Historic, archived document Do not assume content reflects current scientific knowledge, policies, or practices. “UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 859 Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chie. 4 | Washington, D. C. September 7, 1920 THE PROCESS OF RIPENING IN THE | TOMATO, CONSIDERED ESPECIALLY FROM THE COMMERCIAL STANDPOINT CHARLES E. SANDO Formerly Junior Chemist, Horticultural and Pomeisgicai Investigations . CONTENTS Shipments of Early Tomaices to Northern Markets . - ae Growing and Handling Tomatoes in the Field _. 5 - ° “ Packing and Shipping Operations . - . F Previous Chemical Investigations of the Totiate. 5 4 . . ° Experimental Maierial . Sauces x ~ 5 - S pe aes Methods of Analysis Hs Ba Analytical Data concerning Benirensine Changes in Coinnonitivn decene Ripening Comparison of the Composition of Commercially Picked Tomatoes with Turning and Vine-Ripened Fruit . : : é 5 x ~ * - A Effect of Lack.of Ventilation on Ripening S RE neee ‘ SEIS gs 4 Summary and Conclusions. . - ‘. 5 A x < 2 onahiee Literature Cited ° Appendix.—Ccmparison of the Cadipscition of ae Puffy” sad Nannal Living: ston Globe Tomatoes 2 - 5 : a 5 aie vexcuentite WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1920 see ieee SCIENTIFIC STAFF, i oF ‘Truck-Grop Production Investigations: B. J. McGervey. -Trish-Potato Production Investigations: "William Stuart. C. F. Clark. W«.C. Edmundson. _ P.M. Lombard. : ree 'W. Wellington. 2 =L. L. Corbett. o ce paee re Improvement Investigations: ec WV. W. Tracy. =D. N. Shoemaker. - al nds pe a and Floriculture Investiga- B. Y. Morrison. es - BulbCulture Investigations: ae “ ‘David Griffiths. a /‘Fruit and Vegetable Utilization Investigations» R.C. Wright. | # Beat J. S. Caldwell. J. R. Magness. - C. A. Magoon. : G. F. Taylor. __C. W. Culpepper. J. F. Fernald. ; j Extension Work (in cooperation with the States Relations Service): Se ee ee Sta & W. R. Beattie. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY. Wi1iam A. TAYLOR, Chief. _K. F. KELierMan, Associate Chief. i JAues E. JonEs, Assistant to Chief. l= ‘ , J. EK. oe Officer in Charge of Publications. OFFICE OF HORTICULTURAL AND POMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. ae Ws L. C. CoRBET?, Horticulturist in Charge. -Grape-Production Investigations: — C. P. Close. Fruit-Production Investigations: H. P. Gould. L. B. Scott. ‘i C. F. Kinman. it tate ~ George M. Darrow. E. D. Vosbury. George C. Husmann. Charles Dearing. F. L. Husmann. Elmer Snyder. G. L. Yerkes. : Fruit Breeding and a Investigations im : _ Pomology: beet W.F. Wight. Magdalene R. Newman. Fruit Improvement through Bud yee eae) A. D. Shamel. Dee Oe R. E. Caryl. ; Nut-Production Investigations: *% oe C. A. Reed. x E. R. Lake. Fruit and Vegetable Storage Physiology L. A. Hawkins. : Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. Vv : September 7, 1920 THE PROCESS OF RIPENING IN THE TOMATO, CON- SIDERED ESPECIALLY FROM THE COMMERCIAL _ STANDPOINT: By CuHarues E. SAnpo, formerly Junior Chemist, Horticultural and Pomological Investigations. CONTENTS. Page. Page. Shipments of early tomatoes to northern Comparison of the composition of commer- WA ADROIS eee ee en aia ate o cia coe en des cially picked tomatoes with turning and Growing and handling tomatoes in the field. - 3 Vine-ripencd fruit? 2s ee ey 21 Packing and shipping operations.......---..-. 4 | Effect of lack of ventilation on ripening.-.... 24 Previous chemica! investigations of the Summary and conclusions.-.--:-.---..---...- 30 tomato...-: ser ese SS SS. oe 7? |; Biterature citeds 5... -2252- 22254 Ee ee 2 Pxperumental material... 52-2226. 26-2... 13 | Appendix.—Comparison of the composition Me thodstonanalysisss--ens sess 4. St ste. 15 of “‘puffy’? and normal Livingston Globe Analytical data concerning progressive LOMALOOS eran coos Sale = ee aes oe 37 changes in composition during ripening. - 17 SHIPMENTS OF EARLY TOMATOES TO NORTHERN MARKETS. The shipping of tomatoes grown in Florida to northern markets during the winter and spring months is an exceedingly important industry. In Table I are presented statistics prepared by the Bureau of Crop Estimates and the Bureau of Markets of the United States Department of Agriculture, showing the production and car-lot shipments of the seven States where the early-tomato crop is chiefly grown. From the figures shown in Table I it can be seen that Florida ships annually more than half of the total quantity of early tomatoes forwarded from the seven States specified. Statistics show that 1 This bulletin gives the results of a portion of the work carried on under the project “Factors affecting the storage life of vegetables”. The paper was completed after the writer was transferred to the Office of Drug-Plant, Poisonous-Plant, Physiological, and Fermentation Investigations of the Bureau of Plant Industry. The writer wishes to express his special indebtedness to Mr. Thomas J. Peters, of Miami, Fla., for pro viding facilities for the field work and for cooperating in other ways. He desires also to express his thanks and appreciation to Mr. H. H. Bartlett, of the botanical department of the University of Michigan, for counsel and suggestions during the progress of the work. 175085°—20—Bull. 859 ——1 2 BULLETIN 859, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the industry in Florida is very largely concentrated in Dade and Broward Counties, at the southern tip of the State. TABLE 1.—Production of early tomatoes in the principal producing States of the. United States, showing also car-lot shipments, for the 5-year period from 1915 to 1919, in- clusive. Spe Crop production (tons). Car-lot shipments.¢ State. : = —- 1919 1918 1917 1916 1915 1919 1918 1917 | 1916 | 1915 | | California_..-<.--.=.. 17,380 | 11,880 | 17,390 | 20,170 | 18, 750 139 | 1,513 518| 1,169| 871 Ploridac.2-4. 58,520 | 46,800 | 77,480 |101,170 | 91,390 | 4,478 | 3,695 | 4,493 | 6,184 4,692 WoWisiana= see lee 600 |} 1,810] 2,209; 2,524 2 10 14 58 | 58 Mississippi.........-- 18,400 | 21,150 | 15,680 | 25, 250 | 20,100 | 61,388 | 61,379 | 61,063 | 51,663 | 61,690 Tennessee......------ 6,000 | 10,500 | 13,020 | 29,320 | 24,010 | 366 654 947 590. 5 Mexas =: aioe 17,700 | 16,000 | 16,430 | 10,770 | 11,260 | 1,198} 1,123 | 1,276| 1,153 | 1,318 VATSITI Asse eek eee ae ee 69,108 | 75,540 | 85,285 | 62,212 |......-.