PRODUCTIVE
FARMING

KARY C.DAVIS

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PRODUCTIVE FARMING

BY

KARY CADMUS DAVIS, Pn.D. (Cornell Univ.)

PROFESSOR OP AGRICULTURE, KNAPP SCHOOL OP COUNTRY LIFE, GEORGE PEABODY
COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS; FORMERLY PROFESSOR OF AGRONOMY, NEW JERSEY
COLLEGE OP AGRICULTURE (RUTGERS) ; INSTRUCTOR IN AGRICULTURE, UNI-
VERSITY OF VIRGINIA SUMMER SCHOOL; PROFESSOR OF HORTICULTURE,
WEST VIRGINIA UNIVERSITY: PRINCIPAL, DUNN COUNTY (WIS.)
SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE; DEAN, STATE SCHOOL OF AGRICUL-
TURE, CANTON, 3,1. ?.: CONDUCTOR MANY SUMMER TRAINING

SCHOOLS; INSTRUCTOR IN FARMERS' INSTITUTES

THIRD EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED

PHILADELPHIA AND LONDON

J. B. LTPPINCOTT COMPANY

COPYRIGHT, 1911
BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY

COPYRIGHT, 1912
BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY

COPYRIGHT, 1917
BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY

PRINTED BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY

AT THE WASHINGTON SQUARE PRESS

PHILADELPHIA, U. B. A.

PREFACE

THIS book is intended to suit the needs of rural schools
of all kinds, and graded^ village and city schools chiefly below
high-school rank. It is believed that many high-schools
wanting a less advanced course in agriculture than is offered
in more difficult books will find this text helpful. It is
hoped that farmers and others pursuing a short course, a
reading-circle course, a correspondence course, or a home-
reading course will find this volume of value. Such persons
should read the exercises but probably omit the trial of some
of them.

In the preparation of this book the writer has been aided
very materially by a number of people- The ever-present
memory of the boys and girls with whom the writer has
associated as a schoolmate or as teacher in the rural schools
and graded schools has been an inspiration and help in pre-
paring every lesson to be studied by other such boys and
girls. The many teachers of both rural and graded schools
who have criticized the lessons as they have been presented
by the writer have spurred him on to do his best in the mak-
ing of this book. It is to such teachers and such boys and
girls that this book should be dedicated, for they have been
in the writer's mind every moment of the time.

Special acknowledgment is due to a number of persons
who have helped in the preparation of the whole book or of
special chapters. Professor Dick J. Crosby, Specialist in
Agricultural Education of the United States Department
of Agriculture, has read the first manuscript of the whole
book and parts of the second draft. His suggestions and
help have been so valuable that his name should go on the
title page if he would allow it. He has read the proofs, and

iv PREFACE

through him many photographs have been supplied by the
Department of Agriculture. Cuts made from those photo-
graphs are marked "A. E." of agricultural education.

In like manner, Frederick C.§Minkler, Professor of Ani-
mal Husbandry of the New Jersey College of Agriculture,
has read the manuscript and proofs of several chapters
on Animal Production, Animal Breeding, Horses, Cattle,
Sheep, and Swine. Other Professors of the same institution
have read the manuscript and proofs of a number of other
chapters: Dr. Jacob G. Lipman, Director of the Agricul-
tural Experiment Station, the five chapters on Soils and
their Improvement; Professor Harry R. Lewis, Head of the
Poultry and Dairy Departments, the chapters on Poultry
Management and Cattle Products; Dr. John B. Smith,
State Entomologist, the chapters on Insects and Bee-keeping;
Professor Maurice A. Blake, Head of the Horticulture
Department, the chapter on Fruit Production; Dr. Byron
D. Halsted, Botanist and Plant Pathologist, the first chapter
and the chapter on Plant Diseases and Spraying; Walter
W. Shute, Instructor in Forage Crops, the chapters on Field
Crops and on Alfalfa; Arthur J. Farley, of the Horticulture
Department, the Sections on Spraying and the Tables of
Insecticides and Fungicides; Dr. Myron T. Scudder, Head-
master of the Rutgers Preparatory School and Professor
of the Science of Teaching in Rutgers College, has read
manuscripts and proofs of the Introduction and the chapter
on The Business of Farming. Mrs. Kary C. Davis has read
and criticized the whole manuscript and corrected the proofs.
She has made nearly all of the pen-and-ink drawings in the
book. To all of these and others, including many farmers
and teachers whose names do not appear, the author is
greatly indebted for material aid and encouragement.

Photographs besides those already mentioned have been
kindly furnished by the Agronomist and the Dairy Division
of the United States Department of Agriculture. These

PREFACE v

are marked under illustrations : "An. I." for Animal
Industry, and "PL I." for Plant Industry. Credits are
given with the name of the station to those furnished by
State Experiment Stations: "Kans.," "W. Va.," "Wis.,"
"N. J.," "Minn.," "Maine," "Cornell." Professors Harry
R. Lewis and Maurice A. Blake kindly supplied a number
of photographs; animal photographs were also given by F.
Warren Sumner, of Elizabeth, N. J., the White Wyandotte
Hen; Thos. Wyckoff, Orchard Lake, Mich., the Rambouillet
Ram; Cornell Countryman, the Dorsets; Chas. Leet, Mantua,
Ohio, Southdown Ewe; R. C. Parsons, Grand Ledge, Mich.,
Oxford Ram; A. T. Gamber, Wakeman, O., American Merino.
Cuts have been loaned by the author and the J. B. Lippin-
cott Co. from John B. Smith's "Insect Friends and Ene-
mies," and "Economic Entomology."

The author will be glad to receive suggestions and cor-
rections from teachers and others regarding any mistakes
in the book.

PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION

THE chapter on Cotton was added in the second edition.
The third edition included a number of changes in the Appen-
dix tables to bring the matter up to date. Suggestions to
Teachers for additional exercises and projects have been
added to the Appendix. Changes and many additions have
been made through the text, and the present Chapters
XVI and XXXI have been added.

NASHVILLE, TENN.,
July, 1917.

3

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION. — THE TEACHING OF AGRICULTURE

PART I.— PLANT PRODUCTION

I. STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS 8

II. PLANT IMPROVEMENT — GOODI SEED 22

III. PROPAGATION OF PLANTS WITHOUT SEEDS 35

IV. How SOILS ARE FORMED 44

V. KINDS OF SOILS — THEIR CHARACTERISTICS 52

VI. SOIL MOISTURE 60

VII. LAND DRAINAGE 67

VIII. SOIL IMPROVEMENT 71

IX. SYSTEMS OF CROPPING 88

X. FARM CROPS 97

XI. ALFALFA Ill

XII. COTTON PRODUCTION « 117

XIII. CORN 133

XIV. SMALL GRAINS 154

XV. POTATOES 162

XVI. TOBACCO FOR MARKET 175

XVII. THE PRINCIPLES OF FORESTRY 178

XVIII. GARDENING 191

XIX. FRUIT PRODUCTION 206

XX. INSECTS 220

XXI. DISEASES OF PLANTS — SPRAYING 246

PART II.— ANIMAL PRODUCTION

XXII. IMPROVEMENT OF ANIMALS 259

XXIII. HORSES . 262

Vlll

CONTENTS

XXIV. CATTLE 279

XXV. SHEEP 293

XXVI. SWINE 300

XXVII. POULTRY MANAGEMENT 305

XXVIII. BEE-KEEPING 321

XXIX. FEEDS AND FEEDING 327

PART III.— ANIMAL PRODUCTS
XXX. CATTLE PRODUCTS 344

PART IV.— FARM MANAGEMENT

XXXI. THE BUSINESS OF FARMING 360

XXXII. ROAD CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE 371

XXXIII. WORK WITH ROPE 376

XXXIV. REPAIR OF FARM EQUIPMENT — HANDY DEVICES 385

PART V .—APPENDIX— REFERENCE TABLES

I. REFERENCE BOOKS 391

II. LIST OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS 393

III. INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES 395

IV. QUANTITY OF SEED PER ACRE AND LEGAL WEIGHTS. 399
V. SAMPLE PEDIGREE OF PURE BRED CATTLE 400

VI. RULES 401

VII. FERTILIZER FORMULAS 402

VIII. AVERAGE DIGESTIBILITY o? FEEDS AND THEIR FER-
TILITY 405

IX. FEEDING STANDARDS 406

X. AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF FARM MANURES 407

XI. DISTANCES APART FOR PLANTING FRUIT 407

XII. USUAL DISTANCES APART FOR PLANTING VEGETABLES 408
XIII. SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS FOR ADDITIONAL EXER-
CISES AND PROJECTS 409

INDEX . 419

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

INTRODUCTION
THE TEACHING OF AGRICULTURE

THE demand for the teaching of agriculture in the public
schools is growing stronger all the time. In many States
of the Union and several provinces of Canada the subject
has been introduced into schools very generally. Not only
has the subject been taken up in the high-schools, but also
in special schools started for the avowed purpose of teaching
agriculture, manual training, and domestic economy.

This is in response to the very general demand for more
practical instruction. The feeling exists that the schools
have been doing work too remote from real life; and that
where the work has touched the life at all, it has been the
city side or the commercial side rather than the productive
side and the industrial side of life. Such training tends to
lead all, or nearly all, young people away from rather than
toward the industrial and productive callings. The census
reports indicate that this tendency has aided in building
up the cities and actually decreasing the population in many
of the rural districts.

The interest in rural life should be kept up by the train-
ing received in country schools, and in all schools. A proper
conception of the opportunities afforded in the country
should be in the minds of all young people — whether they
live in cities or in the country. The productive wealth of
the nation is from the country, not from the city. This
wealth should be used to improve rural life rather than city

1

* PRODUCTIVE FARMING

life. All young people should learn of the opportunities for
health, independence, happiness, and wealth afforded by
the country. Those living in the country often fail to realize
their blessings. They rush in dangerous numbers to the
cities, until every legitimate city occupation is overcrowded.
Hosts of them are left to seek livelihoods by devices and
means that are at least not elevating.

The comforts and conveniences enjoyed by a few in the
cities are very alluring to the young ambitious mind. Why
not show that things better than these are in the country —
and that many of these same comforts may be enjoyed by
rural communities.

Suggestions to Teachers. — The teaching of agriculture
is most easily done by taking up those subjects nearest at
hand. Teach the lines of agriculture that will be most valu-
able in your community. If in a gardening section the special
garden crops will be most interesting; in a dairy section
study dairy breeds, the testing of milk, the dairy products;
in the corn belt the class will delight in the study of corn
improvement, the testing of seed corn, and the judging of
corn by score cards.

There are certain chapters in this book which are funda-
mental and cannot be omitted. For example, Chapter I is
necessary to the proper understanding of other plant studies.
However, there are certain other chapters which may be
taken independently at a time of year which suits the sub-
ject. The chapter on Forage Crops and perhaps others may
well be used as reading lessons and then studied more in
detail later.

How to Begin. — Enter heartily into the new subject
without hesitation. Teach the newest things in agriculture.
It will be easier for you to teach these than to teach the
topics more familiar to the class. This is particularly so
if the pupils are from farms. The field is so broad no one
can know it all. Teach the facts which you know best and

THE TEACHING OF AGRICULTURE 3

which are newest to the class: the making of spray mix-
tures; the prevention of certain plant diseases; the raising
and use of special crops which should be grown, as, perhaps,
alfalfa, or certain clovers; the green-soiling methods of
feeding; use of catch crops and cover crops; the saving of
Boil moisture. The best United States Farmers' Bulletins will
help you along these newer lines and will give you new points
on the old themes. Why? It is because the U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture and fifty or more agricultural experiment
stations are finding out new things in agriculture all the time.
Farmers' Bulletins. — References to United States Farm-
ers' Bulletins are given at the close of the chapters. A com-
plete list of Farmers' Bulletins can be had by writing to the
Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Besides those
listed at the close of the chapters, there are others that will
be helpful in schools. Write for them. They are free to
schools.

Make pasteboard holders for the Bulletins. Put labels
on these so that a simple classification will be possible. Label
them similar to the chapters in this book.

How to Use the Bulletins. — Teachers will find the United
States Farmers' Bulletins very useful. Let us illustrate. No.
617, "School Lessons on Corn," is full of suggestions for
teachers and others. It tells what to do and how to do it.
The pictures are simple and plain. Most of the Bulletins
are well illustrated and plainly written. Each of these
Bulletins has a special use in teaching some definite subject.
Have advanced pupils use the Bulletins as extra work, or
as supplementary reading.

Time Saved. — If the objection is raised that there is no
room in the schedule — no time — for a new subject because
there are already too many subjects to teach, answer by
saying there is always room for a subject that will hold the
pupils' interest. Such subjects, if practical, are the best in
the school course.

4 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

Arranging the Schedule. — A "sliding schedule" may be
made to admit agriculture without reducing the recitation
time for other subjects, thus: First plan — On Mondays let
agriculture take the place of the first morning recitation
period; on Tuesdays, the second period; on Wednesdays,
the third period, and so on through the week. Another plan
would be to have agriculture three times a week, alternating
with some three other subjects, — each of them being given
four times a week. Another time-saving plan to use in the
smaller rural schools is to combine several of the upper
classes into one class when teaching a new subject like
agriculture.

Correlation. — It is, indeed, a very good plan to correlate
the work in agriculture with other subjects in school. The
other subjects will be made far more interesting to most of
the pupils if agriculture is made the center of interest around
which to group these other subjects.

School English is made more interesting by having pupils
read and write and speak on those themes which are close
to human life. Language comes forth spontaneously when
the pupils have something real to tell or to write about. New
words in this book or in the Bulletins should be woven into
the spelling and language work.

A few arithmetical problems have been suggested in this
book. These will serve to show that much of the arithmetic
work of the school can be founded on agriculture or enriched
by it.

One of the best ways to study local geography is to study
the soils of the neighborhood (Fig. 1). Trips may be taken
by the class to near-by places where examples of erosion are
shown, or the action of ancient glaciers, or the cropping
out of ledges of sedimentary rocks. Study soil-depths, soil-
textures, and soil improvement. Take samples of soils and
Bubsoils. The study of the ways in which soils are being
formed all about the neighborhood is real geography.

THE TEACHING OF AGRICULTURE 5

All this should be done not solely for the sake of agricul-
ture, but for the sake of more interest in other subjects when
the agricultural matter is introduced. There is as much or
more cultural value in the teaching of a practical subject as
in teaching any other subject in the school course.

FIG. 1. — Studying soils and potting plants. Graded school work in Virginia.

Use the Exercises.-j-The practical exercises offered in this
book are simple and can be performed by pupils themselves
with a little guidance. Pupils will be willing to supply the
necessary articles in most cases. The exercises add much to
the interest and also to the value of the work. The work
should be directly with things, handling them, reasoning
from them. Use also the exercises given in United States
Farmers' Bulletins 428, 586, 606, 609, 617.

Suit the subject considered to the season so far as con-
venient. Seed testing is a good exercise for early spring.
School garden work will come later. Do not fail to provide
window boxes. The pupils will do the work gladly, and in the
spring season fill them with germinating seeds and growing
plants.

Teachers will find that agriculture will add a new interest
to the whole school work. Exhibits of the school garden pro-

6 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

ducts may be made at the school in the fall. Prizes may be
offered for the best products grown by the pupils in the home
gardens. Money to buy prizes may be raised by charging
an admission fee when the exhibit is made. If the exhibit
is small, supplement it wit'h a suitable program.

A Community Center. — The public affairs of the commu-
nity should center about the school much of the time during
the school year.

The teacher may appoint committees to arrange the
details of many events to be held at the school or at other
near-by places in the name of the school. Hold corn exhibits
in the fall or early winter and let students and others enter
into corn-judging contests. Apple shows and vegetable
shows may be held at separate times or in connection with
the corn show. Poultry shows and dairy-product shows may
be possible in some places.

Premium lists should be issued to the pupils to take home,
or they may be published in local papers. Award cards may
be issued in lieu of premiums; but the merchants or neighbors
may be called upon to contribute suitable articles to be used
as prizes. Read Circular 99, U. S. Office of Experiment
Stations, on "Farmers' Institutes for Young People."

Boys' and Girls' Clubs. — The school should be the center
for the organization of boys' corn clubs, or alfalfa clubs, or
experimental clubs. Girls' clubs may be organized. They
may follow nature study, or home gardening, or sewing, or
basketry. Let the work of all these clubs be shown at the
school on stated occasions. Read Farmers' Bulletin 562.

Special school exercises of an appropriate nature should
be given on arbor day, bird day, corn day, alfalfa day, and
other special days. Always have the patrons of the school
present on these occasions. Make the school building the
attractive center for the people of the community. The
newer lines of education will connect with the life of the com-
munity at every point.

THE TEACHING OF AGRICULTURE 7

Let school holidays and perhaps other days be filled with
historical or agricultural or other pageants suitable to the
season; have appropriate contests, school games, and good
sports. Let there be recreational diversion for old and young.
Appoint committees to cooperate in preparing for these
occasions.

Problems. — A few problems here will be suggestive and serve as
sample problems to be placed on the board for pupils, from time to time.

1. Calculate the number of cabbages on an acre if they are set as
close as shown in Appendix, Table XII, allowing for one-fourth loss.

2. If cabbage worms destroy one-third of the above result, and the
good heads bring 5 cents per head, what is the income for the acre?

3. What would be the money value of the heads destroyed by
cabbage worms?

4. If a boy working at $1 per day can dust three acres of cabbage
plants a day and keep off the worms, what is the profit for his day's
work, if the material costs 90 cents?

5. A man has 500 young apple trees attacked by woolly aphis
insects, which he wishes to spray with kerosene emulsion to save the
trees. If six gallons of the stock solution given in Appendix, Table III,
are required (diluted with ten parts water), calculate the cost of mate-
rials at present local prices for soap and kerosene.

6. If the use of the sprayers is worth SI and the labor can be done
by two men in a day and a quarter, what is the total cost cf the
spraying job?

7. If a pair of bluebirds, in seeking food for their young in the nest,
gather 120. worms from an old orchard each day, and each worm is
thereby prevented from doing five cents' worth of damage to fruit,
calculate the value of these birds in one nesting season of sixteen days.

8. A solitary wasp collected for her brood thirty-eight apple
worms, and thus prevented each of these worms from maturing and
laying 200 eggs, each of which would have caused an apple to be wormy.
Consider the apples each worth two cents more when not affected with
the worms. What is ths value to man of this solitary wasp ?

9. A toad ate ten cutworms each night and thus saved a like
number of tomato plants in my garden. What do you consider is a
fair value of a tomato plant in cost and labor after it is set in the
garden ? What is the value of this toad in three weeks ?

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins 586 and 606, on Collection
.and Preservation of Material for Study of Agriculture.
2

PART I.
PLANT PRODUCTION

CHAPTER I.
STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS.

THE plants produced in field and garden form the food
for man and nourishment for his live stock. Parts of plants
are useful in the arts, as their oils for paint, their fibers for
clothing, and their wood for buildings and fuel.

The parts of farm plants are broadly considered to be
made up of (1) root, (2) stem, (3) leaf, ,(4) flower, and (5)
seed.

Roots of plants are for three purposes: to hold the plant
in place or prevent its blowing away; to take nourishment
and moisture from the soil; and to serve as storage places
for plant food.

In growing into the soil the tip of the root forces its way
among the soil particles. For this reason there is a root cap
or covering over the tip to prevent injury. The growth
takes place a little back of the tip cap, or covering, at the
end of the fine roots.

Root=hairs are formed on the fibrous roots a little distance
from the tips. These are of fine growth, giving a plush or
velvety surface to the root. The surface of all these fine
hairs is very thin and is much greater in area than the sur-
face of the roots. This allows moisture from the soil to pass
through into the plant more easily.

EXERCISE. — To Show Root-hairs. — Plant a few kernels
of corn in moist sand or soil in a bottle with wide mouth.

8

STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS 9

"Wrap some black or dark paper around the body of the bottle
to exclude the light. Roots seek darkness. Keep the soil
moist and in a warm room for a week or so. The growth of
the young roots will then have reached the inside surface
of the glass. Notice their very fine, plush-like appearance
(Figs. 2a and 6). Notice also which grow in length faster
during the first two weeks, the roots or the tops of the young
corn plants.

FIG. 2o. — Corn grown in a bottle of soil. The dark paper around it excludes
the light, so the roots may be studied by removing the paper.

FIG. 2&. — Corn grown as in Fig. 2a, showing fibrous roots and root-hairs for
absorbing moisture.

EXERCISE. — Root-hairs on Seedlings. — Sprout some seeds
of squash or beans in folds of moist blotters between two
plates until the roots are two or three inches long. Examine
for root-hairs on these by holding them against a dark cloth
or paper.

Stems of plants have several uses: They support the
leaves and hold them up to the air and light. They serve as
storehouses for the saving of starch, sugar, and other forms
of nourishment for the future use of the plant. They are
the channels of circulation of plant sap and the transfer
of plant food from root to leaf and from leaf to root.

10 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

EXERCISE. — Sap Channels in Stems. — Put the stems of
fresh plants into water colored with red ink. After a few
hours cut off the stems and notice the stained places on the
cut surface. Use for this exercise some woody stems, as
willow, and others like celery or rhubarb, golden-rod, corn,
tall grass, or other convenient plants.

The different ways in which the stems of various plants
hold the leaves up to the light and air are interesting. Vines
do this by climbing upon objects which they may find near
them. Trees have rigid stems which hold the leaves high
in the air. Those growing in dense forest clumps are taller
and more slender than those growing in open places where
there is plenty of light. This is also true of corn-stalks planted
close or far apart.

The leaves of the plant have much work to do. They
secure substances from the air, chiefly carbon dioxide, and
change it into forms of food that will build up the plant or
produce growth. The leaves also permit the escape of water
from the plant into the air. Water is taken up by the roots,
not by the leaves. There are large amounts of water given
off by the leaves during the growth of the plants.

EXERCISE. — Plants Absorb Moisture. — Get the material
shown in Fig. 3a. After the corn or other plant is a few
inches high, start the experiment. Have the water line
marked on the lard pails one inch above the bottom of the
pots. Each day fill the water up to the mark, and record
the amount required for each pail in two weeks. If the one
with the growing plant requires the most, where has the
extra water gone to ?

EXERCISE. — Moisture from Leaves. — Arrange an exper-
iment as shown in Fig. 36. The moisture which escapes
from the leaves will partly be condensed on the inside of the
inverted glass, and may be seen in fine mist or drops.

Leaf Structure. — Fig. 4 shows the cut edge of a leaf.
Between the upper and lower surfaces of the leaf there are

STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS 11

many soft plant cells. These cells have very thin walls
and are bathed by air. The air cavities are shown at A in
the figure. All the cells shown with dark grains in the figure
contain the green coloring matter of the leaf. This is called
chlorophyl (klo-ro-fil). The use of this will be spoken of later.

FIG. 3a. — Growing plants absorb moisture from the soil. Two flower-pots
with equal amounts of the same kind of soil are set in lard pails having water up to
the line shown. Corn is growing only in the left one. (Agricultural Education.)

FIG. 3fe. — Evaporation of water from leaves. The condensed moisture shows
in the upper part of the glass inverted over the growing plant. (Agricultural
Education.)

EXERCISE. — Skin of Leaf. — Break a leaf partly in two
in such a manner as to peel the surface away from the inner
cells. This surface layer of cells is clear and contains no
chlorophyl, as shown in Fig. 4. The outer layer of cells is
so thin and clear that sunlight may pass through and reach
the green cells of the inner part of the leaf.

Air Openings. — Air may enter the leaf through small
openings, chiefly on the under side. - One of these openings
is marked S in Fig. 4. These are called stomates, the word
meaning "mouths." There are great numbers of the sto-
mates on the under surface of leaves. Thej^ may be opened
or closed according to the condition of the weather. This
is done by the action of a pair of cells at the opening called

12 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

guard-cells. The stomates are partly closed in dry weather.
This keeps moisture from passing too freely out of the leaves
into the air.

Plants Get Food from Air. — Growing plants take much
of the substance which produces growth directly from the
air. They use the carbon dioxide from the air which is given
off to the air by the breathing of animals and by the burning
and decay of wood. This plant-food from the air furnishes
about ninety-five per cent of the dry weight of plants. It
is through the leaves that this form of food is taken. The

FIG. 4. — Cross section of leaf. The inner cells contain chlorophyl: those near
tha under side are loose to allow the free passage of air (A). Many breathing pores
are in the under skin. One shows at 3.

breathing pores on the surface of green leaves allow the air
to come in contact with the soft cells of the inner tissue
(Fig. 4).

Sunlight aids the plant in changing the carbon dioxide
into starch or other organic food. Only those plants which
contain the green coloring matter, chlorophyl, are able to
use the carbon dioxide from the air and change it in this
way. Mushrooms grow in the dark, and have no chlorophyl.
Their food is not taken from the air nor from the real soil,
but from the partly decomposed matter in the soil.

EXERCISE. — Need of Sunlight. — Place a board, box, or
other object over the green grass of a lawn and let it remain
for several days. Notice that the color is soon gone from
the leaves. In time the grass would be killed. Celery is

STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS 13

blanched by excluding the light from the stems. Why does
a covering of straw or other thick mulch in a strawberry
patch prevent the growth of weeds? What harm comes from
the accidental covering with soil of young corn plants by
the 'cultivator?

EXERCISE. — Leaves Seek Light. — Set some growing plants
in the window for a few hours and notice that the leaves
turn toward the light. Turn the plants around and see how
long it takes for the leaves to face the light again.

EXERCISE. — To Show Presence of Starch. — Crack a few
kernels of wheat or corn and treat them with a few drops
of iodine. The change of color which follows is a proof of
the presence of starch. This was stored in the seed for its
future use. Starch turns blue when treated with iodine.
The same trial made with potato, corn-pith, pith of tree
twigs, and many seeds, will show the presence of starch.

Balance in Nature. — Animals use large quantities of
oxygen from the air and return carbon dioxide to the air.
Plants make use of the waste which animals breathe off.
The plants break up this gas, retaining the carbon and giving
off the oxygen. A small amount of oxygen is also used by
plants. The carbon retained by the leaves and the water
which the plants obtain from the soil are combined to form
organic matter. This is chiefly starch at first, but it may
be readily changed to sugar or other forms suitable for
storage. In sugar-beets and sugar-cane the storage matter
is largely sugar.

Tissue for new growth of the plant may be formed either
from stored plant-food or from newly-formed plant-food that
has not been taken to any storage place in the plant.

EXERCISE. — Balance of Life in an Aquarium. — Make an
aquarium in a large fruit-jar or other glass vessel, as shown
in Fig. 5. Very clear sand is used in the bottom. The plants
are started from pieces of water plants commonly growing
in ponds or lakes. The animals may be water insects of

14

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

several kinds — polliwogs, water snails, and small fish. Set
the aquarium in a very light place. When the plants begin
to grow, they will give off oxygen to the water. The animals
will breathe the oxygen from the water. A little careful
observation will tell whether there are
too many animals in the aquarium or
not. If the fishes come to the surface
to breathe a great deal, some of them
should be taken out. Snails and polli-
wogs are scavengers and will eat the
waste matter gathering on the inside of
the glass and on the plants. Do not
let the pupils feed the fishes too much.
This will spoil the water for the fishes.
How Plants Get Water. — The
moisture from the soil is the only water
taken in by farm crops. This enters
through the thin covering of the root-
hairs growing on the fibrous roots.
The absorbing surface is very great and
large quantities of liquid are taken
up. It is estimated that several hun-
dred tons of water or liquid food are taken up by a corn crop
to produce one ton of dry fodder.

Osmosis is the name of the process by which liquid food
is taken into the plant through the roots. A little of the acid
or other cell sap in the roots passes into the soil at the same
time. There is a sort of trading of two liquids through the
surface membrane of the root-hairs. A very little of the
denser liquid of the plant is sent out in exchange for a large
quantity of soil water.

Osmosis may be defined as the exchange of two different
liquids through a thin membrane which separates them.
Two liquids separated by a membrane will pass through it
and mingle with each other. Soil water will thus reach and

FIG. 5. — A sunlight
aquarium. The plants fur-
nish oyxgen ana the ani-
mals use it. The animals
produce carbon dioxide
and the plants use it.

STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS 15

mingle with the contents of root-hairs. The thin liquid
passes more rapidly. Osmosis may be well illustrated in a
number of ways.

EXERCISE. — Osmosis with Potato. — Take a wilted potato
tuber and cut it into slices about one-fourth inch thick.
Place a few slices in water. They become more rigid in an
hour or so because of the water taken into the cells. Place
a few slices in strong salt water. They become more
flaccid or wilted because of the water drawn from them into
the brine. The potato sap is naturally denser than water,
but not so dense as the salt water.

EXERCISE. — Osmosis with an Egg. — In the small end of
an egg make a hole a little larger than a pin head. Over
this hole fasten a short piece of glass
tubing. Melted paraffin or wax will
fasten it well. At the large end of the
egg chip away a bit of the shell. Place
it with the large end down in the wide
mouth of a bottle which is full of
water (Fig. 6). After several hours
liquid will be seen to rise in the tube,
evidently caused by water making its
way through the thin membrane lining
the egg-shell. This membrane shows
no pores even under the microscope.

Plant=food from Soil. — If plants
take about ninety-five per cent of their
food from the air there is left only
about five per cent to be obtained from
the soil. The plant-food from soils
must be in soluble form, and is taken
in with the soil water. When plant-food is soluble it can
pass through the membrane of the fine root-hairs growing
on the roots of plants. It produces in the plant the part
of the tissue which is called the ash or mineral matter.

FIG. 6. — Osmosis with
an egg over a bottle of
•water. The egg liquid and
the water exchange places
through the membrane of
the egg. Water moves the
faster and soon fills the
shell to overflowing.

16 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

PROBLEM. — One hundred pounds of cured corn fodder
contain 58 pounds of dry matter, 2.9 pounds of which are
from the soil and the remainder from the air. What per
cent of the dry matter is from each source?

EXERCISE. — Mineral Matter in Plants. — Burn a piece of
very dry wood on a stove shovel in the stove, to save all the
ashes on the shovel. If the dry wood be weighed first and
the ashes be weighed afterward the exact proportion can
be determined. The ash represents nearly all of the mineral
matter in the wood. This part comes from the soil and the
remainder chiefly from the air. This exercise shows how
small a part of the plant's food is from the soil ; but this part
is very necessary. Our farm crops could not live without
the ash or mineral matter which they obtain from the soil.

Other Needs of the Plant. — We have already seen that
most plants need light to make use of the food which they
get from the air. Light is not necessary for the germination
of seeds in the soil. The leaves of the young plant soon seek
the light by growing toward the surface of the soil.

The need of moisture has also been considered.

Other needs of the plants are a proper amount of warmth
and a supply of air.

Light, heat, moisture, and air are all needed by growing
crops.

Temperatures. — Certain degrees of warmth are necessary
for the best growth of plants and the sprouting of seeds.
Very few seeds will sprout if colder than 40 degrees F. or
warmer than 115°. W^heat will not sprout below 41° and
prefers a warmth of 60° or 70°. Corn needs more heat; even
48° is too cold for it and soil as warm as 70° or even 90° suits
it better. Seeds that sprout in cool soil may be planted in
earliest spring time; while those which require more heat
must be planted later.

Air and Oxygen. — Not only must the leaves and stems
of plants have free access to air, but the roots of our farm

STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS 17

crops must be in soils supplied with oxygen. If there is too
much standing water in a field the air is excluded from the
soil and crops do not thrive. The leaves of plants turn
yellowish and show an unhealthy condition if the soil is not
supplied with air. This may be noticed in the wet parts of
a cornfield. If the soil is well drained, the surplus water
gets away and air is drawn into the soil.

« EXERCISE. — Need of Air for Germination. — Put a dozen
or more beans or kernels of corn in a bottle nearly full of
water. In another bottle place a dozen of the same kind,
thoroughly wet but not submerged in water. Cover both
bottles loosely to prevent loss of water. Put both in a
warm place and watch results for a week or so. The water
in the first bottle excludes the air from the seeds. If they
do not sprout it will be for want of air. When crops are
planted in low, wet places in fields the seeds refuse to grow
for lack of air.

EXERCISE. — Need of Air in Soil. — Two cans of soil may
be planted alike with the beans or corn. Have one can
watertight at the bottom, and the other with plenty of
holes through the bottom for drainage. When the plants
have grown a few inches high fill the undrained can with
water to the top of the soil. Notice the effect on the plants
in that can. Compare with the others having air and moist-
ure both in the soil.

Purpose of Flowers. — The main aim of life for all plants
is to produce seed. To do this a flower must be formed.
The form and structure of flowers are quite variable, as seen
when the strawberry is compared with the lady-slipper
and the apple.

A perfect flower has two different kinds of essential
organs, the pistils and the stamens. The stamens bear
pollen, which is carried to, or falls upon, the pistil. This
fertilizes the pistil and enables it to produce the seed. The
seed or seeds of most plants are borne in the lower part oi

18 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

the pistil called the ovary, as shown in Fig. 8. The other
parts of a perfect flower are shown in that figure.

Imperfect Flowers. — The flowers of many plants are not
perfect. Some of them bear the stamens only and others
the pistils. In the cucumber, musk-melon, and others, the
stamens and the pistils are in different flowers on the 'same
plant. In any case where the flowers are not perfect, the

FIG. 7. — Strawberry blossoms. Those on the left are of varieties each having;
both stamens and pistils. Those on the right have only pistils. Varieties whi-cn
have only pistils must be grown near perfect varieties so the pollen may be carried
to them at the blossoming time. (Experiment Station, N. J.)

pollen must be carried by some means to the flowers having
the pistils; otherwise seed could not be formed.

How Pollen is Carried. — The pollen of corn and. many
grasses is very light and dry and is carried by the wind. Some
of it falls upon the pistils and grows, thus helping to form
seed. The pollen of most fruits and vegetables is rather
sticky and heavy and is carried by insects. Bees and other
insects visit the blossoms in search of nectar to make honey.
As they go from flower to flower even among the perfect
blossoms, much pollen is distributed where it is needed.
These insects are attracted to flowers by the bright showy
colors of the petals of the flower, and by their fragrance.
Showy petals and fragrant blossoms are not found on corn,

STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS 19

grains, and grasses, because their pollen is borne by the wind.

Cross Pollination. — Plants are said to be cross pollinated
when the pollen is taken from one to another by some means.
Many of our fruit trees bear much more and better fruit
when they are cross pollinated. A number of varieties of
apples, pears, peaches, and plums will not bear fruit if grown
by themselves. They produce abundant fruit when polli-
nated by other varieties of the same class that blossom at
the same time. For this reason it is of much benefit to have
plenty of bees in the orchard at work gathering their supply
of honey during the blossoming season. The owner of a
large orchard should have a yard of beehives. The work of
the bees gives him a larger crop of fruit as well as a crop
of honey.

EXERCISE. — Parts of a Flower. — The members of the
class should examine a few large,
simple flowers and learn to name
the parts shown in Fig. 8.
United States Farmers' Bulletin
408 will be helpful in this exercise.

EXERCISE. — Pollination of
Corn. — Have students or others
bring to school ears of corn on
which some of the kernels failed
to develop. This shows the result
of poor pollination. Perhaps a
hot wind injured the silks, or
pistils, before the pollen was re-
ceived. Other ears may be shown
which have sugar-corn kernels
mixed with field corn, or have
white kernels among the yellow,
was carried from other corn plants. Two different kinds
of corn should not be planted close together if it is desirable
to keep the varieties pure.

FIG. 8. — Diagram of cross sec-
tion of a flower, p, pistil; o, ovary
with young seed receiving the pol-
len growth; ST, stamens; po, pollen
scattering from stamen to pistil;
PE, petals; BE, sepals.

These prove that pollen

20 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

Purpose of Seeds. — A true seed bears within its coats
a minute plant called the germ. Its purpose is to develop
into a new plant like the parent plant. Some nourishment
is stored in the seed for the use of the young plant when it
begins to grow. This store of nourishment in the bean is
in the two seed leaves or thickened halves of the bean. In
the corn kernel a store of starchy matter is found about the
germ.

EXERCISE. — Study of Seeds. — Soak some large lima beans
and some kernels of corn for a few days. Let each member
of the class find the little plant inside the bean coats; and
the long oval germ of the corn imbedded in the store of
starchy matter. Other large seeds may be soaked and studied
closely.

Duration of Life. — With respect to their length of life
most farm plants are divided into three groups: annuals,
biennials, and perennials.

Annual plants are illustrated by corn, oats, beans, and
peas. They germinate, grow, blossom, bear seed, and die
within one year. No part lives over to the next year but the
seed.

Biennials are not so numerous among farm crops. Exam-
ples are beets, carrots, parsnips, onions, and cabbage. They
germinate, grow, and store a large supply of nourishment
the first year. The second year they use up this store of
nourishment, send up a flower stalk, produce flowers and
seeds, and then die. Only the seeds live over.

Perennials include many of the grasses, alfalfa, trees,
shrubs, and many others. They germinate and grow for
some time without bearing blossoms and seeds. When old
enough they begin blossoming and bearing fruit. This may
continue year after year for several or many years. The
peach tree bears some fruit the second or third year and
dies after ten or fifteen years. The apple tree does not bear
so young but lives much longer.

STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS 21

REVIEW.

1. Name the five parts of a plant.

2. What two purposes have roots ?

3. What is the use of the root cap ?

4. Describe the location and appearance of root hairs.

5. Give several purposes of plant stems.

6. What are the uses of leaves ?

7. Draw and describe the structure of the leaf, showing the air cav-
ities and the stomates.

8. What food do plants get from the air ? What do they make
from this ?

9. What plants use sunlight ? How does it help them ?

10. Tell of the balance in nature in the production, and use of
carbon dioxide and of oxygen.

11. Tell how the oxygen supply is produced and used in an aqua-
rium in the window.

12. How do field crops get their water ?

13. What is osmosis ?

14. Give one or two examples of osmosis.

15. How much of the food of plants comes from the air, and how
much from the soil ?

16. From what source is the ash or mineral matter derived ? The
starch ?

17. Mention four climatic needs of the growing crop.

18. Tell of suitable temperatures for the sprouting of corn and of
wheat.

19. What is the effect of no air in the soil, for germinating seeds
and for growing crops ?

20. Tell of the purpose of flowers.

21. Name the two essential organs of a perfect flower, and give the
use of each

22. Whac are the two chief ways by which pollen is carried ?

23. Give two ways in which flowers attract bees and other insects.

24. What is cross pollination ? Of what benefit is it in orchards ?

25. Why should fruit growers keep bees ?

26. What is the purpose of the germ in a seed ?

27. Where is the storage matter in the bean ? In the corn kernel 7

28. Give the life cycle of an annual.

29. Describe the work each year of the biennial plant.

30. Define a perennial. Give examples.

References. — United States Farmers' Bulletins : 617, School
Lessons on Corn; 1905 Yearbook, U. S. Department of Agriculture,
pages 257-274, The Use of Illustrative Material in Teaching Agriculture
in Rural Schools.

22 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

CHAPTER II.
PLANT IMPROVEMENT— GOOD SEED.

ONE of the best ways to improve our crops on the farms
or in the gardens is to select good seeds for planting. It is
a law of nature that " like produces like."

Seed Selection. — Careful selection year by year will
gradually improve any crop. The seeds should be healthy
in every respect, free from impurities, large and heavy for
its kind, and taken from the best plants. We may save seeds
from those plants in the garden that show the qualities
which we want. The same care should be exercised in the
selection of seed wheat, oats, rye, and other field crops. In
the case of corn and potatoes it is possible to select seed in
the field from the best individual plants or hills, but in the
case of small grains this method would not be practicable.
With these grains we should follow some good method of
grading to secure good, large, plump kernels; such have the
best characters (Fig. 9).

Sifting and Fanning Grain. — Sieves are very useful for
separating the poor seed from the good. Meshes of just the
proper size are used to screen the large and let the small
fall through the sieve. The practice of winnowing the grain,
used in olden times, is now replaced by the use of fanning
mills. Fanning devices are usually found in threshing ma-
chines to separate the chaff, lighter seeds, and trash from the
heavier grains. All seeds to be sown should be cleaned and
re-cleaned until they are pure and of the best quality. (See
exercise with large and small radish seeds, page 26.)

Wheat and other small grains have been less improved
by selection than corn because the kernels are handled less,
and being smaller less attention is given to their individual

PLANT IMPROVEMENT, GOOD SEED

23

characters when being harvested. The smaller grains are
now receiving the attention of a few experiment stations,
and valuable improvements are being made.

Choosing from the Best. — With garden plants such as
squashes, melons and tomatoes we should not only choose
good specimens from which to save seed, but we should select
those specimens from plants that yield large crops of good
fruits. This selection can be done more carefully by the
grower himself than it can by any wholesale methods where
large quantities are carelessly saved from large areas. When

map®*- T»

'¥

FIG. 9. — Good plump wheat at the left; a poor type of wheat at the right, with,
narrow shrivelled kernels. (Experiment Station, Kans.)

a few desirable individual plants are found, they can be
rapidly multiplied.

The Ear=Row Method. — The best ear of corn from the
best bearing stalk may be saved for seed and planted in a
row by itself. This corn may produce many good stalks
with ears as good or better than the one we began with.
If the corn of each ear is grown in a separate row we can
compare the yields of these rows and select the next seed
accordingly. These best ears should be grown in a separate
field where the wind cannot carry pollen to it from other
cornfields.

The Hill=Row Method. — Potatoes should be grown from
those found on the best individual plants. If the potatoes
from two plants or hills weigh about the same they may be
planted in separate rows. The best row will next furnish
the hills for seed-potatoes.

Bud Selection. — Peaches, plums, apples, grapes, and
some other fruits are propagated by the use of buds, grafts,
3

24 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

cuttings, and divisions of the plants. The buds or other
parts are taken from the best plants of the preferred varieties.
Their seed, if used, would not come true to kind.

EXERCISE. — Looking for Weed Seed. — Let each pupil
have a half teaspoonful of clover or other common farm
seeds. Spread them on a sheet of white paper. Let the seed
be examined without the aid of lenses first. The weeds that
are known should be put to one corner of the paper which
is labeled "known weeds." In another place put the un-
known weeds; and in another the dirt, grit, sticks, and other

FIQ. 10.

FIG. 11.

FIG. 10. — Teacher showing the class how to examine a seed sample.
FIG. 11. — Seeds on the thumb, magnified through a reading glass.

dead matter; in another the shriveled seed of the kind you
have present. Single seeds are removed by use of a moist
pencil point or similar object. When the study is completed,
count or estimate the lots of each kind to determine the per
cent of each.

EXERCISE. — Another Way of Looking at Seeds. — Moisten
the first joint of the thumb of the left hand and dip it into
the seed to be studied. One layer of seed will cover the
moist surface. With a lens or reading glass in the right hand
the seed may be carefully examined for impurities (Figs.
10 and 11).

PLANT IMPROVEMENT, GOOD SEED 25

EXERCISE. — Identifying Weed Seeds. — The figures in
U. S. Farmers' Bulletins 260 and 382 will help to determine
the names of the weed seeds not known by the pupils. Let
students cut out the figures and paste them on a card for
quick reference. If the school has a collection of weed seeds
in small bottles (Fig. 15), they may now be used to help
identify the unknown seeds.

EXERCISE. — To Compare Good and Poor Lots of Grass
Seeds. — Take a piece of clean window glass and wet it with
water. Spread on it a thin layer of blue-grass or of red-top
seeds. Hold the glass between you and the bright light.
Notice how many of the glumes or husks are hollow. Com-
pare in this way a good sample with a poor one. Note the
difference in the amount of chaff.

Seed Analysis. — The methods of studying seeds outlined
in two preceding exercises may be called seed analysis. The
sieves mentioned before may also be used in analyzing a
sample of seed as well as in aiding in the cleaning of large
quantities.

Seed Testing. — Another way to detect impurities in
seeds is by sprouting a sample of the seed and then observ-
ing the differences in character of growth; they may differ
in the shape or number of seed leaves, or in manner of coming
out of the seed coats.

Another reason for seed testing is to determine the
vitality or germinating power of the sample.

There are several advantages of knowing the vitality:

1. It will save us buying poor seed if we test a sample
before buying.

2. If the test is low we will not use the seed at all, even
if we own it.

3. If it is as good as we can get we will plant enough more
seed than usual to allow for the reduced vitality.

4. Thus knowing how much to plant, will save us the
time, labor, and expense of replanting a crop after the first
planting shows a poor stand.

26 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

5. The first planting being made with good seed will give
us a good even stand at the proper season, instead of too late.

6. This means a better harvest and good return for labor
expended in cultivation through the season.

Methods of Testing Seeds. — When seeds are to be tested
they must be given proper moisture, warmth, and air; these
must not change much during the test. A warm living room
is about right if the moisture is held close about the seeds.

A common way is to take two lots of one hundred seeds
each; these are planted in a shallow box of moist sand.

Another good way to test seeds is to place them in pans
or deep plates between wet blotters or layers of wet cloth
(Fig. 12). The plates are placed one above another as high
as desired. A label is made for each lot of seeds by using
pencil and paper, thus:

Date — February 10.

Number of seeds 100

Kind '. . . Red clover

Number sprouted 90

Per cent of good seed 90

Folds of wet cloth may be made. A lot of seeds with its
label is placed in each fold. This is carefully placed in a cov-
ered pan in a warm place. If a hundred seeds are taken each
time, the per cent of germination is more exactly expressed.

EXERCISE. — Test Seeds. — Have grains and garden seeds
brought to school. Have them counted, labeled, and tested
by each method described here. Winter and early spring
are good times to make such trials with seeds.

EXERCISE. — Size of Seeds. — From a large package of
radish seeds, select 100 of the largest, and another 100 of
the smallest. Make sprouting tests of these two lots, by
planting them in a shallow box of moist sand or soil. Keep
them in separate rooms, and label them. Does the result
show that gardeners should select large seeds? Could this
be done with sieves?

PLANT IMPROVEMENT, GOOD SEED 27

Buy the Best. — It seldom pays to buy cheap seeds. The
age, size, weight, purity, and vitality should be determined
when buying. Protect seeds from mice, insects, and moisture.

Cheap seeds are sometimes mixed with better seeds if
the two kinds look much alike. Old seeds which have nearly
lost their life are sometimes made fresh looking by using
fumes of sulfur. These are then mixed with good seeds
and sold. Such mixtures are called adulterations.

FIG. 12. — A convenient home apparatus for testing seeds. The seeds are germi-
nated between wet cloths or blotters. The plates help to hold the moisture
(Agricultural Education.)

Immature seeds are those not fully ripened; such seed
cannot sprout well. To sprout under ordinary field con-
ditions, the seed must be fully matured.

SECTION ON WEEDS

The Weed Nuisance. — One of the greatest hindrances
to good farming is the presence of weeds in the fields. Weed
seed is in. the soil, in the grain, grass seed, and nearly all
farm seeds (Figs. 13a and 6). There are thirty or more un-
desirable weeds to be found in clover seed and alfalfa seed.
The grass seed is too often full of bad weed seed. There
is no place on the farm where weeds are a greater enemy
to our success than in the grass fields. It is harder to get
rid of them there than from the fields where we are doing
some tilling. But most of the weeds found in the pastures
and hay-fields have been sown there or near there by some
farmer, at some time in the past. Some weed seeds are
sown from fence rows by the wind.

28 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

Examining for Impurities. — Weed seeds and other im-
purities can usually be seen with a common reading glass or
pocket microscope. The proper thing to do is to examine
seeds before buying them, and avoid spending money for
weed seeds to sow on the farm. At least let us look at the
seed before sowing it (Fig. 14).

Weeds have been briefly defined as "plants out of place. r'
This is a satisfactory meaning of the term, for many plants
that are grown for the uses of man are objectionable when

6

FIG. 13o. — Hay-field filled in late summer with wild carrots or Queen
Anne's lace.

FIG. 13b. — Hay- field "taken" by dandelions.

found among other crops. Rose bushes sprouting in a corn-
field are called weeds. Likewise corn in a rose garden is
considered as a weed. Noxious weeds, however, are those
plants which are very frequently found in fields, or gardens,
or other undesirable places.

Classification. — Weeds may be grouped, according to
the length of life, into annuals, biennials, and perennials.

Annual weeds bear blossoms and seeds the first year
and then die entirely. This group includes many of our
most abundant weeds, such as rough pigweed, lamb's-quar-

PLANT IMPROVEMENT, GOOD SEED 29

ter, Russian tumbleweed, the large sunflower, horseweed
or fleabane, ragweed, Spanish needles, buffalo bur, purs-
lane, cocklebur, corn cockle, mustard, chickweed, and field
dodder.

The annual weeds are more commonly found in with
annual crops such as grain, corn, potatoes, and garden
annuals; this is chiefly because the weed seeds sown each
year by the plants find ready lodgment in the freshly plowed
or cultivated fields and gardens.

FIG. 14. — Seeds mounted in holes in heavy pasteboard between two pieces of
glass held with paper binding. A tripod lens used for seed study. (Agricultural
Education.)

One of the easiest ways to get rid of a bad field of annual
weeds is to rotate the crops by thickly seeding the field to
clover or grasses. Annual weeds are seldom found in such
fields, particularly after the first cutting of the hay.

Biennial weeds are those plants which live two years,
the first year making a vigorous growth and storing some
nourishment, but bearing no blossoms nor seeds until the
second summer. There are not many common kinds of
weeds in this group. Burdock, teasel, bull thistle, wild
carrot (Fig. 13a) and parsnip are common biennial weeds.

Perennial weeds live several years and bear blossoms

30 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

and seeds each year. The roots or underground parts live
over from year to year, and usually new leaves and stems
are sent up from the old roots in the spring. Such weeds
are most commonly found in pastures, hay-fields, lawns,
roadsides, and fence rows. They grow in places where their
roots may live undisturbed in the soil from year to year.
Because of this we may conclude that rotation of crops will
help destroy them. When a hay-field is plowed and harrowed
for corn, nearly all kinds of perennial weeds are killed.

Examples of perennials are: Canada thistle, quack or
couch grass, Johnson grass, curled or yellow dock, smart-

FIG, 15. — Seed samples in wooden case, bottles held in place with shoestring.
(Agricultural Education.)

weed, dandelion (Fig. 136), golden hawkweed, milk-weed, nut
sedge, ox-eye daisy, rib-grass plantain, wide-leaved plan-
tain, red field sorrel, toad flax, white and purple fall aster,
wild garlic, chicory.

Persistent Weeds. — Among the perennial weeds those
which are most troublesome are either provided with (1) a
rapid means of spreading, or (2) a fleshy root or bulb. Those
with runners which take root a-t the joints are seen in some
grasses, as Bermuda grass, and the trailing white clover, and
the running buttercup. Some have underground running
rootstocks that send up new shoots at the joints, as Johnson

PLANT IMPROVEMENT, GOOD SEED 31

grass, quack or couch grass, red field sorrel, Canada thistle,
and toad flax. Examples of bad weeds with fleshy under-
ground parts are : wild onions, garlic, curled or yellow dock,
dandelion, and many others.

Fighting Bad Perennial Weeds. — There are several
methods of fighting bad perennial weeds such as those men-
tioned in the preceding paragraph.

1. In most cases the best method of fighting persistent
weeds is to practice very frequent tillage to prevent exposure
of the green leaves to the sunlight. This method is eco-
nomical when there is a crop on the land which is benefited
by frequent tillage, as corn, cotton, and garden crops.

2. In some cases a dense growth of grain, millet, alfalfa,
or other close-growing crop may be effective in choking down
or smothering the weeds

3. Smothering of small patches of weeds is sometimes
accomplished by means of straw stacks placed over them.
Tar paper may be used in some cases.

4. Sheep in pastures will crop down many weeds and keep
them under control. Hogs confined in small areas will root

.out many bad kinds of weeds and completely destroy them.
In small poultry yards weeds are kept in complete subjec-
tion by fowls eating off their tops closely.

5. Frequent mowing of pastures, meadows, and yards
will aid materially in checking certain kinds of bad weeds.
It makes the grass grow better and retards asters, chicory,
plantains, hawkweed, dock, and many others.

6. Chemicals are sometimes used on the crowns and roots
of weeds hi yards, walks, roads, or where only a few weeds
have started. Chemicals used for this are salt, copper sulfate,
iron sulfate, kerosene, carbolic acid, and others. Salt on the
bad weeds in pastures often causes the cattle and sheep to
eat them down to get the salt.

Spraying Weeds. — Annual weeds, such as wild mus-
tard, corn cockle, and others that are bad in grain fields are

32 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

often controlled by spraying with iron sulfate before the grain
begins to send up its stems. The principle involved in this
method is this: The leaves of most grain crops and grasses
are naturally protected by a coating of wax or "bloom"
which keeps off the chemical and prevents their injury. The
weeds when young are tender and not thus protected. Hence
the chemical may be made strong enough to kill many kinds
of weeds without killing grasses or grain crops.

EXERCISE. — Collecting Weed Specimens. — In the -fall of
the year a collection of weeds should be made by the student.
One set of the specimens should be kept at the school. They
may be dried by spreading out the plants between large
folded newspapers. Put the pile of papers and plants on
the floor; place over them a board and stone or other heavy
object. This pressure will drive the moisture from the plants
into the papers. Change the papers from day to day until
the plants feel quite dry. They may then be fastened to
sheets of paper or cardboard eleven by seventeen inches.
Find the names of the weeds from any one who knows them,
group them into annuals, biennials, and perennials. U. S.
Farmers' Bulletin 28 will be of much help in the study of
weeds.

EXERCISE. — Seed Collection. — Let the pupils bring to
school hi the fall such weed seeds as they can find upon the
known weeds. These may be carried hi small papers or old
envelopes on which the name of the plant is written. These
may be transferred to small bottles as in Fig. 15, or to holes
in a seed board made like the one shown hi Fig. 14. A col-
lection of farm and garden seeds should also be made for
the school to use.

Common Weeds. — An alphabetical list of some bad weeds,
with useful information regarding them is given in the table.
(A = annual, B= biennial, P = perennial.) (Adapted from
H. R. Cox, U. S. Department Agriculture.)

Description of Common Weeds.

Common name, botanical
name, and duration of life.

Color, size, and
arrangement of
flowers.

Method of seed
distribution ;
vegetative
propagation of
the perennials.

Place of growth
and products in-
jured.

Bindweed, field bindweed

White or pink; 1

Grain and flax

Rich moist soils;

(Convolvulus), P.

inch; solitary.

seeds; creeping

grain and hoed

roots.

crops.

Bull nettle, horse nettle

Purple; 1 inch;

Plants rolled by

Everywhere; grain

(Solanumcarolinense) ,P.

solitary.

wind; running

and hoed crops,

roots.

pastures.

Chess, cheat (Bromus seca-
linus), A.

Green; spikelets
in panicles.

Grain seed, espe-
cially wheat.

Every where; grain
fields.

Chickweed, common chick-

White; | inch;

In crop seeds; has

Meadows, lawns;

weed (Alsine media), A.

cymes.

a long seeding

winter crops.

period.

Cocklebur, olotbur (Xan-

Green; . | inch;

Carried by ani-

Cultivated fields

thium americanum), A.

head.

mals.

and waste places;

hoed crops and

wool.

Crab-grass (Syntherisma

Green; spikes.. .

Clover and grass

Cultivated fields,

sanyuinale), A.

seed, hay, ani-

gardens, lawns;

mals.

hoed crops.

Daisy, oxeye daisy (Chrys-

White with yel-

Clover seed, hay;

Pastures.meadows,

anthemum leucanthe-

low center; 1

woody, rather

roadsides; hay,

mum), P.

inch; heads.

short rootstocks,

pasturage.

but largely by

seed.

Dandelion (Taraxacum offi-

Yellow; IJmch;

Wind; taproot,

Lawns, meadows,

cinale), P.

head.

which spreads

waste places;

but little.

ha,y and lawns.

Dock, yellow dock, sour

Green; 1 inch;

Hay and straw,

Hay, small grain,

dock (Rumex crispus), P

panicle.

clover and grass

and hoed crops.

seed; taproot,

which spreads

but little.

Fleabane, horseweed (Eri-

White; i inch;

Hay, grass and

Meadows, pastures

geron canadensis), A.

heads in cymes.

clover seeds.

and grain fields.

Foxtail, yellow foxtail,

Green; spikes.. .

Animals, hay,

Land cultivated in

pigeon grass (Chcetochloa

grain, and grass

early part of

glauca), A.

seeds.

season; young

grass and clover

seedlings.

Lamb's-quarters, pigweed

Green; very

Grain and grass

Grain fields and

(Chenopodium album), A.

small; panicle.

seed.

hoed crops.

Lettuce, prickly lettuce

Yellow; J inch;

Wind

Everywhere; all

(Lactuca virosa), A.

heads in pan-

crops.

icles.

Pigweed, redroot, careless
weed (Amaranthus retro-

Green; quite
small; spikes

In grain and grass
seeds; plants

Plowed land; hoed
crops. •

flexus), A.

in panicles.

blown by wind.

Plantain, buckthorn, rib-

White; ^ inch;

Hay, clover and

Everywhere;

grass (Plantago lanceo-

spike.

grass seed;

meadows, pas-

lata), P.

spreads but

tures, and lawns.

slowly from a

crown.

Poison ivy, poison oak
(Rhus toxicodendron), P.

Greenish white;
| inch; pan-

Does not spread
fast by seeds ;

Moist rich land,
along fences;

icles.

running root-

poisonousby con-

stocks.

tact.

Purslane, pusley (Portu-

Yellow; J inch;

Implements; has

Rich cultivated

laca oleracea), A.

solitary.

a long seeding

land, gardens;

period.

hoed crops.

Ragweed, smaller ragweed
(Ambrosia elatior), A.

Yellow; J inch;
small heads on

Wind carrying
matured plants;

Everywhere ;
grain stubble ;

spikes.

in grain and red-

hoed crops, grass

clover seeds.

seeding.

Sorrel, sheep.sorrel, horse
sorrel (Rumex acetosella),

Red ; f inch ;
panicles.

In clover seed ;
creeping roots.

Meadows and pas-
tures.

34 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

REVIEW.

1. Tell of the value of sifting and fanning grain which is to be used
for seed.

2. From which plants in a garden should the gardener save seeds ?

3. Describe the ear-row method of improving eorn.

4. Describe the hill-row method of improving seed potatoes.

5. Tell why weeds are so prevalent and give a remedy.

6. Why should farm seeds be examined before they are purchased
or sown ?

7. Tell how to analyze a sample of clover seed.

8. Tell how to mount a sample of grass seed to study its value.

9. Give a number of advantages from knowing the vitality of seeds.

10. Describe the plate method of seed testing.

11. Describe some other good method of testing seeds.

12. Tell of some ways in which seeds are sometimes adulterated.

13. What are immature seeds ? Why not plant such ?

14. Tell how seeds should be stored,,

15. What are noxious weeds ?

16. What are annuals ? biennials ? perennials ?

17. Where are annual weeds most commonly found ?

18. In what places are perennials most commonly found ?

19. Name several annual weeds.

20. Name several common biennial weeds.

21. Name all the perennial weeds you can.

22. Name some of the most persistent weeds.

23. How are they propagated?

24. Name several methods of fighting bad weeds.

25. When and with what are weeds sometimes sprayed?

26. Of what value is a collection of weed specimens in school?

27. Why should every one know the common weeds?

28. Would a collection of seeds properly labeled be of use in
school? Why?

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 382, Adulteration of Forage
Plant Seeds; 428, Testing Farm Seeds; 660, Weeds.

PROPAGATION OF PLANTS WITHOUT SEEDS 35

CHAPTER III.
PROPAGATION OF PLANTS WITHOUT SEEDS.

The Raising of Fruit Trees. — Plants propagate them-
selves naturally either by seeds or by buds. One or both of
these natural methods is used by the farmer for all plants
and crops. Very few fruits "come true" from seed because
the seeds are formed by cross-pollination. The pollen is
carried by insects and wind from other varieties. For this
reason the nurserymen, who produce the young fruit trees
or bushes, must avoid the use of seeds. With such fruits seeds
may be used in an effort to secure new varieties, or to pro-
duce stocks on which to grow the improved varieties; but
the standard sorts are multiplied by some form of bud
propagation, such as grafting, true budding, layering, and
making cuttings.

Propagation of Apples. — One common method for the
production of young apple trees involves the use of grafting.
It is called the root-grafting process.

First. — Seeds from cider-presses are planted in garden
rows and the young trees cultivated for one summer to get
the greatest growth possible. These trees would probably
never bear good apples if they were allowed to reach matu-
rity, but they serve admirably as the stocks on which to grow
good trees. They are taken up roots and all, in the fall,
tied in bundles of one hundred each, and well stored in moist-
ened sawdust in a very cold cellar.

Second. — W7ell-matured shoots of one-year wood are cut
for scions from the tops of good specimens of apple trees of
the varieties we may wish to propagate. These are properly
labelled, tied in bundles, and stored in the same manner as
the seedling trees. This is done in late fall.

36

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

Third. — The actual work of grafting the tops of the
desired varieties onto the roots of the young seedlings is to
be done during the winter months. This work is done in
the cool cellar and the little grafted trees are then tied into
bundles and stored until warm spring weather.

Fourth. — The little trees are set in good rich garden soil,
deep enough to cover the union or grafted point well. The top
of the plant with a bud or two will be above the surface of the
ground. The dirt should be well tramped around the grafts.
Details of Root=grafting. — The tops are cut from the
young seedling trees and destroyed. The top-shoots from
good trees are inserted upon the roots in their place. The
new tops are called scions. They may be only a few inches
long and contain from three to six buds. The roots may be

either used entire for each new
tree; or they may be cut into
pieces four to six inches long,
and a graft made on each piece.
Whip or Tongue Graft.— The
kind of graft or union to make
for apple root grafts is the one
that is known by nurserymen

as the tonSlie or wniP graft.
This is shown in Fig. 16; A
represents the upper end of the
piece of root cut so that there
is a tongue ready to slip be-
neath a similar tongue made in
the scion, shown at B. As
soon as cut they are slipped
together very firmly, as shown

at C. Now a piece of waxed knitting cotton is wrapped

about the grafted portion to hold the parts snugly together.

It is necessary to have the root and scion of the same

diameter or nearly so. The cambium, or growing layer, is

FIG. 16. — Steps in root-grafting
of apples. A, the small root tongue
cut; B, the scion with tongue cut;
C, the two in place ready to tie with
waxed cotton.

PROPAGATION OF PLANTS WITHOUT SEEDS 37

just beneath the bark of each. If the cambium of the scion
is in perfect contact with the cambium of the root, growth
is likely to take place, otherwise they will probably not live.

EXERCISE. — Root-grafting. — Let the students have some
practice in making root-grafts. Until the method is well
learned, it is best to use willow or any other convenient
switches to represent the roots and sciuns of apples. The
second lesson may be with the real apple roots and apple
scions. These may be secured in the neighborhood or from
any nurseryman. For this exercise and the exercise in
budding any wide thin-bladed pocket knives will do if better
ones are not available. Have them very sharp.

EXERCISE. — Making Grafting Wax. — Melt together in a
tin can or pail one pound of rosin, one-half pound of beeswax
or paraffin, and four ounces of tallow; when well melted and
mixed allow the mass to cool a little and then pour it into
a pail of cold water. Let one or two pupils rub tallow on
their hands, work and pull the mass, as they would pull
candy, until it is of a light yellow color; make it into rolls
and lay on a sheet of greased wrapping paper to harden.

EXERCISE. — Waxing Cotton for Grafting. — While the wax
is melted, in the preceding exercise, put into it for a few
moments a ball of No. 18 or No. 20 knitting cotton. Remove
it and let it cool on a sheet of greased paper. Pieces of this
six or eight inches long will be used to wrap around each
root-graft and may be used in the budding exercises.

Budding Apple Trees. — New apple trees of the preferred
varieties may be propagated by budding. This method is
now quite common among nurserymen. The young seedling
trees for stocks are grown in good soil for one season, or
until August, from seeds sown the preceding spring.

Scions or bud sticks are taken from the new growth on
trees we wish to propagate. This is done in August or early
September. The leaves are all clipped off leaving about
one-half inch of each leaf stem on the twig to serve as bud

38

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

handles. The budding is done immediately. One bud froR
the budding stick is inserted just under the bark of the little
seedling tree a few inches above the ground. How to insert
the bud will be described under "Budding Peaches."

The little seedling is not disturbed in this method of
propagating apple trees. The roots are left growing in the
soil. The new bud becomes united to the surrounding
tissues that fall. All the top above the bud is pruned away
(Fig. 17) just as soon as the new bud
starts growth in spring, and all the
natural buds of the seedling stock are
rubbed off. Then the new bud makes
a vigorous growth and is soon devel-
oped into the new tree top.

Another method is to insert the
buds of the desired varieties in the
little seedling trees the following-
spring. In this case the scions are
taken when dormant and stored in a
cold cellar until about June. This
method is quite common in some sec-
tions, particularly where the hot, dry
weather of August would be injurious.
After one season's growth the
most vigorous budded or root-grafted
trees are ready to transplant to the
orchard. They are then called one-
year old trees. Many apple growers prefer to leave them
in the nursery one more year, and always select two-
year-old trees for the setting out of new apple orchards.
Budding Peaches and Plums. — Improved varieties of
peaches and plums are propagated by budding.

Stocks for this purpose are usually started from pits of
native or seedling peaches and plums. Special kinds of stocks,
however, are desired for a few particular varieties of plums.

FIG. 17. — Method of
pruning a budded tree
after the new shoot starts.

PROPAGATION OF PLANTS WITHOUT SEEDS 39

The pits of peaches and plums are hard to start into
growth, the shell is too hard for the germ to burst through.
They must be frozen over winter or cracked by hand. Fre-
quently layers of peach pits are covered with a little sand in
shallow boxes. This is called stratifying the pits. These are
left exposed to the weather over winter. The action of the
frost should crack them. In spring they are to be planted
in rows three feet apart in rich garden soil. They are given
thorough tillage until August, when they are to be budded.

Fio. 18. — Method of budding a young fruit tree. A, the bud and ; surrounding
parts cut from a good variety; B, the T-shaped cut in bark of tree to be budded;
C, the same rolled back ready to receive the good bud; D, the good bud set in place
under bark; E, the bud and bark tied securely in place with waxed knitting cotton
or with raffia fiber.

Peach and plum scions or budding sticks are cut from
the new growth on the trees of the desired varieties. The
leaves are trimmed off, but stems are left near each bud to
aid in handling when the bud is removed from the scion..
The buds are inserted on the stocks right away. The oper-
ator must get down close to the ground to do the work
properly. The top of the seedling stock is cut away early
the following spring before the buds swell. This forces all
the sap of the root system to the new bud and the growth will
be rapid. One-year-old trees of peach and plum varieties

40

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

should be transplanted to the orchard. If left in the nur-
sery rows longer than for one year's growth from the bud,
they are likely to become misshapen or overgrown and will
be undesirable trees for the orchard.

How Budding is Done. — A good, healthy bud is cut from
the scion with the bark surrounding it in the form of a shield
(Fig. 18, A). A cut is now made through the bark of the
stock, in the form of a letter T, shown at B; this is pref-
erably done on the north side
of the stock to avoid the hot
sun. Turn back the edges of
the bark as shown at C.
Insert the bud into its new
home just under the bark as
shown at D. The top of the
shield must be as low as the
top of the T. Tie the bark
down tightly over the edges of
the shield as at E; waxed
knitting cotton, No. 18 or 20,
may be used for this, as it will
not grow into the bark and
stop circulation; raffia fiber
is also good for this purpose.
EXERCISE. — Practice in
Budding. — Twigs from willow
trees may be placed in water in a warm room in the winter
and the bark well loosened in a few days. Use these to
practise the method of budding just described.

Top=working of Trees. — Tree tops may be changed from
one variety to another. If an apple tree bears poor fruit
it may be changed to bear good apples. This is done by
top-working, as it is called. Many branches are cut off the
poor tree, and in their places may be inserted new buds or
grafted new scions of the variety desired (Fig. 19). This

FIG. 19. — Cleft-grafting a fruit tree.
The tree is severely cut back and good
scions are grafted on. The boys are top-
working the tree.

PROPAGATION OF PLANTS WITHOUT SEEDS 41

work is often done in June with scions held dormant in the
cellar; or it may be done in August with scions of the current
year's growth. Top-working is accomplished by one of three
methods: budding, or tongue-grafting, or cleft-grafting. The
first two methods have been described. Cleft-grafting is
now less commonly used. (For a description of this method
reference is made to U. S. Farmers' Bulletins 157 and 408.)

Tip=layering.— This is the most common way of propa-
gating black raspberries. The soil is cultivated at both sides
of the raspberry row, and in late July or August the tips of
the long canes, or stems, are bent to the ground and slightly
covered with soil (Fig. 20a). They will send down roots and

FIG. 20a. — Tip-layering. The young plant has taken root.

