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LIPPINCOTT'S
iFARM MANUALS

iS^O

m

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PRODUCTIVE
BEE-KEEPING

BY FRANK C.PELLETT

"The first farmer was the first man, and all historic
nobility rests on possession and tise of land."

— Emerson.

LIPPINCOTT'S

FARM MANUALS

EDITED BY

KARY C. DAVIS, Ph.D. (Cornell)

PKOFSSSOR OK AGRICULTURE, SCHOOL OF COUNTRY LIKE
GEORGE PEABODY COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS, NASHVILLE, TENNESSEE

PRODUCTIVE BEE-KEEPING

MODERN METHODS OF PRODUCTION
AND MARKETING OF HONEY

By frank C. PELLETT

ASSOCIATE EDITOR AMERICAN BEE JOURNAL
FORMER STATE APIARIST OF IOWA

LiPPiNCOTT's Farm Manuals

Edited by K. C. DAVIS, Ph.D., Knapp School of Country Life, Nashville. Tenn.
Every effort is made to keep these standard texts up-to-date, and-
new editions are published and revisions made whenever necessary.

PRODUCTIVE SWINE HUSBANDRY

By GEORGE E. DAY, B.S.A. Third Edition, Revised

PRODUCTIVE POUI.TRY HUSBANDRY

By HARRY R. LEWIS, M.Agr. Fourth Edition, Revised and Enlarged

PRODUCTIVE HORSE HUSBANDRY

By CARL W. GAY. D.V.M., B.S.A. Third Edition, Revised

PRODUCTIVE ORCHARDING

By FRED C. SEARS, M.S. Second Edition. Revised

PRODUCTIVE VEGETABLE GROWING

By JOHN W. LLOYD, M.S.A. Third Edition Revised

PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS

By F. W. WOLL. Ph.D., Third Edition, Revised

COMMON DISEASES OF FARM ANIMALS

By R. A. CRAIG, D.V.M.. Third Edition, Revised

PRODUCTIVE FARM CROPS

By E. G. MONTGOMERY, M.A. Third Edition, Revised

PRODUCTIVE BEE KEEPING

By FRANK C. PELLETT. Second Edition, Revised

PRODUCTIVE DAIRYING

By R. M. WASHBURN, M.S.A. Second Edition, Revised

INJURIOUS INSECTS AND USEFUL BIRDS
By F. L. WASHBURN, M.A.

PRODUCTIVE SHEEP HUSBANDRY
By WALTER C. COFFEY, M.A.

PRODUCTIVE SMALL FRUIT CULTURE
By FRED C. SEARS, M.S.

PRODUCTIVE SOILS

By WILBERT W. WEIR. M.S.

LIPPmCOTT'S COLLEGE TEXTS

SOIL PHYSICS AND MANAGEMENT

By J. G. MOSIER, B.S., A. F. GUSTAFSON, M.S.

FARM LIFE TEXT SERIES

APPLIED ECONOMIC BOTANY
By MELVILLE T. COOK, Ph.D.

PRODUCTIVE PLANT HUSBANDRY

By KARY C. DAVIS. Second Edition, Revised

HORTICULTURE FOR HIGH SCHOOLS

By KARY C. DAVIS. Second Edition. Revised

PRODUCTIVE SOILS (Abridged Edition)
By WILBERT W. WEIR. M.S.

VOCATIONAL CHEMISTRY
By J. J. WILLAMAN

LABORATORY MANUALS AND NOTEBOOKS

ON THE FOLLOWING SUBJECTS

SOILS. By J. F. EASTMAN and K. C. DAVIS POULTRY, By H. R. LEWIS

DAIRYING, By E. L. ANTHONY FEEDING, By F. W. WOLL

FARM CROPS, By F. W. LATHROP

LippiNcoTT's Farm Manuals

EDITED BY K. C. DAVIS, Ph. D. (Cornell)

PRODUCTIVE
BEE-KEEPING

MODERN METHODS OF PRODUCTION
AND MARKETING OF HONEY

BY

FRANK C. PELLETT

ASSOCIATE EDITOR, AMERICAN BEE JOURNAL
FORMER STATE APIARIST OF IOWA

m ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT

"It vain our toil,
We ought to blame the culture, not the soil."

Pope — Essay on Man

THIRD EDITION, REVISED

PHILADELPHIA & LONDON
J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY

COPYRIGHT, 1916, BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY
COPYRIGHT, lgl8, BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY
COPYRIGHT, 1923, BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY

EUctrotyped and printea by
J B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia, U. S. A.

This book is a preservation facsimile produced for
North CaroHna State University Libraries.

In compliance with current copyright law, Etherington

Conservation Services produced this replacement volume

on paper that meets ANSI Standard Z39.48-1992 and ISO

9706. Preservation facsimile printing and binding

by Etherington Conservation Services

Greensboro, North Carolina.

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2007

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Conservation Services

To

THE MEMORY OF MY GRANDFATHER

B. F. CHAPMAN

FROM WHOM I RECEIVED MY
riRST LESSONS IN APICULTURE

PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION

The author is much gratified with the interest manifested in
Productive Bee-Keeping, which makes a new edition desirable.
A number of changes have been incorporated in the text, mostlv
for the purpose of presenting the subjects a little more fully. It
has not been found necessary to rewrite any considerable por-
tion of the book in order to keep it fully up to date.

Frank C. Pellett.
ATI.ANTIC, Iowa, July 1, 1918.

FOREWORD

The author's earliest recollections are of days with his
grandfather among the bees. One of the proudest days of his
whole life was the first time he was permitted to cut a limb
from an apple tree on which a swarm had clustered.

With a lifetime of intimate association with the bees and
a wide acquaintance among the bee-keepers of the nation, it may
not be regarded as surprising that he should undertake to set
down in this book the information gleaned from so many sources.
In no other pursuit, perhaps, do the originators' names cling
to the articles of equipment or methods of manipulation, as in
bee-keeping. Most of the articles of equipment, as well as
methods in common use, bear the name of the man with whom
they originated— the Langstroth hive. Porter bee escape, Alex-
ander feeder. Root smoker. Miller queen cage, and so on through-
out the entire field of apiculture. So firmly established has this
custom become, that a writer is in danger of being accused of
plagiarism if he describes a method without the originator's name
in connection. While the author has followed the usual custom,
in the main, some methods have become so generally adopted
that it hardly seems necessary to continue the practice. It is
not with any intention of claiming as original any of these plans
that the originator's name has occasionally been omitted, but
rather because it does not seem needful with matters so fully
credited already.

While the author believes that a few minor methods herein
described are original with him, this book is not presented for
the purpose of exploiting original material, but rather to de-

viii FOREWORD

scribe the accepted methods found valuable by extensive honey
producers, under the greatest variety of conditions. The best
has been gleaned from every possible source.

While most of the illustrations are from the author's original
photographs or draw^ings made especially for this book, acknowl-
edgment should be made for a number that are reproduced by
permission from " Gleanings in Bee Culture," " The American
Bee Journal," and other sources.

The author is also greatly indebted to Mr. C. P. Dadant,
Dr. C. C. Miller, Dr. E. F. Phillips, and especially to Mrs.
Pellett for valuable assistance.

Frank C. Pellett.
Atlantic, Iowa. November, 191-5.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER ^ ^^gj.

1. Bee-Keeping a Fascinating Pursuit i

II. The Business of Bee-Keeping 9

III. Making a Start With Bees 18

IV. Arrangement of the Apiary 36

V. Sources of Nectar 46

VI. The Occupants of the Hive gg

VII. Increase 100

VIII. Feeding 229

IX. Production of Comb Honey 136

X. Production of Extracted Honey 165

XI. Wax, a By-product of the Apiary I95

XII. Diseases and Enemies of Bees 206

XIII. Wintering 234

XIV. Marketing the Honey Crop 257

XV. Laws that Concern the Bee-Keeper 283

ILLUSTRATIONS

FIG. PAQK

The Orchard Furnishes an Ideal Location for the Apiary . .Frontispiece

1. A Bee- Keeper Who Makes Pets of His Bees 2

2. Getting Acquainted 3

3. The Sting is an Effective Weapon of Defence 4

4. Just for the Joy of It 7

5. Many Successful Apiaries Built Up from a Single Colony 10

6. A Few Colonies May be Kept on the Roof 11

7. House Built from One Honey Crop from Less Than 300 Hives 12

8. A Town-Lot Apiary 14

9. Intensive Bee-Keeping 15

10. The Silk Tulle Veil No Obstruction to the Vision 20

11. A Youthful Beginner and the Necessary Outfit 21

12. Good Hive Tools 22

13. Smokers in Common Use 23

14. Metal Top Covered with Flaxboard 24

15. Tin Comb Bucket 26

16. Observatory Hive 26

17. An Apiary Ready for Shipment 31

18. Transferring from Hollow Tree Without Cutting the Tree 34

19. An Apiary Without Shade 37

20. A Well-Arranged Apiary in California 38

21. A Hive-Stand of Cement for Two Colonies 39

22. A Tub of Water Covered with Chipped Cork Makes a Safe Watering

Place 40

23. A Long Trough with Burlap Lining for Watering the Bees 42

24. Record on Back of Hive Cover in Dadant Apiary 44

25. Soft Maple and Pussy Willow are Sources of Early Pollen and Nectar 53

26. Catkins of Pussy Willow 54

27. Blossoms of Soft Maple 55

28. Fruit Blossoms Furnish Large Quantities of Honey for Early Brood

Rearing 56

29. The Golden Rod is an Important Source of Fall Nectar in Some

Localities 62

30. The Cup-Plant or Rosin Weed 64

31. Blossoms of the Cup-Plant 65

32. The Yellow Crownbeard is Much Sought by the Bees 66

33. Wild Sunflowers are Important Honey Producing Plants over I^arge

Areas 67

xi

Xii ILLUSTRATIONS

PIO. PAOS

34. Blossom, Seed Pod and Leaf of Partridge Pea 68

35. Aster Honey Makes Poor Winter Stores ... 70

36. Boneset or White Snakeroot 71

37. Masses of White Snakeroot in the Author's Wild Garden 72

38. Two Species of Heartsease or Smartweed 73

39. The Horsemints are Valuable over a Large Scope of Country 75

40. Catnip Yields Honey Abundantly 76

4L Figwort or Simpson's Honey Plant 76

42. The Rocky Mountain Bee Plant is a Valuable Honey P*roducer in

Colorado 77

43. Blossoms of the Button Bush 78

44. Buckwheat in Bloom 79

45. Where Sufficiently Abundant, the Wild Cucumber is Valuable 80

46. Queen Laying in a Newly Made Comb 89

47. Natural-Built Queen Cells 90

48. Worker Bees on the Comb 92

49. Drones 95

50. Combs Showing Queen Cells and Capped Drone and Worker Brood. 96
5L Hiving Swarm in Straw Skep in Europe 103

52. A Market Basket Swarm Catcher 105

53. A Newly Hived Swarm 105

64. Swarm Caught in a Sack, Running into the Hive 105

55. Nuclei in Queen- Rearing Apiary 109

56. Miller Queen Cage 114

57. Benton Queen Cage 114

58. Queen Cells by the Alley Plan 125

59. Feeding with Friction, Top Pails in Empty Super 132

60. The Miller Feeder '. 132

61. Tin Pan Feeder in Super 133

62. The Doolittle Division Board Feeder 134

63. Metal Feeder After the Alexander Idea 134

64. The Alexander Wood Feeder 135

65. With This Entrance Feeder One Can See at a Glance How Much

Feed Remains to be Taken 135

66. Parts of a Comb Honey Hive 138

67. Strong Colonies for Comb Honey Production 139

68. Comb Honey Supers 140

69. Comb Honey Super Dissected 140

70. Sections for Comb Honey 141

71. Separators for Bee- Way Sections 142

72. Fence for Plain Sections 143

ILLUSTRATIONS

MO.

FAQB

73. Dr. L. D. Leonard Method of Putting Foundation into Split Sections 145

74. The Pangbum Foundation Fastener and Sections Filled with

Foundation 14q

75. Method of Putting in Foundation with Pangburn Fastener 147

76. The Use of Super Springs 148

77. Ventilated Bee Escape and Queen Excluders 153

78. The Porter Bee Escape 161

79. The Latest in Automatic Reversing Honey Extractors 166

80. Storage Tanks of a Large Honey Producer in Cahfornia 167

81. A Power Driven Extractor 168

82. Sixty Pound Cans for Extracted Honey 170

83. The Townsend Uncapping Box 171

84. The Peterson Capping Melter 172

85. Bingham Uncapping Knife I73

86. Langstroth Hive for Extracted Honey I74

87. Langstroth Hive Dissected I74

88. A Well-Arranged, Two-Story Honey House 176

89. Large Honey House With All Work on Ground Floor 177

90. The Automobile is Valuable for Outyard Work 178

91. Upper Comb Built on Full Sheet of Foundation; Lower Without

Foundation jgQ

92. Usual Method of Wiring Frames 181

93. Hoffman Frame with Full Sheet of Foundation 182

94. Development of Combs from Foundation 182

95. Comb Built on Wired Frame with Full Sheet of Foundation 183

96. Strong Colony for Extracted Honey Production 184

97. Colony that Produced Forty Dollars Worth of Extracted Honey in

One Season jg4

98. Wheelbarrow Load of Extracting Supers 188

99. Utilizing Feed Cooker for Liquefying Candied Honey by Steam . . 192

100. The Hershiser Wax Press. . . ' 909

101. Steam Wax Press '.'..'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'..'.'.'.'.'.'.'.." 2m

i02. Brood Comb from Colony Affected with American Foul Brood.". '. 208

103. Work of Wax Moths in Colony Affected by American Foul Brood 209

104. Thirteen Colonies Left of One Hundred Five as the Result of

European Foul Brood for Eight Months 216

105. Appearance of Larvae Affected by European Foul Brood. . 218

106. The Natural and Preferred Food of the SkunJc is Insects.' ' The

Honey-Bee is a Temptmg Delicacy to the Skunk Palate. . . 225

107. The Robber Fly " ' 226

108. The Value of a Good Natural Windbreak Behind an Apiary Can

Hardly be Overestimated 238

XIV

ILLUSTRATIONS

FIG. ^*™

109. Paper Winter Cases Are at Best Scant Protection, But Are Good

for Cellar- Wintered Bees After They Are Placed on the Summer
Stands 241

110. The Dadant Method of Outdoor Wintering in Large Hives is Suited

to LocaUties Where the Bees Have Frequent Flight During The
Cold Months 242

111. One Method of Packing on the Summer Stands 243

112. Parts of a Double-Walled Hive 244

113. Double-Walled Hive Assembled 245

114. Packing Box with Hives Inside Ready for Leaves or Other Packing

Material for Outdoor Wintering 248

115. Packing Two Colonies with Dry Leaves in a Goods Box 249

116. Snug for the Winter 250

117. The Packing Boxes May be Utilized for Chicken Coops in Summer 252

118. Concrete Cellar for Wintering 253

119. Cellar for Wintering Under the Workshop 254

120. Development of Comb Honey in Sections 259

121. Packages for Retailing Extracted Honey 264

122. Trade-Mark of the Colorado Honey Producers Association 265

123-126. Honey Labels 266, 267, 268

127. Little Stickers Widely Used for General Advertising 269

128. Advertising Sign at the Bonney Apiary 270

129. Iowa Bee-Keepers' Association Holiday Placard 271

130. An Exhibit at the Fair is a Good Advertising Medium and Promotes

the Use of Honey 272

131. Paper Carton the Best Retail Package for Section Honey 273

132. The Hunten Tin Package 273

133. Dr. Bonney's Postcard Which Brings Him Many New Customers. . 279

134. The Automobile as a Sales Agency is the Most Up-to- Date Method 281

PRODUCTIVE BEE-KEEPING

CHAPTER I
BEE-KEEPING A FASCINATING PURSUIT

While this book is written for the purpose of encouraging
honey production as a business enterprise, and, accordingly,
deals with the subject in a very practical manner, the reader
is asked to allow the suggestion here at the beginning, that there
is much of poetry, as well as hard work in making a living from
the apiary,

Honey-Bees as Pets. — No, this is not a joke, for bees really
do make nice pets. They are always interesting, and have this
advantage over most other pets : they can be left to look out for
themselves without inconvenience during their owner's absence.
While there are comparatively few who keep bees as a sole source
of livelihood, there are many thousands who keep a few colonies
for a diversion, as a side line, or for the fun of the thing. Yes,
it is safe to say that nearly every really successful bee-keeper
comes to feel a strong affection for the busy little insects, and
to regard his bees as pets (Fig. 1).

To nature lovers, the pleasure of association with the bees
outweighs the pleasures to be bought with the cash realized from
the sale of the honey ; hence they cannot refrain from growing
very enthusiastic about bee-keeping as a business, and some-
times the enthusiasts are accused of painting the picture with
too much bright color. Perhaps some such feeling is essential
to the pursuit, and the lack of it may account for the failure of
some, who are not lacking in industry or patience, two very
essential requirements.

Getting Acquainted. — If one will make pets of the bees, he
must first proceed to get acquainted with them. They are
notional little creatures, and one must know what to expect

1

2 BEE-KEEPING, A FASCINATING PURSUIT

under given circumstances in order to get along well. One who
loves and understands bees seldom has trouble on account of
stings. The sting is a weapon of defence, seldom of offence, and
the bee-keeper must know the liberties they will resent (Fig. 2).

Fig. 1 . — A bee-keeper who makes pets of his bees.

Of course there is a difference in the disposition. Some bees
are crosser than others, and, perhaps, there are bees which one
would hardly care to cultivate as pets. The author has at differ-
ent times had a great many colonies of Italians, Crosses, and
Blacks. Some have been gentler than others, but he has usually
been on friendly terms with all. The practical bee-keeper will

GETTING ACQUAINTED 3

frequently handle his bees without veil or gloves, and without
a sting. Others, who have had a few bees about for years, with-
out really becoming acquainted with them, always arm them-
selves with a sting-proof armament, and usually arouse the
bees to such an extent that it is unsafe for any member of the
family to leave the house for twenty-four hours. At such times

FiQ. 2. — Getting acquainted.

chickens have been known to be stung to death, and other animals
to be badly used.

The successful bee-keeper must take the trouble to get ac-
quainted with the bees, and to comply with the few simple
requirements necessary to handle them easily and successfully.
In the first place, never place yourself in the direct line of flight

4 BEE-KEEPING, A FASCINATING PURSUIT

of the workers, in going to and from the hive. People who should
know better are often seen getting directly in front of the hive,
even though a rod or two away, to watch their movements. An
expert called upon to look into a hive may, by approaching from
the rear, carefully remove the cover without causing any commo-
tion. At the same time the novice, watching from some distance
in front, is quite likely to receive sufficient attention to insure
a hasty retreat (Fig. 3).

Fia. 3.— The eting is an effective weapon of defence.

An Orderly Community. — The work of the hive is done in
an orderly manner. There is no hit-and-miss business there.
Every individual bee has a duty to perform, and that duty is
apparently done in the right manner and at the proper time.
In order to look within the hive without causing resentment on
the part of the bees, one must do something to break up the
orderly system and create confusion among the inmates. Under
normal conditions, sentinels are posted at the entrance of the

AN ORDERLY COMMUNITY 5

hive to detect and ward off danger. In some manner these
g-uards are able to recognize every member of the very numerous
family. If a strange bee, a robber perchance, should happen to
alight at the entrance of the hive, it is at once set upon and
driven away or killed. Let a man or an animal pass in front
of the hive, and the chances are that the sentinels will take
notice, and invite the trespasser to move on. The bee-keeper,
wishing to open the hive, approaches quietly from the rear, and
blows a little smoke into the entrance. As a result the sentinels
are at once thrown off guard. The cover is then carefully lifted
and more smoke blown over the frames. This causes a suspen-
sion of work in all parts of the hive, and general confusion
results. The bees at once seek the open cells, and fill their honey
sacs with honey, as though they believed the house to be on fire
and wished to save as much of their hard-earned store as possible.

A careful operator will be able to create such a condition of
hopeless confusion within the hive, that the bees lose all
thought of defence, and he can handle them at will without the
slightest resistance. If the frames are at once removed, the
bees may be dumped into a pan, picked up by handfuls, or dis-
posed of in any manner, if only one be careful not to pinch or
crush any of them. Experienced bee-keepers frequently give
demonstrations before the gaping public in a manner to excite
a wondering interest on the part of the uninitiated, and to lead
to all sorts of absurd statements. Some go so far as to attempt
to give the impression that they have unusual influence over the
insects, calling themselves bee-wizards or other silly names. If
the operator is skillful in controlling the bees, he can perform
feats that seem very wonderful to those whose only information
concerning them is that they sting and make honey. Blowing
live bees from the mouth, pouring panfuls over the head, and
similar " stunts " are not uncommon at these demonstrations.

There are some gentle strains of Italians that have become
so accustomed to being handled that they can be safely handled
during a honey flow without smoke. The novice should be

6 BEE-KEEPING, A FASCINATING PURSUIT

cautious about over-confidence until he has become familiar with
the habits of the insects and the methods of control.

There are some who cannot overcome a nervous fear of the
bees, and consequently can never handle them successfully. The
first essential in controlling bees is to be able to control one's
self. When a bee comes buzzing about, the chances are ninety-
nine in a hundred that she will make no trouble unless the person
under observation starts it. How often people get stung by
starting a fuss with a perfectly friendly bee, when if they would
only keep quiet there would be no trouble. One can very soon
come to recognize the difference between the hum of a friendly
bee and the angry buzz of one on the warpath. The experiment
has been tried of keeping perfectly still when pursued by angry
ones. Often they alight on the operator with apparent surprise
that he is not kicking up a fuss, and, after a moment or two of
hesitation, fly away without drawing their daggers. This plan
is not always successful, though there is less danger of getting
stung when quiet than when frantically kicking and striking
in every direction. Where a colony is on the warpath, the best
plan is to keep away until they have become quiet, for it is very
difficult to control bees after they have become fully aroused.

Fifty or a hundred friendly bees crawling over a seasoned
bee-keeper cause him not the slightest uneasiness, but on the other
hand, he is likely rather to enjoy the sensation. One who is
not accustomed to handling them should always take the pre-
caution to protect himself fully with veil and gloves, until he
becomes so familiar with them as to be able to overcome his
nervousness when they alight on the face or hands.

Some Causes of Trouble. — There are several things that have
a tendency to cause trouble between the operator and his bees.
They are much more inclined to be cross when the atmosphere
is heavy before a storm, and sometimes after. They show a
tendency to be more hostile toward one dressed in dark colored
clothing than in light garments. One should take care to never
go about the bees with the odor of the stable clinging to his gar-

THE JOY OF IT 7

ments, as that is offensive to them. One is more likely to be
stung when perspiring freely, and persons whose perspiration
has an offensive odor will have more trouble with the bees. It is
important that the bee-keeper avoid jarring the hive or any
quick, nervous movement. Even a slight jar causes unnecessary-
excitement in the hive.

One who is much with the bees can, if he will, soon come to
know and avoid the things that are distasteful to them, and to
perform tlie operations necessary to bee-keeping with little
danger of being stung.

Fig. 4. — Just for the joy of it.

The Joy of It.— The nature-lover who does not keep bees is
missing a good thing. There is a charm about lying in the gra::3
beside the hive and watching the stream of workers bringing in
the harvest of honey and pollen at the height of the season, when
the colony ig in a fever of excitement. Then to know something
of the wonderful system of government, by which the thousands
of insects composing a colony are able to work together har-
moniously, with never a shirker among the bevy of toilers, is a
most interesting study. At times the beekeeper is seized with
a desire to see what is going on inside the hive, to visit a colony,

g BEE-KEEPING, A FASCINATING PURSUIT

remove the frames, and examine the young bees in all stages of
development, hunt out the queen, pick up handfuls of the friendly
little bees just to feel the tickle of their feet in his hand, and
to put them all back again, just for the joy of it (Fig, 4). Yes,
indeed, it is worth while to make pets of the bees.

QUESTIONS

1. Note some of the attractions of bee-keeping.

2. What are some of the essentials of success?

3. Discuss the general principles of bee control.

4. What are some of the things that are distasteful to the bees?

CHAPTER II
THE BUSINESS OF BEE-KEEPING
Few persons think of beojkeeping as a business. The ordin-
ary conception is that of a diversion, a side line on the farm,
or a harmless pursuit for old men. Perhaps 90 per cent of
those keeping bees may be included in one of these classes, of
which a very large number will come under the head of keeping
bees as a diversion.

The public is just now beginning to realize the fact that bee-
keeping is a real man's-sized job, and that an able-bodied man
of good education can profitably occupy his time with bees.

When considering the possibilities of any occupation as a
lifetime pursuit, the careful person makes inquiry along several
lines: Is the business congenial? What are the advantages?
What are the probable returns ?

No specialized branch of agriculture requires more skill to
be successfully pursued as an exclusive business than honey
production. The man who cannot or will not give close attention
to details, promptly, should never be a bee-keeper. The whole
business is one of details, and apparently imimportant things are
of the utmost importance. To such an extent is this true, that
it often happens that the scientific bee man will get a crop of
honey in an off season, when his neighbor, with the same kind
of equipment and apparently following the same general plan,
gets no surplus. In most localities the honey flows are of short
duration, and everything hinges on getting the bees in proper
condition to store the maximum of honey when the flow is on.
The honey producer must see to it that his dish is right side up
when it rains nectar.

The man or woman who is of a studious disposition, loves
nature, and delights in out-of-door pursuits, is likely to find bee-
keeping a congenial occupation. Most of the conspicuously suc-
cessful bee-keepers are studious, questioning individuals, in-

10 THE BUSINESS OF BEE-KEEPING

tensely interested in the honey-bee. While great progress has
been made in the past few years, much yet remains to be learned,
and new methods and new discoveries are constantly brought for-
ward. The person who believes he knows all about bees is a
back number, indeed.

The Advantages. — Bee-keeping is one of the few pursuits
open to persons of small capital or poor health. Many a success-

Many a successful apiary has been built up from a single colony.

ful apiary has been built up from a single colony of bees and an
investment of but a few dollars (Fig. 5). In fact, some of the
most successful bee men have begun in this way, and built up an
extensive business that yielded a good income.

Then again, bees may be kept in situations where it would
be impossible to undertake any other enterprise. Of course, after
one has enlarged his apiaries to such an extent that they will

THE ADVANTAGES

11

occupy the entire time and attention of the owner, a suitable
situation will be necessary, but a start may be made under appar-
ently unfavorable circumstances. A few colonies are often kept
on top of a business building in the city, in the attic, the back
yard, or even have been known in the bed-room, with an opening
tlirough the sash (Fig. 6).

One of the greatest advantages of the business lies in this
possibility of development, without requiring that the learner

Fiii. G.— A few colonies may be kept on the rool.

leave his regular home or business until ho has learned much
concerning the new venture and is able to judge whether he is
likely to be adapted to the work. Men and women, worn out
with professional work, and feeling the need of change and of
work in the open air, have found health, happiness, and pros-
perity in following this suggestion (Fig. 7).

Women in many cases are successful honey producers, those
who have laid aside the arduous work of the school-room to take
it up being not uncommon.

12

THE BUSINESS OF BEE-KEEPING

The fact, perhaps, that so many in poor health or otherwise
unfortunate have taken to bee-keeping may be in part responsible
for the general impression that, as a business, it amounts to little.
The writer knows many men of perfect health, good business
ability, and other qualities that contribute to success in any call-
ing, who are devoting their time and energies to this business,

Fig. 7. — House built from one honey crop from less than 300 liivc

and it is from the inspiration of their success that he hopes to
draw for whatever of merit this book may possess.

The Returns. — A most important consideration is the finan-
cial return, for expenses must be met, families are to be sup-
ported, and most of us must have a care to make ends meet.
While there are those who keep bees in a very large way, with a

A CLERK 13

series of many outyards and much help, it is rather the one-man
business that we will just now discuss, for many people who can
be successful in a business whose every detail they can oversee
are likely to fail when it comes to organizing a system and
delegating the actual operations to hired help.

A Minister. — As a first example there is the case of a Pres-
byterian minister who took up bee-keeping as a business. He
soon had 300 colonies of bees in four yards. One hundred and
twenty colonies was the largest number he had in one yard,
while there were but thirty colonies in his smallest yard. His
average return was seven dollars per colony per year for a series
of years when honey was at the extremely low price that pre-
vailed prior to the world war. This amount was probably in
excess of the salary he received in serving a small congregation
in a country town.

A carpenter gave up 'his trade to keep bees as an exclusive
source of livelihood many years ago. When he abandoned his
trade and took up bee-keeping he rented a house and two small
lots in an Iowa town. At the end of two years he purchased the
property and occupied it as a home for more than twenty-five
years. During the early years of his experience, before he became
well established, there was one season of failure of the honey crop,
when he found it necessary to work at his trade temporarily for
a few months. Aside from that, the bees furnished his entire
support. He paid for his home and business, from the apiary,
built a better house and added to his real estate holding. While
his income was not large, he had a better support than his trade
could furnish and his business was at home where he enjoyed the
assistance and association of his family. Although he lived to
a ripe old age, he cared for his bees until within a short time
of his death.

A Clerk. — One might also cite the case of a shipping clerk
in a manufacturing establishment. Because of failing health he
was compelled to seek the open air. The pressing necessity of
providing for his family compelled him to find something that
would furnish the needed support, without demanding too heavy
toil from a weakened body. He has been remarkably successful

14

THE BUSINESS OF BEE-KEEPING

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A BOOK-KEEPER 15

considering his circumstances, and now feels that the condition
that compelled him to make a change has proved a blessing in
disguise.

A book-keeper in a western city has for some time been

FiQ. 9. — Intensive bee-keeping. Corner of an apiary where 165 coloniea are kept on lot
60x110.

developing his business to the point where it will justify him in
cutting loose from his salary and devoting all his time to honey
production. He has grown up in the work so gradually that he
has reached the point where he can make the change without
feeling the cost, as the bees paid their own way, and without feel-
ing the shock of readjustment. He lives out on a car-line, where
he has two or three lots. He has been attending to his regular
duties at the desk, and giving his evenings and mornings and
occasional holidays to the bees, assisted by an enthusiastic wife
(Fig. 9). One season he produced and sold more than fourteen

16 THE BUSINESS OF BEE-KEEPING

hundred dollars' worth of honey, which quite probably was equal
to his salary. Should he decide to devote all his time to the bees,
he can care for double his present number. While this was an
unusually favorable season, with double the number of colonies,
his average production will leave little risk to run.

A General Farmer. — One of the most successful bee-keepers
of the Middle West is a young man who abandoned general farm-
ing because the heavy expenses necessary to pay cash rent, hired
help, buy expensive machinery, and replace the worn-out horses
made it difficult to get ahead. This man does nearly all his own
work, thus keeping down expenses. He produces from twenty-
five thousand to forty thousand pounds of honey per year, which
he sells to jobbers at wholesale prices. By developing a retail
market he could increase his income materially, though it is good
at present.

Many Others. — It would be possible to multipy these exam-
ples indefinitely, but these men who have turned to bee-keeping
from so many different walks of life should be sufficient. It
would be possible to cite also numberless examples of those, who,
by plunging without experience, have failed, but most of the
failures have been because the adventurer did not use good
business judgment.

As an Exclusive Business. — The men who are engaged in
honey production as an exclusive business are getting results
equal to those derived from other lines of agriculture, with less
capital invested and with less risk. The fact that the business
is open to men of small capital, who are unable to engage in
general farming because of the larger outlay required, surely
makes it desirable to encourage the development of the industry
as far as possible. Bee-keeping^ as a business, requires high-
grade talent, and comparatively few men succeed in making it
profitable as an exclusive line. This is not the fault of the busi-
ness but of the men. It looks so easy that men are not willing to
serve an apprenticeship, or to take the necessary time to master
the business in all its details, as they would expect to do in other
lines.

THE OUTLOOK I7

Judging from the incomes of those who are depending upon
bee-keeping for a livelihood, it seems safe to say that a man who
will become thoroughly proficient and attend properly to his busi-
ness can make from twelve hundred to three thousand dollars
per year from the bees that he can care for personally. Some
do better than that, many do not do as well, but so many exclusive
bee-keepers come within this range that it is a conservative one.
If the ambitious reader proves to be the exceptional man, he may
hope to increase his income much beyond the higher figure by
skilful organization and large apiaries widely scattered.

After gathering the average results from a number of bee-
keepers who have kept bees for many years, it seems safe to place
the average return in the average locality at five dollars per
colony in the hands of expert bee-keepers. So much depends upon
a suitable locality that it is important that one who is taking up
bee-keeping as a business should choose a locality above^the
average if possible.

The Outlook.— There are always a few timid souls who cry
over-production, who feel that the honey business will shortly
be overdone. The last census clearly shows that there are a less
number of bee-keepers in the United States than there were ten
years ago, although there has not been a corresponding decrease
in the number of bees. This indicates that the bee-keepers are
becoming specialists. When it is remembered that there has
been a constant increase in population, one need have little fear of
over-production of honey while the number of bee-keepers is
decreasing, especially not until we reach the time when there
is a marked increase in the production of honey. While at times
there may be a temporary glut in some markets because of im-
proper distribution, the bee-keeper in taking up the business need
have little fear of seeing the production of honey overdone for
many years to come.

QUESTIONS

1. What type of person is most likely to be a successful bee-keeper?

2. Note some of the advantages of bee-keeping as a business.

caKl ''^^"'""^ ""^ bee-keeping to other occupations requiring equal
4. What is the outlook for the business?

CHAPTER III
MAKING A START WITH BEES

Unless one has had rather extended experience and obser-
vation, it is nearly always advisable to begin with only one or
two colonies and grow into a business as extensive as inclination
or opportunity will permit.

Proper Equipment. — Only a small percentage of bee-keepers
start right and select equipment that will continue satisfactory.
Hundreds of men have started with hives or other equipment
unsuited to their locality or the system that they have chosen
to follow, which later caused a heavy expense to change. Kot
long since the author visited a young man who is employed
in a large machine shop. His spare time is taken up with his
bees, to which he hopes before long to give his entire attention.
He has been very fortunate in making his selection of equipment,
for everything which he has purchased is likely to prove of per-
manent value. His hives are of the best, his combs are straight
and built on wired frames, and everything indicates the bee-
keeper of long experience, instead of a beginner.

Getting Experience. — If one is so situated that he can do so,
it is very desirable to spend at least one season in a large apiary.
This is not only very desirable to any one who expects to make
honey production a business, but doubly so to one who wishes to
start on a liberal scale and increase rapidly. One should select
the most successful bee-keeper, of whom he can learn under simi-
lar conditions to which he expects to work. Systems that are
adapted to one locality may fail in another. To serve such an
apprenticeship is not altogether essential, for many successful
bee-keepers have developed their own systems from their own
experience, with the help of ideas gleaned from the bee journals
and books relating to the subject. A course in bee-culture in one
of the agricultural colleges offering such a course is very
desirable.
18

A BEGINNER'S EQUIPMENT jg

A Beginner's Equipment.— Hives of the Langstroth dimen-
SK^are now almost universally recommended, because of the
facmat they arQ everywhere standard. Hives of other patterns
may be equally good for practical service, but the purchase of
supplies may be difficult, bees offered for sale in them may bring
much less because of the fact that the buyer will want them in
standard hives, and similar reasons. Supplies for the standard
hives can be secured almost anywhere, and bees in such hives
are usually saleable in localities where bees can be sold at all.

On the other hand, there is a decided difference of opinion
as to the size of hive. In many cases the eight-frame hive has
been selected, only to prove too small. This small hive body
which is largely occupied for brood-rearing, is too small to accom-
modate a vigorous queen, and forces much of the honey into the
supers during the honey flow, with the result that in many locali-
ties, where the flows are short and rapid, insufficient honey re-
mains in the brood chamber for wintering. In the hands of inex-
perienced persons many bees are lost from lack of stores. The
necessity of feeding at the close of the honey flow requires a lot
of work and is not always agreeable, as the author has found
by experience. While many persons have changed from the
eight-frame to the ten-frame size, but few successful bee-keepers
have changed from the ten-frame to the smaller size. In some
localities, hives of this pattern as large as twelve-frame are in
use. Most of the successful men prefer the ten-frame, and it
would seem to meet the requirements of a greater number than
any other size. In few localities does the eight-frame hive seem
to be suited to conditions. Seldom does one find an experienced
man working with hives of other patterns but who is free to say
that they have been a source of annoyance, to say the least. Of
course if one is situated where some other hive is ih almost
universal use, the advantage of having equipment similar to that
in general use would be an item not to be overlooked. The
Dadant hive has some advantages over the Langstroth hive, espe-
cially for extracted honey production. This is the standard hive

20 MAKING A START WITH BEES

in parts of Europe, but its use in this country is restricted to a
few localities. The tendency of the times is more and more
toward the large hive. Possibly from the one extreme, popular
favor may go to the other. There is a strong indication that
the modified Dadant hive may soon become the standard hive of
America as it has already of much of Europe.

Tools for the Apiary. — The beginner, even though he have
but one hive, will need a good veil and gloves, a suitable hive tool,
and a smoker. Cotton flannel gloves with long gauntlets are

P'lQ. 10. — The silk tulle veil offers no obstruction to the vision.

most satisfactory for use in the apiary. Rubber or other heavy
material will be disappointing in results, as well as much more
expensive.

Veil. — A good veil is one of the most necessary articles of
equipment (Fig. 10). One who is not a seasoned bee-keeper
should not risk going much about the bees without perfect pro-
tection. AMaen one has come to understand the peculiar habits
of the insects, he will know when it is safe to work without pro-

TOOLS FOR THE APIARY 21

tection, and when he should stay away, but the beginner is very
likely to be severely punished most unexpectedly. There are
many different kinds of veils in the market. As a rule the most
expensive give the least satisfaction. The globe veil, which is
listed in nearly every catalogue, is a nuisance and seldom used
by extensive honey producers. A satisfactory protection can
easily be provided by sewing mosquito netting to the rim of a
straw hat. This, however, catches on every twig and is easily

Pig. 11. — A youthful beginner and the necessary outfit.

torn. The Alexander veil is one of the best, though the one shown
in Fig. 11 is as good as any. This is made of a strip of screen
wire rolled into a cylinder. A cloth is sewed over the top, and an
apron about the bottom, which is easily tucked under the coat or
suspenders.

Hive TooZ.— While the man with a few colonies can get along
with a screw-driver or chisel, a suitable hive tool is very con-
venient and helpful. To the large honey producer it is essential,

22 MAKING A START WITH BEES

for the saving in time will pay for it within a few hours, in the
busy season. There are several styles on the market, each with its
peculiar advantages. The hive tool should be so constructed as
to serve as a pry in loosening frames, have a sharp surface to
scrape off burr combs, propolis, etc., and at the same time be
small enough to handle easily and quickly (Fig. 12).

A smoker is essential and should be procured v^ith the first
colony of bees. A little smoke, intelligently applied, will enable
one to control the bees so nicely that it is very unwise to do wi th-

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Fig. 12. — Good hive tools.

out it for a day. There are two very excellent kinds on the
market and several indifferent ones. Most beginners make the
mistake of buying a small size, because they have only a few
colonies of bees. The larger size costs but a few cents more, and
is much to be preferred in every way (Fig. 13).

Rotten wood is a very satisfactory smoker fuel, although
excelsior, cotton rags, greasy waste, or any similar material
will do.

Care should be taken not to use too much smoke, a very

MINOR EQUIPMENT 23

common fault with beginners. If one has gentle bees, a very
slight puff at the entrance and then another over the frames when
the cover is removed will be sufficient. If the bees are inclined
to be cross, a little more may be necessary. The tendency is
rather to use too much than too little. The use of smoke is
very disturbing to the bees, and the successful apiarist interferes
with the normal condition of the colony as little as possible.
Every disturbance during the honey flow must be accounted for
in honey stored.

Fig. 13. — Smokers in common use

Minor Equipment.— There are many things for use about the
apiary which, while very necessary in themselves, make no dif-
ference in results as to which particular kind is adopted. In
these minor items there is room for unlimited argument to no
profit. The particular article that best suits the individual taste
is the one to adopt.

Covers.— K good cover is very essential, but which is the
best will depend a great deal on who is deciding. A flat wood
cover with a strip at each end to prevent warping is very satis-

24 MAKING A START WITH BEES

""sLC^fcy. The piece covers are made of such light material that
do not, as a rule, last as long as is desirable.
More and more are the metal top covers coming into general
^vor. These covers are flat topped and made of a sheet of
alvanized steel or iron on a wood frame that telescopes over the
top of the hive. A thin inner cover is used under them. This
makes an air space of nearly one-fourth inch betv^een the inner
cover and the corrugated paper or board, w^ith which the cover is
lined. The telescope feature makes the cover much less likely
to be blown off during high winds.

Fig. 14. — Metal top cover with fiaxboard.

The chief objection to these covers is the fact that they get
very hot when the hive is in direct sunlight in warm weather.
If sufficient provision for ventilation is made, the effect will not
be so noticeable. If painted with a light-colored paint, less heat
will be absorbed than if painted some dark color. Dark-colored
paints are not suitable for bee hives. Fig. 14 shows a metal top
cover with fiaxboard used above the inner cover.

Fiaxboard is a new absorbent and insulating material which
has recently appeared in the market. It is composed of flax
fiber pressed into sheets of suitable thickness. Although not yet
extensively tested, it seems to give excellent satisfaction where

MINOR EQUIPMENT 25

tried. A sheet of this material one-half to three-fourths inch
in thickness used as a lining for metal top covers not only pre-
vents the hive from becoming overheated in summer but absorhs
surplus moisture in winter, and also retains the heat of the
cluster. It bids fair to come into general use. Flaxboard should
only be used under a water-tight cover, as it will quickly absorb
any drip, and, if the cover leaks, will soon be ruined.

Comb Bucket. — A comb bucket is a very useful article
in even a small apiary (Fig. 15). It is a convenient way to carry
a few combs when making nuclei or equalizing brood. A tight-
fitting cover is an advantage when there is a tendency for robbers
to be prying into every opening. The one shown in the illus-
tration is of tin, but some bee-keepers make them at home, of
thin boards, which not being subject to rust will be more lasting.

Observatory Hive.—Every bee-keeper should have an obser-
vatory hive for the purpose of becoming familiar with the habits
of the bees (Fig. 16). These hives are made with glass sides,
so that one can see what is going on inside. Some are made full
size, but as it will then be impossible to see the interior of the
brood nest, they are not very satisfactory. The most suitable is
the single frame observer, which can easily be made by anyone
handy with tools, or can be bought of any dealer in supplies.

After the weather has become warm, a single frame of brood
and bees can be taken from any hive where it is desirable to
replace the old queen. She is taken with this frame and placed
in the observing hive, where the curious bee-keeper can see every
move, and spend many idle hours profitably in watching his pets.
The queen is thus easily observed while laying, the young bees
can be seen during all stages of their development, and the field
bees can be seen bringing in their loads of pollen and nectar and
depositing them in the proper place.

This little colony will carry on all the usual activities in a
normal manner under the very eye of the bee-keeper. If desired
the little hive can be placed in the living room with an opening
through the sash, for the bees to go to and from the fields.

MAKING A START WITH BEES

FiQ. 15— Tin comb bucket.
Fia. 16. — Observatory hive.

BUYING BEES 27

Buying Bees.— It is usually best to buy the bees within easy
reach of the place where they are to remain if possible. The
expense of shipping long dist<ances with the consequent danger of
mishap and loss are thus eliminated.

As a rule, unless one is willing to pay a fancy price, he need
not pay much attention to the kind of bees, providing the colony
is a strong one. The best way to improve the stock is to buy
a queen from some reliable breeder, and after killing the old
queen and leaving the colony queenless two or three days, intro-
duce the new one, following the directions that accompany her.

In buying one should pay according to the condition of the
colony. If the bees be common stock, in box hives, the price
should not be high, as it will be necessary to add the further
expense of a suitable hive and the labor of transferring, which
is never an agreeable task. If the bees be in a good hive, on
straight combs in good condition, the price may then be much
higher, for they are ready for business when the honey flow
begins. It too often happens that bees for sale in good hives have
received no attention, with the result that the combs are built
crosswise, making it impossible for the operator to get into the
brood nest without disastrous results. Such colonies will also
have to be transferred, which will add considerable to the cost.
In order to conduct bee-keeping profitably, it is necessary to
have every comb in every hive so that it can be easily removed
for the purpose of examination or exchange. It frequently hap-
pens that for one reason or another the bee-keeper must take
combs of honey or brood from one colony to add to another, or he
must examine the interior to ascertain the condition of the colony.
Successful honey production is absolutely impossible unless con-
ditions are such that the bee-keeper can reach the farthermost
corner of the hive when necessary.

A colony of pure Italian bees, on straight combs, wired
frames, in good ten-frame hives without too much drone comb
is cheaper at eight or ten dollars than a common colony in a box
hive at a dollar. Especially is this true in the spring of the year,

28 MAKING A START WITH BEES

when the one is ready for the honey flow, while the other must
be transferred and much of the season lost in building up to the
point of storing surplus.

A set of ten good brood combs in wired frames is worth at
least five dollars. A new ten-frame hive, complete, will cost five
dollars or more, and an Italian queen another dollar. This does
not leave a great deal for one's labor in transferring, so that the
colony ready for business is likely to store more than enough
additional honey to make up the difference.

However, in buying bees, unless one is prepared to ship for
a considerable distance, he sometimes finds it necessary to take
what happens to be offered.

Moving Bees. — Tf one will go to the apiary on a warm day
when the young bees are taking their first flight, he will observe
with what care they mark the location of the hive. At first they
fly but a few inches from the entrance and pass back and forth
many times, always facing the hive. Each time they gradually
lengthen the line of flight, back and forth, up and down, until
they have received an indelible impression of the appearance of
their home. After they have fully examined the front of the
hive they fly a little farther, until they can get a similar view
of the immediate surroundings at a distance of a few feet. The
flight now takes the form of irregular circles, which are gradually
enlarged to take in the apiary and in time the whole country
roundabout. These preliminary flights are always taken by the
young bees, before they take up their duties as foragers in the
field.

Apparently they come to depend entirely upon the sense of
location thus developed, and afterwards fly directly to the hive
entrance from any point of the compass, with little attention to
anything but the location. If the hive is taken away and another
set in its place, they will enter the new hive without a moment's
hesitation. Once inside they discover their mistake, and hur-
riedly tumble out and take to flight. After a moment's examina-

MOVING BEES

tion they reassure themselves that the location is correct, and
re-enter the hive again.

If the hive is moved but a few feet away, they are greatly
confused and will require some little time to accustom them-
selves to the new location. If the day be warm and the workers
are in the field, hundreds of them will soon be flying about the
former location of the hive.

Bee-keepers take advantage of this characteristic of the honey-
bee to return to its old location regardless of changes, to make
swarms hive themselves. The queens are clipped so as to be
unable to accompany the swarm, and the bees, missing her, re-
turn to the old home only to find it gone and an empty hive in its
place, as described in Chapter VII.

If bees are only moved a short distance many will be lost by
returning to the old stand, unless some precaution be taken to
insure that the new location will be carefully marked by all bees
leaving the hive. For this reason it is best to move the bees
three or four miles if possible. When they are moved a less
distance it is well to place the hive in a dark cellar for several
days ; a week if they can be kept quiet that long. After the hive
is taken from the cellar and set in the new situation, it is well to
turn a large box over it, and remove a board near the ground to
make a decided difference in appearances to the bees coming
from the hive. They will then be likely to take note of the new
location, and return in safety to the hive. After a day or two
the box can be removed. Its only object is to create a new appear-
ance. Bees moved for a considerable distance find conditions
so strange, that there is little danger of loss from failure to
return to the hive. The shorter the distance, the greater the
difficulty in moving them, unless it be when they are removed
from the cellar in spring, when they can safely be placed in any
situation. However, even then, if they are only placed a short
distance from the old stand, some of the old bees will return to
the place where the hive stood the fall before. If the bees are
to be taken but a short distance, say two or three rods, it is a

30 MAKING A START WITH BEES

common plan to move them a foot or two each day. They
quickly adjust themselves to such a short move. While this plan
is tedious, nevertheless it is safe-
Ventilation. — In hot weather great care must be taken to
see that the bees have sufficient ventilation when confined to the
hive. In cold weather, a wire screen over the entrance will be
sufficient, if the bees are to be moved but a short distance. In
summer the cover must be removed and the top covered with
screen also (Fig. 17). Sometimes even this is not sufficient and
strong colonies are likely to be lost. It is well to avoid moving
bees in very hot weather if possible. When it becomes necessary
to screen the top of the hive, a frame should be used that will
raise the screen a little above the top, thus providing an empty
space above the frames. If they show a tendency to crowd about
the entrance and against the screen on top, a little water sprinkled
over the surface will serve to quiet them. If bees are to be moved
some distance the frames must be carefully fastened to prevent
them from jolting about and mashing the bees. Pieces of news-
paper crowded tightly between the ends of the frames so as to
hold all rigid, are usually available, and serve very well for this
purpose.

To Tell Strong Colonies. — In buying bees in late fall when
a long winter is ahead, colonies heavy with honey as well as
strong in bees should be selected. After making allowance for
weight of hive, bees, etc., there should be at least twenty-five
pounds of honey in the hive, and forty is better to insure an
abundance of stores for spring brood rearing. Some bee-keepers
figure that fifty pounds is not too much to leave in the hives for
winter.

If one buys bees in spring, which is the best time for one
making a start in bee-keeping, it is well to select them during
the period of fruit bloom. In the ordinary apiary at this season
of the year, colonies will vary greatly in condition. Some will
be veiry strong and some very weak. Then there are likely to be
queenless colonies, which one would not care to buy at any price.
The strong colonies are the ones to look for, for the weaklings

TO TELL STRONG COLONIES

31

are likely to be so slow in building up that they will be of little
value in storing surplus, unless they receive special attention.

By walking through the apiary on a wann day at this season,
when the bees are active, one can readily pick out the strongest
colonies from the appearance at the entrance of the hive. The
colonies showing the greatest activity at the entrance, especially
if the workers are carrying in large quantities of pollen, are the
ones to mark for further examination. The pollen balls are very
conspicuous on the legs of the workers, and one can thus see at
a glance something of the condition of the colony. The pollen is
mixed with honey, and used to feed the young bees. At this
season large quantities of brood insures a strong working force

Fig. 17. — An apiary ready for shipment.

a little latea: to gather the principal honey crop. As a rule, the
colonies bringing in the most pollen will be found to have the
most brood.

After deciding from external appearances which colonies are
worthy of further examination, the hives should be opened to
see that the combs are straight, that there is a sufficient quantity
of honey to last until the main honey flow commences, and that
not too much drone comb is present, as this will necessitate its
removal to be replaced with full sheets of foundation. There
should, ordinarily, be about ten or fifteen pounds of honey in

32 MAKING A START WITH BEES

the hive at this season, to insure the safety of the colony. It
sometimes happens that a rainy season during the first days of
the main honey flow will result in the starvation of strong colonies,
with the hives full of brood. Five or six frames of brood consume
a surprising quantity of food, and a short period of time during
which nothing is coming from the field causes the bees to draw
heavily on their stores. If no stores are present the result will
be disastrous for the bees and for the owner as well.

Transferring. — The old books on bee-keeping usually recom-
mend the cutting out of the combs containing brood and honey
and fitting them into the frames, tying them in with cotton
strings. The bees will shortly fasten the combs and remove the
string. While this plan is occasionally desirable, and the bee-
keeper will now and then find a case where he can profitably
bother with it, much cleaner and better methods are now generally
used. By transferring in this way one finds it to be a sticky and
very disagreeable job. The combs and bees are messed up ; the
queen is likely to be killed, and the colony lost as a result, and
stings are likely to be plentiful.

It very frequently happens that the bee-keeper who wishes
to increase his stock by purchase will find it necessary to take
such colonies in such hives as are available, even though he would
prefer to pay a higher price to get them in good hives. It is
usually advisable to transfer early in the season, or at least with
a good honey flow ahead. If it is undertaken late in the fall,
there is danger that the bees will not be properly prepared for
winter, and will be lost before spring.

