XY \ WS WN ~ SN WW ° Sy < \; \ « \'\\ 2 REN . / Yi Z Yj); Yj trys WS Uy YY LEG MPA \ ~~ SY VW ZL \ YN SY UN N N : N N \\ SAN ASSAY \ SNES \\ \ \\ \ 4 \\ NX QQ NAYS NN WY . MQ \ \ “A (A. Yy YI \ XK \\ VC \ EN Class SF ZQ Book . Shere ore te GopyrightN°. COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT; fil 0D @ iL 2 ida sem! ane Ao eG fie fi fii S | | | } } Babcock Flask, Showing Fat in Neck (after Harrington) (Frontispiece) THE PRODUCTION AND HANDLING OF Gree AN vILK BiYg KENELM WINSLOW, M.D.; M.D.V.; B.A.S. ([Tarv.) Formerly Instructor in Bussey Agricultural Institute and Assistant Professor in the Veterinary School of Harvard University. Author of a text book on Veterinary Materia Medica and Therapeutics, Chairman of the Committee on Milk .of the Washington State Medical Association, ete. NEw YorK WILLIAM R. JENKINS Co. PUBLISHERS 851-853 SIxtH AVENUE aa RAEI SETS 2 Abel = TLIBRARY of CONGHESS | Two Copies Receivec | DEC 12 :907 Copyright cutry j lee (2 eae 4 GLASS4& —_XXe: Wu, | Seanad veer a Copyright, 1907 By WILLIAM R. JENKINS Co. All rights reserved [Registered at Stationers’ Hall, London] Printed inthe United States of America PRINTED BY THE PRESS OF WILLIAM R. JENKINS Co. NEW YORK PREEACE The writer is a graduate in agricultural science, in veter- inary and human medicine, and has been connected with a laboratory in which is examined the milk supply of a large city, and finally has had considerable practical experience in the production and distribution of clean milk. | These facts are simply mentioned to show that the book is written from various points of view. Much blame is attached to sundry persons engaged in vending milk, but the unfortunate farmer is apt to receive an unjust share because of the commonly unclean and there- fore unsanitary condition of most market milk. While city contractors and dealers may have much influence in instructing and requiring the farmer to live up to recognized standards of cleanliness, yet, after all, the chief responsibility lies with the consumer. The essential object in the clean milk crusade should be to awaken the public to the dangers of unclean milk and to emphasize the fact that it is impos- sible to produce and obtain clean milk except at unusual expense. When the public is sufficiently aroused to the evils of consuming unclean milk and evinces willingness to pay for clean milk, there will be no difficulty about its production. It is merely a question of supply and demand. PREFACE It is not generally known that the farmer sometimes receives but one-quarter of the retail price of milk (frequently but 2 cents a quart), and he can hardly be expected to undertake a considerably increased expenditure for the production of clean milk—this being the case. There is probably more interest being shown in this and other countries in a pure milk supply than ever before. For this reason it should be a comparatively easy task for any individual desiring to produce clean milk in any con- siderable community to find a sufficient patronage, particu- larly if the local medical profession is asked to assist, always providing that the proper standard is constantly and conscientiously maintained. The idea of financial return must be subordinated to this, and yet a reasonable profit can and must be had to sustain the required standard. The aim of this book is to provide a working guide for those pursuing or wishing to pursue one of the most whole- some, worthy and laudable undertakings—the production of clean milk. Most of the books at our command either touch the subject in a general manner or else describe special phases of it in detail, The attempt has here been made to cover the whole ground in as small compass as possible. That such an attempt must fall short the author is aware, as the topic of feeding cows alone (accorded but a chapter in this book) can only be fully treated in a large volume devoted wholly to this subject. Objection may be made to the recommendation of particular apparatus of certain manufacturers. But the PREFACE writer has been so desirous of making the book practical that it has been deemed essential to choose special appliances in order to avoid generalities and vagueness. While endeavoring to select the best, it does not follow that other appliances are not as good, or even better than those advised; but the author can truthfully affirm that both he and his publisher are entirely free from the remotest financial interest in advertising any special dairy appliances. Such appliances are undergoing the most wonderful and rapid improvement, almost from day to day, KENELM WINSLOW. a CONTENTS CHAP. PAGE I. GERMS IN - THEIR GENERAL RELATION TO MILK . . I II. COMPOSITION OF MILK AND CREAM AND THEIR PRO- jDJOF SESE Sa eee ee ie a? Rach Re NL ORS ea or ee VEG ERIE Ai se Velie scammers ) 2h u 29 ue ware BCE PEDUNG POUR NELD Rn brio ls RY 6 “hee el ete flee eae AO Ni HOUSING AND) CARH OPOCOWS | 5 2°23 oie Veo. 57 No RAN DEING com NETL KAD CIM) Ln UH oka OP VII. Cost oF PRODUCING AND DISTRIBUTING CLEAN MILK II0 VIII. Some Hints CONCERNING MILK DISTRIBUTION . . 125 Re WE LN SPHOTION Shan vt mete) Nel) Bi ia wee ete ct” pie AL APPENDIX—PLANS OF BARNS, MILK HOUSES, HI'Cc..-.. : «169 GENERAL OUTLINE OF A SCHEME FOR THE CONTROL, SUPER- VISION AND INSPECTION oF A City MILK Supply . . 198 Der iarae Meme PA ter geet ea eg SOS = Heh Co are oe 8 eu aga -LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Frontispiece Fig. I 2 General Shape of Bacteria The Constituent Elements of Milk—Fat, Serum, Casein Sketch A—Two methods of ventilating a Dairy Farm. Sketch B—Method of ventilating a Lean-to Stable Sketch C—Section of the Cow Stable of the Dairy Barn at the Wisconsin Experiment Station Iron Milking Stool The Gurler Milk Pail . A Recent Improvement on the Gurler Modification of Stewart’s Milk Pail The Conical Cooler Star Cooler . Tubular Cooler Star Cooler : Star Cooler . Star Cooler . Trap Milk Strainer Wash Sink . ‘ Various Forms of Brushes . Milk-Can Jacket . Star Side-Bar Filler Star High-Pressure Cylinder Star Sterilizer Bottle Brush , Star Metal Wash Sink Star Bottle-Washing Outfit . Steam Heating Tee Fig. LNTSTVORTEEOS TRATIONS Glass Dairy Thermometer . Machine for Chopping Ice used to Sea eat milk pote , Banjo Conductor for carrying milk through a wall Cylinder for conveying milk through a floor Cream Cooler connected with Separator Cream Bottle Filler Bottle Carriers : ; ; Car for conveying Carriers and Bottles Car for conveying Carriers and Bottles Wagon Box for carrying bottles on ice Star Milk Bottles : : ! Hand Separator for separating cream from milk . Milk Wagon Milk Wagon Delivery Basket . : ; : Small Babcock Machine, with other necessary paraphernalia Eight-Bottle Babcock Machine Power Babcock Machine Pipette for making the Babcock test é ; Shows method of introducing milk into Babcock bottle with pipette in making the fat test 1 cc. Pipettes enclosed in tubes for sterilizing Flasks and Vials for quantitative bacteriological analysis Two Burettes arranged for neutralizing culture media. Petri Dishes : Sketch showing HRS ee of 1 milk house coe a j. 2D: Farrell, Esq. Rough sketch of ground plan of pa for fone cows aw. H. Paulhamus, Esq.) ; Rough sketch of ground plan of milk foe cw. H. Paul- ‘hamus, Esq.) Page 96 97 98 99 100 IOI 102 103 104 105 106 107 126 £27 128 142 143 143 144 145 149 150 L52 153 179 I8I 183 ISR OF IBLUSTRA TIONS REATES Yeksa Sunbeam (Guernsey) F ‘ , . follows Shadybrook Gerben (Holstein) . Pansy of Woodroffe (Ayrshire) . Loretta D. (Jersey) Stable (J. D. Farrell, Esq.) Stable (J. D. Farrell, Esq.) Wash Room (J. D. Farrell, Esq.) Milk Room (J. D. Farrell, Esq.) Interior of the Paulhamus Barn . . : Bottle-washing Machine at the Paulhamus Farm Concrete and Cement Sterilizer, om The Improved ‘‘ Drown’’ Stall . : The Burrell-Lawrence-Kennedy Cow Milker The Pulsator ‘ : : : : Illustrating the Hegelund method of milking Dipper and Siphon for removing cream and milk respectively . Colonies or collections of germs . sé Page 170 170 172 E72 178 180 180 180 180 182 184 186 188 188 192 132 156 CHARTERS! GERMS IN THEIR GENERAL RELATIONS TO MILK HE object of this book is to show the importance — nay, even necessity—of a clean milk production, and the practical methods by which it may be obtained. Heretofore milk has been regarded much in the same light as other articles of food, but it differs from them in many important respects. It is the only animal food which is commonly eaten in the raw state, and it forms the sole diet for human beings at an immature age, when they are least able to cope with the disorders which contaminated and dirty milk is liable to produce. Again—and this is the chief reason why milk needs especial care in its production—it always contains more or less germs, and, indeed, forms one of the most favorable foods on which germs grow. The common idea of germs appears to be that they are chiefly important in being the cause of disease, and while some germs do produce disease—and occasionally those inhabiting milk which has not been properly cared for—yet they mainly interest the farmer on account of their powerful and enormous influence upon milk and its products. The chief aim of this book is to enforce on the farmer and dairy- man this one fact, that the One Essential in producing and handling milk is CLEANLINEss, and cleanliness means in this connection freedom from germs, so far as this is possible. 2 CLEAN MILK It would scarce be an exaggeration to say that ali the trouble which arises in the endeavor to secure good milk or milk- products results from the contamination of milk with unde- sirable germs. Thus the proper taste, odor, color, consis- tency and keeping qualities of milk depend upon its comparative freedom from undesirable germs. Conversely, the souring of milk and faults in odor, color, consistency and taste depend almost wholly upon the presence of one or more varieties of germs. Moreover, the prevention of contamination of milk with miscellaneous germs is just as important in order to make the best products from milk, as it is to avoid disease in man. Thus the finest cream is only produced from milk in which germs are comparatively absent. Cream laden with miscellaneous germs has bad keeping qualities and often a faulty taste or odor. Most of the so-called faults of butter arise not from improper feeding of cows or from improper making or handling of butter, but from undesir- able germs which infest it. Among some of the more com- mon faults of butter are poor flavor, tallowy or oily butter, butter having a bitter, rotten or root-taste like turnips, rancid, mottled and moldy butter, and butter of unusual colors; all of these faults have been proved to be due to the contamination of butter with germs which existed in the milk. While germs in milk produce changes in cheese which give rise to its proper consistency and flavor, yet it is only a certain type or types of germs which are desirable, and a general pollution of milk with germs of many kinds may wholly unfit milk for cheese making. It is essential that milk should be pure when employed for condensing, and, although germs are destroyed in the GERMS IN RELATION TO MILK 3 process, this is much more readily accomplished if the milk is clean in the beginning and the keeping qualities will be much better. Above all, when milk is sold for general con- sumpfion it must be pure—comparatively germ-free—to be wholesome, to bring a good price, to keep, and to fall within the ‘legal requirements which will soon become gen- eral throughout this country. Heretofore, when milk was regarded in the same light as any other food, the law required simply that it should not be adulterated and that it should contain a quantity of food-constituents equivalent to the minimum standard in force. Now, however, it has come to be realized that of the two the cleanliness of the milk is an hundredfold more important than its food value. While a milk poor in fat may mean a certain loss of nutriment to one using it, the contamination of milk with certain germs may be a matter of life and death to the consumer—particularly if an infant. The sooner the farmer and dairyman realize that the secret of success in the making of milk and milk-products is clean- liness—and by cleanliness we mean essentially methods to prevent the entrance of germs into milk—the better will it be for them and for everyone. Germs, or, as they are more technically termed, bac- teria, are the most minute forms of plant life we know. They occur in various shapes, but chiefly in the form of either rods, round cells or spirals. When seen through the microscope they present somewhat the appearance of minute pencils, billiard balls or cork-screws, according as they be- long to one or the other of these three types. In masses of thousands they may be visible to the naked eye as specks like mold, but singly they can only be seen with a com- pound microscope magnifying more than 500 times. The 4 CLEAN MILK most common of all varieties of germs in milk are those- which cause it to sour—the lactic acid bacilli (the bacilli are the rod or pencil-shaped germs), and these are about 3-25,000 of an inch long and 1-25,000 of an inch broad. Germs grow on vegetable and animal matter, but not in the tissues or cells of living animals or vegetables, although they are found on all parts of them exposed to the air. Germs are, in fact, everywhere—in the air, in water, in soil, on the skin and in the digestive canal of animals and on the sur- face of plants and in dust. Professor Conn has found as many as 200 different kinds of germs in milk alone. Germs- JUSS Te [6 25 S 0 [) CS ‘ CS OPo PALA LS a eo General shape of bacteria. a, spheres; 6, rods; c, spirals. (After Conn.) propagate by dividing into two equal parts—more usually~ —which form new individuals. The time required for a germ to mature and form a new germ may not be more than twenty minutes, Germs also multiply by spores—that is, small, round or egg-shaped bodies appear within the mature germ and’ these later break loose and develop, under favorable cir- cumstances, into full-grown germs again. Germs which increase in this manner are much more difficult to kill, for~ in the spore stage they often defy prolonged heat, even at the boiling temperature, and also cold at or below freezing- and dryness, as dust, in v-!.’ch they may exist for years. GERMS IN RELATION TO MILK 5 To show the possibilities in the way of multiplication, it has been calculated that a single germ, under favorable circum- stances, may within twenty-four hours produce over sixteen millions of progeny. Germs, however, depend upon certain conditions for their growth; otherwise they would crowd all other life off the globe. Besides organic matter to feed on, the chief circumstances limiting their existence are heat and moisture. Germs usually do not grow at a temperature below 39° or above 140° F. Freezing does not necessarily destroy germs—as, for instance, the germs of typhoid fever have remained alive in ice fora period of three months—but this temperature checks their growth and many kinds of germs are killed by it. Ice water is therefore comparatively free from germs. The most favorable temperature for the -growth of disease germs is that of the animal body—from 98° F. to 103° F.—while most other germs multiply most readily between the temperatures of 59° F. and 77° F. This knowledge is of the greatest importance in the -care of milk and teaches us that the chief essential consists in cooling it immediately to a low temperature—4o° F. to 50° F.—and keeping it at this temperature thereafter tilf -consumed. The number of germs in milk is always estimated -as that number contained in a cubic centimeter of milk. A cubic centimeter represents a cube holding a quantity of liquid equivalent to about one-quarter of a teaspoonful, or ‘sixteen drops of water. If milk is kept at below 50° F. for 24 hours there is not only not an increase but generally a decrease in the number of germs, and the same usually holds good for milk kept 36 hours below 45° F. After 36 hours, when milk is kept at 40° F., there is an increase in the number of germs. Dr. Park found in a sample of milk 6 CLEAN MILK containing only 3,000 germs in the cubic centimeter, that after 24 hours at 42° F. it contained 2,600 germs; after 48 hours 3,600 germs; and after 96 hours 500,000 germs to the cubic centimeter. The number of germs in milk kept at 32° F. lessens from day to day. When milk is kept at higher temperatures the germs multiply rapidly and it sours and deteriorates correspond- ingly. It has been shown that very clean milk (containing but 3,000 germs to the cubic centimeter), if kept for 24 hours at 60° F., held 180,o00 germs; if kept at 86° PF. for 24 hours it contained 1,400,000 germs; and at 94° F. the germs multiplied so tremendously that at the end of 24 hours the same milk contained 25 billion germs per cubic centimeter. All germs require some moisture in order that they may actually grow, but they may exist in large quantities—for a longer or shorter time—in dust. Some require air for their existence, others do not. Sunlight is one of the most powerful enemies of germs, since few will thrive in sunlight, especially in the presence of plenty of air. This explains the value of sunning dairy utensils and of permitting the sunlight to enter freely into the barn and dairy. Some germs grow more readily in sub- stances having an alkaline or neutral reaction; others, as those which cause milk to sour, flourish in an acid medium, providing the acidity is not too great. The most potent factors in destroying germs are intense heat and cold, sunlight and chemicals. A temperature varying from 140° to 158° F. will kill most germs—if con- tinued long enough or repeated at frequent intervals. Milk treated by continued, intermittent heating at 140° F. has been kept for years without changing, owing to the destruc- GERMS IN RELATION TO MILK 4 tion of germs (and ferments) in it. As the time required for the destruction of germs at this temperature is too great for practical dairy purposes, a temperature of 165° F. is usually applied for either killing or checking the develop- ment of germs in milk. Heating milk with this object in view is called technically pasteurization, after the great originator of the process. If properly done for twenty min- utes, pasteurization kills most of the germs in milk and this is the best way to obviate the dangers of dirty milk for human consumption—more particularly in the case of infants. There are certain drawbacks to the process, how- ever. Ifthe milk has been kept long before heating, poisons may form in it which the heat will not destroy. Many medical authorities believe that milk thus heated is less digestible, but this is an unsettled matter at present. There are certain substances present in cows’ milk exactly resem- bling those which bring about the digestion of food in the stomach and bowels of man and animals. These chemical substances in milk or in the digestive organs are called fer- ments. They appear to aid the digestibility of milk, particularly in infants, and are destroyed by heating milk over 179° F., or at a lower temperature if the milk is repeatedly heated. It is generally accepted, however, that babies will not thrive so well on pasteurized milk for long periods, as on clean, unheated milk, and occasionally develop malnutrition, anemia, rickets and scurvy. The last may be prevented by feeding infants a small amount of orange juice daily. The simplest method of home pasteurization consists in pouring a quart of milk into a two-quart glass preserve jar and placing the jar with the milk in it on a flat, thin piece of wood (to prevent breaking of the jar by heat) in an open kettle. Warm water is then poured into the kettle so that it 8 GEEAN TIHIEK. will rise to almost the level of the milk in the jar and the kettle is set upon a stove. When the water in the kettle begins to boil the kettle is removed to the back or side of the stove—where it will receive but little heat—for twenty minutes, and then the bottle is taken from the kettle and placed inarefrigerator. As Ihave observed, in pasteur- ization done on a large scale for market purposes in Seattle, the result has been a farce other than it enabled the milk- man to keep the milk for perhaps twenty-four hours longer than it would have otherwise kept sweet. The pasteuriza- tion of the market milk was only done for three minutes, possibly because the machine—which permitted of a contin- uous flow of milk through it—was not competent to do the work properly, but also because thoroughly pasteurized milk has a cooked taste and cream does not rise readily from it, much of the fat remaining in the skim milk. The pasteurizers having a large chamber, in which the milk may be retained for the required time at the proper temperature, are preferable. Short pasteurization prevents milk from souring quickly because the germs which cause milk to sour are those most readily succumbing to heat. The general effect of short pasteurization is simply to check—for a longer or shorter time—the growth of germs. They are retarded in their development, not killed. Disease germs are not destroyed at all in the process. Experiments which I have conducted with the pasteurized milk of the general market showed that while containing but 15,000 germs to the cubic centimeter, soon after emerging from the pasteurizer on the delivery wagon, in twenty-four hours the same milk con- tained several million germs to the cubic centimeter. Drs. Bergey and Pennington found much the same result in Philadelphia; that raw and recently pasteurized milk con- GERMS IN RELATION TC MILK 9 tained respectively 1,260 and 12 bacteria, but, at the end of 72 hours, the numbers were 17,000,000 and 148,000,000 germs. Also the harmless lactic acid germs of raw milk are killed by heat, and the more dangerous germs from dirty bottles, corks and dust contaminate the improperly pasteurized milk. I have, however, pasteurized fresh, clean milk for twenty minutes and exposed it at mild spring weather temperature for nineteen hours in a sealed bottle with the result that it was absolutely free from germs at the end of that time. If pasteurization is done thoroughly the lactic acid bacilli (sour milk germs) are destroyed and so the milk does not sour but putrefies when it ages. Pasteurization prevents milk from being properly cur- dled by rennet and so unfits milk for cheese-making. Pas- teurized milk or cream may be used to advantage for butter- making when the lactic acid germs are added in the form of sour milk, known asa “starter,” which will be described later. If we must have dirty milk, pasteurization is the best remedy for this unhappy state of affairs, but it may well prove undesirable to thus remove the incentive to dairymen to produce clean milk. If done at all for the market, it should be done thoroughly by heating the milk for twenty minutes to 165° F., followed by rapid cooling.* If milk is not cooled down to a low point after pasteurization, spores will develop which have escaped destruction on account of their great resistance to heat, and these will result in germs which, while not souring milk, act on the casein to cause it to curdle and perhaps become poisonous and putrid. In Europe pasteurization of milk is much more common than in this country, since ice is in less common use. In Den- mark it is required by law, so that tuberculosis may not be spread when skim milk is returned from the creameries and * Pasteurized milk which is sold for general consumption should be always marked as such, in order that infants shall not be harmed by its use. 10 CLEAN MILK fed to calves. This custom might well be imitated in the United States, since the young stock are not only protected from disease, but the keeping quality of the skim milk is so much improved. A higher temperature than 165° F. gives the milk a boiled taste and alters its composition to some extent. Steam or boiling water are used to destroy germs in or on dairy utensils. Chemicals find little use as germ-destroyers in a pro- perly conducted dairy or farm. They may be employed to some extent in the barn (as lime scattered on the floor), or in case milk products become faulty through some con- tamination with special germs in the stable or dairy, when general disinfection is in order. The employment of the various preservatives under the trade names of Freezine, Iceline, Preservaline, Milk Sweet (all containing from two to five per cent, of formaldehyde), and others containing boric acid, as Dry Antiseptic, Preserving Salts) “9 Sire servaline, Cream Albuminoid, Patent ‘‘M” Preservaline and Ozone Antiseptic Compound, are employed to keep milk from souring without the use of ice or cleanliness by killing or checking the growth of germs in milk. Their use is contrary to law and detrimental to the consumer's health, especially when employed, as they usually are, in a careless way, without regard to what the effect of a con- siderable amount of the chemical might be. “Dhus@the following instance is related in the Year Book of the Department of Agriculture for 1900 of a case where a preserving fluid was first added to the milk by the farmer, then by the collector of the milk, again by the wholesale dealer, and finally the fourth dose by the retail dealer. If it were impossible to produce clean milk or to pre- serve it with ice, and if preservatives could be used properly GERMS IN RELATION TO MILK ra in a harmless dose, their employment might be permitted, but such is not the case. Significance of Germs in Milk The growth of large numbers of germs in milk causes it to deteriorate because they remove nutriment or alter the milk chemically and thus lessen its food-value. Ordinary market milk, which is overrun with germs, loses much of its value as food after it is twenty-four hours old. The ideal result would be reached if milk could be withdrawn from the cow absolutely free from germs. This might be pos- sible if germs did not enter the udder in the air through the opening in the teat and find their way into the cavity or milk-cistern in the lower part of the udder. Asthe milking proceeds the germs in the milk-cistern and teat are washed away so that the latter part of the milk withdrawn is often absolutely free from germs until contaminated with the out- side air. Occasionally germs may persist in milk throughout milking, and the strippings may contain as many as 500 germs to the cubic centimeter. If the latter part of the milk is withdrawn through an absolutely clean milking tube into an absolutely clean bottle, it will often be wholly with- out germs, and may keep sweet for months or years if it does not come in contact with the air. Such painstaking cleanliness as is necessary to make this experiment suc- cessful, is not of course practicable in actual dairy work, since it is not economically possible to throw away a larger part of the milk nor to withdraw milk so that it will not come in contact with air.* Therefore, under any ordinary conditions a certain number of germs must inevitably be present in the cleanest milk—perhaps 200 to 4,000 as the least number to the cubic centimeter. * Since writing the above the use of the milking machine (see p. 189) makes withdrawal of milk without exposure to air practicable. 12 CLEAN DHETS Then, if the milk is immediately cooled to 40° F. and retained at this temperature, the number of germs will lessen until it is thirty-six hours old. The presence of many thousand germs to the cubic centimeter in milk freshly withdrawn indicates filthiness of the cow, milker or surroundings. The existence of a great variety of germs in milk sev- eral hours old signifies contamination of the milk with filth also, because in clean milk only one kind of germs (lactic acid bacilli) are found very numerous after many hours. While the .mere fact that milk contains a vast number of germs is not a sure proof of its unwholesomeness— because the commonest germs in milk are harmless and because milk may contain but a few germs and these may be the cause of dangerous disease in man—yet the estima- tion of the number of germs in milk is to-day the best method we possess for determining its purity. Ordinary market milk contains as many germs as sew- age, and unusually dirty milk contains more germs than sewage was ever known to hold. This is, however, not at all a fair comparison, for while sewage is likely to contain all sorts of germs of disease, the germs in dirty milk are mostly not disease-germs. ; We may consider the influence of germs in milk under - two heads: 1. The effects of germs on milk and its products. 2. The influence of germs in milk on the consumer. 1. The Effects of Germs on Milk and Its Products.— All fermentation and putrefaction orerotting, anywhere and of anything, are due to germs. Germs are the great disintegrating agencies in the world ; they tend to break up complex, natural constituents GERMS IN RELATION TO MILK 13 in milk and its products into simpler bodies. The com- monest germs in milk—as we have noted—are those causing souring of milk; they are invariably present and are about the only kind existing in very clean milk. They act to fer- ment or change the natural sugar of milk into an acid (lactic acid), and if they occur in large numbers a few hours after milking it is a sign that the milk has not been properly cooled and will sour early. Lactic acid germs, or those producing souring of milk, besides being the most common, are of most importance in their influence on milk and its products. They exist in very small numbers in milk soon after leaving the cow, but as they grow more readily than all other germs in milk at favorable temperatures (above 50° and better over 70° F.), they often constitute almost 50 per cent. of all the germs in twenty-four hours, While, after this time, they gradually crowd out the different varieties of competing germs until they produce so much acid that the milk or cream sours and curdles, and they have multiplied so rapidly and have made the milk so unfavorable for other germs that they form from g0 to 99 per cent. of all the germs present. This is a most favorable occurrence, because the flavor of most butter and cheese is chiefly dependent on the action of the lactic acid germs, and in their growth they protect the milk from the action of miscellaneous germs which would spoil these products. Even to man the growth of the lactic acid germs is a favorable happening, as they are not harmful to adults in themselves and tend to check the development of other harmful germs in the digestive canal.* As we have pointed out, heating milk to 155° or 165° F. readily kills the lactic acid germs. Therefore such milk does not sour, but is changed by the action of other harmful germs so that it rots * Indeed Metchnikoff, perhaps the most celebrated living authority on the action of germs on the body, belives that lactic acid germs in buttermilk consti- tute one of the best agencies for prolonging life. 14 CLEAN MILK or putrefies when old. A low temperature (40° F.) also retards the development of the lactic acid germs and they are killed when the milk or cream becomes very sour by means of the lactic acid they themselves produce. The action of these lactic acid germs is taken advantage of in the ripening of cream for butter by adding them in great numbers, either by the use of sour cream or milk, or by laboratory methods by which they can be obtained in pure culture—that is, free from admixture with other varieties of germs (see page 39). Lactic acid germs are not found in milk when it leaves the udder, but enter the milk when it is exposed to air. They are thought to reside on the skin of the cow, in dust, in the air or surroundings of the barn. Ordinary market milk at 50° F. sours in 120 hours; at 60° F. it sours in 66 hours; at 98° it sours in 16 to 18 hours, At the Paris exposition of 1900 there was an exhibit of dairy products, under care of Major Alford of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, which consisted of fresh milk and cream shipped from Illinois, New Jersey and New York in hot weather (July). Coming some 3,000 to 4,000 miles, the cream and milk were perfectly sweet a fortnight after being bottled, while the only other competitor was the French with a local supply which did not keep a day after reaching the grounds. Cleanliness and cold were the only methods used in so wonderfully preserving this milk, If milk is very dirty, however, it is not safe to keep it too long with ice, even if it does not sour and is unaltered in taste, as various sorts of harmful germs may develop at alow temperature. Thus, milk containing, soon after milk- ing, some 800,000 germs to the cubic centimeter, after four days at 41° F. contained almost five million germs and became sour. At the end of ten days this same milk con- GERMS IN RELATION TO MILK IS tained over 400 million germs, or over ten times the num- ber of germs in the same milk kept the same time! at 59° F.* The milk kept at a higher temperature soured more quickly and the acid destroyed many of the germs in the process. There is a large class of germs known as putrefactive germs because they produce changes in milk which are akin to rotting of meat. If these continue to develop long enough they may impart a bad odor to milk or its products and are likely to induce diarrhoeal diseases in children. These germs are more liable to arise from the contamina- tion of milk with manure and are the germs which have escaped from the intestines of the cow. If milk contains many of this type of germs it signifies that the milk was withdrawn under filthy conditions. There are a great number of germs in milk which apparently have no effect upon its character and also are not harmful to the consumer. It is practically impossible to discover the germs of special diseases in milk with any certainty, so that besides recognizing the chief types of germs—the lactic acid germs, the putrefactive germs, and miscellaneous germs whose action is unknown to us—the best that can be done at present is to estimate the number of germs in milk per cubic centimeter. Large numbers of miscellaneous and putrefactive germs signify that the milk is contaminated with filth and is most dangerous, Large numbers of lactic acid germs indicate that the milk has not been kept cool enough or is old. Freedom from any considerable number of germs is a pretty certain sign that the milk has been drawn from the cow and handled in a cleanly manner; has been properly cooled and is likely to be uncontaminated * Swithinbank & Newman. 16 CLEAN Die with disease-germs. This is the justification of cities which require that milk shall not contain more than a specified number of germs (bacteria) to the cubic centimeter, Thus the law in force in Boston requires that milk sold in that city shall not contain more than 500,000 germs to the cubic centimeter. It has generally been admitted that it is difficult to obtain any large supply of milk which shall certainly contain less than 30,000 germs to the cubic centimeter. In various. parts of the United States milk of such purity is now sold and is often called ‘‘ Certified Milk,” when certified by some responsible body who have a laboratory to daily determine that the milk comes up to the required standard. The name ‘Certified Milk” originated with Henry L. Coit, M.D. He established a commission of medical men in Newark, N. J., in 1893, who made an agreement with a dairyman of Caldwell, N.J., to furnish milk subject to their requirements and Teneecen which should be known as “Certified Milk” when approved by the commission. Any person who pretends to produce clean milk must submit to the germ standard, as this is the best means of estimating purity which we now possess. Exactly what that standard should be has, however, not been generally agreed upon.