμῖν ἐστιν. (Β. iv.) Further proof that ‘this was the frontier of the Roman world we get from the statement which soon follows, viz. that “thus much was known to the Romans from their successful wars, and that more would have been known had it not been for the injunction of Augustus forbidding his generals to cross the Elbe.” (B. iv.)
Velleius Paterculus agrees with his contemporary Strabo. He places them beyond the Rhine, and deals with them as Germans :— “(χη Cimbri et Teutoni transcendere. Rhenum, multis mox nostris suisque cladibus nobiles.” (ii. 9.) ‘‘ Effusa—immanis vis Germanarum gentium quibus nomen Cimbris et Teutonis erat.” (Jbid. 12.)
From the Germania of Tacitus a well-known passage will be con- sidered in the sequel. Tacitus’ locality coincides with that of Strabo.
Ptolemy.—Now the author who most mentions in detail the tribes
—
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beyond the Elbe is also the author who most pushes back the Cimbri towards the north. Cuvincident with his improved information 4s to the parts southward, he places them at the extremity of the area known to him: Kavyoe of μείζονες μέχρι τοῦ ᾿Αλβίου ποταμοῦ" ἐφεξῆς δὲ ἐπὶ avyeva τῆς Κιμβρικῆς Χερσονήσου Σάξονες, αὑτὴν ξὲ τὴν Χερσόνησον" ὑπὲρ μὲν τοὺς Σάξονας, Σιγουλώνες ἀπὸ δυσμῶν" εἶτα Σαβαλίγγιοι, εἶτα Κόβανδοι, ὑπὲρ ods Χάλοι᾽ καὶ Ere ὑπερτάτους δυσμι- κώτεροι μὲν Φουνδούσιοι, ἀνατολικώτεροι δὲ Χαροῦδες, πάντων δὲ ἀρκτι- κώτεροι Κύμβροι.----ΞΠἸοἰεπιεεὶ Germania.
Such is the evidence of those writers, Greek or Roman, who deal with the loca] habitation of the Cimbri rather than with the general history of that tribe. As a measure of the indefinitude of their ideas, we have the confusion, already noticed, between the Cimbri and Cimmerii, on the parts of Diodorus, Strabo, and Plutarch. A better measure occurs in the following extract from Pliny, who not only fixes the Cimbri in three places at once, but also (as far as we can find any meaning in his language) removes them so far northward as Norway : “‘ Alterum genus Ingevones, quorum pars Cimbri Teutoni ac Chaucorum gentes. Proximi Rheno Istevones, quorum pars Cimbri mediterranei.” (iv. 14.) “ Promontorium Cimbrorum excurrens in maria longe Peninsulam efficit que Carthis appellatur.” Ibid. **Sevo Mons (the mountain-chains of Norway) immanem ad Cimbrorum usque promontorium efficit sinum, qui Codanus vocatur, refertus in- sulis, quarum clarissima Scandinavia, incomperte magnitudinis.” (iv. 13.) Upon confusion like this it is not considered necessary to expend further evidence. So few statements coincide, that under all views there must be a misconception somewhere; and of such misconception great must the amount be, to become more improbable than a national migration from Jutland to Italy.
Over and above, however, this particular question of evidence, there stands a second one; viz. the determination of the ethno- graphical relations of the nations under consideration. This is the point as to whether the Cimbri conquered by Marius were Celts
or Goths, akin to the Gauls, or akin to the Germans; a disputed
point, and one which, for its own sake only, were worth discussing, even at the expense of raising a wholly independent question. Such however it is not. If the Cimbri were Celts, the improbability of their originating in the Cimbric Chersonese would be increased, and with it the amount of evidence required; since, laying aside other considerations, the natural unlikelihood of a large area being tra- versed by a mass of emigrants is greatly enhanced by the fact of any intermediate portion of that area being possessed by tribes as alien to each other as the Gauls and Germans. Hence therefore the fact of the Cimbri being Celts will (if proved) be considered as making against the probability of their origin in the Cimbric Chersonese ; whilst if they be shown to be Goths, the difficulties of the suppo- sition wil] be in some degree diminished. Whichever way this latter point is settled, something will be gained for the historian ; since the supposed presence of Celts in the Cimbric Chersonese has compli- cated more than one question in ethnography.
184 ase
Previous to proceeding in the inquiry it may be well to lay down once for all as a postulate, that whatever, in the way of ethnography, is proved concerning any one tribe of the Cimbro-Teutonic league, must be considered as proved concerning the remainder; since all explanations grounded upon the idea that one part was Gothic and another part Celtic have a certain amount of primd facie improba- bility to set aside. The same conditions as to the burden of proof apply also to any hypotheses founded on the notion of retiring Cim- bri posterior to the attempted invasion of Italy. On this point the list of authors quoted will not be brought below the time of Ptolemy. With the testimonies anterior to that writer, bearing upon the ques- tion of the ethnography, the attempt however will be made to be ex- haustive. Furthermore, as the question in hand is not so much the absolute fact as to whether the Cimbri were Celts or Goths, but one as to the amount of evidence upon which we believe them to be either the one or the other, statements will be noticed under the head of evidence, not because they are really proofs, but simply because they have ever been looked upon as such. Beginning then with the Germanic origin of the Cimbro-Teutonic confederation, and dealing separately with such tribes as are separately mentioned, we first find the
Ambrones.—In the Anglo-Saxon poem called the Traveller’s Song, there is a notice of a tribe called Ymbre, Ymbras, or Ymbran. Suhm, the historian οὗ Denmark, has allowed himself to imagine that these represent the Ambrones, and that their name still exists in that of the island Amron of the coast of Sleswick, and perhaps in Amerland, a part of Oldenburg.—Thorpe’s note on the Traveller’s Song in the Codex Exoniensis.
Teutones.—In the way of evidence of there being Teutones amongst the Germans, over and above the associate mention of their names with that of the Cimbri, there is but little. They are not so men- tioned either by Tacitus or Strabo. Ptolemy, however, mentions a) the Teutonarii, ὁ) the Teutones: Tevrovodpio καὶ Οὐέρουνοι---- Φαραδεινῶν δὲ καὶ Σνήβων, Tebvroves cai” Apapro. Besides this, however, arguments have been taken from 4) the meaning of the root teut=people (piuda, M. G.; pedd, A. 8.; diot, O. H. 6.) : δ) the Saltus Teutobergius : c) the supposed connection of the present word Deut-sch= German with the classical word Teut-ones. These may briefly be disposed of.
a.) It is not unlikely for an invading nation to call themselves the nation, the nations, the people, &c. Neither, if the tribe in question had done so (presuming them to have been Germans or Goths), would the word employed be very unlike Teuton-es. Although the word piud-a= nation or people, is generally strong in its declension (so
making the plural piud-ds), it is found also in a weak form with its
plural ¢hiot-dn = Teuton-. See Deutsche Grammatik, i. 630.
ὁ.) The Saltus Teutobergius mentioned by Tacitus (Ann. i, 60) can scarcely have taken its name from a tribe, or, on the other hand, have given it to one. It means either the hill of the people, or the city of the people; according as the syllable -berg- is derived from
at tea Gare ad ἃ
185
bdirgs =a hill, or from bairgs=a city. In either case the com- pound is allowable, e. g. diot-wéc, public way, O. H. G. ; thiod-scatho, robber 4 the people, O. S.; pééd-cyning, peod-mearc, boundary of the nation, A. S.; pidd-land, pidd-végr, people’s way, Icelandic ;—Theud- e-mirus, Theud- e-linda, Theud-i-gotha, proper names (from piud-) : himil-bérac, velt-pérac, fridu-pérac, O. H. G.; himinbidrg, valbidrg, Icelandic (from bdirgs = hill)—ascipure, hasalpure, salizpure, &c., O. H. G. (from bairgs = city). The particular word diot-puruc = civitas magna occurs in Ὁ. H. G.—See Deutsche Grammaitik, iii. Ρ. 478.
6.) Akin to this is the reasoning founded upon the connection (real or supposed) between the root Teut- in Teuton-, and the root deut- in Deut-sch. It runs thus. The syllable in question is common to the word Teut-ones, Teut-onicus, Theod-iscus, teud-iscus, teut-iscus, tat- iske, dit-iske, tiut-sche, deut-sch; whilst the word Deut-sch means German. As the Teut-ones were Germans, so were the Cimbri also. Now this line of argument is set aside by the circumstance that the syllable Teut- in Teut-ones and Teut-onicus, as the names of the con- federates of the Cimbri, is wholly unconnected with the Teut- in theod-iscus, and Deut-sch. This is fully shown by Grimm in his dis- sertation on the words German and Dutch. In its oldest form the latter word meant popular, national, vernacular; it was an adjective applied to the vulgar tongue, or the vernacular German, in opposition to the Latin. In the tenth century the secondary form Teut-onicus came in vogue even with German writers. Whether this arose out of imitation of the Latin form Romanice, or out of the idea of an histo- rical connection with the Teutones of the classics, is immaterial. It is clear that the present word deut-sch proves nothing respecting the Teutones. Perhaps, however, as early as the time of Martial the word Teutonicus was used in a general sense, denoting the Germans in general. Certain it is that before his time it meant the particular people conquered by Marius, irrespective of origin or locality.—See Grimm’s Deutsche Grammatik, i. p. 17, 3rd edit. Martial, xiv. 26, Teutonici capilli. Claudian. in Eutrop. i. 406, Teutonicum hostem.
The Cimbri.—Evidence to the Gothic origin of the Cimbri (treated separately) begins with the writers under Augustus and Tiberius.
Vell. Paterculus.—The testimony of this. writer as to the affinities of the nations in question is involved in his testimony as to their locality, and, consequently, subject to the same criticism. His men- tion of them (as Germans) is incidental.
Strabo.—Over and above the references already made, Strabo has certain specific statements concerning the Cimbri: a.) That according to a tradition (which he does not believe) they left their country on account of an inundation of the sea. This is applicable to Germany rather than to Gaul. This liability to inundations must not, how- ever, be supposed to indicate a locality in the Cimbric Chersonese as well as a German origin, since the coast between the Scheldt and Elbe is as obnoxious to the ocean as the coasts of Holstein, Sleswick and Jutland. 6.) That against the German Cimbri and - Teutones the Belge alone kept their ground—dore μόνους (Βέλγας)
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ἀντέχειν πρὸς τὴν τῶν Γερμάνων ἔφοδον, Κίμβρων καὶ Τευτόνων (iv. 3.) This is merely a translation of Cesar (see above) with the in- terpolation Iepuavwy. c.) That they inhabited their original coun- try, and that they sent ambassadors to Augustus—«ai yap νῦν ἔχουσι τὴν χώραν ἣν εἴχον πρότερον, καὶ ἔπεμψαν τῷ Σεβαστῷ δῶρον τὸν ἱερώτατον παρ᾽ αὐτοῖς, λέβητα, αἰτούμενοι φιλέαν καὶ ἀμνηστίαν τῶν ὑπουργμένων᾽ τύχοντες δὲ ὧν ἡξίουν ἀφῇραν. (Β. 1.) Full weight must be given to the definite character of this statement.
Tacitus.—Tacitus coincides with Strabo, in giving to the Cimbri a specific locality, and in stating special circumstances of their history. Let full weight be given to the words of a writer like Ta- citus ; but let it also be remembered that he wrote from hearsay evi- dence, that he is anything rather than an independent witness, that his statement is scarcely reconcileable with those of Ptolemy and Cesar, and that above all the locality which both he and Strabo give the Cimbri is also the locality of the Sicambri, of which latter tribe no mention is made by Tacitus, although their wars with the Ro- mans were matters of comparatively recent history. For my own part, I think, that between a confusion of the Cimbri with the Cim- merii on the one hand, and of the Cimbri with the Sicambri on the other, we have the clue to the misconceptions assumed at the com- mencement of the paper. There is no proof that in the eyes of the writers under the Republic, the origin of the Cimbri was a matter of either doubt or speculation. Catulus, in the History of his Consul- ship, commended by Cicero (Brutus,xxxv.), and Sylla in his Commen- taries, must have spoken of them in a straightforward manner as Gauls, otherwise Cicero and Sallust would have spoken of them less decidedly. (See Plutarch’s Life of Marius and note.) Confusion arose when Greek readers of Homer and Herodotus began to theorize, and this grew greater when formidable enemies under the name of Sicambri were found in Germany. It is highly probable that in both Strabo and Tacitus we have a commentary on the lines of Ho- race—
Te cede gaudentes Sicambri Compositis venerantur armis.
“‘Eumdem (with the Chauci, Catti, and Cherusci) Germaniz sinum proximi Oceano Cimbri tenent, parva nunc civitas, sed gloria ingens : veterisque fame lata vestigia manent, utraque ripa castra ac spatia, quorum ambitu nunc quoque metiaris molem manusque gentis, et tam magni exitiis fidem—occasione discordize nostre et civilium armorum, expugnatis legionum hibernis, etiam Gallias affectavére ; ac rursus pulsi, inde proximis temporibus triumphati magis quam victi sunt.” (German. 38.)
Justin.—Justin writes—‘“ Simul e Germanid Cimbros—inundasse Italiam.” Now this extract would be valuable if we were sure that the word Germania came from Justin’s original, Trogus Pompeius ; who was a Vocontian Gaul, living soon after the Cimbric defeat. To him, however, the term Germania must have been wholly unknown; since, besides general reasons, Tacitus says—‘‘ Germanie vocabulum
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recens et nuper additum : quoniam, qui primum Rhenum transgressi Gallos expulerint, ac nunc Tungri, tunc Germani vocati sint : ita nationis nomen, non gentis, evaluisse paullatim, ut omnes, priniim a victore ob metum, mox a seipsis invento nomine Germani vocarentur.” Justin’s interpolation of Germanid corresponds with the similar one on the part of Strabo.
Such is the evidence for the Germanic origin of the Cimbri and Teutones, against which may now be set the following testimonies as to their affinity with the Celts, each tribe being dealt with sepa- rately.
The Ambrones.—Strabo mentions them along with the Tigurini, an undoubted Celtic tribe—Kara τὸν πρὸς "Αμβρωνας καὶ Twiyevous πόλεμον.
Suetonius places them with the Transpadani—“ per Ambronas et Transpadanos.” (Cesar, § 9.)
Plutarch mentions that their war-cries were understood and an- swered by the Ligurians. Now it is possible that the Ligurians were Celts, whilst it is certain that they were not Goths.
The Teutones.— Appian speaks of the Teutones having invaded Noricum, and this under the head Κέλτσικα.
Florus calls one of the kings of the Teutones Teutobocchus, a name Celtic rather than Gothic.
Virgil has the following lines :—
ana dns late jam tum ditione premebat
Sarrastes populos, et que rigat equora Sarnus ;
Quique Rufas, Batulumque tenent, atque arva Celennz ;
Et quos maliferze despectant mecenia Abellz :
Teutonico ritu soliti torquere cateias.
Tegmina queis capitum raptus de subere cortex,
fErateque micant pelt, micat zreus ensis.—n. vii. 737-743.
Now this word cateia may be a provincialism from the neighbour- hood of Sarraste. It may also (amongst other things) be a true Teutonic word. From what follows it will appear that this latter view is at least as likely as any other. The commentators state that it is vor Celtica. ‘That this is true may be seen from the fol- lowing forms—lIrish: ga, spear, javelin; gaoth, ditto, a dart; goth, a spear (O’Reilly); gaothadh, a javelin; gadh, spear; gai, ditto; crann gaidh, spear-shaft (Begly)—Cornish : geu, gew, gu, gui=Tlance, spear, javelin, shaft (Pryce)—Breton : goas, goaff (Rostremer).
Considering the peculiarities of the Celtic pronounciation, this word cateia is perhaps the ges-um of another part of Virgil, and the ὕσσ-ος of Appian, as well as the English word goad.
The Cimbri—The Teutones.—Of either the Cimbri separately or of the Cimbri and Teutones collectively, being of Gallic origin, we have, in the way of direct evidence, the testimonies exhibited above, viz. of Sallust, Cicero, Cesar, Diodorus. To this may be added that of Dion Cassius, who not only had access to the contem accounts which spoke of them as Gauls, but also was enabled to use
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them critically, being possessed of information concerning Germany as well as France.
Of Appian the whole evidence goes one way, viz. that the tribes in question were Gauls. His expressions are: πλεῖστον τι καὶ μαχι- μώτατον---χρῆμα Kedrwy eis τὴν ᾿Ιταλίαν καὶ τὴν Γαλατίαν εἰσέβαλε. (iv. 2.) In his book on Illyria he states that the Celts and Cimbri, along with the Illyrian tribe of the Autarie, had, previous to the battle against Marius, attacked Delphi and suffered for their im- piety. (ἴλλυρ. ὃ. 4.)
Quintilian may be considered to give us upon the subject the no- tions of two writers—Virgil, and either Cesar or Crassus. In deal- ing, however, with the words of Quintilian, it will be seen that there are two assumptions. That either Cesar or Crassus considered the Cimbri to be Gauls we infer from the following passage :—‘ Rarum est autem, ut oculis subjicere contingat (sc. vituperationem), ut fecit C. Julius, qui cum Helvio Mancie sepius obstrepenti sibi di- ceret, yam ostendam, qualis sis: isque plane instaret interrogatione, qualem se tandem ostensurus esset, digito demonstravit imaginem Galli in scuto Mariano Cimbrico pictam, cui Mancia tum simillimus est visus. Taberne autem erant circum Forum, ac scutum illud signi gratia positum.” Inst. Orat. vi. 3. 38. Pliny tells the story of Crassus (39. 4.). Although in this passage the word upon which the argument turns has been written gaili, and translated cock, the cur- rent interpretation is the one given above.—Vid. not. ed. Gesner.
In the same author is preserved the epigram of Virgil’s called Catalecta, and commented on by Ausonius of Bordeaux. Here we learn that T. Annius Cimber was a Gaul; whilst it is assumed that there was no other reason to believe that he was called Cimber than that of being descended from some slave or freedman of that na- tion :—‘‘ Non appareat affectatio, in quam mirifice Virgilius,
Corinthiorum amator iste verborum,
Ille iste rhetor : namque quatenus totus Thucydides Britannus, Attice febres, Tau-Gallicum, min-, al- spine male illisit. Ita omnia ista verba miscuit fratri.
Cimber hic fuit a quo fratrem necatum hoc Ciceronis dictum notatum est ; Germanum Cimber occidit.”—Inst. Orat. viii. 3. cum not.
Dic, quid significent Catalecta Maronis? in his al- Celtarum posuit, sequitur non lucidum tau-, Et quod germano mistum male letiferum min-.—Auson.
Undoubtedly the pronunciation kere ridiculed is that of the Gauls, and it is just possible that in it is foreshadowed the curtailed form that the Latin tongue in general puts on in the present French. Again, the slave whose courage failed him when ordered to slay Caius Marius is called both a Gaul and a Cimbrian by Plutarch, as well as by Lucan. In the latter writer we have probably but a piece of rhetoric. (Pharsalia, lib. ii.)
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Amongst tribes undoubtedly Gallic the Nervii claimed descent from the Teutones and Cimbri. The passage of Tacitus that con- nects the Nervii with the Germans connects them also with the Tre- veri. Now a well-known passage in St. Jerome tells us that the Treveri were Gauls :--Νέρβιοι ἦσαν δὲ Κέμβρων καὶ Τευτόνων ἀπό- yovot.— Appian, iv. 1. 4. “ Treveri et Nervii circa adfectationem Ger- manice originis ultrd ambitiosi sunt, tamquam, per hance gloriam sanguinis, a similitudine et που ἃ Gallorum separentur.”” German. 28. Finally, in the Life of Marius by Plutarch we have dialogues between the Cimbri and the Romans. Now a Gallic interpreter was probable, but not so a German one. 7 . Such are the notices bearing upon the ethnography of the Cimbri. ' Others occur, especially amongst the poets; of these little or no use can be made, for a reason indicated above. Justin speaks of em-
bassies between Mithridates and the Cimbri. Suetonius connects | the Cimbri with the Gallic Senones; he is writing however about | Germany, so that his evidence, slight as it is, is neutralized. Theories grounded upon the national name may be raised on both sides ; Cim- bri may coincide with either the Germanic kempa = a warrior or champion, or with the Celtic Cymry = Cambrians. Equally equivocal seem the arguments drawn from the descriptions either of their phy- sical conformation or their manners. The silence of the Gothic traditions as to the Cimbri being Germanic, proves more in the way of negative evidence than the similar silence of the Celtic ones, since the Gothic legends are the most numerous and the most ancient. Besides this, they deal very especially with genealogies, national and individual. The name of Bojorix, a Cimbric king mentioned in Epitome Liviana (Ixvii.), is Celtic rather than Gothic, although in the latter dialects proper names ending in -ric, (Alaric, Genseric) fre- quently occur.
Measuring the evidence, which is in its character essentially cu- mulative, consisting of a number of details unimportant in themselves, but of value when taken in the mass, the balance seems to be in favour of the Cimbri, Teutones and Ambrones being Gauls rather than Germans, Celts rather than Goths.
An argument now forthcoming stands alone, inasmuch as it seems to prove two things at once, viz. not only the Celtic origin of the Cimbri, but, at the same time, their locality in the Chersonese. It is brought forward by Dr. Pritchard in his ‘ Physical History of Man- kind,’ and runs as follows :—(a.) It is a statement of Pliny that the sea in their neighbourhood was called by the Cimbri Morimarusa, or the dead sea = mare mortuum. (b.) It is a fact that in Celtic Welsh mor marwth = mare mortuum, morimarusa, dead sea. Hence the language of the Cimbric coast is to be considered as Celtic. Now the following facts invalidate this conclusion:—(1.) Putting aside the contradictions in Pliny’s statement, the epithet dead is inappli- cable to either the German Ocean or the Baltic. (2.) Pliny’s authority was a writer named Philemon: out of the numerous Phi- lemons enumerated by Fabricius, it is likely that the one here ad- duced was a contemporary of Alexander the Great; and it is not
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probable that at that time glosses from the Baltic were known in the Mediterranean. (3.) The subject upon which this Philemon wrote was the Homeric Poems. This, taken along with the geography of the time, makes it highly probable that the original Greek was not Κίμβροι, but Κιμμέριοι; indeed we are not absolutely sure of Pliny having written Cimbri. (4.) As applied to Cimmerian sea the epi- thet dead was applicable. (5.) The term Morimarusa = mare mor- tuum, although good Celtic, is better Slavonic, since throughout that stock of languages, as in many other of the Indo-European tongues (the Celtic and Latin included), the roots mor and mori mean sea and dead respectively :—‘‘ Septemtrionalis Oceanus, Amalchium eum Hecatzus appellat, a Paropamiso amne, qua Scythiam alluit, ' quod nomen ejus gentis lingua significat congelatum, Philemon Morimarusam a Cimbris (qu. Cimmeriis) vocari scribit: hoc est mare mortuum usque ad promontorium Rubeas, ultra deinde Cro- nium.’ (13.)
One point, however, still remains: it may be dealt with briefly, but it should not be wholly overlooked, viz. the question, whether over and above the theories as to the location of the Cimbri in the Cimbric Chersonese, there is reason to believe, on independent grounds, that Celtic tribes were the early inhabitants of the penin- sula in question? If such were actually the case, all that has pre- ceded would, up to a certain point, be invalidated. Now I know no sufficient reasons for believing such to be the case, although there are current in ethnography many insufficient ones.
1. In the way of Philology, it is undoubtedly true that words common to the Celtic tribes occur in the Danish of Jutland, and in the Frisian and Low German of Sleswick and Holstein; but there is no reason to consider that they belong to an aboriginal Celtic tribe. The ἃ priori probability of Celts in the peninsula involves hypotheses in ethnography which are, to say the least, far from being generally recognized. The evidence as to the language of aborigines derived from the significance of the names of old geographical localities is wanting for the Cimbric Chersonese. The arguments as to the origin from Jutland of certain Celtic tribes in England (e. g. the Picts) either rest upon the historical evidence that has just been dis- cussed, or else involve a vicious circle of argument.
‘2. No traditions, either Scandinavian or German, point οἷν an aboriginal Celtic population for the localities in question.
3. There are no satisfactory proofs of such in either Archeology or Natural History. A paper noticed by Dr. Pritchard of Professor Eschricht’s upon certain Tumuli in Jutland, states, that the earliest specimens of art (anterior to the discovery of metals), as well as the character of the tumuli themselves, have a Celtic character. He adds, however, that the character of the tumuli is as much Siberian as Celtic. The early specimens of art are undoubtedly like similar specimens found in England. It happens, however, that such things are in all countries more or less alike. In Professor Siebold’s mu~ seum at Leyden, stone-axes from tumuli in Japan and Jutland are
laid side by side, for the sake of comparison, and between them
. eee eee yer pe Fe
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there is no perceptible difference. The oldest skulls in these tumul are said to be other than Gothic. They are, however, Finnic rather than Celtic.
4. The statement in Tacitus (Germ. 44.), that a nation on the Baltic called the ΖΕ ΞΕ spoke a language somewhat akin to the Bri- tish, cannot be considered as conclusive to the existence of Celts in the North of Germany. Any language, not German, would probably so be denoted. Such might exist in the mother-tongue of either the Lithuanic or the Esthonian.
It is considered that in the foregoing pages the following propo- sitions are either proved or involved :—1. That the Cimbri conquered by Marius came from either Gaul or Switzerland, and that they were Celts. 2. That the Teutones and Ambrones were eq Celtic with the Cimbri. 3. That no nation north of the Elbe was known to Republican Rome. 4. That there is no evidence of Celtic tribes ever having existed north of the Elbe. 5. That the epithet Cimbrica applied to the Chersonesus proves nothing more in respect to the inhabitants of that locality than is proved by words like West Indian and North-American Indian. 6. That in the word cateia we are in possession of a new Celtic gloss. 7. That in the term Mori- marusa we are in possession of a gloss at once Cimmerian and Sla- vonic. 8. That for any positive theory as to the Cimbro-Teutonic league we have at present no data, but that the hypothesis that would reconcile the greatest variety of statements would run thus: viz. that an organized Celtic confederation conterminous with the Belge, the ~ Ligurians, and the Helvetians descended with its eastern divisions upon Noricum, and With its western ones upon Provence.
In the discussion which arose upon the reading of the above paper, it was observed that Teutones was not necessarily a Germanic appel- lation; the supposed root of the word being found in the same as well as other significations, in the various Celtic dialects. The Irish tuath, for example, means both people and north. It was also sug- gested that cateia might possibly be connected with W. cad, battle. Cadwayw literally means war-spear or lance. >
On Friday, March 8, will be read a paper ‘‘ On the Ellipsis and on the Pleonastic use of the Pronoun Personal in English Syntax.” By Edwin Guest, Esq.
VOL. Γ. ο
PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
Vou. τ. FEBRUARY 23, 1844. No. 18.
J. M. Kemsuz, Esq., in the Chair. The following gentlemen were elected members of the Society :—
Rev. H. Dupuis, Fellow of King’s College, Cambridge, and As- sistant Master, Eton. Rev. A. Mills, Fellow of Queen’s College, Cambridge.
Two communications were then read :-—
1. “On certain Lycian Inscriptions copied by the Rev. E. T. Daniell, Edward Forbes, Esq. and Lieut. Spratt, R.N.” By Daniel Sharpe, Esq.
The inscriptions which form the subject of the present paper were copied in Lycia by Mr. Forbes, Lieutenant Spratt, and the late Rev. E. T. Daniell, and it was the intention of the latter to have published them had he returned to England. The memorandum- books containing them were sent, in compliance with Mr. Daniell’s last wishes, to Mr. Forbes and Lieut. Spratt, and were placed at the disposal of the author by these gentlemen.
The inscriptions have been copied without alteration from the original books. The greater part of them are entirely new, but some have been added, although published before by Mr. Fellows, be- cause the present copies appear to be more correct than the former ones. Fresh copies of other inscriptions already published might have been added, but as the differences in the versions are slight they are omitted. ‘here are also two new inscriptions copied by
- Mr. Fellows, Nos. 10 and 19.
In the version of the inscriptions given in the text, an endeavour has been made to restore the true reading as far as practicable. This is easier than might be expected, owing to the frequent recur- rence of the same words and phrases in different inscriptions, which being funereal have a great sameness of expression; and it is by taking advantage of the repetition of similar sentences differently modified, that the author arrives at the translations which have been given of some portions. The bilingual inscriptions furnish the meanings of a certain number of Lycian words: where several of these are found in another sentence in company with only one or two others, the context usually gives a probable meaning for the new words ; this probability is increased every time that the meaning so acquired gives a consistent sense to a fresh sentence, and it becomes almost a certainty if it produces a rational translation in every in- stance. This method is strictly analogous to that followed in read- ing an unknown cypher, where the accuracy of the decypherer is estimated by the harmony of the result which he produces.
_ The Greek funereal inscriptions, which abound in Lycia, fre-
quently give an indirect assistance towards understanding those in
the earlier language. They run in certain set phrases, which we ο 2
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naturally look for and frequently find in the Lycian inscriptions. The change of language in Lycia appears to have been gradual, and the alteration in manners to have been equally slow.
Before entering upon the inscriptions, it will be necessary to say a few words on the alphabet, as both corrections and additions must be made to the details which have already been laid before the public.
In his memoir on the Lycian inscriptions, inserted in the fourth volume of the ‘ Zeitschrift fiir die Kunde des Morgenlandes,’ Pro- fessor Grotefend proposes a reading for the Lycian vowels widely differing from that which the author had adopted, and in which, with the exception of one alteration, he cannot agree. The learned professor has been misled by the bilingual inscription from Anti- phellos, which is incomplete in our copies. Not observing that it wants the end of each of the first lines, he has tried to find the Lycian corresponding to ἵκτασλα (the owner of the tomb) in the name of that person’s father, and to bring these names together, he has changed the value of several of the Lycian letters. But all the reasoning built upon this foundation falls to the ground when it is shown that the name corresponding to Ihtasla is lost at the end of the first line of the inscription.
The correction proposed by the professor, in which the author concurs, consists in regarding BB as equivalent to the Greek Q,
which materially simplifies the alphabet. We may carry this farther, —
and consider g & as also equivalent to{. The difference between these letters when single is so slight as not easily to be appreciated, but when doubled they are constantly interchanged.
The author had been led into the error of considering 4 as nearly equivalent to the two last-mentioned letters by Mr. Fellows’s ver- sion of the bilingual inscription at Limyra, but the present more correct copy destroys the source of the mistake.
The principal difficulty in the Lycian alphabet still consists in the letters related to U, which, without being identical, express modifications of sound too numerous for us to appreciate. Disre- garding variations in form, which may be attributed to the whims of the sculptors, there are five distinct letters, two of which are also used double, making seven changes, which it is difficult to express by more than five, u, i, i, w, and 6. It is probable that they repre- sented a greater number of sounds than these, but we cannot hope to distinguish them more accurately until we know the relative dates of the different Lycian monuments ; as we have inscriptions extending over a long period, during which the language was undergoing con- siderable changes, from which these letters suffered more than any others. The following is the explanation offered of them :—
ΝΜ and ¥ are so near each other that it is difficult to distinguish between them, although they are not absolutely identical, and we are forced to regard both as U short. Of the two, the first is pro- bably the shorter in sound*. In all the common words in which either of these letters occurs, there seems a preference for one or the other of them ; yet in every word they are occasionally interchanged.
* It has been distinguished by a mark w, the other being represented by 4 without any distinguishing sign.
se
od tov $8 ‘he
————
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+ is U long, and also V, if that consonant is to be recognised at all.
B and ¢ are W, usually consonants, but occasionally long vowels.
In some words the one letter is invariably used, in others they are interchanged.
BB and (Ὁ 22 seem exact equivalents to the Greek Q, and when so doubled appear identical.
In two inscriptions, Nos. 26 and 31, the letter $f is used instead of W in the word éwuinu. If the copies are correct, this shows great affinity between the letters; but two instances, set against all other cases, will not prove their identity. Unfortunately the copies of both inscriptions are faulty and imperfect, so that we cannot rely upon them.
The author must add two letters to the alphabet, which are both of rare occurrence, and were overlooked before. Y is found on each side of the great obelisk at Xanthus, less than twenty times in all, and in less than ten distinct words. It is doubtful if it occurs in any other inscription, as in the few cases in which we find it, it seems to be an imperfect copy of some other letter. It is also found on two coins, Nos. 8 and 11, of Mr. Fellows’s Plate 37, both of which are of great antiquity. No. 8 is badly engraved ; its legend is pro- bably Y4#PEYA, which occurs several times on the obelisk, viz. S.W.5,25?, N.W.45,53?, N.E.38,50? The author’s former reference of this coin to Gage cannot stand, but it is difficult to say to what town it should be referred. A letter of similar form to this has been found in several alphabets, and has been variously explained. It is found in Phrygian inscriptions, on coins of Cilicia, and on Pheenician coins and inscriptions. In the latter Gesenius calls it Zade, and its power is perhaps not very far from the English pronunciation of J.
a occurs eight times on the north-east and north-west sides of the Xanthus obelisk, and is not found elsewhere. With so little to guide us, there is no hope of fixing its value; but looking for assist- ance to the same source as in the last instance, we find in Gesenius a Pheenician letter with a considerable resemblance in form, which that author regards as Samech, a sibilant of which the exact sound is still a matter of some doubt.
It is remarkable that these two letters should be found in one inscription at Xanthus, and not on any other of the numerous monu- ments of which we have the records before us ; and three hypotheses present themselves in explanation of this extraordinary fact :-— Ist, that these two letters are foreign to the language, and only used in the names of foreign towns and persons; 2nd, that the Xanthus inscription is in the dialect of a different tribe from the other inscrip- tions ; 3rd, that it is of a different date from the other inscriptions, and that the language changed somewhat in the interval.
The first conjecture is negatived as regards one of the letters by its occurrence on coins of the true Lycian type; and it thus becomes improbable of the other letter. The second supposition is impro- bable, because this obelisk is in the same town as many other in-
- scriptions, and it contains many words which are found in the other
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inscriptions. The last seems the most probable explanation. We know that Greek civilization was gradually making way in Asia Minor before the Macedonian conquest, and Mr. Fellows’s researches show us that Greek art gradually drove the Asiatic style of sculp- ture out of Lycia. We have also evidence in these inscriptions that the Lycian language underwent considerable changes, even in its common forms of declension, before it was finally supplanted by the all-conquering Greek. We may therefore be disposed to consider all marked variations of dialect as evidences of difference of date; and if this is allowed, the Xanthus inscription must be regarded as the earliest yet brought from Lycia. ᾿ The following table represents the Lycian alphabet :—
Common Forms. Value.
Pipes 1 BEE Ane a long s ELLER PM ed ἮΝ τη PAI MEP IN ig SO ἢ BS νά λέξι κ τον © aROre ay hie. dynsaoiana cont . |1 long, or y sR te ove asa la ROre Vv VV
Ἦ,Ἁ,ν, τ 59s λα Coin ἊΝ
Sieve jad dene: alagins t-te RG bis sie we eles ....|U long,and perhaps v OD τον τινι » a κοί ἡ BAOrE
Se avetetn ase w consonant or vowel
= ᾿Ξ
PF.
ng Ge TE J probably Ae Unknown
Σ “8 τι -ἰ Ὁ Ὁ ἢ Σ Ζ »ΖΗ ο.εεβ PRO : ες MAORUZZORNUM δι
D209: ....-0...| Stops 1]. Ο“-. UWI... | Numerals
Pe ae eae ee ee a) ee
_—--— ς-:- en
ΚΡ:
ON ee Ὁ
Sg MTs
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The inscriptions are placed in the order in which the language may be most easily studied, beginning with those which have a Greek translation accompanying them. Those are next taken in which the construction is the simplest and the number of words already known predominates ; the rest are placed so that the diffi- culties may be presented to view step by step.
No. 1. Bilingual Inscription at Limyra.