- 97 173 192 | 121 Totaleseasa at 176,038 |217,350 |274,174 |230,246 | 7,571 8,471 | 8,484 | 11,009 | 9,279 | a Estimated at 13 tons per car except in Mississippi, where the average is 103 tons per car. + Carloads of 103 tons. In spite of the fact that thousands of cars of Florida tomatoes are shipped to the North each year, the quality of a large percentage that reaches the consumer is admittedly inferior in many respects to vine-ripened or greenhouse tomatoes. Tracy (52) + makes the following statements in regard to the inferiority of shipped fruit: The tomato never acquires its full and most perfect flavor except when ripened on the vine and in full sunlight. Vine and sun ripened tomatoes, like tree-ripened peaches, are vastly better flavored than those artificially ripened. This is the chief reason Why tomatoes grown in hothouses in the vicinity are so much superior to those shipped in from farther south. It is the custom to pick the fruit when grass green and allow it to ripen and color in ripening rooms before shipment, while in transit, and after arrival at the market. Numerous complaints have been made by commission men and others that a large pro- portion of the tomato crop from the east coast of Florida is picked and shipped too green. When this ‘is done, the fruit ripens very slowly, has a tendency to wrinkle, colors abnormally, and has a bad taste and flavor. Moreover, for quite different reasons, the growers prefer, when shipping their tomatoes, to have the fruit arrive in a shghtly colored condition. The arrival of green fruit at the terminal often has the effect of glutting the market. The buyer is compelled to hold the fruit while ripening and consequently assumes a risk of losing a portion, whereas if the shipment is colored when it arrives he is able to dispose of it immediately. Since the difficulties just enumerated bear a close relationship to field practice and to packing and shipping operations, the writer was stationed at Miami during the growing seasons from 1917 to 1919 in order to gain first-hand knowledge of the industry and to ——————— 1 The serial numbers in parentheses refer to “Literature cited” at the end of this bulletin. ny? PROCESS OF RIPENING IN THE TOMATO. 3 conduct experimental work with material grown under the con- ditions peculiar to Florida. The quality of a tomato is largely determined by the amount and kind of sugars, plant acids, and vitamins which are present. It was obvious, therefore, that the mmediad of approaching the problem would beachemical one. If the chemical composition of vine-ripened toma- toes were known for a number of stages in the process of ripening, the data would afford a criterion for judging commercially ripened fruit. pitta GROWING AND HANDLING TOMATOES IN THE FIELD. In the region about Miami, Fla., the seed beds are prepared as early as the middle of September and are planted at intervals until the early part of February in order to insure a steady supply of seed- lings. In transplanting seedlings they are placed full length in the furrow, the roots are covered with a handful of moist well-rotted stable manure, and finally the whole stem, but not the leaves, is cov- ered with loose soil. Commercial fertilizer is often used with the manure. 3 The soil upon which tomatoes are grown is essentially of an ever- glade type and is covered with water during a portion of the summer. For the past few years the moist soil and the danger of frost have been serious handicaps to very early planting. To insure a crop of tomatoes in case of frost many growers plant a portion of their fields in hills. The seeds are planted over stable manure and com- mercial fertilizer. After the seedlings appear the hills are thinned to one plant, which is allowed to grow to 6 inches or more in height and then bent down and covered with soil. The plants are 2 to 3 feet apart in rows 6 feet apart. Commercial fertilizers are applied throughout the growing season up to picking time. Where only one side of the row is cultivated and the other allowed to grow in weeds, upon which the plants later lean, the fertilizer 1s applied in furrows on the side which is cultivated. About a week or 10 days after the plants are set out a small handful of the fertilizer 1s placed on one side of each plant. Sometimes it is covered with soil, but generally it is left uncovered. Ten days or two weeks after the first application, more fertilizer is applied be- tween the plants in the original planting furrow. A shallow furrow is then turned to cover this fertilizer and also to support the plants better. The third application is placed in the furrow made when the second application was covered. The quantity is generally larger than the first and second applications and is covered by a new furrow. The fourth and final application is made in the same way. Where the fertilizer is applied at one side only, two rows are planted close together and between them weeds are allowed to grow. Where fertilizer is applied to both sides of the plants the 4 BULLETIN 859, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. — rows are 6 feet apart. The procedure is the same. The usual practice is to fertilize at the rate of 1 to 14 tons per acre, the last. application bemg made several weeks before picking. The interval between applications varies with weather conditions and the growth of the plants. The custom is to locate the position of the rootlets along the side of the furrow made at the preceding application and to keep a quantity of fertilizer just ahead of these rootlets, so that a constant supply is available for the plant. The time of picking the tomatoes of course depends upon the age and condition of the fruit. Many growers believe that it is an easy matter to determine the maturity by the character of the darkened area around the stem end. Toward the last stages of maturation the chlorophyll gradually disappears, especially around the stem end, Fic, 1.—A tomato field in Florida. where a whitened area is left. Fields are gone over once a week by the pickers, who collect the fruit in baskets or tin buckets. (Fig. 1.) In general the pickers (Nassau negroes) do not pay much attention to the color of the tomatoes, but gather those that appear large enough to ship. The tomatoes are dumped into field boxes at the ends of the rows and carried by wagon to the ripening house or pack- ing house. The fruit is generally handled carefully, but often it is dropped from the gathering bucket to the field crate without the picker even bending over. PACKING AND SHIPPING OPERATIONS. Until recently the fruit was sorted, packed, and shipped imme- diately upon its arrival at the packing house, but the loss through disease and bruising was so great that it became necessary to adopt ee eee PROCESS OF RIPENING IN THE TOMATO. 