BIPPINCOTTS FARM MANUA\ 4 BEE-KEEPING @& Mrs C. ** The first farmer was the first man, and all histcric nobility rests on possession and use of land." —EMERSON, LIPPINCOTT’S FARM MANUALS EDITED BY KARY C. DAVIS, Pu.D. (Cornett) PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURE, SCHOOL OF COUNTRY LIFE GEORGE PEABODY COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS, NASHVILLE, TENNESSEE PRODUCTIVE BEE-KEEPING MODERN METHODS OF PRODUCTION AND MARKETING OF HONEY By FRANK C. PELLETT STATE APIARIST OF IOWA LIPPINCOTT’S FARM MANUALS Edited by K. C. DAVIS, Ph.D. SECOND REVISED EDITION PRODUCTIVE SWINE HUSBANDRY By GEORGE E. DAY PROF. OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY, ONTARIO AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, CANADA, 95 illustrations. 377 pages. $1.50 net. SECOND REVISED EDITION PRODUCTIVE POULTRY HUSBANDRY By HARRY R. LEWIS * POULTRY HUSBANDRYMAN, NEW JERSEY AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 329 illustrations. 530 pages. $2.00 net. PRODUCTIVE HORSE HUSBANDRY By KARL W. GAY PROF. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY, SCHOOL OF VETERINARY MEDICINE, UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA. 173 illustrations. 331 pages. $1.50 net. PRODUCTIVE ORCHARDING By FRED C. SEARS PROF. OF POMOLOGY, MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE. 157 illustrations. 3106 pages. $1.50 net. PRODUCTIVE VEGETABLE GROWING By JOHN W. LLOYD PROF. OF OLERICULTURE, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINO:S. 192 illustrations. 354 pages. $1.50 net. PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS By F. W. WOLL PROF. OF ANIMAL NUTRITION, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, 96 illustrations. 302 pages. $1.50 net. COMMON DISEASES OF FARM ANIMALS By R. A. CRAIG PROF. VETERINARY SCIENCE, PURDUE UNIVERSITY. 124 tllustrations. 327 pages. $1.50 net. PRODUCTIVE FARM CROPS By E. G. MONTGOMERY PROF. OF FARM CROPS, CORNELL UNIVERSITY. 203 illustrations. 512 pages. $1.75 net. PRODUCTIVE BEE KEEPING By FRANK C. PELLETT STATE APIARIST OF IOWA. 134 tllustrations. 320 pages. $1.50 net. AUVIdVY THL UOA NOILVOOT TVACI NV SHUHSINUNA GUVHOUO AHL LIPPINCOTT’S FARM MANUALS EDITED BY K. C. DAVIS, Pu.D. (Corne tt) PRODUCTIVE BEE-KEEPING MODERN METHODS OF PRODUCTION AND MARKETING OF HONEY ae? BY pur” ip FRANK C’ PELLETT STATE APIARIS#IOF IOWA 134 ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT ‘*Tf vain our toil, We ought to blame the culture, not the soil.” PopE—Essay on Man PHILADELPHIA & LONDON J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY Si 4 Se et pe a % THREE pa aarp Fant ~~ ¢ : P ‘ F ss ‘ \. y i ot AER ss bey ie. Mf +/ ‘ iw \ : LTS ay KAP BY! 7 Re of LAN ne 4 4 Sha te 2 ‘ 4 eae Baneg te Electrotyped and printed by J. B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia, THE MEMORY OF MY GRANDFATHER 2 FROM WHOM I RECEIVED MY FIRST LESSONS IN APICULTURE. FOREWORD _ Tue author’s earliest recollections are of days with his grandfather among the bees. One of the proudest days of his whole life was the first time he was permitted to cut a limb from an apple tree on which a swarm had clustered. With a lifetime of intimate association with the bees and a wide acquaintance among the bee-keepers of the nation, it may not be regarded as surprising that he should undertake to set down in this book the information gleaned from so many sources. In no other pursuit, perhaps, do the originators’ names cling to the articles of equipment or methods of manipulation, as in bee-keeping. Most of the articles of equipment, as well as methods in common use, bear the name of the man with whom they originated—the Langstroth hive, Porter bee escape, Alex- ander feeder, Root smoker, Miller queen cage, and so on through- out the entire field of apiculture. So firmly established has this custom become, that a writer is in danger of being accused of plagiarism if he describes a method without the originator’s name in connection. While the author has followed the usual custom, in the main, some methods have become so generally adopted that it hardly seems necessary to continue the practice. It is not with any intention of claiming as original any of these plans that the originator’s name has occasionally been omitted, but rather because it does not seem needful with matters so fully credited already. While the author believes that a few minor methods herein described are original with him, this book is not presented for the purpose of exploiting original material, but rather to de vil Vili FOREWORD scribe the accepted methods found valuable by extensive honey producers, under the greatest variety of conditions. The best has been gleaned from every possible source. — While most of the illustrations are from the author’s original photographs or drawings made especially for this book, acknowl- edgment should be made for a number that are reproduced by permission from “ Gleanings in Bee Culture,” “ The American Bee Journal,” and other sources. The author is also greatly indebted to Mr. C. P. Dadant, Dr. C. C. Miller, Dr. E. F. Phillips, and especially to Mrs. Pellett for valuable assistance. Frank C. Pevuerr. ATLANTIC, Iowa, November, 1915. CONTENTS . CHAPTER PAGE ]. Bee-KeeEpine A FascrNaTING PuRSUIT............ ey arene rag Pe | II. Tue Business or Bee-KEEPING................000005 Sua cae er oe III. Maxine a Start WirH BEss.................. (eeah ees 18 ee A OMANGEMENT-OF THO APIARY< . 24 866 oo bcs cc cee uess 36 TEE Be Ta of Apia ge Cea gr an ota ot a Me ner 46 ero uee COCUPANTS OF THE FIVE. 20565 ois ee iN cae aeae caus “67 BS a AE Es BSI I at ye A eel aR a DEER RNC SEE aE 100 a a cae 128 a; © RODOCTION -OF ComB. HONEY... 35. ois ees cece wee neeeeuan 136 iE RODUCTION, OF HXTRACTED: HONBY.).4 205 G05 Flo Fda 165 ‘Bi. Wax, A By-PropuUCcT OF THE APIARY. .. 2.2.0... ce cess nen ee's 195 ae APISRASHS AND FONEMIES OF BES... . 652505065. chee cc aside cveme 206 EE UMGING 60. oso cdc. eas oe cso eT pee Ee o, 234 mtv. MARKETING THE HONEY CROP. ...0°.. 0.050055. s cece ce ecee Mae f XV. Laws THAT CONCERN THE BEE-KEEPER ............. Ske nies ee rh = a ie A . . a if 2 ILLUSTRATIONS FIa. PAGE The Orchard Furnishes an Ideal Location for the Apiary . . Frontispiece 1. A Bee-Keeper Who Makes Pets of His Bees...................... 2 URE OORT ooo Oe, Ga es Kk Gade Nev eva seven 3 3. The Sting is an Effective Weapon of Defence..................... 4 ee OE CI DY OE Boe oie OEE ea rea hee a beh eb akaebenun 7 5. Many Successful Apiaries Built Up from a Single Colony.......... 10 6. A Few Colonies May be Kept on the Roof....................... 11 7. House Built from One Honey Crop from Less Than 300 Hives...... 12 EE RUMMY oy os 64.5 ava 3 o'er he oes ee ek ae wens 14 MIE TOGO prevention. A deep bottom is better than a shallow one. In Europe the Simmins plan of placing the comb honey supers with empty sections under the hive, to begin with, seems to be prac- tised to some extent, although the author does not know of its use in this country. According to this plan empty supers are kept in place under the hive all through the honey flow. The bees prefer to store their honey above the brood nest and will do— -so if possible. When they are getting too crowded above they will begin to build combs in these comb honey supers below in preparation to working down. It is now time to remove them and place them on top of the hive and put another empty one in place underneath. This empty space below serves as addi- tional clustering space and also facilitates ventilation. A somewhat similar purpose is served by the usual practice of blocking the hive up at the corners during the honey flow if the weather be hot. The hive being open on all sides there is free ventilation, which is a material factor in swarm control. BEE ESCAPES . | 161 REMOVING THE HONEY FROM THE HIVE As soon as possible after most sections in a super are nicely capped the honey should be removed from the hive to prevent travel stain. If the bees are forced to pass over the sections in going to and from the supers above for any considerable length of time, the white cappings will become discolored and the market value be reduced. True, the bee-keeper tries as far as possible to have the sections finished in the top super so that there will remain no necessity for much travel over it when capped. It is not always possible to arrange the supers in the ideal manner and even if capped in the upper super some travel stain will result if the honey is allowed to remain too long. Comb honey in sections is usually sufficiently ripened by the time all but the corner sections are capped. Fie. 78.—The Porter bee escape. Bee Escapes.—The invention of the bee escape was a great boon to the comb honey producer. The Porter escape is the one in most common use (Fig. 78). A board the size of the hive has the escape fitted to a small opening in the center. The con- struction is such that the bees can go down through it but cannot return. By putting on the escapes in the evening it is usually possible to remove the supers of honey, free from bees, the follow- ing morning. Some bee-keepers depend upon driving the bees from the supers with smoke, but this often results in injury to the honey, as the bees will uncap the cells in order to reach the honey. Un- less some eare is used the combs may be somewhat discolored also. The escapes are inexpensive and the small outlay is more than repaid in the saving of time alone. The LaReese or ventilated escape has some advantages over 11 162 PRODUCTION OF COMB HONEY the other (Fig. 77). This is made with about one-third of its surface covered with a double screen. Double wire cones make it~ possible for the bees to go down easily but difficult to find their way back. The principal advantage of this excluder over the other is the ventilation, which prevents the melting down of the combs in extremely hot weather. While this happens rather infrequently, conditions occasionally are such that, honey will melt badly in unventilated supers. Over these ventilated escapes the air will be kept moving by fanning bees below, even if none are left in the super, and the bad effects of the heat will be avoided. If it is desirable to remove the super before the outside rows of sections are finished they may be set aside and replaced in other supers. Closing the Season.—Unless there are unfinished sections which may be left on the hive in the hope of finishing during the fall flow, it is usually advisable to remove the comb honey supers at the close of the main harvest and to replace with ex- tracting combs to catch any light fall flow. In localities where the fall flow is such that comb honey can be produced profitably this will not apply. In many localities the fall flow is so light that the sections will not be well finished and if marketable at all few of them will grade better than number two. Unless one can produce comb honey of the best quality it is better to have it stored in the extracting combs. When one comes to remove honey in wholesale quantities — after the close of the flow it will be necessary to proceed carefully or there will be much annoyance from robber bees dodging into the sections and flying home with a load. Let a few bees get away successfully in this manner and shortly the air will be full of bees intent on finding the source of supply. At such times it becomes very difficult for the operator to work and there is greatly increased danger from stings. Everything should be kept closed as carefully as possible and when the supers are removed they should be covered at once. FUMIGATION : 163 For convenience at such times most bee-keepers have strips of canvas or muslin, large enough to cover a pile of supers, which are called robber cloths. It is well to remove the supers at once to the honey house where they will be safe from visiting bees. The honey house should, of course, be so tight that no bee can find its way in, but with escapes at the tops of the windows to make it easy for any chance bees to get out. In bringing in honey _ from the apiary it will frequently happen that a good many bees will still remain in the supers. If the housé is properly con- structed they will make but little trouble as they will fly to the windows and escape. (See Honey House in next chapter. ) Removing Sections from Supers.—The super springs already described make it easy to loosen the follower board which will give room to work. Lach section holder may now be crowded over into the vacant space and removed with its sections. A better way is to push the whole lot out at one time. There are two ways of doing this. Either have a form the size of the inside of the super and set the super on it; with a mallet or other object drive the super down outside of it, leaving the section holders and their contents on the form; or have an empty super on which to set the filled one upside down. Then by carefully jarring the section holders they may be pushed down into the empty super. As soon as loosened fully from the propolis and wax they may be lifted out. : ae a aa oa on THE HONEY HOUSE 175 These are so placed near the top of the frames that they will be the proper distance apart when placed in the hive. While there may be a difference of opinion regarding the best, from the standpoint of the extensive extracted honey pro- ducer, the novice will find the self-spacing frames much better, as there is less danger of getting the brood nest too crowded or the combs too far apart. Some contend that the use of metal spaced frames tends to dull the uncapping knife by constantly knocking against it. This argument carries little weight, for a good operator will seldom strike the edge of his knife against the metal. THE HONEY HOUSE A good honey house is a necessity in extensive honey produc- tion. The small honey producer can get along with a large room in the dwelling house if necessary, but the nature of the work of extracting is such that a separate building is very desirable. It need not be expensive, but must be tight enough so that no bee ean enter when doors and windows are closed. If the bees once find their way in when a lot of honey is exposed, they soon come by thousands and make work impossible. During a good honey flow they are so busy bringing in nectar from the field, that they pay little attention to anything else. At such times extracting can often be done out of doors without annoyance. A check in _ the honey flow brings a decided change in their attitude, and they will soon be seeking every possible opening to a building where honey is stored. If portable outfits are used and the honey extracted at the various apiaries, small buildings will serve very well, because the honey will be taken away as fast as extracted. It is a common practice among bee-keepers following this plan to visit a yard in the morning and spend the day extracting, and take the honey home at night. Even though the portable outfits are used, a good-sized build- ey, 176 PRODUCTION OF EXTRACTED HONEY _ing will be needed at the home yard where the honey is prepared for market and the various appliances prepared for use. The illustrations show two good kinds of honey houses. Fig. 88 shows a honey house two stories high. This house has some decided advantages, and, although it was built at a cost of about Fie, 88.