* It is perfectly possible to produce milk which shall not contain more than a few hundred, or, at most, not more than 2,000 to 4,000 germs to the cubic centimeter without great expense, if every precaution to secure cleanliness be observed in milking and handling the milk. The usual contamination of milk with germs may be judged by the following figures with the understanding that great improvement is taking place owing to the interest *Tt is not unusual to find 10,000 germs as the maximum number per cubic centimeter permitted in certain localities for certified milk. The standard of Albany for certified milk has been 80,000; fa Rochester and New York City, 30,000; for Philadelphia and Milwaukee, 10,000. GERMS IN RELATION TO MILK 1074 which has been shown in the matter of obtaining a pure milk supply in recent years by physicians and others. In Boston, during the spring of 1890, 57 samples of milk showed an average of 2,355,500 germs in the better class milk, and of 4,557,000 germs in grocery milk. In winter the growth of germs is considerably lessened by the colder temperature and this is somewhat counterbalanced by the filthier condi- tions of the barn floors, air and of the animals. On the whole, winter milk is, however, much freer from germs. The New York County Medical Society issue a certificate of inspection to farmers who will follow their directions for producing a second-grade, pure milk which shall not average over 100,000 germs from May to October, and not over 60,000 germs from October to May. In Seattle I found in twenty-eight examinations of different samples of milk on as many days in May and June, that sixteen samples averaged over 3,000,000 germs, and twelve samples less than 1,000,000 germs per cubic centimeter. The examina- tion of these milk samples was done when the milk was fifteen to thirty-six hours old, on the way to the consumer's house, being taken from the delivery wagons or on arrival of the milk train. A great many conditions may alter the number of germs in milk if milk is not produced and handled in a proper manner. Time and temperature are the two most important factors upon which the growth of germs depends —and the greatest of these is temperature. The milk from one farm examined at the same hour on two consecutive days averaged 1,150,000 germs on the first day—-which was warm for May—and 48,000 germs the following day, which was cold and rainy. The great increase of germs when milk is kept at improper temperatures, we have already noticed, 18 CLEAN MILK the number of germs in such milk depending entirely upon its age. To show the effect of dust and unclean utensils on milk I may cite the following: a sample of pasteurized milk, taken from a delivery wagon and examined by the writer, contained seven million germs, while from the same wagon was also taken a sample of the same milk put into sealed milk bottles which contained but 24,000 germs to the cubic centimeter. The first sample was taken from a large can which was frequently opened to pour out small quantities for consumers and very likely the can was unclean before the milk was put into it. Germs do not multiply at all in milk at 32° F., no mat- ter how long it is kept. After the milk is withdrawn from the cow the number of germs in it generally diminishes for a longer or shorter time, and after this period the number rapidly increases. Thus at fifty degrees the number of germs may not be greater in thirty or forty hours than it was when the milk was first withdrawn. Ata higher temperature the germs begin to multiply in the milk as soon as the third hour after it has left the cow. Each variety of germ has a special temperature at which it flourishes to best advantage. The lactic acid germs grow more favorably at comparatively high temperatures—from 70° to 90° F., or even higher. There are certain special germs—not all of which have been studied—which produce special faults, or, as they have been called, diseases of milk. ‘Thus the butyric acid germs develop that acid by the splitting up the fat in rancid butter. Yellow, red, blue, brown and green milk are rarely seen and the particular coloration is due to changes produced in the milk by special germs. So also are slimy milk, bitter, stringy and soapy GERMS IN RELATION TO MILK 19 milk, entirely owing to germ-development and its effect on milk, This whole book is chiefly devoted to the influence of germs on milk, in one way or another, and further reference to the subject will be found under the special topics con- sidered. 2. Action of Germs tn Milk Upon the Consumer.—- As we have already intimated, germs do not enter milk during its formation in the udder of the cow, in normal conditions, but only gain entrance to milk through the medium of the air when the milk flows into the receptacle or cistern which communicates with the air through the opening in the teat. We showed that if the milk cistern was washed out clean and that if then a milking tube was introduced into the teat it was possible to secure milk free from germs altogether and which would therefore remain sweet indefinitely if kept in a sealed flask. If the cow is suffering from a germ disease it is possible for the germs to get into the milk, during its formation in the udder, from the blood of the animal, if it has a general dis- ease, or what is still more likely, if there is disease of the udder itself, the germs may find their way into the milk directly from the diseased parts. Inflammation of the udder may be caused by various germs, of which the germ of tuber- culosis is one and perhaps the most dangerous. This germ is found in milk then more frequently when tuberculosis affects the udder, but possibly also when tuberculosis attacks other parts of the cow. Just how common, and how important, therefore, is tuberculosis in the cow a source of the disease in man through drinking milk of tuberculous cows, it is impossible to say. Cases of tuberculosis in 20 CLEAN MAILE human beings have undoubtedly arisen from this source and in consequence it is essential that all cows should be tested with tuberculin, to exclude the possibility of tuberculosis, before the milk is used for dairy purposes. The germs of tuberculosis have been found not only in milk, but in cream and butter, although there is no cer- tain evidence that the disease was ever produced in man by the latter two products. The more ordinary germs which cause acute inflamma- tion of the udder, or garget, are those which produce acute inflammation and pus in all parts of the body, and pus or ’ “matter” is often found in the milk (see page 159). Milk obtained from cows with garget is highly danger- ous to man and causes disease in him which in some cases resembles diphtheria and at other times has appeared iden- tical with scarlet fever. The milk from such cows may com- municate the inflammation of the udder to other cows in the same barn by means of germs carried by the milker’s hands. Therefore cows with caked or inflamed udders should be kept apart and milked by one not milking the healthy cows. The milk from cows with foot-and-mouth disease has been the means of communicating this disease to man, giving rise in him to sore mouth, tender swellings. under the jaw, an eruption of blisters or “cold sores” on the face, fever and disturbance of the digestion. Cow pox, milk fever, anthrax and pleuropneumonia in cows have been conveyed by the germs of these diseases, in their milk, to human beings. It may be positively affirmed that the milk from a sick cow or one receiving drugs, is not fit for human consump- tion. The milk of tuberculous cows may be safely fed to swine or calves after boiling for ten or more minutes. GERMS IN RELATION TO MILK 21 The germs of typhoid fever, diphtheria and scarlet fever* (rarely of cholera, dysentery and smallpox) occasion- ally find their way into milk, owing to the milk coming in ‘contact with human patients suffering from these diseases, or with their surroundings, or from contamination of milk utensils with water harboring the germs of typhoid fever. Also, by wading in filth containing the bowel and urinary ‘discharges of human beings, cows may contaminate their udders with germs of typhoid fever and thus convey them to milk. Other agencies by which disease germs may be carried to milk and by which many cases of typhoid fever, diph- teria and scarlet fever have been communicated to man are as follows: by attendants in the sick room coming in contact with milk, by dish cloths, brushes and other articles coming in contact with the sick and milk utensils as well, by contact of milk with flies and by contact of milk with persons handling human excremeit. The lesson which should be taken to heart is that no sick person or one coming in contact with persons sick with communicable diseases, shouid be allowed to have anything to do with the handling of milk, milk utensils or be per- mitted entrance to, barn or dairy. Milk should be kept ina room separate from human habitation, and all the utensils ‘should be kept and cared for in this milk room. Young chil- dren should be excluded from barn and dairy, as they are much more prone to contagious diseases than adults. Dogs and cats may be carriers of germs, dirt and parasites, and should also be kept out of these places. The water used in connection with the dairy should be examined for purity by a competent chemist. All forms of disease conveyed by germs in milk to * Physicians are required by law to report all cases of infectious disease to the local board of health. It should also be made mandatory that physicians state the name of the milk dealer supplying the patient with milk, in the case -of every report of infectious disease, as is done in Mt. Vernon, N.Y. In this way sendemics originating in milk contamination with human infections could be weadily traced. 2474 CLEAN QHUEK human adults are as nothing in comparison with the damage wrought by germ-laden milk upon infants. Cholera infan- tum, in fact, is but another name for acute milk poison- ing. (Practically almost all the “cases “of ‘summer ‘diar rheea an» babies are-caused: by “germs an “milke dnece are probably chiefly of the putrefactive type which enter milk from manure on the cow. Indeed, in some localities from 4o to 60 per cent. of the deaths in infants. from all causes result from dirty milk. The wonderful reduction in the death rate of infants in some of our large cities—which is one of the remarkable signs of modern progress—has been brought about solely by the recognition of this fact. This reduction is directly traceable to the use of pure milk or, where this is not obtainable, to milk heated to 165° F. for thirty minutes, at which temperature the growth of germs. is killed or checked. Violent and often fatal poisoning, resembling cholera, is produced by a substance (tyrotoxicon) formed by certain germs in milk kept in dirty, covered vessels during hot weather. The same poison has some- times been found in cheese, cream and ice cream and has also caused fatal results. Heating impure milk will destroy this poison. Chiefly through the laudable and efficient work of Health Officer G. W. Goler, M.D., in supplying cer- tified milk to the public of Rochester, N. Y., the infant mortality has been reduced as follows: 1887-1896, before milk work was done, the average mortality in infants under 1 year in the month of July was 1,010; 1897-1906, after the milk work was begun the average mortality was only 413 in July under the same circumstances. Giese ks - LT. COMPOSITION OF MILK AND CREAM AND THEIR PRODUCTS Mo. is a white, opaque fluid, when seen in bulk, but appears transparent in thin layers. It hasa peculiar, pleasant odor and taste which cannot be described. They can best be appreciated—by comparison —when they are absent. Thus, milk which has been heated in open vessels or passed through a separator loses some of its finest flavor. This flavor resides in a volatile substance which escapes in either process. Chemically, milk is composed of all the essentials of a complete food. That is, it is a single substance which con- tains all the food-elements necessary to indefinitely support life. These food-elements are known technically as Pro- tezds, Fat, Sugar and Mineral Matters. Proteids in milk have the same food value as flesh or eggs. Water is, of course, the largest constituent of milk, forming about 87 per cent. of it. The solids make up the remainder of milk, amounting to about 13 per cent. and comprising the substances we © have just enumerated, proteids, fat, sugar and mineral mat. ters. Omitting the mineral matters or salts, we may, in a general way, remember the proportion of proteids, fat and sugar as four per cent. of each, the percentage of proteids being slightly below and that of sugar slightly above these figures. The fat is the only one of these constituents which 23 24 CLEAN MILK varies greatly and this indeed varies tremendously (from 1.5 to 13. per cent.) and owing to a ‘great variety of circumstances which will be noted. If the fat is all removed from milk—which can practi- cally be done with the separator—we have left the skim milk, which is composed of the proteids, sugar and water, The sugar is of a kind peculiar to milk and therefore called milk sugar. It is found in no other substance and is not nearly so sweet as ordinary or cane sugar. The souring of milk is due to fermentaton of milk sugar which takes place through the action of certain germs (lactic acid germs), which we have already mentioned and which are always present in the cleanest milk. These germs lead to the breaking up (fermentation) of the sugar in milk into lactic acid (or milk acid). We have accounted for the sugar in the skim milk; we have left for consideration the pro- teids and mineral matters. The proteids are of two kinds: Casein (or casetnogen) and Albumin. Casein forms nearly four-fifths of the proteids and is that part of milk which makes the curd of skim milk or the part of milk which forms the bulk of cheese. The word caseous means cheesy. The other kind of proteid or albumin remains mostly in the whey when milk is curdled. Casein exists in the form of microscopic solid particles floating in the milk, while the albumin is in actual solution, together with the mineral matter, in the water of the milk. This will be apparent if milk is kept a long while, when the cream (mostly fat) rises to the top; the casein settles as another white layer to the bottom of the vessel, while in between these is seen a third clear layer (serum) consisting of water, in which remain dissolved the mineral matter and albumin (Fig. 2). The Constituent Elements of Milk—Fat, Serum, aud Casein. (From Swithinbank & Newnan). gabe Ni ai: oo eae : : ’ aa ae" ‘ 7) ¥ a yy , ee oy y1 Bi + an ] hd + : 4 oh 0 Labed ae 2 me, ~ — Ss = 7 . ® . > =e a, be cf « a es ne “20S | oe es : a = > —_ ae , ee - 4 %. fe i oes a RN eds Gir eee F | a -s f ' ; ; Sew A (4 a 04 A ae aa? . 7 ‘a 4 4 ae a ' i \ 4 4 ‘/ 4 pil 4 F : : hee d id ad Leo di Ms a) i i.e lattes Ph oe 2 ae Ge , aie ee hal) 4 Sew i) Ae ll ¥ vie a ha oe : Y al ao ta. a4 TOM ahha * y f Fels he | ery > . Y Atiot + L) 4 uf " See SNe a COMPOSITION OF MILK AND CREAM 25 Milk curdles because the casein in it clots or coagulates by the action of dilute acid (the lactic acid of sour milk), or by the ferment, rennet, which represents the dried secretion scraped from the calves’ stomachs. The second form of curdling is what naturally happens when milk is taken into the stomach as food. The albumin of milk is not curdled by the souring of milk or by rennet, but is, to a slight extent, by heat at a temperature over 162° F. The fat in milk occurs as the most minute, microscopic globules which float through the milk and, on account of their buoyancy, rise more or less quickly to the surface and there form cream. These minute droplets of fat are appa- rently surrounded by a wonderfully thin pellicle or covering which is thought to consist of a layer of casein adhering by capillary attraction. Ifthe fat were not thus surrounded the globules would run together and produce an oily mass. The fat globules vary greatly in size, some being six times the diameter of others. They average about 1-5,000 of an inch in diameter, and one drop of milk no larger than a pin- head may contain 1,500,000 fat globules. The larger glob- ules of fat are most buoyant and rise to the surface ; only tie smallest remain in skim milk. The fat globules are laryer in some breeds of animals, particularly the Jerseys, and tne cream therefore rises more rapidly and completely. The fat globules are arranged in groups or clumps in milk instead. of being uniformly scattered throughout the fluid. This is of considerable practical importance, for milk which has been separated or heated (pasteurized) does not cream so well because the clumps of fat globules are broken up and so do not rise so quickly or completely. For example, milk is passed through a separator not revolving fast enough to separate the milk from the cream (which is sometimes done to 26 CLEAN MILK remove the dirt from milk), and the milk is bottled. The cream will rise from this milk slowly and incompletely, and the cream, when it has risen, will appear so thin that a twenty per cent. cream may not seem thicker nor richer than rich milk. Pasteurizing milk will cause much the same result, if the milk is subjected to considerable agitation in the process. The mineral matter in milk comprises a very small amount of variety of salts and altogether they do not form quite one per cent. of the whole milk. The following table perhaps fairly represents the com- position of what might be called average milk} from a large herd of average cows of various breeds: Per Cent; WatensS.ise or ese bcd tolore susie Sites Ghoumeaenn tena 87.00 ) 2 oon nor oe a oar o aac oe 4.00 Proteids 3.4m oe os te omen oc ee mene 3.30 SUREN ES Jo cann sj¢adaosen cs non podedboaedssA Soto 4.95 Minerals Mattercns maces e cee eee eer 0.75 We will now consider in detail the various circum- stances which modify the composition of milk. It is a curi- ous fact that the character of the food of cows has little influence upon the composition of milk although it affects tremendously the yield of milk. The composition of the milk is dependent on the cow and breed, and is as much a characteristic as her color and as difficult to change. The following table illustrates the average composition of the milk of herds of different breeds of cows: *Durh | ee ae Sheet eni| Deven | Ayretire |Bamiee | Jersey | “Rome vase: Meatitet ede 4.04 409 | 3.89 | 288— ul 5 22 | 4.co 3 69 Sugar.....| 4 34 4 32 4.41 AGZS0.|. 4.84” Sipe 4.35 Proteids ...| 4.17 4.04 4 oI 3-99 3.58 4.00 4 09 Min’ !m’t’rs|} 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.74 0.73 0.76 0.76 * Abstract of tables compiled by Mr. Gordon, of Walker Gordon Laboratory. ‘The figures for Holstein-Friesian in the case of fat are rather low ; 3.2 per cent. fat would be nearer the minimum average.—K. W. + The U. S. Pure Food Act of 1906 fixes the standard for milk as follows: Solids not fat, 8.5 per cent.; milk fat, 3.5 per cent.; milk solids, total, 11.75 per cent. Skimmed milk to contain 9.25 per cent. of total solids. COMPOSITION OF MILK AND CREAM 27 According to the statutes of the various states,* the required standard of composition of milk differs to a slight extent, but as much as three per cent. of fat is demanded in every state, except Rhode Island, and solids amounting to twelve per cent,, in most states, and as high as thirteen per cent. in some. The composition of milk varies according to the period of milking, the milk growing richer in fat and the fat glob- ules larger as milking advances, the last of the milking or “strippings” being very rich. Per Cent. Fat. PHONKeUMI Ke eig acre scceines oa ticcstelscccseiee ease cs 38 Mic a@ley Milks ? germs. The slime forms from .o4 to.3 of 1 percent. of the cobwebs, bristles, soil, etc., and large quantities of weight of the new milk, depending upon its original state of cleanliness. The use of the separator is superior to all other methods of obtaining cream on account of its power to more rapidly and thoroughly extract fat from milk. Thus it shortens the period for growth of germs permitted by the Wii PRODUGTS 35 older methods of creaming, and—to some extent—removes germs already present in the milk. The cream, however, will be found to contain as many or more germs as the milk did before separation, although the skim milk leaving the separator may show one-third to one-half less germs in pretty clean milk, but in filthy milk the number of germs after separation is practically unaltered.* Cream, after sep- aration, must therefore be rapidly cooled down from the high temperature of separation (86° F.) to 40° F. in order to prevent the growth of germs which have not been removed to any great degree by the process. The use of the separator to free milk of germs is not a success, although this method has been practiced in large cities to cleanse milk. . None of the disease germs occasionally present in milk is certainly removed by separation. When used to cleanse milk the separator is run at a comparatively low speed so as not to separate the cream from the milk, but sufficient to remove much of the filth and therefore the so-called animal odor. Although there may be an improvement in the flavor and odor of the milk, it will not keep any longer, showing that germs are not removed. Filtering milk by various devices has about the same value. The filth and dirt are removed more or less completely, and the taste and odor improved thereby, but the essential contamination—the germs—are not removed. For, as Prof. Conn has pointed out, the germs are so minute and so much smaller than the fat globules that it would be necessary to employ a filter which would remove all the fat in the milk in order to catch the germs in the filter. * Recent experiments show that of the germs present in whole milk before separation, 47 per cent. appear in slime, 29 per cent. in milk and 24 per cent. in cream after separation.—Eckles & Barnes, Iowa Sta. Bull., 1902. 26 CLEAN ()ITAC Complete separation of milk into cream and skim milk is sometimes done for cleansing purposes, the skim milk and cream being reunited. Many physicians believe that milk thus treated is often the cause of indigestion in infants. Neither these nor any other methods will make dirty milk clean. | Contamination of milk begins at the farm, and only at the farm can it be eradicated. Absolute cleanliness with respect to milking and everything which comes in contact with the milk, together with immediate cooling to 50° F. or below, will alone insure success. The importance of germs. in relation to milk is as great as to the operating surgeon, and the amazing progress in both surgery and dairying is. due chiefly to the appreciation of this fact. Exclusive of fat, the percentage of the other constitu- ents of milk—proteids, sugar and mineral matters—is. about the same in cream as in milk, unless the cream be of unusual richness. For the same reason, the composition of skim milk is about the same as whole milk, the fat excepted. The fat is practically absent from separator skim milk and is present in skim milk, from which the cream has been removed by hand, to the extent of one-half to one, or even one and one-half per cent. The following tables. illustrate these statements : Composition Composition Composition Composition of Milk of 204 Cream of 25% Cream of 67% Cream Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Hats tierce 4.00 20.00 25.00 67.00 Sugars). crys afteeeis 4.50 48 4.8 ZY DD Prote1rds yc. ee 3.5 3.05 a2 Tipe: Mineral matters. 0.7 0.6 0.7 oI Composition of Composition of | Hand-skimmed Milk Separator Skim Milk Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Fates. rasstetictist 075 On 2 tO mEOsE (hand) (power) MILK PRODUCTS 37 The cream from set-milk contains 90 to 99 per cent. of the germs which were present in the whole milk, because in rising the fat globules entangle the germs and carry them along to the surface. These germs are chiefly made up of the varieties which cause the souring of milk or cream (lactic acid bacilli), and these increase for forty-eight hours at favorable temperatures—60° to 70° F.—in cream, and then gradually die out, owing to the unfavorable influence of the acid formed in souring, so that in a week few remain. During the first few hours there are to be found a great variety of germs in milk and cream, but the lactic acid bacilli crowd these out, because they grow so much more readily than dothe other kinds of germs, and at the end of forty-eight hours there may be as many as 500,000,000 lactic acid germs to the quarter teaspoonful. Butter is com- monly made from cream which has “ripened.” By ripening is meant the changes which occur in cream owing to the growth of germs in it during the process of souring. The ripening of cream may be compared to the change which takes place in grape juice when it turns to wine. Both changes—in the grape juice and cream—are brought about by fermentation, and fermentation is simply a term for describing the changes—chemical and physical—which occur in asubstance owing to the action of germs and their products upon it. In the ripening or fermentation of cream the germs alter the character of the cream and supply bodies which give to the butter its peculiar flavor and improve its keep- ing qualities. Butter made from fresh cream has less flavor and does not keep well. The sour milk germs give butter part of its flavor, but the miscellaneous germs which are crowded out by the former also are responsible for much of 38 CLEAN MILK the flavor. In this country the popular palate requires a much stronger flavored butter than the European taste, which regards our butter as rank in flavor, Therefore abroad it is often customary to pasteurize fresh cream to kill the miscellaneous germs and add the sour milk germs in the form of a ‘starter,’ thus getting a butter made from ripened cream, but avoiding the stronger flavor caused by the miscellaneous germs. The flavor and aroma of butter, then, depend upon the varieties of germs in cream. Butter is thought to possess the finest flavor in May and June because at this season the greatest variety of germs flourish in the milk. The chief reason why butter is so much better from certain dairies than others is because the better dairies are the homes of special kinds of germs, which give butter a good flavor and aroma, while in the others—owing to want of cleanliness of the cows, barns, milk rooms, employees or utensils—special germs of filth which are unfavorable to good dairy products come to occupy the premises. The action of the germs is, then, the essential factor in the production of good butter, as in all other departments. of dairying. As we have pointed out, the lactic acid germs, while in the minority in the milk just drawn from the cow, soon gain ascendancy by multiplying in milk or cream, and it is to this type of germ that the ripening of butter and of cheese is chiefly due. We have also shown that, to the miscellaneous germs in milk and cream, butter also owes some of its flavor. But as some of these are deleterious to flavor and aroma, and are not to be depended upon, the endeavor has been madc to employ only the lacticacid bacilli to ripencream. These are present in pure culture ; that is, they form the only type MILK PRODUCTS 39 of germ in the commercial starters, which may be bought in market in various shapes, as bottles of milk, pastes, pow- ders and pellets, all merely vehicles for the growth and preservation of lactic acid germs. This starter is added to fresh cream to ripen it. If the cream is already sour it is useless to add a starter. It is best to first heat cream to 155° F., to destroy the miscellaneous germs, before add- ing the starter containing the lactic acid germs, but in this country, where the added flavor caused by the miscellaneous germs is desired, the starter is more commonly added to fresh cream. The starters which were first used consisted simply of a quantity of sour milk or cream containing a great number of germs, suitable for ripening cream, which was added to fresh cream to quickly sour and ripen it, espe- cially in cold weather. These are called natural starters, and are still used extensively. To prepare such a starter the milk is withdrawn from the cow in the most cleanly manner; the milk is then separated and the skim milk is collected in an absolutely clean vessel and set aside at a temperature of 60° to 70° F. to sour. This sour milk may contain all sorts of germs, but if it is clean there are apt to be few miscellaneous germs and these are likely to be crowded out by the growth of the lactic acid germs, so that the result may be almost as pure a culture or collec- tion of lactic acid bacilli as is found in the commercial starters. We quote the following from Farrington : The foundation material for both kinds of starters is usually skim milk. This is first freed from most of its bacteria by heating it to 180 deg, F. or above, for at least one-halfan hour. Itisa good plan to keep this hot milk well stirred and covered while it is being heated. After this period of heating, the skim milk is cooled. The cooling is usually done by setting the can of hot skim milk into cold water, The quicker it is cooled the better, When the temperature of the skim milk reaches 80 deg. F., it is then in condition to 40 CITE AUN ANE. Ke receive either the pure culture which has been bought from the dealer, or the sour milk which has been selected and allowed to sour naturally, The so-called commercial starters are made by adding to about a gallon of this skim milk a small quantity (about an ounce) of the pure culture which has been bought from a dealer in this material. After the pure culture has been added to the skim milk the mixture is kept at a temperature of about 80 deg. I’, until the skim milk has become soured by the pure culture bacteria. This preparation is sometimes called ‘‘startolene,” and it may amount to about four quarts of sour milk, ‘This is added to a larger quantity of pasteurized skim milk, which has been prepared by heating and cooling as previously described, and the mixture is allowed to stand at a temperature near 80 deg. until it becomes sour and has an acidity of about six-tenths of one per cent.* If the cream in which the starter is to be used is now ready, the starter may be added to it in about the proportion of ten pounds of starter to one hundred pounds of cream, A small quantity of this starter is saved each day and added to a new lot of pasteurized skim milk. In this way the starter is carried on from day to day and a new lot for use in ripening cream is prepared every day. The natural starter is made in exactly the same way as the commercial starter, except that in place of the ounce of pure culture which is bought from a dealer, a small quantity of selected sour milk is added to the pasteurized skim milk. ‘The starter is then built up from this mixture as before described. This in general is an outline of the methods used for making cream ripening starters. The successful handling of starters depends entirely on the carefulness with which the skim milk is pasteurized and the skill used in pro- tecting the starter from outside contamination by dust, dirty cans, etc. In some cases the butter maker often goes so far as to wash his hands before handling his starter. These refining precautions used to protect the pure cul- ture and the starter from contamination are very important, If the starter does not give satisfactory results, it is best to throw it away and begin a new one; but, when once obtained, a good starter should be propagated from day to day as long as possible, and the length of time which it may be kept pure depends on the care with which it is made from day to day. It is always better to seed a new lot of pasteurized skim milk with a por- tion of fresh starter taken out just before it is poured into the cream, than to attempt to propagate a new starter every day by means of buttermilk obtained from a churning of cream in which the starter was used. A buttermilk starter may often give good results ; but, asa rule, it cannot be depended on, because some unpleasant flavors may develop in the cream during its ripening, These, of course, are carried into the buttermilk, and when this is used for making the next starter, the unpleasant flavors may be continued in the butter from day to day, * See page et MILK PRODUCTS Al One of the important elements in starter making is the ability to detect a satisfactory starter when it is made. A person with a keen sense of smell and taste is able by inspection to select a good starter and know that it will produce good results, while other persons, without this ability, are unable to accurately judge between two different starters and they may keep on using a poor one day after day without noticing it. This faculty of judging starters may be cultivated by practice, and the butter maker who is most successful in training himself to detect a good starter, and a poor one as well, will be the - most successful in making butter of a fancy grade. The commercial starters are more expensive, but uni- form, certain and convenient ; while the natural starter costs little or nothing and is less uniform but generally success- ful. Both are in common use. Butter made from ripened cream, besides having more flavor, aroma and better keeping qualities, is more readily churned and can be obtained in somewhat larger quantities than from fresh cream. Butter made from fresh cream is preferred by many persons and, perhaps it may be said, by those with the most refined taste. However, the market for such butter is limited and it must be sold imme- diately it is made. Fresh separated cream is much more readily churned than gravity cream. Cheese is made from the curd (casein or cheesy por- tion) of milk obtained by souring milk or by curdling it with rennet, chiefly by the latter method. The whey is removed in different ways. In soft cheese, as Brie or Cam- embert, the whey is merely permitted to drain naturally from the curd. The whey being not all removed, soft cheeses keep poorly. In the case of hard cheeses, the curd is cut up, and sometimes heated to 110° F. to toughen it, and pressed for days. Both soft and hard cheeses must ripen, which pro- cess takes days or months. The lactic acid germs are those chiefly instrumental in ripening hard cheeses, while 42 CLEAN MILK molds and miscellaneous germs ripen the soft cheeses. In ripening, the various flavors characteristic of the special cheese are developed through the action of chemical pro- ducts formed by the growth of these vegetable parasites or germs. In addition, the cheese becomes softened, and therefore easier of digestion through the action of a ferment natural to milk, resembling rennet, the latter being a secre- tion of the animal stomach. How important is the influence of special varieties of germs in the successful making of cheese may be appre- ciated from the fact that it is a practice. to smear shelves and walls of new factories with fresh cheese (as Brie and Lim- burger) to convey to them the special germs necessary to produce the flavor and characteristics of the cheeses which it is desired to make. A starter is often added to milk from which American cheese is to be made. Asin the case of cream for butter, the addition of the lactic acid germs tends to crowd out miscellaneous and undesirable germs and give a more certainly uniform product. The commercial starters are most reliable for the ripening of cheese, as for butter. Asa general practice, milk cannot be pasteurized to kill the undesirable germs before adding the starter, when cheese is to be made, because heating the milk destroys the ferment in it which assists in ripening cheese, and heated milk does not curd so well withrennet. Certain of the sour milk, and of the soft and hard cheeses are, however, made successfully from pasteurized milk or cream to which is added a starter. If cheeses made from unpasteurized milk, to which starters containing lactic acid germs have been added, are ripened in low-temperature cellars, the miscellaneous germs are not Tikely to develop. ‘MILK PRODUCTS A The chemical composition of buttermilk and whey, bye products in the manufacture of butter and cheese, is given below. Buttermilk is usually sour from lactic acid, while the proteids are more digestible than in ordinary milk because existing in a flaky form.