FIG. 20b. — Vine-layering. The young plants are ready to be cut epart.

develop new plants. The canes are cut loose from the young
plants, which may then be transplanted to a new garden.

Vine=layering. — Several kinds of vines, including certain
varieties of grapes, are propagated by layering (Fig. 206).
A shallow furrow is made and a vine is laid in it and parts
of it covered with soil with other parts exposed to the light.
Shoots will start up and roots will be formed. The new
plants may be cut apart with a spade; they are then ready
to transplant to desired places.

Mound=layering. — This is used for the propagation of
gooseberries, quinces, and many ornamental shrubs. The
earth is mounded up around the lower branches, which will
then send new roots into the soil (Fig. 21). The following

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

FIG. 21. — Mound-layering. The
soil is mounded among the shoots,
and new roots will be formed.

fall or spring the plants may be dug; the branches with their
new roots will form new plants; then they are cut away
from the parent plant.

Division of Plants. — Some plants naturally form roots
from the lowest parts or send up new shoots near the parent

stalks. After the plant is dug it
becomes an easy matter to pull
or cut the parent plant into a
number of smaller plants. This
method of propagation is used
in multiplying purple lilac, rhu-
barb, asparagus, and many
shrubs and herbs.

Cuttings. — There are a few
fruit plants and many others

that can be propagated by cuttings. Currants, gooseberries,
and several kinds of grapes may be multiplied by cuttings
of the ripe wood. Blackberries are propagated by root-
cuttings, — pieces of the roots
dropped in a furrow and en-
tirely covered. Many kinds
of houseplants will grow from
slips or cuttings of green
wood; these are sometimes
called soft-wood cuttings.

Cuttings of ripe wood, six
inches or more in length,
should be taken in the fall
after the leaves have dropped.

FIG. 22. — Four forms of grape-vine
cuttings. A, single eye or single bud;
B, two buds; C, heel cutting; D,
cutting.

mallet

They are cut from the new-
est growth, and the strongest
shoots are selected (Fig. 22).
When tied into bundles they should be properly labelled and
stored in damp sawdust in a cold cellar. In late spring
they are set in deep furrows in rich garden soil with one

PROPAGATION OF PLANTS WITHOUT SEEDS 43

or two buds showing above ground. The soil must be
pressed firmly about them (Fig. 23). In the case of grape
cuttings one bud only is left projecting above the surface of
the soil.

EXERCISE. —Starting Slips at Home or at School. — In a
shallow box of moist, clean
sand, plant a number of cut-
tings of several house-plants.
Keep the box in a warm room
and water the soil frequently.
These slips are made by
taking a few inches of the
healthy shoots and removing
a large portion of the older
leaves. For this exercise
many forms of winter house-
plants may be tried — begonia,
carnation, geranium, fuchsia. After the slips have formed
roots in the sand, they may be transplanted to rich soil in
well-drained pots or boxes.

FIG. 23. — Cutting of red currants,
showing depth for planting, allowing one
or two buds to protrude.

REVIEW.

1. What are the two general plans by which plants naturally prop-
agate themselves?

2. Name four forms of bud propagation used by nurserymen.

3. Describe the starting of stocks for the budding or grafting of
young apple trees.

4. Tell when to take scions and how to store them for winter root-

5. When are root-grafts set out? and how?

6. Describe the details of root-grafting.

7. What is the cambium layer? Where is it?

8. Tell how to make grafting wax and how to wax knitting cotton.

9. What are used for stocks and for scions in the budding of young
apple trees?

10. At what two times of year is apple budding done?

11. Tell how peach and plum stocks are started.

12. When are peach scions cut from the trees? When is the budding
usually done?

13. What is the purpose of top-working old trees?
li, How is this done?

44 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

15. Describe tip-layering of black raspberries.

16. Describe vine-layering for grapes.

17. What is mound-layering?

18. Describe the cutting, storing, and planting of grape or currant
cuttings.

19. What plants may be propagated by soft-wood cuttings?

Reference.— U. S. Farmers' Bulletin 157, The Propagation of
Plants.

CHAPTER IV.
HOW SOILS ARE FORMED.

THE soil is one of those common things most of us think
very little about. We see it every day, we walk on it, we
eat and wear its products, but we very seldom give it a
thought. It may even surprise some of us to know that we
get from the soil not only our food, our houses and our cloth-
ing, but that all animal life comes indirectly from the soil.
For every living thing comes originally from two primary
sources, the air and the soil. All elements or substances
found ill plants or animals are from either the soil or the air.

The foods which plants secure from the air are too abun-
dant to ever become exhausted by large farm crops. No
human efforts are required to make them available to plants,
except for the securing of nitrogen from air, when inoculation
with certain bacteria may be necessary. The foods taken
from the soil on the other hand are much less available, and
the ability of plants to secure them may depend very largely
on the efforts of the farmer. It is necessary for the farmer
first of all to study his soil to see how he can make its plant-
food most available.

What Soil is. — That part% of the earth's surface which
can be tilled, and in which plants grow, is called soil It is
the loose, highly decomposed layer of mineral matter result-

HOW SOILS ARE FORMED 45

ing, primarily, from rock decay, which furnishes food and
foothold for plant and animal life.

Soil Builders. — Soil is derived from two main classes
of substances; rock and organic matter. Rocks crumble
into fine particles. They are gradually being changed into
soil. Plants and animals decay to form the organic matter
or humus in the soil. The humus present in our fields is
chiefly of vegetable origin.

FIQ. 24. — A high bank of wind-blown soil. Notice where it has nearly covered the
fence. (Plant Industry.)

How Soils are Formed. — Certain forces are constantly
at work changing rock into soil and making soil particles
finer. These forces are: (1) air; (2) water; (3) temperature;
(4) plants; (5) burrowing animals; and (6) minute plant
and animal organisms. These forces act both physically and
chemically.

EXERCISE. — Soil Forming. — Find places near the school
or at home where any of the agencies mentioned are at work
forming soil. Tell of the places and what you have seen.
Can you find places where water has carried soil? How are
the little gulleys formed in hillsides? Where is the soil
carried to?

46 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

The Action of Air and Temperature Changes. — The action
of the air and the changes in temperature, which together we
call weathering, is of many kinds. The heat of the sun causes
the rock to expand. As all of the substances which make up
a rock do not expand the same amount, the rock breaks and
the particles flake off the surface. In regions where the soil
is not protected by vegetation the wind becomes an import-
ant soil former (Fig. 24). The particles of soil are caught up
by the wind and hurled against rocks and against cliffs, and
grind the surface of the rocks and undermine the cliffs. This

FIG. 25a. — A little stream falling many feet will wear away the hardest rock.
The fine particles help to make up the soil. (Plant Industry.)

FIG. 256. — A muddy water-fall. Soil is carried by swift current to the low land.

little agent does a rea. y large work. Then there is a chemical
action of the air, in which certain substances in the air, as
oxygen and carbonic acid, unite with certain substances in
the rock and cause it to decompose. Such an action of the
air is termed oxidation and is a slow burning or decay.

A good example of weathering may be observed in the
rapid crumbling of shale on exposure to the air. In such
cases the air, temperature, and water each play an important
part.

EXERCISE. — The Action of Air on Iron. — A familiar

HOW SOILS ARE FORMED 47

illustration of oxidation is seen when iron is exposed to the
air; the red rust that forms is an oxide of iron — a substance
very different from the iron itself. To test for ourselves
the action of air on iron we may take a piece of bright iron
or steel, as the blade of a knife. Cover one end with linseed
oil or wagon grease, and leave the other end exposed to the
action of rain and air for a few days. Notice the effect on
the exposed part. What lesson on the care of plows and
other farm tools may we learn from this?

r - ' "~^

FIG. 26. — Abroad valley of rich alluvial soil. This soil at some time was chiefly
part of the surrounding hills. (Plant Industry.)

Water is the most powerful agent in decomposing or
breaking down rock (Fig. 25a). Its action, especially in dis-
solving rocks, is very important. Nearly all rocks are more
or less affected by this action, and some, as limestone, are
easily affected.

W'ater breaks up rock by freezing. Most rocks contain
cracks or openings into which the water readily flows; when
the water freezes, it expands and forces the rock apart.
Solid rock is thus gradually broken to pieces by the freezing

48 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

and thawing of water in it. This force is especially active
in cold climates.

EXERCISE. — To Show the A dion of Freezing Water. — Fill
a small bottle with water and place it where the water will
freeze. The bottle will probably be broken by the expansion
due to the change in temperature.

Water also makes the rock particles finer. After rains
the flowing of water grinds the fragments together. The
force of running water is continually wearing them smaller
(Fig. 256) . The finest particles are first carried away by the
water to valleys below (Figs. 26 and 27).

FIG. 27. — A rocky hill changing into soil. The soil is gradually carried to the valley
by rains and irountain streams. (Plant Industry.)

Water in the form of glacial ice, carrying sand and boul-
ders frozen into the under side, wears down the rocks over
which it passes and carries the material with it (Fig. 28).

The effects of plants in the rotting of rocks are of two
kinds: (1) The roots grow into the crevices found in rocks.
This in time forces the rock particles apart (Fig. 29).
Roots of trees often lift large rocks and cause them to crack
by their own weight. This aids the rocks to crumble into
soil grains. (2) When the plants decay acids are formed,

HOW SOILS ARE FORMED

49

that help the water to soften or dissolve the rocks. Every
•one has seen rocks covered with lichens and mosses. When
these are taken away one can often see where the rocks
have been eaten into by the small plants, due to the action
described. As this process of growth and decay continues for
Ages, the soil is gradually improved until it will produce
plants useful to man.

v><*

V* r

V' „

r yvVf'^WWfSm ..

' .(/ f /' •.•;-'; ;":--.• •>.::/: :-:-W . '.-'/.; ••f-,^^ -.-'.: . ',;•.-•.-' '.---••-•• v-':.:-'-.:i:..'--\".-.''.'
* * jrw X • :•-•-.•;>',••, •'-.•-.''•'.•v.-'.-r->v:-..-.'.^j3r.-r.- :;-•;••/;•• •-. •. -. •..-'•; .;-.-.-.'v ^^^ •.•;-•".,

*'^'Sil»BiasI>iis

psapfit

Fio. 28. — View of Victoria glacier, several miles in length. S, mountain snow;
D, dirt and broken rock carried by the moving snow and ice; L, broken rock where
Hie moving glacier rubs the bank or side of the valley; C, central line of dirt and
rocks brought by the edges of two moving streams of ice and snow: T, terminus or
-end of the glacier where the sun melts the snow and leaves the rock and soil. The
finest soil is carried by running water to the broad field farther down the valley.

How Animals Help. — Burrowing animals, such as the
ground squirrel and the prairie dog, earthworms and insects
living in the ground, as well as rabbits, gophers, and wolves,
.aid in preparing the soil for the growth of plants. They
often burrow deep into the ground; the openings aid in free
movement of air and water, and roots can enter the soil more

50

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

easily. The animals also drag into their homes nesting mate-
rials and other vegetable matter. When this decays it aids
in forming fertile soil.

How Soils are Moved. — The same forces that form soil
also carry it away. Soil is almost constantly moving from
high lands to low lands. It is deepest in the valley, and
thinnest at the top of the hill. Great furrows are formed in

the hillsides after heavy rains.
The swollen and muddy
streams carry the soil to lower
parts of the land. When
rivers overflow, they always
leave a deposit of soil which
was carried by the water.

Transported soil is any soil
moved from the place where it
was formed. It is described
by different names or terms,
depending on the means by
which it was transported; and
these different means of trans-
portation leave the soil in very
different condition as regards
its general nature and appear-
ance and use for growing crops.
Go out into a plowed field
after a heavy rain and see

where little gulleys have been worn. Follow one of these
and see how much soil was carried by the water that ran
off. Notice the size of the particles that were carried.

Soil deposited by water is called alluvial. It is found
in valleys and river-beds, beds of old lakes, ponds and
marshes. (Fig. 26.)

Soil deposited from ice is called drift soil. It has been
formed by the action of glaciers, which are large bodies of

FIG. 29— A large rock split by the
growth of a tree near Lansing, Mich.

HOW SOILS ARE FORMED 51

ice moving like rivers, carrying quantities of earth and
rocks. The results of ancient glacial action are found in
many places. Rocks with deep scratches show the wearing
and grinding effects of the moving masses of ice. Drift or
glacial soil is easily recognized by the presence of rounded
rocks or boulders. It is usually fertile because of the variety
of mineral substances brought from far and near. Much
drift soil is found throughout the northern states and Canada,
east of the Rocky Mountains.

Two other kinds of transported soil should be studied.
One, known as colluvial soil, occurs on mountain slopes and
steep hillsides, and is the mixed mass of soil and rocks brought
down by avalanches and landslides. Such soil is not generally
in condition to grow good crops. The other, known as wind-
drifted or aeolian soil, is found in arid or semi-arid regions,
that is, in places where there is very little rain-fall and the
soil is dry, and there is little vegetation to hold the soil.
This soil is carried by the winds and is deposited in dunes
or drifts like snow. These dunes sometimes cover cultivated
fields, forests, and even villages. As this soil is shifting,
plants frequently do not have an opportunity to grow and
hold it. (Fig. 24.)

REVIEW.

1. What is soil?

2. From what is soil made ?

3. Name four forces which are making soil.

4. How does the air help to make soil ?

5. Tell of the influences of temperature in crumbling rocks.

6. Tell of the ways in which water helps to crumble rocks.

7. Tell where and when you have seen running water carrying
fine soil or mud.

8. In what kinds of places is this mud deposited ?

9. Do plants help to form soil ? How ?

10. In what ways do animals help to make soil useful ?

11. What is transported soil?

12. Describe the several kinds, and tell where they are likely to be
found.

Reference. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 421, Control of Blowing
Soils.

52 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

CHAPTER V.
KINDS OF SOILS— THEIR CHARACTERISTICS.

SOILS used in the production of crops are of many kinds.
Some of these differ widely from each other in their physical
nature and in their ability to produce good return to the
owner. It is the purpose of this chapter to point out the
characteristics of the most important types of soil.

Kinds of Soil. — Soil may be divided into four natural
classes — sandy, loamy, clayey, and peaty — according to the
proportion of sand, clay, and vegetable matter which it con-
tains. Between these groups or classes we may have very
many others, depending on the combinations of these types
and the sizes of the soil particles.

A loam is a soil intermediate between sand and clay.

A marly soil is a combination of clay and fine lime mate-
rial.

Silt is a soil whose particles are slightly larger than clay
particles but finer than sand.

We should mention also limestone soils. These result from
the crumbling of limestone (Fig. 30).

Sandy Soil. — Sand is formed from sandstone. It does
not produce large crops, for it is poor in plant-food and
moisture. A soil made of sand only would need to be changed
a great deal to be of any use in farming, as it would produce
no crops in its natural condition. Soil with much sand in it
is light and open and allows the entrance of air, and it can
absorb and hold little moisture. Sandy soil is so loosely
held together that water and air pass through it readily.
Crops on such land become parched if the weather is hot and
dry.

This type of soil dries quickly even when the season
is wet. Then large crops may be grown better on sandy soil

KINDS OF SOILS— THEIR CHARACTERISTICS 53

than on clay, if enough plant food is provided. Compact
and sticky soils produce poor crops in wet seasons. The
farmer finds it easy to plow and cultivate a sandy field. It
is adapted to quick-growing crops, such as early vegetables;
and sweet potatoes do well on such a soil. It may be culti-
vated without injury when wet. When it lies over clay
under-soil or subsoil it may have a high degree of fertility.

FIG. 30. — Peach trees in rocky soil. After the soil is plowed, the rains soon wash
the fine soil away through the top of the rocks and leave the surface as shown in the
picture. The roots of trees are in the finer parts of the soil and the growth is good.
(Experiment Station, N. J.)

Clay Soil. — Clay soil is much more finely divided than
sand. When wet it is plastic and sticky. The latter property
makes it useful for making bricks and tiles. Some farm soils
are largely clay; but clay alone does not make a good farm
soil and its plant-food is not readily available.

Soil composed of as much as forty per cent of clay may
be good farm soil, and may be well adapted to the growth
of grains and grasses. It should not have over fifty per cent
of clay present. The finely divided particles of clay adhere

54 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

so closely as to make the access and circulation of air, heat,
and moisture difficult; the soil is, therefore, cold and heavy.
It is hard to work, and, unless well drained, crops are likely
to suffer both in wet and in dry seasons; in wet seasons
because the moisture and air do not pass through it readily
and the surplus water does not drain away, and in dry sea-
sons because the land becomes so hard as to prevent the
growth of roots, and the small amount of moisture in the
soil is not available to plants because it does not readily
circulate.

Clay and Sandy Soil Compared. — Clay soil is almost the
opposite of sandy soil, in many respects. Grains and larger
masses of sand do not stick together; if wet and moulded in
the hand, they will soon fall apart. Clay may be moulded
into any shape, and is sometimes used for making pottery
because the particles stick together when moist. Sand,
being open and porous, quickly loses moisture and plant-
food. Clay is so compact that it retains moisture and plant-
food. Sand admits heated air and soon becomes dry and
warm; clay admits air more slowly and remains wet and cold.
Because of these differences which make sandy soil easy to
work and clay soil hard to work, sandy soil is said to be light
and clay soil heavy, while in weight a quart cup full of sandy
soil is really heavier than the same amount of clay soil.
Both are valuable farm soils when supplied with enough
plant-food and vegetable mould, or humus.

EXERCISE. — To Show the Difference between Sand and
Clay. — Use rather pure sand and pure clay. Make a wet
ball of each the size of a hen's egg. Place the two wet masses
on a board to dry. When dry, examine and note the dif-
ferences. . Which ball dried more quickly? Which is harder
to work when dry?

EXERCISE. — To Compare the Water-holding Power of
Sand, Clay, and Loam. — In three boxes about the size of
cigar boxes place respectively some sand, clay, and black

KINDS OF SOILS— THEIR CHARACTERISTICS 55

loam, which we have learned is intermediate between sand
and clay. Wet all of them equally. Place the boxes in the
free air or sun and allow them to dry. Which soil loses its
moisture first? Which last?

Peat or vegetable matter makes up a large part of some
soils, particularly in low places. The vegetable matter may
be more or less decayed, and is often called peat. It is found
in bogs and marshes and other wet places. When the peat
has nearly all decomposed it is called muck. If peat and muck
soils are well drained and are supplied with enough lime, they
are very productive. They are often used for such market-
garden crops as cabbage, onions, celery, and cauliflower.

Humus. — Partly decayed vegetable matter in soil is called
humus. It has a blackish color. In newly cleared farm soil
it is derived from the dead roots and leaves of a former vege-
tation. Leaf mould found in forests is largely humus. On
farms it is secured by plowing under waste materials such as
weeds, stubble, roots, vines, and leaves. Farm manure is
valuable for this purpose. Special crops are often grown to
be plowed under, and when so used are called green manure.
When these rot in the soil, humus is formed.

Humus is very useful in all soils. It improves a sandy
soil because it increases its power to take and hold moisture,
supplies it with plant-food, and thus increases its productiv-
ity. It will absorb and retain more moisture than any other
part of the soil. It improves clay soil by loosening it, thus
helping the circulation of air and moisture. It is less likely
to clod and crust. Humus is the main immediate source of
nitrogen, so necessary in the growth of all farm crops. In
the formation of humus other plant-foods are set free, — but
best of all is its improvement pf the structure or texture of
the soil, resulting in better drainage, better ventilation, and
deeper root growth.

Lime in Soil. — When lime is found in soil it is usually in
the form of particles of limestone or marble, but it may be
5

56 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

in solution in the soil water. It is a valuable substance in
soil. It furnishes the important plant-food, calcium. Lime-
stone crumbles or dissolves easily and helps to make avail-
able other plant-foods in the soil. The lime aids in the decay
of vegetable matter and in the formation of nitrates from
decaying vegetable matter. It improves the physical con-
dition of soil; its presence helps to make heavy clay soil loose
and more easily worked and to facilitate the passage of
water and air through it. In small quantities it improves
sandy soil by causing the particles to adhere more closely to
each other, and consequently, to hold moisture better. It
prevents harm from acids and certain other poisonous com-
pounds in soil. It lessens the injury from certain plant
diseases that are transmitted through the soil. Soil contain-
ing an abundance of lime is usually of good character. It is
easy to work and should be well adapted to grains and fruits.

While lime is very valuable in the soil, h is possible for
it to become harmful. Too much of it in sandy soil or grav-
elly soil is more harmful than in clay soils. It may cause
other plant-foods to be liberated faster than they can be
used by the crop, and they will be wasted. It may cause the
vegetable matter or humus to decay too fast; it may reduce
the yield of certain crops, as cranberries, and watermelons
which prefer acid soil.

A loam is a soil consisting of a mixture of sand and clay
and containing humus. If two-thirds of the mixture is sand
it is called a sandy loam. If one-half of the soil is clay it is
called a heavy clay loam. Soils between these two extremes
are called loams or medium loams. When gravel or coarse
sand and lime are present in considerable amounts, we have
gravelly or limy loam. Loam soil is the best for most farm
purposes. Sand, clay, and humus are improved as they
become mixed together.

Medium loams are the best soils for farming if there is
a large amount of humus present. The farmer says, "they

KINDS OF SOILS— THEIR CHARACTERISTICS 57

up well." They are usually not too wet nor too dry,
They do not bake and crack so badly as the heavy clay soils
do. Clods are less likely to form. They hold moisture better
than light sandy soils. Corn, cotton, potatoes, fruits, vege-
tables, grains, and grasses all do well on the medium loams.
Texture of Soil. — The texture of soil is determined by the
size and shape of the particles of which it is composed and
the way in which these particles are grouped in kernels or
crumbs or larger masses. The texture determines to a large

Via. 31. — Soils of different texture. The coarse or open texture may be improved
by tillage and by packing with roller or planker.

extent the agricultural value of soil (Fig. 31). It is a fac-
tor to consider when studying the composition of soil, as it
determines largely the capacity of soil to retain such foods as
may become available for plants.

Soil such as sand is open in texture and freely admits
water, which quickly passes downward, carrying soil fertil-
ity with it. Open soil is more likely to lose its plant food
than a soil that is fairly dose in texture. Clay loams, in re-
taining water, also retain their plant-food better. We call
them close in texture. An open texture also allows too rapid
decay of vegetable matter. On the other hand, a very com-
pact soil such'as clay is undesirable. When there is rain it
puddles, and neither air nor water can enter and circulate.

58 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

When it dries it becomes very hard and unworkable. A good
farm soil should be between these two conditions, — open
enough to permit the proper entrance and movement of air
and water, and yet compact enough to prevent the washing
out of plant-food.

Farm Soil. — The best farm soil does not belong strictly
to any of these classes already described, but is one which is
a mixture of sand, clay, and humus in certain proportions.
With reference to the proportions of sand and clay present,
the useful farm and garden soils may be divided into three
general classes, — sandy loam, medium loam, and clay loam

(Fig. 31). A perfect soil is
one whose physical nature
and chemical composition
make it best adapted for
the purpose or crop in-
tended. It contains just
enough sand to enable it to

FIG. o2. — A subsoil plow has a long .

shank, it is used in the bottom of furrows absorb air and moisture in

behind a turning plow where the subsoil

is too compact, it stirs the subsoil but proper amounts and to

does not bring it to the surface.

make it warm and easily

worked. It contains enough clay to keep it from getting too
warm and to prevent too rapid loss of water. Lime must
be present to perform its several duties. Humus is there to
control the amounts of moisture and air, to furnish nitrogen,
and to help produce valuable chemical changes in the soil.
There are a few other conditions necessary to provide suffi-
cient plant-food.

Perfect soils are hard to find. They are also hard to make
in any of the known ways of soil-improvement. We usually
can make slight improvements in the soils found in nature.
Since this is true we must select crops for the farm which are
best adapted to the soil found there.

The subsoil lies under the soil, which generally occupies
the surface six to twelve inches. There are several differ-

KINDS OF SOILS— THEIR CHARACTERISTICS 59

ences between soil and subsoil: The soil is usually darker
in color because it contains more organic or vegetable matter.
It is more easily worked and less compact than the subsoil
(Fig. 32). Air and moisture usually circulate in the surface
soil better, and its plant-food is more available. The subsoil
serves as a storehouse for moisture and with some plants is
penetrated by the roots. Its character materially affects
the crops grown on the soil. When the underlying rocks
have rotted they make the subsoil. When the subsoils have
rotted they are more of the nature of the surface soil.

FIG. 33. — Teachers and students taking sofl samples and studying soil.
(Agricultural Education.)

Names of Soils. — In the following list the soils are ar-
ranged with reference to the fine and coarse particles they
contain: Clay, heavy clay loam, clay loam, loam, sandy
loam, light sandy loam, fine sand, medium sand, coarse sand,
gravel.

The list omits peat and other organic matter. If humus
is present in these they are usually of a dark color or black.
Lime also darkens the color of soils in presence of vegetable
matter. Otherwise the color will vary a great deaL

60 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

EXERCISE. — To Show Kinds of Soil and Subsoil. — Have
pupils bring to school in small boxes or tin cans samples of
different kinds of soil and subsoil of the neighborhood
(Fig. 33). The pupils should classify, and name these.
Much benefit may come by discussing the relative value
of these types of soil and subsoil.

REVIEW.

1. Name as many different kinds of soil as you can.

2. How many of these have you seen? Where?

3. What kind of rock forms sand when crumbled ?

4. In what ways is clay soil better than sandy soil ?

5. In what ways is sandy soil better than clay soil ?

6. Name several ways in which lime or limy substances are help-
ful to soil.

7. What is humus?

8. How does humus improve sandy soil? How does it improve
clay soil ?

9. Describe a good farm soil.

10. How may the subsoil differ from the surface soil ?

References. — Physical Geographies will be helpful in the further
study of the topics taken up in the chapters on Soils. Let the most
advanced pupils in the class read the chapters on soil movement in a
good Physical Geography and report to the class.

CHAPTER VI.
SOIL MOISTURE.

Water in Soils. — Many soils contain too much or too
little water. The water in soils may be in three conditions:
(a) Free water, or that which would flow into a hole dug for
a post or telephone pole. (6) Capillary water, or that which
tends to fill the small spaces between fine particles of soil,
as the oil of a lamp fills the spaces in the wick above the free
oil in the lamp. This is called also coarse film or simply film
moisture, (c) Fine film water, or that which clings to the
surface of each small bit of soil even when it is as dry as road
dust. This is called also hygroscopic moisture. If too much

SOIL MOISTURE 61

water is present, proper drainage may help; if too little, by
adding water or by adding vegetable matter and barn manure,
to aid the soil in retaining water, the crops will be improved.
Soils with good texture are seldom too wet or too dry. The
average rainfall of a certain region may be enough, but the
best growth is impossible if the rain is not well distributed
through the growing season.

EXERCISE. — Three Conditions of Water in Soils. — Fill
a glass jar or drinking glass with some fine sand or other
loose soil and pour in water until half full of free water.
Above the free water the soil wi 11 become wet with capillary
water. By stirring the top soil it will become dust like or
some dust may be spread on top. The dust, though perfectly
dry in appearance, is supplied with fine film water.

Just after heavy rainfalls the free water is close to the
surface, and falls lower at drier times.

Capillary Moisture. — Capillary water clings to the sur-
faces of the soil particles and cannot be seen as free water can.
When a soil has all the capillary water it will hold, its presence
can be felt with the fingers. The color is darker than the
same soil when dried in the air.

Take a pound of soil fresh from the garden and spread it
out on a paper to dry. The next day weigh it and determine
how much capillary moisture it has lost.

Fine Film or Hygroscopic Moisture. — Dry dust from a
road contains a very fine film of moisture on each soil grain.
This is too fine to be seen. Put some road dust in the bottom
of a glass tube or vial and heat it gently. Moisture will be
seen collecting in the top of the tube. This was held in the
form of fine films on the soil grains before they were heated.

Capillary Moisture Most Useful. — The roots of plants
take up capillary moisture. This in turn is supplied from
the bed of free water deeper in the soil. Farm crops cannot
make direct use of free water. Plants need air in the soil
about the roots. Free water would exclude the soil-air, and

62 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

also prevent the rise of temperature. Fine film moisture
probably does not aid plants in their growth, but will help
to maintain life at the time of great drought. Slow-growing
plants, such as those found in deserts, may be kept alive by
the presence of fine film moisture.

Soil Moisture Used by Plants. — Plants use moisture
while growing. One ton of a dry corn crop may use up 300
to 600 tons of soil moisture during its growth. The moisture
while in the soil dissolves plant-food which it finds there.
The plants take up this food in the water they drink through
the roots. This all passes up to the leaves of the plant and
the surplus water is lost by evaporation into the air.

How Capillary Moisture Moves. — When grains of soil
are wet with capillary moisture, each grain is covered all
over with a thin layer of water. Deep down in the soil near
where the free water is found the layers of water around the
grains are quite thick. Higher up, the films are less thick.
The films about the grains are as thin as the films of soap
bubbles. The grains next to the air become as dry as the
air itself.

But the moisture is constantly moving from the lower
depths toward the surface. The power by which this move-
ment takes place is called capillary action. It is in the same
way that oil will rise in the wick of a lamp.

The moisture moves upward in fine-grained soils such as
clay more readily than in coarse sand. The openings be-
tween soil grains are called pore spaces. If these are rather
large the capillary movement of water is slow. Packing the
soil grains closer together, as with a roller, will greatly in-
crease the rise of water in the soil. This is often done when
small grain or grass seeds are sown, to hasten the sprouting
of the seeds.

Water Holding Power of Soils. — One hundred pounds of
each of the following soils, when saturated, held the following
amounts of water in capillary form:

SOIL MOISTURE 63

held 25 pounds moisture

Heavy clay held 50 pounds moisture

Cultivated loam held 52 pounds moisture

Black garden loam held 81 pounds moisture

Humus held 190 pounds moisture '

EXERCISE. — Absorbing Rainfall. — Arrange an apparatus
as shown in Fig. 34. Use gravel, sand, loam, clay, and peat,
or other soils of the region. Pour water on all of these,
keeping the soil covered. With watch or clock note time
required in each case for the water to begin dripping through

FIG. 34. — Apparatus to show the rate of taking in rain water by five different
soils. Cloth tied around the n^uth of the bottles prevents the soil from washing
through. (Agricultural Education.)

into the glass below. Which kind of soil will take in rainfall
most rapidly? Which has the closest texture? What
becomes of most of the rain water falling on a compact soil
during a heavy rain?

EXERCISE. — To Illustrate Capillarity. — Place one end of
an old loose cloth in a cup of water and leave the other end
outside. In a short time the whole cloth may become wet
by capillarity. The water moves along in the fine meshes
of cloth. Oil is drawn up in a lamp through the wick by the
force of capillarity.

64 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

EXERCISE. — To Show Capillarity in Soils. — Tie cloth
over the large ends of lamp chimneys and fill with different
kinds of dry soils, as shown in Fig. 35. Set them in a dish
of water. The water will rise in the soils by capillarity. It
will rise much higher in the finer soils such as clay and loam.
Moisture rises quickly but not so high in coarse land.

Increasing Soil Moisture. — Since humus holds so much
capillary water, the farmer has one sure way to increase the
water-holding power of any soil. The addition of green
manure and barn manure will cause humus to form in the
soil. Large quantities of humus will hold more moisture in

Fio. 35. — Water rises more rapidly by capillarity through fine soils
than in coarse soil.

the capillary form and thus encourage the growth of larger
crops. Deep plowing will increase the depth of the water
reservoir. Harrowing and cultivating will help, because
the more a soil is stirred the less water it will lose by evapo-
ration. Furthermore, rains sink into a loose surface better
than into a hard compact one. Underdrainage of soils will
increase this power to hold capillary moisture, because the
volume of soil above the free water level is made greater.

How to Save Soil Moisture. — Spaces between soil grains
serve as very crooked small tubes to conduct the lower soil
water toward the surface. Harrowing and cultivating the

SOIL MOISTURE

65

surface of the soil will break the connection of the spaces or
pores with each other. If this capillary connection is broken
near the surface the moisture will be checked in its upward
movement and be held near the roots.

The covering of fine soil produced by a harrow or culti-
vator is called a dust mulch or fine soil mulch (Figs. 36a and &).
The chief purpose of the dust mulch is to save moisture. A8
growing plants use a very large amount of water, it is wise
for the farmer to keep a fine soil mulch on the fields all the

FIG. 36a — A ten-shovel sulky cultivator. This form of machine leavea a fine
soil surface which helps to save moisture.

FIG. 366. — A one-horse walking cultivator with many small shovels and a smooth
rake behind. The fine soil mulch produced is the best means of preventing evapora-
tion of the moisture.

growing season. If the tubes and pores through which the
water passes are undisturbed the water will escape rapidly
into the air. If, on the other hand, these tubes are broken
by tillage, evaporation is checked.

EXERCISE. — Effect of Mulch, — When the ground is dry
place an old cloth or carpet or a bunch of hay on the ground.
In a day or so the ground under this mulch will become
moist by drawing water up from beneath, while the ground
around the mulch may remain quite dry. A covering of

66

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

fine aoil made with a rake, called a dust mulch, will have
the same effect in keeping garden soils moist during dry

__

FIG, 37. — Spike-toothed harrow, producing a dust mulch in a peach orchard.

(Experiment Station, N. J.)

weather. A dust mulch can be made with a fine-toothed
harrow or weeder over a large field very rapidly (Fig. 37.) •

REVIEW.

1. Name the three forms of water in soils.

2. Which form is most useful to growing plants?

3. How can we determine the amount of capillary water in a soil
sample?

4. How does free water in soil help the farmer?

5. Under what circumstances is the free water harmful?

6. What becomes of the moisture taken up by a growing crop?

7. Describe the movement of capillary moisture in soils?

8. What are pore spaces in soils?

9. What kinds of soil have the largest pores?

10. In what soils is the capillary movement of moisture most rapid?
What is the effect of rolling the loose soils?

11. What soils hold the most capillary moisture?

12. What kind holds the least?

13. Suppose humus soil and sandy soil were mixed, what would be
the effect on their moisture-holding powers?

14. What is a dust mulch? How made?

15. What is the effect of a dust mulch?

Reference. — Dry Farming, by Widtsoe.

LAND DRAINAGE 67

CHAPTER VII.
LAND DRAINAGE.

ALL good farm land should be well drained. In some
cases it is naturally drained because of the loose or open
character of the subsoil. In other places we find the sur-
face so sloping that much of the rainfall is carried away on
the surface or near the surface. There are special cases
where some form of artificial drain should be used.

What Drainage Does. — In soils where water stands too
close to the surface, drainage will help in several ways. We,
therefore, use draining ditches or drain pipes for the
following reasons:

1. To remove surplus water.

2. To admit air to soil and roots.

3. To deepen feeding area for roots.

4. To reduce suffering at time of drought.

5. To aid tillage.

6. To increase chemical action.

7. To raise the soil temperature.

Soil which has been well drained is improved, not only
by the removal of water from it, but because the more rapid
passage of water through the soil carries the air and warmth
to lower levels, which are important factors in making plant-
food soluble, and thus increasing the power of plants to
secure food.

On too many farms we find half-developed crops grown
year after year upon land which would be able to yield
large returns if properly drained.

Methods of Drainage. — There are two general methods of
draining land: first, by open ditches, which may have either
straight banks or sloping banks; second, by underdrains or

68 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

covered drains, which may be composed either of tile (Fig.
38) or of broken stone, gravel, boulders, etc. Surface or
open ditches are cheaper to start with, but are not so good
as others. They do not give as good results, and are in
the way.

Effect on Roots. — Deep drainage increases the room for
plant-roots. The roots of most farm crops will not grow
down into any free water which may be standing in the sub-
soil. If drains carry away such water the roots may go into
the deeper soil to get plant-food (Fig. 39, D).

FIG. 38. — Ready to lay the six-inch drain tiles.

This reduces suffering at time of drought, because the
roots are then so deep in the soil that the drying of the
surface does not harm them. They get their moisture from
lower depths and from a larger volume of soil.

On the other hand, if the free water is allowed to remain
near the surface during the spring of the year (Fig. 39, F),
very shallow root systems are formed. Later, in July, when
a drought comes, the free water settles to a great depth too
quickly for the roots to follow. The shallow roots are then,
surrounded by the dry soil near the surface and growth is
stopped (Fig. 39, W).

LAND DRAINAGE

69

How Drainage Warms the Soil. — Drainage lowers the
water in soils. As the water goes downward, the air from
above is drawn into the soil. In warm weather the air will
thus warm the soil, increase chemical action, and aid in the
growth of soil bacteria. Plant growth is thus hastened.

Drains Ventilate the Soil. — This not only warms the soil
but also gives it the necessary oxygen and removes the
harmful gases.

FIG. 39. — Drainage deepens the feeding area for roots and reduces the suffer-
ing at time of drought. The view at the left shows free water just under the roots.
When drought comes the roots are left so near the surface as to let them dry very
badly. See centre view. The view at the right shows the deep root system
allowed by tile-drainage.

Where Drainage is Needed. — There are several kinds
of places where it would be wise to put in artificial drains
of some kind: —

1. Flat lands which are too wet because of the overflow
of streams at time of heavy floods.

2. Bogs and marsh lands which hold the free water too
near the surface most of the summer season.

3. Large, flat areas having clay subsoils.

4. Depressions in hillsides which hold the water coming
from the land above.

5. Fields which are to be flooded at certain times for
special crops, such as rice and cranberries.

Principles of Underdrainage. — The value of under-
drains depends upon the free passage of water through them.

71) PRODUCTIVE FARMING

They should always lead to the lowest portion of the field.
They must be gradually sloped to secure an even flow of
water in them. A fall of two feet in one thousand will be
enough for the flow of water if the tile pipes are laid care-
fully. The main drain should always occupy the lowest
part of the field, and the others may lead the water to the
main.

FIG. 40. — Laying drain tiles and testing the depth by measurement from level

grade stakes.

The distance of drains from each other and the depth
below the surface are governed by the character of the land.
On light, open soils, they should be deeper and farther apart;
on heavy land they should be nearer to the surface and closer
together. The mouth of the drain should be well protected,
and kept free and open.

Drain Tile. — The best underdrains are made by laying
drain tile pipes in the bottom of the ditches. These are
then covered with soil.

SOIL IMPROVEMENT 71

The tile pipes should be very strong and hard, so they
will not rot in the soil. They should be smooth inside to
avoid clogging. The ends should be clean cut so they will
fit together closely. A very common length for each piece
is twelve inches, but sometimes they are longer than this.

The joints are open but are usually covered with sods,
rocks, broken tile or other material to help keep out the fine
soil. Sections of drain pipe are placed as close together as
possible and the openings are very small (Fig. 40).

Water enters drain-pipes at the joints. The pipes carry
away only the free water and the capillary moisture is left
in the soil for the use of plants. If the pipes should lead
through a drier soil, the water would there flow from the
pipes into the soil.

REVIEW.

1. Give several ways in which drainage may help the soil.

2. Give two methods of draining land.

3. How does drainage warm the soil in the spring?

4. How does drainage reduce suffering at time of drought?

5. Give five kinds of places where drainage is needed.

6. Give several points to be observed in making underdrains.

7. What does distance between lines of tile depend upon?

8. What things help to determine the depth at which to lay drain
tiles?

9. Describe good drain tiles.

10. How does water enter a line of tile?

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 524, Tile Drainage on the
Farm; 698, Trenching Machinery for Tile Drains.

CHAPTER VIII.
SOIL IMPROVEMENT.

THE farmer should do what he can to improve soils, as
natural causes work too slowly. The depletion of a poor
soil may be due to the natural causes. Fields that are on
hillsides may be badly washed and gullied by running water

72 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

from rains. Such bad effects can usually be remedied by the
application of practical methods. The aim should be to
bring the soil into suitable condition for the production of
large crops.

Kinds of Improvement. — The improvement may be in
several regards:

1. In its physical condition.

2. In its chemical make-up and food-yielding power.

3. In its moisture-holding power.

4. In its germ life or bacteria.

FIG. 41. — Plowing under a crop of green manure to add humus to the soil.

Tillage is one of the commonest ways to put soil in proper
physical condition to yield good crops. There are two main
types of tillage: Deep tillage, as with a plow (Fig. 41), and
shallow tillage, as with harrows and cultivators (Figs. 37
and 42).

Objects of Plowing. — The primary object of plowing a
field is to make a good seed bed by crumbling the soil and

SOIL IMPROVEMENT

73

making it fine. As the furrow slice slides along the curved
surface of a polished mouldboard, the particles are caused tc
slide upon each other. Take the leaves of a book between
your thumb and finger when the edges are nearly even.
Bend them, and see that they all slide a little and the edges
are no longer even. Thus, in plowing, the particles of soil
tend to slide upon each other
and the crumbling is accom- f
plished. Other objects of
plowing include:

1. The covering of wild
plants and burying of stub-
ble, stalks, vines, and other
wastes.

2. The unlocking of plant-
food in the soil by exposing
the particles to new .condi-
tions of heat, light, moisture,
and air.

3. The deepening of the
water reservoir and making
the moisture conditions more
perfect.

4. Loosening of the soil to
allow of better shallow tillage.

Plowing not only pulverizes and loosens the soil; it may
also warm and dry wet soil; it may deepen the surface soil
and increase the feeding area for roots; it admits air and
increases the weathering; it deepens the water reservoir.

Plows. — Walking plows are best for rough and stony
fields. Riding plows have wheels, and are called sulky
plows. These are much more common in sections where
the fields are large, level, and free from stones and stumps.

Gang plows are those which have two or more plows
attached to the same frame and turn several furrows at a

FIG. 42. — Cultivating young peach
trees. Frequent tillage makes the soil
yield its fertility to growing plants.
(Experiment Station, N. J.)

74 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

time (Fig. 43). The two-plow gang is usually drawn by
horse power, but larger gangs are frequently drawn by steam
or gasoline traction engines.

Forms of Mouldboards. — Plows have three main forms
of mouldboards, suited to the different purposes of the farm.

The mouldboard for turning over sod is long from the
front point to the rear, is very oblique, and has a very slight
curve. The rear of the mouldboard turns the slice more
nearly upside down than the other forms.

The mouldboard for stubble ground is extremely different
from that of the sod plow, being very short, steep, and much
curved. It bends the furrow slice abruptly and causes it
to crumble, leaving it somewhat on edge.

FIG. 43. — Modern gang plow, turning two furrows at a time.

The general purpose mouldboard is medium in form
between the other two extremes, and is useful where much
litter and manure are to be plowed under.

Fall Plowing.— When a field is plowed in the fall it gives
more time for the rotting of barnyard manure and other
forms of vegetable matter turned under by the plow. The
farmer usually has more time in the fall, and the plows may
be kept going until the soil is frozen. Heavy soils plowed in
the fall are greatly improved and made mellow by alternate
freezing and thawing during winter. Many forms of inju-
rious insects are destroyed in the upturned soil during the
winter. The moisture conditions are better and the crops

SOIL IMPROVEMENT 75

will suffer less from drought than if the soil were not plowed
until late spring.

There is one strong argument against late fall plowing:
It prevents the growth of a winter cover crop on the field.
The very light soils are greatly benefited by winter cover
crops. In regions where the climate is dry, winter cover
crops are used to prevent the blowing of soils. In hilly
regions where heavy winter rains are common, cover crops
are necessary to prevent washing or erosion.

Depth of Plowing. — For most crops deep plowing gives
better results than shallow plowing. A very good general
rule for humid climates would be to always plow the soil
as deep as the dark surface soil, being careful to not bring
too much of the subsoil to the surface. When vegetable
matter is plowed under each year, the plowing can extend
to a greater depth each time.

Shallow tillage includes the cultivating and harrowing of
soils. There are several objects in view — the preparation
of a seed bed, the killing of weeds, and the saving of moisture.
(Figs. 36a and 6, 37 and 42.)

Preventing Weeds. — Before crops are planted in the
spring, -the soil should be so frequently tilled as to prevent
the starting of weeds; that is, to kill the little sprouts before
they show above ground. On fields of corn, potatoes, cotton,
and other crops in rows, the tillage should also be very
frequent and shallow — thus killing the little sprouts of weeds
and checking the loss of soil moisture. If weeds are allowed
to grow they take from the soil quite as much plant-food and
moisture as the cultivated plants.

Green Crops as Manures, — Crops are frequently grown
with the intention of turning them under before they become
mature. Such are called green manures. They add vegetable
matter to the soil in a form to decay quickly. This produces
humus and liberates considerable plant-food in a form ready
for crops to use. Both physical and chemical benefits thus

76 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

arise from the use of green manures. Red and crimson
clover, cow peas, vetch, rye, and buckwheat are commonly
used as green manures, but any other crops may be grown
for this purpose. Those plants which belong to the legume,
or clover, family are among the best for this purpose, because
they gather nitrogen from the air and leave it available for
the use of other crops. The benefits of this family of plants
will be discussed more fully in the chapters on Farm Crops
and Alfalfa.

Benefits Enumerated. — By the careful use of green
manures, soils may be benefited in several ways:

1. Food is brought from great depths by the roots and
when turned under is left near the surface.

2. Such food is left in a form suitable for other plants
to easily make use of it, because the green manure will decay
quickly.

3. The decaying matter becomes humus and has many
beneficial effects, already studied.

4. Chemical action in the soil is promoted.

* 5. Small organisms, bacteria helpful to the soil, are
multiplied more rapidly.

Planning for Green Manures. — It requires some planning
ahead to be most successful in securing crops suitable as
green manures. Certain crops, such as rye and crimson
clover, may be sown in the late summer or fall after the
season's crop is off. These may be plowed under in the spring
as green manure before the next season's crop is put in. Cow
peas or buckwheat may be used to produce a good heavy
green manure crop by letting it use the last half of the
summer after a crop of small grain has been removed from
the field.

Care in Their Use. — When too heavy crops of rye or
clover are plowed under at one time, there are apt to be bad
results-. This is chiefly due to the formation of acids in the
soil which make it sour. Such bad effects are not noticed

SOIL IMPROVEMENT 77

when there is plenty of lime in the soil. Lime should be
applied to the soil when heavy crops are plowed under.
Heavy applications of green manure also have a drying
effect upon the soil, and there may then be more suffering
at time of drought.

Benefits of Lime. — In another chapter the character of
limestone soils was discussed. (Pages 53-54.) It is a good
practice to spread lime on soils for certain crops just as
fertilizer is applied. The benefits derived from the addition
of lime to soils are here enumerated :

It aids decay of vegetable matter.

It helps liberate plant-foods in the soils.

It hastens the growth of bacteria in the soil.

The heavy clay soils are made more open, porous, and
more easily tilled; moisture and air move more freely; the
soil will then become warmer in early spring.

The light sandy soils are made more compact, and hold
moisture better.

Lime acts upon acids in soils and destroys the sourness;
this is a benefit for nearly all farm crops.

It is a direct plant-food for alfalfa and some other mem-
bers of the clover family.

EXERCISE. — Slaking Lime. — Expose a small lump of
burned lime, called quick-lime, on a board or paper, for a
day or more until it crumbles to powder. This powder is
then called air-slaked lime. A second lump of quick-lime
may be placed in a dish and wet with a very little water
from time to time until it heats and crumbles. When burned
lime is used on soil, it should be air-slaked before spreading.
A little water added to it will hasten the slaking.

EXERCISE. — To Study Lime-water. — Slake some fresh
lime the size of a baseball by pouring water over it very
slowly until it crumbles. Then cover it well with water
and stir. After it is allowed to settle, pour off the clear
water. Put in a strip of red litmus paper and note the result.

78 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

Put in a strip of blue litmus paper and see the result. Why
is it not affected? Draw off a glassful of the lime-water
and, after taking a deep breath and holding it for awhile,
force the air from the lungs into it through a straw or tube.
The milky color resulting shows that there is a union of the
lime-water with the carbon dioxide in the breath, and a new
substance is formed. If some of the clear lime-water is left
open to the air for some time, a white crust will be formed
on the top of it in the same way.

EXERCISE. — To Show an Important Plant-food in Ashes. —
Pour a few quarts of water into a pan of wood ashes and
allow it to stand for fifteen minutes. Drain the water out
through a loosely woven cloth. Examine the liquid to
detect the lye or potash in it. It is soft and slippery to the
touch. Place some red litmus paper in the liquid. It will
turn blue. This is because the potash is what we call an
alkali.

EXERCISE. — Wood Ashes and Sour Soil. — Bog soils are
often sour and show an acid reaction with litmus paper.
Make some soil sour by wetting it with vinegar. See if it
turns litmus paper red. Then wet it with "lye water"
obtained by letting wood ashes stand in a vessel of wafer.
Test with litmus paper. This time it should change to blue.
Sour (or acid) soils may be made "sweet" or neutral by
spreading wood ashes on them. Fresh or well-stored wood
ashes contain both potash and lime, which have several
benefits besides correcting acidity of soils.

EXERCISE. — Lime and Sour Soil. — Take a sample of sour
soil which you have prepared as in the last exercise. Sweeten
(or neutralize) it by the application of lime-water prepared
by slaking lime in water. Lime is very helpful to bog soils
and other soils too rich in humus.

Barnyard Manure. — The use of barnyard manure on
farm and garden soils is one of the best ways of improving
them. Its benefits are of several kinds. It is a direct food

SOIL IMPROVEMENT 79

for plants because of the three fertilizing elements which
it contains, nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. These
are the three elements of plant-food of greatest value to
plants. Another benefit is from the vegetable matter con-
tained in the manure, which is a great source of humus.
This helps to put the soil into better physical condition and
makes a better home for soil bacteria. The decay of the
vegetable matter sets up certain chemical changes which
are of benefit to the soils and crops.

Value of Manure. — The value of barnyard manure
depends on several conditions :

The age and kind of animals.

The kind and amount of feed they eat.

The amount and kind of litter or bedding used.

The care of the manure after it is made.

The age of the manure.

When compared with the market prices of commercial
fertilizers the average value of manure from the barn of a
horse or mule in a year is estimated at $43; a cow, $38;
a hog, $25; a sheep, $4. To get these values the manure
must be used to the best advantage.

When equal weights of manure are considered the values
from the different kinds of farm stock would usually be in
this order : Poultry, sheep, pigs, horses, cows.

Loss in Manures. — Manures are liable to lose their value
during storage from two direct causes:

First, heating, when left in heaps in the barnyard or in
the field. This results in the loss of nitrogen. Manure must
not be allowed to get hot from its own fermentation.

Second, leaching, when left where water can wash it.
This may take away much of the valuable plant-food. When
manure is allowed to leach the most valuable parts are lost
first.

Extremes in moisture and temperature should not be
allowed if manure is to be saved. There is very little loss

80 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

if the heap is kept wet enough to prevent heating, and kept
dry enough to prevent water from passing through it.

Under the average conditions where manure is allowed
to stand in the barnyard for three months or more, the loss
is from one-third to one-half of the plant-food in it (Fig. 44).

Care of Manures. — A good way to save manure is to
store it under cover— sheltered from rain and direct sunshine.

There is less heating of manure when it is packed very
hard, because the air is kept away. One plan of keeping
it well packed is to have a shed or covered barnyard with a

FIG. 44. — A poor way to store barnyard manure, even when the ground is leveL
The barn is badly rotted by this method. (Animal Industry.)

cement floor, on which the manure from the barn is spread
daily. Stock are allowed to tramp this down all winter, and
it is hauled to the fields in the spring.

Spreading Directly on Fields. — Barnyard manure is used
to the best advantage when it is spread directly on the fields
regularly, every day or every week. In northern and central
states where many animals are stabled during the winter,
a large amount of manure is allowed to pile up about the
buildings and waste rapidly. It should be spread on the fields,
where it is to be used, as fast as it is made (Figs. 45 and 46).

SOIL IMPROVEMENT

81

This saves the manure best. Labor is cheaper in winter;
snows may allow the use of sleds for hauling; the least amount
of labor is required in placing the manure from the stalls
on a sled or wagon to be taken to the field. The manure
should be spread when carried to the field, and not left in
heaps to leach.

The practice followed in some sections of putting the
manure in piles in the field should be stopped. That is an
old-fashioned way which requires more labor. It makes the
grain or other crop uneven in growth and uneven in ripening.
It does not make the best use of the plant-food in the manure.

FIG. 45. — The modern manure spreader in the barnyard. A litter carrier which
runs on an overhead track is used to take the manure from the barn. The figure
Bhows the carrier in position of emptying into the spreader-box. The team
hitched on and the load is spread in a field as shown in another figure.

Using Barnyard Manure. — Three points should be con-
sidered in the use of barnyard manure. First, it is rich in
nitrogen and has some of the other elements. Second, it is
well supplied with bacteria which are very helpful to the
soil. Third, it supplies the soil with humus.

The manure of the farm should be spread on the highest
parts of each field, because they are usually the poorest soils
and some of the fertility naturally washes down toward the
lower soils.

82 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

A light dressing of manure on each field every year is
better than very heavy applications less frequently. This is
particularly true if the soils are light. Large applications
of manure are saved better by heavy soils than by light soils.

Fresh manure has a forcing effect on the crops. If large
amounts of fresh manure be applied to light soils there is
danger of the plants suffering from drought in dry seasons;
the soil may be made too open and loose by too much fresh
manure at one time. Soils containing much clay will not
Buffer from larger amounts of fresh manure.

FlQ. 46. — A manure spreader at work. This machine can be regulated to spread
the manure thick or thin on the field. The spreader makes the best use of the manure,
eaves labor, and produces the most uniform crop.

Some root crops, such as potatoes, may be injured by the
use of fresh manure. Scab disease may bdcome worse. On
fields where such crops are to be grown a large amount of
manure may be used one year before the root crop is planted.

Composts. — For gardens, flower-beds, and greenhouses,
it is sometimes a good thing to rot the manure before it is
used. How to do this without wasting its plant-food is a
problem which many farmers do not understand. The use
of a compost heap serves the purpose very well.

A good compost heap is made by spreading a layer of
barnyard manure, then a layer of tough sods from a meadow,
or a layer of leaves, on each of these two layers is sprinkled

SOIL IMPROVEMENT 83

Borne lime or wood ashes. The layers are repeated until
the manure is all in the compost. The moisture from rains
prevents the compost heap from rotting too fast and becom-
ing too hot. The sod layers save much of the plant-food
which would otherwise leach out.

Rotting manure in a compost heap will kill the weed
seeds; it will reduce the bulk of the manure; it helps to unlock
the plant-food in the manure; it destroys the injurious effect
which fresh manure has on such crops as potatoes. Whether
to make such a compost of the manure will be determined
by the uses for which it is intended.

Feeding Plants. — Those forms of plant-food which con-
tain nitrogen, potash, phosphoric acid, or lime are considered
most precious on any farm. Soils are apt to become weak
in these foods. Many such compounds readily dissolve in
water and are lost from the soil at times of heavy rain by
leaching or washing away. They may be absent from other
causes. There are few if any other plant-foods which need
cause the farmer much concern. The others are usually
abundant enough.

Commercial fertilizers containing nitrogen or phosphoric
acid or potash — or all three of these — are purchased in great
abundance in the Eastern and Southern States and for special
crops elsewhere. These are applied to the soils for the
direct feeding of crops. It is estimated that over eight mil-
lion tons of such fertilizers are used in the United States
each year. These cost the farmers over two hundred million
dollars. As a rule they have no beneficial effect in improving
the soil itself, as do the barnyard and the green manures.
A commercial fertilizer is valuable in proportion to the
amount and kind of these three plant-foods contained in it.

Nitrogen is the most important element of such fertil-
izers, because soils are more often in need of it and it is the
most costly. When it is in a soluble form for plants to use,
it is apt to be lost from many kinds of soils, unless cover

84 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

crops are used. There are several sources of the nitrogen
purchased for fertilizers. Nitrogen is derived from animal
or vegetable matter as in meat scraps, dried blood, and
cottonseed meal. It is also abundant in sulphate of ammonia
and nitrate of soda purchased by fertilizer manufacturers. .

In the nitrate form it is more quickly useful to the crops,
and should be applied to the soil after the plants have started
growth. Some of the other forms in which nitrogen is used
are very slow in changing to forms available to plants; some
of these are hair, leather scraps, garbage tankage, and others.
It is very important for the farmer to know the source of
the nitrogen in the fertilizer he is buying. For this reason
it is becoming a common practice in some sections for farm-
ers to buy the fertilizer materials separately and mix them
on the farm.

Phosphoric acid is contained in substances in combina-
tion with lime and other materials. Such combinations
are called phosphates. Ground bone is one of the chief
sources of phosphoric acid in fertilizers. If this is ground
very fine it will rot gradually and liberate food useful to
growing crops. Animal bone contains on an average four
per cent of nitrogen and twenty per cent of phosphoric
acid.

Bone tankage is a by-product from slaughter-houses,
made up of various wastes that have been thrown in a tank
and the grease extracted. Its value varies considerably
according to the amount of meat or of bone in it.

Phosphate rock has been obtained some time from a
number of deposits in South Carolina, Florida, and Tennes-
see. Recent discoveries of it have been made in Utah,
Idaho, and Wyoming.

The rock is used in two ways: (1) It is ground very fine
and applied to soils, yielding its phosphoric acid to plants
very gradually. This form is sometimes called floats. (2)
The ground phosphate rock is treated with sulfuric acid

SOIL IMPROVEMENT 85

before it is used on the soil. This makes the phosphoric
acid more quickly available for the use of growing plants.
In this form it is called superphosphate, or add phosphate,
which is a soluble phosphate; this may contain from
fourteen to twenty per cent of phosphoric acid. Super-
phosphates may also be made from bone and bone tankage.

EXERCISE. — To Study Phosphorus.— Roll the head of a
match between the moistened fingers. The white fumes are
caused by the phosphorus in the match uniting with the
oxygen in the air. They are called phosphoric acid. This
is a form of the plant-food we have been studying.

Potash is the third essential element in commercial fertil-
izers, and is not so generally required. It is often needed
on soils that have been farmed for a long time and also on
sandy soils and peaty soils. It is derived from wood ashes
to a limited extent. The largest source is in the form of
mineral salts from the Strassfurt Mines of Europe. The
chief names given to these salts are car-nall-ite, kain-it,
and syl-vin-it. These may be ground fine and used on the
soil; but they are more commonly refined or concentrated
before being shipped to this country. The two concentrated
forms of potash salts are the (1) muriate of potash, contain-
ing fifty per cent of actual potash, and (2) the sulfate of
potash, containing forty-eight per cent of actual potash.
In all of the forms potash is soluble in water, and is easily
absorbed by plants.

Value of Fertilizers. — In buying commercial fertilizers
the purchaser should remember that the agricultural value
is based not upon the brand but more upon kind and form
of the elements and upon their proportion in the mixture.
Many farmers are inclined to buy fertilizers that have a
low price per ton. These are invariably more expensive
sources of plant-food elements than those more highly con-
centrated, because of the necessity of diluting the mixtures
with ' 'make-weight" or low-grade materials. High-grade

86

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

fertilizers, those that contain good forms of plant-food,
cannot be made from cheap materials, and if they contain
high percentages of the elements they cannot be sold for a
low price (Fig. 47). The price per ton, whether high or low,
is not a safe guide as to the effect that a fertilizer may have
upon the crop production. This is measured by the kind
and form of the materials used in the mixture.

EXERCISE. — Dissolving Nitrate of Soda. — Put one-half
teaspoonful of nitrate of soda in a glass of water and stir

FIG. 47. — The large square A represents a ton of low-grade fertilizer (for-
mula 2% nitrogen, 8% phosphoric acid, 2% potash). The valuable part is represented
by the dark square in the corner. The shaded area shows what is called filler,
which does no good to the soil.

The large square B represents a toa of high-grade fertilizer. The valuable
part is what is shown by the white square in the corner. Some filler is always
present. It is represented by shaded area.

until dissolved. Plants must have their food in the soil
dissolved before they can use it. Would this nitrate dissolve
in the rain?

EXERCISE. — Collection of Fertilizers. — Let the pupils aid
the teacher in making a collection of all the different fertil-
izers to be found at the dealers or which can be secured by
mail. Put these in bottles with suitable labels. Keep them
for future study.

EXERCISE. — Solubility of Phosphates. — Put a very little
phosphate rock which is ground fine in a glass of water
and see if it will dissolve. Do the same with a little ground
bone in another glass. Pour in a little clear lime-water.
If there were any phosphate dissolved this would cause a

SOIL IMPROVEMENT 87

white cloudy appearance. If bone and phosphate rock were
in the soil, would they be dissolved by rain?

EXERCISE. — Dissolving Superphosphates. — Put a very
Mttle superphosphate (or acid phosphate) from a fertilizer
sack in a glass of water and stir. Does any of- it dissolve?
Add a little clear lime-water. It should make a white cloudy
appearance, showing that some of the material has dissolved.
This would mean that plants could use this form of fer-
tilizer.

Problems. — 1. If nitrate of soda is 16 per cent nitrogen,
how many pounds of nitrogen in a ton of it?

2. If sulphate of ammonia is 20 per cent nitrogen, how
much of it would be required to supply a 12-acre field with
240 pounds of nitrogen?

3. When available phosphoric acid is valued at 5 cents
per pound, what should be the cost per ton of mineral super-
phosphate which is 14 per cent available? What should it
cost per ton if it is 20 per cent available?

4. A shipment of sulphate of potash contained 48 per cent
potash, which should sell at 5 cents per pound of potash.
What will be the selling price per ton of this fertilizer?

REVIEW.

1. Give four kinds of improvement for soils.

2. Give two kinds of tillage and the implements used for eaoh.

3. Give all the objects of plowing.

4. Describe the different forms of mouldboards and the special
use of each form.

5. What is a gang plow?

6. Give several reasons for fall-plowing.

7. Give a general rule governing the depth to plow.

8. Describe a system of preventing weeds by shallow tillage.

9. Give the benefits derived from green manures.

10. What care should be exercised in the use of green manures?

11. Give the effects of lime on light soils. On heavy soils.

12. Give five other effects of lime.

13. Give five things which influence the value of barnyard manure.

14. What are the two main causes of loss in stored manures? How
great is the loss usually?

15. Describe two good ways of storing manure.

88 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

16. By what plan is manure used to the best advantage?

17. Describe the making of a compost. Of what use is it?

18. What three important plant-foods are found in commercial
fertilizers? Which is the most important?

19. Name five or more substances from which nitrogen is derived.

20. Give three sources of phosphoric acid.

21. What are superphosphates?

22. Give the sources of potash in commercial fertilizers.

23. What efforts to improve soils have you observed?

24. What crops are grown in your section to plow under as green
manure?

25. What forms of lime are used? On what crops?

26 Do farmers in your section haul out manure in the winter?
To what fields?

CHAPTER IX.
SYSTEMS OF CROPPING.

BY rotation of crops is meant the succession, of different
crops, in contrast with the bad practice of having the same
kind of crop grow year after year on the same field without
any cover crop intervening.

Special and General Farming. — In many of the Eastern
States special farming is more profitable than general farm-
ing. The raising of dairy produce, poultry products, hay,
and seed-corn are some of the distinct lines of special farm-
ing. In the South, cotton, cane, corn, and tobacco are
among the special crops. In the Northwest and Middle
West grain is the only crop on many farms.

General farming is practised in nearly all parts of the
country. In such cases it is found much easier to carry out
good systems of rotation.

Why We Rotate Crops. — There are a number of advan-
tages gained when crops are raised in rotation.

1. Some crops have deep roots; others shallow roots.
The growth of a variety of crops on a certain field will pre-
vent it from being exhausted so soon.

SYSTEMS OF CROPPING 89

2. Grain crops and many others take all their nitrogen
from the soil; but leguminous crops, such as the clovers,
peas and beans, gather much nitrogen from the air in the
soil. Their growth will increase the store of nitrogen in the
soil. A rotation of crops which includes the legumes will
help to keep up the nitrogen supply in the soil.

3. Crops put waste matter into the soil through their
roots. This often acts as a poison to the kind of plants that
put it there. It may not be a poison to other kinds of crops
which follow in the rotation.

4. Soils should be covered with growing crops as much of
the time as possible. This guards against loss of soil by
washing and leaching. It is possible to keep the soil thus
protected if we have a rotation of crops; but it is usually
not possible if but one crop is grown.

5. Insect enemies and diseases of plants are liable to be
worse when one crop is grown continuously. Rotation of
crops is often a perfect remedy against these enemies.

6. There is more continuous work for men and horses,
because a rotation of crops distributes the labor throughout
the season. Horses and men should be given steady employ-
ment if possible. It is not profitable to keep horses idle too
long at a time, as when only one crop is raised.

7. Rotations always require a variety of soil treatment,
as plowing the ground at different times of year. This is
better than always following the same tillage at the same
season of the year. We can best control the soil moisture
by proper tillage at the right season.

8. Rotation of crops helps to keep weeds in check. Many
weeds which thrive in a hayfield will be kept down by a
culture crop, as corn, cotton, or potatoes; while certain other
weeds, which are bad in a cornfield, may be killed by growth
of grain or grass.

9. More sources of income are found on those farms where
rotations are practised. There is also less danger of financial

90 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

loss in seasons when certain crops are failures. The other
crops grown on the fields of the farm may not fail.

Chief Needs of Rotations. — The needs of rotation are
fairly well understood by most farmers. There is greatest
need when crops are suffering from particular weeds, bad
insect pests or diseases, or when the soil is becoming exhaust-
ed. However, rotation of crops should always be practised.

EXERCISE. — One Benefit of Rotation of Crops. — Have
students dig out a few plants of different kinds of crops,
such as clover and timothy. They should study the root
systems and compare the deep-feeding roots with the shallow-
feeding ones. Shallow roots use the surface soil; deep roots,
such as clover, will bring up food from the subsoil. This
will help to make plain one value of rotation of crops.

Bare Fallow. — It is now considered bad practice to allow
ground to remain bare for any great length of time between
one crop and the next. It is sometimes a good plan to do this
for a few weeks providing the. soil is kept pulverized on top
by the use of a harrow once a week or soon after each rain.
This practice of bare fallowing will cause the sprouting of
weed seeds and the harrow teeth will kill the young sprouts.
The soil moisture is also saved by the mulch of fine soil on
top of the field.

Catch Crops. — In place of fallowing has come the use of
catch crops. In this method the ground is kept covered with
a growing crop of some kind as much of the year as possible.
For example, after a grain crop has been removed, a crop of
cow peas, soy beans, millet, sorghum, or some other quick-
growing crop is seeded. Crimson clover (Fig. 48) and winter
vetch are often mixed with winter grain and sown in the
cornfield in July, so they will be ready to occupy the field
as soon as the corn crop is taken off. These three plants all
live through the winter. This winter cover crop is also used
after removing other crops such as early potatoes.
//How They Help the Farmer. — Catch crops or cover crops
may be useful in several ways:

SYSTEMS OF CROPPING

91

1. They help to hold soil from washing away by heavy
rains.

2. Their roots are helpful to unlock plant-food in the soil.

3. When members of the clover family of plants, called
legumes, are used, they gather nitrogen from the air and add
it to the soil for future crops.

FIG. 48. — Crimson (or scarlet) clover. This is a hardy legume, chiefly used as a
winter cover crop. It is sown in fields of corn, cotton, or other crops and in orchards
in July or August. It will improve the soil while growing until the following spring.
It may then be cut for hay or may be plowed under for green manure.

4. They check the growth of bad weeds.

5. They furnish pasture, hay or other valuable stock feed.

6. If plowed under as green manure, they produce humus
in the soil, and quickly give to the soil the plant-food they
have been using.

7. When grown among fruit trees and shrubs they check
late growth of the trees and temper the effect of winter
freezing.

92 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

Cover Crops in Orchards. — In young orchards winter
rye is sown in early fall. This crop is turned under in spring
and soy beans or cow peas are sown in June, to be turned
under in time for sowing rye. These add humus and keep
a cover on the orchard soil; the cow peas or. soy beans add
nitrogen, and much plant-food is unlocked by all of them for
the young trees to use in their growth.

A Few Rotations. — Examples of rotations with catch
crops and cover crops may be of interest :

1. Oats and common red clover may be sown in the
early spring. When the crop of oats is harvested the clover
will occupy the ground quickly. It forms a good cover on
the field that winter, and will produce one or two cuttings of
hay the next summer. The stubble may be plowed under
for corn the following spring. In the cornfield in July we
can sow a cover crop of crimson clover, winter vetch, and
rye for a winter cover crop. This is to be plowed under the
next spring as green manure. This three-year rotation is
thus outlined:

Oats; Red clover; Corn with winter cover crop.

2. Early potatoes may be followed with a winter cover
crop. This cover crop is plowed under in the spring and
early potatoes again planted. This and the next are called
one-year rotations.

3. Corn is sometimes planted on a field year after year
if a winter cover crop is put on each time.

4. Winter wheat is sown in September, and the crop cut
in July. After the stubble is plowed in, a good summer
catch crop of cow peas or of soy beans may be grown in six,
eight, or ten weeks. Then the catch crop may be harvested
for hay or it may be plowed under as green manure. This
is done in time to prepare the field for winter grain again.