—A well-arranged, two-story honey house. one thousand dollars, the extensive honey producer will find it well worth the cost. By looking at the picture it will be seen that the lay of the land is such that the ground is on a level with the floor of the upper story at one side. At the other side the ground is on a level with the lower story. A side hill location is not always available, and otherwise this two-story arrangement would not be very satisfactory, as too much energy would be THE HONEY HOUSE 177 necessarily expended in getting the honey upstairs. In a case like this, however, the honey can be unloaded on the upper floor without extra effort. On the upper floor is the power driven extractor. From it there is a pipe leading directly to a large settling tank on the floor below. The honey will thus never be handled from the time the uncapped frames are placed in the extractor until it is drawn Fic. 89.—Large honey house with all work on ground floor. into the sixty-pound cans to ship to market. This particular honey house is arranged with the idea of eliminating every pos- sible unnecessary item of labor. One man has produced, ex- tracted, and prepared for market something like forty thousand pounds of honey from five yards, with help only a few days during the busiest season. On the upper floor is the work shop, where hives and batve are assembled, and where extracting combs are stored, in addi- tion to the extracting room. On the lower floor is the big settling tank, the bottling room and storage room for honey. A better 12 178 PRODUCTION OF EXTRACTED HONEY arranged or more satisfactory honey house could scarcely be planned. The honey room must always be kept dry to avoid injury to the honey. Fig. 89 shows another kind of honey house. Here every- thing is on the lower floor, excepting storage for unused equip- ment. ‘The building is composed of three large rooms. At one end is the general storage room. In the center is the extracting Fig. 90.—The automobile is valuable for outyard work. room, also used for preparing equipment, wiring frames, ete. At the other end the automobile is driven in with the load. The automobile is a very useful, and now almost necessary adjunct to a large apiary, where outyards are widely scattered, as the ~ time saved in travelling to and from the yards is an important consideration (Fig. 90). ; As will be seen from the two pictures, the extensive produc- tion of honey necessitates a large building for comfortable work. The tendency is always to build too small, and crowding does ESCAPES 179 not tend to economy of time or labor. If the beginner who expects his business to grow will plan his honey house so that additions are easily built on, he will be wise. -Floor.—A cement floor is very desirable, as it is much easier to make the building proof against rats and mice. Neither should be tolerated in the honey house, as they are the source of great annoyance and damage. Mice will destroy many dollars worth of extracting combs, unless they are stored beyond the reach of the rodents. A cement floor also makes a better foun- dation for fast-running machinery. Doors and Windows.—The windows should be tightly screened to keep out flies and bees, but the doors are better without screens. If the doors are screened, they will be left open when the extracting is going on, and large numbers of bees are likely to collect on the screens in an effort to get in. Every time the screen is opened a few of them will dodge in, with the result that a constantly increasing number are flying about, which is annoying to the bee-keeper and bad for the bees. If only the - windows are screened, the doors will be kept closed excepting when necessary to pass in or out, and the bees collecting on the outside will gather at the windows where they will be unable to enter. Escapes.—Bees that are carried into the honey house will naturally fly to the windows in an effort to escape. At the top of every window should be provided an escape which will permit them to get out, but which will turn those on the outside which may try to get in. A good method is to place strips of lath under the wire screen, thus holding them out a quarter of an inch from the building. _ If these strips extend about six or eight inches above the top of the window, and the screen extends as far, the space under the sereen may be left open at the top. The bees on the inside will walk up and out, while those outside will not go much above the window opening and will not find their way in. Another method is to leave several wrinkles in the screen 180 PRODUCTION OF EXTRACTED HONEY along the top. Each of these places will leave an opening large enough to permit the bees to find their way out. To prevent those from the outside from coming in, wire cones are placed over the openings. Still another common plan is to place ordinary bee escapes, Fig. 91.—Comb at right built on full sheet of foundation; at left, without foundation. such as are to be purchased from any dealer in supplies, in the corners of each window. ‘This plan does not work well in practice. Any method that will permit bees to go out without letting outsiders in, will be satisfactory. PREPARING FOR THE HARVEST The importance of having combs built on full sheets of foun- dation to prevent the building of drone comb is mentioned else- ANNUM ‘ \\\ PREPARING FOR THE HARVEST 181 where. Drone combs are not especially objectionable in extract- ing supers, as long as the queen does not have access to them. The productive bee-keeper, however, should avoid having them built in the first place, as they should never be permitted in the brood chamber, and, unless excluders are used, the queen will sometimes be laying in the extracting supers. It is highly desir- able that every comb be so perfect that it can be used in any part of the hive for any purpose needed. Aside from the necessity of avoiding the drone comb, it is aN\ Fic. 92.—Usual method of wiring frames. possible to get so much better combs by the use of foundation, and to have them built so much more rapidly, that it is economy to use full sheets anyway. It is very annoying to have crooked combs to deal with, and perfect combs cannot always be secured without the use of foundation (Fig. 91). For extracting purposes, it is important, also, that the combs be built in wired frames (Fig. 92). It makes little difference to the comb honey producer whether his combs are wired or not after they are once built, because they are not subject to much strain. In the extractor, unwired combs are likely to be badly broken or ruined altogether. Fig. 93 shows a full sheet of foundation ready for the bees. Four horizontal wires are used PRODUCTION OF EXTRACTED HONEY Fig. 93.—Hoffman frame with full sheet of foundation. Fic. 94.—Development of combs from foundation. in this frame. Fig. 94 shows how the bees make use of this foundation. The left hand frame contains a new sheet of foun- dation. The central figure shows the appearance when the bees STRONG COLONIES IMPORTANT 183 are beginning to draw it out and the right hand figure shows a comb nearly drawn. Fig. 95 shows a good brood comb built from a full sheet of foundation on four wires. The novice can seldom be made to see the importance of full sheets of foundation and wired frames. To save.the extra ex- pense of foundation, he will usually insist on using a narrow strip, with the result that his combs are not well built and are Fig, 95.—Comb built on wired frame with full sheet of foundation, largely composed of drone cells. To avoid the trouble of wiring the frames, he will trust to the bees to build the combs strong enough, with the result that most of them will be broken the first time they are placed in the extractor. Experience is a good teacher, but here as elsewhere the tuition comes high. The use of proper precautions in the beginning would save much loss. Strong Colonies Important.—What has been said elsewhere about the importance of having strong colonies at the beginning of the honey flow will also apply here. While medium colonies 184 PRODUCTION OF EXTRACTED HONEY may store some surplus of extracted honey when they would not store in sections, it is only the strong colonies that pile up the profitable crops. No matter in what form one expects to market his crop, he must bend every energy to bring his colonies to the — beginning of the honey flow in prime condition. Putting on Supers.—As soon as colonies are crowding the brood chamber, it is time to give more room (Figs. 96 and 97). As the frames are the same as those occupied for the brood nest, Fig. 96.—Strong colony for extracted honey production, Fie. 97. —biony that produced forty dollars worth of extracted honey in one season. no difficulty will be found in getting the bees to occupy them, as encountered by the comb honey specialist. It is well to lift the hive up and place the extracting super underneath. By this means the bees will not be required to warm unoccupied space above the brood nest, and as fast as the honey comes in it will crowd the queen down, so that soon the upper hive will be full of honey and the queen and brood will be below. The objection to this plan is the accumulation of surplus pollen in extracting combs. If the empty super is placed on top without an excluder beneath there is a tendency for the queen to occupy the empty combs for egg laying, with the result that she will keep on going i F 4 = be . SWARM CONTROL 185 up as new supers are added, and more or less trouble will be necessary to separate the frames containing brood from those with honey only, at time of first extracting. Tf empty supers are placed underneath, no harm will result, even though they be given some time in advance of when they are needed, and the extra room tends to keep down swarming. Swarm Control.—It often happens that the extracted honey producer with his large hives has little difficulty from swarming, and need give the matter little special attention. The method of handling this matter most generally in use is known as the Demaree method. As soon as the brood nest is getting sufficiently crowded to require the addition of more room, the queen is hunted out and a frame of brood, preferably the one on which she is found, is lifted from the hive. An empty comb from the hive body used as a super is exchanged for it. The queen will then be on a frame of brood in a hive body of empty combs. A queen excluder is then placed on top of this new body and the old one already full of brood and honey is set on top of it in the usual place. The queen is now provided with an abundance of empty comb in which to lay. In fact her surroundings are simi- lar to what they would be, had she recently come into possession of a new hive in company with a swarm. The colony wil! build up wonderfully in a short time, and not only will the desire to swarm be eliminated, but a tremendous working force will be present in the hive at the beginning of the honey flow. If addi- tional room is provided as needed, further use of the excluder will hardly be necessary and it can be removed after two or three weeks. In addition to the above advantages, the brood will be in the bottom of the hive, and the honey can be removed as fast as ripened and taken to the extracting room. While other methods of swarm control are practised to some extent in connection with extracted honey production, this plan is most generally used. It is also the simplest and surest in its results of any with which the author is familiar. 186 PRODUCTION OF EXTRACTED HONEY Use of Excluders.—There is a decided difference of opinion among bee-keepers as to the value of excluders. Aside from the above use, which is general at the beginning of the season to start the queen to laying in the lower story, many bee-keepers are of the opinion that there is little value in their use. Many are decided in the conviction that the use of excluders through the season results in a loss of honey. The author is of the opinion that they should not be used more than is necessary, although whether they actually result in smaller amount of honey being stored above them is apparently incapable of proof. In comb honey production there is seldom if ever any occas- ion that justifies the use of a queen excluder. Occasionally some one will complain that the queen lays in the sections. This sel- dom happens anyway, and is of very rare occurrence, where full sheets of starter are used in the sections. The occurrence is so infrequent that it will neither justify the expense of excluders nor the inconvenience to the bees that their presence causes. Ventilation.—In cool weather the entrance will furnish suffi- cient ventilation, but when the weather grows hot in midsummer more must be provided for best results. It is an easy matter to temporarily slip one hive body forward a half inch, the one above back a half inch, thus providing ventilation in every story from the bottom to the top of the hive. No rule can be laid down as to how much should be given. It will depend upon the weather and upon the honey flow. If plenty of honey is coming in so that there is no danger from robbers, much ventilation will be helpful in extremely hot weather. If no honey is coming in care must be used that the openings are not longer than the bees can guard safely. Entrances the full width of the hive and at least an inch in depth are regarded as none too large for hot weather during the honey flow. Some lift the hive up an inch from the bottom board, and support it with blocks at the corners as described under comb honey. The entrances should gradually be reduced as the season ad- REMOVING HONEY FROM THE HIVE 187 vances, the honey flow ceases, and the weather becomes cool in fall. A three-eighths-inch entrance is large enough for winter ° and even that is restricted to from four to six inches in width. Ripening the Honey.