* Whey possesses but slight food value, containing only the ash, sugar and albumin of milk. It is sometimes the only food, when combined with a little cream, which infants with delicate digestion can tolerate. We also append a table showing the composition of butter. Buttermilk Whey Butter Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. IProteidS: s.cicccee es 4.06 0.81 T.00 Pa biets, ce8 Sistre &setve's 0.93 0.36 84.00 Sugar and Ash...... 4.40 5.71 3.00 Good cheese contains about 33 per cent. each of pro- teids and fat, and possesses two to three times the food value of meat, providing it is well digested, as it is more apt to be if cooked with macaroni or vegetables, Skim Milk Skim milk forms a valuable food for man or beast, especially for calves and pigs. The milk should be fed young animals sweet, and warmed to the temperature of the body, when it possesses about one half the value of whole milk for food. The use of the hand separator at the farm will often be found lucrative, for the reason that the skim milk may then be obtained warm and fresh for calves or pigs and the cream bring as large a price as the whole milk, while retain- ing the most valuable element—the nitrogen in the proteids * Quite recently the advantages of concentrated and preserved buttermilk have been advocated. Its use will probably become much extended in time. Also an innovation is buttermilk made from clean skim milk. This should be set at 70°-80° F. to clabber when it is churned and until the casein is in a finely divided state and immediately cooled to below 50° F. and sold within 24 hours. A pasteu- rized skim milk may be used. There is a great field for absolutely clean butter- milk thus made for consumption in cities. A4 CLEAN MILK of the milk—on the farm. This because the nitrogen is returned to the soilin manure. For man, skim milk, through its proteids, is said to be three times as cheap as meat, though a much more bulky food. If the skim milk is returned from the creamery for feeding, it is best that it be first pasteurized to kill any germs of tuberculosis which may be contained in it and to prevent souring. Calves should be permitted to suck the first three days of their existence, and then may be given whole and skimmed milk for ten days, gradually reducing the whole milk. After that time they may be given only skim milk, five to six quarts daily in three feedings for the first two weeks. At the end of this time five pints of skim milk may be fed twice daily with a tablespoonful of flaxseed or Indian meal to supply the defi- ciency of fat in the food. A liking for corn meal may be encouraged by placing a little on the tongue after feeding milk. Skim milk is fed pigs in the proportion of three pounds to one of corn meal; to fowls, also, with grain. The utensils and troughs in which the skim milk is fed to young animals should be kept scrupulously clean, and the milk should not be fed sour. Bye~Products In speaking of milk products the bye-products of milk are used to an extent in the arts but little appreciated. This has recently been brought out in an address at Chicago by Dr. Nowak, the inventor of a process for using skim milk in the tanning of leather. The curd or casein of skim milk is the essential part of the milk employed for the following manufactures : For sizing straw and felt hats; for making and glazing paper; for glazing and finishing leather; finishing and MILK PRODUCTS 45 sizing silk, cotton, woolen and linen goods; for making wall paper, roofing paper and linoleum. A\lso, casein is an important ingredient of cements, glues, putty, woodfillers, paints (especially dry paints), imitation ivory for balls, and buttons, etc. Some of the most lasting of the old Roman structures were made from a mixture of milk, lime and sand, and the most celebrated old mural decorations of Europe from casein mixed with color. CHAPTER IY FEEDING FOR MILK N teeding cows for milk the most essential fact to grasp is that the composition of milk can not be altered to any extent by feeding. The solids may be increased slightly by a food very rich in protein, or, on the other hand, the solids may be lessened, if the diet is very watery, but the percent- age of fat, sugar and proteids in the milk is not affected to any degree by different kinds of foodstuffs. One often reads of the marked influence of a change of food in increas- ing, or otherwise, the percentage of fat in the milk. But, while a sudden change in the ration may produce a corre- sponding alteration in the percentage of fat in the milk, it will be found only a temporary matter. The single excep- tion to the rule that the composition of milk is not changed by feeding is when the animals are not ina normal condition. If an animal has not enough food to be maintained in a nor- mal condition, there may be a disturbance of the functions of the udder, as of any other function in the body, and therefore alteration in the composition of the milk. Milk is formed by the constant breaking down of the substance of the cells of the udder into the proteids, fat, and perhaps to some extent the sugar, of milk. This process is followed by a rapid rebuilding of the udder cells. The con- stituents of the food of cows are not transformed directly into milk, but are altered and absorbed into the blood and 46 PEEPING FOR MILK 47 serve only to build the cells of the udder, as they do any other part of the body. The gualty of the milk from any cow depends upon the natural characteristics of the cells of the udder; the guwantety of milk depends on the capacity for rapid cell-building and, to a degree, upon the size of the udder. The cells of the udder being made of a sub- stance similar chemically to the proteids of the milk, there must be an abundance of protein in the food to constantly rebuild these cells as they liquefy into milk. Indeed, the proportion of protein in the food has to be higher in feeding for milk than for any other purpose. This proportion has been determined by experience and experiments (see Wolff's table below). While it is possible to secure the proper proportion of protein by the use of the greatest variety of fodders, the special foodstuffs which may be employed in any given case should be determined chiefly by the local cost of special fod- ders and the price of milk. The richer a food in protein the more costly is it, and, if the price of milk is low, it may not pay to increase the amount of proteids in the food sufficiently to attain to the maximum milk-yield. A food rich in protein tends to sus- tain the period of lactation and keep up the flow of milk— which is ordinarily greatest soon after calving—for a con- siderable period. In case of large milkers which receive an insufficient supply of protein, the proteids of the tissues of the body are called upon to make up for the loss of protein in the formation of milk from the udder cells, and the ani- mal rapidly loses flesh. Notwithstanding the fact that the composition of milk can not be materially altered by feeding under ordinary cir- cumstances, yet by good feeding and breeding (taking 48 CLEAN MILK advantage of increased fat yield in milk through careful selection), it has been found possible in several generations to produce an animal giving milk one per cent. richer than that common to its breed. This has been accomplished by some in the case of the Holsteins. Wolff's original feeding standard for milk cows, per day and 1,000 pounds live weight, is as follows : Pounds Digestible proteits.4 <<.) f.9.seseeociieerrercisie 2.5 a 17 ee CEN NS Bite Acie 6 doo ¢ 0.4 oe carbohydrates’) 2)... eee eee 12.5 ibotalidry matters o:.cecee etcetera eetorer 24. Nutritive ration -oeeeeoe se cee eet tieeeeies tor 5-4 The nutritive ratio means the proportion of nitrogen- ous to non-nitrogenous constituents of the food. The pro- tein represents the nitrogenous, and the fat and carbohy- drates together represent the non-nitrogenous nutrients, as the food constituents are called. But to put fat on the same basis as carbohydrates, in calculating the nutritive ratio, the percentage of digestible fat is multiplied by 2.5 and the result is added to the total of digestible carbohydrates. The reason for this is because fat is thought to have two and one-half times the food value of carbohydrates, since a given weight of fat produces two and one-half times as much heat in burning as carbohydrates. This method of reasoning is. realized, however, to be very imperfect. In books* on cattle feeding tables showing the composition of foodstuffs may be found. The carbohydrates are found under the headings Crude Fibre and Nitrogen-Free Extract. There are other tables showing the percentage of digestibility of the fat, protein, crude fibre and nitrogen-free extract in the various fodders. *Armsby’s ‘‘ Manual of Cattle Feeding.” FEEDING FOR MILK 49 By multiplying the amount of any of these constituents in any given fodder by the percentage of the constituent digestible, we get the quantity of the digestible constituent in the fodder. Thus, if we look ata table showing the com- position of hay: Average hay we find contains in the 100 Ibs. as follows: 9 Ibs. protein, 2 Ibs. fat, 43 Ibs. nitrogen- free extract, and 26 lbs. crude fibre. To find the digesti- bility of these nutrients we look in another table and there discover that 46 per cent. of the fat in hay is digestible, 57 per cent. of the protein, and that the total amount of nitrogen- free extract in a coarse fodder represents the total quantity of digestible carbohydrates it contains. So in our 100 lbs. of hay we calculate that there are 5.13 lbs. of digestible pro- tein (multiply 9 x .57); and o.2 Ibs. of fat (multiply 2 .46) and 43 lbs. of carbohydrates digestible. When we can not figure the amount of nitrogen-free extract as equal to the total digestible carbohydrates, as we do for convenience in a coarse fodder, we find the amounts of digestible crude fibre and nitrogen-free extract in the tables and add them together to represent the total digestible carbohydrate in the foodstuff. Fat is often spoken of as ether extract by some writers. Itis not necessary, of course, to try to secure a ration which shall be the exact chemical counterpart of Wolff's table above, but only to approach it as nearly as may be, especially in the matter of protein. The general idea should be to take the foodstuffs at hand and look up the amounts of digestible nutrients* they con- tain and combine them in the proper proportions as indi- cated by Wolff's table. Proteint is an expensive food con- *Armsby’s ‘‘ Manual of Cattle Feeding.” + In cattle foods protein costs, by weight, twice as much as carbohydrates and about one-half as much as fat, but there is ordinarily enough fat in a ration. 50 CGEEAN MiITEK stituent or nutrient, and it should be fed in the cheapest form of fodder available in the locality. The best manner of feeding is to weigh out the food necessary for the whole number of cows at one feeding and distribute the amount to each cow ia proportion to her weight, secretion of milk, etc. Professor Haecker’s work on cattle feeding teaches that the daily quantity of nutrients should be proportioned to the amount and richness of daily milk-yield as displayed in the following table :* FOR COWS WEIGHING 1,000 POUNDS Milk- Yield Digestible Nutrients Required Daily Amount Testing in Fat Protein Carbohydrates Fat lbs. per cent. lbs. lbs. lbs. (3 TL 8.81 -24 Io 4 Tef7, 9.14 26 ( 5 1.24 9-47 28 (3 1.50 10.62 37 20 4 1.63 11.28 42 \ 5 1.78 11.94 47 B I.gO 12.43 51 30 4 2.10 13.42 58 5 2330 14.41 65 3 2.30 14.24 65 40 4 2.57 15.56 74 5 2.85 16.88 83 (3 2.70 16.05 68 5c ise 3-04 17 70 990 5 3-39 19-35 T.or (3 Boi) 17.86 g2 60 4 3-50 19.84 1.06 ( 5 3.92 21.76 1.19 (3 3.50 19 67 1.05 70 14 4.00 21.98 122 ls 4.46 23.82 T40 In practice it may also be broadly stated that there should be a certain proportion of coarse fodder, or rough- “age, to the more concentrated foodstuffs, as grain and bye- products. Haecker’s rule giving one pound of concentrated! food for every three pounds of milk yield, affords a very useful basis for calculating a ration. * This table and following rations were selected at random from Hoard’s Dairyman. PREDING FOR MILK 51 Thus, for a daily ration, 20 to 4o lbs. of roughage, including hay, silage, stover, etc., may be fed with about 8 lbs. of concentrates (consisting preferably of a mixture of a variety of grains) to a cow of average size and giving about 25 Ibs. of milk daily. To cows giving daily 35 lbs. of milk, 10 Ibs. of concentrates are suitable, and if the milk contains 5 per cent. of fat, 12 lbs. may be fed. The great milkers are often fed 30 to qo lbs. of roughage with 15 to 16 lbs. of a grain mixture daily. Some such rations as the following may be used for milk cows of average weight and giving about 25 pounds of 4 per cent. milk: Roughage, 20 lbs, of timothy hay, with a mixture of oats, 2 lbs.; bran, 4 lbs.; and gluten, 4 lbs. This contains as follows: Dry matter, 26.3 lbs.; digestible nutrients—pro- tein, 2.18 lbs.; carbohydrates, 13.09 lbs.; fat, 0.58 Ibs. Roughage, 20 Iks. of timothy and clover hay, with a mixture of oats, 4° lbs:-barley, 3 lbs.; and oil meal, 1 Ib. This is equivalent to: Dry matter, 24.3 lbs,; digestible nutrients—protein, 1.88 lbs.; carbohydrates, 12.1 lbs.; fat, 0.6 lbs. Roughage, 30 Ibs. of ensilage and 1o bbs. of clover hay, Mitiamimtuneatebariey, 4 lbs, and bran, 4 lbs- ‘This ration is equivalent to: Dry matter, 25.5 lbs.; digestible nutrients—protein, %.92 lbs.; carbohydrates, 11.92 lbs.; fat, 0.56 Ibs. Roughage, ensilage, 30 lbs., and oat hay, 30 lbs.; with mixture of ground rye, 4 lbs., and gluten feed, 4 lbs. This feed is equivalent to: Dry matter, 23.56 lbs.; digestible nutrients—protein, 2.08 lbs.; carbohydrates, 13.32 Ibs.; fat, 0.54 lbs. 1t will be seen that the protein is a little low in all 52 GLEAN MITK these rations.* Cottonseed (or linseed) meal is one of the richest foodstuffs in protein we possess, and may be added to advantage to bring up the proportion of protein in the ration, as one pound of the meal is equivalent to about one-third pound of digestible protein. Not more than two to three pounds daily of cottonseed meal should be fed, however, on account of its poor digestibility in considerable amounts, and because in excess it may render milk unfit for use as an infant food. The following mixtures of concentrates may be em- ployed with an appropriate amount of roughage (if hay is. used, as much may be given as the cow will eat without waste) as daily rations for an average cow : Bran, 4lbs.; corn chop, 3 lbs.; oil meal, 1 Ib. Or, 2 parts. bran; 2 parts ground oats; 2 parts gluten, and 1 part oil meal, giving 8 lbs. of the mixture daily. Or, 4 Ibs. oats ; 2 Ibs. bran ; 1 Ib. oilsmeal.” Or, 4 lbs, of bran andi4 ibs vom oats ; or, a mixture by weight of bran, 3 parts ; gluten feed, 2 parts; corn chop, 2 parts; and oil meal, 1 part, giving 8 to 10 lbs. daily. A ration having the proper proportion of nitrogenous to non-nitrogenous nutrients, or, in other words, the proper nutritive ratio according to Wolff, is now called a balanced ration. Oil meal is linseed meal. The exact. amount of fat in the daily ration is not of much moment, but we should endeavor to approximate Wolff's feeding standard with the more recent modification (page 50) of adjusting the ration somewhat to the quantity and richness of the milk-yield. An amount of salt equal to one tea- spoonful should be given with the feed of each cow twice daily. * That is according to Wolff’s standard of fifty years ago, but these rations. are calculated from the table to be found on page 50. FEEDING FOR MILK 53 Cows may be watered to advantage twice daily; once before they are turned out for pasture or airing, in the morning g, and again before the evening feeding. The matter of a pure water supply in the pasture, farm and dairy is of great significance. This is the case, not because the milk is contaminated by germs or poisons swal- lowed by the cow in impure water, but because the cow’s - udders become contaminated from wading in impure water. The dairy utensils may likewise be contaminated by wash- ing them in an infected water supply containing the ,erms of typhoid fever or dysentery. The presence of pools of water in pastures which in any way can be polluted with human excrement or urine should be avoided. Germs or microorganisms existing in stagnant pools in pastures may impart a fishy taste to milk when such water is wallowed in or swallowed by cows. Water™ for cattle and for dairy pur- poses is best obtained from a public water supply of known purity, but when this is not possible a spring, away from sources of pollution, or a driven well, may afford excellent water. The neighborhood of a privy or manure pile should always be shunned, and surface drainage of any kind should be prevented from entering the well. Below the depth of of three and one-half feet germs do not live in the soil. Where there is any doubt—and some doubt must always exist concerning open wells and those situated near dwellings— a half gallon of the water should be submitted to a compe- tent chemist for analysis. Wells must be free of all solid objects, even stones, and water containing over 300 germs to the cubic centimeter is unfit for dairy purposes. The kind of food and manner of feeding cows has an * Cows do not like very cold water. Avoid giving it to them when Y , Siv Se 54 CLEAN MILK influence upon milk which is of much importance, especially when the milk is to be used by infants. Many chemical substances in the food are eliminated —either changed or unchanged—in the milk, and may impart to it an unnatural odor, taste or appearance, and may render it unfit for food. A sudden change from dry fodder to grass, or any other green food in considerable amount, is apt to give rise to milk which will cause digestive troubles in babies. Fresh corn fodder in considerable quantity, when fed to cows, will often render the milk harmful to infants. While roots and ensilage are commonly said to produce a milk which will disagree with infants, yet I believe these are harmless when fed in moderate quantities and after milking. Silage should not be given ina greater amount than twenty pounds daily, and not more than two pounds of oil meal should be fed, when the milk is especially intended for infants’ use. The feeding of spoiled, moldy ensilage, and remnants of ensilage which have been allowed to accumu- late about the barn, are chiefly responsible for the harm this foodstuff inflicts upon milk. In fact, some authorities say that a ration of under 4o lbs. daily per cow is not damaging to milk. Some of the largest buyers of milk in the United States, however, refuse milk from ensilage- fed cows, and those versed in the use of milk for baby feeding find that a small feed of ensilage is safer. Grass, hay, clover and grains constitute the best food for cows supplying milk for use by babies. The time of feeding is a matter of great moment. In general, it may be said that milk cows should only be fed after milking to avoid dust in the barn, and fodder, when given at this time —as mangolds, turnips, rutabagas, carrots BREEDING FOR) MILK a or their tops — will not impart a bad odor or taste to the milk. It is not necessary to feed cows in order that they be quiet during milking; they can soon be habituated to being fed after milking. Indeed, so great is the danger of dissemi- nating germs in the air when cows are fed before or during milking, that it is now recognized that when dry fodder is thus fed it is impossible to secure clean milk. Moreover, when hay is kept in mows open to the cow-barn, it is very difficult to produce clean milk. If feeding is done at milking time, it should only be moistened grain. There are certain pasture plants which are harmful to milk, and sometimes to human consumers of it. Among these are the following:. Poison ivy, poison oak, meadow saffron, Jamestown weed, sorrel, poisonous mushrooms, wild mustard, carrot tops, milkweed, sumach, henbane and skunk cabbage. The disease known as milk sickness, or trembles, which sometimes attacks man, and is exhibited by vomiting, great weakness and twitching of the muscles, is attributed to the drinking of milk from cows feeding on poison ivy. Meadow saffron consumed by cows may lead to severe diarrhoea in man drinking their milk. Milk is not of good quality for any purpose when the animals yielding it are fed upon swill, brewers’ grains or food in a state of marked fermentation or putrefaction. Such milk may cause digestive disturbances in man—par- ticularly in babies—and the manure is very soft and stink- ing from cows eating fermented food, and splashes about, and is therefore more apt to soil the cow and milk. The milk produced with brewers’ grain does not keep sweet so long as good milk should, neither are the cows consuming large quantities of it long-lived. The use of this food is now prohibited by law in most cities. Dried brewers’ and 56 CLEAN MILK distillers’ grains constitute wholesome food for cows. Moldy hay, straw or grain; decayed leaves, salt hay, onions, garlic and cabbage may give to milk a bad odor or flavor. The expressed pulp from the sugar beet is inadvisable as a food for cows, because of its richness in potassium salts, which find their way into the milk and render it unfit food for human beings or animals. The milk of cows receiving drugs is unsuitable for food, since many medicines are eliminated in the milk. Further- more, the milk of cows sick in any manner should be with- held from feeding purposes, as poisons in the blood or germs of disease may be conveyed to man or animals in the milk from the sick cow. The milk of cows undergoing the tuberculin test may be used as food unless the animal reacts to the test, when it should be permanently rejected for human consumption, or boiled before feeding it to animals, CEPAP TER V HOUSING AND CARE OF COWS N considering the practical details concerned with the housing and care of cows, and the handling and mar- keting of milk, our object will be to emphasize the essentials required for the production of clean milk. Many different methods may be employed to attain the same end, but certain principles are essential. Ideal methods are unfortunately expensive, and the most approved appointments of the modern stable and dairy rival those of the surgeon’s operating. room in elaborateness and cost. Nevertheless, milk which will fulfil all the requirements necessary for “certification” can be produced by care and cleanliness in an ordinary stable, and without any great out- lay for plant. The Barn The essentials are that it shall be clean, light, airy, free from dust, flies and odors. In regard to.the air space in a barn, this is a matter which depends wholly on the ventila- tion. When the ventilation is good, 5co cubic feet of air per cow is sufficient, as the air is in constant movement. The number of cubic feet of air, rather than air space, is the important matter. The King system for stables is that commonly used, the principle being to secure a current of air traveling at the rate of 200 to 500 cubic feet per minute through the barn. 87 58 GLEAN MILT The animal’s heat is used to aid the movement of air. If the stable is too high, the animal-heat will be lost, so that in cold climates a height of 8 feet is sufficient, while a good width. for a stable is 36 feet: The icows areitoibe placed in two rows running the length of the stable, and either facing each other or toward the outside of the building. There is much disagreement as to which arrangement is the better. If the cows face outward, there should be feeding alleys in front of them at least 6 feet wide, while the central aisle in the barn behind them is used for removing manure. If the cows face inward, the central aisle between the rows of cows is used for feeding purposes. In either case an overhead railway is often used for removing manure from the centre aisle, when the cattle face outward, or for carry- ing feed when the animals face toward each other. The writer gives the preference to the plan of facing the cows towards the outside of the building. By this arrangement the cows get more air and light, and their breath does not commingle. At the same time the manure can be more readily removed, which is more important than ease of feeding, for the production of clean milk. In the cow stall, the chief object should be to have an arrangement which keeps the cows wholly apart and does not cumber the floor so':as to make places where dirtscan collect. “Uhertbese floors are of concrete, covered with cement, and made some- what rough, so that the cattle will not slip. Some com- petent dairy men cover the cement with movable wood flooring, under the cows, to prevent them from lying on this hard and cold substance. (See Appendix.) If not of cement, the floor should be of planed, matched planking, and the cracks filled in with tar. In case planking is used, it is best at any rate to have the gutters of cement. HOUSING AND CARE OF COWS 59 To secure drainage) of the floor of the stall, the’ rear half of it—that is, the half nearest the manure trench— should have a fall of two inches. The manure trench should be sixteen inches wide and about eight inches deep. The trench should have a fall for drainage, being, for instance, six inches deep at one end and ten inches deep at the other; or, the whole floor of the stable may be made to slope, with the trench of the same depth from end) torend. A number greater than forty cows is not desirable in one barn. There should be a continuous window space along each side of the barn. The windows may hinge from below, or be made to open and close as one, by means of a continuous rod. In cold climates, the sides of the barn mayi be built of two layers of inch, matched boards with a space of eight inches between, filled in with cut straw or sawdust. Besides this, building paper should be laid inside each layer of the boarding. The inner layer of boarding should be without beading and laid perpendicularly. The ceiling overhead should be perfectly tight. If it is composed of a double floor with building paper between, there is no reason why hay should not be kept overhead, providing it is brought down into a room separate from the main stable. There should be tightly-fitting double windows in winter in cold climates. The King ventilating system consists of numerous flues on all four sides of the building for the intake of air, 4x 4 inches in diameter, and opening three or four feet below the ceiling outside the stable, and entering the stable just under the ceiling. These are furnished with sliding doors, or closed with an arrangement like a furnace register in a dwelling house. The outake for air should be only one for every twenty cows or less, being a shaft with 60 CLEAN MILK openings —the same size as the shaft —at the floor and just below the ceiling. This shaft should be placed on the out- side of the centre of one side of the barn, and should be carried straight upward like a chimney, six feet higher than the top of the roof. The shaft or flue should be absolutely air-tight, and may be made of metal, or preferably of two layers of wood, with filling of sawdust or building paper between, and covered witha cap, to keep the rain out, one foot above the top. The openings near the floor and at the ceiling should be pro- vided with doors or dampers of some kind. The number of flues and size of flues are governed by the number of cows in the barn. Only one flue is necessary for the out- take of air when there are less than thirty cows in the barn. 1 flue 1 ft. square for 6 cows. I ‘ Ix2 “se a ce Io ee I “cc 2x2 e a3 ee 20 oc“ 2 “e 2x2 ce “ee “e 4o ac 3 6c 2x2 “ “se 66 100 66 The movement of air in the ventilating system is brought about by the following forces: Wind pressure against the barn, forcing air into the building ; wind suction on leeward side, tending to suck air out; wind blowing across top of ventilating shaft, tending to suck air out of it; by difference of temperature between the air inside and that outside the building. Thus air enters the intake near the ceiling and is distributed over the building. The air at the bottom of the barn is the foulest, because carbonic acid gas exhaled by the animals is heavier than air. ‘This air is also the coldest. In cold weather the bottom opening of the out-take shaft should be open, and the upper opening near the ceiling shut. The cold, foul air is then sucked from the floor of the barn up the flue into the outer air. In hot HOUSING AND CARE OF COWS 61 weather the upper opening in the out-take flue may be opened, and the lower closed. This permits of escape of heated air from the stable, and may be done at any time to secure better ventilation, but at the expense of the animal heat. In order that the system work well, it is essential that every part of the barn be absolutely tight, with well-insu- lated walls to prevent chilling and condensation of moisture, as about ten pounds of water are eliminated daily from the lungs and skin of a cow. The doors leading outdoors should be double. There must be no leakage of air in or out anywhere, except through the ventilating system—even hay shutes must be closed, and no escape of air into the loft be permitted. It is not possible to state just how many in- take flues there should be, but it is better to have them numerous on each side of the barn, as they can easily be closed if necessary. It is feasible to sustain a pretty even temperature ina tightly built stable properly ventilated—somewhere between 55° and 60° F. in cold weather. If the air is too hot, the _ out-take flues are not sufficient ; if too much cold air rushes in, the intakes should be closed to some extent, as there should be no considerable drafts when the system is work- ing properly. The intake flues are commonly built in the walls of the barn, and the out-take flues may also be so con- structed, in which case they are made of two layers of tight boarding with roofing paper between. Metal flues are not so advisable as wooden ones, be- cause moisture condenses more readily in them. The fol- lowing sketches of some barns ventilated by the King system are taken from King’s “ Physics of Agriculture,” to which the author wishes to acknowledge his indebted- ness for some of the matter concerning ventilation pre- 62 CLEAN MILK sented above. Old stables can be remodeled with concrete floors, and later the ventilating system, with stuffed walls and tight ceilings, doors and windows, may be added. Sketch A shows two methods of ventilating a dairy barn. On the right (Fig. 1) the ventilating flue D F rises Fig. 1. CHE Sketch A—Two methods of ventilating a dairy farm. straight from the floor, passing out through the roof and rising above the ridge. One, two or three of these would be used according to number of cattle. The flues should be at one or the other side of the cupola rather than behind it. On the left C E represents how a hay shoot may be used HIOUSING AND CARE OF COWS 63 also for ventilating flue. In each of these cases the ven- tilating flue would take the place of one cow. This method would give the best ventilation but has the objection of occupying valuable space. C, in the feed shoot, is a door which swings out when hay is being thrown down, but is closed when used as a ventilator, the door not reaching quite to the floor. To take air into this stable, if it.is built of wood with studding, openings would be left at A about 4x12 inches every twelve or sixteen feet, and the air would Sketch B—Method of ventilating a lean-to stable. enter and rise between the sheathing of the inside and the siding on the outside, entering at B as represented by the arrows. Fig. 2 shows intakes through a brick wall. Sketch B shows a method of ventilating a lean-to stable. The air enters as represented by the arrows at A B and passes out through a flue built on the inside of the upright or main barn. This flue may rise directly through the roof or it may end at E as shown in the figure, the air passing through a cupola. If the upright barn has a balloon frame, then the space between the studding could be used 64 CLEAN MILK as ventilating flues. These flues could be made tighter by covering inside and out on the studding with the lightest galvanized iron. Sketch C shows a section of the cow stable of the dairy barn at the Wisconsin Experiment Station. A single Sketch C—Section of the cow stable of the dairy barn at the Wisconsin Experiment Station. ventilating flue D E rises above the roof of the main barn, and is divided below the roof into two arms A B D, which terminate at or near the level of the stable floor at A A. These openings are provided with ordinary registers, with valves to be opened and closed when desired. Two other ventilators are placed at B B, to be used when the stable is HOUSING AND CARE OF COWS 65 too warm, but are provided with valves to be closed at other times. C is a direct 12-inch ventilator leading into the main shaft, and opening from the ceiling, so as to admit a current of warm air at all times to the main shaft to help force the draft. This ventilating shaft is made of galvanized iron, the upper portion being 3 feet in diameter. The covering on the outside is simply for architectural effect. G F show method of intake of air. Cow Stalls It is generally considered of advantage to be rid of stanchions and tie-ups of all kinds, and confine the cow in a stall giving entire freedom to the head. The partitions between the cows are made in the form of metal or wooden gates about five feet high, but not touching the floor. The cows are held in place also by a chain or rope fastened by snap hooks to the uprights at either side of the back of the stall, and in front there is a movable partition of metal or wood adjusted to the length of the cow, so as to keep her standing well back to the edge of the manuretrench. The whole length of the stall is six feet to six feet eight inches, according to the length of the cow. The cow is fed off the floor, or from a gutter cut in cement inside of the front par- tition. Metal stalls are comparatively expensive. The chief object is to keep all of the stall structure off the floor, as far as may be, to have a clean floor-space free from nooks and crannies to harbor dirt and dust. The width of the cow stall varies between thirty-eight to forty-five inches, according to the size of the animals. The milker opens the gate of the stall just behind him when milking, which gives him more room and keeps the next cow away from his back. 66 CEEANATILE When the cows are let out the chains may be retained in place and the gates are opened. For details and illustra- tions of serviceable stable arrangements see Appendix. It is well to round up the cement floor to a point six inches or so up the wall of the stable. The urine should be drained into a tank, which can be emptied once or more daily, or be received into a regular drain with a trap.