A Rotation for Dairy Farms. — A very good four-year rota-
tion followed by a number of dairymen is about as follows:

SYSTEMS OF CROPPING 93

The farm has four fields, A, B, C, and D. This year,
field A is seeded to oats and red clover with a little timothy
and blue grass in it. After the oats are cut off the growth
of clover comes on and may be pastured a little in September.
Next year the clover will be cut twice for hay. The third
year the field will be well filled with the grasses and some
clover and the stock will use it all for pasture. This will be
plowed for the next year's corn crop. Fields B, C, and D
each follow the same rotation, but each is just a year behind
the other, thus:

A B

1st year Grain and seeding Clover hay

2d year Clover hay Pasture

3d year Pasture Corn

4th year Corn Grain and seeding

C D

1st year Pasture Corn

2d year Corn Grain and seeding

3d year Grain and seeding Clover hay

4th year Clover hay Pasture

Details of the Rotation. — The four fields are each about
the same size and the corn area may be reduced by using
part of that field for the summer green-feed each time. In
this four-year rotation system two of the fields are plowed
and prepared for planting each year, one for spring grain
and one for field corn. In case winter grain is used instead
of spring grain, the corn is removed as soon as possible after
cutting.

Quick rotations give us better clover for the dairy herd
than when the fields are kept in hay for several years. It
is better for the dairyman to produce hay that is all clover
than it is to let the clover all disappear because the field is
kept too many years in hay. Timothy hay or the "mixed' ;
red-top and timothy are very poor milk producers. Clover
is more than twice as valuable for milk cows.

In this four-year rotation a small permanent pasture may
be used also; but let it be well kept up and never used too

94 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

long at a time. If the other four fields are fenced, the
field that is growing up to timothy and blue grass will make
the best pasture.

During the winter and early spring the stable manure may
be spread on the field that is to be plowed up next for corn.

This rather rapid rotation of crops keeps up the fertility
of the soil well. It allows the use of clover often on each
field, and clover manure is one of the richest forms of manure
for the soil.

Pasturing a field one season in four is no small factor in
keeping up its fertility; but some commercial fertilizer, in
the form of acid phosphate and potash, may be used to supply
the loss of mineral constituents. Some of this fertilizer may
be applied when corn is planted and some when the grain
is sown. Lime should be applied to the field where clover
is to grow next.

In all rotations where common red clover follows small
grain, it is usually seeded in the growing grain in early spring
or with the spring seeding of grain.

An Alfalfa Rotation. — On dairy farms where alfalfa is
extensively grown, some systematic rotation may be adopted.
It is advisable to plow up the alfalfa field as soon as it becomes
rather weedy. This gives a chance to take advantage of
the fertility which it has been gathering for us.

As soon as the June cutting has been taken off, the ground
is quickly prepared for corn to be used for fodder. The
next spring oat-and-pea mixture is sown, and as soon as the
crop is off the stubble is turned under. The harrow is used
once a week until the middle of August; then lime is applied
and alfalfa is seeded, using about thirty pounds to the acre.
Inoculation at this time is unnecessary. We have thus
taken from the field a crop of fodder corn and one of oats-
and-peas, between two crops of alfalfa.

EXERCISE. — Rotation Courses. — Let pupils report on the
rotations followed at home or in the farming neighbor-

SYSTEMS OF CROPPING

95

hoods where they are best acquainted. They may tell
whether they could be improved or not. Some of them
should be written on the blackboard and discussed as to the
tillage required, effects on weeds, and other points.

FIG. 49. — Oats and peas sown in early spring, ready to cut for use as green
feed or for making hay by the middle of June. Corn may be grown on the same
ground in the same season. Harvesting the oats and peas shown in the upper
figure. The stubble may be
(Experiment Station, N. J.)

Succession Cropping. — This is the growing of one
after another on the same land in the same season. Tor
example, radish, lettuce, tomatoes. Let the pupils tell what
plans of cropping they have seen in use either in gardens

96

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

or in fields. This may arouse much valuable discussion.
(Figs. 49, 50.)

Companion Cropping. — This is a form of double cropping.
What crops may be grown in fields together? Have you seen

Fio.

50. — Corn grown for forage after the spring crop of oats and peas shown in
Fig. 49. (Experiment Station, N. J.)

corn and squashes grown together? All the pupils should
think over the crops that may grow together as companion
crops. Early onions with late celery are an example in the
garden. Early dwarf peas and tomatoes may be grown
together.

REVIEW.

1. Give examples of special lines of farming in your section of the
country.

2. Give several reasons for the rotation of crops.

3. Why do we want crops of the legume family in a rotation series?

4. Can you tell how rotation of crops will help to keep down insect
enemies and diseases of plants?

5. Explain why you think the sixth advantage from rotation of
crops is a good one.

6. Name some weeds often found in hayfields or pastures which
would not thrive in a cultivated cornfield.

7. Give one benefit of a bare fallow.

8. In what condition should soil be kept during a bare fallow period
of a few weeks?

9. Tell the difference between a bare fallow system and a catch
crop system.

FARM CROPS 97

10. Give examples of summer catch crops.

11. Give examples of plants used as winter cover crops.

12. Give several uses of catch crops and cover crops.

13. Should such crops be used in young orchards or in old ones?

14. How do they benefit the soil and trees?

15. Give an example of a three-year rotation of crops.

16. Tell when each of these crops is planted and harvested.

17. Give an example of a rotation system where potatoes are the
special crop desired.

18. Repeat the four-year rotation given in the book for dairy farms.

19. Describe a good rotation where alfalfa is grown.

20. What is succession cropping? Give examples.

21. What is companion cropping? Give examples.

References.— U. S. Farmers' Bulletins : 318, Cowpeas ; 509,
Forage Crops for Cotton Region; 515 and 529, Vetches; 550 and 646,
Crimson Clover.

CHAPTER X.
FARM CROPS.

Classification of Crops. — Field crops are those which are
most commonly grown in fields; they are sometimes also
grown in gardens. Those usually found in gardens only
are called horticultural crops; these include all fruits and
flowers and most vegetables.

Crops of all kinds may also be classified according to the
following six groups:

1. Forage and Fiber Crops. — These include grasses, clo-
vers, and alfalfa, used for green forage, for hay, or for pas-
ture; and cotton, flax, and hemp, used for fiber.

2. Cereal Crops. — The grains are called cereals. These
include corn, wheat, oats, barley, rye and emmer.

3. Tuber Crops. — White or Irish potatoes are true tubers;
sweet potatoes are usually also classified with tubers, but
strictly speaking they are believed to be roots.

4. Root Crops include many that are used for stock feed,
such as mangels, field beets, beets, turnips, carrots.

5. Market-garden Crops. — Here we find cabbage, cauli-
flower, celery, onions, lettuce, radish, table beets, melons,
and many others.

98 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

6. Fruit Crops. — These may be grouped as (a) stone
fruits,, such as peach, plum, and cherry; (6) pome fruits,
such as apple, pear, and quince; (c) small fruits, such as
strawberries, grapes, currants, gooseberries, raspberries, and
blackberries; (d) citrus fruits, such as orange, lemon, pomelo
or grape fruit, and lime fruit.

7. Timber Crops, or products of the forest.

FORAGE CROPS.

The Soiling System. — One thing that the dairy farmer
needs to keep in mind is the succession of green forage for
use during the summer months when the weather is dry and
the pastures are short. Crops grown to be cut and fed green
to stock are called soiling crops. Such a system of feeding
is called the soiling system. A better name would be the
green-feed system. The soiling system used on any farm
may be either (1) entire soiling, when green feed is provided
for the whole season, or (2) partial soiling, where it is used
in combination with pastures.

The need for preparation in advance is very great on all
dairy farms in this climate. The weather statistics show
that we always have least rainfall in midsummer. There
is certain to be enough drought each summer to cause a
great shrinkage in the milk flow from herds fed on pastures.

Just when the drought will come depends somewhat upon
the locality and also the season. Frequently it is in July.
Dairymen, however, prepare themselves to take care of the
herd regardless of the dates when the dry weather comes.

In a single county alone each summer there are thousands
of dollars lost by the dairymen, due to the lack of green
feed during the dry, hot days. In some localities the shrink-
age of milk-flow is forty per cent in two weeks' time. In
other cases the loss is about twenty-five per cent in the
same time. Who is the loser at such a time? Is it the dairy
farmer, or is it the buyer? Surely the farmer gets nothing
for the milk which his cows fail to produce. He stands the

FARM CROPS 99

heaviest loss. Some cows of the herds run so low at the dry
pasture season that they cannot be brought back to their
normal flow when the fall rains come. They are often carried
into winter as mere strippers, at a dead loss to their owners.

The farmer can lay out his fields and plan the seeding
so as to have some green feed to give the cows at any time
when the dry weather comes on. He cannot hope to have
such green forage ready at any time it is needed for the cows
unless he plans for it in advance. First, he should make a
list of the crops which would suit his purposes and his other
farm plans. Second, he should decide what areas of each of
these crops will be needed for the number of cows in the
herd, providing for plenty. If there is any left over it may
be used for hay or fodder.

Soiling Crops. — Here is a suggestive list: Wheat or rye
mixed with crimson clover or winter vetch, sown in the corn-
field in July, to be cut when the grain begins to head out or
when in full blossom.

Oats and Canada field peas sown in early spring, to be cut
as the peas begin to blossom.

Spring vetch with oats or barley, sown at the same time
as oats-and-peas or a little later.

Crimson clover sown in corn in July or August, ready to
cut in May.

Red clover sown last season may be fed green in June
if needed.

Timothy and other grasses may be cut early and some
fed green to the cows.

Alfalfa, where grown, will furnish green feed from May
to October.

Millets sown in ^arly June may be fed six or eight weeks
later as green forage.

Cow peas or soy beans sown in June or July will supply
a long succession of green feed, at dates six to ten weeks from
the seeding time.

100 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

Flint corn, sweet corn, dent corn, and kaffir (Fig. 58),
sown broadcast or drilled in rows, will begin to furnish feed
as early as July 15th or August 1st. This will last until
fall frosts come.

After these soiling crops are gone the dairy farmer may
use root crops, such as mangels, to furnish succulence for the
dairy in late fall and early winter, if ensilage is not available.

Oats and Peas. — The benefits derived from using this
mixture as a crop each year on the farm are very great. As
forage this mixture is very good because of the high content
of protein.

The ground should be plowed and harrowed early and
the seed drilled in as early as the weather will permit. Do
not be afraid of a little freezing weather afterward. Two
bushels of Canada field peas and one bushel of oats will seed
an acre. A bushel and a half of each may be used.

For Green Feed. — Begin to cut the crop for green feed
just as the first pea blossoms are showing. This first field
will furnish green feed for the dairy herd for ten or fifteen
days, depending on the weather.

For a herd of twenty-five or thirty cows, it is well to
allow two acres for each sowing of oats-and-peas, and make
three sowings — one as soon as the soil can be worked; the
next two weeks later; and the last about three weeks later
than the second sowing. The yields should be ten or twelve
tons of green feed per acre.

A Good Hay. — The areas mentioned for each of these
sowings may leave a little each time to be cured for hay.
Those dairy feeders who are already familiar with the good
feeding qualities of hay made from oats-and-peas will be
sure to make the areas large enough to«leave plenty of the
crop to be cured for winter use. In cutting it for hay it
must not be allowed to get too ripe. If the peas are hard
the cows do not like them so well. The cured hay is nearly
equal to good clover hay as winter roughage.

FARM CROPS 101

When farmers get a larger crop of hay from this mixture
than they can from common grasses, they should not depend
upon timothy and red top so much in dairy sections. Aside
from the yield, we must remember also that the quality of
the hay is much better than timothy, for it contains two or
three times as much protein or milk-producing substance.

There is always a greater yield of oats per acre because
of the presence of the Canada peas. A field sown with three
bushels per acre, half peas and half oats, will yield more oats
than if the sowing were all oats. This is because the peas
gather nitrogen for the two, getting it from the air.

A Good Grain Mixture. — If the crop should be ripened and
threshed, the grain may be all ground together. This pro-
duces an excellent balanced grain ration for the dairy cow.
Why should dairymen not produce more of their own grain
at home in this very way? Oats alone seldom pay for the
cost of raising them in the East, but when raised in this
mixture they will pay well, providing we have a mill near
by where the grinding can be done. Swine and poultry thrive
on this grain mixture.

Forage for Midsummer. — The foregoing are chiefly very
early crops. Other special crops may be grown which will
be ready to feed to stock at a time near midsummer when
pastures are apt to be too dry to give the stock enough feed.
Some such crops were mentioned in the earlier part of this
chapter. As we have already seen, this system of green
feeding is called the soiling system. Now let us consider
the matter of growing such forage crops as will be ready to
feed green during the dry season. We can then combine the
pasture system with the soiling system — called partial soiling.

Corn for Green Forage. — Early sweet corn may be ready
for July use. The ears may be used for market and the forage
fed to stock. Early flint corn would come along just after
it. Next the dent field corn would be fit to use. This would
last until frost.

102

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

Several plantings of sweet and dent corn may be made
through May and June, the later plantings being ready
later. It is best to not use these early plantings of corn
before they are in the roasting-ear or milk stage. In that
condition corn has a good supply of nourishment, but it
grows richer as it grows older.

FIG. 81. — Black-hulled white kaffir, much grown in dry climates to use in place
of corn. (Experiment Station, Kans.)

Substitutes for Corn. — Kaffir (Fig. 51) and sorghum are
both good substitutes for field corn and have the advantage
of being suitable to feed green at almost any stage in their
growth, because they are a little more fibrous. Both sorghum
and kaffir make rapid growth in warm weather on good soil.

The Legume Family. — This is a family of plants of great
value to agriculture. The legume family is often called the

FARM CROPS 103

clover or pea family, after prominent members of the group.
Other common plants included in it are beans, lentils, locust
trees, alfalfa, vetches, lupins, cow peas, and soy beans.

The growth of characteristic one-sided blossoms and the
formation of seed in a pod are distinguishing features of the
members of this family.

They have power, under proper conditions, of taking
free nitrogen from the air for their own use in growing. They
have nodules on their roots which are the homes of special
kinds of helpful bacteria. It is when these bacteria are
present that the plants can use the nitrogen from the air.
None but members of this family are thus able to use the
free nitrogen. But when the stubble and roots of the legumes
decay they leave nitrogen in the soil in a form which other
kinds of crops can use. As nitrogen is the most expensive
element in purchased fertilizers, farmers should use members
of this family often in the rotation courses to secure nitrogen
in the soil for all crops. (Page 87.)

EXERCISE. — To Become Acquainted with Some Legumes. —
The members of the class should bring samples of different
clovers, alfalfa, vetch (wild pea), beans, peas, or other
legumes. If possible, examine the pods of seed in the heads
of clover and on other plants. Note also the one-sided
appearance of the blossoms on all of them. The clover
heads are composed of many blossoms.

EXERCISE. — Nodules on Clover Roots. — Have some of
the older pupils dig up roots of clover, alfalfa, or other leg-
umes. Wash them and find the nodules or lumps, the size
of a pin-head or larger. These are the homes of many bac-
teria which aid the clover plants in getting nitrogen. Save
the best samples obtained in this exercise by placing them
in a bottle of water with a small amount (2 per cent) of
formalin added to it. (See Figs. 52 and 55a.)

Legumes for Summer Forage. — Farmers should give
some attention to the growing of several legume crops and

8

104

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

mixed crops for use when pastures are dry in summer, and
also for winter forage.

There are two summer, or hot weather, legumes which
should always find a place in the rotations on a dairy farm.
Cow peas (Fig. 53) and soy beans have both been tried so
often that their use is no longer an experiment.

FIG. 52. — Alsike-clover roots (on left) and garden-pea roots (on right). Useful
bacteria live in these nodules and enable the plants to use nitrogen from the air which
they otherwise could not do.

They have many advantages: Quick, dense growth if
sown in warm weather; a big supply of green forage to feed
when pastures are dry; very good for hay if cut and cured
in dry weather; ten to twelve per cent of protein in the cured
crop; a very high content of protein in the ripened seed,
especially of soy beans; a big supply of nitrogen and green
manure for the improvement of the soil if the crop is turned
under, or even if the stubble and roots only are worked in;
and the deep roots are a great physical help in most soils.

FARM CROPS

105

In a warm spring it is safe to sow cow peas early in June,
and the quick-growing varieties will be ready to begin feeding
green by the middle of July. Six or seven pecks of seed per
acre are sown. By a succession of sowings of two or three

FIG. 53. — Cow peas grown in hot weather in eight weeks. They produce good green,
feed or green manure. (Experiment Station, N. J.)

varieties we can give the cows fresh green forage every day
from early July until frost time.

Cow=Pea Mixtures. — A larger yield to the acre can be
produced by mixing cow peas or soy beans with other crops.
We must choose a crop that does best in the hot weather,

106 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

such as barnyard millet, pearl millet, sorghum, kaffir, or
even common field corn. These all serve as nurse crops
and allow the use of taller climbing varieties of cow peas.
Under most conditions the mixtures are better for the dairy
farmer than the cow peas alone. The mixtures usually cure
better if any is left to cut for hay. Splendid winter forage is
thus produced.

The True Clovers. — The most important clovers of the
Northern States are white or Dutch clover, red clover,
alsike or Swedish clover, and crimson or scarlet clover. The
clovers are the most popular forage plants of the legume
family.

White clover is a low trailing perennial plant with white
blossom heads. It is too low to be useful for hay, but is
abundantly grown in pastures.

Red cldver is more commonly grown for hay in the North
and East than any other legume. It lives about two years.
There are two varieties — the common or medium and the
mammoth or sapling clover. The latter is coarser and taller
and blossoms later. They are both often mixed with timothy
for hay purposes. Red clover, if grown alone, will usually
produce two crops of hay the year after sowing. The second
growth may be saved for seed production, as the bumble-
bees, which carry the pollen from blossom to blossom, are
more abundant during the latter part of the summer.

Alsike clover is more slender and shorter than red clover.
It is a short-lived perennial, but it re-seeds itself in the
field somewhat. The blossoms are shorter and smaller, so
that common honey-bees will work in them and carry the
pollen. Thus seed may be formed in the first crop in June.
The hay made from alsike clover is finer and better, but the
yield is lighter than red clover. These two clovers are often
mixed together and with timothy for hay.

Crimson clover is an annual plant which is hardy enough
to live over winter as far north as the fortieth parallel of

FARM CROPS 107

latitude or farther north where soils are favorable (Fig. 48).
It is chiefly used as a winter cover crop after early potatoes,
or sown in cornfields in July to grow until spring. The
following spring it may be plowed under as a green manure
cr it may be pastured or used for green forage.

Methods of Starting Clover. — There are three methods
of starting red clover. <

Probably the most common way is to sow the seed in early
spring in a field of grain sown the fall before; or with spring
grain sown at the same time. After the grain is off in summer
the clover soon begins to show.

Second, red clover is often given a better start by seeding
alone in August or early September, just as for the summer
seeding of timothy alone. This plan has the advantage of
an extra plowing of the ground after the early crop has been
harvested. Weeds are removed and weed-seed sprouted
and killed. Lime is applied to a better purpose at that time
after the fine seed bed is prepared.

A third way is to seed the red clover in the cornfield
in August just as crimson clover often is seeded with the last
cultivation of the corn. After the corn is cut a stubble
cutter is used so the field may be in suitable condition for the
use of the mower next season. This rotation and method of
seeding is less common, and for several reasons less desirable.

Too many farmers allow their hayfields to stand three
or more years. In such cases the clover plants die and other
grasses, such as timothy and red top, and weeds fill the field.
This is a bad mistake if dairy feed is wanted. Too often
dairymen are trying to get milk from the feeding of timothy
hay. Such grasses usually make only one good cutting a year,
with a little aftermath. The clovers are twice as rich in pro-
tein, and two good cuttings may be made. Furthermore,
quicker rotations are better for the soil.

When to Cut for Hay. — Red clover for hay should be cut
early, Do not wait until its heads are a third brown. A

108 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

better time is when the heads are just beginning to turn
brown. This will make hay which has more protein in it
and the cows like it better if it is cut early.

Permanent Pastures. — A permanent pasture is a field
which is used as a pasture each summer and does not enter
into any systematic rotation. In some instances the field is
used for such a pasture because of the rough surface making,
it untillable. It may be too steep or hilly, or too stony, or
have too many stumps, or be too low and wet for cultivated
crops. In some of these places pastures may be very good
if properly maintained.

I

FIG. 54. — Dump hay-rake used in raking hay into windrows. (Plant Industry.)

In still other instances we find permanent pastures on
the very best soil and over tillable areas.

Good Pasture Plants. — Low white clover, Kentucky
blue grass, and timothy are the most popular and best plants
for pastures where the climate is moist and cool. There are
many other grasses which we often find growing with these,
such as red top, meadow fescue, orchard grass, and Canada
blue grass. A variety of grasses is best because of the dif-
ferent kinds of seasons, and variations in soils. For example,

FARM CROPS 109

shallow-rooted plants like wet soils better than the deeper-
rooted plants do; some stand drought better than others;
some kinds require more lime in the soil than others.

Bad Conditions in Pastures. — Too often the permanent
pasture is a field of weeds with very little grass to be found
most of the summer. The conditions grow worse each year.
Little feed is supplied to the cows pasturing there; milk is
made bitter and given other bad flavors by garlic, wild
onions, and other weeds, eaten by the animals. The number
of acres used for the pasture often fools the dairyman into
the thought that the cows get plenty of feed from it if they
want it. Here is where the trouble begins. The cows do get
a fair amount of grass for a while in June. But the change
comes; the dry weather strikes it; the grasses are shallow
rooted; the result is dead grass. The blossom and seeding
time for early grasses comes; this also means death.

How to Keep Good Pastures. — The pasture should be
filled with good stands of mixed grasses. The farmer should
maintain the pasturage to the best of his ability. Certain
amendments or improvements are needed from time to time —
such as fertilizing, liming, re-seeding, harrowing, mowing,
and using a few sheep in the pasture with the cows.

Fertilizers and manures, particularly nitrate of soda,
may be spread a few weeks before the stock are turned on
to the pastures in the spring.

Lime should be applied to low meadow land every year
or two. Clovers, blue grass, and timothy do much better
after the liming.

Re=seeding is a good practice. More seed should be
sown wherever the grasses are not so thick as they should
be. A good time for this is very early in the spring. The
thicker we make the grass the less room there is for weeds.

Harrowing is quite possible on many parts of most pas-
tures. A number of harro wings each spring will pay well.

Mowing the pasture twice each year will help to check

110 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

the growth of weeds and will prevent many of them from
seeding. It also helps the growth of all grasses. The cutting
should be made high, as a low cutting destroys too much of
the valuable leaf growth of the lower grasses. In a pasture,
the tall weeds and tall grasses that have sent up seed stalks
should be mown down. The cows do not like them because
they are old and fibrous.

Sheep may be used in a very rough pasture along r,nth
cows to help keep down the weeds. They have a liking for
many kinds of weeds and keep them eaten close to the
ground. Too many sheep will eat the grasses so close that
cows cannot get enough.

REVIEW.

1. What do you understand by system or lack of system referred
to on the first page of this chapter?

2. After making a farm map, tell whether you think there are too
many fields or too few.

3. Eastern farms usually have many more fields than Western
farms. Tell of the advantages if any in each case.

4. What are the advantages of having a farm map?

5. What is the spiling system?

6. What are soiling crops?

7. What are some advantages of summer soiling for dairy cows?

8. Why is there need for it in connection with the pasture system?

9. Name some of the crops for spring and early summer soiling.

10. Name some better suited to growth in hot summer.

11. Mention three uses of oats-and-peas.

12. At what stage should this crop be cut to cure for hay?

13. When may soy beans and cow peas be sown?

14. What are some reasons in their favor?

15. Give a list of common plants belonging to the legume family,

16. Give two characteristics of this family.

17. How does the growth of legumes in a field aid the soil ?

18. Why should a farmer use legumes in a rotation with other crops?

19. What does the absence of nodules from the roots of clover tell
the farmer?

20. Name four kinds of clover and give the length of life of each.

21. What is the chief use of white clover?

22. Which two clovers are most commonly cut for hay?

23. Tell of the two varieties of red clover.

24. What bees pollinate red clover? What bees pollinate alsike
clover?

25. Of what special use is crimson clover?

26. Which of the three methods described for starting red clover
is considered the beet?

ALFALFA 111

»

27. At what stage should red clover be cut for hay?

28. In what kinds of fields are permanent pastures often found?

29. Name the plants to be grown in the best pastures.

30. Mention some of the bad conditions associated with permanent
pastures.

31. Tell of five things to help maintain permanent pastures.
t

References. — U.S. Farmers' Bulletins: 121, Beans, Peas, and Other
Legumes as Food; 464, 531, 545, 660, Weeds; 485, Sweet Clover; 508,
Market Hay; 552, Kafir; 535, 567, 568, Sugar Beets; 605, Sudan Grass;
669, Flax; 676, Clover Seed; 677, Market Hay; 686, 724, Sorghum
Grain; 688, Rice; 690, Field Pea; 693, Bur Clover; 726, Natal Grass;
730, Button Clover.

CHAPTER XI.
ALFALFA.

ALFALFA is the best milk-producing crop we can grow.
It may be used either for green feed or for hay, but in the
East it is best not to pasture it. It is so rich in protein that
a ton of the dry hay is equal to a ton of bran for dairy cows.
It produces heavy yields; the farmer may expect from four
to five or even six or seven tons of cured hay each season
from an acre.

Alfalfa as Green Feed. — As a green feed there is nothing
that will excel it. Alfalfa reproduces itself frequently and
constantly throughout the summer, by a quick new growth
each time it is cut. A good stand of alfalfa on four or five
acres will supply all the green feed needed for a herd of
twenty-five cows from the latter part of May until the middle
of September. A little is cut at a time so as to keep it always
rather fresh for the cows. By the time the entire field is thus
fed off, the side of the field first cut is again ready for cutting.

A Soil Improver. — There is one more strong argument in
*avor of alfalfa. growing, viz., it is a soil improver. The roots
reach down deep and recover lost minerals such as potash
and phosphoric acid. The plant is a great feeder on nitrogen

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

•from the air. The store of nitrogen in the roots and stubble,
when plowed under, will help produce large corn or other
crops on that field afterwards.

Sprouting Weed Seeds. — An early field of oats-and-peas
should be grown in the spring and the stubble plowed under
in June or as soon as the crop is all off. The ground is har-
rowed about once a week until the middle of August. This
makes a good alfalfa seed bed; it controls the soil moisture,
and also causes the weeds to sprout and be killed by the
harrow. Now if we select alfalfa seed that is free from weed
seed, we will have very little or no trouble from weeds in the
alfalfa field later on. The seed should be examined with a
good reading glass before sowing.

Inoculation of Soils. — As alfalfa requires its own bacteria
in the soil where it is growing, the grower should get four
or five hundred pounds of soil from the nearest alfalfa field
and spread it on each acre of the new field. Do this when
the sun is not shining so the bacteria will not be killed. It
should be harrowed in immediately. These germs in the new
soil will be ready to help the young plants as soon as they
start to grow (see figure 55a). New alfalfa fields require
inoculation before sowing the seed, except in a few parts of
the country where certain wild legumes like sweet clover have
used the same kind of bacteria.

Liming the Field. — Alfalfa is a great lover of lime. It
is best to plow the field and apply at least a ton of fine lime
to each acre not long before seeding. If some lime was put
on that field in early spring before the oats-and-peas so much
the better.

The Seeding of Alfalfa. — We should be all ready to do
the alfalfa seeding by the time the first August rains moisten
the ground enough to sprout seeds well.

Half a bushel of seed, or thirty pounds, is abundant for
one acre. Half of it can be sown the long way of the field and
then the last half put in cross-wise of that. In sections

ALFALFA

113

where alfalfa is seeded in the spring, it is sown very early,
and often with oats.

Good Drainage. — The field selected for alfalfa should
be well drained and no water should stand near the surface.
The roots naturally run down very deep (Fig. 55a) , and they
•cannot stand free water at all. A field rich enough and well
•enough drained to produce good corn or oats will do for
alfalfa. A small application of fertilizer will help to start
the crop off well.

FIG. 55a. — Nodules or tubercles on alfalfa, showing the characteristic location
on fine fibrous roots.

FIG. 556. — First growth of alfalfa. Three feet tall. Note the leafy character
and fine quality of hay it will make.

Cut Four Times a Year. — Do not cut the crop the first
fall but allow it to stand until the next May or June before
the first cutting is made. That season and each following
year the crop should be cut four times (Fig. 56). There are
two signs to follow in deciding when to cut any growth of
alfalfa. First, never let it get too far along in the blossom
stage. Cut it when the blossoms are just showing a little
over the field. The second indication of the cutting stage
is the slight starting of the buds on the sides of the stems at
the surface of the ground. The new growth starting from
those buds means that the crop must be cut and removed

114

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

very quickly, otherwise the new growth would be much
injured. If, at any time, a yellow appearance or any spots
on the leaves should be seen, the crop should be cut. The
last cutting should be made in September so as to give time
for a new growth to start before winter sets in. This will
help to prevent winter injury.

B

FIG. 56. — A. Hay-caps are often used in curing the first cuttings of alfalfa in
humid climates. (Experiment Station, N. J.)
B. Loading alfalfa by hand power.

Curing Alfalfa Hay. — It is sometimes quite difficult to
cure the earliest cutting because of the rains late in May and
early in June. Alfalfa is very much injured if wet by rain
after it is cut. We must keep it dry during the curing pro-
cess (Fig. 56, A). The sap in the stems does not do so much
injury; so it may be put in the bam with more of its own

ALFALFA

115

moisture than almost any other hay crop. If allowed to
get too dry before hauling in it will lose many leaves, and

Fio. 57. — Push power sweep rake used in taking hay to a stack in the field.
(Plant Industry.)

they are the best part of the crop. With a little care alfalfa
can be cured in perfect condition, because the time required
for curing is not long (Figs. 57, 58).

•—•—-:-•

FIG. 58. — Hay-stacking machine. The hay is taken from the sweep rake (Fig.
65) and lifted to the stack by horse-power. Notice the horses at the end of the rop».
(Plant Industry.)

Eleven Alfalfa Rules. — For the sake of brevity let us
summarize the chief points in alfalfa management. The
following eleven rules are quite comprehensive:

116 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

1. Lime the soil by applying about one ton of lime per
acre just before sowing the seed.

2. Inoculate the new alfalfa field by spreading and har-
rowing in about five hundred pounds per acre of good soil
from an old alfalfa field when the sun is not shining.

3. Have the soil as free from weed seed as possible by using
a bare fallow for a few weeks before seeding.

4. Be sure that the alfalfa seed is perfectly pure and free
from weed seeds.

5. Use plenty of seed, about thirty pounds per acre, sow-
ing it both length-wise and cross-wise of the field.

6. Use good fertile soil and apply some high-grade fertilizer
about the time of sowing the seed.

7. Always select a well-drained field for alfalfa.

8. Cut the crop often — about four times a year, beginning
with the spring following the August sowing.

9. Cure the hay carefully to avoid shattering of the leaves
and to avoid its getting wet with rain.

10. Do not use the field for pasture, particularly while
it is young.

11. Harrow stubble after cutting.

REVIEW.

1. Give several arguments in favor of growing alfalfa.

2. Tell of the use of alfalfa as a green dairy feed.

3. In what ways does alfalfa improve the soil where it is grown?

4. Give three benefits of a few weeks of bare fallowing before the
August seeding of alfalfa.

5. Tell how a new alfalfa field may be inoculated with the bacteria
which the plants need.

6. How much lime should be spread, and when?

7. Give time, amount, and manner of seeding alfalfa.

8. Which is better for alfalfa, upland or lowland? Why?

9. Tell of two things which indicate when to cut alfalfa for hay.

10. Tell one difficulty in curing alfalfa hay; and mention one advan-
tage over other kinds of hay, in its curing.

11. Give briefly the eleven points covered by the eleven alfalfa
rules.

References.— U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 339, Alfalfa; 382, Adulter-
ation of Forage-plant Seeds; 495, Alfalfa Seed Production; 636, Chalsis
Fly in Alfalfa Seed; 637, Grasshopper Problem and Alfalfa.

COTTON 117

CHAPTER XII.

COTTON PRODUCTION.

THE cotton plant was cultivated in the Old World in
the earliest historic times. It probably originated in India
or China. The ancients of India wove the fiber into very
good cloth. Alexander the Great introduced the plant into
Europe. Cotton was also grown by the natives of Mexico
and South America before the discovery of the New World
by Columbus.

To Virginia belongs the credit of first starting the culti-
vation of cotton in the American Colonies. This was in 1621.
After that it rapidly became a leading money crop of the
farmers of the South. The labor of removing the lint from
the seeds greatly reduced the profit from this crop for many
years. It was a day's labor to separate the seeds from one
pound of cotton. But in 1792 the cotton gin was invented
by Eli Whitney. This machine, as improved later, greatly
increased the profits of cotton raising.

Importance of the American Cotton Crop. — Cotton is
far the most important fiber crop of the world. Twelve
Southern States now supply more than two-thirds of the
cotton of the world. All nations make clothing from Ameri-
can cotton. We sell more cotton to other countries than all
other agricultural products combined.

Other countries producing large amounts of cotton are
British India, Egypt, Russia, China, Brazil, Mexico, Peru,
Turkey and Persia. But all of these combined produce
only one-half as much cotton as is grown in the United States.

The ten leading States in the production of cotton are
in the following order: Texas, Georgia, Mississippi, Ala-
bama, South Carolina, Arkansas, Oklahoma, North Carolina,
Louisiana and Tennessee.

Uses of Cotton. — The fibers of the commonest cotton
are only about one inch long, but they become very much

118

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

twisted as they ripen (Fig. 59a). This twist causes them to
cling together well to form thread when put through the
spinning process (Fig. 596) . The thread may then be woven

Courtesy of Johnson & Johnson.

Fio. 59a. — Individual fibers of long-staple or Sea Island cotton. The lengths
of the five are about equal. The ripest are very kinky. (After Brooks.)

FIG. 596. — Slivers or hanks of cotton in different steps of making thread or
yarn. The factory names are: 1, drawing hank; 2, stubbing hank; 3, intermediate
hank; 4, roving hank; 5, yarn or thread.

FIG. 60. — Modern looms, all weaving white cotton cloth. One person can oper-
ate twelve to sixteen such looms at a time. Each machine makes seven square
yards of cloth per hour, using 3,024 yards of yarn to each yard of cloth.

into cloth (Fig. CO), or formed into rope. The longest fibers
of lint are desirable for use in making sewing thread, and in
mixing with the shorter fibers in certain grades of cloth.

COTTON 119

Exercise. — Examine the fibers of cotton from a cotton
boll or from a roll of cotton. Notice how minute they are
when seen separately. Try twisting a few of the fibers to-
gether to form a thread. Pull them along as you twist them
and they will gather up more fibers from the pile of cotton.

The Cotton's Relatives. — The cotton plant belongs to
the same family of plants as the hollyhocks, okra, althea,
mallow weed, and many others. The group is called the
mallow family.

Types of Cotton. — There are several different types or
kinds of cotton. Those grown in the United States are all
annual, that is, they are all killed by freezing in the fall ; but
in tropical countries they live for many years. Even here
the plants sprout up from the old root after a mild winter.

Cotton grown in this country is chiefly of three kinds:
(1) Common or Short-staple upland cotton, (2) Long-staple up-
land cotton, and (3) Sea Island cotton (Fig. 59a). Important
kinds grown elsewhere are (1) India cotton, with very short
staple, (2) true Peruvian or Egyptian cotton, with long
staple, usually brownish in color.

American Upland Cotton. — As shown above, the upland
cotton is of two kinds, short-staple and long-staple. Together
these make up all of the American cotton crop, except the
Sea Island cotton, grown in small amounts, chiefly near the
Atlantic and Gulf coasts.

Short-staple differs from long-staple cotton in length of
the lint which surrounds the seeds. Short-staple is from
% to 1% inches long (Fig. 61), and long-stable is usually 1% to
1% inches long. These varieties may also differ in other
ways. The long-staple plants are taller, later in maturing
and have slender, pointed bolls, with less lint. But the long-
staple sells for a higher price.

Sea Island Cotton. — This gets its name from the fact
that it originated in the West India Islands. It grows well
on the islands and mainland within one hundred miles of

the coast. Georgia, South Carolina and Florida are increas-
9

120

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

ing the growth of the Sea Island cotton. The price of this
type of cotton is high because of the great value of such long
fibers in making spool cotton for sewing. , This plant grows
rather taller than upland cotton, has long, flexible branches;

Courtesy of Johnson & Johnson, New Brunswick, N. J.

FIG. 61. — Four grades of lint, showing length of fiber, from samples of short-
staple upland cotton. The relative amounts are also indicated by the masses in
the photograph.

the leaves are more deeply lobed; the flowers are yellow
instead of white when freshly opened; the staple is longer,
and the seeds are free from lint after ginning.

COTTON 121

Improvement of Cotton. — Cotton growers are able to
improve their crops very greatly by the proper selection of
varieties and selection of seed from heavy yielding plants.

As usually grown here the plant is either erect or bushy
and varies in height from three to eight feet. The length
and arrangement of branches are indications of earliness and
productiveness. Cotton itself has other desirable qualities,
such as strength of lint, fineness, and uniformity of color. Im-
provement of cotton is best accomplished by selecting seed
from plants with such desirable qualities.

The yields of cotton may be greatly increased by proper
fertilizers, good rotations, early planting, securing a good
stand of plants and frequent tillage.

Selecting Seed.— The grower should select the seed just be-
fore or during the second picking, and avoid planting seed from
later pickings. Select bolls from thrifty plants with compact
growth of branches. The branches should have short nodes or
joints and be abundantly supplied with bolls. Always select
the largest bolls with long fiber. Avoid picking for seed from
any unhealthy plants. Avoid also those bolls where the cotton
tends to fall to the ground, as such are not " storm proof."

If a grower is to purchase cotton seed for planting, he
should select such varieties as will best resist disease. Varieties
of upland cotton most abundantly planted are Peterkin, Truitt
and Russell. In Texas, where the boll-worm and boll-weevil
insects are present, Triumph is commonly grown. Other pro-
ductive varieties suited to special soils or seasons are : King,
Cook, Cleveland, Toole, and Layton. The Alabama Experi-
ment Station reports over 200 varieties of cotton grown there.

It is usually best for growers to select their own seed for
planting. In every field the plants vary through all degrees
from very good to very poor. By carefully selecting as above
suggested the next crop can be greatly improved.

Range of Cotton. — Cotton needs a long growing season,
with six or more months of warm growing weather free from
frosts. This condition is found chiefly south of latitude 37°.

122 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

It is desirable to have an abundant rainfall evenly distributed
through the growing season, but with plenty of sunshine at
least during the ripening months.

Soil. — Cotton prefers a medium loam, but will thrive in
almost any good farm soil if the conditions of temperature
and rainfall are favorable. The soil should be deep, as the
plant has a tap root and is a, deep feeder. If there be a clay
subsoil it should be down about two feet from the surface.
Good drainage is important, but there should be enough
humus present to cause the soil to hold moisture well. When
cotton is grown each year on the same field it is well to grow
some crop for green manure between the rows of cotton, to
be plowed under in the fall or the next spring. Such crops
might be cow peas, peanuts, or soy beans. As legumes to
grow all winter in the cotton field it is well to use crimson
clover, and winter vetch, which may be sown in the cotton
field in early fall, or just after the fall plowing (Fig. 48).

On poor sandy soil the rust disease of cotton is worse
than on loams or heavy soils. If the soil is too rich, as along
some rivers, the cotton plants grow large and coarse without
developing much cotton.

Preparation of Soils. — Unless there is a winter cover crop
growing in the field, it is best to plow the soil for cotton in
the fall. This helps to get rid of the boll-worm and boll-
weevil, sprouts the waste cotton seed in time to be killed
by freezing, and the old stalks are turned under in time to
decay and form humus.

When cotton was grown on the field the preceding year,
the disposal of the stalks and litter is a serious difficulty.
Sometimes they are pulled and burned, but this is bad
practice. It is better to beat the stalks to pieces on a frosty
day, or drag them down with a heavy iron bar, or cut them to
pieces with a stalk cutter made for the purpose. After they
are broken or cut to pieces they may be readily plowed under.

The plowing should be thorough and complete, and the
deeper the better if no bad soil is brought to the surface by

COTTON 123

so doing. If this broadcast plowing is done in the fall, the
soil may be plowed up into ridges or beds in the spring ready
for planting. The best cotton growers are rapidly adopting
this plan of " double preparation " of the soil — first plowing
and then ridging. A crop of green manure may be grown on
the land after the fall plowing. This is particularly desirable
if the soil is very light. Small grains, winter vetch or
crimson clover may be used.

The ridges may be formed in spring either with a turn-
ing plow or with a disk-harrow if the field has been first
plowed in the fall. The plan of forming low ridges or beds
with the disk-harrow is better, more rapid and less expensive.

The rows for planting are marked off with a shovel plow
and commercial fertilizer is usually distributed in this row.
Simple drills are also in use which form the furrow, spread
the fertilizer and then draw some soil over it.

Fertilizers for Cotton. — The crop of cotton itself is n«
hard on the soil if the cotton seeds or their equivalent be
returned to the field. The cotton seed is fed to stock and
the stable manure is returned to the field without much
loss in fertility. If the seed is sold, the grower should buy
enough fertilizer to take its place. For every 100 pounds of
cc/tton seed sold a return should be made of 3 pounds nitro-
gen, 1 pound phosphoric acid and 1% pounds potash. In
addition to this a liberal allowance should be made for losses
from the soil by washing and leaching. If green manures
are used by growing legumes, the nitrogen supply will be
kept up and humus will be formed. Most cotton soils have
an abundance of potash; but they respond readily to increased
applications of phosphoric acid, increasing the yield of bolls
and lint, and forcing earlier ripening. Too much nitrogen
may cause a rank, " weedy " growth with little cotton. Too
much potash delays the ripening of the crop.

Planting. — The distance between cotton rows is 3K to 4
feet, and 12 to 18 inches are allowed between plants in the
row Allow about 1 to 1}£ bushels of seed per acre to insure

124 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

a good stand of plants. Planting begins about two weeks
later than the date of the last killing frost. March 10th or
15th is often the time for beginning the planting near the
Gulf coast; April 1st to 10th near the central latitude of
the cotton belt; and early May in the northern limits of
cotton growing.

There are several forms of cotton planters which are not
expensive. A good machine will drop the seed uniformly in
a small furrow and cover it with an inch or two of soil.

Exercise. — Let some member of the class write to the
U. S. Weather Bureau, at Washington, and get a table or
report which will show the dates for the last spring frosts
for a number of years past. From this report let the class
determine the best date for beginning the planting of cotton.

Cultivation. — A weeder or light harrow should be used
over the field before planting and also after planting. This
broadcast tillage will prevent small weeds from getting started
ahead of the cotton plants and will also prevent the soil
from becoming crusted. A weeder should also be used over
the young cotton plants just before the thinning process
begins. This may not be advisable if the stand is thin or
the ground very stony or otherwise rough. Thinning of the
plants is usually necessary. This is done by chopping out the
surplus plants with heavy hoes. It is a good practice to culti-
vate the individual rows, setting the shovels to throw the soil
away from the plants, just before the thinning or chopping
begins. Subsequent cultivation should move the soil back
toward the plants. The cultivation should be frequent and
shallow. It is continued until about time for picking to
begin. When the plants completely shade the soil, a crust is
not apt to form and further cultivation is not so necessary.

Harvesting. — Although several machines have been
invented for harvesting cotton, none have come into general
use, and the cotton crop is picked by hand. It is the most
expensive part of cotton production (Fig. 62). The price
paid to pickers varies from 40 to 80 cents per hundred pounds

COTTON

of seed cotton, or about six to twelve dollars per bale of 500
pounds of cotton. A picker can readily average 200 pounds
of seed cotton per day. The fields have to be gone over
several times as the bolls do not all ripen at once. The har-
vesting of cotton runs through September, October and
November, and should be finished before December.

The most productive fields will grow more than two bales
per acre, and many more fields exceed one bale per acre,

Courtesy of Johnson & Johnson, New Brunswick, N. J.

Fio. 62. — A typical cotton-picking scene.

but in spite of these high yields the average for the cotton
belt is only 200 pounds or two-fifths of a bale per acre.

On the United States " demonstration " farms in South
Carolina the recent average yield per acre was nearly 600
pounds, while on similar farms in that State the average was
less than half as much. The yield in Louisiana, due to the
United States " demonstration " methods, was increased from
380 up to 760 pounds per acre. These facts show the value
of studying and using better methods in cotton production.

Problem. — A man increased his cotton yield from 200 up
to 800 pounds per acre by selecting seed properly. The
extra cost for such work may be estimated at 75 cents per
acre. If he grows 22 acres of cotton, what is his profit
due to seed selection, the selling price being 10 cents per

126 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

pound? (Consider the extra work of picking and ginning as
balanced by the increased seed yield.)

Preparation for Market. — A public ginnery is usually
found in any section where cotton is raised. The seed cotton
is hauled from the field to the cotton gin. The suction pipes
lift it from the wagons and take it to the gin stand, where
it is taken over fine-toothed revolving circular saws. These
saws separate the lint from the seeds, which are kept from
passing along over the revolving saws by means of long
stationary teeth or combs. The seeds may be stored in a,
seed room of the ginnery or may be returned directly to
the grower's wagon. The white lint (Fig. 63) is carried by
the machine into a large hydraulic press, where it is covered
with coarse bagging and bound by iron bands into bales of
about 500 pounds each (Fig. 64).

Baled cotton is too often exposed for months without
shelter from the weather. This may darken and weaken the
outer layers and reduce the selling price of it all.

Most cotton intended for shipment a long distance is put
through a compressor to reduce the size of the bales.

Market Grades of Cotton. — The price paid for cotton at
any time is governed by the grade or quality. The grade
is determined by samples taken from the bales. When a
grower sells his cotton, the buyer usually does the grading.
The seven principal market grades of cotton in order of
value are: (1) fair; (2) middle fair; (3) good middling; (4)
middling; (5) low middling; (6) good ordinary; and (7) ordi-
nary. There are sub-divisions of these principal grades which
are designated by prefixing such terms as "strict," "fully/'
or "barely." Most of our American cotton is poorer than
middling fair, and grades as high or higher than middling.

By=products of Cotton. — The chief by-product of the
cotton crop is cottonseed. This is now used for several
purposes. The hulls are removed by machinery. Oil is
extracted from the kernels by cooking and pressing. Cotton
oil is used in making salad oils, cottolene, oleomargarine,

COTTON

127

irtesy Johnson & Johnson.

Fia. 63. — Inside view of ginnery, showing sheet of loose cotton lint as it cornea from
the cotton gin, just before baling.

i*hoto. by Russen, Anniston, Ala. Courtesy Johnson & Johnson.

FIG. 64. — A local cotton market in Alabama, showing common form of bales. The
cotton ia too often thus exposed to weather without shelter for several months.

128 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

soaps, and other articles. The remaining part of the seed
after pressing out the oil is ground into cottonseed meal and
used for stock feed, particularly for dairy cows. (See com-
position in Appendix Table VIII.) It is also used as a fer-
tilizer as it is so rich in nitrogen. The hulls are also used for
stock feed and fertilizer.

• In ginning the cotton for one bale, nearly 1000 pounds
of seed are obtained. This amount of seed at the oil mill
will produce about the following numbers of pounds: Oil
150; cottonseed hulls 400; cottonseed meal 375; linters,
trash, and dirt 75.

The fibers of the stems and branches of the cotton plant
are sometimes used in the manufacture of coarse grades of
bagging.

Diseases of Cotton. — Cotton wilt, cotton rust and cotton
root-knot are the most common diseases likely to affect the
crop if it is grown year after year on the same soil. If a
good rotation of crops is kept up as with corn, wheat, and
legumes, there is little danger from disease.

Insect Enemies. — The cotton plant is not seriously
affected with insects except in the squares and bolls. Two
insects do most of this damage, the boll-weevil and the
boll-worm.

The Mexican boll=weevil has now spread over the south-
eastern and central parts of Texas, much of Louisiana and
the adjacent portions of Mississippi, Arkansas and Oklahoma.
The area is increasing rapidly. In those sections only such
farmers as practice the best methods of cotton culture are
able to continue raising the crop successfully. As this insect
spreads over the cotton belt it causes much change in the
methods of growing the crop.

When the insect appears in early summer, it first attacks
the buds and the flower leaves, called "squares" (Fig. 65a).
These soon fall to the ground. The earliest buds may escape
the injury and develop bolls and cotton.

COTTON

129

There are several methods of preventing damage from
boll-weevil :

Smith's Economic Entomology.

FIG. 65a. — Cotton square, showing boll-weevil in position. Natural size.
(After Hunter.)

FIG. 656. — Cotton-worm from side and above.

1. By forcing the cotton crop to early maturity much
of the loss due to weevils is overcome. The grower should

130 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

force his crop to set many bolls before weevils are abundant.
Only the late buds will then receive the attack of the enemy.

Forcing is done in several ways : .

(a) Prepare the soil thoroughly and early.

(6) Plant early and use enough seed for a good stand of
plants.

(c) Cultivate often during the growing season.

(d) Grow varieties which set bolls early.

(e) Select seed from early fruiting plants.
(/) Apply phosphoric acid fertilizer liberally.

2. Pick the cotton crop as early as may be, and immedi-
ately destroy the entire field of plants for the purpose of
starving the weevils several weeks before cold weather drives
them into winter quarters under trash. The prompt destruc-
tion of the plants after harvest may be done in either of two
ways: (a) cattle may be turned into the field in such num-
bers as to eat all leaves and young* growth, after which the
stalks are promptly cut up and plowed under well, (b) The
stalks may be pulled and burned.

3. Poisoning the early spring weevils on the growing tips
of cotton plants is sometimes tried. For this purpose arsenate
of lead is applied in the form of powder at the rate of 2%
pounds per acre. This must be done before the appearance
of the first squares.

4. Buds and squares which fall to the ground from the
attacks of weevils should be caused to wilt very soon and
thus prevent the further development of the insects which
would soon form another brood. The wilting may be has-
tened by planting the rows far enough apart to let sunshine in
freely. The wilting is also increased by dragging the buds and
squares to the open sunlight of the "middle." This is done
by the use of a special chain cultivator devised for the purpose.

The boll-worm (Fig. 656) does not confine its attention
to cotton, but prefers young corn and tomatoes (Fig. 66).
It is the same insect which we call the corn "ear- worm."

COTTON

h's Economic Entomology.
FIG. 66. — Work of cotton- worm or corn ear- worm, on corn and tomato.

132 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

After the nearby corn crops have passed the tender stage of
the ears the future broods attack the squares and bolls of
the cotton field.

The best remedies are based upon this habit of the
insects :

1 . Produce an early crop by the methods already sug-
gested. Thus the cotton crop will be too far advanced to
be injured when the attacks of the boll-worms begin.

2. Use corn as a trap crop by planting at several different
times, either near the cotton field or alternating three rows
with every thirty rows of cotton. As the corn passes the
tender stage it may be fed to cows, and the young insects
thus destroyed (Fig. 66).

3. Plow the fields in the fall to destroy the winter
quarters of boll-worms.

REVIEW.

1. Tell something of the early history of cotton growing.

2. How did the invention of the cotton gin help the cotton in-
dustry of the world?

3. Name the leading cotton growing States of America.

4. In what ways are the other States of the Union interested in
this great crop?

5. What fraction of the world's crop do we produce?

6. What other countries are important cotton producers?

7. What three types of cotton do we grow?

8. Describe the best climate and best soil for cotton.

9. Give some reasons for plowing cotton fields in the fall.

10. Give other steps in the preparation of soil for cotton planting.

11. Tell of the uses of a weeder on a cotton field.

12. Give distances and methods of planting cotton.

13. Tell all you can about the picking of cotton.

14. How does a cotton gin pick the lint from the seeds?

15. Mention the seven principal market grades of cotton; which
three are most commonly produced here?

16. Mention several uses of the different by-products of the cotton
crop.

17. What is the best remedy for the cotton diseases mentioned?

18. Where is the Mexican boll-weevil now most destructive?

19. Mention four ways of combating this insect.

20. Mention six ways of forcing an early cotton crop.

21. Give three ways of fighting the boll-worm.
References.— United States Farmers' Bulletins : 501, Cotton

Improvement under Weevil Conditions; 512, Boll Weevil Problem;
555, Cotton Anthracnose; 577, Egyptian Cotton in Arizona; 591,
Grading of Cotton; 601, New Methods of Cotton Culture; 625, Cotton
Wilt and Root Knot; 735, Red Spider on Cotton.

CORN 133

CHAPTER XIII
CORN.

WHEN America was first explored the natives were grow-
ing this crop, hence the name Indian com. The plant was
not known hi the Old World before that. It has been much
improved by breeding and selection since that time.

Importance. — It is far the most important field crop now
grown in the United States. In money value it is more
than double OUT wheat crop or cotton crop, in the average
year. In number of bushels corn is approximately four times
as large as any other grain crop of America. Probably three-
fourths of the world's corn is grown in the United States.
Although the crop is grown to some extent in every state of
the Union, the seven "corn belt" states grow from one-half
to two-thirds of the crop. These states are Illinois, Iowa,
Nebraska, Missouri, Kansas, Indiana, and Ohio.

The Corn Crop. — Corn is king and alfalfa is queen. These
two crops go together very well. On dairy farms, where
these two crops are raised for the stock, we find very little
outside feed is purchased. They cut down the feed bills
enormously. Too few farmers in the dairy sections are trying
alfalfa; and too many farmers are not doing their best even
in the corn fields.

Winter is the time to make plans for the corn crop for the
following spring. If the seed is not on hand it should be
secured and tested for its germinating powers. Whiter is a
good time to plan the fields and decide how much corn ground
will be used for production of green forage, how much for
ensilage, if any, and how much for whiter fodder and ears.

Types of Corn. — The four main types of corn raised in
America are pop corn, sweet corn, flint corn, and dent corn.
The last two are both spoken of as field corn.

134

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

Flint Corn has a hard kernel which is short and rounded,
with no dent in the top. There are only a few rows of kernels
on the cob, eight rows being quite common. Flint corn ma-
tures quickly and is often grown where the warm season is
short. There are several colors and a number of varieties
(Fig. 67, Nos. 4, 10, 12, 14).

Dent Corn has a longer kernel with a dent in the crown or
top. The ears are large and the yield per acre is greater
than with any other type. The many varieties or breeds of

Fio. 67. — Corn kernels of 'different shapes. Number 3 is one of the best.

cultural Education.)

(Agri-

dent corn vary in color, length of season for ripening, shape
of kernel, size, shape, and length of ear, character of stalks,
and in other ways. White and yellow are the commonest
colors. The people in certain sections prefer white varieties,
while in others the yellow corn is grown entirely. Corn does
not vary in quality because of its color, but when white or
yellow meal is preferred hi certain markets the millers will
buy corn of that color only.

EXERCISE. — Kinds of Corn. — Have some of the best

CORN

135

samples of the different types of corn brought to school by
pupils. The ears should be wrapped in paper to prevent
shelling. These may be compared and studied by use of a
score card. Save the ears for future use in corn testing.

Rules for Selecting or Judging Corn. — Seed corn should
always be purchased on the cob if possible. Then we can
tell whether the ears are of the type we want, or not. Too
often the shelled corn we get comes from ears we would not
try to grew if we saw them.

The following explanation of points should be used in
selecting corn for seed, and also in judging corn at exhibits.

FIG. 68. — A. Exhibit of Boys' Experiment Club in Nebraska. (Agricultural Educa-
tion.) B. Prize-winning corn and the boy who grew it. (O. B. Martin.)

The corn exhibits may be held at school each winter and the
score card used by the students and the judges. Ten ears of
corn will constitute a sample.

1. Trueness to Type or Breed Characteristics. — All the
ears selected should possess similar or like characteristics, and
should be true to the variety which they represent (Fig. 68).
Two representative kernels should be taken from each ear and
placed germ side up in front of the ear and studied hi con-
nection with type in the ear.

2. Shape of Ear. — In shape the ears should conform to
variety type. Each ear should be full and strong in the cen-

10

136

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

tral portion and not taper too rapidly toward the tip. This
is indicative of strong constitution and good yield (Fig. 69).

3. Purity of Ear; (a) Grain. — In color the kernels should
be true to variety and free from mixture. Difference in shade
of color, as light or dark red, white or cream color, must be
scored according to variety characteristics. (6) Cob. — An
ear of white corn should have a white cob ; yellow corn should
have a red cob; if mixed, mark it zero. A mixture reduces the
value of the corn for seed purposes, indicates lack of purity,

FIG. 69. — Good seed corn. The upper ear shows good even rows with very
narrow spaces between rows and between kernels. Ihe tips of the cob should be
covered with corn. There is a good deep impression and small stem shown at the
left. The kernels are deep as compared with the size of the cob, as shown. (U. S.
Farmers' Bulletin 229J

and tends toward a too wide variation in time of maturity,
size, and shape of kernels (Fig. 70).

4. Vitality or Seed Condition. — Corn should be in good
market condition; show good constitution, and be capable of
producing plants of strong, vigorous growth and heavy yield.
All indications of freezing or other injury from exposure and
all evidences of immaturity show poor vitality. Corn with
adhering chaff, or a black tip, caused by the tip cap adhering
to the cob, is not in good condition.

5. Tips (Fig. 69) should be regular, uniform, and prop-
erly proportioned with the body of the ear. The rows should

CORN 137

be well carried out and the kernels conform closely to those
in the main body of the ear in shape and size. The propor-
tion to tip covered or filled must be considered. Long pointed
tips as well as enlarged or double tips are objectionable.

6. Butts. — The rows of kernels (Fig. 69) should extend in
regular order over the butt, leaving a deep depression when
the stem is removed. Opened and swelled butts, depressed
and flat butts with flattened glazed kernels are objectionable.

7. Kernels. — (a) The kernels should be uniform in size
and shape, making it possible so to grade the corn as to secure

Fio. 70. — Large cob on the left with small layer of corn. Small cob on the right
with deep layer of corn.

even dropping by the planting machine. This is essential to
securing a good stand. Not only should the kernels be uni-
form on the individual ear but they should be uniform with
all the ears selected. (6) The shape of kernels should be such
that their edges touch from tip to crown (see Fig. 67, 3). The
tip portion of the kernel is rich in protein and oil, and hence
of high feeding value. Kernels with large germs insure strong,
vigorous growth as well as richness in quality of kernel. Germs
should be large, showing strength and high feeding value
(Figs. 71, 72).

138

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

8. Length of Ear. — The length of the ear varies according
to variety, type and the characteristics sought by the indi-
vidual farmer. Uniformity of length is. to be sought in a
sample, and a sample having even length of ears should score
higher than one that varies, even if it is within the limits (Fig.
73) . The usual length of ears for the northern section for dent
corn is 7 to 9 inches; central section, 8j/£ to 9J^ inches; soutb-

FIG. 71.

FIG. 72.

FIG. 71. — Sections and surface views of kernels of corn. The three on the right
snow large germs and have much protein, those on the left small germs and less
protein. (Agricultural Education.)

FIG. 72. — Diagram of a section of corn kernel, enlarged, showing the locations
of starch, embryo, horny part rich in protein, and the protein layer under the hull.
In kernels where the germ is large and the horny part is large toward the tip there
is much protein. Such corn makes the best feed and should be selected when choos
ing seed corn.

ern section, 10 to 12 inches. Very long ears are objectionable,

as they usually have poor butts and tips, shallow kernels and
hence less corn on the cob. Same varieties produce several
small ears on each stalk.

9. Circumference of Ear. — The circumference of the ear
should be hi symmetry with its length. An ear too great in
circumference for its length is generally slow hi maturing, and
too frequently results in soft corn. Dimensions for the north-

CORN

139

ern section for dent corn are 6^2 to 7 inches in circumference;
central section, 6J4 to 7J4 inches; southern section, 7 to 8
inches. Measure the circumference at one-third the distance
from the butt to the tip of the ear.

10. (a) Furrows Between Rows.— The furrows between the
rows of kernels should be of sufficient size to allow the corn to
dry readily, but not so large as to lose in proportion of corn to
cob. (b) Space Between Tips of Kernels at Cob. — This is very

FIG. 73. — Finest corn in the world. These ten ears won a thousand-dollar prize
at Omaha in 1908. (Agricultural Education.)

objectionable, as it indicates immaturity, poor constitution,
and poor feeding value.

11. Proportion of Corn to Cob. — Depth of kernels, size of
cob, maturity, furrows and space at cob all affect the propor-
tion. The corn may be selected and judged by those features.
But if scales are available the proportion of corn is determined
by weight. In determining the proportion of corn to cob,
weigh and shell an average ear in the sample. Weigh cob and
subtract from weight of ear. This will give weight of corn;
divide weight of corn by total weight of ear, which will give
per cent of corn. Per cent of corn should be from 86 to 87.
For each per cent short of standard, a cut of one and one-half
points should be made.

140 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

SCORE CARD FOR CORN JUDGING.

Perfect
Score.

1- Trueness to Type or Breed Characteristics 10

2. Shape of Ear." 10

3. Purity of Ear. (a) Grain 5

(6) Cob 5

4. Vitality or Seed Conditions 15

5. Tips 5

6. Butts 5

7. Kernels, (a) Uniformity 5

(6) Shape 10

8. Length of Ear 5

9. Circumference of Ear 5

10. (a) Furrows Between Rows 5

(6) Space Between Tips of Kernels at Cob 5

11. Proportion of Corn to Cob 10

Total Points.. ..100

Testing Seed Corn. — No farmer can 'afford to use corn
for seed which is not the best he can get. It should be care-
fully selected along the lines laid down in the rules given in
this chapter. Then it should be subjected to a germination
test of the individual ears. Any method that will enable a
corn grower to know the percentage of germination of each
individual ear of corn can be used to make the test. If you
test five kernels taken from different parts of an ear of corn
and two of them do not germinate and three do, it is a pretty
good indication that sixty per cent of the kernels of the ear
will grow and forty per cent will not. This means that four
hundred out of a possible one thousand kernels of that ear
will fail if planted in the field. The farmer using such corn
for seed would get only a sixty per cent stand, which means
a very poor crop. He would waste two days out of every
five spent in cultivating such a field, because two-fifths of
the field would be bare ground.

How to Test. — The ears of corn may be tested as clearly
shown in Fig. 74. First arrange a germination box; any
shallow flat box will do; place in it some clean wet sand or
wet sawdust to a depth of about one inch (Fig. 75).

CORN

141

Mark off squares two by two inches with a black lead pencil
on white cloth; number these squares 1, 2, 3, etc.; wet the
cloth and spread it over the wet sawdust so the numbers
are in plain view. Next number all the ears of corn by using

FIG. 74. — A box tester for seed corn. Upon muslin cloth squares are drawn and
numbeired. On each square are laid five kernels from an ear of the same number.
When the tester is filled, the sawdust shown at the left is placed to keep the grain moist.

little squares of paper, which are held to the butt end of the
ears with small nails pushed through the numbered papers
and then into the cobs. Now take five kernels from different
parts of each ear, not using any from near the tip nor butt.

FIG. 75. — A. Testing individual ears of seed corn by the moist cloth method.
The tray is ready to be covered with another wet cloth and moist sawdust.
B. The tray of corn shown in Fig. A.

Put the five kernels from the first ear on the first square of
cloth, and so on for the rest of the ears (Fig. 75). It is well
to place the germ sides upward so the sprouts will show well
afterwards. Cover the kernels with a plain wet cloth and

142

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

spread over it a layer of wet sawdust. Keep the box in a
warm room for two weeks or less, keeping it damp all the time.

FIG. 76. — Germination test of com, showing; healthy and weak germination. (Agri-
cultural Education. )

The Results. — Raise the top cloth and thus remove the
upper layer of sawdust. Look over the germination cloth
and see what ears fail to give a perfect result. These should
be removed and not used for seed (Fig. 76) .

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7

9

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17

19

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Fin. 7Ga. — Rag doll tester for individual ears.

Rag Doll Tester. — One of the simplest methods of test-
ing corn, or seed of any kind, is to roll it in wet cloth and keep
it damp until it has time to germinate.

The individual ears should be numbered before the test.
Take a piece of cloth, say 12 by 36 inches. Mark it off in the
manner shown in the diagram (Fig. 76a), using a soft black
pencil. Take five kernels at random from the first ear to
place on space numbered 1. Continue this for the thirty ears.

CORN 143

Do not use kernels from the butts and tips of the ears. Fold
the cloth edges over the corn to hold it in place. Lay
your pencil across the end and roll the cloth up carefully.
Put a rubber or string around it and the "doll" is made. In
farm practice a number of cloths may be used so as to test
enough seed for large fields. The thirty ears on one cloth
might be enough for two acres.

Soak the "dolls" in water for about one day. Then
remove from the water and place in a covered jar to keep them
moist a few days until germination takes place.

Then unroll carefully and examine and decide what ears
are low in germination. Write down the percentages for list
of numbered ears in your note-book. Then locate and dis-
card the ears that are not good for planting.

i

CORN CULTURE.

Soil and Fertilizers. — It hardly pays to try to grow
much corn on poor soil. There may be other crops, such as
cowpeas or oats, that would thrive on poor soil better than
corn. Rather rich medium or heavy loam is admirably
adapted to corn growing. If moisture conditions are favor-
able corn may be grown on a wide variety of soils. The
lighter soils may become too dry in the summer, and the
undrained muck soils may remain wet and cold in the early
part of the growing season. The latter soils may produce
heavy growths of stalks and leaves, but fail to mature much
sound grain.

Barnyard manure should be applied to uplands for the
best growth of corn, as organic matter and nitrogen are very
beneficial for the crop. Heavy soils are much improved by
plowing under green manure crops and barnyard manure.

Preparing the Soil. — The best corn growers insist on the
early plowing of the ground for corn, unless it was fall plowed.
It should be plowed a month or six weeks before the date of
planting. If the ground was in sod, the disc harrow may be
used soon after the plow. During the balance cf the time the

144

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

smoothing harrow should be used every ten days or soon
after each heavy rain. This is to prevent the crusting of the
ground and the loss of moisture. Each harrowing of the
ground helps to keep the moisture in the soil where it will
be ready for the roots of the corn next
summer when the dry weather sets in.

In regions where the soil is heavy the
field should be well stirred up again just
before planting, using a spring-tooth
harrow, disc harrow or a pulverizer set
very deep.

Methods of Planting. — Corn is usu-
ally planted either by hand-power planters
or horse-power planters. The depth to
plant varies with the quality and moisture
of the soil. In a moist clay loam one
inch is deep enough; but in a dry, sandy
soil three or four inches is better.

EXERCISE. — Depth to Plant Corn —
Plant corn at several different depths in
two kinds of soil, one rather dry and
sandy, the other heavy and rather moist
(Fig. 77). These should be in two separate bottles or boxes.
In each case, note the time required for the young plants
to reach the surface.

Distances for Planting. — There are three ways of plant-
ing for three different purposes.

If we plan to cut the crop for green forage, to feed in
summer when pastures become dry and short, we should drill
the corn in rows so the stalks will stand three or four inches
apart all along the rows. This plan will produce an im-
mense tonnage of green feed for summer use, but the yield
of ears will be light. (See Chap. X.) A southern white
variety would be good for this purpose.

If we want the crop to cut in September for whiter fodder or
ensilage it is well to have the stalks about a foot apart hi the

FIG. 77.— Corn
planted at different
depths to show time

s
£f;0(nArcultu

CORN 145

rows. This will result in the greatest total yield of nutrients
in the stalks and ears. A good variety for this purpose would
be one which would ripen in the region where planted.

The third plan is to have the stalks stand three in a hill
and hills three feet apart in the row, with rows four feet apart
or a little less. This is the plan followed in the great corn
region of the middle West. Usually the hills are in rows both
ways for greater ease of cultivation. The so-called hill plan
or check-row plan gives the greatest yields of ear corn. These
are not real hills, as corn should not be hilled up. There are
good local varieties in different sections. These usually prove
better for the locality than any other from a distance.

Planting Dates. — It is not entirely safe to go by the
calendar in deciding when to plant corn. If the soil is pre-
pared early and thoroughly so that the warm air can enter it,
the time of planting may be hastened. The crop should not
be planted until after the last killing frost is past.

The Year Book of the United States Department of Agri-
culture gives the following dates for three regions :

Gulf States, March 15 to May 10, and April 5 most general.

Central States, Virginia to Kansas, April 15 to May 25,
and May 1 most general.

Northern States, New York to Minnesota, May 10 to
June 1, and May 20 most general.

Tillage. — As soon as the seed is planted we can use the
smoothing harrow and continue to use it after each heavy
rain as soon as the soil loses its sticky character. Have no
fear of injuring the little corn plants except in the early morn-
ing when the plants are too full of moisture, or in very stony
fields. If this system of harrowing the corn after it is up is
followed, there will be very few weeds to be seen hi the field.
It is much faster work to harrow the field, taking several rows
at a time, than it is to use the cultivator, one row at a time.