—The practical bee-keeper will always provide a sufficient number of extracting combs, so that no honey need be extracted until it is fully ripened. A shortage of combs brings a temptation to extract too soon. Green or unripened honey should never be extracted. Some extensive honey pro- ducers are sometimes guilty of this practice. Not long since, the author visited an establishment where large quantities of honey are handled. A short time before a carload ‘of extracted honey had been received from the West that had not been properly ripened. About one-third of this green honey was souring and working in the cans. Some of the cans had burst, and the whole © thing was in such a condition as to demoralize any market where it happened to land. A few days longer on the hives, giving the bees time to evaporate it and ripen it fully, would have made a fine article which would have pleased the buyer, instead of.caus- ing him to curse the whole honey business. As a matter of course it was nearly a total loss to the producer. Why men will be so short sighted is hard to understand. The fact that they can sometimes sell the honey and leave the buyer to stand the loss | leads them to risk it again. Honey is seldom ready for extracting until the cells are nearly all sealed. Well-ripened honey can be kept for years without injury if properly cared for. Removing Honey from the Hive—Escapes are used to some extent in taking off extracted honey, as described under comb honey. It is a difficult matter to reach the bees in the sections and to get them out of the comb honey supers without escapes. Most bee men in taking off extracted honey open the hive and lift out a frame at a time and brush or shake the bees in front of the hive. The comb is then set in an empty hive body brought for the purpose. Full supers of frames are then set aside and covered until a load is ready to be taken to the 188 PRODUCTION OF EXTRACTED HONEY extracting house. If there is an extracting room near at hand they are wheeled in, in a cart or wheelbarrow (Fig. 98), or if they must be taken some distance to the central plant, they are set in a wagon or automobile in which they are hauled home. If escapes are used they must be put in place the day before Fie. 98.—Wheelbarrow load of extracting supers. the honey is to be taken off, which is often inconvenient, espe- cially at outyards. Extracting at Once.—The honey can never be extracted as easily as when first taken from the hives in warm weather. It sometimes becomes necessary to leave a part of the work to be done after the close of the season. If the weather is cool, a warm room will be necessary and even then honey that has stood in the honey house for several weeks will be thrown out with more or less difficulty. With a power-driven extractor it is possible to get the combs much cleaner than with the hand machine. | TE ea eS Cee ee ere STRAINING THE HONEY 189 Most bee-keepers make a practice of extracting several times during the season, thus requiring less equipment and keeping honey from the different sources separate. If one sells in a wholesale market, it is important to keep the light honey from clover and basswood separate from the dark, fall honey, such as buckwheat, golden rod, etc. It is better to extract after every flow as far as can be done, so as to keep the different kinds as nearly separate as possible. If, on the other hand, the bee-keeper has a retail trade of his own and blends his product anyway, there is no special impor- tance in keeping the honey separate, unless something might be brought, in so poor in quality as to injure his crop. In many localities in the Southern States, there is a bitter weed that blooms in midsummer which secretes nectar from which honey that is too bitter to be eaten is stored. Where any plant of this kind is to be dealt with, it is important to remove all surplus from the hive as soon as it begins to bloom, to avoid having good honey mixed with it. A very little of this honey will spoil a whole crop, so that it cannot be sold to advantage. Straining the Honey.—With the greatest care there will be bits of wax and other refuse thrown off in the extractor, which must be removed from the honey before it is ready for market. If deep settling tanks are used, this surplus matter will soon rise to the top, where it can be skimmed off, or the honey can be drawn from the bottom of the can where it is clear. By this plan there always remains a quantity of honey at the last that is not ready for market until it is strained. Various contrivances are in use for the purpose of straining the honey as it goes into the settling tank. Thin cotton cloth is most often used as a strainer. A large surface is necessary to prevent the cloth from clogging, when it must be cleaned or a new one used in place of it. If the cloth alone is used, the weight of the honey will often result in pulling it loose at one side, when the whole of the contents will run ?nto the receptacle below. A coarse screen of about one-fourth inch mesh is good to furnish 190 PRODUCTION OF EXTRACTED HONEY a support for the cloth. If a large basket, which may be hung in the tank, is made of this coarse screen and lined with cheese- cloth it makes a fairly satisfactory strainer. There is always more or less bother with elogged strainers, unless the basket is deep enough so that much of the refuse will come to the top rather than fall directly on the strainer. Alexander Strainer—The Alexander strainer is made of fine wire screen, and is about the size and shape of a large bucket with bail. This pail is hung in the tank or other receptacle, in which the honey is stored and the honey run into it as extracted. The bottom and all side surface permitting the passage of honey, it does not clog readily and it is strong enough to sustain the weight of a full pail of honey. All sediment is caught and held. The strainer is easily cleaned with hot water after the refuse is dumped out. Second-Hand Containers Not Desirable—So much honey goes to market in the square sixty-pound cans that there is always an accumulation of them in all the large centers. These are offered for sale at a very low price. So little is to be saved by the use of these second-hand containers that the bee-keeper can hardly afford to buy them. If they are rusted inside, the quality of the honey will be injured, and if otherwise perfect there is some danger of spreading disease by their use. As mentioned elsewhere the principal bee diseases are spread from hive to hive in the honey. Second-hand containers brought to the apiary are more or less daubed with the honey with which they have previously been filled. This honey attracts the workers, and if it came from a diseased colony there is great danger in bringing it into the apiary. Disease is thus spread to considerable extent. The author has had his attention offi- cially called to this source of disease so many times that he is © inclined to favor restrictions on the use of containers for honey a second time, unless it be in the same apiary where filled at first. If the honey is put up in bright new cans a better impression is made on the buyer than if received in cans that are rusty and ph: a ‘ | 2 a ; a 3 _ al — r LIQUEFYING CANDIED HONEY 191 stained. Occasionally a buyer makes serious complaint if honey is received in such cans. Liquefying Candied Honey.—After extracted honey has stood for a time, it will usually candy. If it goes to market in the sixty-pound cans in which it is stored, the producer will have no occasion to liquefy it, as it will stand the journey with less risk in this condition. If through any accident a can should be damaged, there will be no leakage, as would be the case if the - honey was shipped in a liquid condition. If the honey is to be placed in small packages for the retail trade, it will be necessary to heat the honey sufficiently to restore the liquid form. Great care is necessary not to overheat the honey, as to do so will greatly injure the flavor and consequently — the value of the product. Various plans of accomplishing this result have been devised. In large establishments a system of hot water pipes is sometimes used. The caps are removed from the cans, and they are set up-side-down on pipes. As fast as the honey melts, it runs out into a container below. Large tanks are also used which are filled with hot water around the honey cans. This water is kept at a temperature of about .150° for a sufficient time to liquefy the honey in all the cans. A simple and very satisfactory plan is illustrated by Fig. 99. This plan utilizes an ordinary cheap feed cooker such as can be purchased in the market for about twelve dollars. There is just room for eight sixty-pound cans in the square tank. Instead of using hot water, a crate of wood is made to hold the cans about two inches off the bottom and water is allowed to come just to the bottom of the cans. A lid shuts down, as will be seen in the picture, and a very light fire is started in the fire box underneath. As the water is heated steam is generated, and the cans are warmed by steam instead of having the hot water in contact with them. A small hole in the top of the lid provides a place for a thermometer, which indicates the temperature. One great 192 PRODUCTION OF EXTRACTED HONEY advantage in this heater is that if, by chance, it becomes too hot the lifting of the lid permits the escape of the steam and cooling of the interior instantly. If the water system gets too hot, it is difficult to cool it quick enough to avoid injury to the honey. Several hours will be required to liquefy the contents of the Fig, 99.—Utilizing feed cooker for liquefying candied honey by steam, cans by this system, but the amount of fuel required is so small as to be a very insignificant matter. Bottling.—If the honey is sold through retail stores a portion of it is likely to stand on the shelves for some time after it reaches the store. In this case the contents of many of the bottles will candy again intime. Sometimes a trade is developed that comes to demand a certain amount of this candied honey or will take a Sa i a lo aes aac leak pa RETAILING CANDIED HONEY 193 jar of candied honey and liquefy it by setting in a pan of warm water. However, in most localities, the bee-keeper will be required to take back honey that has candied and replace it with honey in the liquid state. It is an easy matter to restore the honey in jars in a few minutes by setting them in a shallow tank of hot water that just comes up around the necks of the bottles. If the honey is kept at a temperature of about 120° for several hours before bottling, and then sealed while still warm, several weeks and sometimes months will often elapse before it will candy again. Some bee-keepers make a practice of restoring honey that has candied in small glass jars by placing them in solar wax extrac- tors, where they are exposed directly to the heat of the sun. This plan seems to be very satisfactory for small quantities, as the sun’s rays supply about the right conditions for best results. Retailing Candied Honey.—Some honeys have a much greater tendency to candy than others. Western alfalfa honey candies very quickly and becomes quite hard. Some honey will only candy far enough to become waxy and sticky. Unless it becomes hard enough so that it is no longer sticky, there is little opportunity to develop a special trade for candied honey in small packages. Several kinds of pasteboard or paper packages hold- ing small quantities of this honey are in use. The paper bucket commonly used for retailing oysters is perhaps the most com- monly used. When the honey shows signs of granulation, but will still run, it is drawn into these packages and set in a cold place. . Frequent changes of temperature hasten granu- lation and a room where it is first warm, and then freezing, will be the best for honey which it is desired to granulate. When the honey is sufficiently hard, it is placed on the market. Unless subjected to quite a warm temperature it will remain in the granulated condition for an indefinite period. As yet there is no general market for granulated honey in these small packages. Every bee-keeper who wishes to handle honey in this way must develop his own trade. It would seem 13 194 PRODUCTION OF EXTRACTED HONEY that a nice trade might be gradually developed for small eubes of this candy to sell at a nickel through the retail candy trade. Once people came to know the product they would buy it freely, if it were available in a five-cent package. Once the public is educated to understand that only honey of the best quality can be marketed in this form, the bee-keeper will find a ready market for candied honey. BULK OR CHUNK HONEY In many localities in the Southern States there is a demand for bulk or chunk honey. The general principles of producing extracted honey will also apply to bulk honey. The foundation in the supers need not always be of full sheets, nor should they be wired. An empty comb or two in each super will be helpful in getting the bees into the new super promptly. When the combs are finished they are cut from the frames and new foundation is put in for future use. Bulk honey can be produced cheaper than section honey, but not as cheaply as extracted honey, as the combs must be built new each time the crop is removed. With extracted honey the combs can be used again and again, which - makes larger production possible under ordinary conditions, QUESTIONS . Note the difference between strained honey and extracted honey. 5 . Discuss extractors and other equipment for the production of extracted honey. . What kind of frame is most satisfactory ? What things are essential in a honey house? Describe different kinds of honey houses with advantages of each. How should doors and windows be screened and why? Why are full sheets of foundation in wired frames desirable? How and when should supers be added? . Describe the Demaree method of swarm control. . Discuss queen excluders. - How much ventilation is desirable and what size entrances should be used ? . When should the honey be taken from the hive? . Discuss extracting and straining of honey. . How should honey be stored? . Discuss candied honey. ee - et Oe OD CHAPTER XI WAX A BY-PRODUCT OF THE APIARY Attuovuen honey is the principal product, considerable wax, is produced in every well-regulated apiary. Although bringing the highest price of anything the bee-keeper has to sell, the possi- bilities of this special output are too often overlooked because much of it is gathered in small quantity in scraping sections, cleaning burr combs from the tops of frames’and scraps of combs that accumulate about the bee yard and honey house. If the bee-keeper who has not carefully saved these odd bits of comb will provide a bucket or other receptacle which is always kept at hand in which to place all scrapings and bits of wax he will be surprised to see what a quantity will accumulate during the season. In addition the apiary and equipment will be much cleaner as aresult. It is very annoying to the housewife to have someone coming into the house with bits of wax clinging to his heels to be left on the rugs or carpet, as will frequently be the ease where such refuse is dropped on the ground about the bee- hives. Old combs that are to be discarded and cappings which are present in quantity are usually saved, as they should be, but unless some care is used they are likely to be destroyed by the wax moths during the warm weather. It is a good plan, no matter what method of wax rendering may be adopted, to throw all such material into a solar extractor at once. In this way it will be melted so thoroughly that there is little troubie with moths, even though it is not separated sufficiently to avoid the necessity of rendering. Production of Wax.