5 the ripening house as a means of culling out undesirable fruit be- fore shipping. In the ripening house the fruit is stored at a tem- perature of 75° to 85° F. for a variable period, depending upon the uniformity and maturity of the tomatoes at the time of picking. When most of them show a very slight red coloration they are re- moved and carefully sorted; all diseased fruits are discarded and the colored ones are graded, wrapped, and packed for shipment. Green fruit goes back to the ripening room. Improper conditions of ven- tilation, humidity, and temperature in the ripening room often increase the amount of disease, since such conditions favor the ger- mination of fungous spores and the spread of infections brought from the field. Nevertheless, this method of allowing diseases to develop and then cullmg the fruit before shipping saves paying transportation charges on spoiled fruit, as well as additional loss in transit through the spreading of infection to healthy fruit. The use of the ripening room is restricted to the early months of shipping, when the weather conditions are such as to allow the fruit to be shipped in a colored condition. The temperature is generally ‘low enough to prevent too rapid ripening, and when the fruit reaches the North the temperature is still colder, thus allowing the fruit to be kept for a considerable length of time before it becomes too ripe. La- ter in the season, however, it is inadvisable with the present methods of handling to ship colored fruit. The tomatoes are kept in the ripening room for two or three days, to allow infections to develop, and are then sorted and shipped. In general, after warmer weather _sets in the green fruit goes directly to the packing house from the field and is graded and shipped at once. Sometimes it ripens in transit, but more often it arrives green and has to be ripened at the terminal. Frequently the fruit is packed in such an immature state that it never attains its normal color. In such instances the grower loses both in reputation and _-in financial return. When the tomatoes arrive at the packing shed they are dumped into bins, which usually are large enough to hold several crates. From these bins the grader culls all undesirable fruit and throws the good fruit into other bins, assorting according tosize. Packers stand- ing directly in front of the bins wrap the fruits individually in special tomato paper and pack them in 4-quart baskets. Hach basket re- quires smaller fruit at the bottom layer than at the top, where the basket is wider, but in every basket the fruit is packed very tightly; in some cases quite a little squeezing is necessary. Six baskets are placed in each crate. The top is considerably bulged, owing to the close packing of the baskets. Crates in various stages of packing are shown in figure 2. The method of packing crates for shipment just described is un- fortunately the one generally used at the present time, but there is 6 BULLETIN 859, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. another method that deserves careful consideration, in which the fruit after it is picked is washed and handled by means of a machine. - The field crates used in connection with the machine, and also by many growers who do not use a machine, are made of hardwood mill edgings that have been carefully planed and smoothed, especially where the tomato is likely to come in contact with them. The crate is open, so that all sand and dirt fall through and do not injure the tomatoes during hauling. When the tomatoes arrive at the packing shed they are dumped into a large tank at the end of the machine, which contains a special washing solution kept at as high a temperature as the fruit will stand. Fic. 2.—Scene in a Florida tomato packing house, Were the solution with which the tomatoes are washed nothing more than hot water, it can hardly be doubted that the thorough removal of adhering sand, dirt, and fungous spores would be beneficial. The tomatoes remain in this supposedly disinfectant solution for about half a minute, constantly revolving, and are pushed toward an end- less chain which carries them up an incline, where a spray of cold water rinses off the washing mixture. Drying is accomplished by passing the fruit between two layers of sponges. As it passes over the rollers, cullers are able to pick out the undesirable fruit without handling the remainder. It then passes over a special sizer, from which the several grades drop on tightly spread duck inclined planes PROCESS OF-RIPENING IN THE TOMATO. 7 and roll down into pockets. The tomatoes are not jarred or bruised in any way in traveling from the tank to the packer. Careful handling is essential in the successful production and ship- ping of tomatoes, and machine handling in the packing house is therefore to be highly recommended. Any device which will prevent bruising and cutting will reduce the opportunities for fungous infec- tion and subsequent loss. Refrigerator cars without ice are preferred by the growers for ship- ping, since these cars are fitted with ventilators which can be opened and closed as weather conditions require. Ventilated cars are used also when there is a shortage of refrigerator cars, but owing to their poor construction there is likelihood in the colder regions of the fruit freezing. When the cars first leave the South the custom is to have the ventilators open, but as they move farther north these are closed to prevent frost injury. When the cars are billed through to Canada some shippers close the ventilators as soon as the cars are filled. Hach car contains an average of 500 crates, or approximately 13 tons of fruit. With so large a volume of respiring fruit in a confined space it is obvious that a condition of oxygen deficiency may easily come about. PREVIOUS CHEMICAL INVESTIGATIONS OF THE TOMATO. The earliest important chemical investigations of the tomato seem to have been those of J. F. John and C. Bertagnini, cited by Peckolt (37, p. 197).- The latter author states that John probably made the first analysis of the tomato in 1814. Bertagnini, according to Pal- meri (34), isolated citric acid from this fruit in 1850 and identified it by means of its silver salt. In 1873, Kennedy (27) first isolated the alkaloid solanin from the tomato. His method was to macerate with dilute sulphuric acid for 48 hours. The expressed liquid was then treated with aqueous ammonia (sp. gr., 0.96) in excess. The precipitate which separated was filtered and dried at 120° F., after which it was extracted with hot alcohol. On cooling, the alcoholic solution deposited solanin as small feathery crystals. The first quantitative analysis of the whole tomato fruit was that of Dahlen (16), who reported the amounts of water, protein, fat, glucose, crude fiber, ash, nitrogen, and phosphoric acid. Since the work of Dahlen, various chemists have published analyses of the tomato. Palmeri (34) in 1885 reported on the constituents of various portions of the fruit and also included an ash analysis. Various later attempts were made to show the amounts of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash which the tomato removed from the soil and also