Copyright N°__ COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT: ai i Oa ah A ays ** The first farmer was the first man, and all historic nobility rests on possession and use of land.” —EMERSON. LIPPINCOTT’S FARM MANUALS EDITED BY KARY C. DAVIS, Pu.D. (Cornett) PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURE, SCHOOL OF COUNTRY LIFE GEORGE PEABODY COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS, NASHVILLE, TENNESSEE PRODUCTRVEYDAIRYING By R. M. WASHBURN, B.AGR., M.S.A. PROFESSOR OF DAIRY HUSBANDRY, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA; FORMERLY PROFESSOR OF ANIMAL AND DAIRY HUSBANDRY, UNIVERSITY OF VERMONT; ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, DAIRY HUSBANDRY, UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI; STATE DAIRY AND FOOD COMMISSIONER OF MISSOURI LIPPINCOTis FARM MANUALS Edited by K. C. DAVIS, Ph.D. SECOND EDITION REVISED PRODUCTIVE SWINE HUSBANDRY By GEORGE E. DAY, B.S.A. PROF. OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY, ONTARIO AGRICULTUR AL COLLEGE, CANADA, 96 illustrations. xi1t + 363 pages. $1.75 net. SECOND EDITION REVISED PRODUCTIVE POULTRY HUSBANDRY By HARRY R. LEWIS; B.S. POULTRY HUSBANDRYMAN, NEW JERSEY AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 330 illustrations. xxt + 536 pages. $2.00 net. SECOND EDITION REVISER PRODUCTIVE HORSE HUSBANDRY By CARL W. GAY, B.S.A. PROF. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY, CHAIRMAN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY SECTION, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA. 176 illustrations. xvt + 331 pages. $1.75 net. PRODUCTIVE ORCHARDING By FRED: C.-SEARS, M.S. PROF. OF POMOLOGY, MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, 157 illustrations. xiv + 314 pages. $1.75 net. PRODUCTIVE VEGETABLE GROWING By JOHN W. LLOYD, M.S.A. PROF. OF OLERICULTURE, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS. 194 illustrations. X11 + 330 pages. $1.75 net. SECOND EDITION REVISED AND ENLARGED PRODUCTIVE FEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS By F. W. WOLL, Pu.D. PROF. OF ANIMAL NUTRITION, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 106 illustrations. Kit + 375 pages. $1.75 net. SECOND EDITION COMMON DISEASES OF FARM ANIMALS By R. A. CRAIG, D.V.M. PROF. VETERINARY SCIENCE, PURDUE UNIVERSITY. 124 illustrations. xi + 334 pages. $1.75 net. PRODUCTIVE FARM CROPS By E. G. MONTGOMERY, M.A. _PROF. OF FARM CROPS, CORNELL UNIVERSITY. 204 illustrations. xix + 501 pages. $1.75 net. PRODUCTIVE BEE KEEPING By FRANK C. PELLETT 4 , STATE APIARIST OF IOWA. 135 illustrations. xiv + 302 pages. $1.75 net. PRODUCTIVE DAIRYING By R. M. WASHBURN PROF. OF DAIRY HUSBANDRY, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA, 132 tllustrations. xit + 432 pages. $1.75 net. GuMTIN Fa OL HNOH ONIWOO SAASUAL LIPPINCOTT’S FARM MANUALS EDITED BY K. C. DAVIS, Pu.D., (Cornet) PRODUCTIVE DAIRYING BY R. M. WASHBURN, B.AGR., M.S.A. PROFESSOR OF DAIRY HUSBANDRY, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA; FORMERLY PROFESSOR OF ANIMAL AND DAIRY HUSBANDRY, UNIVERSITY OF VERMONT; ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, DAIRY HUSBANDRY, UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI; STATE DAIRY AND FOOD COMMISSIONER OF MISSOURI 181 ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT «Tf vain our toil, We ought to blame the culture, not the soil.”’ PopEe—Essay on Man PHILADELPHIA & LONDON J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY COPYRIGHT, I9I7 c te : a \ BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY 0 a ; . r u's Ms : : if ! . / a | , 4 WKY STR ; ¥ ‘ = : Electrotyped and printed by J. B. Lippincott Company, The Washington Square Press, Philadelphia, U. S. A. < me ’ s . ‘ >. cx ‘ Oo.ascoe7 a viet “r : Wim tn * = wh PREFACE Tuts book was written for use in High Schools, Schools of Agriculture, Colleges of Agriculture, general courses, Rural Consolidated Schools and for the many studious young farmers who have been deprived of systematic agricultural education. From an experience of more than thirty years in dairy work, covering much of the United States, the author has written, without haste, what he feels and knows, from innumerable ques- tions asked, to be what the thoughtful reader desires to know. Some of the finer and more technical points have been omitted. There is enough that is known to furnish a foundation and guide for good practice. The lists of questions following every chapter will aid the student in fixing in his mind the essentials of the points discussed. The chapter on common diseases was written by Dr. W. L. Boyd, Assistant Professor of Veterinary Medicine, Urfiversity of Minnesota, for this book. Acknowledgment is due and gladly made to the secretaries of the various breed associations, various Experiment Station workers and business firms from whom help has been received and to Professor T. L. Haecker, Dr. Carl W. Gay and Professors H. H. Kildee, W. A. McKerrow, G. W. Gehrand, A. D. Wilson and EK. O. Hanson, for assistance rendered in the nature of criti- cism and suggestions R. M. WasHpourn. UNIVERSITY FARM, St. Paul, Minnesota February, 1917 oan aL ae o CONTENTS PART I.—THE WHY OF DAIRYING. CHAPTER PAGE IS EUNEAN OOD] -RODUCTIONG. © sietiis. a. one. een nec poe 3 TERS OT AEE RIA ISVa WAP ke ye: Carpe omen Be Re en! 8 ST AO Fn 8 eR CURATION: ONTIMAB ORGS ciate, ae motel S Sievele ce Grate sie a choke 16 PART II.—THE DAIRY BREEDS. JENYS, DPS bp Gy WSS OCOD OVNI atl 610% a EN ae a ae eee ee a 23 Wes ORTGINGOR SE REEDS ee ees hor ne ~\ oe Dab tonnes cheyocieae wee 27 Vi mE NST On ATV PIPE. 2 a0y 2 or i en a. al eo o 31 VALE Se ena SE HDB OR CHAMBERY sci" 5... eth e s auce.c B’e katie boeee bee 43 VARA ORSTBIN- MRTNSEAN) oid tts lst sce oik ohoare Gare eu he ne 46 TONG CHORIN HS tatbne ste tlc eine cg sh eet cen Rcd ait beet. 62 SG, ARTS RG TOSI Ge ON ae ae Saree Aa ot Bale ce ee De 74 DORAN R SEU S GoW bn gen yeaa ees chs share ek Oe ee ee 90 eet ee ec OES on. fgets aie GGG Browy SWISS Sra eee eS .d ee ep eee mens red 108 DSW eS TELO TSTMS LOVRINTG AM Beene, SAG ie Ge RR A tei kn eer 117 PA ee ECHR LEND Ie ia hare te bee ok Stele wath s ox! aftte Fae wees = 123 XQ\Vee REN CH= CANADIAN nets eon olin s tusti se kn tte tbat acl 127 Davila Minin .GGATS nah he ene tel latte we le alse 131 RGN AMES TAT DUN Gy Aw OATER Vs JELENA 138 PART III.—CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY COWS. IEXGH DAT Ys ETRE IVLANAGHMINNG tear oo ele? 0 sees ee 153 XX. How Can I Get Tor Most From tar Cows I Have?...... 177 XXI. Some Fratures oF THE Darry Barn .................. 179 XO Common AtmMENTS ORM@ ATTEN ©. 25... s. coe. secs usu ee. 189 PART IV.—WINTER FEEDING. XXII. Winter Ferpine or Darry Cows .................<.-- 225 SVS OAL MARS UNG Cee a Wak Sine ata F Fo sos sae Nhs a oats 248 PART V.—CLEAN MILK PRODUCTION. XXYV. Crean MiLK PropuctTion AND HANDLING............... 267 XXVI. MrrHops anpD STANDARDS FOR THE PRODUCTION AND Dis- TRIBULION) OF CuRTIEIED MimK +2... .5 0+... Hees. cs es 278 Vill CONTENTS PART VI.—FARM DAIRYING. SOV: Dan FARM MinicsHousnmss. oe eee eee 293 SOC Vl Mink AnD’ CreAneinsrinG eee eee eee 303 DEXLX.’CREAM SEPARATION 4.) Sa eee ee 332 XXX. CarE AND RIPENING OF CREAM ON THE FarRM........... 340 XG, DAmry Burren MAKING se ee nee 346 XXXII. Tests NrcESSARY IN CREAMERIES .............-..+..65 363 XXXII: Farm Damy. Caress’ (Goups): 335 eee 367 XXXIV. Cotrace CHErsmtigiat see Od nee 372 DOXEXVE TCE (CREAM i 2 sect cetera eee eee 375 PART VII.—MARKET MILK. XDGX VAL. MARKED MOK, 2288 28 ote de bce One ec eee 383 XOXOWV Lae ADULTER ATION SOR Vn usr eee ee te 389 XXXVIII. Kinps anp Cuiasses oF MARKET MILK—METHODS OF SELLING 393 KX: ‘Foon Vauun-OF “Mink. 5. cc eee terse arclaee ee eee 401 XL. GOVERNMENT STANDARDS OF Purity FoR MILK AND Its IPRODUCTSA. £35) CO eRe Ie ae 409 APPENDIX COMPOSITION OL EREDING STURKSSo coco eee eee 417 RAT stm TION. LABIA. )229 ance a ane Oe ce ee nee 424 1 E8710, SE Ame PN ein Ee A ees AES ce ne na es a de SO 427 1 | Q ONO OP wh Ko) ILLUSTRATIONS " Jersey’s AVN ROTA Ae oN ee Sacha cu ad ghelevds 7 oe Frontispiece ecllesthe sla Year Old Cow... 60.0... kos houses hes ialee cde May hula. Guernsey, Chatipion...2 . 560. .,. 02.00. ce eke eae os . Litter Carrier, Saving Labor and Fertility ................0...... mconercte sul tord reserving Manure: 0.62... a Ue bck es oS pune deal indusiry for the Home Unit... 0.0 oes bone Soke ee 9 OREN LLT SST ASE eeeN ngs 6 Fo) C11: ea a a . A Profitless Cow, Made so by Poor Treatment.................... . Sons of Cows are the Motors in Pioneer Life...................... wrlusirabine Necdvor Capacity. Cows. so... 2% jc es ace esis oe nels Pnusiertiine: Dairy Demiperament; . (2.0.5) fo. bes a oe ow a aereele Prion (Arse GHOUIGERS: .). 2 Es ci as a0 coc bbie Leda she sto a's abs a ooeh Palowinge oharp Angular Shoulders.; 2.25.0. ...0 00. .sesuc nose agsce eon Cow Poorly WOrmMeds . oo... 4. ccs, che nex eee dle e a Wate olg widiee eee ernie Of phe COW a0 21. tin. % Sak ate ok tele bs cone aot stew eee . Illustrating the Dual Function and Use of Cattle.................. picing of the Pontiacs, Holsteim: Bull. oi... oc cutee ete eee aea st . Duchess Skylark Ormsby, the World’s Champion Butter Cow...... . May King of Linda Vista, a Champion Guernsey Bull............. . Murne Cowan, World’s Champion Guernsey Cow................. plvobinna s. Standard, a Good Guernsey Bull.....:.... 02.000. se Pe smerieminey Nanas Herd: «.c ¢ « stestislorteis a hater s'oled o nimercieme Po % . Dairy Maid of Pinehurst, a Record Breaking Guernsey Cow........ . Imported Oxford Majesty, a Champion on Both Sides of the Sea... . . Noble’s Eminent Lad, a Champion Jersey Bull.................... . Sophie 19th of Hood Farm, the Champion Jersey Cow of the World. . Financial Daisy, a Rugged Jersey Mother...................0005. . Bright Princess Jolly Girl, a prize winning Jersey.................. . Rosalind of Old Basing, a Productive Jersey...................04. . Cupid’s Noble Fontaine, a Promising Jersey Heifer................ . Bargenoch Gay Cavalier, Beautiful Ayrshire Champion Bull........ Se MyplesieVodernvA yirshire: COW, . <5 oss. oi cu sulseeve'o es ou 06k Pampered Avrehane Ul, of... sais nec Wachte shes sfiewa es does PAGE . Kilnforn Bell 3rd, a Grand Champion Ayrshire Cow . Leddy’s Best, typical Red Polled Bull x23.c4: 5500). 0 eee . Jean Du Luth Beauty, World’s Champion Red Polled Cow . My Own Boy, Imported Champion Brown Swiss Bull.............. . Belle of Grattan, a Champion Brown Swiss Cow.................. . My Own Baby, Prize Winning Brown Swiss Cow.................. e Milking Shorthorn Bull. °2: ...)hes 28a see ee . Imported+Milking Shorthorn ‘Gow... .0 )22a2). G:- eh et a eee . Jewell, a Good Milking Shorthorn Cow..............7........+-65 Good Type. Milking Shorthorn.Cow .. 420.222 dest ee ee . Knox Em All, Champion Dutch Belted Bull................ en . Julia Marlowe, Champion Dutch Belted Cow..................... . Lilma,.a,Good Type of Dutch Belted’Cow 7..4254-0- 0 ae ee . Dennis Lord, Four Years Old, French-Canadian Bull.............. . Fortune 4th, d’Ottawa, a Champion French-Canadian Cow......... . Imported Fanette, Champion Milch Goat of America.............. ; Panette,-on. Milking ‘Stand. J.: sie enc see eer eo eee ee ; A Well-markedTopgenberg Doe... 22%. Jee ae are oe oe oe AI Mileh:Goat'of the: Sasmen Breed acc. 2 ee tere i roca oe ee ‘ . Starlight’s Excelsior of Jean Du Luth, a Promising Young Sire..... . Se Barr SATU MOS sis! Snes nude aoe coe eee Re ee 5 \Woorellenel Dye Itpidin IBN p sass cus o an acs ac does ene octweowe sae BOX S balllewablhe Vater, nS Wp [0 lyse inte eee ee -/Comfortan the Cow Stable... 2: 25 cate ae: tone oe eee ee | - ConyenientDnaking-Fountams. 5.2 sae see ote st see eee ~ Ant ypieal Vermont Barns: iveos ty cua cen ae: ats ale ee ae eee ~ AGSubstantialiva uilt!CowiStableseseesre. ao ese eee ‘. Plamiot General.Farmr Barn? 47 care ere eee ie cee eee > Hevation:. of- Harm: Barn’. fic eracre tc eee oe eins sions 0 2, tee cee 5) A. Roomy Cow Stables... (ick ol nteieetae ee eosepekt eels OM ecg aa ee ; AyBat, vet Pubercular Cows. 3. ans. eeeee ie ee PR ary ho . A Poor and Tubercular Bull........ Sy SG RCRA eee to Ee aloes > Heifer, hin but.not*Puberculan, a¢0) see ae cee oie ee . Cow Coming Down. with MilkeMever. 2 si-e" a. eee ee eee . Cow in Advanced Stage of Milk Fever...................... okt . Cow Affected with Foot and Mouth Disease....................... ILLUSTRATIONS eee ccc ecco oe oo ew Art and: Utility Combined: 5 A4iciescc caer. Shire ice artsy a reer wllhastratine) Relationioh Hood tom Vin keer crete tele ete) eye eae oasilo, Clay BIGGS ack. s os deen saree oto ene eae Rater Seite aie he eee ee 78. 79. 80. St. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. vA Se - 80: 90. 91. 92. 93. 94, 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100. 101. 102. 103. 104. 105. 106. 107. 108. 109. 110. ne {12: 113° 114. 115. 116. hiteg 118. 119. 120. OAT ILLUSTRATIONS xl DuUgeLpEne MMO Or Laster MITC) belle ae ee 407 Micro-photograph) Milk Bat:Globuless6 44222 ee eee 408 Chart: Used ain Malk Campaions... 0.0... 2, 23. aivos.asce eee 425 PART I THE WHY OF DAIRYING PRODUCTIVE DAIRYING CHAPTER I HUMAN FOOD PRODUCTION Tue history of Agriculture in civilized nations has been one of change from grain growing with livestock farming of a mediocre sort as a mere incident, to definite livestock farming with better animals; stock was chiefly of beef characteristics ; and from this grew a yet more intense cultivation of the fields which are kept up in fertility largely by dairy cows. The best dairy districts of Europe were once beef and grain-growing centers and our own eastern states fifty years ago were noted beef centers but are now systematically and intensively in the business of producing milk. The West that once boasted of its large herds of cattle is now cut up into farms of moderate size where many dairy-bred cows are kept and many others are used in a dairy way. It is evi- dent that the United States will either be a nation of balanced dairy farms within a few decades or be an exception to the rule. The question may very properly be asked, Why this direc- tion of affairs? What is there inherent in the dairy type of animal industry that adapts itself to our more intensive con- ditions? In this chapter, very briefly indeed, the chief reasons are set forth. The cow as a converter or transformer of coarse, rough feeds into fine grained and more valuable forms has no equal. Physically speaking, the sun is our great original source of warmth and energy. A small portion of the heat which is poured so lavishly upon the earth each summer is captured by the growing plants and stored, some as grain, a little as root crops, but much more in such forms as grass and fodder. Only about forty per cent of the solar energy captured by our cultivated crops is in a form sufticiently fine to be used by man direct, for 3 4 HUMAN FOOD PRODUCTION example, as corn and potatoes, while the remaining sixty per cent of the energy is in the stalk, leaf, cob, and straw. If we add to this amount the meadow hay and permanent pastures, it seems highly probable that fully seventy-five per cent of the food energy captured in this country, each growing season, is in such form that it is practically useless as food to man until converted by some animal into the form of flesh, milk, or eggs. Plants get their energy from the sun and their substance from the soil and air, while animals get both substance and energy from plants (or other animals). Man is no exception. Utilization of Waste Forage.—One important reason why livestock is, and should be, kept on most farms, rather than devoting them exclusively to the growing of grain, potatoes and roots of which man can eat only a part, is because of the power of animals to consume and work over a great quantity of com- mon pasture grass, low land hay, corn stover, and some straw. They consume the coarser by-products formed in the making of human food, for example, bran and shorts, or in the making of some other commercial article. Where linseed oil is made for painting purposes there is left Timseed oil meal, and where cot- tonseed oil is made there is left cottonseed meal. Both are highly nutritious as stock feed. These substances may be fed to produce beef, milk (Fig. 1), mutton, or, to some extent, pork. The hog has wonderful powers of flesh formation, in fact, will produce more flesh for the quantity of feed consumed than any other known animal, but his power to consume coarse stuff is limited. The sheep is a highly valuable animal and should be kept in greater numbers than at present, but its peculiarities prevent it being kept in such numbers as adequately to consume any large portion of the coarse feeds grown on American farms. So, at least for the present and probably for many years to come, the consumption and conversion of the bulk of the coarse feeds of our farms must be done mostly by cattle. The Cow vs. the Steer.—As a food producer, or, more strictly speaking, energy transformer and conserver, the cow, according to Haecker of Minnesota, returns in her product THE COW VS. THE STEER 5 twenty-nine per cent of what she consumes, while the flesh- forming animal, the steer, and in all likelihood the fattening cow as well, retains as flesh scarcely fourteen per cent. That is to say, that for every 100 units of digestible feed consumed by the normal cow, 29 will be recovered in the milk and 71 lost in the process of transforming, while for every 100 units fed to a steer but 14 will be returned to man as edible flesh and 86 will be lost. Fie. 1.—Belle—twenty-two and one-half year old Holstein cow still yielding 40 pounds milk per day. She has had twenty-one strong calves. She had strong twins at the age of 21 years. During this period she has produced about 200,000 pounds milk, containing fully 25,000 pounds of solid food. She has been fed on corn silage, clover hay, roots, corn, oats eae otl meal, Property Washburn Children’s Home, Minneapolis, Minn. Photo by the author. A cow that yields 6000 pounds of 5 per cent milk in one year will yield 900 pounds of food solids or 2.46 pounds per day, which is as much as can be expected in gross gain, bone, blood, water in tissue, and all, in the steer. A cow that produces 12,000 pounds of milk testing about 3.25 per cent fat and about 12 per cent total solids will produce 1440 pounds of food, or nearly 4.0 pounds per day. If comparison be made with one of the modern high-produc- ing Holsteins such, for instance, as Lady Oak Fobes De Kol of the Minnesota Station, we find, as pointed out by Professor Haecker, that the 22,063.5 pounds of milk that she yielded in 6 HUMAN FOOD PRODUCTION one year contained the food equivalent of five steers weighing 1100 each, and that every three days she yielded food equivalent to a veal calf weighing 175 pounds. If comparison be made with the product of the noted Guernsey cow, May Rilma (Fig. 2), we find that the food contained in her milk for her best year equalled that in thirty steers weighing 500 pounds each or five steers weighing 1500 pounds each. The world’s champion cow of all breeds in butter production in a year, viz., Duchess Skylark Ormsby, in yielding 27,761.7 pounds of milk, testing 4.34 per cent fat and about 13.25 per cent total solids, produced 3678.4 pounds of solids. Computing Fic. 2.—May Rilma—the Guernsey cow that produced the food equivalent to five 1500 pound steers in one year. Photo by J. F. Kelley. this on the basis of the total starch equivalent (fat by 2.25, plus protein, plus carbohydrate) we find that each 100 pounds of milk equalled 18.65 pounds of starch or, better, wheat flour, and that the total “ wheat flour” value of the milk solids was 5177.5 pounds or more than 21% tons. Ata yield of 15 bushels of wheat to the acre, more than 8 acres would be required to QUESTIONS a produce an equivalent amount of human food in the form of flour. And all this the cow did by working over hay, corn silage and various rough or by-product grains. From the above brief discussion it will readily be seen why it is that in densely populated sections of the world, where the demand for food is great, and labor cheap, milk production has become of first importanee. Dairying is an intensive form of agriculture, requiring more labor, yet recompensing for it if rightly done. | QUESTIONS 1. From what do plants obtain the heat that is stored in them? 2. In what forms do we handle this energy? 3. What per cent of field grain crops is edible by man? 4. How may man eat hay, grass, and silage? 5. How is an animal a transformer of solar energy? 6. Name the domesticated food animals. 7. Which one will return to man the largest percentage of the amount consumed ? 8. How many times more efficient as a food producer is a cow than a steer? 9. What is meant by “starch value” of milk? 10. Compare the average cow of your herd with an average ae of wheat or corn, CHAPTER II SOIL FERTILITY As the dairy industry is so closely related to the maintenance of soil fertility, the dairy farmer is bound to consider this as no small element for consideration in the profits from the dairy. SOIL FERTILITY Fertilizing Value of Plant and Animal Products.—d . What is constitution? . What effect has fatness on the work to be done by the heart. 9. What conditions of the mammary organs indicate high dairy quality? 10. Why is the feminine “look” of a cow a point to be noted? 11. Explain the “triple wedge.” 12. Which was recognized first, breed or type, as being the more essential in economy of production? 13. Does excessively large production mean economical production? 14. Where should one look for the type of animal desired ? 15. What is the escutcheon, and of what importance is it? CHAPTER VII THE BREEDS OF CATTLE THERE are in America seventeen or more distinct pure breeds of cattle and many grades and crosses of each breed. The great mass presents similar general qualities, but groups and in- dividuals differ in vital detail with respect to degree of useful- ness for any particular purpose. Some are blocky with broad backs and are known as beef breeds, while others are more angular in form and thinner over the shoulders, and are known as dairy animals, yet there is no cow so strongly bred for beef that she will not give some milk, which milk may be and occa- sionally is drawn by hand and turned into dairy channels. All the breeds of pronounced beef-type cattle yield milk consid- erably above the average in fat content. There is no cow, on the other hand, so intensely bred for milk production but that she does develop a body which may be and regularly is used for human food when she is past usefulness in the dairy. It is a matter of common knowledge and record that even the ‘*‘ common to fair” cows sell for beef at from $40 to $60 regularly on the open market. This is fully one-half the price per pound paid for good, well-finished beef steers, while a steer from one of the admitted dairy breeds, such as Holstein, Ayrshire, or Guernsey, is cut in price only one-half to one per cent per pound from that paid for good, beef-bred cattle. The loss in beefing the male calves of dairy cows is therefore not a total, but a fractional one and amounts to only 7 to 15 per cent of the amount paid for top-notch cattle. That many of the heavy breeds, such as Red Polls, Brown Swiss and Shorthorns, will yield more freely than has for years been required of them, has been well demonstrated within the last few years. The meat- and the milk-producing ability of the great mass of cattle in this country may well be represented by figure 15. A glance at the diagram emphasizes the fact that “ beef” 43 44 THE BREEDS OF CATTLE. cows do yield milk and that ‘‘ dairy ” cows do have bodies and will also indicate that there may be (and we know there are) masses of cattle occupying places all the way from one end of the diagram to the other. At this point the question naturally arises: ‘‘ What is a dairy cow?” ‘‘ When is a cow a dairy cow, and when is she a beef cow, if in fact she both functions and is used in both fields of usefulness?’ While any one certain breed will occupy a fairly definite position on the scale at ‘‘a” or “j” or “e” or ‘“h,” individual members of all the breeds will vary so greatly as to lap over onto the position normally occupied by another breed. Furthermore, there are strains of common cows in some sections of the country that would as a whole occupy a position about “b” in meat and ‘7 ” or “1” in milk-producing ability. This is as a class the “ scrub” cow that is to be gotten rid of.. Abit eat we "eR AAG Bae emis BEEF CATTLE DAIRY CATTLE Fre. 15.—TIllustrating the dual function and use of cattle. There are others, however, that will rank about “¢” or“ d” in milk products and “hh” or ‘* 1” in beef products. Those animals that have been selected, fed and handled chiefly for the production of milk, are known as belonging to the “ dairy.” breeds, and those in which the production of flesh for meat has been the principal aim are known as “beef” breeds, while those animals that have been bred, fed and handled to occupy a midway position, are in America called ‘* dual purpose” and in England “ general purpose” cattle. They could as aptly be termed ‘“ heavy dairy ” or “‘ free-milking beef” cattle. In truth, all cows are dual-purpose cows, in function and in fact. By name the breeds of domestic cattle now regularly bred in America are: Aberdeen Angus, Ayrshire, Brown Swiss, QUESTIONS 45 Devon, Dexter, Duten Belted, Essex, French-Canadian, Gallo- way, Guernsey, Ilereford, Holstein-Friesian, Jersey, Kerry, Red Polls, Shorthorn, and West Highland. In the following pages those breeds of cattle will be dis- cussed which have any particular claim on the subject of dairy- ing in America and have been arranged in the order of official records as to quantity of butter fat produced in a year, regardless of the cost of its production. On January Ist, 1916, the order was: Holstein-Friesian, Guernsey, Jersey, Ayrshire, Red Polls, Brown Swiss, Shorthorn, Dutch Belted and French-Canadian. The most pronounced beef-type cattle, such as Hereford, Angus, and Galloway, are so seldom used for dairy purposes and are so pronouncedly good in meat food production, and several other breeds are represented in this country by so few animals that no detailed study of them will be made in this volume. Secretaries of Breed Associations.—The various breed asso- ciations naturally change secretaries as seldom as possible. For this reason the names and addresses given below for the breeds diseussed in this book are very likely to remain correct for a number of years. Breed Name Secretary’s Name Secretary’s Address Ayrshire C. M. Winslow Brandon, Vermont Brown Swiss Ira Inman Beloit, Wisconsin Dutch Belted E. J. Kirby Covert, Michigan French-Canadian J. A. Couture 49 Rue Des Jardins, Quebec, Canada Guernsey W. H. Caldwell Peterboro, N. H. Holstein-Friesian F, L. Houghton Brattleboro, Vt. Holstein Adv. Registry M. H. Gardner Delavan, Wisconsin Jersey R. M. Gow 324 W. 23rd Street, ‘ New York, N. -Y. Red Polls H. A. Martin Gotham, Wisconsin Shorthorn (milking) F. W. Harding 13 Dexter Street, Chicago, Illinois QUESTIONS . How many pure breeds of cattle are there in America? Name them. What is a “ dairy breed”? . Explain how all breeds are two-purpose breeds? What nine breeds of cattle in America are considered in this dairy study‘ . What three beef breeds are seldom or never used for dairy purposes? Om © TD CHAPTER VIII HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN Tuts breed is one of the oldest, of either beef or dairy animals, represented in America. It had its beginning in Holland, chiefly in a northeast province, Friesland, and is un- questionably the same which made the Hollanders famous throughout the civilized world more *han a thousand years ago. Even back during the flourishing days of the old Roman Empire, large, black and white oxen, and cheese were continually being sent from the regions now known as Holland. isis ae: eka aks 26,021 lbs. milk in 1 yr. Prim Cess Ole Vialyie. eeucy tere eke 29,008 lbs. milk in 1 yr. Glothild emus a an eee eee 26,021 lbs. milk in 1 yr. Clothulder2ndyteseer ar citce- ae 23,602 lbs. milk in 1 yr. Sal tamawin ews cheer Net 22,042 lbs. milk in 1 yr. Boukietra hats state soniye acs 6 21,679 lbs. milk in 1 yr. \ Fat records were not made from these animals. Recent yearly records have not only been authenticated by qualified and impartial representatives of the state but also are made to in- clude the fat as well as the nulk yielded. Requirements for Official Yearly Records.—Cowsg freshen- ing at two years of age or younger must produce 250.5 pounds of butter fat, and for each day they are over two years of age, at the beginning of the test, an additional requirement of 1/10 pound. This rate of increase for each day over two years of age brings the five-year age requirement up to 360 pounds of butter fat. Bulls are required to have two daughters in the Advanced Registry before they can be listed as Advanced Reg- istry Sires. A few of the best official records made by mature animals for a full year are shown below: THE BREED’S FUTURE o7 Semi-Official Yearly or Lactation Records for Full Aged Cows No. Pounds Milk Pounds Fat Duchess Skylark Ormsby ......... 124514 27,761.7 1205.09 Finderne Pride Johanna Rue ......121083 28,403.7 1176.47 Finderne Holingen Fayne ......... 144551 24,612.8 1116.05 Banostine Belle De Kol............ 90441 27,404.4 1058.34 Pontiae Clothilde De Kol 2nd...... 69991 25,318.0 1017.28 High-lawn Hartog De Kol........ 84319 25,5925 998.34 Colantha 4th’s Johanna ..... TCM rs 48577 27 432.5 998.26 Lothian Maggie De Kol........... 90209 27,967.6 990.80 Maple Crest Pontiac Flora Hartog. . 143950 25,106.3 986.11 Growm Pontiac Joseya. = :.. 0.6 +: 191812 28,752.3 982.23 Jt willbe noted that all the claims made for the cows in private records have been equalled in recent years, so whether the earlier reports were true or not it is evident that they could have been. The breed’s future depends very much on what the men who are now breeding the animal make it, and this in turn upon the completeness of the ideal for the breed formed, held and followed by the breeders. That there are now, inherited from the earlier workers, sev- eral points about the animal that need strengthening cannot be gainsaid. A, study of the animals as they are, reveals the fact that a great many, even among the pure-bred herds, are long legged, high and “ upstanding ” with shallow body and indiffer- ent udder. Such should be and are being eliminated but not fast enough. Others are too compact in build, too beefy in type to be economical producers. It is true that breeding to sons of ad- vanced registry? cows, tends to eliminate these two classes of undesirable animals. It has often led into another error, less vital yet worthy of consideration, and that is the sloping rumps or rumpiness. Many animals possessing ugly shapes yet having deep, strong bodies have made very satisfactory records. While it is true that it is yield, not form, that should be first sought, it is equally true that cows may be both good and good to the eye. While the demand is keen for stock the bad rumps may pass, but the calls of the near future will be for breeding stock from ad- vanced registry dams, which are also possessed of straight top lines and well balanced udders. The wise breeder of the present will plan to have the stock to meet the demands of the near future. * Official advanced registry is designated by the letters, A. R. O. 58 HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN Scale of Points for Judging Holstein-Friesian Cows Possible Student’s Parts Description _ Score 15 es Ween ea Otero eae Decidedly feminine in appearance; fine in CONGOUT NTE. siowe ainete lott AARNE semen tee Harehead== oft. sates Broad between the eyes; dishing....... HACE x. she strain satttateierer Of medium length; clean and trim, espe- cially under the eyes; showing facial veins; the bridge of nose straight... IW IOAA Bn oie 6 ieetic praia) 6 3road with strong lips...../..........: JET i pssceaea er eo mene Of medium size; of fine texture; the hair plentiful and soft; the secretions oily andialbundamte 215. t este eae BV GSEs te tie ctege ethan vee ths Barges inl mildis nrveiites .-.-emeeeer ee ORNS css oles = = Small; tapering finely towards the tips; set moderately narrow at base; oval; inclining forward; well bent in- ward; of fine texture; in appearance LPS a EM EO SOME ecten AR Rae te paetgs T e INGCKs Biiysietesea te erties Long; fine and clean at juncture with the head; free from dewlap; evenly and smoothly joined to shoulders....... Showlderseerte cies ase Slightly lower than hips; fine and even over tops; moderately broad and full BAUVSIMES 7a. Maeea ee erate eae Rees (CINTIE 86 bees ones Bele e Of moderate depth and lowness; smooth and moderately full in the brisket; full in the foreflanks (or through thesheart) eaten Seo tients etre CrOPSi oy arate Necorereuena sti Mioderateliyss full. cre .ttoss cveructe ereteeaeache Chines Steet: eee ha Straight; strong; broadly developed; With open vertebrae. rien IS AGC ls Weve omer ore ... Long; of wedge shape; well rounded; with large abdomen trimly held up; (in judging the last items age must bevconsidered))) 0. eee occ eee Loin and Hips........ Broad; level or nearly level between hook-bones; level and strong later- ally; spreading from chine broadly and nearly level; hook-bones fairly [OURCSTANDAK IA. SGA Ato biolbes oes ooo cc ¢ EUULTIUPD sey sichaeespoueehonsncuer Long; high; broad; with roomy pelvis; nearly level laterally; comparatively full above the thurl; carried out straight to dropping of tail......... SCALE OF POINTS 59 Scale of Points for Judging Holstein-Friesian Cows (continued) Possible Student’s Parts Description Score MASTIVU en ste tones ahs teas ones s aoe OOM Sethe Irae waiters lis, oteleete: Sie 3 Oar bersieksciee ot sri Deep; comparatively full -.....'....... 2 IDTE Wal eth aes aera sr eeatiieg Deep; comparatively full) os... 256. 2 NRCR SY SF arcrey ee pettus ss cevstahe Comparatively short; lean and nearly straight; wide apart; firmly and squarely set under the body; feet of medium size, round, solid and deep.. ‘TRE Vesiate CPCS Sake alee tae Large at base; the setting well back; tapering finely to switch; the end of the bone reaching to hock or below; chesswatehm hulle races 2). etc sc .<... GO RS UG pies Uae ees nee a ere pace net 2 MOSM sie tetas che Mo 2, oak th cater a 100 QUESTIONS Peer Ese om Or . Where did the Holstein-Friesian breed originate? . Describe the soil and pasturing conditions of Holland. . Deseribe a Holstein-Friesian cow as to body and dairy characteristics. What is the disposition of the Holstein? . What dairy characteristic is the most outstanding for this breed? . What cow and what breed now holds the world’s record for butter fat production in a year? . In what four respects does Holstein milk differ from Jersey milk? . What ean be said of the beef and veal quality of the Holstein? . When and by what people were Holland cows first brought to America? - When and where did the first to be kept pure arrive? . When was the first American association for the breed organized? What was it called? 2. When was the second association for the breed formed? . When did the two associations unite? What name was given to the breed ? . How does the breed rank in point of number of dairy cattle in the United States? . Into what foreign countries have Holland cattle been taken? . What four or five places do Holland cows seem best fitted to fill? . When was official advanced registry begun? . How much butter fat must cows of various ages produce in a week to be admitted to advanced registry? CHAPTER IX GUERNSEYS Tuer Guernsey breed of cattle is one of comparatively recent recognition, not that animals of the present Guernsey charactevis- tics have not been in existence for a considerable time, but rather that since their qualities and adaptations were so similar to those of the Jersey, the two breeds were, during a considerable part of the last century, considered as one breed and both in England and America were spoken of as “ Alderney ” cattle, from the group of Alderney or Channel Islands to which the islands of Jersey and Guernsey belong. Origin.—The foundation stock for this breed was undoubt- edly very similar to, if not practically identical with that used on the island of Jersey. Animals probably from Normandy and Brittany were, during a very early period, taken to the Island of Guernsey, which is the second largest of the Channel Island group. Here they have been bred for hundreds of years. During the earlier period it is highly probable that some mixing took place, especially with the animals from the Island of Jersey. But the interchange of animals between the two islands had to cease in one direction in 1763 when the residents of Jersey for- bade the introduction of breeding stock, and in the other direction in 1819, since when animals on Guernsey Island have been kept pure, even from Jersey influence. In that year the Guernsey Islanders passed laws similar to those in operation in Jersey, prohibiting the importation of animals other than for slaughter (Fig. 21). Although doubtless related particularly in respect to founda- tion stock, considerable difference now exists between the Guern- sey and the Jersey. Professor Low, writing in 1841, seems to consider the cattle from the two islands as essentially one breed, yet goes on to describe those on Guernsey Island as larger and more highly marked with orange yellow skin, and as yielding a 62 ORIGIN “403 somewhat more yellow milk and butter. More recent investiga- tions strongly support the theory that at some period several hun- dred years ago animals which were the true descendants of the “spotted cattle”? or Simmenthaler, of Switzerland, had been introduced as breeding stock on the Island of Guernsey. Not only is this supported by the larger size, quieter disposition, and more yellow secretions of the Guernsey, but also from the fact that there are at present animals possessing characteristics similar to the Guernsey and Simmenthaler on either side of the * : = : ‘ + a Ld Fie. 21.