* Chains or ropes should be stretched lengthwise with the stable under the cows’ necks to prevent them from lying down after grooming and before milking. The manure must be removed as soon asit falls,f except at milking time, and carried not less than several hundred feet from the barn, so as not to attract flies. Flies convey germs to the milk and annoy cattle. One fly falling into the milk pail is said to bring as many as 250,000 germs into the milk. Many of the preparations for spraying cows with the pur- pose of keeping off flies are of great service, and are widely advertised in the agricultural journals. Shutters are useful in hot weather to darken the stable and, with netting, aid to keep out flies) Water may be run in the feeding cutter of cement floors, before feeding time, or supplied in iron vessels raised from the floor. Before sweeping the barn floor it should be sprinkled to avoid dust, and neither sweeping nor removal of manure should be done within half an hour of milking—to prevent contamination of the air. While most of the germs in milk come from dirt on the cow, nevertheless there is also danger of contamination from dust in the barn. For this reason the most ideal way is to keep a barn, built with cement floors, entirely for milking purposes. The floors are sprinkled and the cows only driven in the building at milking time * Tf the urine can not be so removed it is well to have the gutters tight (with- out outlet) and use rotted sod, sawdust, or leaf mold to absorb the moisture and save the fertilizing properties of the urine. + When this is not feasible, by using absorbents, as above, and occasionaliy sprinkling 5 per cent. creolin solution in the gutters (if of wood), the stable may be kept clean. The manure should be taken out at least once daily. Sprink- ling wood ashes and slaked lime in the trenches daily after removal of manure, is of service, HOUSING AND CARE OF COWS 67 and removed immediately after. In the air of the ordinary barn germs are fifty per cent. more abundant, owing to the dust in the air, than in a school room at the close of the day. It is advisable to have a number of box stalls for sick animals, for cows about to have calf, and for calves. These had preferably be in a separate stable, because contagious diseases may thus be kept away from the rest of the herd, as contagious abortion, for instance. A milk receiving room in the stable is useful, in which the milk from separate cows may be weighed and recorded before the milk is carried to the milk room. (See Appendix, page 182.) The most suitable bedding for cows in the production of clean milk consists either of shavings from kiln dried lumber (which have, in the process of kiln drying, been ster- ilized), or sawdust, or straw. We have been laying down ideal rather than the essential requirements in the housing of cattle to secure clean milk. Suppose we take an ordinary barn. The hay is probably stored over the cows. If this is so, then either the hay must be removed, and also the ceiling over the cows, or the ceiling must be made dust-tight and the hay never removed before milking time, to avoid dust. It is probable that there are not enough windows. More win- dows, or, better, a continuous row of windows should be put in. There will be also probably unnecessary feed boxes which can not be readily cleaned, rubbish and imple- ments and dirt to be removed. Everything which may collect dust or dirt should be done away with. The whole premises then should be washed, swept and painted or whitewashed. The material sold in the form of a powder and known in the trade as 68 CLEAN MILK water paint, and which is mixed with water by the user, is not much more expensive than whitewash and is infinitely better. The floors of the cow stalls must be smooth and tight, to be kept clean, and may be of matched wood— although the gutters are preferably of cement. The floor of the stall must not be too long or too short, so that the cow when up will just stand on the edge of the gutter. If the cows are of different breeds and sizes this may be regu- lated by arranging the ties at proper distances from the cutter. It is well to have a sufficient space behind the gut- ters, so that one can walk without being soiled with manure, five feet at least, and in some stables this space is made wide enough to drive a wagon for filling with manure. This, however, is not necessary, nor the best way to remove the manure, as it should not be allowed to collect at all. The gutters must be deep enough’ (eight inches or more) to keep the cows clean when lying down, or may be made six inches deep at one end and ten inches at the other end of the barn to secure a fall for flushing them out with water. They should be made watertight. It is well to keep land plaster or lime always in the gutters to absorb odors, Extra ventilation may be added by installing the King sys- tem without great expense. Feeding should only be done after milking. A suffi- cient supply of hot and cold water and basins, soap and towels should be provided in a convenient place for the milkers to wash, and this may be used as a dressing room. No manure should be permitted to remain within several hundred feet of the barn, and the ground about the barn must be kept clear of rubbish, dirt and stagnant water, and sprinkled when very dusty. Children and cats and dogs must be excluded from the barn at milking time. HOUSING AND CARE OF COWS 69 The essentials in relation to the stable, then, are: Sufficient pure air and light; freedom from dust; clean floors, gutters, walls and ceiliggs ; and clean surroundings, free from manure and rubbish. Care of the Cows All cows should be tested with tuberculin before their milk is used for human consumption, either as raw milk or in the form of cream, butter or possibly even cheese. The germs of tuberculosis have been frequently found in milk, cream and butter. Those remarkable surgeons, the Mayos, of Rochester, Minn., have recently shown the large propor- tion of tuberculosis of the abdominal organs among their patients who come from the agricultural regions. The natural inference which they draw is that the source of the infection in these people must be from milk, since they are milk-users, and germs entering the lungs in the air would cause tuberculosis of the lungs, or consumption.* The milk of cows which are being tested with tuber- culin may be used, providing that they do not react to the test. It is well, also, that a veterinary surgeon familiar with cattle examine each herd of cows twice a year. Cows with garget} should be milked by one who does not milk the other cows, and animals about to calve should be kept apart from the herd. In view of the wonderfully successful results from the use of air for inflating the udders of cows suffering from milk fever, it will be wise for * Having caked udders or pus (slime) and blood in the milk. + In the light of most recent scientific studies and experiments tuberculosis in man appears to start more frequently in the digestive tract than was formerly supposed even when the disease is situated only in the lungs and other parts of the body. No cowshould be placed ina herd until it has been tested and found free from tuberculosis. Such testing must be repeated once a year. One tuber- culous cow may infect the entire herd. 70 CLEAN MILK the farmer to keep the simple apparatus on hand for prac- ticing the treatment. Every agricultural paper advertises information for obtaining and using the apparatus. The hair about the flanks, udder, and the brush of the tail should be clipped short and the cows groomed once — or twice daily, if necessary, — one-half hour before milking, to allow dust to settle. Before each milking, the udder should be wiped with a clean, damp towel, or washed, if necessary, with soap and water and dried with a dry towel. The towels must be clean and the water pure for this purpose. The teats ane udder should always be dry dur- ing milking. It is well to tie up the cow’s tail to the stall while milking. Handling the udder stimulates the flow of milk. So that the udder should be cleaned by a man or boy especially devoted to this work, who goes immediately ahead of the milker with pail of warm water, wash cloth, soap and clean towels. He can thus clean as many udders as would require ten milkers to milk. If the udders are cleansed some time before milking begins—as by the milkers themselves—the cows are apt either to leak their milk or to shrink in milk-yield. The general grooming of the cow’s bodies may well be done some time before milking. Do not allow the cows to become excited by hard driving, abusive treatment or even loud talking. The best plan is to allow no talking whatever to the cows at milking, and then, when there is a change in milk- ers, it will not influence the animals so much. CHAPRTERAV I HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM Milkers and Other Employees HE milker should be clean.* Before milking he must wash his hands thoroughly with warm water, soap and a nail brush. The hands must be well dried on a clean towel before milking is begun. A special suit of clean, washable outer garments should be worn during milking and at no other times. When not in use they must be kept in a clean andairy place. Each milker must be provided with a lantern when milking is not done in daylight, ‘unless the barn can be otherwise lighted. Milking ought to be performed at the same hour, morning and evening. Milking must be. accomplished quietly ; jerking the teats causes dirt and germs to drop in the milk and is not permissible.t The first few jets of milk from each teat must be rejected, because the germs are washed out of the milk cistern by the first part of the milk. If any of the milk in the pail becomes contaminated through accident or through mixture with stringy or bloody milk from the udder, the whole must be thrown away. Milking stools must be clean ; iron stools, painted white, are recom- mended (see Fig. 3), or, better, the use of a milk pail as a seat (see Fig. 3c, page 74). * Milkers should be clean shaven and wear clean, washable coats. Hair on the face is inadvisable. + For more detailed account of milking and use of milking machine, see Appendix, p. 189-192. to GISATN: MULT li After the milker has donned his milking suit and washed his hands, he should touch absolutely nothing but the cleaned teats of the cow and his clean stool and milk pail. Where great care is observed the milker is required to wash his hands after milking each cow. No person employed to milk, or handle milk in any way, should have, or have come in contact with, any contagious disease. In case of illness in the household of an employee a physician’s certificate should be required of the employee stating that the illness is not communicable before permit- ting the employee to come in contact with milk in any manner. FIG. 3. Iron Milking Stool. The safest rule is to debar a person from handling milk who has throat trouble or any disease, or has come in contact with a patient suffering from contagious disorder, or entered a dwelling in which there has been contagious disease. The milk pail is an important factor in the production of clean milk. The writer first employed a pail which has a removable cover crowned up so that it is about four inches above the top of the pail, with a hole in the cover six inches in diameter. The pail has a spout arising from its upper part and reaching a little above the cover of the pail when it is in place. The spout on the pail is covered by a remov- able metal cap. HIANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM 73 Two layers of sterilized cheese cloth are placed across the top of the pail and then the cover is fitted on over the top of the pail, stretching and holding the cheese cloth in place. When the pail is full it may be emptied through the spout without disturbing the cheese cloth, and so be used through a whole milking. The gauze is washed in warm water, then in soda and water, and rinsed in cold water and boiled 20 minutes, or placed in the steam sterilizer before being used again. The Gurler milk pail (Fig. 3a) is very similar, with a removable cover, the opening in which is The Gurler Milk Pail. A recent improvement on the Gurler Pail. larger than it need be, however. Otherwise it is a very satisfactory pail. Cheese cloth is laid over the top of the pail and the cover is fitted on, stretching it into place. Experiments have shown that milking through a clean cheese cloth strainer is capable of yielding a comparatively clean milk, even in rather dirty premises. The writer has recently known excellent results with the use of a milk pail modified from one described by Stewart of Philadelphia. This is made of spun steel, 10% inches high, and is covered with a flat, removable lid on which the milker sits. The milking is done into a spout 7h CLEAN MILK which has an expanded opening 7 inches in diameter. The spout is covered at the end by a removable pan, and the bottom of the pan is a wire strainer—1o0o meshes to the inch. The opening of the spout is nearly vertical, so that dirt will not easily fallintoit. Any metal worker can make such a pail. Stewart’s pail may now be procured of the Star Milk Cooler Co. Stewart found that milk in this pail contained only 29 germs, as against 125,000 germs to the quarter teaspoonful of milk drawn into an open bucket. Modification of Stewart’s Milk Pail, the most satisfactory to the author. The metal strainer is safer where milkers are unreliable, as they will handle cheesecloth strainers and lay them down in dirty places. Cotton wool laid between two layers of cheesecloth to strain milk—while milking—into the pail, is more effective than cheesecloth alone, but we have found that the cotton wool is matted in lumps by the jets of milk and that only those absorbent cotton strainers made by dairy supply companies for the purpose are to be recom- mended. We have been content with the good results obtained from cheesecloth alone. HIANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM 75 The handling of milk may be conducted properly in many ways. Some of these are very simple and inexpensive : others, which are quite expensive and elaborate, are required for convenience and certainty when large quantities of milk are to be handled in the most approved style. To such a degree of refinement has this matter been carried, and such a multitude of utensils have been devised, that the inexperienced, would-be dairyman is disheartened at the very outset by the great number of appliances which he finds are alike recommended and reviled by his various advisers. The matter of the best way to handle milk is a source of constant study, and improvements are as constantly taking place, and while there will never be a time when competent men will all agree on special details, yet they are agreed on the principles and essentials of the business. We have already described the principles, and dwelt upon the facts which have led up to the establishment of those prin- ciples; we now propose to devote our attention to the essentials in handling clean, pure milk. First: We will consider those essentials necessary to insure the continu- ance of the cleanliness of the milk until it reaches the con- sumer, and then the various devices for convenience, labor- saving and system required in handling large quantities of milk in the best manner knewn at the present time—always with the admitted possibility of improvement in details. The milk room is the first essential. It must be clean, proof against dust and extreme weather conditions, and separate from barn and house. It need not be expensive or elaborate. The floor, although preferably of asphalt or cement, may be of oiled or painted wood (if smooth and tight), and if on the level with the bottom of the milk wagon, will make it easier in loading the milk. 76 CLEAN MILK All water and washings from the room must be carried away in pipes to a point fifty yards from the milk house. The milk room should be surrounded by grounds free from rubbish, pools of milky water, or dust (fifteen grains of dust have been shown to contain as many as seventy million germs), and should be at least forty feet from the barn. It must be well lighted, with mosquito screens at the windows and doors. The windows and doors should be closed, as far as possible, at the time the milk is handled in the house, to exclude dust—ventilation being obtained by the King system. If there is a closed porch or vestibule, it will be an added safeguard against the admission of dust in windy weather, by providing an entrance with double doors. The construction of the milk room may be of wood, with walls and ceiling of wood or plaster, preferably painted. Whitewash may, however, be used on the inside of the room and should be renewed every three months. Scrupu- lous cleanliness must be observed in the milk room, and it should be kept as dry as possible in all its parts, with no spots of mold on the walls. No sour milk should be left in the room, as the sour milk, or lactic acid germs, will get into the fresh milk. The milk room ought not to be used _ for any other purpose than to handle the milk, and should contain nothing that is not required in handling milk. When milk is to be shipped in cans, the following utensils are essential : Milk pails. Receiving tank or cans, A strainer. A cooler or aerator. A collecting can, Shipping cans with all seams flushed with solder. HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM Pai NI A tank for washing purposes. A tank for immersing cans in cold water. Also washing soda or soap powder, brushes to scrub utensils and inside of cans, and cheese cloth for straining purposes. Pure hot and cold water, and steam if busi: ess is conducted upon a large scale. Method of Handling Milk To Be Shipped in Cans Cooling the Mzlk.—\ can not agree with such authori- ties as Dr. Chapin, of New York (than whom no one has done more to introduce clean milk into that metropolis), when he says on page 131 in his book on “ Infant Feeding”: “For cooling the milk to best advantage a can placed in ice water is better than the commercial coolers.” Clean milk calls for milk cooled to below 502 F. within an hour. This will not be accomplished by placing milk warm from the cows into large cans and then immersing the cans in ice water, unless by constant stirring of the milk in each can. Warm milk placed in quart bottles and immersed in ice water can be cooled properly—that is, to 45° F.—within the hour. When milk is obtained from cows giving milk varying greatly in composition, as is usually the case, it must be thoroughly mixed before bottling. But, inas- much as half an hour or more is commonly required to milk sufficient milk to mix, and inasmuch as one can not keep warm milk for this period without great increase in germs, the only way is to cool each pailful as soon as it is milked. Then the milk may be kept an hour or more before it is mixed and bottled. I started out prejudiced in favor of cooling milk by immersion of cans or bottles in ice water, but did not find it practicable, except under certain condi- tions (see p. 84).* The chief essential consists in immediate cooling of the milk. When milking begins, as soon as a milk pail is filled, * There is no doubt but that the cooler and all apparatus, not necessary in handling milk, should be abandoned when possible. The oftener milk touches objects the more likely will contamination result, especially by aeration in a dusty atmosphere. But immediate cooling is essential. 78 CLEAN MILK the milk should be taken directly to the milk house and the milk poured into the strainer, which is placed in the receiv- ing tank of the cooler. The milk runs over the cooler and is received in the shipping can, which, when filled, should be immersed in a tank of cold or iced water above the shoulder of the can with the cover of the can left off until shipping time. The milk, falling from the cooler, should pass through two layers of cheese cloth laid over the top of the shipping can. The milk should be cooled below 502 F. Two types of coolers or aerators areincommon use. Aera- tion,* or exposure of the milk to air, is not essential if the milk is withdrawn from the cow in a cleanly manner, but if the milk is more or less contaminated with manure, by impure air or by odors caused by imperfect feeding, aeration frees it to an extent of so-called animal odor. The coolers in ordinary use do, however, aerate the milk at the same time that the milk is cooled. The conical cooler (Fig. 4) may be employed when a moderate quantity of milk is to be handled, but requires more labor, as, in order to cool the milk satisfactorily, the water in the aerator must be constantly stirred to continually change the layer of water lying against the inner surface of the tin over which the milk runs. This aerator is fitted with an inflow and outflow pipe for running water, at either side of the base of the aerator, but unless the water is near the freezing point, it is better to fill the aerator with cracked ice, salt and water. In this case the aerator may be simply used as a storage tank for ice water, and both the inflow and outflow pipes are closed. By constant stirring of the ice water in the zrator while the milk is flowing, it is possible to reduce the tem- * Aeration is inadvisable, in so far as the milk is exposed to germs in the air during the process. HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM 79 perature of the milk coming from the cooler to below 50° F. In this style of aerator the milk flows from the reservoir at the top through fine holes all about the base of the res- ervoir out on to the surface and corrugations of the cooler, collects in the gutter below, and is carried off by the pipe leading from the gutter (in the front of the aerator in the cut) into the shipping can. Often these holes are too large Fic. 4. —=——_- ect. TM Il Ui ll] The Conical Cooler. or too numerous, allowing the milk to flow too fast, when some must be closed by solder. This kind of aerator works very unsatisfactorily if the water is not constantly stirred, and is not to be recommended if running water is at command and permits of use of a star or tubular cooler. The Star cooler (Fig. 5), or that of the tubular variety (Fig. 6), are by far the most efficient, certain and conven- ient coolers, although more expensive in first cost than the 80 CLEAN MILK conical xrators. The much greater surface offered by the tremendously corrugated form of the cooler, together with Star Cooler. the forced circulation of water which flows continuously from below upward through the cooler, account for the superiority of this type of cooler. Fic. 6. SPRING WATER | — | DISCHARGE @ IcE WATER q@ RETURN € =~ @ ICE WATER. ‘ Star Side-Bar Filler. in the high pressure sterilizers, it is possible to destroy the germs in ine milk utensils with as much certainty in twenty minutes as with steam at 212° F. in the low pressure ster- ilizers in an hour. The heavy pressure or high pressure sterilizers are, however, exceedingly expensive, and, if the bottles are properly washed, there is practically no danger in relying upon the less expensive steam sterilizers in which the steam is not confined under pressure.* In Fig. 15 is * Indeed, washing and sterlizing may be done at the same time (see page 185). gO CLEAN MILK shown a high pressure sterilizer. It must be built very strongly to withstand the pressure, which is over fifteen tons against the door alone, with a pressure of ten pounds of steam in the sterilizer. The matter of a sterilizer in : ‘ , a |. which the steam is not confined under pressure is a compar- atively simple affair. One may be home-made. The writer had a sterilizer built of two-inch plank, lined with galvanized iron, with double doors fastened with an iron bar across the front. HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM gI The shape was nearly square and the capacity was about 250 quart bottles. There was a movable sheet of galvan- ized iron, partitioning the sterilizer in two, and movable shelves of the same, perforated with holes, in which the bottles rested upside down on their shoulders. The shelves stretched horizontally across the sterilizer, from each side to the partition in the centre, resting on galvanized angle irons soldered along both sides and on each side of the par- tition in the centre. The shelves were just far enough apart to give room for a tier of bottles. Shelves and partition were removed to allow of room for sterilizing the milk pails, cooler, bottle filler and strainer, cheese cloths, and tanks supplying and receiving milk from cooler, etc. The sterilizer was fed from a ten horse power boiler with steam from below, and also had an exit or exhaust in the bottom, while at the top there was a hole in which was a cork holding a thermometer in place, with bulb inside and recording part outside of steril- izer. The doors were not steam-tight, and no pressure of steam was attempted or possible in the sterilizer, but the temperature was raised to 212° in about twenty minutes, and maintained for the time—one hour—occupied by steril- ization. A very successful sterilizer has recently been made by my iriend,” Fon W.' H. ‘Paulhamus, of Sumner, Wash., entirely of concrete faced with cement, and costing about $75.00." It isarectangular chamber 6% feet high by 8 feet wide and about 14 feet long and 6 inches thick, with one iron door. In the top, iron bars were used to reinforce the concrete. Two half-inch pipes enter one side of the chamber just above the floor for intake of steam from a twenty-five horse power boiler,and,at the top, there is a single * See plate opposite page 184. 92 CLEAN MILK pipe for outlet of steam when sterilization is over to cool off the oven, and onetodrain the floor. Inthe middle of one side there is also a pipe inserted, large enough to hold a thermo- meter. This sterilizer is enormous, and will hold 100 dozen bottles and every bit of dairy apparatus used on four farms, including the milk pails and milk cans, coolers, and bottle filling apparatus, strainer cloth, etc. If one does not wish to make a sterilizer, the largest size only should be bought rilGe Los Star Sterilizer. (Fig. 16), as it is most economical in saving the expense of doing several sterilizations daily, because with it all bottles and every article of dairy utensil can be sterilized at one time. In case the Star galvanized sterilizer is used, the bottle carriers described on page 102 may be employed to hold the bottles in the sterilizer, or a rack and truck similar to that pictured on page 103 and 104 may be utilized. This sterilizer is made of heavy galvanized iron, HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM 93 riveted and soldered together, and holding from 240 to 632 quart bottles, according to the size. It is supplied with perforated steam coil and trapped drain outlet, and it is well to have an exhaust to carry off surplus steam, although the doors are not steam-tight when closed. A thermometer placed in the center of the door is also advisable. Both the heavy pressure and the galvanized iron sterilizers are made either with a door at one end or a door at each end. The latter arrangement is a convenience when there is a separ- ate room for washing the bottles, the sterilizer being placed in the partition between the washing and bottling room and the bottles passed in the sterilizer through a door in the wash room and taken out through the other door in the FIG. 17. Bottle Brush. sterilizer in the bottling room. Every single utensil with which milk comes in contact, including the various tanks and strainer cloths, should be thoroughly washed and steril- ized after each milking for one hour at 212° F. To avoid sterilization twice daily, however, it is better to have two sets of utensils, which may be sterilized all together once daily. Washing Out fit.—A separate room should be provided for washing milk utensils where the best plan is pursued. Since we are considering the essentials for handling clean milk we have not included a wash room separate from the milk room, as clean milk can be handled in a combination bottling and wash room, although not to the best advantage. The bottles should be rinsed in warm water and washed with 94 CLEAN MILK washing soda and hot water (in 3 per cent. solution) with a bottle brush (see Fig. 17), and then rinsed in clean hot water and inverted over the trays or shelves, which are placed in the sterilizer. The most convenient arrangement is such as that shown in the cut (Fig. 18), two tanks, one holding lukewarm water in which the bottles are soaked and the other hot water containing washing soda, while at the end there are projecting nipples over which the bottles are inverted, and, by turning the lever, several bottles are rinsed at once. Each tank has an overflow standpipe to carry off the grease floating on the top of the water.* MiGs: SSS = = inn COPYRIGHT, 1903, Star Metal Wash Sink. An additional improvement is the turbine bottle washer shown in the illustration (Fig. 19). It consists of a revolv- ing brush which is turned by a turbine wheel with steam at a pressure of twelve to fifteen pounds. In this cut are shown the two large tanks on the left, for soaking and wash- ing bottles in washing soda and water, and then the small tank, next the bottle washer, over which the bottles are inverted to be rinsed inside. This is accomplished by nipples as shown in the cut (Fig. 18) spraying water into the interior of a number of bottles at one time, which are * For a washing apparatus, where 1,000 or more bottles are handled, see Appendix, HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM 95 then dipped in the small tank below to wash the outside of the bottle, and are transferred to the tank at the extreme right to drain. None of this special bottle-washing outfit is essential. Any convenient arrangement of tubs and hot water by which the bottles are put through three processes in wash- ing—first rinsing in warm water, then in hot alkali and water, and finally in clean hot water—will suffice. Star Bottle Washing Outfit. If the bottles are thoroughly rinsed at the consumer's house the first rinsing in plain water may even be dispensed with, provided the bottles are thoroughly scrubbed inside with a brush and hot alkali water and well rinsed in clean hot water. The hot water may be supplied from a hot water tank, as suggested (p. 85), or by means Steam Heating on Of aysteam) heating tee Cig: 20). This is an arrangement by which water may be heated to almost any temperature desired (short 96 CLEAN MILK of boiling), by steam and cold water coming in contact, in varying proportions, according to the amount of either which is permitted to flow into the tee. Thus the steam enters the side and the water the top of the tee, both being regulated by valves in the steam and water pipes, and the hot water flows out below. Cold water or steam may be obtained separately also, from the device, which is com- paratively inexpensive. A very convenient bottle-washing machine is shown in the Appendix (p. 185.) The routine of operating the dairy would be as fol-. lows: The empty, returned bottles would be taken from the wagon boxes into the milk room and there rinsed in warm water, in one tub, and then scrubbed with a brush in another tub holding alkali and water,.as hot as the hand can bear.. IGT. The bottles should be next rinsed in clean, hot water, in- verted in the racks and placed in the sterilizer, where they are sterilized at 212° F. (by a reliable thermometer) (Fig. 21) for an hour. The bottles should remain inverted until used. The milk is brought from the barn in milk pails or cans, as soon as milked, and poured into the Star trap strainer resting in the receiving tank of the Star milk cooler with ice water section. The milk flows from the collecting tank of the cooler through sterilized cheese cloth into a large can, if it is desired to thoroughly mix the milk of many cows before it is bottled. Instead of a can for mixing the cooled miik, it is better to use the large tank for filling the bottles—-that is, the bottle-filler tank ; and after twenty gal- lons or more of milk have flowed from the collecting-tank HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM 97 of the cooler into the bottle-filler tank, the milk should be well stirred with a sterilized stirrer and the bottles filled while the milk is being mixed. The stirrer may be made like a huge fork, from heavy tin. The warm milk of several cows may be mixed in the barn by pouring the contents of a number of milk pails into a large can. But unless there are enough milkers to do this within a few minutes, it is better to carry each milk pail to the cooler, as soon as it is full and mix the milk after it FIG. 22 Machine for chopping ice used to pack about milk bottles. has cooled. The time elapsing between milking and bot- tling should be as short as possible. The milk must be cooled instantly after milking, and be bottled within an hour of milking. In some establishments the milk is bottled within eight minutes of milking. The cooled, mixed milk is poured into the bottle filler and flows immediately into the bottles, which are then quickly capped with sterilized paper caps, and placed in the wagon boxes well surrounded with ice in warm weather. The milk should be delivered to the consumer the year round at a temperature not over 45° F. If not shipped immediately—as in case of the night’s 98 CLEAN MILK milk—the milk may be stored in the wagon boxes over night with ice or kept in cold storage or in sufficiently cold water. (Fig. 22). All the dairy utensils should be rinsed in clean warm or cold water as soon as the milk has been bottled and then washed with scalding alkali water and rinsed with clean cold water, and sterilized an hour in the sterilizer, including the cheese cloth used in straining the milk in the milk pails, in the Star trap strainer, and that used over the can in which the cooled milk is mixed. The floor must be kept damp to avoid dust, and the windows and doors should be closed while the milk is being handled for the same reason. When dairy utensils are not in use, they may be kept in a sterilizer, FIG. 23. Banjo Conductor for carrying milk through a wall. or, if this is not practicable, it is well in many milk rooms to cover them with a clean sheet, to keep off the dust, and to rinse the cooler with clean, cold water just before using, for the same reason. A properly constructed and managed milk room should be dust-proof and dust-free, and such precautions should be entirely unnecessary. Turning live steam against the walls of the milk room each day is useful as an aid to cleanliness, provided that they are constructed to withstand the process. The employees in the milk room ought to wear clean, washable clothes. Linen gowns, like those worn by butchers. which may be slipped over the clothes, are most convenient. The final test of perfection of cleanliness of the milk, produced as described, is the laboratory. Such tests should FANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM 99 be made once a week. If the milk is sold as “certified,” it must receive the sanction of some reliable and disinterested society or person. The bacterial content or number of germs should not exceed 30,c00* to the cubic centimeter, according to the consensus of authorities at the present time, in so-called certified milk. It is perfectly possible to produce milk which shall not exceed in number 2,000 to 4,000 germs to the cubic centimeter by the comparatively simple and inexpensive plant which has just been described above, as the author has practically demonstrated. COPYRIGHT, 1903, Cylinder for conveying milk through a floor. A more perfect arrangement in a dairy building for handling clean milk is of advantage when one can afford it. The most important improvement consists in separating the bottling or milk room proper from the wash room, in which the sterilization and washing of the milk utensils are done, and to devote two rooms to these different processes. (1) The boiler and engine should have a separate room, and, adjoining this, (2) a room for washing and sterilization, and then a room (3) in which the milk is cooled and bottled. * to,000 germs is the maximum number permitted by many Milk Commis- sions. 100 CLEAN MILK A still further development comprises the following in the dairy building : A Milk Receiving Room. A Boiler Room. A Milk Room. A Cold Storage Room. A Bottle Room. A Shipping Room, A Wash Room. A Lavatory. An Engine Room. A Laundry. Eb Cream Cooler connected with Separator. The milk receiving room may be connected with the- barn by a cable system by which two 5 to 10 gallon cans are suspended on can carriages running on an overhead wire. The milk receiving room is on a higher level than the milk room, so that the milk flows from it through the floor through a funnel or cylinder, or through the wall by a Banjo conductor (see Figs. 23 and 24) directly into the receiving tanks of the cooler or separator in the milk room below, thus avoiding unnecessary handling. HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM IOI The milk room should not be connected with tne outer air by a door or open window, but must be ventilated so as to exclude dust and only be connected with the other rooms. It contains the appliances for cooling and bottling milk we have already noticed, and also a separator, cream cooler and cream bottle filler (Figs. 25 and 26), if cream is to be made. The bottle room adjoins the milk room, in which the clean bottles are kept after being sterilized. One end of the sterilizer projects into this room from the wash room. FIG. 26. COPYRIGHT, 1902, Cream Bottle Filler. The wash room contains the sterilizer, the bottle washing outfit, and a Babcock tester. The cold storage room is of great convenience where large quantities of milk are handled and may be arranged with natural ice, or by means of ammonia compression and an artificial refrigerating and ice-making plant. The lavatory and laundry are for the use of the employees in the dairy, the former with a shower bath, set basin and dressing room, and the latter to wash the clothes used by the employees. In the shipping room are the cases for holding the bottlés, and the floor platform for loading the wagons should be onalevel withthem. Where 102 CESAIN NITIEK. there is machinery, as for a refrigerating plant, it is well to separate the boiler by a partition from the engine and fire room and thus avoid the dust, ashes and dirt from fuel.