If the work is done at the beginning of the season, when the
queen is active, it is an easy task to let the bees transfer them-
selves gradually. If the colony is in a box or keg, it should be
turned upside down with bottom removed. All combs not con-
taining brood which can easily be removed should be taken out.
A new hive containing drawn combs, if they be available, should
then be placed on top of the colony. If drawn combs are not to
be had, full sheets of foundation should be used. It is a good plan

TRANSFERRING FROM BUILDINGS, TREES, ETC. 33

to remove a comb containing brood from a strong colony, shake
off the bees, and replace the comb with a frame containing foun-
dation. The comb taken away can then be placed in the hive
which is to be placed over the colony to be transferred. Care
should be taken to see that no entrance is open in the box or
keg, but that the bees must enter by way of the new hive. The
bees seem to have an aversion to leaving honey and brood below
the entrance, and if conditions are right they will soon move
upstairs. Three weeks must elapse after the queen begins laying
above to allow time for all brood to hatch, when the box hive
may be taken away. If honey still remains it can be extracted
and the combs rendered into wax.

When one transfers by the old method of cutting and fitting,
usually a part of the combs will have to be discarded after the
colony is successfully transferred, because of too much drone
comb, crooked, or otherwise unsuitable combs. By this later
method of gradual transfer, the bees are moved with little dis-
turbance and no muss. The old combs are valuable for little but
the wax they contain, and that is all saved.

Another Plan.— Some bee-keepers practice the method of
drumming the bees up from the old hive into the new one above.
When, after a few minutes pounding on the hive with sticks,
most of the bees, including the queen, have gone above, the new
hive IS placed on the old stand and the old hive taken away. At
the end of three weeks, when all brood has hatched, the young bees
are united with the old colony and the old hive destroyed. Even
though the old hive be left in place under the new one while the
bees are moving upstairs, it is a good plan to drum them above
to begin with, and then place a queen excluder under the new
hive to prevent the queen from going down again.

Transferring from Buildings, "^Trees, Etc.— Nearly every
bee-keeper of experience has been called on to remove a colony
of bees from the side of some dwelling house, where they had
found entrance through a crevice. Instead of tearing off a lot
of boards and possibly injuring the building, one should begin

34

MAKING A START WITH BEES

bj closing up all possible openings except one. Over this should
be placed a bee-escape, either a Porter escape or a long wire con6,
through which the bees can come out but cannot find the way
back. A hive containing full combs or sheets of foundation
should then be brought and placed with the entrance as near as
possible to the escape (Fig. 18). In the hive should be placed

FiQ. 18. — Transferring from hollow tree without cutting the tree.

one frame of brood, care being used to insure that eggs and hatch-
ing larviX) are both present. The bees coming out and unable to
find their way back will enter this hive. Within a few days the
bees will nearly all be in the hive, and the young bees emerging
inside will shortly follow their fellows outside, to be barred from
returning. As a result the entire colony with the exception of
a very few bees will be in the new hive. The bees in the hive

QUESTIONS 3g

finding themselves without a queen will shortly raise one from
the young larvae in the comb provided. The old queen remains
behind and the nurse bees in the meantime have cared for the
brood in the old home, with the result that the colony has been
transferred with little loss. After three or four weeks, when the
bees are nicely settled in the new hive and the young queen has
begun to lay, the escape can be removed, thus allowing the bees
free access to the old brood nest. They will at once proceed to
carry the honey into the new hive so that all of value to be left
will be the wax, which, of course, cannot be obtained without
opening the cavity. When everything is in place in the new
hive, the bees can be moved to the desired location and the en-
trance to the house closed to prevent the place being occupied
by another swarm. It will be necessary to use the usual pre-
caution to prevent the bees from returning to the old location
when moved.

QUESTIONS

V M^/ is it advisable to start bee-keeping on a small scale?
.. Note the dangers to be avoided by the beginner.

3. Discuss the different kinds and sizes of hives.

4. What tools are essential?

5. Describe the essentials of a good cover.

6. Have you used an observation hive?

7. Discuss necessary considerations in buying bees.

8. Describe the bee's method of marking location.

^' ^^ov^er^c'oS*'^' "^ *° ^^ '"^^ '" "''''''"" ''^^^ ''"'^ ^""^ ^^" ^^^^ be

10. How can one tell strong colonies?

11. What conditions should one look for within the hive?

12. Outline the best methods of transferrint^.

CHAPTER IV
ARRANGEMENT OF THE APIARY

The location of the apiarj as regards shade, windbreaks, and
convenience is very important. The questions of windbreaks and
shelter will be considered more particularly in the chapter on
Wintering. A suitable shelter from the prevailing winds of
early spring is of great importance, and the reader is referred
to Chapter XIII for a consideration of this phase of the subject.

If one is starting from the beginning and can plan accord-
ingly, he will be able to so place the hives as to provide both a
suitable situation and a convenient one. To keep down expenses
is one of the essentials of successful bee-keeping, and to do so
every operation should be performed with a minimum of labor.
If one will but take the time to visit several bee-keepers, he will
find that some have the apiary so arranged as to enable them to
do the work with little more than half the labor necessary in
others. Neatness and a line appearance are desirable, but they
are of secondary importance to convenience. If possible, the
apiary should be on slightly higher ground than the honey house,
and as near as possible. This will enable the operator to wheel
the heavy loads of supers to the house with a minimum of effort.

Various plans of moving the honey from the hive to the
honey house have been recommended, but a common garden
wheelbarrow is perhaps as good as any. It is inexpensive, and
can be pushed over rough and uneven ground easier than a cart.

Shade. — Bee-keepers are not fully agreed as to the value of
shade in the apiary (Fig. 19). Something depends, perhaps,
on the locality and the temperature during the heated season.
While no shade is necessary in the spring and fall, or in early
morning or late afternoon, shade during the heat of the day in
mid-summer is very desirable. Comparisons of returns from
colonies in the shade and in the open sun fail to show decided
36

SHADE

37

results tliat can be ascribed to shade or to the lack of it. For the
comfort of the operator, if for no other reason, a shaded situation
would seem to be desirable. Large trees should be avoided, if
possible, because of the tendency of swarms to cluster so high as
to make it very inconvenient to hive them. Many bee-keepers
who liave apiaries in the open provide shade boards made of cheap
lumber obtained from dry goods boxes or similar sources. About
two by three feet is the most popular size for such a shade board.

Fig. 19.— An apiary without ahade.

This permits the sun to reach the bodv of the hive early and late
in the day, while effective shade is obtained during the hottest
period.

The shade of fruit trees, especially cherry and apple trees,
if not set too close together is very satisfactory. Hives should
never be painted with dark colors, because of the tendency of
such colors to absorb heat. In extremely warm weather, combs
will sometimes melt down and the colony be greatly injured or

88

ARRANGEMENT OF THE APIARY

even destroyed. This sometimes happens even in the shade,
especially if the hive be not well ventilated. The writer recalls
an instance where several colonies in new and nicely painted
hives met with this misfortune, while others in old hives full
of cracks suffered no injury even though they were in the open
sun and the unfortunate ones in the shade. It is desirable that
the bees be so situated that there is always free circulation of
air among the hives in warm weather. Large entrances greatly

Fig. 20. — A well-arranged apiary in California.

and in very warm weather lifting the cover an inch
and placing a block under it will also be of much help. When
the bees begin to cluster on the outside, it is usually from lack
of room to store or from lack of ventilation. In either case the
need should be supplied to prevent loafing or untimely swarming.
Spacing the Hives. — It is a common practice to set the hives
close together in long rows. This plan is not to be commended,
because of the danger of queens entering the wrong hive and
being destroyed. Neither is this plan satisfactory to the attend-

HIVE STANDS gg

ant, for in manipulating one colony he too often disturbs others
near at hand, with the result that angry bees become very annoy-
ing. The preferred arrangement is to set the colonies in pairs.
At least three feet of space should be between the pairs of hives
(Fig. 20). The two may set within a few inches of each other.
Some bee-keepers set them in fours, with two colonies with en-
trances facing to the east and two to the west.

A hive-stand of cement for two colonies.

A south front is to be preferred, especially in cool weather
of spring and fall.

^ Hive Stands.— Hives placed directly on the ground do not
give satisfaction for several reasons ; the bottom boards soon rot
and have to be replaced, grass grows up about the entrance and
interferes with the flight of the bees, and it is hard to keep the
hive level. Many kinds of hive stands are in use. Some use
short pieces of board laid flat on the ground. These last but a
short time and must soon be replaced. Four bricks make a good
stand, if a piece of board is leaned against the front of the hive

40 ARRANGEMENT OF THE APIARY

bottom for incoming bees to run up on. Four round bottles are
sometimes used, one under each corner of the hive with the neck
pressed into the ground. In dry weather this does very well,
but in wet weather one corner or another is likely to settle, with
the result that the apiarist must frequently go to the trouble of
levelling them up.

If the apiary is placed in a permanent position, so that one

Fig. 22. — A tub of water covered with chipped cork makes a safe watering place.

does not need to consider the necessity of moving, concrete hive
stands are, perhaps, the most satisfactory (Fig. 21). They are
a little more expensive to begin with, but they are permanent, and
once properly placed will remain in position indefinitely. They
should be so placed as to leave the hive exactly level sidewise,
but with the entrance slightly lower than the back to permit
surplus moisture to run off readily. The concrete should extend
several inches in front of the hive to prevent vegetation from
growing too close to the entrance. If colonies are wintered out

WATERING PLACES 41

of doors, it is well to have these stands large enough to accom-
modate two or four colonies, whichever is the unit used for a
single packing case. (See Chapter XIII on Wintering.) They
can thus be left in the same position all year.

Bees coming in heavily laden during the honey flow often
drop to the ground some distance from the hive and are unable
to rise again. It is thus of considerable advantage to have the
hive in such a position that they can crawl into it. For this
reason high stands of any kind are not to be recommended. Any
one who will watch the bees carefully for a few minutes during
the height of the season will see at once that the loss of these
heavily laden bees would be considerable in hives placed a few
inches above the ground. For this same reason the hive stand
18 usually made with a gradual slope in front of the hive, to make
it as easy as possible for the bees to reach home.

_ It is also important to keep down grass and weeds in the
apiary. While considerable work is required to keep the grass
closely cut during the busy season, it will pay well to do so. If
the apiary is properly fenced, a few sheep will do the work in
a very satisfactory manner without disturbing the bees. Ducks
are sometimes used for the same purpose.

Watering Places.— In early spring when brood rearing is
at Its height, there is frequently much annoyance from bees
about watering troughs, drinking fountains and other similar
places. Large numbers of bees about a watering place frequently
lead to an attempt by the town council to prohibit the keeping of
bees within the corporate limits. It is in the small town, which
has not yet reached the point of providing a common city water
supply, that such diificulties most frequently develop.

Bee-keepers should bear in mind the need of the bees for
large quantities of water for brood rearing, and see that it is
within easy reach. In early spring when the weather is very
changeable, it is important to save the bees as far as possible. If
they are compelled to go far from the hive for water, many will
be lost from the sudden drops of temperature common to that

42

ARRANGEMENT OF THE APIARY

season. If there be a small spring, pond, or other open water
near at hand, the bee-keeper need give the matter no further
thought. If, on the other hand, the only available supply is
from his neighbor's watering troughs, he is likely to save friction
by providing an abundant supply near at hand. This should
be attended to very early in the spring, and the supply constantly
replenished before the bees form the habit of seeking it else-
where.

foreground is a long trough with burlap lining for watering the bees.

There are many little plans that serve very well. A common
way is to set out two or three tubs or half barrels and fill them
full of water (Fig. 22). A quantity of cork chips is scattered
over the top of the water" to prevent the bees from drowning.
Fig. 23 shows one of the best plans. In the foreground of the
picture will be seen a long trough. This is made by nailing
two six-inch boards together in a V shape and closing the ends,
like an old-fashioned pig trough. The trough is lined with
burlap to furnish a foothold for the bees. WTiile fewer bees will

HIVE NUMBSRS AND RECORDS 43

be lost from this plan than most others, it has the disadvantage of
requiring refilling frequently, as the large surface of water ex-
posed results in rapid evaporation. On the other hand, large
numbers of bees can get water at one time without crowding.

Hive Numbers and Records.— Some system of records is very
helpful, and many specialists regard it as indispensable to best
results. Various plans are in use, but the elaborate systems
should be avoided. Unless one can make necessary notes while
at work, there is danger that they will not be made at all. While
a book record is best, it is difficult to make records of this kind
when one's fingers are messed up with propolis, and the wind is
blowing the pages. The principal advantage of the book record
lies in its permanence, and the ease with which one can refer to
previous notes.

Hive Marks.— In a large apiary some system of marking the
condition of the colonies is necessary. When one examines the
bees he will find some colonies weak, some strong, some needing
more room, some with failing queens, some preparing to swarm*^
some queenless, and many other conditions. Where immediate
attention is necessary, it is likely to be given at the time, but if
something necessitates examination again after a few days have
elapsed, some simple mark is necessary.

Stakes, e^c— Some bee-keepers use a quantity of stakes, and
by setting them in different positions about the hive indicate
the condition of the colony. F. W. Hall uses pegs or stakes for
this purpose. A red topped peg indicates disease. Such a peg
set at the left side of the entrance indicates disease is suspicioned,
and in front of the left side of the entrance, that disease is known
to be present. When the colony is treated, the peg is moved to
the center of the entrance and if, after a later examination, no
disease is found, the peg is moved to the right of the entrance.
After disease is known to be eradicated, all pegs are removed.

In the same manner pegs not painted or of another color are
used for other purposes. Thus one peg indicates a fair laying
queen, two pegs a good queen, and three pegs a choice one. The

44 ARRANGEMENT OF THE APIARY

positions of the pegs in front, at the side, or the rear of the hive
indicate other conditions which it is desired to note. The advan-
tage of this system lies in the fact that one can see at a glance
the condition of each colony when passing through the yard.
Position of pegs is changed at each examination, to indicate the
condition of the colony at the time.

Various modifications of this peg plan are in use. Some use
a variety of colors, each color indicating some special thing, as

Fio. 24. — Record on back of hive cover in Dadant Apiary. (From Dadant
System of Bee-keeping.)

red for disease, blue for queen, green for strength of colony, etc.
The position of the stake tells the story. This plan is not entirely
satisfactory, for the reason that so many stakes are needed, and
they are not always sure to remain where placed.

Hive Markers. — ^Numerous hive markers and hive records
have been offered from time to time only to be forgotten shortly.
The busy bee-keeper wants something which requires a mini-
mum of attention. Since the record is usually very temporary,
most extensive honey producers use chalk or pencil to make notes
on the back or inside of the cover. Fig. 24 shows how these

QUESTIONS 45

records are made on the back of the hive in the Dadant apiaries.
The author made a practise of making notes with a pencil on the
inside of the cover. Any system that requires much time on the
part of the bee-keeper is unworkable in actual practice and will
shortly be abandoned,

QUESTIONS

1. Note the things that are desirable in the arrangement of the apiary

2. Discuss the matter of shade.

3. How should the hives be spaced?

4. Describe a desirable hive stand.

5. Under what conditions should water be provided ?

6. Discuss various kinds of hive markers and systems of records.

CHAPTER V
SOURCES OF NECTAR

In taking up bee-keeping as a business, it is a matter of the
utmost importance to select a location where suitable plants are
available during as long a season as possible. The greater the
variety of honey-producing plants the better. There is no single
plant that can be depended upon to produce nectar in sufficient
quantities every year. The ideal location is one where there is
an abundance of willow, maple, dandelion, and fruit bloom early
in spring, followed by white clover and sweet clover in abund-
ance. This in turn should be supplemented with such plants as
heartsease, sunflowers, golden rod, and asters for late forage.

There are many things to be considered in choosing a location,
that will not be apparent at first glance. For instance, some
plant may be present in quantity that is ordinarily considered
as a profitable source of nectar, yet which for some unknown
reason seldom yields in a particiilar locality. Alfalfa is a
valuable plant for the apiarist under the conditions of the irri-
gated regions of the West, yet seldom secretes sufficient nectar to
attract the bees in the moist sections east of the Missouri River.
Buckwheat is rated as an important honey plant in New York,
but is of little value in most Iowa localities. When the bulletin,
"Bee-keeping in Iowa," which was published as No. 11 of the
extension department of Iowa State College of Agriculture, was
in preparation, correspondence with representative bee-keepers
in all parts of that State brought only one report of buckwheat as
a profitable source of nectar. Bee-keepers, reading of the wonder-
ful crops of honey stored from buckwheat in some eastern States,
might easily be misled into expecting similar results from this
plant wherever a sufficient acreage was present.

Just what factors influence the secretion of nectar still remain
to be determined. It is a well-known fact that some plants secrete
46

SOURCES OF NECTAR 47

very freely in some seasons, while in others with a large amount
of bloom the bees will starve, or fare very poorly at best. Con-
ditions that are favorable to the secretion of nectar with one
plant seem to have the opposite effect on another. When white
clover produces the heaviest flow in the Mississippi valley, alfalfa
in adjoining fields will produce no nectar. Scientists are now
studying the problems connected with nectar secretion, and it is
hoped that the reasons for the great variation may shortly be
better understood.

It accordingly becomes necessary for the bee-keeper not only
to know the plants that furnish the raw material for honey pro-
duction, but to be familiar with their behavior under the par-
ticular conditions with which he has to deal. Some years the
honey crop will be good or bad over a large scope of country,
while in others not more than five or six miles will be necessary
to pass from a neighborhood where no honey is being stored to
one where a profitable crop is gathered. The wide-awake bee-
keeper can thus frequently, by moving his bees but a short dis-
tance, convert failure into success, and instead of having to feed
his bees to get them safely through the winter, market a crop
of honey.

One of the most successful beekeepers of the Middle West
has a location in the hills overlooking the Missouri River. His
location is very desirable, for he has practically all important
honey plants of that region within reach of some of his yards.
His home yard is within easy reach of a large linden grove which
furnishes some honey about two years in five. White clover in
nearby pastures furnishes something about four years in five
and a good yield two or three seasons in five. Sweet clover which
is one of the surest honey plants, is also present in large quantity
and the bees also have a large area of Missouri River bottom
land within reach. In this latter area they have access to large
quantities of heartsease, wild sunflower, and other fall flowers.
Ill such a location the chances of failure are reduced to the
minimum, and seldom is there a year in which he does not <^et a

48 SOURCES OF NECTAR

surplus from some of these sources. In seasons when con-
ditions are favorable for several important honey plants, he
reaps a great harvest.

System Adapted to Honey Flow. — Upon the flora and con-
ditions of secretion of nectar will depend the system of honey
production which can be carried on most profitably. If the
flows are short and very rapid, as is the case in many localities
in the northeastern States, comb honey production can be carried
on with very satisfactory results, and with profit to the producer.
If, on the other hand, the flow lasts through a long season, and
at no time is the honey coming in rapidly, it is very difficult to
get a nicely finished article of comb honey. Not only are the
sections likely to be poorly finished, but they will be travel-
stained and unattractive in appearance, A small hive, while
hardly to be recommended anywhere except in the hands of a
comb honey specialist, should never be used in a region where
the flows are not rapid. Locality then is really the first and most
important point to be considered by the prospective bee-keeper.
'Not until he has settled upon his locality can he decide as to
the system of management which he will follow, or the equip-
ment which he will use.

Clover Region. — While there is a great diversity of local
conditions, all the region from the Missouri River to Maine and
south to the Gulf States, can be classed as the clover region.
White clover, perhaps, stands at the head of the list of honey-
producing plants in all this section. Alsike and sweet clover also
are important. Basswood or linden, raspberry, buckwheat, and
several other plants are important in various local sections, but
the clovers are the main source of nectar throughout this vast
region. Fruit bloom and dandelion are of great value through-
out these States for spring brood rearing. In many places they
are sufficiently plentiful to offer an Important source of surplus,
if the bees are ready for it. The bloom from these plants,
however, comes so early in spring that the bees are usually not yet
strong enough in numbers to make the best use of the nectar

THE SOUTH 49

available. Coming so soon after the bees are first abroad after
the long winter, the queens are stimulated to great activity and
brood rearing begins in earnest. As a result, the hives are soon
full of joung bees, so that the colonies should be in the very best
condition for the clover harvest.

Alfalfa Region.— The irrigated sections of the arid West may
be classed as the alfalfa region. While much honey from other
sources comes to market from west of the Missouri River, alfalfa
is the main source of dependence. Sweet clover is rapidly ex-
tending its range in the same territory, so that it is also a very
important source of nectar. The alfalfa plant seems to be at its
best in the dry atmosphere of Colorado and surrounding States.
Given plenty of water by irrigation, the results both in hay and
in nectar are remarkable. Alfalfa may be said to be "king" in
the Rocky Mountain States, all the way from Canada to the
Mexican border.

From California we hear much of sage, orange, and beans as
additional sources of honey production. Very little orange honey
reaches the eastern markets, so that it can hardly be considered
in speaking of the region as a whole. Sage, in years past, has
been the source of large quantities of honey shipped east. Of
late years, alfalfa, even in California as in other western States,
is coming to be a very dependable source of supply.

The South.— In Texas are to be found many of the plants
common to the eastern States, as well as some that are important
m the arid West. In the irrigated sections of Texas alfalfa is
an important honey plant. Here are also a number whose names
are unfamiliar elsewhere, including huajilla, meequit, and cats-
claw.

In the southeastern section, beginning with the Carolinas,
we still find the clovers and other plants common to the northern'
States mentioned as important in honey production. In addition,
there are some peculiar to the South which rank even higher in
the production of honey. Among the most important may be
mentioned the gallberry and sourwood.

50 SOURCES OF NECTAR

In Florida several other species of importance are brought
to the bee-keeper's attention. They are not all confined to
Florida, but may be found more or less abundantly throughout
the Gulf States.

The list sounds strange to the bee-keeper of the North, for
few of the names mentioned as important are familiar to his
ears.

Tupelo or gum extends some distance to the north of Florida,
but it is mentioned as one of the most valuable sources of nectar
in that State. Palmetto and saw palmetto are peculiar to Florida.

The Florida honey flora is composed to a surprising extent
of trees ; magnolia, mangrove, titi, orange and many others are
either trees or shrubs.

Honey Sources of Wide Distribution. — It is hardly within
the scope of a work of this kind to consider in detail the resources
of each section separately. There are, however, a large number
of plants of wide distribution which are important yielders of
honey or pollen, or both, over such wide areas as to merit further
consideration.

During the height of the season, pollen is usually present
in such quantities from so many plants, that those which yield
pollen alone are of little interest. Those plants which yield
pollen very early in the season, however, are second in importance
only to the best honey sources. So valuable is an abundance of
pollen early in spring for brood rearing, that it is very important
that the apiary be within easy reach of pollen-bearing plants at
this season.

Honey-dew is a secretion from small insects known as aphids.
There has been much discussion concerning the origin of this
product in the past, some holding that it was not only an insect
secretion, but a plant secretion as well. The fact that drops of
honey-dew are sometimes to be seen on the leaves of trees when
no aphis is to be found probably gave rise to this impression.
It is now quite generally agreed that honey-dew comes only

HONEY-DEW 5I

from this family of insects as a secretion. Its presence where
no insects are present is accounted for by the fact that quantities
of the liquid are expelled by the insects from a higher point, and
in falling it appears on the leaves on lower levels.

Several plants exude a sweet substance which the bees some-
times gather, but it is quite a different material from honey-dew.
In seasons of scarcity of nectar the bees will seek any sweet
material. At such times they are troublesome about cider mills,
where they eagerly fill their honey sacs with the rich juice of the
apple. They may even be found, at times, on decaying fruits
which have been broken open. The saps from numerous plants
when exposed by injury are freely sought. These substances
are not honey-dew, though they are likely to be stored in the
same manner.

The plant lice,* or aphids, have a remarkable life history. The
first generation of young to appear in spring is hatched from
eggs and all are females. These in turn give birth to living
young, but no males appear until several successive generations
of living females have been brought forth. As the season
advances males also appear and the cycle starts all over again.
There are many different species much sought for by ants.
The solicitude of the ants toward the insects gave rise to the
old story that ants keep cows. They do, in fact, seem to care for
the plant lice for the purpose of securing the honey-dew which
they secrete. The ants also use the bodies of the plant lice as
food. It will thus be seen that the comparison of the ants and
their herds is not so far wrong, for while the liquid secretion may
be called milk, the ants may also be said to secure meat by the
consumption of the plant lice themselves. With some species the
ants are even believed to go so far as to carry the eggs of the
plant lice down into their own nests to be cared for during the
wmter months, and to place the newly hatched aphids in position
on their food plants in early spring.

Ants are not alone in their fondness for honey-dew, even
though they may be alone in caring for the plant lice. Many

52 SOURCES OF NECTAR

other insects, including bees and wasps, are attracted to the feast
when the product is abundant.

At times the plant lice become so abundant on the leaves
of the various trees on which they feed as to prove disastrous to
the tree. Plum trees are especially liable to injury from these
insects. When the leaves begin to curl in early spring, it is
usually a sign that plant lice of some kind are present. Hundreds
of them will be found under one leaf.

It is usually from such forest trees as elm, hickory, and oak
that honey-dew comes in sufficient quantities to be apparent
in the hive. It is only in an occasional season that the bees
gather honey-dew in noticeable quantities. At times it will fairly
drip from the trees, and on such occasions, if no honey is coming
in, the bees will work with tremendous energy in storing the
substitute.

There seems to be considerable variation in the quality of
the honey-dew honey, but as a rule it is not of good quality, and
a bee-keeper should be very careful that it does not spoil his
market for good honey. It is especially disastrous to the bees
as winter food, and should never be left in the hive for winter
stores, in the northern States, where the bees are confined for long
periods without a flight. Where the bees are free to fly every few
days during winter, the bad effect is not so apparent. (See
Chapter XIII on Wintering.)

Sources of Early Pollen. — While some pollen is gathered
from the early spring flowers, the most important sources are
the forest trees. The elm is especially valuable, as it yields pollen
in enormous quantities. When the elm trees bloom, the
bees fairly cover them until the humming reminds one of
the swarming season. At about this same season the maples
(Acer) bloom (Figs. 25 and 27). These trees furnish not only
pollen, but nectar also, and are a valuable source of supply at this
season. The willows (Salix) likewise furnish pollen in abund-
ance and nectar beside (Figs. 25 and 26). At times the bees
are able to store some honey from the two last named sources.

THE DANDELION

53

The dandelion, or blowball, is widely spread over the tem-
perate regions of North America, Europe, and Asia. It blooms
early in spring, not far from the time of fruit bloom, and sup-

Fia. 25 -Soft maple and pussy willow are sources of early pollen and nectar.

plies both pollen and nectar in large quantities. While the nectar
secretion does not seem to be constant, in an occasional season
the bees will store surplus comb honey from this source. The

54

SOURCES OF NECTAR

pollen never fails when the plant blooms, and the bees fairly revel
in it during its season of blossom. It comes just at the season
when the need of food for brood rearing is greatest, and is conse-
quently one of the most valuable. It is usually regarded as a

FiQ. 26. — Catkins of pussy willow.

weed, and is especially obnoxious on the lawns. The bright
yellow flowers are not unattractive, and if it was as difficult to
grow as some of the cultivated plants, it would be much in

FRUIT BLOOM 55

demand. It seems to be human nature to despise the common.

Fruit Bloom. — The honey producer whose apiary is situated

near large orchards is fortunate. If such tree fruits as cherries,

plums, and apples all be present, the season of bloom will last

Fig. 27. — Blossoms of soft maple.

for several days, much to his advantage. A single variety will
offer pasturage for only a very limited time, but it is abundant
while it lasts. Most commercial orchards consist of several
varieties, so that the season of bloom may last from one week

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TRUCK CROPS 57

to three or four weeks, depending upon the kinds of trees avail-
able (Fig. 28).

The pear tree secretes nectar freely, and is one of the most
valuable of the fruits. The peach also is of some value.

While the fruit trees bloom in profusion, the principal value
of this nectar lies in the stimulation of brood rearing, because
of the season in which it comes.

In Florida and California, the orange is of considerable
value as a honey plant. It blooms usually in February and
March, and lasts from twenty to thirty days. If conditions are
favorable for nectar secretion, considerable surplus will be stored
from this source, but it is not dependable.

Of the wild fruits, hawthorne, wild crab, and several others
are very similar to the cultivated fruits in nectar secretion. The
wild cherry is a large forest tree that furnishes considerable
honey.

Besides the tree fruits, the bush fruits are of considerable
value. The wild raspberry of Michigan is one of the more im-
portant sources of honey in that State. Its period of bloom is
long and the honey of the finest quality. The plants grow on cut-
over timber land that is very poor, so that a good raspberry
location IS quite likely to be permanent. A large acreage of
cultivated raspberries is equally desirable and often to be found
in the truck-growing sections near the large cities. The black-
berry is also a valuable plant, although probably nowhere equal
to a similar acreage of raspberry. In portions of N'orth Georgia
the blackberry is one of the principal sources of nectar.

Currants and gooseberries are sought by the bees, and if pres-
ent m sufficiently large acreage would be desirable pasturage.

Truck Crops.—In the vicinity of market gardens, the bee-
keeper often receives considerable benefit from the large acreage
of cucumbers, which produces considerable honey. It is said to
be of inferior flavor.

Carrots, cabbage, mustard, turnips, pumpkins, squash and
several other cultivated vegetables add to the total production
of the hive.

58 SOURCES OF NECTAR

The California apiarists of some sections report valuable
honey crops from the lima beans which are raised in large
acreage in that State.

The Clovers. — In the markets of the world, honey from this
family of plants stands supreme, both in quantity and quality.
The combs are capped white, so that the product is of fine
appearance and the quality is of the best. Honey from either
white, alsike, sweet or other clover, or from alfalfa, is sure of
a market at a fair price in almost any season. When the markets
are glutted, the clover honeys are among the first to move, so
that the apiarist seldom need fear being unable to dispose of his
product. While there are seasons of short secretion, the clovers
are, perhaps, as nearly sure to yield as any plants of wide
distribution.

White Clover (Trifolium repens). — The most valuable honey
plant in America. It ranges from Canada to the Gulf, and from
the Atlantic west to IsTebraska and Texas. Reaches its greatest
value as a honey producer in the northern States. Perennial,
with somewhat creeping stems. A fine pasture plant, common
along roadsides and in pastures everywhere.

Alsike Clover (T. hyhridum). — Alsike, or Swedish clover,
resembles white clover in some respects, although much larger
and better suited for culture as a forage crop. It yields honey
freely of about the same quality as white clover. This plant suc-
ceeds on land where red clover will not do well, and when sown
with a mixture of other grasses makes a very good meadow.
When sown with timothy and red clover the resulting hay crop h
much heavier than where timothy and red clover are sown alone.

Red Clover (T. Pratense). — Red clover would be a magnifi-
cent honey plant if the bees were only able to reach the nectar.
The corolla tubes are too long for the length of the honey-bee's
tongue. Occasionally a case is reported when a crop is supposed
to be gathered from this source. If so, conditions must either
serve greatly to reduce the length of the corolla tubes, or the
nectar must be so abundant as to fill the tubes to a height within

THE CLOVERS 59

reach of the insects. Possibly the tubes are punctured by other
insects. It is usually in extremely dry seasons that red clover
honey is reported, and it may be that the unfavorable conditions
may serve to dwarf the plant to some extent.

Although red clover produces nectar in great abundance, it
can hardly be regarded as a honey plant because of the inability
of the bees to gather it.

Mammoth, or Pea-vine clover, is another form or variety
of red clover of a coarser or ranker growth. It is of little value
for the same reason ascribed to the other, although bees may
work on it slightly more than on the medium red variety.

White Sweet Clover (Melilotus alba). — Sweet clover is one
of the best honey plants, and is very rapidly spreading into all
parts of the United States. It bids fair very shortly to outstrip
white clover in its total production, because of its wider range.
It thrives on the rich lands of Iowa and Illinois, along the irri-
gation ditches of the arid West, on the heavy soils of the South,
and the rocky farms of the East. It seems to thrive under a
greater variety of conditions and to flourish under greater adver-
sity than any other valuable forage plant. Farmers on high-
priced lands of the com belt are beginning to grow it in prefer-
ence to red clover, or timothy, for hay, while the farmers on
worn soils of the South and East are finding it to be a great soil
builder, as well as a profitable farm crop. The quantity of
forage produced from a given area is second to no other forage
plant, and the quality, if properly handled, is excellent. Even
in sections where it is regarded as a weed and consequently is not
encouraged, it is gradually taking possession of waste places along
railroads, highways, and unoccupied lands generally.

White sweet clover, also called Bokhara clover, is a biennial,
seeding freely, and establishing itself readily under apparently
unfavorable conditions.

The honey is light in color and spicy in flavor. By itself it is
a little strong for some palates, but when mixed with other honey
is of very fine quality. Sweet clover will one day stand at the

60 SOURCES OF NECTAR

head of the list of honey plants of the world, if the present rate
of spreading continues. Large quantities of honey from this
source are now reaching the markets from Colorado, Idaho, and
other western States. Sweet clover is not regarded as important
in portions of Ontario and some of the eastern States. It yields
more freely in the dry hot summers of the West.

In Iowa one farmer, Frank Coverdale at Delmar, had nearly
200 acres of this crop on his farm. Sweet clover was the princi-
pal crop grown, and everything was planned to utilize it to the
best advantage. Cattle, hogs and other stock were kept to con-
sume the hay. Bees also were kept to gather as much of the
nectar as possible. In 1913 more than a carload of fine comb
honey was produced from the 300 colonies of bees on the farm.

Yellow Sweet Clover (Melilotus officinalis). — The yellow
variety of sweet clover is not nearly so widely spread as the white,
and is not of so much value as forage. The honey yield, however,
is good, and it is valuable as a honey-producing plant.

Alfalfa (Medicago saliva). — Alfalfa, or lucerne, is coming
to be widely cultivated as a forage plant. It does not thrive
to any extent except under cultivation. It is at its best in the
irrigated regions of the West, where it is grown in very large
acreage for hay and for seed. Under western conditions, it is a
very valuable forage plant, yielding large quantities of fine honey.
It seems to be of little value for bee pasturage in moist regions
of the eastern States. Although blooming freely, it does not seem
to secrete nectar, except in rare instances, and seldom produces
seed in any quantity except in seasons of extreme drouth, when
the bees will seek it freely foi' a time,

Basswood or Linden (Tilia americana). — The basswood,
known as whitewood, linden, or limetree, is widely disseminated
in eastern North America, being found from New England to
Florida and Texas. It has also been introduced into California
in a few localities.

In times past basswood was a very important source of honey,
but of late years the linden forests are being rapidly cut ofi^, and
the land turned into farms or pastures. Wherever it is to be

GOLDEN ROD 61

found in quantity, it is valuable for bee pasture, and in some
seasons produces large quantities of nectar. It is not a depend-
able source, for it does not secrete nectar freely except in occas-
ional seasons. When conditions are favorable, it offers about
ten days of the finest honey flow possible. Some years immense
crops are stored from basswood, so that the bee-keeper who is
within reach of a considerable acreage of this forest can expect
great benefit every third or fourth year, with a splendid crop
once in ten or twelve years. The tree is a rapid grower, and will
begin to bloom freely after six or eight years.

The wood is white, and much desired for making sections for
comb honey. It is also utilized for making packing boxes of
various kinds, some kinds of furniture, and for making paper.

Buckwheat (Fagopyrum). — In parts of New York, Penn-
sylvania, and the New England States where buckwheat is raised
in large quantities, it is a very valuable honey plant. In some
sections several hundred colonies of bees are kept in one yard,
with buckwheat as the principal source of honey. Climatic con-
ditions of the eastern States seem especially favorable to nectar
secretion, and there it is very dependable, yielding some honey
nearly every year. In the Central West it is seldom of much
value for bee pasture, and yields only rarely. It is reported as of
little value in Texas, except to bridge over a time when little
else is blooming. In California there is another plant called
wild buckwheat which is said to be of considerable value as a
honey plant.

Buckwheat honey is dark, of a heavy body and strong flavor.
Those who are accustomed to it often prefer it to milder flavored
honeys, but in western markets it moves slowly, and at a lower
price than the white honeys.

In the East it is the source of very large crops in some seasons,
probably an average of fifty or more pounds per colony being
secured from this source alone, under favorable conditions.

Golden Rod (Solidago). — The golden rods are of wide dis-
tribution, some species probably being found in every State in the

62

SOURCES OF NECTAR

Union, as well as Canada and Mexico (Fig. 29). They are

perennial herbs, blooming in late summer and antiimn, mostly

Fig. 29. — The golden rod is an important source of fall nectar in some localities.

with bright yellow flowers. At least eighty recognized species are
recorded.

The golden rod is an important source of nectar in many

OTHER YELLOW FALL FLOWERS 63

sections. Reports of good honey crops from this source alone
are frequently received from the eastern States. In the Central
West It is less frequently mentioned as a honey plant, in some
sections the bees seeming to pay no attention to it. It is said
to yield considerable honey in Texas in favorable seasons, and is
of some value, also, in parts of California.

The honey is usually thick, and when well ripened of good
quality. The attractive flowers are much sought for by many
insects beside the bees. Beetles in large numbers, especially
blister beetles, frequent the blossoms.

^ Coming so late in summer, it is especially valuable in locali-
ties where the secretion is sufficiently abundant.

Wild Sunflower (Helianthv^). —The wild sunflower is an-
other summer and fall flower of wide range. There are many
species, some of which may be found from the Atlantic coast to
California and from Canada to the Gulf. They are tall
coarse weeds with bright yellow flowers (Fig. 33). Large num-
bers of insects of many species visit the blossoms of the sunflowers
m search of the nectar.

Wherever these flowers are sufficiently abundant, they are
the source of nectar. The cultivated sunflowers are of little if
any value as honey plants, but produce seed in quantity, which
IS valuable as poultry feed.

The Jerusalem artichoke is a variety of sunflower, sometimes
cultivated for the hogs. This plant grows wild in the upper
Mississippi Valley States, and is regarded as a weed. It is
frequently referred to as a valuable honey plant.

Many of the sunflowers are perennials, persisting for manv
years where once established. They are commonly to be seen
along railroads, wagon roads, and on waste ground everywhere
ihe honey is dark or amber in color

Other Yellow Fall Flowers.-There are many coarse plants
with yellow flowers that bloom in late summer and fall that add
much to the sum total of honey stored. Coming at a season when
m many localities, there is no general flow, they are of consider-

64

SOURCES OF NECTAR

able importance, even though the flow from them is never heavy.
Such plants grow along railroads, roadsides, along streams, on

Fia. 30. — -The cup-plant or rosin weed.

the margins of fields, and in waste places generally. Some of
these plants are quite valuable, where sufiiciently abundant.

OTHER YELLOW FALL FLOWERS

65

Cup-plant. — The cup-plant (Silphium perfoliatum) , also
called rosin weed, is a common roadside plant in the Middle West.
The illustrations showing the flowers and also the plant give a

FiQ. 31. — Blossoms of the cup-plant.

good idea of its appearance. By looking closely at Figs. 30 and
31 it will be seen that the stem is square, and that the leaves
are grown together at the base, thus making a cup around the
stem, from which the name is derived. These plants are abund-

66 SOURCES OF NECTAR

ant on rich lands along streams, and sometimes on uplands in the
Mississippi Valley and eastward. They grow from four to eight
feet tall, with numerous yellow flowers, so that where plentiful
they furnish considerable pasturage for the bees, which visit
them freely.

Crownheard. — There are several species of crownbeard, some

Fia. 32. — The yellow crownbeard is much sought
by the bees.

of which have white blossoms. Fig, 32 shows the common yellow-
flowered variety which grows in open woodlands in the IMiddle
West. The bees seek it very eagerly and a great humming may
be heard about this plant when the bloom is at its height. The
range of tlie different species of crownbeard (Verbesitm), is
from Pennsylvania to the Missouri Kiver and south to Texas.

PARTRIDGE PEA

67

The list of such plants might be extended to great length,
while no one of them is generally valuable the total bounty of all

FiQ. 33. — Wild sunflowers are important honey producing plants over large areas.

is considerable, and each is important in limited localities where
it is abundant.

Partridge Pea (Cassia). — The partridge pea is reported as
an important source of honey in Georgia and Florida. Fig. 34

68

SOURCES OF NECTAR

shows the common roadside species of the Middle West (0.
chamce crista) , with blossom, seed pod, and leaf. The flowers
are of an attractive yellow color, of about the size shown. This
plant is very common along the sandy roads of the Middle West,

Fia. 34. — Blossom, seed pod and leaf of partridge pea.

where at times it may be found in abundance for miles at a
stretch. Although bees visit the plant freely while in bloom, the
amount of honey stored from this source is seldom uotiQeable
in this region.

ASTER OR STARWORT

The plant is peculiar in that the nectar is not secreted by the
flower proper, but by a gland at the base of the petiole. The
season of flow lasts for several weeks in midsummer.

As it comes for the most part after the close of the honey
harvest, the partridge pea in the northern States serves princi-
pally to keep the bees occupied until later flowers bloom in suffi-
cient quantity to provide a real honey flow.

The quality of honey stored from this source is said to be
poor.

Aster or Starw^ort.— There are said to be about 125 species
of asters m North America, and also many species in Europe
Asia, and South America. These plants then must be familiar
to the bee-keepers in all temperate regions of the world. Some
species grow in open, shady woodlands, while others delight in
the open sunlight of the prairies. They range in height from
eighteen inches, or less, to eight feet. As a rule, the plants are
many-flowered, as will be seen by Fig. 35. A plant with a small
number of flowers was chosen in an attempt to secure greater
detail. Sometimes hundreds of blossoms occur on one plant.

They range in color from white to blue and dark purple
Blue IS perhaps the most common color. They have a tendency
m some cases to become weeds, but are easily destroyed by culti-
vation, and are not often regarded as serious. The bloom in the
northern Mississippi Valley States comes very late, lasting until
killing frosts. In some years bees are found still working on
these plants in November.

The asters, like the golden rods, are attractive to a large
variety of insect life, many different species seeking them in
addition to the bees.

The white-rayed flowers are said to be the best honey pro-
ducers, some species, apparently, not yielding any nectar. The
value of asters as honey plants is a little uncertain. While they
yield considerable surplus in many localities, the honey makes
very poor winter stores, and many reports show heavy losses
from wintering bees on aster honey. The honey is said to be

70 SOURCES OF NECTAR

white with a mild flavor. In most localities it is mixed with
dark fall honey, so that it is not often stored separately.

It is said to be rather thin, and by itself not to thicken up
readily.

Boneset or White Snakeroot, — There are several closely

Fig. 35. — Aster honey makes poor winter stores.

related species of this plant (Eupatorium) known by the names
of boneset, thoronghwort, and white snakeroot. The common
species ranges from New Brunswick to Dakota, and south to the
Gulf of Mexico (Fig. 36). Boneset is frequently spoken of as
a honey plant. It blooms in late summer, sometimes persisting

BONESET OR WHITE SNAKEROOT 71

until frost. The plant is a perennial, and if left undisturbed
remains for many years in open woodlands that are not too
closely pastured.

FiQ. 30.— Boucuet or white snakeroot.

The species most conmion in the upper Mississippi region
is known as white snakeroot (E, urticce folium) , which is sup-

72

SOURCES OF NECTAR

posed to be poisonous, and is commonly reported to cause the
disease known as trembles in animals. Although much of this
plant grows in the author's wild garden (Fig. 37), and also about
the grounds where it is frequently eaten by the family cow, no
bad effect has ever been noticed.

Milk sickness is said to be caused by the use of meat, milk,

Fio. 37. — Masses of white snakeroot in the author's wild garden.

butter or cheese from animals afflicted with trembles, so that
snakeroot is popularly supposed to be the indirect cause of milk
sickness in the human race, as well as trembles in animals.

In his book on poisonous plants, Dr. L. H. Pammel cites a
number of cases where the disease, trembles, had supposedly been
produced in animals by feeding them the extract of this plant.

BONESET OR WHITE SNAKEROOT

73

Investigations that seem to contradict this conclusion are also
eited, so that the connection of this plant to these diseases seems
doubtful.

Fig. 38. — Two apeciea of heartsease or smartweed.

The boneset of commerce is made irom E. perfoliatum, which
also is most often spoken of as a source of honey. The drug is
well and widely known as a remedy.

74 SOURCES OF NECTAR

These plants are an important source of fall honey.

Heartsease (Polygonum). — There are several species of
plants belonging to this family (Fig. 38) that are variously
known as smartweed, knotweed^ heartsease, lady's thumb, w^ater
pepper, doorweed, etc. Polygonum persicaria or lady's thumb
is perhaps the best honey producer of them all. There are
fifty or more species in the United States and Canada, a number
of vi^hich produce some honey.

This plant is particularly valuable in wet seasons, when an
excess of moisture prevents the usual cultivation of many fields,
or when, because of abundant water supply, these plants spring
up in corn fields and grain fields after cultivation has ceased.
At such times, large quantities of honey are sometimes secured
from this source.

While the plants range over a wide area, they are particularly
valuable as honey producers in the States of Iowa, Illinois and
eastern Kansas and Nebraska.

The period of bloom lasts from August until frost and the
honey varies greatly in color and quality. Much of it is a light
amber, of fair quality, while some is very dark and of inferior
quality.

Horsemint (Monarda).—lloTsemmt is most frequently re-
ported as a valuable honey plant from Texas and nearby States.
In this section very large yields are occasionally reported from
this source. There are several species (Fig. 39) ranging from
Quebec and New England, west to Dakota, and south to Georgia
and Texas.

The corolla tubes are very deep, and it would hardly be
expected that the bees could reach the nectar. Three species
are reported as yielding freely in Texas, M. clinopodoides accord-
ing to Scholl being one of the best honey plants. M. fistulosa,
commonly called wild bergamot, is common in many of the
States, from New England to the Missouri River and south to
Florida and Texas. While at times this plant does not seem

MILKWEED

75

attractive to tlie honev-bw, it is widely reported as a source of
honey. Monarda punctata is the best of the horsemints for honey
Milkweed (Asclepia^).— The milkweeds, also called butter-
fly weeds and silkweeds, are widely distributed on both hemis-
pheres. About eighty-five species are recorded. Although the

Fig. 39.— The horsemints are valuable over a Urge scope of country.

miWeds secrete considerable nectar and in favorable seasons
considerable honey is the result, they are not generally favored
by the bee-keepers because of the fact that bees sometimes become
entangled m the pollen masses and are lost as a result. Kenoyer
m his studies of the relation of wild bees to plant pollenation'
found that wasps frequently had these pollen masses clinging to
their feet. While it sometimes happens that a considerable nura

76

SOURCES OF NECTAR

ber of bees may be lost from this cause, it is hardly as serious,
as it has been pictured in nuiny of the printed articles.

The milkweed is a really good honey plant, and where suffi-
ciently abundant contributes a liberal portion to the prosperity

'■■^

"'"^■^

'A

Fio. 40. — Catnip yields honey abundantly.

Fig. 41. — Figwort or Simpson's honey plant.

of the apiarist. In '' Gleanings in Bee Culture," for July, 1912,
Mr. George H. Kirkpatrick, of Michigan, reports a yield of
1320 pounds from eleven colonies in eleven days, gathered from
milkweed. Any plant that will produce one hundred or more
pounds of honey per colony, in such a short period of time, even
under extraordinary conditions, is worthy of attention.

GOOD PLANTS OF RESTRICTED DISTRIBUTION

77

The honey is said to be light in cohir and of good quality.

Good Plants of Restricted Distribution. — Some of the best
honey plants are restricted to a small area. The sages of Cali-
fornia have produced enormous crops of honey which have been
shipped to the eastern markets in large quantities, yet little sage

Fia. 42. — The Rocky mountain bee plant is a valuable honey producer in Colorado.

honey is secured elsewhere in the United States. The palmetto
and saw palmetto of Florida are important in that State, but
not found far removed from the southern half of that common-
wealth. The logwood of Jamaica and the West Indies, and
to some extent in Florida, is of little interest to the bee-keepers
of other sections. Xearly every State has some honey plants that
are not of general interest because of the restricted range.

78 SOURCES OF NECTAR

Valuable Plants That are Seldom Abundant. — There are
a number of plants that secrete nectar freely, which would be
exceedingly valuable if sufficiently abundant. Catnip, nepeta
cataria, (Fig. 40) originally introduced from Europe has become

Fig. 43. — Blossoms of the button bush.

very widely naturalized in the United States. When in bloom
it is eagerly sought by the bees. Figwort, or Simpson's honey
plant, Scrophularia marilandica (Fig. 41) is another widely
distributed plant on which the bees work freely. The button
bush, Cephalanthus occidentalis (Fig. 43) is a bushy shrub that
grows in wet lands. In a few localities along the Mississippi it ia

PLANTS PRINCIPALLY VALUABLE FOR POLLEN 79

sufficiently common to yield some surplus honey, which is light
in color and mild in flavor. The wild cucumber, Echinocystis
lobata (Fig. 45) is another wet land plant common everywhere
along streams from New England to Texas but abundant enough
to yield noticeable quantities of nectar in few places.

Plants Principally Valuable for Pollen. — There are a large
number of plants commonly visited by the bees for pollen, which

Fio. 44. — Buckwheat is highly regarded in the East. (Sear's Productive Orcharding),

produce no nectar. Others, like the willows and maples, are valu-
able for both. Inasmuch as pollen is absolutely essential for
brood rearing, it is important that it be within reach at all
seasons, as nearly as possible. In a few localities it is never
sufficiently abundant throughout the breeding season for best
results. Fortunately, in most places, pollen is within reach
most of the growing months.

80

SOURCES OF NECTAR

Among the important pollen plants may be mentioned several
of the forest trees, including the willows, elms and maples already
mentioned. In addition the box elder, walnut, hickory, ash,
beech, birch, chestnut and aspens may be mentioned.

Fia. 45.— Where suflBciently abundant, the wild cucumber is valuable.

Corn is one of the most abundant pollen plants of its season,
and the bees sometimes work on the tassels so freely as to give
rise to the impression that it is a honey producer. Plant lice are

BITTER AND POISONOUS HONEYS gl

sometimes to be found on the corn plant, and it may be thai
honey-dew is sometimes gathered from this source.

The list might be extended indefinitely, but it is only neces-
sary to mention a few of the common plants, such as roses,
sorghum, hops and ragweed. Many brightly colored flowers pro-
duce pollen but no nectar.

Bitter and Poisonous Honeys.— There are several plants that
yield honey of such a disagreeable taste that it is of no value,
except to feed back to the bees. The bitterweed, or sneezeweed of
the Ozark region, blooms after the close of the clover harvest, and
a good crop of white clover honey is frequently spoiled by mixing
with the bitter honey. In such a locality, it is important that
the bee-keeper be familiar with the time of blooming of such
plants, and remove all good honey from the hive before the bees
begin to store from them. The author has found this honey to be
so bitter as to be absolutely unpalatable. Scholl says of the
bitterweed of Texas {Helenium tenuifolium) : "Honey yield good
in favorable seasons ; pollen ; honey golden yellow, heavy body
but very bitter, as if 50 per cent quinine and some pepper were
added. June to October."

The honey from snow-on-the-mountain {Euphorbia, mwr-
ginati) is said to be bitter and disagreeable, and possibly pois-
onous.

Pammel, in his " Manual of Poisonous Plants," cites a num-
ber of plants which are supposed to produce poisonous honey.
Among them may be mentioned mountain laurel (Kalmia lati-
folia), which is said to be common in the mountains of Virginia
and nearby States. The honey from rhododendron is said to be
poisonous also.

In choosing a location it is desirable to avoid the sources
of these undesirable honeys as much as possible, and if they are
present in the locality where one is operating, to use care to pre-
vent them from being stored in the same comb with honey of good
quality.

Cases of poisoning from honey in New Jersey are described
6

82 SOURCES OF NECTAR

somewhat in detail. The honey is said to produce a pungent
burning taste as soon as the comb has passed the lips. In fifteen
or twenty minutes the patients are seized with nausea, abdom-
inal pain and vomiting. This is soon followed by loss of con-
sciousness, coldness of extremities, feebly acting heart, and com-
plete collapse. No less than eight cases were cited from New
Jersey in 1896 by Professor Kebler.

The poisonous honey is said to have been, " dark honey which
had a light brown color and a nauseating odor, pungent taste,
caused a burning sensation in the back of the mouth similar to
that of aconite." The source of this particular honey is not
given.