—May King of Linda Vista, recently sold for the highest price ever paid for an animal of the Guernsey breed. (Courtesy Jean Du Luth Farm, Duluth, Minn.) Rhine River, from its source in the Alps to its mouth in the North Sea. Much of the stock through this valley is frequently spoken of as red or red and white, but it is recognized by the careful observer that the so-called red is not the deep cherry red of the Shorthorn and Hereford, but rather an orange red. It is most natural to believe that as the people crossed the mountains and followed the river northward they took their patient and highly prized animal servants with them. It would then be but a short voyage to Guernsey Island which lies so handily in the channel. The exact facts may never be known, however. 64 GUERNSEYS Although the Guernseys were taken at an early date to England they were used largely by the nobility, the same as were the Jerseys. They are now increasing raptdly in popularity in the United States. They are not to be found in any considerable number on the continent of Europe or in foreign countries. Home Conditions.—Guernsey Island comprises only 16,000 acres, of which approximately 12,000 acres are tillable, the southern end of the island being a high cliff. This island rises Fic. 22.—Guernsey cow, Murne Cowen. Record for one year, 24,008.4 pounds milk con- taining 1098.18 pounds fat, Owned by Anna Dean Farm, Akron, Ohio. abruptly out of the ocean to 4 height of nearly 300 feet and slopes away northward for a distance of ten miles. The system of agriculture here must be adapted to the comparatively cooler soil of the north slope, where grass and vegetation tend to grow less rapidly but to larger size and greater succulence. It is possible that this has had something to do with the larger size of the 8000 eattle kept on the island (Fig. 22). Truck gardening with a liberal use of green houses for the supply of fresh vege- INTRODUCTION TO AMERICA (e065 tables to the English market comprises a large part of the crop- growing business. Introduction to America——In 1818, 1825 and_ 1830, animals known as Alderneys were brought to Pennsylvania. They were probably imported from England. Whether these were Jerseys or Guernseys will probably never be known. They were known as Alderneys. The first importation to be kept pure arrived in this country in 1850. Most of the importations were made from 1880 to 1890, or since 1900. The interests > =F < 4 Fic. 23.—Robinna’s Standard, Cuernsey bull, bred by Gov. W. D. Hoard, Fort Atkinson, Wis. of the breed in America are looked after by the American Guernsey Cattle Club, which was organized in 1877. This organization was essentially a splitting away from the Amer- ican Jersey Cattle Club, which, previous to this time, had been admitting animals of either breed to registry. Over 50,000 animals have now been registered, of which about one-third have been bulls. The distribution of Guernseys in America has been largely in the northern states, few going south, and fewer still going into Canada. Massachusetts, New York, and Pennsylvania in the east, and Wisconsin and Minnesota in the 5 GUERNSEYS 66 qolgM SuryIeUr 10[Oo ur uoTye ‘UU “Gann ‘wey yn] nq avery Aq poumGg ‘paviq ay} Ut UoWUIOD st NBA ose ‘ostod puv 414} OJON “IBY O}V}G BJOSOUUIPY 4B SIOUUIM ozIIg ‘poy BUNOA AssuIONH—"FZ ‘BIT BODY CHARACTERISTICS 67 middle west, are the states chiefly interested in this breed. Wisconsin may be said to be the western center, though Minne- sota is gradually becoming a rival for this honor (Figs. 23 and 24). Body Characteristics.—Guernsey cows should weigh, when mature, between 1050 and 1250 pounds, and bulls from 1700 to 2000 pounds. Considerable variation in size now exists, how- ever, due partly to the recent admission into this country, and their registration as Guernseys, of the cattle which for centuries have been raised on the third largest of the Channel Islands, namely, Alderney. For some reason the mature cattle of Alderney Island are not as large even as the Jersey and fall very far short of matching the ideal Guernsey. There are many who believe that it was a serious blunder to admit into America these small cattle, especially to admit them in the name of a much larger breed. Many breeders and practical dairy farmers, who have chosen Guernseys over Jerseys, have done so because of the reputed greater size of the former. The Guernsey naturally carries a little more flesh than the Jersey and is not so sensitive to the cold. To reduce the scale of the animals now is to throw them into the Jersey class in this respect where they will probably be easily equalled as efficient dairy animals by Jerseys of their own size. The color of the Guernsey is orange- yellow and white, in large patches. The shade of the yellow varies from light to a near red. Neither extreme is desirable. The temperament of the Guernsey is particularly agreeable. She is intelligent, but not so nervous, not so affectionate nor so resentful as the Jersey. Neither is she so indifferent as the “cold blooded” Holstein. Her sunny disposition and easy handling habits have won her many friends. There is a ten- dency, however, for individuals and families of this breed to lay on fat too readily. Calves at birth should weigh from sixty to eighty pounds and are inclined to be somewhat delicate. They are not as easily reared as the young of either the Holstein or the Ayrshire breed. Heifers mature rapidly and unless care is taken are liable to begin milking too early for best growth. 68 GUERNSEYS Dairy Characteristics—The Guernsey is outstandingly a dairy breed. While some members of them carry considerable flesh and fatten at a sufficiently good rate, they, in common with other dairy breeds, do not place the gain either in the place or in the condition to be most highly valuable. Their beef-making qualities are entirely secondary. As a whole, the cows of this breed yield rather more milk than the Jerseys, but it does not co Se - — y . = : 7 : E ft t | i Si Fie. 25.—Dairy Maid of Pinehurst, Guernsey cow that, at four years of age, produced in one year 17,285.3 pounds of milk which contained 910.67 pounds butter fat. Note deep body, well-balanced udder and large milk vein, also the evidence of good care. Owned by W. W. Marsh, Waterloo, Iowa. test quite as high. A yield of 6000 to 9000 pounds of milk per year is not at all unusual, while the percentage of fat ranges close to five. Comparing their yield with the Holstein, they give much less milk, but it tests more. In respect to their milk- ing habits as in other points the Guernsey occupies a position between the Jersey and the Holstein, but rather more near the Jersey. One value of Guernsey milk is its exceedingly vellorw color. In this respect, it outclasses all other breeds. Not nfre- quently butter made from Guernseys on full grass pasture is. .ore ADVANCED REGISTRY 69 more highly colored than some markets desire. On the other hand, a few animals of Guernsey blood in a herd of Holsteins quite naturally increase the color as well as the fat content and enhance its selling qualities. The length of the lactation period of this breed varies with the intensity of dairy temperament and with their feed and handling, as with other breeds. Adaptations.— There are a few places where the qualities of the Guernsey are particularly needed. She fills rather better than any other dairy breed, the needs of those small farmers who do most of their own work and who have but a moderate quantity of feed to use. Their problem is how to convert a moderate- sized hay stack and other material into a product which will bring the most money. Next to the Jersey the Guernsey con- verts the largest proportionate amount of her feed into milk fat (Fig. 25), but since the modern Jersey is rather sensitive for general farm life in the northwestern sections of the United States, the Guernsey is being largely adopted as her substitute. A second peculiar place is, as mentioned, in the herds of some of the breeds producing a very white milk for market. Advanced Registry.—In 1901 asystem of advanced registry was adopted and though the test period at first covered either seven days or a year the rules were soon changed to recognize only the full year test. Records included both the pounds of milk yielded and the fat produced as measured by the Babcock test. ‘‘ The owner of the cow keeps the milk records in detail throughoyt the year.” Once every month an official represen- tative of an experiment station or agricultural college visits the farm to confirm the yields recorded by the owner and to test the milk produced at that time. A two-year-old cow will not be admitted into advanced registry unless she produces 6000 pounds of milk and 250 pounds of fat. Older cows’ are required to produce 3.65 pounds of milk per day more, up to five years of age, and for each day past two years of age at the time of begin- ning, one-tenth of a pound of fat additional is required. Mature cows are admitted upon the production of 360 pounds of fat per year. Bulls are admitted to advanced registry when two or more of their daughters have been admitted. 70 GUERNSEYS It was the record made by the Guernsey cows at the World’s Fair in Chicago, in 1893, which first attracted the attention of the American farmer to this breed, and the record of the cow Mary Marshall, when she led a herd of 50 cows of 10 breeds at the model dairy at the Pan-American Exposition in 1901, that fixed it. Since that time many handsome records have been made by members of this breed. Particularly to be noted is the record recently made by the cow, May Rilma (Fig. 2), in producing in 365 days, 19,630.5 pounds of milk which contained 1059.59 pounds of fat, equivalent to 1271.5 pounds of butter estimated upon the basis of 80 per cent fat. And later the cow Murne Cowan produced in one year, 24,008 pounds of milk con- taining 1098.18 pounds of fat, equivalent to 1317.82 pounds of butter. These records established for this breed the world’s cham- pionship in butter production—held for about a year. The following are the best official yearly records made up to October 1, 1915, by this breed: Class A—5 Years and Over Nee Pounds Pounds Per cent Murne Cowan 19597, A. R. Milk B.F. B.F, 9.06 SealNe[eniGivys mere ene: sy ayice 8) inate 24008.00 1098.18 4.57 May Rilma 22761, A. R. W265 e-embizys-t9eiseee ss 6 yr. 4 mo. 19673.00 1073.41 5.46 Spotswood Daisy Pearl 17696, AR. 790, Re-entry 7. .°.- ff syabs 8) aasi(o}, 18602.80 957.38 5.15 Julie of the Chene, 30460, AY R252; Re-entry, ---)- 6 yro 1 mo: 17661.00 953.53 5.40 Imp. Daisy Moon IIT 28471, A. R. 1909 Re-entry ..... 6 yr. 4 mo. 18019.40 928.39 5.15 Class B—4% to 5 Years Dairymaid of Pinehurst 24656, A] R. 843 Re-entry 23. - 3. 4 yr. 8 mo. 17285.30 910.67 5.27 Julie of the Chene 30460, A. R. VALS Pee ote oP PR a aR Cre C 4 yr. 10 mo. 15174.20 827.26 5.45 Lady Lesbia 25142, A. R. 1348 Hes enitiiny: grees ona tema 4 yr. 10 mo. [3582875 nets 03 5.79 Pandora’s Valentine of Rich Neck 27622, A. R. 1742, Re- GUHA akouboor Joga couds ve 4 yr. 9 mo. 14341.60 784.22 5.87 Glenanaar of the Glen 23619, INP UR LOOT tare, ave ee ge eaake sere 4 yr. ~I mo. 16813.10 780.66 4.64 SCALE OF POINTS Summary of 4298 Advanced Register Records 71 Hide, firm, yet loose, oily feeling and texture, but not thick 3 Dairy Prepotency—l5. Vigor, alertness, style and resolute appearance........... 15 Rudimentaries and Milk Veins—10. Rudimentaries, large squarely and broadly placed in front of and free from scrotum ; Mit elm Siu OMAU Kiba wach eis ee eh ets Ie allure «cities here ctoreioreps 10 Color of Product—15. Skin, deep yellow in ear, end of tail, base of horns, and body generally EOOLsy ain MEM COLOTEC ier ey v aka eens cars ee er ss chonereret ine, 3 roe 15 Milk Pounds Per cent B.F. B.F. Class A. 1275 Cows Average ..... 10065.47 494.91 4.916 Class B. 230 Cows Average ..... 9609.24 480.22 4.997 Class ©. 337 Cows Average ..... 9103.39 457.34 5.023 Class D. 338 Cows Average ..... 8869.44 445.85 5.026 Class E. 445 Cows Average ..... 8220.14 416.75 5.069 Class F. 533 Cows Average ..... 7902.34 400.95 5.073 Class G. 1140 Cows Average ..... 7579.28 379.55 5.007 NV SOT: 4299) COWS» 6... dau alec cho =< 8752.82 436.98 4.992 Scale of Points for Judging Guernsey Bulls Scale of points Counts Shidentis Dairy Temperament, Constitution—38. Face, lean, clean cut Jaw, strong, sinewy Muzzle, wide, open nostrils Eyes, full bright, with quiet gentle expression Horehieateelone, iT Oad yu thnay ara Maes tey-c cv cuore ste Sicha ate, ciel « 5 Neck, masculine, with strong juncture to head Throat, clean Backbone, rising well between shoulders Popins processes, larre: PUGTEd Vii. esses els seein ete es oe 5 Pelvis, wide, arching Rump, long ; Spine, wide, strong at tail head Tail, long, thin, full switch BIA as nina see CUNT VALI oho elev eicvs) eseler nw clue «leis Cape siete es 5 Ribs, amply and fully sprung, wide apart aM ea raring ITIMMNE AMG ITLOS rat v<.-)'ay-\o eins ia f Ai seh i cx oe lew =e 5 Abdomen, large, deep, with strong muscular and navel GPU CPVEMOR Can ote. 0. 6 Saat ates Sacha cciat aot bse oe 3, vuchese oi shor He zee 15 72 GUERNSEYS Scale of Points for Judging Guernsey Bulls (continued) Student’s Seale of points Counts Score Symmetry and Size—22. Hair, a shade of fawn with white markings Nose, cream colored Horns, amber colored, light, curving and not coarse....... 8 Size for the breed, mature bulls about 1500 pounds....... 4 General appearance, as indicative of the power to beget off- spring with strong dairy qualities.................. 10 Pokal Mien. eNien Sirs othe cattcnce he 100 Scale of Points for Judging a Guernsey Cow Scale of Points Counts Student’s Dairy Temperament, Constitution—38. Score Face, lean, clean cut Jaw, strong, sinewy Muzzle, wide, open nostrils Eyes, full, bright, with quiet gentle expression iHorehead, Tong, vbrdad' a o2 bs. oe et ee tea oye 5 Neck, long, thin, with strong juncture to head Throat, clean Backbone, rising well between shoulders Spinal processes, large, riieged.-., iss movie. cbc ee 5 Pelvis, wide, arching Rump, long Spine, wide, strong at tail head Tail, long, thin, full switch highs) hin, micur vane 75.7. eee teen, aire bane eee ae 5 Ribs, amply and fully sprung, wide apart Monks. thimvarehing. eo. Sone eee hase cls 1 a ee eee 5 Abdomen, large, deep, with strong muscular and navel development Py 4: sna: ices ean Ser ae el oe eee 15 Hide, firm, yet loose, oily feeling and texture, but not thick 3 Milking Marks, Flow—10 Escutcheon, high, broad, wide on thighs with high ovals .. 2 Milk veins, long, crooked, prominent, branching with Capacious “well sie. aeek cers ceosypicteicis. horsemen 8 Udder Formation—26. Wdder; fullanvtront 3.2 nee ie ea Reon eas ee 8 Udder; full and.iwellbup bebind fo2t Gan. cise. nse eee 8 Widder laree icapaciovsie- 4c. ree. ieee se eee Ns 4 Teats, well apart, squarely placed, of good and even size... 6 Color of Product—15. Skin, deep yellow in ear, end of tail, base of horns, udder, teats, and body generally, amber color hoofs......... 15 QUESTIONS 73 Scale of Points for Judging a Guernsey Cow (continued) Student’s Scale of points Counts Score Quality of Milk—6. Udder, showing plenty of substance, but not too meaty..... 6 Symmetry and Size—d. Hair, a shade of fawn with white markings Nose, cream colored Horns; ampencolored, lhehiticurvimg 32.0.5: 6... 5.2.42. 3 Size for the breed, mature cows about 1050 pounds........ 2 JEG aA ens cnet croc ci OM Rah Oe DIaen 100 QUESTIONS bo . Under what name were Guernsey cattle known when introduced into England and America? Why? . What stock probably furnished the foundation for Guernsey blood? . What blood element probably was introduced into Guernsey Island but not into Jersey Island? 4. Trace the Rhine River from Switzerland to the North Sea. Ou . Loeate the Channel Islands, Guernsey Island. How large is it com- pared with the county in which you live? . What is the color of a well marked Guernsey? What undesirable color occasionally crops out? What should be done with such animals? . How large is an ideal Guernsey cow? Bull? . What is the disposition of a Guernsey cow? . What should be looked for in the matter of calves? . How much milk and what percentage of fat ought a Guernsey cow to yield? . Compare milk yield and fat grade with Holsteins and Jerseys. . What may be said regarding the color of Guernseys’ milk and butter? . What seem to be the particular places into which the Guernsey cow fits? . When and how were Guernseys introduced into America? . What states are now most interested in them ? . When and under what conditions was the advanced registry adopted for this breed? 7. What are the milk and fat requirement for admission into the advanced registry ? . Name the cows having the five highest records. . How much did each produce? . What is the record in milk and fat and percentage of fat of the average of all the advanced registry cows? CHAPTER X THE JERSEY Tue Jersey is the most refined present representative of the race of cattle which developed in southern Europe. She is probably related very distantly to the ancient stock of Switzer- land. As agricultural development moved northward it is highly probable that the animals common in the south were taken northward to form the stock of ancient Normandy and Brittany, and that these in turn were the source of the stock for Jersey Island, which place became the home of the breed that bears its name. Little exact information is obtainable regarding the manner of handling or the characteristics of the early ancestors of the Jersey breed. Home Conditions.—Off the north coast of France, in the English Channel, there is a little group of islands known as the Channel Islands. In order of size, they are Jersey, Guern- sey, Alderney, and Sark. These belonged to Normandy before the Conquest of England when William the Conqueror, in 1065, made his famous invasion. The sovereignty over the islands fell to the people who later developed the British Empire. Thus we find that the islands, which lie so close to the French coast and are peopled largely by folk of French characteristics and with the French language, still owe allegiance to England. Their affiliation, however, is unique and permits of certain liberties in respect to self-government which are enjoved by few of the provinces. . In 1763 and again in 1789 laws were passed in Jersey Island prohibiting the importation of cattle except for slaughter. The law has been modified slightly a few times since, but has been in force, and been enforced for more than a century and a half since, and is still looked upon as an exceedingly valuable law. It was done to safeguard the health of the cattle on the island, but has been of even greater value in preserving the purity of blood and permitting the development of one of the most valuable breeds of cattle in the world. 74 IMPROVEMENT FROM WITHIN iD The island itself is only eleven miles long, by nine miles wide. It has a total area of 36,000 square miles, of which 25,000 are tillable. The population of 60,000 is engaged largely in truck gardening, making a specialty of early potatoes. The cow, however, has been given much attention and is an important source of revenue. There are about 10,000 cows on the island, or one for every two and one-half acres of cultivated land. Fie. 26.—Imp. Oxford Majesty. A champion both on Jersey Island and in America. Note strong back, rugged build yet a conformity to the dairy type. (Owned by White Horse Farms, Paoli, Pa.) IMPROVEMENT FROM WITHIN Early writers on agricultural topics mention the cows of the island as being very uniform in every respect; some very beefy; some were flat and with but poor constitutions, while yet others were fairly symmetrical dairy cows. It is evident, however, that the essential merit of the stock was recognized, since improvement was sought by selection within the blood rather than by introduction of such outside elements as were obtainable on the continent (Fig. 26). Systematic improvement began in 1834 when a score card 76 THE JERSEY was adopted to be used at the second annual fair held by Jersey Royal Agricultural and Horticultural Society. This is the first record of the application of the score card system in judging. The scale of points has been modified from time to time, but has served well to bring about uniformity and refinement com- bined with useful characteristics. The plan of registration on the island is unique. “ Cows are registered as pedigree stock and foundation stock; bulls as pedigree stock only.” Within twenty-four hours after a cow drops a calf the owner must notify a representative of the Department of Agriculture, who must satisfy himself that the calf in question was actually born from the cow claimed by the owner to be its mother. sekahea Wee renee ee ee anne 2 ail 2 Thin, long, reaching the hock, with good switch, not coarse on highvat setrimo von crane sar ditel ear 2 QUESTIONS 89 Scale of Points for Judging Jersey Bulls (continwed) Student’s Counts Score Size 5: Pe Matoresoullael200stola00spounds 2. seese steno. so 5 General Appearance 15: Thoroughly masculine in character, with harmonious blending of the parts to each other; thoroughly ro- bust, and such an animal as in a herd of wild cattle would likely become master of the herd by the law of natural selection and survival of the fittest ...... 15 MG Palle ysis cad sere tae eer 100 CaAantanrwn QUESTIONS . Where did the Jerseys originate as a breed? Upon what foundation stock ? . What law was most valuable in establishing this breed? . How large is Jersey Island? . Where is it located? Find it on the map. . For what products, other than cows, is the Island of Jersey noted? How was improvement in the breed brought about? . What is the present plan of registration of cattle on the island? . Tell how the Jersey on the island is handled and fed. . What is the color of pure-bred Jerseys? 10. . How large is a Jersey calf at birth? . What may be said of the intelligence and the aflection of the Jersey? . When may these good qualities prove a disadvantage ? . What quality of milk do Jerseys produce? . How was the richness of Jersey stated before the Babcock test was What are the average sizes of cow and bull? invented? . Under what conditions may the larger fat globule be of value? . When were Jerseys first imported into America? . How widely distributed is this breed at the present time? . What is meant by American type Jersey? . How do they differ from the Island type Jersey? . What precaution should be taken in mating Jerseys? . What is constitution? . Why can Jerseys produce butter fat cheaper per pound than any other breed of cows in America? . What are her particular adaptations? . What improvement is most needed in the Jersey breed? j. What is the ‘ register of merit ’’? . What is the best year’s record for a Jersey? What cow holds it? . Compare the Jersey and Holstein breeds. CHAPTER XI AYRSHIRES Origin.—In comparison with the Holstein and Brown Swiss, which are virtually the pure descendants of the cattle of an- tiquity, or even with the Guernsey and Jersey which are modi- fications of the more or less mixed foundation stock, the Ayrshire breed of cattle may be said to be ‘“‘man made.” It is the youngest dairy breed of importance. In the Shire or County of Ayr, southwest Scotland, there lived in the early eighteenth century a number of farmers who seemed to have become con- vinced that their stock would admit of improvements, and set about to doit. The animals of 1750 are described as undersized, ill-fed, irregular, and as producing but little milk. They were, however, extremely hardy. ‘They were undoubtedly the domes- ticated representatives of the aboriginal wild cow of that region and related to the West Highlands in that respect. In the mountains of Wales there are still to be found small black, ex- tremely hardy, wild cattle and in England there are still a few specimens of an aboriginal wild white cow. During the latter half of the eighteenth century there was a strong movement towards the improvement of all neat cattle. These cattle were improved largely by crossing in other better developed breeds. Just when certain bloods were introduced is not accurately recorded, but it was evidently the early introduction of the blood of the old Teeswater breed, later known as Durhams, and still later more widely known as Shorthorns, that gave scale to the hardy little native cattle. At this time the Teeswaters were large, rather beefy and not particularly well refined. Their cross with the little, nervy, native stock must have produced a great mixture of characteristics, for soon, it is believed, there was an introduction of breeding cattle from Holland, animals essen- tially like our present Holstein. This was evidently done to improve the milking qualities, but with such a mixture, the breed became too large and lacking in the nimble grazing qualities necessary for the Scottish hillside pastures. At this juncture it is thought that there was introduced the blood of Jersey char- 90 BODY CHARACTERISTICS 91 acter to add refinement, to reduce the size, and yet to hold the milking qualities. The West Highland, Hereford and Devon bloods were probably introduced into a few herds, but whether any appreciable amount of the blood of the latter has been handed down in those animals that formed the Ayrshire is not known. » Home Conditions.—The land in the country of Ayr, Seot- land, rises from the ocean on the west, rapidly into the moun- tains 2000 or more feet in height. Though cold in winter, the climate is not hot in summer. Plentiful rainfall keeps the grass on the clay pastures abundant. Thus the Ayrshire eattle were developed under the cool, rugged conditions where grazing ability was essential. The birth-place of the Ayrshire breed of cattle in close _ proximity to the magnificently developed beef breeds of both Scotland and England doubtless had its influence in the develop- ment of symmetry and beauty in this dairy breed. And certain it is that the Ayrshire breeders have set a pace in the matter of beauty and poise of the animal which the adherents of other dairy breeds find hard to follow (Fig. 33). Importation to America.—Farly in the nineteenth century Ayrshires were brought to Canada and soon after herds were established in New England. ~Some are thought to have been brought to Connecticut as early as 1822. Many of the Ayrshire herds of the eastern states are the descendants of these early importations. Larger numbers of better developed animals were brought over later. Importations are still being made. Body Characteristics—The Ayrshire ranks as a middle- weight dairy breed, mature cows weighing in the neighborhood of 1000 pounds and bulls ranging from 1500 to 2000 pounds. For many years the plump form was held to, in the endeavor to retain the beef-making qualities along with the dairy. These are now spoken of as “tubby” and as being too plump to be ideal representatives of the breed. The present ideal for a cow is an animal of greater scale, deeper body, and more angularity (Fig. 34). The beautiful, straight back, level rump, long rear quarters and symmetrical udder are being retained and the short teats of the past are being developed past the point of eriticism. In colorthe American Ayrshire is often a deep red, 92 AYRSHIRES streaked with seal brown, giving a brindle effect, but ranging from this to a clear cherry red and white (Fig. 35). The desire for white on the part of the Seottish and Canadian breeders became current a few years ago, with the result that the ideal animals of the present are three-fourths or more pure white and the remaining part a dark red, often assuming a seal brown shade, especially in bulls. The temperament of the Ayrshire is pronounced. ‘The timid, yet forceful and active manner of the uboriginal wild stock used as foundation stock many hundred years ago still asserts itself. Most cows of this breed, though not vicious, are a little hard to handle, because so headstrong. I es: Py 3 BS : ‘. : - Fe . Ps os a { Bc % cs a Re rd z= M4 Wee Fie. 33.—A champion Ayrshire Bull, Bargenoch Gay Cavalier. Note the beautiful and rugged outlines and deep chest. (Property of Adam Seitz, Waukesha, Wis.) Their character must be taken into account in handling them. Their grazing qualities are phenomenally good. Their feet are sound, their legs are straight and they are buoyant. Whether for hillside climbing or nibbling of the short grass in semi-arid west- ern prairies, the Ayrshires lead all other breeds of dairy cows. The calves at birth are plump, well muscled and weigh about seventy-five pounds. They are quick to stand and easy to raise. The heifers do not mature very rapidly compared with the Jersey, but sufficiently early for all practical purposes. While Fig. 34.—A typical modern Ayrshire cow. The deep body and rvgged frame are now sought rather than the short ‘“‘tubby’’ form. Note the well-balanced udder, good sized, well-placed teats, and the large crooked milk vein. Fiea.35.—Imp. Ayrshire bull Duchrae Success. (Owned by the late J. J, Hill, St. Paul, Minn.) 94 AYRSHIRES not immune to any of the diseases that afflict cattle, they are more nearly free from them than other dairy breeds. They are remarkable for the regularity with which they will breed and the number of years that they will keep at work. Dairy Qualities.—Most Ayrshires of the present time carry too much meat to be pronounced dairy animals, though the present tendency is towards the more extreme dairy type. The yield of milk is moderate for its grade, though some very credit- able records have been made (Fig. 36). An average of twenty- four animals reported by American Experiment Stations shows a milk yield per year of 6533 pounds, having 3.85 per cent fat and yielding 257 pounds of fat. The advanced registry for this breed was inaugurated in 1902 with the requirements as follows: Cows two years old or under must produce 6000 pounds of milk containing 214.3 pounds of butter fat. For each day over two years a 0.06 pound increase in fat is demanded and 1.37 pounds i in milk, with the requirement increasing until at five years of age or older she must produce 8500 pounds of milk containing 322 pounds of fat. Bulls scoring 80 points and having: two daughters from different dams in the Advanced Registry, or without scoring, 54 daughters in Advanced Registry, are themselves admitted into the Ad- vanced Registry. The best ten living Ayrshires with official yearly records are: Record Milk Fat Name No. Lbs. Lbs. Auchenbrain. Brown Kate 4............... 27943 23022 917.60 Garclaughe SpOvmle gat: «1 cs ee me eeu: Soe. 27950 22589 816.25 Tully WOLMWV LNG CONOR a otscetere, ope ee oe '5.05/01 28 tok 22269 22.106 888.70 Auchenbrain™ Yellow kate =... 02. 5 o.n 36910 P28} 888.33 CerrantOnMDGrawlNd Pec eae te ieee ete 23853 21023 804.79 Reng MOSS CON Neve fascartate ). ere ee ete 25295 18849 713.56 JeamwATMOUTe are cee ies eee cle abate thems ste eat 25487 20174 774.73 Netherland eBrowmle Oth. oe. onic eres 23985 18110 820.91, Agnes Wallace of Maple Grove ........... 25171 17657 821.45 Reensa ke Onde cie. cio ested ns els omer nical 26013 17410 711.27 The above are certainly very creditable records and indicate strongly the probability that with more thorough development of the deep body and angularity sought at the present time, this breed will -rival the other dairy breeds even more closely in the SCALE OF POINTS 95 future than in the past in the matter of total production. Especially is this indicated by the recent record of 17,974 pounds of milk containing 738.32 pounds of fat produced in one year by the senior two-year-old heifer, Henderson’s Dairy Gem 35176, which is the record for all breeds for the age. Fic. 36.—Imp. Ayrshire cow, Kilnforn Bell 3d. Grand champion for the breed at the National Dairy Show, Chicago, 1913. Average of All Advanced Registry Records to November 1, 1915. Milk Fat Fat Lbs. Lbs. Per cent OP ATELUWMEV COWES & 8.5 siziaiere's ainda s'oheistajee «ar s+ 2 10830 420.05 3.89 BA Semon ss yi OLN ga He gh taiate te = ate aes aS 10281 396.00 3.86 ay ANAT + Sy Te OLG. ue. sale tole sieeve. «0S 9574 376.31 3.93 NMOPSEMOLC ORV. «Old. tetas Sete ancle s Sco ee 8949 365.28 3.99 near UOn ey! OL. (152s de oss > ed vce lel age « 8773 344.22 3.94 2) FENG CTE Sits coal) C1 PAR eas ge 8503 ° 337.32 4.02 ibe AWOROR AE. OLD 2s voy wlotw ai oe «!e sree ais 7478 311.26 3.99 oe 1846 total cows and heifers ..............+- 9405 371.88 3.94 96 AYRSHIRES Adaptations.—It is evident from what has been said that the place for the Ayrshire will, in the future as in the past, be found closely associated with the mountainous sections, but that in addition she is being sought by those farmers of our west, whose stock must graze on the short grass pastures of the region of scanty rainfall. The fact that the Ayrshire has been known and advertised as a very hardy cow, doing better under hard conditions than most or any other breed, has undoubtedly attracted to this breed men who propose to give loose care and to subject the animals to hardships. No breed could develop rapidly under such management. The Ayrshire is a beautiful and a useful cow worthy of being kept in greater numbers. Scale of Points for Judging Ayrshire Cows Student’s Counts Score Head 10: Horehead broad, and clearly delimed yy) era dn etsaie ee 1 Horns, wide set on and inclining upward .............. l Face, of medium length, slightly dished, clean cut, show- TAS SVGUMS 2, ofa vegeta! eecueke als oa Renelet acted pee SR yea 2 Muzzle, broad and strong without coarseness, nostrils Dear ore are. athe ste Mikey end 2 es catia tau) Se hse tnt ern eee 1 Jawswide: atvthe base and Stron@e nce. eee eee 1 Eyes, full and bright with placid expression ............ 3 Ears, of medium size and fine, carried alert ............ it Neck, fine throughout, throat clean, neatly joined to head and shoulders, of good length, moderately thin, nearly free from loose skin, elegant in bearing ...... 3 Fore Quarters 10: Shoulders, light, good distance through from point to point, but sharp at withers, smoothly blending into body 2 Chest, low, deep and full between and back of forelegs .... 6 Brisket: Iioith yee wees oe idk ett toe aces damn emis adt ne eee deaa 1 Legs and feet, legs straight and short, well apart, shanks fine and smooth, joints firm, feet medium size, round BolidGand deepsea ters tier ts a tee ee ripe kd ree 1 3ody 13: Back, strong and straight, chine lean, sharp, and open VOMMLEME of 1.8 Gao eacee Seedt «Mee ay De ega ceree Giaks hee 4 Loin, sbroad, strong amd Level y.)- sedi - sont sysrcucrt- ote= ote 2 Ribs, long, broad, wide apart and well sprung ........ Se bc. SCALE OF POINTS Scale of Points for Judging Ayrshire Cows (continued) Counts Abdomen, capacious, deep, firmly held up with strong mI sGulaTe deyelopmmenty a9 «hie sek steiste | cepts hsrclene tie Pea eae Men GUT EAC: UT CLINI My NS chaise! «cc aie bai oped lene ome Hind Quarters 11: Rump, wide, level, and long from hocks to pin bones, a reasonable pelvie arch allowed :.../.......:..2.. Hocks, wide apart and not projecting above back nor PAE Y SOMETIAVOO WADE EAL 2s. .0 sas Paya nie e\eee roe Feel aceite Pinwnones,, bick and wide apark. wh. afm: acts hs Oe Thighs, -thinyleong’ and wide apart)... 2. wis. eee 6 oat Tail, long, fine, set on a level with back ............... Legs and feet, legs strong, short, straight when viewed from behind and set well apart; shanks fine and smooth, joints firm, feet medium size, round, solid AMAL AGED verepera tare eyetopoth aro oF isscgat meta ee chai yide cpap eee j Udder, long, wide, deep, but not pendulous, nor fleshy, firmly attached to the body, extending well up behind and far forward, quarters even, sole nearly level and not indented between teats, udder veins well developed Pee BAIT LY. WARIDIO™ 4.0). -00M als cele = ls ooh iays agence Sates Teats, evenly placed, distance apart from side to side equal to half the breadth of udder, from back to front equal to one-third the length, length 21% to 3% inches, thick- ness in keeping with length, hanging perpendicular ANGMOEtAPCEIN GH? wees ole sapere aig ees eee stecueterg ees ies Mammary Veins, large, long, tortuous, branching and Cansei Mente) Oy eitiGes| 9s nem see pA oUos. so Sea e Ob Escutcheon, distinctly defined, spreading over thighs and CRUOME MT WU WD WaRO: jaa je. 0's fe sveye vo, «bol cit shai. els po» Color, red of any shade, brown, or these with white; ma- hogany and white, or white; each color distinctly defined. (Brindle markings allowed but not de- SLT ER) tees he eer ope eset o. Sad te ey shay ara adet es wae Lal Sate, este eNe, Sos Covering 6: Skin, of medium thickness, mellow and elastic ........ ELAN ASO taal Tl etn eens ett eae Meee a RR tn die chews ove Secretions, oily, of rich brown or yellow color ......... Style, alert, vigorous, showing strong masculine character, temperament inclined to nervous, but still docile .. Weight, at maturity not less than one thousand pounds.... Rotalgae gc sce. SnD Nalteh eter ale Wiel atete stave eparate (ov) bo re Wwe WY bo bo 97 Student’s Score 98 AYRSHIRES Scale of Points for Judging Ayrshire Bulls Student’s Counts Score Head 16: Forehead, broad and clearly defined ................. 2 Horns, strong at base, set wide apart, inclining upward .. 1 Face, of medium length, clean cut, showing facial veins .. 2 Muzzle, broad and strong without coarseness .......... 1 INGO SHUI, MEHRLEY Ghavel WON Goaes bts dcuqousadonopae canoe 2 JENS wes Chie ie hal ynders Cobooncacoodoceocucace 1 Eyes, moderately large, full and bright ................. 3 Ears, of medium size and fine, carried alert ............ 1 Expression, full of vigor, resolution and masculinity .... 3 Neck 10: Of medium length, somewhat arched, large and strong in the muscles on top, inclined to flatness on sides, en- larging symmetrically towards the shoulder, throat cleans and: freesirom loose skims .\.5. mm peta si eevee 10 Fore Quarters 15: ‘ Shoulders, strong, smoothly blending into body with good distance through from point to point and fine on top 3 Chest, low, deep and full between back and forelegs .... 8 Brisket, deep, not too prominent, and with very little ite Cy Ce Oy ae Naor Dia masreee or cbho Sc 2 Legs and feet, legs well apart, straight, and short, shanks fine and smooth, joints firm, feet of medium size, sound.-solatamd) deep v1. an Ye eee ents ee oe reece 2 Body 18: Back, short and straight, chine strongly developed and OPEMTIOTNLEM .\e6. 151,012 fois ore wie techn, se ed oie ee 5 Loin, broad, strong. and level 2 ')0 isc... ogee oe 4 Ribs, long, broad, strong, well sprung, and wide apart .. 4 Abdomen, large and deep, trimly held up with muscular GevelOpment so). < ce oe cas les lt abe ohm. he s/o =~ slastetona lalate 4 Flank, thin and arching ....... Tee cee es ae 1 Hind Quarters 16: Rump, level, long from hocks to pin bones ............ 5 Hocks, medium distance apart, proportionately narrower than in female, not rising above the level of the back 2 Pin bones, high, wide apart .........-...+e eee e eens 2 Thighs, thin, long and wide apart ...-.----++e+-seeeeee 4 Tail, fine, long, and set on a level with back ......... 1 Legs and feet, legs straight, set well apart, shanks fine and smooth; feet medium size, round, solid and deep, not to cross in walking ........-eseeeeseeeces sYeotate, Stee QUESTIONS 99 Scale of Points for Judging Ayrshire Bulls (continued) Student's Counts Score Scrotum, well developed and strongly carried ........... 3 Rudimentaries, veins, etc., teats of uniform size, squarely placed, wide apart and free from scrotum; veins long, large tortuous, with extensions entering large orificés ; escutcheon pronounced and covering a large surface 4 Color, red of any shade, brown, or these with white, mahogany and white, or white; each color distinctly GRC earl Sea oiarp: siabsce Pie at hase alae SRS os hele, cnet es deo es 3 Covering 6: Skin, medium thickness, mellow and elastic ......... .3 Secretions, oily, of rich brown or yellow color ......... 1 Eliane SObt san diwiin Gy: eee et co ae eisai. ; siomtaien wine 2 Style, active, vigorous, showing strong masculine char- acter, temperament inclined to nervousness, but not ETL. OFS VICIOUS thsi. Foie! «ate sida ainresoterole, RIB ale 5 Weight at maturity not less than 1500 pounds .......... 4 EAU rasate;e Nicks ohare cuetary Mit eoticts ities Sr eee on of Oh a 100 QUESTIONS . Where did the Ayrshire develop? . What blood elements were used in building the breed? - Describe the native home conditions of the Ayrshire. . How have the near-by beef breeds influenced this dairy breed? . When were they imported into America? . Describe an Ayrshire cow, as to color, size, temperament, grazing ability, outline and general breeding and handling qualities. 7. What conditions seem to call for the Ayrshire cow? 8. Is she an intense dairy animal? 9. What is the best record to date? 10. How does the average fat produced compare with the other breeds of cattle? OD Oke | DH CHAPTER XII THE RED POLLS Tur Red Polled cattle are of ancient English origin. Whether the foundation stock came from the continent with the Seandinavian settlers of Suffolk in the fifth century a.p., or from some native aboriginal wild stock, will probably never be known. They were developed, however, at a very early period in the two counties of Norfolk and Suffolk in eastern England. In Norfolk they were beefy and poor milkers, dark red in color and hardy. In Suffolk they were of indifferent beef value, but considered as very good dairy cows and were without horns. The present breed is the result of an amalgamation of the two types which was accomplished more than a hundred years ago. | Home Conditicns.—The home of this breed was on low hills and marshes. While the soil was not always of the best, the climate was mild and moist, thus encouraging ample pasturage. It is natural, indeed, to expect from such conditions, coupled with good care, that the animals should grow large, mature early and be generally responsive. Such is found to be the ease, Importations to America.— While it is thought that animals of the Red Polled stock were brought to this continent with the early English colonists at Jamestown, Virginia, because of the prevalence in the eastern states of a red muley cow, it is known that better developed animals of this breed were imported in 1847 to Massachusetts. From 1873 to 1887 large numbers were brought over. The Red Polled Cattle Club of America was organized in November, 1883. Body Characteristics——The color of the Red Polls is a solid deep red with an occasional white patch on the udder, belly or switch. The size is medium to large, mature cows weighing from 1200 to 1600 pounds or more, and bulls from 1800 to 2400 pounds. As their name indicates. the breed is entirely without horns (Fig. 37). In general bodily makeup they are not so thick in the neck, back or leg as the beef breeds nor as 100 ADVANCED REGISTRY 101 thin as the more pronounced dairy breeds. They are not so angular as many Shorthorns nor as compact as the Hereford. The temperament of Red Polls is somewhat nervous but not disagreeably so. Calves weigh from eighty to ninety pounds at birth, are strong, easy to raise and mature in medium time com- pared with other breeds. Dairy Characteristics.— From the earliest records the Suffolk cattle were known as good dairy cows. It is recorded that some whole herds, while on good pasture, would average five or six gallons of milk per day, while a few of the best cows yielded as much as seven or eight gallons per day. The Norfolk cattle with which the Suffolk were blended were more on the beef order, consequently the modern Red Polls are probably not as free milkers as were the old Suffolks. The milk, however, is richer. The herd of Mr. Garret Taylor, of England, consisting of ninety-eight cows, is reported as averaging 5582 pounds of milk in 1896, while in 1895 with eighty-seven cows in corresponding condition as to age, averaged 5540 pounds. Lord Rothschild’s herd at Tring Park, England, has been selected with a special view to milk production. Thirty-seven cows, in 1896, averaged 6937 pounds of milk. In smaller herds more rigidly selected for dairy purposes there were even higher yields (Fig. 38). In America, until recent years, the breed has been handled more largely by beef fanciers than by dairymen, yet some very creditable records have been made. At the Pan-American Model Dairy at Buffalo in 1901, this breed ranked fifth in a class of ten of the best dairy breeds of the country. Many three-day records of three to four pounds of fat per day have since been made at various state fairs. The Advanced Registry was inaugurated in December, 1908. In this only yearly records are recognized. “ Only such cows as have made officially authenticated butter fat records not less in amount than 6000 pounds of milk or 300 pounds of butter fat in twelve months shall be eligible to advanced regis- try.” In addition: “A cow to be eligible to entry with deserip- tion must scale at least eighty points of the official scale of points and must weigh not less than 1100 pounds.” THE RED POLLS 102 This last clause with respect to size and score could well be emulated: by every other breed of dairy cows. La has SARS ee Cvs CO Fic. 37.—Typical Red Polled bull, Teddy’s Best, a champion at many fairs, head of the herd at Jean Du Luth Farm, Duluth, Minn. Fic. 38.—Typical Red Polled cow, Jean Du Luth Beauty (A. R.), World’s champion Record 20,280.6 pounds milk, 891 pounds butter fat inone year. (Bred Red Polled cow. and owned by the Jean Du Luth Farm, Duluth, Minn.) SCALE OF POINTS 103 Official Milk Records.—The best ten yearly milk and fat records for this breed up to February 1st, 1916, are as follows: No. Name Milk Fat aiieo ean Ow uth Beauty: 2.00 oo s 6. etna he 20280.6 891.58 PSOOIee real DUG IPCal ujhi ad cs cise os ees leiehoel os 16598.4 707.24 DAS SOMME CAEL Fh.csecls ciots sities a ed Le ORR ara RE aac CREPES 13160.6 603.66 PETC SLU OT eae Paneth tees enc eich S, core ey ais os a canaie btfeve seus. 12590.0 595.73 Ba ronaesn (un Muth Dorothy i... oud es.ies is. . 11614.8 571.46 ie a SUM eke es cl watchs lee ee net 12622.1 536.80 Poaoredieun- DusluthePear o ioe... eco. hee ob 13538.4 546.34 EC) om Zea ete YOR Pew Fee? soa tevsy eve cals ch o,c3 te al e 8 ores 10807.75 Seas UZ Sie Gr Ol des OWE. raisers eet c}sl eo iespeitelays aie eas ve, «ee .-. 11889.50 510.62 iow ecanmeOu lath Peachy 222. jis. alsa ae ss 11357.20 501.08 The best record by any one herd has been made by the Jean Du Luth Farm, Duluth, Minnesota, with mature cows as follows: No. Cows in Average Lbs. Average Lbs. Herd Milk Fat MO AEMiRtis we rehsis s wtlertera it's oo 26 6529 268.00 TIS) NS3 states et Geeta a aeaene Ae ei tae 24 7645 316.27 NQUIAGE Wetercre 5 Raat asst Si eos 24 9818 403.50 Gites ei ever. Scene teak 20 10781 467.20 OM ger eyes oe ees f- kcs ales 13)? 11274 479.93 Scale of Points for Judging Red Polled Cows Student Counts Seore WOON Meratarntre el ches, 010" Any shade of red.’ The switch of the tail and udder may be white, with some white running forward of the navel. Nose a clear flesh color. Interior of ears should be a yellowish waxy color Objections: An extreme dark or an ex- treme light red is not desirable. A cloudy nose or one with dark spots. to *Include records of six heifers with first calf and one incomplete year of a mature cow. ? Include only records of mature cows. 104 THE RED POLLS Scale of Points for Judging Red Polled Cows (continued) Student's Counts Score edd so meine coves ahs bys Of medium length, wide between the eyes, sloping gradually from above eyes to poll. The poll well defined and prom- inent, with a sharp dip behind it in center of head. Ears of medium size and well carried. Eyes prominent; face well dished between the eyes. Muzzle wide with large nostrils...... 6 Objections: A rounding or flat appear- ance of the poll. Head too long and narrow. NOC kis Seta crite sicpslolepere Of medium length, clean cut, and straight from head to top of shoulder with inclination to arch when fattened, and may show folds of loose skin under- neath when in milking form........ 3 Shoulder sca. lect: Of medium thickness and smoothly laid, coming up level with line of back... 6 Objections: Shoulder too prominent, giving the appearance of weakness in heart girth, shoulder protruding above line of back. (Chester cere reietsc Broad and deep, insuring constitution. Brisket prominent and coming well OVEN, Gages Oddo '640 coS.odls m6. 0 oo 10 Baekand Ribs)... 2.t: Back medium long, straight and level from withers to setting on of tail, moderately wide, with spring of ribs starting from the back bone, giving a rounding appearance, with ribs flat and fairly wide apart.......... 14 Objections: Front ribs too straight, causing depression back of shoulders. Drop in back or loin below the top line. IBUTOE A cl mosoe a baie noo 3 Wide, rounding over the hooks, and well GOVERCUERs ey ittenan--batciceee eens suena 3 AUNT ano ao dooo kale Of good length, full, rounding and level; thighs wide, roomy and not too meaty 6 Objections: Prominent hooks and sunken quarters. Scale of Points for Judging Red Polled Cows (continued) Student’s Score SCALE OF POINTS Counts USE SEA Sea Aa ae 5 eet Tail head strong and setting well for- ward, long and tapering to a full BTCC Mterh dhe lise Riots gta t et we ie ok ee PROM 2 ntars oh hyaae Saha toB ote RAS eee Objections: Hocks crooked, legs placed too close together. Full and flexible, reaching well forward, extending down level with hind udder Bulland well up, behind. 20:5... 0 0.25. Well placed, wide apart and reasonably OOM SSIZEMe-7-82y-1 aeRO are ohn eikemepanee Objections: Lack of development, especi- ally in forward udder. Udder too deep, “bottle shaped” and teats too close together. Teats unevenly placed and either too large or too small. Malk Veins® ..2 50 seen: Of medium size, full, flexible, extending well forward, well retained within the body; milk wells of medium size Loose, mellow, flexible, inclined to thick- ness, with a good full coat of soft hair Objections: Thin, papery skin or wiry hair. TC ONGUTIOD ve ietoteretesess i +, « Healthy; moderate to liberal flesh, even- General Description. . . ly laid on; glossy coat; animal pre- sented inygood bloomes ne. eles - Cow medium, wedge form, low set, top and bottom lines straight except at flank; weight 1300 Ibs. to 1500 lbs. when mature and finished. Scale of Points for Judging Red Polled Bulls Counts DUUOR ysis iv. 6 2.60 2.0 faye’. c Any shade of red. The switch of the tail may be white, with some white run- ning forward to the navel. Nose of a clear flesh color. Interior of ears should be of a yellowish, waxy color 10 10 105 Student’s Score 106 : THE RED POLLS Scale of Points for Judging Red Polled Bulls (continued) Student’s Counts Score Objections: An extreme dark or an ex- treme light red is not desirable. A cloudy nose or one with dark spots. leads crueleveeierspep tenets Wide, strong and masculine, relatively short. Poll stronger and less prom- inent than in cow. Ears of medium size and well carried; eyes promi- nent; muzzle wide and large nostrils 12 Objections: Long, narrow or lacking in masculine character. ING CLINE oi ios, were saa Of medium length, full crest, of good thickness, strong, of masculine ap- JUCY RG DINE MAS bre alec ccm emia oOksIO eo cc 5) Shoulders. ase ue ane Of medium thickness and smoothly laid, coming up level with line of back... 8 Objections: Shoulder too prominent, giving the appearance of weakness of heart girth, shoulder protruding above line of back. Chestitigect. wise soiees: Broad and deep, insuring constitution. Brisket prominent and coming well HOVE A lb ere ss Hoc uctlb coo on oacee 12 Back and Ribs) .)s: 0%. Back medium long, straight and level from withers to setting on of tail, moderately wide, with spring of ribs starting from the back bone, giving a rounding appearance, with ribs flat and fairly wide apart............. 14 Objections: Front ribs too straight, causing depression back of shoulders. Drop in back or loin below the top line. ISM ISHS Dic-ctanto aac Wide, rounding over the hooks, and well COVEFES Mase Meisciepte ale vsicraces shel oy iterators 3 MEW ANSE © BG ction Of good length, full, rounding and level; thighs wide and moderately full, (ere) OM eis dha eet cei ca cpa REE io 6 Objections: Prominent hooks and sunken quarters. Tails ciatle eat = fe ets sie eke Oke 10 Hee EL See SANG eae COW. cer aia cio means) oie te.s Gicee @ Sa eset ele tana Cpa os 6 seme realy SeeTNe AA COW. ah-\c, ay2e a 2s)s ciuie's coe Ae mae: «este Da cle ne 6 erm renin VCOW {© alere,chcte es vcc:cte> « Sislths vin abial Sa sas ed wh il es 2 Heme ailers HMC Ga COW, Bs tvaseeecavern ore latate sah its/ cs SOE Semone uae Rtas Be 2 NG eal der SHUT eA" COWRA tat ofsieve ore cycletete nic. asic casenudes MiewtAS oC od Sete 3 17. Color, same as cow. Dark, smoky skins very objectionable 4 18. Scrotum well developed and strongly earried............. 3 19. Rudimentary teats, squarely placed wide apart and free HE OTA GCs SCEOUULM a ceeere peso en eke aia ooe, eters Soe eek 6 lee Mallee veins: dame saS a COW: Ws! sss. 01c sets ies tical okie oo evan k 6 IB NSUOT wQUIOG: aslole tale Pee ae oid disle 2 enabeein pedaa ee 3 22. Size, evidence of constitution and stamina.............. 4 116 BROWN SWISS coOoON mS AS QUESTIONS . Where did the Brown Swiss breed originate? . What other breed in Switzerland is of more importance at home? . Describe the pasture conditions and habits of the home of the Brown Swiss. . Describe the Brown Swiss breed as to color, size, form and temperament. . What may be said of a Brown Swiss calf at birth? . Is the Brown Swiss a “dairy” breed? . When were animals of this breed imported into America? . Where are Brown Swiss cattle particularly popular? . Compare the yearly butter yields with other breeds. — . What places in American agriculture will this breed fill betcer than any other? CHAPTER XIV SHORTHORN Tuere is probably no other breed of cattle in America that is favored by so large a number of farmers as the Shorthorn. Her blood is the foundation of much of the common or grade stock kept throughout the entire United States, predominating in the middle and north central states, yet well represented in the herds of New England, the south and the far west. A large portion of the milk which has made Minnesota, Iowa and Wis- consin well known as dairy states has been drawn from grade Shorthorn cows. Origin.—The Shorthorn is a breed of old English origin. In the northeastern part of the country in the valley of the River Tees there was developed by selection and good feeding a strain of cattle considerably superior to those in the neighboring dis- tricts. Their improvement tock place chiefly in the three coun- ties of Durham, York and Northumberland. Early in the eighteenth century bulls are believed to have been imported from Holland by a Mr. Dobinson. Years later his and his neighbors’ herds were well known for their superiority over the stock of the surrounding country which had been more largely descended from the native wild animals of the Island or from stock brought in during the Roman and Norman conquests. The real improvers, almost the originators of the breed, may be said to have been the brothers Charles and Robert Colling, Robert Bakewell, Thomas Bates, Thomas Booth and Amos Cruickshank. Mr. Bates bred for milk as well as for beef, while Messrs. Booth and Cruickshank emphasized the meat-making quality. To these men and others who followed close after them, belongs most of the credit for starting the great improvement in livestock which has meant so much in every way, not only to all England but to all North and South America, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and in fact to much of the civilized world to-day. Not only was it the cattle produced but also the example, the pointing out of the possibility to other men for 117 118 SHORTHORN other breeds and classes of livestock that made their work so lasting. Importation to America first occurred in 1783 by Gough and Miller of Virginia, though not under the name of Shorthorn. In 1791 and 1796 Mr. Heaton brought Shorthorns to New York state, then for the next fifty years importations were numerous. During all this time the breed was multiplying rapidly and being extended westward as rapidly as the country was developed. Thus it may be said that the Shorthorn breed was “in on the ground floor” in America, was the cow of the cottagers and the frontiersmen. This unquestionably accounts for a part of its general favor to-day. The adaptability of this breed is excellent. It does well from the tide meadows of the Atlantic to the mountain sides in the west, and from the Gulf of Mexico to Hudson Bay. Body Characteristics.—In color the modern Shorthorn is white, or red and white, or roan. The size is large, cows weighing at maturity 1300 to 1600 pounds or more, and bulls from 2000 to 2600 pounds. In build they are generally blocky and broad (Fig. 42). Naturally so, since “ all of the really great British Nees had in mind the importance of the Shorthorn as a beef producer and Cruickshank gave this feature special distinction,” and since, too, the cattle business of America has until recent years been largely one of beef raising on cheap lands with just enough milk to furnish the home table. A very large percent- age of the pure bred Shorthorns in America, very naturally, now carry strains of the Scotch or Cruickshank blood. The ealves weigh from seventy-five to ninety pounds at birth and are com- pare atively easy to raise. The dairy characteristics of the present American Shorthorn eattle are very variable. Those that have been selected for milk as well as for beef purposes and have been hand milked show considerable of the essential dairy type and are fair milkers, while those herds and strains in which the Scotch or Cruickshank element predominates are excellent for beef but lack in dairy power. The beef Shorthorn, however, gives more milk than some of the other beef breeds and for this reason start their calves off in excellent shape. Some beef producers prefer the Shorthorn for THE DAIRY CHARACTERISTICS 119 their calf feeding ability even though they may fall a little short in intensity of beef form. It is not claimed, however, even by the breed’s fanciers that the “ milking ” Shorthorn can rival the best Fria. 42.—A good type milking Shorthorn bull, property of University of Minnesota Agricultural College. (Courtesy T. G. Paterson.) Fig. 43.—Imported milking Shorthorn cow Bertha, belonging to the late J. J. Hill, St. Paul, Minn. Photo by author. 120 SHORTHORN milk breed for milk production nor that highest beef and milk production will be found in the same animal, but rather that she occupies a mid-way position in the scale, being fairly good at both meat and milk production (Figs. 43 and 44). The profitableness of such a combination will naturally vary with the kind of farming and dairying called for by Ba and the likes and dislikes of the owner. A full considera- tion of this question would fill a large chapter in a book on farm management. Advanced Registry.— With “the aim and object of pro- moting the interests of the milking type of Shorthorn cattle ” advanced registry called “ record of merit list” was established by the American Milking Shorthorn Cattle Club which was formed in December, 1912. The official beginning of the Record of Merit list was May dst 1915. The rules require that, to be admitted to the record of merit list, cows must yield from 5250 pounds of milk containing 210 pounds of fat when starting the test at 30 months of age, up to 8000 pounds of milk containing 300 pounds of fat as mature cows, five years of age or over. Two classes of records are admitted, A, those made ofh- cially by representatives of an Agricultural College or Experi- ment Station, and B, those made by cow testing association representatives. The first milking Shorthorn year book appeared under date of 1915, and contained a goodly number of records. The best ten from thirty-three, class B list, are as follows: Record of Merit List Name Lbs. Milk Lbs. Fat Rose, or Glensifle: .-06 ok wees 18075.2 624.76 La ..5 See ee a ee ee ee 12341.4 514.79 Panama Wady ) i. sso toee mae ee 13779.5 489.46 iady Clay \ardi tam, act mead 11928.0 484.13 Pearllot silver Greek ence ier 10291.3 469.70 Lady: Clay ocd prec. congo ee ane 10015.6 396.74 Collerem Moore ye tree ae ears 9443.0 388.44 Reward ot Nora si) keer cre 9326.8 385.13 Harriet cond! 2 cpseeeat toe eee 8691.1 368.82 srookside Liasste 2nd 5.......2%.-. 8594.8 354.72 ADVANCED REGISTRY 121 Fic. 44.—Jewel-milking Shorthorn cow, owned by May and Otis, Grandville Center, Pa. Fic. 45.—Good type milking Shorthorn cow belonging to W. C. Davis. Chester, Ia. - 122 SHORTHORN The average of the thirty-three yearly records reported by testing associations is 8520 pounds of milk containing 332 pounds of fat, while the 215 private records reported in the same volume range from 5500 pounds of milk up to 16,200 pounds of milk, fat not recorded. The lactation period recorded for these 215 unofiicial records is from 168 to 365 days with an average of 344 days. Twenty-nine yearly or lactation periods (omitting two unusually short ones) averaged 5600 pounds of milk and 221 pounds of the fat at the lowa Station. The fat average was 3.96 per cent (Fig. 45). QUESTIONS 1. Where did the Shorthorn breed originate? 2. What breeders’ names stand out clearly in the history of this breed? What did they do? 3. When were animals of this breed first brought to America? 4. What are its adaptations? 5. Describe a Shorthorn as to color, size, form, temperament and grazing qualities. 6. Tell why Shorthorn cows of this country are so very variable as dairy cows. 7. What is the “record of merit list” ? 8. How do the ten yearly records compare with other breeds? CHAPTER XV DUTCH BELTED Tue peculiarly marked breed of dairy cattle known in this country as the Dutch Belted, because of their color markings, are the production of the skill of the breeders in North Holland. Something more than 200 years ago the nobility of Holland for some reason fancied cattle of black and white color, but seem- ingly chose that the white should be in one piece extending around the middle of the animal. In Holland this breed goes by the name of ‘‘ Lahenvelden,’’ which means white field, but is also said to convey the idea of the “ white body with black ends.” These animals are, in all probability, closely related to the Hol- steins or the descendants of the animals from which the present Holsteins have sprung. The Hampshire hogs of America and England, supposed to have originated in Hampshire, England, and also the Lahenvelden poultry of England and America, both of which have the white band about the middle with black extrem- ities, are also, in all probability, the production of Holland skill. From a study of the size and general characteristics of the Dutch Belted cattle, it would seem evident that considerable difficulty had been experienced in the establishment of so odd a marking. No record is available, however, indicating the amount of in- breeding or breeding to physically inferior animals which may have been necessary during the earlier days of the establishment of the breed. The by-laws of breed associations of the present time conclude with: ‘‘ White spots on an animal other than the feet, the belt, and the tip of switch considered a disqualification for registry. Color other than black and white or deformed or constitutionally defective, considered a disqualification. Beef form or absence of milk form emphatically objectionable.” Importation to America.—Although the breed attracted attention in Europe as early as 1750 there is no record of any having been introduced to America until 1838, when D. A. Haight brought over a few animals. In 1848 a second lot was 123 124 DUTCH BELTED obtained. These were kept largely in New York State, and from these have descended a good portion of the animals now in America of that breed. In 1840 P. T. Barnum secured a number of Dutch Belted cattle for show purposes but soon retired them to his farm in Orange County, New York. Within a comparatively few years several importers have introduced the animals to Canada, Mexico, and Cuba, as well as having brought a few more into the United States. At present, though more Fira. 46.—Champion Dutch Belted bull, Knox Em All, No. 646. (Owned by E. J. Kirby, Covert, Mich.) numerous in the east, representative herds may be found in vari- ous places in the sotth and a few on the Pacific Coast. There are now about 500 breeders of Dutch Belted cattle in the United States. | : Body Characteristics—A though related to the Holstein the Dutch Belted breed falls far short of attaining to the same size. Mature cows weigh about 800 to 1000 pounds, and the bulls from 1500 to 1800 pounds. Their color is invariably jet black with a white band about their middle. No white is tolerated in the field BODY CHARACTERISTICS 125 E : r ay Fic. 47.—Champion Dutch Belted cow, Julia Marlowe, No. 1187. (Owned by Mrs. Jennie Strader, Ceres, Cal.) Fic. 48.—Tilma, 1302, a champion Dutch Belted cow. 126 DUTCH BELTED of black, nor black in the field of white. In Holland white feet are permitted but they are objected to in the United States. They are very striking in appearance (Fig. 46). Their tem- perament is mild though not so placid as the Holstein. Dairy Characteristics.—Although the Dutch Belted cattle are an old breed in Holland comparatively little attention has been given to them in America and until recently those that were maintained in this country were kept largely for their looks (Figs. 47 and 48). The advanced registry for the breed was established in May, 1914. Since that time official records have been made. le| el -pmmnnes "MOTI BLOM Mi CILVIIGM! BV NCAN9IBM BYU SININTIA TWMO/SVIIZO ATNO F/ THOIIM ATHLNOW CY O750 48 AH Af “CFHIITA $1 ONIMUM AYTAR HIHM THOITY ATHIIM V SY TISN IG OL TINMVTE $1 44dNE SINE qduYyo0o0ay dadd UNV WIIWN YEARLY SUMMARY 147 from a sample composited from the six milkings there is no reason why this system should not be fully as accurate as those now in vogue with most of the pure bred cattle associations in the making of semi-official yearly records, where the herd is visited only two days each month by the official representative. The three-day system of record keeping is best carried out by ruling a cheap day book. The books recommended are those about five inches wide by a foot long, and cost 10 cents. The YEARLY SUMMAFRY. HERO OF MINN. FROM 19,70 73 [GOST OF FEED CONSUMED] RETURNS] 6 27 9] | E leseeseresel § [RRR (ae ee PS ae NES in a EA (a (es a RR ae eee Se ae ea Pars Py We Ta a ae a a ee Freee (a SY ee SE Ree ae ee ee ee PpReael ee Sa a ee ee pea SERS a ae a ee BSS Rae Ba es Baie ya al a a a ee ee ee Bes ad ie I a a Sole ef dre ER ee a ee es ee ee eS Ee (ee eS ea a Fae ed a a a ee SSeS (ee FE = wicks ae a (eR OS ES SS (ae ee [OSG a Ss ae i hee (Gea ae Ce ee ea SS Co SS Cap Ae See ee ee ee Pe ee CES, pe ees Bs CR ECS [a BR Ta De Tea Se io oa eS Ga ee ee ee ee ae ve RESIN a SS ees DV | DH Eve advantages of this volume are that it is too large to be easily lost, yet sufficiently small to be handled, and when ruled as indicated, one writing of the cows’ names will suffice for a year. The book is sufficiently large to contain the records of thirty cows for seven years if desired. It is recommended, however, that in the latter half of the book each cow be given a page upon which are recorded all important events affecting her during the year, such as date of service; date due to calve and trouble, if any. One volume per 148 STARTING A DAIRY HERD year kept in a convenient place in the stable will be found highly valuable and worth many times its cost. Permanent Records.—It is unwise to keep the permanent records on scraps of paper or in pocket-sized books. A book of 200 pages, each page about five by twelve inches, can be purchased for ten cents. Each page will hold the record of thirty cows for a month. The names or numbers of the cows should be written down the left margin of the left-hand page, then ruled up as shown below. The names need not be written on the next page but it should be ruled so that the outer third of the leaf may be cut off, so that when turned it will just fit the names of the cows. Then on this narrow page the next month may be ruled, and so on. In this way one writing of the names will answer for a whole year or longer. Herd Record for January, 1916 Lbs. milk Estimate Test from Lbs. fat given in of milk composite ' per Name and No. of Cow three days per month sample month Died ABOLEIO Se enn ire ie ace 60 600 3.5 21.00 2ay (Carlton ee is. ork: « 48 480 Sal 17.76 Oe ACL Aca teres cael ce, ay 90 900 3.4 30.60 Ae Vit Oletw aera PA 210 4.6 9.66 By Rai tay Semvaee Scere oe von (CbeS CU cadend Beet ee MONEE to Sete pice Dairy Testing Associations.—In 1905 the first codperative association in the United States of America for the.testing of cows was organized in Michigan. The idea and the individual organizing the first in the United States came from Denmark. The plan is that twenty-five farmers join their interests in the matter of testing and calculating dairy rations. In sections of the country where herds are comparatively large one dollar per cow per year furnishes money enough to run the association. In the middle west dairy herds are smaller on the average, and $1.25 to $1.50 per cow per year is necessary, since only those cows belonging to approximately twenty-five farmers can be tested. The system is to employ a competent young man, usually a graduate of a school of agriculture, or a short course, SOME RESULTS OF COW TESTING 149 to go from farm to farm to weigh and test the milk; weigh old rations fed and compute new. He remains but one day in a place, making the circuit once each month. Whenever a good tester is obtained, experience shows the investment to be a highly profitable one on the farmers’ part. Aside from getting the work done more cheaply than the farmer himself could usually do it there is the added advantage that it is done, which is so likely not to be the case for more than a few months, if the work is left entirely to the owner who has so many other matters demanding mental and physical attention. The three requisites for improvement in livestock are breed- ing, feeding and selection. The dairy herd is no exception. A constant culling out process is essential to improvement. Some Results of Cow Testing.—The nature and the amount of improvement which codperative testing associations may be the means of effecting are shown in an average of ten herds in one Iowa association during four years, as follows: Avg. animal milk Avg. animal butter Avg. animal Avg. animal yield per cow fat per cow feed cost per profit per Year Lbs. Lbs. cow cow. OSI ears ta eters, Spebcn entre. 6483 = 246 $26.40 $32.42 TOI ZR rere Ao Rava. te A anc 7649 2 52.31 39.20 MO Mtbare ea ebwtar ate, A sheet! wkd 8738 285 43.67 52.95 OMA Rae ene ee ee cnet cts fe 8648 312 48,12 66.02 One single herd increased Lbs. Lbs. POM ss chit horn etds 2c DOOD 207.7 $43.77 $22.12 OM side datemey tte cfchels ets, ceavhavon s 7060 251.9 33.28 53.96 ILA) Ie lo ents cutee FS emcee 9679 * 339.8 46.12 (Peers MOM aie eps) are a .. TStet side 10184 369.0 52.28 74.38 Similar improvements have been brought about in a great many herds and communities. The growth and status of the work are well shown by the fol- lowing table compiled by the Dairy Division, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 150 STARTING A DAIRY HERD Number of Codperative Cow-Testing Associations in the United States, In Operation on July 1st, Hach Year Number of Associations in operation States 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 MCHIP AT, isla tetas 1 4 2 5 4 3 4 + 3 3 TNE Ba (2) me a arp a se : , 3 4 3 6 5 4 5 8 New! York, 2382-07: 2 : 1 I 3 9 18,’ “2s V2OR eos WeTMONtM. 0 seer 2 8 10 11 17 28 33 NONVA eee erie 2 5 4 8 a 8 13 @aligornitaweres aie. il 3 2 4 4 5 i Wisconsine ieee 9 10 10 8 Tul DAD Sao INGlraskay.* .cereicic, oe 1 0 0 0 3 2 3 Coloradom saan 1 1 2 1 1 0 Pennsylvania ...... 1 1 2 2 it. rt OhiO® ee ek ot aioe 1 0 0 1 4 5 Maryland ..... ace V,. 82) “3. Fe JULHO pees oie coer : i : : ; 4 3 2, 7 3 Washington ....... : : : ; 1 3 1 0 0 1 Minnesota se somes 3 ff 10 9 11 New Hampshire .... 1 ] 1 4 8 Oregon aerial : : ; ; : 1 1 1 pee Ud Wit he vere Gees ; ; A : : 1 0 0 1 1 Massachusetts ..... , J Z : 2 VA 2 3 0 Waring. 2.6 5-22 2 2 2 0 0 IGANG aISMe ae ieehens 2 oe ] 1 1 In Giana recA ack cate 2 2 3 IR@MANELAYY Gainogs one 1 1 0 IMGISSOUININE eee repaieie are 2 1 New Jersey ........ 2 3 West Virginia ..... ] 1 Connechicutiesaae es: 1 3 North Carolina 2 0 VOUT AN ale meen oeess 1 0 South Dakota .:.... 1 1 INGVECT 5 rsrt re cons casts 1 Matalle e.ak cee te 1 4 6 25" 40" G4) 3 62)2 5100) AiGsee im QUESTIONS 1. Give suggestions regarding the foundation stock for a dairy herd. 2. In your section what blood predominates in the dairy herds? 3. What are the points of a good dairy bull? 4, Give important points of a good pedigree. 5. What is meant by community breeding? 6. Give advantages and disadvantages of a breeding association. 7. What dairy records should be kept by all dairymen? 8. Of what use are these? 9. Compare the three-day record with the daily record. 10. What is a dairy testing association? Explain its working. 