—When the bees are feeding heavily, as during a good honey flow, wax is secreted as a direct result of the quantities of food consumed. After a colony has swarmed in warm weather large numbers of bees will cluster together 195 196 WAX A BY-PRODUCT OF THE APIARY apparently for the purpose of secreting wax and with it building the new combs which will be necessary to store the food supply and rear the brood of the colony. The wax pockets are eight in number for each worker-bee. They are located on the under side of the abdomen, four on each side. By watching the bees at times such as above mentioned, the little wax scales can be seen protruding between the segments of the abdomen. The author is not sufficiently gifted to describe the wonderful manner in which they utilize these minute scales and the way they manipu- late them to form the perfect combs which are so essential to the welfare of the colony. No description will satisfy the enthusias- tic bee-keeper who must see it all for himself. By providing an observation hive at the proper season many interesting opera- tions may be seen. ‘The worker may be seen to take the wax scale in her jaws and to knead it, apparently, after which it is added to the partially built comb which her predecessors have started. But a moment is thus occupied when she moves away and her place is taken by another who also adds her portion. The work is done very much as though men in building a wall each brought a single brick and put it in place and went away. Yet.in spite of the apparent hit and miss method of building, there is no more wonderful or more perfect structure than the combs of the honey-bee. Wax melts at a low temperature, as many a bee-keeper has learned to his cost when brood combs have been left exposed to the hot sun on a summer day. At times the heat is sufficient to melt the combs within the hives, especially when they are sur- rounded by high board fences, dense undergrowth, or other ob- struction that prevents a breeze from reaching them, or if the hives are not well ventilated. The young bees do most of the work of comb building, as the ability to secrete wax declines with advancing age. In case of necessity old bees will build combs, although apparently they secrete wax less readily and in smaller quantities than the younger ones. PRODUCTION OF WAX 197 Color.—There is a great variation in the color of wax, depend- ing upon the source of the food supply of the bees at the time of comb building. As a rule newly built comb is light in color, gradually growing darker with use. The brood combs shortly become quite dark, and in time almost black, due to the stains of constant travel as well as refuse from the growing larvee and _ the cocoons which are left behind when they emerge from the cells. When clad combs are melted, so many of these cocoons often remain that they will retain the exact shape of the original cell. : Size and Shape.—The difference in size and shape between the cells prepared for various purposes, as for the rearing of queens, is so striking as to attract instant attention on looking within the hive. Much has been written in admiration of the mathematical precision with which the bees are able to occupy all the available space by building a six-sided cell, the bottom of each of which was opposite the bottom of one-third of each of three others. By building in this way the maximum of both capacity and strength is secured with no lost space. If the bees build according to their own plans the combs are usually about an inch in thickness with cells of equal depth on each side. If built within frames in a hive they may be thicker or thinner, depending upon the spacing of the combs. Extracted honey producers often space their frames so as to secure thicker combs to make the work of uncapping easy. The distance be- tween the combs is from three-eighths of an inch to seven- sixteenths of an inch, depending upon circumstances. The bees require about three-eighths of an inch at least in order to move about easily. Combs are usually placed about an inch and a half from center to center. The worker cells are the smallest and we resort to the use of foundation to insure that the cells will mostly be built of this size, as mentioned elsewhere. According to most writers each worker cell is about one-fifth of an inch in diameter, and the drone cells are somewhat larger. The queen cells are built espe- 198 WAX A BY-PRODUCT OF THE APIARY cially for the particular purpose of rearing queens and are built only as needed and frequently torn down when no longer of immediate use. The regular comb built permanently is all of . the six-sided shape and of the two sizes. The larger cells such as are used for rearing drones serve equally well for honey storage. . _ Uses of Wax.—For many centuries beeswax has been known as a commercial commodity. So valuable was it in ancient times that taxes were at times paid in wax and a tribute of wax was levied by victorious kings on the unfortunate inhabitants of the country which they had overrun, Many references to this prod- uct are to be found in ancient writings both sacred and secular. Rents and other obligations were paid in beeswax to such an extent as to indicate the demand must have greatly exceeded the supply. Before the invention of paper, wax tablets were used for the purpose of making temporary records, for correspondence, ete. Wax candles have long been used for various ceremonial pur- poses in the churches, and this custom has survived the centuries and still offers a market for quantities of wax, for some churches still.use candles made of beeswax for this purpose. Many delicate objects are moulded of wax, as fruits and flowers, that are so natural in appearance as to perfectly deceive the casual observer. Figures and models of various kinds are also made of this material, as it is very plastic and responds to the most delicate touch of the artist. Tailors make use of pure beeswax in many cases for sewing wax, shoemakers and harnessmakers also make use of it, either pure or mixed with other materials for waxing their threads. It is a common ingredient of varnish and furniture polish, lithographic inks, various cements, waterproofing materials, and in many remedies and other commodities handled by the drug trade. Comb Foundation.—The bee-keeper has of late years come to. be his own best customer. Since the invention of the mills that - ADULTERATION OF WAX 199 make comb foundation possible, extensive use has been made of it among the bee-men themselves. Next to the movable frame hive, comb foundation has per- haps made possible the greatest advance in bee culture. Without the use of foundation it is a very difficult matter to get straight combs or to prevent the bees from building crosswise or otherwise than according to the bee-keeper’s wishes. With the use of foun- dation the possibilities of honey production are multiplied and no practical honey producer would think of doing without it. _ Only pure beeswax should be used in foundation as otherwise the sale of honey in combs built on it would be a violation of the pure food laws. Fortunately little if any adulteration of comb foundation is practised, the manufacturers being very care- ful to test all wax used for the purpose and the bee-keeper can buy from any of the well-known manufacturers with confidence. The wax is melted in the factory and wound in long sheets which are run through mills bearing the impression of the size and shape of the worker cells. As the foundation is printed it is cut in strips of convenient length and these are wrapped in thin paper to prevent sticking together when warm. The papered strips are then packed in paper boxes in such quantities as the needs of the market demand. Use of foundation is considered in the chapters relating to comb and extracted honey. Substitutes for Beeswax.—Various mineral and vegetable waxes have taken the place of beeswax in various commercial uses. These waxes can be produced much cheaper and answer fully as well for many purposes. Paraffin, ceresin and several others are well-known commercial products. Substitutes for wax made into foundation will not be accepted by the bees. Adulteration of Wax.—Dealers who buy beeswax must exer- cise constant vigilance to avoid being imposed upon by an adul- terated product. As the adulterations can be purchased at prices much below that of beeswax, dishonest men see possibilities of great profit if they can sell their dishonest product. Various tests have been discovered for detecting the adulterations until 200 WAX A BY-PRODUCT OF THE APIARY it is now very difficult indeed to get adulterated wax to market without detection. Paraffin, ceresin and sometimes tallow are common adulter- ants of wax. Wax is so commonly adulterated that when it reaches the market it will be subject to very careful examination and any fraud is likely to be discovered. WAX RENDERING Commercial establishments which deal in wax are so well prepared to render the wax at a low price that many bee-keepers ship all combs and refuse containing wax to some of these estab- lishments at the end of the season. Either the bee-keeper pays cash for rendering the wax and has it worked into comb foun- dation for future use, or he sells the wax for cash and is charged a small fee for rendering. Where the bee-keeper has but a small amount of material this is frequently the most satisfactory way of disposing of it, as he avoids a very mussy job at best and his time may often be otherwise employed more profitably. The Solar Extractor—The solar wax extractor is made by placing a glass a few inches above a sheet of metal which is tilted enough to allow the melted wax to run off and depending upon the heat of the sun to melt the combs. New and tender combs or cappings will be pretty well rendered in this manner but old combs will not be well separated. In any case a solar extractor is a valuable item of equipment in an apiary for bits of comb can be thrown into it as collected and thus be saved. Old combs may be melted to prevent damage by moths. Considerable quantities of wax will accumulate in the wax box at the bottom and this will save handling again later. The whitest and best wax will be secured in this way. It will nearly always pay to render the refuse from a solar extractor in a wax press as otherwise much of the wax is wasted. Boiling in a Clothes Boiler—There are a number of crude methods by which bee-keepers with but a small amount of wax have long extracted it. One of these is to boil the combs in a THE WAX PRESS 201 wash boiler and to skim the wax from the surface of the water. Sometimes the combs are placed in a burlap bag and thrown in the boiling water. Sticks are used to punch the bag and to stir it about in the hot water. While a certain amount of wax will be secured in this manner it is very wasteful and from one-fourth to one-half of the wax will be lost unless the refuse is rendered again by some plan. Small bits of comb are often placed in a pan in the oven. The pan is partly filled with water and the hot wax dipped off or the combs are laid on a screen through which the wax will run while the waste will remain on the screen. The wax is some- times left to harden in the pan and the cake-lifted out when cool. While rendering by some of these crude methods is better than wasting the wax the amount wasted will shortly pay for a good press. } The Wax Press.—No satisfactory way to get all the wax has been found without the use of some kind of press. Some may think that they are getting all the wax because the slumgum or refuse is apparently free from it, but the chances are that when rendered with a good outfit this slamgum would produce from fifteen to twenty-five per cent more wax. A man who understands mechanics and is handy with tools ean readily construct a wax press, though there are good ones to be had in the market. The principal requirements are great pressure applied when the mass is hot, and that there be plenty of - water mixed with the melted combs to insure that the wax will run freely. Many of the outfits in use have some provision for the use of steam to keep the whole thing hot when the pressure is applied. It has been found of late that the press need not be heated if the work is done when the weather is warm or in a - warm room, providing that the material is boiling hot when dipped into the press. Many different plans for making presses for this purpose have been described in the bee journals but the essential requirements are the same. Some are round and some square but with pressure 202 WAX A BY-PRODUCT OF THE APIARY properly applied and the material of the right temperature almost any of them will get the wax. The Hatch Press.—The most popular press seems to be a modification of the Hatch press and is usually called by that name. Itisa simple implement as good things usually are (Fig. 100). There is a stone, frame to give sufficient strength to the ni iron screw by means of which the pressure is ap- plied. The form is of metal and round in shape. There is a round opening for draw- ing off the liquids. This may be closed with a cork when desired to prevent the escape of the hot water when pressing. — How the Wax is Ren- dered.