* Space does not permit of more than a brief outline of the more elaborate dairy plant, but we would refer to one} who makes a business of planning and installing such, from whom we have derived many valuable suggestions. The object of this book is to detail the less elaborate and more essential FIG. 27 COPYRIGHT, 1903, Bottle Carriers. methods which may be used by the farmer without great expense in the production of clean milk on a moderate scale. In the handling of milk bottles in the dairy, it is much more convenient—though not essential—if they can be transported and inverted in numbers without handling each bottle separately. Thus carriers have been invented for holding them, with reversing racks, so that the bottles may be inverted—as when they are sterilized—by turning over * For plan of milk house, see p. 179. t Samuel M. Heulings, Haddonfield, N. J. HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM 103 as many as 20 bottles at once (see Fig. 27). Cars are also made which are used to transport these carriers and the cars, carriers and bottles are all wheeled directly into the steri- lizer and out again without handling the individual bottles (see Figs. 28 and 29). Shipping Cases ana Boxes.—Milk bottles of be shipped in some sort of box. The writer has had such olass must c=) boxes made of strong galvanized iron (24 gage) with rolled edges at all the joints, with a hinged cover and padlock, and Fic. 28. COPYRIGHT, 1903, A Car for conveying carriers and bottles. with metal handles at either end. Padlocks must be made to have the same key fit them all; but we have found great trouble in getting padlocks which were not continually getting out of order. For this reason, and because keys for such padlocks are readily obtained by outsiders, I recommend the use ofa lead seal having an opening through which the ends of short wires are passed. The seal is then compressed by a special punch, thus locking the ends of the wires and serving as a perfect padlock which is not likely 104 CLEAN MILK to be tampered with without detection. The seal and wire for each shipping box cost about one-sixth of a cent and may be obtained complete with the punch. One called “The Enterprize Punch & Seal” has proved efficient. The boxes hold 12 quart bottles, which are separated by a framework of galvanized iron on the same plan as the pasteboard partitions or fillers in egg cases. These frames lift out of the boxes and are 3% inches deep. The boxes are 12% X17% X io inches deep and have a small hole COPYRIGHT, 1903, A Car for conveying carriers and bottles. punched in the bettom to allow the water, from melting ice, to drain away. This is advisable in saving ice and the weight of the water in transportation. I have found the locked boxes necessary to prevent theft of the milk and empty bottles in transportation. Boxes may be bought holding various quantities of bottles, as 20 or 14 pints (see Fig, 30). Bottles.—In regard to glass bottles there is not much to say except that a bottle of good material and proper HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM 105 annealing must be secured to stand the repeated steriliza- tions (Fig. 31). Theshapes are morea matter of taste than anything else. The bottles with the long and slender necks make a greater display of cream. The latest departure in the way of a milk bottle is the Single Service Paper Milk Bottle sold by the Renno Case Co., 395: Market Street, Philadelphia. This does away with the breakage, the clean- ing, the sterilization, and the loss incurred in collection of empty milk bottles. The paper bottles are made in quarts, pints and half-pints, are saturated with paraffin and are ab- solutely sterile—that is, free from germs. The paper bottle weighs 2 ounces, as against 24 to 26 ounces in the case of Fic 30. BEATA AT TTT Ty at | — i 3 COPYRIGHT, 1903, Wagon Box for carrying bottles and ice, not covered or locked. the glass quart bottle. The chief advantages of the paper bottle lie in the saving of expense in not having to collect (and lose) bottles, as they are only made to be used once and rejected; and in the saving of weight in transportation, as almost twice as much milk can be carried on a wagon. Then the bottles are about 2% inches shorter than the glass bottles, on account of their thinner walls; the paper lids fit down into the bottle and allow of no leaking ; and the necks are wide enough to remove the cream with a spoon. The cost is about 1 cent each for quart, and eight-tenths of a cent for pint paper bottles. The only disadvantage which occurs to the writer is the fact that quality and quantity of 106 CLEAN MILT the cream would not be so apparent in the paper bottles, nor would dirt. The advent of the paper bottle would seem then to be of enormous advantage to farmers in enabling them to ship milk in bottles without all the expense and labor of the washing and sterilizing outfit now required for glass bottles. At present writing it is, however, impossible to secure the bottle as the makers are as yet not supplying dairymen at large, and the writer has had no practical experience with FIG. 31. Star Milk Bottles. the paper bottle. The foregoing statements were taken from the report of Dr. A. H. Stewart, who made a study of the paper bottle, in Sazztatzon for December 6th, 1905. The same care should be exercised in the production of cream as inthe case of milk. While 99 per cent. of germs in milk are to be found in the cream which rises naturally on that milk, separated cream contains about one-fourth of the germs in the milk from which it is obtained. But as the cream constitutes only a snvall part of the original milk— say one-sixth—the actual number of germs in a given amount of separation—cream would be greater than in the HTANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM 107 same quantity of the milk from which the cream was separated. Cream in cities is consumed largely on the table and for making ice cream and whipped cream. Fatal poisoning has occurred from ice cream made from unclean milk (see p. 22). Babies are chiefly fed nowadays on cream and water. The cream is usually re- moved from milk at the infant’s home, but market cream is often used for this purpose. When cream is used for any of the purposes recited, it is impera- tive that the cream should be clean or as free from germs as_ possible. We have already alluded to the value of clean ‘cream, for butter- making. The warm milk direct from the cow must be immediately separated, as a temperature of 86° F. is most favorable for separation. Nor must time be permitted for germs to mul- tiply in the warm milk between milk- ing and separation; the milk must Hand Separator for separat- ‘ing cream from milk, be separated as fast as milked. As soon as the cream is separated it should be immediately cooled to below 50° F., pre- ferably to 40° F. This is best accomplished by allowing the cream to run directly from the separator into the receiving tank of a tubular or Star cooler. The cooler is identical with that for milk, but the holes are larger in the receptacle which feeds the cooler. The cream is 108 CLEAN MILK transferred from the collecting tank of the cooler to a cream bottle-filler, and then is run into sterilized bottles. The bottles are shipped like milk in shipping boxes and, except in cold weather, are packed in ice. The bowl and all movable parts of the separator must be washed as carefully as any other dairy utensils by first rinsing in cold water, then scrubbing in warm water and washing soda with a brush, and rinsing again with clean, cold water. Finally, the parts should be sterilized with boiling water or by placing them in a sterilizer. All this should be done after each use of the separator. For this reason a separator having as simple construction and as few parts which come in contact with milk as possible should be preferred. The Sharples separator is one of the simplest in this respect and therefore most readily cleaned.* If the cream is shipped in cans, it may be kept cool in the same manner as that recommended for milk (see p. 87). Cream thickeners of gelatin are not uncommonly used to thicken cream. Starch and syrup of lime, known as “Viscogen,” are also employed. Separated cream does not whip quite so readily as set cream, and syrup of lime may be used to aid its whipping, without injury to the consumer, provided that only a small amount—not over 4 teaspoon- ful of the syrup to the pint of cream—is used. In fact, this proportion is often employed in cream mixtures for feeding babies to increase the digestibility of the cream. Viscogen should not be added to cream for sale in the market. For tests for adulterants of cream, see p. 140. | Cream of varying composition is sold in the market. It generally varies from 20 to 50 per cent. in fat-content. Cream must contain at least 18 per cent of fat according to the U. S. Pure Food Law, June, 1906. * See page 175 for management of separators. HANDLING OF MILK AND CREAM 109g In order that cream may be readily whipped, it should contain over 20 per cent. of fat, preferably 30 to 4o per cent., and be below 50 per cent. in temperature. Cream should be at least 24 hours old—to contain a small amount of acid—in order to whip well. Pasteurized cream will not whip satisfactorily unless viscogen is added to it; or a starter, to develop slight acidity in it. The vessel in which the whipping is done should be cold and round-bottomed ; the whipping should be done with great speed; and the whipper should not be more than three-fourths covered with cream. The cream sold in this city (Seattle) commonly contains from 31 to 33 per cent. of fat. In concluding the subject of the production and handling of clean milk and cream, I wish to emphasize the fact that most farmers can produce clean milk without great expense in ordinary barns and milk rooms, and can, by so doing, make more money—even with the added expense. If paper bottles come into general use, the greater part of all the extra trouble and expense now entailed in bottling milk at the farm will be abolished. Clean milk may be shipped in cans, with but slight cost over ordinary milk, and is just as satisfactory, providing the cans go directly to the consumer and their contents are used wholly by him. It is the constant dipping into cans in retailing small amounts of ’ milk which causes the contamination, as noted on p. 18. CHAPTER Wit COST OF PRODUCING AND DISTRIBUTING CLEAN MILK FEW words first in regard to the cost of production and profits on ordinary milk sold to creameries, for butter and other products; and for consumption as market milk in cities and towns throughout the United States: It has become only too evident to readers of dairy literature of late that a large number, perhaps the majority, of milch cows in this country do not yield any considerable profit to their owners. Thus, in a report of the Ohio Cow Census in Hoard’s Dairyman™ of April 28, 1905, we find that among 87 herds representing 635 cows, with a yearly average of 3,839 Ibs. of milk per cow, the average yearly return was $29.93 percow. Among this number of 87 herds, 29 herds were kept at a loss, and out of the whole 87, only 26 herds paid a yearly profit of over $5 per cow to the owners. Yet in this same report we note one herd of 24 cows, mixed breeds, yielding annually per cow an average of *In the Cow Census made by Hoard’s Dairyman in Vermont (see the number for August Ist, 1905), it was shown that out of 100 dairies, 69 did not pay the cost of keeping the cows. The cows were natives or grades. The estimated cost of feeding ranged from $33.50 to $41.00 per cow, per year. The annual profit per cow, of the 31 dairies which paid any profit, varied from 43 cents to $22.57. The losses per cow annually, in the dairies which did not pay, ran from 2 cents to $21.46. The production of the dairies varied from 72 to 270 lbs of butter fat per cow annually. PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION EI t 7,756 lbs. of milk and giving a yearly profit of $167 per cow. Again, in this same report, we discover another herd which paid its owner an annual average profit of 10 cents per cow. How may we explain such an enormous inequality in returns? Let us compare the report of the two herds : Herd No. 12 Herd No. 100 (2Jerseys,3 grades) (Mixed breeds) Cost of keep per cow yearly........ $25.00 $70.00 No. Ibs. milk per cow yearly ....... 3,048 7,756 Profit annually per cow. ........... $0.10 $167.00 Returns from $1.00 invested in feed. $1.00 $3.40 Average price of milk per 100 lbs... $0.62 $3.05 In herd No. 12, we find that the annual cost of keep was $25, and the yield 3,048 lbs. of milk, which brought 82 cents per 100 lbs. at the creamery, or a little less than 7 cents a gallon the year round. A gallon of milk weighs 8.6 Ibs. Herd No. 100 paid yearly $167 per cow, while the cost of keep was $70 per cow, and the milk brought a little over 25 cents a gallon, or over 6 cents a quart the year round. Certain remedies there are for such a disparity in profits, but, under some conditions, this disparity can only be remedied in part. In the cases in point, the most essential cause of the difference in profits in the two herds is the difference in price, which depends upon circumstances. The owner of herd No. 100 was near enough to the city of Cleveland to retail his milk for over 6 cents a quart, whereas the product of herd No. 12 was sold for less than 2 cents to a creamery. In this comparison, there are, however, other points to consider : the fact that the cows in herd No. 100 gave over twice the quantity of milk yielded by the cows in herd No. 12 is an important matter. This may have partly T12 CLEAN MILK depended upon the care of the cows and feeding, but was very probably chiefly due to the character of the cows themselves. While it would be impossible for any one to make much profit in milk at less than 2 cents a quart, yet it may be accepted that, unless a cow comes up to a certain standard in regard to quantity and quality of milk, it is unprofitable to keep her, and the sooner that cow and her owner are parted the better. Just what that standard should be will depend somewhat on local conditions, and prices of food, and milk; but, in a general way, the cow that will not average about 10 quarts daily during 10 months of the year (6,000 Ibs. annually), and whose milk falls much below 4 per cent. on the average (unless the quantity is very large), will not pay to keep. In this region, there are many herds of grade Holsteins, containing as many as 80 to 120 heads, which average 16 quarts and over per cow during the summer months—on pasture alone—in the rich valley lands. In order to determine whether individual cows are profitable, the farmer must weigh the daily amount and test the butter fat of each cow’s (see p. 176) milk at frequent intervals. Each cow’s milk should be weighed separately, directly the cow is milked, by hanging the milk pail on a balance scale and recording the weight on a record sheet which is gotten up for this purpose (see Appendix, p- 176). The record sheet should be kept near the weighing balance in a room devoted to this purpose in the barn. To determine the percentage of fat in the milk, a composite sample—that is, asample of a mixture of the same quantity of night’s and morning’s milk of each cow for several days —should be examined by the Babcock test at the beginning and end of each month. The composite sample is obtained by pouring the fresh milk from one pail to another, and PRODUCTION AND, DISTRIBUTION hte from the mixed milk one should remove a gill with a long- handled dipper at each milking. The gill is placed in a clean labelled and covered Mason glass jar, which is shaken each time a newsample is added. Fifteen drops of formalin or a corrosive sublimate tablet will preserve the samples for days, and two ounces, or half a cup of the composite sample, is sufficient for the Babcock test. If a Babcock tester is not at hand, the testing may be done at a creamery fora small charge. The number of pounds of milk yielded by each cow monthly should be multiplied by the average per cent. of fat in her milk. This will give the number of pounds of fat in the cow’s milk for the month, which should be the basis for comparing her value. The average per cent. of fat in her milk for the month will be obtained by adding together the results of the two fat tests and dividing the sum by two. Then the general care and feeding governs to a considerable degree the quantity of milk, and intelligent study of a good newspaper devoted to the dairy industry will prove of much value in this respect. As we have repeatedly emphasized, the cleaner the milk the better itis for any purpose, and the farmer who devotes himself to producing a clean milk should receive a larger price for it. Of course, local conditions will largely determine the advisa- bility of investing extra money and time in the food, care and cost of cows, but very rarely will it fay to keep cows which do not pay for their keep. It may be necessary to keep cows for their manure, but this is usually considered as merely offsetting the cost of their care, and so the cost of keeping cows is commonly figured in estimating the cost of their food. The yearly cost of feeding a cow varies from $17 to $70, averaging perhaps throughout the United States about $35. At the experiment stations, with the 114 CIA AN, WILK best selected stock and breeds and the most expert care, the cost of producing 1 quart of milk varies from 0.7 to 2.9 cents, according to breed and individual characteristics of cows. When a farmer receives on the average 2 cents or less per quart for milk, there can be little profit to him. Yet two cents is about the price paid for years to farmers who have shipped ordinary market milk to New York ‘City. It has been stated by many authorities that one-third of the cows in this country is kept at a loss; that one-third just about pays for its keep, and that one-third pays a profit to their owners. The most striking fact which impresses one in this whole matter of profit in milk production is the folly of keeping poor cows. A poor cow makes a foor owner. The production and transportation of clean milk is attended with much greater expense than that of ordinary Or -market amallke The following figures, showing the cost of milk produc- tion and distribution, must, of course, be considered only approximate. Local conditions alter circumstances tremen- dously. Thus in this region (Seattle, Wash.), the climate is so mild that ice has to be used on the milk during trans- portation on the railroad and delivery in the city wagon the year round. Then again, the city is very hilly and the streets, many of them, very bad, and the milk route is not concentrated in a thickly settled district. We may place the average cost of the production throughout the country of ordinary market milk at 2 to 21% cents per quart as the result of the figures obtained from the experiment stations. Perhaps the average figure paid the farmer for ordinary market milk hereabouts is PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION 115 3% cents a quart. This does not differ materially from the price paid in many parts of the country. The cost of producing clean milk in this region, over and above that of ordinary milk, may be set down at 2 cents a quart. This includes the extra care necessitated in the barn and dairy, the fuel for running the boiler, the ice, etc. In the milk room, there is the washing and sterilizing of all the bottles and apparatus, and the bottling of milk and packing of the bottles in boxes with ice. The farmer must make aconsiderable outlay for the paraphernalia in his milk room, but the bottles, in this vicinity, are supplied by the distributors in the city. The cost of transporting milk by rail in bottles to the city, some 30 miles, is 1 cent a quart in this region, and it costs about the same in other cities. This figure includes the cost of carriage for the galvanized iron box, holding one dozen bottles and ice, the whole weighing 68 lbs., and also the return of empty. bottles and cases to the farm. The cost of distributing clean milk is much greater than ordinary milk, when ice is used, owing to the weight of the ice and cases holding the bottles and the fact that custom- ers of high priced milk are apt to be scattered about. The cost of distribution of milk has been set down at two cents a quart, but three cents a quart would be nearer the mark in this vicinity for milk sold on ice the year round. The farmer should then receive at least six cents a quart net for certified milk as the minimum figure, according to my ex- perience in this region, or about double what he receives for ordinary market milk. This is a uniform price for the year around. For the ordinary milk he gets from nine cents to sixteen cents per gallon, at different seasons, and it retails at about seven cents a quart. 116 CLEAN MILK The distributer of milk, if he pays the farmer six cents. per quart and one cent per quart freight, should get eleven cents as a minimum price per quart to make any profit. This figure is a low estimate when various unavoidable losses are taken into account, as repairs and deterioration of milk boxes, harness, sickness and death of horses, loss of accounts, bottles, etc. I believe that seven to eight cents a quart for the farmer, and twelve to fifteen cents a quart for the dis- tributer of clean milk in the city, is a much safer estim- ate asa basis on which a profitable business for both may be done.* It isimpossible to keep up the standard of clean milk unless a reasonable profit is being made at both ends of the business. Every step by which the milk is improved costs money in labor or material, and it has been my experience that it is useless to expect the farmer to carry out all the necessary details of cleanliness unless he can really afford to do so. The actual price at which certified milk retails varies in various cities from eight to twenty cents per quart. Rich milk, as milk containing five per cent. fat, should bring a higher price, though it is not preferable for infant food— rather the reverse, as we have noted. In this vicinity there has been an attempt to employ one farm as a bottling station in which the utensils of all the farms are washed and sterilized and to which milk, which has been milked and cooled at neighboring farms, is brought. When the milk was supplied by the farm doing the bottling, *In Hoard’s Dairyman of a recent date the proportionate receipts from a. quart of milk retailing for 8 cents in New York City, are given as follows: Cents ProducerireCelves ciate ny netrnes etoile sisleio’s «+ oie etaberatetoletale mentors 2075 Railroad for, transporting Feceives .i-)-. ii. si... « «ame win ste wietetets 0.5 Dealers handling, bottling and distributing the same, receive.. 4.75 PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION 117 -and one other about a mile away, the result was very good. The highest number of bacteria in the milk bottled from these two farms was 17,000 per cubic centimeter during six months. Pressure being brought to bear to increase the milk supply, two more farms were taken into the combination with disastrous results. This unfortunate outcome was largely due to the fact that the owners of the two farms which were taken into the combination last had not time given them to arrange their barns and milk-rooms properly, and had not got into the routine necessary to produce clean milk. Whether an arrangement of this kind for producing certified milk is wholly practicable is somewhat doubtful. There are so many more opportunities for contamination of the milk with dirt and germs. If alike attempt is elsewhere undertaken, the milk from each farm should be examined once a week before bottling it and mixing it with milk from the other farms, to ascertain the number of bacteria and the amount of fat inthe milk. The plan has the advantage -of bringing several farmers to a higher standard than would otherwise be possible, and enables the farmer who supplies all the dairy apparatus to make a more economical use of his plant. When an individual wishes to begin to sell clean milk in a neighborhood in which certified milk is unknown, it is well for him first to interest the local medical profession in the project. The local medical society, or individual physicians, should form a committee with laboratory facilities. The work ‘can be done under the committee’s direction by an intelligent druggist. Any dairy, supplying clean milk, may receive a cer- tificate from the medical commission, if the milk fulfils the required standard, as’the result of weekly examinations. Providing, however, that the milk has fulfilled all the re- 1 es CLEAN MILK quirements of the milk commission for a_ probationary period of at least two months prior to the granting of a certificate. Estimation of the Value of Milk and Cream for Ordinary Purposes. The value of milk and cream throughout the country is generally determined by the price of butter. And the butter maker pays for milk or cream according to the pounds of butter fat each contains. Clean milk or cream of the purity of the certified milk or cream, however, bring a price greatly above that fixed by a butter-fat valuation. In churning a pound of butter fat (in milk or cream) into butter there is a gain; that is, a pound of butter fat will produce more than a pound of butter. The weight of the butter fat subtracted from the weight of the butter (made from it) is the overrun.* The reason for this gain in churn- ing butter fat into butter is that there are ingredients in the milk or cream, and also the salt contributed by the butter maker, which add to the fat in the butter. Thus butter con- tains on the average about 84 per cent. of fat, and the remain- ing 16 per cent. consists of water (12 per cent.), and curd (1 per cent.), salts (2.5 per cent.), and milk sugar (0.5 per cent.). This is the average composition of butter,f but the water may vary in amount from 8 to 16 per cent. and the fat proportionately. The overrun, then, does not depend *For detailed information concerning overrun, see Bull. 129, Some Creamery Problems, E. H. Farrington, Univ. Wis. Agric. Exper. Sta., to which the authoris greatly indebted. +Since the U. S. Pure Food Act of 1906 requires that butter shall contain 82.5. per cent. of butter fat as a minimum, it follows that creamery butter will not in future exceed this requirement. This, therefore, may be regarded as the present average content of fat in butter. PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION 119 upon nor refer to the percentage of fat in butter. It is al- ways estimated by determining the fat in the milk or cream by the Babcock test, and then subtracting the weight of the fat from the weight of the resulting butter. The amount of butter which can be made from a given weight of cream depends upon the amount of fat it contains. The richer in fat it is, the less the loss of fat in the butter- milk in churning. Thus buttermilk contains about 0.3 per cent. of fat, and cream containing 15 per cent. of fat would yield almost four times as much buttermilk as cream con- taining 40 percent. fat. Moreover, the buttermilk from rich cream contains absolutely less fat (less than 0.3 per cent. fat) than that derived from churning thin cream. Then there are mechanical losses of fat from cream and butter sticking to various utensils used in the course of making and hand- ling butter. This naturally influences the amount of butter which can be made from a given quantity of fat in milk or cream. Two to five pounds of butter-fat may thus be wasted for every hundred pounds handled. The Overrun.—As an example we will estimate the overrun in making 116 pounds of butter from 2,500 pounds of 4 per cent. milk. We first determine the weight of fat in the milk : 2,500 pounds multiplied by .o4 equals 100 pounds of fat. Subtracting this from 116 pounds of butter made from it gives us the overrun as 16 pounds, or 16 per cent., because it is 16 per cent. of the 100 pounds of fat in the milk. The overrun is usually less on account of various losses. Thus in skimming the milk in the separator there is a loss of about o.1 per cent. of fat contained in the skim milk; after churning there is the loss in the buttermilk we have noted equal to 0.3 per cent. fat in the buttermilk; and there are the mechanical losses we have referred to, equivalent to about 120 CLEAN MILK 2'to 5 per cent. of the total fat in the milk. So of the 100 pounds of fat in the 2,500 pounds of 4 per cent. milk there may be only 93.13 pounds of fat available, which would make 110.86 pounds of butter containing 84 per cent. of fat. Subtracting from this 110.86 pounds of butter the 100 pounds of fat contained in the 2,500 pounds of milk gives 10.86 pounds, or 10.86 per cent. as the amount of the overrun. The overrun varies, not only owing to the conditions noted, but also as the churning leaves more or less water in the butter, and according to the accuracy of testing the milk or cream for fat, and in weighing the same. The normal range in overrun for milk varies from 10 to15 percent. An over- run above or below these figures demands an investigation. The overrun from cream is somewhat higher than these figures, since there is no loss from skimming, as from milk. The cream overrun varies from 16 to 20 per cent. Estimation of the overrun is not in any way essential in calculating the money due patrons of a creamery for milk orcream. The simplest, fairest, and generally most satis- factory way is to weigh and test each sample of milk or cream of the patron’s for butterfat and subtracting the cost of making the butter from its selling price, to give the balance of the returns to the patrons in proportion to the butterfat they supplied. Thus, if 232 pounds of butter were made during a given time from 200 pounds of butterfat, and the butter sold at 25 cents a pound, the butter fetched $58.00. Subtracting from this 4 cents a pound for making gives $48.75 to be divided among the patrons according to the amount of butterfat each supplied. 48.70 divided by 200 gives us 24.35 cents as the price to be paid each patron for each pound of fat supplied in his milk or cream. The fol- lowing correction should, however, be made: PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION HoT The milk patron is paid for all the butterfat in his milk brought to the creamery while the cream patron is not, as part of the butterfat in his milk remains at the farm in the skim milk. Besides, he saves the creamery the expense of skimming the milk. Therefore, in calculating the amount of fat supplied the creamery by its patrons the cream patron should be credited not only with the fat actually present in his cream, but to it is added 3 per cent. of its total to put him on the same basis as the milk patron. (The 0.12 fat lost in the skim milk from hand separators equals about 3 per cent of total fat in the whole milk.) Thus, supposing four patrons supplied the 200 pounds of fat, as follows: Corrected Weight of Fat. Fat. Milk patron.... 32.5 Ibs. 32.5 lbs. ss AE es &. <4 be SDS: 45.5 lbs. Cream ¢8>. GHAPTERP loe MILK INSPECTION.* The duties and tests of the milk inspector are divided into those performed in and out of the laboratory. Out of the laboratory, the tests are mainly those of the senses. A temperature test is, however, required by the most enlight- ened cities, and when the milk is found to’ have a tempera- ture above 502 F. it iscondemned. The inspector, in taking samples of milk for the laboratory, should thoroughly stir ’ the milk. This is best accomplished by ‘‘stirrers,” made like the dasher of the old-fashioned dasher churn. The two chief reasons for agitating the milk are to thoroughly mix the cream for determining the fat, and, again, to estimate by a bacteriological test the number of germs. In the latter case it is especially important, as ninety-nine per cent. of the germs in milk become entangled in the cream. Two ounces of milk are sufficient for a fat or bacteriological test, and four ounces for a test for preservatives. The inspector seals the corks of the bottle, and, also, should place some sealing wax on the edge of the label, as the labels are often soaked off and placed on a similar sealed bottle. This happens where the inspector is required to give a duplicate sealed sample to the milkman; and the milkman, when he knows his sample is adulterated, may get a sealed bottle given to another milkman (which contains pure milk) and take the The author is indebted to Mr. A. G. Smith, city chemist, Seattle, for much aid in the preparation of this chapter. 