the effect of different fertilizer treatments on the com- position of the fruit. The most important work along this line was 8 BULLETIN 859, U. S. DEPARTMENT -OF AGRICULTURE. performed by Patterson (36), Bishop and Patterson (12), Voorhees (55), Alwood (3), Alwood and Bowman (4), Bailey and Lodeman (8), Bailey (7), and Jenkins and Britton (26). There has been no little difference of opinion concerning the kind of acid occurring in the tomato. As before stated, Bertagnini (37) isolated and identified the acid as citric, while McElhenie (30) be- lieved that oxalic, citric, and malic acids were present. Patterson (36) makes the following statement: On following the schemes for the detection of organic acids as given in Fresenius’s Qualitative Analysis, paragraph 193, page 342, and Prescott’s Organic Analysis, page 336, the following acids were found to be present in the concentrated juice of the tomato, viz, malic, tartaric, benzoic, and formic. Malic acid predominated and the others appeared to be present in very small quantities, and as there has been no time for a further investigation as:to the relative amounts of these, the whole of the free acids has been calculated as malic acid. Passerini (35) claims that the acidity is due chiefly to citric acid and makes the statement: ' Il sapore dolce é dovuto a glucosi, i quali hanno azione resultante levogira sulla luce polarizzata; Vacidita per la massima parte ad acido citrico, come dimostrammo in altra nota. Briosi and Gigli (13) also confirm the presence of citric acid: ? Queste esperienze provano nel liquido giallo la presenza dell’acido citrico; esiccome isaggi con l’acqua, di calce e col cloruro di calcio, ed altri che per brevitaé non rife- riamo, escludono l’acido tartarico, possimao credere che l’acidita stessa sia, almeno per la massima parte dovuta a esso acido citrico, gia riconosciuto nel pomodoro per la - prima volta da Bertagnini. Alwood and Bowman (4) make the following statement: A qualitative examination showed the presence of citric, malic, tartaric, formic, and succinic acids. Of these the citric acid was by far the most abundant, so that in the quantitative determinations the whole acid was calculated as citric acid. _ Sttiber (50) reports that apparently all the acid present was citric, and in no case was tartaric, malic, or succinic acid found. Formenti and Scipiotti (19) claim that salicylic acid occurs naturally in the tomato to the extent of 15 to 25 milligrams per kilo- gram of fresh fruit juice. Albahary (1) gives the following acids as occurring in the tomato: Malic, 0.48 per cent; citric, 0.09 per cent; oxalic, 0.001 per cent; tartaric and succinic, traces. He also reports the presence of an amino acid (2). Bacon and Dunbar (6) state that— the acid of tomatoes has been called by various authors malic, citric, tartaric, and oxalic. The acid is actually citric, asshown. * * * 1 Translated as follows: The swect taste is due to glucose, which has a resulting levorotatory action upon polarized light; the greatest part of the acidity is due to citric acid, as we have shown in a previous note. 2 Translated as follows: These experiments prove the presence of citric acid in the yellow liquid: experi- ments with lime water and calcium chlorid and others which we do not mention for the sake of brevity exclude tartaric acid. We may believe that this same acidity is due, at least for the most part, to that citric acid already recognized in the tomato for the first time by Bertagnini. PROCESS OF RIPENING IN THE TOMATO. 9 Congdon (15) differs from Bacon and Dunbar (6) and claims that the acids are oxalic, citric, and a very slight amount of malic. Oxalic acid is supposed to predominate. The preponderance of opinion seems to be that the chief acid in the tomato is citric. With regard to the kind of sugar occurring in the tomato there is more uniformity of opinion. Patterson (86) says: A few samples of tomatoes were examined for both classes of sugars, the glucose being determined in solutions made up without application of heat; and then a por- tion of this solution was made up in the usual manner for the cane-sugar determina- tions. The amount of increase indicating cane sugar was so small that it was thought to be probably due to substances of a gummy or pectose nature, which are well under- stood to form sugars which act on Fehling’s solution when treated with mineral acids. And from the amount of free acid in the tomato, cane sugar would not be likely to exist to any extent. Briosi and Gigli (13) believe that levulose is the sugar to which the sweetness of the yellow juice is chiefly due. Alwood and Bowman (4) say that “it is very probable that no other sugars than those of the glucose kind exist in tomatoes.”’ Snyder (46), however, reports the presence of reducing and non- reducing sugars. Sttiber (50) finds no change in the sugar content of sugar samples before and after inversion. Albahary (2) presents data showing the presence of cane sugar. Bacon and Dunbar (6) make the following statement: _A number of experiments have shown that the sugar of tomatoes-is usually invert sugar, with at times a slight excess of levulose. Thompson and Whittier (51) were unable to find sucrose in either ereen or ripe fruits, but reported approximately equal quantities of levulose and dextrose, concluding that in the classification of fruits according to the kind of sugar present the tomato falls in the invert- sugar group. One of the more recent investigators, Bigelow (11), shows that sucrose is probably absent. Hestates: _ It is probable that the sugar in tomatoes is all invert sugar. This was indicated by some samples which were examined, in which the determination of sugar before and after inversion gave the same results. The work herein reported supports the contention of most scientific workers that little or no cane sugar is present in the tomato. It is very probable that where small amounts of sucrose are indicated by the increased reduction of Fehling’s solution after acid hydrolysis that the increased reduction is due to other substances than invert sugar. , Since the data of the present investigation concern the percentage composition of the entire fruit, the comparable results of previous analyses of the whole tomato have been assembled in Table II. 175085°—20—Bull, 8592 : 10 BULLETIN 859, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 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Relatively few investigations have been reported showing the pro-
gressive changes in composition of the tomato. Differences in com- .
position between green and ripe fruit are given in several instances,
but the researches of Albahary (2) and Bigelow (11) seem to be the
only systematic studies of the changes occurring during development.