11, What are some of the results of such associations? PART III CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF DAIRY COWS ; CHAPTER XIX DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT Moruernoop and mother-love are the very foundation of the dairy industry. When a man comes to look upon a cow as a mother, a calf as a baby and young stock as growing children, he is in a very fair way to learn how to handle them. ~The great force which impels or stimulates milk production is the fact of motherhood, or, more exactly speaking, probably an enzyme formed in connection with motherhood. If this stimulating force be strong the cow will convert the nutriment contained in her feed into milk more rapidly, and keep at it for a longer time than she could if this stimulating force were weak. We do not yet know what organ of the body secretes this stimulating fluid nor how to test for it in advance. We can only wait and see what the cow does under good care and feeding and then judge her in comparison with other cows. The largest single item in the production of the recent phenomena] milk records of all breeds is without doubt the better methods of handling now employed (Fig. 56), but next to this seems to be the inherited presence in some families and in- dividuals of an unusually strong secreting power. This may explain, in a way, why some cows of good con- stitution and general type are, after all, very commonplace producers, and also why a cow of non-famous family occasionally springs into prominence by making an unusual record. The law of variation in breeding may have passed on to her this mark, just as Jerseys of solid-colored parents are born with spots or Guernseys of orange and white parents with solid color or with dark “ smoky ” hairs about the muzzle, neck, or rear. Without in any way minimizing the value of breed, or type of the cows employed in the dairy, or the great importance of the ration consumed by the cows, it should be remembered that in the detailed management of the herd lies a very large part of the profits or disappointments to be derived. Excellent cows 153 154 DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT can be liberally fed, yet so handled as to produce little or no profit. The common cow may be handled so as to increase her production from twenty-five to fifty per cent over present yields. Gestation Period.—The length of time between service and the delivery of the calf is usually 280 to 285 days, or a little more than 9 months. It averages a little longer for bull than for heifer calves. In order that the cow may be dried off at the right time it is necessary that record be kept of the date of service of every cow. Time to Freshen.—Under most conditions in the United States, cows should be bred to freshen in the fall; the calves to be dropped between October 1st and January Ist, If rea- ag ea aa rT | sonably well housed (Figs. 56 and 57), cows are more com- fortable in winter than in summer. This saves feed. They likewise travel about much less, which also is economy. These facts enable the cow to yield milk upon less feed in winter than in summer. ‘This becomes the more important when consider- able quantities of feed are purchased or where forage crops are raised on high-priced land. Nature forces the cow to yield milk for at least a few months after calving for the sustenance of its own calf. Thus the cow when comfortably housed, liberally fed and kindly treated may be expected to milk during the entire winter months. After a period of four to seven months most cows begin to slack off in 155 GESTATION TABLE GESTATION TABLE Calculated at the Average Period of 282 Days, for Every Day in the Year. The Period is as Short as 269 Days, and as Long as 292 Days ae} ac} io} ae) as) ae} a) ao} ae) sn] 3 uo! Oo o o oO o oO o o o o o o ep = eg fee a Sol oe Da ce et a Beale sees ecg ade Goole eee Me Same eye ll Ger Gieieet el a ees eels |e), Gli liu aera | wee laren shaves Beller! ei ta Ne ie earth eh | cea| wh el oy iF saeloee I Par eanie) Jan. | Oct. | Feb. | Nov.| Mar.| Dec. | Apr. | Jan. | May| Feb.|June| Mar.) July | Apr. | Aug.| May | Sept.| June! Oct. | July | Nov.) Aug. | Dec. | Sept. 1 10 1 10 1 8 1 8 i 7 1 10 1 9 1 10 1 10 1 10 1 10 1 9 2 11 2 Wil 2 9 2 9 2 & 2 11 2 10 2 ibl 2 11 2 11 2 11 2 10 3 12 3 12 3 10 3} 10 3 9 3 12 3 ial 3 12 3 ' 12 o 12 3 12 3 11 4 13 4 13 4 ata 4 Nol 4 10 4 13 4 12 4 13 4 13 4 13 4 13 4 12 5 14 5 14 5 12 i) 12 5 11 5 14 5 13 5 14 5 14 5 14 5 14 5 13 6 15 6 iy 6 13 6 13 6 12 6 15 6 14 6 15) 6 15 6 15 6 15 6 14 th 16 7 16 if 14 i 14 7 13 os 16 i 15 i 16 7 16 7 16 a 16 it 15 8 We 8 17 8 15 8 15 8 14 8 17 8 16 8 17 8 17 8 17 8 17 8 16 9 18 9 18 9 16 9 16 9 15 9 18 9 17 |~2 9 18 9 18 9 18 9 18 9 17 10 19 10 19 10 17 10 ie 10 16 10 19 10 18 10 19 10 19 10 19 10 19 10 18 11 20 11 20 if 18 11 18 11 17 11 20 ial 19 11 20 11 20 iil 20 11 20 11 20 12 al 12 21 12 19 12 19 i 18 12 21 12 20 12 21 12 21 12 21 12 Al 12 20 13 22 13 22 13 20 13 20 13 19 13 22 13 malt 13 22 ve 22 13 22 13 22 13 21 14 23 14 23 14 21 14 21 14 20 14 23 14 22 14 23 14 23 14 23 14 23 14 22 i) 24 15 24 15 22 15 22 15 21 15 24 15 23 15 24 15 24 15 24 15 24 15 23 16 les 18 10 20 ZO me 20 We 2On | 29s 20h 270 |) 20) eae OO |e Ohi |e Ome eo all ems Sen ez N) DO) 20 e 20k teZOe uo) 208) 20mlmaR Fait | Se Pa | B30). | Bh I Ph Oras Sa sort ere) Oi | at) 8] Buk. 2h) | Pal wi ostoy eet eyo. PE Bil toy | Pal al Sto Say S15) Pall eit Deon 22 e20 ah 22) | OOn OD og DOMES Ts aoe aOm moo. rail ivi Gye| Wy BUS Sey Bale) Bene) yo) Nov.| 22 23 sOMe28 30 Mar Apr May June| 22 1 Aug Sept. Oct. 23 it |f BB PN OR OS | ee est NS Be) ie | 25} 1 | 23 1: |’ 23 ft 28 Peal eo} ieee if POR} 1 24 Bp 2 Nox 3 Jan Feb.| 24 Q | 24 Oneee Oe | Gyn Be), By Shall: p34 Bl oy 2) 24 2 25 3 | 25 4 | 25 i |) 25 |) Be Sales 3225 Bp oe 3 | 25 4 | 25 Seo 3 | 25 3 26 4 | 26 5 | 26 2 | 26 2°) 26 4 | 26 4 | 26 4 | 26 4 | 26 5 | 26 4 | 26 4 | 26 4 27 Ball 247 Gl De Bl Dy Sala ell a7 BO 27 al Bu fay Ne re ll Pz BaP Oy iy |p D7 4 28 6 | 28 QA 4 | 28 4 |, 28 Gales a |) PD Giles 6628 alos Gnle28 Gelb 3 6 29 7 | 29 Sie 5 | 29 5 | 29 oP By) i Neze |) 2S 7 | 29 8 | 29 he 2) 7 | 429 7 30 8 30 6 | 30 6 | 30 8 | 30 8 | 30 Sl 30 8 | 30 9 | 30 8 | 30 8 | 30 8 31 9 31 7 31 9 31 9 31 9 31 9 31 9 156 DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT production. Jf at this juncture the spring arrives with its warm weather and succulent appetizing grass, the milk flow is greatly stimulated. These and other forces cause the cow to in- crease in milk flow in spring often nearly equal to the maximum produced shortly following freshening. Later, as the pasture grows short and the grass tough and heat and flies arrive, the herd will decline in milk flow rapidly, but if the majority of the cows freshened in the autumn previous, they will already have given milk nearly a year. They may be allowed to go dry at this time. They need a vacation anyway. es Pe Fig. 57.—A good general farm and dairy barn. On this farm the author was raised. The fall-fresh cow will yield about fifteen to twenty per cent more milk in the year than thespring-fresh cows. It is good practice to give them their dry period while the farm work is as pressing as is usually the case in August and September. Milk and butter fat also bring higher prices in winter than in summer. Thus the cow producing the bulk of her flow at a time when it is worth most per pound becomes exceedingly more valuable than one producing most liberally when prices are low. The time required to care for the cows may usually be more readily taken in winter than in summer. Furthermore, since ‘the amount and value of manure pro- duced depends largely upon the kind and amount of feed con- GIVING THE COW A REST 157 sumed, it is found that winter dairying serves to produce more manure at a time of the year when it can be saved. Winter dairying is more profitable than summer dairying, then, because the cow will give more milk, will give the bulk of it when prices are highest and when labor is cheapest, and will produce more manure when it can be saved. In addition, the calf born in the autumn has the advantage over spring- born calves, as noted elsewhere. Changing to the Fall Basis.— Many cows are still permitted to freshen in early spring. How they shall be put upon the fall basis varies with the individual animals in question, but it will usually be found more economical to force the herd to “back up,” in other words, the cow is to be bred as soon after calving as possible, thus causing her to drop the next calf in less than a year from the time she previously freshened. By again breeding quickly it is possible to force the calving period back into the early winter or late fall. If, however, the cow in question be of dairy breeding, and intense dairy temperament, to such an extent that cestrum does not appear for three to six months after calving, it will be practically necessary to breed as soon as possible and to let the calf come when it will. Such ani- mals, however, will be found the most persistent milkers, which will enable them to give milk a year and a half, if necessary. It is much easier to control the time of calving with the Holstein, Ayrshire, or Brown Swiss, than with the Jersey or Guernsey. Giving the Cow a Rest.—The yielding of two to four pounds of solid feed per day in milk is very exhausting to the cow’s system. When to this is added the burden of the growth of the calf, a very considerable amount of work is being done. In order, therefore, that the calf may be amply nourished, and born strong, and that the cow herself may have recuperated in flesh sufficient to enter upon a new lactation period strongly, it is highly advisable that the cow be given a rest of at least four, and better, six weeks. With the majority of cows no special effort need be made to cause them to go dry, but with the high type dairy animal with the intense dairy temperament, there is likelihood that the secretion of milk in considerable quan- 158 DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT tities will continue until the new calf is born. This is detri- mental to the calf and the cow also. Such cows need carefully to be forced to go dry. Drying Off the Cow.—To hasten the drying process a large part, or all, of the grain may be withheld from the ration, thus forcing her to subsist largely, or wholly, upon roughage. To this inducement may be added that of leaving a httle milk in the udder at each milking for a time, that is, not milking out clean and shortly the milking of the cow only once a day. In this way most cows may safely be dried off preparatory to their rest period. To do this intelligently it is highly important that a breeding record be kept. The dry cow should be looked upon as a prospective milker, not as a mere boarder. If at all run down in flesh, grain or other sufficient feed should be given to enable her to thoroughly recuperate her exhausted condition. If pasture is ample no grain will be needed, but she should not be allowed to approach the next period of exhausting labor in a thin or indifferent condition. In fact it is now considered good practice and economy to feed some grain, if need be, while the cow is dry in order that she may become well recuperated, in fact almost fat. Enough more milk with a higher test will be produced during the next lactation period amply to repay the expense of conditioning at this time. Preparing Cows for Record Making.—Since milk fever is now little to be feared it has become the custom to “* condition ” or partially fatten cows during the dry period in order to enable them to produce a materially greater amount of milk and fat immediately following parturition. It has for years been known to a few, and more recently made generally public, that not only will a cow in good condition produce more milk, but that she will also yield milk of a somewhat higher fat content while milking down than would be the case if she had freshened in a lean condition. Thus, some Holstein cows, while weigh- ing 1400 pounds, yielded milk testing close to five per cent fat and so much of it that they were unable to eat enough feed to maintain such a large flow of rich milk. Consequently body tissue was drawn upon. The cows became thinner day by day. MANURE AN INDEX IN FEEDING 159 As the body fat disappeared the percentage amount of fat in the milk lowered until as the cow, after a period of a few months, reached her lean working level, the percentage of fat in the milk had dropped gradually to about 3.25 per cent. The Holstein cow, Missouri Chief Josephine, averaged a test of 4.04 per cent fat during her seven-day record, but fell to only 2.81 per cent as an average for the year. Feeding during record making is discussed in Chapter XXIII. To prepare the cow to make the largest seven-day or thirty-day or yearly records, therefore, it is essential that she be given a rest period sufficient for thorough recuperation, even to become moderately well covered with fat. A caution here is due. If the high-milking cow is fed grain up too close to her calving time there is danger of inflammation - of the udder. This is particularly the case if corn forms a large part of the grain ration. All grain should be withheld several days prior to calving, and succulent roughage, as corn silage or roots, be fed in moderation. This is done in order that her system shall not contain too much feed material and that her bowels shall be loose at the time of the birth of the calf. Manure an Index in Feeding.—Any careful herdsman of cows, horses, or other stock, will notice the condition and odor of the manure. If too hard the animals need some loosening feed, if too loose, some dry feed will usually help. The odor should also be noted. If it has a strong, rotten odor, evidence is ample that the animal is out of condition, most likely from over-feeding, and is not digesting her feed. Such putrid odor indicates that the whole system of the cow is being poisoned. In such a case a good dose of physic to clean out the fermenting matter should first be given and followed by a lessened amount of feed. Undigested kernels of grain usually call for finer grinding of the grain feed. Milking Before Calving.—Occasionally it is necessary to milk the cow partially before the calf is delivered. - This should not be done, however, unless the udder becomes severely distended and painful, and then in quantity only sufficient to relieve the stress. Most cows do not require this precaution. With high- 160 DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT class cows one danger in milking before the calf is born is the likelihood of bringing on milk fever. Care at Calving.—The calving period is a critical one in the cow’s life. Our domesticated animals are very liable indeed to produce young so large as to require assistance in delivery and other calves of normal size occasionally become misplaced and demand attention to prevent suffocation. Cows in pasture still follow their wild instincts to hide in a remote corner, to calve in secrecy, and even to hide the young in the tall grass or brush. Cows freshening in the early winter are, therefore, much more easily cared for at this time. When nearly due to freshen the cow should be put in a box stall sufticiently large to allow free movement and turning without danger. Abundance of water and a little coarse succulent feed should be supplied (Fig. 58). Attention should be given that her bowels are moderately loose. ‘The herdsman should be near at hand at the moment of calving to give assistance if needed. A few minutes spent at the critical moment may save the life of a valuable calf and occasionally the cow’s as well. Care After Calving.— The strain upon the cow’s system due to calving brings on some fever and nervousness. She should be given free access to water which is not too cold. No feed need be given for some hours. If both cow and calf are normal they may be left alone, she to clean and to lick the calf off, and he to learn the use of his legs. The cow is usually permitted to suckle the calf once, though this is not necessary. Cows have strong attachment for their calves only after having lived with them for a few days. Consequently, the removal of the calf at once, or when but a few hours old, causes no particular bereave- ment on the part of the cow. ‘The calf is wholly forgotten in a day. The calf should be removed from the sight and hearing of the dam while she is absent from the stall. Her return is the psychological moment for the dairyman. The man who later is to milk her should be on hand to caress, to speak kindly and to feed a moderate mess of steamed oats or bran mash. While she is consuming this delicacy the herdsman should groom her MILK FEVER 161 with a brush, handle the udder and teats, and gently draw a small quantity of milk. It is not at all infrequent for the cow to transfer her affections from the calf absent to the man present, to adopt him as it were, and to him yield milk as freely and as gladly as she otherwise would have done to her own young. The more intelligent and sensitive the cow and the man, the more keenly true these facts. Milk Fever.—The disease known as milk fever, or parturient apoplexy, which was the dread of high-class dairymen for a good many years, is no longer much to be feared, for whatever may or may not be the real cause of the condition, its cure or * Se es “e Pe ee en ae of al Lae ty ue oot = Fie. 58.—A supply of good water constantly within reach of the cow is an aid in milk ° production. (Courtesy James Mfg. Co.) prevention is now not difficult and reasonably certain by means of the so-called air treatment. To prevent this malady so far as possible the heavy milking cow should not be fully milked out at first nor for a couple of days. The precipitation of the condition is closely associated with the sudden and complete removal of the contents of the udder. By removing the first milk gradually many mishaps may be averted. Occasionally, however, precautions fail to prevent and the cow comes down with milk fever. For treat- ment, see page 202, 11 162 DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT Two or More Milkings Per Day.—Ordinarily the cow milked twice per day, dividing the twenty-four hours into two approximately equal periods, will give as much as she would if milked three or more times per day. ‘The fact remains, however, that when the udder becomes filled with milk there seems to be a cessation of the activity of the milk secreting glands. Some cows.are able to digest and to convert into milk a quantity of feed considerably greater than can be stored in the udder when removed but twice daily. Such cows should be milked three times and most abundant milkers four times per day, dividing the twenty-four hours into eight or six hour periods, as the case may be. This naturally involves more labor, but if a large yield is sought, such care will be found necessary. The phenomenal records recently made by the lead- ing cows of all the various breeds were produced upon the system of three or four milkings per day. Period of Greatest Yield—As a rule cows give the most milk per day between the eighteenth and the twenty-eighth day after calving. The most fat is usually produced during the second week and the most milk during the third week. This then would be the time for expecting advanced registry records to be made if any were possible. Breeding.— Following a normal calving, a cow shout not be bred for about three months, unless it is desired to turn the time of calving to an earlier date; but following an abortion the cow should be bred as early as conditions will permit. That is as soon as all discharges have ceased and all organs are clean and healthy again. The disease which causes abortion also induces sterility, consequently, considerable time may elapse before con- ception will take place. It is wise, therefore, to start early in order that the cow may not lose any more time than necessary. The first year’s record of a young cow, according to Eckles, may be used as a guide as to her ability to perform in later life, providing, of course, she is not too young when beginning work and has been adequately fed and housed. A dairy breed heifer freshening at twenty-four to twenty-eight months of age should produce during the coming year about 70 per cent of the f EFFECT OF FEED ON TEST OF MILK 163 quantity which would be expected of her in her mature form and during the second lactation year 80 per cent and the third 90 per cent. ‘ One should not draw too hasty conclusions regarding a young cow that is not doing well yet which is of such breeding that better work might be expected. The famous Holstein cow, Missouri Chief Josephine, ealved the first time when about two and.one-half years old and was fairly well fed after she calved but had not been put into condition before freshening. Her milk for the first three months tested only 1.5 per cent fat. Her first year’s work was very ordinary, but upon maturity and with better feeding she broke the world’s record for six months, producing 17,008 pounds of milk. Her record for the year was 26,861 pounds of milk. On her best day she yielded 110.2 pounds of milk, about fifty quarts, testing 2.8 per cent fat. Effect of Feed on Test of Milk—When cows have for a considerable time been very inadequately fed they not only will produce a smaller quantity of milk and fat, but the milk will have in it a slightly lower percentage amount of fat. The same animals later liberally fed upon the ordinary feedstuffs are known to increase very materially not only in total quantity of milk and fat yielded, but also in percentage of fat as well. Many reasonable and other methods have been tried for the production of milk of higher fat content. Such artificial methods as the feeding of fat, however, produce a higher percentage only by throwing the cow out of condition and making her feverish. The period of high percentage fat is then of short duration and is usually followed by a period of depression. The only practicable way of securing more fat for market is by feeding the cow liberally, yet within reason, on a balanced ration made up of ordinary feedstuffs and otherwise giving her such care that she will be able to yield a larger quantity of milk. The struggle to secure a higher fat content in milk is imprac- tical with any cow except in so far as it ean be influenced by the condition of body fatness accumulated during her period of rest; or as a long time plan, the breeding from stock which ~_ 164 DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT yields milk of a fat content higher than the average for the breed. The effect of drought on the richness of milk is to lessen it perceptibly, especially if the drought occurs early in the season, before the grass has become fully grown or matured. In 1906 an early drought in northern Missouri caused the fat test of milk to decline as much as five-tenths per cent or from 3.7 to 3.2. The solids not fat in the milk were also so low that the lactometer reading of such milk was as low as 28 or 29 with grade Short- horn cows, when it should and normally would have been 31.5. The yield of cheese as well as of butter was disappointingly low during that season. Effect of Turning on Pasture.—One of the traditions of the dairymen is that the quality of milk depreciates when cows are turned from the dry feed of the stable on to the succulent spring pasture. They were often encouraged in this belief by local creamery men during the days of the whole milk creamery. That there is no uniform decrease in the fat content of milk under: such conditions is proved by the thousands of tests made of milk at the Minnesota Station. At this institution a sample of every milking is tested by itself, not composited, as in so many places. For more than twenty years, with a herd varying from twenty to sixty cows, tests have been made twice a day. The breeds included in this and other experiments included the Jersey, Guernsey, Holstein, Ayrshire, Shorthorn and Brown Swiss. From the mass of evidence at hand it may be stated that the usual opinion is incorrect where well-fed cows are concerned that, whereas a few decrease in fat content, the average test of the milk of the well-fed herd is greater following the turning on to pasture than it was just prior to it. It is highly probable that the impression gained a place during the pioneer days when cows “ spring'-poor” were often turned out to pasture long be- fore there was enough feed even to sustain weight, to say noth- ing of producing milk. Large vs. Small Pasture.—A small pasture with an abund- ance of grass is economical, in that the cows do not waste so much of their energy in travelling about. On the other hand, a study of the movements of the herd in pasture will reveal the SHORT PASTURE 165 fact that they choose location according to the condition of the weather, seeking the sheltered places if chilly, while resting on the hill-top in hot weather. A large pasture offers greater oppor- tunity for the cows to make themselves thoroughly comfortable. If, however, the pasture is on a dead flat prairie country it is probable that the smaller pasture is preferable, while on rolling or broken land, the larger is better. Acres Required Per Cow.—This naturally varies greatly with the fertility of the field and the rainfall, also in many sections with the amount of timber or brush land included in the pasture. Dense forest. yields little :pasturage. Likewise in old clearings, largely grown up to brush, grass is to be found only in the open spaces, while within the clumps of bushes little or nothing can be secured by cows. The open field, well seeded to blue grass and white clover, will, on the average, yield grass in such quantity that two to three acres will feed one mature cow during the pasture season. The rotation pasture, however, should produce more feed and thereby require only about one and a half acres per cow per season. In many sections it is ealeulated that the average young stock consumes one-half and the dry cow two-thirds as much feed as the cow in milk. This distinction is made for pasture rental purposes. Short Pasture.—It is highly probable that the great dropping off in milk flow in July and August is due more to the short, dry pasture than to the presence of flies. The writer once tested this matter by means of two groups of cows similarly fed, oiie- half turned to pasture and the other half kept in the yard. Both were annoyed with flies about equally and both had all the feed they would readily consume, yet those animals that went to pasture went dry at the rate of 15 per cent per month, while those kept in yard decreased at the rate of only 8 per cent per month. If to the quiet of the yard had been added the com- fort of a half-darkened stable during the day the difference between the two groups would unquestionably have been yet more marked. Tf we will but remember that the average cow, giving the average amount of milk, requires the feed nutrients contained 166 DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT in about 100 pounds of grass per day, and will then calculate the number of steps and bites the cow must take on a short pasture to secure 100 pounds, it will readily be believed that she does not continue to labor until the full amount has been obtained, but rather that when the hunger is fairly satisfied she ceases her search and lies down to rest. She has probably already walked a greater distance than is really good for her and yet has secured an insufficient quantity of feed. Her main- tenance then would be above normal and the supply of feed below normal, thus reducing the quantity of feed consumed beyond maintenance, to an exceedingly small amount. Protection Against Flies.—The amount of harm done the dairy herd by annoyance from flies is not at all a settled matter. Two experiment stations, Connecticut and Missouri, conducted tests to indicate the influence of the fly and, entirely inde- pendently of each other, came to the conclusion that the damage done by the fly had been overestimated and that the slacking off in milk yield was due far more largely to a scarcity of feed and short pasture. On the other hand, we find experienced and keenly observing dairymen who attribute the falling off in milk during fly season very largely indeed to the labor and pain endured by the cows due to the flies. This is particularly the case in some of our newer northern sections where various “deer,” ‘“ moose ” and “ night ” flies are particularly abundant. It is possible, therefore, that the difference of opinion is in part due to the difference in the sort of fly common in the section considered. Supplementing the pasture by means of a crop (of Canadian field peas and oats) to be cut and fed green when pastures are short and dry, is often necessary in the maintenance of milk flow. If this is contemplated, about one acre should be used for every twenty cows to be fed. Canada field peas and oats sown as early as the ground can be worked, and followed by a similar quantity sown when the first has grown to a height of two or three inches, makes a good soiling crop for the northern states. A more reliable crop to be fed later in the season will be found in fodder corn, drilled thickly, at the rate of thirty-five to forty MILKING 167 pounds of seed to the acre and put in as early as the season will permit. This will be ready to feed in seventy-five to ninety days after planting. If possible, the field of corn to be fed out, should be located close beside the pasture or even enclosed within the pasture. ‘This nearness is for the sake of ease and economy of labor in feeding. A few minutes with a hand corn knife will suffice to cut and throw over the fence as much as the animals will readily consume. If the supplementary corn field is located by the pasture and is made long and narrow the expense of feeding will have been reduced to the minimum and it will be found to be a wonderfully well paying investment. Milking.—The cow is a creature of habit. To return the maximum of milk for the feed consumed she should be milked at regular intervals, and preferably, by the same individual. In some institutional or other large herds where the milking force is continually changing in personnel, thus necessitating frequent change of milkers, it is found preferable to shift the milkers continually in order to prevent any cow from becoming attached to any one milker. Thus the operation of milking becomes an impersonal matter. It is more likely, too, that the damage done by an individual poor milker will be pores rectified by the following good milker. In beginning the milking act care should always be taken to start the process slowly. Sharp pains unquestionably pierce the cow’s udder just as the milk starts. The first few streams should be taken slowly and gently, especially in cold weather. Many a quarrel between cow and man might have been averted if consideration had been shown at this point. Methods of Milking.—A few years ago the Danish or the Heglund manipulation method of milking was quite widely dis- cussed and was tested by the Wisconsin Station. In brief, the result showed that following a slow or weak-handed milker the Danish system of manipulation or massage would materially increase the amount of milk yielded, but when it followed a strong, active milker, little, if any, bene was derived. The Heglund system was devised very largely to interest people in general, but farm and village girls in particular, in 168 DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT taking interest and pride in milking. It served that purpose well, but also demonstrated to all the need of massage of the mammary glands if greatest activity and yield were to be ob- tained. Ample stimulation seems to be furnished, however, by ordinary rapid, strong-handed milking, followed by a mod- erate amount of drawing down of the teat and stripping out of the udder. When once the milk flow has been well started, strong- handed, rapid milking is preferable, as such will obtain more milk at each milking and will keep the cow in milk for a longer period of months. Stripping for some time after the major portion of the milk has been drawn is in part a habit on the part of the cow and the milker. This may be largely avoided if the milker will but draw down firmly on the teat with one hand while gently but firmly squeezing and rubbing downward on the udder with the other. Stripping, as commonly understood, that is, the slipping of the teat between the thumb and finger to finish getting all the milk should not be practiced. The milk can all be drawn with less pain to the cow by finishing with the full hand or with thumb and two fingers. The first and last milk drawn from a cow differ very ma- terially in fat content. The first is thin, almost watery. The fat in such frequently is only one quarter as great In amount as in the last drawn or the strippings. The amount of difference between first and last depends largely upon how much milk the cow is giving at that particular time. If fresh in milk so that the udder is fully distended, in fact turgid, the first milk drawn may test as low as one-half of one per cent fat, while the stripping test is as high as 9 per cent fat, the last being eighteen times as rich as the first. But with a cow giving only five to ten pounds at a milking, the first may test 2 or 3 per cent and the last 6 or 7 per cent, with an average of 4 per cent for the whole mass. This emphasizes the necessity of milking the cow dry and mixing the milk well before taking a sample for testing, also the fact that if the cow is not milked out clean each time the richest part of the milk is the part lost. Incomplete milking THE MILKING MACHINE 169 also is a very common cause of garget as well as causing the cow to dry up ahead of time. The Milking Machine.—From the many reports by experi- ment stations, and otherwise, regarding the efficiency and prac- ticability of the mechanical milker it is obvious that at least some of the machines, as now developed, and at present represented by a dozen or more corfiipanies, will milk cows, that is, draw from the udder most of the milk contained therein, but that it will not strip out as thoroughly as desired nor yet massage the mammary glands for the purpose of stimulating blood flow, and much less excite in the cow’s nervous system the impulse to milk secretion. The fact that some dairymen are continuing to use the machine and are well pleased with it after an experi- ence of from three to six years is evidence that the machine itself is already in a reasonably high stage of perfection, but the fact that many farmer dairymen who introduce the machine later lay it aside, would indicate that the difficulty of finding the right man to operate the machine is great. One is almost tempted to draw the conclusion that the machine has reached a higher stage of perfection than have the operators. If on a two-man farm forty or fifty cows may be kept by the assistance of the mechanical milker the advantages of the larger number of cows or the small number of men is obvious. In the dairies of fifty or more cows where transient labor must be depended upon, it seems highly probable that one of the mechan- ical milkers will be found a profitable investment, provided the owner operates the machine himself. Some machines are not provided with adequate regulators of the suction force, while others have no way provided for the relief of the teat from constant or near-constant suction. Cows do not object to the feel of the teat cups nor to the click of the machine. In fact many now on the market are easier on the cow than are ordinary hand milkers with untrimmed finger nails. The whole matter of mechanical milkers now resolves itself into three questions, the cost for the number of cows to be handled, the handling so as to keep up the flow of milk and the sanitary character of the product drawn. If a man has feed 170 DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT and barn room for twenty or thirty cows and ean save hiring a man by having a machine, it will pay to put one in, provided he understands machinery reasonably well and understands cows fully as well as would be required if he were to do all the work by hand and will attend to the work in person. Most or all the machines are now made so that all parts can be cleaned. It is another question whether they will be kept clean. If cared for properly cleaner milk can be produced by machine than by hand, but in practice there is danger that the milk will not be so clean. The success or the failure of the machine now depends almost wholly on the operator. The bed of the cow naturally should be comfortable whether made so with shavings or straw. It is the nature of cattle to eat their feed rapidly, then to lie down to ruminate it. If a hard, narrow, or otherwise uncomfortable bed is furnished them, the discomfort will induce activity and needlessly increase the amount of feed necessary for maintenance. Making the cows completely comfortable saves feed (Fig. 59). . Dehorning the cows after maturity gives them less pain than they would inflict upon some sister cow if permitted to wear their useless side arms. Clippers for the removal of horns are not to be advised, since they crush the bone and thereby leave a large number of little slivers which make healing difficult and very slow. A fine meat saw is preferable to any other instru- ment, yet devised. .The horn should be sawed so close to the head that a ring of hair about a quarter of an inch wide will still cling to the horn. Cut thus short the horn will not grow, neither will it hurt the animal as keenly as it would if eut a half inch longer, in which case the stub would continue growth and often produce an ugly or annoying malformed horn. It is inadvisable to dehorn in winter because of the cold, and it is dangerous, indeed, to dehorn in summer when flies are bad. If, in the case of an accident, it becomes necessary to saw off an animal’s horn during fly season and maggots should develop in the wound, they may be thoroughly expelled by means of turpentine. The wound should then be covered with a wad of cotton saturated KICKING Cows 171 with tar, to form a temporary scab, and to repel flies. It, of course, is preferable to apply the tarred cotton as a precaution rather than as a remedy. Cows without horns live together so much more peaceably, crowding about the water tank like so many sheep, that the prac- tice of permitting the horns to remain on the working dairy herd should be considered an extravagance, at best a luxury. As a working practice it is preferable to prevent the horn from growing on the calf by means of caustic. Sucking cows are liable to develop if calves are permitted to suckle each other after drinking. They often thus learn the cof ial. a t eY | mac Fre. 59.