—In addition to the press will be needed a boiler in which to melt the combs and some sheets of burlap. The boiler should be partly filled with water and placed over a hot fire. The combs to be rendered are thrown shih spe SP capead abn inhi into the water and after it begins to get hot are stirred freely. As the mass is melted ; additional combs can be added. Plenty of water should be used to insure best results. The mass should be heated thor- oughly and all wax should be melted fully but care should be used not to overdo it and scorch the wax, as might easily happen if too many combs are boiled for the quantity of water. The burlap should be laid in the press and the opening corked up and the tank filled with hot water in order to have the press hot when the melted combs are poured into it. The water THE STEAM PRESS 203 can then be drawn off and set aside for use if needed. The bur- lap is then used to line the form and a quantity of the mass from the boiler is poured into it. A large dipper is a good thing for this purpose. The wax should not be strained before pressing but water and all should go into the press. The ends of the __ burlap are now turned over the mass so that it cannot escape excepting as strained through the cloth. The cleated follower is then placed on top of the cheese and the whole thing is set in place under the screw. The screw is turned slowly down as long as liquids can be squeezed from the “ cheese.” The water and hot wax will run off together through the opening in the side of the can. When no more wax is coming the screw can be re- leased and the “ cheese ” doubled up and given another pressing. The “ cheese ” is then removed and thrown to one side and another lot is pressed until all the combs have been rendered. Usually it will be necessary to break up the “ cheeses ” that re- main and boil them again, and again press them as in the begin- ning to get all the wax. This second rendering will usually bring a surprising amount of wax from material that appears to be entirely free from it. Tests from various samples have shown from ten to fifteen per cent of wax still in the slumgum. The Massachusetts Agricultural College has opened a wax rendering station for the benefit of the bee-keepers of that State. Bee-keepers are instructed to use a barrel for storage purposes and as combs and bits of wax are thrown into the barrel to tamp it down tight and when full to ship to the station for rendering. If smaller quantities are to be shipped some smaller container can be used. This station is proving to be very popular with the bee-keepers of that State and large quantities of comb are being shipped to the station. The Steam Press.—At one time steam wax presses were in common use but they are generally being replaced by the method previously described. The steam press is heated by steam gener- ated from water in the bottom of the can. It will be necessary to set the press on a hot stove or to make some provision for heating the water. Above the water is a basket to hold the 204 WAX A BY-PRODUCT OF THE APIARY combs on which pressure is applied by means of a screw. The melting wax falls into the water below and runs out the over- flow spout (Fig. 101). Boiler Press.—There are different kinds of hot water presses in use but in general they may be said to consist of a strong can in which is contained a heavily bound basket. A bar across the center supports the screw by means of which the pressure is applied. In this kind of extractor the water comes up around the — melted combs which are under pressure and the boiling and pressing are carried on at the same time. When the wax is all out sufficient water is supplied to carry it off through the tube near the top, while the small amount of refuse straining through the cloth settles to the bottom of the can. This plan gives good results if carefully done but there is some difficulty in getting all the wax out of the can. There is no trouble about the mass cooling while under pressure and the operation can be repeated as often as desired by simply loosening the screw and saturating the cheese with water again. Bleaching Wax.—Every time the wax is melted the tendency is to a lighter color and the exposure to the sun in the solar extractor also tends to whiten it. Although sulfurie acid is sometimes used for clarifying, there is seldom any occasion for the bee-keeper to bother about bleaching further than to re-melt any cakes of wax that are very dark and to remove as much impurity as possible. The difference in price that will be received will hardly pay for the extra trouble, however. Fie. 101,—Steam wax press. QUESTIONS 205 Cooling the Wax.—Utensils into which the hot wax is poured for cooling should first be dipped into cold water or greased to prevent the wax from sticking. Then care should be used to prevent the wax from cooling too rapidly or the cakes will crack. QUESTIONS . How is wax produced? . Of what use is it to the bee-keeper? . Discuss the various commercial uses of beeswax. How is comb foundation made? Why is beeswax often adulterated ? . Discuss the different methods of rendering beeswax. Ao WN CHAPTER XII DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF BEES As a country grows older new vicissitudes beset almost any line of business, and bee-keeping is no exception. In many sec- tions of the United States brood diseases have not as yet appeared, and in many others the bee-keepers are having their first experi- ence in combating them. However, it is only a matter of time until bee-keepers can expect to be compelled to deal with foul brood no matter where they live. It accordingly will pay the business bee-keeper to inform himself as fully as possible con- cerning bee diseases, even though there be none at present in his vicinity. Expert bee-keepers are frequently all but ruined by the appearance of foul brood in their apiaries. With a thorough knowledge of the accepted methods of dealing with disease the experience need not be so costly, for by prompt action the danger can be largely avoided. The census of 1901 showed a decrease of 16.1 per cent of the total number of colonies of bees in the United States as a whole. The wide-spread presence of disease is no doubt largely responsible for this condition. With an increasing population and a decreasing number of bee-keepers, it would look as if the business of honey production should offer a good field of opera- tions. While the small bee-keepers with a few colonies on the — farms are rapidly being removed, specialists are increasing in ‘number. This is as it should be, for to-day is the great age of specialists and the business which is not worthy of development as a specialty offers little inducement to the active man. — While there are still many puzzling things that manifest themselves in connection with foul brood, the essentials neces- sary to the control of either form are pretty well understood and practical men who are on their guard find it possible to withstand 206 rest BE, AE een ae Lr me eh a ya tery eee poset! ror Tea Ne Se AMERICAN FOUL BROOD 207 the onslaught without great losses. It usually happens, however, that disease has gained considerable headway in the apiary be- fore its owner is aware of the nature of the difficulty. Especially is this true when disease puts in an appearance for the first time in a locality that has been free from it. The journals frequently recount the experience of some unfortunate who has suffered heavy losses in this manner. The writer, in the capacity of State inspector of apiaries, sees such cases very frequently. Instances have come to his attention where the losses amounted to many thousands of dollars, whereas had the owner realized the nature of the trouble on its first appearance it could have been checked without difficulty. AMERICAN FOUL BROOD Much confusion has resulted in the similarity of names of the two common diseases. It is unfortunate that some entirely different name was not applied to one or the other. While Euro- pean foul brood has long been known, in some localities, under the name of “ black brood,” the name was not appropriate and it has given way to the accepted title of European foul brood. There is a decided difference in the appearance and in the action of the two forms, so much so that there need be little difficulty in recognizing the difference in advanced stages. In early stages it is sometimes a little difficult to determine which form one may have to deal with, and in that case it is well to cut out a piece of comb containing the dead larve and, wrapping it securely, send it to the Bureau of Entomology of the United States Department of Agriculture. By means of a microscopic examination they can readily determine the nature of the difficulty. American foul brood has long been present in this country and when we hear the term “ foul brood ” we naturally infer that American foul brood is meant (Figs. 102 and 103). It is also called “ ropy foul brood ” because of the peculiar ropy charac- teristic of the dead tissue at a certain stage. The larve are usually attacked at about the time the cells are capped and most ‘rzodde 04 suruurszeq O18 BAI] 94} JO sfouun} pus Quriod 94} Wo Uses oq UBO SYIOUI XBM 4INpY 9d], “pooiq [NoJ mvosUTY YIIM pojyoaye Auojoo uOIs quiod poolg—‘ZOL ‘DIZ sy nigeeaeecs es Se ~ " r 2 resoresseneny - . 9 * x ean; ronee op ttnetieneemam a ovens 103.—Work of wax moths in colony affected by American foul brood. The sunken cappings are typical of American foul brood. 210 DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF BEES of the cells containing dead larve are capped. When the larva dies it turns a chocolate or brown color and in advanced stages of decay becomes darker. The cappings become sunken, and frequently the cappings are perforated by small holes. The most common test for this disease is to insert a toothpick or timothy straw into the dead tissue and slowly withdraw it. The decaying matter stretches out like thick molasses, sometimes for an inch or two before breaking. After the dead larva has become fully dried it forms a dried scale on the lower side of the cell. This scale adheres tightly to the cell and can be readily observed by holding the comb in front of the eyes at such an angle that the light falls into the bottom of the cell and illuminates the lower side wall. There is also a very characteristic odor clinging to the combs containing a badly infected case of foul brood of the American form. . It is commonly spoken of as a glue-pot odor but that hardly describes it. It is, however, a characteristic of the dis- ease that can readily be recognized. Queen and drone larve are seldom affected by American foul brood, while the other form attacks both queen and drone larve at the same stage as worker larvee are affected. Cases are reported where there is a decided odor with European foul brood, but the writer does not remem- ber ever having seen a case in all the hundreds of apiaries visited. The ropy condition of the dead matter together with the odor is usually considered as positive evidence of American foul brood. When this disease is present the death of a portion of the — brood gradually decimates the colony until it becomes so weak that it can ne longer defend its stores and it is likely to be robbed out and the honey carried to other colonies. The disease is thus spread far and wide. The writer has seen cases where after the death of the colony from foul brood the hive was turned over and exposed to the bees by the owner, who was ignorant of the real cause of the trouble. The disease was thus needlessly carried into every colony of large apiaries. The disease is caused by a bacillus technically known as AMERICAN FOUL BROOD 211 Bacillus larve. These microdrganisms are so extremely minute as to require a high power microscope to enable one to find them. The germs or their spores seem to be carried from hive to hive only in the honey. In treating American foul brood it accord- ingly becomes exceedingly important to rid the colony of every vestige of the diseased honey. While the honey may carry the germs of foul brood which are fatal to young bees, it is not in the least injured thereby for human consumption. It is important that this point be fully understood or other- wise any method of treatment is likely to be unavailing. On one occasion an inspector was called to examine the bees in a neigh- borhood where foul brood was known to be present. At one farm- house he was told by the housewife that they no longer had any bees but some empty hives. On investigation he found that the bees had died during the winter from American foul brood. It was still early spring and the honey had not yet been found by the bees of the neighborhood. He explained carefully to the owner the method of treatment and thought that he fully under- stood it. The next day a man was sent back to ascertain whether instructions had been properly followed, only to find that he had ¢arefully disinfected the hive by burning it out, but had left the honey lying on the ground where it was even more likely to be found by visiting bees than had it been left in the hive. In this case a large apiary near at hand was saved from infection by the fortunate visit of the inspector. Bees weakened by disease are very likely to die in winter. In such cases the old combs should in no case be used again, but the wax should be rendered and the hive carefully disinfected before being put in service. Colonies thus weakened are also very likely to fall an easy prey to the wax moth, and it fre quently happens that colonies which are charged to the ravages of the moth are really victims of foul brood. It is frequently recommended that honey from diseased colonies be boiled and fed back again to the bees. While this may be safe if carefully done, it is much safer to feed sugar syrup if it becomes necessary 212 DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF BEES to feed anything. It is regarded as unsafe to feed the honey from hives infected with this disease, as high temperature for con- siderable length of time is necessary to insure death of all spores. In the hands of a novice it frequently happens that the boiling is not sufficiently thorough and healthy ‘bees are thus infected. Treatment of American Foul Brood.