Overstocking. — The question of overstocking has perhaps
been the cause of as much discussion among bee-keepers as any
one question relating to the business of honey production. The
number of colonies that a given locality will support profitably is
one of the most difficult matters to determine. Some writers offer
a general suggestion to limit the number in one apiary to 50 or 75.
However, seasons and localities vary so widely that no safe rule
can be laid down. In this matter, the experience of other men
in other localities, even though they be but a few miles distant,
is not of much value. A locality may support 200 or 300 colonies
splendidly one season, when 50 would nearly starve the next.

About the best advice that can be offered is to begin with a
moderate number and gradually increase until the average pro-
duction per colony is no longer profitable, or rather until it
would be more profitable to divide the bees into two separate
yards three or four miles apart.

If one happens to have a location where fruit bloom is
abundant for early brood rearing, followed by a large acreage
of white and sweet clover, with a liberal supply of fall pasturage,
he can keep a large number of colonies profitably in a single yard.
As a general rule, the number of colonies kept in a single yard in
the Central West is thought best not to exceed 100. However,

PRIOR RIGHTS 33

Frank Coverdale, at Delmar, Iowa, had 300 colonies in one yard.
He formerly kept his bees in several outyards, in deference to
the general idea that the locality could be easily overstocked. He
found a great saving in time and expense in having the bees all
at home, where they could be under constant supervision.

At Center Point, Iowa, S. W. Snyder, secretary of the Iowa
Bee-Keeper's Association, kept more than 200 colonies in one
yard. About two miles distant another bee-keeper had nearly
250 colonies in one yard. Thus there were nearly 500 colonies
within two miles. In the town of Maquoketa, Iowa, there were
several apiaries, some of which had more than 150 colonies each
Within a mile or two outside there were several more apiaries*
thus bringing the total number of colonies much above that com-
monly thought to be profitable. Yet in all the above-mentioned
cases the yields were very satisfactory.

A number of instances have been published where from 500
to 700 colonies have been kept in one yard, in the States of New
York, Idaho and California.

Apparently, the number of honey-producing blossoms avail-
able for early brood rearing, and during the season of greatest
dearth, have an important bearing on the number of colonies that
can be supported through the year. During a heavy flow from
any source, it seems at times that thousands of colonies could
find support. If an insufficient supply of honey and pollen is
available to support the colony during long periods of compara-
tive idleness, the available stores will be too heavily drawn upon
for support, and the number of colonies should be reduced for
profit.

In many localities a few colonies will make a very good show-
ing, when a substantial increase in the number will so reduce
the average per colony that they are no longer profitable.

Prior Rights.— It is a common trait "of human nature to
crowd m where some one else has found a profitable opening of
any kind. It very frequently happens that when a bee-keeper

g4 SOURCES OF NECTAR

has become established in a locality that produces good yields,
others will locate within a short distance of his apiaries, and
the number of colonies brought in will so reduce the surplus
secured .that no one will get satisfactory returns. This is not
only short-sighted business policy on the part of the newcomer,
but very unjust as well. While a bee-keeper has no way to estab-
lish a legal right to the bee pasturage, it would seem that the first
man on the ground should have some moral rights that should be
respected. Indeed, there has come to be an unwritten law among
bee-keepers that does respect the rights of the man already
located. Unfortunately this unwritten law is not always recog-
nized, and much friction sometimes develops as a result. The
only remedy is to move to a new locality, or be patient until the
newcomer will realize that there is not room enough for two, and
move on in search of richer fields.

THE BEE AS A POI.LENIZING AGENT

The value of the honey-bee in the pollenation of blossoms has
come to be so generally recognized that commercial fruit growers
and gardeners are anxious to secure the location of an apiary
near their plantings. Since Darwin laid down the law that
nature abhors self-fertilization, there has been much study of
the problems of cross-fertilization and the agents that serve to
accomplish nature's purpose in the distribution of pollen. While
there are numerous butterflies, wasps, wild bees and other in-
sects that assist in the work, the honey-bee, because of its greater
abundance, and because it can be readily controlled, has come to
be recognized as the most valuable agent for certain plants.

In this connection a quotation from Dr. Burton N. Gates, of
the Massachusetts Agricultural College, will serve to show the
present recognition of this fact by well-known authorities.^

The value of the honey-bee in cranberry cultivation has but recently-
been recognized. The cranberry industry of Massachusetts, for instance, is

» " The Value of Bees in Horticulture," by Burton N. Gates, in 3rd
Annual Report, State Bee Inspector of Iowa, 1914.

ORCHARDISTS REALIZE THE VALUE OF BEES §5

worth between one million and a million and a half dollars annuallv It

ail ' Dr t::Tr ''%' i? ^^^*^'" 3'-rs certain part« of the cranbe? y^og
tail. Dr Franklin, at the experimental bog in Massachusetts has carrieH

^n.hn-f ^h%f^'i"/e of bogs or parts of bogs may be attributed to the
nabihty or lack of bees to work the blossoms while the vines are in bloom
It has been shown too, that the inability of bees to visit these bogs was
of the br'^wr'.'"?' '''' P--1— of -"^ds or coldness fn thS pa?
of the bog With the large number of blossoms which are produced on
cranberry vines, it was also established that bees maintained purposely for
their service in pollenation were an insurance to cranberry growers who
are now maintaining apiaries in proportion to the size of tiieir^bor

In Cucumber Growing.—The cucumber has been mentioned In"Massa-
S 1, ".,"''"* ^'"'.h '"^"'"^^^ growing under glass ha devlped

prof ss Ve" I7:i\ ''T'f" '}'' PJ""'^" ^^ "^"^' ^ -o^t laborfous
process. Bees were later introduced and found to be indispensable esnp
cially m the larger commercial houses. One grower, for "nSce has fo?tv
acres under glass. Taking the industry in Mlssach^setts as a whok ft re
quires between two and three thousand colonies of bees annuaUy to serve
in the cucumber greenhouses. These colonies are largely reduced by the
extremely unfavorable conditions of greenhouse life, so that cucumber
freTnh<fuse"s ""''" '^"'"'^ *'^' ''' ^^^"^^^^-^ -^^ bees purposely for
A $3800 Crop Due to Bees.~l have in mind a specific instance reported
by one of our Agricultural Experiment Stations. In one of the Western

?im ar lo'ca'tfon "'I ^^^^^t^- "^^'^ ''''''^'''' '' ^^^^^ equal acreage, of
similar location and age, each in a "pocket" in the foothills of an ad

Sard hn ",;' '^•f',^'^^'^ ^^^" drained and protected from fost. One or

tSh Jlie tZ I ^"' ^"f ^^^ir y'^''' '" ^'^ °th«^ tl'^'-e was no crop, al
though the trees blossom heavily each spring. In despair of financial ruin

oliT"/''/'^ the assistance of a sWExperime^nt Station 1 pom-'
ologist and entomologist was sent, who examined critically all the conditions
n each of the orchards. He was about to return withou^t solv nAhe prob

0 lelive witlout'fn'r ^""' ''"• ^^ *^" experiment station mL v^as 'about
to leave without finding any apparent reason for failure lie chanced to spp
a stream coming in one of the orchards from underneath a ni^e of swale
S^ng-^r^— ^^^ ^tnSle-t^afifSS
ot;e^?^thrneiTgro^nt:cTo7 "-' '^ ''^ ^^'^^"^ ^^^

Orchardists Realize the Value of Bees.-There has been a
marked change in sentiment on the part of the fruit growers
during the past few years, since they have come to realize the
value of the bees in their orchards. Not many years ago frequent
attempts were reported of trying to secure the removal of the

86 SOURCES OF NECTAR

bees from the vicinity of orchards, on the plea that the bees
injured the fruit. Even yet cases are sometimes reported of the
supposed injury of grapes by the bees. It has been so often
demonstrated that the bees cannot injure sound fruit that there
is no need to state the proof here. There are times, when the
bees are finding no nectar, v^^hen they become very annoying
by seeking the orchards and vineyards in search of the juice of
fruits that have been injured by other insects or birds. At such
times they become so troublesome that there is some ground
for complaint, although they do no real injury to fruit.

The misunderstanding between the bee-keepers and fruit
growers is very happily being cleared up, so that it is only now
and then in the case of some fellow who is behind the times that
trouble of this kind occurs.

On the other hand, horticulturists are loud in the praise of
the honey-bee, and hundreds of testimonials as to her value in the
fruit plantation could be cited. In an article " The Development
of the Apple from the Flower," that recently appeared in " Better
Fruit," O. M. Osborne, of the Horticultural Department of the
State Normal School of Idaho, made the following statement :

Without the aid of the bees but very little, if any, pollen would ever
reach the stigma, for the pollen of the apple is a trifle sticky, and, unlike
that of the corn tassel, ragweed, and several other familiar plants which
are powdery, it cannot be distributed by the wind.

Since the horticultural authorities generally have come to
realize the true place of the honey-bee in the orchard, old preju-
dices have quickly been broken down, with the result that progres-
sive fruit growers, in many cases, are ready to offer some substan-
tial inducement to the apiarist to locate near their plantations.
Unfortunately, a few fruit men are still inclined to spray their
trees while in bloom, greatly to the disadvantage of the bee-
keeper. The horticultural authorities, here again, are coming to
the rescue of the bees, and are showing wherein it is to the dis-
advantage of the fruit grower to spray during this period, because
of possible injury to the fruit crop, as well as to the bees.

QUESTIONS g7

QUESTIONS

1. Discuss the importance of a good location.

2. Note the difference in nectar secretion of the same plant under differ-

ent conditions.

3. How is the system of honey production affected by the locality'

4. Uutline m general the clover region; the alfalfa region. "

5. At what season are pollen-bearing plants most valuable and why'
b. Discuss honey-dew and its origin. ^ '

7. What are the principal sources of early pollen'

8. Of what value is fruit bloom to the honey producer'

9. What class of honey is highest in quality and highest in price?

11 fn wW . '' ^l"*'!^ f"'^ '"""^'^'^ *h^ varieties of greatest value.
11. In what sections is buckwheat of importance?

]o ^n""^ !°™^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ furnish honey in abundance.
U. What fall flowers add to the bee-keeper's revenue'
14. Discuss the plants restricted to small areas,
lo. Mention some plants of value for pollen only.

16. Discuss bitter and poisonous honeys.

17. Note the problems of overstocking a locality

18. Of what value is the honey-bee as a pollenizing agent?

CHAPTER VI
OCCUPANTS OF THE HIVE

One of the most fascinating studies in all creation is the
social insect world. Bees, ants, wasps, and termites all have
a good deal in common. The bee, because of its practical value,
has attracted more attention than any of the others. Well it
may, for the social life of the community is none the less inter-
esting because of the fact that the honey and wax produced may
be made to support the investigator in comfort while he is pur-
suing his studies.

This volume is designed to be a practical book, and so it
would hardly be the place to go into detail, except in so far as the
knowledge may be applied to practical purposes, Maeterlinck
has indulged his fancy in dealing with this phase of the honey-
bee with the result that he has produced a most interesting story,
based upon the specialized social life of the hive. There is
much of truth as well as poetry in that wonderful book, which has
perhaps been more widely read than any other volume ever writ-
ten about the bee.

The Queen. — The life of the hive centers in the queen (Fig.
4G), the mother of the community. Apparently her only duty
is to produce eggs in large numbers, that the colony may be per-
petuated, and that the inmates may be sufficiently numerous to
enable them to store enough honey to meet the needs of adverse
seasons in summer as well as the long period of cold, dreary
winter. She rarely leaves the hive except on her mating trip
and to accompany a swarm. Most of her life is spent in the
hive, quietly attending to her duties. Apparently the egg from
which she hatches is no different from any of the thousands of
others that produce workers. The marvelous physical change
that takes place when an egg is taken from a worker cell and
88

THE QUEEN gg

reared in a queen cell is one of the most striking studies in the
result of environment. Only sixteen days are required for the
queen to reach maturity from the time the egg is laid, while the
worker requires twenty-one. The queen is much longer in shape
and looks to be one-third to one-half larger than the worker.
The queen lacks the wax-secreting organs of the worker, while
her own sexual organs are fully developed. She lacks the pollen

— .. •^, ,..«!

''h«rSr"p?° ^^^"h.'? * newly made comb. The queen can be recognized by
her greaier length (see arrow) and the circle of attendants facing her.

baskets and brushes which are conspicuous in the worker. True
enough she would have no possible use for any means of carrying
pollen or secreting wax in her work of being a mother to a family
of a few hundred thousand offspring during her lifetime. Never
theless, as far as can be seen, the physical changes are entirely
the result of a change of environment. The queen will remain
in the hive, so her eyes are not nearly so well developed. She
has no need to discover the distant fields of clover. Her life will

90

OCCUPANTS OF THE HIVE

be much longer as a mother than had she developed into a
worker. The life of a queen may be from one to five years.

Queen cells somewhat resemble peanuts in shape (Fig. 47).
Three days pass from the time the egg is placed in the cell until
it hatches into a tiny white larva. The little larva is provided

Fia. 47. — Natural-built queen cells.

with a liberal quantity of royal jelly on which it feeds. At the
end of six days the larval growth is completed and the cell is
sealed. Seven days are required to complete the transformations
from a larva to a mature queen bee, and the cell is opened from
within, and the queen appears upon the comb. Warmer or colder
weather may slightly influence the period of development, so that
it may be a little longer or a little shorter, but sixteen days is

THE QUEEN QX

recognized as the normal period of development from the egg to
maturity.

The instincts of the newly emerged queen are very different
from those of the newly emerged worker. The worker mingles
freely with her fellows without the slightest hostile action. The
newly emerged queen begins at once to search for possible rivals.
Should there be other queen cells, she will at once destroy
them, if unmolested by the workers. Should the colony be
preparing to swarm, the unemerged queens will bo protected
by a guard of workers. Ordinarily the needs of the colony are
met by a single vigorous queen, and she promptly dispatches any
others, either mature or in the cells. On one occasion the
author observed three young queens to emerge almost simul-
taneously. They immediately gave battle, and but a few
moments elapsed until they were in a death grip.

It sometimes happens that an old and failing queen will
remain m the hive for a time with the daughter who will later
supersede her. Apparently then there is no antagonism between
them, for the mother in the very nature of things must shortly
die Just why there is such a change in the attitude toward
each other in cases of this kind is hard to understand.

Usually when the queen is from five to seven days old she
departs on her wedding flight. The mating takes place in the
air during the warm period of the day, when the drones fly in
greatest numbers. The organs of the male are torn violently
away, and carried back to the hive by the newly impregnated
queen. The entire content of the male seminal fluid is absorbed
by the queen, who retains it in a special sac, where it continues
to fertilize the eggs during the life of the queen mother. It is
no longer questioned among practical bee-keepers that the queen
mates but once, and that one impregnation is sufficient for life.

One of the most remarkable things in the life of the bee is
the fact that an impregnated queen may produce at will either
male or female offspring, while the unimpregnated queen pro-
duces male offspring. Apparently, the eggs from which drones

92

OCCUPANTS OF THE HIVE

are hatched are never impregnated in either case. When Dzier-
zon first discovered tliis fact, which is called " parthenogenesis,"
his newly formulated theory of the ability of virgin mothers to
produce male offspring was ridiculed as impossible. However,
his observations were later confirmed by careful observers, and
of late it is regarded as a settled fact, rather common among
insects.

A vigorous queen will lay more than her own, weight of eggs
daily during the height of the season. Nurse bees wait upon

Fig. 48. — Worker beed on the comb.

her constantly, and feed her freely with highly nutritious and
ready digested food.

The Worker. — Upon the worker bees (Fig. 48) devolve all
the labor of the hive. A lifetime of toil is their normal portion.
Building the combs, gatliering the nectar and pollen to furnish
food for tlie commimity, secreting the wax, feeding the queen
and drones as well, nursing the young bees, guarding the hive
against robbers, and carrying out refuse to kee-p the home clean
are a part of the manifold duties that they are called upon to
perform.

By inheritance the worker is apparently in every way similar

THE WORKER

93

to the queen, but the difference in environment under which she
develops, makes of her a very different creature. The practical
apiarist takes advantage of this fact to utilize the eggs and larv«
from worker cells to rear queens in large numbers when such are
desirable. The worker is reared in the ordinary cell in which
honey is stored. The close confinement of the narrow cell de-
prives her of normal sexual development, and she is incapable of
mating and of normal sex life. In addition to the larger cell
occupied by the queen larv.T, the richer food, royal jelly, seems
to have a great bearing on the difference in development.'

It is now generally agreed that the newly emerged bees are
first occupied with the duties within the hive, such as comb
building and nursing of the young. Later they go to the fields
to gatlier honey and pollen, and thus continue to the end of life.
It is probable that under normal conditions the young workers
do not go to the fields until they are from two to three weeks
old. During the honey flow the average length of life among the
workers is short, probably not much more than six weeks, while
those hatched late in summer after the harvest is gathered may
live until the following spring.

Twenty-one days is the usual period of development, from
the time the egg is laid until the worker leaves the cell Three
days are required for the hatching of the egg, six days are spent
m the larval period, and twelve days within the cocoon after the
cell is sealed. This period varies slightly according to conditions
of heat or cold, or possibly because of other abnormal conditions
A newly emerged bee is easily recognized by her small size
and velvety appearance. One is reminded of a baby just learn-
ing to walk, by the uncertain attitude of the youngster. On
sunny afternoons large numbers of the young bees will be seen
m flight about the hive. These play spells are often mistaken
lor evidence of robbing by the novice. When brood-rearing is
at Its height, a pint or more of young bees will be emerging
every day to replace the old bees, which are wearing out in field
work. When they are about a week old, they take a flight to

94 OCCUPANTS OF THE HIVE

try their wings and to learn something of the location of the hive
and surroundings. The first trip to the honey field will not be
taken until later.

Fertile Workers. — Occasionally, in a queenless colony, a
worker will develop to the point of laying eggs. As she is incapa-
ble of mating, her offspring will all be drones, which are of no
value to the hive and the colony will soon perish. Fertile workers
lay here and there over the comb with little regularity. Some-
times several eggs will be found in the same cell, and the
next cells will be empty. That the offspring are drones will be
evidenced by the high arched cappings, like rifle bullets, which
are peculiar to drone brood.

Much has been written about methods of saving colonies
with fertile workers, but the productive bee-keeper will have little
time to bother with them. As a rule, the best plan is to unite
the colony at once with another which has a good queen and
thus save what bees are left. If fertile workers are present,
several are usually to be found in the same hive.

When the worker has served her purpose in life and can no
longer render a service to the community, she will still persist
in going to the field until she dies, or if she refuse to do so
will be dragged from the hive in the most merciless manner by
the busy sisters, whose only thought is for the prosperity of the
community. With the social insects, such as the honey-bee, the
community is everything, while the individual receives little
consideration.

Under normal conditions, a colony of bees will consist of per-
haps 20,000 workers, a single queen, and a few dozen or possibly
a few hundred drones. The number of drones will depend largely
upon the kind of bee-keeper in whose apiary they reside. A very
prolific queen with plenty of room, and otherwise favorable con-
ditions, will produce such large numbers of eggs that possibly
50,000 or more bees may be present at one time. Under unfavor-
able conditions the colony may be reduced down to the point

FERTILE WORKERS

95

where but a few hundred bees remain, and yet be revived with
careful attention.

The Drone. — The sole purpose that the drone (Fig. 49)
serves is the perpetuation of the species. As one mating is
sufficient for the entire life period of the queen, except in rare
instances when the first mating is not a complete one, not one
drone in a hundred will ever have opportunity to serve the pur-
pose for which nature designed him. The over-abundance of
drones is a severe tax on the production of the hive. Nature
provides for emergencies by producing large numbers of drones,
to insure the presence of a male at the time and place of emer-
gence of a virgin queen. In a
large apiary, however, where
many colonies are present, there
is little danger but that this need
will be met even though the bee-
keeper take great care to reduce
the production of drones to the
minimum. Drones appear in
the hive during the productive
period of the summer. In
April or May when brood rear-
ing is active they will be seen
and will continue about the apiary until the close of the honey
flow in late fall, unless there is a dearth of nectar, when they will
be summarily driven from the hive to perish.

The drones are reared in cells of the same shape as the worker
cells (Fig. 50). They are, however, somewhat larger in size,
and the cappings are raised like rifle bullets. These high arched
cappings will show at a glance the presence of drone brood in
the hive.

The practical bee-keeper reduces the available space for
drone brood to the minimum by using full sheets of foundation
in all brood frames. Where full sheets are used there will be but
little drone comb built. A few cells here and there in the corners

Fig. 49. — Drones.

96 OCCUPANTS OP THE HIVE

and along the bottom bars will provide sufficient space for the
rearing of plenty of drones for all practical purposes. If the
bees are allowed to build at will they are quite likely to build
large quantities of drone comb. This is especially likely to occur
in eoloiiios where the (jueen is old or not very productive.

Fia. 50. — Comb3 showing queen cells and capped drone and worker brood.

A new colony with a vigorous queen will frequently fill the
hive with worker comb, because the queen occupies the space as
fast as built and fills every available cell with an eg^. As soon
as they have built sufficient for the queen's immediate needs,
they are likely to begin to build drone comb. Apparently it is
easier to construct and does not tax the bees quite as heavily.

THE DRONE 97

In neglected apiaries it is not uncommon to find hives with
from one-fourth to more than one-half of the comb surface com-
posed of drone cells. This insures that a large number of drones
will be reared during the active season. A surplus of drones
who are loafers and consumers instead of producers will turn
what might have been a profitable colony into a non-producer,
or even one that will require feed to winter successfully.

These male bees consume quantities of stores, not only during
the period of their development, but in the mature state as well.
They are helpless fellows, not even able to feed themselves.

The drone is much larger and heavier in appearance than a
worker. He has aptly been called a corpulent fellow. He has
no sting and flies with a loud buzz, which tends to frighten the
novice who is unable to recognize his true character. The period
of development is longer than that of either the queen or the
worker. Three days is the period required for the egg to hatch
as with the others. About seven days are spent in the larval
period, and fourteen days elapse from the time the cells are
sealed until the transformation is complete.

The act of copulation is fatal to the drone. As previously
stated, the organs of generation remain attached to the queen for
several hours, until the entire supply of seminal fluid enters
the sac of the queen. After this is accomplished the attendant
workers remove the parts from her.

The life term of the drone is very uncertain. If conditions are
favorable he may live for several weeks, or maybe months, until
by chance his life is terminated by meeting with a queen, or
perhaps by accident. Otherwise he may live until the close
of the honey harvest leads his provident sisters to accomplish
his destruction. While the worker may sometimes sting the
drones to death, it seems to be more often accomplished by sim-
ply refusing to provide them with food, and by driving them
from the hive when they soon perish.

^ Drone traps are on the market to enable the bee-keeper to
reduce the number of boarders in the hives. However, it is much

98 OCCUPANTS OF THE HIVE

better to prevent breeding them in the first place, as the food
provided in rearing them together with the labor of the nurse
bees is all lost. Combs composed largely of drone cells should
either be used as extracting combs above a queen excluder or else
rendered into wax and replaced with sheets of foundation. The
productive bee-keeper can ill afford to divide his profits with
useless drones.

RACES OF BEES

Italians. — While there are a considerable number of races
of bees, those commonly known in this country are all that need
be considered in a work of this kind. First and foremost among
them may be mentioned the Italian, which is generally recog-
nized as the most valuable under the conditions of this country.
These bees have become so widely distributed in many parts
of the country that together with their crosses, commonly spoken
of as hybrids, they are about the only bees to be found in many
localities.

There is considerable difference in the appearance of the
various strains of Italians. The three banded strains are usually
regarded as more desirable, although the goldens are highly
regarded as well.

Pure Italians are usually very gentle, are more resistent of
disease, especially European foul brood, than other races, and
also repel the wax moth much more effectively.

These bees have been tried under so many conditions, by so
many bee-keepers all over the country, that they may well be
regarded as entitled to first place in popular esteem.

Cyprians. — For a time the Cyprians were quite the rage.
They came from the island of Cyprus. They resemble the Ital-
ians, but are much more difficult to control. In fact they are so
cross that most bee-keepers have discarded them, and queens of
this race are seldom offered for sale.

Common Black or German Bees. — This seems to have been
the original stock first imported into America, and which became

QUESTIONS 99

common everywhere before other races were introduced. Ac-
cordingly, more or less of this stock is likely to be found in any
locality. As above stated, the Italians have been so extensively
cultivated in many regions that the blacks are no longer pure,
but are only found mixed with Italians.

They are not nearly as gentle as the Italians. ITeither do
they resist disease or moths with much success. When the hive
is opened, they rush here and there with such nervous haste as to
be very disconcerting to the bee-keeper. The queens are very
difficult to find, and taken altogether they are unsatisfactory bees
to handle on a commercial scale.

Carniolans.— The Camiolans somewhat resemble the blacks
in color, although the bands are more distinct. They are gentle
like the Italians, and are quite popular in some localities. The
principal objection to them is the excessive swarming propensity.
They rear large quantities of brood as the queens are very pro-
lific. They are said to be well adapted to high altitude® where
nighta are cold.

Caucasians.— These bees resemble the common blacks so
closely that the novice will find it difficult to tell the one from
the other. They are, however, a gentle race, and have a few
champions who assert that they are the best bees ever introduced.
It is a pretty safe rule in the average American locality to
depend upon the Italian, unless some other race has been suc-
cessfully tried in the neighborhood. It is only fair to say, how-
ever, that no other race has been tried under such widely different
conditions as has the Italian. It is possible that with an equal
opportunity to demonstrate their good qualities, either the Cau-
casian or Carniolan races may rival them for popular favor.

QUESTIONS

1. Describe the life history of the queen and note her peculiarities

2. In what respect do the workers differ from the queen"
<i. Discuss fertile workers.

i' S*? Vr 'i^.l'^story of the drone and tell something of his habits

5. Note the difference in the three kinds of cells in wh?ch queens drones

and workers are reared. 4"««"s, orones

6. Tell something of the different races of bees.

CHAPTER VII
INCREASE

One of the perplexing problems to the beginner is that of
securing increase without loss of a honey crop. The control of
natural swarming ig probably the most difficult problem that
the bee-keeper has to solve in the average locality. Certain plans
will work all right for several years, until the bee-keeper begins
to congratulate himself on having learned the secret, when sud-
denly they will swarm in spite of the best possible attention and
once the swarming fever is on they are likely to keep it up until
he is nearly beside himself.

Natural Swarming.— There has been much written about
why bees swarm, and the control of conditions that lead to
swarming. It should be remembered that with bees and other
social insects the community is the unit, rather than the indi-
vidual. The workers are incapable of reproduction, and accord-
ingly no matter how great an increase there may be in their
numbers in a hive, it is but temporary, and makes no permanent
difference in perpetuation of the species. Swarming is then the
expression of the instinct of procreation or increase.

Normally, the bees will swarm at about the height of the
honey flow, when natural conditions favor the establishment of
the new colony. As a rule, nearly enough honey will have been
brought to the old hive to carry the colony through the winter, and
at this season the new swarm will be able to establish itself with
a minimum of danger. While the natural effect tends toward
the safety of the bees, the practical effect to the bee-keeper is to
divide his colonies at the time when greatest profit may accrue
from large colonies, and results in increase of bees at the expense
of the honey crop. The thing the bee-keeper should strive to
do is to make his increase either before the honey flow begins
or when it is nearly over, so that he will get both increase and
a crop.
100

CLIPPING THE QUEENS XOl

Certain conditions favor natural swarming, as, for instance
small hives that are soon filled with brood and honey, leaving
the queen little room in which to lay, and the workers no place
to store the incoming nectar. The old-time bee-keeper usually
placed but one super on top of the hives and when that was full
took it off and replaced it with another. As a matter of course,
when the hive became crowded the bees began to hang out in
large clusters for want of room, and the owner decided that they
were preparing to swarm, which they usually did before many
days. The practical apiarist will not tolerate this hanging
out. He knows that, as a rule, either the bees are crowded for
room, or there is not sufficient ventilation.

If on examination he finds an abundance of room for storao-e
he gives a larger entrance, or, if the weather is very hot, even
lifts the hive off the bottom board a half inch or more and
supports it on blocks at each corner.

A heavy honey flow seems to act as a check on swarming,
and in localities where the honey flow comes on with a rush and
continues heavy during the principal period of nectar secretion,
there will be less difficulty in controlling swarming. In such
localities, if the bees are furnished with plenty of room in which
to store the honey, and the brood nest is large enough to permit the
queen to continue her activities, the bees will apparently have no
instinct but to gather honey as rapidly as possible. If the flow
stops suddenly, there may even be little if any swarming. On
the other hand, in most of the northern States, where there is a
light flow from fruit bloom and dandelion in advance of the
clover flow, the bees are likely to be swarming full tilt at about
the beginning of the best flow.

Clipping the Queens.— It is a common practice among apiar-
ists to clip the wings of the queens to prevent their escaping with
the swarms. If the bee-keeper is constantly on hand this plan
works very well. When the swarm issues and the air is full
of bees, the bee-keeper goes to the hive from which they have
issued and usually will have little trouble in finding the queen

102 INCREASE

moving about in front of the hive. It is then an easy matter
to place her safely in a cage, and to remove the old hive from
which the swarm issued and put a new one ready for the swarm in
its place. If the bees cluster in a convenient place they may be
shaken into a basket and dumped in front of the new hive at
once, and the queen released and allowed to run in with them.
Usually, the bees will shortly miss the queen and return to the
old location of their own accord, and when they begin to enter
the hive the queen may be released. This is a very easy manner
of hiving swarms when the owner is in the yard when they issue.
If no one is present when the swarm comes out, even though they
be found while still clustered, it will be difficult to find the
place from which they came, in a large apiary, and the swarm is
likely to return before the queen is found. Colonies that are not
permitted to swarm naturally are likely to come out again with
a young queen, with which they will make off to distant scenes.

Clipping is a decided advantage where large trees are near
the apiary, as it is a difficult and unpleasant task to capture a
swarm that has clustered in the top of some tall tree, perhaps
forty feet from the ground.

There is another advantage in having clipped queens; one
can tell the age of every queen in the yard if records are kept.
If the queen is a clipped one and is superseded, the attendant
will notice the fact the first time he looks in the hive, as the young
queen will of course not be clipped. If none of the queens are
clipped, it will frequently happen that a queen will be super-
seded without the knowledge of the bee-keeper.

Cutting Out Cells. — Some practice cutting out queen cells
as a sole means of swarm prevention. At best this is an unsatis-
factory plan. To be successful, every frame in every hive must
be examined every eight days during the season. This entails
so much work that it is almost entirely out of the question in a
large apiary. An occasional cell will be overlooked and the bees
will swarm in spite of the best attention.

If the bees have cast a natural swarm, one can then examine

HIVING THE SWAELMS

103

the brood nest and cut out all queen cells but one. There will
then be little danger of further swarming. (See Swarm Control
under Comb Honey, Chapter IX. )

In small apiaries, operated as a side line, natural swarming
will often prove to be the most desirable plan of increasing. If
the bees are run for comb honey, the number of colonies are likely
to double each favorable
season, and sometimes
there will be more than
double the number of col-
onies at the close of the
season that there were in
the beginning. The exten-
sive honey producer who
makes bee-keeping a busi-
ness, however, will wish to
look for more certain meth-
ods of making increase.

Hiving the Swarms. —
Hiving the swarms is
usually a very simple mat-
ter. If the queens are
clipped the hive from
which the swarm issued
may be removed, and the
swarm allowed to return to
the new hive set in its place
as mentioned in a preced-
ing paragraph.

If the queens are not clipped, the swarm will be likely to
settle on a tree or on some other object near at hand. Small
fruit trees about the apiary furnish the best clustering places,
as the swarms can be taken down very readily ( Figs. 51 and 52)
If a comb contaming brood is placed in the new hive, there is
less danger that they will come out again and leave Every

-Hiving swarm in straw skep in Europe.

104 INCREASE

bee-keeper of experience has lost swarms after thinking they
were safely hived. Sometimes they will remain in the hive until
the following day and then abscond. This is more frequently
the case with after swarms. There is less trouble where the hive
is placed in a cool, shady place.

Apparently as soon as a swarm is out, scouts go in search
of a new location. It is well to hive the bees as soon as possible
after they have clustered, and to move the hive to the place where
it is expected to remain as soon as they are quietly settled, to
avoid, if possible, the upsetting of the bee-keeper's plans by the
return of enthusiastic scouts. At times a swarm will remain
clustered for hours, and even over night, and be content when
hived, while at other times they will leave with little ceremony
within a few minutes. That scouts are searching for new quar-
ters for days in advance of the issuance of the swarm, is evidenced
by the fact that bees will be found in large numbers about an
empty hive, or other available place for two or three days, when
suddenly a large swarm will come in and take possession.

As soon as the cluster is formed, a sheet may be spread on
the ground and the new hive set on it. The bees may be shaken
on top of the frames or in front of the entrance (Figs. 53 and
54). As soon as a few bees go in they set up a joyful humming
that attracts the others, and soon they will be moving in rapidly.
If the queen gets inside all is likely to be well, but if she gets
lost they will come tumbling out again within a few minutes.
If swarms cluster in the top of tall trees, there is no way but to
climb for them. They may be let down in a large basket with a
rope tied to the handles.

The Alexander Plan. — The Alexander plan of making in-
crease has come into general use in so many apiaries that no
better plan, perhaps, can be offered.

When the colonies are nearly strong enough to swarm natur-
ally, remove the colony to be divided from its stand, and put
in its place a hive containing combs or frames of foundation.
Remove the center comb from the new hive, and exchange it for
a frame of brood from the old hive. Find the queen and put

pIS" «~^*'I^®V^^V«* 8warm catcher.

*IQ. 53. — Newly hived swarm.

Fio. 34.— Swarm caught in a sack, running into the hive.

106 INCREASE

her on this comh of brood in the new hive. Care should be used
to see that no queen cells are left. On top of the new hive which
contains the queen and the empty combs, place a queen excluder
and set the old hive on top of it. After about five days look
over the combs carefully, and if queen cells are started above
the excluder the old hive should then be removed to a new loca-
tion. If no cells are started the bees may be left until all young
larvae are capped, when they can be removed. At the end of
twenty-four hours after removing the hive to the new location it
should be provided with a queen or a ripe cell. Mr. Alexander
preferred giving a laying queen, so that no time would be lost.
He reported that with him this method entirely prevented
swarming. His plan was to make the increase early in spring,
as soon as the colonies were strong enough, but in many locali-
ties the divided colonies could not build up in time for the clover
flow, and the crop would be short as a result. In such localities
the division should be made toward the close of the main flow.
A Somewhat Similar Plan. — A very common practice in use
for half a century is to take a single frame of brood from a
strong colony and place this frame, together with the queen and
frame of honey, in a new hive and add combs or frames of founda-
tion to fill up the remaining space. The old hive is then removed
to a new location, and the new hive placed on the original stand.
The field bees will return to the queen in the new hive, on the
old stand. This plan should only be undertaken in very warm
weather, when there is less danger of loss of the hatching larvae.
The only difference between this plan and the one above described
is that in this case the division is made at once instead of leaving
the young bees over the new hive for a few days until the larvae
have been capped over. There is a greater loss of bees by this
method than the former one, unless the operation is carefully
performed, as there are not likely to be enough nurse bees left
in the hive to care for the young larvae. Divisions without pro-
vision for caring for all the young brood are expensive, and not
to be recommended. If the colony is disturbed as little as pos-

DIVISIONS WITHOUT QUEENS JQ?

sible in the operation, and the hive only opened to find and
remove the queen and to take out the frame of brood that is
exchanged for an empty comb, many of the bees will remain in
the hive and there will be little if any loss of brood. The brood
combs should be pushed together and the empty one placed at the
outside of the hive, rather than to divide the brood nest. A
queen should be provided for the new colony as soon as possible
Divisions without Queens.— It is far more profitable to pro-
vide each new division with a queen, or at least a ripe queen cell
as soon as possible. However, it often happens that some in-
crease is desired when no queens or cells are available. If the
bee-keeper will plan ahead, cells may easily be raised by the
Miller method as described on page 122.

If one wishes to make a division without providing a queen,
it may be done as follows: From your best colony take a frame
of brood, being sure that eggs and newy hatched larvge are pres-
ent. Add empty combs or frames of foundation as in the other
cases described, to fill up the space in a new hive. In the middle
of the day, when bees are flying freely, remove your strongest
colony without opening the hive or disturbing them more than
IS necessary some distance away, and place the new hive with a
frame of brood, but no queen, where the strong colony stood.
The field force from the latter colony returning to their old loca-
tion will make the best of the situation, and proceed to rear a
queen from the young larva^, and by fall there will be a strong
colony if conditions are favorable. The old colony which has
been removed will lose their field force, and consequently will
require some time to build up to normal condition again.

Another plan is to divide the brood from a strong colony in^o
two parts, placing half of the frames in the old hive and the
rest m a new hive. Both hives are filled up with empty combs or
frames of foundation. No attention is paid to the queen but
care is used that eggs and very young larv£e are present in 'both
hives. The two hives are then set closely together, side by side
on the old stand, each occupying about half of the original space

108 INCREASE

The field force will be about equally divided between the two
hives. The one in which the old queen remains will build up
much more rapidly than the colony that must rear a new one.
While this plan may serve in an emergency, it is not to be recom-
mended for general practice, as are none of the plans of increas-
ing without additional queens, as too much time and energy is
lost on the part of the colony in replacing the queen. If the
honey crop is not to be considered, and increase alone is desired,
then these plans might be permissible, but even for this purpose
so much greater results can be obtained by rearing the queens in
advance that it is the best practice.

Forming Nuclei. — When it is desirable to make increase in
quantity, the best plan, perhaps, is to break up strong colonies
for the purpose, and make as many divisions as possible without
hope of their gathering any surplus honey. In this way rapid
increase may be made with fairly satisfactory results.

To begin with, take the queen and one frame of brood from
a strong colony, and add another frame of sealed brood from
another colony, to give her enough bees with which to start house-
keeping. Place her with the frames in a new hive in a new
location, and shut the hive tight with grass to prevent her bees
from returning to their old stand. If the weather is extremely
hot there is danger of smothering, and in that case the bees can
be placed in the cellar instead. At the end of two or three days
if the bees have not gnawed out, the grass may be removed in the
evening, after the bees have stopped flying (Fig. 55).

After the queen is removed the old hive should not be dis-
turbed for several days. At the end of ten days the young brood
will all be sealed, so there is a minimum of danger of loss of
young bees. A number of ripe queen cells will also be present
in the hive. If there are six frames of brood, it may be divided
into three parts, placing two frames of brood in each hive. Care
should be used to see that each hive contains at least one good
queen cell. Empty frames may be added and the hives placed
in the cellar or closed up tight with grass as before for two or

FORMING NUCLEI

109

three days. The entrances should be opened at night after the
bees have stopped flying, to prevent a large part of the bees from
returning to the old stand. If the bees first get out late in the
evening, they will begin to carry out dead bees, and attend to
other housekeeping duties, and by morning will have become
accustomed to the new conditions, so that not nearly so many
will return to the old stand as will be the case if they are released
from confinement in the middle of the day. In this way four
colonies should be secured from the one.

Fia. 55. — Nuclei in queen-rearing apiary

It IS seldom profitable to attempt such divisions of small or
weak colonies, even in warm weather, as the amount of increase
secured is too small to be profitable. Rather should the colony
be left until it becomes strong before breaking it up. Rapid in-
crease can be made from populous colonies during a honey flow
but when no honey is being stored it is difficult to get the nuclei
to build up quickly, even though they be fed. One should always
expect several weeks of some kind of honey flow after making
mcrease.

In case of sudden check in nectar secretion for any reason,

110 INCREASE

the apiarist must be exceedingly careful or lie will lose mucli of
his newly made increase. Robbing is likely to be general when
no honey is coming in, and for this reason all entrances should
be contracted to about an inch in width or even less if the nuclei
are very small. Combs of honey should be provided to all these
weaklings to insure sufficient stores to enable them to continue
brood rearing. Even then, if no honey is coming in the queen
may stop laying and everything remain at a standstill until
the flow again begins. In order to avoid this undesirable con-
dition, it is well to feed a little sugar syrup each night after the
bees have stopped flying. It is almost impossible to feed during
the day when there is a dearth of nectar without starting robbing.
If the dearth continues for a long period the apiarist may find it
necessary to again unite his nuclei, and his labor will be for
naught.

Supplying Empty Combs. — When making divisions by any
of the above plans drawn combs should be supplied to fill out
the empty space in the hives if possible. Weak colonies should
not be taxed more than necessary in comb building. If drawn
combs are not at hand, full sheets of foundation should always
be used, for otherwise the comb built under such circumstances
will be mostly composed of drone cells and of no value in the
brood chamber. Drone comb is only valuable for storage pur-
poses and can only be used in the extracting supers. Frames
of drone comb in an apiary are always a nuisance, as the apiarist
must constantly be careful lest they be slipped into a brood nest
somewhere, or the queen going above into the extracting super
shall make use of them. Fig. 91 shows two combs illustrating
this point. The upper one is built on a full sheet of wired foun-
dation anJ is composed entirely of worker cells. The lower one
was built without foundation and is composed entirely of drone
cells.

If, as frequently happens, the apiarist has made too many
new colonies and they are not likely to reach the end of the season
in good condition, he can take a frame or two of brood from each

MAKING RAPID INCREASE m

Strong colony toward the end of the season and use them to
strengthen the little colonies that have been building up from
the nuclei formed from the earlier divisions. When the season
of honey production is nearly over, a frame of sealed brood may
be taken from a strong colony without injuring it in the least, as
the bees will emerge too late for the honey flow and the colony
will already be sufficiently strong to winter well. At the same
time emerging brood will do wonders for the weak ones if given
a short time before the honey flow ceases, and will be valuable
at any time.

If a large amount of increase is made in one season it will be
necessary to make a liberal allowance for expenses of queens, and
foundation, and considerable feeding of honey or sugar are also
likely to be necessary. Unless one has had considerable experi-
ence with bees, too rapid increase is likely to lead to disaster.
For the average person the Alexander plan is perhaps the safest
that can be recommended. It is better to undertake to make but
two colonies from one at most, unless it is done by experts of
long experience. If this division is made early and the two
colonies become strong again while there is a considerable period
of honey flow still to come, the same operation can be repeated
a second time, thus giving four colonies in all from one to start
with. There are important factors in making increase that are
not readily apparent to the novice, even though he read direc-
tions carefully, and he should be content to go slow and advance
surely rather than take the risk of closing the season with fewer
colonies that he began it with.

Making Rapid Increase.-The following account of Dr.
Miller 8 method of increasing from nine colonies to fifty-six in
one season will show the possibilities of making rapid increase
in a favorable season :

On June 12 the best queen in the apiary was taken from her
hive and placed on a set of empty combs. Her brood was removed
to the stand of another colony, which in turn was moved to a
new location. There were thus three colonies instead of two

112 INCREASE

The first had no brood, but the field bees would shortly return to
make a brood less colony. No. 2 had no queen but would get the
field force of No. 3, which had been moved to a new location
and would require some time to recuperate. Seven colonies still
remained which had not been touched. Each of these was exam-
ined, and wherever possible to spare a frame of brood it was
taken away and given to No. 1, which had no brood. To begin
with, he found only four frames, but this was given to the colony
which had been robbed of its brood, being set on the top in a new
hive body.

At the end of nine days a second visit was made. This time
No. 2, which had brood but no queen, was divided into two parts,
as by this time queen cells were present. The two nuclei were
set in new locations and the brood and bees again taken from
No. 1 and placed where No. 2 had been. The other seven colon-
ies were again visited and such brood as they could spare was
taken from them and given to No. 1. This plan was continued
through the season, always leaving the queen at No. 1, so that
the queen cells built on the combs in No. 2 were the offspring of
the best queen. No. 2 did not at any time have any queen but
was constantly building new cells and the other seven colonies
were constantly (every nine days) drawn on for brood to replen-
ish No. 1. In this way the colonies were at no time greatly
weakened, excepting the nuclei made from No. 2. This is a very
good plan of making rapid increase and at the same time a safe
one, for if conditions suddenly become unfavorable the operator
will not find himself with a large number of very weak colonies
on hand, which must be united or fed.

INTRODUCING QUEENS

In making increase artificially by any plan an extra queen
will be required to supply each new hive. If capped queen
cells are given, the bees are likely to realize their queenless con-
dition before the young queen emerges, so that she should be
accepted without difficulty. This is a very common plan of pro-

INTRODUCING QUEENS 113

voiding nuclei with queens, but several days' valuable time will be
lost which might be saved to advantage by the use of laying
queens if they are to be had.

It will be understood, of course, that the colony must be
queenless or the introduced queen will quickly be killed. Appar-
ently the bees recognize their queen by the odor common to all
inhabitants of the same hive. A new queen lacking this odor
will not be accepted. All methods of introduction depend for
their success upon either leaving the queen with the colony
long enough to acquire this odor before she is released, or creat-
ing some abnormal condition that will for the time being prevent
the bees from recognizing the hive odor. The smoke method,
water method, and several others come under this latter plan.

If an old queen is to be replaced, it is generally advised that
she must be removed from the hive at least twelve hours before
the new queen is introduced to give the bees time to miss her.
Usually not less than twenty-four hours is allowed to elapse before
requeening. Better results are likely to be obtained by requeen-
ing at once. If a queen cell is used the wait is desirable.

The novice will find it quite a task to locate the queen to be
removed, but after a little practice it soon becomes an easy matter
to find her. Gentle Italians usually remain quiet when the hive
is opened and one can readily find her by looking first on one
side and then on the other of the combs as they are removed
from the hive. She will usually be found on a frame containing
eggs and very young larvse.

Black and hybrid bees that begin running from one side of
the hive to the other as soon as it is opened, or boiling over the
top as it is commonly expressed, will offer greater difficulties.
It will sometimes be necessary to look the hive over from side to
side several times before finding the queen. Professor Francis
Jager recommends that the hive be opened very carefully and a
little smoke driven in at the entrance. The bees will at once
begm to boil over the tops of the frames and by looking there
for the queen she can often be found without removing a single

114

INCREASE

frame. This plan will not work well with Italians, for unless
greatly disturbed they do not run about much, but simply dive
into the cells and begin to take up a load of honey.

The Cage Method. — By far the most common method of in-
troduction is the cage method, and it is generally regarded as the

iller Queen Cage.

safest method as well. By this method the queen is confined in
a cage (Figs. 56 and 57) which may be placed between the
combs in the hive for two or three days before she is released.
If she comes by mail in the ordinary mailing cage there will be
a quantity of candy between the queen and the opening which is
closed by a cork. If the colony has not been queenless the cork

FiQ. 57. — Benton queen cage. This is the cage usually used for sending queens by mail

may be removed at once unless the candy is nearly eaten through,
in which case the cork had best be left in for a day or two.
Usually it will require two or three days for the bees to eat away
the candy and to release her. In the meantime she will have
acquired the common hive odor and the bees will have become
familiar with her, so tho+ there is little danger but that she will
be accepted.

MILLER SMOKE METHOD II5

Occasionally there is a colony, after being for some time
queenless or when there is a dearth of honey and the bees are
not in good temper, which will destroy the queen by whatever
method she be introduced. After a failure or two, one hesitates
to risk other valuable queens, and it seems advisable to unite
the bees with some other colony rather than to bother further
with them.

For use in the apiary where the precautions necessary in send-
ing bees by mail are not necessary, the Miller cage is commonly
used (Fig. 56). This cage has a larger opening. After the
queen is caught and placed in the cage she is placed in any colony,
simply laying the cage on top of the frames. Since the bees can-
not destroy her she will be safe, for strange to say they will
feed her through the meshes of the wire. When wanted to
requeen a colony or to give to a nucleus, the cage is placed in the
colony where she is expected to remain, until such time as the
bee-keeper thinks best to release her. The cork is then removed
and she may be allowed to escape. It is a common plan to fill
the opening with honey comb which will require a few minutes
to remove, thus giving time for the bees to become quiet again
after the hive is closed, before she comes out.

The queen newly introduced is likely to be a victim of any
excitement in the hive, and experienced bee-keepers usually are
careful not to open the hives for several hours or better yet for
a day or two after a queen has been introduced so that she may
become fully accustomed to the new conditions before being dis-
turbed. It is easy to ascertain whether she has been accepted bv
examming the space in front of the hive. If she has been killed
she will be found on the ground in front of the hive

Miller Smoke Method.>-During the past year there has been
much discussion of the value of this method. Some bee-keepers
report great success and feel that it is the ideal method. Others
report failure. Difference in conditions will account somewhat
±or the difference in results, as any plan will work much better

116 INCREASE

in the hands of expert b^-keepers and under favorable conditions
than otherwise.

Mr. Miller describes his method in " Gleanings in Bee
Culture " as follows :

A colony to receive a queen has the entrance reduced to about a square
inch with whatever is convenient, as grass, weeds, rags, or wood, and then
about three puffs of thick white smoke — because such smoke is safe — is
blown in and the entrance closed. It should be explained that there is a
seven-eighth-inch space, below the frames, so that the smoke blown in at the
entrance readily spreads and penetrates to all parts of the hive, in from fif-
teen to twenty seconds the colony will be roaring. The small space at the
entrance is now opened; the queen is run in, followed by a gentle puff of
smoke and the space again closed and left closed for about ten minutes, when
it is reopened and the bees allowed to ventilate and quiet down. The full
entrance is not given for an hour or more or even until the next day.

The queen may be picked from a comb and put in at the entrance with
one's fingers, or run in from a cage just taken from the mails, her attend-
ants running along too. The result is the same.

If directions are followed explicitly Mr. Miller claims that
results will be as good or better than with any other plan. The
author has given the plan a limited trial with good success, but
it was during a honey flow when conditions were so favorable
that there was little difficulty in introducing by any method. So
many failures have been reported by experienced bee-keepers
that the novice is cautioned against placing too much confidence
in it to begin with. It will be safer for him to follow the direc-
tions on the cage in which his queens are received until he has
had considerable general experience.

During a good honey flov^^ when the bees are storing heavily
there is little trouble in introducing queens by any method. On
one occasion the author returned home after an extended absence
and with but a few hours time introduced seventeen queens,
many of which were given to strong colonies to replace the queens
already in the hives. As it was necessary to leave again shortly,
time was an object and there was no opportunity to leave the
colonies queenless for even a few hours. The hives were opened
and as fast as the queens were found they were removed and the
new queens run in between the frames and the hives closed again.
The bees had been given a little smoke to quiet them when the

HONEY METHOD 117

hives were opened and the colonies were somewhat disorganized
by the removal of the frames to find the old queens, but in every
case the new queen was accepted without accident. A few were
run in at the entrance after the hive had been closed again and
were followed by a puff of smoke, but the entrances were not
closed or even contracted, yet the results were as above stated.
Such results could not be obtained except under the most favor-
able conditions. The bees were simply too busy to attend to
anything but the storing of honey and the new queens attracted
no attention apparently.

The value of a method can never be demonstrated until it
has been tried under many and varying conditions and especially
under adverse conditions. The smoke method is, as yet, not fully
vindicated, under general conditions.

Water Method. — The American Bee Journal for March,
1915, contained the following method as practised by the South-
western Bee Co. :

The procedure is as follows : Kill the old queen ; remove all frames
from the hive and shake into the bottom of the box with a sharp jar all the
bees possible. Sprinkle the mass of bees on the hive floor with water until
they are soaking wet. The secret of success is in the use of plenty of water ;
there is no danger of overdoing this part. Wet the new queen thoroughly
and put her on the pile of wet bees. Put back the combs into the hive and
the job is finished. We have been using this method for several seasons
and have found the method successful with virgins, with laying queens, and
with queens received in cages by mail.

When honey is coming in, any time of the day will do for the work of
introducing, but in times of dearth it is better to wait until about an hour
before dark.

The chief value of this method is that there is no time whatever lost
and the new queen is immediately accepted and ready to go to work.

Honey Method. — Another plan based somewhat on the same
general principle is to drop the queen into a little dish of honey,
pushing her clear under. She will be so messed up that the bees
will immediately begin cleaning her up when she is placed in
the hive, apparently never dreaming that she is an alien. This
is anything but an attractive way to treat a valuable queen but
good reports are given by those who have tried it. It is hardly

118 INCREASE

likely to become popular because of the fact that most bee-keepers
will hesitate to subject a queen to such treatment.