—Comfort is also economy in the dairy cow stable. taste of milk from some member of the herd and finally discover that they themselves may be the source of that satisfaction. Various means have been suggested, but the one which most nearly always works is to put into the cow’s nose an ordinary bull ring and into this ring a second ring, forming thus a two- linked chain. ‘This so interferes with the process of sucking as to finally discourage it altogether. It is often a hard habit to break, however, and should be averted by so handling the calves that they do not learn the trick. Kicking cows are usually developed from rough handling. The more intelligent and sensitive the animal the more likely it is to resent unjust treatment. The heifer with first calf is P72 DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT nervous and too often unaccustomed to being handled. Quiet self-control on the part of the milker for a few days will usually suffice to convince the young mother that she is among friends with no reason to fight. In ease flies, barb-wire scratch, or other cause has made bad sores upon the cow’s teats, greatest comfort in milking is found by first moistening the skin with warm water or milk. A good fly-repelling salve should be used after milking to heal the wounds. In case it is necessary to tie the animal’s legs this should be done by tying them together with a soft rope, put on in “figure eight,” above the hocks. This will prevent her doing damage and without subjecting her to the strain and excite- ment which would follow strapping a foot back. It cannot be too strongly emphasized that the cow is a docile creature, fully willing to be friends with her keeper, and will not kick without cause. Hard milkers are frequently caused by neglect of the teat in permitting it to become too dry and harsh. This may be overcome by the use of vaseline, which should be thoroughly rubbed into the skin before milking. Slow and weak-handed milking also encourages hard milking. Thus when neglect and weak-handed milking have developed a thoroughly hard milker she may often be brought back into normal condition by the application of oil and strong hands. Leaking teats are occasionally a great annoyance, since they not only permit the waste of a considerable amount of the milk so preciously formed, but so saturate the floor beneath the animal that the stall becomes sour. This in turn not only produces a bad odor in the barn, but infects the animal as she les in her place and increases the likelihood of milk being produced which will sour abnormally soon. Occasionally such leaks may be _ prevented by coating the tip of the teat with a little collodion immediately following milking. Alum rubbed on the moist end of the teat immediately following milking may aid somewhat. Name the Cows.—Every cow in the barn should be given a name and be called by that name sufficiently often and clearly to enable her to learn it. It gives individuality to the animals WATERING 173 and increases the interest on the part of the attendants. Further, the name often proves valuable in preventing cows from wander- ing into forbidden parts of the barn, for when they are seen Starting, if spoken to clearly, and called by name they realize that they have been discovered and return to their own stall or pass out as desired. Every cow should be given her own place in the barn, if possible, and taken to that place upon the first visit to the barn. When led directly to the right place and tied and fed she soon learns her place and takes it of her own accord, thus preventing confusion and accidents so lable to result if a barn is opened to a herd, the individuals of which have no definite place. Watering.—Cows require from three to five gallons, twenty- five to forty pounds of water, per day when dry and from three to four times that amount when milking. In ecaleulating tank eapacity 160 pounds or twenty gallons will be required each day for each cow. If the cow is compelled to drink ice water in winter the feeder may calculate that the heat in two pounds of hay will be required simply to warm the water from the tem- perature of the pond or icy tank to that of the animal’s body and that half or more of this loss can be saved by tempering the drinking water to about 70 or 80 degrees. This is particularly desirable when cows are watered from a large tank out of doors. The violent shivering so often seen in cows and horses just after drinking a lot of cold water is nature’s way of giving the animal exercise to warm the water. (See paragraph on Stable Tem- perature.) While some cows will drink only once a day by preference, most desire to drink at least twice. A cow milked very heavily should be watered at least four times a day or, better, have water available at all times, either in a pail or drinking fountain. Methods of Watering in Barn.—A_ private drinking foun- tain for each cow is not essential to economical milk production, nor even to high production. They are expensive to install and necessitate labor in keeping them clean. Further than this, it will be found good practice, even in cold weather, to turn the cows out once or twice a day to give them a chance to limber 174 DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT up by a little walk and opportunity to discover one another. Unless use is made of this fact the intense dairy cows are liable to go over period after period of heat unnoticed. During winter the cows should be watered in the yard on warm days and from a tank at a convenient place in the stable during severe weather. It, however, is exceedingly convenient to have a watering device in the stable whereby the cows may be watered while still in their stalls (Fig. 60). A convenient method of doing this is to run a water pipe along the top of the cement base of the manger in front of the cows, then to have holes drilled at intervals to allow the escape of water into the concrete manger. Thus all cows receive water at the same moment. This pre- vents reaching and slipping, also saves water. Another convenient method, where the manger will not per- mit its use as a trough, is to extend the water pipe in front of the cows with a faucet and short hose between each two cows. A pail may then be set into the manger and water drawn directly into it from the pipe close by. This requires a little more time but is cheap of installation, and will not be needed except during severe weather when field work is usually not pressing. Salt Requirement.— Not only from nature in general, but by exact experiments, it is known that cows require salt in order to remain in health. In a test a few of the cows broke down after less than a month of salt fasting, whereas others withstood the strain for more than a year, but these finally and suddenly developed a thoroughly miserable condition, which, however, was quickly alleviated by the addition of salt to the ration. Heavy milkers need more salt than those that give but little milk. Salt not only whets the appetite of the cow, but seems also to lessen the waste from the body of protein of feed or muscle, or in other words, a little salt regularly fed or placed where the cow may eat it at will tends to save other feedstuffs. The fact that the addition of salt to hay or grain mixture makes the feed more palatable is an important item, since feed that is well liked is more easily and thoroughly digested. Cows need about one ounce of salt per day on the average. Salt bricks attached to the side of the stall are of no particular advantage. Common barrel a CHANGE OF ROUTINE 175 salt costs much less and is more easily given and also permits being mixed with the grain or the admixture of bone meal, which is a special advantage to young stock. Change of routine in doing the work of the stable should be avoided so far as possible. It is preterable that the feed for the day be divided into two equal parts and fed, half in the morning and half in the evening. The grain should be fed first and while it is being consumed the milking should be done. This aids in getting the cow into an agreeable frame of mind and lessens the likelihood of a quarrel with the milker and makes wu x Fic. 60.—The drinking fountain, convenient but nct essential. (Photo loaned by James Mig. Co.) larger flow of milk. Hay should be fed after milking because it will fill the air of the stable with dust, which dust carries immense quantities of mould, and bacteria, which will hasten the spoiling of the milk if permitted to enter it. Silage should be fed after milking because of its odor. Cows should be watered twice a day, once in the morning after eating their feed and again in the afternoon just before being fed. Punctuality and regularity are very positive virtues in dairy workers, for not only does the work itself depend on it, but the amount of milk the cows will yield as well. Even with proper 176 DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT feed and comfort, if regularity is lacking, a cow will not yield what she otherwise would. A dog on a dairy farm may or may not be a nuisance; that depends upon his character and training. The ordinary sort, however, is an expensive luxury which is not to be recommended. A good Shepherd or Collie, however, may very readily be trained not only to save many steps, but also to do general police duty on a livestock farm and thereby be of real value. QUESTIONS 1. What is the normal gestation period for cows? 2. What time of the year is generally the best time for cows to freshen? Why? How may a spring cow be put on to a fall-calving schedule? How much rest does a cow need between lactation periods? Tell how to dry off a cow. How should the dry cow be fed? What is meant by “conditioning” a cow? 8. How may the manure serve as an index in feeding? 9. When should cows be milked before calving? 10. What care should be given at calving time? 11. How should the cow be cared for after calving? 12. How many times a day should a cow be milked when fresh? 13. At what time does a cow give most milk? 14. How soon after calving ought a cow to be bred? ‘ 15. What percentage of a mature cow's record is the first year of work? Second year? Third year? 16. How may the feed affect the test of milk? 17. What effect has a drought on the quality of milk? 18. What effect does turning cows out to pasture in the spring have upon the quality of milk yielded? 19. Which is preferable, a large or a small pasture for cows? 20. How many acres are required to pasture a cow? 21. How is midsummer short pasture to be met? 22. How should milking be done? 23. What is the value of the Heglund method of milking? 24. How do the first and the last milk drawn from a cow differ? 25. What of the milking machine? Have you seen one work? 26. What temperature is best suited to dairy cows? 27. Discuss light in the dairy barn. 28. What is the best way to dehorn? 290. How may hard milking be made easier? CHAPTER XX HOW CAN I GET THE MOST FROM THE COWS I HAVE? Tue immediate problem which confronts many, probably most, American farmers to-day is not so much what breed or strain of cows would be most profitable to keep if they could have what they want, but rather how to get the greatest returns from what they now have. All realize that a few cows are outstandingly valuable and that there is a small horde of lesser power that are very good, but the number of high-producing cows is altogether too small to furnish each farmer with a herd or even with one specimen, and that for some time the bulk of the dairy work of this country must of necessity be done by grades only moderately well suited to their tasks. Common cows have repeatedly shown themselves capable of producing much more and more economically than is generally realized, even 50 to 100 pounds of fat per year. To secure such results, however, the “ common” cow must be accorded “* pure bred ” care, z.e., she must be fed and treated right. In general, farmers should keep the cattle they now have, and build up. The following are the chief points in getting what we can out of the cows we now have: 1. Fall fresh to produce more milk. See Chapter XIX. 2. Comfortably housed to save feed. See Chapter X XI. 3. Succulent feed, silage, to encourage liberal eating. See Chapter X XIII. 4. Feeding liberally so cow can have something to work on. See Chapter X XIII. 5. Fair amount of grain so cows may be able to consume more nutriment. See Chapter XXITT. 6. Balance of nutrients, so the body and the milk may be adequately fed. See Ghepten XXIII. 7. Treated with kindness so she will be willing and glad to let down the milk. See Chapter XIX. 12 177 178 QUESTIONS 8. Regularly fed and milked so the cow’s system may not be frequently thrown out of tune. See Chapter XIX. 9. Liberally watered, twice daily. See Chapter XIX. 10. Protected from heat and flies in summer. See Chapter XIX. 11. Milked quickly and thoroughly. See Chapter XIX. 12. Dehorned. See Chapter XTX. 13. Milk weighed and tested. See Chapter XVIII. 14. Best cows kept and bred to pure-bred bull. Our grade cows must of necessity serve as foundation, but we should aim to build higher than the foundation only. Life is too short to spend on inefficient cows any longer than necessary. QUESTIONS 1. How should a man proceed to secure a profitable dairy herd when he has no cows to start with? 2. When he has a herd of untested grades on hand? 3. What three things should guide him in selecting a breed? 4, What points should be looked out for in selecting a bull? 5. What “off color” in Guernsey and in Holstein bulls may sometimes be taken advantage of? 6. What must a pedigree show in order to be a good one? 7. What are the advantages of community breeding? 8. How are community breeding associations operated ? 9. How are daily milk records valuable? 10. Show how the three-day record is worked. 11. What is the plan of operation of codperative dairy test associations? 12, What results have been attained by organized cow testing? CHAPTER XXI SOME FEATURES OF THE DAIRY BARN Tue stable need not be expensive but should be made to furnish as nearly as possible the condition which naturally surrounds the cows during that time of year in which they universally produce milk most abundantly, namely, the spring or early summer. ‘The cow does not care for the time of year, but rather for conditions (Fig. 61). Certain features of the dairy barn and cow stable are very often under discussion, chief among which are such matters as the preferable kind of floor, whether cows should be faced out- ward or inward, and the like. Hay storage over a cow stable is thoroughly permissible even in well organized cow barns, provided simply that there be a good tight floor between the hay and the cows. The breath of stock injures, or even ruins, hay or fodder if stored above without being protected. It is economy to provide the hay floor. Also the dust that gathers on hay or straw over stock will so easily and so often be knocked off into the air of the stable that clean milk could only with difficulty be produced under such conditions. The floor material best adapted for use in dairy cow stables is concrete. This may well be left exposed in walks, alleys, gutters and mangers, and may be a foundation under the cows, but should be overlaid with some non-conductor of moisture and heat where the cows must stand and lie. Common soft-wood plank soaked in tar or creosote will render much good service, but has the disadvantage of wearing out too quickly and also of offering many eracks which, if not filled with tar, will collect dirt. Cork bricks are made of bits of cork compressed into the form of common bricks, being held together by asphaltum or similar material. Such brick are good as covering for a strong, coarse concrete foundation, especially in being warm, not severely hard on the cow’s feet, and waterproof (Fig. 62). The cost of cork brick is about $48 to $50 per 1000 and 179 7 180 SOME FEATURES OF THE DAIRY FARM 50 to 60 bricks will be required per cow. Of consequence too is the fact that they are not made uniform in thickness, so that a smooth floor top is difficult to make. Creosote wooden blocks, such as are now so much employed in surfacing city streets, are now being much used for cow-stable floors. They are cheap, very durable, sanitary and warm. Of these blocks, about ninety will be needed per cow. An insulating layer in the concrete makes the floor dry and warm. The time to install the insulating layer is when the ORT Fra. 61.—A typical Vermont barn. Note team approach on three levels. (Photo by author.) floor is being constructed. After the rough grouting is poured a layer of tar paper is nailed on it all over the cow beds. The nail heads are left projecting half an inch so that when the finish coat is poured the nails will help to hold it in place. Two coats of coal-tar paint is Sometimes used instead of the tar paper. Either will prevent the capillary action of moisture through the cement and the floor will be warm and dry. The top layer of cement will retain the heat of animals much as soapstone does. Facing cows inward makes feeding easier and the cleaning is as easy if a litter carrier be provided. But the plan has the distinct disadvantage in that the walls are certain in a very few FACING THE COWS OUTWARD 181 days to become fouled by the spattering manure unless a wide walk is left behind the cows, or a deep manure gutter is provided. Any manure on the walls must remain to be unsightly and a reproach to the manager or be scrubbed off. It should be re- membered too that fresh manure contains a slimy substance from walls of the cow’s intestines which renders it sticky. On the early-day log stables fresh cow manure was regularly used as a mortar to plaster up the cracks between logs and chinks where it would withstand weathering for several months. On the wall behind the cow it will remain until scrubbed off. Such work is expensive in time and wholly non-productive. i AGN a a . aie 2 Fic. 62.—A substantially built cow stable. Note the deep cement gutter and the cork brick floor where the cows are to stand. Many good dairymen provide deep gutters tor the manure and wide walks behind the cows, and then prefer to have the cows face inward. They then have their eyes away from the bright light of windows. By facing the cows outward the walls are kept clean and the floor between the two rows of cows may be cleaned far more easily than the walls. Furthermore, the difference in the standard of cleanliness for the walls and the floor renders it many times more easy to keep a cow stable presentable when the cows face outward rather than inward. If cows face outward 182 SOME FEATURES OF THE DAIRY FARM it is very often true economy to make the stable wide enough to permit a wagon or even a three-horse manure spreader to be driven through the barn from end to end, in order that the manure may be removed with the least possible amount of labor and drawn directly to the fields (Fig. 63). Arranged so, the cows have a wide door through which to enter the stable, thus lessening the danger of accidents due to crowding. It also gives the cows more room to enter and leave their stalls in comfort and safety. In sale stables too it is desirable to have all the animals in sight from one point. They show up to better advantage. All things considered, there are many who prefer the out-facing system. Each plan has its own advantages, and both plans will continue to be followed by good dairymen. Ventilation of the Stable——TIn a sense, air or the oxygen contained in it, is a food, since the carbon contained in the feed eaten cannot undergo oxidation and liberate heat and energy without it. Furthermore, body tissues are constantly wearing out and, in the form of carbon dioxide, are being thrown off largely in the exhaled air. Much moisture and some organic particles also escape from the body in the warm breath and in addition to these exhaled impurities, various gases, such as ammonia and marsh gas, are passed which aid in defiling the air. Molds and bacteria grow abundantly in straw and hay in an atmosphere so moist and full of organic matter. Diseases of all sorts are more liable to be spread and con- tracted, and to be intense in their action in a badly ventilated stable. Even if specific diseases are not present, however, a bad — atmosphere is undesirable because it is depressing in every respect on both the stock and the laborers who must spend a portion of their time in it. The amount of air breathed by an average cow is given by King? as about 2800 cubic feet in 24 hours or about 224 pounds, —about twice the weight of feed and water required. This is not to say that all oxygen in such a volume of air was used. It is generally calculated that the stable should be sufficiently 1 King, F. H. Physics of Agriculture, Second Edition, p. 354. THE LOCATION OF THE FLUE 185 tin or galvanized iron, be covered over with boards. This insula- tion is to prevent the cold air of the hay loft from so cooling the out-going air as to check it, and turn it downward. The air inlets should be smaller and of greater number than the outlets. They consist of shorter shafts through which the air must rise before entering the barn. Vent lak ton Shalt Y Vertilation Shaft KAY and sTRAaW: StTOR@QGE-- - f/ ‘ aD OA EP ae a Outlet. ay Inlet. Priveway. Calves. | e Cows a ie nM iN (ee 0 Ae Ee Sy Fic. 64.—Elevation Woodland Dairy Farm barn. Note system of ventilation. a, outlet in summer; b, outlet in winter; and d, inlet at all times. Also the dirt-tight floor over the stock. Straw for bedding as well as hay for feed is stored in the loft. The location of the flue would best be near the center of the stable. This permits a straight duct and encourages draught but may be against the walls and roof. In summer the warm air at the top of the stable may be drawn away, while in winter the suction may commence at the floor as shown in figure 64. The air inlets should be made in the walls so as to admit the fresh 186 SOME FEATURES OF THE DAIRY FARM air near the top of the stable, just below the hay floor, or, if no hay is stored overhead, about seven feet from the floor. Much trouble has been experienced with the system if not properly installed. The author hesitates to recommend it or any other system to those who do not understand its principles. In practice, a thoughtful use of windows and muslin curtains will go a long way toward solving the problem. The muslin curtain at the window furnishes an economical and fairly efficient means of drying the atmosphere of the stable and permits thorough mixing of fresh air with the old. If the muslin is fastened to a frame that may be slid into place it may often be used when the temperature or the wind would not permit windows to be opened with safety. On mild days, of which all parts of the United States have so many, the doors or top half of the doors and windows may be opened with safety and good results. Under some circumstances the muslin cur- tain is to be recommended over any other system. The temperature of the stable should, so far as possible, not be permitted to go lower than about 45 and not much higher than about 70 degrees. A temperature of about 60 degrees seems to be the one best suited to dairy cows. A high tempera- ture, 85 degrees or above, causes the cow to lose her appetite, and gu “ off feed” easily if being at all crowded. A cold tempera- ture in the stable, on the other hand, cools the cow’s body just as it would any other warm object and requires that the cow make it up by eating more feed. The temperature must be main- tained‘if life is to continue. Nature’s safety valve in this matter is tense muscles and shivering. Literally, therefore, a cold cow must shiver herself warm, as queer as this may sound. We all know how tired we feel in the morning after having “ slept cold.” We were tired because our muscles had been at work, drawn tense, to keep us warmer. Good light is necessary in the stable for ease in doing the work and for keeping it clean, as well as being desirable from the standpoint of the cow herself. Too much light, however, is wearying to any animal and thus expensive. The most serious objection to facing cows outward is that they will face more or “THE DIMENSIONS OF THE STALLS 187 less directly against the windows. But if these are only mod- erate in number and placed horizontally so that the bottom is about four and one-half feet from the floor, the light will not be severe on any and will be actually restful to all those located ‘between the windows. To make it lighter for work throughout the stable the whole interior may be whitewashed. In fact a good whitewashing apphed by means of a spray pump to reach the crevices and cracks is to be recommended once or twice a year to kill disease and other germs. Many barns have been built, of late years, with so much glass surface as to be too warm on bright days and too cold on windy ones and at the same time not particu- larly well lighted because the interior was left in some dark color. A more wholesome and dependable condition can be procured by employing less glass and more whitewash. The dimensions of the stalls best suited to dairy cows nat- urally vary with the breed or rather the size of the cows to. be fitted. The following table will indicate the needed distances: f Width of Distance from Manger | Thick- Name of Breed. Box Stall. Single Stall. FoNGutien = ness of Neck. Feet Inches SOMO TMP ena iatie aise aia )as ae 10 x 12 dite 6n. )4t. Aan sto > fb 2m. |) 5 bo 7 Holstein-Friesian’.......... OED 3 ft. Gin. | 4it. 6 in, to/5 ft. 3in. | 5 to6 SOWA SVS). vis)e js fava ste ais) «, ana. 10 x 12 3 ft.10 m. | 4 ft. 8in. to 5 ft.4in. | 6 to8 RGHLEST STAG) MEG AS RA eno or eR ER 9x10 Sib. din. |/4it.) 4:1n, fo 5 fb. O in. ‘| "4 to 5 (GUTS ORS ae Se be ie | ei 9x10 Sib. one jfatt. 10m, to 4tt. Sim.) 4 to 5 MerSCyer eet = cla ccrai tennis 9x10 3ft. 3in. | 3 ft. 10 in. to4ft.6in. | 4 to 5 OVE HE Pa Pete Re se Oe cele ie este ai att aro pUe Ulcer cee Seys. ae tebe aye 3 to 4 It is found very convenient to have the width of the bed _on which the cows stand vary from, say 5 feet 3 inches at one end to 4 feet 3 inches at the other, if Holsteins are kept, or from 4 feet 6 inches to 3 feet 10 inches for Jerseys. In this way smaller cows of the breed or young stock may be placed at one end of the barn and larger ones at the other end, where they all will be kept clean. As to the width needed, many people try to save space and in doing so cramp the cows and surely cause them to be uncom- 188 SOME FEATURES OF THE DAIRY FARM fortable. An increase in width of a Holstein cow’s stall from 9 3 feet 4 inches to 3 feet 6 inches is as nothing compared with the commodious apartments generally provided beef cattle. Bodily comfort is true economy with dairy cows. The manger may very profitably be made of concrete, but eare should be taken to build up the bottom to at least one and better two inches higher level than the cow’s feet. It should also be made to slant toward the cow in order that she may reach her feed without straining or slipping (Fig. 65). Fia. 65.—Note broad feed alley and slant of windows. QUESTIONS Under what conditions may hay very properly be stored over cows? What material is best adapted for use as stable floors? What material should be used on the floor where the cows stand? Tell the advantages of facing the cows inward in the stable. What are the advantages or disadvantages of facing the cows outward? How may a stable most economically be lighted? What other advantages are to be gained by thorough whitewashing? Give the dimensions of stall best suited to the cows of various breeds. Explain the forces that cause a circulation of air in the King system of ventilation. . Explain the use of the muslin curtain. CHAPTER XXII COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE WHILE it.is not intended that this volume shall be a book on veterinary practice, it is well known that the regular herdsman or caretaker should be able quickly to recognize when his charges are out of health and be able to treat the commoner or simpler afflictions. These considered here are those most frequently to be dealt with. TUBERCULOSIS Tuberculosis is a widespread infectious disease caused by the bacteria of tuberculosis affecting man and lower animals. Occurrence.—Tuberculosis exists in all civilized countries. In America the disease was introduced with early importations of cattle and has gradually spread until no section of the country is free from it. The exact percentage of tuberculous animals in any country is unknown, but the relative number has been determined by tuberculin testing and by post-mortem examina- tions in abattoirs. The Secretary of Agriculture, in his report for 1908, estimated that one per cent of beef cattle and ten per cent of dairy cattle were tuberculous. Importance.—Tuberculosis is to-day the most serious prob- lem confronting the livestock industry. The disease is prob- ably not on the increase among cattle, but is becoming more prevalent among swine and poultry. Thousands of infants and young children receive cow’s milk as their chief diet and it is usually consumed in the raw state. Milk from cows affected with tuberculosis often contains living virulent bacilli of tuber- culosis. Children consuming this milk may develop tuberculosis; which is frequent cause of death. Scientific investigations show that a certain percentage of human tuberculosis is of bovine origin, the germs being transferred through the use of milk, butter, and cheese, or improperly cooked meat of animals. Nature of Tuberculosis.—Tuberculosis is, as a rule, a chronic, insidious disease which spreads slowly from animal to animal in a herd until most of them are affected. Tuberculosis 189 190 COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE develops very slowly and for this reason many owners of cattle do not suspect its presence in their herd until several animals have become diseased. If tuberculosis were rapid in its develop- ment and caused death within a few days like some of the other infectious diseases of cattle, rigid measures would soon be adopted in order to check its progress and dissemination. In many parts of our country it is customary to allow hogs to feed in the dung of cattle. If the cattle be tuberculous, their manure will quite often be laden with virulent germs which, when taken up by the swine, cause them to become diseased. Especially is this so in herds where the disease has become extensive. Tuberculosis is not hereditary, but the offspring of tuberculous parents acquire a predisposition to the disease; 7.e., they are more apt to become affected with tuberculosis when exposed to the infection than are the young born from healthy parents. Symptoms.—The symptoms or signs of tuberculosis are numerous and while some of them are quite suggestive of tuber- culosis, not one can be relied upon with any great degree of certainty in the establishment of a diagnosis. In some infectious diseases, certain symptoms occur which are characteristic of that disease alone. Characteristic symptoms or signs are not observed, however, in tuberculosis. Tuberculosis may be pres- ent in fat, sleek-looking cattle which show no symptoms of ill health (Fig. 66). Such cases can be detected by the tuberculin test only. The symptoms of tuberculosis vary according to the organ affected. In some instances unthriftiness and, loss of flesh will be the chief symptoms observed (Fig. 67). When the lungs are diseased a rather weak, subdued, infrequent cough will be noticed. This cough is most severe in the early morn- ing or after exercise, and after drinking, respiration becomes more difficult and at times quite rapid. The appetite gradually decreases and intestinal derangement develops. When the in- testines are diseased diarrhea is a prominent symptom. En- largement of the superficial lymph glands in the region of the throat and neck are of frequent occurrence. When the glands of the chest become enlarged, sufficient pressure is at times exerted on the gullet or cesophagus to cause the animal to suffer SYMPTOMS 191 Fic. 66. rer eee eines Fic. 67. Fie. 66.—Cow in good condition and apparently healthy, yet tuberculous. (Courtesy of M. H. Reynolds.) Fic. 67.—Bull thin and unthrifty, due to the effects of tuberculosis. M. H. Reynolds.) (Courtesy of 192 COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE from bloat. Bloating, however, is not a frequent symptom. The body temperature may be normal, although we more fre- quently find it to be irregular, being inclined to be much higher in the evenings. Tuberculosis of the udder manifests itself by the formation of hard lumps or swellings in certain parts of the gland. Muilk from such an udder should not be used, as it is quite apt to be laden with germs. The Manner by Which the Disease Spreads.—Tuberculous cows sooner or later give off the germs which may escape, by the mouth, the nose, in the milk, in the manure, and in the dis- charges from the genito-urinary organs. When the germs are thrown off in any of the above-named ways, the disease is known as open tuberculosis. The germs discharged from*the mouth and nose are coughed up from the lungs, some of which are swallowed while others are sprayed over the feed in front of the cow. Cows in adjoining stalls may take in these germs with the feed or the water and thus contract the disease. The manure and urine from tuberculous animals usually contain the germs and will spread the disease unless properly disposed of. Manure mixed with the germs of tuberculosis may fall into the milk pail or be carried to the milk direct by the cow’s tail and thus contaminate the milk. The germs are not removed when the milk is strained. When the disease affects the udder the milk, as a rule, contains the germs in vast numbers. Such milk will readily transmit the disease to young animals. Milk of this kind is also very dangerous to young children. The Manner by Which a Herd Becomes Infected.—The principal ways through which tuberculosis may be introduced into a herd are: First, through the buying of cattle from other herds infected with the disease. Buyers should purchase only from healthy herds in order to safeguard their healthy animals. Second, calves may become infected by feeding them milk, butter- milk, or whey from tuberculous cows. Such material should not be fed unless boiled or pasteurized. Third, by allowing healthy stock to mingle with diseased animals. Fourth, by keeping cattle in poorly ventilated, insanitary, dark, and unclean quarters. Tuberculin Test——Only a small percentage of tuberculous WHAT IS TUBERCULIN? 193 animals can be detected by a physical examination. In many cases only a few symptoms can be determined, and these are not characteristic, as they may also occur in other diseases. The tuberculin test is very accurate and when skillfully employed detects the diseased animals practically without fail. What Is Tuberculin?—Tuberculin is a fluid containing the products (toxins) of the tubercle germ without the germs them- selves, therefore when tuberculin is injected into healthy cattle, it cannot cause tuberculosis. Tubereulin injected into tuber- culous animals causes a marked temperature disturbance. The tuberculin test may be applied by three different methods: (1) The subcutaneous or temperature test; (2) the ophthalmic test, and (3) the intradermal test. The subcutaneous test is the oldest method and the one most commonly used, although the ophthalmie and the intradermal tests are thought to be just as accurate. Tuberculin, when injected into diseased cattle, causes them to become feverish within eight to sixteen hours after the tuber- culin is administered. The fever lasts a short time and then subsides. This temporary fever is called “ the reaction,” and the animals so affected are called “ reactors.” In the subcutaneous test, the tuberculin is injected under the skin, preferably in the region of the neck. Two or three temperatures are taken, two or three hours apart, before the tuberculin is injected in order to ascertain the animal’s normal ‘temperature. Eight or nine hours following the administration of the tuberculin, the temperatures are again taken every two hours until six temperatures have been recorded. The animals which are found to be feverish are regarded as being tuberculous. The ophthalmic test consists in inserting a drop of tuberculin into the eye of the suspected animal. If the animal is healthy, no change takes place, but if affected with tuberculosis, the eye becomes reddened and waters profusely. The intradermal test consists in injecting a very small amount of tuberculin into (not under) the thin folds of the skin at the base of the tail. A reaction consists of the appearance of a swelling about the size of a walnut at the site of injection, 13 194 COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE which remains for seventy-two hours or longer and disappears very slowly. Limitations of the Test.