—This disease is rather slow in its progress, but very sure, and once a colony becomes infected its final death is certain, unless the bees are removed to a clean hive and the infected brood destroyed. In the hands of the average bee-keeper the shaking treatment, commonly ealled the McEvoy treatment, is best. McEvoy, who was for a time inspector for Ontario, was very successful in treating foul brood and he it was who probably first brought successful methods of treatment prominently before the public. However, the essen- tials of this method were described in Europe many years before the birth of McEvoy, and Quinby had also long made use of shak- ing for the cure of foul brood in this country. The first essential is to remove the bees entirely from the source of the disease, and they should accordingly be placed in a clean hive on the old stand and the old combs, brood, and honey all removed. McEvoy allowed them to build new combs for four days, thus insuring that all honey carried with them would -be used, and then again shook them into another clean hive and destroyed the combs that they had built in the meantime. The second shaking is not always necessary. By using good judg- ment the bee-keeper can usually tell when conditions are such that a second shaking will be necessary. The instructions given from the office of the Iowa Inspector are as follows: In the evening after the bees have stopped flying, brush or shake all the bees into a clean hive containing foundation starters. Bury or burn the old combs at once, not the next day. Take great care that no honey, not even the smallest drop, be exposed to the bees, or the disease may be carried back or exposed to healthy colonies. This is essentially the instruction given for years past by various State officials charged with enforcement of foul brood Ao WN fe eee or ee] TREATMENT OF AMERICAN FOUL BROOD co. Bis laws. It is repeated here simply to show that the essentials can be stated in a few words. Modification of Method.—If the bee-keeper does not give the second shaking at the end of four days he should watch very carefully to see that the disease does not again appear. There are a number of modifications of this method of treatment, each of which has advantages apparent to those who follow it. Thomas Chantry inserts a dry extracting comb in the center of the hive on which the bees are shaken and about twenty-four hours later very carefully removes this comb. In the meantime the bees will have used the empty comb to deposit the honey that they may have carried with them. This is much: to be preferred to the second shaking as it saves a heavy loss in wax secretion and conse- quent tax on the bees which are badly used at best. Edward G. Brown, of Iowa, who is a large honey producer, has used this method successfully for a number of years and recommends it as very satisfactory if carefully done. D. E. Lhommedieu, another Iowa bee-keeper of long experi- ence, shakes the bees into a clean hive and leaves them for four ‘days or until he is sure that all old honey carried with them has been consumed. He then takes combs of brood and honey from healthy colonies and places them in a clean hive and puts this on the stand where the diseased colony has been. Feeling that the bees have rid themselves of the infection, he proceeds to shake the bees into the new hive containing the brood and they are thus saved the heavy tax of building up from the beginning. The object is to rid the bees of every trace of the diseased honey before the new brood appears in the hive and any method that will accomplish this result is likely to succeed. When a number of colonies are to be shaken, it is well to replace the frames of brood in the old hives and to pile one above another on top of some diseased colony which may be reserved for treatment for a few days, until the healthy brood is hatched, and thus save what healthy brood there is in all the hives. This plan has been carried out very successfully in some apiaries. 214 DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF BEES One of the best methods of treatment is to remove the queen very carefully, disturbing the bees as little as possible. The hive should then be tightly closed with the exception of a bee escape, which will permit the bees to go out but give none a chance to return. Take a frame of healthy brood from some other colony and place in a clean hive. Fill the remainder of the hive with full sheets of foundation or empty combs and place it where the colony has stood. The queen may then be placed on the frame of brood and the new hive left with the entrance somewhat smaller than usual. Turn the hive containing the diseased colony around so that the escape will be near the entrance of the new hive. The bees leaving the hive go to the fields with their honey sacs empty and returning enter the clean hive. As fast as the brood hatches in the old hive the bees will leave only to find no way of return and enter the clean hive in which the old queen is at work as usual. This method has the advantage of saving the colony without loss pf brood or checking the laying of the queen. If properly done this is perhaps the best method of dealing with American foul brood. Some bee-keepers advocate setting the diseased colony on top of the clean hive with’ the bee-escape board underneath and the old queen left in the brood chamber. By this method the bees will rear a young queen from the brood in the frame given them in the clean hive while the old queen con- tinues to lay in the diseased chamber above until she is finally. deserted by the workers. Late-Season Cases.—When a case of foul brood ig found ~ in fall after the honey flow is over, it is seldom advisable to attempt to winter the colony. In general it may be said that treatment is not likely to be successful, excepting when there is some honey coming from the fields or will be later in the season. If cases are treated ahead of the honey flow, the lack of a flow can be met by heavy feeding to stimulate the building of combs. If the bees get well started in this way they will recover nicely during the honey flow that follows later on. After the flow is over in the fall it would cost more than they are worth to feed EUROPEAN FOUL BROOD 215 a sufficient amount of stores to build them up ready for winter. _ To winter a colony with the idea of treating in the spring will require in the neighborhood of twenty-five pounds of honey, and there is always the danger that they may die during the winter or early spring. In this case there is not only the total loss of the bees and the honey that they have consumed, but the added danger that bees from other colonies may get at the stores and rob them out on some warm day before the hives have been looked after, and the disease be further spread. If the colony is strong enough to have a fair chance of wintering it is possible to save honey and wax to the value of from two to four dollars, and this is more than a diseased colony is worth at this season of the year. The hive may be saved and prepared for use again by proper disinfection. Late in the evening after the bees have stopped flying, the entrance should be tightly closed to prevent the escape of any bees. The hive should then be removed to some tight building or cellar and the bees killed with sulphur. All honey fit’ for use can be removed, but care should be taken that not a drop ever gets back to live bees. ‘The combs can be melted up and the wax saved. Honey not fit for the table can be made into vinegar. The hive, including both top and bottom, should be thoroughly Hiaiifacted before waing again, and if the frames are to be used again they should be boiled. Any honey that is fed to bees should be diluted with water and boiled for half an hour or until the scum is thoroughly cooked. Disinfecting.—For disinfecting hive parts a painter’ s torch is very good. Some paint the inside of the hives with kerosene and then pile one above another and set fire to them and smother the fire as soon as the interior is scorched. EUROPEAN FOUL BROOD The cause of European foul brood is supposed to be Bacillus pluton, a microorganism similar to those responsible for such diseases as diphtheria, typhoid fever, ete., in human beings. 216 DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF BEES Authorities are not agreed as to the method of spread of this disease. That it is not spread altogether in the honey as is American foul brood is evidenced by the fact that strong colonies with vigorous young Italian queens frequently clean out the infection and that it does not reappear in the hive. In the case of a colony affected with American foul brood the final death of the colony seems assured unless the last trace of the diseased brood and honey is removed. While some authorities still insist that the only safe method of treating European foul brood is the Fig: 104.—Thirteen colonies left of one hundred five as the result of European foul brood for eight months. shaking treatment similar to that used for American foul brood, many very successful bee-keepers insist that the destruction of the combs and honey is not necessary with this disease. One striking peculiarity of this disease soon becomes appar- ent to an inspector; when it appears in a malignant form it is usually to be found in every colony in a yard within a short period of time. While American foul brood may be present in a yard for months without spreading, European foul brood frequently, though not always, spreads very rapidly and appears in all colonies very quickly. Cases have come under the writer’s observation, where no disease had been present in a locality, European foul brood suddenly appeared in nearly every colony RE Le PRE Ome APPEARAN CE OF AFFECTED LARV 217 of several large apiaries situated near together. At times it seems very mild and will even disappear of itself. At other times large numbers of bees will die in a very short period of time. The illustration (Fig. 104) shows a case where but thir- teen colonies remained of one hundred and five in eight months. The disease was not known to be present until two weeks after the bees were taken from the cellar in spring, only about six weeks before the picture was taken. As the winter loss was unusually heavy it is presumed that the disease was present when the bees went into winter quarters. American and European foul brood, it would seem, can be compared to smallpox and :typhoid fever in the human race. American foul brood, like typhoid fever, requires a common source of infection, in the case of the bee disease the honey, in the case of the human ailment milk, water, etc. European foul brood seems to spread among bees as readily as malignant smallpox among the human race, actual contact apparently not being necessary to the spread of either. However, until recently little was known about European foul brood and it is entirely probable that later discoveries will add much to our knowledge of the disease. Appearance of Affected Larve.—European foul brood attaeks the larve at a much earlier stage than does American foul brood and but a small part of the diseased brood is ever capped (Fig. 105). In bad cases large numbers of the larvee will be found to be dead and misshapen while still white as shown in the plate. Later they turn yellow and finally quite dark in color. There is seldom any apparent ropiness in the dead tissue as in the case of the other form of foul brood. Sel- dom is there a noticeable odor such as is so apparent in advanced stages of the American type of the disease. Queen and drone larve are usually attacked early. This is one of the common tests in early stages for determining which disease be present. The disease is usually more destructive in spring and early summer. 218 DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF BEES Fie. 105.—Appearance of larve affected by European foul brood. ALEXANDER’S PLAN 219 Detection by Odor.—In some localities European foul brood is said to be attended with a decided odor, although unlike that of American foul brood, being more like that of decayed fish, according to Morley Petit, of Ontario. Resistant Bees.—F or some reason Italian bees seem to be much more resistant of this disease than the hybrids or blacks, and the best insurance against this malady is to re-queen all colonies with vigorous Italians. Some strains seem much more immune than others, so that it is desirable to secure a strain that, has demonstrated its disease resistance. Treatment.—Dr. Phillips of the U. S. Department of Agri- culture strongly recommends the shaking*treatment for this dis- ease the same as for American foul brood. However, there is a growing sentiment among bee-keepers in favor of what is com- monly known as the Alexander plan. The essential element of this plan is the saving of the combs instead of melting them up as in the case of the other disease. There are many modifications of the plan as proposed by the originator. Alexander’s Plan.—To begin with, the queen is removed from the diseased colony in order to check brood rearing. The bees being relieved of nursing young brood, turn their attention to cleaning out infected matter from the hive with the result that given a new queen a few days later they often remain free from the disease. Mr. Alexander believed it to be necessary for twenty-one days to elapse from the time the old queen was removed before the new queen began to lay. Of late many bee- keepers have found that under favorable conditions a much shorter time is sufficient. In order to be successful with this method several things must be borne in mind. First the new queen must be a vigorous young Italian. Then the colony must be very strong and the treatment must be given in early stages of the disease. If the combs are fairly rotten with decaying larvee it is too much to expect that the bees will clean them up again. Hybrids or black bees are seldom, if ever, able to rid 220 DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF BEES themselves of the disease in this manner. Dr. ©. C. Miller, one of the best known authorities, is quoted as follows: I know there are those for whom I have great respect who have bitterly denounced the practice of trying to save the combs in treating European foul brood. In my first dealing with the disease I melted hundreds of brood combs. If I am forgiven I will never do it again. Please be sure to note that I am talking about European, not American, foul brood. The loss of the combs is not all there is of it. Indeed, I think that is the smallest part. The greater loss is from the set-back in the work of brood rearing. It seems to knock things endwise for weeks, if not for the season. Far less is the interference when egg laying is suspended for eight or ten days. I think I hear someone say, “But your treatment does not seem effective for you keep on having the disease, while with the orthodox method and the combs destroyed there’s the end of it.” Pardon me, that may be true with regard to American but not with European foul brood. I treated the disease after the most orthodox fashion, destroying, as I have said, hundreds of combs, and so far as I could see, the disease was just as willing to return as with the drastic treatment. I think I’d rather keep brood and combs. With reference to the Alexander plan of treating this disease as practised by Dr. Miller and others, it is well to repeat what has already been said, that-no method has ever been found for eliminating American foul brood without destroying the combs. This method applies only to European foul brood and sacbrood, a mild disease described later on. European