Flour Method. — Dropping the queens into flour has also
been tried with success in some cases. A combination of the
flour and smoke methods is also practised successfully at times.
By this plan a colony is smoked in the manner described pre-
viously, and just before running the queen into the hive she is
dropped into a dish of flour. iN'one of these methods seems to
give the satisfaction under all conditions that the cage method

Sure Plan for Valuable Queens. — When one buys a queen
of more than ordinary vahie and is willing to go to some extra
trouble to insure her safety, there is an old plan of taking from
strong colonies two or more combs of sealed brood and shaking
off every live bee. There must be no unsealed brood or it will
die from lack of nursing. These frames of sealed brood are
placed in a hive body without a bottom board and this body is
placed over another colony with ordinary wire screening placed
over the top to prevent the bees from making trouble, while at
the same time furnishing plenty of heat to the brood above the
wire cloth. The queen is placed on top of one of the frames,
or her cage is opened and she is permitted to run between the
frames and the cover placed on the hive. The young bees as they
emerge will be confined to the upper hive body with the new
queen and she will shortly be surrounded with a nice little cluster.
If desired, after about five days the queen, having been removed
from the colony below, the wire cloth may be removed and two
or three days later after the colony has become accustomed to the
new queen the bees can all be shaken from the upper combs and
the upper hive body removed. If desired to make a new colony,
the upper hive body can be removed to a new stand and addi-
tional frames of brood given to strengthen them.

This is about the only plan that is regarded as entirely sure
under all conditions. In this case there are no old bees in the

FUNDAMENTALS OF SUCCESSFUL INTRODUCTION 1 19

hive when the queen is introduced and the emerging brood will
make no trouble.

Fundamentals of Successful Introduction.— The following
extracts from an editorial by the late W. Z. Hutchinson in the
Bee-Keepers Review in 1891 cover the ground very fully:

To introduce a queen to a colony of bees, two things must be well con-
sidered—the condition of the bees and the condition of the queen The con-
dition and behavior of the queen is very important. If the queen will only
walk about upon the combs in a quiet and queenly manner, and go on with
her egg laying, she is almost certain to be accepted if the other conditions
are favorable Let her run and "squeal" (utter that sharp " zeep, zeep
zeep ) and the bees immediately start in pursuit. Soon the queen is a
mass of tightly clinging bees and the only course is to smoke the bees
severely until they release the queen from their embrace, when she must be
re-caged for another trial.

So far as the queen is concerned, it is important that she be brought
before tiie bees in a natural manner, in such a way and in such a place as
they would expect to meet her. When clipping queens I have replaced them
by dropping them upon the top bars, or at the entrance of the hive when
the bees would immediately pounce upon them as intruders. A puff of
smoke would cause the bees to "let up" when the queen would walk ma-
jestically down upon the combs or into the hive, as the case might be, and
here she would not be molested, because the bees here found her where they
expected to find their queen. ^

h. J^/fj"'^^ ^^"^-^^ °f *™f ""^r^ ^^ S'''^" ^^ t° 'lo^ lo"g a queen should
be caged before she is released. The behavior of the bees fs the best guide

i^Hnl^^'h -^l"'."^ ^^''.^Se, clinging to it in masses, like so many
burdocks, their behavior indicates what the queen would have to endure
were she within the.r reach. The operator must wait until the bees are in a
different mood; until they are walking quietly about the cage, as uncon^
cernedly as upon the combs of honey-perhaps the bees may be^offerlng food
to the queen and caressing her with their antennae. This shows that the
bees are favorably inclined toward the queen and that it is safe to release

To be successful in introducing queens that have come from a distance
shnnM h'^''" 1 *^f colony must be well looked after. It is better that thej
should be hopelessli, qneenless. Let it build a batch of queen cells, and re
move them after the larv.^ are too old to be developed into queens; then the
bees are almost certain to accept a queen if given to them in%roper manner!

frpoi^^^^^"".! Z ^ T'i''^ "''''"^ amiable mood when honey is coming in
Zil;,^'''"^ ^^\T^!: *^ >"troduce queens when no honey is being gatJfred
without feeding the bees two or three days before the queen is Released

So much has been written about the introduction of queens
and so many plans are in use that it is difficult to give a com-

120 INCREASE

prehensive review of them without leaving some confusion in the
mind of the reader. If, as is commonly believed, the hive odor
is the means by which the bees recognize the members of a com-
mon community, the great object to be attained by any method
is that the new queen shall acquire this peculiar odor as quickl^y
as possible. More than twenty years ago it was recommended
that to assist in accomplishing this result the queen to be removed
from the colony to be requeened should be confined for a time
in a cage. She is then removed and the new queen placed in
this same cage by means of which she is introduced to the colony.
This method has been reported as very successful by bee-keepers
for many years past. This is essentially the ordinary cage
method with the exception that the former queen is confined
in the same cage in which her successor is to be introduced for a
time before she is destroyed and the new queen placed therein.

When a queen is to be introduced by any of the direct methods
it will be much help if she is confined by herself for at least
thirty minutes without food. Being hungry she will at once
solicit food when she comes in contact with the workers and will
much more likely be accepted.

QUEEN REARING

Although commercial queen rearing is a business by itself
that would require a volume for exhaustive treatment, the bee-
keeper's education is not quite complete until he has learned
to rear his own queens, even though it may not be advisable
for him to do so to any extent. Most productive bee-keepers feel
that they can ill aiford the time for extensive queen rearing at
the busy time of year when they can best be reared, and prefer
to buy them from some regular breeder. There are times, how-
ever, when one can rear his own queens to advantage, and it is
always well to be prepared to supply a limited number for special
purposes or to meet emergencies.

Some of the most successful honey producers feel that only
by breeding from selected stock which has been tested under

CONDITIONS FOR REARING GOOD QUEENS 121

their own conditions can they secure best results, and for this
reason alone are willing to rear their own queens. The difficulty
of controlling the male parentage makes the breeding of bees
much harder than the breeding of poultry or farm animals
which are under the absolute control of the farmer.

^ The fact that the characteristics of the male offspring of a
queen are controlled rather by the mating of her mother than bv
her own mating adds to the difficulties. It is a well-known fact
that an unfertilized queen will produce drones and this leads
to the belief, now generally accepted, that her mating does not
directly affect the eggs from which the drones are hatched.
Consequently they are only influenced through her female off-
spring, and results are only apparent in the following generation.
That progress is being made in the improvement of the honey-
bee there can be no doubt, and by breeding only from the best
queens something is sure to be accomplished even though the male
parentage be uncontrolled.

Scientific men are giving a good deal of attention to the
problems presented in breeding bees, and it is only a question
of time until methods suited to the conditions to be met will be
devised and scientific bee-breeding will be an accomplished fact.
About all that the bee-keeper can do is to see that all his
colonies have queens of good stock, so that drones from worthless
stock will not be present, and breed only from his best queens.
Even then the queen may fly some distance from home on her
mating trip and meet a black drone from some neighboring
apiary. Some bee-keepers make it a practice to see that all small
apiaries within two or three miles are requeened with good stock,
even furnishing the stock when necessary and doing the work to
save the annoyance of mismated queens. In some localities this
would be easy of accomplishment, while in others where large
numbers of hives are present it would be a big undertaking.

Necessary Conditions for Rearing Good Queens.— The best
queens are reared under the swarming impulse, or in other words
under natural conditions. When the bee-keeper would resort

122 INCREASE

to artificial conditions to rear queens for the purpose of increas-
ing his stock or replacing inferior queens, he must make con-
ditions as favorable as possible. The ideal condition is a populous
colony with large numbers of emerging bees, plenty of honey
and pollen in the hive and more coming from the field.

The weather should not be cold or unfavorable when queen
rearing is undertaken, the best queens only should be used as
mothers, and the cells should be built in strong colonies. One
would hardly expect to get best results unless the bees were
storing some honey also.

Miller Plan. — What is known as the Miller plan, or some
modification of it, is perhaps the best method for ordinary non-
commercial purposes. The best time for requeening is perhaps
about ten days before the close of a honey flow. Checking the
egg laying of the queen at this time will have no influence on the
size of the crop, as the young bees hatched from eggs laid after
this time would appear after the close of the harvest. The bee-
keeper will begin to make plans for requeening then about three
weeks before the expected close of the flow.

From the center of the brood nest of the colony containing
the best queen the bee-keeper removes a frame of brood and
replaces it with a partly drawn comb or a half sheet of foundation
or even a frame with starters. This will quickly be utilized, and
if foundation is used the bees will draw it out and the queen will
fill the cells with eggs. Old combs should never be used for this
purpose, as they do not furnish suitable conditions for building
good cells. The author prefers a partly drawn comb and, lacking
that, uses foundation. In a few days this comb will be filled
with eggs and hatching larvae. The next move is to remove
the queen from some strong colony and take away a frame of
brood from the center of the brood nest and replace it with this
partly drawn comb filled with eggs from the best queen. The
colony finding itself queenless will at once start queen cells
along the edges of this new and tender comb which furnishes ideal
conditions for cell building. At the end of ten days the cells will
be nearly ready to hatch and should be removed to avoid the

COMMERCIAL METHODS 123

danger of swarming or of an emerging queen destroying the
others.

Queens to be replaced should have been removed the dav
before so that the bees will have missed them and be ready
to accept the cells. The cells should be cut from the comb, care
being used not to cut too close and injure the young queen. They
may be fastened to the side of a brood frame with a toothpick or
simply dropped between two frames above the center of the brood
nest.

If they are to be used for making increase, the colonies to be
broken up into nuclei should be previously made ready. The
advantage of using the ripe cells is that much less trouble is
necessary than when mating the queens in baby nuclei and then
later transferring them to the full colonies to be requeened. If
used in nuclei for purposes of increase they emerge, and are
mated from the hive in which they will remain, thus saving the
trouble of introduction. It is much easier to get a cell accepted
than a virgin queen or even a laying queen.

Dr. Miller recommends the use of a colony that has started
queen cells in preparation for swarming as cell builders when
available, as conditions in such a colony will approximate the
natural method of queen rearing.

Commercial Methods.— In order to succeed commercially the
queen breeder must be able to supply queens in considerable
numbers with regularity throughout the season. If the honey
flow is checked he must feed his colonies freely in order to con-
tinue to supply his orders. While the foregoing plan is well
suited to rearing a few dozen queens to supply the needs of one's
own apiary, it would be entirely too slow for commercial pur-
poses. Then the man who rears queens for sale must be pre-
pared to get them mated safely, which requires additional equip-
ment m the way of nuclei, etc. In making nuclei for mating
purposes one can get a much larger number from breaking up a
single colony of bees than would be possible where they were
used for increase, each of which was expected to build up to a

124 INCREASE

full sized colony. Often the bee-keeper will not use more tlian
a dipperful of bees for a nucleus used for mating purposes only.
It is a common practice to shake the bees from a single frame
to use for this purpose and to unite them with full colonies again
in the fall.

There are two plans in common use among commercial queen
breeders. One is known as the Alley plan and the other as the
Doolittle plan, after the men who originated them. While in
many cases both plans have been greatly modified since first
made public, the general principle remains.

The Alley Plan. — If one wishes to make use of this plan the
first thing is to remove a brood comb containing eggs from the
brood nest of the colony led by the best queen. ]^o bees should
be retained on the comb, as it will be necessary to cut it in strips.
Each strip contains just one row of cells. With a sharp knife
cut through the row above and below, saving every other row for
use. This cutting m^ust be done very carefully to avoid injury
to the delicate comb and the eggs it contains. After the strips
have been cut they are laid down and the cells on one side cut
down to about a quarter of an inch of the foundation or center
of the comb. With a match destroy every other egg in this side.
These shallow cells can now be readily built into queen cells by
the bees as shown in Tig. 58. This same picture shows how
the strips are fastened to the bottom of a shallow comb, so that
they will be in the center of the brood nest of the hive in which
they are placed. If the knife is kept hot there is less danger of
jamming the cells when doing the cutting. The strips can be
fastened by means of melted beeswax, which will adhere to the
wood strip on the lower side of the comb. Mr. Alley fastened
them directly to the comb without any wood strip. The combs
with strips are then given to queenless colonies.

While most commercial establishments use some modification
of the Doolittle cell cup method, the Alley plan is still used by
some queen breeders who prefer it to the other.

The Doolittle Method. — A great advance has been made in

THE DOOLITTLE METHOD

125

queen rearing since Doolittle hit on the plan of making artificial
cell cups. His plan as first used was to take a small stick with
round end about the size of the bottom of the cell and after dip-
ping it in water dip it in melted wax. Several times it was thus
dipped, each time not quite so deep as the time before, thus leav-
ing the base much thicker. When it was of the required thick-
ness it was removed and others made in similar manner. These
were fastened in frames which would fit into the hive in place

FiQ. 58.— Queen cells by the Alley plan.

of a regular brood frame. A newly hatched worker larva
together with a small amount of royal jelly, was placed in each
cell, with the result that very good queens were reared.

Wood cell cups and artificial wax cells are now offered for
sale by dealers at prices that will no longer justify the bee-
keeper to make his own cells. The cell cups are listed in
dealers' catalogues at about $2.00 per 1000, which is cheaper
than the average person can make them at home. The cups are
pressed into the wood cell holders by means of a wood plunger
and are ready for grafting, as the placing of the larva is called.

126 INCREASE

The elaborate descriptions of this system are disconcerting
to the novice but in reality it is quite simple. It is rather a
delicate task to transfer the newly hatched larvae from the worker
cell to the artificial cell in the wood cup, but a little experience
will make it easy. By the present method there are no cells to
dip or other complicated processes to confuse the inexperienced.
He needs only to place as many of the wax cells in the wood cups
as he wishes to use. He then places these in the frames in which
they hang in the hive and transfers a baby bee and a drop of
royal jelly to each one.

Care of Cells. — The real problem by this method is to get
colonies in proper condition to care for the large numbers of cells
which the commercial queen breeder must constantly have in
order to get a sufficient number of queens to make it profitable.
While some queen breeders rear their queens in small nuclei,
it is the general opinion that the best queens are reared in strong
colonies.

A colony can be made queenless and after twenty-four hours
be given a frame of these prepared cells. They are likely to be
accepted and cared for and a second lot can be given when these
are taken away. However, the leading queen breeders have been
seeking a method of safely finishing these cells in strong colonies
with laying queens so that the queens will be reared under
similar conditions to those reared when the bees are preparing
to swarm. The Roots, who are extensive queen breeders, practise
making two-story colonies with the queen in the lower story and
an excluder between the two. The brood is raised into the upper
story so that the queen will go on laying below but no new brood
will appear above. The frame with prepared cells is placed in
the center of the brood above the excluder and the bees finish
the cells nicely. When one batch is removed another is given in
place of it, and when all the brood is hatched above, the brood
from below is again lifted to insure proper attention to the queen
cells. It seems to be necessary to keep brood above to secure good
results.

BEES IN COMBLESS PACKAGES 127

Some queen breeders secure similar results on one side of the
hive by using a queen-excluding division board to prevent the
queen from reaching and destroying the cells.

BEES IN COMBLESS PACKAGES

A convenient way of making increase early in the season is
the purchase of bees in combless packages from breeders in the
South. The combless package has the advantage of being light
and easily handled while free from danger of spreading foul-
brood. This is a common metliod of strengthening weak col-
onies also.

For the purpose of starting new colonies about two to three
pounds of bees with queen are necessary for each hive. DraAvn
combs should be ready in advance as it is a severe tax on these
small clusters of bees to draw new combs early in spring.

Bees shipped without queens are restless and worry them-
selves far worse than is the case where the queen is present. The
percentage of loss in shipping is far greater in the queenless
packages. Some of the most successful shippers make a practice
of gorging the bees with sugar syrup before starting them on
the journey. To do this they paint the syrup over the cage in
which the bees are confined for shipment. The bees readily suck
it from the meshes of the screen. With their honey sacs filled
they are much less inclined to be buzzing about the cage in an
effort to escape.

In some localities in the South where there is an early honey
flow sufficient to stimulate brood rearing and a long season, the
package business offers a more attractive opportunity than honey
production. More capital is required for a successful business
of this kind than is the case for either queen rearing or honey
production. The season is short and a large number of colonies
are necessary to draw from in order to make it profitable. Gen-
erally this specialty is combined with queen rearing and to some
extent with the production of honey also. The lower Rio Grande

128 INCREASE

valley is an especially favored locality for the breeding of bees
for sale, although the business is being developed in Alabama,
Mississippi, Georgia and other parts of the South.

QUESTIONS

1. When will natural swarming be most apparent?

2. What conditions favor swarming and what conditions act as a check?

3. Mention the advantages of clipping queens.

4. Why is cutting out queen cells an unsatisfactory method of swarm

control ?

5. Describe the common method of hiving swarms.

6. Outline the Alexander plan of swarm control.

7. Note the differences in a similar plan long in general use.

8. How are divisions made without queens?

9. Discuss the formation of nuclei.

10. Describe Miller's plan for making rapid increase.

11. Discuss the different methods of queen introduction.

12. What conditions are necessary for rearing good queens!

13. Discuss the different methods of queen rearing and give the advantages

of each.

CHAPTER VIII
FEEDING

Probably one-third of the total annual loss of bees is the
direct result of carelessness on the part of the owners in failing
to provide stores at the proper time. In the spring such largo
quantities of honey are consumed in early brood rearing that a
few days of unfavorable weather will bring a colony with a
small reserve supply to the verge of starvation. Thousands of
colonies are lost from this cause alone. Then it is nearly always
the case that some colonies will go into winter quarters with an
insufficient food supply, unless fed, and will die for lack of stores
before spring.

When making increase or rearing queens a check in the honey
flow will make it necessary to continue to feed the colonies in
order to maintain normal conditions and get best results.

From the above statement it will be seen that feeding at the
proper time is a matter of the greatest importance. Perhaps
more needless loss is caused by a lack of appreciation of this fact
on the part of the average bee-keeper than any other.

Good Honey the Best Feed. — As mentioned incidentally
elsewhere, the author regards good combs of sealed honey as the
best feed for all times excepting when it is desired to feed slowly
to stimulate brood rearing. The far-sighted bee-keeper will
retain a supply of extracting combs filled with sealed honey for
this purpose. They are always ready and can be placed where
needed with but a moment's time.

There are localities where the bees gather honey-dew and
honey of low grade that gives unsatisfactory results in wintering,
where it is sometimes considered advisable to extract the honey
and feed sugar syrup. Such places, fortunately, are not many.
The storing of syrup is quite a tax on the bees and cannot but
result in a decrease in the number present by wearing them out
prematurely.

9 129

130 FEEDING

Preparing the Syrup. — When honey is not to be had syrup
made from granulated sugar is the best substitute. Molasses or
other cheap syrup should never be used, as such substitutes con-
tain wastes that are bad for the bees and in the end are no
cheaper. Practical bee-keepers are now agreed that if a substi-
tute for honey must be used, granulated sugar is not only the
best and cheapest thing but about the only safe feed commonly
available.

If the feeding is done for the purpose of providing a reserve
food supply, as in winter preparations, it is considered best to use
a thick syrup composed of about equal parts sugar and water.
Some use a syrup as thick as two parts sugar to one part water.

According to C. E. Bartholomew, a syrup made of 85 parts
sugar by weight to 50 parts water will neither granulate nor
ferment by standing. If it is desired to make a large quantity
in advance to keep on hand for use as needed, this proportion
should be used.

The syrup can be prepared by dissolving the sugar in hot water
in the proportions desired and hastening the process by boiling,
or cold water can be used, stirring the syrup from time to time
until the sugar is completely dissolved. If a thicker syrup than
equal parts of sugar and water is desired, it is best to use hot
water, as it is difficult to dissolve larger quantities of sugar in
cold water.

Care should be used that the sugar is not allowed to bum, as
burned sugar is injurious if not fatal to the bees.

For feeding colonies that are rearing queens, or building up
nuclei when a food supply is present in the hive but stimulation
is desired, a thin syrup is usually used. It should not be thicker
than one part water to one of sugar, and even thinner syrup is
often used for this purpose.

Feeding for Reserve Supply. — When it is desired to feed
colonies that are short of stores either for wintering or for spring
brood rearing, it is desirable to feed as fast as they are able to
take care of the syrup. The quicker the job is finished the less

FEEDING TO. STIMULATE BROOD REARING 131

the colony will be disturbed and excited as a result. Tor this

purpose some of the feeders holding a large quantity are best.

For outdoor wintering in the north it is usually estimated that at

least twenty-five pounds of honey will be required, and from

fifteen to twenty in the cellar. It is much safer to have from

thirty-five to forty pounds of stores for outdoor wintering and

at least twenty-five for the cellar. In the South where the bees

are active all winter, even larger quantities will be consumed.

The bees should not be provided with such a quantity of

stores that there is no clustering space under the food supply

in the center of the hive. The winter nest, as these vacant cells

are called, permits the bees to conserve the heat by close contact.

If they are compelled to cluster between full combs of honey the

heat will not be sufiicient to warm the cold mass between the small

bunches of bees on opposite sides of the combs. However, if

feeding is done early the bees will arrange matters nicely and

remove sufficient honey from the center of the hive to form a

clustering place.

Feeding to Stimulate Brood Rearing.— Some bee-keepers
advocate the feeding of colonies with a plentiful food supply
early in spring to start brood rearing. This is likely to be a
mistake. If there is an abundance of feed in the hive a good
queen will usually begin laying as fast as weather conditions^will
permit. In case a colony is too slow to begin operations, the hive
may be opened and the cappings cut from part of one comb. The
bees will feed the queen more liberally from this uncapped honey
and she will lay more eggs as a result.

When the honey flow is checked after nuclei have been
formed, it is desirable to keep the queens laying as fast as possible
m order to insure that the colony will be strong enough to winter.
The same thing applies when queen cells are being built— the
bees must continue normal activities. For this purpose some
form of feeder that will supply a small quantity continuously is
best. With a small amount of syrup coming in the bees will
continue as though honey was being brought to the hive.

132

FEEDING

Great care must be used in feeding weak colonies or nuclei
during a dearth of nectar, as robbing is started very easily at
that time and the little colonies may be easily lost as a result.

Fig. 59. — Feeding with friction top pails in empty super.

At times robbers are so persistent in sneaking about every crack
that it is unsafe to open the hives excepting just at nightfall.
Consequently the feeders should be filled at that time.

FEEDERS

Miller Feeder. — For feeding large quantities of honey for
reserve supply there is a feeder on the market, known as the
Miller feeder, which will hold as much
at a single feeding as is likely to be
fed to one colony. This feeder is
placed in the super on top of the hive
and after the syrup is poured in, the
cover is replaced. Fig. 60 shows the
construction of the Miller feeder.
There are two compartments on either
side, each holding ten pounds or more
of s)rrup. In the center is a passage-
way for the bees to reach the syrup going directly above the
cluster. In this way the air rising above the brood nest makes

Fig. 60.— The Miller feeder is

Bet m a super on top of the hive.
This is one of the best feeders.

PRODUCTIVE BEEKEEPING

133

it possible for them to reach the food when the weather is quite
cool. Twenty or more pounds can be fed at one filling if desired.

Utilizing Tin Pails.—The beekeeper who cultivates his
local market will sell a considerable portion of his honey in
five- and ten-pound
pails. Accordingly he
will always have a sup-
ply of these pails at
hand. By punching a
few small holes in the
friction tops, ideal
feeders are easily and
quickly provided. By
placing an empty super
on the hive, several of
these pails can be
turned upside down
over the cluster as
shown at Fig. 59.

In this way it is
easy to provide a suf-
ficient quantity for any
emergency at one feed-
ing and very little extra ^^°- 61.— Tin pan feeder in super.

investment is necessary. The purchase of a number of extra
covers for the pails is all the expense required for providing
a quantity of feeders of this kind. The covers will be spoiled
for other use, but the pail will be as good as before. Fig. 59
shows several of these pails in place in a super.

While various types of feeders are shown in this chapter,
the author recommends first the use of combs of sealed honey,
and if these be not available, the use of the friction top pail
except in queen rearing yards, where some slow method of
feeding is desirable.

134

FEEDING

Tin Pan Feeder. — One of the most common ways of feeding
small quantities of syrup is to use a tin pan in an empty super.
If the weather is warm the super can be placed on top of the hive
and if cold underneath. Over the pan of syrup is spread a thin

cotton cloth with ec

hanging down all around
to make it easy for the bees
to get into it. They suck
the syrup through the cloth
without danger of drown-
ing (Fig. 61).

Doolittle Division
Board Feeder. — ^This is
quite a popular feeder for
colonies that are to receive but a small supply. As shown by Fig.
62, it takes the place of a brood frame in the hive. After it is
filled the cover can be replaced and the colony left in the same
snug shape as though no feeding was being done. It is nothing

Fio. 62. — With the addition of a float to prevent
drowning of the bees the Doolittle divlsioa board
feeder is fine where small quantities of feed are to
be given.

BOTTOM BOARD

FEEDER ATTACHED

TO HIVE

Fia. 63. — Metal feeder after the Alexander idea.

more nor less than a tight box of the size and shape of a brood frame.
A float should be used to prevent drowning the bees.

Alexander Feeder. — The Alexander (Fig. 63) is fine for
feeding nuclei in large numbers. Fig. 64 shows how it is fastened
to the hive by pushing the bottom board forward and putting it
on immediately behind it. In this way the feed is away at the
back of the hive safe from robbers and as the feeder opens on

QUESTIONS

135

the outside it can be filled without opening the hive. With a
large pail of syrup and a dipper, or a tea kettle, each of these
feeders can be supplied in a moment's tima The one shown in
the figure attached to the hive is made of metal. The tops are
wider than the bottoms so that they may be nested together for
convenience when not in use. The other illustration shows the
same feeder made of wood, which is most commonly used.

Entrance Feeder.— This feeder, commonly called the Board-
man feeder, utilizes a common fruit jar as a container for the
liquid (Fig. 65). Small holes in the screw top permit the feed

tr.. =F'°' p4.— The Alexander wood feeder is good
for stimulative feeding for rearing queens or mak-
ing increase.

Fig. 65.— With this
entrance feederone can
see at a glance how
much feed rem ains to be
taken. There is greater
danger of robbing in
using entrance feeders
than the others.

, . i-uau tne oiners.

to drip out slowly. The wood projection slips into the entrance
so that the bees can reach the feeder from the inside of the hive
while guarding the entrance from robbers. Glass fruit jars are
common utensils in every household, so that all that is necessary
to buy IS the wood block and the special cap to fit the jar. One
can see at a glance just how much feed still remains and by
plugging up part of the holes It can be made to feed as slowly as
desired. This is a popular feeder for making increase.

QUESTIONS

1. When is it necessary to feed?

2. What is the best feed for bees ?

.3. How is syrup prepared for feeding?

t Sfa^l^thfdS^rp'iJtl^'d^ of feeding for reserve supply and stimulation.
CK uiaeusa the ditferent feeders in common use.

CHAPTER IX
PRODUCTION OF COMB HONEY.

The successful production of comb honey requires more skill,
perhaps, than any other branch of agricultural pursuit. Under
certain favorable conditions it is a very easy matter and anyone
who will supply sufficient supers will get a good crop. Such
conditions, however, are of rare occurrence and the average season
in the average locality gives abundant opportunity to develop the
resources of the producer to the utmost.

The man who specializes in comb honey will usually produce
small quantities of extracted honey also, while the extracted
honey producer will have no occasion to produce sections, unless
he especially wishes to have some of both.

As to whether one should specialize in comb or extracted
honey will depend upon many things. The skill of the operator
is an important consideration, as extracted honey does not require
as careful attention to details as the production of comb honey.
The amount of the crop, source from which it comes, and the
market which is available, all should be taken into consideration.
Comb honey as a rule commands a more ready sale and does not
require the expensive machinery necessary to satisfactory pro-
duction of the extracted product.

One of the most important factors is the nature of the honey
flow. If one lives in a region where the flows are long and very
light, it is difficult to get well-finished sections, and extracted
honey will nearly always prove more profitable. If, on the other
hand, the flows are short and very rapid, so that honey is piled
up so fast as to make the bees fairly dizzy with the excitement of
it, sections will be nicely finished and a large part of the crop
can be made to grade fancy or number one. Under circumstances
of this kind sufficient wax is secreted to build the combs with little
noticeable tax on the production, and comb honey will probably
be more profitable.
136

EQUIPMENT FOR COMB HONEY PRODUCTION 137

Rapid flows like those that sometimes come from basswood,
when a single strong colony will store from ten to twenty pounds
daily for a week or two, are the delight of the heart of the comb
honey producer.

Market Demands.— Most markets favor light colored
honeys, usually called white, which are of a mild flavor. As a
rule dark and strong honey will sell more readily to buyers of
extracted honey than in the comb. Where the market demand is
for dark honey, as in some buckwheat sections, this will make
little difl^erence.

It is a common thing to find an established bee-keeper chang-
ing from the production of one to the other to supply a ready
market. If all these questions are carefully studied in the begin-
ning, much unnecessary expense will be saved.

If but a few colonies are to be kept to supply the family table,
comb honey is to be preferred under almost any ordinary circum.-
stances. Section honey is more attractive to most people, and
less expensive equipment will be required. The fact that the
sections are not always well finished will be of little matter for
home use, although very vital in marketing.

EQUIPMENT FOR COMB HONEY PRODUCTION

The question of a hive is touched upon incidentally in the
chapter on starting with bees. There is something to be said
m favor of using the particular kind of hive in general use in the
locality in which one lives. With hives of a pattern uniform
with those in general use bees can be sold for better prices and
one can make use of bees which he may chance to buy to much
better advantage. However, one can ill afford to use a poor hive
simply because it is in general use, as the best equipment makes
possible easier manipulation and better crops.
^ For a time there was quite a tendency to adopt a hive of small
size for the production of comb honey. The eight-frame Lang-
stroth and the Danzenbaker hives were very popular and many
bee-keepers adopted them only to discard them later. The prin-

138

PRODUCTION OF COMB HONEY

cipal argument in their favor is to the effect that the queen will
require most of the available space in the brood nest and that
the bees will quickly be forced to begin storing in the supers.
Thousands of colonies of bees have died as a result of the adoption
of this hive by persons who were not fully prepared to give proper
attention to their bees. Nearly every year a part of the colonies
in any apiary will not leave a sufficient amount of honey in the
brood chamber of these small hives to winter on, and unless fed

will die as a matter of course
from lack of food.

The tendency to swarm is
TLUch greater in these small
hives than in larger ones, and
swarm control is important to
the comb honey producer.
Most authorities now agree
that the ten-frame Langstroth
hive is better for all purposes
than a smaller one. The
reason the Langstroth is
recommended in preference
to others of the same size is
because its use is so much
more general than any other
hive (Fig. 66).
If the small hive is used two hive bodies instead of one should
usually be used for wintering, when packed outside.

It may be said in passing, however, that C. C. Miller, who
has produced larger average yields of comb honey than any others
on record, used the eight-frame Langstroth hive. It is doubtful
whether he would have adopted such a small hive later in his life.
While the hive is important, the management after all is the
determining factor in measuring the profit of an apiary, next to
the available supply of nectar in the field.

Sections. — Next to the kind of hive the question of the kind

Fig. 66. — Parts of a comb honey hive.

SECTIONS

139

of supers and sections to adopt must be considered. This is a
matter that mu^t be determined by individual preference, for
there is no one particular best section. The bee-way section is
perhaps more widely used than any other, although the plain
section would be a close second.

The bee-way sections are made in- four styles. The kind in
most general use is cut with bee-ways in two of the four sides

Fig. 67.— Strong coloniea for comb honey production.

(Figs. 68 and G9). This gives the bees access to the sections
from below and permits them to pass through to the super above
A few with only one be^way are used. These permit the bees to
reach the super but no passage-way is provided for them to
go above past each section. The four bee-way sections permit
the bees to pass from one section to another in the same super
without going above or below.

140

PRODUCTION OF COMB HONEY

Via. 68. — Comb honey supers

Fia. 69. — Comb honey super dissected.

SEPARATORS

141

In general the two bee-waj section 4:}i inches square and
1^ inches wide is to be recommended to those wishing to adopt
the bee-way section. This is the section usually sent out by a
factory receiving an order when there is no stipulation as to the
kind wanted. This indicates their general popularity.

The 4X5 plain section of 1^-inch width seems to be the

c

opfN/e

5/5fS

kifWH

FiQ. 70.— Sections for comb honey.

favorite in plain sections (Fig. 70). Honey in plain sections
18 a little more attractive when ready for the market than in the
bee-way sections, as they can be scraped cleaner. The 4 X 5
plain section looks larger than the square section, although the
weight may be the same.

Separators—It is hardly within the scope of this book to

142

PRODUCTION OF COMB HONEY

describe the many different plans of utilizing sections for the pur-
pose of obtaining comb honey in the small size quantities that
the market demands. There are still several kinds of supers in
use that are being displaced by more practical ones. Formerly
a large size frame holding two rows, or eight sections in all,
which could be placed in an ordinary hive body was quite gener-

71. — Separatora for bee-way sections.

ally used. They have almost gone out of use and the super that
holds a single tier of sections has been almost universally adopted.
These can be handled to better advantage and the space added
only as the bees are prepared to occupy it.

When the single tier super first came into use the sections
were supported by strips of tin running across the under side.
!N^o provision was made for separating the sections, and as a
result some would be very thick and some thin. Inasmuch as it

SEPARATORS

143

is almost impossible to get sections filled of uniform weight this

too, has become almost obsolete.

It has been found necessary to make use of some kind of

separator between the sections in order to get uniform results.

Fig. 71 illustrates some different kinds of separators used. In

the bee-way sections the passageway for the bees is cut directly in
the section, while with the plain sections strips on the separators
keep the sections a sufficient distance apart to permit the passage
of the bees (Fig. 72).

Fig. 68 shows supers filled with the bee-way sections, while
Fig. 69 shows a super for bee-way sections taken apart to show
the separate pieces. At the top of the picture is a section holder

Fio. 72. — Fence for plain sections

With four sections and on top of them an unfolded section lying
agamst a folded one. Leaning against the super is a two bee-way
section as they come from the factory in the flat. The other
figures show the different types of separators for the two kinds
of sections (Fig. 71). The separators commonly used for plain
sections are composed of narrow strips that admit of the easy
passage of the bees and are called fences. The bees can pass
from section to section and from super to super much easier where
the plain sections and fences are used than where the bee-way
sections and solid separators are in use. The finished sections
have smaller holes in the corners, which adds to the appearance
of the finished article. The sections seem to be better filled also,
as a rule in the plain sections separated by fences. When the

144 PRODUCTION OF COMB HONEY

slatted separators are used better results in the way of filling seem
to be secured in the bee-way sections. Dr. Miller discarded
the plain sections in favor of the bee-way. This furnishes an
argument hard to overcome since he was regarded as the most
successful comb honey specialist of his lifetime.

Use of Split Sections. — For some reason the split sections
do not prove popular although they have some advantages. The
split section is cut through the center of three sides, thus per-
mitting the use of full sheets of foundation which is attached by
inserting a strip after a row of the sections is placed in the
holder. The principal objection urged against them is the fact
that the consumer, not being familiar with the methods of bee-
keeping, may be suspicious of the wax that will show in this
narrow crack around three sides of the finished section and con-
clude that the honey is manufactured. So many misstatements
concerning honey production have been published that many
persons are very suspicious and the split in the section with a
showing of wax is not calculated to allay the suspicions of the
skeptical person. Probably this fact has done more to prevent
the adoption of the split section than all other reasons put to-
gether. If one sells largely in home markets where his product is
well known and where he comes in close contact with his custo-
mers, this danger will not need to be feared, as in the case of
honey sent to distant markets where no explanations can be made.

By the use of split sections much time can be saved in pre-
paring the supers and putting in foundation. Four sections are
filled at one time as shown in Fig. 73, which illustrates Dr.
Leonard's method of preparing these sections for use. As will
readily be seen by referring to the picture, four sections are
placed in the holder, the opening slightly widened by the use of
a metal form, and a sheet of foundation long enough to fill all
four sections is slipped in. The foundation must be long enough
to be caught at the ends to hold it firmly in place. The section
holder is then removed from the form and the sections slipped in
even with the outer edges of the holder and it is ready for the
super.

USE OP FOUNDATION IN SECTIONS

145

By using split sections a nice appearing article is the result
when finished, as there are no holes in the corners and if con-
ditions are favorable the sections will be well filled.

Use of Foundation in Sections.— Comb foundation is pure
beeswax rolled thin and by running between rollers printed with
tlie size and shape of the bottoms of the cells. The use of foun-
dation saves the bees much time at a season when every possible

fOUNOATION

SECTION ^^
HOLOeR

METAL FORM To
SPREAD SeCTI0N5 APARr

WOOP F«AM6

5PCIT -SECTION*

Fig. 73.— Dr. L. D. Leonard method of putting foundation into spUt sections.

assistance counts in additional honey stored. For use in sections
only the thin or extra thin foundation should be used, as the
thicker grades will be noticeable in the honey when taken into
the mouth to eat. As only pure wax is used it is not an adultera-
tion but if a thicker wax is used than the bees would build it
will serve to make the product less desirable to the consumer.

While it is common practice among amateur bee-keepers to
use but a small starter in the section, the extensive honev pro-
ducer can ill afford to do with less than full sheets When the
10

146

PRODUCTION OF COMB HONEY

honey flow comes it is iinportant to make it possible for all bees
to work and also important to save every unnecessary tax on their
energy. In too many apiaries a single super with small starters
will be placed on the hive and half the working force will be
loafing for lack of storage room, Not more than a dozen bees
are required to cover the bits of starter used by some.

The small compartments in which the bees are forced to

FiQ. 74. — The Pangburn foundation fastener and sections filled with foundation.

work when storing in sections are unnatural, and considerable
skill is sometimes necessary to get them started to work there at
all. The small spaces make it impossible for the bees to cluster
in large bunches as they do naturally when comb building. A
dozen or two of bees will find it hard to reproduce a natural con-
dition, but a full sheet offers much better opportunity. The
wax which they need is already prepared to a large extent and a
sufficient number can work together to assist in warming the
wax and to encourage each other.

The method generally practised among large producers is to

PUTTING IN THE STARTERS 147

use both top and bottom starters. The top starter is the full
width of the section and lacks about half an inch of coming to
the bottom. The bottom starter is about one-fourth inch in width.
A wide starter at the bottom would fall over, while a small
starter insures a well-finished section and that the comb will be
attached at the bottom as well as at the top and sides. A small

Fio, 75, — Method of putting in foundation with Pangburn fastener.

space is left between the two, but this will be readily closed by
the bees.

Putting in the Starters. — Various devices have been offered
for fastening the foundation in the sections. If split sections
are used, four sections will be filled as mentioned previously,
and no special device for fastening will be needed as the sections
will hold it firmly. With the ordinary sections some plan must
be used for slightly melting the edge of the starter that comes
in contact with the wood so that it will stick. Any supply
dealer's catalogue will describe several of these devices. A metal

148

PRODUCTION OF COMB HONEY

plate about four inches wide and supported with a handle is prob-
ably as satisfactory and as rapid as any plan ever described. The
metal is kept hot by an oil lamp and the edges of the foundation
starters are touched with the hot metal as they are put in place
in the sections. Fig. 74 shows a new plan for utilizing such a
plate. This is known as the Pangburn fastener. (See also Fig.
75). A form is provided which makes it possible to place four
sections in the holder and set them on the form. The four sec-
tions are filled at one time, thus making quite a saving in time.
If small starters are used a hot putty knife will serve very

Fig. 76. — The use cf super springs.

well. Although there are many devices offered by supply dealers
nearly all operate on the same general principle. Which is best
is to a large extent a matter of personal preference.

Super Springs. — When the sections are filled with starters
and placed in the holders, and all are placed in the supers with
separators between each row, there remains to fasten all together
so tight as to make little daubing of sections necessary. For this
purpose a follower board is used on one side of the super. For-
merly this was fastened by means of a wedge which held all as
tight as though made in one piece. However, when the sections
are full of honey and the super is removed from the hive, it is
not an easy matter to get them out without breakage. Super

THE SEASON S MANAGEMENT 149

springs to replace the wedge have come into very common use
(Fig. 76). One of these springs is placed at each end behind the
board and answers all purposes nicely. The springs are very
easily removed from the filled super and the follower board can
then be pried loose and the operator has plenty of room to get the
sections out. It is surprising to the novice how tightly the bees
will seal every crack and crevice about the hive. In cool weather
these fastenings hold as though they were glued, and provision
needs to be made in advance to meet this condition. Super
springs are regarded as a necessity by most comb honey pro-
ducers.

THE season's management

We come now to the most important part of the bee-keeper's
business : the system of management. His hives may be of the
best, all equipment may be the finest on the market, his bees
may be of the best strain, and nectar may be present in abun-
dance, yet if his system of management is not good his crop may
be small.

At this point every bee-keeper must begin to be a law unto
himself and to develop the system that best fits his locality and
conditions. The most that an author can do is to make general
suggestions as no system will suit all men and apply to all con-
ditions. In a country like this of such vast distances, the flora
will vary widely, the climatic difl'erences are so great and other
factors are so frequent that too many things need consideration
to permit detailed directions. The best possible advice is to visit
the nearest successful bee-keeper and learn as much as possible
of his methods. Even a few miles often makes great difference
in conditions that the bee-keeper must meet, so one must look
for those things that are different in order to know how far the
system will apply to his own conditions.

The bee-keeper needs to study general principles and to try to
discover how they are affected by different conditions. Dr.
Miller's great yield of nearly forty dollars per colony on an aver-

150 PRODUCTION OF COMB HONEY

age was only secured after nearly half a century of study of the
principles of bee-keeping as applied to a particular locality.
True, conditions were exceptionally favorable and such an oppor-
tunity would only come once in years, but few bee-keepers would
be so well prepared when it did come, or fully understand how to
make the most of the favorable condition.

Prepare in Advance. — One great secret of success is in having
everything in readiness when the flow begins — to have one's dish
right side up when it raiys honey. The winter months can be
utilized to prepare a sufficient number of supers to care for any
crop. The failure to provide supers in advance is common and
one that costs the bee-keepers of the country thousands of tons
of honey every good season. Tlie bigger the harvest and the more
urgent the need of extra room the less time there will be to pre-
pare supers. Dr. Miller's advice is to have enough supers ahead
to hold the biggest crop ever harvested in the locality and one
extra super for each hive. After his big yield in 1913 he has
not been heard to say how many that would take in his locality
but prior to that time he estimated that at least seven supers
for each hive should be ready to be safe (Fig: 67).

The fact that such a large number of supers will be left over
from year to year leads most bee-keepers to neglect this precau-
tion. If properly cared for they will not be injured even though
not used for several years, and when the big yield does come
they will be worth many times the cost.

Putting on the Supers. — Supers should not be put on every
colony in a hit-and-miss manner whether they need room or not.
Weak colonies that are not ready for storage room for surplus
will be needlessly taxed to warm this extra space on cool nights
and be further delayed in building up. Extra strong colonies
will be ready for extra space before the average colonies, and
the average colonies in turn will be ready some time in advance
of the weak ones. There is no advantage in putting on supers
when no honey is coming in, even though the colonies be strong.
In most well-regulated apiaries one colony is kept on scales in

GETTING THE BEES INTO THE SUPER 151

order to ascertain when honej really is being stored and to tell
something of the rapidity of the flow. This is a most excellent
practice, as the apiarist can tell at once what really is being done.

•A common question from beginners is how to tell when to
place the supers on the hive. It is sometimes advised to put
them on when the first white clover blossoms appear. This is per-
haps as good advice as can be given if a definite time is to be set.
However, so much depends upon the condition of the bees as well
as weather and other conditions that no definite time can be set.
The bee-keeper must come to know when his colonies have filled
the brood chamber with brood and bees to the extent that they are
ready to occupy the super and also to tell when they are getting
something to put in it. 1^0 harm will be done in putting supers
on strong colonies a few days before they are ready for them.
It sometimes happens that some comb honey will be stored in
supers by strong colonies from fruit bloom and dandelion,
although this is not generally the case. If no supers had been
supplied in a case like this there would be nothing left for the
bees to do but to swarm.

Getting the Bees into the Super.— It is vitally important
to get the bees to working in the supers as soon as possible to
prevent the crowding of the brood chamber. They often hesitate
to begin storing in the sections and sometimes will not do so at
all without some extra inducement. One of the most common
plans is to save all unfinished sections from the previous year to
use as bait sections. Only the first super to be placed on the
hive will need bait sections, as after the bees are at work in the
supers they will occupy others as fast as needed.

If a sufificient number of these bait sections are at hand it is
well to place one in each corner and one in the middle of the
super. One in a corner at each end and one in the center will
do very well. If the supply is short one in the center of the super
will start them nicely.

For the purpose of starting the bees in sections it is also a
common practice to use a shallow extracting frame at each side

152 PRODUCTION OF COMB HONEY

of the super. They will readily begin work in shallow extracting
frames above the brood chamber, and once they have occupied
these they will more readily occupy the section adjoining,

C. L. Pinney, who has secured splendid yields of comb honey,
insists that by his method of combining the production of a
small amount of extracted honey with comb honey he can get as
many pounds of both as would be possible to get of extracted
honey alone. Since his method has some features not generally
practised, it may be of interest to describe it here. He has
shallow extracting supers which he places on his hives when the
comb honey is removed in the fall. These remain to catch any
light fall flow and are left in place all winter, thus giving the
bees a story and a half of comb surface on which to winter. In
spring the bees will begin storing above the brood nest, of course,
and as soon as the flow starts they will be at work in these shallow
extracting supers. When he is ready to put on the comb honey
supers he removes a partially filled frame and places it at each
side of the comb super. There will then be two frames of comb
with some honey in each comb honey super. The two frames are
replaced with others that are empty and the extracting super
raised up and the comb honey super placed underneath. The bees
will, of course, go right on working on the unfinished extracting
combs, and as soon as they are filled will fill the sections. When
the comb honey super is well started it is raised up and another
placed under it. The extracting super on the top may now be
removed if desired, as it has served its purpose. The remaining
honey may now be extracted and the frames put in a safe place
until they are wanted to set on top of the hive when the comb
honey is removed later in the season. If there is brood in the
shallow frames it is his plan to use it for making increase.
Several of the shallow frames of brood may be set in a super,
and the super placed on the bottom board makes a shallow hive.
By giving a queen, the little colony will build up nicely and
when the frames are getting crowded may be placed over a full
sized hive full of comb or frames of foundation.

ESSENTIALS OF SUCCESS

153

When using this plan care must be taken to see that the
queen is in the lower story when raising this shallow extracting
super to place the comb honey super under it. It will usually
be advisable to use a queen excluder (Fig. 77) under the supers
to prevent the queen going above until the shallow combs are
removed.

Essentials of Success. — The one big factor in getting a yield
of honey, next to plenty of nectar in the fields, is to have big
colonies of bees with the hive fairly running over with the honey

Fig. 77. — Ventilated bee escape and queen excluders.

gathering force. One strong colony at the beginning of the
harvest is likely to store as much surpkis as three or four of
moderate strength and as much as a dozen that are weak when
the harvest opens. From the time the honey is removed in the
fall until the supers are placed on the hive for the next crop every
move of the bee-keeper is made with a view of bringing the
colonies to the next harvest with multitudes of bees.

Plenty of first quality stores and a large cluster of young
bees insures good wintering, with proper care. The colony that
comes through the winter with bees enough to cover four or more
frames is the one that will build up quickly in the spring. Weak
colonies are very slow in building up and the apiarist who does

154 PRODUCTION OF COMB HONEY

not fully master his business will have a large part of his colonies
building up so late that the harvest v^^ill be half over before they
are really ready for storing. Suitable spring protection, as dis-
cussed in the chapter on wintering, will have an important bear-
ing on the condition of the colonies at the opening of the harvest.

Care of Weak Colonies. — Some bee-keepers take frames of
brood from their best colonies in spring to give to the weak ones,
thinking thereby to equalize the colonies and bring all to the
opening of the flow in strong condition. Unless the stronger
colony has seven or eight frames of brood this is not good practice.
A better plan will be to take all very weak colonies and set them
on top of the strong colonies, first removing the cover from the
hive containing the strong colony and placing a queen excluder
and a sheet of newspaper in its place. The queen excluder will
keep the queens each in her own apartm^ent and the paper will
prevent the bees from fighting until they have become accus-
tomed to the new condition and acquired a common odor or
whatever it is that is characteristic of a colony and by means of
which they recognize the numerous members of the same family.
In a few days the bees will have made openings through the
paper and the workers will mingle freely. Both queens will go
on laying and the heat from the strong colony below will be of
great help to the weak one above. In a few weeks they will
have also become strong and may be again set back on their
original stand. Two stronger colonies will result from a strong
one and a weak one or even two weak ones, in this manner than
by equalizing the brood and leaving them separate.

If a colony is sufficiently strong that the hive is getting
crowded before time to put on the supers, it may then very
readily spare a frame or two of brood to assist those which are
not so far advanced.

Dr. Miller's Plan. — Since Dr. Miller perhaps holds the
world's record of average production per colony, his system has
attracted wide notice among the bee-keepers of the world at
large. As before mentioned he uses the eight-frame Langstroth

DR. MILLER'S PLAN

155

hive. As soon as any colonies are strong enough to fill the eight
frames he adds another story — a full sized hive body full of
empty brood combs. Instead of putting this empty story on top
he raises the hive and places it underneath. In this manner the
heat of the colony is fully conserved. At the same time the bees
will work down as fast as they need the room. White clover is
the chief source of his surplus, and he endeavors to keep the bees
occupied with breeding until the beginning of the clover flow.
When conditions are right for putting on the supers he again
reduces the colony to eight frames. If there is less than eight
frames of brood he places it all in a single hive body and places
the super on top to provide the room formerly given by the extra
hive body. If there are more than eight frames of brood the
extra frames are given to colonies with less than eight frames.
If, as sometimes happens, he has some frames of brood left after
all colonies are provided with eight frames in single hive bodies,
the rest is used to make increase, or to form nuclei or is even
placed in hive bodies which are piled one on top of another to
permit the brood to hatch, and latter be used where needed. If
there is no other use for it a queen is given or else one is raised
from young larva in the hive and a strong colony is the result.
Concerning additional super room Dr. Miller says:

During the early part of the harvest, so long as there is a reasonable
expectation that each additional super will be "needed, the empty super
IS put under the others, next to the brood chamber. Work will commence
m It more promptly than when an empty super is placed on top, and that
^eater promptness in occupying the new super may be the straw to turn
the scale on the side of keeping down the desire fo/ swarming. But when

W^S'/%P"^ """ ^^r'? *^' '^"'^ "^ *^^ ^^^«°"' "«*^ because it seems really
heeded but as a sort of safety-valve in case it might be needed I do not
wish to do anything to coax the bees into it, so it is put on top and ?he

sSrir IZ ''T P'fr^ f^"' ^"*^^>"^ ''■ '' '' *-- that 7;n empt;
!w.! fi ^l^"^ ""'''''" *''^ °*''^'' ^t ^ ^'"^^ ^^en the harvest is nearing its

and ke'en'S 111^' fu " '"'"^ I" ''' '".* ™^^^'>^ ^« "P ^"^ down th^Jugh
It and keep to work in the super above. But it is not so well to have them
working so far from the brood nest with empty space benrath. ^

even when L pl^nf '" ^"*° *^^ ^^^'^ °^ ^'^'"^ ^" ^"^P^^ ^^Per on top,
even when an empty super is put under. The empty super on top gives

No mat[e7h:l f^^M "^ '"^"y. ^^'P " '''''' ^^^^^ preve'nting swa'r^ ^g
PNo matter how full or empty the lower super may be, this top super serves

156 PRODUCTION OF COMB HONEY

as a sort of safety-valve, in case any need for more room should arise.
The next time there is need to give a super below, this top super is moved
down and another empty super put in its place. Wlien tiie top super is put
down, I think the bees start work on it just a bit sooner than if it had not
been above.

The ability to provide the bees with sufficient room to make
the most of the harvest and jet keep them sufficiently crowded to
get the sections well finished is the great test of the scientific
bee-keeper. If, when the honey is coming in with a rush, too
many supers are put on, the bees will scatter their forces to such
an extent that when the flow stops there will be a lot of unfinished
sections which cannot be marketed. On the other hand, if
insufficient room is provided there will be a loss of honey for
lack of storage room.