—The tuberculin test should not be applied to cows that have just calved, as the temperature at this time is apt to vary considerably from the normal. Calves under six months of age should not be tested, as their tempera- ture is quite changeable. Cattle in the advanced stages of tuberculosis sometimes fail to react to the test, but such cases can usually be detected by a physical examination. Cattle that have just recently become infected may fail also to react. The tuberculin test, when employed by thoroughly competent men, 1s by far the most accurate method available for detecting tuber- culosis. ‘The records of large numbers of tests made by govern- ment oflicials show that the tuberculin test is accurate in ninety to ninety-five per cent of animals tested (Fig. 68). INFECTIOUS ABORTION OF CATTLE Infectious abortion is a specific infectious disease produced by the germ, Bacillus abortus, and characterized by inflammation of the mucous lining of the uterus (womb) and fcetal membranes resulting, as a rule, in the expulsion of the feetus (calf) in an immature condition, Infectious abortion is known also as con- tagious abortion, epizootic abortion, enzodtic abortion, and ‘ slinking” of calves. Cause.—The bacillus of abortion, which was described in 1897 by Prof. Bang of Denmark, is a short nonmotile rod pos- sessing peculiar physical requirements which make it rather difficult to cultivate artificially. In the diseased cow the organ- ism livés in the mucous lining of the uterus (womb) and it is at times found in the milk of affected cows. Abortion bacilli inhabit the intestinal canal of the affected fetus. Outside of the animal body little is known of the organism. The Bacillus abortus is capable of producing abortion experi- mentally in cattle, mares, sheep, goats and swine, by feeding and by injecting the organisms into the circulation. Susceptibility. Infectious abortion is chiefly a disease of heifers, yet in given herds there will be certain periods in which all of the cows will abort regardless of age. Infectious abortion does not confine its ravages entirely to dairy breeds, but attacks HOW ABORTION BECOMES DISSEMINATED lo other breeds of cattle with little less severity. Many heifers will abort once and then carry their second calf for the full period. A less number will abort their second calf and it is a rare condition when a cow aborts the third time. Heifers from aborting mothers may be less susceptible than those born to healthy or noninfected dams. The Manner by Which Abortion Becomes Disseminated.— The mucous lining of the uterus of infected heifers and cows harbors the Bacillus abortus. The contents of the uterus, such Tra. 68.—Heifer, thin and in poor condition, though not affected with tuberculosis. (Courtesy of M. H. Reynolds.) as the fcetus, foetal membranes, and the fluids, are all virulent and when expelled from the uterus become vehicles by which the disease spreads. The discharge from the uterus following abor- tion contains myriads of bacilli (germs) which may be carried to various parts of the stable by aid of the surface drainage ; attendants may carry the infection on their boots or on the milk- ing utensils which are at times carelessly handled. The: bull is undoubtedly a frequent carrier of the infection, especially where several breeders use the same animal. Infected pregnant heifers or cows introduced into healthy herds are often responsi- ble for establishing new centers of the disease when they abort. 196 COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE This is probably the chief way by which the disease disseminates, as it is imposible to tell by a physical examination whether a cow is diseased or not. Milk from aborting cows may be a carrier of the infection. Natural Mode of Infection.—The route by which the germ gains entrance to the animal body is a debatable question. Some authors hold that the open cervical canal at the time of cestrum is the chief avenue of infection, being introduced into the cervix and uterus at the time of copulation (breeding). No doubt the bull is responsible for the transmission of the disease in a great many cases, especially is this true in herds where only one bull is used, he being allowed to serve both diseased and healthy cows. In abortion occurring among range cattle, the bull is probably responsible for carrying the infection from one cow to another, principally at the time of breeding. The digestive tube un- doubtedly acts as one of the chief channels of entrance, the infec- tion being obtained from contaminated feedstuffs, including pastures where diseased animals are allowed to graze. Artifi- cially the disease has been produced by injecting virulent abor- tion bacilli into the veins and under theskin, It hasbeen produced by feeding infected material. Abortion has also been produced by placing virulent material in the vagina of pregnant cows. Symptoms.—The period of incubation in infectious abortion varies widely. In producing the disease experimentally certain workers have determined the average period of incubation to be approximately 130 days. The premonitory symptoms when noticed consist of doughy swellings of the udder, and vulva, followed by a mucus-like odorless discharge from the vagina. The discharge may at times be streaked with blood, relaxation of the sacro-sciatic hgaments, restlessness and stamping of the hind feet. These symptoms usually appear one or two days before the abortion occurs. Occasionally heifers have been ob- served to make bag and even lactate at the fifth month of gesta- tion, the abortion not taking place until the seventh month or in its membranes, but when the abortion occurs after the fifth and sixth months of gestation it is not always indicative of abor- tion. Cows will be observed to abort suddenly without mani- festing premonitory symptoms. When heifers or cows abort in DIAGNOSIS 197 the early stages of pregnancy the feetus will be expelled enclosed in its membranes, but when the abortion occurs after the fifth month of gestation the membranes (afterbirth) are usually retained. The large percentage of abortions take place between the fifth and seventh months of pregnancy, although abortion may occur any time during the period of gestation. Great ex- citement may be noticed in heifers following an abortion and at times will show all the signs of the heat period. The discharge from the uterus and vagina, following abortion, continues for two or more weeks, and may continue longer when the inflam- mation of the lining of the uterus becomes severe. The dis- charge is of a dirty, yellowish gray color, tenacious in character, and accumulates on the tail and other parts to which it may come in contact. The appetite is impaired but gradually improves as they recover from the effects of the abortion. The milk flow is slight but increases gradually as the animal recovers. The foetus is, as a rule, born dead or if alive is weak and undersized and dies within a few days with symptoms of diarrhcea or re- mains in a stunted condition. Cases in which the foetus has be- come mummified occur in infectious abortion. Such cases are, however, rare. In a number of cases, cows that have appar- ently recovered from the effects of the disease fail to conceive though served by the bull numerous times before becoming im- pregnated, or may never again get with calf (non-breeders). Sterility in the greatest percentage of cases is probably due to pyometra (pus in the uterus), the result of retained placenta or afterbirth. In other cases the ovaries undergo cystic degeneration, which, if extensive, often causes the cow to be constantly bulling. Cases of this type are, as a rule, nen- breeders. Sterility is one of the chief characteristics of infectious abortion. Diagnosis.—In a herd where several calves have been aborted in an immature condition, and especially if the aborting animals be heifers, one is usually justified in regarding the condition as infectious. The history, of course, should be taken into consideration. Where infectious abortion cannot be diag- nosed clinically, the following methods of diagnosis have been recommended: (1) Bacteriologic. (2) Serologic. \ 198 COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE Bacteriologic Diagnosis.— Microscopically best results may be obtained by examining smears prepared from the stomach and intestines of the feetus soon after abortion. If small cocco- bacilli are present in large numbers, one is quite safe in consid- ering them as abortion bacilli, Cultures made from the stom- ach of the feetus give, in a large percentage of positive cases, cultures of Bacillus abortus. Serologic Diagnosis.—The success of serum diagnosis in other diseases induced the various workers in veterinary pathol- ogy and bacteriology to apply the complement-fixation and ag- elutination tests to infectious abortion. The serum: method of diagnosis is quite accurate in determining the presence of infec- tious abortion. All heifers or:cows affected with abortion form certain substances in their blood known as anti-bodies. By the aid of the complement-fixation or agglutination tests the greater percentage of these cases can be determined. Some cows may give positive reactions to the serum tests, yet not abort. The indication, however, is that they are or have been infected with the Bacillus abortus. Positive reactions in herds where infec- tious abortion is unknown are rare. By the aid of the serum tests one can determine the extent of the disease in a herd. Prevention and Treatment.—As no drugs or medicinal agents have thus far been discovered for the cure of this dis- ease the treatment necessarily becomes preventive. In herds where abortion has recently appeared it is advisable to practice isolation of the aborting cows, not allowing them to come in con- tact with healthy cattle until all signs of disease have disap- peared. In cases of retained afterbirth, the same should be removed by the hand within 24 to 48 hours after the abortion. If the afterbirth does not come away readily it should not be forcibly removed but the uterus should be irrigated once daily with a warm disinfectant solution. The irrigation of the vagina and uterus can best be done by using a soft rubber tube, one end of which is introduced into the vagina with a funnel in the outer elevated end. About one gallon of one-fourth or one-half per cent solution of creolin, lysol, liquor ecresolis, or a solution of potassium permanganate (1 to 1000 solution) should be MEDICINAL TREATMENT 199 introduced into the womb. ‘This procedure should be practiced once a day for 10 days. After this, twice a week as long as the discharge continues. Cows that have aborted should not be bred again within a period of three or four months after the abortion occurred. The feetus and the afterbirth of aborting cows contain innumerable bacteria, hence they should be burned or deeply buried. Unless this precaution is taken the infection will be carried from one place to another. Lime should be placed in the gutters to prevent the bacteria from spreading by surface drainage. Barns or stables that become infected should be thoroughly disinfected. The cattle should be removed and the barn left empty for four or five days. All bedding and litter should be removed and the walls and floors should be scrubbed and then sprayed with a strong disinfectant solution. One of the best disinfectants for stables is ime wash. To improve the germicidal properties of lime one may add six ounces of chloride of lime to every gallon of the lime wash. This mixture may best be applied by using a spray pump so that the disinfectant may be forced into the cracks and crevices. The bull may be prevented from carrying the infection by disinfecting the penis and sheath before and after each service. The long hair around the opening of the sheath should be clipped and the surrounding parts bathed with a mild anti- septic solution. In disinfecting the bull a small rubber hose will be found quite serviceable, one end of which is inserted into the sheath and held together by the hand so that the fluid will not imme- diately escape. In the other end of the hose a funnel is inserted into which the antiseptic solution is poured. In this way the sheath pouch may be easily irrigated. Mild antiseptic solutions should be used for this purpose. Infectious abortion may be sup- pressed by maintaining strict preventive measures. Medicinal Treatment.—Many drugs have been used in the treatment of abortion but none have proved to be of much value. Certain drugs have been given credit for preventing abortion in given herds, yet, no doubt, the same results would have been obtained had no medicine been used. CArbolic acid and meth- 200 COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE ylene blue have been used extensively in the treatment of abor- tion. Good results reported from the use of these drugs is probably due to the increased resistance or immunity to the disease which occurs after one or two abortions rather than the effects of the remedies themselves. Immunization.—Cows after aborting once or twice become more resistant to the disease and carry the calf to the normal termination of pregnancy. In this way the disease will gradu- ally exhaust itself, providing susceptible animals are not added to the herd. Because of the tendency toward natural immunity the problem of producing an artificial immunity presented itself. Living and dead cultures of abortion bacilli are being used in an attempt to produce artificial immunity in young heifers. MILK FEVER (PARTURIENT PARESIS) This is a disease peculiar to the cow, occurring at or near the time of calving. This disease as a rule confines itself almost entirely to the heavy milking breeds. Generally cows are afflicted at the third to fifth birth, although it may occur in cows bearing their first calf. Most cases occur during hot weather, and during rapid changes of weather. It may appear also during the coldest weather. Milk fever usually sets in from 24 to 48 hours after birth of the calf, the maximum interval being several days. It rarely occurs at the time of birth. — Iso- lated cases have been observed just before calving, but never before the secretion of milk had begun. Predisposing Causes.—Confinement in the stall predisposes to milk fever, partly because of lack of exercise, which is very essential in cows that are highly fed, and partly because of the air being hotter and at times impure. Constipation may become an accessory cause by increasing the volume and density of the blood with certain material that should pass off by the bowels. Mature age is a strong predisposing cause. The disease seldom, if ever, occurs with the first parturition and rarely with the second. It appears with the third, fourth, or fifth birth, when the cow has attained her normal growth and is converging all of her energies to the production of milk. SYMPTOMS 201 Calving is the chief predisposing factor. The manner in which it acts as an accessory has not been definitely determined, but is thought to be due to alteration in blood supply. It is after easy calving when there has been little expenditure of muscular or nervous energy that milk fever appears. Difficult parturitions which, as a rule, occur at the time of the first or second birth are rarely connected with parturient paralysis. Symptoms.—Milk fever usually begins with signs of rest- lessness and occasionally signs of brain irritation may be observed in the beginning. After these initial stages, the char- acteristic signs of depression and paralysis appear (Figs. 69 and 70). First, the cow shows a weakness in the use of her hind parts; and steps unsteadily or staggers when attempting to move or walk, may fall and struggle to rise again. The cow no longer notices her calf or her feed. The weakness increases and the cow lies down or falls and is unable to regain her feet. The animal’s temperature, which becomes sub-normal, may be slightly raised at this period. The cow may lie on her breast- bone with her feet beneath the body, and her head turned round with the nose resting on the right or left, usually the left flank. In this position the cow appears to be asleep. In eases of extreme feebleness, the cow may lie on her side with all four legs stretched out. If an attempt is made to lift the head, it falls back powerless into its old position. The eyes appear glazed, and the pupils are widely dilated. The upper eyelid droops over the eyeball and is not moved when the eyeball is touched with the finger. At this time unconsciousness is usually complete. The tongue hangs loosely from the mouth, and breath- ing is performed with snoring, groaning, and rattling noises accompanied with great distention of the nostrils. The muscles of the bowels become paralyzed, eausing obstinate constipation and at times bloating. This is usually accompanied by paralysis of the bladder muscles causing cessation of urination. If either or both of these organs continue to function, a favorable prog- nosis can usually be given. The temperature which may be raised at first becomes sub-normal. The pulse and heart-beats are quickened. The body temperature is unevenly distributed, the feet, ears, and horns being exceptionally cold to the touch. 202 can Fia. COMMON AILMENTS. OF CATTLE Course.— The duration of the disease is brief and the results usually be decided within a few hours. Fia. 69. Fia. 70. 69.—Cow, showing symptoms of milk fever in the first stage. (Courtesy of M. H. Reynolds.) Fic. 70.—An advanced case of milk fever. Pits INJECTING UDDER WITH ATMOSPHERIC AIR 903 Preventive Treatment.—Heavy milking cows should be kept on a spare diet at least one week before calving and for four to five days after calving. Free access to salt and water are beneficial, as they tend to keep the bowels in good condition. One to one and one-half pounds of epsom salts may be admin- istered twelve to twenty-four hours before calving. In case this procedure is neglected, salts should be given soon after the cow ealves and the labor pains have ceased. Daily exercise is of much importance. Rich feeds should be avoided. Another preventive measure consists of allowing the suscepti- ble cow to retain in the udder for twenty-four hours following parturition all the milk except the quantity which is required by the calf, which amount should be taken, if possible, part from each quarter. Air Treatment.—The treatment of milk fever by the injec- tion of sterile atmospheric air into the udder has proved to be simple, practicable, and highly efficacious and results in no harm to the udder when properly performed. If antiseptic precau- tions are not observed and the injections performed in a careless way, disease-producing bacteria will often be introduced into the udder, causing mammitis (caked bag’), a condition that may re- sult in the loss of one or more quarters of the bag and at times in death. The method of injecting filtered air into the udder is a comparatively easy procedure, requiring but little time, and is readily accomplished by the use of milk fever apparatus. A milk fever apparatus is inexpensive and if cared for carefully will last for years. Technique for Injecting the Udder with Filtered Atmos- pheric Air—The teats and udder should be washed with soap and water, and then carefully disinfected with a three to five per cent solution of carbolic acid, lysol, creolin, or some other good antiseptic. A clean towel or sheet should then be placed under the udder to prevent the teats coming in contact with dirt or filth. The hands of the operator should be thoroughly washed with soap and water. The milking tube with the lower piece of hose of the milk fever apparatus should be boiled fifteen to twenty minutes before using. The milking tube is then inserted 204 COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE into the opening of the teat and air is pumped into the quarter until it is sufficiently distended. Careful massage of the udder will allow the air to gain access to the innermost tubules. After the quarter is well distended, the tube is removed. The same treatment is applied to the other three teats until the udder is satisfactorily distended. In certain cases it will be found neces- sary to apply tape to the ends of the teats in order to keep the air from escaping. The pieces of tape should be removed within one or two hours so as to prevent sloughing. In ease the air becomes absorbed, and no improvement is noticed within four or five hours, the treatment should be repeated, care being taken to observe the same antiseptic precautions as at first. The air may be left in the udder for twenty-four hours and when recovery is certain, it should be gradually milked out. The affected cow should not be allowed to lie on her side but kept up on the breast bone (sternum) so as to prevent the development of pneumonia, Simple cases of milk fever, especially in the beginning, may be successfully treated by the layman provided he observes strict antiseptic measures. Skilled veterinarians should be em- ployed, however, as they will obtain more satisfactory results. Especially is this true in the treatment of advanced and com- plicated cases. FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE This disease is also known as epizodtic aphtha, aphthous fever, infectious aphtha, and may be defined as an acute, highly contagious disease, characterized by the eruption of vesicles or blisters in the mouth, around the coronary bands of the feet and between the toes. oot and mouth disease does not confine its ravages among cattle but attacks almost as readily all other cloven-hoofed animals. Horses, dogs, cats, and poultry at times become infected and cases have been reported wherein man was the victim. Foot and mouth disease is common in European countries, where it produces great losses. The actual mortality produced is low. However, serious losses occur from the diminution of the milk secretion and the loss of flesh. Foot and mouth disease spreads very rapidly and infects a large number SYMPTOMS OF FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE 205 of animals in a short period of time. Very little immunity is produced by foot and mouth disease, repeated attacks having been known -to occur in the same animals. ; Foot and mouth disease has appeared in the United States on six different occasions. The recent outbreak of 1914 was by far the most serious as well as the most extensive that has ever occurred in this country. All of the previous outbreaks were quickly and successfully eradicated. Cause.—The causative factor of foot and mouth disease has never been isolated or identified, although numerous attempts have been made to discover the specific organism. The virus or the disease-producing material may be found in the blisters on the mouth, feet, udder and in the saliva, milk and various secre- tions and excretions, and in the blood, during the time when the temperature is high. Animals may become infected directly by licking, and in calves by sucking, or indirectly by infected hay, manure, drinking troughs, railway cars, stock-yards, barn-yards, and pastures. The time elapsing between the exposure of an animal to infection and the development of the disease in that animal varies usually from three to six days. The disease may appear in twenty-four hours, again in exceptional cases, not for eighteen days or longer. Symptoms.—In foot and mouth disease the early symptoms consist of spells of shivering or chilling, quickly followed by fever, causing the body to become exceedingly warm. The body temperature may be as high as 105 or 106 degrees F. These symptoms do not always occur, or may be in so mild a form as to escape notice. Following this in one or two days, small vesicles or blisters about the size of a pea will make their appearance upon the mucous membrane of the mouth and tongue or on the lips or the margin of the dental pad. These small blisters are filled with a yellowish watery fluid and become more extensive as the disease progresses. Shortly after the eruptions have appeared in the mouth (Fig. 71), it will be noticed that there is considerable swelling and redness shown about the feet in the region of the coronet and between the toes, The formation of 206 COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE vesicles or blisters soon appears upon the swollen regions of the foot. In milch cows the udder and especially the teats become affected with vesicles or blisters. As the disease advances the affected animal evidences considerable pain when attempting to eat and in some cases on account of great pain will refuse feed of all kinds. Salivation becomes excessive and the animal opens and closes its mouth with a characteristic smacking sound. The saliva is ropy and tenacious and hangs suspended from the lips. The vesicles which are small at first become extended and rupture soon after their appearance, leaving reddened painful spots or sores both within the mouth and upon the feet. Similar spots or erosions will occur on the teats of milch cows. All four feet of an animal may become affected at the same time. Again one or more of the feet may escape the infection and remain normal throughout the course of the disease. The affected feet become very sore and painful, causing the animal to he down a great deal. The disease when assuming a mild form usually runs its course in approximately thirty days. In ease of milch cows the return of the secretion of milk is greatly retarded. In the more destructive form of the disease several months or a year may be required for an animal to recover. Diagnosis.—The foot and mouth disease is not difficult to recognize when it is known to exist in the vicinity. The services of experts, however, are required in order to recognize or diag- nose the initial outbreaks. By inoculating calves with the virus from infected animals, the clinical diagnosis can be promptly and positively substantiated. ) Diseases That May Be Confused with Foot and Mouth.— After the blisters or vesicles in foot and mouth disease rupture the disease becomes more difficult to recognize, as other diseases of a less contagious nature have a similar appearance. Cow- pox may at times be confused with foot and mouth disease, but in cow-pox the eruptions of the pocks which become pustules have well-marked and defined stages. The eruptions in foot and mouth disease never become more than a vesicle. Necrotic Stomatitis (Sore Mouth Caused by Bacteria).— This disease may be differentiated from foot and mouth disease aes MYCOTIC. STOMATITIS ie 207 by the fact that blisters do not occur in necrotic stomatitis and the ulcerated patches that appear in the beginning of the dis- ease, principally involving the mouth and tongue, become cov- ered with a yellowish, cheesy-like material. Calves are more apt to become affected with sore mouth than are adult cattle. Foot and mouth disease spreads more rapidly through a herd than does necrotic stomatitis and affects cattle of all ages, also sheep and swine. Ergotism (poison from eating ergot) may be distinguished from foot and mouth disease in that the lesions occurring in Fic. 71.—A cow affected with foot and mouth disease. Note the accumulation of saliva about the lips. (From report of the Bureau of Animal Industry.) ° ergotism are confined to the ears, tail, and legs, usually below the knees or hocks. Vesicles or blisters do not occur in ergot poisoning, the lesions instead consisting of a dry-sloughing process. The tips of the ears will become dry and slough off. The tail may likewise become affected. The ankles swell con- siderably and later become circumscribed with a deep crack or fissure entirely surrounding the leg as a result of the sloughing. Mycotic stomatitis (inflammation of the mouth caused by molds or fungi) is characterized by the formation of a croupous membrane or portions of the mucous lining of the mouth which ~ 208 COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE peels off, leaving a raw surface. The skin between the toes may at times become inflamed. The absence of vesicles on the udder and teats as well as other parts of the body together with the slowness in which the infection spreads in a herd aids in dif-~ ferentiating this affection from foot and mouth disease. Mycotie stomatitis appears usually in late summer or early fall and attacks from ten to fifty per cent of the animals in a herd. Foul Foot (Foot Rot).—Foul foot is not an infectious disease, but during warm wet seasons a number of cattle may become affected in a certain district, giving rise to the sus- . picion on the part of some that it may be a disease of a con- tagious nature. Foul foot, as the name implies, is a disease of the feet only and the cause may be easily traced to filthy stalls and badly drained grounds. Prevention of Foot and Mouth Disease.—The highly infee- tious nature of the disease and the easy manner of its dissemina- tion require that rigid preventive measures be adopted to prevent its spread. Healthy cattle should be guarded carefully so as to prévent them being exposed to the infection. In a community where an outbreak occurs owners should exercise every pre- caution in preventing other animals, such as dogs, cats, and poultry, from coming in contact with the diseased animals, as they furnish excellent means for disseminating the causative factor. The carcasses of affected animals must be destroyed, preferably by burning or by burying them in a hole eight or ten feet deep and covering them with air-slaked lime, so as to prevent earthworms and similar agents from carrying the virus to the surface. Infected stables should be thoroughly disin- fected with one of the following disinfectants: (1) a five per cent solution of pure ecarbolic acid. (2) Chloride of lime, U. S. P., one pound to three gallons of water. (3) Formaldehyde, one quart forty per cent solution to five gallons of water. (4) The application of lime wash to which is added chloride of lime in the ratio of six ounces of chloride of lime to each gallon of the lime wash is quite efficient. All stable utensils must be thoroughly cleansed and disin- fected with any of the above-named antiseptics. All manure should be burned or disinfected. The stables should not be LUMPY JAW (ACTINO-MYCOSIS) 209 reoccupied within a period of sixty days following disinfection. The methods of eradication of foot and mouth disease as prac- ticed by the United States Government consist of rigid quaran- tine, thorough disinfection and the purchasing and slaughtering of affected and exposed animals after proper appraisement. LUMPY JAW (ACTINO-MYCOSIS ) This is a specific chronic infectious disease caused by a certain fungus (actinomyces) and characterized by the forma- tion of tumorous masses in various parts of the body, more par- ticularly the head. The history of this fungus is not known, but it is thought that it passes a part of its life cycle on certain grasses. The matured fungus has the appearance of a rosette and is commonly called “ ray fungus.” Distribution and Extent.—Actino-mycosis or lumpy jaw is quite prevalent in the United States. The extent of the disease varies in the different states. According to the twenty-fourth annual report of the Bureau of Animal Industry there were slaughtered in establishments having federal inspection, 7,621,- 717 cattle, of which 22,742 were found to be affected with lumpy jaw. The actual percentage is even greater, for numer- ous animals affected with this disease are slaughtered where there is no official inspection maintained. Source of the Fungus.—The fungus which causes the dis- ease is probably most frequently obtained from vegetation, especially wild rye, barley, oats and other grains. Infection is thought to occur most often in animals fed on dry feed such as fodder, straw, or hay. It is questionable as to whether the disease may be transmitted directly from one animal to another, although certain instances have been recorded wherein the infec- tion apparently spread by actual contact. The causative fungus may gain entrance to the animal body by way of the digestive tract, the respiratory tract or through the skin. The digestive tract is the most frequent channel of entrance in cattle. Wounds of mucous lining of the. mouth, diseased teeth, or the shedding of milk teeth, provide an, en- trance for the causative fungus. The upper surface of the tongue, which is often injured by rough feeds, frequently affords 14 210 COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE an entrance for the ray fungus. When the disease affects the tongue it is commonly known as “ wooden tongue.”’ Wounds of the skin resulting from rubbing on stanchions and feed boxes may be a source of infection in some instances. Infection by way of air passages is not of common occurrence. Location of the Disease.—The disease may be located both externally and internally. The fungus may invade and produce the disease in any tissue. It is most often found affecting the soft tissues and bones of the lower and upper jaw. Internally it may attack the tongue, pharynx, or larynx. It may also affect the lungs and more rarely the digestive tract; occasionally the udder is attacked. It is usually localized, and rarely if ever becomes generalized. When affecting the soft tissue of the head the disease produces rather hard, firm swellings (abscesses) (Fig. 72), which vary in size, surrounded by a thick dense cap- sule. The abscesses tend to rupture finally and discharge a thick creamy pus. ‘The pus contains small yellow bodies, which are commonly known as “sulphur granules.” These are the “ray fungi.” After the abscess has ruptured, the cavity does not disappear but is soon filled with fungus-like masses which protrude outward through the opening. In some in- stances the abscesses will appear in the form of a chain, extend- ing along the jaw and upper portion of the neck. When the abscesses form inside the throat, they seriously interfere with swallowing and respiration. Actino-mycosis of the bone is of common occurrence and must be regarded as one of the most serious forms of the disease. The bone becomes disintegrated and pockets or cavities are formed. As the diseased process advances, there is new bone tissue formed, causing the bone to become enlarged and have a honeycomb appearance. The disease of the tongue, ‘‘ wooden tongue,” is also a very serious form of the disease, as it interferes with the movement of this important organ of mastication. The course of the disease is quite slow. Emaciation in the affected animal results when mastication, rumination, or breathing is affected. The tongue and the bones of the jaws may become so badly diseased that death will result from starvation. Treatment.—When affected the soft structures of the lower INFLAMMATION OF THE UDDER 211 and upper jaw may be satisfactorily treated, but when the bony tissue is diseased treatment is of less value. Potassium iodide, administered in the form of a drench once a day until symptoms of iodine poisoning occur, has proved to be quite beneficial in the treatment of this disease. Abscesses located externally in the region of the head and neck require early attention in order to effect a cure. Operations of this kind can only be undertaken by skilled veterinarians. Fie. 72.—Cow badly affected with lumpy jaw, unthriftiness due to the mechanical difficulty in eating. (Courtesy of M. H. Reynolds.) INFLAMMATION OF THE UDDER Mammitis is the veterinarian’s name for inflammation of the udder. Aggravated cases of garget may at times terminate in active inflammation. Mammitis may occur also directly in connection with injuries, such as blows on the udder with clubs, horns, or feet, or from nails in the floor. Over-feeding, ex- posure to extreme changes of weather, indigestion, and insufh- cient stripping of the udder during milking may also cause the udder to become inflamed. _Symptoms.—In cases of mammitis following exposure, the early symptoms noted consist of spells of shivering. The tail, 212 COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE ears, and limbs become cold and the hair in general is erect. This condition is soon followed by fever and the body becomes unnaturally warm. The muzzle becomes hot and dry, the temperature rises, rapid pulse, excited breathing, impaired appetite, cessation of rumination, and constipation. The udder swells and becomes hard in one, two, three, or all four quarters and the yield of milk is greatly lessened, at times becoming entirely suppressed in the affected quarter or quarters. As the inflammatory process extends, the udder becomes painfully tender, causing the animal to straddle with its hind legs when walking. In cases where the supporting tissue or framework of the udder is inflamed, the swelling is rounded and uniform and pits on pressure. In cases where the secreting portion of the gland becomes inflamed, the swelling is more localized and appears as hard, nodular masses, deep in the gland. In all cases the milk is suppressed and replaced by a watery fluid which is at times streaked with blood and mixed with clots of casein. Later it becomes thickened and is usually accompanied by an offensive odor, due to pus formation. The course of the disease varies, some cases lasting only a few days, while others will last several days or even weeks before the inflammation has subsided and the gland restored to its normal condition. Many cases terminate in complete recovery. Others result in only partial recovery with arrested secretion in one or more quarters. When this occurs, the affected portion shrinks to a smaller size. In quite a number of cases, hard, fibrous masses result, which cause permanent induration (hard- ening). In other cases abscesses (boils) will develop. The abscess may empty itself on the external surface or it may break into the milk ducts and be discharged through the teats. Treatment.