foul brood was long known as black brood and first - appeared in the East. It was known in New York for a number of years before it made an appearance in the Central West. While there are still many localities where it is not present it has spread into practically all parts of the country. Sources of Infection—The spread of American foul brood -in the neighborhood of the diseased colonies is usually by means of robber bees which visit those which, because of their weak- ened condition, are no longer able to defend their stores, and disease is thus rapidly spread. Every bee-keeper should guard against the robbing of weak colonies. In case a colony dies from disease the hive should be at once removed, the contents destroyed, and the hive and fixtures thoroughly disinfected. MINOR TROUBLES 221 Another source of the disease is the use of second-hand honey containers. A large part of the western honey goes to market in sixty-pound cans. These cans when empty are sold at a very low price and many bee-keepers are tempted to make use of them. Honey placed in these containers is sometimes later fed to the bees, or while being refilled they have often been visited by the bees, with the result that foul brood has been carried to the apiary, often in a minute drop of honey. Bee-keepers have sometimes brought the disease home by the use of purchased honey for feeding in time of short supply of stores. The writer has been surprised at the extent of the ‘complaint of the spread of disease from these two causes. There is so little to be saved by the use of a second-hand container that bee-keepers can hardly afford to take the risk. In case it becomes necessary to feed the bees, good sugar syrup should always be used unless the honey is eee to be from apiaries that are free from disease. The use of hives, frames, ete., in which bees have died is not safe unless they have been disinfected. While disease sometimes appears from some unaccountable source, the bee-keeper should take every possible precaution to avoid its spread. The presence of foul brood in an apiary is a serious matter to the owner and cannot but result in serious loss. Frequent reports come to the writer of the loss of entire apiaries, some- times of many colonies, from foul brood. MINOR TROUBLES Sacbrood has long been known by the name of pickled brood. The name sacbrood is, however, much more appropriate because the dead larvee do not melt down as they do in foul brood, but rather retain the full size, the body wall retaining the contents in the form of a sac. This disease is seldom serious in nature although it is mildly infectious and may be spread from one colony to another. As a rule no attention need be paid to it, as it usually disappears with the coming of a good honey flow. 222 DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF BEES If the queen at the head of the diseased colony be old or failing it is well to re-queen with vigorous young stock. Some recom- mend treatment for this disease as with foul brood, but that is seldom, if ever, necessary. In bad cases where the colony is weak the queen should be replaced and the colony strengthened by the addition of frames of emerging brood. Symptoms of Sacbrood.—This disease somewhat resembles European foul brood and is frequently confused with that dis- ease. Inspectors have in several instances been called long dis- tances to deal with European foul brood, only to find after a few days’ delay that the disease was sacbrood and had nearly disappeared of itself. The dead larvee are found to be extended the full length in the cell with the sharp pointed end slightly turned upward. The dead tissue soon assumes a dark color and there is little or no odor to the combs. Chilled or Starved Brood.—The young bees die from several other causes than any of the three diseases mentioned. It fre- quently happens in early spring that the brood nest expands rap- idly during the first warm days, with the result that a sudden drop in the temperature makes it impossible for the bees to warm all the brood and a portion becomes chilled. The supply of honey or pollen is also at times exhausted when unfavorable — weather conditions make it impossible for the bees to gather stores for a considerable period and much brood is lost from starvation. When bees are being moved without sufficient ventilation the brood is sometimes lost from overheating. All of these causes are occasionally responsible for the supposition that foul brood is present when, in fact, it is not. Poisoning.—The growth of the commercial fruit industry has developed a new difficulty,—poisoning the bees. It fre- quently happens that some overzealous fruit grower, blind to his own best interest, sprays his fruit trees while in full bloom. This not only injures the chances of getting a full crop of DYSENTERY 223 _ fruit, by washing off the pollen at a critical period, but results in the destruction of the honey-bees whose presence just at this time is very essential to his success. So serious had this con- dition become in some localities that laws have been passed to prevent the spraying of fruit trees during the period of full bloom. It would seem that any man who is sufficiently progres- _ sive to spray his trees would realize the fact that he can get better results in spraying immediately after the petals fall. Dysentery is usually caused by too long confinement or poor stores. Under normal conditions the worker-bee voids her excre- ment only when on the wing. When long periods of time elapse during which they are unable to fly and thus relieve themselves of the accumulated waste in the intestines, they are sometimes compelled to discharge within the hive. When this condition is reached they soon die, unless a change in the weather permits them to get out and to clean up. Under such circumstances the combs are badly soiled and the bees die amidst the filth. Honey-dew or other poor stores is quite likely to cause this trouble. It is an important matter to see that the hives are supplied with honey of the best quality for wintering, especially in the North where the bees are confined for weeks or months without flight.. (See Chapter XIII.) Weak colonies are more susceptible to dysentery than strong colonies, for the reason that a.greater amount of food will neces- _ sarily be consumed in order to keep up the heat, and the waste is consequently greater. Prevention.—F rom the above it will be seen that-dysentery is generally a winter disorder and that proper wintering insures freedom from the trouble. While strong colonies, with good stores and proper protection, seldom are seriously troubled, still even they may have trouble under unfavorable conditions, or during very long confinement. Remedy.—About the only remedy is a good flight on a warm day. If the bees are beginning to show signs of this trouble in the cellar in winter, and a warm day comes which will permit 224 DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF BEES a safe flight, it will pay the bee-keeper to set them out and to put them back again at night after they have returned to the hive. Mice.—The mice sometimes enter the hives in winter, either in cellars or out-door wintered colonies. The author once saw a hive where the little rodents had gnawed through an old bottom board and really had destroyed the colony by eating the combs and disturbing the bees during their winter rest. Both the white-footed wood mice and the common house mice are likely to cause such mischief. Mice and rats are also very destructive in the honey house by destroying surplus combs, sections, etc., and it is well, if possible, to make the honey house mouse proof. Skunks.—The normal and preferred food of the skunk is insects and mice. It is then to be expected that bees will suffer where skunks are common. They sometimes learn to scratch at the entrance of the hive and to catch the bees as they rush out. Skunks are also fond of honey, as the writer has found by feeding it to these animals in confinement. However, they are ‘unable to get at the honey in the hive and the only injury from these animals is to the bees. ; Skunks are of considerable value in keeping down the num- ber of rodents and such insect pests as grasshoppers and crickets, and where they are not too abundant should be encouraged. It is frequently wiser to protect the bees and poultry from the animals and leave them free to war on rats and mice than to destroy the skunks and have to fight the other pests. It is less. trouble to guard against the skunks. In localities where they become over-abundant, it may sometimes be advisable to destroy them (Fig. 106). Dragon flies, mosquito hawks, snake feeders, or devil’s darn- ing needles, all of which are common names for the same insects, are sometimes mentioned as enemies of bees. The trouble seems to be limited to restricted localities, and while there are sometimes instances where individual bee-keepers suffer considerable annoy- ance from these insects, especially from the loss of young queens THE WAX MOTH 225 which are caught on their mating flights, the insects cannot be said to be generally injurius. The robber fly is a large insect that flies with a loud buzz. It is a rapacious fellow, seeking those it may devour. Butter- flies, bees, grasshoppers, and even wasps and beetles fall victims - to its voracious appetite. It is seldom sufficiently abundant to - cause appreciable injury in the bee yard and may be regarded, on the whole, as a useful insect (Fig. 107). — Fic. 106.—The natural and preferred food of the skunk is insects. The honey-bee is a tempting delicacy to the skunk palate. Spiders also sometimes weave their webs in situations where the heavily laden bees fall into them and are lost. Large webs in the immediate vicinity of the hive should not be tolerated, but aside from that little is to be feared from spiders. THE WAX MOTH The larger wax moth (Galleria melonella) is very widely distributed and among indifferent bee-keepers is a serious pest. It is present in nearly all portions of Europe and North America where bees are kept, excepting the high altitudes of Colorado 15 226 DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF BEES and other western States. In the vicinity of Denver it has several times been introduced, only to disappear within a short time, apparently being unable to live in the high and dry atmosphere of that region. It is more destructive in the warmer parts of the country than in the northern sections where the season.is not so long. The adult is an inconspicuous little moth of grayish color, quick to take flight on the opening of the hive (Fig. 102). They remain secluded during the day unless disturbed, but are appar- ently very active after nightfall. The eggs are laid in crevices in or about the hive where the larvee can readily find their way to the combs. The insect is very pro- lifie and once a weak colony becomes infested the total destruction of the combs may be com- pleted in but a short period of time. Concerning the laying, Paddock? says: Fig. 107.—The robber fly. (After Washburn.) In the cages where empty comb was supplied, the eggs were always laid in cavities and if possible in such cavities as were well protected. Only one egg is deposited at a time, though in working over a small piece of comb the eggs may be placed close together, apparently in masses. The eggs are always securely glued to their resting place; usually the shell will break before the egg is loosened. The number of eggs deposited by one female has not been ascertained but moths which had not deposited ’ eggs were killed and the eggs in their ovaries counted. The average num- | ber of eggs counted was 1014. The time consumed in laying the full quota of eggs varies with the generation, averaging nine days in the first and seven days in the second. When first hatched the larve are white and very small. They burrow into the combs at once. The larval period is spent in * Observations on the Bee Moth, Journal of Economic Entomology, vol. vii, No. 2. eee 1 boa aa eae THE REMEDY 227 tunnelling through the combs along the midrib. The pollen stored in the cells, as well as the wax of which the combs are constructed, seems to furnish them with food. The tunnels are lined with silk similar to that of which the cocoons are composed. It is not long until the combs are but a mass of webs and refuse (Fig. 103). The length of this stage varies from thirty-five days in the second brood to forty-five days with the first brood accord- ing to the author above quoted. The cocoons are spun in masses under the cover, behind the ends of the frames or in any other situation seeming to offer protection, but usually within the hive where the larval period has been spent. About two weeks are required to complete this stage, after which the adult moths will appear. In the extreme South it is probable that breeding continues throughout the year with little interruption. In the North only such individuals as are fortunate enough to select a place free from extreme cold will survive. Those remaining in hives in the open air in which the bees have perished will likewise die - before spring, as they cannot endure severe freezing. There are always a few tucked away snugly in the hives near the clusters of bees, which are kept sufficiently warm to insure their safety. These will shortly populate a large area with their offspring when warm weather comes. They are also able to pass the winter in empty hives that are carried into the cellar or other place where the temperature does not drop much below freezing. The Remedy.—The wax moth may be regarded as a symp- tom that something is wrong, for a normal colony of bees will usually defend themselves against this pest without difficulty. Italians, however, are better able to contend with it than the common strains. The blacks are especially liable to succumb to an attack of moths. Usually it is the weak and queenless colonies that fall victims to its ravages. Three adult moths may be seen on the comb in Fig. 102. The larvee are repulsive caterpillars and reach an inch or more in length. Fig. 103 shows the work of these insects in a little 228 DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF BEES more advanced stage. If left undisturbed such a comb would very shortly be entirely destroyed. Amateur bee-keepers frequently complain that the moth is destroying their bees and inquire what to do for it. The answer is: Keep your colonies strong and replace old and failing queens with vigorous young Italians. Colonies that have become weak- ened by disease fall an easy prey to the moths. © Experienced bee-keepers are seldom heard to complain of this trouble, for they have long ago learned that constant vigi- lance is the price of success, in the apiary as elsewhere. The bee-keeper who does not examine the brood nest of his colonies occasionally has no means of knowing the condition of his bees. Frequent examination will enable him to detect and avoid the conditions that provide favorable surroundings for the moths. Care of Empty Combs.