Nothing can take the place of experience in determining this
matter. With the beginner it will be almost altogether guess-
work and as Dr. Miller says the guess-work will never be alto-
gether eliminated, for no man can tell ahead how long a honey
flow will last.

SWARM CONTROL

The man who will find the secret of swarm control will
confer a great blessing on the fraternity and his name will not
be forgotten. Many and various are the plans recommended
to prevent swarming. While the extracted honey producer is
able to reduce this trouble to the minimum and in ordinary
seasons have little difficulty, the comb honey producer who does
not find it his greatest problem has not been heard from. A
strong colony may swarm and take enough bees to found a new
colony and store a profitable crop, while at the same time leaving
enough force on the old stand to store some surplus. It will
sometimes happen that about as much honey will be stored by
the two divisions as would have been the case had the colony
not swarmed.

In localities where the flow is sufficiently rapid to make comb
honey production profitable, it is likely to be short and the

BREEDING TO PRODUCE A NON-SWARMING STRAIN 157

colonies which do not swarm are usually the ones to store the big
crops. At any rate the bee-keeper prefers to make increase at
his convenience and not to be watching for swarms all summer.
In a large apiary where there is no control of swarming there is
little time for anything else than watching for swarms and ^ettinff
them hived. ^

Breeding to Produce a Non-Swarming Strain.— In spite of
the fact that several writers, notably Dr. Bonney, take the posi-
tion that the honey-bee cannot be improved because of the diffi-
culty of controlling male parentage, much is to be hoped for
along this line. Even now some progress is being made and a
few leaders among the enthusiasts who are persistently following
up the method of selecting the best honey producers' among the
non-swarming colonies and rearing queens only from them are
getting results. It is true that progress is slow and that dis-
couragements sometimes are to be met, but some claim a notice-
able decrease in the number of swarms as a result of such
breeding for a series of years.

Experiments looking toward the artificial mating of queens
have been made from time to time with uncertain results. Once
let a satisfactory method of accomplishing this be found and the
great problem of breeding good bees is solved. As long as the
queen must mate in the air according to the natural provision
she may mate with any one of a thousand drones that chance to be
flying at the time she takes her marriage flight. If a method
of safe artificial fertilization can be devised this uncertainty
IS removed and drones from the best colonies can be selected.
It will then be an easy matter to breed from stock showing any
particularly desired trait and as good results can be expected
as have resulted from similar efforts to improve live stock and
poultry. The non-sitting breeds of fowls are pretty good evi-
dence that it is possible to breed out even the strong natural
instincts. In a state of nature the sitting of the hen was essential
to the perpetuation of the race. The invention of the incubator
removed the necessity for sitting and the poultrymen proceeded

158 PRODUCTION OF COMB HONEY

to remove the tendency to sit on the part of the hen, by natural
selection. In a state of nature only a few eggs were laid but
now behold the two hundred-egg hen, the result of the effort of
the breeder.

Natural Helps. — Mr. Dadant {" Dadant System of Bee-
keeping ") suggests the following as desirable in swarm preven-
tion: (1) Ample brood chamber; (2) combs built on full sheets
of foundation in super as well as brood chamber; (3) ample
ventilation; (4) partial shade; (5) young queens; (6) few
drones. With these conditions met there is little necessity for
manipulation of the hive to keep down swarming. Although
the Dadants are extracted honey producers, the principles of
swarm control outlined above will apply to comb honey.

Cutting Queen Cells to Prevent Swarming. — Perhaps the
cutting of the queen cells was the first method devised looking
toward swarm control. It is probably the method most com-
monly practised. Yet it is not entirely dependable. In some
instances if the cells are removed as soon as the larva? first appear
in them, no more will be built and there will be no swarm for that
year. If, however, cells are once sealed and the bees have the
swarming fever, they will build one batch after another until the
bee-keeper will find it cheaper to let them swarm and be done
with it, than to examine every comb and remove royal cells every
ten days all summer. Occasionally one will be missed and then
out comes your swarm whether or no.

De-queening During the Honey Flow. — A few bee-keepers
go through all their colonies during the honey flow when it is
expected that eggs laid will not mature in time to be of assistance
during the harvest and kill all the queens. At this time queen
cells will be built in many colonies in preparation for swarming.
All cells will be cut out at the same time. Weak colonies or
others not likely to swarm are passed, as are also any favorites

DE-QUEENING DURING THE HONEY FLOW 159

from which it is desired to get cells for making increase or similar
purposes. The colony being queenless will at once build Sev-
eral cells in order to provide another. Some system of marking
is used to note the condition of the colony. Nine or ten days
later a second trip is made through the yard, to cut out all queen
cells but one in each hive. At this second visit all cells found
in the colonies marked as A. No. 1, will be saved. Only one will
be left to insure a queen and the others will be placed in the
hives which have markings showing that they are not up to the
standard. All poorer or surplus cells are destroyed.

An accident to a cell or to the new queen on her mating trip
would leave the colony hopelessly queenless, as there will no
longer be eggs or young larva3 in the hives. To provide against
such contingencies a number of nuclei are started and provided
with cells to insure a sufficient number of extra queens to supply
the colonies whose queens are not successfully mated. A third
examination will be necessary after the elapse of a similar period
to ascertain whether queens are present and to supply those
colonies where failure has resulted.

It will sometimes be necessary to cut cells from a part of the
colonies in advance of the time of this wholesale de-queening,
or as only a small number of swarms will ipsue they may be hived
in the usual manner. This method, while somewhat drastic,
has the desired effect and perhaps comes as near controlling
swarming as any other. In the discussion that followed the
presentation of the plan by F. W. Hall at the Iowa Bee-keeper's
Convention there was serious objection to it on the part of some
very successful apiarists. It is contended with good reason that
many valuable queens will thus be destroyed and that one year
is not long enough to give a queen an opportunity to show her
good points. Those who follow the method, it will be noticed,
make exceptions of those queens which are especially promising
and retain them as breeders. While there are some extensive
bee-keepers who will find the method suited to their require-

160 PRODUCTION OF COMB HON^Y

ments, it is not generally recommended under all conditions.

Dr. Miller practiced a de-queening treatment along diiferent
lines. He removed the queen and placed her in a cage where
she was cared for by her own bees, or she was introduced to a
nucleus where she continued to be busy. Of course all cells
were destroyed or removed when the queen was taken away. At
the end of ten days the cells were again removed and the old
queen returned to them or another given in her stead. This is
the same treatment in effect, excepting that he retained his
queens as long as they gave satisfactory results, whether for one
year or for three or more.

With the exercise of the utmost care there will be plenty of
swarms some seasons while other years the matter can be con-
trolled without great difficulty. The swarming tendency can,
however, be so far checked as to greatly increase the returns from
the apiary.

Space Under the Brood Nest. — An empty space under the
brood frames seems to serve to some extent the purpose of swarm
prevention. A deep bottom is better than a shallow one. In
Europe the Sini^^iins plan of placing the comb honey supers with
empty sections under the hive, to begin with, seems to be prac-
tised to some extent, although the author does not know of its
use in this country. According to this plan empty supers are
kept in place under the hive all through the honey flow. The
bees prefer to store their honey above the brood nest and will do
so if possible. AVhen they are getting too crowded above they
will begin to build combs in these comb honey supers below in
preparation to working down. It is now time to remove them
and place them on top of the hive and put another empty one
in place underneath. This empty space below serves as addi-
tional clustering space and also facilitates ventilation.

A somewhat similar purpose is served by the usual practice of
blocking the hive up at the corners during the honey flow if the
weather be hot. The hive being open on all sides there is free
ventilation, which is a material factor in swarm control.

BEE ESCAPES 161

REMOVING THE HONEY FKOM THE HIVE

As soon as possible after most sections in a super are nicely
capped the honey should be removed from the hive to prevent
travel stain. If the bees are forced to pass over the sections in
going to and from the supers above for any considerable length
of time, the white cappings will become discolored and the
market value be reduced. True, the bee-keeper tries as far as
possible to have the sections finished in the top super so that
there will remain no necessity for much travel over it when
capped. It is not always possible to arrange the supers in the
ideal manner and even if capped in the upper super some trave]
stain will result if the honey is allowed to remain too long
Comb honey in sections is usually sufficiently ripened by the
time all but the comer sections are capped.

Fia. 78.— The Porter bee escape.

Bee Escapes.— The invention of the be© escape was a great
boon to the comb honey producer. The Porter escape is the one
in most common us© (Fig. Y8) . A board the size ©f the hive has
the escape fitted to a small opening in the center. The con-
struction is such that the bees can go down through it but cannot
return. By putting on the escapes in the evening it is usually
possible to remove the supers of honey, free from bees, the follow-

ing morning.

Some bee-keepers depend "upon driving the bees from the
supers with smoke, but this often results in injury to the honey,
as the bees will uncap the cells in order to reach the honey. Un-
less some care is used the combs may be somewhat discolored also.
The escapes are inexpensive and the small outlay is more than
repaid in the saving of time alone.

The LaEeese or ventilated escape has some advantages over

162 PRODUCTION OF COMB HONEY

the other (Fig. 77). This is made with about one-third of its
surface covered with a double screen. Double wire cones make it
possible for the bees to go down easily but difficult to find their
way back. The principal advantage of this excluder over the
other is the ventilation, which prevents the melting down of the
combs in extremely hot weather. While this happens rather
infrequently, conditions occasionally are such that honey will
melt badly in unventilated supers. Over these ventilated escapes
the air will be kept moving by fanning bees below, even if none
are left in the super, and the bad effects of the heat will be
avoided.

If it is desirable to remove the super before the outside rows
of sections are finished they may be set aside and replaced in
other supers.

Closing the Season. — Unless there are unfinished sections
which may be left on the hive in the hope of finishing during
the fall flow, it is usually advisable to remove the comb honey
supers at the close of the main harvest and to replace with ex-
tracting combs to catch any light fall flow. In localities where
the fall flow is such that comb honey can be produced profitably
this will not apply. In many localities the fall flow is so light
that the sections will not be well finished and if marketable at all
few of them will grade better than number two. Unless one can
produce comb honey of the best quality it is better to have it
stored in the extracting combs.

When one comes to remove honey in wholesale quantities
after the close of the flow it will be necessary to proceed carefully
or there will be much annoyance from robber bees dodging into
the sections and flying home with a load. Let a few bees get away
successfully in this manner and shortly the air will be full of
bees intent on finding the source of supply. At such times it
becomes very difficult for the operator to work and there is
greatly increased danger from stings. Everything should be
kept closed as carefully as possible and when the supers are
removed they should be covered at once.

FUMIGATION

163

For convenience at such times most bee-keepers have strips of
canvas or muslin, large enough to cover a pile of supers, which
are called robber cloths. It is well to remove the supers at once
to the honey house where they will be safe from visiting bees.
The honey house should, of course, be so tight that no bee can jfind
its way in, but with escapes at the tops of the windows to make
it easy for any chance bees to get out. In bringing in honey
from the apiary it will frequently happen that a good many bees
will still remain in the supers. If the house is properly con-
structed they will make but little trouble as they will fly to the
windows and escape. (See Honey House in next chapter. )

Removing Sections from Supers— The super springs already
described make it easy to loosen the follower board which will
give room to work. Each section holder may now be crowded
over into the vacant space and removed with its sections. A
better way is to push the whole lot out at one time. There are
two ways of doing this. Either have a form the size of the inside
of the super and set the super on it; with a mallet or other
object drive the super down outside of it, leaving the section
holders and their contents on the form ; or have an empty super
on which to set the filled one upside down. Then by carefully
jarring the section holders they may be pushed down into the
empty super. As soon as loosened fully from the propolis and
wax they may be lifted out. A little' experience will greatly
facilitate matters in thus removing the sections. As a rule the
novice will break a number of sections before he learns how to
proceed without injuring the honey.

After the sections are taken from the supers they should be
sorted and all unfinished sections replaced in the supers to be
replaced on the hives to be finished if the season is not too far
advanced, or set aside to serve as bait sections next season.

Fumigation.— Unless the season is so far advanced that freez-
ing weather is at hand, some precaution will be necessary to
insure that none of the crop is spoiled by wax moths in storage.
At any rate comb honey should not be long subjected to freezing

164 PRODUCTION OF COMB HONEY

temperatures because of the danger of granulating. If the honey
is to be sold at once no harm will be done by fumigating, as one
would not wish the buyer to wake up to the fact that wax moths
were destroying his honey a few weeks later.

Eggs may be present even though there is no appearance of
moths when the honey is taken from the hive. An occasional
examination will reveal their presence when they may be de-
stroyed by the usual methods of fumigation.

QUESTIONS.

1. Under what conditions is the production of comb honey satisfactory?

2. Discuss hives for comb honey production.

3. Describe the different sections used for comb honey.

4. Note the advantages of split sections.

5. Discuss the use of foundation in sections.

6. What advance preparation should be made for the season's work?

7. When is a colony ready for supers?

8. What methods are used to get the bees into the supers?

9. What are some of the essentials to success in comb honey production?

10. How may weak colonies best be built up?

11. Outline Miller's method of comb honey production.

12. Discuss swarm control.

13. When should comb honey be removed from the hive!

14. Of what advantage is a bee escape?

CHAPTER X
PRODUCTION OF EXTRACTED HONEY

With proper equipment, extracted honey production is a
pleasant and profitable pursuit. Without it, it is dirty, mussy
and disagreeable. Less skill and labor may perhaps be required
in specializing in extracted honey. If the market is properly
developed, it may be as profitable or more so than comb honey.
As generally handled, much more extracted honey will be pro-
duced than comb honey, but skillful apiarists who know how to
make the most of the opportunity will get very nearly as many
pounds of comb honey as extracted where honey flows are very
rapid. If one wishes to do business on a large scale, and to run
a series of out apiaries, there are less difficulties to be overcome
in the production of extracted honey.

Proper Equipment.— The kind of equipment that will be
needed will depend much on the extent to which one wishes to
develop the business, and whether one plans a central extracting
house, where all honey is brought to be cared for, or whether one
uses a portable outfit with a small honey house at each apiary.
Which is the better plan, the author is not prepared to say, for
there are extensive honey producers some of which prefer one and
some the other.

In any case the extractor is an important article. Larger
extractors can be used in the central plant than are practicable
to carry from place to place. For portable outfits, the four-frame
reversible extractor is usually used. For a small home apiary,
a two-frame extractor will do very well, but if there is any idea
of extending the business, nothing short of the four-frame capac-
ity should be bought.

Extractors. — Until the invention of the extractor in 1865,
the nearest approach to extracted honey was strained honey.
This was a common method until but a few years past. Surplus
honey was removed from the hive by cutting out the combs and

165

Fia. 79. — The latest in automatic reversing honey extractors. These machines can be

reversctl without stopping and without injury to the combs.

A. Lewie-Markle extractor with can removed to show how baskets are supported.

B. Root-Buckeye extractor showing reversing mechanism.

EXTRACTORS

167

mashing them up in a cotton cloth which was hung up in a warm
place to drain. Masses of brood, pollen, and honey were often
broken up together, so that the quality was anything but attrac-
tive. Many people who have not kept pace with the progress of
bee culture, seeing extracted honey in the market, refer to it as
strained honey.

The frames full of sealed honey are now taken from the hive,

Fig. 80.— Storage tanks of a large honey producer in California.

and by means of a warm knife the cappings are skilfully cut from
the comb. The frames are then placed in the basket of the
extractor (Fig. 79), and the machine started. The centrifugal
motion throws the honey from the side of the comb next to the side
of the can. The machine is then reversed, throwing the honey
from the other side in the same manner. The honey is drawn off
in tanks, or in smaller containers, according to circumstances
(Fig. 80).

Since the first extractors appeared in the market, many im-
provements have been made. The first extractor revolved alto-

168

PRODUCTION OF EXTRACTED HONEY

gether, tank and all. Then came an extractor in which two
comb baskets revolved inside the can, but requiring that the combs
be lifted out and turned around, after one side had been emptied.
The latest machines are reversed by the simple pulling of a lever
without stopping the machine. The larger sized ones have a

Fio. 81. -^A power driven extractor.

capacity of eight frames, so chat something like forty pounds
of honey is extracted from a set of full combs at each operation.
Power. — For extensive apiaries, the power driven extractor
(Fig. 81) is a great economy, for while the operator is uncapping
one set of combs, the machine will empty another. A small
gasoline engine costing from thirty-five to fifty dollars is suflfi-
cient to furnish the necessary power, and, during the extracting

STORAGE TANKS 169

season, will nearly take the place of one man, and at much less
cost. The labor item is the heaviest expense with most lines of
productive enterprise, and any machine that will reduce this
expense will add materially to the net profit at the end of the
season.

The same power can be made to serve for many other pur-
poses, such as pumping water, running the washing machine,
cream separator or other small machinery. The gasoline engine
is generally regarded as a necessity in the apiary, unless it be
within reach of electric power.

Honey Pump. — The honey pump is a comparatively new
invention and has not, as yet, come into general use. Whether
its use will be advisable will depend a good deal upon the con-
struction of the honey house. (See Honey House.) If the
storage tanks are on a level with the extractor or above it, the
honey pump will be a time saver in the large plant. In the past
these new machines, like most new inventions, gave more or less
trouble in their operation. The machines are now perfected to
the point where they are run with good results. The pump is
attached directly to the extractor, and run by a belt attached
to the reel of that machine. The same power runs both and the
honey is pumped into the storage tank as fast as extracted. This
not only saves the labor of handling the pails of honey as drawn
from the extractor but relieves the care of watching for fear the
pail will be neglected a moment too long, and the honey run over
and be wasted. The extractor can also be fastened directly to the
floor, instead of upon a platform, as is necessary where pro-
vision must be made for a container under the honey gate of the
machine.

Storage Tanks. — Tanks of sufficient capacity to hold the
season's crop should be provided, for it is not always advisable,
even if there is time, to get a part of the honey to market during
the season. Many bee-keepers provide a sufficient tank capacity
to hold the output of three or four days' extracting, and have
on hand a large number of sixty-pound cans in which to store

170 PRODUCTION OF EXTRACTED HONEY

the bulk of the honey. It is drawn into the cans as soon as it has
settled a few hours, and is then ready to ship to a wholesale
market, or with the caiis tightly closed is safe from dust or
spilling, if the honey is later to be sold in small containers
(Fig. 82).

Galvanized iron tanks are quite commonly used for storage,
though some use wood tanks for this purpose. In some localities
barrels are used, but this is no longer common in many localities
in the United States. Honey should not be left long in open

Fig. 82. — Sixty pound cans for extracted Loney.

tanks for reasons of cleanliness. It is thought also that honey
exposed long to the air loses some of the delicate aroma peculiar
to the finer grades.

Uncapping Boxes. — Several different kinds of uncapping
cans or boxes are in the market, and many more are in use in the
apiaries. The accumulation of cappings during a week's extract-
ing will be surprising. It is not only necessary to save these cap-
pings for the wax they contain, but much honey will be carried
with them which, also, is to be cared for.

A good uncapping can provides for the draining of the cap-
pings, so that the honey will separate from them as rapidly as
possible. Some of the boxes made for this purpose have slatted

CAPPING MELTERS

171

bottoms, through which the honey is drained into a tub or pail
set for the purpose (Fig. 83). The cans are provided with coarse
screen, which catches the cappings but permits the honey to run
through in the same manner. Some of the best of these are made
at the apiary where they are to be used, thus fitting the available
space in the honey house, and meeting the individual require-
ments of the bee-keeper. The uncapping box or can should be
of a convenient height and have a suitable rest for the comb when
the cappings are being removed.

Fig. 83. — The Townsend uncapping box.

If the box is made rather long, and the width is the same as
the length of the extracting frames, they may be left hanging
m the box as fast as uncapped until removed to the extractor.
In this way the box will catch the drip from the uncapped combs.
Something similar to the Townsend uncapping box shown in the
illustration (Fig. 83) is probably most commonly used.

Capping Melters.— The capping melter is somewhat similar
to the uncapping box, but has a sloping metal bottom. Under this
is placed a small oil stove, or some other device for heating the
metal bottom (Fig. 84). The idea is that as fast as the cappings

172

PRODUCTION OF EXTRACTED HONEY

drop on the hot metal, they will be melted and run at once into
a receptacle at the lower end. The bottom is usually double,
and the metal extends up several inches on each side of the tarik,
the space between the two sheets of metal composing the bottom
and sides being filled with water. The water distributes the heat
more evenly, thus preventing the space immediately over the
flame from becoming too hot.

The honey and melted wax are both caught in the same con-
tainer, but the wax comes to the top and may be lifted off in
cakes when cool.

The Peterson capping melter.

There is quite an advantage in disposing of the cappinga as
fast as cut from the combs, especially in a large apiary. How-
ever, these melters do not always give satisfaction, as the honey
is often over-heated and the quality injured. Most large pro-
ducers of the author's acquaintance prefer the uncapping box
without artificial heat.

HIVES FOR EXTRACTED HONEY 173

Uncapping Knives. — To remove the cappings a knife with
long blade is used. Straight knives were formerly in general use,
but of late the Bingham knife has largely replaced all others.
Fig. 85 shows this knife. For use it is kept hot by dipping in
hot water.

A somewhat similar knife heated by steam is used to some
extent in large apiaries. The steam knife is hollow, and is
attached by rubber tubing to a small vessel of water which is set
over the burner of a small oil stove or lamp. A small hole at
the end of the knife permits the escape of the steam. As the
temperature of the knife is evener, it is more satisfactory. The
cappings do not stick to the knife, or the operator does not have
to stop frequently because it has become cold.

Fig. 85. — Bingham uncapping knife.

Hives for Extracted Honey. — While there is a difference of
opinion regarding the size of hive most profitable for the pro-
duction of comb honey, the bee-keepers are nearly all agreed that
the large hive is the thing for extracted honey. The ten-frame
Langstroth is more generally used for this purpose than any
other (Fig. 86). Some extensive producers use a twelve-frame
hive with the same size frames (Fig. 87).

The Dadant hive is very satisfactory for this purpose, and
were it not for the fact that the Langstroth frame is in more
general use, it would find favor with the producer. The brood
frames of the Dadant hive are too large, however, for extracting
frames, thus requiring two sizes of frames. It is a decided
advantage to have all frames in the apiary of the same size and
Btyle.

Shallow extracting frames are good for use in connection
with the comb honey apiary, but are not to be recommended for
the production of extracted honey. N'early as much time will be

174

PRODUCTION OF EXTRACTED HONEY

required to imcap a small frame as a large one, and extra time
will be required in the manipulations, which is decidedly to their
disadvantage.

Not only should everything about the apiary be planned to
avoid the loss of time, but the accumulation of unnecessary equip-
ment should also be avoided. If extracting frames and brood
frames ai-e of the same size, extra frames may be used for either
purpose for which they are needed, instead of having to supply
more when one or the other runs low. It might easily happen

Fio. x6 — Langstroth hive for extracted honey.
Fig. 87. — Langstroth hive dissected.

when there are two sizes that there will be a surplus of one at
hand and a lack of the other.

Kind of Frame to Adopt.— As to the kind of frame which
best serves the purpose, there is a decided disagreement. While
the author personally prefers the Hoffman self-spacing frame,
most of the large producers seem to be decidedl}^ of the opinion
that a loose-hanging frame is better.

The Hoffman frames (Fig. 93) require little attention to see
that they are properly spaced when placed in the hive. On
the other hand the loose-hanging frames must always be spaced
after setting in place, or the combs will be unequal in thickness.

There are several devices for spacing the frames. Staples are
used in some cases. The metal spacers are very popular also.

THE HONEY HOUSE I75

These are so placed near the top of the frames that they will be
the proper distance apart when placed in the hive.

While there may be a difference of opinion regarding the
best, from the standpoint of the extensive extracted honey pro-
ducer, the novice will find the self-spacing frames much better,
as there is less danger of getting the brood nest too crowded or
the combs too far apart.

Some contend that the use of metal spaced frames tends to
dull the uncapping knife by constantly knocking against it. This
argument carries little weight, for a good operator will seldom
strike the edge of his knife against the metal.

THE HONEY HOUSE

A good honey house is a necessity in extensive honey produc-
tion. The small honey producer can get along with a large room
in the dwelling house if necessary, but the nature of the work of
extracting is such that a separate building is very desirable. It
need not be expensive, but must be tight enough so that no bee
can enter when doors and windows are closed. If the bees once
find their way in when a lot of honey is exposed, they soon come
by thousands and make work impossible. During a good honey
flow they are so busy bringing in nectar from the field, that they
pay little attention to anything else. At such times extracting
can often be done out of doors without annoyance. A check in
the honey flow brings a decided change in their attitude, and
they will soon be seeking every possible opening to a building
where honey is stored.

If portable outfits are used and the honey extracted at the
various apiaries, small buildings will serve very well, because
the honey will be taken away as fast as extracted. It is a common
practice among bee-keepers following this plan to visit a yard in
the morning and spend the day extracting, and take the honey
home at night.

Even though the portable outfits are used, a good-sized build-

176

PRODUCTION OF EXTRACTED HONEY

ing will be needed at the home yard where the honey is prepared
for market and the various appliances prepared for use.

The illustrations show two good kinds of honey houses. Fig.
88 shows a honey house two stories high. This house has some
decided advantages, and, although it was built at a cost of about

Fig. 88. — A well-arranged, two-story honey house.

one thousand dollars, the extensive honey producer will find it
well worth the cost. By looking at the picture it will be seen
that the lay of the land is such that the ground is on a level with
the floor of the upper story at one side. At the other side the
ground is on a level with the lower story. A side hill location
is not always available, and otherwise this two-story arrangemcDt
would not be very satisfactory, as too much energy would be

THE HONEY HOUSE

177

necessarily expended in getting the honey upstairs. In a case
like this, however, the honey can be unloaded on the upper floor
without extra effort.

On the upper floor is the power driven extractor. From it
there is a pipe leading directly to a large settling tank on the
floor below. The honey will thus never be handled from the time
the uncapped frames are placed in the extractor until it is drawn

Fia. 89. — Large honey house with all work on ground floor.

into the sixty-pound cans to ship to market. This particular
honey house is arranged with the idea of eliminating every pos-
sible unnecessary item of labor. One man has produced, ex-
tracted, and prepared for market something like forty thousand
pounds of honey from five yards, with help only a few days
during the busiest season.

On the upper floor is the work shop, where hives and frames
are assembled, and where extracting combs are stored, in addi-
tion to the extracting room. On the lower floor is the big settling
tank, the bottling room and storage room for honey. A better
12

178

PRODUCTION OF EXTRACTED HONEY

arranged or more satisfactory honey house could scarcely be
planned. The honey room must always be kept dry to avoid
injury to the honey.

Fig. 89 shows another kind of honey house. Here every-
thing is on the lower floor, excepting storage for unused equip-
ment. The building is composed of three large rooms. At one
end is the general storage room. In the center is the extracting

Fig. 90. — The automobile i3 valuable for outyard trork.

room, also used for preparing equipment, wiring frames, etc.
At the other end the automobile is driven in with the load. The
automobile is a very useful, and now almost necessary adjunct
to a large apiary, where outyards are widely scattered, as the
time saved in travelling to and from the yards is an important
consideration (Fig. 90).

As will be seen from the two pictures, the extensive produc-
tion of honey necessitates a large building for comfortable work.
The tendency is always to build too small, and crowding does

ESCAPES

179

not tend to economy of time or labor. If the beginner who
expects his business to grow will plan his honey house so that
additions are easily built on, he will be wise.

Floor. — A cement floor is very desirable, as it is much easier
to make the building proof against rats and mice. Neither
should be tolerated in the honey house, as they are the source of
gi-eat annoyance and damage. Mice will destroy many dollars
worth of extracting combs, unless they are stored beyond the
reach of the rodents. A cement floor also makes a better foun-
dation for fast-running machinery.

Doors and Windows.— The windows should be tightly
screened to keep out flies and bees, but the doors are better
without screens. If the doors are screened, they will be left
open when the extracting is going on, and large numbers of bees
are likely to collect on the screens in an effort to get in. Every
time the screen is opened a few of them will dodge in, with the
result that a constantly increasing number are flying about, which
is annoying to the bee-keeper and bad for the bees. If only the
windows are screened, the doors will be kept closed excepting
when necessary to pass in or out, and the bees collecting on the
outside will gather at the windows where they will be unable to
enter.

Escapes.— Bees that are carried into the honey house will
naturally fly to the windows in an effort to escape. At the top
of every window should be provided an escape which will permit
them to get out, but which will turn those on the outside which
may try to get in.

A good method is to place strips of lath under the wire screen,
thus holding them out a quarter of an inch from the building.'
If these strips extend about six or eight inches above the top of
the window, and the screen extends as far, the space under the
screen may be left open at the top. The bees on the inside will
walk up and out, while those outside will not go much above the
window opening and will not find their way in.

Another method is to leave several wrinkles in the screen

180 PRODUCTION OF EXTRACTED HONEY

along the top. Each of these places will leave an opening large
enough to permit the bees to find their way out. To prevent
those from the outside from coming in, wire cones are placed over
the openings.

Still another common plan is to place ordinary bee escapes,

Fia. 91.— Comb at right built on full sheet of foundation; at left, without foundation.

such as are to be purchased from any dealer in supplies, in the
comers of each window. This plan does not work well in
practice. Any method that will permit bees to go out without
letting outsiders in, will be satisfactory.

PREPARING FOR THE HARVEST

The importance of having combs built on full sheets of foun-
dation to prevent the building of drone comb is mentioned else-

PREPARING FOR THE HARVEST

181

where. Drone combs are not especially objectionable in extract-
ing supers, as long as the queen does not have access to them.
The productive bee-keeper, hovrever, should avoid having them
built in the first place, as they should never be permitted in the
brood chamber, and, unless excluders are used, the queen will
sometimes be laying in the extracting supers. It is highly desir-
able that every comb be so perfect that it can be used in any
part of the hive for any purpose needed.

Aside from the necessity of avoiding the drone comb it is

possible to get so much better combs by the use of foundation, and
to have them built so much more rapidly, that it is economy to
use full sheets anyway. It is very annoying to have crooked
combs to deal with, and perfect combs cannot always be secured
without the use of foundation (Fig. 91).

For extracting purposes, it is important, also, that the combs
be built in wired frames (Fig. 92). It makes little difference
to the comb honey producer whether his combs are wired or not
after they are once built, because they are not subject to much
strain. In the extractor, unwired combs are likely to be badly
broken or ruined altogether. Fig. 93 shows a full sheet of
foundation ready for the bees. Four horizontal wires are used

182

PRODUCTION OF EXTRACTED HONEY

Fig. 93. — Hoffman frame with full sheet of foundation.
FiQ. 94. — Development of combs from foundation.

in this frame. Fig. 94 shows how the bees make use of this
foundation. The left hand frame contains a new sheet of foun-
dation. The central figure shows the appearance when the bees

STRONG COLONIES IMPORTANT 183

are beginning to draw it out and the right hand figure shows a
comb nearly drawn. Fig. 95 shows a good brood comb built
from a full sheet of foundation on four wires.

The novice can seldom be made to see the importance of full
sheets of foundation and wired frames. To save the extra ex-
pense of foundation, he will usually insist on using a narrow
strip, with the result that his combs are not well built and are

FiQ. 95. — Comb b'uilt on wired frame with full sheet of foundation.

largely composed of drone cells. To avoid the trouble of wiring
the frames, he will trust to the bees to build the combs strong
enough, with the result that most of them will be broken the
first time they are placed in the extractor. Experience is a good
teacher, but here as elsewhere the tuition comes high. The use
of proper precautions in the beginning would save much loss.

Strong Colonies Important. — What has been said elsewhere
about the importance of having strong colonies at the beginning
of the honey flow will also apply here. While medium colonies

184

PRODUCTION OF EXTRACTED HONEY

may store some surplus of extracted honey when they would not
store in sections, it is only the strong colonies that pile up the
profitable crops. Xo matter in what form one expects to market
his crop, he must bend every energy to bring his colonies to the
beginning of the honey flow in prime condition.

Putting on Supers. — As soon as colonies are crowding the
brood chamber, it is time to give more room (Figs. 96 and 97).
As the frames are the same as those occupied for the brood nest,

Fig. 96. — Strong colony for extracted honey production.
Fio. 97. — Colony that produced forty dollars worth of extracted honey in one season.

no difficulty will be found in getting the bees to occupy them, as
encountered by the comb honey specialist. It is well to lift the
hive up and place the extracting super underneath. By this
means the bees will not be required to warm unoccupied space
above the brood nest, and as fast as the honey comes in it will
crowd the queen down, so that soon the upper hive will be full of
honey and the queen and brood will be below. The objection to
this plan is the accumulation of surplus pollen in extracting
combs. If the empty super is placed on top without an excluder
beneath there is a tendency for the queen to occupy the empty
combs for egg laying, with the result that she will keep on going

SWARM CONTROL 185

up as new supers are added, and more or less trouble will be
necessary to separate the frames containing brood from those
with honey only, at time of first extracting.

If empty supers are placed underneath, no harm will result,
even though they be given some time in advance of when they
are needed, and the extra room tends to keep down swarming.

Swarm Control. — It often happens that the extracted honey
producer with his large hives has little difficulty from swarming,
and need give the matter little special attention. The method of
handling this matter most generally in use is known as the
Demaree method. As soon as the brood nest is getting sufficiently
crowded to require the addition of more room, the queen is
hunted out and a frame of brood, preferably the one on which
she is found, is lifted from the hive. An empty comb from the
hive body used as a super is exchanged for it. The queen will
then be on a frame of brood in a hive body of empty combs. A
queen excluder is then placed on top of this new body and the
old one already full of brood and honey is set on top of it in the
usual place. The queen is now provided with an abundance of
empty comb in which to lay. In fact her surroundings are simi-
lar to what they would be, had she recently come into possession
of a new hive in company with a swarm. The colony will build
up wonderfully in a short time, and not only will the desire to
swarm be eliminated, but a tremendous working force will be
present in the hive at the beginning of the honey flow. If addi-
tional room is provided as needed, further use of the excluder will
hardly be necessary and it can be removed after two or three
weeks.

In addition to the above advantages, the brood will be in the
bottom of the hive, and the honey can be removed as fast as
ripened and taken to the extracting room. While other methods
of swarm control are practised to some extent in connection with
extracted honey production, this plan is most generally used.
It is also the simplest and surest in its results of any with which
the author is familiar.

186 PRODUCTION OF EXTRACTED HONEY

Use of Excluders. — There is a decided difference of opinion
among bee-keepers as to the value of excluders. Aside from the
above use, which is general at the beginning of the season to
start the queen to laying in the lower story, many bee-keepers are
of the opinion that there is little value in their use. Many are
decided in the '^.onviction that the use of excluders through the
season results in a loss of honey. The author is of the opinion
that they should not be used more than is necessary, although
whether they actually result in smaller amount of honey being
stored above them is apparently incapable of proof.

In comb honey production there is seldom if ever any occas-
ion that justifies the use of a queen excluder. Occasionally some
one will complain that the queen lays in the sections. This sel-
dom happens anyway, and is of very rare occurrence, where full
sheets of starter are used in the sections. The occurrence is so
infrequent that it will neither justify the expense of excluders
nor the inconvenience to the bees that their presence causes.

Ventilation. — In cool weather the entrance will furnish suffi-
cient ventilation, but when the weather grows hot in midsummer
more must be provided for best results. It is an easy matter to
temporarily slip one hive body forward a half inch, the one above
back a half inch, thus providing ventilation in every story from
the bottom to the top of the hive. jSTo rule can be laid down as
to how much should be given. It will depend upon the weather
and upon the honey flow. If plenty of honey is coming in so
that there is no danger from robbers, much ventilation will be
helpful in extremely hot weather. If no honey is coming in care
must be used that the openings are not larger than the bees can
guard safely.

Entrances the full width of the hive and at least an inch in
depth are regarded as none too large for hot weather during the
honey flow. Some lift the hive up an inch from the bottom board,
and support it with blocks at the comers as described under
comb honey.

The entrances should gradually be reduced as the season ad-

REMOVING HONEY FROM THE HIVE 187

varices, the honey flow ceases, and the weather becomes cool in
fall. A three-eighths-inch entrance is large enough for winter
and even that is restricted to from four to six inches in width.

Ripening the Honey. — The practical bee-keeper will always
provide a sufficient number of extracting combs, so that no honey
need be extracted until it is fully ripened, A shortage of combs
brings a temptation to extract too soon. Green or unripened
honey should never be extracted. Some extensive honey pro-
ducers are sometimes guilty of this practice. Not long since, the
author visited an establishment where large quantities of honey
are handled. A short time before a carload of extracted honey
had been received from the West that had not been properly
ripened. About one-third of this green honey was souring and
working in the cans. Some of the cans had burst, and the whole
thing was in such a condition as to demoralize any market where
it happened to land. A few days longer on the hives, giving the
bees time to evaporate it and ripen it fully, would have made a
fine article which would have pleased the buyer, instead of caus-
ing him to curse the whole honey business. As a matter of course
it was nearly a total loss to the producer. Why men will be so
short sighted is hard to understand. The fact that they can
sometimes sell the honey and leave the buyer to stand the loss
leads them to risk it again.

Honey is seldom ready for extracting until the cells are
nearly all sealed. Well-ripened honey can be kept for years
without injury if properly cared for.

Removing Honey from the Hive. — Escapes are used to
some extent in taking off extracted honey, as described under
comb honey. It is a difficult matter to reach the bees in the
sections and to get them out of the comb honey supers without
escapes. Most bee men in taking off extracted honey open the
hive and lift out a frame at a time and brush or shake the bees
in front of the hive. The comb is then set in an empty hive body
brought for the purpose.' Full supers of frames are then set
aside and covered until a load is ready to be taken to the

188

PRODUCTION OF EXTRACTED HONEY

extracting house. If there is an extracting room near at hand
they are wheeled in, in a cart or wheelbarrow (Fig. 98), or if
they must be taken some distance to the central plant, they are
set in a wagon or automobile in which they are hauled home.
If escapes are used they must be put in place the day before

Fig. 98. — Wheelbarrow load of extracting eupera.

the honey is to be taken off, which is often inconvenient, espe-
cially at outyards.

Extracting at Once. — The honey can never be extracted as
easily as when first taken from the hives in warm weather. It
sometimes becomes necessary to leave a part of the work to be
done after the close of the season. If the weather is cool, a warm
room will be necessary and even then honey that has stood in the
honey house for several weeks will be thrown out with more or
less difficulty. With a power-driven extractor it is possible to get
the combs much cleaner than with the hand machine.

STRAINING THE HONEY igg

Most bee-keepers make a practice of extracting several times
during the season, tlius requiring less equipment and keeping
honey from the different sources separate.

If one sells in a wholesale market, it is important to keep
the light honey from clover and basswood separate from the dark,
fall honey, such as buckwheat, golden rod, etc. It is better to
extract after every flow as far as can be done, so as to keep the
different kinds as nearly separate as possible.

If, on the other hand, the bee-keeper has a retail trade of his
own and blends his product anyway, there is no special impor-
tance in keeping the honey separate, unless something might be
brought in so poor in quality as to injure his crop. In many
localities in the Southern States, there is a bitter weed that
blooms in midsummer which secretes nectar from which honey
that is too bitter to be eaten is stored. Where any plant of this
kind is to be dealt with, it is important to remove all surplus
from the hive as soon as it begins to bloom, to avoid having good
honey mixed with it. A very little of this honey will spoil a
whole crop, so that it cannot be sold to advantage.

Straining the Honey.— With the greatest care there will be
bits of wax and other refuse thrown off in the extractor, which
must be removed from the honey before it is ready for market.
If deep settling tanks are used, this surplus matter will soon rise
to the top, where it can be skimmed off, or the honey can be
drawn from the bottom of the can where it is clear. By this plan
there always remains a quantity of honey at the last that is not
ready for market until it is strained.

Various contrivances are in use for the purpose of straining
the honey as it goes into the settling tank. Thin cotton cloth is
most often used as a strainer. A large, surface is necessary to
prevent the cloth from clogging, when it must be cleaned or a new
one used in place of it. If the cloth alone is used, the weight
of the honey will often result in pulling it loose at one side, when
the whole of the contents will run hi to the receptacle below. A
coarse screen of about one-fourth inch mesh is good to furnish

190 PRODUCTION OF EXTRACTED HONE^

a support for the cloth. If a large basket, which may be hung
in the tank, is made of this coarse screen and lined with cheese-
cloth it makes a fairly satisfactory strainer. There is always
more or less bother with clogged strainers, unless the basket is
deep enough so that much of the refuse will come to the top
rather than fall directly on the strainer.

Alexander Strainer.— The Alexander strainer is made of
fine wire screen, and is about the size and shape of a large bucket
with bail. This pail is hung in the tank or other receptacle, in
which the honey is stored and the honey run into it as extracted.
The bottom and all side surface permitting the passage of honey,
it does not clog readily and it is strong enough to sustain the
weight of a full pail of honey. All sediment is caught and held.
The strainer is easily cleaned with hot water after the refuse is
dumped out.

Second-Hand Containers Not Desirable. — So much honey
goes to market in the square sixty-pound cans that there is always
an accumulation of them in all the large centers. These are
offered for sale at a very low price. So little is to be saved by
the use of these second-hand containers that the bee-keeper can
hardly afford to buy them. If they are rusted inside, the quality
of the honey will be injured, and if otherwise perfect there is
some danger of spreading disease by their use.

As mentioned elsewhere the principal bee diseases are spread
from hive to hive in the honey. Second-hand containers brought
to the apiary are more or less daubed with the honey with which
they have previously been filled. This honey attracts the
workers, and if it came from a diseased colony there is great
danger in bringing it into the apiary. Disease is thus spread
to considerable extent. The author has had his attention offi-
cially called to this source of disease so many times that he is
inclined to favor restrictions on the use of containers for honey
a second time, unless it be in the same apiary where filled at first.

If the honey is put up in bright new cans a better impression
is made on the buyer than if received in cans that are rusty and

LIQUEFYING CANDIED HONEY 191

Stained. Occasionally a buyer makes serious complaint if honey
is received in such cans.

Liquefying Candied Honey.— After extracted honey has
stood for a time, it will usually candy. If it goes to market in
the sixty-pound cans in which it is stored, the producer will have
no occasion to liquefy it, as it will stand the journey with less
risk in this condition. If through any accident a can should be
damaged, there will be no leakage, as would be the case if the
honey was shipped in a liquid condition.

If the honey is to be placed in small packages for the retail
trade, it will be necessary to heat the honey sufficiently to restore
the liquid form. Great care is necessary not to overheat the
honey, as to do so will greatly injure the flavor and consequently
the value of the product.

Various plans of accomplishing this result have been devised.
In large establishments a system of hot water pipes is sometimes
used. The caps are removed from the cans, and they are set
up-side-down on pipes. As fast as the honey melts, it runs out
into a container below.

Large tanks are also used which are filled with hot water
around the honey cans. This water is kept at a temperature of
about 150° for a sufficient time to liquefy the honey in all the
cans.

A simple and very satisfactory plan is illustrated by Fig. 99.
This plan utilizes an ordinary cheap feed cooker such as can be
purchased in the market for about twelve dollars. There is just
room for eight sixty-pound cans in the square tank. Instead of
using hot water, a crate of wood is made to hold the cans about
two inches off the bottom and water is allowed to como just to
the bottom of the cans. A lid shuts down, as will be seen in the
picture, and a very light fire is started in the fire box underneath.
As the water is heated steam is generated, and the cans are
warmed by steam instead of having the hot water in contact
with them. A small hole in the top of the lid provides a place
for a thermometer, which indicates the temperature. One great

192 PRODUCTION OF EXTRACTED HONE\

advantage in this heater is that if, by chance, it becomes too hot
the lifting of the lid permits the escape of the steam and cooling
of the interior instantly. If the water system gets too hot, it
is difficult to cool it quick enough to avoid injury to the honey.
Several hours wi]! be required to liquefy the contents of the

FlQ. 99. — Utilizing feed cooKer for liquefying candied honey by steam.

cans by this system, but the amount of fuel required is so small
as to be a very incignificant matter.

Bottling. — If the honey is sold through retail stores a portion
of it is likely to stand on the shelves for some time after it reaches
the store. In this case the contents of many of the bottles will
candy again in time. Sometimes a trade is developed that comes
to demand a certain amount of this candied honey or will take a

RETAILING CANDIED HONEY 193

jar of candied honey and liquefy it by setting in a pan of warm
water. However, in most localities, the bee-keeper will be
required to take back honey that has candied and replace it with
honey in the liquid state. It is an easy matter to restore the
honey in jars in a few minutes by setting them in a shallow tank
of hot water that just comes up around the necks of the bottles.

If the honey is kept at a temperature of about 120° for
several hours before bottling, and then sealed while still warm,
several weeks and sometimes months will often elapse before it
will candy again.

Some bee-keepers make a practice of restoring honey that has
candied in small glass jars by placing them in solar wax extrac-
tors, where they are exposed directly to the heat of the sun.
This plan seems to be very satisfactory for small quantities, as
the sun's rays supply about the right conditions for best results.

Retailing Candied Honey. — Some honeys have a much
greater tendency to candy than others. Western alfalfa honey
candies very quickly and becomes quite hard. Some honey will
only candy far enough to become waxy and sticky. Unless it
becomes hard enough so that it is no longer sticky, there is little
opportunity to develop a special trade for candied honey in small
packages. Several kinds of pasteboard or paper packages hold-
ing small quantities of this honey are in use. The paper bucket
commonly used for retailing oysters is perhaps the most com-
monly used. When the honey shows signs of granulation, but
will still run, it is drawn into these packages and set in
a cold place. Frequent changes of temperature hasten granu-
lation and a room where it is first warm, and then freezing, will
be the best for honey which it is desired to granulate. When the
honey is sufficiently hard, it is placed on the market. Unless
subjected to quite a warm temperature it will remain in the
granulated condition for an indefinite period.

As yet there is no general market for granulated honey in
these small packages. Every bee-keeper who wishes to handle
honey in this way must develop his own trade. It would seem
13

194 PRODUCTION OF EXTRACTED HONEY

that a nice trade might be gradually developed for small cubes
of this candy to sell at a nickel through the retail candy trade.
Once people came to know the product they would buy it freely,
if it were available in a five-cent package.

Once the public is educated to understand that only honey
of the best quality can be marketed in this form, the bee-keeper
will find a ready market for candied honey.

BULK OR CHUNK HONEY

In many localities in the Southern States there is a demand
for bulk or chunk honey. The general principles of producing
extracted honey will also apply to bulk honey. The foundation
in the supers need not always be of full sheets, nor should they
be wired. An empty comb or two in each super will be helpful
in getting the bees into the new super promptly. When the combs
are finished they are cut from the frames and new foundation
is put in for future use. Bulk honey can be produced cheaper
than section honey, but not as cheaply as extracted honey, as
the combs must be built new each time the crop is removed. With
extracted honey the combs can be used again and again, which
makes larger production possible under ordinary conditions,

QUESTIONS

1. Note the difference between strained honey and extracted honey.

2. Discuss extractors and other equipment for the production of extracted

honey.

3. What kind of frame is most satisfactory?

4. What things are essential in a honey house?

5. Describe different kinds of honey houses with advantages of each.

6. How should doors and windows be screened and why?

7. Why are full sheets of foundation in wired frames desirable?

8. How and when should supers be added?

9. Describe the Demaree method of swarm control.

10. Discuss queen excluders.

11. How much ventilation is desirable and what size entrances should be

used?

12. When should the honey be taken from the hive?

13. Discuss extracting and straining of honey.

14. How should honey be stored?

15. Discuss candied honey.

CHAPTER XI
WAX A BY-PRODUCT OF THE APIARY

Although honey is the principal product, considerable wax
is produced in every well-regulated apiary. Although bringing
the highest price of anything the bee-keeper has to sell, the possi-
bilities of this special output are too often overlooked because
much of it is gathered in small quantity in scraping sections,
cleaning burr combs from the tops of frames and scraps of combs
that accumulate about the bee yard and honey house. If the
bee-keeper who has not carefully saved these odd bits of comb
will provide a bucket or other receptacle which is always kept
at hand in which to place all scrapings and bits of wax he will
be surprised to see what a quantity will accumulate during the
season. In addition the apiary and equipment will be much
cleaner as a result. It is very annoying to the housewife to have
someone coming into the house with bits of wax clinging to his
heels to be left on the rugs or carpet, as will frequently be the
case where such refuse is dropped on the ground about the bee-
hives.

Old combs that are to be discarded and cappings which are
present in quantity are usually saved, as they should be, but
unless some care is used they are likely to be destroyed by the
wax moths during the warm weather. It is a good plan, no
matter what method of wax rendering may be adopted, to throw
all such material into a solar extractor at once. In this way it
will be melted so thoroughly that there is little trouble with
moths, even though it is not separated sufficiently to avoid the
necessity of rendering.

Production of Wax.— When the bees are feeding heavily,
as during a good honey flow, wax is secreted as a direct result
of the quantities of food consumed. After a colony has swarmed
in warm weather large numbers of bees will cluster together

195

196 WAX A BY-PRODUCT OF THE APIARY

apparently for the purpose of secreting wax and with it building
the new combs which will be necessary to store the food supply
and rear the brood of the colony. The wax pockets are eight in
number for each worker-bee. They are located on the under side
of the abdomen, four on each side. By watching the bees at
times such as above mentioned, the little wax scales can be seen
protruding between the segments of the abdomen. The author
is not sufficiently gifted to describe the wonderful manner in
which they utilize these minute scales and the way they manipu
late them to form the perfect combs which are so essential to the
welfare of the colony. No description will satisfy the enthusias-
tic bee-keeper who must see it all for himself. By providing
an observation hive at the proper season many interesting opera-
tions may be seen. The worker may be seen to take the wax
scale in her jaws and to knead it, apparently, after which it is
added to the partially built comb which her predecessors have
started. But a moment is thus occupied when she moves away
and her place is taken by another who also adds her portion.
The work is done very much as though men in building a wall
each brought a single brick and put it in place and went away.
Yet in spite of the apparent hit and miss method of building,
there is no more wonderful or more perfect structure than the
combs of the honey-bee.

Wax melts at a low temperature, as many a bee-keeper has
learned to his cost when brood combs have been left exposed to
the hot sun on a summer day. At times the heat is sufficient to
melt the combs within the hives, especially when they are sur-
rounded by high board fences, dense undergrowth, or other ob-
struction that prevents a breeze from reaching them, or if the
hives are not well ventilated.

The young bees do most of the work of comb building, as
the ability to secrete wax declines with advancing age. In case of
necessity old bees will build combs, although apparently they
secrete wax less readily and in smaller quantities than the
younger ones.

PRODUCTION OF WAX 197

Color. — There is a great variation in the color of wax, depend-
ing upon the source of the food supply of the bees at the time
of comb building. As a rule newly built comb is light in color,
gradually growing darker with use. The brood combs shortly
become quite dark, and in time almost black, due to the stains of
constant travel as well as refuse from the growing larvas and
the cocoons which are left behind when they emerge from the
cells. When old combs are melted, so many of these cocoons
often remain that they will retain the exact shape of the original
cell.

Size and Shape. — The difference in size and shape between
the cells prepared for various purposes, as for the rearing of
queens, is so striking as to attract instant attention on looking
within the hive. Much has been written in admiration of the
mathematical precision with which the bees are able to occupy
all the available space by building a six-sided cell, the bottom
of each of which was opposite the bottom of one-third of each
of three others. By building in this way the maximum of both
capacity and strength is secured with no lost space.

If the bees build according to their own plans the combs are
usually about an inch in thickness with cells of equal depth on
each side. If built within frames in a hive they may be thicker
or thinner, depending upon the spacing of the combs. Extracted
honey producers often space their frames so as to secure thicker
combs to make the work of uncapping easy. The distance be-
tween the combs is from three-eighths of an inch to seven-
sixteenths of an inch, depending upon circumstances. The bees
require about three-eighths of an inch at least in order to move
about easily. Combs are usually placed about an inch and a
half from center to center.