When the corn is high enough so the cross-bars of the
harrow tend to break off the plants, use a weeder or a fine-
toothed cultivator a number of times to keep a fine soil-

146

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

mulch on the field. If the weather conditions should be such
as to keep the cultivator out of the field too long at a time,
the ground will form a crust. Then it will be necessary to
make the cultivator teeth go deep enough to break up and

pulverize the crust. But when
no crust is formed always keep
the shovels or teeth quite shal-
low (Fig. 78).

Harvesting Seed Corn. —
It pays the farmer well to select
his own seed corn. This is best
clone in the fall, just before
frost and before harvesting
the main crop. Such ears are
selected as have the characters
described in the rules given,
pages 133-137. Pick out the
ones that are most mature;
they will be hanging downward.
Take them from stalks which
bear two or more good ears.
Storing Seed Corn. — As soon as the ears are selected and
gathered the husks should be entirely removed from them.
Store the ears where the moisture will dry out well before
winter, and where mice will not attack them. A good way is
to tie the ears with cord in such a way that they will not touch
each other and suspend each lot from a hook in the ceiling
where mice will not bother the corn. Corn may be stored on
sheets of finely woven wire netting which is tacked to the bare
rafters or joists of a dry room, as a shop or attic. If there are
vertical posts in the room, headless nails may be driven part
way into the posts; and then the large ends of the ears are
slipped over the nails (Fig. 79).

Harvesting the Main Crop. — To secure the best return
from the corn crop the harvesting should include not only
the ears but also the stalks. This should be done as soon as

FIG. 78. — Corn plants half grown,
showing the root system. Many small
fibrous feeding roots are only a few
inches under ground between the rows
of corn. Deep cultivation is likely to
destroy many of them.

CORN

147

the ears are nearly ripe, after the kernels are hard. With
most all field corn grown in the northern states the growth
continues until about the time of the first fall frosts.

There are several plans in use in various sections for the
harvesting of the corn crop.

1. The farmer can more nearly secure the entire value
of the corn crop by cutting the whole stalks just at the proper
time and putting it in the silo. The
stalks and ears are run through a
cutting machine (Fig. 80), and the
finely cut forage is blown or taken by
a carrier into a silo. This is called
ensilage. For the making of good
ensilage the corn crop should be well
matured, the kernels glazed and
well-dented, and the husks partially
dried.

2. In all dairy sections the stalks
are usually saved and fed after the
ears are removed. This is called
stover. First the whole crop is cut,
by hand or by machines, and put into
shocks. This should be done before
the leaves become brown and the
stalks dry. The shocks are tied very
tightly near the top to avoid weath-
ering. Later the ears are husked from
the shock, and the stover is tied in large bundles and stored
under shelter. The husked ears are first put in piles on the
ground and then hauled to the crib.

3. Husking and shredding machines are often used in
some sections. The corn fodder from the shocks, after it is
well cured, is run through a machine which husks and snaps
off the ears and shreds the stalks. This is one of the best
ways to use the whole crop after it is cured.

FIG. 79. — Corn-drying rack.

148

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

4. Stripping the blades of corn before the ears are har-
vested is quite common in some parts of the South. The labor
is too great to compensate for the crop of forage thus secured.

5. Topping is a name given to the practice, in some
localities, of cutting the stalks just above the ears. This is
as much labor as to cut and shock the whole crop.

FIG. 80. — Silo filling. This silo is made from wooden staves and steel hoops,
a structure common in the Eastern States. The ears and stalks are cut fine and
carried up into the silo by the endless chain.

6. In some sections the ears are husked from the stand-
ing stalks late in fall or in winter. This is done by driving
through the field with a wagon having a large box, into which
the ears of corn are thrown by the men doing the husking.
The stalks are wasted, but cattle are sometimes allowed to
"pick over" the field and eat the ears that were skipped. A
considerable amount of fodder is also eaten by the stock.

CORN 149

7. In some southern sections where the attacks of the
grain weevils are bad, it has become the practice to jerk
the ears and store them unhusked. The work required to
jerk the corn and afterwards husk it is greater than husking
from the standing stalks. But most of the jerked corn is
fed to stock without husking.

Ensilage Most Economical. — The entire feeding vafae
of the corn crop is best saved in silos. The ears, stalks, and
leaves, cut up very fine at harvest time, are saved for the
feeding of stock in winter or in the dry season of the summer.
The product is called silage or ensilage. (See chapter on feeds
and feeding.)

Silos are often made of staves with steel or wooden hoops.
Some are made by standing up studding in the form of a circle
and then nailing two layers of half-inch lumber bent around
inside, with tar-paper between the layers.

Masonry silos may be made of (1) concrete reinforced
with steel rods; (2) brick with reinforcing bands; (3) stone;
(4) hollow tile blocks with reinforcing rods or wires.

Metal silos are found in some sections.

In dry climates silos are entirely below ground, and in
other regions they are often placed about six feet in the
ground and the masonry wall extends one or two feet above
the surface for protection of the wooden superstructure.

Silos should be round in form to prevent the silage from
spoiling in the corners. The silage is thoroughly tramped,
particularly at the edges, at filling time to make it to settle
well.

Roofs may or may not be used as desired in cold climates
having much snowfall. Rainfall is usually considered bene-
ficial, and water is often run into the silo at filling time if the
crop is rather mature.

The capacity of silos increases more with the depth than
with the area of the surface. This is because the silage is
packed so closely in very deep silos. The following table,

150

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

adapted from King, shows the number of tons of mature silage
in round silos of different diameters and depths :
Approximate Capacity of Silos.

Depth of
silo, feet

Inside diameter of silo, feet

10

12

14

15

16

18

20

25

36

52

70

81

90

116

143

26

38

55

74

85

97

123

152

27

40

58

78

90

103

130

160

28

42

61

83

95

108

137

169

29

45

64

88

100

114

144

178

30

47

68

93

105

119

151

187

31

49

70

96

110

125

158

195

32

51

73

101

115

131

166

205

36

64

105

130

139

155

190

235

40

75

121

150

165

180

228

279

Storing the Ears. — Corn should be stored in a crib with
slatted sides to allow the air to circulate freely. The roof
should be broad, and rain proof, to keep the corn entirely
free from external moisture. Corn should be kept on the cob,
at least until it is thoroughly dry, to prevent heating and
molding. It is best to protect the crib of corn from mice,
rats, and sparrows. For this purpose the floor and sides
of the crib are sometimes covered with galvanized wire
netting of about one-fourth-inch mesh.

Storing the Stover. — Corn stalks intended for feed should
not be exposed for a long time to the weather. Corn thus
exposed loses much of its feeding value. It is much better
to put it under shelter in barns or in sheds. The corn stalks
should be thoroughly dried before storing for winter. If the
fall weather be very damp, much care must be exercised
to prevent the stover from heating in the sheds. When corn
stover has been shredded, it is sometimes stored in layers
alternating with dry straw.

CORN CLUBS

Much interest has been aroused in the improvement of
varieties of corn, and in the increased production per acre,
through the boys' corn clubs.

New Standard for Corn. — In sections of the United

CORN

151

States where the average yield has been comparatively small
for many years, the boys have set an entirely new high stand-
ard in corn yields per acre. For instance, in Alabama, one
boy grew 232.7 bushels per acre in 1913, whereas the average
yield for corn in the United States is 30 bushels per acre.
These noticeable and startling improvements were made by

FIG. 81. — A prize-winning field of corn in Virginia and the boy who grew it. He
used the correct methods. (O. B. Martin, Plant Industry.)

the selection of improved seed, followed by careful and per-
sistent tillage.

Value of Clubs. — Other boys, encouraged by such re-
sults, are led to exert their best efforts to do as well as this
Alabama lad did. By belonging to a club the boys are spurred
to greater activities because of wholesome competition.
This is a good thing. If farmers could feel some of the same
thrilling interest in their work — if all farming had some of
the spice of competition hi it — there would be fewer . run-
down farms, fewer tenant farmers, less farming for a bare
living, and more and better crop production, as well as hap-
pier, more contented people on the farms of our country.
11

152 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

Organization of Clubs. — If it is desired to organize a
Corn Club in your school or neighborhood, confer with the
County Demonstration, or Farm Bureau Agent. Get him to
assist hi perfecting the plans. If there is a district or state
club leader, consult him also. Your state agricultural college
will be glad to help, or the United States Department of
Agriculture will furnish printed matter telling how to pro-
F MHimBBHHB ' • I I V ,

FIG. 82. — The same boy as in Fig. 81 in Ms neighbor's field the same day. Compare
the cornfields. (O. B. Martin, Plant Industry.)

ceed with the organization. Generally the younger pupils
are organized in separate clubs from the older ones.

The basis of club work is usually estimated on (1) the
greatest yield per acre; (2) greatest profit on investment; (3)
best ten ears shown; (4) report and story of work done.

Report blanks are furnished free by the United States
Department of Agriculture, and every club should obtain
them so as to make its work uniform.

Keeping Notes. — Every member of the club should keep
careful notes of his work, his expenses, and all interesting items
in connection with raising his crop. He should be able to give
in his report at the end of the season the exact amount of hand
labor, horse labor, seed, fertilizer, and everything else expended
on his crop, as well as the exact yield and the value of it.

CORN 153

If he can select a considerable quantity of extra fine corn
from his crop, carefully preserve it through the winter, test
it in the spring, and sell it at a fancy price for seed, he will be
doing a good stroke of business and may be able to start a
bank account or pay his way at an agricultural college.

Corn Festival. — In the corn belt or in any section where
there is much interest shown in the raising of improved vari-
eties of corn, a corn festival makes an interesting get-together
event for the neighborhood.

At this time the corn club may have its exhibit and listen
to the final reports of its members. Prizes to be awarded for
the best crops should be given at this time. There should be
ribbons for those doing extra well, and honorable mention
for others. All should be encouraged as much as possible.

Many corn contests are to be arranged for this corn festi-
val, such as corn picking in the field, corn husking, corn judg-
ing and others.

Methods of selecting, curing, and caring for seed corn,
also seed testing, should be discussed.

The girls, for their share of the entertainment, may furnish
corn bread and other dishes made of corn for the picnic dinner.

Some pupil should give the history of corn, and some one
else should read a paper on the uses of corn — both its direct
uses and its by-products.

Parents should enter into this heartily with their children,
and should not be slow in welcoming new methods nor be
afraid to adopt the new ideas. It is not "good business" to
hold onto an old farm practice when a better one is at hand
and may be used.

REVIEW.

1 . Briefly describe the preparation of soil for corn planting.

2. Give directions for the planting of corn for summer green feed.

3. Give distances for planting corn used as winter forage or silage.

4. What is meant by " hill " corn ? What is its chief use ?

5. Name four types of corn grown in America.

6. Describe dent corn.

7. Describe flint corn.

. Tell when to select corn for seed.

154 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

9. Describe the best shape of ears of field corn.

10. What things indicate purity of corn ?

11. Give the points which indicate vitality, besides the test.

12. Describe good tips and butts of ears of corn.

13. Why should the kernels be uniform in shape ?

14. Describe the best shape and give the reasons.

15. Why should ears of corn for seed be uniform in length and cir«
cumf erence ?

16. Why do we object to deep furrows between rows and open
spaces between the tips of the kernels at the cob ?

17. Name five things which aid in determining the proportion of
corn to cob.

18. Give two things to be considered when storing seed corn.

19. Give three good ways of storing seed corn.

20. Give a good reason for the individual ear method of testing corn.

21. Describe a seed testing cloth and box for that purpose.

22. How would you keep the ears from being mixed during the
testing time ?

23. Tell how to select the kernels that are to be put into the tester.

24. What use may be made of the ears which do not show perfect
germination ?

25. Mention several methods of harvesting the main crop of corn.

26. What types of siios are found in your district?

27. What corn club work is carried on in your district?

References. — United States Farmers' Bulletins relating to corn:
229, The Production of Good Seed Corn; 537, How to Grow an Acre of
Corn; 553 and 554, Pop Corn; 578, Silage; 589, Homemade Silos; 617,
School Lessons on Corn; 414 and 729, Corn Culture.

-CHAPTER XIV.-

SMALL GRAINS.

Wheat. — Wheat is probably the oldest grain used by
man*.., It is more extensively grown and used than any other
human food except perhaps rice. When flour is mad£ from
it the by-products are now extensively used to feed animals.
In America the newer lands in some portions of the West
produce the largest crops of wheat, but the grain is grown
somewhat in all sections.

Types of Wheat. — As a general rule, the drier regions of
the middle West produce hard winter wheat or hard spring
wheat, best for flour; the humid climates produce soft wheats.

SMALL GRAINS

155

Varieties are also classified by the heads, as bearded and
beardless or smooth (Fig. 83) . As to color of grain they may
be (1) white or yellowish, and (2) red varieties.

Soil. — The heavy clay loams are best for wheat growing
but medium loams are also used. Heavy soils are cool and
hold their moisture better than lighter soils. The kernels
will not develop fully, or "fill," if the soil is too light.

Jflflj 83*-— ^hree types of wheat mounted under glass on cotton. Bearded wheat
on the right; the others are smooth; square-head wheat on left.

Preparation and Planting. — The soil is usually plowed in
the early fall, whether it be for winter or for spring wheat.
It is important that the bottom soil be well packed down
before the grain is sown. For fall seeding the ground may be
rolled and then harrowed again to secure the desired con-
dition of seed bed.

156 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

The time to plant varies considerably in different sec-
tions. In Canada and the northern tier of States the spring
wheats are usually used and are sown as early in the spring
as the soil can be prepared. Winter wheat is more common
in the other States and is sown early enough in the fall to
Jet the young plants make a good growth before winter.

A grain drill is usually used for the sowing of wheat. This
gives a better stand than broadcasting or sowing by hand,
as the seed is evenly distributed and well covered. The
amount of seed per acre varies — according to soil, quality
of seed and manner of seeding — from one and a half to three
bushels.

Heavy seed wheat should always be selected for seeding.
The plump, full kernels will give much better results than
slender shrunken seed (Fig. 9) . The legal weight in all States
is sixty pounds per bushel. That used for seed should weigh
this much or more if possible.

Harvesting. — Wheat is ripe when the kernels have passed
the dough or soft stage. The kernels should be examined
before the cutting is made. Cut before there is danger of
the grain shattering out of the head.

Much progress has been made in the improvement of
machines used for harvesting grain. The cutting and binding
into bundles is done with a self-binder (Fig. 84) . Then the
grain is put into small shocks of about a dozen bundles.
Here it remains in the field for a week or two to "cure."
It is then ready to thresh or to put in stacks.

In the driest regions of the West the grain is headed and
threshed immediately. Heading is cutting the stems just
below the grain heads with special machines made for that
method of harvesting.

Oats. — Oats grow farther north than corn or wheat.
They like a cool moist climate, and have been grown in the
cooler parts of the Old World for centuries. They are now
produced in Canada and most of the States of the Union,

SMALL GRAINS

157

Oats make one of the best feeds for horses, and when ground
are used for other farm stock. Oatmeal in the form of rolled
oats forms a good human food. Oat straw is better for stock
than the straw of other cereals.

Soil. — Oats will grow on soils that are rather too po'or
for wheat, but they thrive best on the richer soils. Heavier
crops of grain are produced if the soil is heavy. The crop
responds well to good applications of fertilizer, if too much
nitrogen is not used. Too much nitrogen in the soil produces
tall growth and little grain.

FIG. 84. — A modern grain harvester. All small grains are cut and bound into
bundles by this machine. The tying part of the machine is one of the greatest
inventions of modern times.

Preparation. — Good plowing and harrowing are advisable
before the crop is sown. The lower soil of the seed bed
should be well packed down if the plowing is done only a
short time before seeding. In some sections the soil is merely
stirred with a disc harrow instead of plowing. This custom
prevails in the middle West, when oats are sown the next
year after corn. A more thorough preparation if the soil
is heavy usually gives larger yields.

Seeding is done in very early spring throughout the
Northern States and Canada. In the South oats are started
in the fall. The seeding may be either broadcast or with grain

158 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

drills. Two or three bushels of seed are used per acre,
according to fertility and method of seeding. Very heavy
seed should be selected. Thirty-two pounds is the legal
weight of a bushel of oats in all States except Virginia, New
Jersey, Idaho, and Maryland. The grain selected for seed
should be as heavy as thirty-eight or forty pounds per
bushel.

Harvesting. — There is a little less danger of the oats
shattering from the heads when cut than there is with wheat ;
but in general the same condition of maturity should be
secured. The grain is cut and bound with self-binders and
then placed in shocks, where it is left for several weeks to
thoroughly dry out before threshing.

Barley. — There are several types or varieties of barley
grown in America, which may be grouped as two-row, four-
row, and six-row; the numbers referring to the rows of grain
on the haads. The two-row barley is more common in Europe
and the six-row more common in America. Most all varieties
have hulls on the grain, but hulless varieties are sometimes
grown.

Barley adapts itself to a wide range of climate, as the
time required for maturing a crop is very short. It is found
wherever any of the other cereals are grown.

Soil and Its Preparation. — Barley thrives best on well-
drained, rich, sandy loam. The soil is prepared as for oats
and the times for seeding in different sections is about the
same.

Rye. — Rye is less used for bread making than wheat in
America, but in some parts of the Old World the reverse
is the case. The flour there is cheaper, as it is much darker
than wheat flour. Rye grows somewhat taller than wheat
and thus produces more straw. The straw has a commercial
value for packing purposes.

Culture. — Rye will grow in any region adapted to wheat
raising, and is grown even farther north than wheat. It does

SMALL GRAINS

159

fairly well on poor soils, but the rich loams are better for the
crop. When the crop is wanted for grain and for straw the
methods of culture are practically the same as for wheat.

Rye is often sown in summer to serve as a winter cover
crop, and the green growth is plowed under in spring to serve
as green manure hi the improvement of soils.

FIG. 85. — A good way to tie up small grains and grasses for exhibits. No. 2 had
no fertilizer, No. 3 had poorly kept manure, 4 fresh manure, 8 nitrate of soda.

Flax. — This crop is grown in the northenTStates and in
Canada chiefly for its seed. In the Old World, and somewhat
in America, it is also grown for its fibre. The smooth, brown
seeds furnish two products: linseed oil is used in painting
because it dries so well; after the oil is extracted by pressure
the remainder is ground into meal for use in feeding livestock.
Linseed meal is rich hi protein and is highly prized for feeding
calves. It often forms a part of many stock feeds.

Flax has been grown for many centuries for the fibre

160 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

which it yields. The best qualities are used in weaving the
finest linen fabrics, and the dark, coarse fibres, called tow,
are used for heavy cloth bagging and for twine.

The leading States in the growth of flax seed are North
Dakota, South Dakota, and Minnesota ; but Argentina
produces more seed than any other country of the world.
About four-fifths of the tiax fibre of the world is grown in
Russia.

Growing the Crop. — The plant is an annual with pur-
ple blossoms. It is not related to the cereal grains. It
is sown in the spring, new land being preferred for its
growth. Prairie sod land is often selected for growing the
crop. It is best to "break" it in the fall and disk it the next
spring.

Three pecks of seed to the acre will produce a good stand
if put in with a grain drill. If a fibre crop is desired two or
three times as much seed is planted so the plants will not
branch so much and the fibre will not be so coarse.

No culture is required and little attention is given the
crop until harvest time.

Harvesting Flax. — The gram crop is usually harvested
by use of a grain binder, and the threshing and cleaning is
done with a common threshing machine. Yields vary from
eight to fifteen bushels per acre.

The fibre crop is usually pulled by hand, as much of the
best fibre is in the tap roots and lower part of the stems.
The plants are tied in bundles and placed in shocks for a
short time before delivery to the fibre works. Growers some-
times strip off the heads before selling the stems.

The crop grown for fibre is chiefly of a different variety
from that grown for seed. It must be entirely free from weeds.

To obtain flax fibre from the plants, the bast or inner
"bark" must be separated from the inner pith and other
parts of the stem. To do this the bundles are spread out for
the retting process in the rain and weather for several weeks.

SMALL GRAINS 161

Next the breaking process breaks the straw into very short
joints and removes some refuse material. The scutch-
ing process then follows. This is beating with paddles or
combing the fibre through revolving rollers and then through
comb-like rods. When thoroughly cleaned and sorted it
may be baled or may be spun into thread and woven into
cloth.

Flax for fibre is a paying crop to grow where hand labor
is cheap; but it is because of the scarcity of such labor that
flax is so little grown in America.

EXERCISE. — Samples of Grains. — Let pupils bring from
their homes or from their stores small samples of wheat, rye,
oats and barley. There may be poor and good samples in
the collection. These may be placed in bottles with suitable
labels. Extra fine samples may be secured by the teacher
for a school collection at local fairs or other expositions.

EXERCISE. — Heads of Grains. — Make a collection for
the school of all the forms of heads of the different kinds
of grain that are grown near by. Preserve these in a bed of
cotton in shallow pasteboard boxes with glass over them,
seemed by binding strips (Fig. 83). A method of preparing
samples for school fairs is shown in figure 85.

REVIEW.

1. Tell what you can of the different types of wheat.

2. Tell of the preparation of the soil and times for drilling in wheat.

3. What is the legal weight of wheat? Why should seed wheat be
heavier, if possible?

4. Describe the appearance of good seed wheat.

5. What is a self-binder? What is a header? What is a thresher?

6. WTiat are the chief uses for oats?

7. Give directions for the seeding of oats.

8. Name three types of barley. Which is most grown in America?

9. Where may rye be grown?

10. How does rye flour differ from wheat flour?

11. What soils are suited to the growing of rye?

12. Describe the use of rye as a green manure.

References.— U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 424. Oats: Growing th?
Crop: 443, Barley; Also Nos. 466, 518, 596, 640, 678, 680, 704, 732, 738;
756, Rye; 793, Millet; 785, Flax; 786, Fall Grains.

162 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

CHAPTER XV.
POTATOES.

IRISH POTATOES.

THE origin of the Irish potato has been traced to South
America. From thence it was brought to North America,
and from here was taken to Europe by the early explorers.
It was called Irish potato because it was so extensively grown
in Ireland after its introduction into Europe.

Importance. — It is now one of the most important crops of
the world and is so universally grown that no one section can
claim to raise the majority of the world's crop. The United
States in reality produces a small portion of the world's crop.

Not only is the Irish potato used very extensively as
human food; it is also fed to animals, used for the manufac-
ture of starch, and also largely for the making of alcohol.

Every State in the Union raises potatoes to some extent.
Those States which produce the bulk of the crop grown in
this country are, in the order of the amount grown, New
York, Michigan, Wisconsin, Maine, Pennsylvania, Minne-
sota, Ohio, Iowa, Illinois, California, Colorado, New Jersey,
Washington, Indiana, Nebraska.

In 1913 the United States produced 331,526,000 bushels
of potatoes, valued at $227,903,000.

Greatest Production. — It will be noticed that the States
named in the paragraph above are all northern States. The
reason that the leading potato-producing States are all in the
northern part of this country is that the Irish potato thrives
better in the cooler soils and climates.

Southern Potatoes. — While the South produces many
thousands of bushels of potatoes annually, they are mostly
the early crop, planted even as early as December in Florida,
and of course harvested correspondingly early. These south-
ern potatoes supply the early markets, both North and
South. They will not keep long. Thus the South must

POTATOES 163

depend for its winter supply on its late potato crop, or on
those grown in the North. The combined yields per acre of
the two plantings in the South will hardly equal the one
crop grown each season in northern States.

Northern Potatoes. — The North raises but one crop, and
this is planted in the spring after all severe frost is over.
It then requires the whole season to mature and is harvested
before the ground freezes in the fall. These potatoes, which
have grown through the long season and are well matured,
are of good keeping quality. They do not sprout so readily
as the more rapidly matured potatoes of the South. It is
for this reason that the southern States get most of their seed
potatoes from the North.

Types. — There are chiefly two types, viz., early pota-
toes and late potatoes. These differ chiefly in the
time required to mature the crop from the time of planting.
Early varieties are planted as soon as the ground can be
worked in spring and are harvested as soon as possible for
early market. Late varieties are planted late in May or
early in June and are left in the ground to full maturity and
are then sold or stored for winter.

Soil. — The best soil for the potato is a rich, sandy loam,
well drained and well supplied with vegetable matter. A
soil heavier than this may be used if it is improved by green
manuring and drainage. The lighter. soils should be greatly
enriched by the addition of green manures and fertilizers.
Potatoes should be alternated or rotated with other crops
on the field, not continuously grown on the same land.

Barnyard manure for potato fields should be well rotted
or may be applied to the soil for the preceding crop, such as
corn. Commercial fertilizers are commonly applied at the
time the potatoes are planted.

Need of Moisture. — Irish potatoes require a large sup-
ply of capillary moisture. For every pound of potatoes
harvested the plant will have used nearly five hundred pounds

164 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

of water taken from the soil during the growing season. The
grower therefore finds it necessary to conserve the soil moisture
by thorough tillage at the proper times, and by the mainten-
ance of dust mulch or straw mulch. The soil should be deep,
black, and full of vegetable matter to aid in holding moisture.

Green Manure. — A green manure to plow under in the
early spring may be started in the field of corn or other crop
the preceding summer. Sow the seed in July or early August,
using a mixture of rye, winter vetch and crimson clover.
These plants will serve as a winter cover crop and when
plowed under will quickly decay and form humus.

Fertilizers for Potatoes. — In States east of the Missis-
sippi Valley it is usually found advisable to fertilize the
soil for potatoes when grown for market. Barnyard manure is
usually applied to the field a year before the potatoes are to be
grown there. Green manure or grass sod may be turned under
the spring that the potatoes are to be planted; but it should
be worked well by disking after the plowing. Fresh manure
from horse stables applied the same year that the crop is
planted tends to cause the scab disease to develop badly.

Commercial fertilizers for potatoes are usually applied at
planting time and are drilled in the rows after part of the
soil has been drawn over the seed potatoes. The fertilizer
should not actually touch them. A fertilizer that is rich in
potash is desirable for potatoes. A complete mixture may
contain these percentages : 2 to 3 of nitrogen, 4 to 6 of phos-
phate, 8 to 10 of potash. See Appendix Table VII for in-
gredients to use for these mixtures.

Plowing should be done in the spring not long before the
potatoes are to be planted. It must be deep and thorough
as the potatoes require a loose bed for growth. The newly
plowed ground must not be packed with a roller, but should
be smoothed with a common harrow.

Cutting Seed. — The seed pieces are cut in many different
ways, with one or two eyes to a piece being the most common.

POTATOES

165

Experiments have shown that cutting the tubers into quarters
will give larger crop yields (Fig. 86).

Saving Seed Potatoes. — When seed potatoes are very
expensive, as is often the case at planting time, there is a
strong temptation to cut the pieces very small with only one
or two "eyes " or buds on each piece.

As the buds are abundant and strong at one end, and

scarce and weak at the other, it is often best to cut off the

. .,_.. ._ eye end for planting and

| use the remainder for
. cooking (Fig. 86a).
BU Much is saved and a
better stand is secured
in the field. Large tu-
bers may be cut into
pieces, of about two
ounces each.
Varieties. — Irish pota-
toes vary in color of
skin and flesh, texture of
flesh, depth of eyes,
smoothness of skin,
shape, size, earliness,
keeping qualities, cooking qualities, and in other ways.
As to time required to mature the crop, growers com-
monly classify the varieties as early, medium, and late.
The early varieties are most desirable for summer market
and are not so good for storing as the others. They are sold
as soon as harvested so as to obtain the best prices. Good
early varieties are Early Rose, Peachblow, Early Ohio, Red
Triumph, White Triumph, and Irish Cobbler.

Later varieties yield more than the early ones and are
usually left in the ground until thoroughly matured. They
will, therefore, keep better in storage.

Green Mountain and American Giant are heavy yielding
varieties of the medium season.

FIG. 86. — Seed potatoes may be sprouted
in bright sunlight before planting. Vigorous
green sprouts will thus be developed. These
will greatly strengthen the growth after
planting.

166 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

Carman No. 3 and Rural New Yorker are late varieties
that resist disease fairly well. Other late varieties that are
popular because of good quality and heavy yielding are
Burbank and Sir Walter Raleigh.

FIG. 86a. — The eye end of the potato is best for seed. The stem end may be saved
for food if desired. Never cut across the eye end as shown at the left.

Seed Selection. — For the best crop it is well to select seed
potatoes of the form and character desired in the crop. The
following score card will serve as a guide in selecting potatoes
either for seed or for exhibition:

Size 20

Too large, cut 2

Too small, cut 12

Not even, cut 6
Appearance 60

Not bright, cut 10

Dirty, cut 10

Scabby or wormy, cut 40

Shape 10

Quality 10

Unsound, cut 5

Brittle or spongy, cut 5

Total .' 100

It is not wise to plant small potatoes because they are
cheap. It is well, if possible, to select seed from heavy-
yielding plants, as this is certain to help increase the yield.

Seed potatoes from northern States are shipped to growers
in the middle and southern latitudes for the sake of increasing
the yield and hastening the growth of the crop. This prac-
tice of "importing" seed from farther north is not always
necessary for the middle latitudes, but should be continued
in the South where the tubers do not ripen well.

POTATOES 167

Planting. — Early potatoes may be planted as early in
the spring as the soil can be prepared. Late potatoes should
be planted in May or early June. The crop suffers when dry
weather comes on. The time of planting should be planned
to bring the time when the tubers are forming at a period
when the rainfall is usually good.

There are several good methods of planting potatoes;
these vary according to climate and soil. In wet or heavy
soil they may be planted only three inches deep; in the
lighter soils or when the weather is hot and dry the tubers
may be planted as deep as six inches.

In large fields, potatoes are usually planted by the use of
machine planters. There are several types of these machines.
The best ones open the furrow in the plowed field, drop the
seed potatoes at regular intervals, cover them with soil, and
distribute commercial fertilizer as desired.

Two crops a year are usually grown in States south of the
Ohio River. It is best to not grow the second crop on the
same field where the first was dug. Rotation is better.

The first crop is planted in February or March or as
early as the ground can be prepared. This crop usually
suffers very little from dry weather and is more productive
than the late crop. The harvest is in May, June or July,
depending upon the latitude.

The second, or late crop is planted about June or July,
and if protected from blight disease may continue growing
until winter, say about the first of December. Frost does
not injure the crop. For the second crop, seed potatoes
chiefly from the northern States are held over in cold storage
for the midsummer planting.

Mulching the second crop with straw or similar material
is practiced hi many places. This is to save the soil moist-
ure and to give the growing tubers a cooler condition. The
crop is planted in the usual way, or perhaps a little shallower.
Then the straw is spread over the field a few inches deep. If the
12

168 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

ground is mellow no tillage is given, at least until the vines are
half grown. In some cases no tillage whatever is required.

Early varieties should be planted for the second crop of
potatoes. Lookout Mountauij Green Mountain, Irish Cob-
bler, Early White Triumph, and Red Triumph are popular
for both plantings in the South.

Distances for Planting Potatoes vary somewhat in dif-

FIG. 87. — Digging potatoes by use of a machine and four horses. Men, women and
children sometimes pick up the potatoes after the machine.

ferent potato districts. Very commonly the rows are three
feet apart and the seed-pieces are twelve or eighteen inches
apart in the rows. Ten bushels of seed potatoes are required
to plant an acre, at distances one and a half by three feet, if
the pieces weigh one ounce each.

Cultivation. — After the planting is done the field should
be harrowed. After this frequent shallow cultivations are
made until the vines are so large that they shade the soil
well. A light ridging of the soil towards the rows at the time
of the last cultivation is usually practiced, the purpose being
to prevent the new tubers from growing out of the ground.

Insect Pests and Diseases.— Farmers have lost many
acres of Irish potatoes through the ravages of insects or plant
diseases which they did not know how to combat. But
through the experiments made at the State experiment
stations, farmers are now able to control both insects and
plant diseases.

POTATOES 169

Potato beetles and flea beetles are kept in check by
spraying or dusting the plants with poisons. For example,
one part of Paris green is mixed with 20 to 40 parts of pow-
dered lime, air-slaked. It is put into a burlap sack and shaken
over the potato plants in early morning while the dew is on
them. This work should be started in early spring when the
adult potato beetles are coming out of their winter hiding
places to lay their eggs on the potato leaves. Killing old ones
early will prevent much damage by young ones a little later.
See the insect chapter for the life history of potato beetles.

Spraying potato fields is a little more expensive than
the dusting method, but is usually the more desirable for
several reasons: (1) the poisoning can be done more thor-
oughly; (2) the poison when applied wet will stay on the
plants longer and may not need repeating so often; (3) the
spraying work may proceed in fields all day, while dusting
can be done only while the dew remains hi early morning;
(4) when spraying for beetles the farmer may also add Bor-
deaux mixture, and thus prevent the blight disease, at the
same time.

The spray solution for beetles alone should contain
arsenate of lead or Paris green. If the latter is used a little
lime is added to make the spray cling well and to prevent
damage to the leaves by free arsenic. Use one-fourth to one
pound of Paris green and one pound lime to 40 or 50 gallons
of water (or Bordeaux). Keep well stirred while spraying.

For spraying with arsenate of lead, mix two to three
pounds of the arsenate in paste form with 40 or 50 gallons
of water or Bordeaux (see Appendix, Table III).

Potato blight is often as serious an enemy of the main
crop as the beetles. In one sense it is more serious because of
the fact that when it makes a start in a field nothing can stop
it and the whole crop is likely to become affected. Preven-
tion spraying is the only practical remedy. Bordeaux mix-
ture is used for this. Apply it as early as you would begin to

170 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

fight the beetles. Plan to fight them both at each spraying,
by combining the poison with the Bordeaux. See preceding
paragraphs.

Two kinds of potato blight affect the crop, namely
early blight and late blight. They both turn the vines brown
and gradually kill them. They are both effectually prevented
by using Bordeaux in advance of the disease, say every
time that poison is needed to kill potato beetles or flea beetles.

The early blight is much less destructive in most States
than the late blight. Growers do not always find it practical
to spray to prevent early blight. But as Bordeaux mixture
is not expensive and if the work of spraying for beetles
is done earty, it is advisable to use both the poison and the
Bordeaux together.

Late blight is usually very common. Most unsprayed
crops are affected by it. The vines die too soon; the yield is
much reduced; the tubers ripen prematurely; and the pota-
toes will not keep in storage so well. The so-called " centre
rot" and "end rot" of the tubers at harvest time and later,
are results of the attacks of late blight. It was this potato
blight which caused the terrible famine in Ireland hi 1846.

There is no excuse for not preventing this disease by
spraying with Bordeaux mixture while spraying with poison
to fight the beetles. (See Appendix, Table III, for making
Bordeaux mixture.)

Potato Scab Disease. — This is a serious trouble in nearly
all potato-growing districts. If all seed potatoes are given
a preventive treatment before planting, the soil will be kept
free from the disease and the crop will not be affected.

Before cutting the tubers, soak them for two hours in a
solution of one pint full strength formalin in thirty-two
gallons of water. Applications of fresh lime or fresh manure
both tend to increase the scab disease in the soil. These
should both be avoided when potatoes are planted.

Harvesting. — Large potato fields are usually dug by use

POTATOES 171

of machines drawn by horses (Fig. 87). One of the smaller
forms is shown in Fig. 87a. Larger machines elevate the
tubers, shake off the dirt, and drop them on the ground.
They are drawn by three or four horses. Small garden
patches are dug by hand tools.

Weights and Yields. — The legal weight of' a bushel of
potatoes is sixty pounds, except in Pennsylvania and Vir-
ginia, where the weight is fifty-six pounds. The yields are
often two hundred and fifty bushels or more per acre, but

Fio. 87o. — An inexpensive potato digger to be drawn by one or two horses.

(Plant Industry.)

the average is about one hundred bushels per acre. The
value of the crop in the United States each year is about
$100,000,000.

SWEET POTATOES.

The sweet potato is grown to a limited extent in nearly all
the northern States, but the best qualities and largest
quantities are produced in the southern States. The plant
is of tropical origin.

. Soil. — Sweet potatoes thrive best on a rather sandy
loam which does not contain too much of organic matter.
Soils that are too poor for the production of most other
farm crops may suit sweet potatoes very well.

Starting the Plants. — New plants are started in early

172 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

spring from seed potatoes. The whole potatoes are planted
in fine, rich sandy loam in hot-beds (Figs. 88, 89). These
may be heated either by manure or by fuel. The tempera-
ture at first is kept at 80° or 85° F. Before the plants are
pulled from this bed to be transplanted to the field the
temperature is gradually lowered to 60° F. The growth in
the hot-bed requires about six weeks.

.

FIG. 88. — Sweet potatoes in a hot-bed ready to be covered. They will produce
young plants for field planting. (Experiment Station, N. J.)

In the Field. — The soil is prepared as for corn — the sur-
face being left smooth and even. In some pfaces the farmers
ridge the field and set the plants on the ridges. Others
practice the level culture. Planting in the field should be
done when the soil is moist enough to produce a rapid growth
after setting the young plants. Where level culture is prac-
ticed the plants are often set two or two and one-half feet
each way. Where ridges are made the rows are often three
and one-half feet apart and the plants fourteen to eighteen

POTATOES

173

inches apart in the rows, requiring over 8000 plants per
acre. The plants are set in the ground by hand, by tongs,
or by large machine planters.

Cultivation is simple and does not last long as the vines
soon cover the ground. Large weeds are usually pulled by
hand or cut with hoes.

Harvesting is done before cold weather. The vines must
be cut loose from the hills before they are frozen to prevent
injury of the crop. There are special plows, similar to Fig.
87, for digging sweet potatoes. Small areas are often dug
with spading forks.

FIG. 89. — A single sweet potato from the hot-bed, showing many young sprouts.
Note the difference in the size of young plants. (Experiment Station, N. J.)

Storage is necessary if the crop is not sold immediately.
Special pits and heated buildings are constructed for storing
sweet potatoes. The roots must be handled with the greatest
care to avoid bruising them if they are to be stored. When
first put into storage they go through a "sweating" or curing
process; this requires a temperature of 85° or 90° F. After
that the temperature is kept at 55° to 65° F. A great deal of
ventilation is required to keep the place perfectly dry.

174 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

EXERCISE. — Yield and Value. — Find out the usual yield
per acre of Irish potatoes in your vicinity, and then estimate
how many acres of land it would take to raise the number of
bushels produced in the United States in 1913. Would this
acreage entirely cover any of the smaller States? What was
the value of the yield per bushel that year? What per acre?

REVIEW.

1. Where was the Irish potato first found?

2. How did it come to be called the Irish potato?

3. Learn if you can who is said to have carried it from North
America to Europe.

4. What States grow the heaviest crops of potatoes?

5. Compare potato growing in different sections of the United
States, as to planting dates, keeping qualities, and in other ways.

6. What kinds of soil are best suited to potato growing?

7. Why do potatoes need so much moisture?

8. Name some of the best varieties for seed.

9. Find out what kinds are grown in your vicinity. Learn which
yield the heaviest crops.

10. Tell of the times for planting early and late potatoes.

11. Give depth for planting; also distances.

12. Give directions for treating seed potatoes to keep the scab
disease out of the soil.

13. What is the legal weight per bushel of potatoes in your State?

14. What fertilizers do farmers use for potatoes in your locality?

15. What green manures help the potato crop?

16. Give directions for plowing potatoes.

17. Give directions for selecting and preparing seed potatoes for
planting.

18. Where and how are two crops grown in one year?

19. How should a field of potatoes be cared for after planting?

20. What insects attack the potato fields?

21. Have any plant diseases ever destroyed potatoes in your
neighborhood ?

22. How may insects and diseases be controlled at the same time?

23. In what climates and on what soils are sweet potatoes usually
grown?

24. Describe the starting of sweet potato plants for a large field.

25. Tell how sweet potatoes are stored for winter.

References.— IT. S. Farmers' Bulletins : 324 Sweet Potatoes; 365,
Farm Management in Northern Potato-growing Sections; 533, Seed
Potatoes; 544, Potato Tuber Diseases; ,548, Storing and Marketing
Sweet Potatoes; 714, Sweet Potato Diseases; 753, Commercial Hand-
ling, Grading and Marketing of Potatoes.

TOBACCO FOR MARKET

CHAPTER XVI.
TOBACCO FOR MARKET.

TOBACCO crops were grown in Virginia by white men,
as early as 1612. Before that time Indians had been growing
it for their own use. The United States now produces over
a billion pounds annually, which is fully a third of the world's
production. When sold as low as ten cents a pound the
money value is enormous.

The crop is grown commercially hi all the humid parts
of the country, particularly in the Eastern States. The lead-
ing States in order of production are Kentucky, North Caro-
lina, Virginia, Ohio, Tennessee, Wisconsin, Pennsylvania,
South Carolina, and Connecticut.

Tobacco is of several types or classes which are much
influenced by local soil and climatic conditions. Each sec-
tion is usually devoted to the growing of one type, as cigar
wrapper or binder, cigar filler, pipe tobacco, and plug tobacco.
Manufacturing types include all but cigar types and export
types.

The plant is an annual which grows very large and rank,
with an erect, simple stem. The large, simple leaves from
this stem are of commercial value. They have a biting or
pungent flavor and aroma and contain from one-half to two
and one-half per cent of nicotine in mild tobacco, and as
much as eight per cent in the lower grades. The seeds of the
plant are abundant and very small. Only a few plants are
allowed to form seed with which to start the next crop.

The soil should be deep, rich, and well drained, but sandy
enough to be easily warmed and ventilated. The plant
is very exhaustive to the nitrogen, phosphate, and potash,
and these plant foods should be supplied by the use of ma-
nures and fertilizers. The plowing should be nearly a foot
deep, and the surface is then disked and harrowed until well
pulverized.

176 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

Seeding is in cold-frames in the South and in hot beds
in the North. The soil for the bed is often made sterile by
burning some brush over it just before the time of planting.
Seeds are sown after the soil is in fine condition. For a bed
10 by 50 feet use about one ounce of seed, or one tablespoon-
ful. This may furnish plants enough for about five acres,
when transplanted. Cover the seeds lightly by tramping,
rolling or raking. Cloth may be used to cover the beds, but
glass is used in the cold regions. About six weeks should be
allowed for the growth in beds.

Transplanting is not done until all danger of frost is
over and the field soil is warm and
mellow. The rows are placed three
to four feet apart and the plants a
little closer in the rows; or they may
be in rows both ways for ease of
tillage. The transplanting may be
either by hand or by machine as with
early cabbage plants (Fig. 89a).

Care. — The crop is given very clean

weUI(ir?und~theeanewiy '"St culture duruig its growth. The large
plant. (Dunham Co.) horn-worms, if abundant, must be killed
by spray ing with a poison, arsenate of lead or Paris green;
but if not abundant they are picked off by hand. When the
plants are large the suckers are removed, and the tops are
cut to prevent flowering and seeding. Priming is the re-
moval of the lower leaves which are apt to be injured by the
soil.

Harvesting begins when the leaves are ripe enough to
cure. The skilful grower determines this by the color and the
"feel" when folded in the fingers. Usually the whole plant
is cut near the ground and the stem split to slip on a lath,
after wilting. The laths, each with several plants hanging
from it, are hauled to the barns or sheds and hung in open
tiers for curing. In some sections and with some types of

TOBACCO FOR MARKET 177

tobacco, the leaves are gathered separately as they ripen.

Curing is of three main types: (1) air curing in well-
ventilated buildings; (2) open fire curing in closer barns with
fires on the floor after the' plants have yellowed a few days ;
(3) flue curing in tight barns with furnaces and flues. The
last method requires most skill but least time, and smaller
buildings may be used.

Stripping and sorting is done after curing at a time when
the leaves are moist enough to be handled without loss.
Grades depend upon length of leaf, injury, texture, color,
and curing. It can then be tied into hanks and. bulked. It
is now ready to be stored for future marketing.

Varieties for dark tobacco are Yellow Mammoth, Pryors,
and Orinocos, with their many derivatives. These are usually
fire-cured. White Burley is the leading air-cured variety.

REVIEW. j/

1. Compare tobacco as a money crop with some other crops of the
United States.

2. Mention the different classes of tobacco.

3. Describe the starting of the crop.

4. Tell what you can of the field care.

5. What are the two methods of harvesting?

6. Outline three methods of curing.

References to Bulletins on Tobacco. — United States Farmers'
Bulletins: 72, 120, 416, 523, 571, and 595. Kentucky Station bulletins
129 and 139.

178

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

CHAPTER XVII.

THE PRINCIPLES OF FORESTRY.

FOREST products in America are not as generally con-
sidered a part of the permanent resources of the farm as
they should be. The chief products are lumber, posts, poles,
railroad ties, and fuel. Thus far lumber, ties, and poles have
been obtained mainly from native forests. These are rapidly
becoming exhausted. In the prairie States firewood and
posts are obtained from plantings made by man (Fig. 896),
but elsewhere chiefly from the native woods.

FIG. 89&. — Tree seeds of many kinds may be planted in fields and gardens.
The seedlings are cultivated for one year and then transplanted to wood-lots and
shelter-belts (U. S. D. A.)

Forestry should become a systematic part of many farms
in all the prairie States as well as in the States where tim-
ber was originally found.

Tree planting is naturally considered under two heads:
(1) Prairie planting may be for ornament, windbreaks,
shelter-belts, and wood-lots or groves for wood, posts and

THE PRINCIPLES OF FORESTRY 179

lumber. (2) Forest planting, which is primarily for the
revenue to be derived from the sale of wood and lumber.

It is a special problem in the management of each indi-
vidual farm to decide just what planting should be done.
The Forestry Service of the United States Department of
Agriculture offers to give practical assistance to tree planters
in deciding these questions. Circular 22 of that service
should be read in this connection. Careful study should be
given to the planting of trees under some good system, as
a forest is the most permanent thing that can be planted
on a farm.

Need of Forest Planting. — Forests are necessary to the
highest material development of any country. The climatic
influences are very beneficial. It is desirable in behalf of
the public welfare to plant trees in great number. This is
true both on the treeless plains and also on the sites of de-
stroyed forests. To be of most public benefit the planting
should be well distributed over the region. All will share
the benefits and all should join in planting the trees.

Forest Influences. — Growing trees conserve moisture,
modify climatic extremes, and purify the air. Careful
observation shows that large trees growing in a grove affect
climatic and soil conditions in several ways:

1. During the day the ground under the trees is protected
from the sun's rays and is therefore cooler than soil not
protected. The air circulating over this cool soil tends to
cool the air in the immediate vicinity on sunny days.

2. At night the trees retard the loss of heat from the
ground under them. This tends to equalize the temperature
of not only the soil and air under the tree but that in the
near vicinity. The soil and air are kept cooler by day and
warmer by night. This equalizing of temperature is notice-
able during short periods of very hot or very cold weather.
Gardens growing near trees are sometimes uninjured by
fall frosts which kill tender plants in other gardens.

180 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

3. The drying out of soil is also prevented by the mulcb
of leaves and twigs which fall to the ground under the trees.
Trees and leaves check the flow of water over the land, thus
preventing the washing away of good soil. The soil is not so
badly beaten down by heavy rains. The water soaks into
the soil better and the flow-off is very gradual.

4. By breaking the force of the wind trees will aid in
retaining moisture in the surface soil near the trees. The
evaporation decreases as the wind is checked. Water is also
held better in the soil shaded by the trees. A large amount
of water which the trees give off from their leaves is drawn
from the subsoil, without drawing on the water of the surface
soil. This moisture from the leaves increases the amount
in the surrounding air. Trees which have the roots near
the surface, as the elm and red maple, take up so much water
near the surface as to make it unwise to try to grow crops
near them.

5. The destructive force of severe winds is often prevented
by trees. Tornadoes may be prevented or made of little
effect by large groups of trees. Certain crops may be grown
when protected by shelter-belts of trees that could not other-
wise be grown on the prairie. These shelters from high winds
prevent the blowing of soils. They lessen the severity of
cold winter winds both for stock and for people.

How Trees Influence Water Supply. — The proper dis-
tribution of water upon the land is the most important factor
in the growing of crops. In the natural course of the seasons
we have both floods and droughts. The proper holding of
the water from flood-time to drought is best accomplished
by the growth of trees and the protection of natural forests,

Eain falling upon forested areas flows away slowly.
Springs and streams are kept constantly supplied from the
water of such areas.

Instead of the waters of the rainy season producing heavy
floods and causing much destruction along the courses of

THE PRINCIPLES OF FORESTRY 181

streams the water is greatly retarded and no flood is expe-
rienced. The water from heavy rains is held back by the
carpet of leaves on the soil beneath the trees, by the roots
in the soil, and by the decaying matter from former years.

In sections where the forests have been cut off for the
use of man, the streams frequently go dry during the summer.
Water power of mills and factories is thus cut off; the water
supply for homes, villages, and cities is reduced to the danger
point. Navigation of the larger streams is checked or stopped
for a while. Many wells are without drinking water because
the level of the soil water is deeper than the wells.

The growth of forests would correct the difficulty of water
supply in many parts of the country. The United States
Government has reserved large areas of mountainous and
hilly land for the purpose of preserving the natural forests and
maintaining the flow of the larger streams in those sections.

Forest Planting on the Farm. — The wood-lot or forest
plantation on a farm where the land is all tillable should
usually be in the form of a wide shelter-belt. If there be
rough land on the farm not suitable for the more common
crops, groves may be maintained on this to good advantage.
On land too stony or too steep for use of other crops some
kinds of trees will grow well. The location of such groves is
to be determined by natural conditions.

The location of the wide shelter-belts will be influenced
by several things. These trees may affect the air drainage
of near-by orchards; the wind currents will be controlled;
and the humidity of the air about the home will be influenced.

Such trees should be far enough from the buildings and
roadways to not cause the drifting of snows which would be
in the way. The shelter-belt should be about six rods wide,
made up of a number of lines or rows of trees with the smaller
kinds on the side toward the prevailing wind. This will
deflect the wind currents upward and prevent their bad
effects.

J

182 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

Make the belts of trees several rods wide, because single
rows of trees or narrow belts are less profitable when we
consider the relative amount of land used.

Shelter-belts should be planted on the side of the pre-
vailing winds. In some places this is on the southwest side
of the group of farm buildings to protect the premises from
hottest winds of summer. The coldest winds of winter will
be checked by planting trees along the north and northwest.
Probably the planting of belts along the north and west
sides would be best in most cases.

In prairie countries and in dry climates the shelter-belts
should be used to protect fields of crops from both the blast-
ing winds of summer and the storms of winter.

Kinds of Trees. — There has always been a tendency in
the prairie States to plant trees that would grow quickly.
These are not the best kinds because, as a rule, they are
short-lived and the plantation is soon gone. The more
permanent kinds of trees should be chosen.

The revenue to be derived from the sale of fuel, posts,
poles, and lumber should be considered in the choice of
varieties. Chestnut groves have often paid a good return
for their cost in the nuts produced for market. Walnut is
a slower growing wood than cottonwood, but when mature
will return a much larger income for each year of its growth.
Trees with deep root systems should be chosen if the trees
are to grow near other crops, as the surface soil will not be
dried out so fast. Such trees would be walnut, hickory,
hardy catalpa, chestnut, locust, and others. All of these
have valuable woods.

Propagation of Forest Trees. — Nearly all kinds of forest
trees are propagated by seeds. Willows and a few others
are easily increased by cuttings.

The seeds for planting should be mature and as freshly
gathered as possible. It is quite difficult to germinate some
tree seeds that are very old and dry.

THE PRINCIPLES OF FORESTRY 183

The nuts of black walnut, hickory, chestnut, and others,
and the pits of the plum, peach, and cherry should be either
spread between layers of moist sand or planted in the fall
where they are to grow. They should not be allowed to dry
out after ripening. The larger nuts may be planted while
doing shallow plowing, by dropping them in a furrow and
covering them with the next furrow slice.

The deep root system formed by most of the true nut-
bearing trees makes them difficult to transplant, even when
young.

FIG. 90. — Lattice supported on poles. Such a structure gives alternate light and

shade in growing forest seedlings, tobacco, ginseng, and a few other plants.

(Plant Industry.)

Seeds that ripen in spring and early summer should be
planted within a few weeks, as they live but a short time.
The American elm, soft maple, and cottonwood are examples
of this group, but the red elm is an exception, as the seeds
will not sprout until the next spring.

Seeds of trees that ripen in the fall, except the evergreens,
may be planted either the same fall or the following spring.
If planted in the fall they should be covered with a leaf
mulch and also protected from squirrels and other animals.

The cone-bearing trees, including the pine, spruce, tama-
rack, and white cedar are started from seed sown in the
13

184

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

spring under partial shade. This partial shade may be made
by a lattice work supported on poles (Fig. 90) . Rather sandy
soil is best for the starting of these seeds, which are planted
very shallow. They may be sown either broadcast or thickly
in drills with the rows close together.

Before young trees of any of the kinds become too crowded
in the seed beds they should be transplanted. If they are
too small to be used in the forest plantation they are put in
rows far enough apart to cultivate in a
forest nursery. It is a very common
practice to keep young trees in the forest
nursery for one or more years.

EXERCISE. — Starting Tree Seeds. — Col-
lect from the woods, or buy from a seed
store, seeds of ash, birch, hard maple, and
box elder. Plant them in a window box
in loose black soil, covering them to a
depth of about one inch. Moisten the
soil from time to time and observe the
time required for germination of eacb
kind. Note the methods they have of
coming out of the soil. How many seed-
leaves have they ? (Fig. 91.)
^Distances Apart for Trees. — The Forest Service recom-
mends that in a wood-lot or forest plantation most trees be
set four feet apart each way. It is the aim to get the soil
shaded by the trees as soon as possible, and to use all the
space for tree growth after the first year. The first year
a low-growing crop requiring cultivation may be planted in
the rows with the young trees. Potatoes may be used for
this purpose one season only.

Another plan followed in some forest planting is to plant
the trees two feet apart in the rows with eight feet between
the rows. In this plan the space between rows may be used
for other cultivated crops for several years. The trees can

FIG. 91. — Young
maple-tree seedling
showing the first seed-
leaves still clinging.

THE PRINCIPLES OF FORESTRY

185

be cultivated for a much longer period than where they are
only four feet apart.

Mixed plantings are made by setting alternate rows of
two or three varieties. There are a number of advantages
derived from the mixing of the trees instead of planting only
one kind (Fig. 92) :

FIG. 92. — A shelter-belt of mixed hard woods. This form of fence will protect the
forest from grazing stock. (Plant Industry.)

1. There is less danger of total loss from drought, insects,
and diseases.

2. Rapid-growing trees may temporarily fill the area
while the slower and more permanent ones are becoming
large enough.

186

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

3. Tender kinds, such as Scotch pine, do much better
when partially protected by more hardy trees.

4. Mixed plantings are more beautiful and interesting.

5. Birds are attracted by the greater variety of food and
shelter.

6. The ground is usually better shaded by mixed planting.
Tall trees with thin foliage, such as maple and birch, may be

FIG. 93.

FIG. 94.

FIG. 94a.

FIG. 93. — A pine tree growing in an open place, holding the leaves out to the
light.

FIG. 94. — Pines and other trees grown in a dense forest, which is now mostly
cleared away.

FIG. 94a. — Sugar maple tree yields sap in early spring.

alternated with those which have dense foliage and can
endure shade well, such as spruce and beech.

EXERCISE. — Distance Apart and Shape. — In a wood-lot
or other place where trees are growing close together, notice
the distance from the ground to the first side limbs that are
beneath the shade of other trees (Fig. 94). Compare these
with trees of the same kind growing in open places. In a
dense forest the side limbs are shaded from the light and

THE PRINCIPLES OF FORESTRY

187

may soon die and drop off. 'Those in the open grow large
because of the light all about them (Fig. 93). Which would
produce clear lumber and which would be knotty ?

EXERCISE. — Rings of Wood. — Have some one bring to
school a circular section cut across the end of a tree trunk,

FlO. 95. — Method of mounting wood samples for study. (Agricultural Education.)

showing the rines of wood. Each ring represents one season
of growth. Count them. Are some wider than others?
Are the wide rings indications of favorable or of unfavorable
seasons of growth ? Notice the dark heart-wood in the center
and the light colored sap-wood near the bark. Figure 95
represents a good method of saving samples for future study.

188 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

Planting the Trees. — When wood-lots and wide shelter-
belts are to be planted, the ground should be prepared by
plowing and harrowing, unless it is too rough or stony.
The trees from the seed bed or forest nursery are transplanted
to their new location when of suitable size. The size depends
upon the kind and size of those with which they are to be
planted. Evergreens may be transplanted whenever new
shoots are not growing, but late spring is probably the best
time. Early spring is best for other trees and shrubs.

When very small seedlings are to be planted in great
numbers, a small but deep opening is made by thrusting a
narrow spade into the plowed soil and moving the handle
back and forth. The spade is removed and the little tree
roots pushed to the bottom of the hole. The soil is then
pressed in about the roots and at the same time the little tree
is lifted to make it of proper depth. This plan of planting
is very rapid.

Larger Trees must be planted with more care. The holes
should be larger and deeper than the trees seem to require.
Prune all broken or bruised roots. Prune off some of the
top, to somewhat balance the reduced root surface. Place
loose rich soil in the bottom to come in contact with the roots.
The tree should IOQ a little deeper in the ground than it was
before. Fill the hole with the best soil and tramp it in well,
but leave a layer of rather loose soil on the surface.

EXERCISE. — Arbor Day Planting. — Plan for the planting
of trees and shrubs on the school grounds on Arbor Day
and other spring days. Have the places for planting each
shrub or tree determined in advance. Study the principles
laid down in the reference bulletins and in this book, to make
the school grounds very beautiful.

Ornamental Planting. — One of the best plans for the
planting of trees on Eastern farms, and indeed everywhere,
is to place them where they will lend a degree of beauty to
the farm home. The appearance of the surroundings may

THE PRINCIPLES OF FORESTRY 189

be wonderfully improved by planting in suitable places a
number of well chosen kinds of trees.

Care and Management. — The farm wood-lot should be
managed in such a way as to produce regular harvests of
fuel, lumber, posts, and railroad ties, through a long series
of years. Advancing prices of these materials make the
wood-lot a very profitable part of the farm.

In the proper management of the wood-lot there are a
number of principles to be applied. Some of the most
important are given here:

1. In cutting the crop take those trees that are ripe,
not the young or middle-aged ones.

2. Save the small seedlings and saplings to renew the
forest when the old trees are harvested.

3. Take out the badly shaped and diseased trees and
those of inferior kind. Such are called weeds, and may be
used for fuel.

4. Leave good specimens that are old enough to bear
good crops of seed. These will naturally re-seed the wood-lot
and keep it supplied with young growth.

5. Usually the wood-lot should not be used as a pasture.
This destroys the young trees and the future life of the
forest. The leaf mulch is never good in a pasture.

6. The stand of trees left at any time must be neither
too thin nor too thick, as this affects the shape of the trees
(Figs. 93, 94).

7. Some kinds that send up shoots from the stumps,
called coppice growth, must be thinned to avoid crowding.
Catalpa, chestnut, locust, mulberry, osage orange, and others
send up rapidly-growing coppice from the stumps.

8. Trees damaged by storms should be harvested before
insects and diseases attack them, as these often spread to
healthier trees.

9. Always pile up and burn the waste brush after each
harvest. This will check the spread of insects, and reduce
the danger from fire.

190 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

10. Post up legal notices furnished by the State authorities
to warn all campers and hunters against forest fires.

11. Replant belts destroyed by fire or storm.

EXERCISE. — Kinds of Trees. — Collect twigs of the ever-
greens and other trees and have pupils name them for the
class. They may learn the names at home or elsewhere if
none in the class know them. Students should learn what
ones are most valued for posts, for lumber, and other uses.

REVIEW.

1. What are some of the common uses to be derived from the farm
wood-lot ?

2. In what way is a forest of public benefit ?

3. Tell of the influence of a grove of trees on the temperature of
the soil..

4. How does a forest control soil moisture ?

5. Why should homes be protected by trees ?

6. How are streams affected when forests are cut off ?

7. How does a forest help to prevent a flood ?

8. On what sides of the farmstead should shelter-belts be grown ?

9. What width is suggested for these shelter-belts? Why is one
row of trees not the best ?

10. What things must be considered in deciding what trees to plant ?

11. What tree seeds must be planted or put in moist sand in the fall?

12. Which are planted in early summer?

13. Tell when and how to start seeds of the cone-bearing trees.

14. Give distances apart for planting trees in the wood-lot, and
compare the two plans given.

15. Mention several advantages of mixed planting.

16. How does the distance apart affect the shape of trees?

17. Tell how to plant small seedlings in the wood-lot.

18. Describe the planting of a larger tree.

19. How are wood-lots naturally re-seeded ?

20. What are forest weeds ? What should be done with them ?

21. Why not use the wood-lot as a pasture ?

22. Mention one way of preventing forest insects and diseases.

23. Mention two ways to help prevent forest fires.
References.-- United States Farmers' Bulletins: 516, Maple Sirup

and Sugar; 622, Basket Willow Culture; 700, Pecan Culture; 711, Care
and Improvement of the Woodlot; 715, Woodlot Products ; 744, Pre-
servative Treatment of Farm Timbers ; 788, The Windbreak as a Farm
Asset.

GARDENING 191

/-

CHAPTER XVIII.
GARDENING.

IN the broad sense the word horticulture is used to include
fruit growing, vegetable growing, the production of flowers,
ornamental trees and shrubs, and the uses of these in beau-
tiful landscape effects about lands and buildings. We have
already considered the subject of fruit growing.

Vegetable Gardening. — The growing of vegetables has
been given the name olericulture. Farmers may grow vege-
tables either for home use or for market.

Gardening is always a special line of farming, and may be
called intensive agriculture. Large returns are secured from
small areas. Several hundred dollars per acre may be ex-
pected from a good market garden.

Elements of Success. — To be very successful in growing
good vegetables several conditions are required :

1. The soil must be rich and well drained.

2. It must be supplied with plenty of humus to retain
moisture. It should be manured heavily.

3. Sandy loam is necessary if vegetables are to be ready
for early market.

4. The soil should be plowed deep and the most thorough
tillage of crops practiced.

5. The best methods for the prevention of weeds must
be practiced. Never allow weeds to scatter seed or spread
by other means in the garden.

6. Select good varieties for the table and market, and
have the products ready for all seasons.

7. Prepare produce attractively for market.

8. Gather the best seeds from the best plants for future
planting; or if seeds are purchased, get the best possible.

Planning the Garden. — The best plan for planting the

192 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

garden is to have the crops in long rows, not in "beds."
Have the rows run the longest way of the garden, preferably
north and south (Fig. 96), and have the garden long enough
so that a horse may be used both in plowing the soil and in
cultivating the crops.

Plant the rows far enough apart to allow the use of a
cultivator drawn by horse power. See Table XII in the
Appendix. Much more profit may be gained from a garden
cultivated by horse power. Too much hand weeding and

FIG. 96.-^-School gardening in California with the long rows instead of. small
beds. Irrigation water is just flowing in the center of the garden fr.om the portable
flume or trough along the edge of the garden. (Agricultural Education.)

hoeing is irksome and is too often neglected. Hand labor
is always more expensive than horse labor in the garden.

The perennials or permanent crops, such as asparagus,
rhubarb, horse-radish and many of the sweet herbs, should
be planted along one side of the garden near the bush fruits.
They will then be out of the way when plowing the rest of
the garden (Fig. 97).

Time of Planting. — Some plants used in the garden are
very tender and must not be planted in the open garden
in spring until all danger of frost is over. Others are
quite hardy and may be planted as early as the soil can
be prepared. The following lists may be referred to by
beginners:

GARDENING 193

Hardy vegetables which will endure a frost after sprout-
ing in the spring:

asparagus endive parsnip

beets horse-radish peas

cabbage kale radish

carrot lettuce rhubarb

cauliflower onions salsify

celery parsley spinach

cress potato turnip

Late and early plantings of several of these may be made.
Injured by Frost. — These vegetables will be injured by
a slight frost. They should be planted after all danger of
it is over:

beans of all kinds muskmelon squash

corn okra sweet potato

cucumber pepper tomato

egg-plant pumpkin watermelon

There are several of this group that should be started
earlier than the last spring frost. The seed may be planted
in hot-beds or in window-boxes in the home or school. Egg-
plant, pepper, tomato and sweet potato are usually thus
started in early spring.

Planting Seed. — Such large seeds as corn, beans, peas,
squash, pumpkin, and melons may be covered with two
inches or more of soil. Small seeds must be planted very
shallow. If the soil be rather damp or heavy the planting
should be shallower than in light, dry soil. When seeds are
planted the soils should be pressed firmly down upon them,
so that the soil moisture will soften the seed and cause it
to sprout. For seeds planted in hills it is well to walk on the
covered seeds. After the packing is done with the foot or
with a roller, the rake should be drawn lightly over the top
to leave a loose soil mulch. This saves the moisture by pre-
venting its escape into the air.

Setting Garden Plants. — Those garden plants which are
started indoors for protection should be strong, healthy
plants when set in the garden after the weather is settled.

194

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

Care must be exercised in setting the plants in the garden.
Avoid the hot sun, and if possible do the work in the evening.
Save all the root of the young plant, but a little pruning of
the leaf surface may be made.

Make the hole in the mellow garden soil deep enough
to avoid doubling the root. A dibber is used in the planting.

i i

FIG. 97. — Plan of ten-acre farm-school. The rotation of crops is to be changed to
suit each locality. (Agricultural Education.)

Set the plant a little deeper than it grew before. Water,
if necessary, before filling in all the dirt. Fill in around the
roots and plant with the very finest soil. Press this down
well, but leave a little quite loose on top.

Hot=bed or Cold=frame. — For the starting of early vege-
tables a hot-bed is of great aid. Plants may be grown in it
to be set in the garden later. Early crops of lettuce and

GARDENING 195

radish may be grown during late winter. Make a tight
frame of boards, perhaps six by nine feet, or to suit the size
of the glass (Fig. 98). This should be about two feet deep
on the north side and six or eight inches less on the south
side. This gives a slope to the window sash to catch the
rays of the sun.

The hot-bed should have in the bottom ten inches of
firmly tramped horse manure that has begun to heat a little.
Cover this with five or six inches of rich garden soil.

FIG. 98. — A back-yard hot-bed. These sashes were made for this special purpose
with lap glasses to shed off water.

The cold-frame is made in the same way but does not
have the heating manure in the bottom to warm the soil.
It is usually placed on the south side of a building or high
fence to secure the best effects from the sun's heat.

Care must be exercised not to let the temperature in
these frames vary too much. On cold nights, carpets or
blankets may be thrown over the glass. When the sun is
very hot, the glass is raised a little or taken off to let out
the surplus moisture and hot air (Fig. 99).
e Double Cropping. — Market gardeners often raise two
or more crops on the same ground in a season. This is called
double cropping.

196 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

If the crops follow one after another it is succession*
cropping. Such crops must mature quickly. Early peas or
radish or lettuce may be followed by tomatoes, late cabbage
or celery.

If the crops are grown together in the garden for all or
part of their time the system is called companion-cropping.
One of these crops matures early and the other is started
between the rows before the first crop is harvested (Fig. 100).
An example would be early onions with cabbage. With
some vegetables both the crops may be drilled in the row

FIG. 99. — A market gardener's hot-beds for the forcing ot early vegetables and
starting plants fqr the open ground. (Plant Industry.)

together, as when radishes and beets are planted. The
radishes are harvested by the time the beets need the room.
Early and late celery may be grown together. When the
first crop is sold the late crop is ready to use all the space.

Storing Vegetables. — Vegetables of several kinds may
be stored for winter use. Onions should be well dried before
storing. They are to be handled without bruising, and are
spread in single layers on open shelves in a dry place where
they will not freeze.

Celery and cabbage may be transplanted to a cold cel^*
before the ground freezes. Keep the soil moist about the
roots and they will keep all winter.

GARDENING

197

Beets, turnips, and similar root crops may be covered
with dry dirt in a cellar box. This will keep them from dry-
ing too much.

Tomato vines may be pulled up before heavy frost and
suspended from the ceiling in a cellar or cool room. As the
green tomatoes ripen they may be wrapped in paper and
kept several weeks. Hubbard squashes, pumpkins and
watermelons need to be handled without bruising and kept
in a dry, cold cellar. By storing vegetables for late fall and

FIG. 100. — Harvest in the spring-time, from the school garden. (Agricultural

Education.)

winter use, and starting a hot-bed for late winter and early
spring use, we can supplement the summer garden and have
vegetables for home use all the year.

EXERCISE. — Frost and Rainfall. — Write to the Weather
Bureau, ao Washington, and get the summary of the weather
record for your section. Find the dates when the late spring
frosts and the early fall frosts occur. Look up, also, the
annual rainfall and see how many inches of this rain falls
in the summer months. It is good practice for the members
of the class to keep records of frosts in fall and spring. The
time of planting garden vegetables may be governed by
these records.