Of this two copies have been published; the first was made by Mr. Cockerell, and is given in Mr. Walpole’s Travels, the other was published by Mr. Fellows. The present copy has been made with great care, and is nearly complete, so that with the exception of the names it may be restored without any risk ; it confirms many of the corrections which had been previously suggested by the author. The letter + is twice omitted in the third line, at the termination of the genitive name, and at the beginning of the word érppe. The Greek translation is so literal, that this short inscription is of great im- portance, and the present copy is a valuable addition to our stock; but as the author has analysed it at great length before, he merely gives the restoration and translation of it :—
€wéeya : Grafazeya : méte prinmafatii : sedéreya : pé... πδῶ:
To pvnpa - rode εποιησατο Σιδαριος Πᾶαρμενοντος This tomb which made Sidarios Parmeno’s tedéeme : drppe étle Ewe sé lade : Giwe sé tedéeme
vies e€avuTw και ΤΉ γυναικι Kat vig
son for himself and wife his and son p...&...léyé
Πυβιαλη
Pubiale.
No. 2. Bilingual Inscription at Levise.
This was copied by Mr. Daniell and given by him to Mr. Fellows, from whom the author received it. It is not in Mr. Daniell’s memo- randum-book, nor does it appear to have been copied by any other person. The inscription is nearly perfect, and forms a most im- portant addition to our knowledge of the language.
There appear to have been two flaws in the stone, of less width than at present, before the letters were cut; for the spaces are much greater than is required for the missing letters. The same circum- stance occurs in several other inscriptions. Where the defects in the stone prevented the artists from getting an even surface, they appear to have left blank spaces and continued the lines further on.
The following is the best version of the inscription which presents itself :— éwilinti itatu méné prinafut# j polénida mollewéséi sé Tovro To pynpa epyacavro ἈΑπολλωνιδης Μολλισιος και
This tomb which made Apollonides son of Mollisus and
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lapara polénidai poretiemetéii prinézeyétie irppe Aarapas Azod\Xwridov Πυριματιος οἰκείοι eme ταῖς Laparas son of Apollonides Porimatis’s servants for lada épttéue sé tedéemé 56 ey é γυναιξιν TALS εαὐτων Kat Tols ey yovots Kat av Ts wives their and children and if anyone tesé reti..deteé itatu Géwétie méeyé..... oéte ponamachche : αδικησῃ το μνημα Touro εξωλεα καὶ πανωλεα ειῆ violates tomb _ this aladaiade : ada : 4 auTy παντων
let him pay a fine adas...
In the first paragraph the Greek and Lycian correspond almost word for word, but in the conclusion they differ entirely ; the Greek version denounces curses upon the violator of the tomb, while the Lycian threatens him with a fine. This will be better seen in ana- lysing the whole in detail.
éwiiini, the neuter of the demonstrative this.
itatu, a tomb or monument, in the Greek μνημα. It is apparently the passive participle of a verb signifying to bury, of which there are
several tenses used: in other inscriptions (see the Appendix to-
Mr. Fellows’s Lycia, p. 482). The author at first thought the initial short vowel the augment, and connected the verb with τιθημε; but as the same vowel occurs in the participle, it is probably part of the form of the verb. Professor Grotefend gave anuther turn to the sentences in which the verb itatu, &c. occurs, by translating it trans- gress; but the inscription before us proves that the true translation is to bury.
méné, a declinable demonstrative participle.
prinafuti, in the Greek epyacavro, they made, or caused to be made, if the Lycian verbs had a middle voice. This is the first instance in which we are sure of having a verb in the plural; it is therefore very unfortunate that there is a flaw, which makes its termination un- certain. ‘The same tense in the singular is of frequent occurrence, written prinafati..
Polenida, in the genitive Polénidaw, in the Greek Απολλωνιδης. There are several peculiarities of Lycian orthography shown in the changes which this name undergoes in its translation from the Greek. Both the initial vowel and the terminal consonant are dropped in the Lycian, in which language a great majority of the names begin with a consonant, and all without exception end in a vowel. There is also a remarkable change of the ὦ into ὃ in the middle of the word. Strabo gives an instance of an analogous change in the Asiatic name of Nwpa, which he says is now called Νηροασσος. In addition to this, one / is omitted, and the name is so changed, that if we had not the Greek form in the same inscription, we should never have suspected the connexion. between them.
Molleiéséu, in the Greek Modeotos, In changing this name into Lycian, the short second syllable is drawn out into two long syl-
——— T=, - .
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lables, an alteration similar to that which we find in the same inscription in the name Porimatis.
Dapafa is the next name, if we trust the Lycian version, but the Greek has it Aawapas. There is very. little reason for preferring either L or D at the beginning of the word, but the f in the last syllable must be wrongly copied for r; the name must be either Dapara or Lapara. Here again the Lycian drops the terminal con- sonant.
Poreiiemétéeu. There is a gap in the latter part of this word, which may only be owing to a flaw in the stone, or there may have been another syllable in the word. The Greek form Πυριμαάτιος makes it appear complete, but on the inscription No. 7 we find the nominative name Poreiemétete, and in No. 26, which is too imper- fect to be of much assistance, Poreiieméewa. In one of the unpub- lished Greek inscriptions from Limyra we find mention of κυριον Ποριματιν; it is not likely that all these inscriptions relate to the same person ; probably the name Porimatis reoccurs in several gene- rations of one of the leading families of the country. The second syllable of the Greek name is drawn out into two syllables in the Lycian, in a manner analogous to the instance already pointed out with Μολλισιος. The letter δ᾽ which follows this name is omitted, being apparentiy copied instead of the usual stops.
prinézeyeue, This word has been restored from another inscription in which it occurs, the No. 9 of Mr. Fellows’s Plate 36. The dative
prinéze occurs several times. The author formerly translated this word beloved, relying on the context; but its meaning is now ascertained by the Greek translation οικείοι, domestic servants; per- haps in this instance stewards. In.several of the Greek funereal inscriptions copied by Mr. Daniell the oce:o: are mentioned, or tombs are stated to be built for them by their masters; but it is a proof of the importance of the Lord Porimatis, that his servants provided themselves with a tomb of this order.
urppe, the preposition for, in the Greek ἐπι. This word is nearly lost in the crack across the stone; but as it occurs in almost every inscription, there is no danger in restoring it.
lada, the dative plural wives, in the Greek γυναιξιν. The dative singular Jade occurs frequently. In No. 5, Plate 36, of Mr. Fel- lows, the nominative singular is Jada; in No. 13 the dative singular is Jadu; and in No. 18 /adue is the dative plural. These variations of termination make one suspect that the language has an instru- mental case as well as a dative.
éptteue, the Greek rats eavrwy. This appears to be a close trans- lation ; the word is the genitive plural of themselves. We have the genitive singular épitéive in the upper inscription at p. 225 of Mr. Fellows’s ‘ Asia Minor ;’ and in plate 36, No. 5, of his ‘ Lycia,’ we have another form of the word, epét@. That inscription is very imperfect, and Mr. Daniell’s copy of it does not enable us to read it
- with any certainty, but it probably runs drppe atla éppte, for them-
selves; the latter word being used adjectively, the phrase will thus be analogous to the common form tirppe atle eiwe, for himself. The nominative singular is probably é@ptte.
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88 tedéeme, and children, words of constant recurrence.
sé ey 8. This was at first translated whoever (Appendix p. 482), by deriving the meaning from the context of several inscriptions in which it occurs; but we now find it rendered καὶ ay res, and in the bilingual inscription at Antiphellus εαν δὲ τις, which must be taken as the meaning; and although in no instance is it divided by stops, we must consider it as three words. It must be observed, that the stops : which separate the words in the Lycian inscriptions are not placed between words in very close relationship to each other; thus the conjunctions are seldom separated by the stops from the follow- ing word, and frequently not from the preceding one. This practice will be referred to again. Of the three words here found together, two had been already recognised : sé is the conjunction and; é had been shown to bea pronoun (p. 472), and must now be rendered anyone; and the remaining conjunction éy may be compared to the Greek e, if. We thus find the exact translation to be, and if any- one.
We ought to find in the next word the translation of αδικησῃ, but there is ground for suspicion that we have more than one word in the Lycian, and there seems to be at least one letter wanting at the end of the line. We do not find the same combination of letters in
any other inscription, and in the Antiphellus inscription, which con- |
tains the words εαν δὲ ris αδικησῃ, the corresponding Lycian words are sé ey 8 teéde. We have here teé preceding itatu; but if we take teé for the verb violate, we have no employment for the preceding words. We must therefore leave this in doubt.
itatu éwéiie answers to the ro μνημα τουτο of the Greek ; itatu has lost its last letter in the crack across the stone. It occurs in the first line of the inscription with the same meaning, tomb: éwéie is the preposition this; it is related to the demonstratives éwitint, éweeya, eweut, δια.
In the rest of the inscription we can trace no connection between the Greek and the Lycian. In place of the curses denounced in the Greek against the violator of the tomb, the Lycian threatens him with a fine; and owing to an unfortunate gap in the third line, we cannot complete the words.
The next two words must be left untranslated at present: alada- tiade, or as it occurs elsewhere adadaiiale, the author had translated let him pay a fine; and every inscription in which it occurs justifies this meaning, as it is always followed by ada and a numeral ; ada is without doubt a coin or sum of money; we have no clue to the value of the final numeral.
No. 3. Bilingual Inscription at Antiphellus.
The present inscription was published by Professor Grotefend in the paper already mentioned (Zeitschrift fiir die Kunde des Morgen- landes, vol. iv.). From his translation of it, the author is obliged to dissent in several important particulars. The professor’s copy was received from M. Raoul Rochette, and had passed through several hands before reaching him, and we need not therefore be surprised that slight errors should have crept into it on the way. It is inter-
Se υν
| | 4 ! = q ᾿ Ῥ
y
=a
ies
~~ :
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esting to have a fresh copy to compare with it, and the author has also had the opportunity of comparing a copy which M. Raoul Rochette obligingly sent to Mr. Fellows.
The two copies agree in the main points, and only differ in a few letters; both agree in the great inequality in length of the different lines, the first line of the Lycian having twenty-six let- ters in the last Copy andthe last line forty letters. There is good reason to believe that the first lines are incomplete, and perhaps that the others are also; but as there is a great difference in the length of the two Greek lines, it is not easy to say how much is wanting.
Professor Grotefend has not perceived that the inscription is im- perfect, and has endeavoured to fit the Lycian and Greek words together in a very unsatisfactory manner, having altered the alpha- bet to find the name Jktas/a in the first word of the second line of the Lycian, which is in reality the name of Iktasla’s father. The attention of Mr. Fellows has been called to this inscription, and he may possibly succeed in discovering the remainder ; in the meantime we must make the best we can of it in its present state.
The Greek runs thus :-—
Ikracha Αντιφελλιτης Tour(o) ro μνημα npyacero avTw τε Kat γυ- ναικι καὶ Tekvots : εαν δε τις αδικησῃ ἢ ayopacy τὸ μνῆμα ἡλήτω αὐτὸν επιτν. Ψ.
The only words open to doubt are the last three, which the pro- fessor explains as ἡλίτε αὐτὸν επιτ(ιμιοὴν +, which is not confirmed by ourfresh copy; yet the meaning he has thus given to the sen- tence is in every probability correct, that whoever violates or sells the tomb is to be fined.
The Lycian, taken line by line, is as follows :— éwiint prinufo méte prinafatii sgtta : ila : tedéeme : uirppe lade : Giwe sé tedéemé : Giiweyé : sé ey 8 teéde : teké : miitii : méné wastto : tine : wlaiie Gweyéiie sé eédfeféu itéze.
In every other Lycian funereal inscription we find the name of the owner of the tomb; and as it occurs in the Greek translation, it is extremely improbable that it should be omitted in this single in- stance. We may conclude therefore that it is lost at the end of the first line, and we have room in the same line for the equivalent of Ἀντιφελλιτης. This word could hardly be expected in its Greek form, but in the older name of Habessus, given by Stephanus Byzan- tinus. In the first word of the second line, Professor Grotefend finds, following his copy, U/tdilai, giving a different value to all the vowels. He considers the words Ufttaila’s son to be the paraphrase of the Tktasla of the Greek, and regards the names Uftaila and Iktasla as identical, the father and son having the same name. In the present copy there are three variations in this word: Ist, there is an im-
ect letter at the beginning, which is also clearly given in M. Raoul Rochette’s copy, so that we may consider that it certainly exists in the original; 2ndly, the second letter is g instead of wu;
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3rdly, there are stops in the middle of the word. If these stops are correct, we have a name which, after taking off the genitive termina- tion, will be reduced to three letters, which is highly improbable, as the great length of the proper names is quite a marked feature of the language. It is much more probable that the stops indicate the place of a letter which has been defaced by time, and that the word had originally ten letters. If we follow Professor Grotefend’s con- jecture, that the father and son had both the same name, we may fill up the blank at the beginning of the word by i, and that in the middle by s, and omitting the genitive ending, we shall thus obtain Igttasila for the name, which is sufficiently near to the Greek form. There is however no reason for forcing the two names together, as it is very unusual on these tombs to find the father and son with the same name.
There is no such blank in the next part of the sentence as to make it indispensable that we should add anything at the end of the second line, the words wrppe lade éiiwe sé tedéemé, for his wife and children, making a complete sense; but the shortness of this line makes it probable that something is wanting there also, and we ac- cordingly find that eavrw has no representative in the Lycian part of the inscription. By adding at the end of the line the common words atle éiwe, himself, we should fill up the blank space, and bring the Lycian into harmony with the Greek. Professor Grotefend avoids this difficulty by regarding arppe as the pronoun himself, in which the author cannot agree. The professor’s translation of the com- mon phrase urppe atle ewe by sibi persone sue, instead of pro per- sond sud, as rendered by the author, appears forced, and is contra- dicted by the way in which arppe is used in several inscriptions ; while the translation for is always consistent with the construction to be expected. Moreover, if this word were a pronoun we should find it declined, which is not the case.
The last sentence presents more difficulties, which are increased by the doubt whether the lines are complete. Judging merely by the length of the third line, we might imagine that it had contained another word, but we have no clue to it.
sé ey @ is here translated eay de τις, which was analysed under the last inscription. If we adhere as closely as we can to the Greek, which is our safest course, we must connect teéde with αδικησῃ ; as the latter word occurs in the bilingual inscription at Levise, we look for the same word to answer to it in the Lycian part of that inserip- tion, and there we have teé preceding the words this tomb. The ter- mination de is frequently an enclytic; if we regard it so in this instance, there would remain in both inscriptions teé for the verb violute, and to this we have an analogy in the Greek verb daw; but then there is no word of a similar form to answer to ayopaoy. If we drop that verb for the present, we can have no difficulty in trans- lating veké mitt by this tomb: the first of the two words is analogous to θηκη and the Latin theca; the second is very close to miite, which we find frequently in the Lycian inscriptions as a demonstrative pronoun.
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It is difficult to make anything of the last line, which appears to _ contain a great deal more than the Greek counterpart. It is to be hoped that we may obtain another copy of the inscription, for neither of those yet received is entirely to be relied on, as in the latter part of this line we have combinations of letters which are very unusual.
No. 4. Fragment of Bilingual Inscription at Tlos.
The copy of this inscription is too imperfect to have any value; the middle part is entirely lost, and we have only the commence- ment of the Lycian and the end of the Greek portion, so that we have nothing common tothe two. The Lycian must be read éwitinit tiaté miite prinafati, this tomb which made; the name cannot be made out. The Greek probably ends with eaur καὶ ry γυναῖκε καὶ Tos Texvots αὐτου. We may hope that some future traveller will make a more perfect copy, as every scrap of the language which is accompanied by a literal translation is of value.
These four are the only true bilingual inscriptions yet brought from Lycia; there are among the other inscriptions several in which either Greek or Latin is found on the same tomb with Lycian, but the two portions have no reference to one another. The Greek or Roman inhabitants appear to have made use of the ancient tombs, without defacing the original inscriptions. These will be pointed out as they occur.
In endeavouring to elucidate some of the remaining inscriptions, the author proposes to take them in the order in which they may be most readily studied, beginning with the simplest, and placing those together which have most resemblance in the words or con- struction; so that the simple phrases may lead us on to those which are more difficult to be understood.
No. 5. At Koorostan, the ancient Cyane.
éwiiinti : prinafu : miiné : prinafatii : godréiiela : urppe lade : Gwe This tomb which made Godrewela for wife his Below this is a Greek inscription in three lines, relating to the tomb of Jason and Seras, which has no connection with the above. Mr. Daniell adds, “ over the Greek is another Greek inscription, scarcely a word of which is traceable ;” and a slight sketch shows the position of the inscriptions on the tomb.
No. 6. Under the Acropolis of Gandyva.
The inscription is imperfect, but can easily be restored, with the
__ exception of one letter in the name.
éwitinti gopu méné prinafati : gorey,una urppe lade éiwe sé This tomb which made Goreyuna for wife his and
᾿ tedéemé
children
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No. 7. poreiiemétete : prinafaté : ma,asaii : tedéeme gopu : éwitint urppe : Poreuemetete made May,asa’s son tomb’ this for atle : Giiwe : sé tedéemé : étiweyé ᾿ self his and children his
This sentence is differently constructed from the others; to ren- der it intelligible in English, it must be translated Poreuemetete, the son of Ma,asa, had this tomb made for himself and his children.
No. 8. At Limyra.
éwtini gopo mite prinafatii ésété .... opéséii atle Giiwe sé lade sé tedéemé
The names cannot be fully made out, and have this peculiarity, that the father’s name in the genitive is not followed by the word son; gopo, a tomb, has a different termination from its usual form gopu; in a few instances we find it written gopa.
No. 9. At Limyra. opréiela : keroti : tedéeme : tint: pérekléeué
We find nearly the same name in an inscription copied at Pinara by Mr. Fellows (‘ Lycia,’ Plate 30, No. 11), Oréwella forming Ore- wellata in the dative.
A letter has been altered in the last word to bring it to Pérekleue, which seems to be tke gentile name of Péreclé, a town of which we have several coins. The first found had lost the first letter, and reading the name as Hreclé, the author proposed to refer them to Heraclea; but several perfect coins have been since found, which leave no doubt that the name is really Péreclé; one of them is figured in the Appendix to Mr. Fellows’s ‘ Lycia,’ p. 465, No. 31. Mr. Birch has conjectured that the legend on these coins is the name of Pericles, a king of Lycia mentioned by Theopompus (lib. 12 in Photii Biblioth. cod. 176). But this opinion can hardly be main- tained, as all the Lycian coins appear struck in the names of the towns. We shall meet with other names ending in ae or ἴδ, which are probably also gentile forms. The derivatives of Péreclé occur in several inscriptions found at or near Limyra, and (as we learn from Mr. Forbes) Mr. Daniell concluded in consequence that it was the original Lycian name of Limyra, a conjecture which appears to be in the highest degree probable.
tint is found in a similar phrase in several inscriptions, and although its meaning cannot be fixed with certainty, we cannot be far wrong if we render the last two words native of Pérecle, citizen of Pérecle, by birth a Pereclean, or some such expression.
One of the inscriptions, copied by Mr. Cockerell at Kakava near Limyra, and published (No. 3) in Walpole’s Travels, has an analogous phrase. It is nearly perfect, and may be restored thus :—
ee -
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éwiinii prinafu miite prinafatii gaofuneme irppe lade Gtiwe sé tedéemé
᾿ς @iweyé inti péreklén gitafata
~The first part is perfectly intelligible, but the last three words fur- nish considerable trouble, and the last word, gitafata, is quite un- known. There are a humber of forms resembling this in other inscrip- tions, gitafasa, gitafataiie, gitafateie, gitawo, gitawato, gitafatutofe, &c.,/from which we may conclude that it belongs to averb. In the meantime we can only translate the inscription conjecturally by “* Gaofuneme, a citizen of Péreclé, made this tomb for his wife and his children.”
No. 10. On a Sarcophagus-Tomb at Xanthus.
éwiini : prinafu : miite prinafatii : méréie : kodalaii : gitlai : tedéeme treya troaiie : pinataiie : ollaiie : urppe : prinéze : iii : gitafata : gérigéné
This was copied by Mr. Fellows. In the above version we have placed the stops after érppe, in place of the upright stroke in the original. It presents so many points of difference from the usual phraseology of the short inscriptions, that the following remarks are offered with great diffidence.
The name of the owner appears to be Méréze. Between this and the word tedéeme we have two genitives without any conjunction between them. Of this no other instance has been observed. The most probable explanation is, that the first is the name of the father, the second of the grandfather, and that we must translate it, Méréte the son of Kodala the son of Gitla.
In the second line we seem to have after the word treya three gentile names, at least we have three words with the same termina-
tion ; of which the first, trdave, may fairly be taken for the adjective of Tréas, the Lycian name of Tlos. It seems probable that in treya we have a derivative from the numeral three, and that Méréie describes himself as a citizen of the three towns of Tlos, Pinota and Oua ; but we do not find any names in the geographers answering to the last two.
The tomb is made wrppe prinéze, for his servant; but instead of the servant’s name we have a description that he is a native or citizen of Gérigé. ‘This last name is so near the town alluded to at p.195 as Géreja, that we may perhaps doubt the accuracy of Mr. Fellows’s copy of the last word of the inscription.
No. 11. Near Armoséel (near Limyra). gitlapwné : prinafaté : pérekléi : maiienaza : épitewazaii tedéeme
The word maiienaza does not occur again, but as it follows the genitive Pérekléz, we may conjecture that it is the title of an office in the town of Perecle filled by the party named. The inscription will then be, “ Gitlapune, α magistrate of Perekle, son of Epitewaza, made this.”
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No. 12. At Gandyva, the ancient Κανδυβα. oliowé : krdeitiawodaii tedéeme rértena toués’
In several of the Greek inscriptions from Lycia published by Mr. Fellows, the numerals δὶς or B are used either for grandson, or to mark a second name. [The references to the inscriptions in which it is so used will be found in his Index of Greek Words under δες.
In this inscription towés has apparently the same meaning of twice, the inscription being either Ouowé the son of Kroetiawoda the grand- son of Rertena; or Ouowé the son of Kroetiawoda, also called Rér- tena. ‘The absence of the genitive to Rértena makes the latter the more probable translation. We find towés used as grandson else- where. ‘The lower inscription at p. 225 of the ‘Journal of a Tour in Asia Minor’ has been corrected by Mr. Fellows to Aiédade Pe- zewedeu tedeeme se Uapdumei toiés; that is, ‘* Atdéade, Pezewedé’s son and Uapdumé’s grandson ; and in the twenty-sixth line of the south-west side of the obelisk at Xanthus we have fowés after a geni- tive name, in the part of the inscription which appears to give the genealogy of the son of Harpagus. In a very early stage of these inquiries, Mr. Fox Talbot suggested to Mr. Fellows that towés meant grandson.
We now come to several inscriptions of greater length and with a more complicated construction. The difficulty of understanding them increases nearly in a geometrical ratio. Some phrases here and there are selected for elucidation, without attempting to translate whole inscriptions; and the reader will excuse greater liberties of conjecture than have hitherto been taken; but the degree of evidence which there is for each conjecture shall be pointed out scrupulously.
No. 18. Near Limyra. éwiiini : gopu : méte : prinafatii : zatiiama : ddafupartai This tomb which made Zaiama Ddafuparta’s tedéeme : mé itépetute : zaiiunu: sé ladu : sé : tedéemeu : éiiwe son, which he inscribed to Zaiiuna and wife and son his kwe : teké : te itépetade : atlaie : tewé kweyéiie : tewété: which tomb also he inscribed for himself alatiadete : méné : muuue : towéete, &c.
There are two copies of this inscription taken by Mr. Daniell and Mr. Forbes, only differing slightly. Both have been made use of in the above version, only altering ¢edéemeg in the second line into tedéemeu, to preserve uniformity in the declensions and avoid a ter- mination in g, of which there is no other instance.
The first line is in the usual phraseology; but in the second line, instead of the formula previously met with, stating for whom the tomb is intended, we have another expression, mé itépetute, &c., clearly answering a similar purpose. In many Greek inscriptions from Lycia we find rovro ro μνημα exvypawe eavrw και, &c., or some
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similar expression, and these suggest the translation of the word ᾿ before us to be inscribed to or registered for. The whole form of these inscriptions shows them to be title-deeds of the tombs, and it is reasonable to expect in them the use of the same fermal expres- sions which we find in the Greek inscriptions at a later period in the same localities.
Meéitépetute and teitépetade are each written as one word; but it has been already remarked, that many of the smaller words are not ‘separated by stops. Of the verb to which itépetade belongs, we find many forms in different inscriptions; and in No. 16, which has a phraseology very similar to this, we have miiné itépetiite used in the same manner, so that there can be no doubt that we must consider mé and fe as separate words. Mé is related to méné, miiné, méte and miite, all of which are used as pronouns. The meaning required here is which. Te is often used as an enclytic conjunction, exactly an- swering to the Greek re; but here it is joined to the following in- stead of the preceding word.
The terminations of the next three nouns in u after the verb ifé- petute establish another case in the declension of the nouns. We have in No. 5 (Fellows, pl. 36.) Jada as the nominative; the common phrase, urppe lade sé tedéeme, and this form Jadu, supply either the ablative and dative, or the instrumental and dative if we adopt the oriental cases. In No. 25 we have /adii as a plural after urppe, and in No.18 (which is very imperfect and doubtful) Jadue seems to be used as the dative plural.
The word kwe at the beginning of the third line reminds us strongly of the relative pronouns in other Indo-European languages; teké has already been translated tomb at p. 202, and aélaiie is a case of atle, self; these give a reasonable meaning to this short phrase. The rest is still unknown. The word kweyéwe is perhaps the dative plural of the relative Awe, and suggests the probability of our finding here some such expression as, and to whom he may give permission, which is common in the Greek inscriptions.
_ No. 14. At Myra. No. 18, Plate 36, of Mr. Fellows. éwiini prinafii méné prinafatii ddawasa sitopéii tedéeme irpe lade This tomb which made Ddawasa Sitope’s son (for wife €iiwe sé tedéemé sé Uké late ddawasa méné _ itépetute itepatéze his and children and Ddawasa, which he inscribed to Itepateze sé ladu éiwe kwe teké mé enepé itépetuto and wife his, which tomb ᾿ inscribed _ tewé enepé ilime toféto tlame mé etoféte teké tewée tomb
‘itépetade teké méné etléiie towéete tramele iiofédre he inscribed tomb this for himself Tramele sé tréas sé muiiué aofédre and Tlos and “ VOL. I. P
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This inscription was published by Mr. Fellows, but the present.
version is so much better that it is again published; the cause of the discrepancies is explained by a note in Mr, Daniell’s pocket- book :—‘‘ It is so high, that one wrote while another dictated the letters.” The new copy has been followed in all but the name Dda- wawasa ; the repetition of the syllable wa is not in the former copy
nor in the next line, where the name occurs again, and is evidently
an error.
The expressions of this inscription resemble those of the preceding, No. 18. Some words have been translated, but the rest must be left in doubt. The two names, 7rdmele and Tréas, in the latter part, deserve attention. The first is the ancient name of the Lycian people, given by the Greeks as Tremile or Termile ; the other is the town of Tlos. [See Appendix to Fellows’s ‘ Lycia,’ p. 465.]
No. 15. At Antiphellus.
This agrees very closely with No. 18, but is so imperfect that
little is to be learnt from it, as without a better copy we can hardly rely upon its accuracy, for which reason it is passed over. It is the tomb of Hdamagzza the son o Ouéreye, and the Lycian has no connection whatever with the
Claudia Regeria Herminia to the memory of her sister.
No. 16.
_ There are so many words in this inscription which appear to require correction, and so little that is yet understood, that no transcript of it has been given.
The first short line seems to have heen abendoried by the sculptor
on account of its incerrectness, and he has begun again in the next line. The same has happened with the inscription No. 14 of Mr. Fellows’s Plate 36.
The beginning of the inscription is clear enough :—
éwtientii : gopii miite prinafatii : sggotraze miiné itepetiite : This tomb which made Sggotraze which he inscribed to
sggotraze : sé ladu : éiiwe sé tedéemes éiiwes Sggotraze and wife his and children his
We have here a termination in s to the dative plural, instead of the lengthening of the last vowel, tedéemes éiiwes being used instead of the usual form tédéemé étiweyé. There is only one other inscrip- tion, No. 17, which has a similar form. So great a change in the declension of the language makes it probable that these two inscrip- tions are of a different date from the others; and as the change is an approach to the Greek form of the dative plural, these two may
perhaps be looked upon as the most modern specimens which we
have of the language. The Greek inscription has no reference whatever to the Lycian below it.
atin epitaph above it, placed by
-τν ee en ee ‘ —. e
es a eh eS
209 ;
No. 17. Near Armostel.
The orthography of this inscription is so peculiar, that it might be as well to see another copy before we meddle with the greater part of it; but the conclusion must not be altogether passed over, as it adds an important word to our stock.
épi ἐδ : ladu : time ; sé tedeemes : times sé méléwe sé tedéeme
- In several inscriptions épi appears to be used as the preposition for in the place of urppe. If that is its meaning in the present in- stance, the next word ἐξ must be an article, the two answering to the Greek ex: ry. This can only be admitted on the supposition that the language of this inscription is altogether corrupted by inter- course with the Greeks; and this is perhaps too great a change to rest upon such slight evidence. The words iime and itmes, found in the connection in which they stand, are without doubt the singular and plural of the pronoun your, They occur nowhere else, as all the other inscriptions appear to run in the third person. We have here
. again the plural ending in 8, as in the last inscription, which marks
a great approach to the Greek form. The last sentence is therefore,
Sor your wife and your children, and Méléwe and son.
No. 18. Near Armostel.
This has a good deal of resemblance to the last inscription, but is τοῦ imperfect to be of much value in its present state.
; No. 19. At Xanthus, copied by Mr. Fellows. éwiiiné prinafo méné prinafatii eyétroilé : worttofétéi : fasaza : This tomb which made LEyetroule Uorttofete’s relation? urppe lade sé tedéemé sé ey ὃ itatétu tése mite ada: for wife and children and if anyone buries herein, &c. The above is similar to the inscriptions explained in the Appendix to Mr. Fellows’s ‘ Lycia,’ pp. 482 and 483. One line is lost at the end, in which a fine is imposed on the transgressor. The only un-
known word is fasaza, which does not occur elsewhere, and is appa- rently a term of relationship.
No. 20. On the ascent to Cadyanda from Ozunlee.
opazeyiiné : prinafaté urppe : prinéze : éiwe sé ey ἃ : itatuta Opazeyune made for servant his and if anyone buries
© tasa : meita-: méléemé sé: adadatale ada Ill
herein and let him pay a fine adas 3
According to Mr. Forbes, this inscription was copied under some difficulties, and it contains several errors, but none of importance. Its import resembles the last. We find here a new word, méléemé, which does not occur again, and remains unknown.
P2
210
νῶν i et ii .
No. 21. At Limyra. éwtint : gopu méné : prinafatt : teworsséle ,ezasa,aii : ddédelosu : This tomb which made Teworssele ita : ailizéte . . . ére sé gitawora inti : pérekleié : gitafata Pereklean
One letter is wanting at the beginning of each line, which is easily restored in the first and third lines. The second line cannot be much relied: on.
The name of Teworssele occurs in the inscriptions below the battle- scene published by Mr. Fellows, p. 207; and as the tomb with this inscription is immediately below that piece of sculpture, we may conclude that they were erected by the same individual. The first line is in the usual style; the first word of the second line is pro- bably the name of Teworssele’s father in the genitive case; the rest of that line is unintelligible. The third line consists of the phrase which is supposed to designate either a native or a citizen of Perecle.
No. 22. At Limyra, under the Battle-scene.
In the copy published by Mr. Fellows, it was not clear whether — this was all to be read together or not; it is evident from the pre- sent version that it is to be read in three separate parts; but this’ assistance is not enough, and the greater part of these short inscrip- tions is still obscure.
The first phrase is as follows :—
ἀκ Téworsséle : prinafaté : losi ppé : tite : fazewé :
The first two words are Teworssele made; the last word, fazeué, is probably from faze, which we find in the compound érafazeya, a tomb or monument, and which may have the same meaning in this sentence. Teworssele was the name of the owner of the last tomb, No. 21.
The second sentence runs thus :—
Téworsséle ; prinafaté gasawala : tiké : ésé : pereklé ; tewété : artto’ aparu : sé 4parué : téluze :
Excepting the first two words, which are the same as in the first sentence, and the name of the town Perekle, the whole has still to be made out.
The third sentence is very imperfectly preserved, and is quite obscure.
No. 23. At Armostel, near Limyra. ésédépliiméyé : méyadii : tése : meite : afailae : gopa éiwe Esedeplume’s —_ family? herein may bury in tomb his
sé ené : épi: poitii mée: afaiie: tése : adadaiale for who buries here let him pay a fine
211
No. 24. Near Armostel.
ésédépliiméyé : méyadii : tése : meite afaiiae : gopa Ewélie : mée : Esedeplume’s family ? herein may bury in tomb of them, who
afaiiae tése : adadaiale : buries here let him pay a fine
The close resemblance of these two inscriptions is very remarkable. Of the latter there are two copies, taken by Mr. Daniell and Mr. Forbes ; from the comparison of these with one another and with the other inscription, the version given above is made up.
The first word in each, Esédéplitméyé, appears to be a possessive adjective formed from Esédéplime, which we find in the inscription of Plate 36 of Mr. Fellows’s ‘ Lycia’ as the name of the owner of a tomb at Limyra. So in Nos. 27 and 28, from the name Eyamara we have the adjective Eyamarayé as a possessive.
méyadu does not occur again. We get an approach to the meaning of the sentence if we suppose it to mean family.
tése meite and tése have been already translated herein, which may do-in these sentences, although it does not give us a very neat trans- lation. Professor Grotefend gives another meaning to these words in the memoir already quoted, p. 297. He translates the common phrase,
sé εὐ itadu tése meite, welcher Frével tibet hiergegen.
This translation has been overturned by our finding itatié rendered in Greek by μνημα, p. 197 ; and the inscriptions now under consider- ation would not bear the meaning which he gives to tése meite.
afaie is evidently the verb. It is applied both to the owner of the tomb and to the transgressor ; its meaning must therefore be ¢o bury, to use, or some word which may be substituted for them.
gopa eiiwe or gopa éweiie are his tomb and their tomb; gopa occurs aes, as a tomb ; éuwe is his or their ; éwéue, the genitive plural of t.
séene épi poitt must be left as unknown. It is evidently a com- plete Soa as No. 24 is perfect without it. In some other inscrip.« tions we have the same phrase, or one which nearly resembles this. In the fourth line of No. 26 it is proposed to restore the same words, and the broken portion of the third line of the bilingual in- scription at Levise, No. 2, might be filled up mé eyé épi poiete. In the lower inscription of p. 225 of Mr. Fellows we have peyétiiz, and - below peytit, which has since been corrected by Mr. Fellows to
peyett. It is probable that the word should be povetit in the present _ instance,
adadauale has been frequently met with as let him pay a fine, and it is always followed by numerals ; these are here indicated by a con- traction.
mée may be taken for who, being probably related to mé, méné, &c., which.
212
In this manner we obtain a conjectural translation of the inscrip- tions, which must be received for the present with great doubts.
The two Greek words ®a» wos Τυρίῳ, which occur below the in- scription No. 24, appear to have no connection with it.