The worker cells are the smallest and we resort to the use of
foundation to insure that the cells will mostly be built of this
size, as mentioned elsewhere. According to most writers each
worker cell is about one-fifth of an inch in diameter, and the
drone cells are somewhat larger. The queen cells are built espe-

198 WAX A BY-PRODUCT Of THE APIARY

cially for the particular purpose of rearing queens and are built
only as needed and frequently torn down when no longer of
immediate use. The regular comb built permanently is all of
the six-sided shape and of the two sizes. The larger cells such
as are used for rearing drones serve equally well for honey
storage.

Uses of Wax. — For many centuries beeswax has been known
as a commercial commodity. So valuable was it in ancient times
that taxes were at times paid in wax and a tribute of wax was
levied by victorious kings on the unfortunate inhabitants of the
country which they had overrun. Many references to this prod
uct are to be found in ancient writings both sacred and secular.
Kents and other obligations were paid in beeswax to such an
extent as to indicate the demand must have greatly exceeded the
supply. Before the invention of paper, wax tablets were used
for the purpose of making temporary records, for correspondence,
etc.

Wax candles have long been used for various ceremonial pur-
poses in the churches, and this custom has survived the centuries
and still offers a market for quantities of wax, for some churches
still use candles made of beeswax for this purpose.

Many delicate objects are moulded of wax, as fruits and
flowers, that are so natural in appearance as to perfectly deceive
the casual observer. Figures and models of various kinds are
also made of this material, as it is very plastic and responds to
the most delicate touch of the artist.

Tailors make use of pure beeswax in many cases for sewing
wax, shoemakers and harnessmakers also make use of it, either
pure or mixed with other materials for waxing their threads.

It is a common ingredient of varnish and furniture polish,
lithographic inks, various cements, waterproofing materials, and
in many remedies and other commodities handled by the drug
trade.

Comb Foundation. — The bee-keeper has of late years come to
be his own best customer. Since the invention of the mills that

ADULTERATION OF WAX

199

make comb foundation possible, extensive use has been made of
it among the bee-men themselves.

Next to the movable frame hive, comb foundation has per-
haps made possible the greatest advance in bee culture. Without
the use of foundation it is a very difficult matter to get straight
combs or to prevent the bees from building crosswise or otherwise
than according to the bee-keeper's wishes. With the use of foun-
dation the possibilities of honey production are multiplied and
no practical honey producer would think of doing without it.

Only pure beeswax should be used in foundation as otherwise
the sale of honey in conibs built on it would be a violation of
the pure food laws. Fortunately little if any adulteration of
comb foundation is practised, the manufacturers being very care-
ful to test all wax used for the purpose and the bee-keeper can
buy from any of the well-known manufacturers with confidence.
The wax is melted in the factory and wound in long sheets
which are run through mills bearing the impression of the size
and shape of the worker cells. As the foundation is printed it
is cut in strips of convenient length and these are wrapped in
thin paper to prevent sticking together when warm. The papered
strips are then packed in paper boxes in such quantities as the
needs of the market demand. Use of foundation is considered
in the chapters relating to comb and extracted honey.

Substitutes for Beeswax.— Various mineral and vegetable
waxes have taken the place of beeswax in various commercial
uses. These waxes can be produced much cheaper and answer
fully as well for many purposes. ParafHn, ceresin and several
others are well-known commercial products. iSubstitutes for
wax made into foundation will not be accepted by the bees.

Adulteration of Wax.—Dealers who buy beeswax must exer-
cise constant vigilance to avoid being imposed upon by an adul-
terated product. As the adulterations can be purchased at prices
much below that of beeswax, dishonest men see possibilities of
great profit if they can sell their dishonest product. Various
tests have been discovered for detecting the adulterations until

200 WAX A BY-PRODUCT OF THE APIARY

it is now very difficult indeed to get adulterated wax to market
without detection.

Paraffin, ceresin and sometimes tallow are common adulter-
ants of wax. Wax is so commonly adulterated that when it
reaches the market it will be subject to very careful examination
and any fraud is likely to be discovered.

WAX RENDERING

Commercial establishments which deal in wax are so well
prepared to render the wax at a low price that many bee-keepers
ship all combs and refuse containing wax to some of these estab-
lishments at the end of the season. Either the bee-keeper pays
cash for rendering the wax and has it worked into comb foun-
dation for future use, or he sells the wax for cash and is charged
a small fee for rendering. Where the bee-keeper has but a small
amount of material this is frequently the most satisfactory way
of disposing of it, as he avoids a very mussy job at best and his
time may often be otherwise employed more profitably.

The Solar Extractor. — The solar wax extractor is made by
placing a glass a few inches above a sheet of metal which is tilted
enough to allow the melted wax to run off and depending upon
the heat of the sun to melt the combs. New and tender combs or
cappings will be pretty well rendered in this manner but old
combs will not be well separated. In any case a solar extractor
is a valuable item of equipment in an apiary for bits of comb can
be thrown into it as collected and thus be saved. Old combs may
be melted to prevent damage by moths. Considerable quantities
of wax will accumulate in the wax box at the bottom and this will
save handling again later. The whitest and best wax will be
secured in this way. It will nearly always pay to render the
refuse from a solar extractor in a wax press as otherwise much
of the wax is wasted.

Boiling in a Clothes Boiler. — There are a number of crude
methods by which bee-keepers with but a small amount of wax
have long extracted it. One of these is to boil the combs in a

THE WAX PRESS 201

wash boiler and to skim the wax from the surface of the water.
Sometimes the combs are placed in a burlap bag and thrown in
the boiling water. Sticks are used to punch the bag and to stir
it about in the hot water. While a certain amount of wax will
be secured in this manner it is very wasteful and from one-fourth
to one-half of the wax will be lost unless the refuse is rendered
again by some plan.

Small bits of comb are often placed in a pan in the oven.
The pan is partly filled with water and the hot wax dipped off or
the combs are laid on a screen through which the wax will run
while the waste will remain on the screen. The wax is some-
times left to harden in the pan and the cake lifted out when cool.
While rendering by some of these crude methods is better
than wasting the wax the amount wasted will shortly pay for a
good press.

The Wax Press.— N"o satisfactory way to get all the wax has
been found without the use of some kind of press. Some may
think that they are getting all the wax because the slumgum or
refuse is apparently free from it, but the chances are that when
rendered with a good outfit this slumgum would produce from
fifteen to twenty-five per cent more wax.

A man who understands mechanics and is handy with tools
can readily construct a wax press, though there are good ones to
be had in the market. The principal requirements are great
pressure applied when the mass is hot, and that there be plenty of
water mixed with the melted combs to insure that the wax will
run freely. Many of the outfits in use have some provision for
the use of steam to keep the whole thing hot when the pressure
is applied. It has been found of late that the press need not
be heated if the work is done when the weather is warm or in a
warm room, providing that the material is boiling hot when
dipped into press, but more wax will be secured with a hot press.
Many different plans for making presses for this purpose have
been described in the bee journals but the essential requirements
are the same. Some are round and some square but with pressure

202

WAX A BY-PRODUCT OF THE APIARY

properly applied and the material of the right temperature almost
any of them will get the wax.

The Hershiser Press. — The most effective press now on the
market is the Hershiser. It combines all the principles neces-
sary to secure the maximum amount of wax. It may be said,
however, that no press so far invented gets all the wax. Much of
the wax is lost by any method so far available. The advantages
of this press are, that it exerts a heavy pressure ; that this pres-

FiQ. 100. — The Hershiser wax press.

sure is exerted under the surface of boiling water, which is the
condition most favorable for securing the greatest quantity of
wax; and the combs are in thin layers to enable the hot water
and wax to run out easily.

Rendering the Wax. — To render the wax the wooden frame
is placed on the floor and a sheet of burlap laid across. The
cheesebox is then filled heaping full of combs. These are tamped
down until a solid cheese results. When the cheesebox is tamped
level full the burlap is folded over and pinned with safety pins.
A wire cloth covered wood and metal grate is placed in the bottom
of the extractor and a cheese laid on top of it. Another grate is
added and another cheese until three cheeses are put in. The f ol-

THE STEAM PRESS 203

lower is then put in place and the screw handle made ready as
shown in Fig. 100.

The extractor is then placed on the stove and filled with
water which is brought to a boil. The contents should be boiled
for some time in order that the cheeses be thoroughly heated.
From time to time the screw should be turned down to exert
the maximum of pressure. The pressure forces out the boiling
water and melted wax. The wax rises to the top and runs off
through a special spout provided for that purpose.

The pressure is released from time to time and the cheeses
taken out and replaced again in somewhat different position.
Some additional wax will be recovered by making several appli-
cations of the pressure.

In the commercial comb rendering plants these presses are
connected with steam pipes and are kept boiling for several hours
for each batch in order to secure the maximum quantity of wax.

By breaking up old cheeses and repeating the process one can
usually secure enough more wax to justify the extra labor. The
second, or sometimes even the third rendering, will yield a
surprising amount of wax. This is especially true where insuffi-
cient heat and pressure have been used at the first trial.

For a time the Massachusetts Agricultural College operated
a wax rendering station for the bee-keepers. They were in-
structed to use a barrel for storage purposes and as combs were
thrown in, to tamp them down tight, and when the barrel was
filled to ship to the station for rendering. Smaller containers
were used for small quantities. The station was very popular
with the bee-keepers and large quantities of wax were shipped
there to be rendered. It has since been discontinued.

The Steam Press. — At one time steam wax presses were in
common use but they are generally being replaced by the method
previously described. The steam press is heated by steam gener-
ated from water in the bottom of the can. It will be necessary
to set the press on a hot stove or to make some provision for
heating the water. Above the water is a basket to hold the

204

WAX A BY-PRODUCT OF THE APIARY

combs on which pressure is applied by means of a screw. The
melting wax falls into the water below and runs out the over-
flow spout (Fig. 101).

Boiler Press. — There are different kinds of hot water presses
in use but in general they may be said to consist of a strong can
in which is contained a heavily bound basket. A bar across the
center supports the screw by means of which the pressure is

applied. In this kind of extractor
the water comes up around the
melted combs which are under
pressure and the boiling and
pressing are carried on at the
same time. When the wax is all
out sufficient water is supplied to
carry it off through the tube near
the top, while the small amount
of refuse straining through the
cloth settles to the bottom of the
can. This plan gives good results
if carefully done but there is
some difficulty in getting all the
wax out of the can.

There is no trouble about the
mass cooling while under pressure
and the operation can be repeated
as often as desired by simply loosening the screw and saturating
the cheese with water again.

Bleaching Wax. — Every time the wax is melted the tendency
is to a lighter color and the exposure to the sun in the solar
extractor also tends to whiten it. Although sulfuric acid is
sometimes used for clarifying, there is seldom any occasion
for the bee-keeper to bother about bleaching further than to
re-melt any cakes of wax that are very dark and to remove as
much impurity as possible. The difference in price that will be
received will hardly pay for the extra trouble, however.

Fig. 101. — Steam was press.

QUESTIONS 205

Cooling the Wax.—Utensils into which the hot wax is poured
for cooling should first be dipped into cold water or greased
to prevent the wax from sticking. Then care should be used to
prevent the wax from cooling too rapidly or the cakes will crack.

QUESTIONS

1. How is wax produced?

2. Of what use is it to the bee-keeper?

3. Discuss the various commercial uses of beeswax.

4. How is comb foundation made?

5. Why is beeswax often adulterated?

6. Discuss the different methods of rendering beeswas.

CHAPTER XII
DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF BEES

As a country grows older new vicissitudes beset almost any
line of business, and bee-keeping is no exception. In many sec-
tions of the United States brood diseases have not as yet appeared,
and in many others the bee-keepers are having their first experi-
ence in combating them. However, it is only a matter of time
until bee-keepers can expect to be compelled to deal with foul
brood no matter where they live. It accordingly will pay the
business bee-keeper to inform himself as fully as possible con-
cerning bee diseases, even though there be none at present in
his vicinity.

Expert bee-keepers are frequently all but ruined by the
appearance of foul brood in their apiaries. With a thorough
knowledge of the accepted methods of dealing with disease the
experience need not be so costly, for by prompt action the danger
can be largely avoided.

The census of 1901 showed a decrease of 16.1 per cent of
the total number of colonies of bees in the United States as a
whole. The wide-spread presence of disease is no doubt largely
responsible for this condition. With an increasing population
and a decreasing number of bee-keepers, it would look as if the
business of honey production should offer a good field of opera-
tions. While the small bee-keepers with a few colonies on the
farms are rapidly being removed, specialists are increasing in
number. This is as it should be, for to-day is the great age of
specialists and the business which is not worthy of development
as a specialty offers little inducement to the active man.

WThile there are still many puzzling things that manifest
themselves in connection with foul brood, the essentials neces-
sary to the control of either form are pretty well understood and
practical men who are on their guard find it possible to withstand
206

AMERICAN FOUL BROOD 207

the onslaught without great losses. It usually happens, however,
that disease has gained considerable headway in the apiary be-
fore its owner is aware of the nature of the difficulty. Especially
is this true when disease puts in an appearance for the first time
in a locality that has been free from it. The journals frequently
recount the experience of some unfortunate who has suffered
heavy losses in this manner. The writer, in the capacity of
State inspector of apiaries, saw such cases very frequently.
Instances have come to his attention where the losses amounted
to many thousands of dollars, whereas had the owner realized
the nature of the trouble on its first appearance it could have
been checked without difiiculty.

AMERICAN FOUL BROOD

Much confusion has resulted in the similarity of names of
the two common diseases. It is unfortunate that some entirely
different name was not applied to one or the other. While Euro-
pean foul brood has long been known, in some localities, under
the name of " black brood," the name was not appropriate and
it has given way to the accepted title of European foul brood.
There is a decided difference in the appearance and in the action
of the two forms, so much so that there need be little difficulty
in recognizing the difference in advanced stages. In early stages
it is sometimes a little difficult to determine which form one may
have to deal with, and in that case it is well to cut out a piece of
comb containing the dead larva? and, wrapping it securely, send
it to the Bureau of Entomology of the United States Department
of Agriculture. By means of a microscopic examination they
can readily determine the nature of the difficulty.

American foul brood has long been present in this country
and when we hear the term " foul brood " we naturally infer that
American foul brood is meant (Figs. 102 and 103). It is also
called " ropy foul brood " because of the peculiar ropy charac-
teristic of the dead tissue at a certain stage. The larv^ are
usually attacked at about the time the cells are capped and most

M

210 DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF BEES

of the cells containing dead larvae are capped. When the larva
dies it turns a chocolate or brown color and in advanced stages
of decay becomes darker. The cappings become sunken, and
frequently the cappings are perforated by small holes. The most
common test for this disease is to insert a toothpick or timothy
straw into the dead tissue and slowly withdraw it. The decaying
matter stretches out like thick molasses, sometimes for an inch
or two before breaking. After the dead larva has become fully
dried it forms a dried scale on the lower side of the cell. This
scale adheres tightly to the cell and can be readily observed by
holding the comb in front of the eyes at such an angle that the
light falls into the bottom of the cell and illuminates the lower
side wall.

There is also a very characteristic odor clinging to the combs
containing a badly infected case of foul brood of the American
form. It is commonly spoken of as a glue-pot odor but that
hardly describes it. It is, however, a characteristic of the dis-
ease that can readily be recognized. Queen and drone larvse are
seldom affected by American foul brood, while the other form
attacks both queen and drone larvae at the same stage as worker
larvae are affected. Cases are reported where there is a decided
odor with European foul brood, but the writer does not remem-
ber ever having seen a case in all the hundreds of apiaries visited.
The ropy condition of the dead matter together with the odor is
usually considered as positive evidence of American foul brood.

When this disease is present the death of a portion of the
brood gradually decimates the colony until it becomes so weak
that it can no longer defend its stores and it is likely to be robbed
out and the honey carried to other colonies. The disease is thus
spread far and wide. The writer has seen cases where after the
death of the colony from foul brood the hive was turned over
and exposed to the bees by the owner, who was ignorant of the
real cause of the trouble. The disease was thus needlessly carried
into every colony of large apiaries.

The disease is caused by a bacillus technically known as

AMERICAN FOUL BROOD 211

Bacillus larvae. These microorganisms are so extremely minute
as to require a high power microscope to enable' on© to find them.
The germs or their spores seem to be carried from hive to hive
only in the honey. In treating American foul brood, it accord-
ingly becomes exceedingly important to rid the colony of every
vestige of the diseased honey. While the honey may carry the
germs of foul brood vs^hich are fatal to young bees, it is not in
the least injured thereby for human consumption.

It is important that this point be fully understood or other-
wise any method of treatment is likely to be unavailing. On one
occasion an inspector was called to examine the bees in a neigh-
borhood where foul brood was known to be present. At one farm-
house he was told by the housewife that they no longer had any
bees but some empty hives. On investigation he found that the
bees had died during the winter from American foul brood. It
was still early spring and the honey had not yet been found by
the bees of the neighborhood. He explained carefully to the
owner the method of treatment and thought that he fully under-
stood it. The next day a man was sent back to ascertain whether
instructions had been properly followed, only to find that he
had carefully disinfected the hive by burning it out, but had
left the honey lying on the ground where it was even more likely
to be found by visiting bees than had it been left in the hive.
In this case a large apiary near at hand was saved from infection
by the fortunate visit of the inspector.

Bees weakened by disease are very likely to die in winter.
In such cases the old combs should in no case be used again, but
the wax should be rendered and the hive carefully disinfected
before being put in service. Colonies thus weakened are also
very likely to fall an easy prey to the wax moth, and it fre-
quently happens that colonies which are charged to the ravages
of the moth are really victims of foul brood. It is frequently
recommended that honey from diseased colonies be boiled and
fed back again to the bees. While this may be safe if carefully
done, it is much safer to feed sugar syrup if it becomes necessary

212 DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF BEES

to feed anything. It is regarded as unsafe to feed the honey from
hives infected with this disease, as high temperature for con-
siderable length of time is necessar)'- to insure death of all spores.
In the hands of a novice it frequently happens that the boiling is
not sufficiently thorough and healthy bees are thus infected.

Treatment of American Foul Brood. — This disease is rather
slow in its progress, but very sure, and once a colony becomes
infected its final death is certain, unless the bees are removed
to a clean hive and the infected brood destroyed. In the hands of
the average bee-keeper the shaking treatment, commonly called
the McEvoy treatment, is best. McEvoy, who was for a time
inspector for Ontario, was very successful in treating foul brood
and he it was who probably first brought successful methods of
treatment prominently before the public. However, the essen-
tials of this method wero described in Europe many years before
the birth of McEvoy, and Quinby had also long made use of shak-
ing for the cure of foul brood in this country.

The first essential is to remove the bees entirely from the
source of the disease, and they should accordingly be placed in
a clean hive on the old stand and the old combs, brood, and honey
all removed. McEvoy allowed them to build new combs for
four days, thus insuring that all honey carried with them would
be used, and then again shook them into another clean hive and
destroyed the combs that they had built in the meantime. The
second shaking is not always necessary. By using good judg-
ment the bee-keeper can usually tell when conditions are such
that a second shaking will be necessary.

The instructions given from the office of the Iowa Inspector
are as follows :

In the evening after the bees have stopped flying, brush or shake all
the bees into a clean hive containing foundation starters. Bury or burn
the old combs at once, not the next day. Take great care that no honey,
not even the smallest drop, be exposed to the bees, or the disease may be
carried back or exposed to healthy colonies.

This is essentially the instruction given for years past by
various State officials charged with enforcement of foul brood

TREATMENT OF AMERICAN FOUL BROOD 213

laws. It is repeated here simply to show that the essentials
can be stated in a few words.

Modification of Method. — If the bee-keeper does not give the
second shaking at the end of four days he should watch very
carefully to see that the disease does not again appear. There are
a number of modifications of this method of treatment, each of
which has advantages apparent to those who follow it. Thomas
Chantry inserts a dry extracting comb in the center of the hive
on which the bees are shaken and about twenty-four hours later
very carefully removes this comb. In the meantime the bees will
have used the empty comb to deposit the honey that they may
have carried with them. This is much to be preferred to the
second shaking as it saves a heavy loss in wax secretion and conse-
quent tax on the bees which are badly used at best. Edward G.
Brown, of Iowa, who is a large honey producer, has used this
method successfully for a number of years and recommends it
as very satisfactory if carefully done.

D. E. Lhommedieu, another Iowa bee-keeper of long experi-
ence, shakes the bees into a clean hive and leaves them for four
days or until he is sure that all old honey carried with them has
been consumed. He then takes combs of brood and honey from
healthy colonies and places them in a clean hive and puts this
on the stand where the diseased colony has been. Feeling that
the bees have rid themselves of the infection, he proceeds to shake
the bees into the new hive containing the brood and they are thus
saved the heavy tax of building up from the beginning.

The object is to rid the bees of every trace of the diseased
honey before the new brood appears in the hive and any method
that will accomplish this result is likely to succeed.

When a number of colonies are to be shaken, it is well to
replace the frames of brood in the old hives and to pile one above
another on top of some diseased colony which may be reserved
for treatment for a few days, until the healthy brood is hatched,
and thus save what healthy brood there is in all the hives. This
plan has been carried out very successfully in some apiaries.

214 DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF BEES

One of the best methods of treatment is to remove the queen
very carefully, disturbing the bees as little as possible. The hive
should then be tightly closed with the exception of a bee escape,
which will permit the bees to go out but give none a chance to
return. Take a frame of healthy brood from some other colony
and place in a clean hive. Fill the remainder of the hive with
full sheets of foundation or empty combs and place it where the
colony has stood. The queen may then be placed on the frame of
brood and the new hive left with the entrance somewhat smaller
than usual. Turn the hive containing the diseased colony around
so that the escape will be near the entrance of the new hive. The
bees leaving the hive go to the fields with their honey sacs empty
and returning enter the clean hive. As fast as the brood hatches
in the old hive the bees will leave only to find no way of return
and enter the clean hive in which the old queen is at work as
usual. This method has the advantage of saving the colony
without loss of brood or checking the laying of the queen. If
properly done this is perhaps the best method of dealing with
American foul brood. Some bee-keepers advocate setting the
diseased colony on top of the clean hive with the bee-escape board
underneath and the old queen left in the brood chamber. By
this method the bees will rear a young queen from the brood in
the frame given them in the clean hive while the old queen con-
tinues to lay in the diseased chamber above until she is finally
deserted by the workers.

Late-Season Cases. — When a case of foul brood is found
in fall after the honey flow is over, it is seldom advisable to
attempt to winter the colony. In general it may be said that
treatment is not likely to be successful, excepting when there is
some honey coming from the fields or will be later in the season.
If cases are treated ahead of the honey flow, the lack of a flow
can be met by heavy feeding to stimulate the building of combs.
If the bees get well started in this way they will recover nicely
during the honey flow that follows later on. After the flow is
over in the fall it would cost more than they are worth to feed

EUROPEAN FOUL BROOD 215

a sufficient amount of stores to build them up ready for winter.
To winter a colony with the idea of treating in the spring will
require in the neighborhood of twenty-five pounds of honey, and
there is always the danger that they may die during the winter
or early spring. In this case there is not only the total loss of
the bees and the honey that they have consumed, but the added
danger that bees from other colonies may get at the stores and
rob them out on some warm day before the hives have been
looked after, and the disease be further spread. If the colony
is strong enough to have a fair chance of wintering it is possible
to save honey and wax to the value of from two to four dollars,
and this is more than a diseased colony is worth at this season of
the year. The hive may be saved and prepared for use again by
proper disinfection.

Late in the evening after the bees have stopped flying, the
entrance should be tightly closed to prevent the escape of any
bees. The hive should then be removed to- some tight building or
cellar and the bees killed with sulphur. All honey fit for use
can be removed, but care should be taken that not a drop ever
gets back to live bees. The combs can be melted up and the
wax saved. Honey not fit for the table can be made into vinegar.
The hive, including both top and bottom, should be thoroughly
cleaned before using again, and if the frames are to be used
again they should be boiled. Any honey that is fed to bees
should be diluted with water and boiled for half an hour or until
the scum is thoroughly cooked.'

Disinfecting. — For disinfecting hive parts a painter's torch
is very good. Some paint the inside of the hives with kerosene
and then pile one above another and set fire to them and smother
the fire as soon as the interior is scorched. Fire is the only sure
method since drugs are generally regarded as useless for this
purpose.

EUROPEAN FOUL BROOD

The cause of European foul brood is supposed to be Bacillus
pluton, a microorganism similar to those responsible for such
diseases as diphtheria, typhoid fever, etc., in human beings

216

DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF BEES

Authorities are not agreed as to the method of spread of this
disease. That it is not spread altogether in the honey as is
American foul brood is evidenced bv the fact that strong colonies
with vigorous young Italian queens frequently clean out the
infection and that it docs not reappear in the hive. In the case
of a colony affected with American foul bro(id the final death of
the colony seems assured unless the last trace of the diseased
brood and honey is removed. While some authorities for a time
insisted on shaking in treating for European foul brood the same

Fio. 104. — Thirteen colonies left of one hundred five aa the result of European foul
brood for eight months.

as for American, shaking is no longer advised in tlie treat-
ment of this disease. It is now well known that the destruc-
tion of combs and honey is not necessary in dealing with
European foul brood.

One striking peculiarity of this disease soon becomes appar-
ent to an inspector ; when it appears in a malignant form it is
usually to be found in every colony in a yard within a short
period of time. While American foul brood may be present
in a yard for months without spreading, European foul brood
frequently, though not always, spreads very rapidly and appears
in all colonies very quickly. Cases have come under the writer's
observation, where no disease had been present in a locality,
European foul brood suddenly appeared in nearly every colony

APPEARANCE OF AFFECTED LARVAE 217

of several large apiaries situated near together. At times it
seems very mild and will even disappear of itself. At other
times large numbers of bees will die in a very short period of
time. The illustration (Fig. 104) shows a case where but thir-
teen colonies remained of one hundred and five in eight months.
The disease was not known to be present until two weeks after
the bees were taken from the cellar in spring, only about six
weeks before the picture was taken. As the winter loss was
unusually heavy it is presumed that the disease was present when
the bees went into winter quarters.

American and European foul brood, it would seem, can be
compared to smallpox and typhoid fever in the human race.
American foul brood, like typhoid fever, requires a common
source of infection, in the case of the bee disease the honey,
in the case of the human ailment milk, water, etc. European
foul brood seems to spread among bees as readily as malignant
smallpox among the human race, actual contact apparently not
being necessary to the spread of either. However, until recently
little was known about European foul brood and it is entirely
probable that later discoveries will add much to our knowledge of
the disease.

Appearance of Affected Larvae,— European foul brood
attacks the larvae at a much earlier stage than does American
foul brood and but a small part of the diseased brood is ever
capped (Fig. 105). In bad cases large numbers of the larva?
will be found to be dead and misshapen while still white as
shown in the plate. Later they turn yellow and finally quite
dark in color. There is seldom any apparent ropiness in the
dead tissue as in the case of the other form of foul brood. Sel-
dom is there a noticeable odor such as is so apparent in advanced
stages of the American type of the disease. Queen and drone
larvae are usually attacked early. This is one of the common
tests in early stages for determining which disease be present.
The disease is usually more destructive in spring and early
summer.

218

DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF BEES

ALEXANDER'S PLAN 219

Detection by Odor.— In some localities European foul brood
is said to be attended with a decided odor, although unlike that
of American foul brood, being more like that of decayed fish,
according to Morley Petit, of Ontario.

Resistant Bees. — For some reason Italian bees seem to be
much more resistant of this disease than the hybrids or blacks,
and the best insurance against this malady is to re-queen all
colonies with vigorous Italians. Some strains seem much more
immune than others, so that it is desirable to secuia a strain
thai;, has demonstrated its disease resistance.

Treatment. — There is much confusion on the part of the
inexperienced bee-keeper between the two diseases, and since the
treatment advised for one is entirely unsuited for the other it
is important to make sure which disease is present. What is
known as the Alexander plan is now generally regarded as the
only dependable treatment for European foulbrood. The essen-
tial element of this plan is the saving of the combs instead of
melting them up as is the case of the other disease. There are
many modifications of the plan as proposed by the originator.

Alexander's Plan.— To begin with, the queen is removed
from the diseased colony in order to check brood rearing. The
bees being relieved of nursing young brood, turn their attention
to cleaning out infected matter from the hive with the result
that given a new queen a few days later they often remain free
from the disease. Mr. Alexander believed it to be necessary
for twenty-one days to elapse from the time the old queen was
removed before the new queen began to lay. Of late many bee-
keepers have found that under favorable conditions a much
shorter time is sufficient. In order to be successful with this
method several things must be borne in mind. First the new
queen must be a vigorous young Italian. Then the colony must
be very strong and the treatment must be given in early stages
of the disease. If the combs are fairly rotten with decaying
larva? it is too much to expect that the bees will clean them up
again. Hybrids or black bees are seldom, if ever, able to rid

220 DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF BEES

themselves of the disease in this manner. Dr. C. C. Miller, one
of the best known authorities, is quoted as follows :

I know there are those for whom I have great respect who have bitterly
denounced the practice of trying to save the combs in treating European
foul brood. In my first dealing with the disease I melted hundreds of
brood combs. If I am forgiven I will never do it again. Please be sure to
note that I am talking about European, not American, foul brood. The
loss of the combs is not all there is of it. Indeed, I think that is the
smallest part. The greater loss is from the set-back in the work of brood
rearing. It seems to knock things endwise for weeks, if not for the season.
Far less is the interference when egg laying is suspended for eight or ten
days.

I think I hear someone say, " But your treatment does not seem
effective for you keep on having the disease, while with the orthodox method
and the combs destroyed there's the end of it." Pardon me, that may be
true with regard to American but not with European foul brood. I treated
the disease after the most orthodox fashion, destroying, as I have said,
hundreds of combs, and so far as I could see, the disease was just as willing
to return as with the drastic treatment. I think I'd rather keep brood
and combs.

With reference to the Alexander plan of treating this disease
as practised by Dr. Miller and others, it is well to repeat what
has already been said, that no method has ever been found for
eliminating American foul brood without destroying the combs.
This method applies only to European foul brood and sacbrood,
a mild disease described later on.

European foul brood was long known as black brood and first
appeared in the East It was known in New York for a number
of years before it made an appearance in the Central West.
While there are still many localities where it is not present it
has spread into practically all parts of the country.

Sources of Infection. — The spread of American foul brood
in the neighborhood of the diseased colonies is usually by means
of robber bees which visit those which, because of their weak-
ened condition, are no longer able to defend their stores, and
disease is thus rapidly spread. Every bee-keeper should guard
against the robbing of weak colonies. In case a colony dies from
disease the hive should be at once removed, the contents
destroyed, and the hive and fixtures thoroughly disinfected.

MINOR TROUBLES 221

Another source of the disease is the use of secovd-hand honey
containers. A large part of the western honey goes to market
in sixty-pound cans. These cans when empty are sold at a very
low price and many bee-keepers are tempted to make use of
them. Honey placed in these containers is sometimes later fed
to the bees, or while being refilled they have often been visited by
the bees, with the result that foul brood has been carried to the
apiary, often in a minute drop of honey.

Bee-keepers have sometimes brought the disease home by
the me of purchased honey for feeding in time of short supply
of stores. The writer has been surprised at the extent of the
complaint of the spread of disease from these two causes. There
is so little to be saved by the use of a second-hand container that
bee-keepers can hardly afford to take the risk. In case it becomes
necessary to feed the bees, good sugar syrup should always be
used unless the honey is known to be from apiaries that are free
from disease.

The use of hives, frames, etc., in which bees have died is not
safe unless they have been disinfected. While disease sometimes
appears from some unaccountable source, the bee-keeper should
take every possible precaution to avoid its spread.

The presence of foul brood in an apiary is a serious matter
to the owner and cannot but result in serious loss. Frequent
reports come to the writer of the loss of entire apiaries, some-
times of many colonies, from foul brood.

MINOR TKOUBLES

Sacbrood has long been known by the name of pickled brood.
The name sacbrood is, however, much more appropriate because
the dead larva do not melt down as they do in foul brood, but
rather retain the full size, the body wall retaining the contents
in the form of a sac. This disease is seldom serious in nature
although it is mildly infectious and may be spread from one
colony to another. As a rule no attention need be paid to it,
as it usually disappears with the coming of a good honey flow.

222 DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF BEES

If the queen at the head of the diseased colony be old or failing
it is well to re-queen with vigorous young stock. Some recom-
mend treatment for this disease as with foul brood, but that is
seldom, if ever, necessary. In bad cases where the colony is
weak the queen should be replaced and the colony strengthened
by the addition of frames of emerging brood.

Symptoms of Sacbrood. — This disease somewhat resembles
European foul brood and is frequently confused with that dis-
ease. Inspectors have in several instances been called long dis-
tances to deal with European foul brood, only to find after a
few days' delay that the disease was sacbrood and had nearly
disappeared of itself. The dead larvie are found to be extended
the full length in the cell with the sharp pointed end slightly
turned upward. The dead tissue soon assumes a dark color and
there is little or no odor to the combs.

Chilled or Starved Brood. — The young bees die from several
other causes than any of the three diseases mentioned. It fre-
quently happens in early spring that the brood nest expands rap-
idly during the first warm days, with the result that a sudden
drop in the temperature makes it impossible for the bees to
warm all the brood and a portion becomes chilled. The supply
of honey or pollen is also at times exhausted when unfavorable
weather conditions make it impossible for the bees to gather
stores for a considerable period and much brood is lost from
starvation.

When bees are being moved without sufficient ventilation
the brood is sometimes lost from overheating. All of these causes
are occasionally responsible for the supposition that foul brood
is present when, in fact, it is not.

Poisoning. — The growth of the commercial fruit industry
has developed a new difficulty, — poisoning the bees. It fre-
quently happens that some overzealous fruit grower, blind to his
own best interest, sprays his fruit trees while in full bloom.
This not only injures the chances of getting a full crop of

DYSENTERY 223

fruit, by washing off the pollen at a critical period, but results
in the destruction of the honey-bees whose presence just at this
time is very essential to his success. So serious had this con-
dition become in some localities that laws have been passed to
prevent the spraying of fruit trees during the period of full
bloom. It would seem that any man who is sufficiently progres-
sive to spray his trees would realize the fact that he can get
better results in spraying immediately after the petals fall.

Dysentery is usually caused by too long confinement or poor
stores. Under normal conditions the worker-bee voids her excre-
ment only when on the wing. ^Vhen long periods of time elapse
during which they are unable to fly and thus relieve themselves
of the accumulated waste in the intestines, they are sometimes
compelled to discharge within the hive. When this condition is
reached they soon die, unless a change in the weather permits
them to get out and to clean up. Under such circumstances the
combs are badly soiled and the bees die amidst the filth.

Honey-dew or other poor stores is quite likely to cause this
trouble. It is an important matter to see that the hives are
supplied with honey of the best quality for wintering, especially
in the North where the bees are confined for weoks or months
without flight. (See Chapter XIII.)

Weak colonies are more susceptible to dysentery than strong
colonies, for the reason that a greater amount of food will neces-
sarily be consumed in order to keep up the heat, and the waste
is consequently greater.

Prevention. — From the above it will be seen that dysentery
is generally a winter disorder and that proper wintering insures
freedom from the trouble. While strong colonies, with good
stores and proper protection, seldom are seriously troubled, still
even they may have trouble under unfavorable conditions, or
during very long confinement. "

Remedy. — About the only remedy is a good flight on a warm
day. If the bees are beginning to show signs of this trouble in
the cellar in winter, and a warm day comes which will permit

224 DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF BEES

a safe flight, it will pay the bee-keeper to set them out and to put
them back again at night after they have returned to the hive.

Mice. — The mice sometimes enter the hives in winter, either
in cellars or out-door wintered colonies. The author once saw
a hive where the little rodents had gnawed through an old
bottom board and really had destroyed the colony by eating the
combs and disturbing the bees during their winter rest. Both
the white-footed wood mice and the common house mice are
likely to cause such mischief. Mice and rats are also very
destructive in the honey house by destroying surplus combs,
sections, etc., and it is well, if possible, to make the honey house
mouse proof.

Skunks. — The normal and preferred food of the skunk is
insects and mice. It is then to be expected that bees will suffer
where skunks are common. They sometimes learn to scratch
at the entrance of the hive and to catch the bees as they rush out.
Skunks are also fond of honey, as the writer has found by
feeding it to these animals in confinement. However, they are
unable to get at the honey in the hive and the only injury from
these animals is to the bees.

Skunks are of considerable value in keeping down the num-
ber of rodents and such insect pests as grasshoppers and crickets,
and where they are not too abundant should be encouraged. It
is frequently wiser to protect the bees and poultry from the
animals and leave them free to war on rats and mice than to
destroy the skunks and have to fight the other pests. It is less
trouble to guard against the skunks. In localities where they
become over-abundant, it may sometimes be advisable to destroy
them (Fig. 106).

Dragon flies, mosquito hawks, snake feeders, or devil's darn-
ing needles, all of which are common names for the same insects,
are sometimes mentioned as enemies of bees. The trouble seems
to be limited to restricted localities, and while there are sometimes
instances where individual bee-keepers suffer considerable annoy-
ance from these insects, especially from the loss of young queens

THE WAX MOTH 225

which are caught on their mating flights, the insects cannot be
said to be generally injurius.

The robber fly is a large insect that flies with a loud buzz.
It is a rapacious fellow, seeking those it may devour. Butter-
flies, bees, grasshoppers, and even wasps and beetles fall victims
to its voracious appetite. It is seldom sufficiently abundant to
cause appreciable injury in the bee yard and may be regarded,
on the wholp. as a useful insect (Fig. 107).

FiQ. 106.— The natural and preferred food of the skunk is insects. The honey-bee is a
tempting delicacy to the skunk palate.

Spiders also sometimes weave their webs in situations where
the heavily laden bees fall into them and are lost. Large webs
in the immediate vicinity of the hive should not be tolerated,
but aside from that little is to be feared from spiders.

THE WAX MOTH

The larger wax moth (Galleria melonella) is very widely

distributed and among indifferent bee-keepers is a serious pest.

It is present in nearly all portions of Europe and North America

where bees are kept, excepting the high altitudes of Colorado

15

226 DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF BEES

and other western States. In the vicinity of Denver it has
several times been introduced, only to disappear vt^ithin a short
time, apparently being unable to live in the high and dry
atmosphere of that region. It is more destructive in the warmer
parts of the country than in the northern sections where the
season is not so long.

The adult is an inconspicuous little moth of grayish color,
quick to take flight on the opening of the hive (Fig. 102). They
remain secluded during the day unless disturbed, but are appar-
ently very active after
nightfall. The eggs are
laid in crevices in or
about the hive where the
larvae can readily find
their way to the combs.
The insect is very pro-
lific and once a weak
colony becomes infested
the total destruction of
the combs may be com-
pleted in but a short

Fia. 107. — The robber fly. (After Washburn.) DCriod of time

Concerning the laying, Paddock ^ says :

In the cages where empty comb was supplied, the eggs were always
laid in cavities and if possible in such cavities as were well protected. Only
one egg is deposited at a time, though in working over a small piece of
comb the eggs may be placed close together, apparently in masses. The
eggs are always securely glued to their resting place; usually the shell
will break before the egg is loosened. The number of eggs deposited by
one female has not been ascertained but moths which had not deposited
eggs were killed and the eggs in their ovaries counted. The average num-
ber of eggs counted was 1014. The time consumed in laying the full quota
ol eggs varies with the generation, averaging nine days in the first and
seven days in the second.

When first hatched the larvae are white and very small. They

burrow into the combs at once. The larval period is spent in

• Observations on the Bee Moth, Journal of Economic Entomology, vol.
vii. No. 2.

THE REMEDY

227

tunnelling through the combs along the midrib. The pollen
stored in the cells, as well as the wax of which the combs are
constructed, seems to furnish them with food. The tunnels are
lined with silk similar to that of which the cocoons are composed.
It is not long until the combs are but a mass of webs and refuse
( Fig. 103). Thet length of this stage varies from thirty-five days
in the second brood to forty-five days with the first brood accord-
ing to the author above quoted.

The cocoons are spun in masses under the cover, behind the
ends of the frames or in any other situation seeming to offer
protection, but usually within the hive where the larval period
has been spent. About two weeks are required to complete this
stage, after which the adult moths will appear.

In the extreme South it is probable that breeding continues
throughout the year with little interruption. In the ;N'orth only
such individuals as are fortunate enough to select a place free
from extreme cold will survive. Those remaining in hives in
the open air in which the bees have perished will likewise die
before spring, as they cannot endure severe freezing. There are
always a few tucked away snugly in the hives near the clusters
of bees, which are kept sufficiently warm to insure their safety.
These will shortly populate a large area with their offspring
when warm weather comes. They are also able to pass the winter
in empty hives that are carried into the cellar or other place
where the temperature does not drop much below freezing.

The Remedy. — The wax moth may be regarded as a symp-
tom that something is wrong, for a normal colony of bees will
usually defend themselves against this pest without difficulty.
Italians, however, are better able to contend with it than the
common strains. The blacks are especially liable to succumb
to an attack of moths. Usually it is the weak and queenless
colonies that fall victims to its ravages.

Three adult moths may be seen on the comb in Fig. 102.
The larvaj are repulsive caterpillars and reach an inch or more
in length. Fig. 103 shows the work of these insects in a little

228 DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF BEES

more advanced stage. If left undisturbed such a comb would
very shortly be entirely destroyed.

Amateur bee-keepers frequently complain that the moth is
destroying their bees and inquire what to do for it. The answer
is : Keep your colonies strong and replace old and failing queens
with vigorous young Italians. Colonies that have become weak-
ened by disease fall an easy prey to the moths.

Experienced bee-keepers are seldom heard to complain of
this trouble, for they have long ago learned that constant vigi-
lance is the price of success, in the apiary as elsewhere. The
bee-keeper who does not examine the brood nest of his colonies
occasionally has no means of knowing the condition of his bees.
Frequent examination will enable him to detect and avoid the
conditions that provide favorable surroundings for the moths.

Care of Empty Combs. — The moths are a source of annoy-
ance to the bee-keeper who has large numbers of empty combs
during a part of the year. During the warm months there is no
better place to store empty combs than over a strong colony of
Italian bees. After the season is over and cold nights come they
may be placed in any cold place safely, for freezing will effec-
tively check the work of these insects. It is well to have a tight
compartment where no adult moths can get in so that they will
be safe after warm weather comes again. There is always danger
in putting away empty combs in warm weather, that eggs may be
present and that the combs may be destroyed before the presence
of the insects is discovered.

"When combs either empty or containing honey are found to
be infested with moths they should be cared for without delay
as the insects develop very rapidly.

If only a few combs be injured they may be placed in strong
colonies and the bees will clean them up quickly and effectively,
throwing the dead larvae at the entrance of the hive within a few
hours. If there is a large number of combs it is well to place
them in a tight room and fumigate them. This may be done
by putting a quantity of sulfur in a dish, first pouring alcohol

THE BUSINESS OF AN INSPECTOR 229

over it so that it will burn readily, and setting it on fire. Care
should be taken to place the receptacle containing the burning
sulphur in a safe place on a large stone or metal, or in a larger
tub or pan containing water. The building should be closed
very tight to prevent the escape of the fumes. The combs should
be separated to insure the fumes reaching all parts. Sometimes
a second or even a third fumigation will be necessary to insure
the destruction of all of the caterpillars in bad cases.

Bisulfide of carbon may be used to accomplish a similar
result, but great care is necessary as it is highly explosive and
dangerous. In the use of this drug the combs are placed in a
tight closet or box and a quantity of the liquid placed in an open
dish above them. It evaporates rapidly and the heavy fumes
settle over the combs, thus effectively killing the moths. N'o
fire or light should be allowed about when this liquid is being
used.

LESSER WAX MOTH

There is a very small moth whose larva sometimes becomes
troublesome in comb honey. It is not nearly so destructive as the
larger species and its work is seldom noticed excepting in the
comb honey. It frequently appears in honey that has been a
considerable time in the market and greatly injures the appear-
ance by spreading its webs over the cappings and making its
small burrows into the wax, thus causing leakage, waste, and
a bad appearance. The remedy is fumigation.

THE BUSINESS OF AN INSPECTOR

More than half of the States and several Canadian provinces
now have inspectors with police powers for the purpose of con-
trolling bee diseases. But a few years will elapse until every
State and province where bee-keeping is an important industry
will make such provision. Where the work is thoroughly done
a number of men are required to cover the field, so that the
inspection work is growing in importance and in opportunity.

230 DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF BEES

With the appearance of bee disease it was very natural for
the bee-keepers to look for assistance from the State. Alone the
bee-keeper is helpless against inteciion from uncared for apiar-
ies. He may be ever so careful and efficient, but vs^ithout pro-
tection from unnecessary contagion he must carry on the fight
against disease for a long period of time, move his apiary, or go
out of business. Since bee-keeping is being developed as a
specialty on which many have come to depend for a livelihood,
it is imperative that legal protection be extended.

The sole thought in the beginning was to provide for the
examination of all bees and to compel proper treatment or de-
struction of those found to be diseased. The inspector was given
no choice but to examine all the bees in the localities to which
he was called. At the same time funds sufficient to examine but
a small part of the bees in any State were provided.

Of late the tendency has been to depend more and more upon
proper instruction. Until much larger appropriations are avail-
able it will not be possible to reach a large percentage of the
bees in any State. If the bee-keeper is an intelligent man, an
hour or two of the inspector's time is all that he will require.
If upon examination one or more colonies are found to be dis-
eased, the inspector will be able to point out the characteristics
of the particular disorder and to give proper instructions for its
treatment. The bee-keeper will then be able to recognize the
trouble when he finds it in other colonies and to deal with it
promptly. It would hardly seem to be the province of the State
to examine every colony and give the necessary treatment. If
such a plan is followed a week will often be necessary to deal
with a single large apiary.

Where the owner is careless or indifferent it will become
necessary for the inspector to be very thorough in his examina-
tion and to insist on proper attention to diseased colonies. Police
power is necessary because of the fact that many persons who
keep bees are so ignorant of their care in either health or disease
that they cannot be convinced of the necessity or value of proper

REQUIREMENTS FOR SUCCESSFUL INSPECTORS 231

attention. In such cases the bees will be left to menace the
surrounding apiaries until such time as they shall finally suc-
cumb to the disease.

Requirements for Successful Inspectors. — No man should
be intrusted with police powers who does not have proper regard
for the rights and feelings of those with whom he is required to
deal. He should be able to meet a trying situation and to
reason with those who are disposed to resent his visit. For-
tunately most bee-keepers are coming to be very anxious to learn
of the presence of disease on its first appearance in their apiaries
and will communicate with the inspector at the first suspicious
sign. In such cases the inspector will be welcomed and infor-
mation will be gratefully received. However, when disease is
found it becomes necessary to examine other nearby apiaries
to ascertain to what extent the disease has been spread. Many
of the bees will be found in boxes, kegs, or hives where the combs
are built crosswise for lack of foundation. The conditions are
such as try the patience of a mild-tempered man, and to ascer-
tain the condition of the colony and leave the owner in good
temper requires the exercise of much skill and diplomacy.

If the inspector is able to give the owner of such bees en-
couragement and advice about proper care of bees without
offence, his visit has been of value aside from the possible check
of the spread of disease. The time bids fair to come very
shortly when the inspector's field shall be broadened until his
duty will be to instruct in the general management of the apiary
as much as to find disease. The great difficulty with present laws
lies in the fact that no man who is not a well-informed bee-
keeper is competent to deal with disease. The inspector's in-
structions regarding disease will be imperfectly understood by
the box hive bee-keeper, nine times out of ten, and if he under-
takes to treat his colonies himself he will destroy them or scatter
the disease instead of checking it. It thus becomes necessary
for the inspector to personally supervise the treatment or destroy
the diseased colony. A diseased colony in anything but a modem

232 DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF BEES

equipped hive is worthless, as it will cost more to transfer the
bees, as a rule, than a diseased colony is worth.

The man who is fully informed concerning up-to-date
methods of bee-keeping will be able to handle disease in his
own apiary if he can be protected from further infection. The
problem then becomes one of making every man who keeps bees
an up-to-date bee-man. In localities where disease gets well
established it will be impossible to eradicate it entirely until
every bee-keeper becomes expert. Disease has the effect of
making expert bee-keepers anyway, for those who do not become
proficient are likely to lose all their bees within a short time.

The bee inspector is usually regarded as the official repre-
sentative of the industry and should be able to represent it
creditably under any circumstances. It is not enough to be
informed concerning detection and treatment of disease, but
he must be able to deal with problems relating to any branch
of bee-keeping. Bee-keepers whom he visits will give him their
hardest problems to solve and people in other walks of life will
turn to him with any question relating to the business. He will
be called upon to give expert testimony in case of litigation in-
volving bee-keepers and to settle various disputes between per-
sons where the rights of one or the other are in question,

■Opportunity. — The various State agricultural colleges are
rapidly taking up bee culture, and it bids fair to take its legiti-
mate place in the college curriculum. Within a few years the
inspection work, instead of being under direction of a separate
State department, as now in many States, will be organized in
connection with extension work in bee-keeping. As the business
of bee-keeping is taking on new life the demand for properly
equipped men will probably exceed the supply for several years
to come. That this condition has not developed sooner is because
the bee-keepers have been slow to recognize the great advantage
that would come to the industry as a result and to demand the
same recognition given other lines of agricultural activity. A
few who have not caught the spirit of the times are loud in their

QUESTIONS 233

complaints that for the agricultural colleges to take up bee-
keeping will make too many bee-keepers and that there will be
no market for the product of the hives. Fortunately they are
now in the minority and progressive bee-men are in the lead.

It would seem that all that is necessary to meet such com-
plaints is to point to the increased profit that has come to the
dairy and other farm industries by such development. With
better methods and larger production has come better markets
and higher prices. The same condition will apply to bee-keeping,
which is just beginning to come into its own.

QUESTIONS

1. What conditions indicate the presence of American foul brood?

2. Describe the method of treatment.

3. How does European foul brood differ from the American tvpe?

4. Discuss methods of treating this disease.

5. How is foul brood spread?

6. What is sacbrood?

7. Are dragon flies and robber flies serious enemies of the honey-bee »

8. What other enemies must the bee-keeper combat?

9. Discuss the cause and prevention of dysentery.

10. How can the wax moth be controlled?

11. Describe the necessary care of empty combs.
1?. Why is a bee inspector a necessary officer?
13. Discuss his duties and opportunities.

CHAPTER XIII
WINTERING

With the rank and file of bee-keepers in the I^orthern States,
the wintering problem is the most serious one they have to face.
In some localities brood diseases may be a serious menace for a
time and cause great losses, but the wintering problem must
be met in all sections of the North and must be faced every
winter. While many professional bee-keepers have learned to
prepare their bees for winter so carefully as to meet with little
loss, the average small bee-keeper suffers seriously from this
cause and in severe winters occasionally loses a large part of
his stock.

In the Southern States the problem is a somewhat different
one. In some parts of the South instead of being a question of
suitable protection from cold, it becomes a question of checking
brood rearing during the period when no honey is to be gathered
and providing sufficient stores to bring the colony to the next
honey flow in good condition. When stores are short the colony
will delay brood rearing beyond the time when large numbers
of young bees should be hatching in the hive, with the result
that the first period of profitable honey flow is passed before the
colony becomes strong enough to make the most of the oppor-
tunity.

In the high altitudes of Colorado and the West it is a com-
mon practice to winter the colonies in the open air without extra
protection. While in these high altitudes with the prevalence
of sunny weather the bees can fly so frequently as to insure a
large portion of the colonies coming through the winter alive,
it would seem that there must be an unnecessarily heavy mor-
tality among the bees and that with suitable protection there
might be considerable saving in both bees and stores.

Essentials of Successful Wintering. — It is common to speak
234

WHITE HONEY THE BEST WINTER FEED 235

of wintering as though proper protection from cold were all of
the problem. In fact at least two other things are of more
importance: first, of course, a supply of suitable food large
enough to last until the flowers bloom again ; next a vigorous
young queen. After these, suitable protection should be con-
sidered.