134 MILE, INSPECTION 135 label from the aaulterated sample and place it on the pure sample. He then brings the pure sample into court with the label number the inspector placed on his adulterated sample and in a bottle with an unbroken official seal on the cork. Milk may be condemned on account of visible dirt. This is ascertained by straining milk from one can to another through cheesecloth, or by straining only the bottom por- tions of several cans. The taste may be bad, as from the odor of manure, or from improper feeding, or disease (mastitis) of the cows, and may suffice to condemn the milk. The color may be unusual, as when the cream is highly colored on milk which has been obtained from cows recently calved. Curdling of the milk on boiling will occur if the sample is colostrum. The brilliantly colored milks, caused by special bacteria, are seldom seen in this country. The odor of milk may be bad from various causes, as from improper feeding of the cows, manure in the milk, or from the milk remaining a long while in dirty barns. Sour milk may be condemned. Stringy milk is not uncommon, but is generally only notice- able several hours after milking, and so usually escapes attention until in the consumer's hands. The existence of garget in cows may produce stringy milk; also it occurs in the milk of cows which have been milked late in the period of lactation ; certain herbs are said to cause it. It is somewhat doubtful whether the condition is always due to special germs or whether it is caused, at times, by chemical substances (ferments) which occur in certain plants. Fishy milkis caused by rusty cans, and cows inhabiting pastures containing stag- nant pools of water may yield milk with this odor or taste. . Milk which is to be examined to estimate the number of germs it contains should only be placed in bottles which 136 CLEAN MILK have been boiled for twenty minutes or sterilized ina regular sterilizer. Thecorks should be sterilized in the same manner. The bottle must be filled to the cork and be packed in a vessel with enough ice to last until the examination is made. Milk Preservatives—The most commonly used pre- servatives are formaldehyde, borax and boric acid. Occa- sionally salicylic acid and sodium carbonate are employed. Formaldehyde may be detected, during the process of deter- mining fat by the Babcock test, by observing the color of the line of contact of the acid with the milk. When pure milk is used for the Babcock test, the color of this line is dirty brown, but, when formaldehyde is present in the milk, a distinct purple hue will appear at the junction of the acid and milk. This test may be applied in other ways by using a separate sample of milk. Place about 20 cubic centimeters* of milk in a small glass vessel, dilute with an equal volume of water, and add commercial sulphuric acid, allowing it to flow slowly down the inside of the vessel. If formaldehyde is present the purple color will appear at the junction of the acid and milk. Boric acid or borax are detected by adding to a few drops of milk, contained in a white dish, a drop or two of hydrochloric acid, and then several drops of a saturated al- coholic solution of turmeric. Heat the dish gently for a few minutes and, if boric acid or borax are present, a pink or dark red color will appear. Cool, and add a drop of am- monia, when a dark blue-green should be seen. *A cubic centimeter (metric system) is a volume of fluid equal to 16 drops of water, Any apothecary can prepare the substances required to make the above tests and at the same time could perform the tests with the assistance of the des- cription given above and show the farmer or dairyman how to perform them him- self. MILK INSPECTION 137 Sodium carbonate is detected by adding to the sus- pected sample of milk an equal volume of alcohol and then two drops of a one per cent. solution of rosolic acid. If sodium carbonate is present a red-rose color will appear. The test may be performed with more certainty if a com- parison test is made with a sample of milk known to be pure, Salicylic acid is rarely used but may be detected by add- ing afew drops of sulphuric acid to asmall quantity of milk and then shaking gently with a mixture of ether and petrolic ether. The mixture is made of equal parts of ether and petrolic ether and equal volumes of acidulated milk and ether mixture are taken. Then, after standing for several hours, the upper ethereal solution is poured off and the remaining liquid is evaporated in a porcelain evaporating dish. Add, to the residue on the white evaporating dish, a few drops of water and, if salicylic acid is present, a drop of ferric chlor- ide solution will produce a violent or purple color on being -added to the solution. | It sometimes happens that it is desirable to determine whether milk has been heated above the proper temperature of pasteurization. To test this, add to a few cubic centi- meters of milk a few drops of a freshly prepared solution of ‘diamido-benzene (1 part of latter to 4 of water), and thena few drops of hydrogen peroxide. Unheated milk gives a blue color when thus treated, but milk heated over 174.2° F. gives no color. The simplest test for preservatives is to place some milk in a warm place (at temperature of 80° to go°F) ina corked, clean bottle for 24 hours. If it does not sour or curdle the addition of a preservative may properly be sus- ° pected, unless the milk has been pasteurized. The tests 230 CLEAN MILK described on pp. 136-7 may then be tried to determine posi- tively the presence or absence of preservatives. For testing the acidity of milk, an alkali and phenolphth- alein are commonly employed. ‘The basis of this test rests on the fact that phenolphthalein turns pink in the presence of an alkali and is colorless in the presence of acid. There- fore in the tests, by adding a known quantity of alkali to a known quantity of milk and phenolphthalein, we may know just how much acidity is present in the milk. For when enough alkali has been added to the milk and phenolphthal- ein te turn the mixture pink, we know that all the acid in the milk has been neutralized and the mixture is becoming alkaline. Roughly speaking, increased acidity in milk means increase in number of lactic acid bacilli. The degree of acidity is commonly tested by health boards in cities to de- termine the fitness of milk for food. But, as has been recently shown by Bergey, the acid test will not apply to pasteurized milk. There may be hundreds of millions of germs in pasteurized milk without marked acidity. This happens because the germs are not of the acid forming type but belong chiefly to the hay bacillus group (B. subtilis). These are not usually rated as disease germs, but they make the milk less digestible and nutritious and may pro. duce substances in the milk which cause severe vomiting and diarrheea in infants. By far the easiest and most convenient method of test: ing milk or cream for acidity, for those not versed in chem. istry, is by means of (Farrington’s) alkaline tablets, which may be had of any wholesale dairy supply company. Milk which contains more than 0.2 per cent. of acid (lactic acid) is not considered sweet, and the acidity of sweet cream varies from MILI INSPECTION 139 GiP5)| to o:2) per cent.) The) Farrington tablet contaims an alkali and phenolphthalein. Two tablets are dissolved in 1 ounce of water and this is added to an ounce of milk. If the mixture remains pink, then the milk contains less than O;2 per cent of acid; butyl; the: pink coloration fades and disappears it shows that the mixture contains more than this amount of acid and is unfit for retailing, for pasteuriz- ing, or for cheese or butter making. A more exact method of using the tablets for testing the acidity of cream may be done. This is very useful for the butter maker in informing him of the progress of the ripening of cream, and also in showing whether or no two lots of cream may be mixed safely, and again it may be used to test the acidity of whey. When cream contains 0.5 to 0.6 per cent. acidity, it is as sour as it should be for butter making. Full directions for use of the Farrington alkaline tablets are supplied with the tablets. A test by which the percentage of acidity of milk may be more accurately determined than is necessary by the dairyman, is that in which the alkali is lime water. To make lime water, used in testing the acidity of milk, we may get from a grocery store an ounce or so of lime; add a pint of water, and stir thoroughly. Allow the undis- solved lime to settle, and pour off the clean lime water, which will contain any potassium or sodium that may have been present in the lime. Do this several times. Now pour on a quantity of distilled water depending on the sized bottle the lime water is kept in, and cork; when the lime has settled so the water is clear, it is ready to be used and may be removed as wanted with a pipette, as will be des- cribed presently. Always have some undissolved lime at the bottom of the jar, as by this means the lime water is 140 CLEAN MILK readily kept saturated. As fast as the lime water is used, add distilled water to take its place. It is well to use a fresh lump of lime every two or three months, as in time the sediment may consist of carbonate of lime, owing to absorp- tion of carbonic acid from the air. An easy way to test the acidity of milk* is: (1) First mix the milk thoroughly, and (2) with a graduated 1 c.c. pipette (such as is shown in Fig. 41) place 1 c.c. of the milk in a small evaporating dish or test-tube. (3) To this add one drop of an alcoholic solution of phenolphthalein (1 gm. to 30 c.c. alcohol). (4) With another 1 c.c. pipette add drop by drop clear lime-water, and shake the tube to mix thor- oughly, until the milk is colored a faint pink. Nownote how many c.c. of Jime-water were used. 1 c.c. milk and phenolphthalein colored by o.1 c.c. lime-water .045 p. c. acid. «( I iT of “cc ce 2 ce -09 « r * (a3 “6 “ce £3 6c « 135 5603 ry “* 66 6c “e 4 ee 6c .180 66 Te 66 6é “ce 6e 5 ce ity +225 be 7 «6 “ 6 “ 6 6 66 .270 “ iss “ce “a “ sf “6 66 315 3 I “é ee 66 6% ts) ee ee -360 6é I ““c ce ee be 9 66 “6 -405 “ce I sé “ce ce ce 1.0 ce 66 -450 oe rt §§ « “6 “ ToT: “ -495 “ 1“ “ “ 6 Te2) 8 “ 540 “6 5 “¢ 4c sé 1.3 ‘“ “6 5385 6“ 1 ss “c ‘“ “ 1.4 “ 6 .630 “ce a 6 ‘6 ec Ts 6c “c 675 6é A simple rule is: Multiply 0.0045, the weight in grams of lactic acid neutralized by 1 c.c. lime-water, by the number of cubic centimeters of lime-water used, and divide by 100, which gives the percentage of acidity. Cream Thickeners.—Viscogen, a solution of sugar, lime and water, is commonly used to thicken cream. This * This test is taken from Chapin’s Theory and Practice of Infant Feeding. MILK INSPECTION I4t adulteration can only be determined by a chemist, making’ an exact analysis for sugar and estimating the percentage of lime. Gelatine is sometimes employed as a thickening agent. This can be detected by adding, to about io or 15 cubic centimeters of milk, twice the volume of water and 10 cubic centimeters of acid mercuric nitrate solution (10 per cent). Shake the mixture vigorously and allow it to stand a few minutes and filter. If much gelatin is present it is impossible to filter a clear fluid. To verify a suspicion of gelatine, add toa small amount of the filtered fluid an equal volume of asaturated aqueous solution of picricacid. If any gelatin is present, a yellow cloudiness will appear in the fluid. Milk which has been either watered or skimmed, or both watered and skimmed, is considered according to law to be adulterated and is the commonest form of adultera- tion. Another form of adulteration consists in the adding of preservatives to milk. The preservatives most frequently used are formaldehyde (sold under the name of Freezine, etc.) and boric acid, sold under various trade names. These are added to keep milk from souring. To determine whether milk has been watered or skimmed three determina- tions are necessary: viz., the determination of the total solids in milks fat; and the’ specific gravity. For the determination of the specific gravity and approximate determination of milk solids, see page 147. The deter- mination of the fat alone is usually sufficient to estimate the quantity of milk for the farmer who does not adulterate his milk. The methods for determining the amount of fat in milk are based upon centrifugal separation of milk. The 142 CLEAN MILK theory of these methods depends upon the fact that when milk is whirled at a rapid rate—several thousand revolutions per minute—the heavier portions of the milk are thrown outward, leaving the lighter or fatty portions nearer the center of the whirling body. The method of Dr. S. M. Babcock is the one in general use. | The milk is measured in a suitable bottle and an equal volume of sulphuric acid is added which dissolves the casein or curd of milk and liberates the fat. The bottle is then whirled ata high speed, allowing the fat to come to the top of Small Babcock machine, with other necessary paraphernalia. the bottle—that is, as the bottle is nearly horizontal when whirled, the fat approaches nearest the center of the whirling body. Hot water is added and the bottle whirled again and the percentage of fat is read off in the neck of the bottle, The Babcock centrifugal machines are obtainable in sizes ranging from those holding two bottles (Fig. 36) to those holding 24 (Figs. 37 and 38), and the smaller are run by hand while the larger are often run by power (see Fig. 38). The smaller sizes may be clamped or screwed to a table, re- quire but little space and are easy to operate. The Babcock MILK INSPECTION 143 bottle for milk-testing (Fig. 39) holds about 4o cubic centi- meters, the neck is graduated from 0 to 10 with sub-divis~ Eight-bottle Babcock machine. ions of 0.2 per cent.—2 cubic centimeters being the exact volume of the space between o and 10—or 10 per cent. of Fic. 38 Power Babcock machine. 20 cubic centimeters, which volume of milk would be used had milk and melted fat the same specific gravity as water, 144 CLEAN MILK It happens, however, that 2 cubic centimeters of melted fat weighs 1.8 grams, so in working with the test, 17.6 cubic centimeters of milk (the average volume of 18 grams of milk) are used. FIG. 39. Pipette for making the Babcock test It is apparent then that the subdivisions on the Stempor the bottle read pers cent. “direct aie illustrate: Suppose a given sample reads 5 on the neck, the volume occupied by this fat would be just one cubic centimeter and that would weigh 0.9 grams, and 0.9 grams equal 5 per cent,of 18 grams, Or ithe per ‘cent! ‘of “far by weight in the milk. To make‘the test: The «milk shouldgise well mixed, and both it and the acid should be ata temperature ‘between Go" and) 7025E. 5 Mite pipette, graduated to 17.6 cubic centimeters, should be filled precisely to this point, by suck- ing up the milk into it. The milk bottle is to be held in a slanting position and the point of the pipette just introduced into the neck of the bottle (see Figs. go and 41). By gradually raising the finger from the end of the pipette, the milk is permitted to flow into the bottle, the last drop being expelled by gently blowing through the pipette) To the mulkjimthestest bottle, 17.6 cubic centimeters of commercial sul- phuric acid (specific gravity 1.82) are added in the same manner with the pipette, and, by gently rotating the bottle, the acid and milk are mixed. The acid and milk become very hot and care must be taken to mix gradually, and to allow no lumps to collect in the neck. It is well to then let the bottles stand for a few minutes, and mix again by rotating the bottles. MILK INSPECTION 145 The bottles are now placed in the machine (it is wise to have duplicates of each sample of milk) and the machine is rotated at full speed for five minutes. Then the machine is stopped and boiling soft water is added to the contents of each bottle, by means of the pipette or other- wise, till the contents of the bottle rise to the lower end of Fic. 4o. Shows method of introducing milk into Babcock bottle with pipette in making the fat test. the neck of the bottle. The machine is whirled at full speed again for two minutes. More boiling water is then added to the contents of each bottle by pipette until the fat rises in the neck to the 8 or g mark. The machine is once more turned one minute and the percentage of fat is read off in the neck of the bottle by measuring with calipers 146 CLEAN MILK from the lower to the upper border of the fat in the neck. The reading must be done before the contents or the bottle cool off. The addition of the hot water may be accom- plished without removing the bottles from the machine. Estimation of Solids in Milk by Quevenne’s Lactometer. Since most cities require that market milk shall contain a standard percentage of milk solids, it is of advantage that the farmer be able to determine this matter for himself. Quevenne’s lactometer is an instrument by which the solids can be roughly estimated. It consists of a glass bulb weighted with mercury and terminating in a stem like a thermometer, and marked by lines on the stem from 15 to 40. It should also carry a thermometer. The principle upon which the lactometer is based depends upon the fact that, when it is placed in milk, in floating it displaces a bulk of milk equal in weight to the weight of the lactometer. The milk must be thoroughly mixed—but free from bubbles of air—-and the reading is taken at the actual level of the milk; not at the point of the stem to which it is drawn by capillary attraction. The lactometer is then used to determine the weight of milk (or in other words, the specific gravity) as com- pared with the weight of an equal bulk of water when both are at the same temperature. If 1,000 is taken as the weight of a certain quantity of water, the weight of the same quantity of milk, at the same temperature, is about 1,030 to 1,034. This is shown in practice by floating the lactometer in milk, placed in a cylindrical glass tube, when it will sink in the milk toa mark on the stem corresponding to the specific gravity of MILK INSPECTION 147 the milk. The greater weight of milk (as compared with water), or its specific gravity, is due to the solids-not-fat it contains, z. ¢., the casein, albumin and milk sugar. While the lactometer may be used to determine the solids in unaltered milk as it comes from the cow, it will not deter- mine the solids in milk which has been watered and skimmed.* Milk fat weighs less than water, and, of course, less than milk. Removing cream raises the specific gravity of milk. Then if water were added the specific gravity might be lowered again to the normal for untampered and unadulterated milk. To estimate the solids in milk by the lactometer, the temperature of the milk should theoretically be 60 deg. F. But the milk may be at any temperature between 50 deg. and 70 deg. F. providing a correction is made for the tem- perature of milk above or below 60 deg. F. Thus, if the milk is above 60 deg. F., one must add to the lactometer reading o.1 for each degree of temperature above this point ; if the temperature of the milk is below 60 deg. F., one should subtract 0.1 from the lactometer reading for each degree of temperature below this point. For example, if a sample of milk at a temperature of 65 deg. F. shows a lactometer reading of 29, then one should add to this reading:—5 0.1 0.5, which gives the cor- rected reading as 20.5. If, on the other hand, the lactometer should float in milk to a mark on its stem indicating 29, and the tempera- ture of the milk was 55 deg. F,, then one should subtract o.1 for each degree of temperature below 60 deg. F. from this lactometer reading, which gives us 28.5 as the corrected reading. Now, to estimate the solids in milk we must have prev- * In conjunction with the fat test and the determination of solids it will show either watering or skimming of milk, 148 CLEAN MILK iously determined the percentage of fat in the milk by- means of the Babcock machine. To find the total solids in milk we divide the lactometer reading by 4, and, to the result, add the jper ‘cent. of fat ‘multiplied ‘by "22. hor example, we have a milk containing 4 per cent. of fat and a lactometer reading of 32, to find the total solids: 32 4=8. A per cent. X 1.2 = 4:8 12.8 per cent. of total solids, To find the solids-not-fat, divide the lactometer reading by 4, and, to the result, add the per cent. of fat multiplied by 0.2. Thus, in the same milk as in the last example :— 32 4=8. 4 percent. ><70:2 —10.8 8.8 per cent. of solids-not-fat. The percentage of casein and albumin increases— though not in a proportionate degree—with the increase of fat, as shown in the following table from Woll’s Handbook,. summarizing the analyses of 2,400 samples of milk : Fat Casein and Total per cent, albumin, solids. 3-07 2.92 II.00 3-29 3.0 II.50 3.50 3-07 I2.00 3-75 3-19 12.50 3.99 3-30 13.00 4.34 3-44 13-50 4.68 2.57 I4.00 4-92 3-79 14.50 5-38 4.00 I5-00 5-69 4.18 I5.50 6.00 4.30 16.00 MITE, INSPECTION 149 Quantitative Analysis of the Bacteria in Milk* Glassware.—At the outset there should be carefully washed a Fic. 41 | ss. eee 15 14 — = DT otal ii. 3 eile ates 71 87 59 54 Including grain... --..-.--.0--- 24 22 19 21 Such records as these are probably a revelation to many a man who has fed and milked cows for years. It is not customary to give more than five to ten pounds of grain per day to cows on the home farms, and the majority of them probably get less than five pounds. A capacity for assimilating large rations is necessary for producing large quantities of milk and bitter, and most of these World’s Fair cows were fed to their limit of endurance. A daily feeding per cow of near twenty pounds of grain, together with thirty. to sixty pounds of green feed, was not uncommon, although there were some varia- tions in the total amount during the 120 days of the test. Dehorning Calves It is now generally recognized that all milch cows should be dehorned, to prevent injury to themselves (in tearing off a horn, etc.), to other animals, to stables and to persons. As the operation of removing the horns from grown animals is unpleasant, and detri- mental for the time to the patient, the following simple method, MANAGEMENT OF HAND SEPARATORS 71} recommended by the English Board of Agriculture and found success- ful in practice, should be followed in the treatment of calves: ‘Clip the hair from the top of the horn, when the calf is from two to five days old; slightly moisten the end of a stick of caustic potash and rub the tip of each horn firmly for about one-quarter of a minute, or until a slight impression has been made on the centre of the horn. Repeat this two to four times at intervals of five minutes. If a little blood appears in the centre of the horn, after one or more applications, only one more slight rubbing with the potash will be necessary. ‘The operation should not be performed on a calf over nine days old. Caustic potash can be obtained from any druggist in the form of a white stick (about as large as a pencil), and when not in use should be kept in a glass stoppered bottle ina dry place. One man should hold the calf while another uses the caustic. Roll a piece of tinfoil or paper about the end of the stick of caustic to protect the fingers of the operator from contact with it. Do not moisten the stick too much or the caustic will spread around the horn and destroy the flesh. For the same reason prevent the calf from wetting its head for several days after the operation. Be careful to rub the caustic on the centre of the horn and not around it. Caustic potash is a poison and must be kept in a safe place.” Management cf Hand Separators There is. no higher authority on dairy matters than Prof. E. H. Farrington, of the University of Wisconsin Experiment Station, to whom we have had the pleasure of referring on several occasions in the previous pages. I can not do better than to quote the rules laid down by him for the management of hand separators. 1. Place the separator on a firm foundation ina clean, well-ventilated room where it is free from all offensive odors. 2. Thoroughly clean the separator after each skimming ; the bowl should be taken apart and washed, together with all the tinware, every time the separator is used; if allowed to stand for even one hour without cleaning there is danger of contaminating the next lot of cream from the sour bowl. This applies to all kinds of cream separators. 3. Wash the separator bow! and all tinware with cold water and then with warm water, using a brush to polish the surface and clean out the seams and 176 CLEAN MILK cracks ; finally scald with boiling water, leaving the parts of the bowl and tinware to dry in some place where they will be protected from dust. Do not wipe the bowl and tinware with a cloth or drying towel; heat them so hot with steam or boiling water that wiping is unnecessary. 4. Rinse the milk receiving can and separator bowl with a quart or two of hot water just before running milk into the separator. 5. Cool the cream as it comes from the separator, or immediately after, to a temperature near 50° F. and keep it cold until delivered. 6. Never mix warm and cold cream or sweet and slightly tainted cream. 7. Provide a covered and clean water tank for holding the cream cans and change the water frequently in the tank so that the temperature does not rise above 60° F. A satisfactory arrangement may be made by allowing running water to flow through the cream tank to the stock watering tank. 8. Skim the milk immediately after each milking, as it is more work to save the milk and separate once a day, and less satisfactory, than skimming while the milk is warm, since the milk must be heated again when saved until another milking. g. Arich cream, testing 35 per cent. fat or more, is the most satisfactory to both farmer and factory. The best separators willskim a rich cream as efficiently as a thin cream and more skim milk is left on the farm when a rich cream is sold. 10. Cream should be perfectly sweet, containing no lumps or clots when sampled and delivered to the haulers or parties buying it. There is a good demand for sweet cream and a perfectly clean, sweet and satisfactory cream can easily be supplied either to a retailer, an ice cream.maker, or a creamery by keeping clean the separator, tinware, strainer-cloth and water tank, and the cream cold. To Keep Records of Individual Cows. Printed forms for making records* should be used. These con- sist of single sheets of stiff paper which are ruled so as to permit of keeping a record of the night’s and morning’s milk in pounds and ounces for one month, and also supply space to note the average per cent. of butter fat, if taken once or twice a month. One sheet may be used for Io or 20 to 30 cows according to the size ordered. Each cow must be named or numbered to use these sheets. The metal tags for insertion in the cow’s ear are most suitable for num- bering. As soon as each cow is milked the milk is poured in a special weighing pail and the weight is then recorded on the milk sheet. A spring scale sold for the pnrpose is most convenient. This is arranged so as to allow for the weight of the weighing pail in order that it will not have to be subtracted from the total weight of pail and milk at each weighing. * Printed forms for keeping cow records are sold very cheaply by Hoard’s Dairyman, Fort Atkinson, Wis. VALUE OF COWS 177 The milk is poured back from the weighing pail into the milk pail, to mix it thoroughly, and a tablespoonful of the mixed milk is poured into a half pint bottle containing one corrosive sublimate tablet for preserving milk (to be had of any dairy supply company). The bottle should be corked and a similar sample of night’s and morning's milk should be added to the bottie for three days to one week, the bottle being shaken each time new samples of milk are poured into it. The bottle is to be labelled with the cow’s name supplying the milk. The milk in the bottle then represents that from a number of milkings from the same cow and is called a composite sample. The composite sample is tested for fat by the Babcock machine (see p. 144). The night and morning milk of each cow ought to be weighed and recorded at least once a week during the year and a fat test made from a composite sample twice a month, in order to determine thoroughly the value of a cow. Value of Cows I may be permitted to submit the following quotation in regard to the value of a cow: ‘The basis of valuation as set forth by Prof. S. F. Cooley, of Vt., is that a cow is worth, above what her carcass will fetch, the sum on which her annual profit will pay six per cent. interest, two per cent. taxes and insurance, twenty-five per cent. depreciation, or thirty-three. per cent. total. ‘“ Twenty-five per cent. depreciation means a sinking fund which will pay for the animal in four years, and presupposes the average period of usefulness to be four years. On this basis, we get the fol- lowing results in regard to the values of cows of different grades : Annual pro- Value of duct lbs, milk at $1.50 Cost of Value of Kind of Cow, milk. per cwt. feed. Profit, cow. IANETARO eon scl te 3,000 $45 $45 foo foo Hatt torcra tones aie aces 5,000 75 50 25 75 Goode eiees tenets: 7,000 105 60 44 135 CHOICES ere scis' ala tite 10,000 150 75 75 225 Pietertje II......... 30,000 450 100 350 1,050 ‘‘Asa business proposition, the difference in value here repre- sented appears correct. But the market does not so rate them. A 178 CLEAN MILK poor cow costs $30 and brings $25 in four years, during which time she sunk $5 more than she had brought. An average cow is worth what her carcass will fetch, and no more. A fair cow costs $35 to $40 and leaves her buyer $50 to the good, in four years.. A good cow costs $50, and you double on investment the first year. A choice cow costs $75, and that is the amount of her annual profit. Pietertje IT is worth $1,000.”’ Plans of Barns and Milk Rooms In the following pages will be found illustrated and described the stables and milk rooms of two farms supplying clean milk to Seattle, Washington. The first farm is owned by J. D. Farrell, Esq., and is not con- ducted solely for profit or the support of its owner and may be regarded as one type of plant. The otheris owned by W. H. Paulhamus, Esq., of Sumner, Wash. Mr. Paulhamus was the first to attempt to supply Seattle with clean milk and is shipping some thousand quarts a day from his own and three neighboring farms. His arrangements for handling the milk are therefore adapted to caring for a considerable quantity. Mr. Farrell’sstable for 40 cows has a floor, manure trench and feed- ing gutter of concrete with cement finish. The cows face toward a central feedingaisle. Behind the manure trench there is a walk five feet wide to the side of the building. The manure trench is eighteen inches wide. ‘The length of the stalls is—from the front edge of the manure trench to that of the feeding gutter—six and one-half feet. The width of the stalls is thirty-nine inches for some, and forty-three inches for others, to accommodate Jerseys and Holsteins. The feed- ing aisle in front of the cattle is nine feet wide. The feeding gutter is also used for watering each time before feeding, when the water is let out. The height of the stable, on the sides, is seven feet four inches, and the ceiling is arched up toward the centre. The walls and ceiling are double, with air-space between, and the ventilation is after the King system. ‘The cement is brought up four feet on the walls, and the rest of the walls and the ceiling are of matched and planed boards, tightly fitted, and the whole painted white. The gutters for manure slope from six to ten inches deep at PLATE V. g stable. (J. D. Farrell, Esq.) win Sho PLANS OF BARNS AND MILK ROOMS 179 the lower end, and drain into pipes carried a considerable distance to 2 lower level than the stable. Stalls.—The rear portion of each side of each stall is a gate. This gate is hinged and fastened as shown in plate. ‘The dimensions of the gate are twenty-eight inches from top to bottom, and forty-four inches wide, and the lower edge is sixteen inches from the floor. The sta- tionary front part of the side of each stall is thirty-four inches wide and fifty inches high, from top to floor. Its lower edge is ten inches from the floor, in the rear part, and two inches above the gutter for feeding in front. The feeding and watering gutter, of cement, is Boiler: RAY BEE NAG BEE WH SS ——— ee ee me ee a ee ee ee we ee ee oe ee ee ee eee Sketch Showing Ground Plan of Milk House Owned by J. D. FARRELL, Esq., Renton, Washington. eight inches deep and one foot wide. The gates forming the front of each stall are forty-two inches in their perpendicular measurement. They are adjustable and affixed to the top and sides of the stall by small chains with hooks on the end. For the larger cows, the upper part of the gate may be tipped forward and fastened to an extension of the top rod forming the side of the stall (see Plate V). In the case of the smaller cows, the top of the gate is tipped backward toward the manure trench, crowding the cow back so as to make her stand on the edge of the manure trench (see Plate V). The milk from the stable is brought into the wash room and is hoisted onto a raised platform and poured into a strainer marked (ji), 180 CLEAN WML / from which elevation it flows into a funnel and conducting tube through the wall into the collecting tank for the Star cooler (2) and cream coolér (3). From this collecting tank a tube also supplies the separa- tor: (4), sée Plate . The raised platform shown in Plate VI was a mistake, as it should have been lowered so far as would permit a man standing on it to pour the milk into the strainer shown. It is much too high, and the platform—instead of requiring a ladder—would have only required a few steps leading up to it. The tank under the plat- form was intended to hold cracked ice, on which water was to be sprayed for supplying the ice water section of the Star cooler in sum- mer. But this was found unnecessary, asa cask could be placed on the floor containing a coil of pipe to cool the water as described on p. 82. The numbers (5) and (6 in the milk room are supposed to represent the bottle filling apparatus for milk and cream shown in plate. The bottles, when filled, are kept over night in a series of tanks, one over the other (7), as water is had from a neighboring spring at a temperature of 46 deg. F. to fill the tanks. The bottles are shipped on ice in galvanized iron cases. The empty bottles are delivered on the elevated piazza platform, in front of the wash room, and the-.bottles and all the milk utensils are washed, put in the sterilizer and taken out through the other door in the milk room when it is desired to use them. The milk room is only connected (with one door) with the shipping room and is ventilated by a system similar to that recommended for barns. The floors of all the rooms in the milk house are of cement, and the walls of cement-plaster, covered with many coats of white enamel paint. The cement-plaster is laid on wooden laths and the construction of the building is of wood. It is steam heated in the lavatory and wash room. ‘The climate is very mild hereabouts and rarely gets much below freezing. Sketches of the barn and milk house owned by W. H. Paulhamus, Esq., are reproduced here with the hope that they may prove of prac- tical value to those intending to handle clean milk on a considerable scale for profit. The barn (Plate IX) is built of wood and ceiled within with smooth, matched boards (shiplap) painted with cold water white paint. The space between the outer and inner boarding of the walls is filled in with sawdust. Theinside of the barn is eleven feet high, PLATE VI, Showing Stable. (J. D. Farrell, Esq.) Cbsq ‘jjereg ‘qd ‘[) ‘woo1qsejy surmoys TIA SLVIg ‘Cbsq ‘Tes1eg ‘qd “[) mooy ATTA Surmoyg ‘ILIA SLlvId ‘ogi ‘d aas ‘uoydiosap 10,J “poo uo SurAT SMOd ay} ‘[]e}S MOD aT} Jo J0OY aq} UO sayoUT ¢ ATUO Posed st jomed ay, “PIVMINO SuTOVy SMOd ay} ‘s]][e}S MOD aq} JO 1v9I 9} UdEMJoq S19}jNZ pue AaT[e JUeTIeD sMoYs Ydessoj04d ouL ‘u1evy SuMey[Ned 94} JO 1OlI9JU[— XJ] ALWId ri, { a i Das tl ee PLANS OF BARNS AND MILK ROOMS 181 which is higher than is generally permissible with the King system of ventilation to prevent loss of animal heat. The climate is, however, extremely mild, the temperature seldom dropping much below freezing in winter hereabouts. The King system is nevertheless followed ; there being ten inlets, between ten windows 00 <—— oe N N N . N N A N SS N N ae: ‘Rough Sketch of Ground Plan of Barn for Forty Cows, W. H. PAuLHamus, Esq., Sumner, Washington. (10) on each side of the barn, near the ceiling. These openings are six by six inches, and bring the air in shafts between the layers of the walls of the building from a point outside near the ground. The windows in the sides of the barn are three and one-half feet square, and between them in the sketch may be seen lines (No. 8) showing the point of entrance of the inlets for fresh air. The shafts for outlet of air are in the opposite corners of the 182 CLEAN MILK building (7) and are two feet square with openings at the floor of the same dimensions. One special feature is the arrangement of the cement which covers the whole floor, except as noted. The entire floor slopes about one foot from one end of the building, so, while the gutters are the same depth, this permits of a flow for drainage. The cows face the outside of the building and the floor of their stalls is of two inch matched, planed Oregon pine, except for a strip of cement eight inches wide on the side of the gutter (6) on which the hind feet of the animal rest. All the rest of the floor back of the cows is of concrete with cement finish, while the side aisles in front of the cattle are of wood, like the floor of the stalls. “Ihe cows do not have the slippery, cold, cement floor to lie (or fall) upon, which Mr. Paulhamus believes an improve- ment over an entire cement floor. The stalls are shown in Plate IX. There are so many kinds of stalls that it is impossible to say which is the best, but these are simple, inexpensive and satisfactory, as soon as the cows get used to them. At one end of the barn are several rooms. One (1) is intended for keeping supplies, as baled hay, roots and grain in sacks, etc. One on the opposite side is a wash room with sink and hot and cold water (B), and a sheet iron stove (A) for wood with a coil of pipe inside to heat water (see p. 85). There is also a closet (¢d) for keeping the milking clothes. The next room (3) is a rather novel arrangement of the owner and assuredly deserves attention. This room has no connection with the inside of the barn, except by a tube for conveying milk at C. Here may be found a pair of steps which each milker ascends the moment he fills the pail. The milk is poured into a sterile tin funnel which carries it onto a Star cooler*, from which it falls, immediately cooled, into a can. The can, when full, is taken to the milk house (Fig. 47) some 200 feet away. The room (3) is reached from outside the barn and door and window, and smooth, clean, painted walls and ceiling, and with screened’ * The milk flows from the funnel (which is in the open central aisle of the. barn) through the wall, which separates it from room 3, and in that room falls on the cooler. ‘bgt “d aas ‘uondiosap 10, “M1001 Bt]} Noe pa.ja}qv0s FUlsq Wo.uf ‘S3[]}0Y 3} Jo optsyno ayy Surderds YW) JO JYS1t siula4}x9 Jy} Ye JNO Surmi09 pue yoy Bd 9} 38 OUTYORIN SuIYySeM-s]}}0q SULMOYg ‘19JVM aq} s}usAoId syue} ayy} Jo doy uo pooy [eat ay, ‘oa1njord ay} UI UV—S se ‘OuIyoeIU 3 SU191}X9 94} UO SULIazUS ‘YoeI] B UO YSno1y} poysnd oie sa[}joq ypIM ayy, “ULIey snmeqin Pe MIN ZA PLANS OF BARNS AND MILK ROOMS BOOZ cement floor—makes a good place for immediate cooling of the milk. The horizontal ceiling of the barn leaves much space in the roof, in which grain is stored. ‘The grain is brought down in spouts to the bins at (2) and hay could be delivered from the loft above in the room (1) without causing any dust in the barn. The ceiling of the barn is absolutely dust tight with double floor and paper between. The barn is one hundred by thirty-five feet inside; the centre pace |G lceHouse Rough Sketch of Ground Plan of Milk House. W.H. PAULHAmus, Esq., Sumner, Washington. aisle eight feet, and gutters eighteen inches wide. The side aisles are five and one-half feet wide. ; Box stalls for sick cows, or cows about to calve, are in another building. The buildings used for the milk rooms (Fig. 47) proper were altered for their present purpose and were situated farther from the barn than is necessary or desirable. A sketch of the ground plan of the milk house is shown in Fig. 47. The floors of the milk room and wash room are of concrete with 184 CLEAN MILK cement finish, boarded inside with planed, matched boards (walls and ceiling), painted white and ventilated after the King system. ‘The space between the inner and outer layer of the walls is stuffed with sawdust and the rooms are very high-studded (fourteen feet). The sterilizer (8) 1s wholly of concrete, which is described on p. 91, and, if the buildings had not been already built before they were put to their present use, it is probable that the most convenient place for the sterilizer would have been in the wall between the wash and milk rooms, as in Mr. Farrell’s (Plates VII, VIII). The sterilizer is supplied with steam from the 20-horse power boiler (6) in the wash room. This sterilizer is an original feature introduced by Mr. Paulhamus and works beautifully. It is of enormous size (see p. g1 and Plate X1) and very inexpensive, costing some $80. Incold climates it would have to be inside the building as suggested above. Another novel feature is the washing machine shown as (No. 12) in the sketch in the wash room. This was patented after its introduction at Mr. Paulhamus’s farm and now sold by The Chas. H. Lilly Co., of Seattle. The machine con- sists of four tanks, a, 6, andc,dande. Ina, is held warm water, in 6 and ¢, is contained alkali and warm water, and in d, is plain warm water. ‘The three lines (g) running lengthwise in the sketch, through the middle of the machine, represent three pipes running over the top of the tanks. ‘These pipes are perforated with holes which are placed so as to correspond with the opening in each milk bottle when the bottles are inverted on wooden trays. Each wooden tray is made of slats which, in crossing, leave holes fitting the neck of an inverted milk bottle. The trays holds twenty-four bottles in three rows, so that when the tray is slid in place on top of the machine, each row of bot- tles is over one of the three pipes in the centre of the machine, and each bottle is inverted over one of the perforations in the pipes. On one side of the machine are three rotary pumps (/) worked by the engine at (7). These continually pump water from the tanks into the the pipes, from which it is forced out in jets into the interior of each inverted milk bottle. The water then runs out of the bottles back into the tank over which the bottles are resting. "The pipe shown on either side of the top of the machine at (%) is perforated with holes from which water is thrown over and cleans the outside of the bottles as they are pushed through the machine. WINGO DOG This photograph shows the interior of the large all-concrete and cement sterilizer at the Paulhamus farm. The door is of iron. All the dairy utensils which come in contact with milk in any way are put in this chamber and kept at 212° F for one hour daily. For description, see p, 91, PLANS OF BARNS AND MILK ROOMS 185 The method of working is as follows: A tray holding twenty- four inverted bottles is placed on the top of the machine over the tank (a). ‘The warm water in the central pipes is pumped up through the holes in the pipes into each bottle, thus rinsing it out. Another tray being pushed into the machine shoves the first tray over tank (6). Here the interior of the bottles is sprayed with lye and water. The introduction of another tray moves the first tray over the tank (c). The tank (c) is really one with (0), the bottles here merely draining back into the tank again, no water being pumped into them. Another tray being placed in the machine pushes the first tray to (¢d). Here the bottles are rinsed with plain warni water to remove the lye, and, at (e), boiling water is injected instead of water to sterilize (for one ninute) the bottles. About 1,500 bottles may be washed in one hour by this labor-saving device. The bottles must, however, be washed by hand if they contain old milk and have not been previously rinsed by the milk consumer. Also, one minute sterilization * is not sufficient and they must go for one hour’s sterilization in the large sterilizer, when certified milk is desired. "The water is heated by steam from the boiler (6) which runs the engine. A metal hood covers the whole top of the washing machine to prevent the escape of the water which is thrown from the pipes on each side over the exterior of the bottles. The machine with pumps costs about $200, and is sixteen feet long and twenty-six inches wide (see Plate X). The platform (13) and floor of the milk-receiving room are some fifty inches from the ground. In the milk-receiving room at (9) is a raised platform three feet from the floor on which are scales holding a large milk-receiving tank in which is a Star trap strainer. After the milk is weighed it is run from a faucet into a funnel, conducting the milk through the wall, into a tank (10) holding some one hundred gallons, and from thence is drawn off into the Star bottle filling tank (11). The milk is cooled, as described, at the barn (p. 182), and the water supplying the Star cooler is cooled in summer by running it through a coil of pipe in a cask of ice water (see p. 82). * It is perfectly possible to sterilize milk bottles absolutely, if boiling water is pumped into the bottles for a longer time, as shown py bacteriological examina- tions of bottles washed by similar machines. The exhaust steam from the engine may be used to heat water to boiling point. 