No. 25. On a Rock-Tomb at Sura. éwlinii ; prinafu : méte : prinafatti : mezpéteyé : moruzail : toiés : This tomb which made § Mezpéteyé Moruza’s grandson?
mlotiedaza : soréze ... Mlouedaza Sura
urppe atle : Giwe : sé lade : sé tedéemé : Giiweyé : sé δα : 8116 : Sor himself and wife and children his and wives self iirzze..s.zeyl : mété : itatute tomb
ὄν πη : tutu : sé ladu ; irppe sé mée : tade teké : teké : méné: this and wives for and who tomb tomb which wlate:..... sttéwe : soréze : sé dawu Sura — wrdmu : eyasé : atlaiie mé piite iuguate : mlotiedaza : ddéepné themselves Mlouedaza δον
.Ο.. geziine tére : mlotiedazue to Mlouedaza
méde : itégoptte : iramu : pitwaiie : iténtt grofe : médé ἰδίο Ὁ komézéete : otiazata : tofére sé mezrateyéué koméue : adaeyu : [l= orazeyun : gade;: : 88 : δρέ to Mezrateye : aéeziéfpwsd ené : komazate méné : pddii : wla : samate Ewe : soréze
The preceding inscription is far from being correct throughout: some of the obvious errors are set right, but there are others which can only be mended by another copy; the latter half of the sixth line especially wants revising. There is very little of the — inscription yet understood, but there are some points of interest in it which are worth pointing out, of which the principal is con- — nected with the name of the town. It is found at Sura, and the name Soréze occurs three times, at the end of the first and last lines and in the third line.. This is probably an inflection of Sorézu, the termination in ézu being the Lycian equivalent of ἡσσος, which with — ασσος and εσσος is so common in the Greek names of the towns of Asia Minor. Of this another instance was pointed out (Appendix, p- 461) in the legend Pttarazu of a coin referred to Patara. The first line is marked as incomplete ; the word was probably Sorézeie, a native of Sura. .
The owner of the tomb is described as Mezpéley@ : Moruzau : toués :
213
Mloiedaza. In the sixth line the name is written Mezrateyé, one or the other spelling being incorrect, and Mlowedaza occurs again below. totiés as the equivalent of the Greek és, we have the same
doubt already pointed out at p. 206, whether to translate the phrase Mezpéteyé the son of Moruza, also called Mlouedaza, or Mezpeteye the grandson of Moruza, i in which latter case Mlowedaza may be the name of an office in the town of Sura, as has already been conjec- tured of a word much resembling it in No. 11, Mawenaza; in fact the two words are so close, that we may suspect an error in the spelling of the latter. The former is confirmed by its recurrence: “
The word adaeyit in the sixth line, followed by a numeral, must be connected with the payment of a fine.
The rest of this long inscription must be left in obscurity for the present.
No. 26. On a Sarcophagus-Tomb at Cyane. éwuinii : faze : méné prinafatii : g... This tomb which made G.... sé ené épi poyétii ésédé inéfé:..... sé eteseséne : poreiieméfewa : ofateséu : for Poreuemete Ofatese’s nine : sé ené épi poyétii : ésédé inéfé : maga sé epipodti : edugré : magaii : gailwogepe Owing to the extremely imperfect state of the copy of this inscrip- tion, greater liberties have been taken than usual with the version given above. It appears from a memorandum of Mr. Daniell’s, that
the inscription is complete at the end, and that the breaks in the second and fifth lines are caused by flaws in the stone, in which no
- letters are lost.
' The forms of several of the letters are unusual, anc there are also peculiarities in the orthography, the letter & being used in the first word instead of W, of which we have another instance in No. 31; and the same letter being employed in the dative, Poretiemétewa, is also peculiar. We might attach more importance to these variations if the copy of the inscription were more perfect.
The second word had, if we may trust the copy, four letters, and ended in ze; its meaning is obviously tomb or monument. There is no word in any other inscription which exactly fulfils these con- ditions ; but below the battle-scene, No. 22, we probably have fazeué, which may be an oblique case of faze, and in érafazeya, a monument or tomb, we have a compound word containing the same root.
Nune must be some term of relationship; it is used in a similar
_ manner in other inscriptions.
Nos. 27 and 28. On the two Sides of the Door of a Tomb at Rhodiopolis
These inscriptions relate to the same tomb, but do not appear to
_ be in continuation of one another. The phraseology of both is dif-
214
ferent from those already examined, and the second contains very few words which have been yet made out.
The tomb is stated. in the first inscription to be made by Eyamara the son of Térsseglé, and the words teké eyamarayé at the beginning of the second inscription mean Tomb of Eyamara, the second word being the possessive adjective derived from the name Eyamara.
No,. 29. At Antiphellus.
The tomb on: which this inscription. oecurs is figured by Mr. Fel- lows, p. 219 of ‘ Journal in Asia Minor,’ and the beginning of the inscription was given by him as No. 23, Plate 36. The whole in- scription has since been published by M. Tessier. On comparing the present copy with that given by the latter gentleman, the differ- ences between them prove so great as to discourage the authcr from any attempt to restore the text. The little which was copied by Mr. Fellows corresponds much more nearly with the present copy than with M. Tessier’s, and consequently confirms im part the accu- racy of our new version.
The inscription is very different from all those which we have yet considered ; it has none of the ordinary phrases of the monumental inscriptions, nor do we find anything which proves that it is, strictly speaking, funereal. Many of the words and expressions correspond with those on the obelisk at Xanthus, and it may possibly prove to be a decree or public document.
The remaining inscriptions are so imperfect that it is useless: to attempt to translate them. In some instances portions might easily be restored hy comparing them with the more perfect specimens ; but this would only lengthen the present paper without adding to our stock of knowledge. The following short notice of them may suffice :—
No. 30. At Limyra:
The tomb: of Munoiué the son of Taléemé.
No. 31. At Limyra,
Only the beginnings of each line remain, and these are very im- perfect. The names are all lost.
No. 32. At Limyra.
The latter half of each line is lost.
No.. 33. At Limyra. Full of blanks and unintelligible.
No, 34. At Limyra..
Over the door of a rock-tomb. ate two words in Greek characters, MAZZA KOATA. On the lintel is a Lycian inscription in four lines, of which only the last few words of the last line could be copied, the rest being very imperfect,
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215
No. 35.
One letter is wanting at the beginning of each line, and there are other blanks and inaccuracies.
No. 36. At Tlos, on the next Tomb to that on which is the Figure of Bellerophon represented by Mr. Fellows, p. 136.
Mr. Forbes states that he believes the copy to be both exact and complete; nevertheless it may be suspected that we have only part of the inscription. ‘he only intelligible words are the last, 86 /ada etiwe, and his wife. ‘
2. ‘On the Reformation of the English Alphabet.” By Danby Fry, Esq.
The author did not propose any new modes of spelling, but merely such additions to the alphabet as would enable it to express each elementary sound of our language by a distinct character. The circumstances of the times seem to require a more perfect alpha- bet. Military expeditions, and the yearly increasing circle of mis- sionary or commercial enterprise, have brought us into contact with nations, with whom it must be alike our interest and our duty to cultivate the most intimate relations. The defects of our present alphabet oppose very serious obstacles to the acquisition of a new language, and thereby increase the difficulties which stand in the
_ way of a more cordial intercourse between ourselves and distant
races. We may form some notion how great these defects are from the ever-varying orthography made use of by our travellers when they have occasion to write the names of certain Eastern localities.
The sounds of our language which seem more particularly to require new characters to express them are, the greater number of the vowels, all the aspirated mutes except f and v, and the sound usually expressed by ag.
We have only five characters to express the six vowel-sounds, and no means whatever to distinguish their long from their short sound. The author would use the common mark indicating the long quantity, and would write :—
a as heard in fall. a as heard in father. a folly. a ¢ "fake
ὃ "ικ." é as fou,
ο son. e Sen.
i rude. I τὸν machine u full. i a jit.
The diphthongs he would distinguish by the circumflex, writing οἵ as heard in coin, to distinguish it from the οὐ in coincide; ad for the diphthongal sound in foul; id for the diphthongal sound in few, and af for that in fine.
For the two dental aspirates he proposed the use of the Anglo-
216
Saxon characters 6 and p; and for the two aspirates of the sibilant series, as heard in azure and Ashur, the characters z and “, writing bifhop with the continuous character, but mishap with the two letters sand ἡ. For the sound of zg as heard in ring, he proposed the character ag. :
δ πο Sgn Pt me et
PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
Vou. 1. MARCH 8, 1844. No. 19.
Henstzeien Wepewoop, Esq., in the Chair.
The following works were laid on the table :—
“Α Lexicon of Zéschylus.” By the Rev. William Linwood, M.A., M.R.A.S., Student of Christ Church, Oxford. London 1843. Pre- sented by the author.
“* ZEschyli Eumenides ad codicum manuscriptorum fidem recog- novit, et notis maximam partem criticis instruxit Gulielmus Lin- wood, M.A., Adis Christi Alumnus et Reg. Societ. Asiat. Soc. Ac- cedunt viri summi Reverendi C. J. Blomfieldii, S.T.P. note mste. et aliorum selectz.’” Oxford, 1844. Presented by the editor.
A report was read on the claims of Professor Christian Molbech of Copenhagen to be elected an honorary member of the Philological Society.
A paper was then read :-—
“* On the Ellipsis, and on the Pleonastic Use of the Pronoun Per- sonal in English Syntax,” by Edwin Guest, Esq.
An ellipsis is commonly said to be the omission of some word or words necessary to the construction of a sentence. It might perhaps be more satisfactory to call it a defective mode of expression, sub- stituted for and originating in one more perfect. In such phrases as ad Veste, some word appears to have been dropped, in order to meet the wants of hurried conversation ; but in the phrase dic mihi, we have no reason to suppose that any part of the sentence has disappeared. It is true the verb has no subject, and that conse- quently the sentence is logically defective, but such a defect is of a very different kind from the one which was first noticed; and the mischiefs arising from indefinite terms may perhaps be less than those which result from definitions so loose and general.
In the earlier stages of our language, the different persons of the verb were, most of them, readily distinguished by their inflexions ; but as these became gradually confounded and lost, other means of distinction became necessary, and the personal pronoun was more generally used as the subject of the verb. Use, however, seems to
: have stamped certain idioms too deeply into our language to be
easily got rid of; and we meet in almost every page of our drama- tists with such phrases as, thank you, beseech you, pray thee, cry your , would it were so, ἕο. In these idioms there may be reason to
_ doubt if there be any real ellipsis. Similar forms may be found in
the sister-dialects, and they may be traced to a period when the omission of the pronoun was almost as common in the Gothic as in the classical languages. Custom, however, has sanctioned the use of
218
the term in these cases, and much inconvenience would result from being fastidiously critical.
The very marked and distinctive character of its inflexion enabled the second person singular long to dispense with the services of its pronoun, and it is used without the pronoun even at the present day in some of our provincial dialects.
1. See’st how brag yon bullock bears So smirk, so smocth, his pricked. ears ?— Weenest of love is not his mind? Spens. Febr. Whither art going? Tim. of Ath. 1. 1. Bs . ... alunatic lean-witted fool,
Presuming on an ague’s privilege,
Dar’st with thy frozen admonition
Make pale our cheek. Rich. IT. 2. 1. 4. ees . fearful king,
Nay impudent transgressor, now thou see’st
Thy lustful breast lie bare to my revenge,
Coin’st these apparent falsehoods.
Beaum. ἃ ΕἸ. Faithful Friends, 4. 4.
5. Aé’nt in pulpit now; when art a got up there, I never mind what dost say ; but I wont be priest-ridden. —Tom Jones, 15. 5.
When two clauses of a sentence are brought together without a conjunction, our language seems to require that each should have its subject, he bowed, he fell; but when they are united by a conjunction copulative or disjunctive, the second subject may generally be dis- pensed with, he rose and went, he tried but failed. In the Old- English the second subject was often omitted when there was no conjunction or merely one of those conjunctions, to which some of our grammarians have given the name of continuative.
6. In his elleuent 3ere com folk, pat misleued, Aryued on Brittrik, and sore him pei greued. R. Br. 10. he The citizens are mum, say not a word. Rich. III. 3. 7. 8. . - Harald—mette
Vibrand Dardanes brother, with swerd so him grette That thurhout his armes Wibrand alle to hewe. R. Br. 18.
9. What folk be ye that at my home coming Perturben so my feste with crying? Quod Theseus; have ye so gret envie Of min honour that thus complaine and crie? Chau. Knightes Tale. 10. Thomalin, why sitten we so, As weren overcome with wo Upon so faire a morewe? Spens, March.
In these examples, the pronoun omitted would, if expressed, have had the same case as the noun or pronoun in the first clause ; in the following examples the cases differ,—an accusative or dative or pos-
219
__ sessive pronoun (which may be considered as representing the geni- tive) being found in the first clause, while the pronoun wanting in the second clause is the subject of the verb.
11, pe north had fele affraies porgh the Scottis king be cuntre gan assail. R. Br. 88. 12. be ferthe sorow of pis land com porgh be Danes, be folk of the North slouh, destroyed per wanes. R. Br. 8. 13. pare wekness is fulfilled, per in ere waxed hard. R. Br. 66.
14. Unto ourselves it hapneth oft among, In our own snares unluckily are caught, Whilst our attempts fall instantly to nought. Drayton’s Cromwell.
15. This is my son beloved, in him am pleased. Pik. 12. 16. Into Lyndsay, ΤῸ to him tying And purveied oste, and dight him als a douhty kyng. R. Br. 27. 17. This thing was granted and our othes swore With ful glad herte, and praieden also That he wolde vouchesauf for to don so. ) Chau. Prol. 18. The Scottes and the Peightes he drove into oute ysles ‘Of Scotland then and there became his men To live in peace. Hard. Chron, Arthure. 19. —Owen Glendower—did great damage
For cause the Lord Graye held fis heritage And to the kyng of it full sore had playned No remedie gate, so was he then demeaned. Hard. Chron. 318,
20. . .. - buta little wants ef making me divine,
Nor barren am in brooks, for that I still retaine
Two neat and dainty rills, Polyolbion, 26. 21. Nor do we find him ready to be sounded,
But with a crafty madness keeps aloof
When we would bring him on to some confession
Of his true state. Hamlet, 3, 1. 22. Pech ! his name is curt,
A monosyllable! but commands the horse well. Ben Jons. New. Inn.
23. His honour’d presence so did me inflame, That, though being then in presence of my peeres, Daine not the lesse to meete him as he came, &c. Drayt. Cromwell.
The verb is occasionally found without a subject when the pro- noun, personal or possessive, occurs in the same clause. Such is not unfrequently the case with the reflective verb. The omission has given rise to much curious idiom, and to some very false criti-
220
cism; but to discuss this syntax properly would require a more minute investigation than our present limits will admit of. Sometimes the pronoun omitted is in the objective case.
24, Poverte ful often when a man is low, Maketh his God and eke himself to know. Chau. W. of Bathes Tale.
25. _ The one ’s my sovereign, whom both my oath And duty bids defend ; the other again Is my kinsman, whom the king hath wrong’d, Whom conscience and my kindred bids to right. Rich. IT, 2. 2.
26. Harald was curteys and strong, of body avenaunt, To be per king and hede pe lond was wele o grant. R, Br. 51. We ee i ah See was . ’tis a girl,
Promises boys hereafter. Sir, your queen Desires your visitation, and to be
Acquainted with this stranger. Henry VIII. 5. 1. 28. To beg of thee, it is my more dishonour Than thou of them. Cor, 8.2.
The indeterminate pronoun was often omitted before the verb im- personal ; and also in cases where an assertion was made simply by the verb substantive.
29. Now, said the lady, draweth towards night. F.Q. 1. 1. 22. 30. Forthwith on all sides to his aid was run
By angels many and strong. P, L. 6. 31. In holy churche of such a slitte,
Is for to rewe unto us alle, Gower, Conf. Am., fol. 2.
32. And a litel kyng was, whos sone was sick at Cafarnaum.— Wicl. Ion. 4.
MDs waseashes for drede thei crieden: and anon Jhesus spak to hem and seide, Have ye trist, J am, nyle ye drede. And Peter answeride and seide, Lord, if thou art, comaunde me to come to thee.—Wicl. Matt. 14.
34. Shall not be long, but I'll be here again. Maceb. 4. 1. 35. .......+. that worthy prince, whose vertue I love and admire, though my good destinie hath not been to see his person.—Pembr. Arc, 2.
This pronoun was also rarely if ever used, when a sentence or portion of a sentence filled the place of subject to the verb.
36. He was a holy man, porgh miracle was sene.—R. Br. 36.
37. Pei said in pat parlement— Pat Edward felle best be chefe, oper shuld not falle. R. Br. 27. The pronouns he and it were often used by Old-English writers, and sometimes even by later authors, as relatives.
38. The youth and inexperience of the prince, he was only fifteen years of age, declined a perilous encounter, &c.—Gibbon,
a) eK ee ὰὰν ϑεδου μκθ...'
dag
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The omission of the relative, which is even yet so marked a fea- ture in the language, is in fact only a particular case of the law we are now discussing. In present usage, the relative omitted is al- most always the object of some verb, and the antecedent is generally preceded by the definite article—he is the man I want. Both these restrictions are of late introduction. In our earlier dialect the an-
_____tecedent is often found otherwise accompanied, as, for example, by
_—s@ possessive pronoun—
39. Their scouts convey’d away my ships they fande.
; Higgins’s King Humber, 8,
_ and till the close of the seventeenth century, the omitted relative
| was almost as often the subject as the object of the verb.
40. Sipen he went aboute kirkes vp to raise
Abbaies forto help, were fallen in miseyse. R. Br. 35. 41. ἜἠΟΗἨΗετεπον of per fyn, pam com for at folie. R, Br. 337. 42. Then to Philznes altars they attayn’d,
For so men call two hills, erected are
In Tunise land. Higgins’s King Albanact, 32. 43. Farewell my country, Germany farewell—
Farewell my father, and my friends, there dwell.
Higgins’s Queen Elstride, 43.
44. First wear this girdle, then appear
Invisible to all are here. Marlow, Dr. Faustus, 3, 2. 45. Many do keep their chambers, are not sick.
Tim. of A. 3. 4.
The relative often includes the antecedent, “‘ whom he would he slew ;” and sometimes we have it preceded by a preposition.
SR sis ahah sre SS ES for on whom we send,
The weight of all, and our last hope relies. a Naw ee This idiom is occasionally found without the relative. 47. Take pittee on a captive thrice hath beene.
Higgins’s Lady Sabrine, 18,
In Anglo-Saxon a pronoun was often placed before a noun, and more particularly before a proper name or name of dignity. The Same construction was common in the Old-English.
᾿ς ΠΡ a ae eae thou poet Marcian, That writest us that ilke weding mery Of hire Philologie and him Mercury. Chau. Marchantes Tale.
49. Who gaf Judith corage and hardenesse To sleen him Holofernes, &c. M. of Lawes Tale. 50. All is his tombe not so curious
As was the tombe of him Darius, Which that Apelles wrought so sotelly. |W. of Bathes Prol. 51 O that the living Harry had the temper Of him the worst of these three gentlemen. H. IV. Part 2nd, 5. 2.
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When the pronoun is the subject or object of the verb, the pro- noun is generally placed before the verb, and the noun after it.
52. sane Of Gryme a fisshere men redes 3it in ryme,
pat he bigged Grymesby Gryme pat ilk tyme. Β.. Br. 26. 53. Harald of Donesmore vpon Done him mette
Vibrand, Dardanes brother. R, Br. 18. 54, Ac po pe messinger hym sey pe erl, as hym po3te
pat he hadde so foule ylow ful sore hym of po3te.
_R. Gl. 160.
δῦ © Neat Englische and Saxones pat hider were y broyt
boru Brutones for to helpe hem, and sebbe hem ouercome
be Brutones, pat hem hyder bro3te, &c. R. Glou. 3. 56. By whiche thei bound theim self by their sealing
Hym to delyuer the kyng his castels all, To kepe to tyme his padeement were byfall. Hard. Chron. c. 158.
In another class of cases, the personal pronoun follows the noun, and when used as the subject or the object is generally found in im- mediate contact with the verb. Instances of this construction may be occasionally found even in modern English, when the noun is separated from its verb by a long interval ( Vide the beginning of the Absolution, Common Prayer), and also when an emphasis is wanted.
OTs. & sens tsseetbepesdasees i.» Worthy Wolsey, Who cannot err, he did it. H. 1.1...
In the Old-English it seems to have been used, as it still is in the languages of northern Europe, as a mere idiom,
58. Uttred in his first yere messengers he sent. R. Br. 8. 59. The ΠΕ sorow per after com whan William Conqueroure
pat aryued in pis land, Harold he slouh in stoure,
And barons oper inouh, pat died in pe feld. R. Br, 8. GOs Fv adegessdccncasevevens be godes away bei ladde,
pat men with pe bestes in feldes pei bam fedde. Ib. 7. 61. Lordings the time it wasteth night and day
And steleth from us. Chau. M. of Lawes Prol. 62. Duk Theseus—with all his besy cure
He casteth now, wher that the sepulture Of good Arcite may best ymaked be. Ch. Knightes Tale.
63. And Custance with a dedly pale face The fourthe day toward the ship she went. Chau. Man of Lawes Tale.
64. And in thy sight to die what were it else But like a pleasant slumber, ὅσο, H. VI. Part 2nd. GG ᾽πε μεν general criticisms concerning obscurity, &c., as in some cases
there may be ground for them, so in others they may be nothing more than, &c.—Butler’s Sermons, Pref.
In the following examples the pronoun is in the dative or in the accusative case.
a em arg
ttt tie
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66... Edgare
His barons gaf him conseile for to tak a wyfe. R. Br. 35. 67. And 4bdsolon him felle ne bet ne wers. Ch. Milleres Tale. 68. Bothe he and Reynald, was Guthefrides sonne— .
He exilde bam out of the north. R. Br. 33. Bako); aetapsacs to Danmark Kebriht gan schake,
bat be kyng Kebrikt ne myght him ouertake. Ib. 10. 70. Ine was kyng of Westsex sex and thretty 3ers
Iuor and Ini ost, did he pam chace. Ib. 6.
71. But my servant Caleb, because, &c., him will I bring into the land; &c.— Numbers 14. 24.
72. He that hath killed my kyng, &c.......... Sddissvcugew is’t not perfect conscience To quit him with this arm? Hamlet, 5. 2. The pronoun is sometimes found in the genitive case. τς arr re thei dred no ping God, no 3emed euenhed of lawe Bot felawes unto befes, to robbours of ilk cuntre par wikkedness was fulfilled. ΒΕ, Br. 65. _ 74. This knight, of which my tale is specially,
Whan that he saw he might not come thereby (This is to sayn what women leven most) Within his brest ful sorweful was his gost. Chau. Wif. of Bathes Tale.
70. This knight, too late kis manhood and his might ’ I did essay. F. Q. 4. 1. 35. gine το ρνατορουρανν τος my second joy And first fruits of my body, from his presence I am barr’d as one infectious. W. Tale, 3. 1.
When the pronoun followed the noun immediately an idiom was the result, which has given rise to much speculation.
77. pe kyng tok Brut ys owne body, in ostage as it were. R. GI. 13. 78. Eldal pat bischop of Gloucestre was And pe erl ys broper Eldol was per bi cas. Ib. 161. 19. Once in ἃ sea-fight gainst the Count his gallies I did some service. Tw. Night, 3. 3.
Addison, it is well known, considered this idiom as the origin of our genitive, and that the inflexion s represented “‘ the his and her of our forefathers.” Spect. 135. Ben Jonson had taken a different
_ View, and thought that the genitival ending is ‘‘ brought in first the _ monstrous syntax of the pronoun fis joining with a noun.” —Gr.c, 13.
_ The confusion, however, between this syntax and the genitive ap- _ pears to have originated at an earlier period. In the MS. of Rob. _ of Gloucester we have both forms, Hengestes* and Hengest ys, and
* The form Hengeste’s, which is sometimes found in Hearne’s edition of Rob. of Gloucester, does not occur in the MS. It is one of those miserable “‘ corrections ” of which our editors are so proud, and their readers, for the most part, so impatient.
VOL. I. 9 ᾿
224
in some other MSS. of the fourteenth century, the latter of these forms seems to be used erelusively, as if the writer considered it to be the real representative of the genitive.
It may be well to notice, that the form which we are now discuss- ing was just as common in the Dutch as in our own language. It survived indeed to so late a period, that modern Dutch grammarians sometimes think it necessary to warn the reader against such phrases as ‘‘ mijne moeder hare zuster,” my mother her sister; ‘‘ mijn vader zijn broeder,” my father his brother, &c.
When the pronoun was used as the object of the verb, the noun appears to have been treated, for the most part, as a nominative absolute. See Ex. 68, 72. The Latin (in which these idioms were almost as common as in English, Voss. de Constr. c. 59.) some- times tolerated a similar construction: ‘ Cetere philosophorum discipline, eas nihil adjuvare arbitror.” Cicero. But the more ge- neral practice seems to have been to put noun and pronoun in the same case: ‘‘ Corporis nostri magnam natura ipsa videtur habuisse rationem, que formam nostram, reliquamque figuram, in qua esset species honesta, eam posuit in promptu; que partes autem,” &c. Cicero. This latter syntax is also found in English.
80. Godwyn an erle of Kent met with Alfred,
Him and alle his feres vntille prison pam led,
Of some smote of her hedes, &c, R., Br. 52. 81. Your majestie and me, that have free souls,—
It touches us not. Hamlet, 3. 2.
When the pronoun is in the genitive or dative case, a preposition is sometimes placed before the noun.
82. — a lorde of honour,
Of Helianoure schip, he was hire governour. Ἐ, Br. 153, 83. Sathan that ever us waiteth to beguile
Saw of Custance all hire perfection. Ch, M. of Lawes Tale. 84, He ordeyned then by statute ordinaunce
That none should bee the prince of Wales more Excepte of the King his eldest sonne ferst bore. Hard, Chron, 297.
85. —— erle and baroun To Eilred Edgar sonne bitought him pe coroune. R. Br. 37. 86. To pe folk pat duelled Acres forto fende
Ober fiue pousand marke he gaf bam to spende. Tb. 135.
In the Gothic, as in some of the Shemitic, dialects, we have occa- sionally a personal pronoun coupled with the relative. The German affords us a familiar example of this usage, ‘‘ Vater unser der du bist im himmel, &c.” Our Father that—thou art in heaven, ἅς. In the Anglo-Saxon and Old-English we meet with a very similar syntax, which even yet can hardly be considered as altogether obsolete.
87. A knight ther was and that a worthy man
That fro the time that he ferste bigan To riden out, he loved chivalrie. Chau. Knightes Tale,
\e Ἢ Ξ τ,
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88. I pawn’d f Mine honour for his truth, who being so heighten’d, He water’d his new plants with dews of flattery, Seducing so my friends. Cor. 5..5.
89. lend it rather to thy enemy,
Who if he break, thou may’st with better grace
Exact the penalty. M. of Venice, 1. 2. 90. the winter’s wind,
Which, when it bites and blows upon my body Even till I shrink with cold, I smile, and say, “ This is no flattery.” As You Like It, 2. 1.
91. Outward senses, mental faculties, health of body, and peace of mind | are extremely valuable; but the continuance of them for a single moment | depends upon him, who, if he opens none can shut, and if he shuts none can open.—I. Newton’s Letter to a Nobleman, 8.
The personal pronoun sometimes appears as the object of the verb.
92. I saw to day a corps yborne to cherche That now on Monday last I saw him werche. Chau. Milleres Tale. | 93. Anger is like ᾿ A full hot horse, who being allow’d his way, i Self-mettle tires him. H. Vili. 1.1.
In these cases, the relative appears to be a nominative absolute. See Ex. 88, 89, 91, 93; and instead of who, which, &c., we might _ substitute respecting whom, respecting which, &c. The relative is _ sometimes used as such nominative absolute, without being coupled
with any pronoun personal. 94. Her frights and griefs, Which never tender lady hath borne greater. W. Tale, 2. 1. 95. those only ure judges, &c. who will be at the trouble, &c. to see how far the things here insisted upon (and not other things) might have __ been put in a plainer manner; which yet I am very far from asserting that _ they could not. Butler’s Sermons, Pref.
The use of the relative as a nominative absolute is still not un- common in our provincial dialects. Mr. Cornewall Lewis, in his _ Herefordshire Glossary, mentions which as “used in Gloucestershire _ with a sense between a conjunction and a relative.” He gives the _ following examples: ‘‘He told the landlord to bring him some beer, _ which he drawed it, and brought it to him.” “He said I went to _ Gloucester yesterday, which I did no such thing.” “I gave him _ two shillings yesterday, which I have given him five shillings a week - ver since our last vestry meeting.”
4 In some few instances, however, the relative seems (like the noun _ in Ex. 80, 81,) to have taken the same case as the pronoun per- sonal.
96. But an hired hyne, and that is not the schepherde, whos ben not the “sg his own, seeth a wolfe comynge and leeueth the scheep.—Wicliff, on. x,
Q2
226
It may be observed that we sometimes have the relative in one clause of the sentence, and the pronoun personal in another.
97. ——- thilke bodye fat Whiche thei with deintee meates kepe And laien it softe for to slepe, &c. Gower, Conf, Am. fol. 3.
98. t’her whom the first man did wive (Whom and her race only forbiddings drive) He gave it. Donne, Pr. of the Soule, 9 99. false prophets which come to you in sheep's clothing but in-
wardly they are ravening wolves.—Matt. 13. 21. This anomaly may perhaps be explained, by supposing an ellipsis
of the relative—‘‘ which come to you, &c., but which, inwardly they.
are ravening wolves.”
There yet remains an idiom which should not pass altogether
without notice. When a subordinate clause acts the part of object to a verb, the syntax is sometimes altered by making the subject of such clause the object, and filling up its place with a pronoun per- sonal. ‘This resembles a well-known Greek idiom.
100. That all the people of the earth might know the hand of the Lord, that it is mighty.—Josh. 4. 24.
101, Fate hear me, what J say. Tr. and Cr. 5. 6. 102. I see you, what you are; you are too proud. Tw. Night, 1. 5. 103, Conceal me what J am. : Tw. Night, 1. 2. 104. I was then present —— Beheld them, when they lighted, how they clung In their embracement, &c. H. ΗΠ.
No. 18 will be ready in a few days. . On Friday, March 22, a paper will be read ‘‘ On the Interpreta- tion of the Greek Idiom, which arises from combining ἵνα, ὅπως, ds ΄ with the Past Indicative.” By the Rev. Ὁ. Cockayne.
amy iment penta ae TT
ore
τὸ PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
Vou. I. MARCH 22, 1844. No. 20.
Professor W1tson in the Chair. ᾿ The following papers were read :—
1. “On the Construction of ἵνα, ὅπως, ὥς, with the Past Indica- tive.” By the Rev. O. Cockayne.
The following paper is submitted to the Society with the hope of explaining more fully the principles on which is founded the con- struction of iva, ὅπως, ὥς, with the past indicative, as Iva εἶχον.
Dr. Monk in his Hippolytus has collected some instances of this usage, and has allowed us to discover his principle of interpretation by translating ἵν᾽ εἶχον, “in which ease they would be able.” Though the Hippolytus was published more than thirty years ago, yet this interpretation will fairly form the subject-matter for discussion even now, because the high reputation of Dr. Monk as a classical scholar has given his opinion a general reception in England, and it is still inculcated in our public schools and books.
Now in this interpretation is implied, that iva in such idioms de- notes circumstance, ‘in whick case,” and consequently, that it is here used as a local particle. : ΄ To this hypothesis may be opposed several considerations.
1. When the local particle iva is used with the past indicative, the verb retains the indicative sense; as
Hecuba 100. ᾿Ἑκάβη, σπουδῇ πρός σ᾽ ἐλιάσθην, τὰς δεσποσύνας σκήνας προλιποῦσ᾽, ἵν᾽ ἐκληρώθην καὶ προσετάχθην δούλη. ‘* where I was allotted and appointed to servitude.” 2. The other local particles, éxov, ἔνθα, are not so used. 3. “Iva, ὅπως, ὥς, all obtain place in this construction, and are all final particles. 4, The analogy of other particles with the indicative past.
εἴποιμι ἂν, dicerem,
εἶπον ἂν, dixissem,
εἰ εἴποιμι, si dicerem,
ei εἶπον, si dixissem,
εἴθ᾽ εἴποιμι, utinam dicerem,
εἴθ᾽ εἶπον, utinam dixissem, &c.
5. The suitableness of the signification UT, that, to all the ge- nhuine examples. Again, the translation, “ might be able,” is not discriminating. The
228:
true and distinctive signification of the expression we are examining is to be expressed by the pluperfect in English. And it obtains in like manner with other particles, as noticed above: εἶπον ἂν, plu- ‘perfect, “I should have said;” ἔγωγ᾽ ἂν εἶπον, εἰ παρὼν ἐτύγχανον, Ecclesiaz. 407, pluperf. ‘‘ If I had been present ;” εἴθε pe Καδμείων στίχες ἤναρον ἐν κονίαισιν, Eur. Suppl. 821, pluperf. “1 wish they had killed ;” and similarly ἵνα εἶχον, ‘‘that they might have been able,” pluperfect.
The following propositions are therefore submitted as the more probable solution :
1. “Iva, ὅπως, ὥς, are here final particles and not local.
2. The signification of iva, ὅπως, ὥς εἶχον», depending on a con- tingent clause, is also contingent, and to be expressed in English by the pluperfect.
3. The signification of the clause on which iva, ὅπως, ὥς, in this sense depend, is always in like manner pluperfect, and either con- tingent or expressive of a wish,
4, The tense is either aorist, imperfect (as ἵνα εἶχον), or a plu- perfect partaking of an imperfect sense: as ἐκαθήμην, from κάθημαι, I sit, ἤδειν, from οἶδα, I know..
5. The laws that govern the use of ἵνα, ὅπως, ὥς, are closely ana- logous with those relating to ei, if.
The examples that follow embrace all those referred to by Dr. Monk, together with others: they are used here merely as illustra- tions: it is not intended to prove the principle by the translations, but merely to show that the examples do not negative the hypothesis now proposed.
The first class of passages consists of those in which the prior clause expresses a contingency by the use of ἄν. Lysias adv. Si- mona, p. 98. § 21. ἐβουλόμην δ᾽ ΑΝ, ὦ βουλὴ, Σίμωνα τὴν αὐτὴν ἐμοὶ γνώμην ἔχειν, ἽΝ᾽ ἀμφοτέρων ἡμῶν ἀκούσαντες τἀληθῆ ῥᾳδίως ἔγνωτε τὰ δίκαια, “1 should have wished my adversary to do so also, that you might have easily determined on which side justice lies.” Lysias de Nece Eratosth. p. 95. ὁ 40. εἶτα δοκῶ "AN ὑμῖν τὸν συνδειπνοῦντα ἀφεὶς μόνος καταλειφθῆναι καὶ ἔρημος γενέσθαι, ἣ κελεύειν ἐκεῖνον μένειν, ἽΝΑ μετ᾽ ἐμοῦ τὸν μοιχὸν ἐτιμωρεῖτο; ‘* was it not more likely I should have requested my friend to stay, that he might have helped me?” Lysias de Vulnere, p. 101. § 8. ἐβουλόμην δ᾽ ἊΝ μὴ ἀπολαχεῖν αὐτὸν κριτὴν Διονυσίοις, “INA ὑμῖν φανερὸς ἐγένετο ἐμοὶ διηλλαγμένος, κρίνας τὴν ἐμὴν φυλὴν νικᾶν, “I should have wished him one of the umpires, that you might have seen him award the prize to my (106. Demosth. c. Aphob. fals. test. p. 849. § 17. τὸ πρᾶγμ᾽ “AN ἐλέγξαι ζητῶν ἐξήτησεν “AN pe τὸν παῖδα τὸν γράφοντα τὰς μαρτυρίας, ἽΝ᾽ εἰ μὴ παρεδίδουν μηδὲν δίκαιον λέγειν ἐδόκουν, «he would have demanded my slave, that if I had refused, I might have been suspected of a false statement.” LEcclesiaz. 151. ἐβουλό- μὴν μὲν ἕτερον “AN τῶν ἠθάδων ᾿ λέγειν τὰ βέλτισθ᾽ ἽΝ᾽ ἐκαθήμην ἥσυχος, “1 should have preferred some one else had spoken, that I might have been spared the trouble.”
a. oo
SY Mass
229 CEdipus Tyr. 1386.
ἀλλ᾽ εἰ τῆς ἀκουούσης ἔτ᾽ ἦν πηγῆς o¢ ὥτων φραγμὸς, οὐκ Ν ἐσχόμην τὸ μὴ ᾿᾽ποκλεῖσαι τοὐμὸν ἄθλιον δέμας, ἽΝ᾽ ἦν τυφλός τε καὶ κλύων μηδὲν, “Had it been possible I would have deprived myself of hearing, that I might have been of sounds unconscious also.” Tph. Taur. 355. ἀλλ᾽ οὔτε πνεῦμα Διόθεν ἦλθε πώποτε οὗ πορθμὶς, ἥτις διὰ πέτρας Συμπληγάδας Ἑλένην ΑΝ ἤγαγ᾽ ἐνθάδ᾽, ἣ μ᾽ ἀπώλεσε, Μενέλεων θ᾽, ἽΝ᾽ αὐτοὺς ἀντετιμωρησάμην, “Νὼ vessel came, that might have brought them, that I might have been avenged.”