When the bees are unable to fly for long periods of time,
as in winter, proper food is of great importance. Normally the
bee voids its excrement only while on the wing. The wastes
that accumulate in its body during the long weeks of inactivity
are a severe tax at best and with low-grade food stores, the
quantity becomes so great as to swell the abdomen to the point
of causing death. In mild winters when there is frequent oppor-
tunity for cleansing flight, bees wintered out of doors will go
through safely on almost any kind of stores if the quantity is
sufficient. There will be, however, a much greater mortality
among the bees on poor stores than on those of good quality.
Bees wintered in cellars, or outside in severe winters, cannot be
expected to come through in good condition on poor stores, even
though they survive at all.

White Honey the Best Winter Feed.— The whiter the honey,
as a rule, the less waste it contains and there is no better winter
feed than white clover honey. The color is not always a safe
guide, however, for some aster honey is said to be light in color
and aster honey seldom gives good results as a winter feed.

The dark fall honey, especially when mixed with pollen, is
much less desirable, and honey-dew is disastrous. It is a com-
mon plan among practical apiarists to extract all late honey,
which has not had time to be thoroughly ripened, from the combs
at the close of the honey flow and to replace with sealed white
clover honey, or to feed sugar syrup. The best grade of granu-
lated sugar should always be used for this purpose as it makes
a very good substitute for honey for wintering. Equal parts
of sugar and water are frequently used, although best authorities
recommend less water ; three parts sugar to two parts water, or

236 WINTERING

two parts sugar to one of water being regarded as better. When
it becomes necessary to feed from lack of sufficient stores or to
replace unsuitable stores, it should be attended to immediately
after the close of the honey flow to give the bees time to get
things in readiness for winter before the first cold snap. (See
Chapter VIII, Feeds and Feeding.)

Failing Queens and Old Bees. — The old. bees that have
gathered the year's honey crop will all die before the opening
of the next season's harvest. It is very important, therefore,
that the coming of winter shall find large numbers of newly
hatched bees to replace them. It is the late hatched bees that
are not exhausted by honey gathering that survive the winter
and begin the work of the following season. The bee-keeper
should see to it that conditions favor brood rearing in the fall
to insure this condition.

It often happens that a colony which has been strong all
summer and perhaps has stored a large surplus will die during
the winter or early spring from the failure of the old queen.. It
is important that the bee-keeper see that all colonies have vigor-
ous queens at the time of preparing for winter. All colonies that
cast swarms during the season will have young queens, if they
have any at all, as the old queen always leaves the hive to go
with the swarm. For this reason it often happens that one will
get a new swarm only to find it dead or worthless the following
spring. The bees usually replace a failing queen, but they cannot
always be depended upon to do so. When the queen begins to
fail in late fall or winter, conditions are not favorable for rear-
ing another and if a virgin is raised at this season she has no
opportunity for mating, so is worthless.

Influence of the Queen. — It should be understood that the
queen herself does not have a direct influence on the wintering
of the colony. In fact she might be removed entirely and if
other conditions are right the colony will come through safely.
The importance of having a vigorous young queen lies in insur-
ing plenty of young bees at the beginning of winter and that

PROTECTION FROM WIND 237

brood-rearing will commence in due season in spring. Colonies
with failing queens are likely to be so badly weakened before
their true condition is discovered in spring that they will be
worthless or nearly so.

Practical bee-keepers look very carefully after the queens
in making winter preparation. Some apiarists re-queen all
colonies every year to insure only young queens. This method
results in the destruction of many valuable queens, however.
It is a common practice to re-queen every other year, thus keep-
ing the queens for two years, while others keep a record of every
colony and only replace the queens when they show signs of fail-
ing. If bees are on straight combs in movable frame hives, as
they must be for profitable care, it is an easy matter to remove
the old queen. She must always be removed before a new queen
is given. Otherwise the bees will destroy the newcomer. Queens
are for sale by numerous queen breeders who will supply them
from April to October. Directions for introducing: them come
with the little cage in which they are mailed. This subject is
further considered in Chapter VII.

Protection from Wind.— Not all of wintering lies in getting
the colonies through the winter. It is equally important that
they come through in such condition as to build up early, in order
that every colony be very populous at the beginning of the honey
flow. The changeable weather of early spring must be consid-
ered and some protection be provided against the chilling winds
of this season. As soon as warm days come, the queens will
begin to lay in earnest. Within three days from the time the
eggs are laid the larvae hatch and require a very warm and even
temperature. Baby bees are even more sensitive to unfavorable
conditions than baby chicks. It often happens that a few warm
days will result in the appearance of considerable quantities of
brood in the hive. A sudden drop in the temperature makes it
difficult for the bees to keep the brood nest sufficiently warm, with
the result that a part of the brood is likely to be chilled and

238 WINTERING

consequently lost. Every possible means should be used to
save the energy of the colony at this season.

Too much value can hardly be placed upon a good wind-
break. Evergreens so planted as to break the wind from the
north and west are very good. The author's apiary is sheltered
by a blackberry thicket immediately behind the hives and back

-The value of a good natural windbreak behind an apiary can hardly be over-
estimated.

of that is a grove of native trees (Fig. 108). The apiary was
formerly in the grove where the wind swept under the trees.
The difference in the condition of the colonies in spring, since
moving to the new location, is surprising indeed.

When brood rearing commences the bees require quantities
of water and this accounts for their frequenting the watering
troughs so freely in early spring. Water should be placed near at
hand to save long flights in search of it. A tub, trough, or other

METHODS OF WINTERING 239

receptacle partly filled with shavings, chips or the like to enable
the bees to get the water without danger of drowning should be
provided. (See Chapter IV.)

Protection in Spring. — Many bee-keepers complain that after
they bring their bees through the winter in the cellar they lose
a large part of them through the spring, the stock dwindling
after being placed on the summer stands. Several things might
be the cause of this condition. Too many old bees, or colonies
that went into the cellar weak, or lack of suitable protection
might be responsible. It is important not only to place the bees
in a carefully sheltered position after they are removed from
the cellar, but in addition to provide some protection in the way
of packing.

Strong Colonies Also Essential.— To the above general prin-
ciples we must add another — strong colonies. While it is some-
times possible to winter a weak colony or even a nucleus, it is
seldom worth while. If a colony is weak at the beginning of
tvinter by the time spring arrives there is not likely to be enough
bees left to build up without the addition of brood or bees from a
stronger colony. It would be wiser to unite several weak colo-
nies to make one vigorous one than to bother with the weaklings.
Over large areas the principal flow is from white clover,
which is of comparatively short duration. It is only the colonies
that are strong in bees at the beginning of the flow that will
return substantial profits to their owners.

A strong colony of bees will require less honey to winter
successfully than a small one. The source of heat is the food con-
sumed and the larger the cluster the more animal heat will be
retained.

METHODS OF WINTERING

In considering the various methods of wintering here pre-
sented the reader will bear in mind that some methods suited
to the latitude of St. Louis would not be safe for northern lati-
tudes. Chaff hives, paper cases, and similar methods which are
entirely satisfactory for Southern Missouri and southward are

240 WINTERING

not to be recommended for Minnesota, Wisconsin, Ontario and
similar sections. Outdoor wintering, however, may be safely
practised as far north as Canada if proper precautions are taken
in the winter preparations. The success or failure of outdoor
wintering in any latitude will depend to some extent on the sur-
rounding conditions, such as windbreaks, as well as the actual
protection of the hives. What has been said about the desira-
bility of spring protection for cellar wintered colonies will apply
with equal force to colanies wintered outside.

Paper Cases. — One of the common plans for outdoor winter-
ing in the southern part of the region where winter protection is
necessary and one that brings fairly satisfactory results in ordin-
ary winters is the paper case. Tar paper or other black paper
should never be used because of its tendency to absorb heat. The
hive under a black protection case will suffer from such extremes
of heat and cold as to render it worse off than though it had
remained without protection. Light colored building paper,
however, will answer very well.

To make such a case two or three corn cobs are laid over the
top of the frames and a cotton cloth or burlap spread over them.
The purpose of the cobs is to permit the bees to move freely from
place to place to reach their stores. An empty super is then
placed on the hive and filled with dry leaves or chaff. The cover
is then placed on the super and the whole covered with several
layers of newspapers. A large sheet of heavy building paper
or other waterproof paper is then placed over all and folded
around the hive and fastened as shown in Fig. 109. The hives
shown in the illustration are without the super of leaves. There
is a disagreement among bee-keepers as to the value of this porous
packing material over the frames. The purpose is to absorb
the moisture during cold weather. Some argue that the bees are
safer without it, but the author is a believer in absorbent cush-
ions. Building paper cases are at best a scant protection.

The winter of 1911-12 caused such heavy losses among out-

PAPER CASES

241

of-door wintered colonies as to discourage many advocates of
outside wintering. This was an extraordinary winter with un-
usually low temperatures and long periods between days warm
enough for a flight. Investigation shows that a large per cent
of the loss in this unusual season was due to poor stores and
careless preparation for winter. The two preceding winters
had been so favorable that many bee-keepers were inclined to

FiQ. 109. — Paper winter cases are at best scant protection, but are good for cellar-wintered
bees after they are placed on the summer stands.

take the risk rather than go to the trouble of careful preparation.
The losses have not been without compensation, for the result
will not be soon forgotten, and the bees will receive better atten-
tion at the proper time for years to come.

Outdoor wintering is very successful in the hands of some

of the most successful and extensive honey producers. In fact

a few have practised no other method for many years and get

uniformly good results. With outdoor wintering it is very

16

242

WINTERING

essential that great care be used to see that stores are of suffi-
cient quantity and of good quality.

One of the principal arguments in favor of cellar wintering
is the saving in stores, which is considerable. In general it is
estimated that from one-third to one-half more honey will be
consumed when wintered outside. This is offset by earlier brood

FiQ. 110. — The Dadant method of outdoor wintering in large hives ia suited to localities
where the bees have frequent flights during the cold months.

rearing and a generally stronger condition when properly win-
tered out-of-doors.

The Dadant Method. — The Dadants are extensively engaged
in honey production in Hamilton, Illinois, directly across the
river from Keokuk. They use a large hive and cover the brood
frames with a straw mat and fill the cover with leaves. Woven
wire is tacked to one corner of the front of the hive and then

PITTING OR BURYING 243

made to encircle it on both sides and the back. The space thus
provided is filled with leaves. The front is provided with no pro-
tection. Fig. 110 shows the method employed by C. P. Dadant,
one of the best known American bee-keepers, of wintering in the
Dadant hive which he has used for many years. The results seem
to be satisfactory when proper stores are supplied. This way,
while suited to the conditions of Keokuk and southward, would

Fio. in.-OnemethodofpackinKonthesunimerstands: (a) roof of composition materia
(b) board over entrance.

hardly be safe much farther north, judging from the reports of
outdoor wintering from northern sections. This plan is not
suited to small hives, such ^ the eight-frame Langstroth so
commonly used.

Pitting or Burying.— On sandy or other very porous soils
a few bee-keepers practise pitting or burying. A trench is dug
about eighteen inches deep and 2 X 4's placed in the bottom
to keep the hives off the ground. After its bottom has been
removed the hive is placed on the scantling and the cover slightly

244

WINTERING

raised to provide for upward ventilation. About eighteen inches
of straw is placed over the hives and this in turn is covered with
a layer of loose earth. Not over two layers of hives should be
placed in such a trench. There are only a comparatively few

locations where this
method is suited to the
conditions, as a well-
drained situation and
porous soil are essen-
tial. Bees pitted in
this manner are liable
to be disturbed by
skunks or other burrow-
ing animals and seri-
ous loss to result.
There is danger of loss
also if they be buried
either too deep or not
deep enough. ^Vhile
the method may do
as a makeshift under
|,- v:- ^ temporary' conditions it

flM^K,^,^^^ JjmijJMt is not to be generally

^^^HB[Lj^^^**'***<*i*.. ' ^^^^HH^H recommended.
^^^^^^HK' r^^k Packing

^^^^^^^H ^^1 Summer Stands. —

l^mmP Another method suit-

able for southerly
latitudes where only
slight winter protection is needed is packing on the summer
stands. The illustration (Fig. Ill) shows an apiary in southern
Iowa. In this case a tight board fence about thirty inches high is
used as a windbreak to the north of the bees. The hives set in a
long row about six inches from this fence. Leaves are packed be-
tween and behind the hives and a waterproof roofing is placed

Fig. 112. — Parts of a double- walled hive.

CHAFF OR DOUBLE WALLED HIVES

245

over all to shed the rain. In this plan the same method of packing
empty supers with leaves over the brood nest is used as described
under paper cases. Various modifications of this plan are in use
throughout this latitude from Kansas and Missouri eastward.
Chaff or Double Walled Hives.— Too many bees are left
without attention in single walled hives and for the average
small apiarist double walled hives similar to that shown in Fig.

^'*^fi.M?~.?°"u'''« "'*"'''*. ^'^^ assembled. The double- wallci hive with the space between
hlled with chaff or cork is suited to the conditions of localities where winters are mild.

112 would be far better. The space between the two walls is
packed with chaff and over the brood nest is placed a tray also
filled with chaff and a large cover telescopes over all. Fig. 11,3
shows the hive as it appears in use. During winter the entrance
is contracted to a four inch width. There are several hives on
the market built on this plan.

The chaff hive like the foregoing methods is not well adapted
to the far northern regions and much of the complaint against

246 WINTERING

this method of wintering is perhaps from regions where it should
not be used. For intermediate latitudes, with good stores and
proper attention, this hive should be expected to give satisfactory
results. Extensive bee-keepers who have used a similar hive in
Michigan for many years report that the average loss has not
exceeded ten per cent. The practical bee-keeper should not be
content to follow any plan by which he could not reduce the
winter losses below this figure. A ten per cent loss is sufficient
to condemn any system. However, a large part of winter losses
by any method is always to be charged to failing queens and im-
proper stores, two things which can hardly be charged to the
method of protection.

There has been much discussion as to whether with the use
of double walled hives there should be a sealed wood cover under
the tray of chaff. The best authorities take directly opposite
views on this subject, some holding that there should be no
upward ventilation and the other side holding that upward venti-
lation is essential to absorb the surplus moisture in extremely
cold weather. The author, as already stated, holds to the latter
view, and in practice uses it as well as recommends it.

The double walled hive is a most excellent hive for early
spring use, as the bees are not subject to such sudden changes
of temperature as is the case in single walled hives.

The large size and extra weight are against the double walled
hive for use in extensive apiaries where every part should be
interchangeable. For the use of comb honey producers, how-
ever, who have less occasion to manipulate the hive bodies, there
is not so much objection to be made. There can be no ques-
tion but that there will be a greater saving in stores for early
spring brood rearing in a double walled hive than in the ordinary
single walled one. More honey will also be stored from fruit
bloom and other early sources as a smaller number of bees will
be required to maintain the required heat for brood rearing in
the hive. Taken altogether, there are many advantages from its
use to offset the greater weight and bulk.

PACiaNG CASES 247

One of the greatest advantages is in leaving the hives in one
position the entire year. Winter preparations require but a few
moment's time with each hive. All that is necessary is to con-
tract the entrance, put the inner cover in place, place the tray
of chaff in position over the frames, and place the telescope cover
over all and the job is done. The busy man who has but a few
bees for diversion and who wishes to be relieved of unnecessary
manipulations in caring for them will find the double walled
hive to be ideal for his use. In fact the author feels that it is
the best possible hive for amateurs generally, who do not keep
more than twenty-five to fifty colonies. As to whether it will
pay the large producer to use this type of hive is not quite so
evident. Some find them satisfactory on an extensive scale,
while others feel that they are not suited to the use of the exten-
sive honey producer.

Packing Cases.— Various kinds of packing cases have been
in use for many years, so the idea is not new. However, the
tendency of the time is to abandon cellar wintering in favor of
packing cases. With proper preparation bees will be safer in
winter cases than in a cellar and will reach the season of honey
flow in better condition than by any other method of wintering.

Bees are successfully wintered in packing cases as far north
as Canada, and some of the most extensive honey producers have
abandoned expensive cellars for their use. The most common
plan is to pack four colonies in one box with entrances facing
two to the east and two to the west, or two to the south and one
each to the east and west. Less labor is required to prepare the
boxes with only two openings. North openings are not to be
recommended.

Where four colonies are packed in a case, two sides of each
hive have the additional protection of other hives warm with
the clusters of bees. The colonies will thus be much warmer
than when packed singly.

Several years of observation indicate to the author that bees
winter better in larger hives than in smaller ones. Unless the

248 WINTEWNG

hive is at least as large as the ten-frame Langstroth, packed
colonies should be wintered in double stories, or with a deep
bottom or empty super underneath. The Minnesota combination
bottom and feeder is used to some extent for this purpose and is
highly recommended by those who have tried it.

It is unfortunate that the eight-frame hive is in such com-

Fia. 114. — Packing box with hives inside ready for leaves or other packing material for
outdoor wintering.

mon use. While the eight-frame hive is good in the hands of
expert comb honey men, the larger hive is much better for
(wdinary use. For wintering in eight-frame hives considerable
difficulty is sometimes encountered to get enough honey into a
single hive-body to insure sufficient stores. Good results have
been secured by placing two hive-bodies one above the other and
leaving about ten or fifteen pounds more honey than seemed
necessary. Two double-story hives are then placed side by side.

PACKING CASES 249

close together, in a drygoods box of one inch lumber, or four in
a packing case. The drygoods and clothing merchants get a
number of boxes every fall just about the right size to pack two
colonies together. A box can sometimes be secured large enough
to pack three colonies side by side (Figs. 114, 115 and 116), but

FxQ. 115. — ^Packing two colonies with dry leaves in a goods bos. The entrances are left
open to give the bees opportunity to fly on warm days.

these do not give as good satisfaction, for the bees from the hive
in the middle seem to enter the hives on either side, until the
colony which is most favored as far as warmth is concerned
comes through the winter weak from loss of deserting bees.

The advantage of using the drygoods box lies in the lower
cost and less labor necessary to get it ready for a packing case.
Sufficient lumber to make such a case would in most localities
cost several times as much as is paid for the boxes. They need

250

WINTERING'

so little alteration that but a few minutes is necessary to make
one over. As will be seen by Fig, 116, a six-inch strip is removed
in front of the entrance and turned inside the box to prevent the
packing from dropping down in front. On warm days the bees
are free to fly. Dry leaves are used for packing and about four
to six inches of space is filled all round the hives and usually

Fia. 116. — Snug for the winter.

from ten to twelve inches over the top, the more the better. As
the hives are two stories high the bees have an abundance of rooiji
for spring brood rearing.

As before stated there should be an abundance of honey.
With a surplus available in the hive in spring and the hives
protected from the cold winds by the packing, they need not be
opened until the beginning of the honey flow. Colonies thus
packed, and opened for the first time about the first of May,
have been found to be full of brood and honey from fruit bloom.

PACKING CASES 251

Sometimes queen cells will be started very early in preparation
for swarming. At the same time colonies without protection
were making slow progress toward building up.

It is very apparent that such colonies as described on May
first are worth much more as honey gatherers during the clover
flow. When colonies reach this stage sufficientl/ early it is some-
times possible though seldom advisable to make increase ahead
of the clover flow. Where the main flow is later in the season,
this extra early brood rearing is not so important, though the
colonies should be strong. Over large areas of the Northern
States the bees need careful attention to build them up early
enough, as a rule. In these packing cases the bees will some-
times store surplus from fruit bloom and dandelion.

Reports of success from wintering in these or similar cases
are uniformly good where the work has been properly done, over
nearly all the States and Canada.

For large apiaries a case which holds four colonies, two
facing east and two west, is perhaps more desirable. The worst
objection to packing cases is the large amount of labor in pre-
paring for winter and the bother of storing the cases in summer.
As one bee-keeper expressed it, the results were good but it
required acres of space to store his packing cases in summer.
Instead of nailing the cases into permanent form it is a common
practice to fasten at the corners with hooks, so that the parts can
be piled up compactly during the summer months. In large
apiaries the use of drygoods boxes is hardly practical because
of the difficulty of disposing of so much bulk when not in use.
Where only a few are in use they can readily be turned to account
as chicken coops in summer (Fig. 117).

The packing case is perhaps the safest and most generally
successful of any method of wintering, taking the country as a
whole. It is adapted to any section, north or south, and permits
the bees to fly wherever the weather is sufficiently warm. There
is much trouble from outdoor wintered colonies losing large num-
bers of bees which fly out on bright days when it is too cold for

252

WINTERING

successful flight, dying upon the snow. In the packing cases
this trouble is avoided as the bees do not feel the heat of the sun
until the air is sufficiently warm to permit a safe return. Of
course there will always be some old bees which will die outside
after every day warm enough for a flight.

Cellar Wintering. — Cellar wintering is the most generally

FiQ. 117. — The packing boxes may be utilized for chicken coops in summer.

practised plan by extensive honey producers of the northeastern
States. Over large areas there are long periods that the bees
are unable to fly from early December until the last of February
or even March. It is the usual practice to put the bees into the
cellar in this climate. The saving in stores will be considerable.
In general it is estimated that not more than twelve to fifteen
pounds of honey will be consumed by a colony in the cellar,
though as much more should be present in the hive to insure a

CELLAR WINTERING

253

plentiful supply for spring brood rearing after the colony is
placed upon the summer stands, as it is rather difficult to practise
feeding satisfactorily at this season of the year.

Where cellar wintering is practised the bees should be taken
in as soon as possible after the weather becomes so cold that there
is little chance of further flight. It is well, also, to leave them

FiQ. 118. — Concrete cellar for wintering.

in the cellar in spring until warm days are the rule. Many bee-
keepers take them out when the maples bloom. If conditions
are favorable they will get honey and pollen at once and will,
perhaps, be self-supporting from the time they are taken out.
However, it so frequently happens that they will be unable to
get anything from the field for weeks at a time in early spring
that the wise bee-man should always see that they have enough
old stores for emergencies. As previously mentioned, stores
of good quality are essential to successful wintering in the cellar.

254

WINTERING

Essentials of a Good Cellar. — The greatest importance is
attached to even temperature in cellar wintering. If the tem-
perature cannot be controlled effectively, the bees are better off
outside. Disastrous results are the rule in cellars where the tem-
perature is up with ev^ry warm day and down when the outside
temperature becomes cold. There is much to be learned, as yet,
concerning conditions of wintering in general and especially

Fio. 119. — Cellar for wintering under the workshop.

cellar wintering. It is hoped and expected that the extensive
experiments now being carried on by Dr. Phillips in the govern-
ment laboratory at Washington will shortly solve some of these
perplexing questions.

The majority of writers give a temperature of 45° F., as
the ideal cellar temperature. No good reason has as yet been
given as to just why this particular temperature is better than
a higher or lower one. It is generally agreed that the tempera-
ture should not drop below 40°, especially if the cellar is damp,

ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD CELLAR 255

as a combination of dampness and a cold cellar result fatally
for the bees; 50° is probably better than either.

Ventilation also seems to be essential, especially to rid the
cellar of the surplus moisture. Good results are frequently re-
ported from cellars closed up tight if the walls are porous and
permit the escape of moisture readily. In general an even tem-
perature and a dry cellar are supposed to be best. It is quite
possible that it will eventually be demonstrated that a tempera-
ture somewhat above the regulation 45° is better if other con-
ditions are satisfactory. At present without a basis on which to
state positively we can accept the conditions generally agreed
upon as best. (See Figs. 118 and 119.)

In this connection we can do no better than to describe a
cellar which gives uniformly good results and in which the
owner has never lost a colony that went into winter quarters
in normal condition. The cellar is that used by Mr. Snyder,
of the Iowa Bee-keeper's Association, who describes it as
follows :

The cellar was constructed especially for the purpose and is under the
shop and honey house and large enough to accommodate 200 colonies as
he stores them.

First a stone wall about sixteen inches through was built. This wall
was lined with hollow tile on which a coat of common plaster was applied.
The cellar is ventilated by a chimney built from the ground and with an
opening at the bottom and also at the ceiling. The chimney extends
through the ceiling to the usual height above the roof. In addition to the
chimney ventilator which is in the center of one end of the cellar, there
are two three-inch ventilators in the corners at the opposite end. This
supplies sufficient ventilation for cold weather. In mild weather the door
of the bee cellar is left open. This opens into another cellar room used for
storage purposes, all being kept in total darkness.

The bottom of the cellar is tile drained, the tile having outlet in the
creek about a quarter of a mile distant. However, there is no direct outlet
from the cellar, the tile being laid about three inches below the surface.

The ceiling is constructed of eight-inch joist covered with tar building
paper and overlaid with patent metal lath on which a coat of plaster is
applied. Overhead of course there is the floor of the workshop.

Most bee-keepers favor brick walls as they are dryer than
cement or stone as a rule. If too many colonies are placed in
a cellar for the size of the space available, there is a tendency

256 WINTERING

for the temperature to rise in spring, from the heat generated
in the hives. Crowding in the cellar should be avoided, but when
such a condition becomes apparent it can sometimes be relieved
by placing a piece of ice over the cluster on each hive. Some
bee-keepers use a sprinkling can and sprinkle the fronts of the
hives, permitting the water to run into the hive. While some-
thing of this kind may be necessary to quiet the bees, it is much
better, if possible, to avoid the conditions that cause them to
become restless.

Removing Covers or Bottoms. — It is a common practice to
remove either the cover or bottom board from the hives as they
are placed in the cellar. Some bee-keepers remove one, some
remove the other, while others leave both in place with entranceo
wide open. It can hardly be said that there is any definite evi-
dence as to which plan is best. A common plan is to remove'
the bottoms and leave the covers in place, then alternate the
hives, placing one on top of the two below with a space between,
thus providing ample ventilation to the cluster.

In general it would seem that where other conditions are
right it makes little difference, as the bees seem to come through
in good condition anyway. Where other conditions are bad the
bees come through in bad shape, no matter whether top or bot-
tom, or both, or neither be removed.

Summary. — Generally speaking, it may be said that the
extensive honey producers are agreed on the following as essen-
tial to successful wintering by any plan : vigorous young queens
with a large cluster of young bees, sufficient stores of good
quality, and a dry situation. If the bees are wintered in cellar,
an even temperature in addition is desired.

QUESTIONS

1. Why are the losses of bees in winter so heavy?

2. Discuss the essentials of successful wintering.

3. What stores bring best results and why?

4. What relation does the queen sustain to the wintering of the colony?

5. Under what conditions are paper cases suitable for winter protection?

6. Discuss the advantages of packing bees on their summer stands?

7. What are the advantages of double walled hives?

8. Describe the essential points of a good cellar for wintering purposes.

CHAPTER XIV
MARKETING THE HONEY CROP

The first essential to the successful marketing of any com-
modity is to have a good article put up in attractive shape. One
of the worst drags on the honey market is the quantity of honey
that goes to the store in propolized and unscraped sections, with
travel stain, dirt, and leaking honey. It would require a custo-
mer who had a confirmed honey taste to even think of honey after
looking at the article too often offered for sale. It is a for-
tunate thing for the business that honey production is rapidly
passing into the hands of specialists who know how to prepare
their product for market in attractive condition and that the
small farm apiaries are rapidly passing away in most places.
There is no good reason why honey in small quantities might
not be as well cared for as large quantities. Too many who have
but a few colonies of bees regard whatever honey is secured as
that much velvet, and are satisfied to take it to the store in the
easiest way possible and to accept such a credit on the grocery
bill as the merchant is willing to give.

COMB HONEY

Grading. — The bee-keeper who wishes to establish a per-
manent market cannot place too much importance on carefully
grading his product so that every package will be uniform with
others of the same grade.

There is more carelessness, as yet, in the preparation of the
honey crop for market than any other staple food product. For
some reason the bee-keeper has not kept pace with other enter-
prises in the marketing of his crop, and to this he owes, to a
great extent, the fact that honey does not bring as good prices
as some other commodities.

Some confusion has resulted in the different grading rules
17 aw

258 MARKETING THE HONEY CROP

adopted by the bee-keepers of different sections. It is highly
desirable that the same rules be made to apply to all sections,
so that the merchant buying honey from any locality will know
what to expect.

Official Grades. — The ISTational Bee-keeper's Association at
the convention in Cincinnati in 1913 adopted the following as
official for the association:

Sections of comb honey are to be graded: first, as to finish; second,
as to color of honey; and third, as to weight. The sections of honey in any
given case are to be so nearly alike in these respects that any section shall
be representative of the contents of the case.

1. Finish. — (1) Extra Fancy: Sections to be evenly filled, comb firmly
attached to the four sides, the sections to be free from propolis or other
pronounced stain, combs and cappings white, and not more than six unsealed
cells on either side.

(2) Fancy: Sections to be evenly filled, comb firmly attached to the
four sides, the sections free from propolis or other pronounced stain, comb
and cappings white, and not more than six unsealed cells on each side,
exclusive of the outside row.

(3) No. 1: Sections to be evenly filled, comb firmly attached to the
four sides, the sections free from propolis or other pronounced stain, comb
and cappings white to slightly off" color, and not more than forty unsealed
cells, exclusive of the outside row.

(4) No. 2: Comb not projecting beyond the box, attached to the sides
not less than two-thirds of the way around, and not more than sixty un-
sealed cells, exclusive of the row next to the wood.

2. Color. — On the basis of color of the honey, comb honey is to be
classified as: first, white; second, light amber; third, amber; and fourth,,
dark.

3. Weight. — (1) Heavy: No section designated as heavy to weigh less
than fourteen ounces.

(2) Medium: No section designated as medium to weigh less than
twelve ounces.

(3) Light: No section designated as light to weigh less than ten
ounces.

In describing honey under these rules, three words or symbols are to
be used, the first descriptive of the finish, second the color, and third the
weight. For example, fancy, wliite, heavy (F = W = H). No. 1, amber,
medium (No. 1=A = M). In this way all the combinations of color,
weight, and finish can be briefly described.

Cull Honey. — Cull honey shall consist of the following: Honey packed
in soiled second-hand cases or in badly stained or propolized sections;
sections containing pollen, honey-dew honey, honey showing signs of granu-
lation, poorly ripened, sour or "weeping" honey; sections with comb
projecting beyond the box, or well attached to the section less than two-
thirds the distance around the inner surface; sections with more than
sixty unsealed cells exclusive of the row adjacent to the wood; leaking,
injured, or patched up sections. See Fig. 120.

OFFICIAL GRADES

259

Fio. 120.— Development of comb honey in sections: 1, full sheets of foundation; 2, cells drawn
and partly filled ; 3, cells 6lled and partly capped; 4, fancy comb honey ready for the table

260 MARKETING THE HONEY CROP

From the above rules it will be seen that it is a very short-
sighted policy to mix inferior sections with the good ones in
the hope of getting a better price for all. The result is to bring
the price of the lot down to the level of the poorest grade.

The more carefully and conscientiously grading is done the
better price will be obtained and the easier to find a ready sale.
Good quality comb honey carefully graded will nearly always
sell readily, although like other commodities the price varies
with seasons.

Commission Houses. — There has been much complaint from
disappointed bee-keepers who have not been satisfied with results
from sales through commission houses. Sometimes the fault is
with the producer and sometimes with the commission man.
The bee-keeper should exercise ordinary business methods and
not consign goods to a commission firm without some knowledge
of the standing of the firm. While large quantities of honey
are sold through commission firms to the regular trade, it often
happens that so much honey is sent to the larger centers as to
greatly depress the market, while the markets in the smaller
places may be short. The problem of proper distribution of
the honey crop is a serious one and demands careful attention
on the part of the producer who would realize the most from his
product.

There are commission firms which specialize in the sale of
honey and which handle large quantities to the satisfaction of
their clients. There are other concerns that buy outright in
carload lots at an agreed price. As a rule, a cash sale with no
chances, even at a slightly lower price, is to be preferred.

Home Markets. — As a rule the bee-keepers living east of the
Rocky Mountain region will find it greatly to their advantage
to develop home or nearby markets. The western honey pro-
ducers are at a disadvantage in this respect, for bee-keeping is
more highly specialized in the West and the honey produced is
greatly in excess of what home markets can absorb. It thus be-
comes necessary to seek distant markets. In such localities

SHIPPING CASES 261

eo-operation is a great advantage in reaching a profitable market.
In the eastern States there are few localities where a profit-
able market for large quantities of honey cannot be developed
within fifty to one hundred miles. Methods of developing local
markets will be considered more in detail under " Advertising
Methods."

Shipping Cases. — Comb honey is a perishable product and
considerable care is necessary to see that it is packed in such
shape that it will stand the rough handling necessary to ship-
ment and reach its destination in presentable condition. If
the average bee-keeper could spend a day in some large ware-
house where large amounts of honey are being received and take
note of the number of cases that arrive in broken and leaking
condition he would not be surprised at many of the poor returns
from shipments. A single broken section may spoil the appear-
ance of a whole case by dripping over the remainder which may
be in otherwise good condition. So much irritation arises m
making settlements for honey that arrives in bad condition that
many responsible firms refuse to handle it at all. Then again
dishonest firms take advantage of the fact that honey is so com-
monly damaged in shipment to report as damaged goods that
really arrive in good condition.

Wood shipping cases holding twenty-four sections are the
most common as yet. The corrugated paper in bottom of case
offers the advantage of apparently greater safety to the honey
and does not add greatly to the cost. The paper will absorb
much of the shock of rough handling as well as part of the leak-
age of broken sections.

It is very desirable that comb honey sent to market should
be enclosed in paper cartons. This offers several advantages.
The section is kept clean and free from dust and also retains
all its own leakage, thus saving the loss resulting from soiling
other sections.

Corrugated paper shipping cases have also been tried to
some extent but as yet have not been widely used. Their value

262 MARKETING THE HONEY CROP

remains as yet to be demonstrated. Fear is expressed that they
will not protect the fragile contents as well as the wooden case
with paper lining.

The use of the best possible protection to the honey shipped
to market is cheap insurance and the risk of resulting loss will
be sufficiently reduced to overbalance the greater expense.

Care of Comb Honey. — Comb honey should be fully finished
and ripened before taking from the hive, but should not be left
until the appearance is spoiled by travel stain.

As soon as it is removed it should be stored in a warm room.
Care should be used that it does not freeze, as low temperatures
hasten granulation and granulated comb honey is likely to be
a " drug " on the market. While candied extracted honey can
readily be liquefied, it is difficult to do anything with granulated
comb honey. In this case " an ounce of prevention is worth
a pound of cure." Fortunately comb honey does not usually
granulate quickly and there is usually ample time to dispose
of it before it will begin to candy in the comb.

The novice is likely to store his honey in the cellar, the worst
possible place for it, thinking to keep it cool. The author some-
times receives letters from bee-keepers who have spoiled a nice
lot of honey by storing it in a cold, damp place, wishing to know
what can be done to restore it. If it is merely candied the situa-
tion is not so bad, but honey stored in a cold, damp cellar gets
weepy and sour so that it is of little use for any purpose with
which the author is familiar, unless it be for making vinegar.

A warm and dry place is the best storeroom for honey. It
should by all means be dry. Well ripened honeys are much
less likely to granulate and for this reason the honey gathered
early in the season gives much less trouble than that gathered
late in summer. The source from which the nectar is gathered
makes some difference also, as some honeys are much more likely
to candy than others subjected to the same conditions.

Early Sales. — As a rule the early market is best and the man
who depends on the general market instead of establishing a

PACKAGES FOR EXTRACTED HONEY 263

market of his own which he supplies through the year, will do
well to sell as early as possible after the crop is removed from
the hive. Most years there is a period following the holiday
season when honey moves slowly and new shipments do not re-
ceive prompt returns. As a rule, it is easier to sell early and the
prices average as good or better than later. The fellow with a
market established is independent of the fluctuations of the
general market and the increased returns from retail sales pay
well for the additional time required, in most cases.

EXTRACTED HONEY

Packages for Extracted Honey.— There is less risk of loss
of extracted honey in shipping than of comb honey. Of course,
an occasional can will leak and an occasional package of glass
be broken but the total breakage of comb honey is several times
greater than that of extracted. The producer draws his honey
from the extractor into large settling tanks where it can remain
safely until he is ready to place it in the packages in which
it goes to market. If ho depends largely on the general market
the honey will mostly be shipped in square cans holding sixty
pounds each. Two of these cans are shipped in one case, making
a package of 120 pounds weight.

If he develops a special or retail market he will use such
a package as his market demands. Usually the bee-keeper deter-
mines the kind of package in which he prefers to sell his product
and educates his customers accordingly. It takes several years
to develop an extensive retail trade but it is a very satisfactory
way to dispose of one's crop and is not difficult to do (Fig. 121).

The friction top pail holding five pounds is a popular package
for retail trade. Five pounds is not too much for the average
family to buy at one time, although many buy in smaller pack-
ages. For the grocery trade jars of eighteen ounces, one and
one-half pounds and three pounds capacity are perhaps the three
most popular sizes. For the grocery trade glass containers are
much to be preferred to tin, as the contents can be seen which
adds much to the total sales.

264

MARKETING THE HONEY CROP

A one-quart fruit jar of white clear glass makes a very satis-
factory package for retail trade. It holds about three pounds
net. A tin cover with oiled paper lining should be used instead
of the usual top and rubber used for canning fruit.

Controlling Prices.-— One of the most satisfactory kinds of
trade to develop is a fancy retail trade through regular grocery
stores. If the bee-keeper will guarantee to make good any
losses from any cause and to take back goods that are unsatis-

FiQ. 121. — Packages for retailing extracted honey.

factory for any reason without quibbling, he can frequently
put in his line in the best groceries and set the retail prices,
allowing the grocer about twenty per cent of the selling price.
If care is used to offer only a high grade and uniform product
a select trade can be established which will demand a certain
brand and which in a few years' time will be a good asset to
the bee-keeper's business.

There are so many different grades of honey from different
sources that the average consumer becomes confused when differ-
ent purchases are of such decidedly different quality and comes
to fear adulteration. It is very important that a certain trade
be supplied with a uniform quality, as this is one of the best
ways to hold trade.

CO-OPERATIVE MARKETING

265

Blending. — If the bee-keeper has honey from several sources
so that his product varies greatly in quality and flavor he should
either blend the different kinds together as a whole so as always
to have his brand uniform, or he should use only his best honey
under his brand and dispose of the other stock on the general
market. Blended honey gives very good satisfaction, usually,
if the blend is always alike. This plan permits the bee-keeper
to dispose of all his product in his own trade and it brings better
prices.

If one has poor quality honey of any kind he should not
take chances of spoiling his market
by using it unless it is his principal
source, in which event he can develop
a market which will come to demand
that particular product.

Co-operative Marketing. — Where
the business of honey production is
highly developed, as in some sections
of the West, the co-operative plan
offers decided advantages. Many of
the bee-keepers are engaged in produc-
tion on such an extensive scale that
they find little time or inclination to bother with the selling
end of the business. If the cooperative association is in the
hands of competent managers the honey goes to the best markets
and the large volume of business transacted cuts the cost of
handling down to the lowest possible figure.

The Colorado Honey Producers' Association is one of the
most successful of these cooperative associations. The individ-
ual member packs and marks his honey according to the associa-
tion rules and ships it to the Denver headquarters. If he has
a sufficient quantity to ship it out in carlots the manager of the
association or someone for him inspects the honey to see that
it is properly graded and it is shipped to market directly from
the apiary. The bee-keeper gets the full amount of cash resulting

Fig. 122.— Trade-mark of the
Colorado Honey Producera Associ-
ation.

Warranted Pure

9 Honey

THE COLORADO HONEY PRODUCERS' ASS'N :; Denver

NOTICE: :ir/;7rr

■ii™™™®!

Fia. 123. — Honey label.

Xi*»Ht''*»'*»'*»'f^it»H^'*'it»rt»Tt»'*t»*»'fT»«t»jjf

PURE HONEY

Blossoms

i Guaranteed by WESTERN HONEY PRODUCERS, Sioux Cily, Iowa, under
T* the food and drug act of June 30. 1906. Registered under Serial No. 37384.

Principally from CLOVER

2V2 Pounds Net Weight

The contents of this package may candy or granulate. To restore it to

its liquid form, set the package in warm water. Do not let

It boil or the flavor of the flower will be lost.

WESTERN HONEY PRODUCERS

SIOUX CITY, IOWA

^ THOMAS CHANTRY. President

W. P. SOUTHWORTH, Manager

EDWARD G. BROWN, Secretary

4
4

4

j^ W. p. SOUTHWORTM, Manager 4^

Fia. 124. — Honey label.

ADVERTISING METHODS

267

from the sale, less commission and expenses, in a few days, so
that as far as he is individually concerned it is a cash transac-
tion. Where the producer must seek distant markets this plan
offers the maximum of return possible with a minimum of
trouble. It is the association, instead of the individual, that
looks after such details as correspondence, collections, ship-
ments, etc.

Under this plan great care is used to have all grades of both

< PURE HONEY

PUT UP AND GUARANTEED BY

WESTERN HONEY PRODUCERS

SIOUX CITY. lA.

FiQ. 125.— Honey label.

comb and extracted honey of uniform quality and the associa-
tion brand soon comes to be known in the markets. Figure 122
shows the trade mark or brand adopted by the Colorado Honey
Producers' Association. Figure 123 shows their label for large
packages. (See also Figs. 121 and 125.)

ADVERTISING METHODS

In the development of special or retail markets suitable
advertising is of the greatest value. This subject can well be
considered from two angles, that of general advertising which
has for its object to increase the consumption of honey, and

268

MARKETING THE HONEY CROP

advertising the product of a particular apiary for the purpose
of establishing a direct-to-consumer trade.

Methods of General Advertising.— There is not a great deal
that the individual bee-keeper can do in the way of general
advertising, because the expense is prohibitive. Dr. Bonney's
little red stickers (Fig. 127) are as good as anything yet
proposed. These little stickers are printed and offered for sale
by several enterprising firms at thirty-five cents per thousand

and their use has become
general among the bee-
keepers almost in a day.
Thousands of them are
pasted on envelopes con-
taining outgoing mail,
and in all kinds of places
where they are likely to
attract the attention of
the public. One of these
little stickers attached to
a letter will attract the
notice of several carriers
and clerks in the postal
service before finally
being delivered to the
person to whom it is
addressed. Dr. Bonney has found some new customers among
the mail clerks who have been attracted to the return card of
" Bonney Honey, Buck Grove, Iowa," on the envelopes he uses
in his correspondence. He also uses a sign at his apiary as
shown in Fig. 128.

The Iowa Bee-keeper's Association has adopted rather a
novel plan of general advertising at the holiday season. A large
placard is printed in two colors, with the words, " Eat Honey
with Your Christmas Dinner" (Fig. 129), and the Greetings
of the Iowa Bee-keeper's Association. The association has fur-

HONEY

WARRANTED PURE

FROM THE APIARY OF

BERT A.BROWN,

Des Moines,
Iowa.

Fio. 126.— Honey label.

EXHIBITS AT FAIRS

269

nished to each of its members as many of these cards as he wished
to place in the stores where his honey was on sale. At this season
of the year when luxuries are in special demand it is quite pos-
sible to make many new customers for honey who have regarded
it as a luxury not for general use. These cards attract instant
attention to the honey on sale at the precise moment when the
purchaser is prepared to buy something for his table, and if the
packages are attractively displayed increased sales will be the
result.

If the bee-keeper has a bent for advertising it would be quite
possible to adapt this idea to his individual use and by preparing
a series of such cards suit-

i

EAT HON EY^

MATUF£S own SWSer- A/OS DICCSTIOM I

EAT HONEY

Fig. 127. — Little stickers widely used for
general advertising.

able for every season of the
year and keeping each kind
on display but a few days at
a time he can add consider-
ably to the demand for
honey in the stores where
it is on sale.

Exhibits at Fairs. — A
good exhibit at either State
or county fair is not only good general advertising but also likely
to be of great help to the individual bee-keeper who makes the
exhibit (Fig. 130). Multitudes of people pass by such an exhibit
daily and if there be a well-informed attendant he can do much
to create a demand for his product on the part of the visitors.

One year the prize winning exhibit at the Iowa State fair
carried off about two hundred dollars in premiums and in addi-
tion the owner took orders for about five thousand pounds of
honey at retail prices. He was thus amply repaid for all the
time and labor necessary to make a creditable showing for the
industry in general and for his apiary in particular.

It is quite probable that half of the honey sold as a result
of this exhibit was to customers who would not have gone to
the store to leave an order for it.

270

MARKETING THE HOxNEY CROP

The author once put up a small exhibit for a store where his
honey was on sale, to be used at a county fair. Extracted honey
in jars of the various sizes in which it was regularly offered
for sale was the principal part of the exhibit. It was arranged
as attractively as possible about an observation hive containing
a frame of brood and live bees. Above the exhibit was placed

Fig. 128. — Advertising sign at the Bonney apiary.

a large sign painted in two colors and worded substantially
follows:

PURE EXTRACTED HONEY
Gathered by Cass County Bees

From Cass County Flowers

Expressly for Stier Grocery Co.,

Atlantic.

as

There was no attendant in charge of the exhibit, but accord-
ing to the man in charge of the general department in which it
was placed, there was more interest in it than in any other in
the department. The live bees were of course the principal
object of interest. Had there been an attendant in charge to
answer questions and take orders the results might have been

jlXHIbits at fairs

271

even greater, but with no word concerning its origin excepting
the sign the results were a great surprise both to the grocer
and the bee-keeper. Orders for honey began coming in im-
mediately and by the close of the fair the supply available at
the store was all sold and the delivery wagon sent to the fair
grounds to take down the exhibit to supply pressing orders. A

EAT HONEY

WITH YOUR

CHRISTMAS

DINNER

GREETINGS
Iowa Bee-Keepers Assoclkilon

Fia. 129.— Iowa Bee-keepera Association holiday placard.

hurry-up call was sent to the apiary for more honey, which was
supplied at once. As a result of this single little exhibit and
sign at a county fair, which did not require much more than a
half day's time to prepare and put in place, the sales of honey
from this store were more than doubled and many of the custo-
mers who first bought as a result of it, remained as permanent
customers of this particular store and particular brand of honey
as long as it remained on the market.

As a rule the bee-keeper who seeks the shortest and most

FANCY PACKAGES

273

direct way to reach his customers, after once trying the plan of
exhibiting, remains as a permanent exhibitor as long as he cares
to develop this kind of market. One will find it difficult to show
his product and explain his methods to as many people in any
other way. The premiums offered are usually sufficient to pay
the expenses incurred by the exhibitor.

Fancy Packages.— One of the very best advertisements for
the honey producer is an attractive package decidedly different
from those for sale in the general market. The use of paper

FiQ. 132.

Fig. 131.— Paper carton the beat retail package for section honey
FiQ. 132. — The Hunten tin package.

cartons for comb honey offers good opportunities for creating a
demand for a particular brand. Instead of making use of the
regular stock carton with the simple addition of the producer's
name it is much better to have a special design with a particular
brand and have the design copyrighted (Fig. 131).

One of the most attractive packages for comb honey ever
placed on the market was put out by Paul Hunten, of Colorado.
Mr. Hunten had a section made of tin instead of the usual wood.
When this was filled he had a top and bottom to slip on like the
lid to a tin can and a paper band to go clear around the four
sides and make the package dust proof. The transparent center
18

274 MARKETING THE HONEY CROP

of the one side gives a view of the contents (Fig. 132). This
package would be suited only to the highest class of trade be-
cause of the extra expense to produce it, but there is a trade
that would gladly pay a few cents extra for each section in
order to secure a fancy package that is dust and drip proof.

The paper carton serves the same general purpose and is
much cheaper. Extracted honey also sells much better in
attractive packages, as any bee-keeper of experience has learned
by experience. The experiment has been tried of putting honey
in an ordinary Mason fruit jar with ordinary top and rubber
beside containers holding the same quantity and quality of honey
but of a clear white glass and nice fitting top and attractive label.
From six to ten times as many jars of the more attractive appear-
ing lot were sold as of the other, thus proving how far the
appeal to the eye will assist in making a sale.

Retail Prices. — Many bee-keepers prefer to dump the whole
crop on the general market to sell for what it will bring rather
than to go to the trouble of developing the retail market. As a
rule extracted honey of good quality will not sell readily at
more than 7j^ to 8 cents per pound in large quantities at whole-
sale prices. At the same time extracted honey of similar quality
will bring from ten to fifteen cents per pound net at retail vsdth
an average of about twelve cents per pound perhaps. Unless
the producer has a very large business that occupies his time
fully he can well afford to spend considerable time in marketing
his product for the extra fifty per cent. Prices have been mate-
rially higher since the war period.

The small apiary that produces from $1000 to $1200 per
year can thus be made to pay from $1500 to $1800 annually.
While to make the most of such a market will require that honey
be kept in stock to supply the trade throughout the entire year,
most of the additional work will be required during the months
when least is required in the apiary. There is the further
advantage that every man who develops his own market relieves
the general market to that extent and thus serves to steady prices
or even to advance them.

NEWSPAPER ADVERTISING 275

Newspaper Advertising, — Direct advertising offers a very
good field if the copy is well arranged and the best medium
selected. Too many producers confine their advertising to the
bee journals. These are read principally by other producers
and the only buyers are bee-keepers who have a larger market
than they can supply, but they buy only at wholesale prices or
little above.

The buyers which can be reached profitably are the real con-
sumers and especially those who buy in considerable quantity.
Western farmers and ranchmen are good customers, especially
in sections that are a long distance from the railroad and where
supplies must be purchased long in advance. Some of these
ranches will buy as much as half a ton of extracted honey at a
single order. The farm and ranch journals that circulate in the
arid regions where ranching is still carried on extensively fur-
nish good advertising mediums for the sale of honey. The
farm journals which circulate in the Mississippi valley are also
good mediums, as the farmers of the Middle West are prosper-
ous and less honey is produced by the general farmer every year.

Local newspapers can usually be used to advantage. In
making use of the local paper the producer can offer to deliver
his product on telephone order. Much depends upon the word-
ing of the advertisement, no matter what medium is used. The
mere mention of honey for sale at a stated price will bring orders
from customers who are already consumers of this product, but
will seldom attract the attention of others. An advertisement
with some novel suggestion will attract the attention of the
casual reader and often bring an order.

HONEY THAT TASTES LIKE MORE

Our new honey is now ready for delivery. The bees have been
unusually busy this summer and the product is of the finest quality.
Flowers are nature's supreme effort and honey is the essence of
the flowers. A sample of our clover blend will convince you that
a finer food product has never been produced. Only twenty-five
cents per pound in ten pound lots.

CLOY ERD ALE APIARIES

276 MARKETING THE HONEY CROP

In " Advanced Bee Culture " W. Z. Hutchinson gives an
account of an advertising experience by which he sold ten thou-
sand pounds of honey from a single advertisement in Saturday
Evening Post at a cost of $25. The magazines of national cir-
culation offer a field of their own which the ordinary bee-keeper
is hardly prepared to cultivate. The circulation is so widely
scattered and the cost is such that there is little hope that
advertising in this way will prove profitable unless the bee-
keeper has attractive printed matter which he is prepared to
send in answer to every inquiry together with a sample of the
honey.

A large producer who is prepared to follow up inquiries and
who has well prepared printed matter giving some information
as to the production of honey and its preparation for market
may find advertising in these high class journals profitable.
As a rule, the novice should begin with his local papers, then
gradually increase his advertising appropriation as he learns
how to make the most of it.

The local market can always be most profitably developed
and in most localities east of the Missouri River the bee-keeper
need not seek the distant market.

Booklets. — j^o matter what method one may take to find his
customers a cheap booklet giving the uses to which honey can
be put will be of great value. This should be printed on good
paper with some attractive pictures of apiary scenes and honey
packages. There should be information concerning the care of
honey. Too many people will take home a section or two of
honey and spoil it by putting it in the refrigerator. The man-
ner of liquefying granulated honey should always be given.

This should be followed with some brief descriptions of the
methods of honey production and preparation for market, and
a number of receipts for the use of honey in cooking or other
household uses should be included. There are several booklets
of this kind offered and something new appears frequently.

BOOKLETS 277

" Facts About Honej," by C. P. Dadajit, published at Hamilton,
111., by Dadant & Sons, contains 16 pages of interesting informa-
tion about honey and its uses. '' Use of Honey in Cooking," pub-
lished by the Root Co., is somewhat similar in its scope.

Farmer's Bulletin 653, " Honey and its Uses in the Home,"
issued by the U. S. Department of Agriculture for free distri-
bution, is excellent. Sometimes the bee-keeper finds its desirable
to compile and print something which is distinctly his own.