Passerini (35) reports a partial analysis of both green and ripe
fruits of two varieties. The data, which are expressed in terms of wet
weight, seem to indicate that as the tomato matures there is an in-
crease in water and sugar and a decrease in total solids and acid.
Formenti and Scipiotti (19) found that the water content of the entire
fruit was greater in the ripe fruit than in that half ripe. Thompson
and Whittier (51) reported a slightly larger percentage of total
sugar in ripe than in green tomatoes.
Congdon (15) reported the specific gravity of ripe and green
tomatoes as 1.0216 (average of eight) and 1.0230, respectively; also
the citric acid content as 0.528 (average of eight) for ripe and 0.990
for green fruit. Bigelow (11) studied the composition of tomatoes
(expressed juice) at different stages of maturity, but did not arrive
at any very definite conclusions. He states that in general the per-
centage of solids and sugars increases and the percentage of acid
decreases as the tomato becomes more mature.
Albahary (2) has given the most complete account of the chemical
transformations in tomatoes during ripening. He used three succes-
sive stages of ripening: (1) Green fruit before seed development,
(2) green fruit at the time seeds were completely formed, and (8)
fruit which was fully ripe, and he concluded that with ripening there
is a progressive increase in acids, sugars, starch, and nitrogenous
nonprotein constituents, while proteins and cellulose diminish greatly,
remaining practically stationary toward the end of ripening.
From the preceding résumé of former work on the chemical com-
position of the tomato at different stages of its growth, it is seen that
there is little consistency in the results obtained.
The red pigment of the tomato is not estimated in any of the
routine analyses. It has been isolated by several workers, who found
that the amount recoverable was 0.2 per cent of the dry weight of
the fruit or less. Its preparation in pure crystalline condition was
first accomplished in 1876 by Millardet (81), who named it solanoru-
bin. After it had passed into the synonymy of carotin, it was again
isolated, in 1903, by Schunck (45), who renamed it lycopin. Mon-
tanari (32) made the first analysis and proved that it was a hydro-
carbon. The final identification of lycopin as an isomer of carotin
was made by Willstaétter and Escher (58). In 1913 Duggar (17)
studied the effect of conditions upon the development of the tomato
pigmentation and found the color of the ripe fruit to depend (1)
upon the presence or absence of lycopin in the flesh (in the absence
of red lycopin the flesh is yellow, due to carotin and possibly xantho-
PROCESS OF RIPENING IN THE TOMATO. 13
phyli, which are masked in the red fruit) and (2) upon the presence
or absence in the epidermal walls of a yellow pigment. In the pres-
ence of the latter the red flesh is seen through a yellow screen, giving
a more or less orange effect, but if itis absent the skin is transparent
and the color a clear red.
EXPERIMENTAL MATERIAL.
The fruit for all the analytical. work herein reported (with the
exception of the “‘puffy’’ fruit discussed in the appendix) was obtained
from plants of the Livingston Globe variety grown at Peters, Dade
County, Fla. This variety is almost exclusively used for winter
shipping to northern markets. For the life-history work the plants
were grown in a field where the soil conditions represented the average
of the entire acreage planted in tomatoes. These plants had the same
treatment as the commercial plantings. They were set in the field
in January and, following the local practice, were given four applica-
tions of commercial fertilizer and the usual quantities of compost.
In the former studies of the progressive changes in composition
during ripening the tomatoes for sampling were classified by size
and were usually picked at one time. This method of sampling was
not deemed sufficiently accurate to be used in the present investiga-
tion, for ripe tomatoes have a great range of variation in size, which
fact alone should enable one to conclude that it is not the size that
determines the degree of maturity. In order to establish a basis for
selecting fruits of comparable maturity, blossoms were tagged and
observations made as to the time of ripening. In a series of obser-
vations made during the summer of 1918 at Arlington, Va., several
hundred blossoms of Livingston Globe plants were tagged, and part
of the fruit was picked every week, weighed, and measured. The
important fact brought out by the experiment (Table III, Sec. A) is
that the maturity of a tomato fruit depends upon age and not upon.
size. In the latitude of Washington, D. C. (at Arlington, Va.),
49 days were required to bring the fruit to maturity, starting with |
the blossom. Of the 20 fruits left upon the vines, all colored at the
same time regardless of size or weight. The experiment was repeated
with plants grown in Florida, and the same results were obtained.
(Table III, Sec. B). In this case 200 tomatoes remained on the
vines at the end of 56 days, 181 of which were colored (turning to red)
and 19 green. ‘The variations in size and weight were as great as at
Arlington, if not greater. It was impossible to judge to the day the
age of the blossoms which were tagged, but the variation among
blossoms was hardly more than one or two days.
This method of obtaining tomatoes of known relative maturity is
a fairly accurate procedure and is certainly to be preferred to that
used by other investigators, who selected fruit according to size.
14 BULLETIN 859, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TaBLe III.— Weights and equatorial diameters of individual tomatoes grown at Arlington,
Va., in the summer of 1918, and at Peters, Fla., in the winter of 1918, picked at intervals
from blossoming time until the fruits were ripe.