—Treatment will be found to vary in accordance with the stages of the disease. Internally, laxatives are indicated. Epsom salts, one to two pounds, with an ounce of ginger dissolved in a quart of water and administered as a drench, will be found efficacious. After the purgative action has ceased, one ounce of saltpeter may be given once a day. Local treatment consists of hot fomentations and gentle but frequent massage. Cloths wrung COW-POX 213 out of warm water should be applied to the udder for an hour or two at a time. The application of camphorated vaseline or lard may be used with good effect. In case of abscess forma- tion early lancing is recommended. Frequent milking is neces- sary in order to get the best results and the affected cow should be milked at least five or six times a day. GARGET This is a condition that often occurs in heavy milkers just before or after calving. The udder becomes enlarged and is hot and tender. At times a doughy swelling will be noticed to extend from the udder forward along the lower surface of the abdomen. This condition is physiological and the congestion usually disappears within a few days after the secretion of milk | begins. Garget becomes aggravated when the animal is allowed to stand in a draft of cold air or when compelled to lie on unprotected cold cement or on wet floors. Incomplete milking is probably the most frequent cause of garget even with cows far along in milk. In some cases doughy swellings will occur on the surface of the gland and the milk may be tinged or streaked with blood and is usually stringy and clotted when drawn. Such milk is unfit for food, but one gargetty quarter does not spoil the milk of the remaining three quarters. Treatment.—The affected animal should be placed in a dry, clean, and well ventilated stall and the udder lightly massaged with the finger-tips. The application of hot cloths around the affected parts aids in restoring proper circulation and in this way prevents or wards off inflammation. The application of turpen- tine and lard, or, better still, camphorated vaseline, will be found beneficial, and will aid materially in restoring the gland to its normal condition. The administration of epsom salts as a laxative is advised, especially in cases where the bowels are inclined to be sluggish. COW-POX Cow-pox is an infectious disease of the udder, characterized by inflammation and the formation of vesicles or blisters which undergo certain well-marked changes. The disease spreads 214 COMMON AILMENTS OF CATTLE ’ very slowly from animal to animal, but will spread readily by the hands of the milker. Cow-pox is very closely associated with human small-pox. Cases of cow-pox have been reported to occur in cows that had been milked by persons affected with small-pox. Young, healthy calves are used for the production of small-pox vaccine. Cause.—The cause of cow-pox has not yet been determined. It is thought to be due, however, to germs (bacteria) which are ultra-microscopic, too small to be seen by aid of the microscope. Symptoms.—Cow-pox is usually accompanied by a slight elevation of temperature. This condition is not, however, always constant. The age of the cow is an important factor in making a diagnosis, as the disease affects chiefly young cows. The milk flow may or may not be decreased. The eruptions of the vesicles (blisters) occur on the teats and the adjoining parts of the udder. The development of the pocks are divided into well-marked characteristic stages. The first stage of the eruption consists of pink-colored pimples about the size of a pea. The pimple subsequently changes into a blister which contains a sticky, whitish fluid. The blisters on the teats vary in form, while the ones on the udder are circular and show a depression in the center. The blisters vary in size, some meas- uring as much as one-half to one inch in diameter. When the pocks occur on the surface covered with long hair, they do not form blisters, but discharge a straw-colored fluid which cements the hair and forms a brownish-yellow mass. The blisters ma- ture about the tenth day and then dry up into a dark brown crust which drops off a few days later, leaving a sear. Many of the pocks are ruptured during milking, causing the frequent formation of angry-looking sores which heal slowly. Only in rarer cases does the disease affect other parts of the body. Treatment.—Local treatment is all that is required. “C” it will be noticed that the end of the milk house encloses the base of the windmill tower and that within this space is located the boiler, engine, and pump and that on the opposite end of the building is the ice house. This may be of the old sort, namely, of cheap lumber with the ice buried in saw dust; but preferably, the ice house may be insulated so thoroughly that the ice within will keep well without being covered by saw dust or any other material. The milk house proper is set between the two, the engine house and the ice house (Figs. 96 and 97). Where the milk house can be located at a distance not too great from the dwelling house it will be found exceedingly con- venient to have a small refrigerator room built against the side of the insulated ice house with conductor pipes leading from the floor of the refrigerator to the floor of the ice house aud from the top of the refrigerator back into the farther side and top of the ice room (Fig. 98). This will provide a circulation of cold air such as to maintain a temperature of 40 degrees or lower in the refrigerator room, providing, of course, it is reasonably well insulated, and will at the same time keep the room dry. PLAN “C” WITH ICE HOUSE ATTACHED 295 ASOAOW Fl PH? Aad NOUSYIGWOD 296 THE FARM MILK HOUSE The ice chute at one side is provided in order that the ice may be taken out of the ice house without exposing the cold inter- ior to the outdoor weather. It is also an entry for the cold room to save waste of cold air. A simple ladder may be con- structed on the wall of the chute next to the refrigerator room. A series of doors in the side of the ice house, somewhat after the manner of a silo, provides means for throwing the ice out. A plank floor should be made at the bottom of the chute where the ice will be found easily available for use in the cream tank, or ready for any use. The ice house if filled ten feet high will hold about 35 tons of ice. Built of wood with cement floor reasonably well made, this building will cost approximately $400. Ss, eat Fic. 97.—Combination ice, dairy and power house on farm of F. Gruenhagen, Brainerd, Minn. (Photo by author.) The cold water tank for keeping milk and cream sweet 1s about the most important single piece of equipment about the dairy. This tank under most circumstances should be located in such a place that all water pumped for the stock shall first flow through this tank around the cans of cream and milk. In this way the cream gets the “cold” and the animals are provided with the more temperate water and both are benefited thereby. — Where eight-gallon or ten-gallon cans are to be handled it is wise where possible to build the tank low in the cement floor to avoid excessive lifting. The sides of the tank may well be built up some six or eight inches above the floor level. THE COLD WATER TANK 297 To keep the cans from tipping when not full, compartments may be built by means of galvanized iron pipes, coupled to ™ A gN§ — SS POZO CE YY Neer en 2 raat Gh im 3% 1 ep os HO 35 bs = Rene ae pop ee ee oa q Ls Ht : °\ Tae 11ND a Re aos 8g * 2) SHAVINGS ma $ Wee One ait tH Geb ewe. P HN eS HS 4 o sep ~ a i betes re DA . ISSSSS / Je \NCH DeM. BOARDS! __-D' MINERAL WOOL BLOCK, | i) CORK OR HAIR FELT WATERPROOF PAPER—— _— 78 SURF BOARDS - VxlOSTUDS-FILLED WITH SHAVINGS SSISSISTESSSFSISSSSW : GEE SS SES A = CO Se a Eine I SE SLL SSS ILLS hb ha j——-7BINCH D.tM1. BOARDS / _____2°MINERAL WOOL BLOCK ~/ f CoRK OR HAIR. FELT WATERPROOF PAPERS i /JBINCH SURF: BOARDS | //FILLED WITH SHAVINGS | -o™ i ‘Os ‘a ue + yy +> a a. r-~ & es Ta = SS Red) Cz SSeS) A t i Retreees \) \\ CALLED D III GA AAD 0. pt bdlaA SZ IN hdd LLLZLLL OSS 324) hoe Sad of AT y RATER TE PLE EH eo Fic. 98.—Showing .nethod of insulating the walls in the insulated ice house. Repro- duced from ‘‘Praciical Cold Storage,’’ by Madison Cooper. (Published by Nickerson and Collins Co., Chicago.) branch out between the cans. Spaces should be of such size as to accommodate the ordinary four-gallon ‘* shot-gun ” can (eight to nine inches in diameter and twenty inches high) and the ordinary 298 THE FARM MILK HOUSE ten-gallon shipping can (fourteen inches in diameter and twenty inches high). Two-inch wood makes a good tank. The extra expense in- curred in providing thick non-conducting walls is soon repaid by improved quality in the cream or a saving of ice. Milk and cream become sour and otherwise damaged through the action of certain bacteria. To grow at all rapidly, all bae- teria require a temperature of at least 55 degrees F. Cream keeps sweet more easily than milk, yet it will sour quickly if allowed to stand at a temperature of 55 degrees or warmer. To remain sweet for several days, even very clean cream must be held at a temperature of 50 degrees or lower. The ordinary kitchen ice chest seldom cools to a temperature lower than 55 degrees and is more often at 60 degrees. To keep milk most efficiently the cans or bottles should be placed into water in which chunks of ice are floating (Fig. 151). Deep well water is usually cold enough in the northern states so that if caused to flow around the cans of cream the temperature of the whole may be very cheaply held low enough, but when such an arrangement is impractical ice should be used in the tanks of water, in which case insulation of the tank is especially desirable. A sterilizer of some sort is essential in the production and delivery of good milk or cream. A steam jet through the drain board of the sink is ample for most farm dairy needs, but a gal- vanized iron oven, or a tight room, preferably made of cement, is a good investment, since in these ovens all of the dairy tools may be subjected to the purifying influence of live steam. LOCATION The milk room should not be located in the barn, but should be close to the door through which the milk can be most con- veniently brought (Fig. 94). It is essential, however, that good ‘ drainage be provided. It is desirable that the space between the barn and the milk house be sufficiently wide to permit a wagon to be easily driven between. The sidewalk leading from the barn door to the milk room door may be covered if desired. Not infrequently the entire space between the barn and the milk MATERIAL AND CONSTRUCTION 299 house is provided with roof and concrete floor, thus making a convenient place for the loading of the milk wagon, providing such is used. Care should be taken that the milk house is not located at too great a distance from the barn unless it is towards the calf stable and hog house, since milk is such heavy stuff to earry. In the location of the building, as well as with the arrangement of the various features within, the object should be to economize steps (Fig. 95). MATERIAL AND CONSTRUCTION The material of which the milk house is to be made naturally will vary, but in most instances will probably be wood, though at present there is considerable use being made of the cement plas- ter, stucco finish. When not inconvenient the milk house should be made to harmonize in material and color with the other build- ings surrounding it. Cement blocks are alsocoming into use very largely and certainly have a place. Likewise, hollow clay blocks are beginning to be used to some extent and like the cement blocks have the advantage of permanency. In any case the floor of the milk house should be concrete, made with sufficient fall towards the drain to insure the quick removal of any water. The cement foundation walls should be comparatively high to keep the wood sill, if such be used, well above the constant moist- ure and the floor within should be made with round corners up to the top of the foundation wall, some eighteen inches to two feet above ground. Above this point, inside and over the ceiling, comparatively rich cement plaster may be used, but the disadvan- tage of this is that fine bits of sand will continue to fall on whatever machinery may be situated below. It is recommended, therefore, that the inner walls be made of wood and then painted heavily, first with a white filler, and then with a comparatively heavy white enamel paint. This provides a clean bright interior, permits shelves to be put up where necessary and saves the vari- ous machines and the cream below from being sprinkled with sand, as would be the case if common cement plaster were used. Since to work quickly and to take pride in it one must be able to see well, it is necessary that a reasonable amount of light be provided. ‘There should be at least two windows in order to pro- 300 THE FARM MILK HOUSE vide ventilation when needed. These should be well screened. It will be found convenient also in summer to have Leavy roller shades or some other means of darkening the room. This will assist in driving the flies out of the place and also in keeping the room cool. No particular attention need be paid to ventila- tion except in the largest of the plants indicated, where a venti- lating flue should be provided in wash room to assist in drying the room as well as in giving workmen better air. In any milk house, especially in the little, inexpensive ones (Fig. 99), the foundation upon which the separator is set should extend into the ground below the frost line. This is accomplished by setting posts upon which the four legs of the separator are to stand and then cementing up around them. If this is not done the cement floor will heave with freezing sufficiently to throw the separator badly out of line and cause troubl>. THE FARM ICE HOUSE When it is realized that cream, sweet and otherwise of good flavor, is worth from 10 to 20 per cent more than the same would be in a stale condition; that under the present American farm conditions one dollar invested in ice at the beginning of the season will return from five to ten dollars in increased value of the cream for each and every cow on the farm, the ice house will become more common. ; Water weighs 6214 pounds to the cubie ot, ice 57.5 pounds. One ton of solid ice requires 35 cubic feet | f space or, as ordi- narily well packed, about 50 cubic feet. .f the milk is sepa- rated immediately after being drawn and only the cream cooled, one-half ton of ice will suffice to cool the cream of one cow for one season of six months, or allowing for usual melting and other waste, one ton of ice occupying approximately 50 cubie feet of space will suffice for each cow. A herd of ten cows, therefore, would require 500,cubic feet of ice space or a building which will accommodate a mass of ice 8 X 8 & 8 feet. Nat- urally, if ice is to be used for household and other purposes, extra accommodation will need to be provided. The old sort of cheaply made ice house (Fig. 100), which consisted essentially of a bin of sawdust with a roof over it, is QUESTIONS 301 wasteful of ice and an unpleasant place from which to remove ice. The heavy and disagreeable nature of the work of removing the ice after it is stored undoubtedly has much to do with the scarcity of ice houses even in our well-watered northern sections. Most of this trouble may be easily avoided by the construction of the so-called insulated ice house. ne owe ies ' bli ie bes FR ne Biles = CS" Fie. 99.—Inexpensive milk house. The insulate: ice house is one in which the packing is put in the walls rather than upon the ice itself. The ice is packed clean and close to the walls where it will keep even more per- fectly than wren packed in the-ordinary sawdust fashion. Many of the best, moderate-sized creameries are now employing this system and it is certainly to be recommended to the larger class of farm dairies. The milk house and the ice house may be built under one roof which will reduce the labor of use to the minimum. See the plan already given of this type of combina- tion milk and ice house. QUESTIONS . What are the essentialsof a farm milk house? . Where should it be located? . Of what material should the floor and lower walls be made? - How much ice is required per season of six months per cow in the northern half of the United States? . What is an “insulated ” ice house? . How may an insulated ice house and a milk house be economically combined ? 7. What does one cubic foot of water weigh? . What does one cubic foot of ice weigh? . How many cubic feet will one ton of solid ice occupy? 10. How many cubic feet should be allowed for each ton of ice to be used? oO mow hy = =) Oo wm 302 THE FARM MILK HOUSE piers te Leuvre board aie bees Ventilator mn each Gable osls 24° Cen ors ; j SAWDUST i H | Stude-24"den ! ere Ls 1 | i | ICE 18 Tons Ge De ci SAWDUST % 9 > a 3 < 4 ICE. [6 Tons ” Studs-24Cen elty or Drep Siding r, tf SAWDUST SAWDUST Fria. 100.—Ice house, old style. Ice covered over and around with saw dust. Repro- duced from “Practical Cold Storage,” by Madison Cooper. (Published by Nickerson and Collins Co., Chicago.) CHAPTER XXVIII MILK AND CREAM TESTING To produce milk or butter fat for market most economically and profitably it is nearly, if not quite, as important that the grade of milk be known as it is to know the quantity yielded. Milk testing 7 per cent fat has nearly twice the food value of one testing 3 per cent fat, and likewise requires nearly twice as much feed to produce it (Chapter XXIII). There never was a time when the dairy farmers needed to feed scientifically more than at present, nor a time when this could more easily be done. The dairy farmer should own a milk tester and use it, chiefly because of its aid in economical feeding. A second reason why the tester on the farm is needed is that by its means the un- profitable cows may more promptly and accurately be singled out for disposal. The man who sells to the city should be careful never to allow milk to go to market which is below the legal stand- ard in fat. Whether cream is shipped or drawn to local market the thoroughness of skimming done by the separator on the farm should, from time to time, be determined. It is also convenient frequently to use the hand tester to check the accuracy of the cream testing done in the city or in the local creamery. Easy to Learn.—The process of testing milk by the Babcock method is not difficult to learn, nor to perform. Any bright boy or girl of fifteen can readily learn to do very satisfactory work, especially if shown once or twice how to do a few of the more particular pieces of work. Does Not Take Long.—The total time required to make a single test of milk need not be more than fifteen minutes; two samples can be tested nearly as quickly as one; a dozen samples can be tested in half an hour, Testing milk makes a good “ rainy day job” and may be worth more than the work which could be accomplished ordinarily during the same length of time. Equipment Needed and Cost.—A testing machine such as shown in figure 109 may be obtained complete with glassware for operation at from five to six dollars, but such machines are 303 304 MILK AND CREAM TESTING not to be recommended. ‘The reasons for not favormg such are: (1) The small capacity prolongs the time required to do a moderate amount of work and greatly increases the lkelihood that the testing of the herd will not often be undertaken. (2) The bottles are so thoroughly exposed to the air that unless the bottle pockets are filled with hot water the contents cool too rapidly to permit either of thorough testing or accurate reading. (3) Test bottles do occasionally break, and if such an accident should occur in an open machine the chances are great that 14 would at least cost the suit of clothes worn, and possibly cause greater damage. A machine like that shown in figure 101 with a capacity of eight to twelve bottles, enclosed with close-fitting cast-iron frame, costs only ten to twelve dollars, with glassware complete. It pro- tects the sample from being cooled in the air; protects the oper- ator from accident, and increases the likelihood of a good test. The glassware needed for the larger machine, constituting one set, will consist of a dozen whole milk test bottles; two or more skim milk test bottles, and preferably, two cream test bottles, two pipettes, graduated to 17.6 c¢.c.; one pair needle- point dividers; and a few ordinary dishes for the pouring of milk, and the handling of hot water. See figures 101, 102, 103, and 104, for illustration of the various tools needed. Since glassware is liable to be broken and is not usually carried in stock in villages, it is highly desirable that there be procured at least two pipettes and acid measures, and a reason- able stock of test, bottles. Pipettes may be used to measure the acid, but it is hard on the throat on account of the acid fumes. Properties of Milk.—Milk is a mixture of water in which is dissolved a considerable quantity of milk sugar and a small quantity of albumen, with casein, which is the chief substance of which cheese is made, present in a fine suspension, and butter fat which is present in the form of an infinite number of small round globules. The composition of milk differs greatly between breeds and individuals of the same breed. Although the protein (casein and albumen) and the ash are far more important in the growing of calves, pigs and poultry MAKING THE TEST: DRAWING SAMPLE 305 on the farm, the fat is commercially the most valuable. Fat is also the element in which there is the greatest variation. Being so variable in amount and so valuable on the market, it becomes highly important that a test made shall be accurately done. Procuring the Sample.—If the milk of a single cow is to be tested she must be milked dry and the milk thoroughly stirred, preferably by pouring from one pail to another before a sample is taken. This is necessary because the last milk, or strippings, is anywhere from two to eight times as rich as the first milk Fie. 101.—Eight-bottle hand tester. Farm size. drawn. Merely drawing the milk into the bottle will not suffice for the securing of an accurate sample. If a can or vat of milk is to be tested it must be very thor- oughly stirred before the sample is taken. [at will rise in five minutes sufficiently to show variation between the top and bottom of a pail or can of milk. So small an amount of milk as a single ten gallon canful will contain over 37,000 cubic centimeters. In testing we use only 17.6 ¢.c., which is only one part in 2162 parts of the whole. Where so small a quantity is used to determine the value of so large a mass it is extremely important, indeed, that the small amount be carefully taken. Making the Test: Drawing Sample.—With test bottle placed conveniently and safely and with pipette near at hand, mix again the sample of milk by pouring from one cup or dish to another, taking care that the milk flows down the side of the 20 306 MILK AND CREAM TESTING ie cee isecion seuniaiitemadinamanie nasa NLS I Ian 9 ; | / ~ Se a eT lenin ttl tle be - Wie. 102.—Milk pipettes. a has a thick clumsy tip which will not enter a standard 8 per cent milk tested bottle. b is very much more serviceable. dish, rather than pouring into the center. This would intro- duce air bubbles and cause inaccuracy. Note the ring of cream Fic. 103.—Acid measures.. a is preferable to b on account of the flaring base, which renders it less liable to tip over, and the lip out of which the acid is poured is not so wide from side to side, thus easier to pour from without spilling. on the side of the container. This should be carefully rinsed off by the rotary motion of the milk. With pipette grasped firmly in the hand, as shown in figure 105, with thumb and two fingers serving to hold the instrument; little finger acting as guide, and fore finger to be used as a valve, draw the milk into the pipette, 308 MILK AND CREAM TESTING sarap OREN, * s + POE tier ies oy ¢ sie Saitage ; 2 ant ik sor ert veareoamaettne : ‘ ee 4 Zl — = Fie. 104.—Milk test bottles. ais very much preferable to b. First, in having a slender neck, which will permit of accurate reading of the fat; second, in having sloping shoulders. Fat will lodge under the abrupt shoulder of Bb, and thus reduce the reading; third, the top of ais not flaring as b. A milk tested in duplicate in two bottles such as these would not read the same. nearly to the top, slip the fore finger over the top of the tube to prevent air entering. This serves to hold the milk in the pipette. Raise the charge and sample nearly to the level of the MAKING THE TEST: DRAWING SAMPLE 309 eyes and carefully release the forefinger, allowing air to enter until the milk has descended exactly to the scratch on the stem of the pipette. Again close tightly with the finger and transfer the measured quantity to the test bottle. If the stem of the pipette is sufficiently small, insert into the neck of the test bottle (Fig. 1050) ; if not, hold the bottle and pipette at an angle, as shown at figure 105. This is done to allow the milk to flow Fic. 105.—Filling milk test bottles. In a the bottle and pipette are being well handled where it is necessary to hold them while the pipette is being emptied. b shows a preferable method of emptying the pipette. When the tip of the pipette is slender enough to enter the neck of the bottle, a dise of rubber packing or cork may be slipped on it and the pipette allowed to drain by itself. Two or three such pipettes may be used in rotation. down the bottom side of the neck of the bottle, while permitting air to escape on the upper side. The last drop of milk should be saved by blowing it into the test bottle. In testing a number of samples care should be taken to rinse the pipette once by drawing the milk of the next sample to be tested into the pipette and blowing it back; otherwise the quan- tity of fat which sticks to the inside of the pipette goes from 310 MILK AND CREAM TESTING one test over to the next. In going from a high testing sample to a low testing sample one may easily cause the reading of the low test sample to be one- or even two-tenths per cent too high. Adding Acid.—Carefully measure out acid (temperature 55 to 65 degrees) into the acid measure. A quantity exactly to the scratch on the little cylinder will be required if the acid is the right strength and temperature, and the milk is not too warm. Warm acid or a warm sample increases the chemical action and will cause a burning of the sample unless checked. If either is too warm use slightly less acid. Pour the acid carefully down the side of the neck, allowing the heavy, half- sticky substance to flow under the milk rather than through it. If poured directly downward into the sample burning and un- reliable reading are almost certain to follow. Mixing Acid and Milk.—By one not especially familiar with the process this mixing should be done immediately after the acid has been added and by all means should be finished quickly when once started. Care should be taken not to shake the sample violently, nor in a perpendicular direction, since this would throw a mass of coagulated milk into the neck of the bottle where it would be forced out by the heat and lost, thus invalidating the whole sample. Shake the sample with an elliptical, rotary motion in such a way as to mix the contents of the bottle without throwing any of it into the neck. Observe the sample for an instant to note the color. Allow it to con- tinue the chemical action till a strong coffee color or deep cherry red has been reached. If the acid is too strong or the ingredients at such a temperature that the mixture at this point begins to turn black, 2 or 3 ¢.¢., a teaspoonful of lukewarm water should be added and then mixed. This checks the action of the acid and prevents charring. Care to get both milk and acid to the favorable temperature will be time well spent, for half the secret of making good tests is in getting the right temperatures. Whirling.—When all the samples to be tested at one time have been gotten ready in manner just described, the bottles are to be placed in the centrifugal machine, taking care to balance the load in all cases. Increase the speed gradually until the ‘ ee READING 311 required force is being developed. Continue even, strong turn- ing for four minutes, when the machine should be permitted to stop of its own accord, or gently retarded by hand. Adding Water.—Clean, soft water, just below the boiling point in temperature, is to be added, at this point in the process, to each bottle in amount sufficient only to bring the contents up to the bottom of the neck. This enables any curdy matter which may be floating on the heavy acid mixture to settle and not clog the neck. Second Whirling.— Again the machine is to be strongly turned as before, for three minutes, and then gently stopped. Finish Adding Water.—At this point more hot water should be added, sufficient to bring the top of the fat column to within 15.0 TPL (OO) BEES 255001 0, 0) ete ree OP ae Aa ie i 32509) LOOO0l—T20'000he rath, cates fees 12.5 POO OM ds OOO Ms bere cas Cored ous gee eas 32:4) lh T20:001—140\ 000). .i2oe bee ee 10.0 PSTN —TAt Onn candied wok hen eeee Os Sera) el AOOOL—160; 000i es. no ahs see ee Ud AFOOT US OOOH kercts usb aie eu fs Gites es 32.0) | PLGOJOOL S180; 000 ee ose ee ee oe 5.0 PSOON=2OKOOO waves fc ee bala, dees SOF | L8O001—200; 0008.1. cia soins ot ebro 2.5 SANE OSO) KPO) 0) CA Siee lee icin eee tei err 30:08 Above ZOOI000% .. aa. dae ome hones 0.0 Note.—When the number of bacteria per cubic centimeter exceeds the local legal limit the score shall be 0. FLAVOR AND ODOR—PERFECT SCORE, 25. Deductions for disagreeable or foreign odor or flavor should be made according to con- ditions found. When possible to recognize the cause of the difficulty it should be described under Remarks. VISIBLE DIRT—PERFECT SCORE, 10. Examination for visible dirt should be made only after the milk has stood for some time undisturbed in any way. Raise the bottle carefully in its natural, upright position, without tipping, until higher than the head. Observe the bottom of the milk with the naked eye or by the aid of a reading glass. The presence of the slightest movable speck makes a perfect score impossible. Further deductions should be made according to the amount of dirt found. When possible the nature of the dirt should be described under Remarks. FAT IN MILK—PERFECT SCORE, 10. PoINTs Points 2*Olpericent, Andy OVETs:,5< oe 12 eels» 10 See DOT CONG ok Ca Fue eeue aletete ss eyciene foes! seals 6 SPONMET COD G eee hits lca abate he elles ole aie trts OE Salers La PEL COD t yefeve, siecle Sereosicveasi aire ecttore ov che sc 5 GOO DEL ICON Lae caches hia ate etna aie GEG iS OMDOIN CET Gis a le,centan pus nee Whe ene Sieyenls, ee teat © 4 SOP CLUCOR tae ane eben see ages wile asst cheer mene vein OPAR sO MC DACEMGlretey sc aOey ecaritis iasye sci ‘aiaheeletole terete 3 RCMP ECE Tipe eS oteee aot sige. dich e areicker OD P2ESUDRY, (CON ie. < ci aye =) = ays, ead seats «oss 2 ROME TECOM te ue 8 yf hes 0, a 0:10) So usks wie toi8 os 9 DRM ELECOMU Sy uh re cwuernisiate arate ctadtcaperete ae aes 1 Wee ET AGCOTNGE Sit vet oui, wus heel at aa Bug) es 8 Bess thane? per Centres = cue aeiee ae 6 se 0 PORE LECOIMn wei Atel sre cone ahs wlcvina ahecog 7 Norse.—When the per cent of fat is less than the local legal limit the score shall be 0. SOLIDS NOT FAT—PERFECT SCORE, 10. PoInts Points BG Der Cent ANG OVET:..6c. <0 w lewis tees 26 10 Sele OME CPM bisner-c Ferrie choca e suekvn erasers ay cnatiooe: ars 4 RUBE Or CE Mba eh yahoo cyePoraierebe aya to. cispaiberewie Oy StOMMer, Cena. .s. creer GO sierea eeesreetmtutiets Grohe 3 Se EM COMI Raves, Se. scet ogee eels 0 ont anstine +. 8 Ue QEDER GENTE & jase ayo Raters waders Hiss euedee aon 2 EE MIOES COU bits cieie eects 5 stolons tarts operons oeen: 7 is Ss DOTHCOM Gs re lots chore layers stoner a iayersue sovets: tv fe 1 Bean pPernceMt:. 21 cam nrewsia tie me odevetos ae ei 6 Bessithan 72Stper cent. s- en cicisias sos 0 BEAMMIOT VCO ict, are stele e rohan citags .olapaveve tate’ ele 5 Norre.—When the per cent of solids not fat isless than the local legal limit the score shall be 0. ACIDITY—PERFECT SCORE, 5. Points Points Oltper- cent and, lessiac.te. core ss ee Sy |) OlZS per Centura aicmels s = eteuteisacls ale cc's 2 OL Uipericentst rapes d ls Cae os Sse = 4. \ i) O24 pemicente. ssa sse> = sisen ote Slee Hoes 1 O22 Mericenttyche csr the Mi. cieqs olen evans: tyes Sl OvertO: 24s pen CD vate hereto erin wee si eleucrs 0 BOTTLE AND CAP—PERFECT SCORE, 5. Bottles should be made of clear glass and free from attached*metal parts. ‘Caps should be sealed in their place with hot paraffin, or both cap and top of bottle covered with parch- ment paper or other protection against water and dirt. Deduct for tinted glass, attached metal parts, unprotected or leaky caps, partially filled bottles, or other conditions permitting contamination of milk or detracting from the appearance of the package. , 388 MARKET MILK the ropy condition 1s usually accompanied by a bitter or foul flavor. Bitter milk may be either the result of certain bacteria which grow slowly at a temperature of between 40 and 50 do-grees, or it may be due to the physical condition of the cow yielding it, in which ease the bitter taste will be evident the moment it is drawn from the udder. This condition often occurs with cows that are being overfed on rich protein feeds. All that has been said or intimated with regard to the effects of dirt germs in the baby’s milk holds just as true respecting the germs that gain access from a dirty nursing bottle or nipple as from the dirty tools of the milkman. Dairymen are often blamed when carelessness in the consumer’s own home is the source of the trouble. A bottle of milk, if set into a pail of water in which a chunk of ice is kept floating and the whole set into the refrigerator, will keep sweet two or three times as long as it will if set merely in the «co! air of the same ice chest. QUESTIONS 1. What is meant by market milk? . What per cent of the total amount of milk produced is used as butter, as cheese, as milk and cream? 3. How many babies are there in the United States under one year of age? . What per cent and number are bottle fed? 5. About what is the proportion of infant mortality between the breast fed and the cow’s milk fed? 6. What three classes of factors influence the quality of cow’s milk? 7. How is milk scored? bo cs CHAPTER XXXVII THE ADULTERATION OF MILK Because milk was for so long a time sold by the measure, with no easy, accurate way of testing for quality, it is not sur- prising that some men either skimmed or watered the milk they sold. Of all forms of adulteration these two are most common and in general most easily detected. Chemical analysis of the milk to detect adulterations is not necessary since it has been discovered that the specific gravity (weight per volume) of milk bears a definite and constant rela- tion to the amount of solids contained in it. The Quevenne lactometer, which is the chief insisument used in the detection of skimming or watering, is a glass tube filled with air, weighted to float in milk, and graduated to indi- cate the depth to which it sinks. Since any floating object sinks until it displaces exactly its weight of liquid in which it is floating, the lighter or thinner the milk, the deeper the instru- ment will have to sink to balance. Influence of Temperature——Water, milk and most other liquids expand and become thinner or less dense upon becoming warm, consequently, the milk to be tested must be brought to a fixed temperature, 60 degrees or close to it. For every degree in temperature above 60, one-tenth is added to the lactometer reading; thus: if the lactometer, L = 31.5, at temperature 64, the corrected reading would be 31.9, and likewise for every degree below 60, one-tenth is subtracted from the lactometer reading, thus if L= 32.4 temperature 55, the correct reading would be 31.9. This rule for the correction does not hold true above 70 degrees nor below 50 degrees, and preferably should not be worked above 65 degrees nor below 55 degrees. The sample should be brought to within a few degrees of 60 betore it is tested. Influence of Air.—On account of the fine bubbles of air or other gas in freshly drawn milk, the lactometer cannot be ac- 389 390 THE ADULTERATION OF MILK curately used at once, but the milk should be held for about two or three hours to permit it to become of normal weight per volume. Influence of Preservatives.—To keep milk test-samples from souring various chemicals are added to kill the bacteria and thereby preserve the sample. Corrosive sublimate or mercuric chloride is such heavy stuff that a single small tablet in one quart of milk will raise the lactometer reading higher than possible for even skim milk. .03 .42 .014 - | | Fodder Corn (Drilled) Corn Stover Digestible Digestible Dry pee re a See Dr Matter Lbs. || Matter Pro. C-H. Fat Pro. C-H. Fat ele. ae SR) aS | SE 1 .76 .037 .41 015 1 .59 014 31 .007 2" 1.52 .074 .83 .029 2 {| 1.19 028 62 014 3 .28 111 1.24 044 3 || 1.78 .042 .94 021 + .04 .148 1.66 .058 4 || 2.38 -056 1.25 .028 5 .80 .185 2.07 .073 5 || 2.97 .070 1.56 .035 6 .56 2222 2.48 .088 6 || 3.57 -084 1.87 ,042 7 .32 . 259 2.90 . 102 7 || 4.16 098 2.18 .049 8 .08 . 296 3.31 .117 8 || 4.76 -112 2.50 .056 9 .84 .333 3.73 131 9 | 5.35 .126 2.81 .063 10 .60 .370 4.14 .146 10 || 5 98 . 