Shortcake. — Three cups flour, two teaspoonfuls baking powder, a tea-
spoonful of salt, V2 cup shortening, U/2 cups sweet milk. Roll quickly and
bake in hot oven. When done, split the cake and spread the lower half
thinly with butter and the upper half with a half pound of the best
flavored honey. (Candied honey is preferred. If too hard to spread well
it should be slightly warmed or creamed with a knife.) Let it stand a
few minutes and the honey will melt gradually and the flavor will permeate
all through the cake. To be eaten with milk.

Soft Cake.— One cup butter, 2 cups honey, 2 eggs, one cup sour milk,
2 teaspoonfuls soda, a teaspoonful each of ginger and cinnamon, four cups'
flour.

Eggless Cake. — One cupful sugar, J^ eup honey, one cupful sour milk
2 tablespoonfuls butter, one cupful chopped raisins, one cup chopped dates,

1 teaspoonful soda, 21/2 cups flour, spice to taste.

Gingerbread.— One egg, one cup honey, one cup sour milk, 2 teaspoon-
fuls butter, 1/2 teaspoonful soda, one teaspoonful ginger. Flour to make
rather stiff batter.

Honey Jumbles.— Tv/o quarts flour, 3 tablespoonfuls melted lard, one
pint honey, 14 pint molasses, 11/2 level teaspoonfuls soda, a level teaspoon-
ful salt, 14 pint water, J/g teaspoonful vanilla.

Ginger Cookies.— One cup each of hon?y, sugar, buttermilk and lard;
one teaspoonful each of salt, cinnamon, and ginger; one teaspoonful soda-
one teaspoonful lemon extract. Stir stiff- with flour, for gingerbread; mix
stiff and roll and cut and bake in a quick oven. Also good with caraway
seeds instead of spices.

Oatmeal Cookies.— Cre&m together one cup sugar, y^ cup honey %,
cup lard or butter, 6 tablespoonfuls milk, 1/2 cup raisins, 2 cups rolled oats

2 eggs. Sift together 2 or more cups flour, y^ teaspoonful salt, 2 teaspoon-
fuls cream tartar, one teaspoonful each of soda and cinnamon. Mix to-
gether and roll quite thick.

German Christmas Cookies.— One quart honey. Let it come to a boil
then set away to cool. Add one pound brown sugar, 4 eggs, juice and rind
of two lemons, 1/4 pound citron chopped fine, 2 teaspoonfuls soda, one table-
epoonful each of cinnamon, cloves, allspice and nutmeg. Flour to stiften
Make dough as stiflf as you can. Chopped nut meats may be added if
desired.

Brown Bread.— One cup corn meal, one cup rye meal, one cup sour milk
1/2 cup or less of honey, teaspoonful salt and teaspoonful of soda. Steam
four hours and then dry in oven fifteen minutes.

278 MARKETING THE HONEY CROP

Graham Bread. — Take 11/2 cups sour milk, i/^ cup shortening, % cup
honey, one egg, teaspoonful soda, 3 cups graham flour.

Bran Gems. — Two cups bran, one scant cup wheat flour, one pinch salt,
11/2 cups buttermilk, level teaspoonful soda, 3 tablespoonfuls extracted
honey. Mix the bran and flour and salt thoroughly; add buttermilk in
which soda has been dissolved; lastly add honey. Bake until thorouglily
done, in greased gem-pan in hot oven.

Sandioiches. — For an afternoon tea or lunch cut thin slices of bread
and spread with honey quite thick. Use brown or whole wheat bread, or
use one kind of bread for top layer and another kind for bottom. For a
richer sandwich sprinkle with nut meats or sugar.

Honey Cereal Coffee. — One egg, one cup honey (preferably dark), 2
quarts wheat bran. Beat the egg, add honey and lastly the bran, and
stir until well blended. Put in oven and brown to dark brown, stirring
frequently, being careful that the oven is not too hot. To prepare the
cotlee, allow one heaping tablespoonful of the brown mixture to a cup of hot
water, and boil for at least ten minutes. If properly prepared this is equal
or superior to any cereal drink on the market.

Apple Butter. — One gallon good cooking apples, one quart honey, one
quart honey vinegar, one heaping teaspoonful ground cinnamon. Cook
several hours, stirring often to prevent burning. If the vinegar is very
strong use part water.

Peach Preserves. — Pare and halve nice large peaches the night before.
Pour one pound of honey to every one and a half pounds of fruit.

Money Crab Apple Jelly. — Boil fruit with as little water as possible;
squeeze through jelly bag. Add one-half cup honey and one-half cup of
sugar to each cup of juice, then boil twenty minutes or until it begins to
jell. Pour into glasses to cool but do not cover until fully cooled.

Baked Apples. — Split some sour apples, cut out the cores and fill pan.
Bake until they begin to soften, then fill cavities with honey and lemon
juice. Set back in the stove to finish baking.

Honey Candy. — Take 2^/2 cups sugar, i/^ cup honey, I/2 cup water and
boil to thick syrup. Pour one cup of syrup on beaten whites of two eggs,
stirring meanwhile. Boil remainder of syrup until it hardens when dropped
in water; then pour in the syrup and eggs, stirring briskly. Add a cupful
of peanuts and stir until it begins to harden, then spread in a pan and
cut in squares. Flavor to taste. If properly made it will be soft and
pliable.

Honey Pop-corn. — Take a tea cupful of white honey, a teacupful of
white sugar, li/o tablespoonfuls butter, a tablespoonful water and boil
until brittle when dropped in cold water. Have ready two quarts nicely
popped corn and pour the candy over it until evenly distributed, stirring
briskly until nearly cool.

Candy. — One cup granulated sugar, one tablespoonful extracted honey,
butter the size of a walnut, and sweet cream enough to dissolve the mixture.
It needs but little cooking. When taken from the tire beat until smooth.

Candy. — One cup sugar, 2 tablespoonfuls honey, 2 tablespoonfuls water
and walnut meats. Cook and test like molasses candy.

Taffy.— T&ke three cups sugar, % cup extracted honey, % cup of hot
water. Boil all together until it spins a thread when dropped from a spoon,
or hardens when dropped into cold water. Pour into a greased pan to cool,
when it should be pulled until white.

BOOKLETS

279

Flo. 133. — Dr. Bonney's postcard which brings him many new customers.

280 MARKETING THE HONEY CROP

The Use of Post Cards.— One of the most effective means
of advertising in a small way is the use of post cards. Dr. A. F.
Bonney, of Iowa, has used this method quite extensively. The
post cards mention honey only incidentally hut are usually
somewhat comic in makeup. Fig. 133 shows one of the cards
which he has used to a considerable extent. His plan is to send
them to postmasters, public officers, and prominent and pros-
perous people generally whose names he can secure within one
hundred miles of his home. It would be well to use two or three
lines at the bottom of such a card as that here shown to quote
prices of honey delivered in packages of popular size.

The idea of these cards is to catch the interest of the recipient
who will laugh at the comic picture and then have his attention
called to the honey which is unobtrusively done. One
of Dr. Bonney's cards pictures the occupants of an automobile
in all sorts of impossible situations as the result of an accident.
ISTailed to a tree in the background is a sign board with these
words : " If anything happens in the vicinity of Buck Grove,
Iowa, stop and get some Bonney Honey."

When put to the test of practical results they have proved
to be good business getters. After sending out a batch of these
cards, even though they go to entire strangers with whom he has
had no previous correspondence, he always gets a bunch of orders
as a result.

Canvassing and Peddling. — This method is distasteful to
many bee-keepers yet it has decided advantages over other plans.
If one is adapted to canvassing he can take a can of honey for
samples and by making a house to house canvas make many
permanent customers. By offering a sample of his product the
buyer is given a chance to decide whether the flavor appeals
to his particular taste. Then the producer can give some infor-
mation concerning the production of honey and correct any false
impressions concerning the product of the hive. A good can-
vasser will make good wages over and above wholesale prices
even if the value of future orders is not considered. A largo
producer can well afford to hire students during the vacation

CANVASSING AND PEDDLING

281

period and put them to work in building up a trade. Of course
it will be necessary to sift the possible applicants somewhat to
find those who are adapted to canvassing and also who know
enough about the bee-keeper's business to answer questions
intelligently.

A more common method is for the producer or his agent to
take a spring wagon or auto with a load of honey and deliver
hia orders as he goes (Fig. 134). A good salesman will sell

Pio. 134.— The automobile as a sales agency 10 the most up-to-date method.

several hundred pounds daily from a wagon. One of the most
successful honey producers of the Middle West takes his load
of honey and visits the public sales that are held within reach
of his home. At the public sale a considerable crowd is always
gathered and he has a good opportunity to dispose of his wares
to advantage. In this way he sells a good many thousand pounds
during the winter months when sales are in progress. By driv-
ing ten or twelve miles in every direction he is thus able to cover
a large territory and present the merits of his product to many

282 MARKETING THE HONEY CROP

hundreds of men. He carries packages both large and small
and is prepared to supply any desired amount from a five pound
pail to a sixty pound can on the spot. In this manner he sells
at times more than a ton of honey within a week. If he gets
but two cents per pound more than it would bring at wholesale
he is making good wages for his time while establishing a trade
that will soon come to depend upon his apiary as a source of
supply. ^

Cutting Prices. — One of the worst drawbacks to the honey
business is the tendency on the part of some to cut prices. John
Smith will make enquiry of some concern dealing in honey as
to the price they are paying. They will of course quote a price
at which they can handle his goods at a profit. Mr. Smith think-
ing to accommodate his neighbors sells his honey at home at the
wholesale price. When the supply is exhausted there is bitter
complaint against paying at retail more than the wholesale price.
The dealer of course must feel that he paid too much for the
crop and accordingly he starts in the following year to buy at a
lower figure. The retailer's profit is as legitimate as the pro-
ducer's profit. Unless a man will sell at a fair retail price he
should in justice to other bee-keepers if not to his own future
prosperity sell it to some dealer at wholesale. Cutting prices can
have but one result: the tendency to depress prices below the
point of profitable production. Until the bee-keepers of a com-
munity come to practice good business methods in handling their
crops the business of honey production will not be a profitable
one nor will the public regard it as a desirable occupation.

' QUESTIONS

1. Why is it fortunate tliat bee-keeping is becoming a specialized business?

2. Discuss the grading of comb honey.

3. How can the crop be marketed to the best advantage?

4. What precautions are necessary in caring for honey?

5. Note the best packages both for shipping and for retailing.

6. What plans can be used to develop local markets?

7. Under what circumstances is cooperative marketing desirable?

8. Outline some practical plans of advertising the product of the apiary.

9. What is to be expected from a general exhibit as an advertising medium ?

10. Discuss the value of an attractive package.

11. To what extent can newspapers and booklets be profitably used?

12. When is personal canvassing profitable?

CHAPTER XV

LAWS THAT CONCERN THE BEE-KEEPER

Because of the nature of the honey-bee and the fact that
the insects cannot be restrained like cattle or poultry, the laws
concerning the bee-keeper are somewhat different from those
that affect the owners of other live stock. In the first place bees
are recognized as being wild by nature and once a swarm gets
beyond its owner's control and passes to the premises of another
he loses all property right in them unless he follows them and
keeps them in sight.

Bees found in a tree or other natural cavity become the prop-
erty of the first person who reclaims them. This fact, however,
does not give any right to trespass on the property of another.
During the days of early settlement of this country there was
an unwritten law that wild bees became the property of the man
who found them and marked the tree. While this right was
generally recognized there was no law that would confer
any right to the bees unless the finder proceeded to take posses-
sion of them. As soon as wild bees are taken into possession
they become the property of the man who reclaims them. This
right will be recognized and protected as long as they are under
his care. Should he injure the tree in which the bees are found
in removing them, he will be liable to the land owner for trespass.

The time has gone by, in most localities, when serious ques-
tions regarding the ownership of wild bees are likely to arise.
Bee-keeping is now a recognized industry in itself and the owner
of bees enjoys the same rights and privileges as holders of other
property. The relation of the bee-keeper to his neighbors, how-
ever, especially where there is a large apiary in closeproximity
to the home of other persons, frequently presents some problems
that are decidedly different from those of any other calling.

The keeping of bees in cities and towns is so generally prac-

283

284 LAWS THAT CONCERN THE BEE-KEEPER

tised and has been the source of so much litigation of one kind
and another that an extended account of the rights of both the
bee-keeper and his neighbor can very properly be taken up.
While the courts have held that bee-keeping is a legitimate pur-
suit and as such cannot be prevented by general legislation that
declares the bees to be a nuisance whether they are so in fact
or not there is a general principle that will provide relief from
undue annoyance.

Causes of Trouble. — Before taking up the consideration of
the law in this special relationship it may be well to consider
the causes that lead to friction between the bee-keeper and his
neighbors. So many instances of trouble of this kind arise that
small towns and cities are frequently urged to pass ordinances
to prohibit the keeping of bees within the incorporated limits.

Spotting Clothes. — ^When the bees are brought from the
cellar in spring or when they are able to take their first flight
after long confinement the abdomens are distended with retained
fseces. As soon 'ns they can fly this is voided in large drops of
offensive refuse. If it happens that the bees fly for the first time
when the wash is on the line the white clothes are badly soiled as
a result.

The bee-keeper should avoid if possible setting cellar win-
tered bees out when the neighbors are washing. Bees seldom
fly far on the first flight and clothes are not likely to be soiled
far from the bee hives. As a rule it is the near neighbors who
will be the sufferers. If the bees are likely to fly on wash day
the situation should be explained and some provision made to
avoid having the clothes exposed. After two or three nice days
there will be little further trouble, as this spotting is only notice-
able after long confinement without opportunity to void the
excrement.

Watering Places. — With bee-keepers as with others "An
ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure," and if the bee-
keeper is diplomatic he can usually avoid annoying his neigh-

AT CANDY STORES, ETC. 285

bors seriously. No fair minded man will wish to annoy others,
whether or not he is living within his legal rights.

Watering places where the bees congregate in large numbers
are frequently sources of great annoyance, as animals that come
to drink are likely to be stung as well as persons whose duties
take them there. After the bees come to frequent such a place
it is a little difficult to check their coming unless the water can
be covered in such a way that they cannot reach it.

The wise bee-keeper will provide watering places for his bees
as described in Chapter IV, early in spring to prevent, as far as
possible, their going to other places for water.

After the bees have formed the habit of getting water at
places where their presence is annoying the bee-keeper should
assist in every possible way to cover the water supply until they
find water elsewhere.

Flying about Streets or Highways.— If the hives are situ-
ated near the street or highway in such a way that the entrance
of the hive faces the thoroughfare there is danger of passing
teams or pedestrians being stung. The bee-keeper should see
that his hives are so placed that the bees do not fly directly into
any public highway. The entrances should face in the opposite
direction and if necessary a high board fence or other obstruction
should compel them to rise high in the air before crossing. This
will carry them safely over the heads of passers-by. Where per-
sons or animals are injured by bees under circumstances such as
these the owner has been held liable for damages.

In Quebec there is a legal regulation that requires that
where apiaries are within thirty feet of a house or public road a
board fence at least eight feet high must be erected and the fence
must extend at least fifteen feet beyond the limits of the apiary.
According to the editor of the American Bee Journal the bee-
keepers feel that this regulation is a protection of their interests
since they may keep bees anywhere by complying with the law.
At Candy Stores, Etc.— It frequently happens that bees will
be troublesome where candy is exposed for sale or where the

286 LAWS THAT CONCERN THE BEE-KEEPER

housewife is canning fruit or making jelly or anything else
where sugar is used in making syrup. Where the doors of
grocery stores are left open the bees are also likely to find some
attraction.

Such annoyances as the above described are usual only during
warm weather where there is no natural source of supply. After
the honey flow is checked the bees are very persistent in hunting
for everything sweet. Seldom is the bee-keeper to be blamed
in cases like these. If the premises are properly screened against
flies the bees will be unable to enter.

In Adjoining Fields. — It frequently happens that the bee-
keeper will have his bees near the fence and that they will annoy
the owner who cultivates the adjoining field. It devolves upon
the bee-keeper to do what he can to relieve the situation by
erecting a suitable fence, moving the bees, or whatever remedy
may be reasonable.

While the bee-keeper has the same right to conduct his busi-
ness as any other man enjoys, he must recognize the right of
the public to be kept free from undue annoyance. With the fore-
going causes of trouble in mind the reader will appreciate the
following able discussion by J. D. Gustin, an attorney of Kansas
City, Missouri, whose statements may be regarded as authori-
tative.

BEES AS A NUISANCE

Increasing population, greater dissemination of knowledge, and the
development and specialization of industries, pursuits, and occupations
combine to add constantly to the complexity of the relations of individuals,
and to call from time to time, for the readjustment of the affairs of men
to meet changed and changing conditions. In no other branch of the law is
the ingenuity of the courts more heavily taxed in this manner than in the
Subject of nuisances, where, from the very nature of the subject, first
principles, rather than specific legislative enactment, must always exert a
controlling influence. The lawmaking power may, as occasion seems to
require, declare that particular objects, actions, omissions, etc., shall be
nuisances, either with or without regard to attending conditions or circum-
stances, but the application of such statutes is necessarily so limited that
the general law of the subject is not aftected.

^Bees as a Nuisance, Third Annual Report of the State Inspector of
Bees, Iowa, 1914.

BEES AS A NUISANCE 287

It therefore follows that courts still deal with nuisances largely from
the principles of the common law and it is a matter of serious doubt
whether, in any instance, specific legislative action can be proven to have
any substantial value as an addition to the law of the subject. A nuisance
at common law is that class of wrongs that arise from unreasonable, un-
warrantable, or unlawful use by a person of his own property, real or
personal, or from his own improper, indecent or unlawful personal conduct
working an obstruction of or injury to a right of another, or of the public,
and producing such material annoyance, inconvenience, discomfort, or hurt
that the law will presume a consequent damage.

Text writers and legislative enactments state many variations of the
foregoing comprehensive definition from Mr. Wood's treatise on nuisances,
but there is no substantial disagreement as to what constitutes a nuisance.
Another definition stated broadly as a general proposition, is that every
enjoyment by one of his own property which violates in an essential degree
the rights of another is a nuisance; and this substantial violation of a
right is the true test of a nuisance, for it is not every use of his property
by one which works injury to the property of another that constitutes
a nuisance. Injury and damage are essential elements of a nuisance, but
they may both exist as a result of an act or thing which is not a nuisance,
because no right is violated. On the other hand, the pecuniary injury may
be insignificant and the act or thing causing them be such an invasion
of the rights of another, or of the public, as to constitute a nuisance for
which an action for damages or for abatement will lie.

Nuisances are classified by the law as public and private, and there is
authority for a third class called " mixed " nuisances. A nuisance is
public where it aflfects the rights of individuals as a part of the public,
or the common rights of all the community alike; a private nuisance is
one affecting a single individual, or individuals of a particular class, group,
or locality in a private right; the third class, referred to as mixed nui-
sances, are public in their nature, but at the same time specially injurious
or detrimental to one or more individuals in particular who suffer a different
or greater hurt than the community in general.

Nuisances are further divided into nuisances per se, or such as are
declared so by the common law or by some statute, without regard to
locality, surroundings, or circumstances, and nuisances per accidens, or
those owing their hurtful consequences to some particular attendant cir-
cumstances, surrounding, location, or condition, without which they would
not be unlawful. There are other less important and rather technical
distinctions not necessary to be noticed here. The foregoing preliminary
and very elementary observations of the general law of nuisances are neces-
sary to a consideration of any subject with reference to its existence as
a nuisance or otherwise.

It is also a frequent statement of the law, and may be accepted as
authoritative, that no lawful occupation or business is a nuisance per se,
except it be declared so by some special enactment prohibiting certain
things as objectionable to particular localities. S'o also the reasonable-
ness of the use of one's property may depend upon its situation, for what
might be lawful in one locality would prove intolerable in another. The
use of a building in the midst of a city densely populated for a storage
house for ha/dware would not be objectionable in the slightest degree, while

288 LAWS THAT CONCERN THE BEE-KEEPER

the use of the same building for the storage of gunpowder or other high
explosives could not be permitted.

The common law, proceeding from fixed principles of universal appli-
cation, and developing from tlie growth of civilization, has, in each suc-
ceeding period, found ready adjustment to new subjects resulting from the
widening dominion of mankind over the creatures and forces of nature,
furnishing a ready remedy for every wrongful encroachment of one upon
the rights of another. In the times of the early law writers bees were most
generally known as they existed in their original state. Hence they were
called ferae naturoe and classed as wild animals. A property right, or
at least a qualified property right, in them could be acquired by capture
which, in accord with the general rule concerning wild animals, existed
so long as the captor could hold them in possession. A distinction seems
always to have been made between the possession of animals ferocious and
those of gentler dispositions, and it was indictable as a nuisance to per-
mit an animal of known mischievous disposition to go at large. Bees,
however, seem never to have been regarded as ferocious or as likely to do
injury to persons or property, and in the far greater number of instances
in which they have been the subject of judicial consideration tlie questions
at issue have concerned the property interests in them. It is doubtful now.
however, if any court would denominate them as wild animals, in view of
the present general state of development of the industry of honey produc-
tion and the numerous instances of State legislation designed to promote
and protect the breeding and rearing of bees for that purpose. In the one
or two cases decided in American jurisdictions in which the question has
been presented, it has been determined, in accordance with the rule above
referred to, that the keeping of bees, even in large numbers and in towns
and villages, is not a nuisance per se.

But greater interest, perhaps, centers in the question of whether or
not bees may be so kept as to constitute a private nuisance, and also
whether municipal corporations, as cities and towns, may restrain or
prohibit their presence within the corporate limits. In answering the first
proposition, it must be borne in mind that persons who dwell in urban
communities must of necessity submit to such restrictions upon their abso-
lute liberties that the dwelling of other persons therein shall be tolerable.
As it is the unreasonable or unwarrantable use of one's premises or prop-
erty, otherwise lawful, that contributes an essential element of a nuisance,
a first inquiry in any case would be directed to this point of reasonableness
of the use or occupation, and in determining this all of the surrounding
facts and circumstances would enter into the consideration. The presence
of one colony at a given point might be perfectly consistent with the due
observance of the rights of the owner of the next lot, while a colony stationed
at another point within the same distance would be obnoxious to the law.
Again, one colony at a given place might pass unnoticed, while a number
of colonies at the same place would be a nuisance. The habits of the bees,
the line of flight, their temper, and disposition of the colonies, either
separately or when collected together in numbers, might all furnish matter
of more or less weight in reaching a conclusion. So also the character
of the annoyance or injury done to the complainant must be a substantial
element. In the only reported case involving this question it was charged,
and the court found there was proof, " that during the spring and summer
months the bees so kept "—140 colonies on an adjoining city lot and within

BEES AS A NUISANCE 289

100 feet of plaintiff's dwelling—" by defendants greatly interfered with
the quiet and proper enjoyment and possession of plaintiff's premises,
driving him, his servants and guests from his garden and grounds, and
stinging them, interfered with the enjoyment of his home, and with his
family while engaged in the performance of their domestic duties, soiling
articles of clothing when exposed on his premises, and made his dwelling
and premises unfit for habitation." These facts were held to constitute a
nuisance, against which the plaintiff was entitled to injunction and nominal
damages. These facts just recited, however, probably present an extreme
case, the immediate proximity of so many colonies being, no doubt, per-
suasive evidence that the annoyance suffered by the plaintiff was due to
the defendant's use of his premises. Greater difficulty would be experienced
in reaching such a conclusion if there were no colonies stationed in the
immediate vicinity, a thing entirely possible under the common belief that
the insects go considerable distances for their stores.

So it may be said of bees, as of other property, that no hard and fast
rule can be laid down by which to determine in advance whether the
presence of bees in any given numbers or at any given point will amount
to a nuisance. But, not being a nuisance of themselves, as a matter of law,
and absent also any general State enactment declaring them to be such,
bees will not, under any circumstances be presumed to be a nuisance, but
the matter will rest in the proof adduced, with the burden upon the party
alleging the affirmative. But they may, upon proof of particular facts
showing all the elements necessary to the existence of a nuisance, he
condemned as such, either of a private or public character, as the nature
of the injury might decide.

Predicated upon the theory advanced in the beginning that courts
would now, if the matter were called in question, decide that bees are
domestic animals, and it having already become a matter of legislative
recognition that they are subject to communicable diseases, a question arises
as to the liability of the keeper of diseased bees. At common law it was
an indictable offense, which has been reenacted by statute in mos.!; of the
States, to take a domestic animal suffering from a communicable disease
into a public place or to turn it into the highway so that the disease might
be communicated to the animals of other persons. It could hardly be
said to be less culpable to knowingly keep diseased bees, which, by their
nature may not be restrained or confined, to spread disease to the apiaries
of other owners. If to turn a horse with glanders or a sheep with footrot
into the highway is a public nuisance, on the same reasoning to turn bees
at large to carry communicable diseases peculiar to them to other bees
ought to be an offense of the same grade.

The power of a municipal corporation, as a town or village, to restrain
or prohibit within its limits the keeping of bees, or to denounce them
as a nuisance, is commonly reported as a fruitful source of vexation to
keepers of bees, but one case only is reported as involving a judicial de-
termination of that particular point. And here, too, a few preliminary
observations will be necessary to proper understanding of this phase of,
the nuisance laws. Cities, towns, and villages, as municipal corporations
or public bodies, receive their powers by express grant from the legislative
authority of the State, and with the exception of some unenumerated
powers without which the corporate body could not exercise its essential
19

290 LAWS THAT CONCERN THE BEE-KEEPER

rtinctions as such, their powers are limited to those expressly named in the
grant. This grant of power is usually contained in the general laws of
the State governing cities, towns, and villages, and is called the charter
power, the law or statute itself being usually known as the charter. Keep-
ing these facts in mind will aid the unprofessional man in understanding
the terms to be encountered in an examination of local laws in regard
to the power of a municipal corporation to legislate upon this subject.

Every State has its own peculiar policy toward these municipal cor-
porations, and no two are exactly the same. They all, however, follow the
same general plan, with variations influenced by local conditions. As the
power of the State legislature is so limited that its acts must be consistent
with the constitution, so the power of a municipal corporation to makf
by-laws, as its ordinances or enactments are commonly known, must be
in harmony with its charter, with this further distinction, that while the
legislature of the State may exercise unlimited discretion in all matters
not prohibited by the constitution, a municipal corporation is restricted
in legislative action to those matters in which it is expressly authorzed
by its charter.

It is the general rule that cities, towns, and Villages have conferred
upon their common councils power to declare, abate, and remove nuisances.
In the case of nuisances per se, whether at common law or by statute, or
by ordinance in those cases in which the council may declare such nuis-
ances, the power to abate by summary action is either expressly given or
exists by necessary implication. Summary abatement means arbitrary
removal or destruction without judicial process. Nearly, if not quite, all
city charters contain grants of power to license, regulate, and restrict all
businesses, pursuits, and avocations, and also a section known commonly
as a " general welfare clause," by which the corporate body is empowered
generally to enact such ordinances, rules, and regulations as may be neces-
sary to preserve the peace, safety, and health of its inhabitants and
promote their general welfare. To undertake to set out the specific pro-
visions of tile charters of the municipal corporations of tlie various States
would extend this article far beyond its intended scope.

It is a cardinal rule of the courts that all ordinances must be reason-
able, and tiiat while a city may define, classify, and enact wiiat things or
classes of things siiall be nuisances, and under what conditions and circum-
stances such things shall be deemed nuisances, this power is subject to
the limitation that it is for the courts to determine whether, in a given
case, tiie thing so defined and denounced is a nuisance in fact, and that
if the court shall resolve this point in the negative the ordinance is invalid.
Under this rule, in an Arkansas case, it was held that the municipal
corporation could not prohibit the keeping and rearing of bees within its
limits as a nuisance regardless of whether they were so in fact or not.
And this case seems to have been received as announcing the correct rule in
recent text works, though the point has not been raised elsewhere in contro-
versy.

Under the rule just stated, the power of summary abatement would
not exist, even though the presence of bees in a particular part of the
city should be declared objectionable, but the point would rest, as has
been heretofore observed, upon the proof adduced, the burden being upon the
party declaring the affirmative of the issue.

POISONING BEES 291

LAWS PROTECTING THE BEE-KEEPEr's PROPERTY

As has already been stated, the bee-keeper is as fully pro-
tected in the property rights in bees as in any other domestic
animals. Should anyone steal a colony of bees he could be prose-
cuted for larceny in probably any State.

Spraying While Trees are in Bloom.— There is a greater
danger to the bees, however, than ordinary theft. It is a com-
mon practice to spray fruit trees with poisonous liquids to con-
trol insect pests. The fruit growers are not always sufficiently
careful as to the time when these sprays are applied and the
wholesale destruction of bees sometimes results from the appli-
cation of sprays while the trees are in bloom. A number of
States have passed laws prohibiting the spraying of fruit trees
while in bloom, for the sole purpose of protecting the bee-keeper.

The law on this subject enacted by the State of New York
is representative of the laws in force in the various States. It
is worded as follows:

Any person who shall spray with, or apply in any way, poison or any
poisonous substance, to fruit trees while the same are in blossom, is guilty
of a misdemeanor, punishable by a fine of not less than ten dollars nor
more than fifty dollars; provided, however, that nothing in this section
shall prevent the directors of the experiment stations at Ithaca and Geneva
from conducting experiments in the application of poison and spravinff
mixtures to fruit trees while in blossom. f j e,

A somewhat similar law is in force in Canada. In States
where such laws have not been passed there is bitter complaint
on the part of the bee-keepers that their bees are destroyed or
they are compelled to move their apiaries.

Poisoning Bees.— It sometimes happens that malicious per-
sons will put out poisoned honey or syrup for the purpose of
destroying the bees. It hardly need be said that such an act
does not differ materially from a legal standpoint from poisoning
any other domestic animals. A few States have passed specific
statutes providing fine and imprisonment for the malicious
poisoning of bees.

292 LAWS THAT CONCERN THE BEE-KEEPER

LAWS FOE CONTEOL OF BEE DISEASE

Although other animal diseases have been subject to regula-
tion by law for many years, laws relating to bee diseases are of
comparatively recent date. Wisconsin was the first State to pass
foul brood laws giving one inspector state-wide authority. In
the year 1897 a law was passed providing for the inspection of
bees and prohibiting the sale of infected colonies or appliances.
!N. E. France was appointed inspector and has served for
eighteen years. Prior to this time California adopted the
county system. At present more than half of the States have
laws regulating bee diseases and providing for inspection. New
States are added to the list every biennial period at the meeting
of the various Legislatures, and apparently but a few years will
elapse until every State has made some such provision. The
tendency is to enact cumbersome statutes in the beginning which
set out in detail the method of procedure under every condition.
After being put to the test of actual service there is a tendency to
modify the laws and leave something to the judgment of the in-
spector. To begin with, most laws require that the inspector be
notified by three persons of the supposed existence of foul brood
in a locality before he is compelled to investigate. Under such
conditions disease may become exceedingly prevalent before three
persons will notify the inspector. If a single notice is sufficient
a neighborhood may be cleaned up when the disease first makes
its appearance and many bees, as well as much expense, be saved.

It should be borne in mind that elaborately drawn laws
rather tend to restrict the work of the inspector than to enlarge
his opportunities for dealing with a serious condition. If the
law is greatly extended to outline the various conditions which
he is supposed to meet he will be restricted to such powers and
duties as are expressly granted in the statute. On the other
hand, if his office and duties are created and defined in a short
general statute he will be free to meet such situations as arise.

The New York law has been on the statute books since 1902
and a somewhat similar law several years previous to that time.

Bee inspection in that State is carried on under direction of

SEPARATE DEPARTMENTS

293

the commissioner of agriculture and the inspection service has
the reputation of being very effectively handled. The law is as
follows :

The Prevention of Disease among Bees. — No person shall keep in his
apiary any colony of bees aliected with the contagious malady known as
foul brood or black brood; and every bee-keeper when he becomes aware
of the existence of either of such diseases among his bees, shall immediately
notify the commissioner of agriculture of the existence of such disease.

Duties of the Commissioner. — The commissioner of agriculture shall
immediately upon receiving notice of the existence of foul brood or black
brood among the bees in any locality, send some competent person or per-
sons to examine the apiary or apiaries reported to him as being affected,
and all other apiaries in the immediate locality of the apiary or apiaries'
so reported; if foul brood or black brood is found to exist in them, the
person or persons so sent by the commissioner of agriculture shall give the
owners or caretakers of the diseased apiary or apiaries full instructions
how to treat said cases. The commissioner of agriculture sliall cause said
apiary or apiaries to be visited from time to time as he may deem best
and if, after proper treatment, the bees shall not be cured of the diseases
known as foul brood or black brood then he may cause the same to be
destroyed in such manner as may be necessary to prevent the spread of
said diseases. For the purpose of enforcing this article, the commissioner
of agriculture, his agents, employees, appointees or counsel, shall have
access, ingress, and egress to all places where bees or honey or appliances
used in apiaries may be, which it is believed are in any way afiected with the
said disease of foul brood or black brood or where it is believed any com-
modity is offered or exposed for sale in violation of the provisions of this
article. No owner or caretaker of a diseased apiary, honey, or appliances
shall sell, barter, or give away any bees, honey, or appliances from said
diseased apiary, which shall expose other bees to the danger of said
diseases, nor refuse to allow the said commissioner of agriculture or the
person or persons appointed by him, to inspect said apiary, honey or
appliances, or to do such things as the said commissioner of agriculture
ur the person or persons appointed by him shall deem necessary for the
eradication of said diseases. Any person who disregards or violates any
of the provisions of this section is guilty of a misdemeanor and shall be
punished by a fine of not less than thirty dollars or more than one hun-
dred dollars, or by imprisonment in the county jail for not less than one
month or more than two months, or by both fine and imprisonment.

The law above quoted confers abundant authority upon the
inspectors without unnecessary restrictions upon their move-
ments. ^ If in their judgment a second visit or even a third or
fourth is necessary they are free to make it. Most laws require
a second visit of the inspector whether or not it seems necessary.

Separate Departments.— Some States have a separate de-
partment for bee inspection. The officer is designated a State

294 LAWS THAT CONCERN THE BEE-KEEPER

official and is usually appointed by the governor. The office thus
becomes a political appointment and is subject to the dangers
of such a system. If a competent man is placed in charge the
results are likely to be satisfactory but he is never so free in the
discharge of his duties as officers whose appointment depends
solely upon efficiency. It frequently happens that men who
know little about bees and less about foul brood will have dis-
ease in the apiary and will refuse to be convinced of its real
nature. The enmity of such men is likely to be a heavy liability
when the official asks for reappointment. If, perchance, the
governor is a man who is more interested in his own political
future than in the welfare of the State he will be slow to reap-
point men who have antagonized any considerable element.

If an inspector is reasonable and diplomatic he can disarm
much of the antagonism but it is impossible for any man in this
work to please everybody and do his full duty.

Under State Entomologist. — In several States the State
entomologist is given supervision of bee inspection. This should
give better results than a political appointment, especially in
those States where the entomologist is an official of the agricul-
tural experiment station.

Department of Agricultural College. — The various States
are rapidly adding bee culture to the departments of the agri-
cultural colleges. The best results are likely to result from
placing the bee inspection under direction of the head of the
department of bee-keeping. His position is such that an ineffi-
cient man will not be placed in charge and the work can be
organized in connection with the school in a very satisfactory
manner.

County Inspectors. — Several States have adopted the county
system of inspection. In these States the county board may
appoint a county bee inspector on petition of a certain prescribed
number of bee-keepers. The official is thus accountable to the
local officials and receives his pay from county funds. Cali-
fornia adopted this plan many years ago and still retains it.

RESTRICTIONS OF SHIPMENT 295

While good results often come through this system local in-
fluences often result in inferior service. Serious charges have
been made in some cases of inspectors using the authority of the
office to remove other bee-keepers from coveted territory and
the destruction of healthy bees through jealousy. While the
county system is better than none at all it is a general rule that
police regulations are better enforced through a State or national
administration than through a local one.

Colorado Plan. — In Colorado the State and county plans are
combined. There is a State appropriation administered by an
inspector appointed by the State entomologist. The county
boards also have authority to appoint local inspectors as in Cali-
fornia. In this State the combined forces work together with
good results. The general supervision of the State inspector
has a tendency to check abuses that might arise through a purely
local administration of the office, while the county official has
the advantage of being near at hand and able to give prompt
attention to reported cases.

Restrictions of Shipment.— Several States have laws that
prohibit the shipment or bringing of bees into the State without
a certificate of health signed by some duly authorized inspector.
The difficulty with such provisions lies in the fact that men often
come from other States who are unfamiliar with the law, and
bees are brought in without the knowledge of the State officials.

Burden on Common Carrier.—ln Iowa the burden was
placed on the common carrier by the following enactment, which
was later repealed as unworkable :

Section 1. Diseased Bees.~lt shall be unlawful for any person
firm, or corporation to bring into, or cause to be brought into the State
of Iowa, any apiary or honey bees infected with foul brood or other infec-
tious disease, or bee destroying insects.
of hi''i^' ^%*'f^'''\^{ Health.-^o Common carrier shall accept colonies

t \oJZ f'"7l ^uJ""^'^ P.°\"*' ""^^'^ ^^^ '^''^ b^^« be accompanied
by a certificate of health signed by some duly authorized State or govern-
ment inspector. *=

fl,;. ^o^; ^i; ..^^■«^«*;«V^«r/*^-~^"y P"*""^" convicted of a violation of
one^undrtd doLs.^^' "°' '^" '"^^ ^"^^^^'^^^ ^«"-« -^ -- than

296 LAWS THAT CONCERN THE BEE-BEEPER

Such laws are very important but it is difficult to enforce them
fully as the inspector has no means of knowing when and where
bees are to be moved. Disease is frequently brought into locali-
ties that have been previously free from it, by shipment of bees
in emigrant cars along with other personal effects. Railroads
and express • companies issue instructions to their agents fre-
quently and every agent is notified of a provision of law of the
kind adopted in Iowa, with the result that some shipments at
least will be checked until properly inspected.

Shipment of Queens. — By far the largest interstate business
in bees is the shipment of queens. Thousands of queens are
shipped through the mail and by express. Disease has often
been carried with the cages in which the queens are sent through
the mails. Usually cases of this kind are traceable to the use
of honey from diseased colonies for making the candy on which
the queens feed enroute. Postal regulations now require that
queens shall be accompanied by a certificate of health from some
duly authorized inspector or by an affidavit that the candy on
which they are fed was boiled for thirty minutes.

The safest plan is for the bee-keeper to place the queen in a
new cage without candy, or with candy which is known to be
free from disease germs, before introducing into the apiary.

RELATING TO THE ADULTERATION AND SALE OF HONEY

The pure food laws are a great boon to the honey producer.
For many years all kinds of adulterations of honey were in the
market. The bee-keeper found it very hard to compete with
these adulterations which could be sold at a very low price.
Adulteration was so common that the public came to believe that
all liquid honey was adulterated and extracted honey fell in
price to such a point that it was no longer profitable to produce it.

Fortunately it has never been found possible to imitate the
natural product in the comb and the comb honey prodiicer never
suffered as seriously.

Stories to the effect that comb honey was manufactured at

NEW YORK LAW 297

one time were given wide circulation in the newspapers. This
resulted in distrust of comb honey also. The National Bee-
keeper's Association and those interested in the manufacture of
bee-keeper's supplies, offered large rewards for proof that comb
honey had been successfully imitated, which helped to offset the
bad effects to some extent.

Since the pure food laws have been so generally enforced
there is a returning confidence on the part of the public that
extracted honey may be pure and the price has advanced with
the increased demand until it is now as profitable as comb honey
production. Several years time will be required to overcome
the bad effects of the unfortunate conditions of other days.

While the general laws of the nation and of the various States
that apply to weights and labels of food products include honey,
some States have passed specific laws prohibiting the adulteration
or misbranding of honey.

New York Law.— The statute of New York is worded as
follows :

^^ Defining Honey.— The terms " honey," " liquid or extracted honey,"
strained honey" or "pure honey," as used in this article shall mean
the nectar of flowers that has been transformed by, and is the natural
product of the honey-bee, taken from the honeycomb and marketed in a
liquid, candied or granulated condition.

Relating to Selling a Commodity in Imitation or Semblance of Honey —
No person or persons shall sell, keep for sale, expose or offer for sale any
article or product in imitation or semblance of honey branded as " honey "
liquid or extracted honey," "strained honey," or "'pure honey" which is
not pure honey. No person or persons, firm, association, company or cor-
poration, shall manufacture, sell, expose, or offer for sale any compound
or mixture branded or labeled as and for honey which shall be made up
of honey mixed with any other substance or ingredient. Thpre may be
printed on the package containing such compound or mixture statement
giving the ingredients of which it is made; if honey is one of such in-
gredients it shall be so stated in the same size type as are the other in-
gredients, but it shall not be sold, exposed for sale, or offered for sale as
honey; nor shall such compound or mixture be branded or labeled M'ith the
word honey in any form other than as herein provided; nor shall any
product in semblance of honey, whether a mixture or not. be sold, exposed
or offered for sale as honey, or branded or labeled with the word " hrnev "
unless such article is pure honey.

The value of such a law in safeguarding the bee-keeper's
market and protecting the consumer against fraud can scarcely

298 LAWS THAT CONCERN THE BEE-KEEPER

be estimated. Imitations are still to be had in the market but
they sell for just what they are and the consumer who cares to
use them buys them at a lower price than he would have to pay
if they were permitted to be sold as honey.

Net Weight Labels. — The provision of the law which re-
quires every package to have the net weight measure or numerical
count plainly marked on the label necessitates stamping every
section of comb honey as well as every jar holding extracted
honey with the amount of honey it contains. This provision led
to much complaint among small producers at first. After a few
months trial it is being demonstrated that it is really an advan-
tage to the comb honey producer who is up to date and has much
honey to market. This requirement applies to all interstate
shipments which come under national jurisdiction. The para-
graph reads as follows :

A food product will be deemed to be misbranded: If in package form,
the quantity of the contents be not plainly and conspicuously marked on
the outside of the package in terms of weight, measure, or numerical count;
provided, however, that reasonable variations shall be permitted, and
tolerances and also exemptions as to small packages shall be established
by rules and regulations made in accordance with the provisions of section
three of this act.

A similar requirement is made by some State laws so that the
net weight must be marked on packages sold to the local trade
as well as those shipped to distant markets.

The effect of this provision is to keep much ungraded honey
out of competition with a first-class product. The large pro-
ducer finds it an easy matter to provide cartons on which are
printed the weights of the various grades and as each section is
graded it is placed in a carton of the proper kind.

QUESTIONS

1. Note the peculiar conditions that surround the bee-keeper in his relation

to the public.

2. Discuss the usual causes of trouble between bee-keepers and neighbors.

3. When will bees be regarded as a public nuisance?

4. Discuss the spraying of fruit trees while in bloom.

5. Discuss the laws for control of bee diseases.

0. What is the effect of the laws relating to the adulteration of honey?
7. Summarize briefly the various laws relating to beekeeping.

INDEX

Adulteration of honey, 29G

of wax, 199
Advertising, exhibits for, 269

general, 268

methods of, 267
Alexander feeder, 134

plan of making increase, 104

strainer, 190
Alfalfa, 60

region, 49
Alley plan of queen rearing, 124
Apiary, arrangement of, 36-41
Apprenticeship, value of, 18
Artichoke, 63
Ash, source of pollen, 80
Aster, 69

Basswood, 60
Beech, 80
Bee-escapes, ' 161
Bee-keepers, studious, 9
Bee-keeping, advantages of, 10
Bees as pets, 1

in combless packages, 127
Beeswax, adulteration of, 199

color of, 197

melts at low temperature, 196

production of, 195

substitutes for, 199

uses of, 198

see also Wax
Birch, source of pollen, 80
Bitter honey, 81
Bitterweed, 81
Black bees, 98
Bleaching wax, 204
Blending honey, 265
Boiler press for wax, 204
Bonney advertising stickers, 268

hive markers, 44

postcard, 280
Book-keeper, successful bee-keeper, 15
Booklets for advertising. 276
Box-elder, source of pollen, 80
Breeding to produce non-swarming
bees, 157

Brood rearing, feeding for, 131

Buckwheat, 61

Bulk honey, 194

Business, bee-keeping as exclusive,

16
Button bush, 78
Buying bees, 27

Cage method of introducing queens.

114
Candied honey, liquefying, 191

retailing, 193
Candy stores, bees at, 285
Canvassing, to sell honey, 280
Carniolans, 99
Carpenter, a bee-keeper, 13
Catnip, 78
Caucasian bees, 99
Cellar, essentials of good, 254

for wintering, 252
Cells, care of queen, 126
Chaff hives, 234
Chestnut, source of pollen, 80
Chilled brood, 222
Chunk honey, 194
Clerk, successful bee-keeper, 13
Clipping queens, 101
Closing the season, 162
Clover region, 48
Colonies, to tell strong, 30
Colorado plan of inspection, 295
Comb bucket, 25

honey, care of, 262
production, 136
Combs, care of empty, 228
Commercial queen rearing, 123
Commission houses, selling through,

260
Containers for honey, 190
Control of bee diseases, 292

essentials of, 5
Corn, source of pollen, 80
Cover, for hive, 23
Cranberry, bee as pollenizing agent,

84
Crownbeard, 66

299

300

INDEX

Cucumber, bee as pollenizing agent,

85
Cup-plant, 65
Cutting out queen cells, 102, 158

prices of honey, 282
Cyprian bees, 98

Dadant method of wintering, 242

hive for extracted honey, 173
Dandelion, 48, 53
Demaree method of swarm control,

185
Demonstrations, with bees, 5
De-queening during honey flow, 158
Devil's darning needles, 224
Diseases, 206

American foul brood, 207

dysentery, 223

European foul brood, 215

laws for controlling, 292-29G

sacbrood, 221

treatment of, 212, 219, 223
Disinfecting, for foul brood, 215
Division board feeder 134
Doolittle feeder, 134

method of queen rearing, 124
Doorweed, 74
Double-walled hives, 245
Dragon flies, 224
Drone, 95
Dysentery, 223

Elm, source of pollen, 80

Empty combs, care of, 206

Enemies of bees, 206

Entrance feeder, 135

Entrance, width of, 186

Equipment, for beginner, 18, 19

for comb honey production, 137
minor, 23

Excluders, 186

Exhibits, at fairs, 269

Experience, getting, 18

Extracted honey, packages for, 263
power for, 168
production of, 165
storage tanks for, 169

Extracting, 188

Extractors, 165

Failures, from lack of experience,
16

Fairs, exhibits at, 269
Fall flowers, 63
Farmer, bee-keeper, 16
Feeding bees, 129

for reserve supply, 130
preparation for, 130
to stimulate brood rearing,
131
Feeders, Alexander, 134

division board, 134

entrance, 135

Miller, 133

Minnesota, 132

tin-pan, 134
Fertile workers, 94
Figwort, 78
Flaxboard, 24

Florida, honey plants of, 50
Foul brood, 206

American, 207

European, 215
Foundation, full sheets of, 180

in sections, 145-198
Frames, 174
Fruit bloom, 55, 85
Fumigation for wax moths, 163

German bees, 98
Getting acquainted with bees, 1
Gloves, need of, 20
Goldenrod, 01

Grading, extracted honey, 265
honey comb, 257

official rules for 258

Hershiser press, 202

Heartsease, 74

Hive, for extracted honey, 17«3

kind to adopt, 19

markers, Bonney, 45

marks, 43

observatory, 25

spacing, 38

stands, 39

to open, 5

tool, 21
Hiving swarm, 103
Hoffman frame, 174
Home markets, 260
Honey flow, of short duration, 9

house, 175

method of introducing queens,
117

INDEX

301

Honey producers, women successful,
11
pump, 169
ripening of, 187
straining, 189
Honey-dew, 50

unsatisfactory for wintering,
128

Increase, 100

Inspectors, business of, 229

requirements for successful, 231
Italian bees, 27, 98

Joys of bee-keeping, 7

Kno tweed, 74

Labels, honey, 266, 269

net weight, 298
Lady's thumb, 74
Laws, against poisoning bees, 291

for control of bee diseases, 292

net weight. 298

relating to adulteration of
honey, 296

restricting shipment of bees.
295

spraying, 291

Maple, 52, 80

Market, comb honey, 137

home, 260
Marketing, by mail, 27G

by canvassing, 280

co-operative, 265
Mice, injury from, 224
Milkweed, 75

Miller, A. C, smoke method of in-
troducing queens, 115
Miller, Dr. C. C, dequeening meth-
od, 160

feeder, 133

method of making increase, 111

method of queen rearing, 122

plan of producing comb honey,
154-156

Smoke method of requeening,

Minnesota feeder, 131
Mosquito hawk 224
Mountain laurel, 81
Moving bees, 28

Natural helps, 158
Nectar, sources of, 46
Net weight labels, 298
New York, law for controlling bee
diseases, 292
law for sale of honey, 297
Nuisance, bees as, 286
Number of bees in a colony, 94

Observatory hive, 25
Occupants of the hive, 88
Odor of stable offensive to bees, 6
Orchards, bees as poUenizing agents,

Outlook for beekeeping, 17
Overstocking, 82

Packages, fancy, 273
for comb honey, 261
for extracted honey, 263

Packing cases for wintering, 247

Packing for winter and summer
stands, 244

Palmetto, 77

Paper cases for wintering, 240

Partridge pea, 67

Peddling honey, 280

Pitting bees for winter, 243

Poisoning bees, 291

Poisonous honey, 81

Pollen, sources of early, 52, 79, 80

PoUenizing agents, 84

Portable outfits for extracting, 175

Porter bee escape, 161

Postcards, for advertising, 175

Preparation, advance, 150

Prices, control of, 264
retail, 274

Prior rights, 83

Protection, of hives in spring, 239

Queen, 88, 92

cells, cutting, 102, 158
clipping the, 101
excluders, 186
influence of, 236
introducing, 112, 220
rearing, 121
replacing, 27

Races of bees, 98

Receipts for cooking with honey,
277

INDEX

Retail markets, 274
Returns from beekeeping, 12
Rhododendron, 81
Robber fly, 225
Rosin weed, 65

Sacbrood, 221
Sage, 77

Sale of honey, laws concerning, 290
Saw palmetto, 77
Seasons management, 149
Sections, for comb honey, 138
removing from super, 163
Sentinels at entrance, 4
Separators, 141
Shade, value of, 36
Shipment, of queens, 296

restrictions of, 295
Shipping cases, for comb honey, 261

for extracted honey, 263
Signs, 270, 271
Simpson's honey plant, 78
Situations for keeping bees, 11
Skunks, 224
Smartweed, 74
Smoke, use of, 5
Smoker, 22, 23
Smoker fuel, 22
Snakefeeders, 224
Sneezeweed, 81
Snow-on-the-Mountain, 81
Solar wax extractors, 200
South, honey plants of, 49
Space under brood nest as swarm

prevention, 160
Spacing hives, 38
Spiders, 225
Split sections, 144
Spotting clothes, 284
Spraying when in full bloom, 291
Starters, putting in, 147
Starved brood, 222
Starwort, 69
Steam press, 203
Sting, 2

Strong colonies, important, 83
Sunflowers, 63
Super springs, 148

Supers, enticing b€es into, 151

putting on, 184
S'upplyinig empty combs, 110
Swarm control, 156

Demaree method of, 185
Swarming, 100
Tools for apiary, 20
Transferring, 32, 33, 34
Trembles, caused by boneset, 72
Trouble, causes of, 284
Truck crops, 57

Uncapping boxes, 170
knives, 173

Veil, 20, 21

Ventilation, of hives, 30, 186

Walnut, source of pollen, 80
Watering devices, 41, 42

places, bees at, 284
Water, method of introducing queens
117

need of, 41, 238
Wax, adulteration of, 199

bleaching, 204

cooling, 205

moths, 225

fumigation for, 163

press, 203

production of, 195

rendering, 202

substitutes for, 190

uses of, 198
Weak colonies, care of, 154
White snakeroot, 70
Whitewood, 60
Wild bergamot, 74
Wild cucumoer, 79
Willow, 52, 74

Wintering, avoid failing queens in
236

best feed for, 235

essentials of successful, 234

influence of the queen in, 236

methods of, 239-256

protection from winds, 237
Wiring frames, 181
Worker bees, 92