Individual tomatoes. |
Locality and Color of: |= = oe es ee is ee
descriptive data. fruit. | | | | | jes | l a
No. 1. No. Ze 3.|No. 4.|No. 5.|/No. 6. No. 7.,No. 8. No. 9.|No. 10
Sec. A.—Arlington, Va.:
Weight (grams)—
Age 7 days.---- Green...) 0.30) 0.50) 0.70) 0.90) 1.50) 1.60) 1.70) 1.80) 3.00> 3.40 1.54
Age 13 days .---]--- do...-| 1.40) 2.00) 3.60) 5.30) 6.10) 13.90) 14.60} 17.50 20.80) 21.60 10.68
Age 21 days ....|... do... .| 39.60) 40.70) 42.20} 45.00} 50.50} 82.60) 85. 70| 87.60) 90.00] 93.60 65.75
Age 30 days -.--|--- O..-- 52.90) 57.10) 71.50) 79.80) 83. 40/109. 50 114. 30)115. 70 128. 60/135. 40 94. 82
Age 38 days ---.-]--- do.... 34.30) 49.40) 64.40) 76.50) 81. 90/155. 10 169. 90/190. 30 276. 70284. 00 135. 25
Age 49 days --.-- aE do. 80) 94. ql 98. 80 122. 80 137. 20)164. 00 180. 70/197. 60 234. 50/247. 90 153. 34
to red. 5
Diameter (em.)— | | | | |
Age 7 days..---- Green..-- -45) .60) 65) .80 1.05) 1.10 115) 115 1.40) 155 114
Age 13 days ...-|--- do....| 1.00} 1.20) 1.60) 1.80; 1.80} 2.60) 2. 70) 2. 70} 2.70) 2.80; 2.10
Age 21 days ..-.|--- do..-..) 3.80) 3.80; 3.90) 4.00; 4.10) 4.80; £90) 4.90] 4.90) 5.00; 4.41
Age 30 days ..-..|--- do...., 4.20) 4.30) 4.60) 4.70) 4.80) 5.40) 5.40) 5.50) 5.60) 5.70) 5.02
Age 38 days .--.]--- do....| 3.80} 4.10) 4.40) 4. 80) 4,90} 6.00) 6.10) 6.40) 6.70) 7.30) 5.45
Age 49 days .... turning 4.60) 4.90) 5.20) 5.40) 5.70) 5.90) 6.30) 6.70) 6.90) 7.30) 5.49
to re
Sec. B.—Peters, Fla.: |
Weight (grams)— |
Age 7 days...-.- Green..-| .07} .08) . 08 .09 UO ad ean 67) 1.13 33
Age 15 days ..--|--- do....| 1.68 1.75) 1.84 2.27) 2.32! 9.40) 10.63! 11.95) 12.39! 13.19} 6.74
Age 21 days ....)--- do..--| 40.78 44.67) 45. 12) 46.57) 46.67, 57.03) 68. 02| 86.35) 86. 42/124. 72) 63.65
Age 28 days ---.|--- do... -.| 43.79 62.60) 63. 33} 67.12) 69.18 75.35) 77. 48) 91.85/111. 97 160. 84) 82.37
Age 35 days ..-.|--- do....| 53.32) 64.37) 73.40) 76.31, 94.92) 95.25) 97. 92|100. 12 118.95 177. 48) 95.10
Age 42days ....|... do... .| 78.60 95.45) 95.82] 99.81 100. 78 126. 66 151. 23/195. 36 222. 11 313. 33/147. 91
Age 56 days .... Suring | 79.18 110. 18,127. 72 131, 52 139. 97,157. 42 170. 54/179. 69 183. ae 79 162. 81
to re
Diameter (cm.)— | | | |
Age 7 days...-. |" Greaness| 7243] eS 5] AS ah pee sO 85} =. 95) 1.05) 1.30).
ATOH SGRYSe eal ndGesaet 1.60, 1.60} 1.60 1.7 1.75) 2.80) 2.85) 2.90) 3.10) 3.25) 2.31
Age 21 days....|.-.do.--.| 4.50) 4.55) 4.60) 4.60) 4. 65 4.85) 5.65) 5.80) 6.00) 6.60) 5.18
“Age 28 days....|-..do.... -| 4.50 5.00) 5.00) 5.05) 5. 20 5.50} 5.50} 5.80) 6.20 ey 5. 47
Age35days....|...do...-| 4.45] 4.70} 4.75] 5.15) 5.45] 5.45] 5.60! “6:05|- 6.15} 7.00) 5.47
Age 42days....}...do....| 5.00) 5.45) 5.50) 5.60) 5.75) 6.25, 7.25] 7.25) 7.25) 7.35) 6.37
Age56days ...- Turning | 5.25) 5. "| 5.70, 5.80) 5.90, 6.40] 6.60| 6.75, 6.85) 8.85] 6.38
to red. | | |
Plates I and II show in color four stages in ripening, which are
referred to later in this bulletin as green, i.e., with no red present (A);
turning, i.e., mostly green, with a trace of color at the style end (5);
pink, i. e., sughtly colored over most of the fruit, with little or no
green except at the stem end, but not yet a good full red (C); and
red ripe, i.e., completely mature as far as color change isconcerned (D).
Material for analysis was obtained by tagging blossoms (other than
those of the “‘crown hand’’)* soon after opening and then collecting
tomatoes at the different stages in numbers large enough for sampling.
An attempt was made to pick all the tagged fruit from an entire row
in order to eliminate the error that possibly otherwise might have
occurred of unconsciously selecting large or small fruit. Samples
were taken at the end of the second, third, fourth, fifth, and sixth
weeks, and after the tomatoes had barely started to color (designated
as turning), and finally when fully colored or ripe. At the time of
carrying on the work the weather conditions were such that eight
_weeks were required to bring the tomato to maturity (red ripeness).
3 Growers are accustomed to refer to all the fruit developing from a single inflorescence as a “hand.”
The “‘crown hand’’ is the lowest inflorescence on the stem. It frequently fails to set fruit.
=~
Bul. 859, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture
R.C. STEADMAN del.