In the following passage the construction is somewhat altered by the use of the impersonal participle absolute. Lysias de Olea Sacra, p- 109. § 17.—xws ἊΝ ἐτόλμησα τοσούτων μεμισθωμένων καὶ ἅπάν- των συνειδότων ἀφανίσαι τὸν σηκὸν, βραχέος μὲν κέρξους ἕνεκα, προ- θεσμίας δὲ οὐδεμιᾶς οὔσης τῷ κινδύνῳ, τοῖς εἰργασμένοις ἅπασι τὸ χωρίον ὁμοίως προσῆκον εἶναι σῶον τὸν σηκὸν, ἽΝ᾽, εἴ τις αὐτοὺς ἡτιᾶτο, εἶχον ἀνενεγκεῖν ὅτῳ παρέδοσαν; “Ηον should I have dared to meddle with the consecrated plat of ground, when it would have been the interest of every successive tenant to show he left it unimpaired, in order that, if called in question, he thus might have been able to lay the blame on the next occupier?”
Andokides de Reditu, p. 22, § 21. ἐδεξάμην δ᾽ ΑΝ πάντων χρη- μάτων εἶναι ἐν ἀσφαλεῖ φράσαι πρὸς ὑμᾶς ἃ καὶ τῇ βουλῇ ἐν ἀποῤῥήτῳ εἰσήγγειλα, ὍΠΩΣ αὐτόθεν προήδειτε. “1 would have given all the world to tell you, that you might have known.”
Demosth. pro Phormione, p. 950, § 20. τίς οὐκ *“AN—rotrw ταῦτ᾽ ἐδήλωσεν, ὍΠΩΣ διὰ τούτου ταῦτα ἠλέγχθη; ‘ Who would not have given information to Pasikles, that the offence might have been dis- covered by his means ?”
The passages next to be adduced are those in which the principal clause is expressed by EXPHN or the like.
Hippolyt. 645. XPHN δ᾽ és γυναῖκα πρόσπολον μὲν ov περᾶν,
ἄφθογγα δ᾽ αὐτοῖς συγκατοκίζειν δάκη
θηρῶν, ἽΝ᾽ εἶχον μήτε προσφωνεῖν τινα;
pyr ἐξ ἐκείνων φθέγμα δέξασθαι πάλιν. *“Women ought to have been surrounded with dumb creatures, that they might have had no opportunity.”
Isokrates Evagoras, p. 189, §5. ΕΧΡΗΝ μὲν οὖν καὶ τοὺς ἄλλους ἐπαινεῖν τοὺς ἐφ᾽ αὑτῶν ἄνδρας ἀγαθοὺς γεγενημένους, ἽΝ᾽ οἵ τε δυνά- ᾿ς μενοι τὰ τῶν ἄλλων ἔργα κοσμεῖν ἐν εἰδόσι ποιούμενοι τοὺς λόγους ᾿, ταῖς ἀληθείαις ἐχρῶντο περὶ αὐτῶν, οἵ τε νεώτεροι φιλοτιμοτέρως διέ- κειντὸ πρὸς τὴν ἀρετήν. ‘‘It would have been well had able writers chosen contemporaries for the objects of their praise, that they might have been compelled to adhere to the truth, and that an example might have been proposed for the imitation of the young.”
Plato Protag. ὃ 64. p. 335 C. - ἀλλά ce EXPHN ἡμῖν συγχωρεῖν τὸν ἀμφότερα δυνάμενον, ἽΝΑ συνουσία ἐγίγνετο. ‘ You who can do
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both ought to have conceded, that we might have entered upon con- versation.”
Demosth. adv. Aphob. p. 837,§ 5. ἀλλ᾽ EXPHN ἐπειδὴ τάχιστ᾽ ἐτελεύτησεν ὁ πατὴρ, εἰσκαλέσαντας μάρτυρας πολλοὺς παρασημή- γασθαι κελεῦσαι τὰς διαθήκας, ἽΝ᾽, εἴ τι ἐγίγνετο ἀμφισβητήσιμον, ἣν εἰς τὰ γράμματα, ταῦτ ᾿ἐπανελθεῖν. “ The right course would have been to verify all the testamentary papers, that these might have been an authority to which to appeal.’”
Pax, 135. οὔκουν ἜΧΡΗΓΝ σε Πηγάσου ζεῦξαι πτερὸν,
ὍΠΩΣ ἐφαίνου τοῖς θεοῖς τραγικώτερος ; “ Would it not have been better to put the stage Pegasus into harness, that you might have appeared with greater effect ?”
Hippolyt. 925. ΧΡΗΝ---δισσὰς φωνὰς ἔχειν»,
ὩΣ ἡ φρονοῦσα τἄδικ᾽ ἐξηλέγχετο
πρὸς τῆς Cekalas, κοὺκ ἂν ἠπατώμεθα.. “1 would have been well bad men two tones of voice, that falsehood might have been tried by the test of truth.”
In some places the prior clause is left to the imagmetion, or rather instinct, of the hearer.
Plato, Euthydem. p. 804 Εἰ. ὁ 77. καὶ μὴν, ἔφη, ἄξιόν γ᾽ ἦν ἀκοῦσαι. Τί δέ; ἣν δ᾽ ἐγώ. ἽΝΑ ἤκουσας ἀνδρῶν διαλεγομένων οἱ νῦν σοφώ- Tarot εἰσι τῶν περὶ τοὺς τοιούτους λόγους. ‘That you might have heard.” Were the construction is not continuous; the premiss is implied, ‘‘it would have been worth while to be near.”
Hippol. prior, frag. xii. φεῦ. φεῦ. τὸ μὴ τὰ πράγματ ᾿ ἀνθρώποις ἔχειν
' φωνὴν, ἽΝ᾽ ἦσαν μηδὲν οἱ δεινοὶ λέγειν. Here also the construction has suffered an ellipsis of the chief clause : “Events ought to have told their own tale, that the artifices of rhe- toric might have been useless. O! that it is not so!”
We now pass to those instances in which the principal clause ex- presses a wish.
Plato, Crito, Ρ. 44. Ὁ. § 3. ΕἸ yap “"QHEAON, ὦ Κρέτων, οἷοί re εἶναι οἱ πολλοὶ τὰ μέγιστα κακὰ ἐξεργάξεσθαι, ἽΝΑ οἷοί τε ἦσαν αὖ καὶ ἀγαθὰ τὰ μέγιστα" καὶ καλῶς ἂν εἶχε. ““1 wish they had possessed this power of mischief, that they γὴν also have been able to confer benefits.”
Choephore, 195. EIO’ εἶχε φωνὴν εὔφρον᾽, ἀγγέλου δίκην,
ὍΠΩΣ δίφροντις οὖσα μὴ ᾿κινυσσόμην. “4 wish it had been gifted with the power of speech that I might not have been tossed with doubts.”
Sophocl. Electr. 1131. ὡς ὭΦΕΛΟΝ πάροιθεν ἐκλιπεῖν βίον, πρὶν ἐς ξένην σε γαῖαν ἐκπέμψαι, χεροῖν κλέψασα ταῖνδε, κἀνασώσασθαι φόνου, ὍΠΩΣ θανὰ wy ἔκεισο τῇ τόθ᾽ ἡμέρᾳ Ι τύμβου πατρῴου κοινὸν εἰληχὼς μέρος. “7 wish that I had died rather, that you might have been laid in the sepulchre of your fathers.”
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- Hippol. 1078. "ΕΙΘ᾽ ἦν ἐμαυτὸν προσβλέπειν ἐναντίον © στάνθ᾽, ὯΣ ἐδάκρυσ᾽ οἷα πάσχομεν κακά. “O! that I might have stood a spectator of my own woe, that I might have poured forth the tears of sympathy.” Prometh. Vinct. 152. El yap μ᾽ ὑπὸ γῆν νέρθεν τ᾽ ᾿Αΐδου τοῦ νεκροδέγμονος εἰς ἀπέραντον ᾿ Τάρταρον ἧκεν, δεσμοῖς ἀλύτοις ἀγρίοις πελάσας, ‘QE μήτε θεὸς μήτε τις ἄλλος τοῖσδ᾽ ἐγεγήθει. “0 that he had doomed me to the depths of Tartarus, that no one might have rejoiced.” Theoer. vii. 286. AIO’ ἐπ᾽ ἐμεῦ ζωοῖς ἐναρίθμιος ὭΦΕΔΕΣ ἡ μεν ὭΣ τοι ἐγὼν ἐνόμευον ἀν᾽ ὥρεα τὰς καλὰς αἶγας . φωνᾶς eicaiwy’ τὺ δ᾽ ὑπὸ δρυσὶν ἢ ὑπὸ πεύκαις ἁδὺ μελισδόμενος κατεκέκλισο, θεῖε Κομαία. “I wish you had lived in my time, that I might have pastured your goats for you, and that you might have lain.” To the same class of expressions we may refer the following. Prom. 749. TI δητ᾽ ἐμοὶ ζῆν κέρδος, ἀλλ᾽ ΟΥ̓Κ ἐν τάχει ἔῤῥιψ᾽ ἐμαυτὴν τῆσδ᾽ ἀπὸ στύφλου πέτρας, “ὍΠΩΣ πέδῳ σκήψασα τῶν πάντων πόνων ἀπηλλάγην ; “01 that I had precipitated myself, that I might have been rid.”
QEdip. Tyr. 1391. ἰὼ Κιθαιρὼν, τί μ᾽ ἐδέχου ; ΤΙ μ᾽ ΟΥ̓ λαβὼν ἔκτεινας εὐθὺς, ὯΣ ἔδειξα μήποτεὶ ἐμαυτὸν ἀνθρώποισιν ἔνθεν ἦν γεγώς; “QO! that I had died upon the mountain, that this might never have been told!” Theocr. xi. 54. ὦμοι ὅτ᾽ ΟΥ̓Κ ἔτεκέν μ᾽ & μάτηρ Bpayxe ἔχοντα ὯΣ κατέδυν ποτι τίν, καὶ τὰν χέρα revs ἐφίλασα. “QO! that I had been a fish, that I might have dived and might have kissed.” A few passages have been referred to this construction which do not really belong to it: e. g- Pheenisse, 213. iva κατενάσθην, the true treading is with Dindorf, iva κατενάσθη, “ where the temple has been
erected for his residence.”
After what has been said we may venture to suggest an emenda- tion of Lysias adv. Simona, p. 100. § 44. ἐβουλόμην δ᾽ ἂν ἐξεῖναί por παρ᾽ ὑμῖν καὶ ἐκ τῶν ἄλλων ἐπιδεῖξαι τὴν τούτου πονηρίαν, ἵνα ἠπί- eracOe—where the usual reading is ἐπέστησθε.
In the discussion which followed Professor Malden observed, that the particular construction under consideration belonged to a general law of the Greek language, by which, if actions or events, present or past, were assumed to be different from what they. really were, whether in an hypothesis, or a wish, or any other form, such an
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hypothesis or wish was expressed by a past tense of the Indicative mood; and in like manner any consequence following from it was expressed by a past Indicative with the particle ἄν; and in all de- pendent clauses of all sorts attached to such sentences, only the Indicative Mood in past tenses could be used; and the Subjunctive or Optative Mood never entered into the construction. He also objected to the indiscriminate translation by the English Pluper- fect, ‘“‘ might have,” &c. In hypotheses and wishes contrary to
actual fact, with relation to past time, the Indicative Aorist was _
used of single acts, and the past Imperfect of continued acts; and these forms were rightly translated by the English Pluperfect; but with relation to present time the Imperfect was always used, and this construction could not, in correct English, be translated by the Pluperfect, 6. g. Dem. Phil. I. εἰ yap ἐκ τοῦ παρεληλυθότος χρόνου τὰ δέοντα οὗτοι συνεβούλευσαν, οὐδὲν ἂν ὑμᾶς vuv ἔδει βουλεύεσθαι.----“ For if these men had given the needful counsels in time past, there would not be any need now for you to be consulting.”
The same distinction was frequently observable in dependent clauses following ἵνα, ὅπως, &c. While in Ged. T. v. 1392, ὡς ἔδειξα μήποτε was rightly translated, ‘‘so that I might never have shown ;’ in v. 1889, iy’ ἣν τυφλός τε καὶ κλύων μηδὲν, would be better trans- lated, ‘‘that I might be (i. 6. at the time of speaking) both blind and deaf *.”
2. ‘On the Reciprocal Pronouns, and on the Reciprocal Power of the Reflective Verb.” By Professor Latham.
The present paper is upon the reciprocal pronouns, and upon certain forms of the verb used in a reciprocal sense. It is considered that these points of language have not been put forwards with that prominence and care which their value in the solution of certain problems in Philology requires. Too often the terms Reciprocal and Reflective have been made synonymous. How far this is true may be determined by the fact that the middle verbs in the Icelandic language have been called by so great a philologist as Rask recipro- cal instead of reflective. This is equivalent to treating sentences like we strike ourselves, and we strike each other, as identical. Yet the language with which Rask was dealing (the Icelandic) was the one of all others wherein the difference in question required to be accu- rately drawn, and fully pointed out. (See ‘ Anvisning till Islindskan,’ pp. 281, 283.)
* So in Choeph. v. 195. εἴθ᾽ εἶχε φωνὴν oo. eee ὅπως δίφροντις οὖσα μὴ ᾿κινυσσόμην. ““Would that it had a voice, that I might not be tossed with doubts!” But the main point is to remember the law of the construction compared with the construction of the Subjunctive and Optative Moods: ῥίψω é ἐμαυτὴν, ὅπως ἀπαλλαγῶ (subj.). ἔρριψεν ἑαυτὴν, ὕπως ἀπαλλαγείη (opt.).
but (in Prom. v. 749), τί οὐκ ἔῤῥιψα ἐμαυτὴν (equivalent to a wish inn to the fact), ὅπως ἀπηλλάγην (indicative).—H. M.
Ye
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In all sentences containing the statement of a reciprocal or mutual action there are in reality two assertions, viz. the assertion that A strikes (or loves) B, and the assertion that B strikes (or loves) A; the action forming one, the reaction another. Hence, if the expres- sion exactly coincided with the fact signified, there would always be two propositions. This, however, is not the habit of language. Hence arises a more compendious form of expression, giving origin to an ellipsis of a peculiar kind. Phrases like Eteocles and Polynices killed each other are elliptical for Eteocles and Polynices killed—each the other. Here the second proposition expands and explains the first, whilst the first supplies the verb to the second. Each, how- ever, is elliptic. The first is without the object, the second without the verb. That the verb must be in the plural (or dual) number, that one of the nouns must be in the nominative case, and that the other must be objective, is self-evident from the structure of the sen- tence ; such being the conditions of the expression of the idea. An aposiopesis takes place after a plural verb, and then there follows a clause wherein the verb is supplied from what went before.
When words equivalent to each other coalesce, and become com- pound, it is evident that the composition is of a very peculiar kind. Less, however, for these matters than for its value in elucidating the origin of certain deponent verbs does the expression of reciprocal ac- tion merit the notice of the philologist. In the latter part of the paper it will appear that for one branch of languages, at least, there is satisfactory evidence of a reflective form having become reciprocal, and of a reciprocal form having become deponent; this latter word being the term for those verbs whereof the meaning is active, and the form passive.
Beginning with those methods of denoting mutual action where the expression is the least explicit and unequivocal, it appears that in certain languages the reciprocal character of the verb is implied ra- ther than expressed. Hach man looked at his brother—or some equi- valent clause, is the general phraseology of the Semitic languages.
More explicit than this is the use of a single pronoun (personal, possessive, or reflective) and of some adverb equivalent to the words mutually, interchangeably, &c. This is the habit of the Latin lan- guage,—Eteocles et Polynices invicem se trucidaverunt: also of the French, although not invariably, e. g. s’entr’aimer, s’entre dire, s’entre battre: also of the Mzso-Gothic—galeikai sind barnam thaim vép- jandam seina miss6 = ὅμοιοί εἶσι παιδίοις τοῖς προσφωνοῦσιν ἀλλή- λοις = loquentibus ad invicem.—Luc. vii. 32. Deutsche Grammatik, iv. 322, andiii. 13. The Welsh expressions are of this kind; the only difference being that the adverb coalesces with the verb, as an inseparable particle, and so forms a compound. These particles are dym, cym, or cy and ym. The former is compounded of dy, signify- ing iteration, and ym denoting mutual action; the latter is the Latin cum. Hence the reciprocal power of these particles is secondary : e. g. dymborthi, to aid mutually; dymddadlu, to dispute; dymgaru, to love one another ; dymgoddi, to vex one another; dymgredu, to
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trust one another, or confide; dymguraw, to strike one another, or fight ; ¢yg¢wennys, to desire mutually; cydadnabod, to know one another; cydaddawiad, to promise mutually ; cydwystlaw, to pledge ; cydymadrawn, to converse ; cydymdaith, to accompany ; ymadroddi, to discourse; ymaddaw, to promise; ymavael, to struggle ; ymdaeru, to dispute, &c.
The form, which is at once current, full, and unequivocal, is the one that occurs in our own, and in the generality of languages. Herein there are two nouns (generally pronouns), and the construc- tion is of the kind exhibited above—é)AjsjXovs, each other, einander, Pun Tautre, ὅς. |
Sometimes the two nouns remain separate, each preserving its in- dependent form. ‘This is the case in most of the languages derived from the Latin, in several of the Slavonic and Lithuanic dialects, and in (amongst others) the Old Norse, the Swedish, and the Danish,— Pun l’autre, French; uno otro, Span.; geden druheho, Bohemian; ieden drugiego, Polish; wiens wiena, Lith.; weens ohtru, Lettish; hvert annan (masc.), hvert annat (neut.), Old Norse. See Ὁ, G. iii. 84.
Sometimes the two nouns coalesce and form words to which it would be a mere refinement to deny the name of compounds: this is the case with the Greek—dAArjAwy, ἀλλήλοις, ἀλλήλους.
Sometimes it is doubtful whether the phrase consist of a com- pound word or a pair of words. This occurs where, from the want of inflection, the form of the first word is the same in composition as it would have been out of it. Such is the case with our own language : each-other, one-another.
Throughout the mass of languages in general the details of the expression in question coincide ; both subject and object are almost always expressed by pronouns, and these pronouns are much the same throughout. One, or some word equivalent, generally denotes the subject. Other, or some word equivalent, generally denotes the object, 6. g. they struck one another. The varieties of expression may be collected from the following sketch :—
a. The subject is expressed by one, or some word equivalent, in’
most of the languages derived from the Latin, in several of the Sla- vonic dialects, in Lithuanic and Lettish, in Armenian, in German, in English, and doubtlessly in many other languages—Il'un l'autre, Fr.; uno otro, Sp.; ieden drugiego, Polish; wiens wiena, Lith.; weens ohtru, Lith. ; me mzants, Armenian; einander, Germ.; one another, Engl.
i. By each, or some equivalent term, in English, Dutch, and the Scandinavian languages—each other, English; el/kander, Dutch ; Averandre, Icelandic, Danish, Swedish.
c. By this, or some equivalent term, in Swedish and Danish (hin- anden) ; in Lithuanic (Kitts kitta), and in Lettish (ziéts zittu).
d. By other, or some equivalent term, in Greek and Armenian; ἀλ- λήλους, ireerats.
6. By man, used in an indefinite sense and compounded with lik in Dutch, malkander (mal-lik manlik).
es ὦ peta
τς
a aie Ske ee
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Ff. By a term equivalent to mate or fillow in Laplandic—-gdiee go- imeme.—Rask, ‘ Lappisk Sproglere,’ p. 102. Stockfleth, ‘ Gram- matik,’ p. 109.
a. In the expression of the object the current term is oiher or some equivalent word. Of this the use is even more constant than that of. one expressive of the subject—l’un l’autre, French ; uno otro, Spa- nish ; ἀλλήλους, Greek; geden druhkeho, Bohemian ; ieden drugiego, Polish : weens ohiru, Lettish; irerats, Armenian; einander, German; each other, one another, English.
6. In Lithuanic the term in use is one; as, wiens wiend. The same is the case for a second form in the Armenian mimean.
c. In Laplandic it is denoted in the same as the subject; as gdim
Undoubtedly there are other varieties of this general method of expression. Upon those already exhibited a few remarks, however, may be made.
1. In respect to languages like the French, Spanish, &c., where the two nouns, instead of coalescing, remain separate, each retaining its inflection, it is clear that they possess a greater amount of per- spicuity ; inasmuch as (to say nothing of the distinction of gender) the subject can be used in the singular number when the mutual action of two persons (i. 6. of one upon another) is spoken of, and in the plural when we signify that of more than two; 6. g. ils (¢. e. A and B) se battatent—T'un [ autre: but ils (A, B, C and D,) se battaient—les uns les autres. This degree of perspicuity might be attained in English and other allied languages by reducing to practice the difference be- tween the words each and one; in which case we might say A and B struck one another, but A, B and C struck each other. In the Scan- dinavian languages this distinction is real; where Ainanden is equi- valent to Pun l'autre, French; un otro, Spanish: whilst Averandre expresses les uns les autres, French ; unos otros, Spanish. The same is the case in the Laplandic. See Rask’s ‘Lappisk Sproglere,’ p- 102.
2. An analysis of such an expression as they praise one another’s (or each other's) conduct, will show the lax character of certain forms in the Swedish. Of the two pronouns it is only the latter that ap- pears in an oblique case, and this necessarily; hence the Swedish form hvarsanzars is illogical. It is precisely what one’s another's would be in English, or ἄλλων ἄλλων for ἀλλήλων in Greek. The same applies to the M. H. G. einen anderen. D. G. iii. 83.
3. The term expressive of the object appears in three forms, viz preceded by the definite article (l'un /autre), by the indefinite article (one another), and finally, standing alone (each other, einander). Of these three forms the first is best suited for expressing the reci- procal action of two persons (one out of two struck the other) ; whilst the second or third is fittest for signifying the reciprocal action. of more than two (one out of many struck, and was struck by, some other).
The third general method of expressing mutual or reciprocal action is aby the use of some particular form of the verb. In two, and pro-
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bably more, of the African languages (the Woloff and Bechuana) this takes place. In the Turkish there is also a reciprocal form: as sui-mek, to love; baki-mek, to look ; sui-sh-mek, to love one another ; baki-sh-mek, to look at one another; su-il-mek, to be loved; sui-sh- il-mek, to be loved mutually.—David’s Turkish Grammar. .
The fourth form of expression gives the fact alluded to at the be- ginning of the paper: viz. an instrument of criticism in investigating the origin of certain deponent verbs. Jn all languages there is a certain number of verbs denoting actions, reciprocal or mutual to the agents. Such are the words embrace, converse, strive against, wrestle, fight, rival, meet, and several more. There are also other words where the existence of two parties is essential to the idea con- veyed, and where the notion, if not that of reciprocal action, is akin to it; viz. reproach, compromise, approach, ἃς. Now in certain lan- guages (the Latin and Greek) some of these verbs have a passive form; ἢ. 6. they are deponents,—Joquor, colloquor, luctor, reluctor, amplector, suavior, osculor, suspicor, Latin: φιλοτιμέομαι, φιλοφρονέο- μαι, μάχομαι, διαλέγομαι, ἀλέομαι, διαλύομαι, ἀμείβομαι, &e., Greek. Hence arises the hypothesis, that it is to their reciprocal power on the one hand, and to the connexion between the passive, reflective and reciprocal forms on the other, that these verbs owe their deponent character. The fact essential to the probability of this hypothesis is the connexion between the reflective forms and the reciprocal ones.
Now for one branch of languages this can be shown most satis- factorily. In Icelandic the middle voice is formed from the active by the addition of the reflective pronoun, mik, me, sik, him or self. Hence it is known by the terminations mc and sc, and by certain modifications of these affixes, viz. st, s, z, mz, ms. In the oldest stage of the language the reflective power of the middle voice, to the exclusion of a passive sense, is most constant: e. g. hann var nafnadr =he had the name given him; hann nefnist =he gave as his name, or named himself. It was only when the origin of the middle form became indistinct that its sense became either passive or depo- nent; as it generally is in the modern tongues of Denmark, Norway and Sweden. Now in the modern Scandinavian languages we have, on the one hand, certain deponent forms expressive of reciprocal action; whilst on the other we have, even in the very earliest stages of the Old Norse, middle or reflective forms used in a recipro- cal sense. Of some of these, examples will be given: but the proof of their sense being reciprocal will not be equally conclusive in all. Some may perhaps be looked on as deponents (eétust, beriast, skiliast, médast) ; whilst others may be explained away by the assumption of a passive construction (fundoz = they were found, not they found each other). Whatever may be the case with the words taken from the middle and modern stages of the language, this cannot be entertained in regard to the examples drawn from the oldest Norse composition, the Edda of Semund. For this reason the extracts from thence are marked Edd. Sem., and of these (and these alone) the writer has attempted to make the list exhaustive. The translations in Latin and Danish are those of the different editors,
- 237
1. AXttust, fought each other. 2. Beriaz, strike each other.
brédur muno beriaz. fratres invicem pugnabunt. Ἑ Voluspa, 41. Edd. Sem. This word is used in almost orery page Of Caney ΝᾺ a deponent _ ‘Signifying to fight : also in the Feroic dialect.
3. Bregpaz, interchange. orpom at bregbaz.
verba commutare. ἢ Helga-Qviba Hundingsbana, i. 41. ii. 26. Edd. Sem. 4. Drepiz, kill one another. finnuz peir bader daudir en ecki vapn hofdu peir nema bitlana af
hestinum, ok bat hygia menn at peir (Alrek and Eirek) hafi drepiz par =e Sva segir Djodolfr.— γέρας kvadu.— Heimskringla. Ynglinga-Saga,
Ρ. 23
The brothers were found dead—and no weapons had they except the bits of their horses, and men think they (Alrek and Eirek) had killed each other therewith. So says Thiodolf.—They said that they killed each other.
.. 5, Um-fapmaz, embrace each other. See Atla-Qvipa hin Grens- lenzko, 42.—Edd. Sem.
6. Féldes, fell in with each other.—Om morgonet effter foldes w wy in Kobenhaffn.—Norwegian Letters in 1531, a.v. See til det Norske Folks Sprog og Historie, I. 2.70. The morning after we fell in with each other in Co
7. Funduz, found each other, met. See Vafprudnis-mal 17.—Si- gurd-Qvip. i. 6. Edd. Sem.—Fareyingar-Saga, p. 44. Deir funduz is rendered de fandt hverandre=they found each other, in Haldorsen’s Lexic. Island.
ef ip Gymer finniz. if you and Gymer meet, Harbards-l. 24. Edd. Sem,
8. Gettuz, consult each other. See Voluspa, 6. 9. 21.23. Edd.
9. Glediaz, rejoice each other.
vapnom ok vadom
skulo vinir glediaz,
beet er 4 sialfom semst:
vidr-géfendr ok endi gefendr
erost lengst vinir
ef pat bipr at verba vel. Rigsmal. 41. armis ac vestibus
amici mutuo se delectent,
queis in ipso (datore) forent conspicua : pretium renumerantes et remunerantes inter se diutissime sunt amici
si negotium feliciter se dat.
238
The middle form and reciprocal sense of erost is remarkable in this passage. 10. Hauggvaz, hack each other, fight. allir Einheriar Obins tinom i hauggvaz hverian dag. all the Einheriar in Odin’s towns hack each other every day. Vafprudnis-Mal. 41. Edd. Sem. ef beir hégvaz orbom 4. si se maledictis invicem insectentur. Sig-Qvi®. ii, 1. Edd. Seem. 11. Heettaz, cease. hettome hettingi. : cessemus utringue a minaciis. Harbardsli63, 51. Edd, Sem. Such is the translation of the editors, although the reciprocal power is not unequivocal.
12. Hittaz, hit upon each other, meet. Hittoz, Voluspa, 7. Hittomk, Hadding-skata, 22. Hittaz, Solar-]. 82. Edd. Sem. Hittust, Ol. Trygv. Sag. p. 90. Hittuz oc beriaz, Heimskringla, Saga Halfd. Svart. p.4. Hittuz, Yngl. Sag. p. 42. alibi passim peir hittu is rendered, in Bjorn Haldorsen’s. Islandic Lexicon, ἀθ traf hinanden, they hit upon each other.
13. Kiempis, fight each other.
gaar udi gaarden oc kiempis, oc nelegger hver hinanden, goes out in the house and fight each the other, and each knocks down the other. Such is the translation by Resenius, in modern Danish, of the fol- lowing extract from Snorro’s Edda, p. 34.—Ganga ut i gardinn og beriast, og fellar huor annar. Here the construction is not, they fell (or knock down) each the other, but each fells the other; since Sellar and nelegger are singular forms.
14. Meelast, alk to each other, converse. Talast, ditto. Meliz pu. Vafbrudnismal, 9.
melome i sessi saman = colloquamur sedentes. ib. 19. Edd, Sem.
melast peir vid, 4dr peir skiliast, at beir mundi par finnast pa,—Fést- breedra-Saga, p. 7. they said to each other before they parted from each other that they should meet each other there.
Yngvi ok Bera satu ok téluduz vidr.—Heimskr. Yngl. S. p. 24.
Griss melti; hverir ero bessir menn er sva éalast vid bliSliga? Avaldi svarar; pa er Hallfreydr Ottarson ok Kolfinna déthir min. Ol. Trygyv. Saga, p. 152. Griss said, who are these persons who talk together so blithely ? Avaldi answers, they are H. O. and Kolfinna my daughter. TZ alast is si- milarly used in Feroic. Kvédust, bespoke each other, occurs in the same sense—pat var einn dag at Brand ok Finbogi fundust ok kvédust blidliga. —Vatnsdela-Sag. p. 16.
15. Mettzest, meet each other, meet. Kungen aff Ffranchriche, kungen aff England, oc kungen aff Schottland
239 skule motes til Chalis.— Letter from Bergen in 1531, from Samlinger til det _
Norske Folks S og Historie, i. 2. p.53. The king of France, king of England, and king of Scotland should meet each other at Calais.
Throughout the Danish, Swedish and Feroic, this verb is used as a deponent.
16. Rekaz, ver each other.
gumnar margir
erose gagn-hollir,
enn at virpi rekax. Rigsmal. 32. Edd. Sem. multi homines
sunt inter se admodum benevoli,
sed tamen mutuo se (vel) in convivio exagitant.
17. Sakaz, accuse each other, recriminate. at vit mynim siafrum sacaz, ut nos ipsi mutuo insectemur. § Hamdis-Mal. 28. ef vip einir scolom
séryrpom sacaz.
si nobis duobus usu veniat
amarulentis dicteriis invicem
nos lacessere. ¥gis-drecka, 5. sculop inni her ΜΝ
saryrbom sacaz. Ibid. 19. Edd. Sem. 18. Saz, looked at each other.
sazia
fadir ok médir. Rigsmal. 24. they looked at each other in the eyes,
. father and mother.
_ 19. Seettaz, settle between each other, reconcile.—Atla-Mal.45. Edd.Sem. - Komu vinir pveggia pvi vid, at beir settux, ok légdu konungar stefnu med | 8ér, ok hittuz ok gérdo frid mellum sin.—Heimsk. Yngling-S. 42.
_ _ There came friends of both in order that they should be reconciled, and
the kings sent messages between them, and met and made peace between _ them.—Also Vatnsd. S. p. 16.
» 20. Seljas, to give to each other. 4 seldez eipa. Sig. Qv. iii. 1. Edd. Sem. juramenta dederunt inter se.
21. Sendaz, send, or let pass between each other.
sato samty'nis,
senduz far-hugi,
henduz heipt-yrpi
hvartki sér undi. Atla-Mal. 85.
They sat in the same town (dwelling), They sent between each other danger-thoughts, They fetched between each other hate-words, - -Not either way did they love each other. VOL. 1. R
240
Here, over and above the use of senduz and henduz, ser is equivalent to hinanden.
22. Skiliaz, part from each other.
Skiliumz. Solar-Liod. 82. Skiliaz. Sigurd-Qvip. i. 24. Skiliome. Tbid. 538. Edd. Sem.
Vit sjiljiast, we two part—
Occurs in the poem Brinilda (st. 109) in the Feroic dialect. In Danish and Swedish the word is deponent.
23. Skiptust, interchange.
Deir skiptust morgum gidfum vid um vetrinn.— Vatns-dela-S. 10.
they made interchanges with each other with many gifts for the winter. — Also in the Feroic.
24. Strujast, strike one another, fight. Feroic.
og métast tair, og strujast avlaji langjii—Fareying-Sag. 18. Feroic text.
ok metast peir, ok berjast mjék leingi.—Icelandish text.
de médtes og strede meget lenge imod hinanden.—Danish text.
they met and fought long against each other.
at e vilde vid gjordust stalbréir, og strujast ikkji longur.—Feroic text,
Ρ. 21. at vid gerSimst félagar, en berjumst eigi leingr.—Icelandic text.
at vi skulle blive Stalbréde og ikke s/aaes lenger.—Danish text. that we should become comrades and not fight longer. The active form occurs in the same dialect : tajr struija πὰ langji. 18. 25. Truasc, trust each other. vel meettern peeir truaze. Fér Skirnis. Edd. Sem.
26. Unnaz. See Veittaz.
27. Vegiz, attack each other. Ps vileat ec at ib reipir vegiz. ᾿ς Higisdrecka 18. Edd. Sem. I will not that ye two angry attack each other.
28. Veittaz, contract mutually.
Pav Helgi ok Svava veittux varar, ok unnozx forpo mikit = Helgius et Svava pactum sponsalitium inter se contraxerunt, et alter alterum mirifice amarunt.—Haddingia-Sk. between 29 and 30.
29. Verpaz, throw between each other. : urpuz & orpom. -. Atl.-M. 39. Edd. Sem. verba inter se jaciebant.
Such is a portion of the examples that prove the reciprocal power
“=. =
241
of the reflective or middle verb in the language of Scandinavia; and that, during all its stages and in each of its derived dialects. It can- not be doubted that to this circumstance certain verbs in Danish and Swedish owe their deponent form: viz. vi slass, we fight (strike one another) ; vi brottas, we wrestle ; vi omgass, we have intercourse with ; vi métas, we meet, Swedish; vi slaaes, we fight; vi skilles, we part ; vi médes, we meet, Danish. In the latest Swedish grammar,
by C. L. Daae, this reciprocal (vekselvirkende) power is recognized and exhibited. See Udsigt over det Svenske Sprogs Grammatik. Christiania, 1837. The same is the Molbech’s Danske Ordbog in vv. skilles, slaaes, médes.
Next to the Norse-languages the French affords the best instances of the reciprocal power of the reflective verb; as se battre, s’aimer, s’entendre, se quéreiler, se reconcilier, se disputer, and other words of less frequent occurrence.
Ces enfans s’aimaient, s'adoraient, se sont jetés a a mes pieds en pleurant. —Les Inséparables, A. 1. 5. 1.
Les Républies Italiens acharnées ἃ se détruire.—Pardessus II. 65.
This has been recognized by an old grammarian, Restaut, who in- sists upon the use of the adverh entre, in order to avoid the ambiguity of such phrases as ‘‘ vous vous dites des injures;” “‘ nous nous écrivons souvent ;” “‘ Pierre et Antoine se louent @ tout moment.”