—The moths are a source of annoy- ance to the bee-keeper who has large numbers of empty combs during a part of the year. During the warm months there is no better place to store empty combs than over a strong colony of Italian bees. After the season is over and cold nights come they may be placed in any cold place safely, for freezing will effec- tively check the work of these insects. It is well to have a tight ‘compartment where no adult moths can get in so that they will be safe after warm weather comes again. There is always danger in putting away empty combs in warm weather, that eggs may be present and that the combs may be destroyed before the presence of the insects is discovered. When combs either empty or containing honey are found to” be infested with moths they should be cared for without delay - as the insects develop very rapidly. If only a few combs be injured they may ke placed in strong colonies and the bees will clean them up quickly and effectively, throwing the dead larve at the entrance of the hive within a few hours. If there isa large number of combs it is well to place them in a tight room and fumigate them. This may be done by putting a quantity of sulfur in a dish, first pouring alcohol a4 THE BUSINESS OF AN INSPECTOR 229 over it so that it will burn readily, and setting it on fire. Care should be taken to place the receptacle containing the burning sulphur in a safe place on a large stone or metal, or in a larger tub or pan containing water. The building should be closed very tight to prevent the escape of the fumes. The combs should be separated to insure the fumes reaching all parts. Sometimes a second or even a third fumigation will be necessary to insure the destruction of all of the caterpillars in bad cases. Bisulfide of carbon may be used to accomplish a similar result, but great care is necessary as it is highly explosive and dangerous. In the use of this drug the combs are placed in a tight closet or box and a quantity of the liquid placed in an open dish above them. It evaporates rapidly and the heavy fumes settle over the combs, thus effectively killing the moths. No fire or light should be allowed about when this liquid is being used. : LESSER WAX MOTH There is a very small moth whose larva sometimes becomes troublesome in comb honey. It is not nearly so destructive as the larger species and its work is seldom noticed excepting in the comb honey. It frequently appears in honey that has been a considerable time in the market and greatly injures the appear- ance by spreading its webs over the cappings and making its small burrows into the wax, thus causing leakage, waste, and a bad appearance. The remedy is fumigation. THE BUSINESS OF AN INSPECTOR More than half of the States and several Canadian provinces now have inspectors with police powers for the purpose of con- trolling bee diseases. But a few years will elapse until every State and province where bee-keeping is an important industry will make such provision. Where the work is thoroughly done a number of men are required to cover the field, so that the inspection work is growing in importance and in opportunity. 230 DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF BEES With the appearance of bee disease it was very natural for the bee-keepers to look for assistance from the State. Alone the bee-keeper is helpless against intection from uncared for apiar- ies. He may be ever so careful and efficient, but without pro- tection from unnecessary contagion he must carry on the fight against disease for a long period of time, move his apiary, or go out of business. Since bee-keeping is being developed as a specialty on which many have come to depend for a livelihood, it is imperative that legal protection be extended. The sole thought in the beginning was to provide for the examination of all bees and to compel proper treatment or de- struction of those found to be diseased. The inspector was given no choice but to examine all the bees in the localities to which he was called. At the same time funds sufficient to examine but a small part of the bees in any State were provided. Of late the tendency has been to depend more and more upon proper instruction. Until much larger appropriations are avail- able it will not be possible to reach a large percentage of the bees in any State. If the bee-keeper is an intelligent man, an — hour or two of the inspector’s time is all that he will require. If upon examination one or more colonies are found to be dis- eased, the inspector will be able to point out the characteristics — d of the particular disorder and to give proper instructions for its treatment. The bee-keeper will then be able to recognize the trouble when he finds it in other colonies and to deal with it promptly. It would hardly seem to be the province of the State to examine every colony and give the necessary treatment. If such a plan is followed a week will often be necessary to deal with a single large apiary. Where the owner is careless or indifferent it will become — necessary for the inspector to be very thorough. in his examina- tion and to insist on proper attention to diseased colonies. Police power is necessary because of the fact that many persons who keep bees are so ignorant of their care in either health or disease that they cannot be convinced of the necessity or value of proper _ REQUIREMENTS FOR SUCCESSFUL INSPECTORS 231 attention. In such cases the bees will be left to menace the surrounding apiaries until such time as they shall finally suc- cumb to the disease. Requirements for Successful Inspectors.—No man should be intrusted with police powers who does not have proper regard _ for the rights and feelings of those with whom he is required to deal. He should be able to meet a trying situation and to reason with those who are disposed to resent his visit. For- tunately most bee-keepers are coming to be very anxious to learn of the presence of disease on its first appearance in their apiaries and will communicate with the inspector at the first suspicious ~ sign. In such cases the inspector will be welcomed and infor- mation will be gratefully received. However, when disease is found it becomes necessary to examine other nearby apiaries to ascertain to what extent the disease has been spread. Many of the bees will be found in boxes, kegs, or hives where the combs are built crosswise for lack of foundation. The conditions are such as try the patience of a mild-tempered man, and to ascer- tain the condition of the colony and leave the owner in good temper requires the exercise of much skill and diplomacy. If the inspector is able to give the owner of such bees en- courageément and advice about proper care of bees without offence, his visit has been of value aside from the possible check of the spread of disease. The time bids fair to come very shortly when the inspector’s field shall be broadened until his duty will be to instruct in the general management of the apiary as much as to find disease. The great difficulty with present laws lies in the fact that no man who is not a well-informed bee- keeper is competent to deal with disease. The inspector’s in- structions regarding disease will be imperfectly understood by the box hive bee-keeper, nine times out of ten, and if he under- takes to treat his colonies himself he will destroy them or scatter the disease instead of checking it. It thus becomes necessary for the inspector to personally supervise the treatment or destroy the diseased colony. A diseased colony in anything but a modern 232 DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF BEES equipped hive is worthless, as it will cost more to transfer the — bees, as a rule, than a diseased colony is worth. The man who is fully informed concerning up-to-date methods of bee-keeping will be able to handle disease in his own apiary if he can be protected from further infection. The problem then becomes one of making every man who keeps bees an up-to-date bee-man. In localities where disease gets well established it will be impossible to eradicate it entirely until every bee-keeper becomes expert. Disease has the effect of making expert bee-keepers anyway, for those who do not become proficient are likely to lose all their bees within a short time. The bee inspector is usually regarded as the official repre- sentative of the industry and should be able to represent it creditably under any circumstances. It is not enough to be informed concerning detection and treatment of disease, but he must be able to deal with problems relating to any branch of bee-keeping. Bee-keepers whom he visits will give him their hardest problems to solve and people in other walks of life will turn to him with any question relating to the business. He will — be called upon to give expert testimony in case of litigation in- volving bee-keepers and to settle various disputes between per- sons where the rights of one or the other are in question. Opportunity.—The various State agricultural colleges are rapidly taking up bee culture, and it bids fair to take its legiti- mate place in the college curriculum. Within a few years the inspection work, instead of being under direction of a separate State department, as now in many States, will be organized in connection with extension work in bee-keeping. As the business ‘of bee-keeping is taking on new life the demand for properly equipped men will probably exceed the supply for several years tocome. That this condition has not developed sooner is because the bee-keepers have been slow to recognize the great advantage that would come to the industry as a result and to demand the same recognition given other lines of agricultural activity. A few who have not caught the spirit of the times are loud in their ‘ a re: ae “4 - they find little time or inclination to bother with the selling end of the business. If the codperative association is in the hands of competent managers the honey goes to the best markets and the large volume of business transacted cuts the cost of handling down to the lowest possible figure. The Colorado Honey Producers’ Association is one of the most successful of these codperative associations. The individ- ual member packs and marks his honey according to the associa- tion rules and ships it to the Denver headquarters. If he has a sufficient quantity to ship it out in carlots the manager of the association or someone for him inspects the honey to see that it is properly graded and it is shipped to market directly from the apiary. The bee-keeper gets the full amount of cash resulting Warranted Pure» (Z eecece @) ( Produced in the apiaries of our members and put up under the supervision “7 ” { . and guarantee of the Association THE COLORADO HONEY PRODUCERS’ ASS'N :: Denver NOTICE » All PURE Honey will granulate. If the contents of this can should be * granulated, put can into hot water, not much hotter than vou can 7é. bear your hand in, until honey is liquid. Never let it boil; boiling spoils the flavor of honey; _- , Lm ABS. NN Fig. 123.—Honey label. Reve ofeehe fe she ofe ofe nh ofr fe nf age oe nf she ofa fe she of oe she ob oe hea of ahr ofe Guaranteed by WESTERN HONEY PRODUCERS, Sioux City, lowa, under the food and drug act of June 30, 1906. Registered under Serial No. 37384. thesfentestestentectestentectestentente stentectestentestectertectectestentente ote PURE HONEY Principally trom CLOVER- Blossoms 2% Pounds Net Weight x Seofestesfeofe The contents of this package may candy or granulate. To restore it to its liquid form, set the package in warm water. Do not let it boil or the flavor of the flower will be lost. WESTERN HONEY PRODUCERS . SIOUX CITY, IOWA THOMAS CHANTRY, President EDWARD G. BROWN, Secretary W. P. SOUTHWORTH, Manager ere Te ee ee ee ee ee eT Fia. 124.—Honey label. Mrbrobeederdeabeteetenteoteetentententeate nn cae es ADVERTISING METHODS 267 from the sale, less commission and expenses, in a few days, so that as far as he is individually concerned it is a cash transac- tion. Where the producer must seek distant markets this plan offers the maximum of return possible with a minimum of trouble. It is the association, instead of the individual, that looks after such details as correspondence, collections, ship- ments, ete. Under this plan great care is used to have all grades of both < PURE HONEY : PUT UP AND GUARANTEED BY WESTERN HONEY PRODUCERS SIOUX CITY, IA. Fia, 125.—Honey label. comb and extracted honey of uniform quality and the associa- tion brand soon comes to be known in the markets. Figure 122 shows the trade mark or brand adopted by the Colorado Honey Producers’ Association. Figure 123 shows their label for large packages. (See also Figs. 124 and 125.) ADVERTISING METHODS In the development of special or retail markets suitable advertising is of the greatest value. This subject can well be considered from two angles, that of general advertising which has for its object to increase the consumption of honey, and 268 MARKETING THE HONEY CROP advertising the product of a particular apiary for the purpose of establishing a direct-to-consumer trade.. Methods of General Advertising.—There is not a great deal that the individual bee-keeper can do in the way of general advertising, because the expense is prohibitive. Dr. Bonney’s little red stickers (Fig. 127) are as good as anything yet proposed. ‘These little stickers are printed and offered for sale by several enterprising firms at thirty-five cents per thousand and their use has become general among the bee- Coldentleart keepers almost in a day. Thousands of them are WARRANTED PURE FROM THE APIARY OF pasted on envelopes con- taining outgoing mail, BERT A.BROWN, Des Moines, and in all kinds of places lowa. where they are likely to attract the attention of the public. One of these little stickers attached to a letter will attract the notice of several carriers and clerks in the postal service before finally being delivered to the person to whom it is addressed. Dr. Bonney has found some new customers among the mail clerks who have been attracted to the return card of “ Bonney Honey, Buck Grove, Iowa,” on the envelopes he uses in his correspondence. He also uses a sign at his apiary as shown in Fig. 128. The Iowa Bee-keeper’s Association has adopted rather a novel plan of general advertising at the holiday season.