Soc to
CoLor STAGES IN THE RIPENING OF THE TOMATO.
-Green, A: turning, B.
PLATE |
ert Rete yn eee eS xr ~ ~ rr ay
Bul. 859, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture ; PLATE II
R.C.STEADMAN, del. A.HOEN &CO-BALTHIORE
5-20-13
Covor STAGES IN THE RIPENING OF THE TOMATO.
Pink, C: red ripe, D.
o
PROCESS OF RIPENING IN THE TOMATO. 15
METHODS OF ANALYSIS.
Sampling and preservation—tIn order to obtain representative
samples at each stage of ripening and to avoid the necessity of
analyzing a large number of individual fruits to determine existing
variations, composite samples were resorted to. These composite sam-
ples were taken from approximately 20 tomatoes. To eliminate error
due to possible correlations between size and chemical composition,
tomatoes were chosen so that each composite sample was obtained from
fruits of all sizes, with the exception of abnormally large or small
fruit which were discarded. The method of collecting the samples
was uniform throughout. Where the fruits were small (e. g., those
14 days old) a 200-gram lot was made by using entire tomatoes, but
with larger fruit samples of 200 grams were made up by removing a
cylinder from each tomato with a half-inch cork borer. The cylinders
were taken through the equator perpendicularly to the axis. A fairly
representative sample was obtained in this manner, for the portion
removed from each tomato was roughly proportional to the size of
the whole fruit. The method of preserving samples for analysis was
similar to that used by Hasselbring and Hawkins (21) in their studies
of sweet potatoes and identical with the procedure of Kraus and
Kraybill 8) with tomatoes. The material was heated with 80 per
cent alcohol for 1 hour at 70° to 75° C., with the addition of cal-
cium carbonate (CaCO,) to insure the neutralization of acids. Two-
quart glass-top jars were used, and approximately 1,065 c. c. of 95
per cent alcohol and 0.5 gram of precipitated CaCO, were added,
after which the heating was carried out on a boiling water bath.
Moisture and ash samples were merely covered with 95 per cent
alcohol without subsequent heating.
In preparing the samples for analysis (with the exception of certain
moisture, dry-weight, and ash samples) the alcohol was removed from
the insoluble residue by filtering into a 2-liter volumetric flask. The
residue was thoroughly extracted with warm 80 per cent alcohol,
which was cooled, filtered, and added to the original filtrate. The
volume of the flask was then made up to mark at 20° C. (referred
to later as the original extract) and one-tenth and three-twentieths
aliquots pipetted off and placed in separate Florence flasks, which °
were stoppered, labeled, and set aside. The residue was dried at
80° C. in an air oven for a few days and then allowed to come to
air-dry weight, after which it was weighed and finely ground in a
drug mill (referred to later as the original residue). One-tenth and
three-twentieths portions were weighed and stored in small stop-
pered vials. 7
Moisture, dry weight, and ash.—An entire 200-gram sample covered
with 95 per cent alcohol was placed in a large beaker and evaporated
nearly to dryness on a steam bath. It was then transferred to a
16 BULLETIN 859, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
250 cubic-centimeter tared beaker and dried at 60° to 70° C. to
apparent dryness, after which it was dried in vacuo at 80° C. until
the loss between two successive weighings was negligible. For ash
the residue was ground in a mortar, then placed in the vacuum oven
over night and approximately macu of the total sample used for
the crude-ash determination.
Acidity.—All acid determinations were made with fresh makarnl
Two hundred grams of tomatoes were pulped and placed in a liter
volumetric flask, made up to volume with cold distilled water, and
toluol was added to prevent the growth of organisms. After stand-
ing three days, 50 c. c. aliquots were titrated against approximately
a tenth normal sodium-hydroxid solution (N/10 NaOH), using
phenolphthalein as the indicator. No trouble was experienced in
determining the end point. Separate determinations were made
untilthe duplicateschecked. Inorderto determine the effect of enzyms
on acid content, a sample treated with boiling water was titrated
three days later and the results compared with one using cold
water. For the former, 200 grams of material required 14.28 e. c.
N/10 NaOH, and for the same quantity of material employing cold
water, 14.18 c. c. N/i0 NaOH were required for neutralization.
Free reducing substances. —One-tenth of the original alcoholic extract
was evaporated nearly to dryness while the same part of the residue
was being extracted on a filter paper with warm water (35° C.).
Very little reducing substance remained after extracting the original
residue with alcohol, as described under ‘‘Sampling and preserva-
tion,’’ but the warm-water extraction was performed to insure the
removal of final traces. The aqueous extract was combined with the
residue from the alcoholic portion and filtered into a 250 c. c. volu-
metric flask, after which the filter paper was thoroughly washed.
One cubic centimeter of lead-acetate solution (a saturated solution
of the normal salt) was added and the solution made up to volume
at 20° C. The whole was filtered immediately and the excess of |
lead removed by adding approximately 0.5 gram of sodium oxalate.
After standing a short time the mixture was filtered through dry
filter paper and 10 c.c. of the clear solution used for the sugar deter-
mination. The method used for determining reducing sugars was a.
combination of that of Bertrand (10), and that of Munson and
Walker (33, 56). In this method the cuprous oxid is determined by
titration, as in the Bertrand method, Fehling’s solution and the
time of heating are as specified by Munson and Walker. The Munson
and Walker tables were used for the sugar equivalents.
Total sugars.—Fifty cubic centimeters of the solution used for -
free reducing sugars were transferred to a 100 c. c. volumetric flask
and 5 c. c. of HCl (sp. gr., 1.19) added. The mixture was set aside
over night and the flask made to volume at 20° C. the folowing morn-
o
|
PROCESS OF RIPENING IN THE TOMATO. E7
ing. The solution was then neutralized and filtered and 20 c. ec.
used for reduction.