By a writer in the Museum Criticum the reciprocal power of the Greek middle has been indicated. For the classical languages the question has not met with the proper investigation. Passages where the sense is at least as reciprocal as in the line
Χεῖρας τ᾽ ἀλλήλων λαβέτην καὶ meerwoarro,—Il. vi. 233,
must be numerous. In the Dutch language the use of zich for elkander is a peculiarity of the Guelderland and Overyssel dialects; as “Ζῇ hebt zich esla-
_ gen,” for “‘zij hebben elkander geslagen.” See “‘ Opmerkingen orn-
‘trent den Gelderschen Tongval,” in Taalkundig Magazijn ii. 14.
p- 403. Of the use of ser for hinanden or hverandre, when uncombined with
_ the verb, we have, amongst others, the following example in the Ice- landic version of the Paradise Lost :—
Ef fra tilsyndar- punkti hleyptu ser planetur fram, . ok mettust miklum gny 6 midjum himni. B. 6. Similar to this are the phrases vi see os igjen, we see us (each other) again, in Danish, and wir sehen uns wider, in German. Ex-
_ amples from the M. H. G. are given in the D. G. iv. The Turkish
sign of the reciprocal verb is identical with the demonstrative pro- noun, i. e. u This may possibly indicate a connection between
' the two forms.
Other points upon the subject in hand may be collected from the R2
242
Deutsche Grammatik, iii. 13. 82; iv. 454. Here the adverbial cha- racter of the M. H. G. einander for einandern, the omission of ein, as in anander for an einander, and the omission (real or supposed) of ander in ““ wider ein=wider einander,” are measures of the laxity of language caused by the peculiarity of the combination in question. At present it is sufficient to repeat the statement, that for one group of languages at least there is satisfactory proof of certain deponents having originally been reciprocal, and of certain reciprocal expres- sions having originally been reflective.
After the reading of the paper it was remarked that the Hithpahel verbs in Hebrew had occasionally a reciprocal form. The following instances, in Greek, of the use of the reflective pronoun for the re- ciprocal, were also communicated by Professor Malden :—
Soph: Antic. Ἰδὲ ἐπ τιν Gan ek @, πατρὸς ἑνὸς μητρός τε μιᾶς φύντε, καθ᾽ αὑτοῖν δικρατεῖς λόγχας στήσαντ᾽, ἔχετον κοινοῦ θανάτου μέρος ἄμφω.
In Herod. iv. 11. ἀποθανόντας ὑπ᾽ ἑωυτῶν is explained by ἀλλήλων; and the same idiom was used in iii. 49, though the text is now cor- rupted by the introduction of the gloss, εἰσὶ ἀλλήλοισι διάφοροι ἐόντες ἑωυτοῖσι.
Plato Lysis, p. 215, ὃ. ο. Πώς οὖν οἱ ἀγαθοὶ τοῖς ἀγαθοῖς ἡμῖν φίλοι ἔσονται τὴν ἀρχὴν, οἱ μήτε ἀπόντες ποθεινοὶ ἀλλήλοις (ἱκανοὶ γὰρ ἑαυτοῖς καὶ χωρὶς dies), μήτε παρόντες χρείαν αὑτῶν ἔχουσι; τοὺς δὴ τοιούτους τίς μηχανὴ περὶ πολλοῦ ποιεῖσθαι ἀλλήλους ; Οὐδεμία, ἔφη. Φίλοι δέ γε οὐκ ἂν εἶεν, μὴ περὶ πολλοῦ ποιούμενοι ἑαυτούς. Here it is to be noticed, that in each instance ἀλλήλους has gone immediately before.
’ In the Parmenides, after speaking of absolute substances (οὐσία ᾿ αὐτὴ καθ᾽ αὑτὴν), he goes on to speak of relative notions, such as subjection and dominion (δουλεία and δεσποτεία), p. 138. ἃ. Οὐκοῦν καὶ ὅσαι τῶν ἰδεῶν πρὸς ἀλλήλας εἰσὶν al εἰσιν, αὐταὶ πρὸς αὑτὰς τὴν οὐσίαν ἔχουσιν, &c. τὰ δὲ παρ᾽ ἡμῖν ταῦτα, ὁμώνυμα ὄντα ἐκείνοις, αὐτὰ αὖ πρὸς αὑτά ἐστιν. And so at the end of the same page.
In Atsch. Sept. c. Theb. 732, words compounded with αὐτὸς are
used reciprocally, ἐπεὶ δ᾽ ἂν abroxrévws αὐτοδάϊκτοι θάνωσι, said of the two brothers.
PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
Vou. I. APRIL 26, 1844. No. 21.
Hensteiech Wepewoop, Esq., in the Chair.
Professor Molbech, of Copenhagen, was elected an Honorary Member of the Society.
The following gentlemen were then elected Members of the Society :—
Rev. R. W. Jelf, D.D., Canon of Christ Church, and Principal of King’s College, London. :
F. H. Trithen, Esq., of the British Museum.
Alex. I. D’Orsey, Esq., High School, Glasgow.
William Hayes, Esq., Assistant-Master, King’s College, London.
The Rev. Rowland Williams, Fellow and Tutor of King’s Col- lege, Cambridge.
A paper was then read :—
**On the Languages and Dialects of the British Islands :”’— Continued. By the Rev. Richard Garnett.
In concluding, for the present, the Celtic portion of our subject, a few miscellaneous observations will be offered on such points as appear most interesting to the general philologist. Asa preliminary to this, it may be advisable to make a few further remarks on the
genuineness of the Celtic terms, placed in comparison with those of
other European languages, and the means by which that genuineness may be tested. There are cases in which it is difficult to arrive at any absolute certainty :—for example, the resemblance of the Welsh
᾿ς ρρΐᾳ (to conceal) with the Latin celo would create a suspicion that
the former was borrowed from the latter; while on the other hand, the way in which it branches out into derivatives and compounds is strongly in favour of its originality. The-safest principle in this investigation is, to regard that language as having the best claim to ~ originality which furnishes the most satisfactory explanation of the
_ original roots, or component elements of words. Most persons, for
example, would be apt to suppose that the familiar term funnel was undoubtedly a vernacular English word, and to repudiate all idea of
_ a Celtic origin for it. Nevertheless it will be found, on examination,
to have neither etymology nor intrinsic meaning in Teutonic ; while the Welsh ffynel (air-hole) is demonstrably derived from ffwn,
_ breath, referred with great probability by Pictet to Sanscrit pavana, and exactly equivalent to Latin spiraculum. Cobble, a boat, admits _ of no satisfactory explanation from Anglo-Saxon or German sources; _ but the Welsh ceubal may be resolved into hollow shaft or trunk: _ thus showing both the antiquity and genuineness of the term. The _ word bride occurs indeed in all the Germanic dialects, Gothic in-
244 cluded, but it is in all a perfectly isolated term, without intrinsic meaning. Some German philologists have indeed referred it to Sanscrit pri, amare; an etymology which violates the established laws of permutation of letters. In all known Teutonic cognates of this root, we regularly find 7, instead of p : frion, to love ; freyen, to woo ; freund, friend, &c. &c. It would have been more to the pur- pose to compare Greek zpiajat, to obtain by purchase; which is strictly cognate with Welsh priawd (proprius), possessed, owned, a
spouse ; the stem of priodi, to marry ; priodas, marriage; and many.
words of allied import. The allusion is to the custom, almost uni- versal among semi-civilized nations, of purchasing a bride from her parents. ‘The Germanic term has every appearance of having been borrowed ; the Celtic words are undoubtedly original. Another re- markable instance occurs in the word travail, labour, sorrow, &c. ; French travail; the origin of which is nowhere to be found, except in Welsh trafael, a compound of the prefix tra, exceeding, and mael, work, labour ; consequently not borrowed from the French or En- glish. The word undoubtedly came to us through the medium of the Norman French: but we have another form of it deduced more directly from the original ; viz. turmoil, stir, bustle ; and moreover the simple form moi/, to labour; a word common in our older writers.
Another important criterion for determining the genuineness of words, is the observation of the forms peculiar to the various lan- guages and dialects. It is well known, for example, that the spiritus asper in Greek does not in general correspond with ὦ in Latin, but is a representative of a more ancient sibilant or digamma; and the same aspirate in the Germanic tongues is a modification of a more primitive guttural, k or g. It has already been observed by Lhuyd and others, that where the Greek and Latin differ, the Welsh gene- rally corresponds with the former and the Gaelic with the latter ; and that the Teutonic tongues bear a greater analogy to the Gaelic than the Cymric, especially in the sibilants, as may be instanced in Greek dds; Welsh halen (salt); Latin sal; Gaelic salann; German salz. When therefore we find words current in the Teutonic dia- lects in which this analogy is not observed, we may suspect them not to be original. The term hawk (Old German happuc) is found in one form or other in all the dialects; but instead of following, as it regularly ought to do, the analogy of Gaelic seabhog, it agrees with Welsh hebbog, and was therefore probably borrowed from a Cymric dialect. The Welsh Aafyn, a haven or harbour, seems to be significant in the sense of a séil/, calm place ; and if it be original, the German hafen is evidently not. In like manner the Gaelic seiceal (flax-comb) shows the Welsh heislan, heisylit, to be genuine words, and our hackle or hatchel most probably adopted ones. Hem and seam are radically the same word; but the latter is the only legiti- mate Germanic form. Pursuing the same analogy with respect to the gutturals, we may feel pretty confident that our corner is not of Teutonic origin, but from the Welsh or Bret. cornel; the true Anglo- Saxon form being Ayrn. Cyrm, cry or clamour; cyrman, to cry, though
Eh ΤῸ
iS on ry
245
of ancient standing in Anglo-Saxon, are suspicious from their agree- ment with the re garm, and are probably not so genuine as the other form ἢ
Words "πε θη by the Celtic tribes from the Latin occasionally furnish interesting data respecting the ancient pronunciation of par- ticular letters: for example, ysgeler, wickedness, Latin scelus, must have been adopted by the colonial Britons from the Romans, as it was never current among the Anglo-Saxons or Normans ; and serves as an evidence at the present day that ¢ before e had the hard sound, not the soft palatal or sibilant one now given to it by most modern Europeans. From the description given by Quinctilian and others of the harsh sound of the Latin f, it is conjectured to have partaken in some degree of the nature of a sibilant. This idea receives some countenance from a singular phenomenon in Irish; namely, that certain words obviously borrowed from the Latin do not commence with f, but with 5. A few instances are, Irish sorn, oven, Welsh fwrn, Latin furnus ; Irish suist, a flail, Welsh ffust, Latin fustis; Irish srian, a bridle, Latin frenum ; Irish seinister, a window, Latin Fenestra. It is difficult to assign any cause for this discrepancy, ex- cept we suppose a marked distinction between the pronunciation of the Latin element and the ordinary f, which is a very common con- stituent of Irish words.
The insertion or omission of a nasal element, something analogous to the Sanscrit anuswara, is very common in the Celtic dialects. The general tendency of the Gaelic, as compared with Welsh, is to drop the nasal sound: for example, Welsh cainc, branch, Gaelic geug; Welsh dant, tooth, Gaelic deud; Welsh cant, hundred, Gaelic cead; with many others. The employment of this element in the Cymric dialects sometimes appears a little capricious : for instance we have Jleipr, flaccid, English limber; Jeiprog, murena, English lamprey ; tampyr, a wax-light, English taper; and Jlimp, smooth, soft, agreeing closely with English limp. An attention to this phe- nomenon will frequently enable us to detect analogies which other- wise would not be very obvious: for instance, the Anglo-Saxon si6, semita, does not bear a very close resemblance to Welsh hynt, way, path, journey. But when we learn, by comparing the other Teu- tonic dialects, that the original form is sind, and remember that the Cymric ἢ regularly answers to the Teutonic 8, we have less difficulty in admitting an original affinity between the two. It is even possible that semita may be the same word, with the insertion of a vowel. The Gaelic saod, track, journey, agrees with the Anglo-Saxon in the omission of the nasal.
Pott, treating of the remarkable propensity of the Pali and Pracrit dialects to reject a liquid following a mute, observes that a similar phzenomenon sometimes presents itself in other languages, instancing the Low German bost, English boast, as probably identical with High German sich briisten. The Welsh frost, bragging, boasting, appears to give some countenance to this idea. Other instances of the same phznomenon occur in Anglo-Saxon spaecan, English speak, compared with German sprechen; and Anglo-Saxon specca, English speck,
246
speckle, compared with the Yorkshire spreckle and the South German spreckeln.. ‘The Welsh forms brych, variegated, ysbrychu, to speckle, show that the r is original. By the same analogy, to pat may very well be from the Welsh pratiaw, to stroke or fondle; and to fume, from Welsh ffromi, to chafe, be indignant. Many similar instances might be given from a great variety of languages.
A number of interesting examples might be produced of the manner in which labials and gutturals are interchanged in the Celtic dialects, and in words which other languages appear to have adopted from them. Thus we have in Welsh cecru and bicru, to wrangle, English bicker; Gaelic seasg, dry, Bret. hesk, Welsh hysp; Welsh llas, ys-lac, slack, German δολία; Gaelic sgolt, to split or cleave, German spalten; with a multitude of others. The keeping this peculiarity in mind will render many etymologies very obvious which - have hitherto been little known. Sometimes a dental appears as the substitute of the labial or guttural: as Gaelic cas, cough, Latin tussis; Gaelic ceathair, four, Greek τέσσαρες. ‘This permutation is however comparatively infrequent.
It has been frequently observed by philologists, that new words appear to have been formed in various languages by prefixing a con- sonant to,the simple root. Many curious illustrations of this process may be derived from the Celtic dialects. If, for example, we take a number of simple words commencing with J, we shall find that the corresponding terms in other languages, and even in the same lan- guage, frequently prefix a guttural, palatal, or sibilant element. Thus Welsh diab, stroke or blow, appears in the augmented forms clap, flap, slap; Welsh llac, laxus, slack; Welsh llag, segnis, re- missus, lag, laggard, flag, slug, sluggard; Welsh Uavar, loquela, Danish klavre, to prate, Sc. claver, Sp. palabra, word, speech ; Welsh Jlawr, area, also in the enlarged form clawr, Gaelic clar, blar, a flat surface, plain, English floor. A comparison of the different Welsh and English forms will show that the words rib, ridge, brim, brink, crimp, stripe, all include the same radical, modified according to the processes already pointed out; viz. by the interchange of labials and gutturals; the insertion of a nasal, or the prefixing of one or more consonants.
One of these preformatives, if they are to be regarded as such, is deserving of more especial notice. Grimm, in his ‘ Deutsche Grammatik,’ observes that the initial s frequently appears to have originally been a distinct component element, probably a particle ; and that the root of the Anglo-Saxon smael, English small, for ex- ample, appears to exist in the Slavonic mai, little. This sagacious conjecture is excellently confirmed by the co-existence of the simple and the augmented forms in Welsh ; mai, light, fickle, ys-mal, light, small; ys being a common prefix, apparently answering to the Latin ex in its intensive signification. A knowledge of this phenomenon enables us to establish a connexion between a multitude of words in all the Indo-European languages, especially between the Celtic and Teutonic branches. The following list, which is capable of being greatly enlarged, may serve as a specimen :—
ee et ti κα,
ST ee a τς ρον. λα
ee |
ἐπ shake, jog
“ὙΠ νσ τνν. .-
we eeer te eee ee
ΟΣ.
ee ee Ξ --
ΟΞ ΞῃᾳΞ- ΠΤ ee ee ee ee ee ee -- ΟΞ | ΠΧ Ξ ee - ee
“s+ eee ee wwe ee ee ee oe
twe, cut
ee |
247
ys-bawd (blade-bone) ; spawd, Prov. ys-brig ; sprig.
ys-brych ; spreckled, Yorksh. ys-garmes, conflict ; skirmish. ys-gawd, shadow; schatten, Germ.
ys-gub, sheaf, broom; sceaf, A.-S.;
τ scopa,
ys-gubor, barn ; scheure, Germ.
ys-gudaw, move hastily; scud, scuttle.
ys-gwt, short tail; scut.
ys-lac; slack.
ys-leifiaw, slice; sliver, Prov.
ys-lwch, quagmire ; slough.
ys-mal; small.
ys-mweach, puff of smoke; smoke.
ys-noden, fillet ; snood, Sc.
ys-pigawd ; spigot.
ys-pin, thorn; spina, Lat.
ys-bincyn; spink, bull-spink, Yorksh.
ys-plyg; splice.
ys-twe, shock of corn ; stook, Prov.
ys-wain, esquire ; swain.
It will be seen from the following instances that the Gaelic fre- quently agrees with the Teutonic and other dialects in prefixing the sibilant, when the corresponding words in Welsh want it.
Welsh. CMOS fos. = wane arlonre llifu, grind, polish ........ PONE fo ses ss fs
nofio, to swim
nyf, snow _bar, rail, shaft . cee ROR wS
colpo, Ital., blow ............
7 PS ΕΗ ΡΣ ἢ kel, Bret. narration
G. laib, slaib ; slab, slabby. slicb ; schleifen, Germ. sliom, smooth, slender ; slim. sluig ; schlucken, Germ. smior; smior, Isl., butter, &c. snaidh ; schneiden, Germ. snamh ; sna, Sanscr. sneachd ; snieg, Slav.
sparr, beam ; spar.
sgeilp, stroke; skelp, Yorksh. " sgald ; scald.
sgeul ; spell? A.-S.
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Sometimes the Teutonic dialects, as well as the Latin, omit the initial s of the analogous Gaelic words :—
Gaelic. : slad, steal ................++. W. lladratta; latro, Lat. SAU ΤΟΣ τυ ete eee llath ; lath. enathad, needle... oe ea ee nydell; nadel, Germ. sniomh, spin . : ..eeee.. nyddu; nere, Lat. snedd, Jarva pediculi . Sete ce TOES WC.
lough-sta ..s-- pattie, Sc.
apace, { vat oar ee PERS oe patie: SPO PUNT ace acne Sore wee es parge. SEONG, POU 2 eas core ee ne tank. streup, altercation....... threap, Prov.
Generally at re te the Teutonic, especially the Belgic and Low German dialects, agree with the Gaelic more frequently than with the Welsh.
The following Anglo-Saxon words with the sibilant initial may be referred, with more or less probability, to the annexed simple forms in Celtic :—
Anglo-Saxon. Welsh. scearfan, to cut in pieces........ cerfio, to cut. scen, bright, clean, sheen ...... cain, bright. scop, stem; trunk oS Ὁ δυοῖν ΤΣ cyff. acrivan, fo wander 2.340235 .5 6 5% crwydraw. BCTGD, GAPEO Στ τ’ ae kc oe ee craobh ; Gael. tree. acycels; Mantle ΠΣ ς 6... cos ἐν 58 kougoul ; Bret. cloak. shican, £0 StY8KhO os 3s fe eee llaciaw, to beat. slid, amooth, mild .. 035622 041: llaidd. sliw, dyed, coloured .......... lliw, colour, BIG ΑΕ ΠΥ essay Bissatniern eee llwch. BMAGUCs HMOUED τὰς τὴν kasi nocd mwyth, esmwyth ; Gael. maoth. sparran, to shut, fasten........ bar. MDCATOD, AMOUR) 2.0L cap eign dns gwraich. gtznede, 8600: ἐπ ik oicsis Ssdny i troed, foot. straegan, StP6W ais «ιν Ὡς ὡς ὡς κῷ traff, ys-traff, spreading. strec, brave, stout ........ τ ἐν trech, BWREC, ΘΟ ΟΜ ΡΥ at's a0 40 chweg, sweet. δ δου OURO i ss heer as gwadn, sole. sweard, sward, turf .......... gweryd. ΘΟ NER εν ον ΚΑ poe gwar.
The following miscellaneous words are of similar character :— Welsh.
plafoerto: 46a SPR Mes es slaver.
grill, sharp, creaking.......... shrill.
gwegiaw, to totter............ swag.
gwichiaw, cry sharply ........ squeak.
pweea, hobgoblin ............ spucken, Germ., to be haunted.
tarpare, Ital. to prune ........ sterp, Bret., pruning-hook,
' rf : Fs i
249
ramper, Fr. to creep.......... skrampa, Bret. peas obese ss. URS . skrina, Bret. troule, O. Fs trollop . 0... 2.5. stroulen, Bret.
Much light would be thrown on the science of comparative ety- mology, if we could positively ascertain in every case whether the simpler or the fuller form ought to be regarded as the original. For example, have the Sanscrit snd, to bathe, Gaelic snamh, to swim, gained a prefix ; or have the Latin na-re, Welsh nofio, lost a primi- tive initial? This inquiry is beset with numerous difficulties, and many specious arguments might be alleged on both sides of the question. The Welsh prefix ys may be plausibly accounted for as a significant element, modifying in many imstances the import of more simple roots, which therefore may be reasonably presumed to have had a distinct previous existence. The comparison of a number of languages is also generally in favour of the simple form. The ostensible root mal, denoting comminution, diminution, v.t.g., oc- curs in a multitude of tongues, Semitic included; while ys-mal and small are exceptional forms, and very probably compounds. On the other hand, it must be remembered that certain combinations of letters admissible in one language are not tolerated in others. No Welsh word can commence with s followed by a consonant; nor can a liquid or a medial mute follow an initial s in Latin. If therefore original words, differently constituted, existed at all, they must ne- cessarily undergo some modification to adapt them to Roman or Cymric organs. Supposing the Latins to adopt the Sanscrit root smri, to remember, it is very likely that they would drop the sibilant, especially in a reduplicate form like memor. It is true that the ob- jectionable sound might be and actually was got rid of in a variety of ways: by inserting or prefixing a vowel; by vocalizing the second consonant, especially if a labial; by substituting a tenuis for a medial; or by dropping the second consonant instead of the first. Thus we find the German schwester, which comparatively few nations in the world could utter with facility, under the various modifications of sister, soror, sior, piuthar, chwaer, hor, and kho; and our own star, as ἀστὴρ, ser, and sitarah ; while the Sanscrit tara may possibly have lost its initial. It has been remarked on a former occasion that the Welsh often overcomes the difficult articulation by prefixing a vowel, e. g. ysgeler, from Latin scelus; but there are some remark- able instances of an elision of the second consonant which do not appear to be generally known.
Welsh. stan, O. Germ., Lat. stare .... safu. OO! a a eee saffwn, beam, shaft. staunen, Germ., to wonder .... sanu. sterno, Lat., to spread ........ sarnu. orépyy, to love .... 2.2.2.0 serch. stoppel, Germ., stubble...... «s., S08. stimulus, a goad ............ swmwil. OTR er einer sy nu, to be stunned or amazed. stiirzen, Germ., fo fall...... -. syrthiaw.
stid, A.S., stiff Dawe wins avian e's syth.
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A little examination would probably bring to light many others, and help to establish analogies scarcely suspected. For instance, Gaelic sil, to drop, distil, Welsh hidlu, may possibly be cognate with Latin stillo. Thus the Latin dimus, mud, appears to be related to our slime, and limus, askance, to the Low German slim; and as a Latin word cannot commence with s/, it is very likely that the sibilant may have been rejected. Many similar phenomena might be pointed out, some of which may perhaps become the subject of a separate paper. At present we shall conclude this division of our subject with observing, that an accurate knowledge of the permuta-
tions of sounds in cognate languages is the very foundation of all —
rational etymology. Much has been undoubtedly accomplished in this department, but large fields still remain comparatively unex- plored. It is believed that the light which might be thrown on this subject by a careful study of the peculiarities of the Celtic languages, renders them eminently worthy of the attention of philologists.
a ἐν» νον, ὡ ..-:
PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
Vou. 1. MAY 10, 1844. No. 22.
The Rev. Dr. Bosworrn in the Chair.
A Lecture on the Oriental Alphabets, by Professor Duncan Forbes, was laid on the table. Presented by the author.
A paper was then read :—
“On the Use of the Dative in. English Syntax.” By Edwin Guest, Esq.
The syntax of the Gothic languages seems to have taken its pre- sent form at a period when the noun was generally considered to have four cases—the nominative, the genitive, the dative, and the accusative. In modern English the last two cases can no longer be distinguished from the nominative by any inflexion, but the scheme of our syntax would be both unsatisfactory and imperfect, if we re- fused to take notice of relations, in reference to which that syntax has been so often modified.
Bopp, who considers the Greek and Latin dative as identical with the Sanscrit locative, recognises in the dative singular of the Gothic languages. the Sanscrit instrumental case. This case he ** believes” to be formed by adding to the crude noun the Sanscrit particle ἃ. The particle ἃ is often used as a prefix, and signifies ** limit, inceptive or conclusive,” from, unto, or until. Wils. Sanscrit Dict. It will probably turn out to be the same word as the Latin preposition a, the French ἃ, and the Welsh and Irish a.
Though we admit the identity of the Gothic dative and the San- scrit instrumental case, it does not necessarily follow that the power of the Gothic dative was in its origin instrumental. The Gothic dative is often used, like the Sanscrit instrumental case, to denote the instrument; but this application of the case may be merely a secondary use of the inflexion, and indeed if we adopt Bopp’s ety- mology, it seems difficult to arrive at any other conclusion. [Ὁ its inflexion be the Sanscrit 4, the primitive meaning of our dative must have been “‘ limit, inceptive or conclusive.” The general term is used, because, though we have analysed only one form of the da- tive, it is the well-known property of artificial grammar to bring the less frequently used forms into consistency.and harmony with the more important ones.
We, shall begin our notice of the English dative with what we have assumed to be its primitive meaning, and then endeavour to give its various secondary applications in their order. If Bopp’s hypothesis be the true one, we may thus approach a natural arrange- ment ; if it be unsound (and it has been much questioned), we shall, as in ordinary grammars, have a merely artificial arrangement. It
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will however possess some convenience, as its principle is obvious, and may at least afford us an aid to the memory. In the following examples the dative signifies limit conclusive,
unto.
iz: 2.
ὃ.
Sir, he said, tak mi (deliver to me) thi sone. Seuyn Sages, 71.
Florent seyde “ Syr, wylt thou so, Tak me, and haue hem bothe two.” Octavian, 710.
into those thievish dens he went, And thence did all the spoyles and treasures take— of which the best he did his love betake. F.Q.6.11.51.
When in your motion you are hot and dry, And that he calls for drink, 11] have preferr’d him A chalice for the nonce. Ham. 4. 6.
In the following cases the action is merely figurative :—
5. 6.
His tuege sones he gef his lond. R. Gl. 262.
Tho Nennyn hadde bat gode swerd, aboute he smot to gronde Lich mon, pat he perwith smot, he gef dethe’s wonde. R. Br. 49.
let the trumpets sound, While we return these dukes what we decree. Ri 1:9:
Under this head may be ranged the use of the dative after such verbs as, to say, to talk, to listen, &c.
8. 9.
10. 11. 12, 13.
In the
From. 14.
15.
16.
Tharfore of hir namore I tell, Bot of the son J sal yow say. Seuyn Sages, 22.
He will speak thee fair and say, what wantest thou? Ecclesiasticus 13. 6.
— I pray, talk me of Cassio. Othello, 4. 4.
Listen me, Lord Knoute, if it be pi wille. R. Br. 49.
Listening their fear, I could not say amen. Macbeth, 2. 2. I fairly step aside,
And hearken, if I may, her business here. Comus.
following examples the dative signifies limit inceptive,
they dorsten lay hir necke, The miller shuld not stele hem half a pecke Of corn by sleight, ne by force hem reve. Chau. Reves Tale, 90.
that—overcome The Brutones, bat hem hider brou3te and pat lond hem benome. R, Glou., 3.
I will not vex your souls, Since presently your souls must part your bodies. R.II.4,1.
It seems to be a rule very generally established in the Gothic languages, that the dative should follow the verb and precede the accusative; unless the accusative be a pronoun personal, when it generally takes precedence. In the Old English we have the accu- sative occasionally placed before the verb, and the dative very often
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in this position, Ex. 5.6. The latter syntax is frequently met with in clauses that contain a relative.
17. Mi childeren pat ich 3ef my god, beb myne meste fon. R. Gl. 35. 18. long purples, That liberal shepherds give a grosser name. Hamlet, 4. 7. 19. So will I grow, so live, so die, my Lord,
Ere I will yield my virgin patent up Unto his lordship, whose unwished yoke My soul consents not to give sovereignty. Μ. Ν. Ὁ. 1.1.
In the Anglo-Saxon much greater freedom was allowed in the position of the words, and remains of this earlier syntax are occa- sionally to be met with in the Old-English.
- 20. nomon ne may bet do Gyle another pan pilke pat he trusteth mest to. R. Gl. 63. he had yeven drinke his gayler so That all the night though that men wold him shake, The gailer slept, he mighte not awake. Chau. Knightes Tale, 617.
It is not easy to say by what deflection of meaning the case now under consideration acquired its instrumental character. We might perhaps conjecture that the instrument was considered as the cause from which the effect proceeded; as the Latins, in order to express the efficient cause, sometimes used their preposition a. But there are considerations which may lead us to refer it to a different origin. The French ἃ not unfrequently performs the office of the Sanscrit instrumental inflexion—se battre ἃ l’épée, travailler ἃ Τ᾿ aigiiille, peindre ὰ Thuile, &c.; and the Welsh preposition @ has occasionally the same power given to it. In these cases the instrument is considered as accompanying the agent—as something with which the act is done. If we thus explain the inflexion of the Sanscrit instrumental case, we must suppose the particle ἃ to have taken the several meanings, unto, at, with.
The use of the dative as an instrumental case is common in the Anglo-Saxon, though it is but rarely met with in the Old-English.
22. He gaf him armes, and made him knizht ys owne hand.
R. Glou. 60.
21.
23. His owen hand then made he ladders thre. Chau. Milleres Tale, 438.
Perhaps under this head we may range the following singular constructions.
24, I will a round unvarnished tale deliver
Of my whole course of love, what drugs, what charms, What conjurations, and what mighty magic,
For such proceedings I am charged withal,
I won his daughter. - Othello, 1. 1.
25. let us once more assail your ears, That are so fortified against our story, What we two nights have seen. Hamlet, 1. 1.
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One of the chief offices of the dative is to express relation—to denote the person or thing in respect of whom or which something is predicated. The particular kind of relation indicated is mere matter of convention; but it is nevertheless curious to observe how much conformity has been produced by the common wants of lan- guage, in many grammatical systems, which otherwise differ widely from each other. The English and Latin datives, according to Bopp’s theory, have different origins, and yet strikingly resemble each other in their syntax. Admitting his hypothesis to be correct, the only explanation we can give of this resemblance is, the use of both the datives as cases of relation. ‘The various purposes to which the case of relation (if we may use the term) is applicable, render it a common substitute for other cases; and in the Greek we find it discharging at once the duties of the dative, the instru- mental and the locative. Hence we have much difficulty in ar- guing as tothe origin of such a case from the use made of it in construction ; and analogies of form * (loose and uncertain as is the aid they afford) may perhaps furnish us with the best means we have of tracing its history.
The dative is very often found in sentences where an adjective or substantive is attributed to the subject, not generally, but in respect of some particular individual.
26. Fortune was them debonaire. Gower, Conf. Am. Prol. 27. A knave child that was them dere. Seuyn Sages, 15. 28. God is be turned grim Ouper in word or dede has pou greued him. R. Br. 94. 29. That spear is him enough to don a thousand groan. Εν Ὁ. 2. 3. 12. 30, It were me lever than twenty pound worth land.
Chau. Frankeleines Prol.
31. death me liefer were than such despight. fF. Q. 2. 1.
In Ex. 30, the pronoun indeterminate is the subject, and /Jever the predicate ; but in such phrases as me liefer was, we may perhaps consider the adjective as the subject, for the Anglo-Saxon, like the Greek, often used the neuter adjective as a substantive :
32. Me liefer were with point of foeman’s spear be dead. F. Q. 3. 2. 6. 33. Loth him was that dede to do. Lay le Freine, 318. 34. Betere us is to giue and saue us fro disceite. R. Br, 262. 35. beter him hadde ybe Have bi leued per doune, pan y lerned to fle. R. Glou 29. 36. And wel was him, that ther to chosen was.
Chau. Knightes Tale, 1261.
* The discovery of certain analogies of form between the Mzso-Gothic dative and the Sanscrit instrumental case seems to have been the chief motive which induced Bopp to pronounce these cases identical.
255
37. well were thy name and thee, — ;
Were thou inditched in great secresie. Hall. Sat. 3. 2. 38. Phzdra answerde, “I wis me is as wo
For him, as ever 1 was for any man.”
Chau. Legende of Ariadne.
39. Ah woe is me for Gloster, wretched man!
Be woe* for me— 2H. VI. 3. 2. 40. Shame him was to fie, and so him com that day. R. Br. 204. 41. Merlyn wat ys the,
Pou faderles schrewe wy misdostow me. R. Glou. 128. 42. Hise maistres askede what him was. Seuyn Sages, 709. 43. _ Erlys and barouns come hym to,
And his quene dede alsoo, And askyd hym what hym was. Rich. Coeur de Lion, 1123.
In Ex. 38, we must consider wo as the neuter adjective used sub- stantively, “to me is as woful (case) for him as ever I was (woful) for any man.” The ellipsis is of the kind called zeugma. Wat ys the in Ex. 41, is equivalent to the modern phrase, ‘‘ what is the . matter with thee?” Other verbs than the verb-substantive are found in construction with this dative; for instance, the verbs to come, to fall, to hap, to tide, to sit, to stand, &c.
44. Noiper bi north no bi south com him neuer help. _R. Br. 41.
45. God wote said be kyng now comes me trauaille. R. Br. 16.
46. Now and he get more, the deville me spede— For that cam hym fulle light cheap. Townley, Myst. Mact. Abel.
47. And pus him fel wreche of God for he be apostle slow3. ; R.
Gl. 70.
48. And oft time sche said allas That him was fallen so hard a cas. Am. and Amiloun, 1265. 49. Harald for his trespas yet felle a vilainy. R. Br, 53.
50. Now wol I tellen forth what happed me. Chau. W. of Bathes Prol.
51. What shuld us tiden of this newe lawe But thraldom of our bodies. Chau. M. of Lawes Tale. 52. Fair grace William fand, Ais chance fulle welle him satte. , R. Br. 72. 53. Thereof ne stod him non owe. Seuyn Sages, 1888. 54. What remains him less
Than unknown dangers, and as hard escape? Ρ. L. 2. 443. To have lief, to have loth, &c., were common idioms in the Old- _ English. 55. And loth he hadde ys neuew to honge or spille. R.Glou. 53. * Woe is an adjective as well as a substantive: J am woe for it, Temp. 1. 1.
He waxed woe and wan, St. and H. Ps. 30. VOL. I. 8
256
56. I hadde lever dien on a knif Than the offenden, &c. Chau. Merch. Tale, 907.
A dative of the pronoun was often subjoined to the adjective; and in such case the subject was very generally omitted.
57. Him had he lever, I dare wel undertake At thilke time, than all his wethers blake, That, &c. Chau. Milleres Tale, 355. 58. she a doughter hath y bore, All had here lever han borne a knave child. Chau. Clerkes Tale, 248. 59. In prison was Roberd al hys lyf and 3ut ich understonde,
Him adde betere abbe i be kyng of the holy lond. Rob. Glou. 426.
60. Betere hem hadde be at Rome, ban y hosted pere. Rob. Glou. 52.
61. Me rather had my heart might feel your love, Than my unpleased eye see your courtesy. R. II. 3. 3.
When the subject or object denotes some part of the body, instead of the possessive pronoun the Old-English generally uses the per- sonal pronoun in the dative case.
62. Pors stont and is agramed—
Colour him chaungeth sumdel for drede
And with gret ire to heom he seide. K. Alis, 7315. 63. Vor Sir William Mautravers (thonk nabbe he non)
Carf him off fet and hande. R. Οἴου. 159. 64. Well many he cleft the sholder bon. Octavian, 1643.
65, She light adoun and falleth him to fete. Chau. M. of Lawes Tale, 1095.