198

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

School Gardening. — The principles already given for
vegetable gardening at home may be used in the school
garden. Let the rows be long, and each student may have

-—10 Rods-

nnnuDDDUDDQD&BH

DDDDDDDDBSB

FIG. 101. — Planting plan for a one-acre school-yard, with school garden plots
at the rear. The trees and shrubs are not scattered over the lawns and playground.
(Agricultural Education.)

a whole row or a section across several rows instead of a
small bed. In this way the students can learn to garden as
at home. They may use the drill and wheel hoe if the school
can afford these implements.

GARDENING

The place for the school garden should be handy to the
school but not necessarily on the land owned by the school.
Do not let its location interfere with the school play-ground.
See the location in Figs. 97 and 101.

The garden need not be very large, but let the size be
whatever is available and make the best use of it.

Equipment and Seeds. — Under most circumstances a
fence will be required. A neat woven wire fence wiU keep
out chickens and dogs as well as larger animals.

The school need not own the plow and horse tools. The
horse work will be done by volunteers or by those paid for
doing it. The school may own several good hand rakes and
dibbers, a few hoes, a few spades, lines and stakes for marking
the rows, and some sprinklers for watering. Seeds may be
purchased in small packages, and schools may also get seeds
for school gardening by writing to the Bureau of Plant
Industry, United States Department of Agriculture, Wash-
ington, D. C.

EXERCISE. — Making a Hot-bed. — Allow the larger boys
to make a hot-bed according to directions in this chapter.
(See Fig. 98.) Probably most of the materials may be
brought by students. Two small sashes may be held together
by two strips of wood along the edges. When it is all made,
put in the manure and soil, and when the bed has become
warm plant lettuce and radish seeds. It is well to keep a
thermometer inside as a guide in governing the temperature.

What to Plant. — One plan to follow in the spring work
in the school garden is to plant such crops as will give results
before school closes for the vacation (Fig. 102).

Some of the quickest crops for spring use are lettuce,
radish, early peas, onion sets, spinach, early carrots, and in
some cases there might be time to grow very early potatoes.

The plants that could be left growing in the school
garden through the summer vacation would be late potatoes,
tomatoes, squashes, egg-plants, late beans, late cabbages,
14

200 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

late onions, late beets, turnips, and celery. These should
be taken care of by some one living near who is appointed
for the purpose. The summer garden is too often neglected.
Rhubarb and asparagus may be planted in spring, and when
well established will be a good feature of the spring garden.
The fall season is not a bad time to start a school garden.
At that season we may start vegetables that will live over
winter, such as kale, winter onions, spinach, and others.
The cold-frame may be used to store over winter plants that
were started in the warm fall weather. Lettuce, cabbage, and

FIG. 102. — Children's garden, Red Wing, Minn. (Agricultural Education.)

cauliflower may be kept over and get an early start the fol-
lowing spring.

The hot-bed may be used in the fall to produce quick
crops of lettuce and radishes.

Fruits and flowers should also be used a great deal in
the school garden. Select those which will bear the blossoms
and fruit at a time when the school is in session. Early
strawberries may be used if school is not closed too early.
Plant the permanent crops at one side of the garden to allow
free use of the plow in preparing for annual planting. (See
Fig. 97.)

Garden Experiments. — The school garden in both city
and country should be a place to experiment. Something

GARDENING

201

should be learned besides how plants grow. Such experi-
ments as some of the following may be tried even in window
boxes, or plant trays (Fig. 103) :

Determine the influence of depth of planting as sug-
gested by Fig. 77. But try it in the garden as well as in
the school-room.

B

FIG. 103.— A. The roof garden made by children. The city is a place where
many experiments may be tried.

B. School garden work; a lesson in thinning plants. (Agricultural Education.)

Compare two parts of a row with and without dust-
mulch methods.

Try potatoes by the "level culture" and the "hilling up"
methods.

Grow crops that are not commonly raised in the section;
perhaps some new legumes, as alfalfa, cow peas, soy beans,
or vetch.

The effects of certain fertilizers or of lime may be tried

202 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

on certain rows and other rows next to them left untreated.
In like manner the effects of spraying may be tested.

Many soil experiments may be tried in the garden. Test
the soil with litmus paper for acids. Test the temperature
of the soil in spring and fall.

Cover a square foot with black material, as charcoal,
and another square with lime. Then test the soil again to
see if the sun heats one soil more than the other. Which?

Compare the packing, baking, and crusting effects of
sandy soil and clay soil.

Germination tests may be made to show the benefits of
pressing the soil against planted seeds; to show the effect of
too much water, which excludes the air; to determine the
length of time for sprouting of seeds of different size, as large
and small radish seed, or the tip kernels and middle kernels
of an ear of corn.

Use of Products. — If there be suitable products from the
school garden let them first be used for making up an exhibit
at school. Later they may be sold to get money for the
garden expenses.

School Garden Plots at Home. — Much of the summer
gardening may be done at home by the students. Parents
should be requested to set aside a stated area for use of the
pupils at their homes. On this plot they may grow the crops
desired for school exhibits. Corn and other crops may be
grown in home plots better than at school during vacation.
Let fertilizer experiments, culture trials, and spraying be
conducted by the students on the home plots. Suitable
bulletins and leaflets may be obtained outlining contests
to be carried on during the vacation. The products may be
shown at school in the fall.

Ornamental Gardening. — The appropriate use of trees,
shrubs, vines, greensward, or grass plots, and flowering
plants to adorn a place is sometimes called landscape gar-
dening. Too little thought is given to this by the average

GARDENING 203

person. The school grounds and the home grounds too
often show no ornamental planting.

Principles of Planting. — There should be a lawn on which
green grass is growing thriftily, but which is well trimmed.
This should cover most of the area.

The trees and shrubs should not be planted in rows nor
scattered at random over this greensward. They should be
in groups, masses, borders, and corners (Fig. 104). Large
trees may be in rows along roads or streets.

Fio. 104. — Arrangement of shrubs at the bays and angles of the walks to give a

pleasing picture.

Shrubs may fringe curved walks and driveways, but
are more satisfactory if massed in the angles or curves of
the driveways. Let them form the footing about the
foundations of buildings — hiding the naked feet of the
structure.

Masses of shrubs and trees or vines on trellises should
hide any unsightly structures from view (Fig. 105).

Let all the planting assume grace and natural curvature
of outline. Do not prune the evergreens and shrubs to

204 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

assume grotesque and artificial forms. Such were the fashions
of ornamental gardening many years ago.

The lower branches of evergreens and shrubs should be
left near the ground and carry the pleasing effect of blending
the foliage with the greensward (Fig. 106).

Vines may be used about porches and on trellises over
the corners and in the angles of buildings. They remedy the
angular effects and lend a softening beauty to the rugged
structure.

The School Grounds should come in for their full share
of attention in the study of ornamental planting. Dr. L. H.

Fia. 105. — Vines are here used to cover a glaring white stone building. The mass
of trees at the left is used to hide low buildings.

Bailey has described the conditions on the average rural
school grounds as "bare, harsh, cheerless, immodest." These
are some reasons assigned for children disliking the school.

Let a change be made. Have plans made before the
opening of spring.

EXERCISE. — Plans for Planting. — Make a sketch of the
grounds showing the permanent structures, well, fences,
and any trees now growing. Add to this the proposed plant-
ings for the spring. Indicate these by lines such as are used in
Figs. 97 and 101. Use United States Farmers' Bulletins 185
and 248 to aid in making the plans. The former will suggest
what plants to use. Students may supply these from home,

GARDENING

205

or they may be obtained from the native woods or from
nurseries.

Planting may be done on any suitable days in early
spring. Protect the roots of trees well before they are
planted. The easiest way is to make a little trench, put the

Fio. 106. — Evergreens may be planted in close masses and also as single specimens/

roots in these and cover with dirt until the permanent places
are ready. Evergreens need to be handled with the greatest
care, because they are constantly losing moisture through
the leaves. The soil should not be removed from the roots
at all while being transplanted. They may be set into small
boxes while being carried, or the soil may be kept on by
wrapping with old carpet or sacking.

REVIEW.

1. What is horticulture? Olericulture?

2. Give several elements of success in growing good vegetables.

3. Describe a good plan for the vegetable garden.

4. Name ten garden plants that can stand some frost.

5. Name ten that are injured by frost.

6. Give directions for depth of planting seeds in heavy and light

soils.

7. Tell how to set out tomatoes and other garden plants.

8. What is a hot-bed? A cold-frame?

9. In what two ways is a hot-bed heated?

10. What are the uses of a hot-bed?

11. What is succession-cropping? Give examples.

12. What is companion-cropping? Give examples.

206 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

13. Tell how to store for winter use some of the common vegetables.

14. What is the best kind of fence for the school garden?

15. What are some of the best vegetables for the spring garden at
school or at home?

16. What ones may be planted in spring for fall use?

17. What ones may be started in fall and live over winter?

18. Mention some experiments to try in the school garden.

19. Should shrubs and trees be scattered over the lawn?

20. Where should they be planted?

21. Tell of good uses for vines.

References. — United States Farmers' Bulletins: 218, School Gar-
den; 232, Okra; 254, Cucumbers; 289, Beans; 354, Onion Culture;
433, Cabbage; 434, Onion Seed and Sets. 255 and 647, Home Vegetable
Garden; 494, Lawns; 583, Moles; 642, Tomatoes; 707, Cantaloupes;
818, Small Vegetable Garden ; 839, Canning ; 841, Drying.

CHAPTER XIX.
FRUIT PRODUCTION.

THERE is an active interest in the growing of good fruit.
Almost every farmer is interested in the subject. He may
grow it for his own use if not for market. Fruit may be con-
sidered among the luxuries of the table. As the people
become more prosperous they call for more such luxuries.
Thus the demand for fruit of the best quality is increasing.

The Orchard. — The production of fruit naturally involves
more time than the growth of most farm crops. For this
reason more care must be exercised to have the best condi-
tions possible from the very beginning.

The Orchard Site. — Exposure, soil, and air-drainage are
all-important considerations. If the orchard is somewhat
above the surrounding land, the cold air of frosty spring
nights can drain away. Thus the early blossoms may be
saved from injury. Strong westerly winds are often inju-
rious to trees and, therefore, an easterly or northeasterly
slope is preferred. If a south slope were chosen this might
cause more movement of sap in winter or very early spring.
We should avoid forcing the spring growth too early.

FRUIT PRODUCTION 207

Heavy soils are well suited to the growth of apples and
pears; while the lighter soils are better for peaches, American
plums and grapes.

The propagation of fruit trees at home and in nurseries
has been described. (See Chap. III.)

When to Plant Fruit Trees. — The age of a fruit tree is
counted from the time of its first spring growth after b lidding
or grafting.

Peach and plum trees are usually transplanted to the
orchard after one season's growth in the nursery. They are
then called yearling trees.

Apple trees for orchard planting may be either one or two
years old. Some orchardists prefer the younger trees, while
others want them older.

The planting may be done in late fall or early spring, the
latter being preferred.

Setting Orchard Trees. — As much fibrous root should
be preserved as possible. The roots should be kept from
the wind and sun to prevent drying out. As soon as delivered
at the orchard, heel them in. That means to cover the roots
with soil in a temporary trench.

The holes should be large and some of the best loose dirt
thrown in the bottom before the tree is placed in it. The
roots are to be straightened out, not bent. Pack the richest
dirt well, but leave a mulch of loose soil on top to prevent
evaporation of soil moisture.

In dry weather and in dry climates it is well to haul
water in barrels or tanks and water each tree soon after it is
set. The loose soil is to be put on after the water has soaked
into the soil.

Principles of Pruning. — The pruning of trees is very
essential in securing the best results in fruit growing. Var-
ious parts naturally crowd each other; the fruit is smaller
as a result of this. Twigs or branches become diseased and
should be cut out. Limbs may break in the wind and should

208 PEODUCTIVE FARMING

be sawed off smoothly so the wounds may heal quickly.
In spite of these conditions we find many old orchards that
are neglected and never pruned.

Young Trees. — When a young orchard is set out the roots
should be examined and any broken or split surface made
smooth with a sharp knife. The straggling or extra long
roots should be cut back. The tops should be cut back to
a suitable height. With a one-year-old tree this may cause
the formation of side branches to make the future head of

FIG. 107. Fic». 108.

FIG. 107. — Peach tree headed too high.

FIG. 108. — Low-headed peach tree at pruning time.

the tree. It is best to head trees low enough so they will be
within easy reach of pickers. Compare Figs. 107, 108.
Fig. 109 shows the relative position of the young twigs that
will become the future main branches: (A) represents the
position of these on an imaginary circle drawn around the
tree. Here there are three branches; perhaps four would do
as well. These should be at different heights on the main
stem (B), to avoid splitting away from each other when
there is a heavy wind or load of fruit.

Annual Pruning. — As the trees grow older it is well to
cut back a part of the new growth each year to induce proper

FRUIT PRODUCTION

209

branching of the long shoots. This will induce the formation
of fruit buds, fruit spurs and future fruit crops lower down
on the branches, and the support will be better.

Flo. 109. — A shows the choice limbs which extend in different directions from the
main axis; others are cut away. B shows the same limb of the mature tree. If they
are the same height they will be split off too easily by wind when loaded with fruit

FIG. 110.— Yearling peach tree, before and after pruning.

Cut out some side twigs where they strike across through
the tree top. Prune where they are too thick; such pruning
is equivalent to thinning the fruit, making it larger. Let
in the sunlight. Cut out all dead or diseased or broken parts.
Prune where branches rub together. (Fig. 110.)

210 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

Care in Pruning. — Avoid cutting very large branches if
several smaller cuts will accomplish the same result. Large
wounds are apt to lead to internal decay.

Leave the cut surfaces as smooth as possible. If a saw is
ever used, the wound should be smoothed with a knife.

Cut side limbs as close to the main stems as possible.
Never leave stubs (Fig. 111).

Cover the exposed tissues of the larger cut surfaces with
paint or grafting wax to prevent weathering and decay.

Time to Prune. — Pruning by pinching off small shoots
and disbudding can be practised to very good, advantage in

FIG. 111. — Side limbs should be cut very close to the main stem, so the place may
heal over and get "well." A was properly pruned ; B was pruned too far out.

the summer time (Fig. 112). The main pruning, however,
is done in very early spring before the sap begins to flow.
Some plants, such as grape vines, will bleed or lose much sap
if pruned too late in the spring.

EXERCISE. — Fruit Buds. — Twigs bearing both fruit buds
and leaf buds may be selected from the different kinds of
fruit trees in the neighborhood. Compare these and learn
to recognize fruit buds on trees in winter (Fig. 113).

EXERCISE. — Pruning. — A small tree or upright branch
from the wood-lot may be cut and brought to school. Let
pupils first mark with chalk what limbs and twigs should
be taken off. Then have the pruning done in accordance
with the lesson taught in Fig. 109. Either sharp knives or
special pruning shears (Fig. 114) may be used in this exercise.

FRUIT PRODUCTION

Culture. — The young orchard should be kept growing
rapidly. Considerable organic matter and nitrogen in the
soil will help produce this early growth. To obtain these
materials the best fruit growers sow cover crops in the orchard
each year, to be plowed under in the spring. If these crops
are composed partly of legumes, such as crimson clover and

Flo. 112. — Young peach tree, summer pruned by pinching off small shoots.

winter vetch, they will gather the nitrogen for the young
trees tp use. After the cover crop or green manure is plowed
under in spring the ground is kept well harrowed until mid-
summer (Fig. 115); then the cover crop is again sown. One
influence of the fall cover crop is to check late fall growth,
especially in peach trees, and cause the season's growth to
harden up for winter.

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

The first year or two some orchardists grow a crop for
market between the trees. In such cases this crop should
have clean culture until July or August. Fall cultivation
is not desirable, as the young shoots are more apt to winter-

Flo. 113. — Fruit buds and spurs of four common fruit trees, apple and pear at
left, plum and cherry at right.

kill if kept growing too late. For economy of space peaches
are frequently used as fliers or temporary trees, in rows
between apple trees. The peach trees come into bearing by
the 'third or fourth summer and may be past their prime
the time the apple trees are large enough to fill the
between rows. The peach trees are then cut out.

•mg by
ime by

'fw

FIG. 114. — Several forms of hand pruning shears.

fillers are used, the permanent trees should be^fc from
thirty to forty feet apart, according to variety and Wf

Varieties. — Choose varieties carefully. There are many
good varieties to choose from, in all kinds of fruit. Select
those which are known to do well in your own climate and
on similar soils. Prof. M. A. Blake, of the New Jersey

i

FRUIT PRODUCTION

213

Experiment Station, names the following varieties of peaches
in order of ripening as a suitable list from which to choose:
Carman, Hiley, Champion, Belle of Georgia, Elberta, Fox
Seedling, Edgemont Beauty, Iron Mountain, and KrummeJ
October ^^

VarieMPof apples are classified as summer, fall, and
winter, ^Wording to the season when they are in prime con-

FIG. 115. — Cultivating an orchard with a disk harrow. Where the land is
level enough to prevent bad washing of the soil, orchards should be cultivated
throughout the first half of each summer. Plows and disk harrows may be used in
early spring. These are followed by spike-toothed harrows or light cultivators.

dition of maturity. Good varieties may be chosen from the
following lists :

Summer

Yellow Transparent
Williams Early Red
Duchess of Oldenburg
Maiden Blush
Gravenstein

Fall

Wealthy
Twenty Ounce
Mclntosh Red
Grimes Golden
Jonathan

Winter

Tompkins King
Baldwin
Rome Beauty
York Imperial
Stayman Winesap

The above is merely a suggestive list. The planter is to
be governed in his choice of varieties by the results of other
growers about him in his vicinity. Only one or two varietiea
of each season should be grown for market purposes.

214

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

EXERCISE. — Studying Apples. — In the fall or winter let
students each bring to school good type specimens of apples.
Let each tell the names of the apples he brings. The col-
lection may be studied and the varieties compared so the
students will learn to know many of them. At noon or
recess on the last day of this study let the aptjles be cut
into sections so that they may be sampled as 'to flavor,
texture, and value.

Strawberries. — One of the best fruits for home use, as
well as for market, is the strawberry. There are not many
difficulties in growing this crop successfully. Probably the

FIG. 110. — The hedge-row system of raisin? strawberries. The straw mulch is
kept between the rows until after picking time.

greatest difficulty is in harvesting the crop after it is grown.
Strawberries thrive best in a very rich black sandy loam.

Two Methods of Planting. — There are several methods
of planting strawberries. Two are here described, (1) the
hedge-row system and (2) the matted-row system. In either
system the plants may be set in the early spring, or in
August if the weather is favorable. In the hedge row system
(Fig. 116) the rows are three feet apart and the plants are set
two feet apart in the rows. The runners, which all strawber-
ries send out, are kept cut off with a hoe or wheel cutter;
except that about three runners are placed and allowed to take
root between each two plants, making the plants about six

FRUIT PRODUCTION

inches apart in the row. Frequent cultivation is practised
throughout the first season and the blossoms are picked
off to prevent any fruit from forming. About December
first a clean mulch of straw or other clean litter is spread
over the soil and vines to a depth of two or three inches.
In spring this mulch is parted just a little over the rows to
let the green leaves come through, and the mulch remains
on the soil between the rows until the crop of fruit is all
picked. Then the plants are mown and the mulch and tops
raked and burned. This destroys the diseases and insects.
Thorough cultivation is given until late fall and a mulch is
again put on as before. After two or three crops are obtained,
the plants are plowed under.

In the matted row system of planting, the plants are set
three and one-half or four feet apart and the plants about
two feet apart in the row. Cultivation is given the first
year, but many of the runners sent out by the plants are
allowed to " take root " and form new plants in the
middles or aisles within about one foot on each side of the
mother plants. A mulch should be applied for winter, but
it is again removed in the spring. After the crop is picked
each year the weeds are pulled by hand from the wide matted
row of plants formed by the runners. The narrow strips
are cultivated as before. When two crops are obtained the
vines should be plowed under.

Comparison of the Two Systems. — The hedge-row system
requires more vigilant care to prevent runners from taking
root, and an equal amount of horse power cultivation is
given to the plants. But there is very little hand weeding
necessary, as in the matted row. The mulch kept on
the soil through the berry-forming months keeps the fruit
cleaner; it keeps down weeds, and conserves the soil moist-
ure. In the hedge-row system the berries are larger and
cleaner; the yield of marketable fruit is greater, and the work
of picking is less.
15

216 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

Varieties. — The many varieties of strawberries are
grouped under two heads (Fig. 117), (a) Those with perfect
blossoms, bearing both stamens and pistils, and able to pro-
duce fruit without the aid of pollen from other plants; (6)
Imperfect varieties, those which have no stamens to bear
pollen, having pistils only; these must get their pollen from
other perfect varieties near them. Perfect varieties may be
planted alone. Imperfect varieties must grow by the side of
or near perfect ones which blossom at the same time. The
pollen is carried from one blossom to another by bees and
other insects.

For the choice of varieties and methods of growing
strawberries reference is made to U. S. Farmers' Bulletin 198.

FIG. 117. — Flowers of strawberry, pistillate on left and perfect on right.

Other Small Fruits. — In addition to the fruits which
have just been described, the home fruit garden should con-
tain such fruits as grapes, black and red raspberries, black-
berries, currants, and perhaps gooseberries. These are all so
easily grown that very little special training is necessary for
any one to produce enough fruit for home use. The site for
the home fruit garden should be chosen not far from the resi-
dence. The soil may then be enriched and put in good tilth.

Pruning Small Fruits. — The beginner has greatest diffi-
culty in questions of pruning. When the plants are being
set out, all broken or decayed roots should be trimmed off;
smooth-cut surfaces only should come next to the soil. The
top should be cut back somewhat in proportion to the reduc-

FRUIT PRODUCTION

217

tion of the root area in transplanting. This maintains the
proper balance of root and top in the next season's growth.
Grapes need very little of the old wood left for the fol-
lowing season's growth of vines and crop of fruit. The fruit
is annually borne on shoots of the same season's growth
(Fig. 118). Better grapes are obtained by cutting away con-
siderable of the old wood each winter.

FIG. 118. — The grape-vine showing blossom clusters on the new shoots.

Raspberries and Blackberries both bear their blossoms
and berries on the end of new shoots. These shoots come
from the last year's canes. In summer, after the crop is
picked, cut out all of the old canes, and either head back
or cut away entirely many of the young canes. This heavy
pruning induces the growth of new canes from the crowns.
These will bear the fruit branches next season.

Currants and Gooseberries should not be pruned so much
each year. The fruit is borne on both old and new wood,
and only the very oldest parts need to be cut out.

218

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

The Fruit Crop. — When good fruit has been grown it
should never be handled carelessly. Never shake apples,
peaches, or other kinds of fruit to the ground. Pick the crop

>

Flo. 119. — Picking apples from ladders with sacks hanging from shoulders. The
fruit is not bruised.

FIG. 120.— A. A good way to pack the best peaches for market. The crates
each hold six half-peck baskets, and are called Georgia carriers.

B. Sorting apples. For marketing they are packed in tight boxes and barrels.

carefully, handling it almost as carefully as eggs. Bruised
spots are the first to decay (Fig. 119).

Pack the perishable kinds of fruit— grapes, berries,
peaches, plums, and cherries — in suitable form for immediate

FRUIT PRODUCTION 219

sale in the markets (Fig. 120, A). Peaches, plums, apples, and
pears should be graded according to size, color, and other
market features. More money is thus secured for the whole
crop. When large and small apples are sold in the same
barrel or box they bring only the price of small apples (Fig.
120). Grading machines are in use for sorting peaches or
plums into several sizes; but the hand method is most com-
mon. Study the figures showing methods of picking, sorting,
packing, and marketing.

Summer apples keep only a short time and must be mar-
keted soon after they are ripe. Late fall and winter apples
are often stored for sale or use later in the winter. A good
method is to pack them in closed barrels and store in a cold
cellar at a temperature just a little above freezing. When
exposed to dry cellar air they shrivel badly.

REVIEW.

1. Give reasons for pruning trees.

2. Tell what side limbs to save in pruning young trees just set in
the orchard.

3. What annual pruning should be done in the orchard ?

4. Give several rules to observe in careful pruning.

5. Describe a good orchard site.

6. Describe good culture methods for young orchards.

7. What are fillers in an apple orchard ? Tell how used.

8. Name several varieties of peaches. How many of these have
you seen?

9. Name some good summer apples. Fall. Winter. How many
varieties do you know at sight ?

10. Describe the hedge-row system of growing strawberries.

11. Describe the matted-row system.

12. In what respects is one better than the other ?

13. What are perfect varieties of strawberries? Imperfect ?

14. Why should the grower know to which group any variety
belongs?

15. Give suggestions regarding the pruning of grapes.

16. What pruning is done for raspberries and blackberries ? When ?

References.— U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 154 and 727, Home Fruit
Garden; 181, Pruning; 471, Grapes; 482, Pears; 492, Enemies of Apple;
491, Apple Orchard; 631, 632, 633, Peaches; 643, Blackberries; 644,
Grape Juice; 664, Strawberries; 670, Field Mice; 685, Persimmons; 696,
Citrus Fruits; 702, Rabbits; 709, Muscadine Grapes; 710, Bridge
Grafting; 728, Dewberry; 763, Barkbeetles; 804, Aphids.

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

CHAPTER XX.
INSECTS.

FARMERS) market gardeners, and fruit growers have their
enemies to combat. Their crops and animals are attacked
by numerous species of insects. It is estimated that hun-
dreds of millions of dollars are lost by the American farmers
annually from this cause. Fruit that is infested or deformed
by insects will bring much lower prices than first-class fruit.

Structure. — Insects are six-legged animals with the body
made up of segments or covered with a series of rings. There
are two pairs of wings, except that flies and mosquitoes have
only one pair, and in a few species of all orders the wings
are undeveloped or are entirely wanting, as in the case of
the bedbug. All insects in the adult stage have the body
divided into three parts: the head, the thorax, and the abdo-
men. The head bears the mouth parts, the antennce or
feelers, and the eyes. The thorax, or chest, bears the wings
and three pairs of legs. See Fig. 122d.

Many insects have enormous powers of flight, as in the
cases of the dragon fly and the honey bee. The Rocky
Mountain locust is a migrating insect and probably flies a
hundred miles or more at a single flight. Some of the larger
beetles seldom fly very far at a time.

How Insects Feed. — The mouth parts of. insects are of
two kinds: those fitted for biting, as in grasshoppers and
beetles, and those suited for sucking the food, as in mos-
quitoes, bedbugs, bees, butterflies, and others.

Those with biting mouth parts have two pairs of jaws
with which they cut and chew their food (Fig. 138). They
consume the entire substance on which they feed, as bark,
leaves, fruit, flowers, or other tissues (Fig. 121). Such insects,
when found on the outside of plants, may be killed by the

INSECTS 221

application of some poisonous material to the plants on which
they feed, as when we put poison on potato vines to kill the
potato beetles. When biting insects such as bark beetles
and tree borers feed in protected places it is impossible to
apply the poison, and some other remedy must be found if
possible. To decide what remedy to use we must first know
the kind of mouth parts and the feeding habits of the insects.
Insects with sucking mouth parts usually live upon the
sap of plants or the blood of animals; a few of them, such as
bees, butterflies, and moths, largely feed upon the nectar of
flowers. -The stone-fly and a few others get most of their

FIG. 121. — Bean-weevil, natural size and enlarged, and a much infested bean.
(From Smith's "Insect Friends and Enemies.")

food when in the larva or youngest stage and have no true
mouth parts when they come to the adult stage. Such
insects live only a short time in the adult stage, their chief
purpose being to lay eggs for the next brood; when this is
done they soon die.

The larva form of the butterfly has a biting mouth, while
the adult has a sucking mouth. This is also true of flies and
mosquitoes.

As sucking insects get their food from the inside and not
outside the objects on which they feed, we cannot poison
them. We must resort to more difficult methods of fighting
them.

Contact insecticides are substances which will kill insects
by coming into contact with them or by covering their bodies.

222

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

The manner in which these insecticides kill is interesting.
Insects breathe through pores or openings in the body — not
through noses or mouths. When any material clogs these
breathing pores the result is death. Suitable materials for
this purpose are oils and powders. The oils may be mixed
with other materials to prevent any damage to the plants on
which the insects live. Kerosene emulsion and the miscible
oils are so diluted that no damage will result to the trees
or other plants.

Fio. 122. — Moulting of a grasshopper: a nymph ready to change; b the skin
split along the back and the adult emerging; c continues the process, and at d the
insect is drying out. (From Smith's " Insect Friends and Enemies.")

It must be remembered that these contact insecticides
really smother the insects and must necessarily be applied
when the insects are present. They should not be applied
in advance, as poisons may be, to prevent the attacks of
the insects.

How Insects Grow. — The skin or outside coat of insects
becomes very hard and will not stretch. When a growing
insect has become so large as to entirely fill this coat, a new,
soft coat forms underneath and the old one is shed. This
process of shedding the coat is called moulting (Fig. 122).
The skin is moulted several times during the life of the insect,
and each time the insect becomes larger or changes in other

INSECTS 223

respects. The chief changes with many insects occur in the
last two moults. As insects have no bones or inside skeleton
it is usually considered that the outside skin is really a
skeleton. In this sense they may be said to have an outside
skeleton. Muscles of the insect are attached to this skeleton;^
and sometimes the texture is very hard and horn-like.

Complete and Incomplete Changes. — All insects may
classified on the basis of the amount of change occurr
in their structure during the last two moults. (1) Those
making the least change in structure and appearance during
the last two moults are said to have incomplete changes.
Examples of this are the true bugs and the grasshoppers.
(2) Those making very great changes in structure and out-
side appearance at the times of the last two moults are said
to have complete changes; this is seen in the wasps, bees,
butterflies, moths, beetles, flies, and mosquitoes.

Four Stages in the Life. — Insects with complete changes
may be said to have four stages in their lives: (1) Egg stage,
(2) larva stage, (3) pupa stage, (4) adult stage (Fig. 123).

The larva is the growing stage. It is during this stage
that most of the eating is done; and with some insects enough
is eaten during this stage to last them through the other
stages of life. Some forms of larva will consume several
times their own weight of food in a single day.

The pupa is the resting or sleeping stage for many insects.
The larva has enclosed itself in a case of some kind; some-
times it spins a silken covering called a cocoon, as in the case
of the silk worm and others. During this quiet resting stage
the insects go through a great many changes. The digestive
organs are very much changed; wings are grown and ready
to unfold; legs are present instead of mere claws or pads;
compound eyes are developed; often a very different mouth
is formed; antennae or feelers are grown upon the head. The
pupa stage sometimes lasts over winter, and in other insects
or other broods it may last only a few weeks.

I

bev
inff^X^^

224

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

The adult emerges from the pupa case with the new set
of organs just mentioned. It does not look like the larva
that formed the pupa case about itself, and yet it is the same
individual. When a butterfly comes from its pupa it crawls
upon some object, as a plant stem, where its folded wings may

FIG. 123. — The currant worm: a, adults; b, larvae in various stages of devel-
opment; c, pupa; e, eggs along veins on leaf. (From Smith's "Insect Friends and
Enemies.")

hang downward. The wings gradually unfold or "grow"
and in about twenty or thirty minutes they may be of full
size and firm enough to use in carrying the insect in the air.
The adult never moults and never grows any larger.

Special names are given to some forms of larvae. The

"larVse of butterflies and moths are called caterpillars. The

l^Va of a beetle is called a grub. A maggot is the larval

form of the fly. Mosquito wrigglers are really the larvae.

INSECTS

Nymph is a name given to the larval stage of dragon flies,
stone flies, grasshoppers, and some others having incomplete
life changes.

EXERCISE. — Collecting Caterpillars. — Late in fall let
pupils bring to school caterpillars or other larva? of several
kinds which they may find. Let these be placed in boxes
with wire or cloth gauze tied over them. Place in the bot-
tom of the box some soil and insert in this some of the twigs
with leaves for the larvae to feed upon. If the caterpillars
are found on plants, that will indicate what food they pre-
fer. If they form pupa cases in the cage, these may be kept
in a cool place until the warm weather of spring brings them
out. Or they may be induced to transform to the adult
stage by bringing them into a warm room for a few weeks
in February or March.

EXERCISE. — Collecting Cocoons. — Cocoons and pupa may
be collected during the winter months and brought to school,
where the transformations may be watched.

EXERCISE. — Making Glass Cages for Insects. — Let the
pupils bring a few tin cans or six-inch flower pots, some
large glass chimneys, such as lamp or lantern chimneys,
and cloth netting. Damp soil may be kept in the pots and
the chimneys placed over them with gauze tied on the top
of the chimneys (Fig. 124). The cages may be used at school
for insects that are to be observed by the pupils. Suitable
plants may be kept fresh by inserting the stems in a small
bottle of water inside the cage.

Insect Enemies of Man. — Among the many kinds of
insects there are those that are beneficial and pthers that
are injurious. Some of the injurious insects are found
attacking man himself; others his prepared food and cloth-
ing; and others harass the domestic animals, or attack the
crops in the field, garden, or orchard.

Mosquitoes. — Mosquitoes are not only troj
pests; they are worse than that, because they are carriers

226

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

of the germs of human diseases. Malaria is spread by mos-
quitoes, and in no other way. These malaria organisms
are taken into the system of the mosquito with the blood
sucked from diseased people. In the mosquito's body certain

J? IG. 124. — A. An insect breeding cage, easily made. (Agricultural Education.)
B. Moth and pupa cases mounted on cotton under glass. Male cecropia moth
above, male polyphemus moth below. (U. S. Office of Experiment Stations).

changes take place in the life of the organisms which can
take place nowhere else. If the mosquitoes were extermi-
nated the organisms of malaria could not thrive. When a
mosquito attacks a well person some of the germs of malaria
are apt to be forced into the blood of the person by the sucking
mouth parts of the insect. Thus every new case of malaria
is started.

INSECTS

227

The remedy is easy to understand. If the ponds or pools
of standing water are taken care of, the malarial mosquitoes
will not be able to find suitable breeding places. These
stagnant waters may be drained away, or covered with crude
oil, or fish may be kept in them to feed upon the wrigglers.
Barrels and other vessels of water must be emptied or covered
with oil. Houses should be screened to keep out mosquitoes.
It is believed that the malarial mosquitoes are never active
during the day when the sun is shining,

Fia. 126

FIG. 125. — Malarial mosquito wriggler at left, common at right. (Div.
U. S. Dept. Agric.)

FIG. 126. — Malarial mosquito below, common above. (Div. Ent., U. S. Dept.
Agric.)

It is not difficult to distinguish the malarial mosquitoes
from the other common forms. The position of the wrigglers
in the water when at rest is parallel to the surface of the
water, while the resting position of the common mosquito
wriggler is nearly perpendicular to the surface of the water
(Fig. 125). When the adult malarial mosquito is attacking
a person the body is nearly perpendicular to the surface
attacked; while with the common mosquito it is nearly level
with the surface (Fig. 126).

Yellow fever is also spread by mosquitoes of a particular

228

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

group (Fig. 127). This is a common form in the South,
The bodies of the insects are striped with bands of black
and white. By removing the breeding places of these insects
the yellow fever disease has at times been stamped out in
New Orleans and elsewhere.

EXERCISE. — To Study Mosquito Wrigglers. — Put a glass
of water from a rain barrel, with a few wrigglers in it, on a
window sill. Cover it with a sheet of wire gauze to catch any
that transform. Observe the breathing tubes that are held
up to the surface of the water when the wrigglers are at rest.

Flo. 127. — The yellow-fever mosquito, larva, pupa, adult. (From Smith's "Insect
Friends and Enemies.")

Flies. — The eggs of flies are laid in moist masses of decay-
ing refuse, such as manure, dead animals, slop, and many
kinds of garbage. When the eggs hatch the maggots use
those materials as food and grow rapidly. Then they cover
themselves with .a leather-like pupa case, from which they
emerge in a few days as adult flies (Fig. 128). The time
required for the eggs to develop into adult flies is only a
few days. A few of the adult flies live over winter and these
are the ones that start the first broods when warm weather
returns. By the end of the summer the number of flies
has increased enormously.

INSECTS

229

Diseases of man are carried on the feet and mouth parts
of house flies (Fig. 129). The swarms of flies seeking suitable
places to lay their eggs visit all kinds of filthy places. Again

FIG. 128. — A Tachinid fly: its eggs on body of caterpillar, larva and pupa. (From
Smith's "Insect Friends and Enemies.")

these same flies visit the kitchens and dining rooms in search
of food. Germs of disease, as well as others, are carried
from the filthy places to the food over which they crawl.
House flies may well be called typhoid flies.

FIG. 129.

— The house fly: larva with details at right, pupa
Smith's "Insect Friends and Enemies.")

case at left. (From

Two good remedies are easy to apply. (1) Clean up the
near-by garbage heaps and filthy places where flies could
breed. Sprinkle diluted carbolic acid all about such places

230

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

frequently. This will help to keep flies away from there and
will kill many of the germs of typhoid fever and other dis-
eases which might be there. (2) Screen the kitchen and
dining-room well to keep all flies away from the human food.
The Clothes Moth. — These insects lay their eggs in stored
furs, woollen clothing, and other such places. The young
eat the garments or materials in which they find themselves,
thus doing much damage (Fig. 130). The adult moths do
no damage except to start new broods of young. There
are several remedies. Probably the best is to keep the adult

Fio. 130. — A clothes moth, with its caterpillar in and out of case. (From Smith
" Insect Friends and Enemies.")

moths away from the stored materials by keeping these
articles securely closed up in tight boxes or moth-proof bags,
in which there is some odor not agreeable to the moths. Such
odors are tar, camphor, naphtha, tobacco, and red cedar.
Moth-proof bags may be made of new muslin, sewed well
and closely tied after articles are put in. Clothes moths
have no taste for cotton goods. Articles will be well pro-
tected from moths if kept in a trunk in cold storage. The
low temperature prevents the development of the insects.

Grain Moths. — The adult grain moth is seen flying about
homes or places where corn or other grain has been stored.
Its habits and its size cause it to be mistaken for the adult

INSECTS 231

clothes moth. The eggs are laid on corn and the small grains.
The larva eats its way into the kernels, and emerges only
when it has transformed to the adult stage. When these
insects are in great numbers they do much damage.

Stored grain may be treated by evaporating a dish of
bisulphide of carbon on top of the bin of grain. The fumes
settle into the crevices and kill the insects (see Appendix).
The bins should be made as close or air-tight as possible
during this treatment. Corn in open cribs is seldom troubled
with grain moths, except in warm climates, as the cold of
winter checks their breeding.

Chinch Bug. — This is a showy insect, in spite of the fact
that it is less than one-fifth of an inch long, the body being
nearly black and the wings white. The chinch bug is a true
bug, with a sucking mouth, and has a continuous growing
stage from the egg to the adult form. The insects attack
wheat, corn, and other grains and grasses, sucking the sap
and often destroying the crop or reducing the yield. It lives
over winter in the adult stage. A single female can lay sev-
eral hundred eggs which soon hatch and the numbers become
very great by midsummer. After a wheat crop is killed or
has ripened they hunt for other succulent crops, such as corn.
As only the adults can fly, the greatest numbers have to
migrate to the next field by crawling. Efforts have been
successfully made to stop their march from one field to
another by plowing deep furrows in which tar, kerosene, or
other materials may be used to destroy the insects. It is
also well to practise rotation of crops, and to plow the fields
in fall in places where the chinch bugs are abundant.

Potato Beetles. — The Colorado, or ten-lined, potato
beetle is known well by all who raise potatoes (Fig. 131).
It passes the winter in the pupa stage, and the adult, appear-
ing in spring, lays clusters of yellow eggs on the under side
of potato leaves early in the season. These hatch into small,
soft, red grubs which eat the leaves. The best remedies
16

232

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

are sprays of poison on the growing crop. Paris green or
arsenate of lead is mixed with water or with Bordeaux
(bor-do') mixture and sprayed on the vines two or three
times at intervals of a few weeks. The Bordeaux mixture
(see Appendix) is used with the poison on potatoes for several
reasons. It prevents the injury to leaves by the strong
poisons. It holds the poison on the plants longer. It helps
to prevent the early and the late blight diseases of potatoes.

d

FIG. 131. — Colorado

(From Smith

potato beetle: a, egg; 6, larvae; c, pupa; d, adult beetles.
>m Smith's "Insect Friends and Enemies.")

The Codling=moth or Apple Worm. — The worst insect
enemy to apple growing is the codling-moth, the larva of
which is the apple worm. The markets of the cities do not
w^int wormy apples. The insect which thus destroys the
apple crop is shown in Fig. 132. The larva spins a nest or
case in the crevices about the trunk of the tree where it lives
over winter. The adult emerges in warm spring weather,
and lays eggs in the blossom end of the little apple just after
the petals fall from the tree (see Fig. 150 C). The larva eats
its way into the fruit and feeds about the center. When

INSECTS

233

fully fed, it crawls out and lets itself down co the ground by
a silken thread. Later a second brood may appear, to attack
the fall and winter varieties of apples, the eggs being laid
on the outside of the half -grown fruits.

The best remedies for the apple worm are poison sprays.
These may be applied along with other sprays to prevent
such diseases as apple-scab and apple-rust. Three pounds
of arsenate of lead are mixed with fifty gallons of the other

FIG. 132. — Codling-moth and its work: a, the injury done; b, place where
was laid; e, larva; d, pupa; i cocoon; /, g adults. (From Smith's "Insect
s and Enemies.")

spray material and sprayed on the tree in the form of a fine
mist just after the petals fall. The other spray material
may be either lime-sulfur or Bordeaux mixture. The calyx
cup of the apple should be open when the poison is applied.
This condition is seen in Fig. 150 C, and the calyx after it has
closed is shown in Fig. 150 D.

The Curculio of Plums and Peaches. — This is the insect
which makes certain stone-fruits wormy. The peach, plum,
cherry, apricot, and others are often attacked by it. This
insect is a true beetle, but it has the jaws at the end of a

234 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

long snout or beak (Fig. 133). When the fruit is very small
the adult beetle cuts a crescent-shaped opening in the skin
with its jaws, and lays an egg in it. A grub-like larva hatches
from this and burrows into the fruit, eating its way to the
seed. This attack is likely to cause the peaches or plums to
fall to the ground. When the larva is fully fed it leaves the
fruit and forms its pupa in the ground.

Apples, pears, and peaches are frequently bitten by the
adult curculio and the wounds thus formed may make the
fruit become deformed, as in Fig. 134.

Fio. 133. — Plum-curculio: a, larva; 6, pupa; c, adult; d, beetle at work on a young
plum, showing a crescent mark. (From Smith's "Economic Entomology.")

It is difficult to poison the larva because it is inside the
fruit. The adult insect may be poisoned by spraying while
it is feeding upon buds and young leaves in the orchard
before laying the eggs. Another time to poison the adult
is when the fruit is being eaten to make a place for the eggs.
Hogs, sheep, and poultry in the orchard, during the time the
early fruits are falling, will destroy many of the curculio
larvae. This will probably reduce the injury next season.
Some fruit growers spread sheets or other receptacles under
the trees and jar the trees to shake off the beetles before they
lay their eggs. They lie quiet after being jarred off and are
easily gathered up and destroyed. This should be done very

INSECTS

235

early in the morning and repeated every day or two for about ^

two weeks just before the eggs are laid. V ^ Kj!

Peach Tree Borer. — This insect does more injury throu jn- v
out the plum and peach growing districts than any other
insect. The adult is a beautiful moth, resembling a wasp in

FIG. 134.

135.

FIG. 134. — Peaches injured by curculio.

FIG. 135. — Trunk of peach tree showing a method of keeping away peach borers.
(Experiment Station, N. J.)

appearance. The eggs are laid during the summer upon the
bark near the surface of the ground. The little borer or grub
begins eating under the bark of the trunk and becomes
nearly three-fourths of an inch long by fall. A gummy for-
mation indicates the presence of the borer. The watchful
grower will also find saw-dust-like borings escaping in some

236 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

places near the surface of the ground. Very frequently the
insects work in the sap wood just below the surface of the
ground.

Washing the trunks with lime-sulfur in the spring and
summer is tried by many growers. It will probably protect
the orchard from a large per cent of the borers. The more
common and more certain remedy is to dig into the trees
for borers in September or October and again in April or
May. This is done by digging the dirt from the trunks of

Flo. 136. — The flat-head apple-borer: a, larva; b, pupa; d, adult.
(From Smith's "Economic Entomology.")

the trees a few inches below the ground level. After a few
days dig with a knife or wire for the borers under the bark
wherever the gum or borings may be seen.

Grafting wax may be rubbed over these wounds, and the
dirt thrown back and heaped up around the tree. Heaping
up the dirt will cause the next brood to work a little higher
where they can be more easily discovered.

Apple Tree Borers. — There are two kinds of beetles that
attack the trunk of the apple tree and eat in the wood: the
flat-headed and the round-headed borer. Their work is
similar, but the grubs and beetles are quite different, as
shown in Figs. 136, 137. The flat-headed borer attacks a

INSECTS

237

great many trees besides apple trees. The round-headed
borer is a serious enemy of the apple and quince and is
sometimes found in pear trees. The grubs of these borers
live in the tree trunk about three years and then change to
the pupa stage a few weeks before emerging as adults.

The best remedy is to keep the adults from laying their
eggs on the trunks. This is done by tying tar paper or
wire gauze about the trunks. The bottom of the material
should be slightly in the ground and the top securely tied
to prevent the beetles from crawling in. These protectors

FIG, 137. — Round-head apple-borer: a, larva; b, pupa; c, adult. (From Smith's
"Economic Entomology.")

should be renewed before the egg-laying season of June and
July. Above these screens the trees should be whitewashed
or sprayed with lime-sulfur.

The San Jose Scale. — These insects were probably
introduced into this country from China and were first
found in America near the city of San Jose (Ho-sa'), California.

This insect is probably the worst enemy of fruit trees.
It has sucking mouth parts, and not only sucks the sap
from leaves and fruit but also from the more tender
branches.

The breeding season of the insect lasts throughout the
warm summer months, being checked only by frost. Large

238 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

numbers of young are produced by a single insect, each one
of which in turn begins to produce young in five or six weeks
from birth. It is thus seen that where healthy insects of
this species are not killed before the warm weather begins,
the numbers may be so great by fall as to destroy or seriously
threaten the trees of the vicinity.

These scale insects thrive not only on orchard and nursery
fruit trees, but are also found on hedges, some kinds of shade
trees, and roadside shrubs. This makes it difficult to totally
destroy the pest in any section where it has become firmly
established.

Remedies. — As this pest does not eat the tissues of the
plant, poisonous sprays are not effective. The covering with
which the insect naturally protects itself makes it a very
difficult enemy to fight. A few good spray materials have
now been found. Soluble oil is on the market under different
trade names; in these the oil and water are caused to mix
readily by use of certain chemicals.

Lime-sulfur sprays are very successful in combating the
San Jose scale. One application is made in winter or early
spring before the buds of the trees begin to swell. Another
application is sometimes made in June or July when the
young, tender insects are abundant. This summer spray is
made very weak to avoid danger to the leaves.

The early spring spraying and also the summer spraying
will be very valuable as a means of combating several dis-
eases such as peach scab and apple scab, and brown rot of
peaches. Thus the fighting of the San Jose scale is not, in
itself, a very serious problem for the fruit grower.

EXERCISE. — Insect Specimens. — Let pupils bring to school
at any time insects which are injurious to plants in the home
garden or elsewhere. The leaflets issued by the Bureau
of Entomology at Washington will be helpful in the study
of the insects thus collected.

EXERCISE. — Preserving Specimens. — Insect specimens

INSECTS 239

*

may be killed by placing them in poison bottles for a few
hours. These bottles should have wide mouths and good
corks. A piece of cyanide of potassium, which is such a
deadly poison that even breathing its fumes will kill insects
and other animals, may be fastened in the bottle by pouring
over it some wet plaster-of-Paris. A piece of the poison as
large as a hickory-nut is enough for a four-ounce bottle. Let
the plaster dry and then cork up the bottle. After insects
have been killed they may be pinned into a cigar box, in the
bottom of which has been fastened a sheet of thick corru-

FIG. 138.: — A caterpillar-hunting ground beetle and its larva. (From Smith's
"Insect Friends and Enemies.")

gated paste-board. A good way of preserving large butter-
flies, moths, and other large insects is shown in Fig. 124 B.
Beneficial Insects. — Not all insects are harmful. There
are indeed a great many groups that are beneficial in one way
or another. The silk worm produces a product worth many
millions of dollars annually in the commerce of the world.
Honey bees store large quantities of honey used as human
food, and also carry pollen from blossom to blossom, thus
increasing the crops of fruit. The ground beetle (Fig. 138),
tiger beetle, and some other insects prey upon other injurious
insects and thus act as a balance in Nature's forces for the
control of the enemies of man. The spotted lady-beetle (Fig.
139) destroys many thousands of the San Jose scale insects.

240 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

There are certain parasitic insects living on the more
injurious forms and this aids materially in the control of
insect pests. (See Figs. 140, 141.)

EXERCISE. — Parasites of Insects. — In the breeding cages
or in the boxes where cocoons are kept, watch carefully for
the indications of parasites. Some of them may be similar
to one or more figures in this chapter.

Toads as Insect Destroyers. — The common toad, found
in the garden, lives almost entirely upon insects. He eats
enormous numbers, most of which are of the harmful kinds.

FIG. 139. — 15-spotted lady-beetle: a, larva; 6, pupa; d-g, adult varieties. (From
Smith's "Insect Friends and Enemies.")

Toads have no harmful habits. They should be protected
because of the good they do. A single full-grown toad will
do several dollars' worth of good in a garden each season.

BIRDS AND THEIR VALUE TO AGRICULTURE.

Birds are one of the most effective means of retaining the
so-called " balance in Nature." That is, it may be seen that
in certain seasons, or in places where insects are unusually
destructive, more birds than usual will be found, busily eat-
ing up the insects. Or if the weed crop is very abundant the

INSECTS

241

birds will congregate in larger numbers to feast upon the
seeds.

Food Habits of Birds. — Through the Biological Survey
of the United States Department of Agriculture, the food
habits of very many species of birds have been studied and
published, so that farmers, and everyone else for that mat-
ter, may know exactly to what extent we are indebted to the

FIG. 140. — Digger-wasp carrying a cicada to its home.

FIG. 141. — Sphinx caterpillar covered with cocoons of parasites.

"Insect Friends and Enemies.")

(From Smith's

birds for their help in keeping down the numbers of destruc-
tive insects and the weed pests that would soon literally take
the country, were it not for the activities of the birds.

Through the studies made in the Biological Survey,
which have covered a long period of years, it has been deter-
mined that very few species of birds can actually be called
harmful to the interests of man.

Harmful Birds. — Three hawks — Cooper's hawk, the
sharpshinned hawk, and the goshawk — are the three that
commit the most depredations against chicken yards, and

242 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

kill many other useful birds. These three should be learned
and killed on sight.

Other Hawks, including the red tailed hawk, red shoul-
dered hawk, marsh hawk, Mississippi kite, Swainson's hawk,
American rough-legged hawk, sparrow hawk and broad
winged hawk, are all very useful, as their diet consists mainly
of rats, mice, and other small creatures that are very destruc-
tive to grain crops. Owls are also included in this list with
the useful hawks. It is said that hawks work by day and
owls by night, so that these birds work for the farmer twenty-
four hours every day. Nothing could be more friendly and
helpful than that. Farmers in turn can do no less than
protect these birds.

Some Robin Arithmetic. — The following paragraphs are
quoted from William Rittenhouse: "A pair of robins eat
two worms or insects every minute, all summer long, and
also raise one or two broods of young robins to do the same.

"We count that the robin starts to look for the early
worm at five o'clock in the morning and keeps up his search
until five in the afternoon, that makes twelve hours, or seven
hundred and twenty minutes — 1,440 worms a day for the
pair of birds. For at least four months the robins stay with
us. Robins live about fifteen summers if their enemies —
usually men or boys with guns — let them alone to do their
work. So in one lifetime a pair of robins could destroy 2,592-
000 bugs and worms.

"Worms and insects when not interfered with, increase
at a frightful rate. One pair of potato bugs, if unmolested,
will increase to 55,000,000 in a single season. But one bird
in a minute, can gobble up one of these parent bugs, and thus
prevent the 55,000,000 from ever existing. To keep down
insect life is the robin's great occupation, and its foraging
begins early in the spring. Thus it destroys the early bugs
which, if let alone, would lay countless eggs and prepare
endless trouble for the farmer later on.

INSECTS 243

"A pair of robins are the farmer's private detectives.
They guard his trees twelve hours a day. Yet some farmers
object because robins eat cherries. It would pay every
farmer to plant a group of cherry trees for the robins, in order
to gain a band of industrious helpers all summer."

It is not alone the robins that are valuable to agricultural
interests. The following is a partial list of birds that are
friends to man:

All sparrows except the English; all swallows; siskin; kill-
deer; flicker; nighthawk; grackle; pheasant; quail; grosbeak;
bluebird; nut-hatch; blue jay; thrushes; wren; catbird; war-
bler; meadow lark; blackbirds; oriole; cardinal; mocking bird;
chickadee; all woodpeckers, and many more.

What Birds Eat.— United States Farmers' Bulletin 755,
"Common Birds of Southeastern United States in Relation
to Agriculture/' gives a list of 66 birds which are known
enemies of the cottori obll-weevil. It also says that 128 kinds
of birds eat wireworms, an enemy of corn. 55 species de-
stroy billbugs, another corn pest; 43 kinds feed upon army
worms ; 24 kinds eat chinch bugs ; 25 kinds are especially fond
of the large clover leaf hoppers. The small clover leaf wee-
vils furnish food for 74 species of birds. And so on through
the long list of insect enemies of farmers, gardeners and fruit
raisers.

It is estimated that insects damage and destroy about
$700,000,000 of crops annually in the United States. Prob-
ably no one has estimated or could estimate the saving to
agriculture by birds feeding on insects and weed seeds.

Amount of Seeds Eaten. — If those birds which eat
mainly weed seeds, each consume one-half ounce of seeds
daily, it is easily estimated that in a large agricultural State,
such as Illinois or Iowa, the annual food supply of these
birds would amount to hundreds of tons of weed seeds.

Methods of Encouraging Birds. — Plant shrubbery for
nesting places. Dense patches of brambles make good hid-

244 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

ing places, where birds may be safe from stray cats and dogs.
Plant berry-producing shrubs and vines for food. Spice
bush, barberry, mulberry, blackberry, hackberry, and thorn-
apple are good. Also many others.

Make bird houses out of tin cans or boxes and place
them where the birds will not be afraid to nest hi them. Pro-
tect the trees in which nests are found, with sticky flypaper
to keep off stray cats.

Feed the birds in winter and furnish them drinking places
in summer.

Bird Enemies. — Probably the worst enemies of birds
are stray cats, bird dogs, hunters, and thoughtless boys.
The cats should be killed. The dogs should either be kept
tied or killed. The boys should be taught to love and pro-
tect the birds instead of robbing their nests and shooting the
birds. Hunters should be controlled by better laws.

Laws protecting birds should be more stringent. When
farmers become fully aroused to the importance of birds in
relation to agricultural interests, they will see to it that hunt-
ing is prohibited, and that all seasons are " closed" for all
game birds. They should be protected and encouraged in
every way possible, as they are among the farmer's best
friends and are one of the greatest assets to the successful
raising of crops.

Among the worst enemies of birds are bird dogs. They
are bred for hunting birds and do it instinctively, so cannot
be blamed. The people who keep them and allow them to
run at large are the ones at fault. They are also the ones
who suffer most, perhaps, as a dog will naturally roam about
his master's place first, and destroy the nests of the birds
which he can reach.

The following birds nest on, or near, the ground: bobo-
link; meadow lark; chewink; quail; pheasant; prairie chicken;
Harris sparrow; lark sparrow; white throated sparrow; tree
sparrow; red winged blackbird, and veery. Their nests are

INSECTS 245

very liable to be broken up by prowling bird dogs, or worth-
less curs, which eat the eggs.

Hunters often shoot useful birds merely for the sake of
killing something. Of course all the game birds which are
bagged by hunters are a direct loss to the farmers, as they
have just that many less friends who would help them in
destroying insect and weed enemies.

EXERCISE. — Count the number of cats in your school
district. Estimate the loss to the farmers if each cat destroys
five nests each year for five years.

Let each pupil make a bird house and put it up in the
school yard or at home.

Report on watering places for birds in the locality, either
natural or artificial. Suggest schemes for watering the birds.

Have pupils observe the habits of birds and report on
such things as feeding, watering, nest building materials, and
nesting locations.

One bird dog was known to have destroyed 21 quails'
nests on one farm in one season. If each nest averaged 15 eggs,
how large a flock of quails were destroyed by that one worth-
less dog? Each quail would have eaten at least 100 potato
bugs and at least that number of many other kinds of insects
in one day. Figure out how many insects these quails
might have destroyed in one season, if they had all lived.
Which do you think would have been the most valuable to
the farmer, the quails or the dog?

REVIEW.

1. Describe the structure of insects, as to body, wings, legs, and
parts on the head.

2. Tell of the two kinds of mouth parts of insects.

3. Why cannot insects that have sucking mouth parts be poisoned?
How are they usually controlled?

4. Tell what you can about the skeleton of an insect.

5. Tell how insects grow.

6. Tell what Js meant by the terms complete change and incom-
plete change in the development of insects.

7. Name the four stages in the life of insects hfiving complete
change.

246 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

8. Tell what you can about the larval stage.

9. Tell what you can about the pupal stage.

10. To what forms of larvae do these terms apply : caterpillar, grub,
maggot, wriggler, nymph?

11. Tell how mosquitoes develop malaria and impart it to man.

12. Tell two differences between malarial mosquitoes and others.

13. Tell of three more ways of preventing the spread of human
diseases by mosquitoes.

14. Tell how mosquito wrigglers breathe.

15. Describe the life development of the house fly.

16. How do flies spread typhoid and other human diseases?

17. What are the remedies to be used against the fly?

18. Tell how to prevent damage from clothes moths.

19. Describe the damage done by grain moths.

20. In what ways are chinch bugs injurious?

21. What are the different means of control?

22. How are potato beetles controlled?

23. Describe the life and work of the coddling-moth.

24. Tell at just what time to spray to fight the spring brood. Why?

25. What injury is done by the curculio beetles?

26. What are some of the ways of fighting it?

27. Tell how the peach tree borer may be found.

28. What are the remedies for this insect?

29. Name two kinds of apple tree borers and tell what harm they do.

30. Why is it so difficult to control the San Jose scale?

31. What two materials are used to spray the scale? When used?

32. Name some groups of beneficial insects and tell of their benefits.

33. How do birds help farmers?

34. How have we learned what birds are our friends?

35. What three birds are actually harmful? Why?

36. What do hawks and owls eat?

37. What do most other birds eat?

38. What birds are most common in your locality?

39. What birds, if any, remain over winter?

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 127, Important Insecticides;
543, Common White Grubs; 650 and 723, Scale insects; 657. Chinch
Bug; 662, Apple Tent Caterpillar; 668, Vine Borer; 675, Apple Tree
Borer; 691, Grasshoppers; 701, Bagworm; 708, Leopard moth; 739,
Cutworms; 725, 733, on Wireworms; 721, Rose Chafer; 731, Army
Worm; 741, Alfalfa Weevil. On household pests: 626, 627, 658, 659,
679,681, 683, 699, and 740; 513, 755. Birds; 766, Cabbage Worm.

CHAPTER XXI.

DISEASES OF PLANTS— SPRAYING.
Diseases of Plants. — There are many diseases which
attack plants grown in field, garden and orchard. These are
mainly: (1) Those produced by fungous growth of minute
plants, on tissues of useful plants, examples of which are rust
on leaves and smut on grain. (2) Those produced by bacteria,

DISEASES OF PLANTS— SPRAYING 247

as in the case of pear blight and peach yellows. (3) Those
due to poor drainage or poor soil or unfavorable climate;
these would not be contagious.

Prevention of Plant Diseases. — The spores or organisms
from which the fungous diseases develop may be killed by
special spray materials. These should be killed before they
get into the leaves or other parts of the plants. Spraying is
a means of preventing disease rather than curing it. The
spray materials are made just strong enough to kill the dis-
ease germs and weak enough not to harm the useful plants
that are sprayed. (See Appendix for formulas of spray
mixtures.)

EXERCISE. — Studying Plant Diseases. — Specimens of va-
rious diseases found on fruits, vegetables, trees, and other
plants may be brought to school. Let the pupil name all
of these possible. If there are any that seem to be serious
diseases in the neighborhood at the time they may be re-
ported or specimens sent to the State Agricultural Experi-
ment Station of the State. Ask that Station for special
bulletins telling how to control the particular disease.

Brown Rot of Peaches. — This disease causes decay of
the fruit and the blighting of the twigs of peaches, plums,
and cherries. Fig. 142 shows the rot on peaches. The trouble
with peaches is confined almost exclusively to the early varie-
ties. After the rotted fruits have become dry they cling to
the trees, and thus hold the spores over until the next year.
Remove all such dried fruits from the trees in the winter. The
sprayings made to control San Jose scale will help to keep
this disease in check.

Peach Scab or Black Spot. — This disease gives the fruit a
sooty appearance, because of the presence of grayish black
spots. The scab may become so bad as to cause the fruits
to crack open. It is thought that this disease is worse
in orchards where the air-drainage or ventilation is poor.
Spray with the self-boiled lime-sulfur mixture, given in the
17

248

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

Appendix as the 8 — 8 — 50 formula, just after the blossom
calyx is shed from the young fruits (Fig. 143). Repeat this
spray once or twice at intervals of three weeks.

Peach Leaf Curl. — In early spring, when this disease
occurs, the leaves become thickened, curled, and distorted
(Fig. 144). The diseased leaves turn brown and fall off.
The loss of leaves from this cause may be very severe in the
worst cases. The spraying for scale insects will usually
keep the leaf curl within control.

Fio. 142. — Brown-rot disease of the peach. Fresh fruit above, last year's fruit
clinging to twigs. (Experiment Station, N. J.)

Peach Yellows. — The exact cause of this disease is not
yet definitely known, although a great deal of study has
been given to it. The real cause may be due to some form
of bacteria, as the disease is very contagious in the peach
orchard. In the earlier stages of the disease the leaves on
some shoots are very abundant and small. Fig. 145 shows
the appearance in spring. Wiry shoots are sent out from
the main branches. The leaves may even become yellowish-
green in color, and quite sticky. In advanced stages of
yellows the fruit appears ripe much ahead of its time; the

DISEASES OF PLANTS— SPRAYING

249

skin and flesh are spotted and blotched with red, the flavor
being bitter or insipid. The best remedy is to cut out the
diseased tree as soon as detected, and burn it. Disinfect
instruments used to help prevent spread to healthy trees.

Little=Peach. — This disease of the peach is somewhat
like yellows, the leaves becoming yellowish-green and drop-
ping as in yellows. But there is one important difference.
Instead of appearing ripe too
early, the fruits remain very small
and are green much too long.
(See Fig. 146.) The diseased
trees should be burned as in the
case of yellows.

Apple Scab. — This disease of
the apple is very bad in nearly
all regions where the crop is
grown for market. It is very
similar to the scab disease found
on pears. It attacks both leaves
and fruit. This disease appears at
blossom time and soon after, caus-
ing large numbers of the small
apples to drop from the tree.
The fruits that cling on may be-
come affected and will be small,
irregular, rough, and blotched.
Irregular, roughened, brown

FIG. 143. — Time for first sum-
mer spray on peach and plum, as
the calyx is being shed from young
fruit. (Experiment Station, N. J.)

spots, more or less running together, are formed on the sur-
face of the apple. The roughened or scabby area may cover
all one side of the apple and even cause it to crack. It is from
this scabby appearance that the disease takes its common
name. The disease on the leaves causes sooty spots on the
under side. Later these leaves become yellow and drop from
the tree, in severe cases taking most of the leaves from
the tree.

250

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

This disease is prevented by spraying in early spring
before the buds swell, with lime-sulfur preparation. This
is repeated with a weaker solution just before the blossom
buds open, and again just after the petals of the blossoms
fall to the ground.

FIG. 144. — Leaf-curl disease. Healthy twig on right, the disease prevented by
lime-sulfur spray. (Experiment Station, N. J. )

EXERCISE. — Studying Apple Scab. — Have some one bring
to school a few samples of scabby apples from the grocery
store or home orchard. The class should all become familiar
with the ways in which the fruit is affected by the scab.

Apple Rust. — Leaves attacked by apple rust appear as
though covered in blotches by a heavy coat of iron rust. The
whole under surface may present a rusty appearance (Fig.
147). The trouble may spread to tender twigs and even to

DISEASES OF PLANTS— SPRAYING

251

the fruits in some cases. The life of this disease is interesting,
and a knowledge of it leads to the proper remedy.

The apple rust fungus lives a portion of its life upon the
apple tree or the quince tree, as already described, but it
appears in a very different form upon red cedar trees that
may be growing near the orchard. The growth on the cedar
tree is popularly known as cedar apple. These cedar apples
in spring appear as large masses of yellow or orange-colored

FIG. 145. — Twigs of peach in spring-time. Two at right affected with "yellows,"
healthy twigs at left. (Experiment Station, N. J.)

jelly clinging to the branches of the cedar tree; in winter they
are small, brown or purple galls. These enlarge next spring.
It is from these cedar apples that the disease spreads to the
orchard.

If this disease is very prevalent in the orchard, it may be
best to remove the cedar trees near the orchard. This would
greatly check or stamp out the disease. Spraying as for
apple scab will perhaps aid a little in checking the apple rust,
but is not a complete remedy.

252

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

EXERCISE. — Cedar Apples. — In the fall or winter stu-
dents may find specimens of the winter form of the cedar
apple, above described, on the cedar trees near apple orchards.
If these are found use the specimens to illustrate the lesson
n apple disease.

Potato Scab. — On the surface of Irish potatoes in the
'winter time may be found scabby-looking spots or areas
caused by the potato scab fungus. The disease when very
bad produces deep depressions or pits in the surface of the

FIG. 146.— Disease called "little-peach." Healthy fruit above.
(Experiment Station, N. J.)

tubers. The crop yield may be greatly reduced by the
attacks of this disease. The spread of the disease may be in
several ways:

1. The germs of potato scab will grow more rapidly
when there has been a heavy application of fresh stable
manure to the field just before the potatoes are planted. It
is better to manure the field one year in advance if possible,
or to use some well-rotted manure.

2. When lime is applied to the soil the disease will likely
be worse on the potato crop. Green manure plowed under
in preparing the field for potatoes will help to counteract
this action of the lime.

3. Soils from which a very scabby crop of potatoes has

DISEASES OF PLANTS— SPRAYING 253

been harvested recently will probably cause the next crop
to be diseased in like manner. Rotation of crops is, therefore,
advisable. Do not use beets and other root crops in this
rotation, as the scab disease also attacks them.

4. Seed potatoes are usually more or less scabby or have
the germs of the disease upon them. If these are planted
without treatment the disease will likely be introduced into
the soil.

The treatment of seed potatoes to prevent the planting of
scab disease is now a very cheap and simple process. The

FIG. 147. — Apple rust on leaf and twig.

seed potatoes are soaked for two hours in a solution of forma-
lin. This solution is made by mixing one pint of the strong-
est formalin in thirty-two gallons of water. This kills the
disease germs but does no harm to the potatoes. The liquid
may be used for several sacks of potatoes.

EXERCISE. — Showing Potato Scab. — Specimens of Irish
potatoes having the scab disease should be brought to school
and shown to all the students.

Grain Smut. — In fields of grain, when it is in head, may
be often seen a black powder which clings to the husks of
the grain (Fig. 148). This black powder is the fruit of a
disease growing inside of the grain stalks. The disease is

254

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

called grain smut, for it causes the black appearance, like

stove soot, on the heads of grain. Oats and barley are often

very badly injured by this disease.

Any farmer can prevent his grain from having the disease

by a very simple and cheap process. The seed should be

treated in a liquid before it
is planted. The liquid used
is formalin and water. If
into a common barrel are
poured twenty gallons of
water and then one half-
pint of strong formalin is
thoroughly mixed with it,
the liquid will be ready for
use. The seed grain is placed
in a loose sack and then
lowered into the barrel of
liquid; after about ten min-
utes all of the black smut or
spores in the seed will be
killed. The sack is then
raised up and allowed to
drain for a few minutes.
The wet seed is then spread
out to dry before it is
planted. This drying may
be done on a clean barn
floor, in a wagon-box, or on
a cloth stack-cover spread

on the ground. The seed should be spread out thin enough

so that it will dry before it begins to sprout.

'The same liquid may be used for many sacks of seed,

so that the cost of treating enough seed for a large field is

not great.

EXERCISE. — Treating Oats for Smut. — It is suggested that

FIG. 148. — Loose smut of oats mounted
on cotton under glass. (A. E.)