140 3.12 .070 Sorghum Fodder Millet 1 .50 .024 .o2 .016 1 .86 .050 47 OL 2 | 1.01 .048 .64 032 Z| 1. : a ‘ 3 1.51 072 .96 .048 3 || 2. - - Wee 4 |.2.01 .096 1.28 .064 4] 3. 3 f 6 5 || 2.51 -120 1.60 .080 5 || 4. : 2. A 6 || 3.02 .144 1.93 .096 6 | 5. é : é ie \lkonos . 168 2.25 112 7 || 6. 3 3 A 8 || 4.02 .192 2.00 .128 8 || 6. F F F 9 || 4.53 .216 2.89 .144 DAW tLe ; . ‘ 10 5.03 . 240 aiee4il . 160 10 | 8. 5 4 3 Timothy 1 .87 .028 .43 .014 1 : f 2 || 1.74 .056 .87 .028 2 | wh. 3 || 2.60 .084 1.30 .042 3 || 2. : 4 || 3.47 112 1.74 .056 4 || 3.64 192 5 || 4.34 .140 Doli .070 5 || 4.55 6 5 6 | 5.21 | .168 | 2.60 .084 6 || 5.47 . 288 81 .060 7 || 6.08 .196 3.04 .098 7 || 6.38 .336 .28 070 8 || 6.94 .224 3.47 e112 8 || 7.29 384 75 .080 9 | 7.81 oe 2.91 . 126 9 || 8.20 .432 .22 090 10 || 8.68 . 280 4.34 .140 10 || 9.11 .480 .69 .100 iw) a oS BPO WNN ee © 00 #= 00 oo i oo 21.75 -06 -84 | .028 2 || 1.62 | .058 -83 | .024 3 || 2.62 -09 | 1.25 | .042 3 || 2.52 | .087 | 1.24:| .036 4 || 3.50 -12 | 1-67 | ..056 4 || 3.36 | .116 | 1.66 | .048 5 || 4.37 -15 | 2-09 | .070 5 || 4.20 | .145 | 2.07 | .060 6 || 5.25 18 | 2.51 | .084 65.05 | .174 | 2.49 | .072 7 || 6.12 -21 | 2.93 | .098 7 || 5.89 | .203 | 2.90 | .084 8 || 7.00 +24 | 3.34 | .112 8 || 6.73 | .232 | 3.32 | .096 9 || 7.87 -27 | 3.76 | .126 9 || 7.57 | .261 | 3.73 | .108 10 || 8.75 -30 | 4.18 | .140 10 | 8.41 | .290 | 4.15 | .120 418 APPENDIX TABLE III—Ferpinae Strurrs—Continued Curen RouGHAcE—Continued Prairie (Swale) Barley iiaine SI Be eo ce eo ee eee oe pall eet Eten Pro. C-H. Fat ; Pro. C-H. 1 . 86 -026 aos Ore 1 .85 .057 .44 : 2 1-73 -052 84 .022 2 || 1.70 .114 87 : 3 || 2.59 .078 1.26 .033 3 || 2.55 Aileal ised ; 4 | 3.45 -104 1.68 .044 4 || 3.40 , 228 1.74 : 5 || 4.31 -130 | 2.09 .055 5 || 4.25 .285 !' 2.18 2 6. || 5.18 Bila | Bown .066 6 || 5.10 342 2202, 3 7 || 6.04 -182 2.93 077 7 | 5.95 3899 3.05 2 8 || 6.90 .208 | 3.35 .088 8 || 6.80 .456 | 3.49 ; On daa 204) |e Siatd! .099 9 || 7.65 .513 | 3-92 F 10 | 8.63 . 260 4.19 .110 10. || 8.50 .570 | 4.36 Z Oat Pea 1 .86 .047 oF ,017 1 790 |. .080.) cai) tere .080 Al A PFA Eee .094 73 .034 2 | 1.80 . 160 -82 5 3 || 2.58 .141 1.10 051 8 || 2.71 . 240 1.23 ‘ 4 || 3.44 -188 1.47 .068 4) 3.61 .320 1.64 , 5 || 4.30 .235 1.83 -085 § || 4.51 .400 | 2.05 . 6 || 5.16 JeSeie 20 .102 6 || 5.41 .480 | 2.47 2 7 || 6.02 SOLO aoe, .119 7 || 6.31 .560 | 2.88 2 8 || 6.88 .of6 | 2.94 .136 8 || 7.22 .640 | 3.29 : 9 || 7.74 -423 |) 3.30 .153 9 || 8.12 20 |, ote 10 || 8.60 470 3.67 .170 10 9.02 | .800 | .800 4.11 ‘ os Cow Pea Soy Bean 1]/ .89 | .058 | .39 | .013 || 1] .88 | .106| .41.| .012 2] 1.79 .116 18 .026 PONS Gara sole 82 3 || 2.68 .174 1.80 .039 3 || 2.65 .318 1.23 » 4 | 3.58 20g | Sho 052 4 || 3.53 .424 1.64 ; 5 || 4.47 . 290 1.96 .065 5 || 4.41 .5380 | 2.04 3 6) 5.37 .348 2.380 .078 6 || 5.29 .636 | 2.45 3 7 || 6.26 .406 | 2.75 .091 CaO -742 2.86 ‘ 8 || 7-16 .464 3.14 . 104 8 || 7.06 848 BIEP YE A 9 || 8.05 ~Qa2 3.54 5b ire 9 || 7.94 .954 3.68 10 || 8.95 .580 | 3.93 .130 10 || 8.82 -]1. | 8.82 |1.060 | 4.09 | .120_ 4.09 White Clover Red Clover 1 -90 115 4214 LOLS 1 .85 O71 38 2] 1.81 .230 84 .030 2 || 1.69 .142 mcG 3 || 2.71 345 1.27 045 3 || 2.54 213.) Slee 4 | 3.61 .460 | 1.69 .060 4} 3.39 . 284 1.51 § || 4.51 Oe 2. Ll! .075 5 || 4.23 355 1:89 6 || 5.42 .690 2.53 .090 6 || 5.08 .426 222i P 7 || 6.32 .805 2.95 .105 7 || 5.93 497 2.65 8 || 7.22 .920 | 3.38 . 120 8 || 6.78 .568 3.02 .14 9 || 8.13 |1.035 | 3.80 1385 9 || 7.62 .639 | 3.40 ‘ 10 9.03 {1.150 | 4.22 .150 10 || 8.47 ACLOS woes : APPENDIX TABLE I]I—Feepine Sturrs—Continued Curep RouGHacE—Continued Alsike Clover Digestible Pro. C-H. Fat 1 084 42 015 2 168 .85 030 3 252 if 76 .045 4 336 | 1.70 | .060 5 420 | 2.12 | .075 6 504 | 2.55 | .090 ff 588 | 2.97 | .105 8 672 | 3.40 .120 9 756 | 3.82 | .135 10 840 | 4.25 | .150 Wheat Straw 1 .90 | .008 .385 { .004 2 | 1.81 | .016 .70 | .008 Sell Care| .024 | 1.06 .012 4 || 3.62 0382 | 1.41 .016 5 | 4.52 | .040 | 1.76 | .020 € || 5.42 .048 | 2.11 .024 7 || $.33 -056 | 2.46 .028 S eae .064 | 2.82 032 9 |. 8.14 | .072 | 3.17 | .036 10 || 9.04 080 | 3.52 .040 SOMDNOaRWH Ee DONABDAR ON -~ 1 : -41 21. 152 -83 3 || 2.¢ -228 | 1.24 4) 3. -304.| 1.66 5 || 4. -3880 | 2.07 6 || 5. -456 | 2.49 7 | 6. -532 | 2.90 8 | 7. -608 | 3.32 9} 8.05 | .684 | 3.73 10 Ii 8.95 760 | 4.15 . 015 -045 .060 -090 -105 _ | ol | F om Cl * SOON Chl SOON a wb SCOONAaRON Alfalfa Serie . Digestible es Pro. C-H. Fat 94 ai ye -41 .Ol 1.87 .234 .82 .02 2.81 .ool 1.23 .03 3.74 .467 1.64 .04 4.68 .585 | 2.04 .05 5.62 | .702 | 2.45 .06 6.55 -819 | 2.86 .07 7.49 | .986 | 3.27 .08 8.42 |1.053 | 3.68 .09 9.386 |1.170 | 4.09 .10 Oat Straw -91 .013 .39 .008 1.82 | .026 .79 | .016 2.72 -039 1.18 .024 3.63 .052 1.58 .032 4.54 .065 1.97 .040 5.45 .078 | 2.37 .048 6.36 | .091 | 2.76 | .056 7.26 | .104 | 3.16 | .064 Silt} AL? les.o0 | O72 9.08 .130 | 3.95 -080 PRPWOWONNe Re ON P wD ¢ .009 : -96 | .019 .52 saa 1088, ("2578 .92 | .038 | 1.04 .39 | .047 | 1.29 87 | .057 | 1.55 .35 | .066 | 1.81 83 | .076 | 2.07 -31 | .085 | 2.33 -79 — .095 | 2.59 Oat and Vetch Hay -85 | .083 .36 -70 | .166 72 .55 | ,249 | 1.07 .40 | .332 | 1.43 -25 | .415 | 1.79 -10 | .498 | 2.15 -95 | .581 | 2.51 .80 | .664 | 2.86 65 | .747 | 3.22 .50 | .830.| 3.58 419 420 APPENDIX TABLE IlI—Feerpine Sturrs—Continued SILAGE = Corn Silage Sorghum Silage bes Digestible ibe Poe td Digestible Pro. C-ll. | Fat 1 1\) .24] .004.|" .18°)s2002 2 2 .48 .008 620 .004 3 3 (174 .012 .40 .006 4 4 96 .016 . 54 .008 5 5 || 1.19 .020 .67 .010 6 6 || 1.43 024 .81 .012 7 7 || 1.67 .028 .94 014 8 8 || 1.91 .032 | 1.08 .016 9 9 || 2.15 .036 | 1.21 .018 10 10 .040 .020 1 5 .020. 5 5 1 .27 .030 : 2 -56 | .040 27 .020 2 .05 .060 slr .038 3 .84 | .060 .40 .030 3 .82 | .090 .20 .057 4 |} 1.12 .080 54 .040 4 |/ 1.10 } .120 .34 .076 5 || 1.40 .100 .67 -050 5 | 1.37 | .150 ~42 .095 6 || 1.68 .120 .81 .060 6 || 1.65 .180 .51 .114 7 || 1.96 .140 .94 .070 7 || 1.92 .210 .59 .133 8 || 2.24 .160 | 1.08 .080 8 || 2.20 . 240 -68 | .152 9 || 2.52 .180 | 1.21 .090 9 || 2.47 | .270 .76 | .171 10 || 2.80 .200 | 1.35 .100 10 || 2.75 . 300 .85 .190 Cow Pea Silage e Soy Bean Silage [EU SotaN noe ate, REIS AB ore SS) RATT | Eee ~ Ii .21 | .015 | .09 | .009 1] .26 | .027| .09 | .013 2 -41 .030 oL7 .018 2 .52 .054 a ley .026 3 .62 .045 :26 .027 3 ahh .081 .26 | .039 4 .83 .060 .34 .036 4 || 1.03 -108 .39 .052 5 || 1.03 .075 .43 .045 5 || 1.29 .135 .43 ,065 6 || 1.24 .090 .62 | .054 6 || 1.55 . 162 .52 .078 7 || 1.45 -105 .60 .063 7 || 1.81 .189 .61 .091 8 || 1.66 .120 .69 .072 8 || 2.06 .216 .70 | .104 9] 1.86 | .1385 aU {Value 9 || 2.32 . 243 .78 Ab ly; 10 || 2.07 .150 .86 .090 10 || 2.58 .270 .87 | .130 Corn Cannery Refuse 1 .23 .021 .13 .008 1 21 .003 ~12 .006 2 .46 .042 .26 .016 2 .42 .006 .24 012 3 .70 | .063 .39 .024 3 .63 .009 .36 | .018 4 .93 .084 .o2 .032 4 84 .012 48 | .024 5 | 1.16 .105 .65 .040 5 || 1.05 .015 .59 | .030 6 || 1.39 .126 .79 .048 6 || 1.26 | .018 Byfl .036 7 || 1.62 .147 .92 .056 7 || 1.47 | .021 .83 .042 8 | 1.86 | .168 | 1.05 .064 8 || 1.68 .024 .95 | .048 9 || 2.09 | .189 | 1.18 .072 9 || 1.89 1027 | 1.07 | .054 10 || 2.32 .210 | .1.31 .080 10 || 2.10 | .030 | 1.19 .060 ee ee APPENDIX TABLE I1J—Frepine Sturrs—Continued 421 Carrot Dry Digestible Lbs. || Matter | — C-H. | Roots AND TUBERS Fat 1 -002 2 .004 3 .006 4 .008 5 .010 6 .012 7 .014 8 .016 9 -018 10 .020 1 .13 | .013 -10 | .001 2 .27 | .026 -20 | .002 3 .40 | .039 .29 | .003 4 .54 | .052 .39 | .004 5 -67 | .065 .49 | .005 6 -81 | .078 .59 | .006 7 .94 | .091 .69 | .007 8] 1.08 | .104 78 | .008 91.21 | .117 -88 | -.009 10 : .130 Mangel 1 .09 | .010 .05 2|) .18 | .020 pill 3 .27 | .030 .16 4} .386 | .040 .22 5 || .45 | .050 .27 6 || .55 | .060 .33 7 .64 | .070 .38 8 .73 | .080 44 9 .82 | .090 .49 0 .91 | .100 .59 Flat Turnip 1 .10 | .009 06 2 -20 | -018 13 3 .30 | .027 19 4} .40 | .036 .26 5 || .49 | .045 .32 6] .59 | .054 38 7 .69 | .063 45 8] .79 | .072 51 9] .89 | .081 .58 10) .99 | .090 64 _ Ines eee ee | COON AAPWNe _ | SCOMONOORWN eR —_ — SOON QOURWNE sil 23 34 -46 57 .69 .80 .92 1.03 sili .34 46 .O7 .68 .80 91 1.03 1.14 . 23. 1.57 Common Beet .012 .08 .024 .16 .036 .24 .048 .32 .060 .39 .072 .47 .084 .55 .096 .63 .108 Sill Rutabaga .010 .08 .020 .16 .030 .24 .040 .32 .050 .40 .060 .49 .070 aXh .080 .65 .090 .73 .100 81 Wet Beet Pulp .010 15 -015 -23 .020 31 025 38 030 46 035 54 .040 62 045 69 050 etd .010 .001 .002 .003 -004 .005 -006 -007 .008 -009 Potato Dry . Digestible Matter Pro. C-H. Fat oa O11 -16 | .001 .42 .022 .31 .002 .63 -033 -47 .003 .84 .044 .63 .004 1.04 055 .78 .005 1.25 .066 .94 | .006 1.46 2077 He LG .007 1.67 | .088 | 1.26 | .008 1.88 .099 | 1.41 .009 1.15 | .120 269 | O10 -002 .004 .006 .008 .010 .012 .014 -016 -018 .020 ee aa aa -10 | .005 -08 | .000 499 APPENDIX TABLE IJI—Feepina Srurrs--Continued CoNceENTRATES—Ground Grains and By-Products Corn Barley Poin ea Toes. Digestible Lbs. ete Lbs. Pro C-H Fat Pro C-H. Fat 1.89 .079 67 | .043 S| eee 084 .65 016 Qa Le7S | 585) ol e3s3oln.086 2) ae . 3 M2267, | Sees sOL aie t29 olan 433560) ol) | 2267. mela 4 || 3. 5 Aaa le ooonl! arconeealo 5 || 4. 6 | 5.35 | .474 | 4.00 | .258 6 || 5. 7 || 6.24 | -553 | 4.67 | .301 716. 8 || 7.13 | .632 | 5.84 | .344 tt lezen 9 || 8.02 | .711 | 6.00 | .387 9] 8. 10 || 8.91 | .790 | 6.67 | .430 10 || 8. Oats 1 .90 | . 90 | .107 | .50 | .038 .50 | .038 1 : .088 j .015 QA 79s ete |e OL 22076 2 OL 79 | arco 35 eae Si ileesOOnlmmoe Ly] Teele ols 3 || 2.68 | .264 | 2.02 | .045 4) \P3e58 a) 2428) | 22015) 52 43.58 | .352 | 2.70)5| 3060 6 || 4.48 | .535 | 2.51 | .190 5 || 4.47 | .440 | 3.87 | .075 6 || 5.88 | .642 | 3.19 | .228 6 || 5.37 | .528 1 4.05 | .090 7 || 6.27 | .749 | 3.52 | .266 7 6.26 | :616 |94:72) | 3105 8 || 7.17 | -856 | 4.02 | .304 8 || 7,16 | .704 | 5.40 | .120 9 || 8.06 | .963 | 4.53 | .342 9°||t87057 |) *..792' | 1620 vanleele 10 || 8.96 |1.070 8.96 [1-070 | 5.03 | .380_ 03 | .380 10 || 8.95 | .880 | 6.75 | .150 tees a eee | Whee Ban Wheat Bran Flour Wheat Middlings 1 .88 | 119 -42 | .025 1 .90 silty .54 | .041 Zile ton mess .84 | .050 2 | 1.80 234) | TOs Ose 3 || 2.64 £300 1.26 .075 3 || 2.70 ,51 1.61 2S. 4 || 3.52 .476 1.68 . 100 4 || 3.60 .68 | 2.14 . 164 5 || 4.40 .595 | 2.10 S125 5 || 4.50 .84 | 2.68 .205 6 || 5.29 .714 2.52 150 6 || 5.40 1.01 3.22 . 246 7 6.17 -833 2.94 alia 7 16.30 TTS esr . 287 Sri 055 eeIo2el cotoor | e.200 8107220 | 1585, || 4.297) 33828 9 || 7.93 |1.071 3.78 225 9 || 8.40 1.52 | 4.82 . 369 10 (8.81 [1.190 | 4.20 | .250_ 1.190 | 4.20 .250 10 || 9.00 1.69 | 5.36 .410 Wheat Shorts Red Dog Flour 1 .89 .130 46 045 1 .90 . 162 AVA .034 2 11.78 . 260 91 .090 21 1.80 23247 | ad .068 3 h2664|9 090 qolesraeeloo 3) 23700 |) 24865 tev .102 AA seo | cO20 | alsa L80 4 || 3:60. | 1-658" | :2528) 2136 5 || 4.44 650: |, 2228 225 5 || 4.50 .810 | 2.85 .170 6 || 5.33 .780 | 2.74 .270 6 || 5.41 .972 | 3.42 . 204 Tl 6222 es O10 Wise20) pelo 7,1 6.381 {1.134 | 3.99 | .288 8 || 7.10 |1.040 | 3.66 | .360 8 || 7.21 |1.296 | 4.56 | 3272 9} 7.99 }1.170 | 4.11 .405 9] 8.11 {1.458 | 5.13 . 306 10 || 8.88 {1.300 | 4.57 .450 10 | 9.01 {1.620 | 5.70 .340 APPENDIX 423 TABLE III—Feepine Sturrs—Continued CoNCENTRATES—Continued Emmer (Speltz) Corn and Cob Meal ae oe : Digestible Uke. oto Digestible Pro. C-H Fat | Pro. C-H. Fat 1 .92 10 .70 02 1 .85 | .044 -60 | .029 2 || 1.84 20 | 1.41 -04 2) 1.70 | 5088 | 1.20] .058 3 || 2.76 ESTO | peat 06 3 i 2-090) loz | 2.80 | 087 4 || 3.68 -40 | 2.81 -08 432400 (5176 422405 [> .116 5 || 4.60 -50 | 3.51 -10 5 || 4.24 | .220 | 3.00 | .145 6 || 5.52 -60 | 4.22 12 6 || 5.09 | .264 | 3.60 | .174 7 || 6.44 -70 | 4.92 214 7 | 5.94 } .3808 | 4.20 | i203 8 || 7..36- -80 | 5.62 S16 Si SulsOnsoo |) G02, [e4. SO m. 22, 9 || 8.28 -90 | 6.33 18 9 || 7.64 | .896 | 5.40 | .261 10 || 9.20 | 1.00 | 7.03 20 10 || 8.49 | .440 | 6.00 | .290 Kaffir Corn Sorghum Seed . ee ee 1 -90 | .052 -44 | .014 1 .87 | .045 6lele 02s 211.80 | .104 -89 | .028 Delta 090) | 215228] 22056 3} 2.70 | .156 | 1.83 | .042 Siilpasogs |oeloon | Lasae| +2084. 4/| 3.60 | .208 | 1.77 | .056 4||3.49-] .180 | 2.44 | .112 5 || 4.50 | .260 | 2.21 | .070 Sil4asouteoseo I iacOa, ff .140 6 || 5.41 | .312 | 2.66 | .084 Gi S52 2ouheee 0)! os67n ine los 76.31 | .3864 | 3.10 | .098 aAsOr LOO elon m4e28—e 9196 8 || 7.21 | .416 | 3.54 | .112 8 || 6.98 | .860 | 4.89 | .224 9 || 8.11 | .468 | 3.99 | .126 One ieS0) beet0oe O27 00 le e2oe 10 || 9.01] .520 | 4.43 | .140 10°). 8.72) }\ .450 | 6:11 | .280 Buckwheat Bran | Buckwheat Middlings 1 -92 | .059 34 .02 1 «Sf | .220 Foe OGL 2 | 1.84 } .118 .68 .04 2 {1.74 | .454 ef) | ee? leary lieder oes O2 06 SB leoto2 tf 20k, | 0. 12°) 2183 4. S2Gle|) .2o6.e-1536 08 4 | 3.49 | .908 | 1.50 | .244 5 || 4.59 | .295 | 1.70 -10 5 | 4:36 {1.185 | 1.87 | .305 6 | 5.51 | .854 | 2.04 12 6 | 5.23 |1.3862 | 2:25 |) .366 7 || 6.43 | .413 | 2.34 .14 76.10 {1.589 | 2.62 | .427 SuleZ 34 | 5472 2-72 .16 8 || 6.98 {1.816 | 3.00 | .488 9 | 8.26 | .531 | 3.06 |. .18 9 || 7.85 |2.043 | 3.37 | .549 10 | 9.18 | .590 | 3.40 .20 10 || 8.72 |2.270 | 3.75 | .610 Rye Bran Rye Middlings 88 | .112 .47 | .020 77 | .224 -94 | .036 .65 | .336 | 1.40 | .054 54 | .448 | 1.87 | .072 42 | .560 | 2.34 | .090 or WN He 424 APPENDIX TABLE IJI—Feepine Srurrs—Continued CONCENTRATES—C ontinued Millet Hominy Feed Digestible Dry Digestible Lbs. || Matter Pro. C-H. Fat -90 | .068 .60 | .074 .81 | .136 | 1.21 | .148 JL ()|* 204 | TS isieeeee .62 | .272 | 2.42 | .296 .52 | .340 | 3.02 | .370 at Bean Meal 1 .89 | .202 42) | 01S 2 3 4 5 ——_—— | —___—_———_ RwONe Corn Oil Meal’ 29131, 158 .39 } .108 .83 | .316 .78 | .216 74 | .474 | 1.16 | .324 -632 | 1.55 | .432 .57 | .790 | 1.94 | .540 Cow Pea Meal .78 | .404 .85 | .026 67 | :606) | Ue27 a ee0a9 .56 | .808 | 1.69 | .052 .45 |1.010 | 2.11 | :065 Soy Bean Meal 88 | .291 | .23 | :146° 774.582 | 47° [e288 65 |'.873 | .70 | .438 53 11.164 | .93 | .584. 41 11.455 | 1.16 | .730 | Gluten Meal -90:'| .297 |. .42 |, 2065 81 | .594 -85 | .122 a0 Wh. 890) || E27 eel se .62 11.188 | 1.70 | .244 .O2 }1.485 | 2.12 | .305 Crm 0 tS RON a> for) moh e -85 | .168 .55 | .O11 1.71 | .336°{.1,10 | .022 2.56 | .504 | 1.65 | .033 3.42 | .672 | 2.20 | .044 4 .27 | .840 | 2.74 | .055 reyes moo db et Gluten Feed sO 20S -53 | .029 :82 | .426 | 1.06 | .058 iat 0609) pe 1 oS h 2.087 852 | 2.11 | .116 .04 |1.065 | 2.64 | .145 Linseed Meal .90 | .302 .32 | .069 .80 | .604 .64 | .138 .71 | .906 -96 | .207 .208 | 1.28 | .276 -510 | 1.60 Flax Seed Cn im Ot SC oe > © YR OO DO Cotton-seed Meal .93 | .376 .21 | .096 86°] .752 .43 | .192 .79 |1.128 .64 | .288 -72 {1.504 -86 | .384 .65 |1.880 | 1.07 | .480 Hm t= 1 2 3 4 PON “00 To dasgon ih a) Wty A ' Baty in i Bichy |) dhaoone teuoms . 1 Abi) 20 | SEF 20 ve he U0) ea taht hece eee oe REX) Hae, esi Nae ee ee = . cert as iy mate eI 14K ik. Po, em aa wet ailad encode yuh, / goon. 2 os oct ” hy ae al af + daifodt vapid i bet who i ae oly. "i wel orient | fiw a Sc Yow APPI Table IV.—Estimating the Amount of Milk and Butter Fat Produced by a Cow Who Have Not Time to . CoMPILED BY A cow Will AND WILL MAKE THE AMOUNT OF BUTTER giving give this this ew amount | amount | J, | Is | Is | Is | Is | Is | Is | Is | Is | Is | Te) } | eae of milk eon 2.8 | 2.9} 3.0 | 3.1) 3.2)33)34)35)3.6) 3.7128 | 2a ie at | per | per | per | per | per | per | per | per | per | per | per | per | pe milking | week | cent| cent | cent | cent | cent | cent | cent | cent | cent | cent | cent con = Lbs Lbs Lbs.| Lbs.| Lbs.| Lbs.| Lbs.| Lbs.| Lbs.) Lbs.| Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs.) Lt 2 28 .78| .81| .84| .87} .90} .92) .95| .98] 1.01) 1.04) 1.06] 1.09] 1. 3 42 1.17| 1.22) 1.26) 1.30) 1.34] 1.39] 1.43] 1.47) 1.51] 1.55) 1.60) 1.64) 1. 4 56 1.56) 1.62] 1.68] 1.74) 1.79] 1.85} 1.90) 1.96) 2.02) 2.07| 2.13} 2.18) 2. 5 70 1.96] 2.03] 2.10] 2.17) 2.24] 2.31] 2.38] 2.45) 2.52) 2.59) 2.66] 2.73) 2 6 84 2.35) 2.44) 2.52) 2.60) 2.69) 2.77| 2.86] 2.94) 3.02) 3.11) 3.19] 3.28] 3. 7 98 2.74| 2.84) 2.94) 3.03] 3.14] 3.23) 3.33] 3.43] 3.53] 3.63) 3.72] 3.82] 3 8 112 3.13] 3.25) 3.36) 3.47) 3.58] 3.70) 3.81] 3.92] 4.03] 4.14) 4.26) 4.37) 4 9 126 3.52] 3.65) 3.78} 3.91] 4.03] 4.16] 4.28) 4.41|} 4.54) 4.66). 4.79) 4.91) 5 10 140 3.92} 4.06] 4.20) 4.34) 4.48] 4.62) 4.76] 4.90} 5.04| 5.18) 5.32) 5.46] 5 11 154 4.31| 4.47) 4.62) 4.77) 4.93] 5.08] 5.24) 5.39) 5.54; 5.70) 5.85] 6.01) 6 12 168 4.70| 4.87| 5.04) 5.21) 5.38] 5.54) 5.71] 5.88) 6.05) 6.22) 6.38! 6.55] 6 13 182 5.10) 5.28) 5.46) 5.64) 5.82) 6.01] 6.19) 6.37) 6.55) 6.73) 6.92) 7.10) 7 14 196 5.48] 5.68) 5.88] 6.08) 6.27) 6.47] 6.66) 6.86) 7.06 7.25, 7.45) 7.64) 7 15 210 5.88} 6.09) 6.30] 6.51) 6.72) 6.93] 7.14) 7.35) 7.56| 7.77| 7.98) 8.19) 8 16 224 6.27| 6.50) 6.72] 6.94) 7.17) 7.39] 7.62) 7.84) 8.01) 8.29] 8.51] 8.74! 8 17 238 6.66) 6.90) 7.14] 7.38] 7.62) 7.85) 8.09) 8.33) 8.57) 8.81) 9.04] 9.28) 9 18 252 7.05| 7.31) 7.56) 7.81) 8.06) 8.32) 8.57| 8.82) 9.07) 9.32] 9.58] 9.83/10 19 266 7.45| 7.71) 7.98] 8.25) 8.51] 8.78) 9.04] 9.31) 9.58] 9.84/10.11]10.37/10 20 280 7.84) 8.12) 8.40} 8.68} 8.96) 9.24) 9.52) 9.80/10.08/10.36 10.64|10.92/11 21 294 8.23] 8.53) 8.82] 9.11] 9.41] 9.70)10.00)10.29]10.58 10.88 11.17/11.47/11 22 308 8.62} 8.93) 9.24) 9.55) 9.86/10.16 10.47,10.78/11.09)11.40 11.70|12.01/12 23 322 9.02| 9.34) 9.66] 9.98/10.30)10.63)10.95)11.27|11.59/11.91'12.24|/12.56/12 24 336 9.41| 9.74]10.08]10.42|10.75|11.09)11.42,11.76/12.10/12.43/12.77|13.10/13 25 350 9.80}10.15)10.50)10.85)11.20/11.55)11.90|12.25/12.60/12.95 13.30)13.65)14 26 364 |10.19/10.56)10.92]11.28/11.65/12.01/12.38]12.74|13.10/13.47/13.83|14.20|14 27 378 10.58|10.96|11.34/11.72|12.10|12.47 12.85113.23 13.61/13.99|14.36|14.74/15 28 392 10.98)11.37)11.76]12.15)12.54/12.94/13.33 13.72 14.11 14.50/14.90 15.29/15 29 406 11.37/11.79'12.18}12.59)12.99)13.40/13.80 14.21) 14.62) 15.02)15.43/15.83/16 30 420 = (/11.76)12.18 ae a 13.86|14.28 14.70)/15.12 ieee 16.38) 16 | \ Norte In EXPLANATION OF ABOVE TABLE—How To I The purpose of the above table is to enable an estimate to be made of intended for the farmer who weighs the milk obtained from each cow, but and easy to understand, even though it contains many figures. If it is studied The first left-hand column shows the amount of milk which a cow m pounds at a milking, look down the first column of figures until the numbe1 figures is the amount of milk which the cow will give in a week. The butter The numbers at the top of these columns designate the per cent of fat that fat designate the amount of butter fat the cow will give in a week. The amc the ‘“‘amount of butter fat” column which are opposite the amount of milk ; An example: Glance down the column given to Cow No. 1 on the milking. If the average number of pounds of milk at a milking seems to b give about 140 pounds of milk in a week. Place this down as the total amo shows the per cent of fat which the cow’s milk tests, and if it is 4 per cent, will measure the amount of butter fat made during the week—or 5.6 pounds any given amount of milk and for any per cent test shown on the table. v , TX 1 Week When Her Average Milking and Test are Known. It is for Those the Weekly Miik Sheet. J. McGuire PER WEEK GIVEN IN THE COLUMNS BELOW WHEN HER TEST | Is Is Is | Is Is Is Is Is Is Is Is Is Is | Is Is Is BPO 4D.) 4.3/4.4 | 405 466) | 407 | 4.8) 4.9.) 5.0)! 6.1 | 5:2 | 6.3. | yer | per | per | per | per | per | per | per | per | per | per | per | per | per | per | per nt | cent | cent | cent | cent | cent | cent cent | cent | cent | cent cent) cent cent | cent | cent al 8 > a ls S a tH (= ig nD ES fom m ee a ma ee lo” a a io” Dm tS om Da is re io” m is ion n s ion a et io) Dm re oe n ee log D tr ion mn ze og DB ww o Ps bo i i wo = is is _ cS ou e _ a —_ > I (=) Sue CORE i?) oO cs Ve} oO or So i=) on =— (=) WMWONMHMoP Whe AwWON BRAID VRANOSON 6.62) 6.78| 6.93] 7.08} 7.24) 7.39) 7.55} 7.70) 7.85} 8.01 7.22) 7.39] 7.56) 7.73) 7.90) 8.06) 8.23) 8.40) 8.57| 8.74 7.83} 8.01] 8.19} 8.37) 8.55) 8. - é .28] 9. 9: ! 8.43) 8.62) 8.82) 9.02) 9.21) 9.41] 9.60] 9.80/10.00)10.19)10.39)10.58)10.78|10.98 9.03) 9.24) 9.45] 9.66) 9.87 10.08/10.29)10.50,10.71)10.92)11.13)11.34/11.55/11.76 9.41) 9.63) 9.86]10.08/10.30)10.53 10.75/10.98)11.20)11.42/11.65)11.87/12.10)12.32/12.54 10.00} 10.23/10.47)10.71|10.95|11.19 11.42) 11.66/11.90/12.14|12.38)12.61)12.84)13.09)13.33 x “ .09}11.34]11.59)11.84 12.10)12.35]12.60,12.85/13.10/13.36) 13.61/13.86)14.11 11.17)11.44/11.70}11.97|12.24/12.50 12.77)13.03/13.30)13.57|13.83|14.10)14.37/14.63|14.90 11.76|12.04/12.32/12.60/12.88/13.16 13.44/13.72|14.00)14.28/14.56)14.84/15.12/15.40/15.68 12.35|12.64/12.94/13.23/13.52)13.82 14.11)14.41}14.70)14.99]15.29/15.58/15.88/16.17|16.46 12.94|13.24/13.55|13.86/14.17|14.48) 14.78) 15.09|15.40/15.71/16.02/16.32)16.63]16.94/17.25 13.52/13.85|14.17|14.49)14.81|)15.13 15.46|/15.78)16.10 16.42|16.74)17.07|17.39)17.71)18.03 14.11|14.45)14.78)15.12/15.46]}15.79 16.13) 16.46]16.80/17.14)17.47|17.81/18.14/18.48]18.82 14.70)15.05|15.40)15.75)16.10/16.45' 16.80)17.15}17.50) 17.85) 18.20)18.55|18.90)19.25/19.60 15.29] 15.65|16.02)16.38)16.74/17.11|17.47|17.84|18.20/18.56|18.93)19.29|19.66)20.02|/20.38 15.88) 16.25) 16.63]17.01|17.39)17.77)18.14/18.52]18.90)19.28/19.66|20.03|20.41|20,79/21.17 16.46) 16.86|17.25)17.64|18.03)18.42'18.82)19.21|19.60)19.99)20.38)/20.78 21.17|21.56/21.95 17.05} 17.46|17.86]18.27|)18.68} 19.08! 19.49/19.89/ 20.30! 20.71)21.11/21.52!21.92|22.33/22.74 17.64/18.06/18.48]18.90/19.32 ‘sab i ged FPicn @eeale 21.42) 21.84 | 22.26|22.68/23.10/23.52 COND POMH§IC 00 on to © on w © DOH ROOH RIOR for) —) ao ior) i fez) SOOO US Cuneo 00 CONT NTO? Cr Gti im CORN tS MNMOPRMONAKAOWNe OR SNOOOW ORAM on > bo on oO ry o <1 or oo o or o to for) S oO a a J or) ww oS loz} ~ wo [>] oO or 000 to POWNHOORMWUIHMNOR MD BO ee eS SAO ODE ROOM PIOMRN _ ° tn w _ ° (oy ~ _ _ o oO Fa nie lapis ie sinc Wig la gl ea, aie aca aia ee Ta Tae iat Ta ala Ta ee ole aa | fATE MiLK anpD Burtrer Fat Propucep By A Cow. amount of milk and butter fat which a cow will produce in a week. It is has not the time to add up the milk sheet. It is a table that is simple minutes, it can be understood easily. ive at a milking. If you have a cow which gives about an average of ten an pounds” is reached. The number just opposite in the second column of the cow produces in one week is shown in the other columns of the table. cow’s milk may test. The numbers in the column below the per cent of of butter fat given by any cow in one week is measured by the figures in . at a milking—the first column. ekly milk sheet, and determine the average amount of milk given at a pounds, a comparison with the estimate table will indicate that she will of her week’s milking. Then glance across the table to the column which number in the 4 per cent column opposite the 10 pounds in the first column n a similar way, the amount of butter fat secured can be ascertained for x gh Ae. Snes vik a Wibae | bari Nahe a wy & “ae 4) 2 ee pee ae pes wa = Tear sn yoru wo. ta’ ahah fo ihe ay eee ' u my nt he u i r iY Cnig Wr? i 5 | fi uy ul al Wi: cal Ce \ , Vee. ae? | | i | } e.dpee.6 i! ha it 3 ve Oe Dy og ae ee macy teq | tad |S kg ee a4 t kik Lag a his | toaet Faun) tags! Tey fy | Br bi) “Fai i pond ranenty sai seaearal oats — +, N on heel : cts ahd Od WE, ery gion . ied aenntritt at | \ \ a ahah be Raa Ps a on hag Aa ae a ark op Path ay int ve 6 (ee Se oe ty.S bs ind St i ba 06 abe Oe k rel }* rat $. Veit teh ay la i TG. OG 006 Weg BS i Rie MBE | BE abet OL Y Ry mek [Bit haley og {i.e ae y (Ley ; * LA Bt ak ee, (ek MB. oo.% fray OLY i008 oe m7) Bre UAE a4) i OLY, SOB ee 8: 16a.8 tk OGRE OF GS ot te nt oee a8. Ob.) SB ie OBS tf atEs $201 She bes MES ANT) BOE, TRS aM, LE RL Te XE) QMVEL MS.0L TOT LA Se OR Folge. 8. SO A ee Dm 08: rT ae ET Site! eases rote Oa Lh biG, GE. fh Os SL OF Bal [Ces 08. B1 it 1 Ot at) St MS, uy if er a's | OE PS ET he tid ERAT Dh bet Cee Ye ay Me ORL OF OE RARE OL, WAT SE Le aE ae DOV TIGL SS Oe at 2B ,0SI. ONY OT REAL CR at od TO Bt MRT TE, TE, TEES OT ORs > OE BY BETIO,EE BUM CP SE NEAT) a B ix Clay OR BE Oe Deb De RG aT St if a}. 12).5 OS Le: GO) het ene SPA TORE TE Oe Tea OUT ORS " Wt 1% T Maat ss a Shei Noni pa wey’ ay fnew bay went ine | sash) Pay a Be oda iti atte r y ; i oe Yfiathe Pw ta, denbig: > DIMAR ISNT Ti alimony. tags vi att 4 iting ad? hy soariniod aaihio BAT or rrwvor a: Re Hoethe ite AY ti THD Tey Wad “Greta rigrgtt tiny “pel ay erating: “ott PG tara of} “i Beyrtiglisens Ab elo | i way’ vc MOT WENT ANS aaa th. dp” te Ry Hid 1 diodes ‘dae ts ‘oil ot sss Hiw Sie dehy” ata Uw, aris athiirites: aay dite jae Aetilw, cestufod NEP Ot Oke ail “Babin ts ange sod TSR Hulod feat) of ep Wort OL allt on Buggy’ “uniting! 4d sgh fat band tao; od jie Dortiesa tHz7 Tt AG “dota ui tr ~ " APPENDIX 425 MADAM CONSUMER: ARE YOU DOING YOUR PART ? In CASE OF TROUBLE WITH THE MILK, LOCATE THE FAULT EAR HOME IF POSSIBLE, THAT YOU MAY MORE SURELY AND QUICKLY REMEDY IT. 1. PROTECT THE MILK WHEN RECEIVED. SAWDUST OR EXCELSIOR — Tue MILK UPON DELIVERY TO BE SET INTO THIS FIRE-LESS COOKER LIKE BOX. T WILL RETARD WARMING IN SUMMER AND FREEZING IN WINTER: BR See ee eee et she aoe, eee ee, eed ee |. Set BOTTLE INTO PAIL. 2. App A CHUNK OF ICE. 3. Fit THE PAIL WITH WATER. - 4, Set palit AND ALL INTO THE ICE CHEST. . 5. Mick caRED FOR THUS WILL KEEP SWEET TWICE AS LONG AS IT WILL IF MERELY SET THE DAIRYMAN 1S REQUIRED >. BY LAW TO_COOL THE MILK _INTO THE REFRIGERATOR. ~ FoR You. Do As MUCH FOR YOURSELF) oe ¢ ® ° i. RETURN BOTTLES CLEAN. |. Wash BOTTLES BEFORE THE MILK DRIES CLEAN eee _ 2. Dont use MILK BOTTLES IN SICK ROOM. . Dont PUT GASOLINE ETC. IN BOTTLES. 4. ETURN BOTTLES PROMPTLY AND CLEAN. ELP YOUR DAIRYMAN PROTECT YOUR FAMILY. By your soTTLes YOUR NEIGHBORS KNOW YOU. UNIV. OF MINN. ~ ews Fie. 131.—Chart used in milk campaigns. INDEX Abortion, 194 Abundance of feed, value of, 226 Acid, sulphuric, 327 care of, 328 errors to avoid, 328 kind, 327 strength, 327 strength in percentage, 331 Acid test for cream, 363 Acres required per cow, 165 Actino-mycosis, 209 Adulteration of milk, 389 Advanced registry, 95 Ayrshire, 95 Brown Sviss, 112 Dutch Belted, 126 French-Canadian, 128 Guernsey, 69 Holstein-Friesian, 55 Jersey, 85 Red Polls, 101 Shorthorn, 120 Appendix, 415 Ayrshire, 90 Babeock test, 303 ‘ Balanced farming, 19 Balanced rations, 230 Barn plans, 179 Body growth effected by food, 407 Breeding table, 155 Breeding associations, 143 milk records for, 147 selection of cow, 144 three day records, 145 Breeds of cattle, the, 43 Ayrshires, 90 adaptations, 96 advanced registry, 95 body characteristics, 91 dairy characteristics, 94 home conditions, 91 importation to America, 91 origin, 90 seore card, 96 Brown Swiss, 108 adaptations, 114 advanced registry, 112 body characteristics, 109 Breeds of cattle, Brown Swiss, dairy characteristics, 112 home conditions, 108 importation to America, 110 origin, 108 registry of production, 112 score card, 114 Dutch Belted, 123 advanced registry, 126 body characteristics, 124 dairy characteristics, 126 importation to America, 123 origin, 123 records, 126 French-Canadian, 127 advanced registry, 128 body characteristics, 127 dairy characteristics, 128 ‘rigin, 127 record of performance, 128 Guernsey, 62 adaptations, 69 advanced registry, 69 body. characteristics, 67 dairy characteristics, 68 home conditions, 64 introduction to America,65 origin, 62 score card, 71 Holstein-lriesian, 46 adaptations, 51 advanced registry, 55 beef characteristics, 50 body characteristics, 47 breed’s future, the, 57 dairy characteristics, 48 foreign distribution, 51 home conditions, 46 introduction to America, 50 score card, 58 Jersey, 74 adaptations, 83 advanced registry, 85 American vs. Island type, 80 beef characteristics, 82 body characteristics, 77 constitution, 82 dairy characteristics, 78 427 428 Breeds of cattle, Jersey, home con- ditions, 74 improvement from within, 75 improvements needed, 83 introduction to America, 79 Island type, 80 origin, 74 plan of registration, 76 register of merit, 85 score card, 86 Red Polls, 100 advanced registry, 101 body characteristics, 100 dairy characteristics, 101 home conditions, 100 introduction to “America, 100 official milk records, 103 origin, 100 score card, 103 Shorthorn, 117 advanced registry, 120 body characteristics, 118 dairy characteristics, 118 importation to America, 118 origin, 117 record of merit list, 120 Breeds, origin of, 27 a cross, 29 a grade, 29 common stock, 29 elements of dairy type, 31 present day breeds, 28 pure breeds, value of, 28 Brown Swiss, the, 108 Butter, commercial grades of, 358 Butter making, see Dairy butter making Calves, dairy, raising age to breed, 262 age to separate, 261 blood meal, 258 bone meal, 259 bull dairy development, 263 calf meals, 256 calf scours, 217, 257 ralves suckling, 260 cost of raising, 263 dehorning with caustic, 260 eges for calves, 258 fall vs. spring, 249 feeding, 250 general rule for feeding, 250 INDEX Calves, grain for calves, 253 hay for calves, 254 importance of raising, 249 influence of early feeding, 261 nature’s way, 248 order of feeding, 255 pasture for, 255, 263 raising calves without milk, 255 removing from mother, 250 rest, 259 scours, calf, 217, 257 skim milk, 253 sucking, 260 veal calves, 248 water for, 259 whey for, 257 white scours, 217, 257 Calving time, 225 Care of cream on the farm, 340 cleanliness, value of, 340 cream ripening, 342 delivery, 341 Cattle early use, 23 evolution, 25 Centrifuge, the, 325 care of, 326 speed of, 326 temperature of, 326 Certified milk, production of, 278 standards for, 278 Change of routine, 175 Chapped teats, 215 Cheese, 367 cottage, 372 farm dairy, 367 Child labor, 16 Clarified milk, 393 Clean milk production, 267 barn, the, 269 certified milk, 267 cooling, 272 flies, 270 milkers, the, 267 pails, the, 268 shipping, 273 stools, the, 268 strainers, the, 269 water, 272 Common ailments, 189 actino-mycosis, 209 distribution, 209 location, 210 treatment, 210 bloating, 215 INDEX Common ailments, bloating, causes, 216 symptoms, 216 treatment, 216 chapped teats, 215 | cow pox, 213 ergotism, 207 foot and mouth disease, 204 causes of, 205 diagnosis, 206 prevention of, 208 symptoms, 205 foot rot, 208 garget, 213 infectious abortion, 194 cause of, 194 manner of 195 mode of infection, 196 prevention and treatment, 198 symptoms, 196 inflammation of udder mitis), 211] symptoms, 211 treatment, 212 lumpy jaw, 209 milk fever, 200 cause of, 200 prevention of, 203 symptoms of, 200 treatment for, 203 ring worm, 220 scours, white, 217, 257 cause of, 217 prevention, 189 teats, chapped, 215 tuberculosis, 189 bacilli found in milk, 189 cause of, 189 communicable to men, 189 method of distribution, 192 nature of, 189 symptoms, 190 tuberculin test for, 192 warts, 215 Community breeding, 141 advantages, 143 associations, 143 disadvantages, 144 Composition of feeds, 417 Composition of milk and its prod- ucts, 412 Cottage cheese, 372° Cow as a food producer, the, 3 dissemination, (mam- 429 Cow vs. steer in food production, 4 Cream, care and ripening, 340 grading, 341 ripening, 342 Cream separation, 332 variation in cream test, 333 variation in skim milk test, 334 weight of cream per gallon, 339 Cream separators, 332 centrifugal, 332 efficiency in skimming, 333 speed effect on fat loss, 333 Dairy barn, features of, 179 cork bricks, 179 creosote blocks, 180 dimensions of stalls, 187 facing of cows, 181-182 floor material, 179 hay storage, 179 light, 186 manger, 188 ventilation, 182 Dairy butter making, 346 acid test, 363 butter, composition of, 357 butter, market classes of, 358 butter, overrun, 356 causes of difficult churning, 356 churn, the, 347 collection of cream, 346 coloring, 348 composition of butter, 357 fat test, 363 making, the, 348 market classes of butter, 358 moisture test, 365 salt test, 365 selling, 355 tests in creameries, 363 Dairy herd management, 153 acres required per cow, 165 breeding, 162 care after calving, 160 change of routine, 175 cow’s bed, 170 dehorning, 170 dog, the, 176 drought effect on milk, 164 drying off cow, 158 first vs. last milk, 168 first year’s record, 162 flies, protecting against, 166 food effect on test of milk, 163 430 Dairy herd management, fountain, private drinking, 173 gestation period, 154 eetting most from cows, 177 giving the cow a rest, 157 hard milkers, 172 kicking cows, 171 large vs. small pasture, 164 leaking teats, 172’ light, 186 manure an index to feeding, 159 milk fever, 161 milking before calving, 159 milking machine, 169 milking methods, 167 muslin curtain, 186 naming the cows, 172 number times to milk, 162 pasture, large vs. small, 164 pasture, supplementing, 166 period of greatest yield, 162 preparing for record, 158 private drinking fountan, 173 protecting against flies, 166 putting onto fall basis, 157 routine, change of, 175 salt requirement, 174 short pasture, 165 sucking cows, 171 temperature, 186 time to freshen, 154 turning onto pasture, effect of, 164 ventilation, 182 watering, 173 Dairying, the why of, 3 Dairy score card, 275 Dairy testing associations, 148 number of, 150 result of, 149 Dairy type, elements of, 31 capacity for food, 31 constitution, 34 dairy temperament, 33 femininity, 36 food, capacity for, 31 ‘mammary development, 36 temperament, dairy, 33 triple wedge, 36 type essential to economy, 42 Dehorning, calves, 260 cows, 170 Difficult churning in winter, 356 Drought effect on milk, 164 INDEX Drying off the cow, 158 Dutch Belted, the, 123 Early use of cattle, 23 Farm dairying, 291 Farm milk house, 293 construction, 299 ice house, 300 location, 298 requirements, 293 Fat globules, size, 408 Fat yield, estimated, 424 Feeding in winter, see Winter feeding Feeding standar d, 232 Fertilizing value of plants, 8 Flies, protecting against, 166 Foot and mouth disease, 204 Foundation stock, 138 French-Canadian, the, 127 Garget, 213 General rule for feeding, 239 Gestation table, 155 Glassware cleaning, 329 testing, 413 Goats, milech, 131 breeds, 133 dairy type in goats, 132 goats, maligned, the, 131 milk composition, 136 milk records, 134 Gouda cheese, 367 Guernsey, the, 62 Haecker’s feeding standard, 232 Herd management, see Dairy. herd management j High-priced lands, 19 Holstein-Friesian, the, 46 Homogenized milk, 397 Human food production, 3 Ice cream, 375 Ice house, 300 Income, direct, 17 indirect, 17 regular, 16 Infants, milk for, 405 Jersey, the. 74 Lactometer, the, 389, 390 Lumpy jaw, 209 INDEX Maintenance ration, 229 Management of the herd, 153 Manure, 10-13 amount produced, 10 composition of, 11 value of, 10 value per ton, 12 value per year, 13 Market milk, 383 adulteration, 389 certified milk, 493 standards for, 278 clarifying milk, 393 classes of market milk, 393 factors influencing quality of, 384 homogenized milk, 397 milk for infants, 405 New York grades, 274 pasteurized milk, 395 sanitary milk, 396 score card for dairies, 275 score card for milk, 386 standardized milk, 394 Marketing butter, 355 Methods of selling milk, 399 Milk and cream testing, 303 buttermilk, testing, 324 calculating the fat, 312 cheese, testing, 325 composite samples, 317 equipment and cost, 303 making the test, 305 operation, 305 preservatives, 315 reading the test, ercam, 321 milk, 311 sampling, 305, 314, 316 skim milk testing, 323 sour milk testing, 316 test, true average, 321 testing cream, 317 testing frozen milk, 316 testing whey, 324 weighing cream, 317 whey test, 324 Milk, composition of, 412 adulteration of, 389 city standards for milk, 414 composition of milk and _ its products, 412 cost compared, 405 food composition effect on body growth, 407 431 Milk, food value of, 401 government standards of pur- ity, 409 methods of selling milk, 399 milk for adults, 401 milk for infants, 405 total solids, 392 Milk fever, 200 Milk house, 293 Milk score ecard, 386 Milking machines, 169 Moisture test, 365 New York milk grades, 274 Nutrients, net, required, 232 Order of feeding calves, 255 cows, 244 Over-run in butter, 356 Palatability, value of, 227 Pasteurized milk, 395 Records, feeding for, 241 Records, see Advanced registry Red Polls, the, 100 Regulation of labor, 18 Ringworm, 220 Ripening cream, 342 Rochester score card, 276 Roots for cows, 243 Salt requirement, 174 Salt test, the, 365 Sanitary milk, 396 Sanitary milk pails, 269 Score card for Ayrshire, the, 96 Brown Swiss, the, 114 dairies, 276 Guernsey, the, 71 Holstein-Friesian, the, 58 Jersey, the, 87 milk and cream, 386 Red Polls, the, 103 Secours in calves, 217, 257 Secretaries of breed associations, 45 Selling market milk, methods, 399 Selling milk, forms of, 359 Separators, cream, 332 Short pasture, 165 Shorthorn, the, 117 Silo, the, 244 advantages of, 244 432 Silo. kinds, 245 Sire, selection of, 139 Skim milk for calves, 255 Standardizing milk and cream, 336 Standards for milk cities, 414 government, 409 Starting a dairy herd, 138 daily records, 145 foundation stock, 138 ideal pedigree, 141 quality breeding, 141 selection of dam, 144 selection of sire, 139 Succulence, 227 ' Teeth, silage effect on, 247 Test of milk affected by feeding, 163 Testing associations, 148 Testing milk and cream, 303 Tests in butter making, 363 Tuberculosis, 189 Turning to pasture, effect on milk, 164 Utilization of waste forage, 4 INDEX Variations in cream tests, causes, 333 Veal calves, 248 Warts on cows’ teats, 215 Watering, 173 Weed seeds in manure, 247 in silo, 249 Weight of cream per gallon, 339 Whey for calves, 257 Winter feeding, 225 abundance of feed, value of, 226 adjusting the ration, 231 balance of nutrients, 228 calving time, 215 feeding standard, 232 general rule, a, 239 heavy yield, feeding, 240 maintenance ration, 229 order of feeding, 244 palatability, 227 ration for milk production, 230 records, feeding for, 240 silage effect on milk, 245 silo advantages, 244 kinds, 245 succulence in feed, 227 Hf Maral iter MT 00008951944