We have the same idiom in most of the other Gothic languages ; in the Dutch, as ik wasch mij de handen, I wash my hands; and in the German, dem kinige wird der linke arm zerschmettert, the king’s left arm was crushed. It prevails also in the Spanish, me duele la cabeza, literally, the head aches me; yo le lavé las manos, literally, I washed her the hands; and also in the French, vous me coupez le doigt, &c. Indeed in some of the early Romance dialects this kind of construction was applied so generally, that the possessive pro- nouns were very rarely used. It is also a well-known Latin idiom.
In the examples last quoted, the dative denotes the person to whom something belongs; it is also used to indicate some advan- tage or benefit accruing.
66. To Athenes shalt thou wende,
Ther is thee shapen of thy wo an ende. Chau. Knightes Tale, 534.
67. draw thee waters for the siege. Nahum. 3. 14.
68. Command That out of these hard stones be made thee bread. ΐ P. R. 1, 344.
69. Heo housede and bulde faste and erede and sewe,
Sa pat in lutel while gode cornes hem grew,
Corn and fruyt hem wex ynow. ~ BR. Gl. 21. 70. Better groved* me no this yere,
At yere time I sew fare corn, ἡ
Yet was it siche when it was shorne. Townley, Myst. Mact. Abel.
φΦ ᾿ Closely connected with this idiom is another, in which the dative merely indicates some concern or interest on the part of the person whom it represents.
71. Ice hafe don swa summ bu bad and forped¢ée pin wille, I have done e’en as thou bad’st and forwarded thee thy will. Ormulum.
72. I will roar you as gently as any sucking dove, I will roar you an t’were any nightingale.—-M.N.D.1.2. 73. ΝΟΥ py me Nestor—hem and stroke thy beard, *Tis Nestor right! now play him me Patroclus, Arming to answer in a night alarm. Tr. and Cr. 1. 3.
74. Villain, I say, knock me at this gate, And rap me well. Tam. of the Shrew, 1. 2.
75. Come you are a tedious fool; to the pape wens was done to Elbow’s wife that he has cause to complain of? Come me to what was done to her.—M. for M. 2. 1.
76. There ’s the way, Frank, And in the tail of these fright me the kingdom With a sharp prognostication. B, and ΕἸ. Wit without Money.
Cutts is in metre something harsh to read, Place me the valiant Gouran in his stead. Prior to Mons. Boileau Despreaux.
This dativus ethicus, for such is the name that has been given to it, is to be found in most of the Gothic languages. It is also well known to the Latin, Quid mihi Celsus agit? &c. In our own language it was used so profusely, that it seems at last to have dwindled into a mere expletive.
77. —he will weep you, an’t were a man born in April.—Tr. and Cr. 1. 2. 78. —the Hotspur of the north, he that kills me some six or seven dozen of Scots at a breakfast, &«.—1 H. IV. 2. 1.
79. — my father hath made her mistress of the feast, and she lays it on —she hath made me four-and-twenty nosegays for the shearers, &c.— Win- ter’s Tale, 4. 2.
The dative is also used to designate the person on whose account some emotion is felt; as in Latin we have the phrases timeo tibi, volo tibi, δια.
80. The sins of the father are to be laid upon the children, therefore I promise you, I fear you.—M. of Ven. 3. 5.
* Groved is a dialectical variety of grow’d, used as the past tense of grow. s2
83.
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The king is sickly, weak and melancholy,
And his physicians fear him mightily. R. IIL. 1.1. Broder ther is none here aboute
That wold the any grefe. Townl. Myst. Mact. Abel. The chambre was honged with cloth of gold,
As that maister him wold. Κ. Alis. 372.
In Ex. 83 we have the dative of the reflective pronoun. The dative of this pronoun very often follows verbs signifying fear, cau- tion or forethought.
84.
85.
86.
o7.
88.
89.
90. 91. 92.
93.
an enemy unto you all,
And no great friend, J fear me, to the king. 2H. VI. 1.1. And eke the dores clattereden ful faste,
Of which Arcita somewhat him agaste.
Chau. Knightes Tale, 1576.
But ther is better lif in other place That never shal be lost, ne drede the nought. Chau. Second Nonnes Tale, 323,
Of cursing ought eche guilty man him drede. Chau. Prol. 664.
And if the folk therein be trewe vnto the, Doute the of non enmys that comes upon the. R. Br. 41.
Care the nought, quoth the losyngoure, I am Ammonis messenger. K, Allis. 484.
How that I tend, rek the never ἃ deille. | Townl. Myst. 13. Does it not, think thee, stand me now upon? Hamlet, 5. 2.
he schulde hym habbe y po3t, bat por; me he was above. R. Gl. 57. he himself, : Insatiable of glory, had lost all, Yet of another plea bethought him soon. P:R.
In the Anglo-Saxon, a vast number of neuter verbs take after them a dative of the reflective pronoun. It sometimes seems to be added for the sake of emphasis, but often, like the dativus ethicus, is a mere
expletive.
It is by no means unfrequent in the Old-English, parti-
cularly after verbs signifying motion.
94.
9ὅ.
96.
97.
98,
This knave goth him up ful sturdeley. Chau. Milleres Tale, 248.
And to the hors he goth him faire and well
And stripeth of the bridel. Chau. Reves Tale, 142. hii wende and tounes nome, So that atte last to Estangle azen him come. R. Gl, 263.
so euelle he pam led, Pe monkes of Canterburie fro per cloistere bam fled. R, Br. 209.
As y me rod this ender day
By grene wode to seche play, το. am Harl. MS, 2253. 69.
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99. And to the launde he rideth him ful right. Chau. Knightes Tale, 833.
100. I followed me close—and with a thought seven of the eleven I paid.—] H. LV. 2. 4.
101, He was a knight of gret pouste . And well belouyd in that contre, " Both of more and of lesse,
For him followyd all goodnesse. Ypomydon, 38. 102. Up her ros that swete wight Into the gardine sche went ful right. ᾿ Am. & Amiloun, 529. 103. Tho this charme y do was Up hire ros Olympias. Kyng Alis. 408.
The verb ἕο sit* often takes a dative of the reflective pronoun, even in our later literature.
104. Come sit thee down upon this flowery bed. M.N.D.4. 1. 105. The ips ep youth ——
Would shut the book, and sit him down and die. Shaksp. 106. They sat them down to weep. P. L.
In the Old-English the same dative sometimes follows the verbs to seem and to shine.
107. The lady byheld Ipomydon, Hym semyd wele a gentil man. Lyfe of Ypomydon, 280. 108. But well was seen her colour, That she had lived in languor ; Her seemed to have the jaundice Not half so pale was Avarice. Chau. Rom. of the Rose. 109. Where houed an hondred, in houes of selke, Serjauntez as hem semed, bat serven at be barre. Ρ, Ploughman, Harl. MS. 2376. © 110. The somers day was fair and bright, The sonne him schon thurch lem of light That semly was on to se. Am. & Amiloun, 582.
In Ex. 107, 108, 109, the subject is omitted. As the reflective pronoun points out the person, there is the less necessity for any nominative, and its ellipsis is very common. We have another in- stance in Ex. 101.
In the Anglo-Saxon this dative was not unfrequently joined to the verb-substantive: ‘‘thus ferdon ealne thone winter, and thone lencten weron him on Cent ἃ betton heora scipu;” thus went they all the winter, and the spring were they in Kent, and repaired their ships, &c. 85. Chron. a.p. 1009. In the Danish we have the same idiom : “ jeg har veret.mig in den lund ;’’ I have been me in the
* In our dictionaries, fo sit, to bethink, &c. are represented as sometimes used actively.
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grove. Moll. Dict. Mig. In our Old-English dialect it is occasion- ally met with.
TI. O thoughte he, her was a schrewe.
The Seuyn Sages, 1798.
We may, perhaps, translate the phrase, I followed me into I fol- lowed—for my part. ‘The construction is not unlike that into which the French emphatic dative enters, moi, j’irai. In the following example the resemblance to the French idiom is still more striking. -
112. And you, be ye fruitful and multiply. Gen. ix. 7.
When there are two datives, the French verb requires a nomina- tive, ma femme et moi nous irons; unless both datives be of the same person, mon frere et lui sont arrivés. In English the ellipsis was more frequently admitted.
113. For this, from stiller seats we come, Our parents and us twain. Cymb. 5. 4. 114. Mark my counsel,
Which must be ev’n as swiftly follow’d as I mean to utter it, or both yourself and me Cry lost. Winter’s Tale, 1. 2.
115, Then [ Both for myself and them (but chief of all Your safety, for the which myself and them Bend their best studies) heartily entreat, &c.
K. John, 4. 2.
116. Scotland and me ’s in great affliction, Burns’ Earnest Cry and Prayer.
117. My wife and me is going to London to-morrow. Forby, 141.
The is in Ex. 116, 117, is the plural verb of our northern dialects.
It is most probable that such phrases as you are, you live, &c. grew out of the syntax we are now discussing, and that you was originally a dative, the real nominative being omitted. The second person singular enters into a similar construction in some of our provincial dialects—thee art, &c. This idiom is now so generally used by the Quakers, that some of them object to the substitution of thou on the ground of its being “formal.” It is probable, how- ever, that the dative of the pronoun was first introduced as affording an oblique and therefore a more deferential mode of address. Daily use must have changed its character, and the deferential form has now become the familiar. ΕΣ
When an adjective agrees with the subject (whether expressed or understood), it seems to be a rule of Anglo-Saxon syntax always to place the adjective after the dative of the reflective pronoun, as he arn him self, he ran himself; and pa circlican peawas him sylf per getehte, and there he himself taught the church-customs. Hence, probably*, we get the Old-English idioms, me self, the self, him self, δα.
ἃ * The reason for some doubt being entertained in this case will appear shortly.
.
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118. Y schal him sle mese/f this day. Am, ἃ Amiloun, 2063.
119. They eaten and drank and made hem glade, And the kyng hymself hem bade. Ric. C. de Lion, 114.
In Anglo-Saxon, as is well known, sy/f takes all the inflexions of an adjective, and like any other adjective agrees with its pronoun in case and number: ic sy/f, I myself; we sylfe, we ourselves, &c.; and in- deed se/f is still commonly used as an adjective in our modern litera- ture. Vide Johns. Dict. But the neuter adjective sy/f was some- times used substantively, and we find the possessive pronouns agree- ing with it, as they would with any other substantive. Hence came the Old-English forms mi self, thi self, &c.*, which should be care- fully distinguished from the related forms, me self, the self, &c.
Instead of the indefinite we often find sylf taking the definite de- clension, whether it be joined to a noun or pronoun: ic sylfa, I my- self; pu sylfa, thou thyself; Lameh sylfa, Lamech himself, &c. This need not surprise us, when we remember that sy/f is always used for the purposes of emphasis, and that the definite is properly the emphatic declension. Hence we get the Old-English forms me selve the selve, him selve, our selve, &c.
120. Litel ye conne, par ma fai, But echen of yo mai saue me a dai, The aighteden dai ich meselue, δίς. Seuyn Sages, 384.
121. Do with meselfe what ye will, Wheder ye wyll me save or spyll— So that ye will my ladye save. Sir Amadas, 674.
122. And the kyng hymselve bad That his daughter wer forth fette, &c. R. C. de Lion, 104.
123. All my joye is turnyd to woo, For sorwe I wole my selve sloo. R. C. de Lion, 824.
124. Syre, heo seyde, wel ychot pat 3o0ure herte vp me ys More vor myn erytage, pan my sulue ywys. Β. GI. 431.
It has been observed in a former papert, that the declension of the definite adjective was the same as the m declension; and that in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries nouns of the πὶ declension often took the nunnation in the nominative in place of the usual vowel-ending. Hence came the hemselven, myselven, &c. of Chaucer.
Another adjective, which is often found coupled with the pronoun personal, is an, alone—the Old-English on.
* Tyrwhitt believed that the “metaphysical substantive” se/f did not'exist in the days of Chaucer, but it is found in our litérature in common use at least six cen- turies before the time of that poet, and may very possibly have been brought from the shores of the Caspian. The use of an abstract term instead of the concrete, when addressing or speaking of an individual, has prevailed from a remote anti- quity in the Gothic languages, and in our own language was particularly common during the sixteenth century. Your self (that is your identity) must be classed with such phrases as your worship, her majesty, his reverend fatherhood, Dr. Faustus, 3. 1, my uncle’s grace. R. III. 2. 3. ὅς.
F See No. 6, p. 74.
262 125. And per nys no mor pat kynde hab berto bute pou on. ᾿ R. Gl. 101.
It is, however, more generally found in its definite form ana—Old- English one.
126. The kyng one on be morn went to London
His 3016 forto hold. ΒΕ. Br, 49. 127. Pycars fonden ese ynow and defaut none
To libbe in plente y now, bute of wymmen one.
R. Gl, 42.
128. Nou sauh but he ane. R. Br. 44. 129. For pou art my do3ter and ich habbe more pan pi sustren bope
Y loued be one. Β. Gl. 31.
This adjective, like selfe, always follows the dative of the reflec- tive pronoun. τ
130. — he made his mone
Within a garden all him one. Gower, Conf. Am. 131. The kinge
Tho stoode as who saith, all him one
Withoute wyfe. Gower, Conf. Am. I. viii. 132. But the gret pairt to yow tuk ye
That slew four of the fyve you ane. The Bruce, 5. 285. Like selve also, one was often used as a substantive: myn one,
literally, my singleness.
133. In this world wote I no knyght, Who durst his one with hym fyght. Lyf of Ipomydon, 1690. 134. pah ha hire ane were Ayein so kene keisere and al his kine riche. Though she were alone Against so fierce a kaiser and all his kingdom. St. Catherine, 90, In Ex. 130, 131, we have the adverb a// joined in construction with the adjective one. From this syntax came the compound alone, which was gradually corrupted into “Jone. The compound alone or lone enters into the same constructions as one.
135. And band her him alane. Felon Sowe, 136. And he went forth him alone,
And all vanquish’d came he home. Sir Grey-Steel, 50. 137. They were not brethren born,
But they were brethren sworn ;. They had a chamber them alone,
Better loved never none. ; Sir Grey-Steel, 45. 138. Hys douchtyr succede sall in his stede And hold his herytage hyr alane. Wynt. 8, 4. 829,
139. It was an awkward thing for a woman-body to be standing, &c., her lane, selling saddles, bridles, &c.—W. Scott, H. of Mid Lothian.
140. I amaist never sleep till my bonny lady Moon gangs till her bed.— Mair by taken, when she ’s at the full ye ken, rowing aboon us yonder in
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her grand silver coach.—I have danced to her my lane sometimes for very joy-—W. Scott, H. of Mid Lothian. = FSi. He’s happy that leevs aw his leane Compared wi’ chaps like me. The ill-gien Wife, Anderson’s Cumb. Ballads. 142. Solitar walking your alone ᾿ Seing naething but stock or stone, &c. Dunbar’s Dirige to the King. Wiclif, in the nominative case, uses the forms weself, gheself, which answer exactly to the Dutch wij zelf, gij zelf. In the objective case he has ussilf and ghousilf, while the Dutch has ons zelf* and uw zelf. The absence of any adjectival inflexion might lead us to infer that si/f was a substantive put in apposition to the pronoun, and this hypothesis derives support from the particular inflexion which the Dutch ze/f takes in the genitive singular of the second n—uws zelf-s, of you yourself. It was a common practice in the Old-English to make one substantive qualify another, and we often have the word self employed, as it would seem, for this very purpose.
143. thought She were the ladye ver dc whom he so long had sought. F. Q. 3. 8. 144. —— they found the goodman self Full beesily unto his work ybent, F.Q. 4.5. 24. 145. Lo here the man, who not of usual earth,
But of that nobler and more precious mould, Which Phebus self doth temper, is composed. B. Jons. Cynthia's Revels, 5. 8.
The use of ghousilf and ussilf in the objective case explains itself, but we also find the forms we ussilf and ghe ghousilf. In these phrases, us and ghou must represent the datives of the reflective pronoun.
146. —ech creature sorowith and traueilith with peyne til ghit, and not oonli it, but also we ussilf that han the firste fruytis of the spyryt, and we ussilf sorewen, &c.— Wiclif, Romayns 8.
The substantive self was commonly used in the singular number, even when it referred to several individuals.
147.
us -----“--ς.. pat bep hire bi ouwre self, as at pe worldes ende, &c. R. GI. 46.
148. Is not thilk same a goat-herd proud That sits on yonder bank, Whose straying sheep themself doth shroud Emong the bushes rank? Spenser.
But as precision was more studied, it gradually became the cus-
* So the Danish has in the nominative vi selv, and in the objective case os selv.
+ The use of these abstract terms without the possessive pronoun—the ladye self instead of the ladye herself—might easily be illustrated from our older writers ; thus when he addresses John, the French herald speaks “‘to the Majesty of En- gland.” K. John 1. 1. &c.
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tom to put se/f in the plural, and we have the forms ourselves, them- selves, &c. 'Tyrwhitt’s notion, that these forms were corrupted from the ourselven, themselven, &c. of Chaucer, is quite untenable. It is sufficient to observe, that such hypothesis assumes the existence of a letter-change, which is unknown to our language.
‘We may now understand the doubt which exists as to the origin of the terms meself, theself, himself. If the second element of them- selves be a substantive, self may also be a substantive in meself, &c. To settle this doubt would require a very minute and careful exami- nation of our older dialect ; but the probability is, that in such cases self is an adjective.
As the constructions into which the word self enters are in our language singularly intricate and difficult, it may be well to observe that we sometimes meet in Anglo-Saxon with the genitive sylfes : as mines sylfes lic, the body of myself. This idiom was used by the early Flemish writers, and will probably be found in our Old-English, as in that dialect of our language we have the parallel form his anes.
149. Nu is alre schome meast
That an lepi meiden wid hire anes muS* haue’ Swa biteuelet, &c. Now is the greatest shame of all, That a solitary maiden with her single mouth hath Ὁ So confounded, &c. St. Catherine, 1290. 150. Ah habbich thin anes help, ich am wil cweme.
But if I have thy single help, I am well content. Roy. Lib, 17. A. xxvii. f. 61. :
* Hire anes mud, literally rendered, is equivalent to the mouth of her singleness.
PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
Vor. 1. MAY 24, 1844. No. 23.
Professor Wiison in the Chair.
The following works were laid on the table :—
“ On the Eastern Terminus of the Wall of Antoninus.” By the Rev. Richard Garnett. Presented by the author.
“* Apposition St. Paul’s School, 1844”; and “ Prolusiones Lite- rarie Premiis Quotannis Propositis Dignate et in D. Pauli Schola Comitiis Majoribus Habite Die Maii viii. A. S. H. mpcccxuiv.” Presented by the Rev. H. Kynaston.
The following gentlemen were elected Members of the Society :—
The Chevalier Bunsen. Francis H. Dickenson, Esq., M.P.
A paper was then read :-—
“On the Origin and Import of the Augment in Sanscrit and Greek.” By the Rev. Richard Garnett.
It has long been suspected that the vowel-prefix to certain past tenses (Sanscr. a, Gr. ε) was originally a distinct element, poten- tially modifying the signification of the verb in its expression of the various relations of time. Not to dwell upon its restriction to par- ticular tenses, it may be briefly observed, that in the older composi- tions in Sanscrit it is sometimes omitted, and sometimes separated from the verbal theme and placed between two prepositions. In Greek, the Ionic and olic dialect frequently reject it altogether ; and in certain verbs compounded with prepositions it is not unfre- quently prefixed to the preposition instead of the radical portion of the verb. All these phenomena seem totally inconsistent with the idea of its being any integral part of the verbs to which it is joined; as it is notorious, that though the constituent parts of compound terms may be disjoined by tmesis, the elements of truly simple words never are. Various theories have been advanced by grammarians to account for the origin and ascertain the precise force of this prefix. Some, confining their views to the Greek language, suppose it to have origi- nated in the imperfect of the verb substantive, ἦν or 7, was; an hypo- thesis involving a gross solecism, and subversive of all the established analogies of the Indo-European languages. Buttmann conjectures it to be nothing more than a mutilation of the reduplicate prefix of the perfect, so that ἔτυπτον was originally rérurrov. Though this idea might appear to derive some countenance from the epic forms of the second aorist, in which the syllabic augment and the redu- plication appear to be employed almost indifferently, a slight com- parison with the analogous forms in Sanscrit will show it to be to-
266
tally untenable. Pott also regards the augment as a sort of imita- tion of the reduplication, but does not adduce any arguments in support of his position that appear of much cogency. Bopp has ad- vanced an hypothesis, which has, at all events, the merit of origi- nality—not to say singularity. He supposes the augment to be identical with the negation prefix a or an (Gr. ἀ, ἀν), so that ἔλεγον for instance is to be resolved into ἀ-λεγον, I say no longer=I said; the prefix not conveying a negation of the action, but simply of its present occurrence. In the last published part of his ‘ Verglei- chende Grammatik,’ Bopp labours to vindicate his theory against some severe and cogent remarks of Lassen in the ‘ Indische Biblio- thek’; but his defence is more remarkable for its learning and in- genuity than for its success in convincing the reader. He himself, indeed, seems to have some misgivings respecting the soundness of his hypothesis, since he admits that the prefix in question may be only collaterally related to the negative particle, as being derived from the same demonstrative pronominal root; and that, instead of denying the actual presence of the action, it may merely affirm its remoteness. He affects indeed to consider the two solutions as vir- tually identical; to which it is sufficient to reply, that the latter hy- pothesis is completely subversive of the former, and that the same element could hardly signify that, there, yonder, then, affirmatively, and express, vi termini, a negative proposition at the same moment. The object of the present paper is to show that the explanation which Bopp himself allows to be admissible,—namely, that the augment may be regarded as a demonstrative particle, primarily expressing remote place, and secondarily remote time,—is the one which unites the most probabilities in its favour. One cannot help feeling some surprise at the extremely limited view which has hitherto been taken of this question. Some have confined their investigations to the Greek, which gives absolutely no data for deciding the point: others have gone no further than the Sanscrit, which does not furnish any very satisfactory ones. The most rational and philosophical method of proceeding would have been to inquire how the same modification of time is expressed in other languages, especially those cognate with Greek and Sanscrit. If we find that any of those distinguish the past from the present by means of prefixes, and further, that those prefixes have a distinct meaning, suitable to the functions which they discharge, it is, ἃ priori, very possible that the augment in Greek and Sanscrit may be of similar origin and similar import. The Latin language will not afford us any assistance in this in- vestigation; since, though it has partially retained the reduplication, it exhibits in its present state no distinct traces of a syllabic aug- ment, or substitute for one. If we proceed to the Celtic, we shall find that all the dialects regularly form the preterite by the aid of prefixes, some of which are plainly significant. These preformatives are pretty numerous in Welsh, especially in ancient poetical compo- sitions ; but the one most commonly employed is a; e. gr. canu, to sing; @ ganodd, cecinit; caru, to love; a garodd, amavit. In old manuscripts the particle is regularly joined to the verb in writing ;
267
aorug, he made, or did; aganodd, he sung; so that, had this ortho- graphy been persisted in, the prefix would have appeared as integral a part of the verb as a in Sanscr., atudat, or e in Gr., ἔτυπτε.
The precise force of the Welsh element in this combination can only be inferred by analogical reasoning. As a pronoun, a denotes who, which, that ; as a preposition, with; and as a conjunction, and. Reasons will be produced in the course of the present paper for be- lieving that its original import was there, or then; denoting with greater precision the time of the action expressed by the verb. That it had a distinct meaning may be inferred from its changing the initial of the verb to which it is joined: a ganodd from canu ; a dor- rodd, broke, from torri, This phenomenon in the Celtic languages almost invariably denotes a grammatical or logical relation ; namely, government, concord, composition or other modification of a word by something in immediate conjunction with it. It would be con- trary to the analogy of the language to suppose that this effect could be produced by a verbum otiosum, or mere expletive.
Though a is sometimes used in Irish as a sign of the preterite tense, it is of comparatively unfrequent occurrence. The particle most ‘commonly employed is do, which is seldom omitted, except when the verb precedes its subject. As a particle, do signifies to, and is employed as the sign of the dative and the infinitive. In an- cient Irish we find greater variety of particles, and sometimes a com- bination of them, employed for the same purpose. Af, ad, no, ro, ad no, do no, and do ro seem to be used indiscriminately, except that sometimes the compound forms may have the idea of greater preci- sion or emphasis annexed to them. No and do no are interpreted by the lexicographers to signify then, which we believe to be the real import of most of those formative particles, the Greek and Sanscrit augment included. The prefix ro has its exact counterpart in the Welsh rhy, often used by old writers to form the perfect, pluperfect and future tenses. The element is significant in both languages as a particle implying excess, what is over and above, or further ; and appears, when joined with verbs, to answer pretty accurately to our moreover. We may here remark the similarity of the Homeric par- ticle 6a, so frequently used in transitions. The common idea, that this word was formed by apheresis from dpa, is both gratuitous and contrasy to analogy. We believe the opinion of Mr. Donaldson in the ‘ New Cratylus,’ who regards it as an independent term, imply- ing addition, excess, remoteness, both alone and in composition, to be much better founded. It is indeed just as easy to affirm that dpa is a compound, as that ῥὰ is an abbreviation.
The Gothic language exhibits a few instances of reduplication in preterites; but, with the exception of the particle ga, which will be noticed hereafter, neither it nor any other Germanic dialect has any thing formally corresponding to the augment. There is, however, a curious analogy in Upper German, which, if it had occurred to Bopp, might possibly have made him doubt the soundness of his theory respecting the negative import of the augment. Both in Old
268
and Middle High German we find the particles tho, do, ther, der, pre- fixed to verbs in the past tense, without any special reference to the idea of then or there, but simply, as it would seem, to denote the completion of the action. In translations from the Latin it frequently corresponds to the preterite in that language, unaccompanied by any particle. Thus in ‘Tatian’s ‘ Evangelical Harmony,’ we find “ quad tho Maria” =dixit Maria; ‘tho ward gitruobit’’=turbatus est; “tho ther stigun sine bruoder ἡ =ut autem ascenderunt fratres ejus. In the writings of the middle ages we find do and der employed nearly in the same manner. In the first edition of the Upper German Bible, a.p. 1462, are twenty examples of this construction in the first chapter of Genesis; as for example, ver. 3-4, “ Un Got der sprach (dixit) liecht werde gemacht. Und das liecht ward gemacht ; un Got der sache (vidit) daz liecht das es ward gut.’”’ So der rieff =vocavit ; der macht—fecit; der beschuoff=creavit, &c. &e. Not only der, but also hin and her are frequently joined to verbs and participles in Middle High German to increase the emphasis and show that the action is done thoroughly.
The verb in the Slavonic languages presents some remarkable phznomena, well worthy the consideration of the philologist., It is known that in this class of tongues a regular, perfectly philosophical distinction is made between perfective and imperfective verbs, that is, between those expressing an action completed at once and not repeated, and those denoting continuance or reiteration. Thus fo dig, implying a continued action, is regarded as imperfective ; but to bury, which is done only once to the same subject, is a proper per- fective. Sometimes this distinction is inherent in the form of the verb; but in many cases, verbs naturally imperfective, become per- fective in the preterite by prefixing a preposition. What particular preposition may be employed with individual verbs depends on the custom of the language; those denoting out, from, by, with, after, are most commonly in use. Thus kroplit, I besprinkle, might denote a habit of so doing; to express a single definite act of it, already accomplished, would require po or na (after) to be prefixed to the simple preterite. ‘The future perfect is formed in a similar manner by prefixing some one of the above-mentioned particles to the pre- sent tense. In all those compound phrases a sort of feeling appears to prevail, that the particle is necessary to convey the idea of com- pleteness of action or precision of time, and in a great many cases the Slavonic preterite perfective would correspond pretty accurately with the Greek or Sanscrit aorist, used definitely.
The only remaining European language which seems to offer any analogy is the Albanian, which forms the future by prefixing do te to the present: e. gr. thom, I say, do te thom, I shall say. As ἃ par- ticle of place do signifies where; if transferred to express the idea of time, it would naturally denote when or then, which may be em- ployed with equal propriety in a future or past acceptation. Thus the Irish ro=moreover, is used with preterites, and its counter- part, the Welsh rhy, both with the preterite and future.
ΝΥΝ ΝΟΥ ee eee eee
269
The languages of Central Asia also present a few analogies. The ancient Armenian prefixes e to the preterite, exactly like the Greek ; but this formation is confined to the third person of one particular conjugation. The Kurdish also employs several particles in the formation of past tenses; as che kiria, fecit, from the root ken, make, ἃς. We have no means of ascertaining whether those particles have a distinct meaning, or what it is. In Persian the particle be or bu, prefixed to the present, converts it to a future: pursem, I ask, bupursem, I shall or will ask. The Georgian also employs a variety of preformative particles in conjugation, but the precise analysis of them has not hitherto been made known.
In the Coptic language the system of verbal preformatives is more fully developed than in any of the Indo-European. Every tense has its appropriate particle, apparently meant to express the parti- cular modification of time supposed to be included in the entire phrase. Thus ὁ is the sign of the present tense; na of the imper- fect; a of the preterite definite; sha of the preterite indefinite; ne a and πὸ sha of the pluperfect ; e-na the future; ¢a or ta-re the future indefinite, &c. It is true that several grammarians regard those prefixes as auxiliary verbs; but there are reasons, which we cannot here discuss at length, for believing that most of them are of pro-
‘nominal origin. The particle ent or et, used in one of the preterite
formations, is confessedly identical with the relative pronoun in form; and Benfey admits that they are, in all probability, of com- mon origin.
In the languages of Southern India the system of verbal forma- tives expressing the time of the action is carried to a great extent. Thus Anderson observes (Rudiments of Tamul Grammar, page 44), «* The Tamul grammarians resolve most of the derivative forms of a verb into three parts; viz. paghudi the root, vighudi the form of ter- mination [distinguishing the persons], and ideimilei the interme- diate argument, which is generally employed as the formative of the different tenses.”” MacKerrell also remarks (Grammar of the Car- nataca Language, p. 85), ‘* Verbs in the Carnataca language, whe- ther possessing an intransitive or a transitive meaning, are conju- gated by adding to their roots, in three of the tenses (viz. present, past and future), certain affixes expressive of time; and to these the affixes denoting persons being attached, the inflexion is complete.” The particles thus employed are pretty numerous, and the rules for the application of them are rather intricate ; but it is obvious that they are all regulated by the same general principle, of specifying the time of the action more precisely than could be done by merely using the verbal root with its personal affixes.
The Polynesian languages, especially those of the eastern division, furnish copious and valuable materials for the illustration of the point in question. The whole conjugation of the verb—as far as distinction of tense is concerned—depends on the employment of certain particles, which, allowing for the difference of dialect and pronunciation, are nearly common to the great body of the east msular Polynesians, properly so called. A minute account of them
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will be found in Humboldt and Buschmann’s great work, ‘ Ueber die Kawi Sprache :’ it will be sufficient for us to observe, by way of specimen, that in Tahitian the present is generally distinguished by the particle nei and the preterite by na. The original import of ποῖ, as a local particle, is here, and its derivative one, as an adverb of time, now; which shows at once its force as a formative of the pre- sent tense. Na in like manner signifies, as a separate particle, there and then, and is employed to express the preterite tense in a way exactly analogous to the “ der sprach ”’ of the Middle High German. In Kawi and Tagala this prefix is regularly incorporated with the verb. Kawi, hem, assemble; pret. nahem, assembled: Tagala, pinta, demand ; pret. naminta, demanded—p being converted into m by an euphonic process well known to Malay scholars. It is obvious that the circumstance of the prefix being incorporated in writing in these latter dialects, is one of the accidents of language, or a mere or- thographical fashion, and makes no difference as to the actual force of the particle, which we may safely conclude to convey the sense of then in all cases where it is used to denote an action that is past.
Passing over other languages of this family, we shall briefly ob- serve, that the most western one, the Malagasy, forms its tenses with remarkable neatness and precision by prefixing the particle mi for the present, ni for the preterite, and ἠὲ for the future; 6. gr. solo (verbal root) = substitution ; misolo (aho), I substitute; nisolo, I substituted; Aisolo, I shall substitute. When we take into consi- deration the undoubted affinity of the languages, there can be little question that these particles have the same force as the Tahitian, Philippine and Javanese prefixes already specified. The idea of precision of time is carried so far by the Malagasy, that they even combine it with local particles. Respecting this peculiarity Mr. Freeman observes, ‘‘The want of a substantive verb, corresponding with the esse of the Latins, and to be employed in the same manner, is compensated in many cases by a mode of structure which prevails extensively in the Malagasy language, and which constitutes one of its marked peculiarities ; namely, that of making adverbs and pre- positions susceptible of tense or time, by distinguishing the past from the present*.”’ Thus'‘amy and tamy both have the general sig- nification of at, with, by; but to express the idea of present time, “is with,” amy would be employed; while ¢amy would include the category of past time, ‘‘ was with:” 6. gr. ‘ny mazava mahazava ao amy ny maizina,” the light shineth in darkness; but with a past sig- nification, ‘“‘ny Teny tamy n’Andriamanitra,” the Word was with God. This may serve as an instance, among innumerable others, that languages commonly reputed barbarous may not be without their refinements.
It would far exceed our limits to attempt anything like an indi- vidual discussion of the numerous languages of the American con- tinent. It will be sufficient to observe that most of those respecting
* Observations on the Malagasy Language, ap. Ellis, History of Madagascar, vol. i. p. 499.
f 271
which we possess definite information bear a general analogy to the Polynesian family and the languages of the Deccan, in their methods of distinguishing the various modifications of time. In the Arau- canian che is the sign of the second present; bu of the imperfect ; uye of the imperfect; α of the future, and αὖ of the aorist. In many cases those formative particles have a determinate significa- tion; e. gr. in Guarani, bia or biha = afterwards, forms the imper- fect, and raco = already, or naco = certainly, the perfect, provided it speaks of a circumstance which the narrator has seen. In some instances those distinctive particles are interposed between the verbal root and the personal termination, and sometimes those three con- Stituents are so thoroughly incorporated that it requires a careful analysis to separate them. We may, however, venture to assert in general terms, that a South American verb is constituted precisely on the same principle as those in the 'amul and other languages of Southern India; consisting like them of a verbal root, a second ele- . ment defining the time of the action, and a third denoting the sub- ject or person.
* The object of the foregoing remarks is to endeavour to establish the point of a frequent employment of particles determining more or less precisely the time of the action expressed by verbs, in a great variety of languages. . In many cases those particles, though no original part of the verbal root, are essential to the integrity of the verbal phrase, which could not predicate time or completed action without them. Some of them, for instance the Celtic and Coptic a, agree exactly in form with the Sanscrit augment, there being no external difference between Sanscr. as’ranshit = Gr. ἔκλυε and the Welsh aglywai or aglybu, audivit, written as it was once the practice to write them. The identity of the Celtic element with the San- scrit one cannot perhaps be proved by any direct evidence now within our reach. We are aware that the Indian grammarians re- present the augment as being destitute of signification in itself; and arguments from the analogy of other languages are all that we have to oppose to this assertion. Those which we have adduced are not, it is presumed, entirely destitute of weight; and they form only a small portion of the evidence bearing upon this point which might be collected. It would be easy to affirm that the Gothic particle ga, Germ. ge, which never appears out of composition, has no original independent meaning: but it is imagined that no one would per- sist in that opinion after carefully comparing the different dialects, and observing how frequently it modifies the sense and the circum- stances of propositions. One of its functions is exactly equivalent to that of the Greek augment, there being a number of verbs exhi-
_ biting simple forms in the present, but regularly prefixing ga or ge
to form the preterite and the past participle. The actual import of
this particle can only be inferred from analogy. Grimm has: ad-
duced strong reasons for believing it to be cognate with the Latin
cum, to which it is clearly equivalent in ga-sintha, companion, co-
itinerant, from sinihan, to go or travel, and many similar compounds.
As a formative of the preterite, it may be presumed to be parallel VOL. 1, T
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with the Slavonic s’ = with, employed much in the same way: e. gr. beregit, I am considering ; perf. sbereg, I have (fully) considered.