DISEASES OF PLANTS— SPRAYING

255

the pupils bring some oats in a sack, and treat them in a pail
of water with a little formalin in it.

EXERCISE. — Showing Grain Smut. — Perhaps sample heads
of diseased grain can be brought to school. If so, preserve
them as shown in Fig. 148. Some one should bring samples
of corn smut disease to show to the class. Corn smut is not
prevented by the formalin treatment.

EXERCISE. — Treating Seed Potatoes. — The pupils may
bring a pail and a few potatoes from home. A half-ounce
(four teaspoonfuls) of formalin should be added to one gallon

FIG. 149. — Spraying orchard trees in early spring, for scale insects, with barrel
pump. (Experiment Station, N.J.)

of water. Soak the potatoes in this mixture for two hours.
Urge the pupils to tell of the method at their homes.

Spraying. — Under ordinary conditions a bearing apple
orchard should be sprayed at least three times each spring
and perhaps once in summer.

The first spraying is to be made before the buds swell in
very early spring (Fig. 149). This is to prevent scab and
similar diseases and to kill the San Jose scale insects. For
this spraying it is well to use either soluble oil at the rate of
one gallon of the oil to fifteen gallons of water, or to use the

256

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

lime-sulfur solution. Commercial concentrated lime-sulfur
is diluted at the rate of one gallon to nine of water.

The second spraying is made just before the blossom opens

FIG. 150. — A. Too soon to spray for apple worm or codling-moth. Spray for
apple scab at this stage or before.

B. Apples in full bloom. Spraying now would poison the honey bees.

C. Petals just fallen; just the right time to spray for apple worm. Poison
will fall in the calyx cup of the blossom and kill the worm as soon as hatched.

D. Too late to spray for apple worm. The calyx is closed and apples turned
down. (Experiment Station, N. J.)

(Fig. 150, A) . It is to control apple scab disease and to kill all
leaf -eating insects. This time use one and one-half gallons
of strong lime-sulfur solution and three pounds of arsenate

DISEASES OF PLANTS— SPRAYING 257

of lead to fifty gallons of water. This will accomplish the
two purposes at the same time.

The third spring spraying is made just after the petals
fall from the blossoms. Its chief purpose is to control the
codling-moth. It also aids in preventing the trouble from
apple scab. As there are two purposes, use the combined
sprays as in the second spring spraying. Study Figs. 150 A,
B, C, D together.

For the control of codling-moth on fall and winter varie-
ties of apples, a midsummer spraying is advisable. For this

FIQ. 151. — Summer spraying by school students. (Agricultural Education.)

use two pounds of arsenate of lead to fifty gallons of water.

Principles of Spraying. — Always select, if possible, a
bright clear day without much wind for all kinds of spraying.

Do the work carefully and thoroughly. Let all parts of
the plants be touched with the spray materials.

Use special nozzles which throw the materials into fine
mists. Learn of the latest and best nozzles and spraying
apparatus by writing to the Agricultural Experiment Station
of the State. Always consider what are the special purposes
of the particular spraying, and use the proper materials for
those purposes.

258 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

•

An insecticide is to be used for insects, and a fungicide
used for the plant diseases. These may be combined into one
spray material.

Weaker sprays are necessary on plants when the leaves
are on; stronger sprays when the trees are dormant.

Lime-sulfur is used both as a winter spray and as a sum-
mer spray, but the strength must be made to suit the condi-
tion of the trees or other plants. It is a fungicide and also a
special insecticide for the control of scale insects.

Soluble oils are for winter use only and are especially for
scale insects.

Bordeaux mixture alone is a fungicide and, in different
strengths, may be used either when the trees are dormant or
when in leaf.

Paris green and arsenate of lead are two of the most com-
mon insect poison materials. They may be used in combi-
nation with lime-sulfur and also with Bordeaux mixture.
(See spray formulas in the Appendix.)

REVIEW.

1. What are the three main causes of plant diseases?

2. Name two fungous diseases of the apple.

3. Name five diseases of the peach.

4. Describe peach yellows and tell of the best remedy.

5. Tell how to prevent apple scab.

6. Tell of the relation of cedar apples to the rust disease of apples.

7. Give four causes of potato scab and the remedy for each.

8. Describe the treatment of seed potatoes to prevent the planting
of scab disease.

9. Describe the treatment of oats to prevent smut disease.

10. Give the objects for each of the three spring sprayings of apple
trees.

11. Give the material to use at each time.

12. Give all the principles of spraying that you can.

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 345, Some Common Disin-
fectants; 488, Diseases of Cabbage, Etc.; 507, Grain Smuts; 648, Root
Knot; 742, White Pine Blister Rust.

PART II.
ANIMAL PRODUCTION

CHAPTER XXII.
IMPROVEMENT OF ANIMALS.

IN man's efforts to secure for his use the best types of
live stock or farm animals he has produced the various breeds
of horses, cattle, sheep, swine, and poultry. He has intelli-
gently selected those animals which showed a tendency to
produce the desired qualities. The correct principles of
breeding have been applied, somewhat as an art and some-
times also as a science. It is important that we have animals
suited to a definite purpose, rather than for several or all
purposes. Men want horses for draft and for speed; some
cows for milk, others for beef; some sheep for wool, others
for mutton; some swine for bacon and lean meat, others for
lard; some hens for eggs, others for meat.

A Breed. — A group of animals which have special charac-
teristics of habit, color, and form is called a breed. They have
a tendency to transmit such characteristics without much
change to their offspring. The best breed to keep is always
the one best suited to the desired purpose. There are so many
breeds that one may be chosen for each particular need.

Laws of Breeding. — There are several laws of nature
which govern in a large measure the maintenance of good
breeds and the improvement of live stock.

The law of heredity is one of these. It means that animals
inherit from their ancestors certain forms, characteristics,
qualities, habits, and tendencies. These may be either desir-
able or undesirable and are frequently both. That "like
produces like" is as true with animals as with plants. If

259

260 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

this law were an absolute one, man would find it impossible
to make any improvements in his animals by careful selection.

Variation among farm animals is a natural tendency for
them to differ from each other and from their parents. No
two calves in the barn are alike. The pigs in a litter may look
alike when young, but the attendant can soon point out
differences. This tendency to vary allows stockmen to select
the desired types and produce, in time, the animals desired
for special purposes.

EXERCISE. — Variation Among Animals. — Let pupils tell
of variations in color or other marked characters among
pure-bred stock such as cattle, poultry, or swine. Care
should be used to bring out the law of variation.

Reversion is the tendency for young animals to exhibit
characters of distant ancestors, which their^own parents
did not possess.

Sometimes there are characters present in certain indi-
vidual animals which are not like any of the animals of the
breed. Such cases are called mutations or sports. Such very
odd or different characters are not always transmitted by
animals to their offspring. When such new characters are
given to the offspring they may become fixed and give rise
to a new line or strain of animals in a breed. The hornless
or polled Shorthorn cattle and the polled Hereford cattle
were first started from sports. Now the hornless character
of those strains has become fixed. The groups may even be
considered as distinct breeds.

Pure=Bred Animals. — These are animals which have been
bred along a certain line or within the bounds of the breed
for many generations. The vulgar term full-blood should
not be used to express purity of blood in an animal. The
term thoroughbred is also incorrectly used in this connection.
This name belongs to a breed of race-horses which originated
in England.

Grades are animals which are not pure bred but are part

IMPROVEMENT OF ANIMALS 261

native. A high grade animal is one which is more than half
pure bred. Native stock are those in which there is no certain,
traceable blood of any special breed. They may be a mixture
of several breeds. They are often called " Scrubs."

Cross-bred animals are the result of crossing two pure-
bred animals of different breeds, as a Holstein— Jersey cross
in cattle, or a Plymouth Rock— Cochin cross in poultry.

Pedigrees. — These are statements of the lineage or ances-
tors of animals. Records are kept of all the animals of
the pure breeds, if the owners care to register them. Owners
of stock of a certain breed form an Association, the officers
of which establish herd books in which records are kept of
the animals and their offspring owned by the members.
(See the sample Holstein pedigree in the Appendix.)

EXERCISE. — Stock Pedigrees. — Some pupils in the school
may be able to bring to the teacher a written or printed
pedigree of farm animals owned by some one in the neighbor-
hood. Tne value of such a complete record may then be
made clear to the class, because of its local application.

Bad Effects of Crossing. — It is far too common a practice
for farmers to cross the stock of two breeds. Where a herd
is graded up toward one breed, as Jerseys, they are then
crossed with Holsteins or Shorthorns, the hope being to
increase the quantity of milk. The result is usually a dis-
appointment and the practice is a bad one. When there are so
many good breeds of each kind of farm animals it is unwise to
try to blend them by doing such crossing. Instead of a
blending effect, the stockman often gets the extreme charac-
teristics emphasized by close contrast in one individual.
For example, the head, hairy feet and legs, and large hoofs of
the Clydesdale are sometimes found on the slender body of
a race-horse. The more extreme the crosses or the greater
the difference in type between the breeds used in the cross,
the greater will be the number of failures. The successful
crosses are few. Occasionally the bad effects of a cross do

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

not show until the second generation. Then the disappoint-
ment of the owner is emphasized, and the time lost in his
failure is greater.

Keeping Pure Breeds. — All stock breeders should keep
pure-bred animals. Each breed has been produced because
the animals are the best for some particular purpose. The
breeder should determine what his purpose is and then choose
the proper pure breed for that purpose. The animals of that
breed are sure to be more satisfactory than any cross breeds
or grades. Pure-bred animals have fixed characteristics
and may be expected to come true to type. ,The superior
qualities of the parents will be found in the offspring. The
profit derived from pure-bred animals is usually much gr^kter
than from natives or from grades.

REVIEW.

1. What is meant by special purpose animals ?

2. How have these been developed ?

3. What is meant by a breed ? Which is always th<!

4. What is heredity ? What is variation ?

5. What benefits arise from the law of variation ?

6. What is meant by reversion ?

7. What are mutations or sports ? What use is made of them in
forming new breeds ?

8. Define grades and natives.

9. What is a pedigree ?

10. Why should farmers not cross the pure breeds of farm animals ?

11. Give reasons for breeders keeping pure-bred animals instead
of native stock, or scrubs.

CHAPTER XXIII.
HORSES.

THERE were no horses in America at the time of the dis-
covery by Cclumbus. All horses that are now found here
are imported or are offspring of imported stock. Some horses
were brought by Columbus on his second voyage, others were
brought by Cortez, by DeSoto, and by French, Dutch, and
English settlers. The wild ponies of the Southwest, called

HORSES 263

Texas ponies, are probably descendants of horses abandoned
by DeSoto.

Most of the pure breeds of horses found here at the
present time have originated in the Old World; but. America
has established a distinct breed of saddle horses and trotters,
and a carriage breed is being developed.

Types of Horses. — There are several types of horses:
(1) Those for heavy work are called the draft type. (2) Those
of light build, for quick action, are called the light horse type.
(3) There are many that would not fall into either of these
two extreme types, but would be somewhat intermediate
between them. Such horses may be grouped into a third
type, sometimes called dual-purpose or general-purpose
horses. The descriptive points of the draft horse and the
light horse &re given in the score cards at the end of this
chapter.

Pure Breeds of Horses. — The pure breeds of horses may
be grouped as follows: draft breeds, coach breeds, light
breeds, and pony breeds. The market types of horses,
whether they be pure-bred or not, may be classified as draft,
coach, roadster, saddle, and pony.

The draft breeds are all large, heavy horses, ranging in
weight from thirteen hundred to two thousand pounds.
They are well built for heavy teaming. The leading breeds
of the draft group are Clydesdale, Percheron, English Shire,
Suffolk Punch, and Belgian.

Coach Horses. — The heavy carriage or coach breeds
Include the large, active, stylish coach horses, such as the
Hackney, German and French coach, the Cleveland Bay
or Yorkshire coach.

Light, horse breeds include the Thoroughbred, the Ameri-
can trotting horse, and the American saddle horse

Pony breeds are the Welsh, the Shetland, and Exmoor.
These differ considerably in size, habits, and other special
characters. Besides these pony breeds there are several
18

264 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

pony types which have not been kept pure in their breeding.
Among these may be mentioned the broncho of the Western
plains, the Indian pony of the Northwest, and the Mexican
or Indian mustang of the Southwest.

Percherons (Fig. 152). — This is a French breed of draft
horses, identical with or nearly the same as the French and
the Norman draft horses. Percherons are gray or black when

Fio. 152. — Black Percherons in harness. Large, gentle draft horses; well
suited to use on farms.

young, becoming lighter in color with age. The dark colors
are preferred, and are more common. Dapple grays of this
breed are much admired. The body is compact, short, and
thick; the head is of moderate size; the legs are rather short
and very muscular, with short hair. The feet are smaller
than in the Clydes. Percherons are very easily managed and
become very gentle. Little, if any, "breaking" is necessary.
They are much used on the farms of the middle West and

HORSES

Northwest. Grades of this breed are used in great numbers
in city dray work in America.

Clydesdales.— This (Fig. 153) heavy draft breed dates
back to its origin in Scotland two hundred years ago. The
general color is bay or brown, but sorrels and blacks may be
found among the Clydes. Usually there are some white
markings on the legs and a strio of white in the face. The

Fia. 153.— Pure-bred Clydesdale horse. Heavy draft type. (U. S. D. A.)

form of the body is long, smooth, and symmetrical. The
height is often sixteen or seventeen hands. (Four inches is
called a hand by horsemen.) The thick, stout legs are heavily
fringed below the knees and hocks with long, shaggy hair.
The Clydes are well suited for heavy farm work, because of
their strength, rapid walking gait, and gentle disposition.

English Shires. — There are no very marked differences
between the Scotch Clydesdale and the English Shire horses.

266 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

The colors and markings and the form are much tha same
in the two breeds. The English Shire is heavier, more com-
pact and the legs shorter. They are not so common in
America as their Scotch ancestors.

Suffolk Punch. — This is another English breed of draft
horses. The color is chestnut. They are rotund in build
and are seldom so large and heavy as the Percherons. The
shoulders, neck and legs are of the true draft type. As yet
this is not a common breed in America.

•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••M

FIG. 154. — Fancy driving team, French coach breed. (Experiment Station, N. J.)

Belgian Horse. — This is probably the heaviest of our
draft breeds. The body is more blocky, the breast wider,
and the neck thicker than in either the .Percherons or the
Clydesdales. The color is roan, brown or bay. The breed
has not come into very popular use in America.

Coach Horses Described. — The Cleveland Bay is the
oldest or most distinctive breed among the coach horses.
The color is bay; feet and legs dark, mane and tail black.
They are tall, being sixteen to seventeen hands; weight 1100
to 1300 pounds.

The coach or cab horses used in cities are large, active,
and stylish, and are highly valued for heavy harness duty
and for general driving. They are required to haul medium

HORSES 267

loads and to travel at a moderate trot. The French coach
(Fig. 154), the German coach, and the Hackney all serve
these purposes very well. The German coach horses are
less used in America than the others, probably because of
their greater weight. The French coach is bay, chestnut or
black; and the German coach brown, bay or black.

FIG. 155. — Champion Hackney stallion "Oxford."

The Hackney (Fig. 155) is used to grade up the native
horses for coach purposes. He is much liked because of his
striking and pleasing appearance and good temper. His ac-
tion is very good, though not so quick as the trotter. The color
is brown, chestnut, roan or gray, with some white markings.

Thoroughbred. — The English race horse or Thoroughbred
is the oldest of all pure breeds of horses, being a descendant
of the Arabian stock of Asia. The American Thoroughbred
found commonly in Kentucky and Tennessee is from the

268 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

English breed. This breed is not excelled for speed and
endurance. No other horse approaches the Thoroughbred
in beauty, intelligence, and courage (Fig. 156).

American Trotter. — This (Fig. 157) is just becoming
well recognized as a distinct breed of light horses. They
have much of the Thoroughbred or English race horse blood
in them. Their special characters are much the same. The
trotting gait has been more highly developed in the new
breed, and they are destined to become the most popular
light carriage horses of the future (Fig. 158).

American Saddle Horse. — This horse (Fig. 159) has been
called the Kentucky saddle horse. The South had much to
do with the building up of this new breed. The blood in
the breed traces back to the English Thoroughbred and
the Canadian pacer. The best animals of the American
saddle horse are quick in action, developing some speed
if desired, and showing good style. They also have a variety
of gaits suitable to the pleasure of their riders. Besides
the walk, trot, and canter of other horses, they also develop
the running-walk, the slow pace, the fox trot, and single-foot.

The Mule. — A mule is a cross between a true donkey and
a horse. The donkey is a native of Asia. Mules are raised
in every part of the country, but particularly in the South.
They are of several types, chiefly differing in size. Large
mules are extensively used for all farm purposes.

In the large mule markets of St. Louis, Chicago, Kansas
City, Louisville, and New Orleans mules are classified some-
what according to height, weight, and soundness. Those
sold as plantation or farm mules are 16 to 16)^ hands high;
next in order of size are the lumber or logging mules, railroad
mules, levee or dock mules, and mine mules. The common
thought regarding mules is that they are treacherous and
apt to kick; this is not true, at least not more so than horses.
They are usually very faithful and reliable. They are quick
in movement and have wonderful endurance.

HORSES

FIG. 156. — A Thoroughbred, "Oponsia," the true racing type.

FIG. 157.— American trotter, "George G."

270

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

FIG, 158. — Pure-bred Morgan. The Morgans were formerly classed as a family of
trotters; now they are bred as a distinct style.

FIG. 159. — Champion saddle horse, "Confidence.'

HORSES 271

Care and Management of Horses. — Much skill is required
to care for horses in the best way. The appetite, condition
and spirit of the horse must be watched. Regularity should
be exercised in the matter of feed and water.

The horse should be groomed and the coat kept in a
healthy, sleek condition.

Examine the shoulders of working animals and protect
them against any suspected soreness. Such parts should
be bathed with water and the cause of the soreness removed.

Some one who would recognize the defects should exam-
ine the teeth for sharp points and for decaying places.
Swollen gums may be looked for if a horse refuses to eat
corn.

The feet of the horse should be carefully examined,
particularly if lameness is detected. The hoofs should be
trimmed when overgrown. The shoes should be regularly
changed and always suited to the kind of work to be per-
formed.

Plenty of exercise must always be given to horses. The
amount of grain in the feed should be reduced when the
labor is lightened. The proper balance between the amount
of exercise and feed should be maintained.

The farm horse at light work may be given 6 to 10 pounds
of oats and 7 to 10 pounds of hay daily. At medium work
he should have 10 pounds of oats and 12 pounds of hay.
When doing heavy work the amount should be increased
to 12 or 13 pounds of oats and 12 or 13 pounds of hay
daily.

Inspecting Horses. — Horses are often unsound in one or
more respects. They must not be considered sound if they
have any physical defects or blemishes. A person intending
to buy should always examine the animal thoroughly.

Examining in Barn. — While a horse is in his stall he may
show some of his acquired vices. Cribbing, or biting the
stall, wind sucking, kicking the stall and persistent pawing

272 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

are easily detected. Have him stand over to the other side
of the stall; he may have string-halt and, if so, may be
unable to lift the foot on the affected side. Look for the
halter-pulling habit.

Inspection Out of Doors. — Out in the yard, examine
every part of the head, legs, feet, and body for diseases and
defects. Go all over one side and then the other, being care-
ful to overlook nothing. Look for colds or similar troubles
about the nose, and swellings about the lower jaw and throat
Examine the mouth for bad teeth. The mouth may show
signs of a harsh bit. The eye 'should be free from bad dis-
charges, and must be sensitive to light. Feel the top of the
head for sores or swelling or any unusual tenderness which
would make him hard to bridle. The withers and back may
show scars of old running sores. Look for signs of collar boils
on the shoulders. Scars on the knees may indicate a stum-
bling hr.bit. Watch closely for enlargements, wind-puffs,
or other defects of the front legs. Feel for ring-bones,
bunches or scars near the hoofs and just above them.
Feel the cartilages at the back of the hoof on both
inner and outer sides; if hard they are called side bones,
and will cause lameness. The hoof should be of proper
shape, size and color, free from cracks, and the foot not
contracted at the heel. The frog in the center of the
sole should be elastic.

The hind leg and foot can usually be examined without
danger by having some one hold up the front foot on the
same side of the body. Look for signs which indicate a kick-
ing habit. The hocks are important and the two should be
compared in detecting curby hocks, soft or bog-spavin, and
bone-spavin. Compare the right and left legs below the
hocks in looking for ring-bones, scratches, cracks or any
defects of the hoof and foot. Walk, trot, and gallop the
horse and watch closely to detect any irregularity in
gait, due to lameness or bad habits. Heaves and other

HORSES 273

i

difficult breathing may be noticed when the horse is
exercised vigorously.

EXERCISE. — Unsoundness in Horses. — Let pupils examine
a horse for unsoundness. If a horse is brought to the school
yard by some one, the class may assemble about the horse
after studying the above lesson on "Inspecting Horses"
(Fig. 160).

EXERCISE. — Height and Other Measures. — With an ordi-
nary tape line, measure the perpendicular distance from the

FIG. 160. — Small boys examining a horse for unsoundnesa at
(Agricultural Education.)

the school.

top of the withers to the ground. How many hands high
is the horse ? Compare the length of the head, from tip of
nose to poll or crown, with the length of back from
the withers to the hips. Two different horses may be
compared as to width of hips, width of breast, girth,
length of leg, and other corresponding parts which indicate
symmetry.

EXERCISE. — Age of Horses. — Let some pupils put on the
blackboard the diagrams of the incisors of the horse to show

274

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

how age is indicated by the teeth. Such diagrams may be
copied from a cyclopedia or from references mentioned in
the Appendix of this book.

EXERCISE. — Horse Judging. — A number of lessons should
be given in the judging of horses. Light and heavy types

FIG. 161. — A good draft type, explaining points. P, poll; Cr, crest; W, withers;
L, loin; H, hock; Bl, bone-spavin; B2, bog-spavin; P, pastern; F, fetlock; C, cannon;
K, knee; Sp, shoulder point; M, muzzle.

may be used at different times. Several different breeds
may be studied in this way. The following score cards are
to be used fonthis purpose. A sheet of lined paper may be
used by students to keep scores on — one line being used for
each of the numbers down the left side. Learn the names of
parts from Fig. 161.

HORSES 275

STUDENT'S SCORE CARD FOR DRAFT HORSES.

Perfect Student's
Score. Score.

1. AGE

GENERAL APPEARANCE.

2. HEIGHT

3. WEIGHT, over 1500 Ibs.

score according to age 4

4. FORM, broad, massive, low set, proportioned ... 4

5. QUALITY, bone clean, yet indicating sufficient

substance; tendons distinct; skin and hair

fine 4

6. TEMPERAMENT, energetic, good disposition 4

HEAD AND NECK.

7. HEAD, lean, medium size

8. MUZZLE, fine; nostrils large, lips thin, even

9. EYES, full, bright, clear, large

10. FOREHEAD, broad, full 1

11. EARS, medium size, well carried 1

12. NECK, muscled; crest high; throat fine; windpipe

large 1

FOREQUARTERS.

13. SHOULDERS, sloping, smooth, snug, extending

into back 3

14. ARM, short, thrown forward 1

15. FOREARM, heavily muscled, long, wide 2

16. KNEEF, wide, clean cut, straight, deep, strongly

supported 2

17. CANNON?, short, lean, wide, sinews large, set

back 2

18. FETLOCKS, wide, straight, strong 1

19. PASTERNS, sloping, lengthy, strong 3

20. FEET, large, even size, straight; horn dense;

dark color; sole concave; bars strong; frog
large, elastic; heel wide, high, one-half
length of toe 8

21. LEGS, viewed in front, a perpendicular line from

the point of the shoulder should fall upon

the center of the kree, pastern and foot ... 3

BODY.

22. CHEST, deep, wide, low, large girth 2

23. RIBS, long, close, sprung 2

24. BACK, straight, short, broad 2

25. LOIN, wide, short, thick, straight 2

26. UNDERLINE, flank low 1

276 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

STUDENT'S SCORE CARD FOR DRAFT HORSES.-Continued.

Perfect
Score.

Student's
Score.

HINDQUARTERS.

27. HIPS, smooth, wide 2

28. CROUP, long, wide, muscular 2

29. TAIL, attached high, well carried 1

30. THIGHS, muscular 3

31. QUARTERS, deep, heavily muscled 2

32. GASKINS OR LOWER THIGHS, wide, muscled ... 2

33. HOCKS, clean cut, y/ide, straight

34. CANNONS, short, wide; sinews large, set back. . . 2

35. FETLOCKS, wide, straight, strong 1

36. PASTERNS, sloping, strong, lengthy 2

37. FEET, large, even size; straight; horn dense, dark

color; sole concave; bars strong; frog large,
elastic; heel wide, high, one-half length of
toe. 6

38. LEGS, viewed from behind, a perpendicular line

from the central point of each quarter
should fall upon the center of all the joints
and foot 3

ACTION.

39. WALK, smooth, quick, long, balanced 6

40. TROT, rapid, straight, regular 4_

Total.. 100

STUDENT'S SCORE CARD FOR LIGHT HORSES.

Perfect
Score.

Student's
Score.

1. AGE

GENERAL APPEARANCE.

2. WEIGHT

3. HEIGHT

4. FORM, symmetrical, smooth, stylish

5. QUALITY, bone clean, fine, yet indicating suffi-

cient substance; tendons defined; hair and
skin fine

6. TJBMPERAMBNT, active, good disposition

HORSES 277

STUDENT'S SCORE CARD FOR LIGHT HORSES.-Continued.

Perfect
Score.

Student's
Score.

HEAD AND NECK.

7. HEAD, lean, straight

8. MUZZLE, fine; nostrils large; lips thin, even. ...

9. EYES, full, bright, clear, large

10. FOREHEAD, broad, full 1

11. EARS, medium size, pointed, well carried, and

not far apart 1

12. NECK, muscled; crest high; throat fine; wind-

pipe large 1

FOREQUARTERS.

13. SHOULDERS, long, smooth, with muscle oblique,

extending into back and muscled at withers . 3

14. ARM, short, thrown forward

15. FOREARM, muscled, long, wide 2

16. KNEES, clean, wide, straight, deep, strongly

supported

17. CANNONS, short, wide, sinews large, set back. . .

18. FETLOCKS, wide, straight 1

19. PASTERNS, strong, angle with ground 45° 3

20. FEET, medium, even size, straight, horn dense;

frog large, elastic, bars strong; sole concave;

heel wide, high 7

21. LEGS, viewed in front, a perpendicular line from

the point of the shoulder should fall upon

the center of the knee, pastern and foot 3

BODY.

22. CHEST, deep, low, large girth

23. RIBS, long, sprung, close

24. BACK, straight, short, broad, muscled

25. LOIN, wide, short, thick

26. UNDERLINE, long; flank rather low 1

HINDQUARTERS.

27. HIPS, smooth, wide, level

28. CROUP, long, wide, muscular

29. TAIL, attached high, well carried 1

30. THIGHS, long, muscular, spread, open angles ... 2

31. QUARTERS, heavily muscled, deep 2

32. GASKINS OR LOWER THIGHS, long, wide, mus-

cular

33. HOCKS, clearly defined; wide, straight

34. CANNONS, short, wide; sinews large, set back. . .

35. FETLOCKS, wide, straight 1

36. PASTERNS, strong, sloping 2

278 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

STUDENT'S SCORE CARD FOR LIGHT HORSES.-Continued.

Perfect
Score.

Student's
Score.

37. FEET, medium, even size; straight; horn dense;
frog large, elastic; bars strong; sole concave;
heel wide, high

5

38. LEGS, viewed from behind, a perpendicular line
from the central point of each quarter
should fall upon the center of all the joints
and foot

3

ACTION.
39. WALK, elastic, quick, balanced

5

40. TROT, rapid, straight, regular, high

15

Total

100

REVIEW.

1. Mention the market classes of horses.

2. What are the four groups of pure breeds of horses ?

3. Name five draft breeds.

4. Name four coach breeds.

5. Name three light horse breeds, and three pony breeds.

6. Tell all you can of the Percherons. What other two breeds
ore nearly like them ?

7. Describe the Clydes and English Shires.

8. Tell what you can of the Suffolk Punch; also the Belgian Draft.

9. Describe the coach horse type.

10. Which are the oldest pure-bred horses ? What can you say of
them?

11. Give the origin of the American trotter, and American saddle
horse.

12. What is a mule ? Where are they chiefly raised ?

13. Why should a buyer examine a horse for soundness ?

14. For what things should he look when the horse is in the stall ?

15. What defects may be found about the nose, mouth, eyes, and
head?

16. What faults may be looked for on the fore and hind legs and
feet?

17. Give five characteristic features of a good draft horse.

18. Give five in contrast with these for the light horse type.

References.— U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 619, Breeds of Draft
Horses; 667, Colts: Breaking and Training. U. S. Bureau of Animal
Industry Bulletin 37, Market Classes of Horses; Circular 137, The
Preservation of Our Native Types of Horses; 779, How to Select a
Sound Horse.

CATTLE

CHAPTER XXIV.
CATTLE.

THE improved breeds of cattle of to-day were developed
from the native types found in Western Europe, chiefly in
Great Britain. There are many named breeds, but only
a few have gained a prominent place among stockmen. The
most important are classified as (1) beef breeds, (2) dual-
purpose or general-purpose breeds, (3) dairy breeds. Grade
animals of the pure breeds may be obtained by the use of
pure bred males of the breed desired. Good high grades
always give better results than scrubs or natives, either for
milk or for beef.

Beef Breeds. — These are raised not for milk but for meat.
They are in some rare cases so highly specialized that the
mothers, though well fed, fail to give enough milk for their
calves. None of the beef breeds except the Shorthorn gives
milk enough to be considered profitable for dairy use.

Beef animals should have deep, plump, compact bodies,
well covered with flesh, giving them a blocky appearance;
the back is broad; the legs are short, straight, and well-
placed; all quarters are quite thick; the neck is short and
thick. The whole appearance is that of meat-production.

The chief distinctive beef breeds are: (1) Shorthorn,
including Polled Durham, (2) Hereford, (3) Aberdeen Angus,
and (4) Galloway.

Shorthorns originated in northeastern England and were
first introduced into America in 1783. They are now very
popular cattle. In their general type most of the families
of the breed conform closely to the beef type (Fig. 162);
but that branch known as the Bates family of Shorthorns
are so much inclined toward the dairy type as to be classed
as general-purpose animals. The name was given them
19

280 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

because of their short horns in contrast with the long-horned
cattle of England. The names Durham, Teeswater, and
Holderness were local names given them in those localities
where they were bred.

The Polled Durhams are a hornless branch or family of
the Shorthorn breed; the term "polled" means hornless.
Their hornless character is their only difference from the
Shorthorns. Cows of the breed weigh 1400 pounds or more.
The colors vary much more than in any of the other breeds
of cattle. The prevailing colors are red, white, and roan.

Fia. 162. — Beef type of shorthorn, white and roan. (An. I.

Herefords (Fig. 163) originated in Herefordshire, Eng-
land, and were first brought to this country by Henry Clay
in 1817. The breed is old and well established. In color
these cattle are red with white faces and some white markings
along the back, under line and sometimes on the feet and
tail. The Herefords (pronounced Her-fords) are shorter
legged, more blocky and a little heavier than the Shorthorns.
They are well suited to grazing and fatten easily on the
grassy plains of the West. There they have been extensively
mixed with the native cattle, the grade Herefords making
good beef cattle.

As already mentioned in another chapter, there is now

CATTLE 281

a branch of this breed without horns, the Polled Herefords.
The hornless character in cattle is always to be desired:
there is then no necessity for dehorning. Horned cattle
often do each other, or their keepers, considerable harm,
in the feed-lot or cattle car.

Aberdeen Angus cattle originated chiefly in the county
of Aberdeen and the district of Angus, in the northeastern
part of Scotland. Local names for them are Polled Angus
and "Doddies," both names referring to their natural horn-
less character. They are black, sleek, short-legged, plump

FIG. 163. FIG. 164.

FIG. 163. — A. Hereford cow, of the heavy beef type ; color red and white,

FIG. 164.— Galloway bull, black, hornless with shaggy coat. Beef type. (Kans.)

cattle, a little smaller than the Shorthorns. Their disposi-
tion is very quiet and gentle, and they fatten easily, either
on good blue grass pastures, or in close feeding quarters of
the corn-belt. The beef is of the very best quality, and the
fattened animals bring the highest market prices (Fig. 165).
Galloway cattle are also from Scotland, but from the
rough districts of the southwestern part of the country. Like
the Angus cattle, the Galloway is black and hornless and
has very short legs. But a marked difference in appearance
is due to the shaggy or curly hair (Fig. 164). The hair is so
long and curly that the cured skins are used for making rugs,
robes, and overcoats. These cattle can subsist on the poorest

282

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

roughage or pasture, but respond rather too slowly to good
feeding. The cuts of beef of the Galloway carcass are of good
quality and the animals sell in the Chicago markets at prices
next to those paid for Angus cattle. Galloway cows are
very light milkers, but usually supply enough to raise their
own calves.

Fio. 165. — A product of good breeding. Aberdeen Angus calf, two years old,
black, weight 1624 pounds. Champion of the baby-beef type. (Minn.)

These cattle are hardy because of the climate from which
they came. Because of this hardy character they are used
in the Northwestern States where the winters are severe.
Galloway cows have been crossed with the American buffalo,
the name Catalo being given to the hybrid offspring. No
special benefit has yet been derived from this cross.

Dual=Purpose Breeds. — Cattle of these breeds serve two
purposes, giving milk and producing meat, but do each
only fairly well. They may properly be called general-pur-
pose animals. The type of body is not so lean and angular

CATTLE 283

as in the true dairy breeds, nor so blocky and heavy as in
the beef type. A few of them are heavy and incline a little
toward the production of beef rather than milk, and others
are heavier milkers and have more of the dairy conformation;
for example, the Devons and also the Red Polled breeds
have both types. Dual-purpose breeds are quite popular
with general farmers because they are fair milkers and the
male calves are heavy enough to be sold for veal. Special
farmers do not use the dual-purpose breeds very much.
They want the best beef breeds if their special line is beef
production; or special dairy breeds are kept for the pro-
duction of milk, cream, and butter.

The leading dual-purpose breeds in America are: Devon,
Red Polled, Brown Swiss, the Bates family of Shorthorns,
and usually the Polled Durhams.

Devon Cattle. — These originated in England centuriei
ago, and were brought to America in Colonial times. They
are red with an occasional marking of white on the udder.
The horns of the cow are long and slender and curved upward.
As suggested above they are of two types. The plump, trim
animals are better for beef, although smaller than those of
the dairy type. Those of the beef type fatten fairly well and
the meat is of good quality. As milk producers, Devon cows
rank very well, the milk being nearly as rich as Jersey milk.
These cattle are usually much smaller than Shorthorns.

Red Polled.— This (Fig.. 166) is another English breed
of red cattle. They are always polled, are larger than the
Devons, and often have some white markings on the under
parts. Solid red is most common. This is probably the best
of the strictly dual-purpose breeds; the cows when dry will
fatten easily, and the steers are good beef animals. The
males will weigh from 1800 to 2200 pounds when mature
and fat. The cows give a good flow of rich milk, but have
very large teats and badly shaped udders. The two types
of cattle found in this breed make it difficult for breeders to

284

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

always secure the special type of calves which they prefer.
Dairymen keeping this breed will often be disappointed by
the frequent recurrence of the beef form.

Brown Swiss cattle have been bred for centuries in Swit-
zerland. They were first brought to this country in 1869,
and are not yet given wide distribution. The color is dark

FIG. 166. — Red-polled cows, one of the dual-purpose breeds. (An. I.)

FIG. 167. — Brown Swiss cow, of the dual-purpose type.

mouse to light brown, with more or less of gray along
t'he back line and under parts. The udder is usually white.
The tongue and nose are dark or black, the hoofs black, the
horns white at the base and. dark at the tip. In form these
cattle are more blocky than the Red Polled cattle (Fig. 167).
The neck and head are large and heavy. Brown Swiss cows
yield rather large quantities of milk. It is not very rich in
butter fat. The climate and surroundings from which these

CATTLE 285

cattle come make them well suited to foraging for themselves,
but when given good treatment and proper feed they re-
spond well.

Dairy Breeds. — There are several special dairy breeds,
the chief purpose of which is the production of milk. They
are little suited to beef production (Fig. 168). The form is
lean and angular, inclined to the wedge shape as viewed from
the front, side, and top. The full description of the dairy
type is given in the score card at the end of this chapter.
(See also Figs. 169-171.)

FIG. 168. — Products of the dairy. One Jersey calf at the left, next a Guernsey.
Ayrshire in the middle, and two Holsteins on the right.

The chief dairy breeds in America are: (1) The Jerseys
for butter; (2) the Guernseys for good quality of cream;

(3) the Holsteins, or Holstein-Friesians, for market milk;

(4) the Ayrshires for cheese, home milk and infant feeding.
Less common dairy breeds are: The Dutch Belted Cattle of
Holland, black with wide white belts; and the French Cana-
dian of the province of Quebec, resembling black Jerseys.

The Jersey breed originated on a small island by that
name in the channel group of islands in the English Channel.
No cattle can be taken to that island except for slaughter
within twenty-four hours, because of laws made for the pur-
pose of keeping the breed pure. This is the most popular
of the dairy breeds in America because of the richness of

286 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

the milk. The cows are famous for the large quantities of
butter which they produce, many of them yielding from
fourteen to seventeen pounds of butter in a week. "Loretta
D," shown in Fig. 169, produced 330 pounds of butter in
120 days. The Jersey is smaller than any of the other dairy
breeds used in this country. The general color is squirrel
gray and fawn color. White markings sometimes appear,
and considerable grayish shading is seen about the mouth and
eyes. The nose is usually black or dark colored. The tongue
and switch may be either black or white.

Guernseys also have for their native home one of the small
islands in the English Channel. They were first brought to
America in 1818. The cattle are much like the Jerseys in
their milk and butter yields. The cream is much smoother
than that of the Jerseys, as the fat particles are not so coarse.
The cream and butter of the Guernsey are well supplied with
their own natural coloring matter. The cows are a little larger
than Jerseys and more rugged in appearance (Fig. 170).
The general colors are red-and-white or fawn-and-white.
The nose should be flesh-colored, never black. The popu-
larity of the breed is rapidly increasing, and even the grades
command a high price in the butter-making sections.

The Holstein-Friesians are usually called merely Hoi-
steins (Hol-stines) . The longer name is derived from the
names of two provinces in Holland, the native home of the
breed, where it has been kept pure for many centuries. They
are much larger than the Jerseys and are black-and-white
in color (Fig. 171). They are the heaviest milk producers
of all the cattle. The milk is of fair quality but not rich in
fat. One of the best records for milk and butter produced
by a Holstein cow was made by "Colantha 4th's Johanna,"
27,432 pounds of milk and 1164 pounds of butter in one year.
Among dairymen who sell milk in the markets of the large
cities this breed is very popular. In cheese-making dis-
tricts of Wisconsin and elsewhere this breed is much used.
The fat particles are very fine and hence the cream does

CATTLE

287

169. — Jersey cow, "Loretta D." She has won prizes as the champion cow
of the world in producing milk and butter. (Animal Industry.;

Fia. 170. — Pure-bred Guernsey cow, an ideal dairy type. (Experiment Station, N. J.

288

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

- . •

&& • • . '' "*v;.;-

FlQ. 171. — Grade Holstein cow. Notice the udder and milk-vein showing under

the body. (Experiment Station, N. J.)

FIG. 172. — Pure-bred Ayrshire cow. (Experiment Station, N. J.)

CATTLE

not rise quickly. This makes it suitable milk to use in
the ordinary city delivery.

Ayrshire cattle are natives of the county of Ayr in Scot-
land. They are smaller than the Holsteins but much larger

c

FIG. 173. — School-boys and young farmers studying a Hereford.
(Agricultural Education.)

FIG. 174. — Points of cattle shown on a Brown Swiss bull. M, muzzle; D, dewlap;
B, barrel; L, loin; HP, hip or hook; K, rump; P, pin bone; T, thigh; H, hock;
S, switch.

than the Jerseys. In form the Ayrshires are somewhat plump
and less angular than any of the other dairy breeds (Fig. 172).
The calves are very good for veal. The milk-producing
properties of Ayrshires are very much like the Holsteins,
the yields being large and the milk not so rich in fat as the
Jerseys. The milk has much total solid matter in it, thus

290 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

making its food value very high. It is valuable for cheese
making. The colors among Ayrshires are red, brown and
white, these colors often being mixed. The breed is much
more common in Quebec, Ontario, New England, and New
York than in other parts of the country.

EXERCISE. — Breeds of Cattle. — The breeds of cattle that
are most used in any section are the ones that should be
studied most. The class may be taken to near-by places
for this purpose, or the animals may be brought to sheds
or barns nearer by for the purpose of class study (Fig. 173).

EXERCISE. — Beef and Dairy Types. — It is important
that students learn well the beef and the dairy type. The
animals to be used for this purpose need not be pure in breed.'
Type specimens may usually be found without difficulty and
should be brought to the school, or the class may go where
the animals are found. The following score cards should
be studied and used in the judging exercise. The names of
the parts are shown in Fig. 174.

REVIEW.

1. For what two purposes are cattle raised? What three classes
of breeds are used for these purposes ?

2. Describe the beef form of animals.

3. Name four beef breeds and tell what country each is from.

4. Give the chief colors of each of the four beef breeds. Which
are hornless ?

5. Name them in order of their relative size.

6. Which one is used most on the Western grass plains ? Why ?

7. Which is the most hardy and cold-loving ?

8. Give some reasons for raising dual-purpose breeds.

9. Why should special farmers not raise them ?

10. Tell what you can about the Devon cattle.

11. Describe the Red Polled breed and tell its advantages.

12. Compare the Brown Swiss with the other dual-purpose breeds.

13. Describe the dairy type of animal.

14. Name four dairy breeds and give the special use of the product
from each.

15. Give the origin of each of the four dairy breeds.

16. Name them in order from the largest to smallest.

17. Give the colors of each.

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 206, Milk Fever; 350,
Dehorning; 351, Tuberculin Test; 498, 569 and 639, Texas Fever; 603,
Cattle Dips; 612. Beef Breeds; 666, Foot-and-Mouth Disease; 718,
Cooperative Shipping.

CATTLE
STUDENT'S SCORE CARD— DAIRY COW.

291

GENERAL APPEARANCE.

1. WEIGHT, estimated Ibs

actual Ibs

2. FORM, wedge shaped as viewed from front, side

and top 5

3. QUALITY, hair fine, soft; skin mellow, loose,

medium thickness, secretion yellow; bom
clean 8

4. CONSTITUTION, vigorous, not inclined to beefi-

ness

HEAD AND NECK.

5. MUZZLE, clean cut; mouth large; nostrils large..

6. EYES, large, bright

7. FACE, long, lean, quiet expression

8. FOREHEAD, broad, slightly dished

9. EARS, medium size; yellow inside, fine texture. .

10. NECK, fine, medium length; throat clean; light

dewlap 2

FORE AND HIND QUARTERS.

11. WITHERS, lean, thin

12. SHOULDERS, light, oblique 2

13. HIPS, far apart; level between hooks 2

14. RUMP, long, wide

15. PIN-BONES OR THURLS, high, wide apart 1

16. THIGHS, thin, long

17. LEGS, straight, short ; shank fine 1

18. TAIL, long, slim; fine switch ^ . . 1

BODY.

19. CHEST, deep, low; girth large

20. RIBS, broad, well sprung, long, wide apart 5

21. BACK, lean, straight 3

22. LOIN, broad, level 2

23. FLANK, moderately low 1

MILK-SECRETING ORGANS.

24. UDDER, long, attached high and full behind,

extending far in front and full; quarters
even . . . .' 15

25. UDDER, capacious, flexible, with loose pliable

skin covered with short fine hair 15

26. TEATS, large, evenly placed

27. MILK VEINS, large, tortuous, large milk wells . .

Total.. 100

Perfect
Score.

Student's
Score.

292 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

STUDENT'S SCORE CARD-BEEF CATTLE.

GENERAL APPEARANCE.

1. WEIGHT, estimated Ibs

according to age 6

2. FORM, straight top-line and under-line; deep,

broad, low, set stylish 10

3. QUALITY, firm handling: hair fine; pliable skin;

dense bone; evenly fleshed 8

4. TEMPERAMENT, quiet 5

HEAD AND NECK.

5. MUZZLE, mouth large; lips thin; nostrils large. . 1

6. EYES, large, clear, placid 1

7. FACE, short; quiet expression 1

8. FOREHEAD, broad, full 1

9. EARS, medium size, fine texture 1

10. NECK, thick, short; throat clean 2

FOREQUARTERS.

11. SHOULDER VEIN, full 3

12. SHOULDER, covered with flesh, compact on top;

snug 4

13. BRISKET, advanced, breast wide 2

14. DEWLAP, skin not too loose and drooping 1

15. LEGS, straight, short; arm full; shank fine,

smooth 3

BODY.

16. CHEST, full, deep, wide; girth large; crops full. . 8

17. RIBS, long, arched, thickly fleshed 8

18. BACK, broad, straight 8

19. LOIN, thick, broad 6

20. FLANK, full, even with under-line 4

HINDQUARTERS.

21. HIPS, smoothly covered; distance apart in pro-

portion with other parts 4

22. RUMP, long, even, wide, tail head smooth, not

patchy ... 5

23. PIN-BONES, not prominent, far apart 3

24. THIGHS, full, deep, wide 3

25. LEGS, straight, short, shank fine, smooth 2

Total. . 100

Perfect
Score.

SHEEP 293

CHAPTER XXV.
SHEEP.

SHEEP have two main uses, the production of mutton
and the production of wool. In ancient times shepherds
also kept them for their milk. For these two present pur-
poses there are now a number of breeds of sheep.

Types. — Those which produce the most and best mutton
are blocky in form and correspond closely in outline to the
beef type in cattle. Sheep that naturally have a lean, angu-
lar frame, like a good dairy type of cow, are of the type best
suited for wool production.

Breeds Classified. — Many of the common breeds of
sheep are used both for wool and mutton. They are, there-
fore, usually grouped according to the length or fineness of
wool, as: fine or short wooled; medium wooled; and coarse
or long wooled. The medium and the coarse wooled sheep
comprise the mutton breeds.

Coarse Wooled Breeds. — The coarse or long-wooled
sheep include the Leicester (Les-ter), Lincoln, and Cotswold.
They all originated in England.

The Cotswolds (Fig. 175) are much more common in
America than the others of the coarse wooled group. They
are larger than most other sheep, the males attaining a
weight of 250 pounds or more. The meat from the lambs
is of fair quality. They have no horns; the face is always
white. The locks of crimpy wool are often twelve inches in
length. The fleece or annual shearing from a Cotswold will
average ten pounds of rather coarse wool with long staple
or fiber.

The Leicester s are of much the same type as the Cotswold;
but the head is without wool, the fleece is not in curly locks,

294 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

and the frame is not so large. They are also hornless.

The Lincolns exceed the Cotswolds in size, the males
sometimes weighing 350 or 400 pounds (Fig. 176). They are
hornless, have white faces with a little wool on the head.
The fleece of the body hangs in curly locks, and the staple
is longer than in any other breed; they shear about fifteen
pounds to a fleece.

Medium Wooled Sheep. — This group is much more
popular than either of the others because of their general-
purpose character, and their lambs mature sooner than those

Fia. 175. Fia. 176.

FIG. 175. — Cotswold ewe, one of the longer or coarse- wooled
FIG. 176. — Lincoln ewe, a coarse-wooled type.

of the larger breeds. The most common breeds of this type
in America would be named in about the following order:
Shropshire, Southdown, Hampshire, Oxford, Cheviot, and
Dorset. These are all natives of England, and are hornless
except the last or occasionally the Cheviot males. They
have brown or black faces, ears, and legs, except the Dorsets
and Cheviots, which have white markings. All of these breeds
have wool on the faces except the Cheviots, which are wooled
only to the ears. Shropshires, Southdowns, and Cheviots
increase in numbers rapidly, as twin lambs are very common.
The Southdowns (Fig. 177) are the smallest breed named
in this group. The Sbropshires, Cheviots, and Dorsets come

SHEEP

295

next in size and weight. The Hampshires have larger frames
and are a little heavier, but the Oxfords stand at the head
of the list in size and weight (Fig. 178).

Fio. 177. FIG. 178.

FIG. 177. — Champion Southdown ewe, one of the most popular of the medium
wooled breeds.

FIG. 178. — Oxford ram. These have the lonrest wool of the medium breeds.

FIG. 179. — Prize-winning Shropshire wetner one year old.
(Experiment Station, Wis.)

The fleeces of the Shropshire (Fig. 179), Oxford, and Dor-
set are all of good weight and the wool of excellent quality.
These three and the Cheviots produce very good mutton,
but the Southdown meat is popularly considered the best.
20

296

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

Cheviot sheep are the best grazers, having been well
trained to this in their native land — the Cheviot hills, be-
tween England and Scotland.

FIG. 180. — Dorset sheep making mutton on pasture, a horned breed of the medium
wool type. (From Cornell Countryman.)

FIG. 181. — Dorset ewes and their winter lambs. This is a good breed for the
production of winter or "hot-house" lambs.

The Dorset breed (Figs. 180, 181) is much used for the
production of early or winter lambs for the city markets.
The "hot-house" lamb industry, as this is called, is a rather
new and special line of the sheep industry in America.

Fine Wooled Sheep. — This is the Merino group. Their
wool is very fine in quality and the fleeces much heavier

SHEEP 297

than in the other breeds. There is an oil secreted by the
skin which makes the wool very oily; this is called the yolk.
The oil catches much dust, which always gives the sheep a
dirty appearance. The sheep are quite small in size and lack
the plump form found in the mutton breeds. The mutton
is not of good quality, and none but the largest are used for
this purpose.

There are three breeds of Merinos found in America.
They are all descendants of the original Spanish blood These

FIG 182. FIG. 183.

FIG. 182. — American Merino ram, "Perfection." Note the wrinkles all over him
except on the back.

FIG. 183. — Rambouillet or- French Merino of the fine wooled type.

are (1) American Merino; (2) Rambouillet ( Ram-boo-ya')
or French Merino; (3) Delaine Merino. The males have
spiral horns and the females are without horns.

In all of these the fine wool covers the body and legs down
to the feet; but the nose and ears are usually free from wool.
The American Merino (Fig. 182) is the smallest and has deep
wrinkles or folds all over the body except on the back. The
Delaine is less wrinkled and is somewhat larger. The Ram-
bouillet (Fig. 183) is much the largest of the group, with
no folds at all except sometimes on the neck and breast.

The Merinos are all hardy and good grazers. Their
grades are used for grazing in large flocks on the Western
plains.

298 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

Care of Sheep. — Sheep naturally live in mountainous
and hilly regions, where they get their living by feeding
on grasses and native plants of all kinds. There is now
greater profit from the raising of sheep in those sections
where the country is too rough for the raising of cultivated
crops. Sheep make good use of the land that would other-
wise be wasted. This is true to a greater degree with sheep
and Angora goats than with any other domestic animals.
Sheep are naturally kept in flocks, the Merinos in very large
flocks and the mutton breeds in smaller numbers. The
handling of very large numbers of any breed in a single
flock requires considerable experience. It is better to begin
with small flocks.

Winter quarters for sheep should not be very warm.
The animals have their own coats and will suffer if housed
too closely. It is highly important that they be kept per-
fectly dry in every respect. Protected shelter from rain
and snow to keep the coats dry, and good drainage in the
sheds and lots to keep the feet dry, are essential to success.

During the winter the flocks should be divided so that
all will have equal opportunity at the feed trough and racks.
Not over twenty-five or fifty in a single flock should be the
rule. When the numbers are large they may be sorted into
such groups as: first, wether lambs; second, ewe lambs;
third, shearling ewes; and fourth, breeding ewes.

The winter feed for sheep should include plenty of rough-
age, such as clover hay, cut corn fodder, and oat straw. They
are very fond of root crops, and plenty of sugar beets,
mangles, or turnips should be provided.

Great care and constant attention are required by the
shepherd when lambing time comes. New-born lambs must
not become chilled. Some ewes fail to own their lambs
and must be held for the young to draw the milk. These
and many other points require the immediate attention of
a good shepherd.

SHEEP

299

EXERCISE. — Samples of Wool. — Typical samples of wool
may be brought by pupils or obtained from noted breeders
through the mail. These should be fastened with thread
to cards and labelled with the name of the breed. Let
students point out the difference in wool while studying
the breeds of sheep.

FIG. 184. — A lesson in judging sheep. (U. S. Office of Experiment Stations.)

EXERCISE. — Breeds of Sheer. — Pupils should be given
an opportunity to become familiar with all the breeds or
the types of sheep kept in the section where the school is
located. Typical specimens may be brought to the school;
or the students may go where the sheep are kept (Fig. 184).
Score cards for fine wooled sheep and for mutton sheep may
be used in judging such sheep. Write to the Agricultural
College of your State for such score cards. (See address
in the Appendix.)

300 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

REVIEW

1. What are the two main uses for sheep ?

2. What are the three classes of sheep ? Which two of these are
used for mutton ?

3. Describe the Cotswolds.

4. Compare the Leicesters and Lincolns with these in every way
that you can.

5. Name five breeds of the medium wooled sheep.

6. Give the chief differences between these five breeds.

7. Which breed is used for the winter lamb industry ?

8. Describe the Merino breeds and tell their differences.

9. For what kinds of places are sheep best suited ?

10. Describe best winter quarters for sheep.

11. Why should the flock be separated into small numbers in winter ?

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 526, Mutton as Food;
576, Breeds of Sheep for the Farm; 652, The Sheep-Kill ins, Dog; 713,
Sheep Scab.

CHAPTER XXVI.

SWINE.

WILD hogs of different kinds are found in Europe, Asia,
and some parts of North and South America. It is from the
wild forms of the Old World that the improved breeds of
swine have been developed. The changes wrought have
been truly wonderful. The time required for the pig to
mature has been reduced more than one-half. The tendency
to become very fat, which is so well marked in some breeds,
is not found in wild hogs. Domestic pigs are usually slow
and quiet, not wild and ferocious.

To obtain the best results in swine management, it is
necessary to keep pure bred or high grade swine. They
fatten easier, mature at an earlier age, and are larger than
the scrubs. In the United States more swine are raised than
any other class of live stock except cattle. Their value to
the farmers is estimated at nearly one-half billion dollars.

Types of Swine. — There are a number of breeds of swine,
but only a few have become very popular in America. They

SWINE 301

are classified as: first, lard or fat type-, and second, the bacon
or lean type. The form of the body in the fat type is com-
pact, deep, broad, and low, with short back and deep, fat
sides; the neck is short and thick; head small; hams and
shoulders large. The bacon type has long legs, long neck,
coarse head, narrow back, long and deep sides, in many
respects the very opposite of the fat type. Bacon swine are
kept for their fine lean cuts of bacon. The demand for this
type is not so great in America as in Europe.

FIG. 185. — The lard type, a Poland China sow. Color, black with white markings.

Breeds of the Fat Type. — The most popular breeds of
swine in America, of the fat type, are Poland China, Berkshire,
Chester White, and Duroc-Jersey. Others of less prominence
are Cheshire, Victoria, Small Yorkshire, Essex, and Suffolk.

America has produced very few new breeds of horses,
cattle or sheep, but a number of good breeds of swine have
been developed here. Swine from Europe are not so well
suited to the use of American field corn as to the grains of
their own country. Many of the English breeds are of the
bacon type and will not thrive on corn. The Berkshire is the
only very popular English breed in this country. The Poland
China originated in Ohio, the Chester White in Chester
County, Pennsylvania, and the Duroc-Jersey in New Jersey.

302 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

The Poland China (Fig. 185) and the Berkshire are both
black, with some white markings on the face, legs or other
parts. The Chester White and the strain called Ohio Im-
proved Chester (O. I. C.) are white in color. The Duroc-
Jersey is red or some modification of that color. These are
all large in size and the pigs mature early. The Berkshire
has erect ears and a dished face; in the others the ears are
drooping. The Duroc-Jersey is liked throughout the country
because of the large litters of pigs. The Poland China is
criticised because of the small number of pigs in a litter.

FIG. 186. — A Tamworth sow, red, representing the bacon type.

The white swine are not much used in the South and South-
west because of the greater danger of skin diseases in hot,
sunny climates.

Breeds of the Bacon Type. — The Large Yorkshire (Fig.
187), Tamworth (Fig. 186), and Hampshire are the leading
breeds of the bacon type of swine. The last mentioned
originated in Kentucky and the others in England. The
Large Yorkshire is white, the Tamworth red, and the Hamp-
shire black with a wide white belt.

Pig Management. — When swine are kept in large numbers
they should be provided with an abundance of good pasture.
Clovers and other legumes should be grown for this purpose.

SWINE 303

The cost of producing a pound of live weight is much less
for growing pigs than for those which have reached maturity.
For this reason the farmer finds it more profitable to sell his
market pigs before they are a year old. Those to be sold as
fat hogs should not be fed through two winters.

The life of a spring pig may be conveniently considered
as divided into four feeding periods of six or eight weeks
each: (1) The milk period, during which time a large part of
his growth is from his mother's milk, but some sloppy feed
may be added; (2) the wet mash period, when the feed is
mostly given in the wet form and plenty of skim milk is

FIG. 187. — Students judging large Yorkshire swine. The bacon type.
(U. S. Office of Experiment Stations).

supplied to him. The ground feeds, such as middlings,
gluten, and other feeds rich in protein, are used in the wet
mash; and some sliced roots and clover pasture may be
allowed; (3) the pasture period, when the clovers and
grasses produce the greatest growth. A little wet mash is
fed at the first part of this period and a little dry grain
toward the last; (4) the corn period, or fattening stage. It
is well to use some sliced roots in addition to the corn, but
it is not best to give a wide range on pasture at this time.
If this four-period plan of feeding is followed for early
spring pigs they can be sold without carrying them over
winter.

304 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

Pigs require plenty of good water, and also plenty of
mineral matter. Besides the mineral matter in the feeds
they should be supplied with charcoal, wood ashes, common
salt, sulfur, saltpeter, and air slaked lime. These may
be kept under cover where they have constant access
to them.

Hog Cholera. — Swine production is much hampered by
the disease known as cholera. This is very contagious, and
is most common in the corn belt. It is spread from place to
place in several ways, as by running streams, by buzzards,
crows, dogs and other animals, and on the shoes of men.
Care must be taken to prevent the disease from spreading

FIG. 188. — A form of brood house for sow and pigs. Easily removed to a clean
place to prevent disease.

in any way (Fig. 188). A special form of vaccination to
prevent hog cholera is now being used by some large growers.
Farmers have come into the practice of selling pigs before
they are very old. The prevalence of this disease has been
one of the causes of this.

EXERCISE. — Feed and Age of Pigs. — Let students tell
of the methods of feeding swine which they have learned
from older people. Let them also tell at what ages market
pigs are usually sold.

EXERCISE. — Breeds of Swine. — A visit should be made
with the class to places where good types of fat or bacon
pigs are kept. If there are pure breds or high grades in the
vicinity they should be used to show breed characteristics.

POULTRY MANAGEMENT 305

EXERCISE. — Swine Judging. — Get score cards for fat and
for bacon types of swine from your State Agricultural College
and have one or two lessons in judging. This will clearly
show the differences between the two types.

REVIEW

1. Tell what you can of the source of domestic swine.

2. Describe and contrast the two types of swine.

3. Name the four most common breeds of the fat type and give
their origin.

4. Give the colors and other distinctive characteristics of these
four breeds.

5. Name three breeds of the bacon type and give their origin and
color.

6. Why should farmers sell young market swine rather than older
ones?

7. Tell of the importance of good pastures for swine.

8. Give the four feeding periods of a pig's life, and the chief feed
for each.

9. Mention some forms of mineral matter for pigs.

10. Tell how hog cholera disease is spread.

11. What systems of pasturing for swine have you observed?

12. Mention suitable crops for swine pastures.

13. What feeds are used for fattening swine in your section?

14. What breeds of swine have you seen?

References.— U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 379, Hog Cholera; 566,
Boys' Pig Clubs; 765, Breeds of Swine; 781, Tuberculosis of Hogs.

CHAPTER XXVII.

POULTRY MANAGEMENT.

THE term Poultry commonly includes chickens, ducks,
geese, and turkeys; but may also refer to guineas, pigeons,
pheasants and peafowls. The keeping of poultry by farmers
is usually only incidental to other lines of farming. But in
some sections, particularly near large cities, poultry raising
is extensively carried on as a special line of farming.

The value of poultry and eggs produced annually on
American farms is about two-thirds of a billion dollars. In

306 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

their values they exceed all other live stock except horses
and cattle. Poultry products equal the value of the combined
mine products of gold, silver, iron, and coal. When consider-
ing the value of poultry on the farm the f armei should remem-
ber the great food value of the eggs and meat, the large num-
ber of injurious insects destroyed, and the ease with which
they may be fed, often living almost entirely on products
that would otherwise be wasted.

The production of improved breeds of poultry has
received much attention by poultrymen. This is particularly

Flo. 189. — Single-comb white Leghorn hen, one o the best of the egg-laying breeds.

true of chickens. There are many divisions of this specialty,
such as the production of eggs in winter, raising early broilers,
the raising of fancy birds for shows, the raising of ducks,
geese or turkeys.

Varieties of Chickens. — There are n-ore than one hundred
varieties of chickens. These may be grouped according to
their purposes into four classes: (1) Egg breeds, (2) meat
breeds, (3) general-purpose breeds, and (4) ornamental breeds.

Egg Breeds. — These are of light weight They mature
and begin laying very young. They include all the Leghorns

POULTRY MANAGEMENT .

307

(Fig. 189), Minorcas (Fig. 190), and Spanish, of the Medi-
terranean class, and also the less common Red Caps of the
English class. The eggs of these egg breeds are usually
white.

Fio. 190. — Black Minorca pair, an egg-laying breed producing the largest white

eggs.

EXERCISE. — Egg Records. — The records from small or
large flocks of chickens near by may be collected. The
pupils may find a wide difference among them. Have the

308 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

causes of the difference explained by pupils if the conditions
can be learned. Save the records to use in arithmetic class.
Meat Breeds. — The very heavy breeds of the Asiatic
class are very slow-maturing fowls. The Cochins, Brahmas
(Fig. 191), and Langshans belong to this group. They all
have feathers on the shank, or lower part of the leg. The
Dorkings and Indian Games are also called meat breeds.
The heavy meat breeds are not noted for their egg-laying,
but the meat is excellent. They are good sitters, but clumsy
as mothers.

Fw. 191. Fio. 192.

FIG. 191.— Light Brahma hen, one of the most popular of heavy fowls.

FIG. 192. — Barred Plymouth Rock hen, the most popular of the general-purpose type.

General=Purpose Breeds. — All varieties of the American
class belong here. This includes the Plymouth Rocks (Figs.
192 and 193), Wyandottes (Fig. 194), Javas, Dominiques,
Rhode Island Reds, and Buckeyes. The Orpingtons from
England and the Houdons from France are also included in
this group. General-purpose breeds are medium in weight
and they vary a great deal as to their egg and meat-produc-
ing qualities. They mature much younger than the meat
breeds, but not so early as the egg breeds. They are good
sitters and mothers.

POULTRY MANAGEMENT

309

Ornamental Breeds.— These are used for show purposes,
and include the Bantams, Games (except Indian Games),
Polish, Frizzles, Silkies, and other less common classes. The
Houdons are sometimes considered as ornamentals because
of their large crests. All breeds of poultry, regardless of
class, are bred quite commonly for show purposes.

What Variety to Keep. — It is very important to keep
varieties best suited to the purposes desired. For large
numbers of eggs poultrymen use the egg breeds, and use
them while young. The first year is their best egg-laying

FIQ 193.

Fia. 194.

FIG. 193. — White Plymouth Rock hen, a general-purpose breed.
FIG. 194. — Prize-winning white Wyandotte hen.

year. For table use, keep the meat breeds. Within the
varieties there are certain strains or families which are better
than others because they have been selected with reference
to a special purpose.

EXERCISE. — Study of Varieties. — Let the pupils who
have seen pure-bred chickens describe them to the class.
If some are now keeping any of the pure breeds, have them
weigh some of them and report weights to the class. Com-
pare these with the standard weights given in the United
States Farmers' Bulletin 51.

810

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

Housing. — Chickens should have special places made for
them to roost and to lay eggs. It is very bad practice to
allow them to use buildings and places intended for other
purposes.

195. — A colony house two stories high for laying hens,
litter are on the ground.

The nests arid scratching

FiQ. 196.

FIG. 197.

Fia. 196. — Movable chick brooder house heated by gasoline.
FIG. 197. — Brooder house for raising incubator chicks. The Houdon chicks
have been raised in this house.

The poultry house may be very simple and inexpensive
(Figs. 195, 196, 197). It should be dry and comfortable in
winter, free from drafts of air, but with plenty of fresh air
and direct sunshine. Many poultry raisers now use light-
weight muslin stretched on wood frames in the south side
of their poultry houses. The frames are hinged in place at
the top and are kept open every day except when the weather

POULTRY MANAGEMENT 311

is stormy. In many of these houses no glass windows are
used. In others the south side is part glass and part muslin.
The curtains prevent any strong drafts of air at night and
in stormy weather. In houses with too little ventilation
the fowls will suffer more from extremely cold weather than
in those with muslin curtains.

Artificial heat in a poultry house is not advisable, except
for brooder chicks. Winter feathers are so warm that arti-
ficial heat often leads to some form of sickness. The better
plan is to build the houses with low ceilings over the roosts
so that the chickens will sleep warm because of their own
heat (Figs. 198 and 199). Extra curtains may be'placed in
front of the roosts for use on cold nights. The sides and roof
of the house should be well built to keep out drafts of air and
rain. Chickens thrive in houses that are cool and dry better
than in those which are damp and warm.

Location of Poultry House. — This is very important.
Select a high spot to put the chicken house on. Natural
drainage away from the building will help in keeping the
ground dry and free from disease. Sandy or gravelly soil is
better than clay for the same reason. A place gently sloping
to the south is best. Where natural slopes are not found the
surface drainage may be provided by grading the ground
with the use of horses and scrapers. This should be done
before the house is built.

Wind Breaks should be provided on the north and west
sides. They are sometimes composed of evergreens or other
trees planted very near together. Tight board fences may
be built. Where the house is placed on the south side of
larger farm buildings the worst winds are kept away.

Inside the House. — If the house faces the south, with the
muslin windows on that side, then the roosts should be along
the north side of the room. Place all the roosts on a level
with each other, or nearly so. Have a board platform built
six inches below the roosts to keep the floor clean and make
21

312

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

FIG. 198. — Open-front colony house for poultry, ready for a muslin screen in
large window. Through the window may be seen the roosts, platform, and nests.
Hens enter nests from the dark side at back. The hinged board allows the easy
removal of eggs.

Fia. 199. — Sectional view of shed-roof poultry house, shown in Fig. 198, having a
muslin curtain in front instead of glass.

POULTRY MANAGEMENT 313

more room for litter and for the fowls to scratch. The nests
may also be placed under this platform if the room is small.

The roosts, nests, and platform should be so made as to
be easily cleaned. These as well as the inside walls should be
covered with lime white-wash, containing some disinfectant,
renewed from time to time.

Dust Boxes. — Chickens love to wallow in dust. This
helps to keep them free from mites and lice. Dust boxes
should be provided, particularly in winter time. These may
be filled with a sifted mixture of ashes and dry soil. Place
the boxes in sunny places.

Feed Troughs and Hoppers. — These should be used only
for the ground feeds, whether wet or dry. For wet mash
the troughs are best; but for dry, ground feeds, called dry
mash} the self-feeding hoppers are used. Make the feed
boxes in such a way as to prevent the fowls from getting
into the feed to scratch. The whole grain should be fed
in deep litter. This will induce the chickens to do more
scratching, and keep them strong and healthy.

Self-feeding hoppers are made so as to allow the fowls
to eat near the bottom. As fast as the feed is used up more of
it runs down from above. These are called dry mash hoppers
(Fig. 200).

Grit Boxes. — Boxes for grit, charcoal, and oyster shell
may be fastened to the walls above the litter, for use at aU
times.

Drinking Fountains. — These should be placed a foot
above the floor for grown chickens. This helps to keep the
water clean. A simple water fountain can be made thus:
A gallon pail or can or jar without a top is used (Fig. 201).
Make a nail hole on one side one-half inch from the top.
Fill with clean water. Place over it a flat pan somewhat
larger than the mouth of the vessel used. Then suddenly
invert the fountain, and place it on a low box in the poultry
room. As the water is used out of the pan more will flow

314

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

down until it is gone. Care should be taken to wash it well
each day, and to keep it well supplied with clean water.
All chickens require much water to drink.