Starch.—The residue from the water extraction of the SAInBIE used
for reducing substances was placed in an Erlenmeyer flask and
heated iqumesead in a boiling water bath for 24 hours with 150 ec. e.
of water and 15 c. c. of HCl (sp. gr., 1.125). After cooling and
neutralizing to phenolphthalein with NaOH, the mixture was made
to 250 c. ¢. volume at 20° C. and filtered rans a dry filter paper; ~
20 and 50 ¢. ec. aliquots of this solution were ted for reduction.
Pentosans.—A quantity of the original alcoholic extract represent-
ing one-tenth of the total extract was evaporated nearly to dryness
in an Erlenmeyer flask and one-tenth of the original residue added
to this. Pentosans were determined by the furfural-phloroglucid
precipitate method. The usual procedure is to distill over 360 c. c.
and then to make up to 400 c. c. with a phloroglucin solution. It
required 480 c. c. of distillate to obtain all of the furfural present,
and 40 c. ec. of phloroglucin solution were added to this. No correc-
tion was made for the additional 120 c. c. distilled over. Kréber’s
formule were used in calculating the pentosan equivalents, as given
in the Official and Provisional Methods of Analysis (57).
Total nitrogen.—Two hundred cubic centimeters of the original
‘alcoholic extract, representing one-tenth of the sample, were intro-
duced into a Kjeldahl flask and evaported to dryness on the steam
bath, and to this residue one-tenth of the original residue from
the original sample was added. The total nitrogen in the aliquot
was determined by the Kjeldahl method.1
Crude jfiber.—A quantity of the residue representing three-twen-
tieths of the sample was used for crude-fiber determination, which
was made in the usual manner.
ANALYTICAL DATA CONCERNING PROGRESSIVE CHANGES IN COMPO-
SITION DURING RIPENING,
The data showing progressive changes in composition during the
process of ripening are assembled in Table IV. In section A of this
table the percentages are referred to the weight of the entire fruit;
in section B they are reduced to a basis of dry weight. Each entry
in this table is a mean of two determinations, except as indicated by
an asterisk (*), which shows that duplicate determinations were not
made.
Although the method of sampling has been described, it may not
be amiss to emphasize the fact that each sample was a composite of
fruits of the same maturity but of greatly varying sizes. The data
with regard to average size and average weight at the various ages
are found in Table III.
1 All determinations of nitrogen reported in thisinvestigation were carried out by the Nitrogen Laboratory,
Bureau of Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture.
175085°—20—Bull. 859——3
18 BULLETIN 859, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TaBLE IV.—Progressive changes in the composition of Livingston Giobe tomatoes during
the process of ripening.
[The asterisk (*) indicates that the given result is based upon a single determination; results not thus
marked are the mean of two determinations. ]
Age and color of fruit.
Constituents. 5 | 7 ae ee
14 days, | 21 days, | 28 days, | 35 days, | 42 days, | 56 days,/56 days,
green. | green. | green. | green. | green. |turning.| red.
Src. A.—Percentage of entire fruit: | ~
Moisture. Byer aiel ata Nae Meee eS ee *93. 250 -| *94.140 |*94.140 |*94.540 | *94. 240 |*94. 450 +94, 490
ToOtalisolidS 32-8 sempre eee ee end *6. 750 *5, 860 | *5. 860 *5. 560 *5. 760 | *5. 550 *5. 510
Sugar-free'solidSsste. ss. e sae eee 5. 006 3.824 | 3.753 3. 416 3.385 | 2.994 2. 847
ASh Crile seater ansssce oe ae eee *_ 634 *, 562 *, 533 *, 509 *, 497 *, 484 *_ 504
ACidttya(@s citriciacid) hs ee . 320 . 585 SOD, . 883 . 640 .397 . 420
Rotalonitro cenit ee eee . 1999 . 150 . 1365 . 1305 . 140 . 1225 .116
‘Protein (—INBX< 6125) eee ee 1. 247 . 938 853 . 8156 - 875 . 766 . 725
Total sugar (aSinvert)........... ..-| 1.748 2.006 | 2.106 2. 143 PP BY (ay || 9 2s B18) 2. 667
Cane SUpariae sete tals oven hele tees . 018 .041 | 0 . 018 . 070 . 018 . 024
Reducing sugar (aSinvert)........- fe al, 7o2t 1.962 | 2.112 2.125 We S00) |p Ph B87) 2. 637
Starch. foes eNO We teak Spon ee ; 1.068 . 830 . 616 044 . 909 . 222 . 146
PentOSans hier mee helo een ieee tne 332 276 DAT. 273 |: . 264 228 238
Crude hip eres ey aii ated ee eaten ee *, 503 * 464 | *, 447 * 484 #433 || 75, 423 *, 394
Ratio (Sugan-facid)) kes ase ae eee 5. 450 3.420 | 5.980 2. 430 3.710 | 6.430 6.340
Carbohydrates—
TD OG alta eee Re hat te charg ee ee 3. 647 3.576 3. 415 8. 443 3.628 | 3.429 3. 441
Soluble aa ee ci eaten 1. 743 2.006 | 2.106 | 2.143 2.375 | 2.556 2. 667
how Sasso yah Poeauoesouscoee 1. 903 1.570 | 1.309 1.300 1. 253 . 873 774
Determined constituents.........-.- 99. 100 99. 801 | 99.294 |100. 192 99. 870 | 99.526 99. 580
Src. B.—Percentage of dry matter:
Sugar-tree sous esas eee eee 74, 120 65. 250 | 64.050 | 61.440 58. 760 | 53. 940 51. 670
IA SH CRUEL Se esse sene ep ayaa ae *9_ 390 *9.590 | *9.090 | *9. 150 *8.620 | *8.720 *9,140
Acidity, (as CltriG Acid) .-2-224-5- 5.8 4. 740 9.986 | 6.000 | 15.880 PTSELOR S250 7. 620
Totalmibrosenwaaee se nee estes | 2.960 2. 560 2. 330 2. 340 2. 440 2. 200 2.100
Protein (IN