After all, the strongest argument in favour of the theory now ad- vocated is, that the great majority of prefixes in all known languages are evidently significant; and that our being unable to trace the derivation or meaning of a few only proves our want of information. It may be said that many of the analogies that have been adduced are from barbarous languages, and consequently of little weight. To this it is easy to reply, that the ancestors of the Greeks were at one period much more barbarous than the Malays or Javanese of the present day, and that the languages of uncivilized races are’ not ne- cessarily deficient in regularity of structure or propriety of expres- sion. And if, as there is good reason to believe, such languages often show the original force of the component parts of words more clearly than those which have been subject to a long process of re- finement, that very circumstance shows that the philosopher and the comparative etymologist may profitably include them in the compass of their researches.
PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
Vou. 1. JUNE 14, 1844. No. 24.
Danie Sarre, Esq., in the Chair.
The following papers were reud :—
1. “On the Formation of the Past Tense in certain of the Indo- European languages.” By F. H. Trithen, Esq.
A peculiarity which distinguishes the grammar of all the Slavish languages consists in the use of the past participle taken in an active sense for the purpose of expressing the preterite. This participle generally ends in 7; and much uncertainty preyails both as to its origin and its relations, though the termination has been compared by various philologists with similar affixes in the Sanscrit and the classical languages.
In the old Slavish, or language of the church, there are three methods of expressing the past tense; one of them consists in the union of the verb substantive with the participle: as,
rek esm’ chital esm’ rek esi chital esi rek est’ chital est’.
ἴῃ the corresponding tense of the Slovenian dialect we have the verb substantive placed before the participle :
Yasam imao Mi’smo imali Ti si imao vi'ste“imali On ye imao oni su imali. In the Polish it appears as a suffix: Czytalem Czytalismy Czytales Czytaliscie Czytal Czytali, and in the Servian it follows the participle: igrao sam igrali smo igrao si igrali ste igrao ye igrali su.
The ending ao of igrao and imao stands for the Russian al, as in some English dialects a’ is used for all.
In the language of Little Russia this termination is v, as in igra-v, a form with which we may compare the Latin ama-v-i, where the t may possibly be a form of the verb substantive.
Bopp seems to have proved that the Latin termination bam is etymologically connected with the Sanscrit δ᾽, to be; and it may be conjectured, that the verbal form to which it is attached was ori- ginally a past participle used in an active sense. This hypothesis may perhaps enable us to account for the length of the vowel in the imperfect of the third and fourth conjugations which has not yet been satisfactorily explained, regébam, audiébam.
T2
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This hypothesis seems to be confirmed by the construction of the Sanscrit preterite, where the inflexions of the auxiliary verbs asa to be, δ᾽ ἃ to be, and kr to make, are attached to a form of the verb ending in dm:
ed’am-asa ed’am-asit’a ed’am-asa, &c.
- Bopp, in his Krit. Gram. p. 229, considers the ending dam to be the suffix of an abstract substantive in the accusative case, but Wil- kins considers the first part of these verbal compounds as a sort of indeclinabie participle, into which certain Sanscrit roots require to be changed before they take the verbal endings. There seems to be a difficulty in the way of considering dm as an accusative ending, inasmuch as kr is the only one of the auxiliaries which governs that case, and even this verb is often used in an intransitive sense, like the English do. But if the ending of the genitive plural am answers to the Greek ending wy, why should not the dm of this Sanscrit preterite answer to ὧν, the ending of the Greek second. aorist? We do not indeed meet with this participle in modern Sanscrit lite- rature, but it is found in the Vedas; and according to Panini, iii. 1. 12, the first preterite is also used in combination with this participial form. ‘This tense of the verb as, to be, is thus conjugated :
Sing. &sam asis asit Dual. = asva astam astam Plur. asma asta asan,
with which Bopp has proved the terminations of the third preterite to be identical. These are—
Sing. Dual. Plural. sam oa sava sama σαμεν sah oas satam caroy sata oare sat σε satam σατὴν san σαν.
If the Sanscrit terminations are the inflexions of the verb as, to be, it seems to follow that the Greek must be so too; and it would appear probable that the body of the verb had once a participial meaning and termination. These verbal endings may be compared with those of the past tense of the Servian verb already noticed.
2. “On the Lydian Dynasty which preceded the Mermnade.” By the Rev. O. Cockayne.
In Herodotus, i. 7, is a passage which gives some scanty modicum of historical information concerning the dynasty of kings that reigned at Sardes before the family of Kreesus. The Mermnadeze began with Gyges, 8.0. 716, and ended with Kreesus, 8.0. 546. The Heraklide preceded them, and governed the country five hun- dred and five years, beginning with Agron, 8.0. 1220, and ending with Kandaules, s.c. 716.
This dynasty of the Heraklide has been pronounced by one of our ablest scholars fabulous, an expression which possibly was intended in a qualified sense. For if we understand it to mean that the as- sertion of Herodotus is in no dergee to be relied on, we shall come
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to the startling conclusion that the Greeks, who had been two hun- dred and seventy years in the coyntry, had no sufficient knowledge of the lords and masters of the land in which they resided: that in the time of the poet Archilochus a revolution occurred in Sardes, but that the Greeks did not know anything worth attention concerning the deposed family.
If we take the expression in a limited sense, then we shall have an enunciation of opinion that al/ these assertions cannot be relied on. Two points of the statement have been fixed upon as indications of untruth. First, the chronological inconsistency: Herodotus places the ἀκμὴ of Hercules at 1173 8.c. when treating of Sparta, but when speaking of Lydia the computation mounts 181 years higher. We should however notice that another nation, and pro- bably another Hercules, is spoken of. Herodotus had a theological system that assumed the identity of foreign deities with those of his native land: the Egyptian Neith is with him Athena, and Phtha is Hephestos. The Lydian word was probably only an equivalent to
_the Greek Herakles. Nevertheless, Herodotus, identifying still ‘further the father of this dynasty with the hero of Greek mythology,
more specifically derives these Heraklidz from a Lydian female, and Hercules ἐκ δούλης re τῆς Ἰαρδάνον γεγονότες καὶ Ἡρακλέος. This story of Omphale was incorporated with the adventures of the Grecian Hercules, but its connection with them may very probably be poetical, not historical: the Lydian Hercules may have been a different person from the ancestor of the Spartan kings, and may have lived 180 years before him. Cicero says, ‘‘ At primum quot hominum lingue, tot no- mina deorum. Nonenim, ut tu Velleius quoeumque veneris, sic idem in Italia Vulcanus, idem in Africa, idem in Hispania.” N. Ὁ. i. 30. The stories about Gades, Atlas, the Hesperides, are the property of the Tyrian Hercules, who bore the Pheenician name Melikertes, king of the city, but was, by the customary process, identified with the Grecian hero; and by a similar transfer, the adventures which occurred in Lydia to the first champion who elevated the royal race to distinction may have been seized by the ready genius of Grecian poetry and embodied as attributes of the Hellenic demi-god. No valid objection therefore will lie against the historical reality of the dynasty of Kandaules, from any chronological chasm between the Hercules of Sardes and of Sparta.
A second objection to the truthfulness of Herodotus has been raised, and his account is overruled as contrary to experience. He assures us that in this family were twenty-two generations, and adds, παῖς παρὰ πατρὸς ἐκδεκόμενος τὴν ἀρχήν ; son from father receiving the crown. On these words it is remarked, that “the succession... [of even]...fourteen kings in the direct jine from father to son, or from grandfather to grandson, without a single instance of female or collateral succession, is a circumstance which cannot be paralleled in any single line of hereditary princes.” Supposing this objection to apply in all its force to the passage before us, it overturns only a subordinate circumstance, by no means essential to the general statement. But it may be maintained, that the words
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quoted do not imply that every monarch came into possession of the throne next after his father in direct and immediate descent. The value of the phrase may be tested not only by the words that com- pose it, which contain no assertion that every king had issue to suc- ceed him, but also by the way in which the phrase is employed and under what circumstances. In Herodotus, ii. 65, he speaks of μελεδωνοὶ, καὶ ἔρσενες καὶ θήλεαι παῖς παρὰ πατρὸς ἐκδεκόμενοι τὴν τιμήν. In this instance, if the females, transmitted the office, the words will not bear to be tied down strictly to fathers. In ii. 166, he applies the same expression to the descent of the military profes- sion in the warrior caste of Egypt, but he hardly can be taken to signify that all the pedigrees were uninterrupted*. Diodorus, ii. 21, uses the same phrase of thirty kings of Assyria. Diodorus, ii. 29, says in like manner of the Chaldean soothsayers, παῖς παρὰ πατρὸς: διαδέχεται [ταύτην τὴν φιλοσοφίαν]. In Diodorus, xix. 36, the same formula describes the transmission of the sovereignty in Epirus, which had been thus handed down from the time of Neopto- lemus, son of Achilles, to Cassander, 8.0. 315, and he says, this continued series was now broken; but how? by the accession of ἃ collateral branch? by the king’s dying without issue? No: but by a revolution that deposed the reigning prince. From these examples it will appear that those terms convey no more than the general idea of hereditary succession; and there is nothing repugnant to experience in a line of twenty-two monarchs of one house.
These two objections are the only grounds we have noticed, for the strong designation fabulous, applied to this early dynasty. That such a series of kings really had existence can hardly be ques- tioned, if we consider the inquisitive spirit of the Greeks, the rapid advances made in civilization by the Asiatic colonists, who produced the earliest poets, the earliest philosophers and the earliest histo- rians of Greece‘, and lastly, the two centuries and a half which had seen them neighbours, perhaps tenants, of this very dynasty.
Barthold Niebuhr has considered these Heraklide to be Assyrians; and. Herodotus tells us that “Agron son of Ninus” was the first king of Sardes. In the Scholia to the Phoenisse, 162, as corrected by Valckenaer, we are told on the authority of Xanthus, the very ancient historian: of Lydia, that the husband of Niobe was called Philottus the Assyrian, and that he dwelt at Sipylus. Valckenaer thinks that in the word Assyrian is concealed the name of Assaon, the father of Niobe. If this criticism be not admitted, we have another testimony to Assyrian princes having been settled in Lydia. It is worth notice also, that in the enumeration of the chief Asiatic races, Gen. x., Lydia is placed in close juxtaposition with Assyria.
* Herodotus uses a similar combination in ii, 148, but the passage is not a par- allel, for there is an additional definition by a pronoun: παῖδα πατρὸς ἑωυτῶν ἕκαστον ἐόντα.
+ Add also the earliest painters: “ Quid quod in confesso perinde est, Bularchi pictoris tabulam in qua erat Magnetum prelium, a Candaule rege Lydiew Heracli- darum novissimo, qui et Myrsilus vocitatus est, repensam auro? Tanta jam dig- natio picture erat.”—Pliny, Ν, H, xxxv, 84,
PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY.
Vor. I. JUNE 28, 1844. No. 25.
Professor ΜΆ θεν in the Chair.
The following paper was read :—
“On English Pronouns Personal.” By Edwin Guest, Esq.
There is no part of English grammar attended with greater diffi- culty than that which relates to the personal pronouns. The syn- tax and the etymology of these pronouns appear to have varied with our dialects; and as any particular dialect rose into literary notice, it generally left some of its peculiar forms impressed upon our standard English. The confusion hence arising was increased by a custom which sprung up in the Old-English period of treating these pronouns as if they were, under certain circumstances, indeclinable. Attempts were made during the last century to bring these conflicting usages into order, but by men who were better acquainted with the grammar of the French and Latin than with that of their native language; and the result has been a complication of difficulties which the most san- guine philologist must approach with diffidence.
In Anglo-Saxon the first personal pronoun was represented by ic,
. a word which seems to have been corrupted in our northern dialects
into J, and in other dialects (more particularly the southern and the western) into ich. Ich occurs too often in our older poetry to need illustration; but in the south of Somersetshire they now use as its substitute a word of two syllables, utchy or iche, ‘* what shall utchy do?” (Jennings, Gloss.) ’Che, the contracted form of iche, is also occasionally used (Jennings, p. 11); and must at one time have been common all over the south of England, for it is put into the mouth of a Kentish peasant by Shakespeare, and of the Middlesex yeomanry by Jonson.
1. Good gentleman, go your gait, and let poor volk pass. And ch'ud ha’ been zwagger’d out of my life, t’would not ha’ been zo long as ’tis by a
vortnight. Nay, come not near the old man; keep out che vor’ ye, &c.— Lear, 4. 6.
2. - will be his own And ’s masters too ancene day, che voor un. T. of a Tub, 2.21. 3. You are still In-and-In— I would be Master Constable, if eke could win. T. of a Tub, 2. 1.
Uichy. seems to be the Old- Gener ihha or ihcha, “1 myself’ (Graff.), and is probably the same word as the Latin ego.
A more common form in the west of England for the first pro- noun personal is ise or es (Jennings, Gloss.). The origin of this term is not a very obvious one: we might conjecture that the ¢ had
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become s before the narrow vowel, according to a well-known law of letter-change, and so we had got ise instead of iche. But the exist- ence of the two forms in such close proximity,—iche or utchy being used in the south of Somersetshire and ise in all the rest of the country west of the Parret (Jennings),—-may perhaps be a difficulty in the way of such a conclusion.
In the ‘Exmoor Scolding,’ and also in the ‘Courtship,’ the word utchy does not occur, and ich only in cases where it cualesces with its verb, cham, chill, choud, chave, &c.* ; in most other cases we have es.
4. Well, ont Nell, es hired what ya zed, and es thank ye too. Bet now chave a zeed ye, ‘tez zo good as chad a eat ye as they uze to zey. Hs must go home now as vast as es can—The Courtship.
The ‘ Devonshire Dialogue,’ written by Miss Reynolds (sister of Sir Joshua), shows the progress of the schoolmaster in the more general use of I as the first person, though we still have es occa- sionally. ;
5. I’ve a good doust bed-tye &c. and a banging brass kittle, that es may swap for what goods es may lack.—Dev. Dial. 3. Mrs. Gwatkin’s edit.
Fs seems to have been sometimes placed, by way of pleonasm, before cham, chill, choud, &c. .
6. —nif they don’t g’in by Zundey-zenneert, chell tell tha in short com-
pany es chell borst ma heart, &c.—The Courtship.
and it was probably from a loose recollection of this idiom that Pope got his chez, a word which appears to be unknown in the west of England (Jennings, p. 11). The pastoral written in ridicule of Phil- lips, and so cleverly smuggled into the ‘ Guardian,’ No. 40, begins with the following lines:
i. Ah! Rager, Rager, ehez was zore afraid When in yond vield you kiss’d tha Passons maid, &c.
The first and second pronouns personal took a dual form in the _ Anglo-Saxon: wit, we two; git, ye two; une, us two; inc, you two, These dual forms were occasionally used in the 138th century. Thus in his address to his brother, Ormin tells him,
8. Wit shulenn tredenn unnderfott and all thwert ut for werrpenn The dom off all that lathe floce, &c.
We two should tread under our foot, and out all from us cast The notion of all that hateful crew, &c. Ormulum.
And again, 9. And wnne birrth bidenn God tatt he forgife hemm here sinne. And us two befits to pray to God that he forgive their sin. The following appears to be the type from which, in our Old-En-
* That ch represents ich and not iche in these cases, appears from the circum- stance, that we find the phrases icham, ichot, &c., or the contracted forms cham, chot, &c., in MSS. where ich occurs in almost every page and iche is never met with.
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glish dialects, the declension of the third personal pronoun more or less deviated :
Sing. Plur. M. F. N. M. F. N. i... Se heo hit hi G. his hire his hire D. him hire him him Α. hine hi hit hi
The chief departure from this form of declension consists in the substitution of the dative for the accusative, an anomaly which is found in both numbers, and in all the genders except the neuter sin- gular. This use of the dative is of very early date, for we meet with it in the ‘Ormulum,’ but it does not admit of any very obvious ex- planation.
The dialect now spoken in the west of England uses en as the ob- jective case of he; and this form appears at no distant period to have
_ been widely diffused throughout our southern counties. For reasons
which may appear more clearly hereafter, it may perhaps be safer to consider en as a representative of the dative Aim rather than asa cor- ruption of the old accusative hine.
10. — he is high Constable
And who should read above un or avore hun. B. Jonson, T. of a Tub, 1. 2.
11. It’s well vor un, I could not get at wn, [ἃ a lick’d un, &.—Tom
Jones, 6, 10.
12. Zum zed a Layer gid en bad advice. Jennings, The Churchwarden.
13. Ad; nif es come athert en, chell gee en a lick, &«.—Exmoor Court-
ship. - The pronouns he and heo are still carefully distinguished in some
of our northern dialects.
14. Sed 1,1 understand. yo want’n ὁ gobdd bandy-hewit, Sur, on I’ve a pure on t’sell here. Let’s see the shap on hur, sed he; so I stroak’t hur
deawn th’ back on croobb’d hur oth’ greawnd. Hovo’s th’ finest of ew'ry saigh sed he, &c.—Collier’s Tim Bobbin, 5. f But in our western dialect the distinction seems to have been lost at a very early period. Even in Robert of Gloucester we sometimes have he written for heo (see p. 129.1. 8, p. 268. 1. 14, &c.), and from these occasional blunders we may reasonably infer that in the spoken language the two forms were often confounded. He and heo were probably both of them pronounced with the sound of the short e, which our dramatists generally express by a—quoth a. This sound must certainly have been intended by Jennings, when he gives us er as used west of the Parret for Ae; and also by Spenser, when he writes fer as a substitute for the same pronoun. 15. Hogs. Diggon Davie I bid her God-day Or Diggon her is or I missay. Dice. Her was her while it was day light But now her is a most wretched wight. September.
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Some critics have seen in these lines “a sprinkling of the Welsh - dialect,’’ while Johnson denounces them as a specimen of ‘studied barbarism.” Their peculiarity consists chiefly in the spelling. If we write a for her, we shall have little to shock any one who is familiar with the style of our dramatists, unless it be the use of the first her as an objective case.
The plurals hi, hire, hem, were common in our literature till the 16th century; but their modern substitutes, they, their, them, occur so often and so early in our northern and eastern MSS., as to raise a doubt whether the former pronouns were known in the east and north of England otherwise than as portions of our written lan- guage.
It is difficult to illustrate the declension of the neuter pronoun, owing to the custom which prevailed in some of our Old-English dialects, of using the pronoun masculine when speaking of things inanimate. In the following examples, however, there can be little doubt that Ais represents the genitive of it.
16. — let men shette the dores and go thenne Yet wol the fire as faire lie and brenne As twenty thousand men might i¢ behold— fis office natural ay wol ἐέ hold. Chau. W. of Bathes Tale, 285. 17. This Apoplexy is, as I take it, a kind of lethargy—lI have read the cause of his effects in Galen; ἐξ is a kind of deafness.—2 Hen. IV. 1. 2.
18. If the salt have lost his savour, wherewith shall it be seasoned. J¢ is neither fit for the land nor yet for the dunghill, but men cast it out.—Luke xiv. 35.
19. Some affirm that every plant has Ais particular fly or caterpillar, which it breeds and feeds.— Walton's Angler, 1. 5.
20. This rule is not so general, but that it admitteth his exceptions.— Carew.
‘The genitive its is of late introduction into our language. Though used by our dramatists and many of their contemporaries, it does not occur in our versions of the Bible, the substitute being Ais, or the compound term thereof. Asa substitute in our north-western dia- lects we sometimes have the unchanged pronoun if; and as this latter idiom has left traces behind it in our literature, it may be well to ex- amine it with some attention.
When two substantives signifying different things come together in the same clause of a sentence, the latter substantive is said to govern the former, which is put in the genitive case. But in our Old-English dialects the first substantive often remained unchanged.
21. And pe quene also pe kyng wyf and opere of pulke syde. ~ RK. Glou. 461. 22; pe pridde was from Habraham forte Moyses com Pe ferthe fro Moyses to Dauid kyndom. R. Glou. 9. 28, In Saynt Bede bokes writen er stories olde. R. Br, 1. 24. Northumberland was in affray for dred coming. R. Br, 34.
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25. .- The maister went out of the toun - And hadde mani a blessing OF his disciple delivering. Seuyn Sages, 1535. 26. My farthing is in the preest hand. Townl, Myst. Mact.{Abel. 27. No man mai tell in bok breue The lady care. Octov. 534. 28. And to fulfill his prince desire Sends word of all that haps in Tyre. Per. 2. 1.
In accordance with this rule, we find the pronoun ἐξ discharging the duties of a genitive.
29. For I will speke with the sprete And of hit woe wille I wete Gif that I may Ait bales bete, &c. Antur of Arthur at the Tarne-Wathelan, 8. 30. On me kawve (the dule bore eawt it een for me) took th’ tit for i _ mother and would need seouk her, &e.—Coilier’s Tim Bobbin, 1.
31, Still I'd one comfort awlus popt up it heeod, for &c.—Ibid. 6.
32. I’m een sorry for it—munneh howd it heeod while it heart brasts o bit ?—Ibid. 7. 33. A man yance steaal a horse an murder’d it ith top a thor fells an
it spirit hes oways haunted that spot evver sen.— Wheeler's Westmoreland Dialogues.
This idiom was not unknown to our dramatists, though, like other provincial forms of speech, generally used by them when they affected a familiar or a bantering style.
34. Do child, go to it grandam child, Give grandam kingdom, and ἐέ grandam will Give it a plum, a cherry and a fig— There's a good grandam! King John, 2. 1,
35, — Your knighthood itself shall come on its knees and shall be re- jected; it shall be sued for its fees to execution, and not be redeemed; it shall cheat at the twelvepenny ordinary, it knighthood for its diet all the term-time, and tell tales for it in the vacation to the hostess; or it knigiit- hood shall do worse, take sanctuary in Cole Harbour and fast. It shall fright all it friends with borrowing letters; and when one of the fourscore hath lent ἐξ knighthood ten shillings, it knighthood shall go to the Cranes or the Bear at the Bridge foot and be drunk in fear; &c.—B. Jons. The Silent © Woman, 2. 3.
Our editors, as might be expected, carefully insert the apostrophe— it’. Dae
In one case only is this idiom now admitted into our standard lan- guage: our verbal substantives in ing are still often preceded by an uninfiected substantive, or by the pronoun it.
36. Though there be but one sun existing in the world, yet the idea of it being abstracted so that more substances might each agree with it, it is as much a sort, as if there were as many suns as there are stars.— Locke.
Our grammarians call the verbal substantive a participle when it
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is preceded by an uninflected substantive or proncun; and Priestley translates the sentence, ‘‘ what is the meaning of the /ady holding up her train,” into ‘‘ what is the meaning of the lady in holding up her train.’’ But this is mistaken criticism. The second word is always a substantive, and the genitival relation exists, whether the inflexion be expressed or not. Priestley considers the use of the genitive as the more ‘elegant’ construction, ‘ what is the meaning of the lady’s holding up,” &c. The real question seems to be, whether it is worth while, in one particular instance, -unnecessarily to retain an idiom, which i in every other case has been rejected from our written language.
In the west of England, when speaking of things inanimate, they use the masculine pronoun instead of the neuter.
37. I’ve be to Vickrage to vet a book vor dame. The passon zeth Is may read an, if Is dont fotiss:; en, nor make dogs ears ὁ an.—Dev. Dial. 1. Pal- mer’s edit.
38. An then ant zed ’twer time to goo
In huome ; a-holden up her shoe To show how wet ’e wer wi’ dew. Barnes, Dors. Dial. Uncle and Ant.
39. She had a tongue to speak, an wit
Enough to use en when ’twer fit.—1bid. Shodon Fair.
This singular usage may perhaps be thus explained. By far the larger proportion of Anglo-Saxon nouns were either masculine or feminine ; the former would require the pronoun Ae, the latter heo. These pronouns, there is reason to believe, were often confounded in our western counties as early as the 13th century, though they appear to have been for the most part distinguished, when they had to express difference of sex. Hence, in the Old-English, we had he substituted for a vast number of nouns, feminine as well as mascu- line; and, distinction of gender having been once broken in upon, the masculine inflexions seem gradually to have been substituted for the feminine. The comparatively few neuter nouns must, by de- grees, have been brought under the same rule.
40. — he clepede pat toun y wys Aftur ys name Gloucestre, as he 3ut y clepud ys. R. Glou. 67. 41. To be castel of Tonebrugge by be wey hii come
And asayled hym vaste ynou, and atte last hym nome. R. Glou. 387.
42. —- Vor al pe godenesse, pat 306 dude her in Engelond He mowe no3t al be her ywrite.—R. Glou. 436.
43. The worlde as of his propre kinde Was ever untrewe, and as the blinde Improperly he demeth fame He blameth that is nought to blame And preiseth that is nought to preise. Gower, Conf. Am. f. 4.
44, So gret ly3tynge was be vyfte 3er, so pat al to no3t Pe τοῦ be chyrche of Salisbury yt broute Ry3t evene be vyfte day bat he yhalwed was. R. Glou. 416,
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45. οὶ churche quath Pandulf so rijtuol-is and was That he ssal no prelat sette adoun, withoute apert trespas. R. Glou. 501.
46. —we esseth and na more. That thou suerie vpe the bok clanliche to restore Holi churche, that thou hast him binome, R. Glou. 500. 47. For euery land him selfe deceiveth 4 ; And of disease his part receiveth, Gower, Conf. Am. f. 2. 48. Engelond ys a wel god land ich wene of eche lond best,
Y set in the ende of be world, as al in pe west, pe see goth him al a boute, ie stont as an yle. ΒΕ. Glou. 1. 49. The squrd styntet for no stuffe, he was so well stelet*. Antur of Arthur at the Tarne-Wathelan, 5. 45.
Toun and castel, ex. 40, 41, were originally masculine nouns; goodnesse, worlde and churche, ex. 42, 43, 44, feminine; and lond, Engelond and squrd (a sword), neuter. The rule assigning the masculine pronoun to things inanimate as well as to animals of the male sex, appears to have become as general as we now find it in our western dialect, chiefly owing to the frequent use of ἐξ as a collective and an indeterminate pronoun. The masculine pronoun seems to have been preferred, because it defined and individualized the object.
In our eastern and northern counties, many names of inanimate objects are treated as if they were feminine; but the whole system of personification in our language is one of difficulty, and requires a much more careful consideration than can be given to a subject dis- cussed thus incidentally.
In the west of England the ending s appears to have been some- times given to the accusative plural of the personal pronouns. The curious forms thence resulting have not yet quite disappeared from our provincial dialects, and they well deserve the attention of the phi- lologist. Certain of the Indo-European languages, in declining their substantives, distinguished the accusative plural from the nominative by strengthening the final syllable, while others, and those very nearly related dialects, made no distinction. The Greek substituted a long and broad vowel for the short and narrow vowel of the nomi- native, making, for example, πατέρες in the nominative and πατέρας in the accusative, while the Latin patres served for both cases. The Meso-Gothic strengthened the accusative by means of the nunnation, writing gasteis (strangers) in the nominative and gastins in the accusative, while both nominative and accusative were repre- sented by the Anglo-Saxon gastas. In accordance with this law, the Mzso-Gothic pronoun eis (they) makes ins in the accusative ; and supposing these forms to have been known to our language, we might, according to analogy, expect to find an ys answering to the Mzso- Gothic ins. Now in Robert of Gloucester we have this very accu- sative yst :—
* Example 49 is taken from one of our Northern MSS. It shows that in the 15th century the present idiom was widely diffused throughout our literature.
T In our Old English MSS. the pronoun of the third personal pronoun is very
often written without an aspirate, and in Rob. of Gloucester we have ys, ym, yre, &c. for his, him, hire, &c. We still write the neuter ἐξ without any initial consonant.
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50. Bishopes* also pat delynered were In honour of pilke stude, bere he 3ef ys bo As of Euerwy and of Wales, &c. R. Glou. 149. 51. Me bro3te vorp bys fury ssares, and leyde ys al arewe. R. Glou. 338. 52. — therafter hii nome
The heueden of the hexte maystres, and to Antioche come And leyde ys in her gynnys and in to cyte ys caste. R, Glou. 402. 53. Tho caste pys gode Mold yre mantel of anon— And wess the mysseles vet ech one, ar heo lete
And wypede ys nesseliche, and custe ys wel suete. R. Glou, 435.
Some of the later MSS. substitute hem for ys, but in the last three examples the Cotton MS. agrees with the Harleian; so there is little doubt that this peculiar form was used by Robert of Gloucester, and not introduced into the MS. by one of his transcribers.
For the accusative plural of the second pronoun personal, the Irish frequently employ yees. It was, in all probability, imported into the country by the early colonists from Bristol, though it has left very few traces behind it in the dialect of the west of England.
54. —than ye mey be bound over, and be vorst to g’in to Exter to Zizes; and than a mey zwear the peace of es you know, &¢,—Exmoor Courtship, 8th edit. Exeter, 1778.
55. “ Phil, hoist me up the keg to the loft,’ added he, running up the ladder, ““ and one of yees step up street, and give Rose Mc’Givney notice,” ‘&c.—Miss Edgeworth, Absentee, ο. 11.
56. — “he ’s as good as your husband now, Grace, and no man can part yees now,” says I, putting their hands together.—Miss Edgeworth, Absentee.
57. —instead of addressing his opponent, he would turn to the com- pany present and say, “ Now [ἢ] make ψὲς alP sensible to a.demonsthration,”’ —Lover’s Rory O’More, c. 1.
In the Mzso-Gothic, the three pronouns personal have for their nominatives plural weis, jus, and eis; and yees appears to bear to jus the same analogy that ys does to eis. The initial consonant of weis also appears to be preserved in vust+ or uus, which is sometimes found as an Old-English substitute for us.
58. pat pus wrecchedlyche nou vus dryfth out of oure kunde londe.
R, Glou, 252.
59. — he pat my3tuol ys
Debe after oure deserte, and pulte wus out ywys. R. Glou. 253.
60. Wanne ssal vre reste come, and endynge of vre wo, And among vus sykerness and pays? R. Glou. 306,
The Meso-Gothic weis and jus are, according to a well-known
* Bissopriches, Cott. MS. t In our northern dialects we have wer as the possessive pronoun.—See Brockett and Jamieson.
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letter-change, represented by the German wir and ihr, and weis by the Icelandic ver. These pronouns are, all of them, nominatives ; while our English forms ys, yees and vus are used only in the ob- jective case. But in the Danish the pronoun i (ye) makes in the objective case jer*, and this word jer enters into the very same con- stiuctions of the English yees. When an emphasis is thrown on the personal pronouns, they are treated, in the west of England, as if they were indeclinable: thus a Dorsetshire man would say, “‘gie me the pick,” but with an em- phasis, “‘ gie the money to J, not he.”—Barnes Dissertation, p. 26. This syntax is certainly as old as the 14th century, and probably originated in the insignificance which attached to the objective pro- nouns, owing to their frequent use in our language as mere exple- tives. The idiom is well known to our literature, and one or other of its varieties may be found in almost every one of our dialects. I, he and they are rarely found as objective pronouns except in our _ southern counties, but we reaches as far north as the Trent, and the “indeclinable ye may be met with in every corner of the island.
61. You know my father hath no child but J. As you like it, 1. 2. 62. Now Margaret's curse is fall’n upon our heads,
When she exclaimed, on Hastings you and 1. Rich. III.3.3 63. She zed whenever she shood die,
Er little crutch she’d gee ta 7.
Jennings, Mary Ramsey’s Crutch.
64. That Slender, though well landed, is an idiot,
And he my husband best of all affects. M. Wives of W. 4. 4. 65. — those too high aspiring, who rebell’d
With Satan, he who envies now thy state. Par. Lost, 6. 890.
66. No, no, it will do’n no harm with he, assure yourself.—Tom Jones, 4. 10.
67. And if he deth chell ha’ as good a varrant for ke, as he can for me, don’t quesson it—Exmoor Courtship.
68. —a vetched out his mad upon he, and clapper-clawed en vinely.— Dey. Dial. 25. Gwatkin’s edit.
69. I speke of us, we mendiants, we freres. Chau. Somnoures Tale, 204. 70. Men shuld him brennen im a fire so red
If he were found, or that men might him spie— And we also to bear him companie. Chau. Second Nonnes Priest, 3386.
4 — to poor we, Thine enmity ’s most capital. Cor. 5. 3. 72. What may this mean,
That thou, dread corse, again in complete steel - Revisit’st thus the glimpses of the moon, Making night hideous, and we fools of nature So horribly to shake oar disposition ? Hamlet, 1. 4.
* It may perhaps be well to observe that the genitive of this pronoun, jeres, must not be confounded with our doubly-inflected genitive yours; it appears to be formed from an obsolete nominative, jer, answering to the German ihr and the Mzso- Gothic jus.
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The use of ye, as an objective case, is very common, both in our written and in our spoken language. This may have arisen, in part, from its gradual disuse as a nominative, owing to the frequent em- ployment of you, the dative of the reflective pronoun. Indeed at one time the two forms ye and you seem to have been near changing places in our language, so that the object should be always repre- sented by the former and the subject by the latter.
73. Sir, tak me thi son, he said, And you sal hald ye ful wele payd. The Seuyn Sages, 72.
74. As I have made ye one Lords, one remain; ' So I grow stronger, you more honour gain. H. VIII. 4. 2. . 75. What gain you by forbidding it to tease ye, It now can neither trouble ye nor please ye. Dryden,
They is properly a demonstrative pronoun, and in the Anglo- Saxon was thus declined: nom. pa; gen. para; dat. pam; acc. pa. For the nominative and accusative pa, the Old-English substituted po, and in some cases pe. In the following examples it is not easy to say, whether they represents the old accusative or the indecli- nable pronoun.
The, © The pope of alle her sunnes asoileth alle the Clerkes and lewede, that fram thi seruise wolle fle. R. Glou. 501. 77. — the soft way, which thou dost confess Were fit for thee to use, (as they to claim,) In asking their good loves. Cor. 3. 2. 78. They that trust in the Lord shall never be moved, and they that abase themselves before him he will exalt.—J. Newton, Letter I. to Rev. Mr. P. 79. —rail’d over by they, that dont care what lies they tell.—Dev. Dial. 14, Mrs. Gwatkin’s edit.
She, like they, seems to have been originally a demonstrative pro- noun. It is generally considered to be a corruption of the Anglo- Saxon seo; but the monk who added the reign of Stephen to the Laud Chronicle always writesit sce. Shakespeare often treats it as indeclinable.
80. She, Claudio, that you wrong’d, look you restore. M. for M. 5. 1.
81. Yes, you have seen Cassio and she together. Othello, 4. 2,
82. Whip him were ’t twenty of the greatest tributaries That do acknowledge Cesar, should I find them So saucy with the hand of she here. An. and Cl. 3. 4.
He and she were formerly much used as mere nouns: ‘the hes in birds,” ‘the shes of Italy,” &c.: see Johns. Dict. Whether this usage contributed to establish the syntax we have been considering, or was one of the results proceeding from it, does not very clearly appear.
The word man was used in the Anglo-Saxon as an indeterminate and collective pronoun; and in the Old-English was sometimes em-
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ployed to signify a being generally, as in the proverbial expression. “God’s a good man.”—-Much Ado about Nothing, 3.5. In our western dialects it takes a wider range of meaning, and is used as an equivalent for the pronoun of the third person plural, even when the reference is to things inanimate. There are parts of Devonshire in which the pronoun ¢hem is never heard in the language of the people, mun, or as it is more generally pronounced min*, being always the substitute.
83. Her came from a good havage—the very daps of her mother— tae mun every way, I dont think they have their peer.—Miss Reynolds’ Dev. Dial. 7. Palmer’s edit.
84. I longed to het méz a good slat on the chucks. Ib. 9.
85. Tha dest net caree to zey thy praers—and nif by gurt hap tha dest — zey mun at oll, thy marrabones shan’t kneelee.—Exmoor Scoldiug.
86. T’es wor twenty nobles a year, and a puss to put min in.—Exmoor Courtship.
One of the difficulties which surround the present inquiry arises from the circumstance, that in certain English dialects some of the pronouns appear to have taken m or z as a nominatival ending. To illustrate this peculiarity, it will be necessary to notice the prono- minal forms which prevail in other Gothic languages.