186 CLEANRMTILER A sketch of the cow stall used by Mr. Paulhamus is shown in Fig. 48. The floor has been described (p. 182) as consisting of cement for eight inches in front of the gutter and (forward of this point) of two inches kiln-dried, planed, tongued and grooved Oregon pine. The dimensions are marked in the sketch, but the length of the stalls vary Fig. 48. Side and Rear View of Stall in Cow Stable of W. H. PauLHamus, Esq., Sumner, Washington. from four and one-half feet to five feet long, from the gutter to the manger, to accommodate cows (Jerseys) of different sizes. The floor of the stall slopes some three inches from front to rear. ‘The stalls begin four and one-half feet long at one end of the stable and gradually lengthen till they are five feet long at the other end. Each side of stall is really a gate opening toward the right, to give more room to the milker and groomer, when open. ‘They could of course be hung om hinges so as to swing in either direction. PLATE XIIl.—The improved ‘Drown’? Stall, View shows cement mangers and floors fitted with iron stalls having two-way moyable partitions, The Drown Stall is one of the best made and is an improvement over either stall shown in that the side gates give more room to the attendant and open in either direction sideways and also upward. The raised feeding trench and hay rack are good features. The stall is patented and sold by M. L. Drown, of Madison, Wis. It is in use by some of the agricultural experiment stations and leading dairy farmers of this country. PASTEURIZED MILK 187 The gates are fastened with a wooden sliding bolt (not shown). The bottom of the rear posts may (for the lower eighteen inches) consist of galvanized iron pipe set below in the cement and above in the wooden scantling, for the sake of cleanliness. At the rear of the stall is seen a chain which is attached to rings in the post, on either side of the stall, by means of snap hooks. ‘The manger has two com- partments, the lower for grain, and the upper or forward being for hay—with a sliding rack between the two which may be removed or lifted a little to clean out the floor of the manger. (Sometimes the whole manger, arranged with sides reaching to the floor of the stable, is made movable so that it may be adjusted to the length of the cow and locked by pegs fitting in the side posts.) The cross-piece at (C) is necessary to keep the cows from pressing forward and climbing over the manger. It must be adjusted somewhat to the height of the cow. This stall is convenient and inexpensive as compared to the iron stalls. (Plates V and VI). There is nothing on the floor of the stable to col- lect dirt, as the manger does not touch the floor, but is eight inches above it. Pasteurized Milk. Milk is now thought to be truly a living fluid for some time after leaving the cow—unless it is killed by pasteurization. Pasteurized or dead milk is known to be less digestible and nutritious than clean, raw milk. The basis of this statement is as follows: Babies fed con- tinuously on pasteurized milk are very apt to develop anemia, mal- nutrition, scurvy or rickets—the latter serious disorders dependent upon improper nutrition. Obstinate constipation is likewise generally seen in infants reared upon pasteurized milk. The same conditions are observed in calves which are fed exclusively upon pasteurized milk. They fail to gain properly in weight and suffer from under-development. Heating milk coagulates to some extent its albumin, renders the milk less coaguable by rennet in the stomach, and destroys the enzymes or ferments of milk. All these results account for its lessened digesti- bility. It has been shown that the poisonous waste-products, developed in the growth of germs in dirty milk, are not destroyed by pasteuriza- tion. As, for example, the special poisons arising from those types of 188 CLEAN MILK germs (colon bacilli) conveyed to milk in cow manure. Moreover, while the milk may appear by examination to be apparently free from germs after thorough pasteurization, what of the myriads of dead bodies of germs killed by the process which may remain in the milk! A milk contractor in Boston sent out a laboratory report on his milk to show that before pasteurization it contained seven million germs tothe quarter teaspoonful of milk and only a thousand after the process. Another serious objection to the use of pasteurized milk is the fact that its condition can not readily be discovered by ordinary tests. The lactic acid bacilli, being easily killed by heat, pasteurized milk may not show acidity or change in taste or appearance and yet be wholly unfit for food owing to the existence of millions of germs which do not cause the milk to change but are prejudicial to health. The following method promises better than any yet known for the safe sterilization of milk. Budde’s Process for Sterilizing Miik.—Fifteen c.c. (or one table- spoonful) of three per cent. solution of hydrogen peroxide are added to each quart of milk in bulk, as soon after milking as possible, and the milk is then heated to 51 deg. to 52 deg. C. (123.8 deg. to 125.6 deg. F.) for three hours. By this method the oxygen in the hydrogen peroxide is liberated by an enzyme in the milk (catalase), with the aid of the heat, and the nascent oxygen acts as an efficient germicide. All the non-spore bearing micro-organisms are killed—including all disease germs—except those of anthrax. In fact, 99.9 per cent. of the germs in milk are destroyed by this method and nothing is left in the milk but a little water which is too small in quantity to alter the com- — position of milk appreciably. The milk is unaltered in odor, taste or appearance, and the cream rises as usual while no trace of peroxide remains. Milk thus treated will, moreover, keep unchanged in warm weather for eight to ten days. This process seems to solve the question of treating dirty milk when clean milk can not be procured, and would appear to be of inesti- mable benefit in the preparation of infant’s milk when of uncertain quality, and for keeping such milk to be used by an infant during a considerable journey. PLATE XIII. — The Burrell-Lawrence-Kennedy Cow Milker. The plate shows the main iron piping above the stanchions connected by rubber tubing with the pulsators placed on top of each milk pail between each twocows. PLATE XIV.— The Pulsator. MILKING MACHINES 189 Milking Machines. The milking machine, together with the single service paper milk bottle, bid fair to practically revolutionize the methods of producing clean milk. If these two inventicns prove as valuable as they promise, the whole question of clean milk production will be solved. The milk will be obtained nearly sterile and be immediately cooled and run into sterile bottles. The status of the milking machine seems still a matter of some uncertainty with every indication of a successful future. ‘The machine we will describe appears to be one of the most efficient and has been in operation for some years. At present it is being used by the leaders in the dairy industry, as by the Walker-Gordon people andi. By Gurler: . The Burrell-Lawrence-Kennedy Cow Milker comprises the following : 1. A vacuum pump operated by power, steam, electric motor, gas engine, tread mill (bull), a head of water over thirty feet, etc. 2. One inch iron piping connecting the vacuum pump with a vacuum tank, supplied with guage and safety valve, and thence about the barn for attachment to the milkers. 3. The Milkers.—A milker consists of a milk pail (heavy enough to withstand a vacuum), on which is placed a pulsator, which in its turn is connected with one-half inch rubber tubing to four teat cups fitted on the teats of the cow. The vacuum is about equal to one-half an atmosphere, fifteen to seventeen inches, and the vacuum tank is connected with the system to insure a uniform, safe and known suction. The pulsator (Plate XIV) is the salient feature of this machine. It rests on top of the milk pail, to which it fits tightly as soon as the exhaust is turned -on, because of atmospheric pressure and because it rests on a rubber gasket. The pulsator is connected with the iron pipes which run along over the stanchions (Plate XIII) by one-half inch rubber tubing fitted to the nipple at its base. The two stop-cocks, seen in the plate of the pulsator, are each connected with rubber tubes, one taking the 190 CLEAN MILK milk from the four teats of a cow on one side, and the other from the cow to the other side of the pulsator. When the machine is in operation the cow’s udder is cleaned, the teat cups (of five sizes) are adjusted, and a milk pail—placed between each two cows—is surmounted by a pulsator attached by rubber tub- ing, both to the iron piping above, and to the teats of the cows on each side (Plate XIII). That is, each milker (milk pail, pulsator, rubber connections and teat cups) is capable of milking two cows at the same time. A stop-cock is turned and the suction applied by the pulsator to the cow’s teats. By this mechanism there is exerted intermittently not only suction but also compression on the outside of the teat, simu- lating the action produced in hand milking. Glass windows in the tubing leading from the teats inform the operator as to the flow of milk. Most cows do not object to the use of the machine. ‘This machine will practically prevent the initial contamination of milk, and will render the production of clean milk more simple and easy than by any method heretofore known. ‘The rubber tubing, through which the milk passes, can be sterilized and made free of germs by boiling or by steam and is kept in brine. The pulsator and milk pail can be cleaned readily ‘by the use of boiling water or steam. As a labor-saver the device enables one man to do four men’s work. One man can operate three or four milkers at once, each milk- ing two cows at the same time, which means that he can milk thirty to forty cows an hour. With hand-milking this number of cows would require the work of four men for one hour. Moreover, the results are much more uniform, and daily variations in milk-yield, depending on the personality of the milker, are eliminated. The difficulties in keeping milkers and the disastrous results from frequent change of milkers are also removed by the machine. Cost.—The expensive parts of the milking machine are the milkers and the vacuum pump, each of these costing $75 apiece. This pump is capable of operating five milkers. The entire cost of the installation, power and milking machines is estimated by the sellers MILKING MACHINES I9gl. to amount to about $12.00 per cow for a herd of forty cows, and $8.50 per cow for a herd of seventy-five.* With accumulating experience, the results obtained by the use of the Burrell-Lawrence—Kennedy milking machine appear to be gener- ally favorable. The more common doubts as to the amenability of cows to the milking machine, and the danger of drying up cows from incomplete emptying of the udder, have been dispelled. Cows hitherto unruly to hand milking, and heifers never milked before, have taken most kindly to the machine, and, on the whole, cows like machine milking better than hand milking. Hand stripping—after the removal of the teat cups—is done, generally, into the teat cups themselves. Cows which are milked by the machine have a longer period of lactation than when milked by hand. What appeared a serious objection to the milking machine was the complaint that the milk of single cows could not be separated from that of the herd—in case it was contaminated with blood or pus and germs from an inflamed udder ; or the milk was needed for feeding a calf; or for making a periodical test for quantity and fat. Gurler has obviated this defect by having the pail of one machine divided into two compartments, one for each cow, and provided with corres- ponding outlets from which the milk from each cow can be drawn. Garget, and all troubles with the udder, are less frequent with the milking machine—probably because the teats are not so subject to abrasions and infection from other cows by the hands of the milker. Mr. H. B. Gurler, of Illinois, one of the most noted dairymen of this country—writing in Hoard’s Dairyman—says that in thirty com- parative tests between hand and machine milking, the number of bacteria was reduced one-half by the machine—irom 5,000 to 2,500 pere.c. After fourteen months’ use of the Burrell-Lawrence—Kennedy machine with two hundred cows he found but two or three cows which could not be milked by it ; he gives it his unqualified approba- tion and affirms that it has come to stay. * For details consult D. H. Burrell & Co., Little Falls, N. Y., and Brock- ville, Ont. 192. CLEAN MILK Gurler states that one man with the machine is equal to three hand milkers ; that no difficulty was experienced in keeping the appara- tus clean by the use of rinsing in cold water, a solution of lye, and boiling water; and that great care should be taken in accurately fitting each teat cup to each individual teat. He warns against com- pletely filling the milk pails, lest milk be drawn into the vacuum pipes, and emphasizes the necessity of a uniform vacuum. If a teat cup pulls off or any accident occurs which reduces the vacuum, the machines should be shut off till the proper vacuum is secured. And when one of a pair of cows attached to a machine’ is milked before the other, the vacuum should be shut off from that cow, at the machine, and the machine kept running until the other cow is milked. The Hegelund Method.—Extensive experiments with this method of manipulating the udder at the close of milking have been conducted by Woll at the University of Wisconsin Agricultural Station,* on one hundred and fifty cows during a summer and fall, and have proved its advantages to be as follows: A daily gain of one pound of milk, and one-tenth pound of fat per cow was obtained. This is equivalent toa gain of about thirty- five pounds of butter per cow per annum. Most cows do not object to the manipulation ; less than a dozen out of the number tested did so. The gain in quantity of milk and fat is not a temporary increase ; not only is the gain persistent, but the method tends to maintain a large flow of milk during the lactation period. The method taking the place of stripping, there is no loss of time in performing it. The use of the method develops the milk-yield of heifers, and has even doubled that of cows which have been supposed to have reached their maximum flow of milk. It increases the fat in the milk so that the yield from this method contains ten per cent. of fat. It is of great value in preventing mastitis during the early period of lactation. * Univ. Wis. Agric. Sta. Bull, No. 96. = PLate XY, (Illustrating the Hegelund method of milking.) Fic, 1.—First manipulation of udder, right quarters, G. 3.— Second manipulation, right fore quarter. Fic. 5.—Second manipulation, tight hind quarter, rear view. —, Fic 4.—Second manipulation, right hind quarter. Fic, 6,—Third manipulation, MILKING MACHINES 193 As the method has been adopted by some of the most progressive farmers in Denmark, and this country it is well worthy of trial and is herewith described. DESCRIPTION OF THE MANIPULATIONS IN THE HEGELUND METHOD OF MILKING. First Manipulation.— The right quarters of the udder are pressed against each other (if the udder is very large, only one-quarter at a time is taken) with the left hand on the hind quarter and the right hand in front on the fore quarter, the thumbs being placed on the out- side of the udder and the four fingers in the division between the two halves of the udder. ‘The hands are now pressed toward each other and at the same time lifted toward the body of the cow. ‘This press- ing and lifting is repeated three times, the milk collected in the milk cistern is then milked out, and the manipulation repeated until no more milk-is obtained in this way, when the left quarters are treated in the same manner, (See Plate XV, Figs. 1 and 2.) Second Manipulation.—The glands are pressed together from the side. The fore quarters are milked each by itself by placing one hand, with fingers spread, on the outside of the quarter and the other hand in the division between the right and left fore quarters: the hands are pressed against each other and the teat then milked. When no more milk is obtained by this manipulation, the hind quarters are milked by placing a hand on the outside of each quarter, likewise with fingers spread and turned upward, but with the thumb just in front of the hind quarter. The hands are lifted and grasp into the gland from behind and from the side, after which they are lowered to draw the milk. The manipulation is repeated until no more milk is obtained. (See Plate XV, Figs. 3-5.) Third Manipulation.—The fore teats are grasped with partly closed hands and lifted with a push toward the body of the cow, both at the same time, by which method the glands are pressed between the hands and the body ; the milk is drawn after each three pushes. When the fore teats are emptied, the hind teats are milked in the same manner, 794 CLEAN MILR Standardizing Milk It may be desirable to produce a milk standardized to contain a fixed and constant percentage of fat. This is particularly important for infant feeding. Or one may wish to supply a milk of unusual and definite richness ; or again one may want to combine two lots of cream of different fat percentages to obtain a cream of definite percentage. A very simple method of determining what amount of any given two lots of milk or cream, varying in richness, is required for combina- tion to obtain a milk or cream of definite fat percentage is given below. ‘This method of standardizing milk was devised by Prof. R. A. Pearson, of Cornell University. One should construct a figure like the accompanying cut, and in the 47, BY two left hand corners write the percentages of fat in the two lots of milk (or cream and milk, or two lots of cream, as the case may be). In the centre, place the percentage of fat required. At the right hand corners write numbers which will be the differences between two numbers with which they stand in line. Thus: If 4.7 and 3.4 are the percentages of fat in two lots of milk—and it is desired to make a mixture containing four per cent. of fat—subtract 4 from 4.7 and place the result (.7).at the lower right. hand corner. Subtract 3.4 from 4 and place the result (.6) at the upper right hand corner. The result shows that it will take six parts of 4.7 per cent. milk, and seven parts of 3.4 per cent, milk, to make a standard four per cent. milk, STABLE VENTILATION 198 A New Method of Stable Ventilation. Quite recently there has come into existence a new system of ventilating barns by means of windows covered with cheap cotton cloth. No method could be simpler or less expensive ahd the results thus far reported have been very favorable. Thus Ellis M. Santee, of the Dairy Department of Washington, D. C., writing in Hoard’s Dairyman of May 17th, 1907, records some conclusions from exhaustive experiments with cloth ventilation as compared with the King system. He affirms that even with the thermometer registering 43 degrees below (zero, presumably), water never froze in the barn with cloth-covered windows. Also that the difference in temperature in barns with cloth-covered windows and in those with all glass windows was but 1 to 3 degrees. Moreover, in the stables ventilated with cloth-covered windows, the humidity was 7 to Io per cent. lower than in the barns ventilated by the King system. Finally he records the fact that many good dairymen have closed the outlets and inlcts of their King system to give place to the cloth curtain method. Glass windows should be alternated with cloth- covered openings, the proportion being 3 sq. ft. of glass and 2 sq. ft. of cloth-covered openings for each 1,000 lbs. of animal. ‘The cloth should be muslin of the first grade better than cheesecloth, costing 5 to 6 cents par yard. Method of Keeping Accounts of the Pure Milk Dairy (See the following three forms.) I MAPLEWOOD FARM Daily Milk Report eeeeeee eeccceeeeee + lQO7 Enipty eases received last train.) 244... ace BOEtlESISHORDMASEEAIM ees) o) chaste eisitmiseatele JSOUMES jorolkiem \\noremsqeeehysel 4° Sodcudooon Bottlesthrowenvat aris lo... tt sdaeeseiee & Cases milk shipped to-day, . 2 ieesvereesAMNdeveeeeee Ots, 196 4 CLEAN. MILK Fxplanation.—The foregoing report is signed by the manager at the farm. It shows the number of empty cases (holding 12 quart bottles) received from the city and the number of bottles broken and missing in them. Also the number of full cases shipped to the city. MILK RECEIVED CASH ACCOUNT Receiveditronilcc sce). siete Ry | PAID ON AccouNT Milk Cream sof ttt ttt teers $ tee ecece Quarts Gals. Pints W%Pints| «ttre rr ttre ee eee eeeee oer eer eee ers e eee ere seeee DERIVERED ~~ 9 -| — eeectecacivccusic seviccecic Ce RETURNED Milk Ce ee) eee eee eee tere es see ereee eee eee Cee eee eee eeesesse ee ea eee eeeer reso eee ee see ee eee Bottles Delivered ............ Cash Receipts. .$..... eee Bottles Returned........ rae LOGAN i eieieier $.wseveee This blank is filled out daily by the driver of each delivery wagon. and represents, first, the amount of milk and cream received from..... railway; second, the amount of milk and cream delivered to customers ; third, the amount of the same brought back to the store; fourth, the bottles delivered to and returned by customers; and fifth, the cash paid for accounts due or tickets, METHOD OF KEEPING ACCOUNTS 197 TIT: LO 14 CEDAR STREET _ JOHN SMITH This form represents a loose card, one of which is devoted to each customer for a year. The day’s sales of the drivers of the milk wagons are copied off their books each day and kept in the office of the city dairy in this form, 198 CLEAN MILK A General Outline of a Scheme for the Control, Supervision and Inspection of a City Milk Supply The legal control of a city milk supply is in the hands of the City Board of Health. The State Board of Health should, however, work in cooperation with the City Board through its jurisdiction over the territory from which the milk is obtained. When the milk is drawn from several states this is, of course, of but slight value. Moreover, state supervision is not essential, since the city authorities can enforce sufficient influence over the producer of unsanitary milk in the following ways: By condemning such when it arrives in the city ; by warning or fines; by revoking the license of the dealer in the same in the city ; and by requiring that the premises on which the milk is produced be inspected before the milk can be sold in the city. Supervision of a milk supply must begin at the barn and be continued until the milk reaches the consumer. ‘Thus milk must be inspected at the following points : . At the farm. During transportation from the farm to the R.R. or creamery. At the creamery, when this is the shipping point. Lan On the cars during transportation to the city. At the city R.R. or receiving station. Ans YS On the wagon in the city. 7. At the city dairy, hotel, restaurant, retail store and home of the consumer. The country furnishing milk must be mapped, the farms and creameries from which milk is shipped must be plotted, and the territory divided into districts, each under the supervision of an inspector living in the region. It has been recommended that there be one inspector to each 100 farms. At present New York City has about 100 inspectors (1907) to supervise some thirty to forty thousand farms in six states and shipping milk into the city from points four hundred miles distant. No milk should be permitted to enter a city until the seal of inspection has been first placed upon it by an inspector in the country. GENERAL OUTLINE 199 When milk is shipped from creameries or country receiving stations these form convenient points for inspection and also serve as a base for investigation of the farms supplying the creameries. At the creameries the following demand looking into: (1) The cleaning and sterilization of all utensils; (2) the water supply and drainage ; (3) the temperature at which milk and cream are kept; (4) general cleanliness, requiring the absence of flies and dust. The farms need inspection in regard to the ensuing matters: Cleanliness of the cows, milkers and other employees; of the barn, milk house, utensils and surroundings ; the health of the employees and cows, with especial attention to infectious diseases in the former, and to tuberculosis and udder disease (garget) in the latter; the kind of food given to cows (avoidance of swill, fermented brewers’ grains and distillery slops, etc.) and time of feeding; the purity of water and ice supply, ventilation of barns, removal of manure, drainage of premises, and methods of milking and handling and cooling milk. Also the method of storing and caring for milk and hauling it to the R.R. or creamery; and the care of the milk room, especially with regard to the absence of dust and flies. Inspections of creameries and farms should be made once a month at least, and reports should be rendered in quadruplicate, one of which should be sent to the city office, one to the farmer, one to the retail dealer selling the milk, and one to be retained on file in the local office in the country. This suggestion was made by Dr. Goler, of Rochester, N. Y., who also recommends, in case the territory supply- ing a city is large, the establishment of one or more laboratories in the country as sub-stations for the work of milk inspection. This might be conveniently carried out in connection with creameries. Country inspectors should not only perform their police duties, but should act as teachers and should talk and distribute printed matter concerning everything which relates to the production and care of sanitary milk. The plan adopted by the Massachusetts Board of Health, in publishing a monthly list of well conducted and cleanly farms, is to be commended. Goler urges the establishment of model dairy farms by the state in connection with the laboratory substations in the country, 200 CLEAN MILK the scheme comprising the remodeling of some old and run-down farm, so that in its upbuilding the farmer could apply the same measures to his own premises. In regard to the carriage of milk on the railroad, railways carrying milk to the large cities of the country now supply refrigerator cars for milk, with adequate icing facilities to cool milk below 50° F., in most cases. When such refrigerating arrangements are not obtain- able, milk and’cream should be shipped as advised on p. 87. Inspection on the cars is limited to taking the temperature of milk. At the receiving station in the city there must be daily inspection with reference to the temperature of milk, to the care of cans and bottles of milk while ex route, and to the condition of empty bottles and cans which are being returned. ‘The inspector shall here examine milk by sight, smell and taste, and by lactometer and lactoscope (if such be the custom), and take samples for laboratory examination. According to the writer’s views, the only accurate testing which should be done by the collectors of samples is that of temperature taking. Testing for the solids and fat and for adul- teration and bacterial content can be done much more accurately at the laboratory. During distribution of milk by wagon in the city, inspection is desirable to ascertain that the milk is properly iced in warm weather, that the temperature of the milk is kept below 50° F., that bottling of milk is not done on the wagon, and that general cleanliness of utensils and wagon is observed. Samples of milk should be taken from each wagon at least once a month for laboratory examination. A sample of milk should be taken from each retail store every month. Milk in the various stages of transportation from cow to consumer becomes more germ-laden through age and handling, espe- clally when poured from one utensil to another, and the case of the retail shop is the worst. This has been strikingly shown by Prof. J. O. Jordan, of Boston. ‘The legal limit for bacterial content in Boston is 500,0co germs to the c.c. The milk during 1906, in respect to this standard, was found to be distributed as follows : On the cars, on arrival, 90 per cent. under germ standard (7.e., con- taining not less than 500,000 bacteria); on the wagons, 50 per cent. GENERAL OUTLINE 201 under germ standard; in the retail stores, 18 per cent. below germ standard. Such a difference between the quality of milk on arrival and subsequently does not occur in milk bottled at the farm, cooled immediately below 50° F. and kept at that point all the time until it reaches the store customer. Only bottled milk should be sold in stores, and the bottling should be done at the farm or, less favorably, at the creamery or city dairy. Inspection at stores must enforce requirements for a proper refrigerator and cooling of the milk, and also that the store be apart from dwelling rooms. In the inspection of city dairies, stores, hotels and restaurants, the proper cleaning of empty cans and bottles should receive special attention. In many cities an ordinance requires that milk cans and bottles must be thoroughly cleaned or sterilized before their return to the farm or creamery. Also an ordinance should forbid using utensils employed for transporting milk and cream as receptacles for any other material whatsoever. Jordan notes that broken eggs, coffee, oil, chocolate, molasses, blood, and, above all, kerosene, are not infre- quently discovered in milk cans. At each city dairy the cleanliness of premises and milk utensils, the purity of the water supply, and the facilities and method of cooling milk and cream should be the subjects of inspection. Samples of milk should be taken from the city dairy at least once monthly. Inspection of milk at hotels and restaurants should be directed toward enforcing the ordinances as regards temperature of milk, cleanliness of utensils and the sale of skim milk. Samples should be taken once a month from hotels and restaurants. The proper care of milk affer it has reached the consumer is the most difficult matter of control and can only be managed by general education of the public. The Board of Health, through its monthly bulletins, and those selling clean milk may supply the public with information on the subject, and consumers should be fined for not returning empty milk bottles or cans properly cleaned. Jordan points out another objection to the popular desire for the early arrival of milk we have noticed (p. 125): that milk left on the doorstep in the early morning hours of summer may be heated by the sun to an injurious degree, At this place it may not be out of 502 CLEAN MILK order to note that the forms furnished by the City Board of Health to physicians for compulsory reports of infectious diseases should require the name of the milkman supplying each infectious case reported. In Boston the wholesale milk dealers are exceptionally progressive. They assist the health authorities by taking the temperature of milk consigned to them, by straining milk to discover dirt, by cleaning empty cans; while six dealers (1907) have actually installed bac- teriological laboratories for their own use (Jordan). A sufficient number of inspectors or collectors of samples in cities may require one to each 50,000 of population. In addition to the duties described above, the city inspector should examine the premises of applicants for a city license to sell milk, before one may be issued. The City Board of Health should publish in a monthly report the names of each dairyman, dividing them into four categories: those selling Certified, Inspected, Ordinary Market and Pasteurized milk ; and should report the number of bacteria in each. Also notice of any dairyman who has been found guilty of infractions of any of the ordinances pertaining to milk should be thus publicly announced. A. D. Melvin, Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry, suggests that the following division be made of the milk composing a city supply: 1. Certified milk. 2. Inspected milk from tuberculin-tested cows housed, fed and milked under good conditions with a maximum content of 100,000 germs per c.c. the year round, and shipped in sterilized containers at the farm at a temperature below 50° F. 3. All other milk should be pasteurized (as soon as practicable after milking at 154° F. for twenty minutes), cooled immediately and sold in sterilized containers at a temperature below 50° F. INDEX Page Acidity of milk, test for ......... 