Feeding Systems. — Much discussion has been carried
on by poultry raisers as to the feeding systems to be followed.
Some are most successful with the wet-mash system of feed-

FIG 200. — Dry-mash hopper. The wire screen over the lower opening prevents
the waste of feed.

ing fowls. This system consists in feeding wet ground feed
once or twice a day and dry grains at other times.

Recently a number of poultrymen have adopted a plan
known as the dry-mash system of feeding. A dry mash is
made by mixing a number of finely ground feeds together.
This is kept in a self-feeding hopper or feeding fountain at all
times. Besides this dry mash one or two feeds of mixed whole
grains are given in the deep litter on the floor. The heat-

POULTRY MANAGEMENT

315

producing feed, as whole corn, is fed in the evening, during
cold weather.

EXERCISE. — Feeding Dry Mash. — If possible, to make a
trial in winter, let one or more persons near by try the dry
mash, fed by the hopper method. They may report results
to the teacher or to the school.

Feeding for Winter Eggs. — The feed for egg production,
as well as for forcing the growth of young broilers, should
be very rich in protein. Below are given several different
rations in use on egg farms:

Flo. 201. — A simple drinking fountain for poultry, easily
cleaned each time before filling.

Dry Mash No. 1. — 100 pounds wheat bran, 100 pounds
wheat middlings, 100 pounds alfalfa meal, 75 pounds good
beef meal.

This is given as a dry mash. Whole wheat or a mixture
of wheat and oats is thrown in the litter every morning;
and whole corn or cracked corn in the evening, just before
roosting time. Shell, grit, and charcoal are kept in separate
boxes.

Dry Mash No. 2. — 100 pounds cornmeal, 100 pounds beef
meal, 100 pounds alfalfa meal, 5 pounds oyster shell, 3 pounds
grit, 3 pounds charcoal.

This mash is fed in the open hoppers and kept supplied

316 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

constantly. Two grain feeds are given in the litter each day
to get the fowls to exercise. This is a mixture of one part
oats, two parts cracked corn, and three parts wheat.

Wet mashes are very commonly fed to chickens of all ages.
They are very effective as forcing feeds, but the careless use
of them tends to produce disease of various forms. The two
mixtures given here may be slightly changed to suit different
conditions.

Wet Mash No. 1. — One hundred pounds each of ground
oats, ground corn, ground barley, and bran.

Wet Mash No. 2. — Equal parts by weight of ground
corn, bran, ground oats, and cut clover or cut alfalfa.

These are each supplemented with grain, fed in the litter;
and grit, shell, and charcoal in boxes. Meat scraps are
usually given separate from the wet mash.

EXERCISE. — Poultry Rations. — All the pupils who have
poultry at home should tell of the daily system of feeding
and watering, and of the rations fed. Men or women who
are successful poultry raisers may be invited to tell the school
their plans of feeding and other practical points.

Succulent Feed. — Chickens should have plenty of suc-
culent green feed, if possible. The best forms of this in
winter are cabbage, turnips, and beets; as substitutes clover
and alfalfa hay may be fed wet or dry, either whole or cut
fine. Growing rye or other winter crops furnish green feed
in late fall and early spring. Oats may be sprouted in flat
boxes in a warm room and fed to the fowls daily (Fig.
202).

Care of Poultry. — Poultry raising is an art most easily
acquired by practice combined with a study of the principles
underlying it.

The health of the fowls must be guarded. They must be
kept free from vermin. Brush crude oil (petroleum) on the
roosts once a week through the warm weather. Spray this
oil on the walls and in the nest boxes. The conditions and

POULTRY MANAGEMENT

317

effects of moulting must be understood. Hatching with hens
and with machines and the raising of young chicks must be
learned by practice. Many helpful suggestions along these
lines are given in United States Farmers' Bulletin 287.

EXERCISE. — Running an Incubator. — (Fig. 203). — In the
spring time, when the school-room does not get too cool at
night, run an incubator in the school-room. One may be
borrowed for the purpose, or the pupils will earn money
enough to buy one and supply the eggs and kerosene. Follow
directions carefully. Appoint certain pupils to attend the

U

Fia. 202. — Sprouted oats as winter green feed for hena. The oats are wet and put
in a shallow tray in a warm room for about ten days. (Maine.)

incubator each day. Make a record form on large paper
or cardboard on the wall. Let this show each morning and
evening: (1) the temperature, (2) whether regulator is open
or shut, (3) condition of lamp, (4) who filled and trimmed
the lamp , (5) who turned the eggs. The chicks hatched may
be cared for at school for two weeks or taken to one of the
homes when one day old (Fig. 204) . United States Farmers'
Bulletin 236 will be helpful. Either of the two types of
outdoor brooders shown in Figs. 196 and 197 can be made
by boys at home.

EXERCISE. — Color of Yolk. — When the grain fed to hens
is chiefly oats, the yolks are much lighter colored than when

318

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

they are fed corn, particularly yellow corn. Let this dif-
ference in color of yolk be shown at school by having eggs
brought from flocks fed in tnese ways.

EXERCISE. — Packing Eggs. — Let pupils tell of the different
ways they have seen eggs packed for market. Some can tell
of the ways they come from stores. Should the eggs be
washed, if dirty, before marketing? Should they be sorted
by size as apples usually are ? Do you know of any markets

FIG. 203.

-Practical operation of incubators in a school-room.
(Agricultural Education.)

where the prices are higher for white-shelled eggs, or higher
for brown-shelled eggs ? (See the method of packing shown
in Fig. 205.)

EXERCISE. — Weight of Eggs. — Weigh a dozen large eggs
and get the average weight in ounces. Weigh a dozen small
eggs and get the average weight. How many of the large
eggs does it require to weigh a pound, and how many small
ones? Eggs are usually sold by the dozen, but in some
places by the pound. Which way is fairer ?

POULTRY MANAGEMENT

319

EXERCISE. — Drinking Fountain. — Have some one make
a drinking fountain like the one described and figured, and
show how it works (Fig. 201).

FIG. 204. — A hundred white Leghorn chicks from an incubator. (Cornell.)

EXERCISE. — Testing Eggs. — Let some form of tester be
used in testing eggs brought from homes or from a store.
Eggs are usually candled in some stores to detect any not

FIG. 205. — A good way to prepare eggs for market. Each dozen is uniform
in size and color and packed in the dozen-size cartons of pasteboard. The crate
is painted and labelled with the owner's name. (H. R. Lewis.)

suitable for human food. This is done thus: Put a candle
or stronger light in a dark box; have an oval hole a little
smaller than an egg in one side, even with the light; let that
part of the room where the testing is to be done be darkened
somewhat. Hold an egg over the hole and look for any

320 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

dark or clouded parts in the contents. Other forms of egg
testers are in use. The eggs in an incubator are usually
tested the fifth or sixth day to see if a live, growing germ is
present.

EXERCISE. — Preserving Eggs. — Let some of the pupils
preserve a few dozen fresh eggs. April or May is a good
time to preserve them for winter use. The eggs may be
kept at home and the report of the trial made to the class
a few months later. Directions: Scald out a stone jar with
boiling water. Prepare a solution, using water that has been
first boiled and then cooled to ordinary temperature. To
each seven quarts of water add one pint of water-glass, pur-
chased at a drug store. Select clean (not washed) fresh eggs,
and place them in the jar. Pour the liquid over the eggs,
covering them more than an inch above the top ones. Keep
them in a dark, cool, dry cellar.

Problems. — A flock containing 28 pullets laid 1600 eggs
in January, February and March —

1. What was the average number of eggs from each?

2. What was the average number of eggs from the flock
for each of the 90 days?

3. If 400 of the eggs were laid in January and sold at an
average price of 36 cents a dozen, what was the income for
January?

4. If they laid 500 eggs in February worth 30 cents a
dozen, what was the income for the month?

5. They laid 700 eggs in March which were sold at 18
cents a dozen. What was the amount of the month's sales?

6. Find the total income from the 28 pullets for the three
months.

7. Find the average income from each hen for the three
months.

BEE-KEEPING 321

REVIEW

1. Tell what you can of the importance of the poultry industry
in this country.

2. Give a list of the special egg-laying breeds of chickens. How
many colors of these have you heard of ?

3. Give a list of the special meat breeds.

4. What is meant by general-purpose breeds ? For what are they
used ? Name them.

5. Describe a good location for a poultry house.

6. Why should chickens have a house of their own ?

7. Tell of the plan for muslin windows for poultry houses. Why
are they used ?

8. Mention some of the requirements of a good poultry house.

9. Why not use artificial heat in poultry houses ?

10. Tell of some good wind-breaks for the poultry house.

11. Describe, or draw on paper, the inside arrangement of the poultry
house.

12. Why are dust baths necessary for hens ?

13. Describe a good drinking fountain for chickens.

14. What do poultry raisers mean by wet mash and dry mash ?

15. Why should some grain be thrown into the litter every day ?

16. Describe a daily ration for laying hens. (1) Wet system. (2)
Dry system.

17. What feeds will supply succulence in winter?

18. Tell haw to destroy vermin on roosts and in nests.

References. — United States Farmers' Bulletins: 51, Standard Varie-
ties of Chickens; 791, Turkeys; 287, Poultry Management; 390,
Pheasant Raising; 452, Capons and Caponizing; 497, Game and Aquatic
Birds; 528, Poultry Hints; 530, Poultry Diseases; 562, Poultry Clubs;
574, Poultry Houses; 585, Incubation; 594 and 703, Eggs by Post;
624, Brooding; 656, Egg Circles; 682, Trap Nests; 684, Squabs; 697,
Ducks; 767, Goose Raising.

CHAPTER XXVIII.
BEE=KEEPINQ.

WHEN the subject of pollination of fruit trees was dis-
cussed two purposes of bee-keeping were mentioned. The
production of honey and the pollination of fruit blossoms are
both sources of profit on the farm. A fairly good average
yield from a colony of bees each season is forty pounds of
extracted honey or twenty-five pounds of comb honey.
When honey is extracted from the combs the bees are not

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

required to build new combs and much of their time is saved
for honey-making.

There are very few bee-keepers who make this the only
source of their income. It is usually combined with other
lines of farming. Bees are kept in both city and country.
The flowers, or bee-pastures, from which bees secure their
nectar, must not be too far from the hives of the bees. Bees
frequently go two or three miles in search of nectar, but their
main supply should be much nearer.

Breeds. — The wild honey bees are of the black or German
variety, brought by early settlers to this country. This breed
is also kept by a few farmers. The chief objection to bees
of this breed is that they are very cross and easily excited.
A^number of other breeds have been brought to America.

Italian bees are now much more in use than any other
breed. These bees are easily managed, and are good defend-
ers of their hives. They are good honey gatherers. Italian
bees are easily recognized by the three yellow bands across
the body behind the wings. They are more difficult to
keep over winter than some of the other kinds. Hybrid
bees are commonly found in American bee yards. Many
of these have been formed by Italian bees crossing with
other breeds.

Cyprian bees are the best honey gatherers, but they have
bad tempers and their management is difficult.

Carniolan bees are very quiet. They are the largest of
all our breeds of bees, and have great wing power. As honey
gatherers they are among the best. They multiply in the
hives quite rapidly and much time is spent in swarming to
divide the colony.

Caucasian bees are very gentle, good workers, and defend
their hives well. They swarm rather too often if kept in
small hives.

Syrian bees are much like the Cyprians in temper, and
they are not as thrifty workers.

BEE-KEEPING 323

The Colony. — Bees in a colony are of three kinds, workers,
drones, and queens. The workers number from 30,000 to
40,000 in a colony at the beginning of the gathering season.
These do all the work of the colony; they are really females,
but never lay eggs. There are only a few hundred drones
or male bees, and only one queen. The queen bee lays all
the eggs to produce new colonies.

The Life of Bees. — The workers^ acting as nurse bees,
place the eggs, laid by the queen, in the bottom of the wax-
cells. The larva hatches from the egg in about three days
and is fed with pollen and honey by the nurse bees. In five
days the pupa stage is reached. It rests as a pupa for thirteen
days, when the mature insect appears. Twenty-one days
are thus used in the development of worker bees. Queens
are produced in a little less time, and drones require twenty-
four days. The first duty of the young workers is to act as
nurses. But in about two weeks they begin gathering honey.
Workers usually wear their wings out and die in less than one
season. Queens live several years. The drones are nearly
all killed and thrown out in the fall or before the winter is
over. The life of the colony is kept up by young bees.

Honey=Making. — Worker-bees visit flowers, suck the
nectar, and store it in honey sacks in their bodies. They
fly to the hive and deposit the nectar in wax cells, made by
other workers. Some of the workers dry out the nectar by
producing a breeze with their wings over the cells. Study
the structure of the worker-bee as shown in Fig. 206.

White clover, alsike clover, alfalfa, basswood, locust,
fruit trees, buckwheat, and golden-rod are among the best
plants for the production of nectar. There are hundreds of
plants grown for other purposes which are used by bees in
the making of honey.

Hives. — A good beehive is in the form of a box with a
removable bottom and top (Fig. 207). The bottom projects
to form an entrance platform. A small slot is made in the

324

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

\

j

s

/

/

\

'/

\

1

\

f

b

FIG. 206. — Bee structures: a, worker-bee, pollen loaded; 6, mouth parts of a
long-tongued bee; c, hind leg of bee showing pollen carrier; d, wax cutter and
eurry-comb of 1st joint of hind leg; e, antenna-cleaner of fore leg; /, hair of bumble-
bee; g, h, i, hairs of three different kinds of bees. (From Smith's "Insect Friends
and Enemies.")

BEE-KEEPING 325

front just above the floor for the entrance of bees. Frames
are hung inside the box, and are supplied with honeycomb.
These combs will become filled with honey and young bee-
bread. Then another box called a super is placed above the
first one. If comb honey is wanted for use or for market,
the super is supplied with small frames to hold one pound
each. If liquid, or extracted, honey is wanted the frames
in the super are much larger. From these the honey is
removed without destroying the cells.

FIG. 207. — Typical beehive. (From "The A, B, C of Bee Culture,1

A. I. Root Company.)

Swarming. — In early summer the hives of bees usually
become overcrowded with bees, because of the young broods
maturing. This brings on the desire to swarm. One queen
goes out with the swarm, usually leaving a queen cell in the
old hive from which a young queen emerges in a few days.
The swarm usually gathers on some object, as a tree near by.
If an empty hive is ready the queen and most of the bees
can be taken while quiet and placed near the entrance to
the hive or in the hive. The colony will then adopt this as

326 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

its new home. It is important that hives be watched closely
at the season when most of the swarming is done. This will
help to prevent loss of swarms. Many swarms are lost each
year by not knowing when the queen and bees leave the hive.
One way of preventing loss in this way is to keep the wings
of the queen clipped so that she cannot fly away. This is a
common practice among bee-keepers.

Winter Care. — Bees should be protected during severe
winter weather. They may be placed in sheds or dry cellars,
or in houses built for the purpose. They must not be kept too
warm, but sudden change in temperature is bad for the bees.
Hives are sometimes made double and the space between the
walls is filled with sawdust or other material. The hives are
sometimes covered with straw, carpet or other means of
protection. The door is left open so that bees may exercise
on warm days.

EXERCISE. — Bee Studies. — Students may tell what plants
they have seen bees visiting for honey. Also what methods
they know to prevent the stinging of bees; how hiving of
swarms is done; and what means of protection are used in
winter by local bee-keepers.

REVIEW

1. Name the several breeds or races of bees.

2. Which one is most in use in America ? What are its character-
istics?

3. What three kinds of bees are in a colony ? About how many of
each kind ?

4. Describe the development of the young honey bee.

5. Describe the making of honey.

6. Tell how a beehive is made.

7. What is the super? What is it for?

8. Why do bees swarm ? When is this most common ?

9. Tell of the need for winter care of bees.

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins 442, Bee Diseases; 447r
Bees; 503, Comb Honey; 653 Honey and Its Use in the Home; 695,
Outdoor Wintering of Bees.

FEEDS AND FEEDING 327

CHAPTER XXIX.
FEEDS AND FEEDING.

THE nourishment and development of animals is more
complicated than the growth of plants. Their growth is
from the use of substances ready formed in plants, or which
have been derived from them. These are transformed into
flesh and bone.

Composition of Animals. — The animal body is composed of
substances derived directly or indirectly from plants. It may
be divided into two classes of products, water and dry matter.

Water ordinarily is more than one-half of the total weight
of the live animal and is necessary for the proper nourishment
of the body. Pure fresh water should be supplied freely to
all animals.

The dry or solid matter of an animal's body is made up
of several different substances, called tissues, as fat, muscle,
bone and others. The chief substances which enter into
these are fat. protein, horny matter and mineral matter.

EXERCISE. — Water in Flesh. — Heat a small piece of fresh
lean beef or other meat in a long glass test tube. Notice
the water which rises and collects on the cooler parts of the
vessel. If delicate scales or balances are in the school, the
meat may be weighed before and after heating. Thus the
weight of water driven off may be determined.

EXERCISE. — To Get Dry Matter. — Place a few small pieces
of air-dry wood of any kind in a glass test-tube or bottle
over a flame or on a hot stove. The moisture will escape
from the wood and condense on the cooler parts of the glass
above the wood where it can be seen. After a time only the
dry matter will remain in the bottom of the glass. If the
wood be weighed before and after drying, the per cent of
dry matter may be determined.
22

328 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

Essentials in Animal Feeds. — As the animal body con-
sists of several classes of substances, it demands similar
classes from the feeds consumed. The substances in animal
feeds are: (1) Protein, (2) carbohydrates, (3) fats, (4) mineral
salts.

Protein. — The protein of a feed includes vegetable albu-
men, fibrin, and other substances similar to the protein of
the animal body. The term albumenoids was formerly used
to designate this class of substances when contained in feed
or in animal tissues.

The different kinds of protein substances vary somewhat
in their composition. They are all rich in nitrogen, and are
quite uniform in their value in feeds. They are the most
important of the compounds in feed, and are indispensable,
as they are the sole direct source of the protein in the bodies
of all domestic animals. The chief forms in which protein
is found in the animal's body are: albumen, fibrin, and casein.
These differ widely in appearance but agree in containing
about the same percentage of nitrogen. Gluten is abundant
in wheat. Albumen is well represented by the white of an'
egg. Fibrin is seen in the white solid of coagulated blood
remaining after the red color is washed out. Casein is the
basis of cheese.

EXERCISE. — Protein in Wheat. — Make some stiff dough
of wheat flour. Wash the dough in cold water to remove
the starch. The remainder will become very elastic. It is
made up chiefly of that kind of protein called gluten. The
"gum" formed from chewing wheat is also chiefly gluten.

EXERCISE. — Study of Protein. — Examine some of the
other substances mentioned, and let pupils become familiar
with the different forms of protein. Have present the white
of egg, both raw and cooked. American cheese or cottage
cheese, or both, may be put into small bottles with a weak
solution of formalin to preserve them for future use in
illustrating that form of protein called casein.

FEEDS AND FEEDING 329

Carbohydrates. — Plant fiber, sugar and starch are the
most important of the carbohydrates. They are of about
the same composition, containing carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen only, no nitrogen being present.

The cell wall or structural part of a plant is called cellulose.
Where great strength is needed, the cell walls become thick
and hard as in trees. There is little cellulose in seeds. It
is found in greater proportions in ripe hay, straw, and corn
fodder. Paper is now chiefly made from the cellulose or
fiber of wood. Flax fiber and cotton are good examples of
nearly pure cellulose. Pure fiber has very little color, odor,
or taste.

EXERCISE. — Cellulose. — Make wet paper balls of as many
different kinds of paper as you have in school. The water
will remove starch and other substances and leave the pure
fiber or cellulose. Brown paste-board may be used to illus-
trate the fiber in straw of small grains. Fiber of flax is
found in linen paper and linen cloth. Most soft white
paper is made of wood fiber.

Starch is stored by nearly all kinds of plants. It is a very
abundant substance. Small grains, corn, and the dry matter
of root crops are especially rich in this substance. Potatoes
and corn furnish most of the pure starch in the commerce
of America. Because of its abundance and ease of digestion,
starch is one of the most important feeds. It is readily
converted into glucose, or grape sugar, by treatment with
acids. The glucose syrups are largely derived from the
starch of corn.

EXERCISE. — Showing Starch. — Cut open kernels of corn,
wheat, rye, and other common grains. Examine the white-
powder. This is nearly pure starch.

Sugars are closely related to starch. There are three
kinds: cane sugar, milk sugar, and grape or fruit sugar.
These are very much alike in composition. All resemble each
other in their properties. Cane sugar is the common sugar

330 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

of commerce. It is derived from the stems of sugar-cane
and from the sugar-beet. Milk sugar is from the milk of the
cow and other animals. Grape or fruit sugar is abundant
in honey and sweet fruits and occurs in the juices of
many plants.

Sugars are easily digested, as they are all readily soluble
in water. When animals eat sugar beets and sorghum fodder
the sugar is used directly as feed. Sugar is a very important
feed and although it occurs only in small quantities in
ordinary feeds, it is formed in large quantities from starch
during digestion.

Fat. — The fat in animals agrees closely in composition
with that contained in plants. Fat exists in some seeds, as
flax and cotton, in such quantities as to make them valuable
as sources of oil, for feed and other uses. Most of the oil
is pressed out before the remainder of the seed is used
for feed.

EXERCISE. — To Show Presence of Oil. — Get seeds of flax,
cotton, sunflower, or castor bean. Crush them and rub
between the fingers to detect the oil. It has been stored
there by plants for future use of the young plant sprouting
from the seed.

Mineral Matter is what remains of plants after they have
been burned; it is the ash. Some plants, as alfalfa, are rich
in mineral matter. In ordinary fodders there is usually
enough to supply the needs of the animal body. Common
Bait is fed separately. Hogs are fed with ashes and charcoal
from wood and cobs, to supply them with more mineral
matter. They even get much mineral matter from the
soil itself.

Analysis of Feeds. — The State laws of most States author-
ize the agricultural experiment stations to take samples of
feeds offered for sale within the State and make analyses of
them. The reports of these analyses usually show the per
cent of total dry matter and water, and the per cents of

FEEDS AND FEEDING

331

protein, carbohydrates, fat, and mineral matter (Fig. 208).
Such reports are very valuable to all stock feeders, as the
figures indicate as clearly as is possible the feeding value of
each kind analyzed. Those feeds, rich or poor in any one
ingredient, as protein, may be easily compared in the pub-
lished tables. (See Appendix.)

Feeds Changed Into Animal Tissues. — The object of
feeding is to furnish material for supporting life, and for
building up the animal body and the securing of some prod-

FIG. 208. — The bottle at the right represents 100 ounces of shelled corn. The
five bottles at the leit represent the chemical composition of this corn as determined
by analysis. The elements are as follows: starch, 80.35 ounces; protein, 10.92
ounces; oil, 4.70 ounces; fiber, 2.60 ounces; ash, 1.43 ounces.

uct, as milk from cows, eggs from hens, wool from sheep.
Each of the four classes of compounds of the feed is of special
use in the process. Any one alone, as starch or fat, is unable
to completely nourish the body and maintain life.

Animals are incapable of making very great changes in
these feed compounds. Each is changed into similar animal
products in the living animal by a series of processes called
digestion, circulation, respiration, secretion, and assimilation.

Loss in These Processes. — In these five processes of
life, digestion in particular, the substances contained in the

332 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

feed are not all changed into animal products. Some of the
feed is used to maintain or carry on the digestion. There is
always a loss. Any material capable of building up tissue
or of replacing this loss, in whole or in part, is valuable as
feed for the animal.

Nutrients. — Any single compound, like protein or fat,
is called a nutrient. All feeds must contain nutrients. They
must be palatable, so stock will like them. They should be
largely digestible. Some of the feed each day must possess
enough bulk to properly fill or distend the digestive organs.

Roughage and Concentrates. — It is common to divide
all animal feeds into two classes : coarse fodders or roughage,
and concentrated feeds. By roughage is meant such bulky
feeds as hay, cornstalks, straw, and green fodders.

Concentrated feeds are the more highly nourishing mate-
rials with less bulk. Ground or whole grains, peas, bran,
middlings, and other mill products are concentrates.

Hay. — Those forms of hay produced from the true
grasses, as orchard grass, red top and timothy, are rich in
carbohydrates and indigestible fiber, but contain very little
protein. Hay made from alfalfa and clover is nearly as
bulky, but much richer in protein than the others.

The value of any hay depends upon the kind or variety,
the condition at time of cutting, and the success in curing.

Corn Stalks and Straw. — These are very bulky forms of
roughage and are so rich in fiber that they are harder to
digest than good hay. The nutritive matter that first existed
in the growing crop has passed 'into the seeds, which have
been removed. This leaves the straw poorer in both protein
and carbohydrates. Corn grown for fodder, if the ears are
not to be removed, should be cut as soon as the grain is well
glazed. Racks for feeding corn fodder and straw are shown
in Fig. 211.

Green Forage Crops. — The growing of crops for green
forage has been discussed in another chapter. Such feeds are

FEEDS AND FEEDING 333

watery in character. They contain, however, the same
nutrients as the hay macte from them, if no loss occurs in
making the hay. Their weight when green makes them
difficult to handle. This disadvantage is balanced by the
saving of all nutrients. Green fodders are more succulent
and are liked better by stock. They are more easily digested
than dry fodders, and contain more protein because of being
cut at an earlier stage of growth.

Grasses, growing corn, alfalfa, and other fodders when
cut and fed green to stock are called soiling crops, as
stated in Chapter X. Many of the best stock feed-
ers are using such green feeds a great deal. It saves
much in the way of pasture room. Several times as many
cows can be fed from a certain field as could pasture well
on it. The pasture system is too common to need any
description.

Ensilage. — Silos are made of various building materials,
such as wood, brick, stone, and concrete (Figs. 80 and 209).
They are made air tight and will preserve fodder corn or
other green feed in such condition as to retain most of the
succulent qualities of the original product. Such feed is
called ensilage. It is highly valued on dairy farms, where
succulence in the daily feed is very important. Corn stalks
with the ears still attached are cut when the grain is well
glazed. The whole crop is run through a revolving cutter
and the small pieces and leaves thrown or blown into the
top of the tall silo (Fig. 209), The silos are usually round
and are twelve to twenty feet in diameter. The depth is
from twenty to forty feet. Small doors along one side allow
the ensilage to be taken out easily during the winter months,
or whenever it is being fed.

Root Crops. — Mangels and beets are grown especially
for cows, turnips for hogs and sheep, carrots for horses. But
these and other root crops may be used for all kinds of farm
animals. They are valuable as feed particularly when the

334

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

other feed used is in the dry form. They all contain much
water and are very succulent. Stock usually like them, and
they are very digestible. The effect upon the animal system
is very good.

Concentrates from Grains. — Many of the concentrates
in use are made from the grains of the cereals. The various
products which they furnish are suited for all kinds of farm

FlQ. 209. — A modern brick silo near end of dairy barn. The cutter and pipe through
which cut corn is blown are in place to begin filling silo.

animals. They are easily digested and nearly all are rich
in the three groups of feed compounds, protein, carbohy-
drates, and fats.

Corn makes up more than half of the concentrate feeds
used for animals in America. It is largely used for fattening
hogs and beef animals, and for the feeding of work animals.
It is rich in carbohydrates and oil, but contains very little
mineral matter and less protein than the small grains.
It is used in fattening stock.

FEEDS AND FEEDING 335

Oats are commonly used as horse feed, particularly in the
North. They are richer in protein than corn. For this
reason they make better feed for horses than corn where
timothy hay is used as roughage.

Byproducts and Mill Feeds. — Millers make flour from
wheat, rye, barley, and buckwheat, and meal from corn and
oats. Breakfast foods are made from all of these. In the
making of these products for human use there are many
parts of the grains not used; such are called by-products.
They are all carefully saved and sold for the feeding of
animals. Bran and middlings are common examples of these.

There are also by-products from the manufacture of
starch, glucose, sugar, beverages, oils, and even from the
dressing and curing of meats.

The term mill feeds may include also the ground grains,
either mixed or singly. Corn, oats, and rye are often used in
the ground form for stock.

Bran. — The outer coats of wheat, removed in making
flour, are called bran. Much of the protein of the grain is
just beneath the outer coats or coverings of the grain and is
kept with the bran during the milling process. There is a
higher per cent of protein in wheat bran than in the wheat
itself. The bran from corn is of little value and is
seldom sold.

Wheat Middlings. — The by-product from wheat called
middlings is better than bran in its total amount of nutrients.
It has as much protein, and is richer in starch. There is
less fiber in middlings and this makes it better for hogs.
Shorts is another name given to middlings. Sometimes mill
sweepings and finely ground wastes are mixed with middlings
and sold under the name of shorts.

Gluten Meal. — When starch and glucose syrups are made
from corn the by-product or remainder of the grain is ground
up and sold under such names as gluten feed and gluten
meal It has in it the protein, the oil, and the bran. It is

336 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

very high in protein and is mixed with other concentrates
for the feeding of dairy cows.

Brewers' Grains. — These are the by-products from brew-
eries and contain both the bran and the germs of barley.
When dried and mixed with other concentrates they are very
suitable for dairy cows. They are somewhat richer in pro-
tein than wheat bran. Brewers' grains are sometimes fed
while very wet. Cows like them in this condition if the grains
are not allowed to spoil, which they are likely do do in
warm weather.

Beet Pulp. — After sugar is extracted from sugar-beets
the shredded pulp is dried and shipped to all parts of the
country for use as stock feed. It should be again wet and
soaked for a few hours before feeding. Dairymen are now
feeding beet pulp quite extensively as a winter succulence,
substituting it wholly or in part for ensilage. Its chief
nutrient is carbohydrate, there being little protein.

Cottonseed Meal. — Cottonseed meal is one of the richest
of the concentrates produced from plants for stock feed.
It is the chief by-product from the cottonseed in the manu-
facture of cottonseed oil. The hulls are usually first removed
and the oil pressed out of the cottonseed. The remaining
feed is ground into the form of meal, and fed to stock with
grains or other concentrated feeds and with fodders. Cotton-
seed meal is very rich in protein and has more fat than most
of the other grains. In feeding it to stock much care must
be exercised, as when fed too heavily there is sometimes
a poisonous effect.

Linseed Meal. — This is frequently called oil-meal in the
North, as cottonseed meal is less common there. It is a by-
product from the manufacture of oil from flaxseed. The
oil is chiefly used for paint. The meal is of two kinds, called
old process and new process. In the old process the oil is
pressed from the flaxseed and the remaining part is broken
into small pieces or ground into meal for feed. In the new

FEEDS AND FEEDING

337

process the oil is more completely removed by the use of
gasoline or ether. The difference in their feeding values is
very slight, as both are rich in protein and show very little
waste matter.

EXERCISE. — Samples of By-Products. — Get from local
dealers a collection of samples of all the concentrated feeds
they have. Put these in small bottles and label them. Write
to the manufacturers for samples of the cottonseed products,

FIG. 210. — A. Beef cattle are fattened with corn, fed in large, flat troughs.
(Experiment Station, Kans.)

B. Calves in pasture. They are temporarily put in stanchions when fed
with skim milk and ground feed. (Experiment Station, Kans.)

corn products, and the linseed products. Local dealers will
give you the addresses or get the samples for you. Get the
names of feeds from the Appendix in making up the list for
the school collection of samples.

The Principles of Stock Feeding. — The feeding of animals
to obtain the best results is one of the most difficult problems
of the farmer or stockman. It involves a knowledge of the
feeds used, how to properly balance the nutrients in the daily

338 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

feed, the best ways of feeding these (Figs. 210 and 211),
the needs of each class of animals, and a study of individual
differences between animals of the same kind.

Digestibility. — There are several factors which influence
the digestibility of feeds. (1) The less fiber present the
easier they are to digest. (2) Concentrated feeds digest
more perfectly than others. (3) Soft seed coats allow seeds
to digest better than those with hard shells, if swallowed
whole. (4) Digestion is aided by the grinding and crushing
of feeds. (5) The early cutting of fodder and hay will aid.
(6) If well cured and stored the feeds are more completely
digested. (7) The kind or breed of animal using the feed has
an influence. (8) Likewise the individuality and age of the
animal have their influence.

FIG. 211. — Outdoor feed-racks used for feeding flocks on the range.

Relation of Feed to Purpose. — We have already learned
that we must feed not only to maintain the weight and heat
of the animal, but also to produce certain animal products
or work. There are many kinds of products. The kind
and amount of feed must be suited to the special purpose.
The feeds must be rich in protein when the products
desired contain much protein. Milk, eggs, lean meat, and
wool are such products. The animal cannot produce anything
containing protein without the use of protein in the feed.

When the purposes are to build up fat or merely to
maintain the body heat and weight, very little protein is
required in ths feed. If too much protein is fed to an

FEEDS AND FEEDING 339

animal when not yielding some protein-bearing product,
much of it is wasted, and a portion of it may be transformed
into fat. In the simple maintenance of life, carbohydrates
and fat are largely fed. They produce the necessary heat
and energy for such a purpose. For this reason much rough-
age is fed to animals not at work in the winter time. Timothy
hay, straw and stalks, with perhaps a little corn grain, are
enough for the simple maintenance of cattle and horses.
For a gain in fat these same feeds are used in larger quan-
tities. Very little protein is then needed.

In the building of bone, muscle, and other animal tissues,
as in the growth of young animals, considerable amounts
of protein and mineral matter are used by the body. It is
then necessary to use in the daily ration those feeds that
have been mentioned as being rich in protein.

Feeding Young Animals. — When a stockman desires a
profit from the increase in the gain in weight he will feed
young animals instead of old ones. Their natural growth is
a factor in his favor. Young animals bring better prices in
the markets. The thoughtful farmer will fatten lambs and
pigs rather than old sheep and hogs. The practice of
fattening baby beef is now more common than the old way
of keeping beef cattle for several years.

Feeding Standards. — Scientific men have carefully figured
the exact amounts of each nutrient required by the animal's
body. The results of their work are called feeding standards.
Wolff and Lehmann are two German experimenters who have
published standards for stockmen to follow. There are fixed
standards for each kind of animal and for each purpose of
feeding. For example, a thousand-pound cow giving twenty-
two pounds (about eleven quarts) of milk daily is to be given
such an amount of feed as to equal 29 pounds of dry matter,
2.5 protein, 14.1 carbohydrates and fat combined. The
feeding standards commonly used are given in the Appendix.
In order to obtain the proper amounts of each of the nutrients

340 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

to meet the standards it is often necessary for the farmer to
sell some grain, such as corn, and to purchase others of dif-
ferent composition.

Balanced Rations. — When the nutrients are in the proper
amounts to meet the requirements of the feeding standard
the ration is said to be a balanced ration. If they are not in
the right proportion it is called unbalanced. Very few natural
feeds conform closely to the standards given for the various
purposes of feeding. They must be combined with other
feeds in such a way as to balance the daily ration.

Nutritive Ratios. — The amount of protein in any feed
compared with the other nutrients is called the nutritive
ratio. For example, there are about three pounds of protein
and six of other nutrients in one hundred pounds of skim
milk. Dividing the six by three (6^3 = 2) the ratio is found
to be two. It is expressed thus — 1 : 2. The nutritive ratios
are given in the feeding table in the Appendix.

In calculating these ratios the fat is not added directly
to the carbohydrates, but it is first multiplied by two and
one-fourth and then added. This is done for the reason that
fat in any feed is two and one-fourth times as valuable as
carbohydrate in the producing of heat and fat.

To make this clear, the ratio for alfalfa hay may be
figured. The digestible nutrients in one hundred pounds of
alfalfa are : 1 . 2 pounds of fat, 39 . 6 pounds of carbohydrates,
and 11 pounds of protein.

1.2X2^=2.7 (fat equivalent to c.h.).

2 . 7 + 39 . 6 = 42 . 3 (total nutrients not protein) .

42.3-^11 = 3.84 (ratio, expressed 1:3.84).

Comparison of Clover with the Standard. — Red clover
hay is very nearly a balanced feed for dairy cows giving
twenty-two pounds of milk daily. It comes as near the feed-
ing standard for such a purpose as any one feed can without
mixing with other feeds. Feeding a great amount of any

FEEDS AND FEEDING 341

one feed is not advisable, as all animals want a little variety.

Dry P™*^ C. H. Nutritive

Matter «0» and Fat Ratio

Standard for 1000-lb. cow

giving 22 Ibs. milk 29. 2.5 14.1 1:5.6

Nutrients in 35 Ibs. red

clover hay 29.64 2.38 13.86 1:5.8

Thirty-five pounds of clover hay give a little too much
dry matter and not quite enough of either class of nutrients.
The ratio is a little too wide. A ratio that is greater than
that given in the standard is said to be too wide; if too small
it is too narrow. Alfalfa hay has too narrow a ratio (1:3.8)
for dairy cows when fed alone. Corn with cobs (1:15.1)
is too wide for this purpose. The two can be combined in
such a way as to make a ration very close to the standard,
as shown below:

Dry «. . C. H. Nutritive

Matter Protem and Fat Ratio

21 Ibs. alfalfa hay 19.65 2.46 9.05

10 Ibs. corn-and-cob meal 8.49 .44 6.55

Total.. ..28.14 2.90 15.70 1:5.41

Standard 29. 2.5 14.1 1:5.56

It will be seen that if the dairyman feeds twenty-one
pounds of alfalfa hay and ten pounds of corn-and-cob meal
the ration is close to the standard; both columns of nutrients
are a little too high, but the dry matter is a little under the
standard. It should be remembered that these two feeds are
both easily produced on the farm and no money is then paid
out for feed.

What Stock Like. — It is necessary that a feeder select
or provide feeds that are liked by the stock. If certain
feeds are not palatable to the animals, the best results are
not secured. It is also necessary to avoid too much indi-
gestible matter. The coarser forms of roughage, such as corn
fodder, should be run through a cutter, and the hard grains
are liked better when they are ground. Animals which chew
their cud, called ruminating animals, as the cow and sheep,
like more roughage than hogs. All animals like a change

342 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

of feed, and a little variety in the ration. It should be
changed gradually and not all at once.

EXERCISE. — Palatability of Feeds. — Let the older pupils
report as to which of the following feeds are liked best by
stock: clover, alfalfa or timothy hay by cows; turnips or car-
rots by horses; bright clean corn or mouldy corn by horses.

Problems. — 1. What is the cost of protein per pound in
clover hay containing 6 per cent protein when the hay is
valued at $10 per ton?

2. What is the cost of protein in timothy hay contain-
ing 3 per cent protein when the hay is worth $18 per ton?

3. Which hay is better for dairy cows?

Buying Feeds. — A farmer often finds it very advisable
to sell some of the wheat or. other grain and buy instead
mill feeds and other by-products. It is well to select those
mill feeds which are rich in protein to mix with the farm
roughage and corn. This will make it easier to balance the
rations for the different kinds of stock.

Some roughage may be sold or exchanged for the desired
concentrates. Timothy hay brings a good price in the mar-
kets, but is very poor form of roughage hay to keep on the
farm to feed to dairy cows. Clover hay is far better for cows
and yet the market price is much lower.

In deciding which feeds to purchase it is well to decide the
cost per pound of protein contained in each feed considered.

Problem. — Figure the cost per pound of protein in each
of the following concentrates when the prices per ton are
as follows: Cottonseed meal, $33; linseed meal, old proc-
ess, $32; brewers' grains, dry, $27; wheat bran, $25; wheat
middlings, $30; cornmeal, $32. (See the protein contents
Table of Feeds in the Appendix.)

Fertilizing value of feeds is a thing to be considered in all
feeds. When farmers buy feeds they may well consider that
they are buying fertility for the farm. It is usually better
to buy mill feeds for farm stock than to buy commercial
fertilizers. Such feeds are often rich in available organic

FEEDS AND FEEDING 843

nitrogen; and the minerals, phosphate and potash, are more
or less abundant. How much of this fertility reaches the
soil will always depend upon \,he care and use of the manure
from the barns

REVIEW

1. Of what is the solid part of an animal's body composed ?

2. Tell about how much of the body is water.

3. Name three or four common forms of protein.

4. Give the four classes of nutrients needed by animals, besides water.

5. Name some of the common feeds rich in protein.

6. What substances are included by the group termed "carbohy-
drates?"

7. Name some feeds rich in starch.

8. Mention three different kinds of sugar and the sources of each.

9. Name the five animal processes necessary in changing feed to
animal tissue.

10. Give examples of feeds classed as roughage.

11. Give several examples of feeds classed as concentrates.

12. Give some examples of crops suitable for being fed green in
summer when pastures are poor.

13. Name three feeds suitable for winter succulence.

14. How is ensilage made ? What is a silo ?

15. Tell what you can about bran; middlings.

16. Discuss the character of gluten meal. From what is it made ?

17. Tell how cottonseed meal is made.

18. Distinguish between "old process" and "new process" oil meal.
Which is richer in oil ?

19. Tell what things influence the digestibility of feeds.

20. Give two objects of feeding.

21. What is the sole source of an animal's protein ?

22. Name the classes of nutrients that may cause the formation of
fat in the animal body.

23. Why is it more profitable to feed young animals than old ones
if we are o sell them by weight ?

24. Give the weights of the several nutrients for a 1000-pound cow
giving milk.

25. Of what use are feeding standards ?

26. What is meant by a nutritive ratio of 1 to 6 ?

27. Give the meaning of wide ratio and of narrow ratio.

28. Why use feeds which animals crave, rather than feeds they dislike?

29. Why do farmers need to buy mill feeds to use with farm feeds?

30. Why is it better to buy mill feeds than it is to buy commercial
fertilizers ?

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 411, Feeding IJogs in the
South: 588, Cattle Feeding in Corn Belt; 655, Cottonseed Meal for
Beef Cattle: 687, Ferns in Pastures; 720, Poisonous Plants; 743, The
Feeding of Dairy Cows; 777, Feeding Dairy Calves.

PART III.
ANIMAL PRODUCTS.

CHAPTER XXX.
CATTLE PRODUCTS.

THE most important products from cattle are beef, veal,
milk, cream, butter, and cheese. Other minor products and
by-products are skim milk, buttermilk, whey, hides for
leather, hair for plaster, hoofs and horns for glue, blood and
bones and other parts for fertilizers. Small useful articles,
as buttons, knife handles, and others are made from bones
and horns.

Cuts of Beef. — The beef type of cattle bring the highest
prices per pound. This is true when sold either by live weight
or as dressed meat. This type also gives a higher percentage
of dressed beef than the carcass of the dairy animal. The
carcass of the beef animal has a better percentage of weight
in the high-priced cuts of meat than the others. The quality
of meat is far better in an animal bred for beef than in a dairy
cow. Figure 212 gives the names of the different cuts of beef
as used by butchers and buyers. The retail prices given are
relative, not actual.

Products of the Dairy. — In the wild or primitive condition
cows gave milk only for their calves. They have since
acquired the character of giving much more than that, and
now milk has become a standard article of food for man.

Milk as Food. — Milk is one of the most perfect forms
of food used by human beings. It is easily digested and
contains the nutrients in proper proportion to supply the
needs of the body.
344

CATTLE PRODUCTS

345

In 100 pounds of milk these parts are in about this pro-
portion:

Water 87 . pounds

Fat . . 4 . pounds

Casein and albumen (protein) 3.3 pounds

Sugar (carbohydrates) 5 . pounds

Mineral matter 0.7 pounds

Total 100. pounds

Fats in Milk are of several kinds, which fall into three
groups: (1) The volatile or easily evaporated fats. (2) The
fats that are in liquid form at ordinary temperature.

FIG. 212. — The cuts of a beef animal, giving the relative prices and weights.

(3) The fats that are in solid form at ordinary temperature.
Some of the volatile fats may be allowed to escape by airing
the milk or cream. If they are not thus removed they soon
break up into forms which give bitter flavors to the milk or
cream. The airing process should be done in a clean room
where the air is pure and free from dust.

The fats in milk are lighter than the other parts and
readily rise to the top ; but in so doing they take with them
certain other parts which compose the cream.

Casein is the chief protein in milk. It is the important
ingredient found in cheese, which is familiar to all. There

346 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

is always a little albumen present. It is similar to the white
of raw egg. The casein is the main tissue-forming part of
the milk when used as food.

Milk sugar is the heat-producing part of milk when used
as food. When milk sours it is due to the action of bacteria
which changes the sugar into an acid, called lactic acid.

The mineral matter in milk is made up of the same minerals
required by the bones and other body tissues. They are
very beneficial when milk is used as human food. When
milk is pasteurized by heating, it loses much of the mineral
value and is no longer a suitable food for growing children.
The bones are apt to be too soft when such milk is used
regularly.

Composition Varies Naturally. — The milk from dairy
animals varies in its composition from several causes. The
main factors are given below :

1. Breed of animal; as Jerseys have more fat in the milk
than Hoist eins.

2. Period of lactation; the milk being richer in fat just
before a cow dries up.

3. Different parts of same milking; the first is poor in
fat, the last is rich.

4. Kinds of feed; this influences quantity of milk chiefly;
but the character of butter fat is influenced by feed; for
example, cottonseed meal makes the fat harder than does
linseed meal.

EXERCISE. — Difference in Milk. — Have one of the pupils
or a farmer save in two separate bottles some of the first
of the morning's milking and some of the strippings from
the same cow. One-fourth pint of each will be enough.
These two bottles may be kept in a cool place fora day
until the cream has all risen. The difference will then be
shown by measuring the thickness of the layer of cream in
each bottle. It is not a bad plan to use the first pint of each
milking for pigs or calves instead of for human food.

CATTLE PRODUCTS 347

EXERCISE. — Bad Flavor in Milk. — Some farmer's son
may be able to tell the class some of his own experience in
getting bitter milk when cows have been in weedy pastures
when the grass is poor.

Cabbages, wet brewers' grains, and spoiled ensilage may
flavor the milk if fed only a few hours before milking. To
avoid such bad effects from those feeds, if used at all, they
should be fed to the cows when their udders are empty,
just after milking.

EXERCISE. — Composition of Milk. — Prepare a set of bot-
tles containing the proper amounts of different materials to
show approximately the composition of one pint of milk.
Preserve these with a few drops of formalin in each. Use
the following:

14 oz. water in a pint bottle.

YL oz. melted butter in Y* oz. vial.

YZ oz. cheese (protein) in Y* oz. vial.

#J oz. milk sugar in 1 oz. bottle.

Y% oz. salt (mineral matter) in smallest vial.

These should be neatly labelled and kept for future reference.
The set will resemble Figure 208.

Difficulty in Obtaining Pure Milk. — Healthy milk cows
naturally produce a pure product, but much of the milk
used for food is not as pure as it should be. There are many
chances for the milk to become dirty or infested with bac-
teria before it is used. Careless and improper methods in
barns or on the part of those who handle the milk before and
after it reaches the home are the chief causes of impure milk.
Milk may be kept pure and free from harmful contamination.
Poor and unclean milk should not be used for food.

Bacteria in Milk. — The bacteria in milk are classed as
either good or bad. Those which cause milk to sour are
useful when the milk or cream is to be used for making
butter or cheese. There are many bad forms of bacteria

348

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

which will produce bad flavors in milk and its products.
Milk is a substance very favorable to the rapid development
of both classes of bacteria. These multiply very rapidly
if the milk is kept warm. There are many ways in which
bacteria find their way into milk. Some of these are from
the coats or hairs of the cows, from the dirty hands and
clothing of milkers, from flies that fall in, from dirty pails,
cans, strainers, bottles or other utensils, from dust or other im-
purities in the air of barns, milk-rooms, and homes (Fig. 213).

FIG. 213 A.

FIG. 213 B.

FIG. 213 A.. — Dark. Bad construction. Difficult to keep clean.
FJQ. 213 B. — Good construction. Smooth floor, walls, and ceiling, plenty of
light, easy to keep clean. (Animal Industry.)

Pure Milk. — Milk of a healthy cow contains no germs
while forming in the udder. They get into the milk in the
ways mentioned in the last paragraph. By pure milk is
meant the properly-handled product of healthy cows.

To keep dirt and bacteria out of the milk the barns should
be kept clean. This is made possible only by having the
floors, walls, and ceilings smooth and tight (Fig. 214).

Direct sunlight through large south windows will help
to destroy many bacteria in barns (Fig. 214).

The air must be free from dust at the time of milking.
Feeding should be done after milking instead of before.

CATTLE PRODUCTS

349

The barn should be properly ventilated to remove bad
odors, bad air, dust particles, and bacteria. The ventilation
must be ample and yet free from drafts of air. There are
two good systems in use. One consists of muslin cloth
screens placed in several of the open windows. The other
is the King ventilation system, which draws the foul air out
from near the floor, through a long shaft or chimney (Fig.
215). This is the best system for winter ventilation of build-
ings.

FIG. 214. — A small but clean dairy barn. (Animal Industry.)

The cows must be clean if pure milk is to be produced for
food. Milk always becomes dirty if the cows are dirty.
The udders and surrounding parts should be washed if
filthy; and the dust and loose hairs must be removed just
before milking, by the use of a damp cloth.

The milker must be healthy, and must have clean hamjs
and clean clothes.

Milk pails should have small tops because they catch
less dirt. The pails with good hoods shown in Fig. 216 will
keep out the most dirt.

All milk utensils must be washed well and then always

S50

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

scalded thoroughly with boiling water to kill the bacteria.
This is called sterilizing them.

r

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.

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. r «'

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FIG. 215. — King system of ventilation for dairy barns. The air outlet should
start near the floor and extend through the roof. The inlet for air into the stable

is near the ceiling, but should start outside well above the ground.
for light, not for ventilation, when the King system is in use.

Windows are

FIG. 216. — Five styles of milk pails, intended to reduce the amount of dirt in
milk which falls in from cows and from milkers. Which do you consider the best
form for this purpose?

Cooling and Airing. — As soon as milk is drawn from the
udder it should be taken to a clean place and thoroughly
aired and cooled The temperature should be lowered quickly

CATTLE PRODUCTS 351

to 50° F. or below. This will check the multiplication of
bacteria that would spoil the milk (Figs. 217, 218).

EXERCISE. — Temperature and Souring. — Get two bottles
of milk, both fresh. Set one in a cool place where it will not
quite freeze. Set the other in a warm room. Notice the
difference in time it will take to sour the two bottles of milk.
These samples may be tasted for sourness and also tested
with blue litmus paper.

FIG. 217. Fia. 218.

FIG. 217. — Milk bottles with crushed ice in shipping box.
FIG. 218. — Delivery of milk to city houses.

Bottling Milk and Cream. — Milk and cream to be deliv-
ered directly to the users should be put into sterilized bottles,
which are kept covered and cold until the milk is used in
the home. The old way of delivering milk from cans which
were opened in the streets to take out the milk for each cus-
tomer, allowed dust and all kinds of city bacteria to get into
the milk. Simple machines are used by which milk and
cream may be put into bottles very rapidly with little hand-
ling (Fig. 219).

Special Forms of Market Milk. — There are laws or certain
regulations in many places which require that milk shall be
of a certain quality or standard.

352 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

Legal milkusually containsthree percent of fat and not less
than twelve per cent of total solids, which includes every-
thing but the water. This is the most common form of milk
delivered to consumers, and to butter and cheese factories.

Milk is also standardized by certain producers of milk for
special markets. A certain dairyman may produce milk for
his customers which will always have any desired percentage
of butter fat. This is done by mixing rich milk or cream with
poor milk in such amounts as to give the desired results.

FIG. 219.— Milk bottled for the retail market. The machine at the left fills eight
bottles at once and is then moved to the next row

Certified milk is that which meets the requirements of
milk commissioners, as to purity and safety. The barns,
milk-rooms, methods of handling and delivering are all
inspected by experts, and certificates are issued to all dairy-
men who meet the requirements of the milk commissioner.

Condensed milk is now extensively canned and shipped
for use in many plajes. Much of the water is removed by
evaporation. Sometimes sugar is added. It will keep a long
time while sealed, and is used by armies in the field, on board
ships at sea, in mining camps, and is becoming more popular
in cities.

Powdered milk is a newer and less common form of market
milk. Some of the fat is usually first removed, and then the

CATTLE PRODUCTS 353

milk is evaporated to dryness without burning. Before being
used it is mixed with water.

Modified milk is prepared for use of infants and invalids,
by increasing or decreasing one or more of the parts of the
milk, to suit special cases.

Fermented milk and ripened milk are made from skim
milk or from whole milk. The proper bacteria are added to
cause the souring and thickening of the milk, as cream is
ripened for churning. When ready for use it is somewhat
similar to buttermilk.

Creaming. — There are three c6mmon methods of obtain-
ing the cream from milk. (1) The shallow pan method is
the oldest and most common. (2) The deep can method is
sometimes used when much milk is to be handled. The
large cans of milk are kept in cold water until the cream
rises. The skim milk is drawn off through a faucet at the
bottom. (3) The modern centrifugal bowl separator is the
only quick way of removing the cream from milk (Figs.
220, 221). In all types of these machines the milk flows into
a rapidly whirling metal bowl. The speed is very great,
and the skim milk, being heavier, is thrown to the outer edge
and runs out. The cream overflows near the centre of the
bowl.

Ripening Cream for Churning. — As soon as cream is
separated from the milk it must be cooled and kept cold
until about twelve hours before it is to be churned into
butter. It is then warmed to a temperature at which the
bacteria will grow to make it sour. This may be 60° to
75° F. It will sour faster when warmer, but will not make so
good butter. At churning time the temperature should be
about 58° in the summer and 60° or 62° in the winter.
Ripened cream should be slightly sour to the taste and pour
as a thick, smooth, glossy liquid, free from lumps or curds.
When ready to churn, it should be poured through a strainer
to remove any curds that might be present.

354

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

Steps in Churning. — 1. Put the cream into the churn
and add a little vegetable butter-color.

2. Operate the churn steadily and slowly to cause the
globules to be affected by the dashing movement.

3. Stop the churning when the granules are the size of
large grains of wheat or peas.

4. Strain the buttermilk out, leaving the butter in the
churn as loose and open as possible.

FIG. 220.

FIG. 221.

FIG. 220. — A modern hand separator. Cream separators of small size are used
on dairy farms where cream or butter is sold.

FIG. 221. — School pupils learning to operate a cream separator. (A. E.)

5. Wash the butter with cold water twice, by pouring
it on and draining it off. Use as much cold water each time
as half the amount of the buttermilk.

6. Sprinkle over the loose butter enough salt to suit the
taste. One ounce of salt to a pound of butter suits the usual
market.

7. Work the butter in large masses, but not enough to
give it a smeared or greasy appearance.

8. Mold or pack to suit the market requirements, as in
pound molds covered with parchment paper.

CATTLE PRODUCTS 355

Cheese. — Whole milk cheese is very nutritious as a food
and the use of it has greatly increased in recent years. It
is rich in both casein and fat. There are many kinds of
cheese sold in the markets, but the steps in making the vari-
ous kinds are similar. These steps are: (1) The coagulation
of the casein, with or without a special material, called
rennet; (2) the removal of the whey; (3) salting; (4) pressing;
and (5) ripening.

Dairy Records. — Records should be kept of the milk
produced by each -cow so that the owner may know which
ones are paying best. The profits from each cow cannot be
determined unless a record is kept of the daily flow of milk.
If the milk is used for making butter or cheese, the records
should then also show the richness of the milk from each
cow. The milk of each cow should be frequently weighed
and a sample of it tested for butter fat. If the weighing
is done one day each week, for three weeks of the month, an
approximate record of the amount of milk given each month
may be easily determined. It is better to weigh the milk
each time just after it is drawn from each cow. Samples for
testing should be taken after the milk is poured into another
vessel, as this mixes the milk, and a truer sample is obtained.
The samples are easily preserved, until time for testing, by
the use of special poison tablets made for the purpose. Cows
which do not yield good profits should not be kept. Many
do not pay their board.

Keeping the dairy record is made easy by having a good
spring balance hanging near the record sheet in the barn
(Fig. 222).

The Babcock Test. — The method of testing milk for
determining the amount of fat was devised by Dr. S. M.
Babcock, of the Wisconsin Experiment Station. It is very
simple and gives accurate results. A set of the apparatus
used in this test is shown in Fig. 223.

EXERCISE. — Testing Milk and Cream. — Some one near
the school, who has a Babcock test outfit, may be invited

356

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

to bring it before the class and give a lesson in testing sam-
ples of milk and cream. Or perhaps it will be as well for the
class to take a trip to a near-by creamery and observe the
operation. If possible the school should own an outfit.
The students could then test samples of milk from the cows
of the neighborhood.

EXERCISE. — Skim Milk and Buttermilk. — Samples of skim
milk from two or more separators should be tested to deter-

Fio. 222. — The weight of each cow's milk is written on the record sheet.

mine which one removes the cream the best. If butter-
milk is tested, this will tell how well the churning has removed
the butter.

Principles of the Babcock Test. — The testing of milk by
this method is founded on the fact that very strong acid will
dissolve all the substances in the milk except the butter fat.
The particles of fat are thus set free from the rest. As the
fat is the lightest part of the milk, it will rise to the top.
This takes place in a few minutes if the bottles of milk are
placed in a whirling machine (centrifugal). In other words,
the heavier parts of the milk are thrown to the bottom.

CATTLE PRODUCTS 357

In making the test a definite, or measured, amount of
milk is put into a bottle with a long, narrow neck and just
enough acid is mixed with this to set free the fat. After the
fat is brought to the top by the whirling force, some hot water
is added to fill the bottle up to the neck. A second whirling
brings the fat above this water. A little water is again added
to float the fat up even with the scale on the neck of the
bottle. The third whirling gathers all the fat together in
the neck of the bottle so that the length of the column of

FIG. 223. — Glass-ware and machine for making Babcock test for butter fat in
milk, cream, and skim milk. (Experiment Station, Wis.)

the fat may be read on the scale. The neck must have been
correctly scaled, to give the result in percentage of the
amount of milk first put into the bottle. Thus if the fat
fills four full spaces of the neck of the bottle, the milk is
four per cent fat.

Details of the Test. — Sampling. — Shake or otherwise
mix the samples to be tested just before beginning the work.
It must not be hot nor very cold. Measure out 17.6 cc.
(cubic centimeters) by drawing milk into the long pipette
(Fig. 223, P), just up to the mark. Suck the milk into the
pipette with the mouth; put a finger over the top and let
enough drip out until the top is exactly even with the mark.

358 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

Let this milk flow gently down the long neck into the
test bottle, M. Do not spill any. Blow in the last drop.
The steps thus far are the most particular and should be
practised with water a few times or until the work can be
done well. Always make the test in duplicate to avoid
error, using two bottles.

Adding the Add must be done carefully. Be ready to
wash up any spilled acid quickly, as its burns are serious.
Use water freely and add soap or soda if needed. The acid
is measured up to the 17.5 cc. mark, in the little cylinder
or acid measure, A. Pour it into the milk sample in the test
bottle, holding the bottle in a slanting position to let the
acid pass by the outgoing air.

Mixing the milk and acid is now done by holding the
bottle by the neck and giving it a circular motion for a few
minutes. Do not point the mouth towards yourself nor
any one else. Mix until the contents are dark colored
throughout. The action of the acid makes it very hot.

Whirling. — Place the test bottles in the whirling machine
in pairs, directly opposite each other, to perfectly balance
the machine. The speed to run the machine depends on its
diameter and is usually marked on the machine. Run it
five minutes. Stop and add hot water to fill each test bottle
up to the bottom of the neck. Whirl two minutes. Add
hot water to bring the top of the fat nearly to the top of the
scale (graduation) on the neck. Whirl one minute. During
all the whirling and the reading the test bottles must be
kept hot by putting hot water into the machine under the
bottles.

Reading the Result. — Take the bottle by the top of the
neck and hold the scale level with the eye. Read the marks
at the extreme top and bottom of the fat. The difference
between these is the percentage of fat in the sample. For
example, if the bottom reads 3 . 2 and the top reads 7 . 4 the
percentage of butter fat would be the difference, or 4.2.

CATTLE PRODUCTS 359

This percentage, 4.2, of fat in the milk would mean that
there are 4.2 pounds of fat in 190 pounds of milk. The
glassware must be kept clean so that the test and the reading
will be accurate.

Skim Milk and Buttermilk are tested in special bottles
having double necks (S, Fig. 223) .

Cream is tested in bottles with extra large necks (C),
because there is so much fat in it. The sample taken is
weighed instead of measured.

REVIEW.

1. Give two reasons why the beef type of animals is preferable
for beef.

2. Name three of the highest priced cuts of meat.

3. Why is milk considered a complete food for young animals ?

4. Tell what you can of the composition of butter fat.

5. What is meant by volatile fat ?

6. Why should volatile fats be allowed to escape from milk when
freshly drawn from the cow?

7. What per cent of average milk is water ? Name the other sub-
stances in the order of their greatest abundance.

8. What are the usual differences in composition of milk drawn at
different times ?

9. At which part of the milk period is milk the richest ?

10. Tell of the influence of feed on the character of butter fat in
milk.

11. Tell of the different effects of good and bad bacteria in milk.

12. How can clean methods in barns help to keep bacteria out of
milk

13. Mention six ways in which bacteria may get into milk.

14. Describe the King system of taking foul airxnit of the barn.

15. What are the best forms of milk pails ?

16. Tell how to sterilize milk utensils.

17. Describe the conditions for ripening milk.

18. Give the steps in making good butter.

19. Why should dairymen keep records of individual cows ?

20. How is this done ? Why should the milk of each cow be tested ?

21. Of what use is the Babcock test outfit ?

References.— U. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 363, Care of Milk and Its
Use in the Home; 473, Tuberculosis; 480, Disinfecting Stables; 487,
Cheese; 490, Bacteria in Milk; 540, Stable Fly; 541, Buttermaking;
580, Beef Production; 608, Garlic Flower; 623, Ice on Dairy Farm; 689,
Dairy House; 748, Dairy Sterilizer; 784, Authrax; 790, Abortion.

24

PART IV.
FARM MANAGEMENT.

CHAPTER XXXI.
THE BUSINESS OF FARMING.

Changes in Farming. — Young men and, indeed, older
people who live in the city of to-day scarcely realize the
great change that is taking place in American country life
and the farmer's business. In fact, so many new principles
are being introduced that persons who have been off the
farm only a few years have no idea of the modern ways of
doing things by up-to-date methods. To be sure, there are
some things which have not changed, but there have been
radical changes along the lines which concern and affect the
financial side of the business.

Some Causes. — Most of these changes 'nave been brought
about through the instruction along advanced lines given
by State agricultural colleges; by the farmers' institutes;
in bulletins from the State experiment stations and the
United States Department of Agriculture, and, as a corollary
of all this, the improvement of farm papers and magazines.
The United States Government does more to advance the
interests of agriculture than is done for other lines of edu-
cation by the four largest universities in America. Many
legislative changes have been made tending toward the
improvement of the rural classes. The increase in American
export trade has done much to advance the price of farm
produce.

As prices for land advance and competition increases, it
becomes necessary to adopt the most modern methods of
860

THE BUSINESS OF FARMING 361

farming in order that the profits may be reaped from smaller
areas. The invention of machinery has played an important
part in the introduction of new methods.

The results of these changes are only just beginning to
be realized. Many may think that fewer people will be-
needed upon the farms. The very opposite is true. But
instead of the farmer of the future being an uneducated per-
son, he is coming to be well prepared for his new calling.

The Best Men Needed. — The farm demands men who
are prepared for their chosen work. Men with the best
brains are wanted on the farm. The time is rapidly drawing
near when no occupation can be found which will demand
a better preparation than farming. A wide knowledge of
science; a thorough understanding of basic principles of
plant and animal life; a constant acquaintance with the
world's market quotations and how to interpret them; a
clear insight into reasons underlying all farm operations;
a close attention to all details of the business; a steadiness
in all matters pertaining to the operations of the farm;
courage to act, and act quickly, at the proper time; good
physical strength and power of endurance; — these are some
of the qualities demanded of the farmer by the farm of to-
morrow. Already we hear the call for such men.

Some Contrasts. — Take a ride across any agricultural
section of America in the fall and you will find many of the
cornfields remain uncut. Some few farmers have learned
that the corn stalks contain forty per cent of the crop, and
are careful to utilize it.

A certain man was seen applying barn-yard manure to
recently drained swamp land when already the place was
too full of unrotted vegetable matter to produce its best
crops; his neighbors spread manure on the poorer soils of
the uplands.

Many dairymen are keeping dairy cows which do not
pay more than five dollars each over the cost of keeping them

362 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

each year; while others clear fifty dollars or more a year from
each cow above the cost of feed and labor.

Farmer "A" will be deluded by the false belief that the
creamery separators will kill germs of tuberculosis and thus
prevent that disease from spreading from one herd to others
in the neighborhood. "B" will investigate the matter, and
if neighboring cattle are thought to have the disease
he will promptly stop taking skim milk from the butter
factory. He will retain his own herd's pure skim milk on his
place and sell cream only.

System in Farming. — In all parts of the country farmers
need to put more business and system into their farming.
Too little system is the chief cause of failure in many in-
stances. On farms that are successful more system could be
introduced with profit. No other calling of man could with-
stand the lack of system which is often found in farming.

Mapping the Farm. — Begin by mapping out the farm.
It is not necessary to employ a surveyor. First make a rough
sketch of the outline of the fields as they now exist. State
the area of each field or division as nearly as possible. With
this sketch as a basis to work from, then measure the real
length of each line represented on the chart. A man and
a boy with a tape line fifty or one hundred feet long will
be able to measure all the lines in a few hours. Write the
lengths on the chart.

Now you are ready make a corrected map. With a foot
rule or yard measure, a large sheet of paper and a pencil, you
can make a map with true proportions very easily. Previous
work in map drawing will aid in getting directions of lines.
Of course a scale must be established, say one inch on the map
to five hundred feet on the land. After the map is drawn
it will be easier to calculate the true area of each field.

Planning the Crops. — On each division or field we should
next write the name of the crop or crops which that field
produced last year, as "Oats followed by clover." Then

THE BUSINESS OF FARMING 363

establish the rotation that each field is to follow for several
years. Several rotations of crops are suggested in the chapter
on Systems of Cropping. Let each field on the map be
marked with the main crops it is to grow for several
years.

Dairy farms will be planned to produce plenty of green
and dry forage, as well as some root crops, grain, and corn.
During the long winter evenings a farmer and his family
should sketch the farm and plan the special crops for the
following season on each field.

EXERCISE. — Mapping School Grounds. — Let the whole
class, or those who have the most time to spare from other
work, measure the school grounds and make maps of it on
large paper. Each line should be marked with the length
it represents on the ground. The scale on a map is always
given for a map in a geography. Let the scale for this map
be as large as the paper will accommodate. Try one inch
to four feet for a very small place, or one inch to 100 feet
for a large place. Figure 101 suggests a good plan for
school grounds with a school garden.

Elements of Business Success. — Farmers should keep
records and accounts. This is one of the commonest reasons
for the great success of certain farmers as compared with
others who seem to farm by the same methods. The farmer
who keeps clear and simple accounts always knows his
business, and can stop the losses that occur. He should keep
records of all agreements with men and thus avoid many
disputes or law suits. Records regarding crops or stock will
help to bring about the best financial results.

A memorandum book should be kept in which are written
the dates of the first killing frosts each fall; the dates of the
opening of fruit buds in spring; the dates of bad spring freezes;
the birth of all kinds of live stock; the dates when each field
is sown and harvested; and many other important events of
the year.

364 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

Keeping Farm Accounts. — All farm accounts should be
so simple as to require very little time in keeping them. They
should also be easily referred to, and give the desired infor-
mation in a few moments. What is known as a single entry
system is easy to understand and requires little time. When
a calf is sold for cash the entry is made on that date in the
cash account, "Calf sold, $10.00."

The "Column System" is still more simple, but requires
a special ruling for the purpose. Any book with a number
of money columns will be easily adapted to farm purposes.

FIG. 224. — The column system of keeping farm accounts.

The pages are wide and the names of accounts are written
at the tops of the narrow columns. The left-hand page is
for the sales and receipts, and the right for expenses or
Dur chases. The photograph of the open page is shown in
Fig. 224. Down both sides the dates are written or printed,
one line being used for each day of the month. The two
pages show all the business of one month. Each department
of the business is given an item column and a money column.
A similar book with other names for the columns should
be used in keeping the household expenses. The columns
could be headed: Furnishings, Wearing Apparel, Food,

THE BUSINESS OF FARMING 365

Personal Expenses, Repairs, Education and Church, Reading,
Sundries, and others.

EXERCISE. — Using the Column System. — Let students
rule a sheet of paper for the column system, following the
plan shown in Fig. 224. Then make ten or more appropriate
entries, as practice work. Girls in the class may rule a sheet
for a household page, using the headings suggested.

Field records are very valuable to show the cost of pro-
ducing any crop. To keep a cornfield record, a page of a
book, having two money columns at the right side, is used.
Books with such rulings are called " journals" and are for
sale by stationers. Write in the record of the manuring,
plowing, harrowing, seeding, planting, cultivating, and har-
vesting. The amounts for such items are estimated at so
much per day for man and team, and are written in the first,
or left-hand, money column. Credit records are written on
the same page later in the year. The items may include green
corn fodder, cured fodder, and ripe corn. The amounts for
these will go into the right-hand money column. At the end
of the year add the amounts in each column; the difference
will show the profit (or loss) from the field.