In the Swedish, Danish, Friesish and Dutch, the interrogative pronoun answering to our English who? is thus declined:
Swed. Dan. Fries. Dutch.
Nom. hvem hvem wae wie
Gen. hvems ᾿ waems wiens
Οὐ). hvem hvem waem { wien the demonstrative pronoun answering to our that, as follows:
Nom. den den dy die
Gen. dens dens diens
Οὐ). den den dien and the third pronoun personal takes, in the masculine gender, end- ings not altogether dissimilar :
Nom. han han hy hy
Gen. hans hans
Dat. honum ham him hem
We observe that neither the Swedish nor the Danish distinguishes between the nominative and the objective cases of hvem and den; and although the Dutch rejects the nasal in the nominative; yet the genitives wiens, diens, seem formed on obsolete nominatives, which corresponded with the objective cases. In the Danish we have a distinction between han and ham, but we may perhaps doubt if it be
* This word min is merely a corruption of man, like the Dutch men; it must not be confounded with the plural noun men. It is often used in addressing an indivi- dual, “1 Ἢ do it mén.’’—Jennings, Gloss.
+ Mrs. Gwatkin, in her edition of the Dev. Dial., gives us ’em instead of min.
t See Epkema’s Grammar.
VOL. I. U
288
an essential one, when we see the Dutch wiens, wien, answering to the Friesish waems, waem,
Assuming the identity of the pronoun in the two cases, how do we account for it? Must we suppose that in the Northern lan- guages, as in our own, the dative has gradually encroached upon the nominative, and that the Swedish hvem has become both a nominative and an objective case, in the same way as our English you? The following considerations appear to be strong against such a hypothesis. The peculiar form of the genitive seems to point out the nasal as an original part of the nominative; we find the demon- strative and personal pronouns represented by then and han in the oldest works of the Danish language (see Petersen’s Hist.) ; and lastly, we have ann in the oldest MSS. of the Icelandic for the third pronoun personal.
If hvem, den, han, be real nominatives, in-what language do we find their correlatives? Perhaps we may consider hvem as representing the Sanscrit kim, who? or what? Kim is the crude form* of the interrogative pronoun, and also, like hvem, is used both in the nomi- native and in the accusative, though only in the neuter gender,—a restriction which will hardly be considered of much consequence, when we find all the three genders represented by our neuter pro- ~ nouns ἐξ and that. In like manner idam, the crude form of the San- scrit demonstrative answering to our this or that (Wils. Sanscr. Gr.), may perhaps furnish us with a form analogous to den, for it seems to be agreed that this word is a compound i-dam+, and that the latter element is connected with the common form of the demonstrative pronoun, which is met with in all the Indo-European languages.
If the Swedish hvem, den, represent the Sanscrit kim and i-dam, the objective pronouns, Swedish Avem and English whom, may be dif- ferent words. Whom seems clearly to be the Anglo-Saxon dative hwam ; and if philologists be right in considering the Anglo-Saxon hwam as the same word with the Meeso-Gothic dative hwamma, and the Old-German huemu, whom must represent the Sanscrit dative kasmai, for the letter-changes which connect kasmai with hwamma will, it is presumed, be generally admitted. But is it quite certain that the Anglo-Saxon Awam and Meso-Gothic hwamma are the same word? Notwithstanding the close and seemingly stringent analogy which supports their identity, a cautious philologist may hesitate, when he finds it requires the rejection of an important final vowel at so early a period of our language.
* In Sanscrit each substantive has its ‘‘ crude form,’’ from which the nominative and other: cases are derived, according to certain laws. ‘The crude form may be considered as the real noun, and the nominative and other cases as the forms which the noun assumes in construction. The interrogative and demonstrative pronouns have strictly no crude forms now existing, but have had kim and idam assigned to them, on the same principle that the Latin grammarians call fere the present tense of tuli—because the scheme of declension would seem incomplete if the crude form were not represented. Kim and idam, however, are real and genuine words, and not, like some tenses of certain Greek verbs, the mere invention of grammarians, for they are both actually used in construction as neuter pronouns. .
+ Bopp refers us to the Latin i-dem and qui-dam.. Vergl. Gr., p. 500,
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As kasmai represents the Meso-Gothic dative hwamma, so asmat, the dative of the Sanscrit demonstrative, may perhaps represent imma, the Mzso-Gothic dative of the third pronoun personal. In this case, if imma be represented by our English objective him, we must, on the foregoing hypothesis, consider the objective pronouns, Swedish dan, English him, as different words.
These speculations, uncertain and hazardous though they be, will not be thrown away, if they lend any countenance to the following in- ference,—that there were in the earliest period certain Gothic pro- nouns ending in one of the nasals, which were used both in the nomi- native and in the objective case, and which were αὖ origine distinct from the Gothic form representing the Sanscrit dative. We may not be able to distinguish clearly between the two forms, even in the older dialects of the Gothic, and our difficulties may increase tenfold as we approach the chaos of our modern syntax; but the distinction seems a necéssary one, whether we look to the etymology of these languages or to their laws of grammatical construction. We pro- ceed to show that the discussion which has caused the present di- gression is not irrelevant to the subject of this paper.
There can be little doubt that the interrogative hvem was used in some of our northern dialects.
87. — Sir by my lewte I the pay (pray) The sertan soth that thou me say Wheym is this faire lady That thou has set at met me by? Seuyn Sages, 3271.
88. And he axed hem and seide, whom seien the gs that Iam? Thei answerden and seiden, Ion baptist, &c., and he seide to hem, But whom seien 3e that I am ?—Wiclif, Luk 9.
89. Tell me in sadness whom she is you love. Rom. and Jul. 1. 1.
The Danish Avem is a relative as well as an interrogative pronoun (Rask, Dan. Gr. sect. 23); and perhaps such is the character we should assign to whom in the last example. The syntax employed by Wiclif in Ex. 88 was adopted both in the English translation of the Scriptures published at Geneva, and also in our present au- thorized version.
The Danish Avem sometimes fills the place of a plural relative (Rask, Gr. sect. 23); the Old-English demonstrative then or them is sometimes used for the same purpose.
90. — me and other halewen pat in pys lond were y bore Pan vor you biddep God, wanne we beb hym byuore. R. Glou. 265. 91. Alfred and Edward, tham of Eilred kam, Wer with Duke Roberd. R. Br. 52.
Tham was also used as a demonstrative, both in the nominative and the objective case, and both absolutely and as an adjectival pee noun.
92. Therfor vnto bam tuo he gaf Griffyn feez. R. Br. 63. υ 2
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98, And balder than thame bath the fers Achill. G. Dougl. En. 1. 7. 94, 1 hope then the agent will give you encouragement about them mines, that we may keep you among us.—Miss Edgeworth, Absentee, 12. 95. Them* are the women I meant. Forby, 121.
Layamon has pan for his dative and pene for his accusative ; but later writers used then+ as a mere objective case. 96. pe Cristyne men dolue vaste, and ben wal velde adoun. R. Glou. 395. 97. And byseged pen castel syx wouke wel vaste. R. Glou. 387. 98. Hii grebed hem, and ben wey to Antioche nome. R. Glou. 395. 99. And be sone 3ut, bey he were ssrewe ben fader wel understod. R. Glou, 383. 100. And say that he shal fonde Then deth of myne honde. ; Geste of Kyng Horn, 158. Sometimes, however, we find then as a nominative. 101. per was aslawe ben hende kyn3t, be noble Syre Waweyn. R. Glou. 221. It is probable that an English pronoun him once existed answer- ing to the Danish and Swedish han, and ranging with the nomi- natives them, whom; and that the confusion which arose on the mixture of our dialects between these nominatives and the objective pronouns him, them, whom, gradually swept the former from our language. Many an obsolete term, however, has been preserved in constructions where it seemed to be countenanced by some still- existing law, under which it could not be legitimately brought; and we often find him, whom, &c. preceding a verb, as if they were its object, while in fact they are the subject of some other verb that - follows in the sentence.
102. — him I accuse The city-gates by this hath entered. Cor. 5, 5. 103. Better leave undone, than by our deeds acquire
Too high a fame, when him we serve ’s away. A. & ΟἹ, 3. 1. 104. And as John fulfilled his course, he said, Whom think ye that I -am ?—Acts 138. 25. 105. He whom ye pretend reigns in heaven is so far from protecting the miserable sons of men that, &c.— Adventurer, 27. 106. If you were here, you would find two or three whom you would say passed their time agreeably, &c.—Locke’s Letter to Molyneux. 107. The Douglas has left Perth to march against the Southron, whom men say} are called into the Marches by the false Earl of March.—W. Scott, Fair Maid of Perth.
* In this case it may be doubted whether ¢hem is not the dative of the reflective
pronoun. t Rob. of Glou. sometimes uses wan as the objective case, of who. Uter pe gode kynge, of wan we speke by vore. R. Gl. 165. Arture Uter sone of wan we tolde by uore. R. Gl. 166.
} These phrases might have been explained on the supposition of whom being a dative, but Wiclif’s use of a similar construction, ex. 88, is strong against such a hypothesis,
291
These pronouns appear also to have kept their place in our lan- guage, when they followed the conjunctions than and as.
108. Abdiei, than whom none with more zeal adored
The Deity, and divine commands obey’d, Stood up. _ Par. Lost, 5. 803.
109. King Charles and more than him, the duke and the Popish faction, were at liberty to form new schemes.—Bolingbroke.
These idioms are met with as early as the fifteenth century, see ex. 93; and they appear to have given birth to a false analogy which a century or two later overspread the language. We con- stantly meet with the phrases than me, than her, than us, as me, as her, &c., in constructions, where the ordinary rules of grammar re- quire the pronoun to be in the nominative. Lowth, Priestley and others have collected examples of this syntax; and it was used without scruple by all the writers of Queen Anne’s reign—Swift, Addison, Bolingbroke, Atterbury, &c.
Another anomalous construction is the union of J with the ob- jective pronouns thee and you. The frequent use of the latter as substitutes for their respective nominatives appears to have led to this syntax, though the phrase is used indifferently as object or as subject.
110. For ever in this humble cell
Let thee and I for ever dwell. Prior.
111. What have two such old weather-beaten fellows as thee and I are to do with fortune? —Cumberland, The Brothers, 1. 9.
112. Now by my honest word, thon shalt help him with liquor from that cup and flagon, if thee and 1 are to bide under one roof.—W. Seott, Fair Maid of Perth.
113. Since there ’s no reserve between you and I now, my lerd Colambre, said Sir Terence, I must tell you all, &c.—Absentee, 13.
The remaining observations might perhaps have appeared more conveniently in a former paper*, but they bear very closely upon the present subject, which would to a certain extent be incomplete without them.
The custom of adding a dative of the reflective pronoun to certain verbs appears to have prevailed chiefly in our southern diaeets; another idiom which subjoined the dative of a pronoun to the verb substantive may perhaps be considered as of northern origin. It is found in the Danish det er mig, it is me; var det dig, was it thee? (Molb. Dict. det); det er dem, it is them (Molb. Dict. den). The phrase **it is me,” may be analysed thus: as to me—it is; and ‘‘ thou art him” thus: as to him—thou art. In the former case the assertion is made with, and in the latter without, the pronoun indeterminate ; and both these idioms are well known to our language: see No. 19.
p- 220. The following examples may be ranged under this law :— —
114. I am appointed him to murder you. Winter's Tale, 1. 2. 115. Art thou proud yet? aye, that I am not thee. T.of A. 4.3.
* No. 22. On the use of the dative in English syntax.
\
292
116. Time was when none would cry that oaf was me.
Dryd. Prol.
Another idiom, which may be traced to the Anglo-Saxon, and which ‘still very frequently affects the form of our pronouns, is that of the dative absolute.
117. — the two kings
Equal in lustre were now best, now worst,
As presence did present them—him in eye
Still Aim in praise—and being present both—
"Twas said they saw but one. H. ViIte tet.
118. —in whom we trust that he will yet deliver us, you also helping together by prayer for us.—2 Cor. 1. 11.
119. — only in destroying I find ease
To my relentless thoughts, and him destroyed,
Or won to what may work his utter loss
For whom all this was made, all this will soon
Follow. P. L. 9. 130.
120. Solomon made as wise proverbs as any one has done, him only ex- cepted, who was a much wiser man than Solomon.—Tillotson.
121, — we must quit and give up this little snug place and house and farm and all to the agent, which would be hard on us and me a widow, when my husband did all that is done to the land—The Absentee, 11.
Instead of this dative absolute, modern English writers generally give us the pronoun in the nominative. Bentley, in his edition of the ‘ Paradise Lost,’ corrects this syntax whenever he meets with it ; for I extinct, 9. 629; thou looking on, 9. 312; thou leading, 10. 267; he not found, 10. 1001, &c.; he reads, me extinct, thee looking on, thee leading, him not found, &c. His criticism was no doubt sug- gested by the laws of Latin grammar, but he would not have ven- tured upon it, had it not been borne out by contemporary English usage. The use indeed of the nominative, in these cases, does not admit of easy explanation. It is unknown to the older and purer dialects of our language, and probably originated in the use of the indeclinable pronoun, with which Milton was certainly acquainted : see ex. 65. The you in ex. 118 has been changed in the later editions of our Bible into ye. These petty corrections have been frequent during the last fifty or sixty years, and sometimes, as in the present case, have not improved the grammar of our authorized version.
es
A οὐ i ee Αι αἱ. ὦ.
he “ὦ
—a
INDEX TO VOL.I. -
ANGLO-SAXON Gentile nouns, how declined, 103. Arsis in the Greek Senarius probably the same thing as our English accent, 129.
Augment in Greek and Sanscrit a distinct element, 265 ; theories of Buttman, Bopp and Pott, 266; a (with) used in Welsh and sometimes in Irish as the sign of the preterite, 267 ; Irish do (to), and in ancient times no (then) and do no (then) employed for the same purpose, ib.; Irish ro, answering to the Welsh rhy, so used, ἐδ. ; in the older dialects of the German ¢ho and ther were joined to the
- past tense, 268 ; addition of a preposition makes the Slavish “‘imperfective ” verb * perfective,” ihe; system of verbal prefermatives in the Coptic, South-Indian and Polynesian languages, 269; the Gothic prefix ge, 271; Greek and Sanscrit
. augment is probably the Welsh a, id.
Aurelivs Ambrosius the same person as the Anglo-Saxon Natanleod, 11.
Berber language :—consonants nearly identical with those of the Arabic, 136; two consonants rarely if ever come together in the same word except as finals, 157 ; consonants never doubled, 138; vowel system, ib. ; the roots and their inflexions, ib. ; letters servile and non-servile, robust and weak, ib.; constitution of syl- lables, 139; roots generally biliteral, ἐδ. ἢ structure of verbs, ib. ; four uncom- pounded tenses, 140; a verbal form answering to the “syncopated subjunctive ” of De Sacy, ib.; derivative verbs answering to the Niphal, Hiphil, &c. of the Hebrew, ib. ; participle ending in az or ant, 141 ; pronouns and personal endings of the verb, ib.; pronouns both prefixed and suffixed to the verbal root, 142; relatives, ib.; ὁ or th the feminine ending, ib.; sometimes a prefix, ἐδ. ; geni- tival relation, how expressed, 143; words apparently Shemitic more Hebrew than Arabic, ib. ; numerals unlike those of the Shemitic languages, 144.
Bopp, his Sanscrit grammar, 26; his views as to the personal endings of the San- scrit verb, 29; his theory of the Greek augment, 266.
Cesura of the Greek Senarius considered, 129; Arsis the same thing as the En- glish accent, ib. ; may fall on either syllable of the first and second foot of the Tragic Senarius, 130 ; must fall on the last syllable of the third foot, ib.; Greek words very rarely accented on the last sylable, 131; hence the sixth syllable is almost always followed by other syllables in the same word, ἐδ. ; various ar- rangement of the syllables, 132; author’s conclusions, 133.
Carey (P. S.) on the origin of the phrase “ Wager of Law,” 57.
Celtic languages belong to the Indo-European family, 91; the Celtic of Gaul not Gaelic, 92; the Gaulish words petorritum, pempedula, candetum, epona, epore- dices admit of satisfactory Welsh etymologies, 93; velarus, carbidolupon, belio- canda, considered, ib. ; modern French words more Welsh than Gaelic, ib. ; the Gaulish inscription Tarwos Trigaranos, 94; the Celtic of South Britain related to the Welsh, 95 ; the curious Meso-Gothic phrases idreigon (to repent) and aibr (an offering) possibly of Celtic origin, ἐδ. ; the Welsh has little Teutonic ad- mixture and therefore was not the language of the Belge, 96; the Irish has many elements not to be met with in the Welsh and Breton, 124; some of these are found in the Romance, Slavish and Finnish languages, act many in the German dialects, 125; instances, ib.; the substantival ending neas, 126.
The Celts entered Europe from the Euxine, 144; this appears partly from
294
history, partly from the Celtic elements to be met with in the languages of the neighbouring races, ib.; instances from the Armenian and Slavish languages, 145 ; the Slavish bolvan apparently the Celtic peulvan, 148; instanees from the Albanian, ib.
In what manner have the Celtic dialects influenced the current language of England? 169; terms relating to agriculture, masonry, &c. which seem to be borrowed from the Celtic dialects of Great Britain, 171; Mzso-Gothic words answering to Welsh words beginning with gw or.cw, 177 ; Anglo-Saxon words of the same class, 178; the Welsh initial chw generally answers to the German and Sanscrit initial sw, 179 ; examples, <b.
A word found in our own or any other language may be shown to be Celtic by its etymology or its intrinsic meaning, 243 ; instances, 244; or by exhibiting forms peculiar to the Celtie, ib.; derivatives formed by prefixing a consonant, 246; the Welsh prefix ys, 247 ; Gaelic prefix 8, ib.; Anglo-Saxon prefix s, 248;
. the Welsh initial s answering to δὲ in other languages, 249.
Chinese roots, number of compounds into which each root enters, 60 ; whole num- ber of compounds 11,600, 62; of which number 8200 are comprised under thirty-three roots, signifying respectively man, woman, body, mouth, heart, hand, disease, eye, flesh, foot, dog, horse, insect, fish, bird, tree, grain, bamboo, grass, gem, metals, earth, hill, sun, water, fire, mound, knife, silk, garment, wheat, speak, walk safely, ib.; and under the seven roots, man, mouth, heart, hand, tree, grass, water, are comprised no less than 3385 compounds, 63.
Cimbri always placed by the ancients at the extreme limit of the area geographi- cally known to them, 181; Cimbriand Teutones probably kindred races, 184 ; testimonies in favour of the German origin of the Cimbri, Teutones and Am- brones, ib. ; in favour of their Gaulish descent, 187 ; the latter preponderate, 189; the Cimbri called the Northern Ocean Morimarusa or Dead Sea, ἐδ. ; this word may be Celtic or Slavonic, 190; similarity between the languages of the Celts and AEstii, 191; author’s conclusions, ἐδ. ᾽
Cockayne (Rev. O.) on the construction of ἵνα, ὕπως, ὥς with the past indicative, 227; on the Lydian dynasty which preceded the Mermnade, 274.
Daniell (Rev. E. T.) his collection of Lycian inscriptions, 193. Davis (J. F.) on the classification of the Chinese roots, 58. Derivatives of the Welsh word gwy, 65.
Donaldson (Rev. J, W.) on Plato’s number, 81 ; on Herodotus and the Athenians, 161.
Ellipsis of the English pronoun personal before the second person singular of the verb, 218; when two clauses are brought together without a conjunction, or with a conjunction continuative, 215 ; when the pronouns expressed and omitted re- quire different cases, 219; ellipsis of the objective pronoun, 220; of the pro- noun indeterminate, ib. ; of the pronoun relative, 221.
English language, how far influenced by the Celtic dialects of Great Britain, 169.
Substantives plural in ren, 115 ; collective substantive in y, in ry, 116 ; gentile nouns in e, 102; in es, 108; in en, 109; in éshe, 110; in reis, 113; in ry, LL7; names of districts in e, 104; in es, 107; in en or on, 110; in ske, 111; in ye, ib.; in res, 114; in ry, 117; in ings, ib.; in folk, 118.
The indefinite declension of the adjective, 66; the genitive plural in er, 67; in ers, ib.; plural inflexion e, 70; the definite declension, 72 ; the same as the » declension of the substantive, 73 ; ex sometimes a nominatival ending, 7b,; the phrases himselven, themselven, &c., 74; es an inflexion of the plural adjective, 75; of the plural relative, 76.
Pronouns personal, 277; various forms of the first pronoun personal, J, ich, iche, ’che, ib.; dual forms, wit, git, unc, inc, 278 ; hun, objective case of he, 279; his, genitive of it, 280; it used as a genitive case, 281; the masculine pronoun used when speaking of things inanimate, 282; vus, yees, ys, objective cases plural of the three pronouns personal, 284; the emphatic or indeclina-
295
- ble pronoun, 285 ; J, he, we, used as objective pronouns, 285, 292 ; ye, they, she, -used as objective pronouns, 286 ; mun or min used as the objective case plural of the third pronoun personal, 286 ; pronouns which take a nasal as their nomi- natival ending, 287 ; wheym or whom used as a nominative, 289,°290 ; pan and pam used as nominatives, 289 ; him apparently used as a nominative, 290. The genitives plural our, your, &c., 67; the doubly inflected genitives ours, yours, &c, ἐδ. ; the doubly inflected genitives hiss’n, our’n, &c., 70. Orthography :—the present mode of spelling the passive participle erroneous, 7; the old spelling accommodated to the pronunciation and more correct, ib.; means for expressing each elementary sound of our language by a distinct cha- racter, 215.
English syntax :—a substantive often qualified by a succeeding substantive, 75, 263 ;
- both substantives put in the plural number, 76; use of the dative with the sense of unto, 252; with the sense of from, ἐδ. ἢ dative generally follows the verb and precedes the accusative, #b.; different order in the Old-English, 253; use of da-
* tive as an instrumental case, ib. ; to express relation, 254; use of the dative with the verb substantive and with the verbs to come, to fall, to hap, &c., 255; in the phrases him adde betere, we rather had, &c., 256; use of the dative as a substi- tute for the genitive, ib.; we usself, 263; to denote the person to whom some advantage accrues, 257 ; the dativus ethicus, ib. ; dative of the reflective pronoun, 258, 259; when this dative is used, the nominative is often omitted, 260; this dative often treated as a substitute for the nominative, ib.; use of the dative in such phrases as it is me, 191; the dative absolute, 192.
The doubly inflected forms, ours, yours, &c., our’n, your’n, &c., only used ab- solutely, 68; our, your, &c. sometimes used absolutely, 16. : the phrases her eyder, your noither, &c., 69. ὦ “
The adjectives during the Old-English period agreed in number with their sub- stantives, 70, 74; under what circumstances they took their definite form, 72; the adjective self very generally took its definite form selre, 261; self and selve always follow the dative of the reflective pronoun, me self, him self, &c., ib.; the neuter adjective often treated as a substantive mi self, &c., ib.; the forms him- selven, myselven, &c., 74, 261 ; the adjective one also follows the dative of the re- flective pronoun him one, &c., 262; the neuter adjective often treated as a sub- stantive his one, &c.,ib.; the compound alone or ’/one enters into the same cor- structions, him alone, your alone, &c., ib.; the syntax wesylf, ussylf, &c., 263 ; we ussylf, they themself, ib.; themselves, ourselves, &c., 264; use of the genitive ones, hire anes mu, &c., ib. ἡ
Use of the indeterminate pronoun me, 151 ; the indeterminate pronoun ἐξ with a plural signification, 153 ; used for all the genders, ib.; the phrases it rains, it hails, &c., 156; it used as predicate, it am I, &c., ἐδ. ; indeterminate pronoun the or ta, 158; the adverbs the-furth, the-but, &c., ib.; indeterminate pronoun that as subject, ἐδ. ; as predicate, ib. ; indeterminate pronoun there as subject, ib. ; as predicate, ib.; adverbs thereto, hereto, &c., 160.
Etymology of the words trap-rock, 12; summer, 92 ; funnel, 243 ; cobble, ib. ; bride, tb. ; haven, 244; of the names of places: Orkney, 9; Ramsgate, Kent, Canterbury, Winchester, Worcester, 10; Netley, Ambresbury, Charford, 11; Bakewell, 113; Manchester, ib. ; Hastings, 117 ; Surrey, Normandy, 111; Norfolk, Suffolk, 118; Wight, 65; of the gentile nouns: Engle, 106 ; Londreis, Surreis, Norreis, 114; Manz, 113; of the Romance names: Londres, 115; Flandres, 116; of the Welsh names of districts : Ruim, Andred, Gwent, 10; Brynaig, 12; of the Latin: Orca- des, 9; Huiccii, Cantuarensis, Wintonensis, 10; Vectis, 65.
Fry (D.) on the reformation. of English orthography, 215.
Garnett (Rev. R.) on the language and dialects of the British Islands, 21; same subject continued, 144, 169, 263 ; on the probable relations of the Picts and Gael with the other tribes of Great Britain, 119; on the origin and import of the aug- ment in Sanscrit and Greek, 265.
Gentile nouns sed as names of districts, 103.
296
Greek language. See Augment, Czsura, Herodotus, Piato:—Greek inscription found in Corfu, 149; apparently as old as the time of Pisistratus, 150; contains the three\characters 0 & ®, ib.; read throughout from right to left, ib.; Οἰανθέοϑ treated as a trisyllable, ib. 3 πρόξενον for πρόξενος, ib. ; ει ἴῃ TAasias made long, 2+. ; πονήθη for é ὀπονήσατο, ib.
On the construction of ἵνα, ὕπως, ὥς with the past indicative, 227; Dr. Monk’s interpretation of this syntax, ib.; another proposed, 228; various examples in which this syntax occurs, 230.
Gryech, his arrangement of the Russian verbs, 97. Grotefend, his criticisms on the Lycian inscriptions considered, 194, 201.
Guest (E.) on certain Welsh names of places preserved in English compounds, 9 ; on certain inflexions of the Old-English adjective, 65 ; on English gentile nouns, and more particularly on their secondary use as names of places, 103; on En- glish pronouns indeterminate, 161; on the ellipsis and on the pleonastic use of the pronoun personal in English syntax, 217; on the use of the dative in En- glish syntax, 251; on English pronouns personal, 277.
Hawtrey (Rev. Dr.) on a Greek inscription lately found in Corfu, 149.
Herodotus :—in the year B.c. 440 Herodotus must have been at Athens or Samos, 161; was in Athens after the year B.c. 437, 162 ; joined the great Grecian settle- ment at Thurii, ib.; probably became μέτοικος of Athens after the siege of Samos, and as such μέτοικος went to Thurii, 162 ; was well acquainted with the works of Sophocles, 163; passage in the Antigone imitated, 164; the saying of Solon perhaps taken from the Gid. Tyrannus, ἐδ. ; other imitations of Sophocles, 165 ; Lysias and Xenophon imitators of Herodotus, ib.; Herodotus seems to have ar- ranged and in part compiled his ‘history at Thue, 166; more especially for Athenians and from Athenian authorities, ib.
The passage 1. vii. παῖς παρὰ πατρὸς exderdpevos τὴν ἀρχὴν considered, 275.
Trish language. See Celtic languages.
Latham (R. G.) on the langnages of the Papuan or Negrito race scattered through the Australian and other Asiatic islands, 37; on the doctrine of the Czsura in the Greek Senarius, 129; on the evidence of a connection between the Cimbri and the Chersonesus Cimbrica, 181; on the reciprocal pronouns and on the re- ciprocal power of the reflective verb, 232.
Lhuyd (Edw.), the first to point out the affinity between the Celtic dialects and other languages of the Indo-European family, 92.
Lycian inscriptions, how decyphered, 193; the vowels, 194; the alphabet gene- rally, 196; bilingual inscription (Lycian and Greek) at Limyra, 197; at Le- vise, ib. ; at Antiphellus, 200 ; at Tlos, 203; Lycian inscription at Koorostan, 7b. ; at Gandyva, ib.; at Limyra, 204 ; on the Sarcophagus- -tomb at Xanthus, 205 ; at Armostel near Limyra, ib. ; saboind inscription at Gandyva, 206 ; inscription near Limyra, ἐδ. ; at Myra, 207 ; at Antiphellus, 208; two inscriptions near Ar- mostel, 209; inscription at Xanthus, ib.; near Cadyanda, ib.; two other in- scriptions at Limyra, 210; inscriptions near Armostel, 211; at Sura, ἐδ. ; at Cyane, 213 ; at Rhodiopolis, ib. ; at ge a and at Limyra, 214; at Tlos, 215,
Lyeiee dynasty of the Mermnade not fabulous, 275; probably an Aebyiad race, 276.
Magyar the, of Median descent, 127 ; under what names known to the later Greeks, 118; many Persian terms significant in Magyar, 128; many names of places found both in Persia and Hungary, ib.
Members, original, 1; elected during the first session, 37, 57, 77, 91, 119, 127; during the second session, 149, 161, 198, 248, 265.
Natanleod, meaning of this Anglo-Saxon compound, 11.
297
Negrito languages, term defined, 37; spoken in the Andaman, Nicobar and Car- nicobar islands, and in Malacca, ib.; in Sumatra, Orang Cooboo, Orang Googoo, Borneo, the Sooloo islands, and the Manillas, 38; in Formosa, the Loochoo islands, Java, Savoo, Timor, Ombay, 39; in Celebes, Bourou, Gilolo, the Teetees, Oby and New Guinea, 40; in Waigioo, Guebé, 41; in the Fiji islands, New
-Treland, Manicolo, Mallicollo, Tanna, New Caledonia and Australia, 42; in Van Diemen’s Land and New Guinea, 43; vocabularies of New Guinea compared with each other, 44; of New Ireland, 45; of Australia, 46; of Van Diemen’s Land, 48; vocabularies of different islands compared with each other, ib.; of Andaman and Samang, of New Guineaand Waigioo, ib.; of New Guinea and New Treland, 49; of Port Praslin and Carteret Bay, ib.; of New Ireland and Manicolo, of Manicolo and Mallicollo, of Mallicollo and Tanna, of the last two and New Caledonia, 50; of Port Dalrymple and King George’s Sound, of Port Dalrymple and Gulf St. Vincent, of Port Dalrymple and Jervis’s Bay, 51; the vocabularies of distant districts compared with each other, 52; author’s conclusions, 54.
Newman (F. W.) on Scythia and the surrounding countries according to Herodo-. tus, 77; on the Berber language of Mount Atlas, generally supposed to be that of the ancient Mauritanians, 135.
Old-English, how distinguished from the Anglo-Saxon and modern English, 65.
Picts not a Teutonic but a Celtic race, 120; nearly allied to the Welsh, ἐδ. ; names of Pictish kings, ib.; the Pictish term peann fahel considered, 121; St. Columba preached to the Picts through an interpreter, ib.; names of places in the Pictish
€ territory Welsh, 122, 123; the Picts of Galloway, 123.
Plato, the passage in the Republic relating to the celebrated Number considered, 81; the number appears to be the cube of 6 or 216, 85; Plato seems to have looked upon numbers as types of the fixed and invariable, 88; assumes in the Republic that there are four cardinal virtues, three parts of the human soul and five kinds of government, ib.; his reasons for introducing the present intricate- calculation, 89 ; like fanciful speculations in his other writings, 90.
Pleonastic use of the English pronoun personal before a proper name, 221; the pro- noun precedes the verb and the proper name follows it, 222 ; cases in which the pleonastic pronoun follows the substantive with which it is in apposition, ἐδ. ; the pronoun in the genitive, the knight his manhood, &c.,223; both substantive and pro- noun in the same case, 224; a preposition before the substantive, “ of the king his eldest sonne,” ib.; pleonastic use of the pronoun personal when coupled with the relative, ib. ; the pronoun the object of the verb, 225 ; the relative and the personal pronoun in the same case, ἐδ. ; relative in one clause of a sentence and pronoun personal in the other, 226; such phrases as conceal me what I am, &c., ib.
Reciprocal or mutual action, how expressed in different languages, 233; by means of the adverb, ἐδ. ; of two nouns or pronouns, separate or compounded, 234; by using a reciprocal form of the verb, 235 ; deponent verb, 236; in Icelandic the middle verb is the active verb with a reflective pronoun, ib.; sometimes took a reciprocal meaning, 237 ; French refiective verbs with reciprocal power, 241; reciprocal power of the Greck middle verb, ib.
Rosen’s work on the Sanscrit roots, 33. Russian verbs, how arranged by Gryech and by Schmidt, 97 ; personal endings, 98 ; formation. of the preterite, present of the imperative and perfect of the impera-
tive, 101; Russian verbs corresponding to those of the several"Sanscrit conjuga- tions, 99 ; semel-factive verbs, 101; iterative verbs, ib.
Russian vowels, how changed before certain gutturals, 99; before certain palatals, ib. Sanscrit augment. See Augment.
Sanscrit grammars and dictionaries compiled by Europeans, 13; no prejudice in the Brahmins against imparting a knowledge of the Sanscrit language, 14;
298
Sheikh Feizi, 15 ; the Jesuit mission at Madura, ἐδ, ; the Vyacarana of Paulinus a Bartholomeo, 16; Hanxleden, 16; college of Fort William founded, 17 ; Carey’s grammar, ib.; Colebrooke’s grammar, 18; Forster’s grammar, 20; Yates’s gram- mar, 21; Asiatic Society of Calcutta, ib.; Sir W. Jones, ib.; works of English scholars worked their way slowly on the continent, 22; Professor Chezy, id. ;
Wilkins’s grammar, ib.; grammars published on the continent, 25; Frank’s —
grammar, ib.; Bopp’s grammar, 26; his views with respect to the personal endings, 29; with respect to derivation, 32; the author’s own grammar, ib. ; lists of Sanscrit radicals given by Carey, and more partially by Wilkins and Forster, 33; Rosen’s work on the Sanscrit roots, ἐδ. ; Westergaard’s, ib. ; papers relating to the Sanscrit language in various literary periodicals, 34; the Amara Kosha translated, 35 ; author’s own dictionary, 36; glossaries added to Bopp’s edition of Nalus and /ohnson’s edition of certain parts of the Hitopadesa, Maha- bharata and Megha Data, 36.
Sanscrit second preterite ed’am-Asa, its probable origin, 274. Schmidt, his arrangement of the Russian verbs, 97.
Scythia :—nations bordering on Scythia, 77; notions of Herodotus respecting the _
Crimea, ib. ; respecting the Sea of Azov, 78; position of the Sarmatians, Budi- nians, Gelonians, Jurcans, Thyssagetans, revolted Scythians, Argippzans, Hy- perboreans, Arimaspians and Massagetans, ib.; the three rivers described by Herodotus as east of the Borysthenes, 80.
Sharpe (D.) on certain Lycian inscriptions copied by the Rev. E. Daniell, Edward Forbes, Esq., and Lieut. Spratt, R.N., 193.
Skene, his notions as to the origin of the Picts, 119, 120. Ν
Szabé (J.) on the descent of the Magyar from the ancient Persians, 127.
Trithen (F. H.) on the structure of the Russian verb, 96; on the formation of the past tense in certain of the Indo-European languages, 273.
Wager of Law originally meant a finding of pledges to abide some mode of trial, 58 ; in this country used in reference to one mode of trial only, and hence the secondary meaning which attaches to it in the language of the English Law, 7b.
Walters (Rev. J.) on the derivatives of the Welsh word gwy, 65.
Wedgwood (H.) on the etymology of the word trap-rock, 12.
Welsh language. See Celtic languages.
Westergaard’s work on the Sanscrit roots, 33.
Wilson (H. H.), a notice of the European grammars and lexicons of the Sanscrit language, 13.
Yates (J.), remarks on English orthography, 7 ; remarks on a statue of Endymion illustrative of a passage in Lucian, 8.
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ΚΑΤ heated Nem bent : Sprig yea
ray ek tins
ok)
gh oh fae
ee ate . παν, ἔχεν ΜΎΝ ΠΡ ΠΑ ΟΣ ἫΣ
9
belie “ἢ ἐὰν
Rh? ia