138 of pasteurized milk... ...... 138 Airspace in, barn 2.) he eca ieee 58 Analysis, quantitative, of bacteria 149, 161 Anthrax affecting milk ........... 20 AN OITR OVT S o noon doGsego de 24 PUN SIMKE COWS. fs secrecy ai) foe's oc) 169 Babcock test for fat in milk...141, 146 Bacteria, see Germs. analysis of milk for....... 149, 161 Balanced rations, selection of.... 49 Speciniens Ofis. sto. sm sne eras 51 BVADET GUISE, ty. Rico. islet titer tadia a tags 66 liKe\o) cea Biotec ithe oe ceo toe oe 58 planstOfes coer et cee 178-187 Ventiationiotisyas ese aaa 59, 195 AGN Sirs gata paratitla Sines shea 57 CASWNSS cree aye tebe as ers tefarate di sys 30 IBeadin oye. sci tetecccace used: 67 PRRECE: TILL Fe sicverets 3! acs ssw «sieves qe ayes 18 Blmevmitle 008.00) a. Rihure Rita 18 Bookkeeping, city milk route.... 195 1 BYOT EE <0 009 0011 I Se ee Pe ec 136 Borie seid milkeccs o2.. ste. ds we « 136 Botie DOxeS.. 6 .ccc sen seta otens 127 IIGUSHES ciel ots daiet ao! dieimete ahs s 93 ALUM Yoel ck exch veka a nial Sohhoee sous 89 WU eLS MC Trasaatare sayeilsjais: deermeterancvals «if 95 Bottled milk, cooling............ 84 Bottles wimnilkces cos sisrsoxgia,. fake... 59 Haecker’s rules for feeding...... 50 Heating waters iicesc.eed aise es POAT c/o AS Rake Oo ws 85 Hegelund method of stripping CWS Eat cfatara miners Gio o!soemPes 192 FLOISfEM COWS isos gee cles. 169 Weeling 2-2 vnesccwct ist tacktuaes - 10 Infant mortality. toss. c8 cee 22 Inspected milk, New York require- NAN oh eohocc.sudeancesnoubosn 165 Inspection: of milk; «.0/du.¢ aes 134 JERSEY COWS. o Saecncl.s bu reeves 169 205 Page Keeping qualities of milk ... ... 14 King system, ventilation......... 59 Lactation period of cows........ 29 increased by feeding......... 47 Raetic acid germs... 50.4.4... - 13 action) en mal iii 2.6. sce 12 in fermentation of miik...... 24 flavoring butter and cheese, 13, 38 killing other germs.......... 13 Eeactometer ach pets oiicacekoe os: 146 Machine; milking s 5. 2ic2s eas: 189 Manure, removal of from barn... 66 PREM CII Noes; aes cied. Sates 59 Market milk, germs in........... 17 Miscellaneous germs............ 15 Modified milk, for infants........ 137 Milk acidity, test for..: 04.05.24... 137 action of temperature on..... 14 adulterated with borax...... 136 adulteration, boric acid...... 136 formaldehyde, or freezine 136 Salievlic ACiGs ean. Vs..,06 a 537 sodium carbonate....... 137 as a source of infant mortality 22 as a source of diarrhea....... 22 asasourceofcholerainfantum 22 bacteria, analysis of...... 149-161 bad oderiof.<7 see sae 135 baditaste,ofs s1s.0. ace chesh) 136 bitten corcree< sat Sears ce 18 DIES eae ek cl eee 18 bookkeeping for city route... 195 battlescias... kates eee 104 CAPS iris oe adel atehecs a Sess 130 CARRIEIS | cco 2 tclaeeao 102 GAR Sie cr nists Salad «ele taynitas 103 Shipping cases: 4.44.3. . 103 to prevent loss of........ 129 Bottling ot sion see esa saee 96 UfeNnSIS fOr. va. ce aes 87 boxes; for bottlesi<.sv2502 5 . 127 brow, jcouas eae a. ote 18 bye products in manufactures 44 Certifieds s/o. ccc cdice ote wie 16 Gertified; cost of jaqsi ter tess II4 N. Y. requirements for .. 161 PICE! Of. 5 72479 ana oie se 116 composite samples of........ 177 206 INDEX Page Page Milk, composition of............. 23 | Milk sodpy.-.ic0.5.5 cae. «an tome 18 COOLEYS./.-% Geter ence ts 78 solids, estimation of..... .... 146 Cooling of ee eeaseen te oc. 77 SOuUmIng Of) "EC eee Senet 24 condensed, actionofgermson 2 standard for'cow?..as1-onene 112 curdling Ofte. etter eke ts 25 standardizing 12.255... -aepne 194 Girt ins. «+ ).32 cee orincs cere: « 135 sterilizing, Budde’s process.. 188 dirty, a source oftyrotoxicon 22 sterilizers for utensils. ....... 89 during tuberculin test........ 56 Stirrer.c.1< 4 Reet see 97 LAG CRSP A at Ree Bie ae ote 25 Strainer...ne sie eee 84 teStiforse seine eee ee ee 141-146 stringy: cna. esee. Peete 18, 135 feeding affecting composition Strippingsis~ se-cias cee eee 27 (3) epee att aslo acne carte 46 SUPA SES See Somer cree 24 feeding for wt. Ges on wteelece oe 46 SWEGti On. ee sleet ae totes 10 fever, affecting milk.......... 20 time of delivery. 7.20 ose. o-5 126 treatment ‘Of... 55.00.04 69 utensils, ‘washing: ¥. 02.4. ..5. 93 fishy-cuse Hin te eee cee ee 53, 85, 135 WAGONSS2 suka caesar eens 127 fromisilavens nance coe ia ere 54 Watered @testfors.-e ee see 141 formation in udder.......... 46 yellow )2.c. 2202. ee eee ee © 18 fe ga) I AEE ly a 18 | Milkers, cleanliness of........... 71 hints in delivery... o.ct« 2. 129 | ‘Milking’... 2.7.22. ASoee0 ae eee ee 71 house, arrangements of...... 99 as affecting composition of plans of. ie sist tees 178-187 Milk. 4c ee eee ee ae cee 28 DATE TAK eer ier. che seer 20 in relation to feeding.... ... 54 IDICOWIPOKes cise eis aes 20 Machine. 2-22. ers enemas ete 189 foot and mouth disease.. 20 Parpets cs wth e dee ee 20 | (OVERRUN: Sai beeen eee ee 118 milk dever.2 {ees sy. 20 how to estimates: -e-.. eee 119 pleuropneumonia ....... 20 inspected, N. Y. requirements 165 | Pails, milk.................000% 73-74 inspections... 7... cles wes wok 134 jehapermilkibottles-=. sees ae 105 keeping qualities of.......... 14 | ‘Pasteurizedimilk: ).2. 22ers 7-10, 187 modified for infants.......... 131 ACIGIty OF. «6.00.55 eee eels 138 [OPUS HA ea cereale ealeek aucetioi eat 73-74 LEStfOR. hac sce neem iene 187 pasteurized 2) 00%) 44% 7=10,, 187" (plans ofbarns+...ce meee ee 178-187 preservatives... . 22. iste 1o | Pleuropneumoniaaffecting milk.. 20 testsfor....4s2.sues 136,137 iereservatives, i. eine anenes eee bf) proteidssc okt csi Mee eres 24 tests fOr. Vee ene ere 136 pus in, testifor.: 2... r60. | Jerice.of certified milky. 2.0.0... 116 FECOFUS eee eee eee FI2476 HW eeroteids, in milkesc) ee sce eee ae 24 TOC - Boch wahs ce eneee Pome eels TS } Mutrefactive perms coer clerics «(a 15 returns from selling in various fOXMHS a ohh Beane ene nels es £23 | Wecords Of COWS. .as) cece, sera 176 YOOMAE series Ly eo-IFbd50580 75 Of milk See aes 112, 176 utensils for..)...%. 021.2. 76 Wi geed milk. >, O. laie onesie sete 18 Samples. ki Sense eee ek 135, 136 | goon, milks”. cece. ceisecmeicl ares 75 siphon for removing from ROU MhASeS Pee yssvees she esheets 15 Dottle. sate eee eee 132 skim, food value"of...".....%: As Waesalicylic acidt:.. sent cs aeeeicee 137 testfors <4 Adds ee ore 141 | Scarlet fever infecting milk...... 2 SLIMY shes svesecveeteseeves GO. WeOePalraliQn Ol Clea Mant = siete neh 107 INDEX Page Separation, removing germs..... 35 FEMOViIne ints. sec aeaee eee 35 Separatomereains 22546 vase cis - 34 SUMMMEN iata svete sates Ratan, 334 Separators, management of...... 175 Shippineicases..s.... suck. : 103-104 Skim milk, food value of ........ 43 BOSUNOE etis citeoae cite ork cre IAI Vallieioficascweach tenner ee 124 Slimiy milk ws fe cage aint cc cane ters 18 Smallpox infecting milk ......... 21 Soapy mille. ccce sentcashe ude ee 18 Sodium carbonate in milk ....... 137 Solidsiineniillkoa cece acces ce 146 Souring of milks. coe neds bedwa. 24 BSEANIS 5 sor mio siete nea sere ae aoe 65, 58 StanGhiONS ya. seco as ow se see's face 65 Standardizingy milks. 6.650005... 194 Stan Cooler #4. «ds ve eerntioinene sats 80 Startolene:: fo: ta. ny te des kiswes sis 40 Starters, natural and commercial. 39 SSEPEINIZEES «fais chsiuietae seamiecte tes iale 89 Staining... <2. 45.4. 4 mepenaen ces 84 Strimory matlleos's, «on. yey oe o's 135, 18 Stripping cows, Hegelund method 192 Sitrippings of milki...cmdns sie aoe: 27 Smart Olt mil kee. is Seay aces eee 24 Temperature affecting milk...... 14 mest, acidity,of milk... 2220+. 5. 1371 foe Selatine fo. OR vig a ee | : “2 ee ty ee a LN a ae et rae ©, iat iz 4 Las a ' eae Pe } a Pay ] ee airghady : ih ? PaeL ie Alida ti ca | ia i'd einai ah ie peti on ee ies ; 5 ed if ee | ae (ov 1 eg a ied as SST ane We t ea,” . ee CL = be acne a 2 Bae ne ug af aa } At ; AT a Ana oem » - ; ee: ree ea ¢ ean 3 :: hy | nes vy in A ‘ra da aber ) ey A \ ’ take) a ae s l { bon ! re 4) 4 : aya A A ee an | He Ny j 4 oe DP delish PAN i eA . Ve 4 ¢ t, OX Aes ; a } ; . at | Ea we, Ss ey Ry eee ae is ele) Ug Lt: iv oe! of Bak Mah aed LAYS, Sgt yt ae 1 AE ES ae hat das nel med "| RE ye hy We J i Wy ul te eS ae ia) hee i ee ve y ‘ Wing aelel , Atte ru cay oe : Sree ’ Cue fAy bate i Live Oe er | fit “4.5, a ly Ae eae | . id . ae aye ee Pe ity enue 4 "case 4 is : ; y bi ast (ape ii By HA iD Pa ae CA We ee eee Poet ii. Oar ads Tan vc pelea de vy ‘ Pe) ea Ca. St ee Bee | cal ry Ns ee . y y tees ; \ iS Wy Phe fey oo 1 Ro . ae ey q's iy ; et Bicrs, =A w Nee pink of: oe MeN HCN 7 re kill cnet re - i’ ” nic beadeat pao CATALOGUE OF William R. Jenkins Co.’s Works Concerning HORSES, CATTLE, SHEEP, SWINE, Etc. 1908 (*) Designates New Books. (+) Designates Recent Publications. ANDERSON. “Vice in the Horse” and other papers on Horses and Riding. By EH. L. Anderson. Size, Gbxa95, Cloth illustrated ste. ees emaeene oocn.- il, @ ARMSTEAD. ‘The Artistic Anatomy of the Horse.” A brief description of the various Anatomical Struc- tures which may be distinguished during Life through the Skin, By Hugh W. Armstead, M.D., F.R.C.S. With illustrations from drawings by the author. Clothrobloma sal Ort 2a re siye nsahyae ss trac ciate sions 3 75 BACH. ‘How to Judge a Horse.” A concise treatise as to its Qualities and Soundness; Including Bits and Bitting, Saddles and Saddling, Stable Drainage, Driv- ing One Horse, a Pair, Four-in-hand, or Tandem, etc. By Capt. F.W. Bach. Size,5x 75, clo., fully illus.1 00 BANHAM. “Tables of Veterinary Posology and Thera- peutics,’? with weights, measures, etc. By Geo. A. Banham, F.R.C.V.S. New edition. Cloth, size AX Maas LOA PALOS neem aie sae mele Se role a! s'sue-08 1 00 BAUCHER. ‘‘Method of Horsemanship.” Including the Breaking and Training of Horses. By HP DAUCH CD aca t ie seiclie von ere crs SOE CREM Cec 1 00 BELL. (*)**The Veterinarian’s Call Book (Perpetual).”’ By Roscoe R. Bell, D.V.S., editor of the American Veterinary Review. Completely revised 1907. A visiting list, that can be commenced at any time and used until full, containing much useful informa- tion for the student and the busy practitioner. Among contents are items concerning: Prescription writing; Veterinary Drugs; Poisons; Solubility of Drugs; Composition of Milk,Bile, Blood, Gastric Juice, Urine, Saliva; Respiration; Dentition; Temp- erature, etc., etc. Bound in flexible leather, with flap and pocket...,......... ACM adke-Go OOOOOe br 1 26 BITTING. ‘*Cadiot’s Exercises in Equine Surgery.” See **Cadiot.” BRADLEY. ‘*Qutlines of Veterinary Anatomy.” By O. Charnock Bradley, Member of the Royal Col- lege of Veterinary Surgeons; Professor of Anatomy in the New Veterinary College, Edinburgh. The author presents the most important facts of veterinary anatomy in as condensed a form as possible, consistent with lucidity. 12mo. Complete in three parts. PART Thewiymbs (cloth) temeccese seeecroecee 1 25 PARTOIL.:, lhe Lrunk (paper) -c.- sess 1 25 ParTIII.: The Head and Neck (paper).......... 1 25 RH) SHTACOMPLERE. sscciociee merit ae etertcee 3 25 CADIOT,. “Exercises in Equine Surgery.” By P. J. Cadiot. Translated by Prof. A. W. Bitting, D. V.M. Edited by Prof. A. Liautard, M.D.V.M. Size,6x9¥. clothiailltistrated-aeeceee eect serie mere 2 50 — **Roaring in Horses.” Its Pathology. and Treatment. This work represents the latest development in oper- ative methods for the alleviation of roaring. Each step is most clearly defined by excellent full-page illustrations. By P. J. Cadiot, Professor at the Veterinary School, Alfort. Translated by Thos. J. Watt Dollar, M.R.C.V.S., etc. Cloth, size 5 1-4x 71-8, 77 pages, UINUStrectad p4scccee ens ete ae eee 75 — ‘*Studies in Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Surgery.” By P. J. Cadiot. Translated, edited, and supplemented with 49 new articles and 34 illustrations by Jno. A. W. Dollar, M.R.C.V.S. Cloth, size 7 x 93-4, 619 Pees: 94 black and white illustrations,................. 5 25 ' —(*)** A Treatise on Surgical Therapeutics of the Domestic Animals.”’ By P. J. Cadiot and J. Almy. Translated by Prof. A. Liautard, M.D.,V.M. I. General Surgery.—Means of restraint of animals, general anesthesia, local anethesia, surgical anti- sepsis and asepsis, hematosis, cauterization, firing, II. Diseases Common to all Tissues.—Inflammation, abscess, gangrene, ulcers, fistula, foreign bodies, traumatic lesions, complications of traumatic les- ions, granulations, cicatrices, mycosis, virulent diseases, tumors. III. Diseases Special to all Tissues and Affections of the Extremities.—Diseases of skin and cellular tis- sue, of serous bursae, of muscles, of tendons, of tendinous svnovial saes, of aponeurosis, of arteries, of veins. of lymphatics, of nerves, of bones, of articulations. Cloth, size 6 x 9, 580 pages, 118 illustrations..... 4 50 CHAPMAN. ‘Manual of the Pathological Treatment of Lameness in the Horse,’ treated solely by mechanical means. By George T. Chapman. Cloth, size 6 x 9, 124 pages with portrait................2 00 CLARKE. “Chart of the Feet and Teeth of Fossil Horses.” By W. H. Clarke. Card, size 91-2 x 12.. 25 —** Horses’ Teeth.” Fourth edition, re-revised, with second appendix. Cloth, size 5 1-4 x7 1-2, 322 pp., illus..2 50 CLEAVELAND. ‘*Pronouncing Medical Lexicon.” Pocket edition. By C H. Cleveland, M.D. Cloth, Sizoidil- 4s) 12302 Pamesee So eee sucess cen. 75 CLEMENT. ‘Veterinary Post Mortem Examina- tions.” By A. W. Clement, V.S. The absence in the English language of any guide in making autopsies upon the lower animals, induced Dr. Clement to write this book, trusting that it would prove of prac- tical value to the profession. Cloth, size 5 x 7 1-2, 64 Pagess lms braveds Le eile. ie oles stele efeis ciahexe erates 75 COURTENAY. (+) ‘Manual of the Practice of Veterinary Medicine.” By Edward Courtenay, V.8. Revised by Frederick T. G. Hobday, F.R.C.V.S8. Second edition. Cloth, size 5 1-4 x 7 1-2, 573 pages .............. 2 75 COX, “Horses: In Accident and Disease.” The sketches introduced embrace various attitudes which have been observed, such as in choking; the disorders and aecidents occurring to the stomach and intestines ; affection of the brain ; and some special forms of lame- ness, etc. By J. Roalfe Cox, F.R.C.V.S. Cloth, size 6x29, 28 full page illustrations 2% i.) Se). di a cl- 1 50 DALRYMPLE. (*)‘Veterinary Obstetrics.” A compen- dium for the use of advanced students and Practi- tioners. By W. H. Dalrymple, M.R.C.V.S., principal of the Department of Veterinary Science in the Louisiana State University and A. & M. College; Veterinarian to the Louisiana State Bureau of Agriculture, and Agricultural Experiment Stations. Second edition revised. Cloth, size 6x9 1-4, 162 pages, BIG StrAPlONS irs) s-c\. vera ores shale e iotelae cits situs oat cis ole 2 50 DALZIEL. “Breaking and Training Dogs.” Part I, by Pathfinder. Part II, by Hugh Dalziel. Cloth, US Gra COC ayo teeta ret sr cuoic ee oceverkie sharseis ieutpecinapemersicits = 2 50 — “The Collie.” By Hugh Dalziel. Paper, illustrated.... 50 — “The Diseases of Dogs.” Causes, symptoms and treatment. By Hugh Dalziel. Illustrated. Paper, 50c. Cloth, 1 (0 ——/s*\Diseasesof Horsess”’ Paper vic. ces es ace bee one nos Glo) — “The Fox Terrier.” By Hugh Dalziel. Paper, 50; clo.1 00 — “The Greyhound.” Cloth, illus..... ........2...0..00 1 00 — “The St. Bernard.” Cloth, illustrated.....,.,..-.-..-1 00 DANA, “Tables in Comparative Physiology.” By Prof. CS Dana; Mepis (Charts 1717.2 2. eee eee DANCE. ‘Veterinary Tablet.” By A. A. Dance. Chart, 17 x 24, mounted on linen, folded in a cloth case for the pocket, size 3 3-4 x 61-2. Shows ata glance the eynopsis of the diseases of horses, cattle and dogs; with their cause, symptoms and cure......... See UG) DE BRUIN. (*)** Bovine Obstetrics.” By M. G. De Bruin Instructor of Obstetrics at the State Veterinary School in Utrecht. Translated by W. E. A. Wyman, formerly Professor of Veterinary Science at Clemson A. & M. College, and Veterinarian to the South Carolina Experiment Station. Cloth, size 6 x 9, 382 pages, 77 illustrations, ........ prerterctee tee reneye Bate oo! (UY) Synopsis of the Essential Features of the Work 1. Authorized translation. 2. The only obstetrical work which is up to date. 3. Written by Europe’s leading authority on the subject. 4, Written by a man who has practiced the art a lifetime. 5. Written by a man who, on account of his eminence as bovine practitioner and teacher of obstetrics, was selected Dy Prof. Dr. Frdhner and Prof. Dr. Bayer (Berlin and ienna), to discuss bovine obstetrics both practically and scientifically. : : i 6. The only work containing a thorough differential diag- nosis of ante and post partum diseases. 7. The only work doing justice to modern obstetrical surgery and therapeutics. 8. Written by a man whose practical suggestions revolu- tionized the teaching of veterinary obstetrics even in the great schools of Europe. s The only work dealing fully with the now no longer obscure contagious and infectious diseases of calves. 10. Absolutely original and no compilation. 11. The only work dealing fully with the difficult problem of teaching obstetrics in the colleges. _ ; The only work where the practical part is not over- shadowed by theory. \ ; : . . . A-veterinarian, particularly if his location brings him in contact with obstetrical practice, who makes any pretence toward being scientific and in possession of modern knowledge upon this subject, will not be without this excellent work, as it is really a very valuable treatise.—Prof. Roscoe R. Bell, in the American Veterinary Review. In translating into English Professor De Bruin’s excellent text- book on Bovine Obstetrics, Dr. Wyman has laid British and American veterinary surgeons and students under a debt of gratitude. The works represents the happy medium between the booklets which are adapted for cramming purposes by the student, and the ponderous tomes which, although useful to the teacher, are not exactly suited to the requirements of theeveryday practitioner . . . Wecanstrongly recommend the work to veterinary students and practitioners.—-The Journal of Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics. DOLLAR. (*\**Diseases of Cattle, Sheep, Goats and Swine.’”? By G. Moussu and Jno. A. W. Dollar, M.R.C.V.S. Size6 x 9 1-2, 785 pages, 329 illustrations in the text and 4 full page plates.......... Sogocone: Ui ore (+)A Hand-book of Horse-Shoeing,”’ with introductory chapters on the anatomy and physiology of the horse’s foot. By Jno. A. W. Dollar, M.R.C.V.S., with the collaboration of Albert Wheatley, F.R.C.V.S. Cloth, size 6 x 8 1-2, 433 pages, 406 illustrations ..4 76 DOLLAR (continued) — (t)*‘Operative Technique.’? Volume 1 of ‘‘The Practice of Veterinary Surgery.” Cloth, size 6 3-4 x 10, 264 pages, AWOMUUGURAbIOMGse see. werk. as ee Pane te wu ee 3 75 — **General Surgery.” Volume 2 of ‘‘ The Practice of Veter- inary Surgery.” In preparation. — (+) Regional Veterinary Surgery.” Volume 3 of ‘The Practice of Veterinary Surgery.’’ By Drs. Jno. A. W. Dollar and H. Méller. Cloth, size 6 1-2 x 10 853 and xvi pages, 315 illustrations................. 6 25 — **Cadiot’s Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Surgery.” See ‘> Cadiot.” — **Cadiot’s Roaring in Horses.” See ‘‘ Cadiot.” DUN. **Veterinary Medicines, their Actions and Uses.” By Finlay Dun, V.S., late lecturer on Materia Medica and Dietetics at the Edinburgh Veterinary College, and Examiner in Chemistry to the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons. Edited by James Macqueen, F.R.C.V.S. Tenth revised English edition. OlobieySiZeO1G xs 9 ON Oe Ne As tee eet lame 3 76 FLEMING. ‘The Contagious Diseases of Animals.” Their influence on the wealth and health of nations and how they are to be combated. Paper, size 5 x 7 1-2, SUS PAPE at sates ele chaiesisrdete ates herein aay isle wiecace 25 — ‘Human and Animal Variolw.” A Study in Comparative Pathology. Paper, size 5 1-2 x 8 1-2, 61 pages... 25 — ‘*Parasites aud Parasitic Diseases of the Domesticated Animals.” By L. G. Neumann. Translated by Dr. Fleming. See ‘‘ Neumann.” ~~ — ‘Operative Veterinary Surgery.” Vol. I, by Dr. Geo. Fleming, M.R.0.V.S. This valuable work, one of the most practical treatises yet issued on the subject in the English language,is devoted to the common opera- tions of Veterinary Surgery; and the concise descrip- ‘ions and directions of the text are illustrated with numerous wood engravings. Cloth, size 6 x 9 1-4, 285 and xviii pages, 343 illustrations............... .2 75 (*)Vol. II, edited and passed through the press by W. Owen Williams, F.R.C.V.S. Cloth, size 6 x 9 1-4, 430 and xxxvii pages, 344 illustrations............ 3 25 — “Roaring in Horses.” By Dr. George Fleming, F.RC.V.S. Its history, nature, causes, prevention and treatment. Cloth, size 5 1-2 x 8 3-4, 160 pages, 21 engravings, 1 colored plate...................... 1 50 — “Veterinary Obstetrics.” Including the Accidents and Dis- eases incident tu Pregnancy, Parturition. and the Early Age in Domesticated Animals. By Geo. Fleming, F.R.C.V.S. Cloth, size 6 x 8 3-4, 758 pages, illus.6 25 EEE 2 (*)**A Manual of General Histology. By Wm. 5S. Gottheil, M.D., Professor of Pathology in the American Veterinary College, New York; etc., ete. Histology is the basis of the physician’s arts as Anatomy is the foundation of the surgeon’s science. Only by knowing the processes of life can we under- stand the changes of disease and the action of remedies; as the architect must know his building materials, so must the practitioner of medicine know the intimate structure of the body. To present this knowledge in an accessible and simple form has been the author’s task. Second edition revised. Cloth, size 5 1-2 x 8, 152 pages, 68 illustrations...1 00 GRESSWELL. ‘ The Bovine Preseriber.” For the use of Veterinarians and Veterinary Students. Second edition revised and enlarged, by James B. and Albert Gresswell, M.R.C.V.S. Cloth, size, 5 x 71-2, 102 PASO Ms 7. choker ise, weed Peet ae wiely-earal Cheer eee 75 ” — ‘The Equine Hospital Prescriber.” For the use of Veter- inary Practitioners and Students. Third edition re- vised and enlarged, by Drs. James B. and Albert Gresswell, M.R.C.V.S. Cloth, size 5 x 71-2, 165 PAGES hicin trie ow ioiq ancirosepesovenscsausele, a ovehovdicl wieenaei emma tereeets 75 — ‘Diseases and Disorders of the Horse.” A Treatise on Equine Medicine and Surgery, being a contribution to the science of comparative pathology. By Albert, Jas. B. and Geo. Gresswell. . Cloth, size 5 3-4 x 8 3.4, 227 pages, illustrated........ PRO ean nice. 1 75 — Manual of “The Theory and Practice of Equine Medicine.” By James B. Gresswell, F.R.C.V.S., and Albert Gresswell, M.R.C.V.S: Second edition revised. Cloth, size 5 1-4 x 7 1-2, 539 pages................ 2 75 — (+) “Veterinary Pharmacopeia and Manual of Comparative Therapy.” By George and Charles Gresswell, with deseriptions and physiological actions of medicines, by Albert Gresswell. Second edition revised and enlarged. Cloth, 6 x 8 3-4, 457 pages............ 3 60 HASSLOCH. “A Compend of pena y Materia Medica and Therapeutics.” By C. Hassloch, V.S., Lecturer on Materia Medica na Therapeutics, and Professor of Veterinary Dentistry at the New York College of Veterinary Surgeons and School of Compa- rative Medivine, N. Y. Cloth, size 51-4 x 71-2, 225 DALES rls sab ences sis a Lice BER oes eee ee 150 HEATLEY. ‘The Stock Owner’s Guide.” A handy Medi- cal Treatise for every man Who owns an ox or cow. By George 8S. Heatley, M.R.C.V.S. Cloth, size 5 1-4 x 8, 172 pages..... UROL Aeon eo Ra 1 25 HILL, (+)**The Diseases of the Cat.” By J. Woodroffe Hill, F.R.C.V.S. Cloth, size 5 1-4x 7 1-2, 123 pages, WINS TLL et ee IRN. ice ie eae 1 25 Written from the experience of many years’ prac- tice and close pathological research into the maladies to which our domesticated feline friends are liable—a subject which it must be admitted has not found the prominence in veterinary literature to which it is ' undoubtedly entitled. — “The Management and Diseases of the Dog.” By J. Woodroffe Hill, F.R.C.V.S. Cloth, size 5 x 71-2, extra fully illustrated. HINEBAUCH. ‘Veterinary Dental Surgery.” By T. D. Hinebauch, M.S.V.S. “For the use of Students, Prac. titioners and Stockmen. Cloth, size 51-4 x 8, 256 pages, illustrated......... Acie Poop hoa hacen ee 2 vu HOARE. (*)‘‘A Manual of Veterinary Therapeutics and Pharmacology.” By E. Wallis Hoare, F.B.C.V\S. Cloth, size 5 1-4 x 7 1-4, xxvi plus 780 pages...... 4 75 HOBDAY. (+) The Castration of Cryptorchid Horses and the Ovariotomy of Troublesome Mares.” By Frederick T. G. Hobday, F.R.C.V.S. Cloth, size 53-4x 83-4, 1(6 pages, 34 illustrations,.......... 1 75 HUNTING. (+) The Art of Horse-shoeing. A manual for Horseshoers. By William Hunting, F.R.C.V.S., ex-President of the Royal College of Veterinary Sur- geons. One of the most up-to-date, concise books of its kind in the English language. Cloth, size 6x9 1-4. 126 pages, 96 illustrations................ Peente 1 00 JENKINS. (*)** Anatomical and Physiological Model of the Cow.”? Half life size. Composed of superposed plates, colored to nature, showing internal organs, muscles, skeleton, etc., mounted on strong boards, + with explanatory text. Size of Model opened, LO Thx Sift.;-closed 3 ft. x 1h ft ic...) es, 12 00 — ** Anatomical and Physiological Model of the Horse.” Half life size. Size of Model 38x 41 in........ 12 00 These models may also be obtained in smaller sizes together with Models of the Dog, Sheep and Pig. JONES. (*) The Surgical Anatomy of the Horse.” By Jno. T. Share Jones, M.R C.V.S. Part I. To be completed in four parts. Each part—paper, $4.25; cloth, $5.00. Subscriptions for the four parts, pay- able in advance, paper, $15.00; cloth, $17.50, KOBERT, ‘Practical Toxicology for Physicians and Students ” By Professor Dr. Rudolph Kobert, Medical Director of Dr. Brehmer’s Sanitarium for Pulmonary Diseases at Goerbersderf in Silesia (Prus- sia), late Director of the Pharmacological Institute, Dorpat, Russia Translated and edited by L. H. Friedburg, Ph.D. Authorized Edition. Practical knowledge by means of tables which occupy little space, but show at a glance similarities and differ- ences between poisons of the same group. Also rules for the Spelling and Pronunciation of Chemical Terms, as adopted by the American Association for the Ad- vancement of Science. Cloth, 61-2x 10, 201 pp..2 50 KOCH. ‘** Etiology of Tuberculosis.» By Dr. R. Koch. Trauslated by T. Saure. Ctoth, size 6 x 91-4, 97 PAGOS! See kite tes cveeeletnere HOH COUPE roae oan 1 00 LAMBERT. ‘**The Germ Theory’ of Disease.” Bearing upon the health and welfare of man and the domesticated animals. By James Lambert, F.R.C.V.S. Paper, size 5 1-4 x 8 1-4, 26 pages, illustrated..... 25 LAW. ‘*¥Farmers’ Veterinary Adviser.” A Guide to the Prevention and Treatment of Disease in Domestic Animals. By Prof. James Law. Cloth, size 5 1-4 = 7 1-2: illustrated... ... hc be tohegecsieioress oreteneee 3 00 LIAUTARD. (+)** Animal Castration.’”? A concise and practical Treatise on the Castration of the Domestic Animals. The only work on the subject in the English language. By Alexander Liautard, M.D.,V.S. Having a fine portrait of the author. Tenth edition revised and enlarged. Cloth, size 6 1-4 x 71-2, 165 pages, 4o illustrations: c= ness leer eee errs 2 00 . . . The most complete and comprehensive work on the subject in English veterinary literature.—American Agri- culturist. — **Cadiot’s Exercises in Equine Surgery.’’ Translated by Prof. Bitting and edited by Dr. Liautard. See ‘* Cadiot.” — **A Treatise on Surgical Therapeutics of the Domestic Animals.”? By Prof. Dr. P. J. Cadiot and J. Almy. Translated by Prof. Liautard. See ‘‘ Cadiot.” — **How to Tell the Age of the Domestic Animal.” By Dr. A. Liautard, M.D., V.S. Standard work upon this subject, concise, helpful and containing many illustrations. Cloth, size 5 x 71-2, 35 pages, 42 illustrations..... SANGIN Save sim Sieesager ees a fetars araneroeke here 50 — ‘**Lameness of Horses and Diseases of the Locomotory Apparatus.’’ By A. Liautard, M.D.,V.S. This work is the result of Dr. Liautard’s many years of experi- ence, Cloth, size 5 1-4 x 7 1-2, 314 pages......... 2 50 LIAUTARD (continued). — (*)**Manual of Operative Veterinary Surgery” By A. Liautard, M.D., V.M. Engaged for years in the work of teaching this special department of veterinary medicine, and having abundant opportunities of realizing the difficulties which the student who earnestly strives to perfect himself in his calling is obliged to encounter, the author formed the deter- mination to facilitate his acquisition of knowledge, and began the accumulation of material by the com- pilation of data and arrangement of memorandum, with the recorded notes of his own experience, the fruit of a long and extended practice and a careful study of the various authorities who have illustrated and organized veterinary literature. Revised edition, with complete index. Cloth, size 6 1-4:x 9, xxx and 803 pages; ood ullustrationssse ene 5 00 — *Pellerin’s Median Neurotomy in the Treatment of Chronic Tendinitis and Periostosis of the Fetlock.” Translated by Dr. A. Liautard. See ‘ Pellerin.” — **Vade Mecum of Equine Anatomy.” By A. Liautard, M.D.V.S. For the use of advanced stulents and veterinary Surgeons. Third edition. Cloth, size 5 x 7 1-2, 30 pages and 10 full page illustrations of tbe arleresmuccetcs walsh ere eee ae ae 2 00 — Zundel’s ‘* The Horse’s Foot and Its Diseases.” See ‘* Zundel.”’ LONG. “Book of the Pig.” Its selection, Breeding, Feeding andManagement. Cloth.............. 4.00 LOWE. (t)** Breeding Racehorses by the Figure System.” Compiled by the late C. Bruce Lowe. Edited by William Allison, ‘The Special Commis- sioner,” London Sportsman, Hon. Secretary Sporting League, and Manager of the International Horse Agency and Exchange. With numerous fine illustra- tions of celebrated horses. Cloth, size 8 x 10, 262 pages...... Boker oioiate 27ere Pelsteters isin el anieeter eT ere ers 7 50 LUDLOW. “Science in the Stable’; or How a Horse can be Kept in Perfect Health and be Used Without Shoes, in Harness or under the Saddle. With the Reason Why. Second Edition. By Jacob R. Ludlow, M.D. Late Staff Surgeon, U. S. Army. Paper, size 2 APO XG Stet GB BASS, «2c. sek ta eee. ee 50 \ LUPTON. **Horses: Sound and Unsound,” with Law relating to Sales and Warranty. By J Irvine Lupton, F.R.C.VS. Cloth, size 6 3-4 x 7 1-2, 217 pages, 28 illustrations...................., Seariob 1 25 MWFADYEAN. (|) ** Anatomy of the Horse.” Second edition completely revised. A Dissection Guide. By John M’Fadyean, M.B., B.Sc., F.R.S.E. Cloth, size 6 x 8 3 4, 388 pages, illustrated.............. 5 50 This book is intended for Veterinary students,-and offers to them in its 48 full-page colored plates, 54 illustrations and excellent text, a valuable and practical aid in the study of Veterinary Anatomy, especially in the dissecting room. — ** Comparative Anatomy of the Domesticated Animals.” By J. M’Fadyean. .Profusely illustrated, and to be issued in two parts. Part I—Osteology, ready. Size 51-2 x 81-2, 166 pages, 132 illustrations. Paper, 2 50; cloth..... 2 75 (Part II in preparation.) MAGNER. ‘Standard Horse and Stock Book.” By b. Magner. Comprising over 1,000 pages, illustrated with 1756 engravings. Leather binding. ........ 6 (0 MILLS. ‘How to Keep a Dog in the City.’’ By Wesley Mills, M.D., D.V.8. It tells how to choose, manage, house, feed, educate the pup, how to keep him clean and teach him cleanliness. Paper, size 5 x 71-2, CAD OF Fedo Gavan hina oreo Sas amr to NAB Ae aC Oo < 25 MOHLER. ‘Handbook of Meat Inspection.’’ By Robert Ostertag, M.D. ‘Translated by Earley Vernon Wilcox, A.M., Ph.D. With an introduction by John R. Mohler, V.M.D., A M. See ‘“‘ Ostertag.” MOLLER — DOELAR. ({) ** Regional Veterinary Surgery.”? See ‘* Dollar.” MOSSELMAN-LIENAUX, ‘*Manual of Veterinary Microbiology.”’? By Professors Mosselman and Liénaux, Nat. Veterinary College, Cureghem, Belgium. Translated and edited by R. R. Dinwiddie, Professor of Veterinary Science, College of Agriculture, Arkansas State University. Cloth, size 512 x 8, 342 pages, lus trated. 2 By Kenelm Winslow. B.A.S., M.D.V., M.D., (Harv.); formerly Assistant Professor of Therapeutics in the Veterinary School of Harvard University ; Fellow of tie Massachusetts Medical Society ; Surgeon to the Newton Hospital, ete. Fifth Edition, Revised and Enlarged Cloth, size 6 1-4 x 9 1-4, x + 804 pages........-... 6 00 In accordance with the hitherto expressed desire of the author and publishers to keep this work at its highest point of efficiency, it has been deemed incumbent upon them to again present a new and revised edition—the fourth edition of 1906 being exhausted. In the present revision the most notable feature is the substitution of a section on Condensed Treatment of Diseases of the Domestic Animals for the Index of Diseases and Remedial Measures, at the end of the book. Inthe preparation of this matter, very considerable time and pains have been taken to render this section a reflection and epi- tome of all that is most modern and progressive in veterinary thera- eutics. e Special indications for treatment, including drugs and therapeutic agents other than drugs, in the different phases and stages of all the important diseases of the domestic animals are to be found. These dis- eases embrace not only medical and surgical disorders, but those of the EYE, SKIN and EAR. If the attempt has beenin any degree successful, this new edition to the book should prove one of its most valuable features both to practitioners and students. Moreover, many changes have been made in the text in consonance with recent advances in our knowledge of the action of drugs. WYMAN. (*)** Bovine Obstetrics.» By M. G. De Bruin. Translated by W. E. A. Wyman, M.D.V.,V.S. See also ‘‘ De Bruin.” — (*)**Catechism of the Principles of Veterinary Surgery.” Bv W. E. A. Wyman, M.D.V.,V.S. Cloth, size 6 x 9, SLLPAZOS nmi caleens wie: Noticias’ Paverctern sche 3 50 Concerning this new work attention is called to the following points: 1.—It discusses the subject upon the basis of veterinary investigations. 2.—It does away with works on human pathology, histology, etc. 3.—It explains each question thoroughly both from a scientific as well as a practical point of view. 4.—It is writen by one knowing the needs of the student. 5.—It deals exhaustively with a chapter on tumors, heretofore utterly neglected in veterinary pathology. 6.—The only work in English specializing the subject. 7.—The only work thoroughly taking into consideration American as well as European investigations. 8.—Offering practical hints which have not appeared in print, the result of large city and country practice. WYMAN (Continued) —(t)*The Clinical Diagnosis of Lameness in the Horse.” By W. E. A. Wyman, D.V.S., formerly Professor of Veterinary Science, Clemson A. & M, College, and Veterinarian to the South Carolina Experiment Station. Cloth, size 6 x 9 1-2, 182 pp., 32 illus....2 50 — (+)** Tibio-peroneal Neurectomy for the Relief of Spavin Lameness.” By W. E. A. Wyman, M.D.V., V.S Boards, size 6 x 9, 30 pages, illustrated........... 50 Anyone wanting to perform this operation should procure this little treatise; he will find it of considerable help.—The Veterinary Journal. ZUILL. “Typhoid Fever; or Contagious Influenza in the Horse.” By Prof. W. L. Zuill, M.D.,D.V.S8. Pamphlet, size 6 x 9 1-4, 29 pages................. 25 ZUNDEL.