EXERCISE. — Making a Field Record^ — A page of paper
should be ruled by each student like a "journal," with two
money columns at the right and a date column at the left.
Make the probable entries for one year for some familiar
crop. Suitable amounts for the items may be estimated
after talking with a good farmer.

The Accounts to Keep on any farm will depend upon the
special lines of farming that are followed. Some or all of
the following accounts would be included: Cash, grocery,
labor, horses, dairy, hogs, poultry, fruit, potatoes, and others.

The Farmer a Salesman. — A farmer usually has produce
of some kind to sell. He should advertise that fact in a
number of useful ways :

The produce itself should be put up in the very best form

366 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

so as to catch the eye of the consumer. This idea is used
in the egg case and the fruit case shown in Figs. 205 and
120, A.

The farm from which the produce comes should be attrac-
tive and pleasing in appearance, as to its fields, buildings,
fences, and lawns. This also adds real value to the place
itself.

The farmer, his team, and wagon must be neat and
presentable when making deliveries of goods. These help
to sell future products. Dairymen wear white uniforms.
The work clothes should be kept at home. The commercial
traveling salesman does not wear a factory suit.

The farm should have an attractive name. This name
should be printed neatly on letterheads, envelopes, shipping
cards; and on cases, crates, and baskets in which produce
is sold.

The farm name should be made prominent on articles
exhibited at agricultural fairs or in advertisements in local
newspapers.

Bulletin boards bearing the name of the farm, and
announcing the kinds of produce for sale, should be placed
at the nearest approach of the public road.

An inventory should be a part of the records of every
arm. It is made up of two lists: (1) the things the farmer
owns, and (2) the debts or liabilities of the farmer. The list
of property is usually made in the winter, about January
1st. It should include the land itself; the different buildings;
the several kinds of live stock, with their numbers, breeds,
and ages; the machines; the hay, grain, apples, potatoes, and
other stored products; household goods. Making the inven-
tory list is always easier after the first year, as many of the
articles will be merely transferred to the new lists and their
values corrected.

EXERCISE. — Value of Property. — The whole class working
together should make up a list of the articles which probably

THE BUSINESS OF FARMING 367

would be found on some supposed place in the country. Let
the complete list be made first, and the values may be added
later. Students may learn the approximate values of dif-
ferent articles by asking older people at home or elsewhere.

EXERCISE. — Making an Inventory. — Let each pupil make
an inventory of his father's property, and after the total
value of the property has been estimated let him find the
necessary net income in order to realize 5 per cent on the
investment. Many different problems may be based on this
exercise.

Value of the Farm. — There arc many things to consider
when determining the value of a farm. The surface and drain-
age, the soil, the size as suited to the type of farming, the
shapes and sizes of the fenced fields, the kind of improve-
ments, the neighbors (whether they are in the same lines
of farming or not), the distance to good markets, and the
kind of roads. Before buying a farm a man would also
think of the climate, source of drinking water, health-
fulness, churches, schools, mail service, telephone, and
taxes. He might well estimate the cost of securing modern
conveniences in the home, including a water-pressure system
and house drainage.

Need for better management in farming is easily seen
on a majority of the farms in all sections of America. There
are many losses to be checked: (1) better planning of the
work to economize time of men and teams; (2) the utilizing
of waste forage of the farms; (3) the plowing and washing of
soil through failure to use winter cover crops; (4) loss of soil
moisture by improper tillage methods; (5) the bad waste of
barnyard manure; (6) failure to save farm seeds for future
planting; (7) bad seed that is purchased; (8) spread of weeds
on the farm through seeding of weeds in pastures, hi fence
rows, on roadsides; and by foul seeds purchased; (9) bad
rotations; (10) run-down pastures; (11) badly arranged fields;
(12) exposure and neglect of machinery and buildings; (13)

368 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

Doorly culled flocks and herds as breeding stock; (14) ravages
of insect pests due to destruction of birds; (15) plant dis-
eases not kept in control; (16) loss of animals that are im-
properly treated; (17) bad ventilation of buildings; (18) bad
feeding methods.

Modern agricultural teachings will greatly reduce these
losses on our farms if the farmer himself will learn and apply
them. There are good and inexpensive remedies for all the
foregoing losses and wastes. The time has come when
farmers, especially the younger ones, are willing and anxious
to apply the best methods in their farm practices. As these
methods are introduced farm wastes will gradually disappear.

GETTING STARTED ON THE FARM.

Young men and women desiring to enter farming as a
means to a livelihood are usually confronted with the problem
of how to get started. Where is the capital to come from?
Shall we rent? Shall we " go in debt " for the land and equip-
ment? Or shall we work for wages until enough is earned
with which to buy a place?

A Stepping Stone. — In many instances other callings are
used as stepping stones to farming. Teaching, mercantile
business, and other pursuits are often followed with the hope
of getting enough capital to start into farming. This plan
often results in failure hi two ways: (1) attention to such
pursuits trains the mind away from farming and usually all
interest in modern agriculture is lost; (2) money is saved so
slowly by most people that a farm cannot be acquired free
from debt.

The renting plan often furnishes the best means of getting
started. By careful management and forethought in all
details of the business money can be saved faster by the
intelligent young man while operating a farm on shares than
while teaching or clerking or managing a business in the city.

THE BUSINESS OF FARMING 369

It is true that many share renters never "get ahead," but
bright yuung people with some knowledge of modern agri-
culture must remember the numerous opportunities to gain
where the average renter loses.

Going in debt at the outset for part of the cost of the
farm and equipment is usually justifiable. The most prosper-
ous farmers hi the best agricultural States are usually the
heaviest borrowers.

The operation of the national farm loan associations has
reduced interest rates to farmers, has made the terms easier,
and eliminated commissions. The borrower can either
join such an association, or he may secure similar terms
from other agencies. It is therefore easier than ever be-
fore for young farmers, or others with little capital, to.
borrow money and make a better start in the farming
business.

Choice of a Farm. — There are many things to be con-
sidered hi the choice of a farm: (1) topography or surface;
(2) suitability of soil for the crops to be grown; (3) location
of buildings with reference to fields; (4) shape of fields; (5)
prosperity of community; (6) nearness and character of
neighbors; (7) farm improvements; (8) water supply; (9)
roads; (10) markets; (11) church; (12) school; (13) granges,
unions or cooperative associations; (14) taxes; (15) labor
supply.

Probably no farm will ever be found that will suit the
most critical in all these details ; yet all these and other points
should be considered when a farm is selected. The farm
should be thought of as a home as well as a place of busi-
ness.

EXERCISES. — 1. Classifying Farms. — Make a list of ten to
twenty farms hi your neighborhood. Classify them as to the
chief business of each — dairying, swine raising, grain farm-
ing, and others.

2. Opposite the name of each write the numbers of the

370 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

kinds of losses enumerated in this chapter, so far as they have
applied or do apply to each.

3. Note what variations in crop rotations are found in
the neighborhood. Give reasons for these variations.

4. Find out how many farms in your section have names
such as "Meadow Brook Farm," "The Heights," "Alfalfa
Acres," or others. Of what value to a farm is a name? How
should a farmer advertise?

5. Estimate the value of some farm with which you are
very familiar.

REVIEW.

1. In what ways is farming different now from what it was fifty
years ago?

2. What has brought about these changes?

3. What kind of men make the best farmers, educated or unedu-
cated?

4. Do farmers in your section map their farms and plan their
work ahead?

5. Why should a farmer keep accounts?

6. What accounts should he keep?

7. What is a field record and of what value is it?

8. How may a farmer get the best prices for his products?

9. Why should a farmer make an inventory?

10. Name several poor or really bad methods generally practiced
on farms.

11. How may a young man, or any man without money, acquire
a farm of his own?

12. How would you choose a farm?

13. What bad management is found in your section?

14. Suggest methods of improvement.

15. Is there a federal farm loan association in your region?

16. What farmers whom you know keep accounts?

References. — United States Farmers' Bulletins: 270, Modern Con-
veniences for the Farm Home; 505, Benefits of Improved Roads; 511,
Farm Bookkeeping; 572, System of Farm Cost Accounting; 593, How
to Use Farm Credit; 597, Road Drag and How Used; 614, Efficient
Farm System for Corn Belt; 635, What the Farm Contributes Directly
to the Farmer's Living; 661, Method of Analyzing Farm Business;
745, Waste Land and Wasted Land on Farms; 746, The Farmer's
Income; 782, Use of a Diary for Farm Accounts; 792, How the Federal
Farm Loan Act Benefits the Farmer.

v

V

FARM MECHANICS.

CHAPTER XXXII.
ROAD CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE.

THE value and importance of good roads is so great that
there are national, state and local highway associations,
formed for the agitation, promotion, location, and even the
building of good roads. The almost universal use of auto-
mobiles and trucks has been the greatest factor in making
the need for good roads one of the livest issues of the day.
Especially do we find much discussion of roads in the farm
papers.

Good roads in a community are a sign of prosperity, and
prosperity is one result of good roads. The two seem to go
together. The ancient Romans, who built the famous road
known as the Appian Way, were wealthy people. While
they had no automobiles to drive over this paved highway,
still they knew they could haul loads, with their cumbersome,
wooden-wheeled carts drawn by cattle, much more cheaply
and easily over a good road than over a poor one.

The same fact exists to-day. If a farmer has anything to
haul to market he can do it with a greater saving of time and
energy, and with less wear and tear on his vehicle, if the road
be a good one.

United States Highways. — Of the two million two hun-
dred thousand miles of roads hi the United States, the two
hundred thousand, or a very small per cent, are classed as
improved roads. So it is quickly apparent that the vast
majority of people in this country are wasting much time
and energy in getting about from place to place over poor
roads.

This should not be so. The situation should be exactly
reversed, because the majority of people in the United States

371

372 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

are farmers, and if they have bad roads to contend with dur-
ing the large portion of the year — or during any portion —
they are often isolated and lonely. They are cut off from
communication with neighbors. Children cannot attend
school regularly. Rural mail carriers are often forced to
abandon their trips. Profits are lost on produce that should
be marketed, but cannot be hauled.

Reasons for Good Roads. — The success of consolidated
schools, rural delivery of mail, rural churches, and the ques-
tion of hauling produce to market are probably the most
important things from the point of view of the farmer. But
good roads may mean quite as much to city dwellers, as they
depend upon farm produce which is often hauled to the city
markets. If not actually hauled to the city where consumed,
it is somewhere hauled to the train which takes it to the city.
In the peach-growing districts of New Jersey heavy loads of
peaches are started at night and hauled by wagon to the large
city markets, thirty or forty miles distant. This would not
be possible except for the fine macadam roads.

Kinds of Roads. — Improved roads are of various kinds,
one type generally being found in a certain section of the
country.

In California, for example, there is much concrete road.
One may travel for hundreds of miles on roads which are
made exactly like the cement sidewalks now so familiar in all
towns and cities.

In Tennessee, and in other limestone regions, the roads
are macadam, or "stone roads." Many miles of the famous
" Dixie Highway" are thus constructed.

In regions where gravel is abundant it is used as the basis
of the road improvement.

Hundreds of miles of roads are graded and drained, then
are covered with clay loam free from vegetation. In Georgia,
Florida and elsewhere such are called top=soil roads. When
well dragged and rolled they are very durable.

ROAD CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE 373

Earth Roads. — But as those two million miles of unim-
proved roads, before mentioned, are earth roads, and as they
mostly need improvement, it will be best to consider what
may be done with them, and how it may be done well and at
a reasonable cost.

In some sections the roads need to be straightened to cut
out dangerous curves or to shorten them. In many instances
steep grades need to be remedied before the road is made
permanent.

Construction of Roads. — The top of the road, or con-
tour, should be slightly curved, to give good surface drain-
age, as shown in figure 225. At every point in the road this
should be the same, as unevenness makes the road rough and
may allow water to stand on it. A good road grader, pulled
by several horses or a tractor, and followed by a heavy road

FIQ. 225. — Showing proper curvature of finished roadway so as to insure good

drainage.

roller, will put a road into such good shape that it can easily
be cared for and kept in the best condition with the road drag.
Proper Grade. — To make hauling of heavy loads the
easiest possible, the grade should not be more than six feet
in each hundred. Where the grade is steeper than this an
effort should be made to equalize the differences by grading
down the hills and filling in the lower places with the earth
so obtained.

Maintenance. — The roads, like the vehicles which pass
over them, require constant care and maintenance to keep
them in the best condition. One of the best methods to
accomplish this is the use of the road drag. Either a split-
log drag (Fig. 226) or a drag similarly constructed of plank,
is very effective in keeping a hard, smooth surface on earth
roads. The road drag should be used after each heavy rain
as soon as the soil ceases to be sticky. This will eliminate

374 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

ruts and deep cutting of roadbeds, with consequent clods
and humps.

Drainage is also important. The rules for drainage must
depend upon the lay of the land. Naturally a road through
a flat, low country must have deeper ditches beside it than
in a high or rolling location. Culverts and small bridges
may be made of concrete, and should be large enough to
take care of the greatest amount of water that ever falls
in that region.

Fio. 226. — Road drag for surfacing roads after heavy rains.

Shade Objectionable. — Too much shade on a road pre-
vents its drying out after a wet spell. Dense clumps of trees
bordering the road should be thinned. Hedges should
be trimmed. Sunlight is as important to good roads as to
good crops.

Wide Tires. — If farmers can be persuaded to use wide-
tired wagons for hauling heavy loads the roads may be more
easily kept in repair. In some States any farmer who will
use such a wagon may have a certain per cent of his road
tax refunded.

EXERCISES. — 1. Make a map of the roads in your neigh-
borhood. Determine if they could be improved at any point
by change of grade, or change in location. Also how they
could be made better by drainage.

ROAD CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE 375

2. Determine the number of miles of road in your school
district. What per cent of it is good? What per cent is bad?
How much is simply fair? Is any of it positively impassable
at any time of the year?

3. Try to find out, by actual experiment or inquiry, how
much it would cost to keep a mile of average road in your
community in good condition for a year with a road drag.
From this estimate what the cost would be to keep all the
roads in your school district in good condition. From these
estimates try to decide whether it would be a paying propo-
sition for each farmer to care for the section of road which
borders his own property.

4. What highway organizations are in your State and
county? What road officers do you have, and what are
their duties? What road taxes are paid by your district?
What vehicles are specially taxed, and how much? For what
is this money used?

5. Let the students do something to beautify the roads in
their district. Get unsightly things out of the roaolsides.
Plant trees that will eventually be a joy to travellers, and the
pride of the neighborhood. Plant vines on roadside fences.
Plant an occasional fruit tree. In many foreign countries
fruit trees are planted by the roadsides and the fruit may be
picked by passing travellers. Roses and other flowering
shrubs would not be out of place beside the public roads.

6. Glass, wire, tin cans, rocks, sticks and other obstruc-
tions should be removed from roads by pupils. Let reports
on this work be made until much interest is aroused and

good habits are formed.

REVIEW.

1. How many miles of roads are there in the United States?
What percentage are improved roads ?

2. Why should roads be improved ?

3. What kinds of improved roads have you seen? Describe them.
25

376 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

4. Tell what you can of road construction.

5. How are good roads maintained?

6. Why should roads be drained?

7. What effect do narrow and wide tires have on roads?

8. What have you done to beautify the roadways in your neigh-
borhood?

References.— U. S. Farmers' Bulletins on Roads: Nos. 311, 333,
505, 597.

CHAPTER XXXIII.

WORK WITH ROPE.

STUDENTS of both city and country will find much value
and interest in learning to tie a few useful knots and to splice
ropes. For a farmer the methods of tying and mending rope
are of great value. The knowledge may be the means of
saving a crop of hay, saving animals from injury, or even
saving human life. A few of the most common hitches, knots,
and splices are here shown.

How Ropes and Cables are Made. — Cotton or hemp
fibres of various grades are used in making ropes. Fibres
are spun to the right hand to make yarn; yarns are twisted
to the left to form strands. Three strands twisted to the
right are used to make a common rope or hawser. If three
hawsers or ropes are twisted together to the left they form a
cable. The reversal of spinning or twisting aids in keeping
the rope or cable from unwinding. The strength of any rope
depends upon its fibres, yarns, and strands lying closely
together so they cannot slip.

Square Knot. — This is the knot that should be used most
commonly in tying cords together, as in tying up packages.
The knot will not slip and yet it is easily untied. Tie a

WORK WITH ROPE

377

common first knot and then cross the ends and tie again
so as to bring each of the two ends back along its own
rope body, as shown in figure 227, A. Practice until
learned well.

Granny Knot. — This is started as in the square knot, but
the last half is reversed so that the ends will not lie along

FIG. 227. — A, square knot; B, surgeon's knot; C, weaver's knot.

their own rope bodies. This knot is insecure, and should
seldom be used.

Surgeon's Knot. — The first part is like the first part of
the square knot except that the ropes are put around each
other twice instead of only once. The finish is like the finish
of the square knot. The surgeon's knot has the advantage

378

PRODUCTIVE FAHMING

of having the first step hold itself while the last step is being
completed (Fig. 227, B).

Weaver's Knot. — This knot, when finished, differs from
the square knot by having the end of the right-hand rope
laid across between its rope body and the two lines of the
left-hand rope, as shown in figure 227, C. The procedure is
usually somewhat different. First, make the " bight" with

FIG. 228. — A, slip knot; B, bownne; C, running bowline.

the rope in the left hand. Then put the right-hand rope
through this "bight" far enough to wrap it over and bring
the end through and across between the two ropes as shown.
Then draw the rope tight. Practice this many times as it is
a good knot for many uses.

Slip Knot. — This is an easy knot to tie if figure 228, A
is examined closely. It is used in tying ropes or halter reins
to hitching posts, and many other purposes.

Bowline. — (1) Make a loop or turn in the body of the
rope some distance from the end, as shown at L in figure 228,

WORK WITH ROPE

379

B. (2) After putting the end through a ring or around a
post pass the end through the loop L. (3) Pass the end
around the body of the rope and bring it back through the
loop as shown. When drawn tight the bowline knot is com-
pleted. This should be practiced until you can do it with
your eyes shut, as it is one of the most valuable knots for
logging work, for picketing or tying stock, for use by con-
tractors and builders, as well as others. When the cut is
inverted you have what may be called an overhand bowline.
Running Bowline. — This is a lasso or slip-knot bowline,

f ==

B

FIQ. 229.— A, half hitch; B, timber hitch; C, timber hitch and half hitch.

made by having the body of the rope in place of the ring or
post mentioned in (2) of the preceding description. See fig-
ure 228, C.

Half Hitch. — This simple hitch, shown in figure 229, A,
is often used in connection with other knots and hitches. It
may also be used alone as shown in the figure.

Timber Hitch. — While this is a simple and quick hitch,
it is much more secure than the. half hitch. It is used by
loggers and builders, hence its name. The end is wrapped
around the rope one or more times. In this respect it differs
from the half hitch, where the end is merely tucked under.
Compare A and B, figure 229.

Timber Hitch and Half Hitch. — This is a combination

380

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

of the two preceding — the timber hitch usually being made
first and the half hitch afterwards. The half hitch may be
repeated several times if desired. This is not uncommon
when large bundles or bales are being tied up. This com-
bined hitch is useful for handling long timbers and long
pipes. See figure 229, C.

Clove Hitch. — This may be formed either in the middle
of the rope or near the end. Practice making the hitch as
shown in figure 230. This is the sailor's method. The clove

FIG. 230.— Clove hitch, sailor method.

hitch is the most useful hitch. It is very convenient, simple,
and secure for guy ropes, tent ropes, etc.

Short Splice. — Two ropes may be quickly spliced to=
gether by the short splice method. About three inches from
each of the ends to be spliced together is required for a quar-
ter-inch rope; six inches for half-inch rope, etc. As all the
strands are intertwined at one place, this method makes the
rope twice as large at this place. This makes it unsuitable
for use with a pulley. If a spliced rope is needed for use
through a pulley the long splice should be used.

Method of Short Splice. — First, unlay the strands of
both ends that are to be spliced. Butt the ends of the rope

WORK WITH ROPE

381

together as shown at 1, figure 231. Pair the six strands so
that each strand pointing to your right is adjacent to a
strand beyond it, pointing to your left.

Tie a first (overhand) knot with each pair, as shown at
2. Then continue to wrap each strand around its mate in
both directions until the ends are nearly used up. In doing
this wrapping, keep the strands tightly twisted, as when the
rope was first made« The wrapping should take the direc-

FIG. 231. — Short splice, showing four stages in the operation 1. The six
strands of the two ropes arranged in pairs, A-B, C-D, E-F. 2. A-B tied with first
overhand knot. 3. Each of the three pairs tied with first step of surgeon's knot.
4. Completed splice.

tion of the natural twist of the rope. Trim off all surplus
ends, as shown at 4.

The Long Splice. — This method of splicing ropes together
leaves them of the same diameter they were before, yet as
strong as if made in one piece. The method is good to use
for well ropes, hay ropes, and others that are used with
pulleys. For each quarter-inch of diameter allow about
nine inches on each of the two ends to be spliced together.
For one-inch rope we would use about three feet from
each end.

Unlay one strand from each end the required distance.

382

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

Bring the ropes together at this point, as shown at lr
figure 232. Hold the ropes at this point with the left hand.
Unlay strand B from the right-hand rope, and lay strand A
snugly in its place, working to some distance to the right, as
shown in 2.

Now unlay the other two pairs of strands and mate them

FIG. 232. — Eight stages or steps in the long splice. (First four stages after
H. W. Riley.)

with each other exactly as shown in the third stage, 3, let-
tered C-D and E-F. Unlay strand C and place D in its place,
working toward the left some distance, as shown in view 4.
Trim all the long strands to make them as short as the
shortest, somewhat as shown in 4.

The remainder of the splice is practically alike for each
of the three pairs. Let us, therefore, consider the pair A-B
only. Unlay B about three inches (for quarter-inch rope),
without following with A. See stage 5. Now split each

WORK WITH ROPE

strand of A and B, and twist a half strand of each firmly
and lay these in the vacant channel until they meet
midway. Tie these together with a common overhand knot
(stage 6,) and draw snugly. This part of the rope is now
to be made full size by wrapping these half strands con-
tinuously around each other until they meet the points
of division, stage 7. The four half strands may then be
trimmed close to the rope. When the pairs C-D and E-F

FIG. 233. — Rope halter. Construction at left. Finished halter at right. . (After

H. W. Riley.)

are finished in much the same way, the rope will have
the appearance shown in stage 8. Note that the pair
A-B was carried to the right to work; the pair C-D was
carried to the left to work; so the pair E-F will have to
finish in the center (see 4). To do this the strands
E and F will each be unlaid a half distance before splitting
the strands.

A four-strand rope would be spliced in the same way as
this three-strand rope except that four finishing places would
need to be planned by the operator.

Rope Halter. — It is often of great value to be able to
make a good rope halter quickly. A study of figure 233 will
enable an ingenious person, who has spliced ropes, to make a

384 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

good rope halter of any size desired. Practice will aid much
in making the work more perfect.

Form the halter over the knee while sitting down, so as to
get reasonable dimensions. First decide where the eye, A, is
to be made. At B raise the top strand of the rope and pass
the short end of the rope through it toward the left. Then
raise the top strand of the short end at A and pass the long
end through it towards the right. Unlay the short end to C
and pass the middle strand under the outer strand of the
main rope at D. Raise the next strand of the main rope and
pass the lower end through it. Now complete the splice by
continuously passing each of the three strands around its
mate in the rope. The long end of the rope is then run
through the eye of the halter.

REVIEW.

1. How would you manage a new rope to avoid kinks?

2. How many of the knots and hitches can you make from memory?

3. Have you learned any others not here given? What are they?

4. What are the advantages of the short splice?

5. When would it be advisable to make the long splice?

6. What knots do you consider the most useful?

References. — U. S. Farmers' Bulletin 347, Repair of Farm
Equipment. Cornell Reading Course Bulletin, Vol. 1, No. 8, Knots,
Hitches and Splices; Iowa Extension Bulletin 24, Rope and its Uses;
Minnesota Bulletin 136, Rope and Its Use on the Farm.

REPAIR OF FARM EQUIPMENT 385

CHAPTER XXXIV.
REPAIR OF FARM EQUIPMENT— HANDY DEVICES.

ON modern farms the machinery is too often out of repair
at the time it is needed for farm work. One of the best ele-
ments in good management is to have the equipment in good
condition at all times. The equipment includes not only the

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Fia. 234. — Floor plan of workshop. (U.S.D.A.)

buildings, fences, field machinery, but also the garden tools,
dairy utensils, and other small articles. We should also
include a shop, tools and materials with which to repair the
farm equipment.

The elements in the care of equipment are :

1. Keep machinery housed when not in use.

2. Keep machines, buildings, gates, and similar equip-
ment painted.

3. Oil machine bearings when placed in storage as well
as when in use.

4. Constant attention to repairs of all kinds of equipment.

386

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

Repair Work on the Farm. — A farm shop may not be
necessary if there is a good repair shop near by. But usually
a room or small building where all the hand tools of the farm
can be housed is a great asset on any farm. Here should be

FIG. 235 — This three-horse evener is easily constructed by attaching a
single-tree and a two-horse evener to a new triple-tree divided as shown.
FIG. 236 — One of the best forms of a three-hoi se evener.

found the grindstone, work benches, vise, a few of the most
important wood-working tools, a few pipe tools, other iron-
working tools, drill press, harness mending tools, etc. Per-
haps a forge and anvil may be in an adjoining room as shown
in figure 234. Paints and machine oil may be kept in the
opposite end of the building.

Fio. 237. — Lifting lever for wagon rack or bed. It aaves heavy lifting and requires

only one person.

Plan of the Farm Shop. — It is important that there be
a place for every tool and that the shop be kept in neat order.
If not it will soon look like a junk room. Figure 234 shows
a good plan arrangement. Let the carpentry tools be hung
over the wood- working bench. It is a good plan to paint an
outline of each tool on the wall where that -tool is to hang.
Then they are easily kept in place, and if any are missing
the fact is easily noticed. Boxes containing bolts, screws,

REPAIR OF FARM EQUIPMENT

387

nails, staples, rivets, hinges, and fittings should be on shelves
and should be plainly labeled.

Time for Repairing. — Boys on the farm should be taught
to use the tools and to do careful work with them. This is
of great value in keeping them interested in the repair work
of the farm.

Much of the repair work of the field machinery may be
done on rainy days, during the winter, or at midday in hot

FIG. 238. — A simple wagon jack is a very useful
device on any farm.

FIG. 239. — A simple but
old-fashioned gate latch that
many a boy could make.

summer weather. Let all machines be looked over before
they are to be needed, as at haying or harvest time. Never
wait until the machine is needed before seeing that it is in
perfect repair.

Handy devices for use in the home and on the farm
should be made in the farm shop when time will permit.
A few suggestions for such devices are shown in figures
235-244.

Three=Horse Eveners. — It is often desired to hitch
three horses together in pulling heavy machinery or doing
hard plowing. Two plans for three-horse eveners are shown
in figures 235 and 236.

388

PRODUCTIVE FARMING

Hay -Rack Lifter. — This man-saver is worth a place
on many farms. It is made of a height to suit the height of
the wagon. Its construction is simple, as shown in figure 237.
To use it, raise the long end of the lever until the short end
will go under the hay rack or wagon box to be lifted. By
lowering the long lever the lifting is easy. The wire may be
slipped to one of the notches to hold the weight. One end of

FIG. 240. — A home-made bag for picking the highest fruit from trees. It
shaking and bruising the fruit.

Fia. 241. — A monkey wrench and round file may serve as a pipe wrench.

FIG. 242. — A simple garden marker for light garden soil.

the rack or bed is thus lifted at a time to some height. Many
farmers suspend the racks or beds under a shed. With
this plan one man with little effort may remove the heaviest
rack alone.

A wagon jack is one of the handiest devices on a farm.
Make the lever four to six feet long. Make several holes so
the height may be adjusted to the vehicle when the spindles
are to be greased. The rod may be of heavy wire. The
block on the left (Fig. 238) is movable and holds the rod
and lever when desired.

An automatic gate latch, such as shown in figure 239, is one

REPAIR OF FARM EQUIPMENT

389

of the oldest and simplest ways of being sure that a gate is
latched when it closes. Usually the gates of a farm should
swing in such a way that they will close by their own weight.
Then this latch will hold them.

A long=handled fruit picking bag may be made at home.
A heavy wire may be bent as shown in figure 240. The ends
are then thrust into a long, stout
bamboo pole. The bag is small.
Its chief use is for picking such
fruits as apples when out of reach
of the picking ladders. Never
shake fruit off the trees.

A pipe wrench may be im-
provised by placing a round file
(rat-tail file) with the pipe in the
jaws of a common wrench, as
shown in figure 241. It will serve
the purpose if the strain is not
very great. .

A garden marker for two rows
may be made as shown in figure
242. If the soil is light and loose,
a horse may not be needed.

Large fly traps such as that
shown in figure 243 are useful in
dairy barns, piggeries, and other
places where flies are abundant,
attractive bait may be placed

FIG. 243.— A home-made fly trap.

Banana peels or other
under the bottom hole.
The central cone of screen wire has a half-inch hole at the
top through which the flies enter the main trap. When well
filled with flies they may be killed with boiling water. They
are then removed at a small opening made at the bottom
edge by removing a single tack.

A chick creep for feeding young chickens is shown in
figure 244. A space of two inches is left at the bottom by

390 PRODUCTIVE FARMING

making the four corner posts longer than the side boards.
The frame may be made of a size to suit the width of the
poultry wire to be used on top. When little chicks are fed
in here the large fowls cannot bother them.

Fia. 244. — A protective screen for feeding young chicks in yards where larger fowls

are kept.

REVIEW.

1. Give a list of things to be done in the care of farm equipment.

2. What places have you seen that have farm workshops?

3. Give a list of their repair equipment.

4. What are the most essential tools for the repair shop?

5. Make a list of the simple, handy farm devices which you have
seen or learned about.

References..-^-!!. S. Farmers' Bulletins: 179, Horseshoeing; 744,
Preserving Timbers; 813, Farm Weirs; 825 and 855, Silos; 828, Farm
Reservoirs; 842, Protection Against Lightning; 927, Farm Home Con-
veniences; 941, Water Systems for Farm Homes; 943, 956, 987, 991,
992, 1009, 1036, 1049, Haying and Harvesting Machinery ; 946,
947, Care and Repair of Implements; 966, Hog-breeding Crate;
997, Terracing.

PART V.
APPENDIX— REFERENCE TABLES.

TABLE I.
REFERENCE BOOKS.

THE school library should be supplied with a set of all
available United States Farmers' Bulletins and the printed
index to the same; a set of the State Experiment Station
bulletins; the Yearbooks of the United States Department of
Agriculture; the circulars of the United States Bureau of
Entomology; the volumes on animal diseases issued by the
United States Bureau of Animal Industry. Get as many of
the following reference books as the library funds will warrant:
Select first those which may be used as supplementary readers
in your school.

Soils.

Soil Physics and Management— Hosier and Guslafson, J. B. Lippin-
cott Co., Philadelphia.

Irrigation and Drainage— F. H. King, Macmillan Company.
Manures and Fertilizers — Wheeler, Macmillan Co.

Farm Crops.

Field Crops— Wilson & Warburton, Webb Pub. Co.

Forage and Fiber Crops — Thos. F. Hunt, Orange Judd Company.

Productive Farm Crops — Montgomery, J. B. Lippincott Co.

Clovers — Thos. Shaw, Orange Judd Company, New York.

Forage Crops — Piper, Macmillan Co.

Alfalfa — Coburn, Orange Judd Co.

Corn — Bowman and Crossley, Pub. by Authors, Ames, Iowa.

26 391

392 APPENDIX

Horticulture.

Productive Orcharding — Sears, J. B. Lippincott Co.
The Principles of Fruit Growing — L. H. Bailey, Macmillan Co.
The Pruning Book— L. H. Bailey, Macmillan Company, New York.
Productive Vegetable Growing — Lloyd, J. B. Lippincott Co.
Manual of Gardening — L. H. Bailey, Macmillan Co., New York.
Bush Fruits — F. W. Card, Macmillan Company, New York.
American Apple Orchard — F. A. Waugh, Orange Judd Company.
School and Home Gardening — Davis, J. B. Lippincott Co.

Animal Husbandry.

Judging Live Stock — J. A. Craig, Kenyon Printing Company, Des
Moines, Iowa.

Types and Breeds of Farm Animals — C. S. Plumb, Ginn & Co.,
Boston.

Feeds and Feeding — Henry & Morrison, Published by the Authors,
Madison, Wis.

Productive Poultry Husbandry — Lewis, J. B. Lippincott Co.

Productive Swine Husbandry — Day, J. B. Lippincott Co.

Productive Horse Husbandry — Gay, J. B. Lippincott Co.

Common Diseases of Farm Animals — Craig, J. B. Lippincott Co.

Productive Feeding of Farm Animals — Woll, J. B. Lippincott Co.

Dairying.

Productive Dairying — Washburn, J. B. Lippincott Co.

The Business of Dairying — C. B. Lane, Orange Judd Company.

First Lessons in Dairying — Van Norman, Orange Judd Co.

Bees and Insects.

Economic Entomology — J. B. Smith, Lippincott Co., Philadelphia.
Insect Life — J. II . Comstock, D. Appleton & Company, New York.
Productive Bee Keeping — Pettett, J. B. Lippincott Co.

Cyclopedias.

Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture, 6 vols.— L. H Bailey, Mac-
millan Company, New York.

Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, 4 Vols.— L. 77. Bailey, Mac-
millan Company, New York,

Farmers' Cyclopedia of Agriculture— Wilcox and Smith, Orange
Judd Company, New York.

REFERENCE BOOKS 393

General.

Agriculture and Life— Cromwell, J. B. Lippincott Co.

Among Country Schools— O. /. Kern, Ginn & Co., New York.

Farm Arithmetic— Burketl & Swartzel, Orange Judd Co.

Productive Plant Husbandry — Davis, J. B. Lippincott Co.

Bacteria in Relation to Country Life — Lipman, Macmillan Co.

Physics of Agriculture—/'1. H. King, published by the Author,
Madison, Wis.

Agricultural Engineering — Davidson, Webb Pub. Co.

How to Choose a Farm— T. F. Hunt, Macmillan Co., New York,
N. Y.

Farm Management — Boss, Webb Pub. Co.

Our Trees: How to Know Them — Emerson and Weed. J. B. Lippin-
cott Co., Philadelphia.

Lights of the Farmer, Snyder, J. B. Lippincott Co.

Farm Management, Wheeler, Macmillan Co.

Co-operation in Agriculture, Powell, Macmillan Co.

Rural Improvement, Waugh, Orange Judd Co.

Farm Management, Card, Doubleday, Page & Co., Garden City,
New York.

TABLE II.
LIST OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS.

THE list of agricultural experiment stations follows. Mail
may be addressed to the director of the station or merely
to the station, as for instance — Agricultural Experiment
Station, Wooster, Ohio.

Write to the State agricultural experiment station of
your State for the bulletins, and for information regarding
any farm subject: feeds, fertilizers, sprays, diseases, insects,
implements, live stock, crops, etc.

Alabama — Alaska — Sttka.

College Station: Auburn. Arizona — Tucson.

Canebrake Station: Uniontown. Arkansas — Fayettevitte.

Tuskegee Station: Tuskegee. California— Berkeley.

394

APPENDIX

Colorado— Fort Collins.
Connecticut —

State Station : New Haven.

Storrs Station: Storrs.
Delaware — Newark.
Florida — Gainesville.
Georgia — Experiment.
Guam — Island of Guam.
Hawaii — Honolulu.
Idaho — Moscow.
Illinois — Urbana.
Indiana — Lafayette.
Iowa — Ames.
Kan sa s — Manhattan.
Kentucky — Lexington.
Louisiana —

State Station : Baton Rouge.
' Sugar Station: New Orleans.

North La. Station: Calhoun.
Maine — Orono.
Maryland— College Park.
Massachusetts — Amherst.
Michigan — East Lansing.
Minnesota — University Farm,

St. Paul

Mississippi — Agricultural College.
Missouri —

College Station : Columbia.

Fruit Station: Mountain Grove.
Montana — Bozeman.

Nebraska — Lincoln.

Nevada — Reno.

New Hampshire — Durham.

New Jersey — New Brunswick.

New Mexico — Agricultural College

New York-
State Station: Geneva.
Cornell Station: Ithaca.

North Carolina —
State Station: Raleigh.
College Station: West Raleigh.

North Dakota — Agricultural Col-
lege.

Ohio — Wooster.

Oklahoma — Stillwater.

Oregon — Corvallis.

Pennsylvania — State College.

Porto Rico — Mayaguez.

Rhode Island — Kingston.

South Carolina — Clemson College.

South Dakota — Brookings.

Tennessee — Knoxville.

Texas— College Station.

Utah — Logan.

Ver m ont — Burlington .

Virginia — Blacksburg.

Washington — Pullman.

West Virginia — Morgantown.

Wisconsin — Madison.

Wyoming — Laramie.

In Canada write to Agricultural College at Guelph, Winnipeg,
or St. Anne de Bellevue. Dominion Department of Agriculture,
Ottawa.

INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES 395

TABLE III.
INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES.

FOR BITING INSECTS — Poisons.

1. Arsenate of Lead—

Arsenate of lead 2 to 3 pounds

Water, or Bordeaux, or lime-sulfur 50 gallons

Many experiments have shown that well-made arsenate
of lead is much the safest of all available arsenical poisons.
Arsenate of lead is to be found on the market both as a
powder and as a putty-like paste, which latter must be
worked free in water before it is added to the lime-sulfur
mixture or to Bordeaux mixture. The paste form of the
poison is largely used at the rate of 2 or 3 pounds to each
50 gallons of the liquid and is added to it after it has been well
worked free in water. As there are numerous brands of
arsenate of lead upon the market, the grower should be
careful to purchase from reliable firms.

2. Wet Paris Green-
Paris green J pound

Lime £ pound

Water , 50 gallons

If the above amount of Paris green is to be used with 50
gallons of Bordeaux mixture the half pound of lime would
be omitted.

3. Dry Paris Green —

Paris green 1 pound

Powdered lime 20 pounds

FOR SUCKING INSECTS

4. Kerosene Emulsion —

Strong hard soap, shaved fine £ pound

Water 1 gallon

Kerosene or crude petroleum 2 gallons

396 APPENDIX

Dissolve the soap in the water by boiling and immediately
add it boiling hot, away from the fire, to the oil. The whole
mixture is then agitated violently while hot. After five
minutes' agitation the emulsion should be perfect, and the
mixture will have increased from one-third to one-half in
bulk and assume the consistency of cream. Well made, the
emulsion will keep indefinitely and should be diluted only
as wanted for use.

How to Use the Emulsion. — During the growing period
of summer, for most plant lice and other soft-bodied insects,
dilute the emulsion with 15 parts of water; for the red spider
and other plant-mites, the same, with the addition of 1
ounce of flowers of sulfur to the gallon; for scale insects, the
larger plant-bugs, and larvae, dilute with from 7 to 10 parts
of water. Apply with spray pump. The greatest dilution
noted gives 4 per cent of oil and the lesser dilutions approxi-
mately 6 and 8 per cent.

FOR WEEVILS IN CORN, BEANS, ETC.

5. Bi=sulfide of Carbon. — One teaspoonful liquid bi-
sulfide of carbon to each two cubic feet of tightly closed air
space. The fumes settle downward in the space. Keep all
flames away from the materials.

6. Bordeaux Mixture. — Used as a fungicide to prevent
diseases of plants.

Copper sulfate (bluestone) 5 pounds

Unslaked lime 5 pounds

Water 50 gallons

This is called the 5-5—50 formula commonly used on
apple trees in spring and summer.

Dissolve the copper sulfate at the rate of 1 pound to one
gallon of water. Slake the lime carefully until it is of a
creamy consistency, add water to make one gallon per pound
of lime. These two are called stock solutions and may be
kept covered until needed.

INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES 397

To make the Bordeaux mixture, dilute each as much as
convenient before pouring them together. Pour the two
diluted solutions at the same time into a third vessel. Strain
it through a cloth before using it as a spray. Paris green or
arsenate of lead may be mixed with this to prevent diseases
and to poison insects at the same time, as on potatoes, toma-
toes, and fruit trees.

7. Lime=Sulfur (chiefly to kill San Jose" scale and pre-
vent disease). —

Old Formula (without salt) —

Powdered flowers of sulfur 15 pounds

Burned lime 15 to 20 pounds

Water 50 gallons

Wet the sulfur and slake the lime. Add these to 10 gal-
lons of boiling water. Boil for 40 to 60 minutes or until well
dissolved. Then water is added to make 50 gallons. This is
for winter use on orchards, and is used while warm.

Concentrated Lime-Sulfur —

Powdered sulfur 30 pounds

Burned lime 15 pounds

Water 15 gallons

Add the wet sulfur and the lime, after starting it to slaking,
to 15 gallons of boiling water, and boil until dissolved. This
may be kept in a closed vessel until wanted. A layer of oil
on the top of the liquid will keep away the air sufficiently.
This is diluted with about 9 times its volume of water for
winter use on apple trees. The rule for dilution requires
that the specific gravity of the liquid be found. Divide the
decimal part of this number by three hundredths (.03) and
the quotient will tell the number of times to dilute the liquid.
For example, if the specific gravity equals 1 . 27, divide . 27
by .03, giving 9. Then dilute the liquid with 9 times its
volume of water for winter use. As a summer spray on
apples and potato vines it should be diluted with 3 times as
much water as for winter iise.

398 APPENDIX

The boiling of lime-sulfur is done in an open kettle with
fire beneath, or in a barrel or tank with steam escaping from
a pipe in the bottom of the liquid.

Commercial Lime-Sulfur. — A number of commercial prep-
arations of lime-sulfur are sold. Each is supposed to be of
about the strength given in the above formula for "Concen-
trated Lime-Sulfur." The strength and the directions for
dilution should be obtained with the liquid. As a general
rule it is diluted with 9 times its volume of water for winter
use.

Self-Boiled Lime-Sulfur —

Fresh burned lime 8 pounds

Powdered sulfur 8 pounds

Water 50 gallons

The lime should be placed in a barrel and enough water
poured on to almost cover it. As soon as the lime begins to
slake the sulfur should be added, after first running it through
a sieve to break up the lumps, if any are present. The mix-
ture should be constantly stirred and more water (3 or 4
gallons) added as needed to form at first a thick paste and
then gradually a thin paste. The lime will supply enough
heat to boil the mixture several minutes. As soon as the
lime is well slaked, water should be added to cool the mix-
ture and prevent further cooking. It is then ready to be
strained into the spray tank, diluted, and applied. It is
used in the above strength, 8-8-50, as a summer spray on
peaches, plums, and cherries.

Powdered Lime-Sulfur. — A commercial form of powdered
lime-sulfur is now on the market. It is to be mixed with
water for winter spraying and may take the place of the com-
mercial liquid as it is somewhat cheaper.

QUANTITY AND WEIGHTS 399

TABLE IV.

QUANTITY OF SEED PER ACRE, AND LEGAL
WEIGHTS.

Amount Lbs. per bu.

Name of seed. per acre. usually.

Alfalfa 30 Ibs. 60

Barley 8-10 pks. 481

Beans 3- 6 pks. 60

Blue grass, alone 20-25 Ibs. 14

Buckwheat 3-5 pks. 482

Clover, alone 10-15 Ibs. 60s

Corn, shelled, checkrow 6-8 qts. 566

Corn, for ensilage 10 qts.

Cotton, Upland 4-8 pks. 324

Cowpeas 4-6 pks. 605

Flaxseed 2-4 pks. 56s

Mangels 5-8 Ibs.

Millet 1-3 pks. 505

Oats 2-3bu. 325

Oats and Canada peas 5-6 pks. each

Onions 5-6 Ibs. 52-575

Peas, field 60

Potato 6-18 bu. 605

Potatoes, sweet, bedded 1>£- 3 bu. 46-60

Rice, rough 1-3 bu. 43-45

•Rye 3-8 pks. 565

Soybeans 4- 6 pks. 60s

Timothy 10-20 Ibs. 456

Timothy and clover mixture 10-12 Ibs. each

Turnips or rape 3-5 Ibs.

Vetch and grain mixture 4-5 pks. each

Vetch, Augusta 3-4 pks. 606

Wheat 6-9 pks. 60

1 Pennsylvania 47 varies in a few States from 45 to 50.

2 Varies in different States from 42 to 56.

3 New Jersey 64.

« Varies 28 to 33 1A.
5 A few exceptions.

Problems. — 1. At the present market prices for the seeds of six of
the crops sown in your section, calculate the cost of seed for ten acres
of each.

2. Find the legal weights for seeds that are shown in this table to
vary, and note the standard for your State.

400

APPENDIX

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C D fa <N^2

1 !

3

I *§•« ill

W*

•^ fl^ § cd o •?

fa

i_

•° ^ d *

ffl (O

< o o g

12

•fa ^ « |

o

t« ^

2

RULES 401

TABLE VI.

RULES.

CUBIC MEASURE FOR THE FARMER.

231 cubic inches make one liquid gallon.

2,150.4 cubic inches make one bushel.

The standard bushel of the United States is cylindrical,
8 in. deep and ISJ^.in. diameter.

1J4 cubic feet are allowed for one bushel of shelled corn
or grain. Multiply the cubic feet hi a bin by % to get the
number of bushels.

2J4 cubic feet are allowed for one bushel of corn on the
cob. 2 measured bushels of cob corn equals one of shelled.

A crate 10 x 11 x 20 inches inside is used for a bushel of
onions, potatoes, or other vegetables.

A ton of hay on a wagon rack measures about 512 cubic
feet.

A ton of newly stored hay, settled two weeks, measures
1^2 feet cube, or about 422 cu. ft.

A ton of hay in stack, settled 30 to 60 days, is about
7 feet cube, or 343 to 380 cu. ft.

After hay has settled several months it measures 270
cubic feet to the ton.

MEASURING LAND.

One acre of land measures 160 square rods, or 4,840
square yards, or 43,560 square feet.

When the length of a field is known in rods, the width
to take to make one acre is found when the given length is
divided into 160. For example, if a corn field is 40 rods long,
an acre of it will be four rods wide (160 -5- 40 =4).

402 APPENDIX

TABLE VII.
FERTILIZER FORMULAS.

THE object in the preparation of fertilizer formulas is
to show the kinds and amounts of materials to use. Any one
formula is not the best for all conditions; these vary as widely
as the soils and different methods of management.

Field Corn.

Ground Bone 250 Ibs.

Acid Phosphate 500 Ibs.

Muriate of Potash 250 Ibs.

Composition. — Nitrogen, 1 per cent; Phosphoric Acid
(available), 7 per cent; Phosphoric Acid (total), 12 per
cent; Potash, 12.5 per cent.

Application, 200 to 300 pounds per acre on manured
soils; 300 to 500 on medium soils without manure. For
forage corn or ensilage, the nitrogen should be increased.

Oats.

Nitrate of Soda 150 Ibs.

Tankage 200 Ibs.

Acid Phosphate 600 Ibs.

Muriate of Potash 50 Ibs.

Composition. — Nitrogen, 3.5 per cent; Phosphoric Acid
(available), 8 per cent; Phosphoric Acid (total), 10 per cent;
Potash, 2 .5 per cent.

Application on good soils, 200 to 300 pounds per acre;
300 to 500 pounds per acre on medium soils without manure.

Wheat.

Dried Blood 150'lbs.

Tankage 100 Ibs.

Acid Phosphate ; 700 Ibs.

Muriate of Potash 50 Ibs.

FERTILIZER FORMULAS 403

Composition. — Nitrogen, 2.5 per cent; Phosphoric Acid
(available), 9 per cent; Phosphoric Acid (total), 10 per cent;
Potash, 2 . 5 per cent.

Application on good soils, 200 to 300 pounds per acre.
On medium soils, without manure, 300 to 500 pounds per
acre.

Early Potatoes.

Nitrate of Soda 100 Ibs.

Sulf ate of Ammonia 100 Ibs.

Tankage .100 Ibs.

Acid Phosphate 500 Ibs.

Sulf ate or Muriate of Potash 200 Ibs.

Composition. — Nitrogen, 4 per cent; Phosphoric Acid
(available), 6 per cent; Phosphoric Acid (total), 8 per cent;
Potash (actual), 10 per cent.

Application may range from 800 to 1200 pounds per acre.

Sweet Potatoes.

Tankage 300 Ibs.

Dried Blood 100 Ibs.

Acid Phosphate 400 Ibs.

Muriate of Potash 200 Ibs.

Composition. — Nitrogen, 2.5 per cent; Phosphoric Acid
(available), 5.5 per cent; Phosphoric Acid (total), 9 per
cent ; Potash, 10 per cent.

Application per acre, from 500 to 800 pounds.

Early Tomatoes and Market Garden Crops.

Nitrate of Soda . 250 Ibs.

Ground Bone 100 Ibs.

Acid Phosphate 550 Ibs.

Muriate of Potash 100 Ibs.

Composition. — Nitrogen, 4 per cent; Phosphoric Acid
(available), 7 per cent; Phosphoric Acid (total), 9 per cent;
Potash, 5 per cent.

Application per acre, 800 pounds.

404 APPENDIX

Timothy Hay, Top Dressing.

Nitrate of Soda 500 Ibs.

Ground Bone 200 Ibs.

Acid Phosphate 200 Ibs.

Muriate of Potash 100 Ibs.

Composition. — Nitrogen, 8 per cent; Phosphoric Acid
(available), 3 per cent; Phosphoric Acid (total), 6.5 percent;
Potash, 5 per cent.

Application, 200 to 300 pounds per acre.

Fruits and Berries.

Ground Bone 250 Ibs.

Acid Phosphate 450 Ibs.

Muriate of Potash ; 300 Ibs.

Composition. — Nitrogen, 1 per cent; Phosphoric Acid
(available), 5.5 per cent; Phosphoric Acid (total), 10.5 per
cent; Potash, 15 per cent.

For medium or good soils, the application of this formula
to the large fruits need not begin until the trees come in
bearing, after which an annual application of from 300 to
500 pounds per acre will furnish an abundance of the mineral
elements. For berries, this formula may be applied at the
rate of 400 to 600 pounds per acre previous to setting the
plants, and annually thereafter.

Fertilizer Equivalents. — The nitrogen in 1 pound nitrate
of soda is about the same as in 2*4 pounds cottonseed meal;
1 pound sulfate of ammonia = 1 \ pounds nitrate of soda;
1 pound dried blood = If- pounds cottonseed meal; 1 pound
nitrate of soda = lj^ pounds dried blood.

DIGESTIBILITY AND FERTILITY

405

TABLE VIII.

AVERAGE DIGESTIBILITY OF FEEDS AND THEIR
FERTILITY.1

Name of feed

Dry
matter
in .
100
Ibs.

Digestible parts
in 100 Ibs.

Fertility in 1000 Ibs.

Pro-
tein

Carbo-
hy-
d rates
(+fat
X2.25)

Nitro-

ss

Phos-
phoric
acid
(P206)

Potash
(K20)

Alfalfa, green

28.2
93.6
25.2
13.5
91.3
89.5
93.0
26.4
20.7
85.0
57.8
59.5
84.9
16.4
90.4
91.6
90.5
86.0
90.2
90.5
9.1
89.6
25.0
90.8
20.3
29.2
84.7
91.1
11.4
91.3
38.4
86.8
89.5
88.5
88.8

3.6

11.7
2.6
1.3
20.0
16.8
37.6
1.4
1.0
6.7
2.5
1.4
4.4
1.8
10.5
4.1
29.7
4.4
30.2
20.3
1.0
10.7
1.1
1.3
1.8
2.9
7.1
4.8
1.0
9.5
1.5
2.8
8.8
12.1
13.0

13.0
43.1
12.5
10.0
45.7
53.3
43.0
15.7
12.8
72.2
37.3
32.7
66.5
9.1
37.6
65.1
56.2
41.8
47.5
49.1
5.9
58.7
13.5
41.3
11.1
16.4
41.8
49.1
8.5
72.1
21.2
45.3
70.8
43.4
55.8

7.7
26.1
6.2
2.9
40.0
32.3
72.5
4.3
2.9
14.7
7.2
6.1
13.6
3.8
24.3
12.9
54.8
12.5
54.2
42.1
2.2
18.2
2.6
5.8
3.8
7.0
19.7
12.6
1.9
18.1
5.0
9.4
19.0
25.1
27.0

1.3
6.1
1.1

0.8
16.1
8.2
30.4
1.1
1.1
6.3
5.4
3.8
5.7
1.3
4.0
2.2
3.3
4.0
16.6
17.4
0.9
7.8
1.3
3.0
1.5
1.5
5.5
3.6
1.2
8.6
2.6
3.3
5.5
26.9
26.3

5.6
17.9
2.0
3.7
2.0
9.9
15.8
3.7
3.9
4.7
8.9
10.9
4.7
4.6
13.1
3.1
0.5
15.7
13.7
19.9
3.8
4.8
3.8
17.7
5.0
4.8
18.7
10.2
4.9
5.8
7.6
14.2
8.7
15.2
15.3

Alfalfa hay..

Alsike (in bloom), green. ..

Beets, sugar
Brewers' grains (dried) ..

Canada pea meal..

Cotton seed meal.. . ...

Corn ensilage

Corn fodder green

Cornmeal (all)
Corn stalks with ears
Corn stalks without ears
Corn and cob meal

Cow peas, green

Crimson clover, hay..

Dried beet pulp..

Gluten meal..

Kentucky blue grass, hay.. . .
Linseed meal (old process)... .
Malt sprouts..

Mangels..

Oats..

Oat forage, in bloom, green.. .
Oat straw.. . .

Peas and oats, green

Red clover green

Red clover hay..

Red top, hay..

Ruta-bagas.. . . .

Rye

Timothy, green

Timothy, hay

Wheat-

Wheat bran (winter)
Wheat middlings...

In quarts the dry feeds to make a pound would be: gluten meal 0.8, linseed
meal 0.9, cottonseed meal, pea meal, cornmeal each 0.7, wheat 0.5, rye 0.6, oats
1, wheat middlings 1.3, bran 2, malt sprouts 1.7, brewers' grains 1.7.

» Chiefly adapted from W. A. Henry's " Feeds and Feeding."

406

APPENDIX

TABLE IX.
FEEDING STANDARDS.

(Wolff-Lehmann)
POUNDS PER DAY PER 1000 POUNDS LIVE WEIGHT.

Animal

Total
dry.
matter

Protein

Carbo-
hydrates
(+fat
X2.25)

Nutritive
ratio

Horse at light work.

20.0

1.5

10.4

1 7.0

Horse at medium work

24.0

2.0

12.3

1 6.2

Horse at hard work

26.0

2.5

15.1

1 60

Cattle fattening first period

30.0

2.5

16.1

1 65

Cattle, fattening, second period . . .
Cattle, fattening, third period

Milk cows, 11 Ibs. milk daily
Milk cows, 16.5 Ibs. milk daily. . . .
Milk cows 22 Ibs milk daily . .

30.0
26.0

25.0
27.0
29.0

3.0
2.7

1.6
2.0
2.5

16.0
16.5

10.7
11.9
14.1

1 5.4
1 6.2

1 6.7
1 5.4
1 57

Milk cows, 27.5 Ibs. milk daily. . . .
Lambs, 60 to 75 Ibs., 2-4 months. .
Sheep fine vool

32.0
25.0
23.0

3.3
3.2
1.5

14.8
15.6
12.7

1 4.5
1 4.9

1 8.5

Sheep, fattening, first period
Sheep, fattening, second period. . . .

Swine :
2- 5 mos. 50-100 Ibs
5- 8 mos 150-200 Ibs

30.0
28.0

40.0
30.0

3.0
3.5

6.5
3.8

16.1

15.8

27.3
20.9

1 5.4
1 4.5

4.0
5.5

8-12 mos ' 200-250 Ibs

26.0

3.0

17.5

5.8

Swine, fattening, first period
Swine, fattening, second period. . . .
Swine, fattening, third period. ....

GROWING CATTLE — DAIRY
BREEDS.

Age, Average live weight,
months. per head.

2-3 150 pounds

36.0
32.0
25.0

23.0

4.5
4.0

2.7

4.0

26.5
25.1
19.9

17.0

5.9
6.3
1 7.0

4.5

3- 6 300 pounds

24.0

3.0

15.0

5.1

6_12 . . 500 pounds

27.0

2.0

13.6

6.8

12-18 . . .700 pounds

26.0

1.8

13.4

7.5

18-24 900 pounds

26.0

1.5

12.6

8.5

COMPOSITION OF FARM MANURES 407

TABLE X.
AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF FARM MANURES.

Farm manures .

Pounds per thousand

h

HI

§8*

"c3°
>

Value per ton
of manure1

a
1

o

ils

£§s
1

1

Cow manure (fresh)

3.4
5.8
8.3
4.5
16.3
5.0

1.6
2.8
2.3
1.9
15.4
2.6

4.0
5.3
6.7
6.0
8.5
6.3

$39.00
42.00
46.00
80.00

$1.91

3.13
4.20
2.56
9.12

2.88

Horse manure (fresh)

Sheep manure (fresh)

Hog manure (fresh)

Hen droppings (fresh)

1 Considering nitrogen at 20 cents, phosphoric acid at 6 cents, and potash at
4J cents per pound.

TABLE XI.
DISTANCES APART FOR PLANTING FRUIT.

(If planted in rows each way the distances usually range
in feet about as given here.)

Fruit trees.

Small fruits.

30-40

Blackberries . .

4i_7

\pricots

15-20

Cranberries

1 -2

Cherries

15-25

Currants

• 4 -44

Oranges . . . •

25-30

Gooseberries

.4 -44

15-20

Grapes

6 -12

Pears

20-30

Raspberries black .

3£-5

Pears dwarf

10-15

Raspberries red

• 34^4

Plums

. . . 15-20

Strawberries hedge row .

.14-3

10-12

Strawberries, matted row

1 -4

27

408

APPENDIX

TABLE XII.

USUAL DISTANCES APART FOR PLANTING
VEGETABLES.

Vegetables

Rows,
feet apart

Distance in
rows, feet

Plants
per acre

Asparagus . .

3-4

1-2

Beans, bush and pole

2-4

1

Beet early

11-2

drills

Beet stock sugar

H-2

thin drills

Cabbage, early ....

2-2*

H-2

8712-14520

Cabbage, late

3

3

4840

Carrot . .

14-2

drills

Cauliflower ....

2-2£

H-2

8712-14520

Corn sweet . .

3-3$

1-2

Celery

3-4

i-1

10890-29040

Cucumber and. melons

4-6

4-6

Esrfif olant

3

3

4840

Lettuce curly ...

1-2

thin drills

Lettuce head

U

|

58080

Onion . ...

H-2

drills

Parsley ....

1-2

drills

Peas

1-3

drills

PeDDer

2i

H

11616

Potato

2^-3

1-H

Radish

1-U

drills

Rhubarb

4

2-4

2722-5445

Salsify

u-2

drills

Spinach

1-U

drills

Squash and pumpkin

6-8

6-8

Sweet potato

3-4

2

5445-7260

H-2

drills

3-4

3-4

2722-4840

APPENDIX 409

TABLE XIII.

SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS FOR ADDITIONAL
EXERCISES AND PROJECTS.

THE following projects and field and laboratory exercises
will be suggestive to those who wish to further supplement
the text. These are arranged according to the numbers of
the chapters to which they are most closely related. They
may be taken yp in connection with their corresponding
chapters if desired.

CHAPTER I. PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS.

1. Tie a piece of bologna skin over the top of a long glass
funnel tube from a chemical laboratory. Fill the bowl of the
funnel with dense sugar syrup. Place it with the membrane
beneath the surface in a glass of water. Then support the
tube in 'some way and observe the osmosis of the two liquids.
With a piece of rubber tubing splice on more glass tubing
and see how high you can conduct the liquid before the
action stops.

CHAPTER II. PLANT IMPROVEMENT. WEEDS.

1. Make a study of a fanning mill at a dealer's or at some
farm. Study the sieves and the fan. Try the machine with
a quantity of uncleaned seeds and note its work.

2. Let home projects be started in the ear-row method
of improving corn, and in the hill-row method of increasing
the yield of potatoes.

3. Make a list of bad weeds observed at your home farm
or elsewhere, seen in the following places: (1) roadsides and
fence rows; (2) in grain fields; (3) hi cultivated fields; (4) in
hay fields; (5) in pastures.

4. Make a list of the ways you have seen for storing
seeds over winter.

410 APPENDIX

CHAPTER III. PLANT PROPAGATION.

1. Pupils may start home projects in the growing of
nursery trees of apple, peach, and plum trees and also grape
vines.

2. Bush fruits may be propagated at home for sale to
others.

CHAPTER V. KINDS OF SOIL.

1. In regions where soil is quite variable, students should
make lists of trees or other plants which thrive best on the
different types of soil.

2. Trials of special crops may be made on different types
of soil to show the value of each for certain purposes.

CHAPTER VI.— SOIL MOISTURE.

1. Home projects should be started to show the effects
of good and bad methods of tillage in preparing the soil and
caring for some culture crops, say corn, potatoes, tomatoes,
and others.

CHAPTER VII. LAND DRAINAGE.

1. Let root systems be studied to prove that drainage
deepens the root systems, and reduces injury from drought.

2. In springtime test the fact that drainage warms the
soil. Use a thermometer or observe the early growth of
plants on both drained and undrained places.

3. Home or neighborhood projects in tile drainage may
be planned, surveyed, and the cost estimated.

CHAPTER VIII. SOIL IMPROVEMENT.

1. Study the different types of plows, harrows, culti-
vators and other tillage machinery at a dealers or on farms.

2. List all the farms hi the community that grow green
manure crops. What crops are grown? Do they all find it
beneficial?

3. What farms use lime for soil improvement? What

APPENDIX 411

kinds are used? Which kinds are preferred? For what crops
is the liming done? Does it help them? Let pupils make
surveys to obtain answers to these questions.

4. Make a survey regarding the care, management, and
uses of barnyard manure.

5. Make a similar survey regarding use of commercial
fertilizers— kinds, grades, prices, for what crops, benefits,
home mixing, ingredients purchased.

6. Start home projects to prove the benefits of liming,
use of barnyard manure, commercial fertilizers.

CHAPTER IX. SYSTEMS OF CROPPING.

1. Make a survey to determine what rotations in crop-
ping are practiced in the community. What are the best
ones?

2. Long projects in crop rotations, may be started in
connection with those in the preceding chapter.

CHAPTER X. FARM CROPS.

1. Determine how many of the different classes of crops
enumerated at the first of this chapter are grown in the
community. Which are important crops? which minor crops?

2. What farmers are using the soiling crop system, wholly
or partially, in the summer season?

3. Start projects with pigs, cows, or calves, to compare
the expense and value of soiling systems and pastures, and
perhaps summer silage.

4. Start projects in the growth of crops that should be
encouraged hi the region.

5. Start projects in pasture improvement using methods
suggested at the last of the chapter.

CHAPTER XI. ALFALFA.

1. Let pupils make surveys among the farmers to deter-
mine how many of the alfalfa rules are followed.

2. Start alfalfa projects to bring out the most important

412 APPENDIX

ones of these — liming, inoculation, frequent cutting. In-
clude also the harrowing of stubble after cutting to keep
down weeds and conserve moisture.

CHAPTER XII. COTTON PRODUCTION.

1. In cotton sections, students should make surveys
showing varieties grown, soil preparation, tillage methods,
damage from insects and diseases, time of picking, yields,
methods of marketing, and cropping systems.

2. Cotton growing projects may be started with records
to be kept along all of these lines and including the cost of
the crop. The combating of the boll-weevil and other
enemies should be planned in these projects.

CHAPTER XIII. CORN.

1. Corn growing projects, when started, should be planned
to include all the essential points in growing the crop. Records
of time, cost, yield, etc., should be kept.

CHAPTER XIV. SMALL GRAINS.

1. Mount all the different types of grain obtainable,
using the methods described in this chapter.

2. Let some pupils grow rice, flax, or any other grain
crops that are not well known in the region. Have students
study these.

CHAPTER XV. POTATOES.

1. Let pupils combine in making a survey of th? commu-
nity on Irish potatoes or sweet potatoes or both. Determine
varieties, soil maintenance, preparation of soil, planting
rotations, cost of crops, methods of combating insects and
diseases, yields, methods of marketing, storage, etc.

2. Home projects with a small area of either of these
crops should be started. Let competitions be started in
yield, quality, and cost.

APPENDIX 413

CHAPTER XVI. TOBACCO FOR MARKET.

1. If tobacco is a market crop of the region, divide the
list of growers among the pupils and make a survey to deter-
mine methods of preparing soil, starting plants, transplanting,
tillage, fighting insects and diseases, suckering and topping,
harvesting, curing, sorting, packing, storing, marketing, etc.

CHAPTER XVII. FORESTRY.

1. Let pupils see how many of the forest influences men-
tioned can be discovered in the region.

2. Study the trees of the region and make a list of all.
Learn to know them at sight.

3. Home projects may be conducted with forest tree
nurseries.

CHAPTER XVIII. GARDENING.

1. Several plans for home gardens should be drawn by
each student. These may be compared and discussed.

2. A garden survey of the region may be made to deter-
mine a number of points: (1) How nearly the home is
supplied with winter and summer vegetables; (2) what crops
are grown for market; (3) what crops are not grown that
should be grown; (4) manuring or other fertilizing practiced;
(5) succession cropping plans; (G) companion cropping plans;
(7) leading varieties of the main crops; (8) methods used in
preventing damage from insects and diseases; (9) methods
of harvesting; (10) methods of marketing; (11) methods of
curing, drying, and storing; (12) what seeds are saved for
future planting, and how.

3. There are many home garden projects that can be
pursued by both boys and girls.

CHAPTER XIX. FRUIT PRODUCTION.

1. Practice pruning of orchard trees for a few growers.

2. Make a survey of the varieties of fruits that succeed
well in the region.

414 APPENDIX

3. Have exercises in grading and packing fruit.

4. Study methods of storing and of marketing as practiced
in the region.

CHAPTER XX. INSECTS.

1. Observe and report damage- from insect enemies.

2. Report examples of birds feeding their young on insect
larvae.

3. Report damage to birds' nests by cats, dogs, and other
enemies of our bird friends.

CHAPTER XXI. DISEASES OF PLANTS.

1. Make up a number of the spray mixtures and use them
on nearby trees as needed.

2. By means of a rapid survey calculate the loss from
each of the worst plant diseases of the region.

CHAPTER XXII. IMPROVEMENT OF ANIMALS.

1. Report observations of the bad effects of crossing.

2. Report examples of the money values of pure bred
stock as compared to scrubs.

3. Have pupils bring hi examples of variation in poultry,
pigs, etc.

CHAPTER XXIII. HORSES.

1. Students should visit the stables of a veterinarian in
a group. He will be glad to show cases of sickness or injury
of horses in his care. He can show you specimens and give
lessons on teeth, horses' feet, etc.

2. Get a good horseman in the district to demonstrate
with light and heavy horses the good and poor points of
each individual.

CHAPTER XXIV CATTLE.

1. Students should be taken to a farm where beef cattle
are found. Practice picking the best and the poorest for the
type, both as feeding for beef or as breeding animals.

APPENDIX 415

2. Similar trips should be taken for the study of dairy
animals.

3. Make a list of all the breeds of cattle in the region,
either grade or pure-bred. Determine for what purpose they
are each kept.

4. If possible arrange with some parents or with some
bank to finance home projects in calf raising.

CHAPTER XXV — SHEEP.

1. Ascertain by a student survey what breeds of sheep
are found in the region. Let comparisons of these be made.

2. Make a list of all the families hi the district that keep
dogs, and the number for each family. How many of these
are known to worry or to kill sheep? Does this influence the
sheep industry?

3. Sheep feeding experiments may be started as home
projects.

CHAPTER XXVI SWINE.

1. Enumerate the number of swine of each breed repre-
sented in the district. Which are most popular? Which make
the most rapid gains in weight up to six months of age? Or
which ones reach the weight of 100 pounds first?

2. Home projects in management and feeding of pigs
should be started if possible. Establish competitions among
the members of a pig club for the district.

CHAPTER XXVII POULTRY MANAGEMENT.

1. Start contests in the hatching of chicks at home by
the natural method or by incubators.

2. Let students draw plans for the construction of chick
brooders and then make them at home or at school.

3. Contests may be started in the preservation of eggs.

4. A poultry exhibit and fair may be held at one of the
homes or at school if a suitable place is available. This may
be on Saturday. Contests in judging may be conducted in
this connection.

416 APPENDIX

CHAPTER XXVIII BEE-KEEPING.

1. Make a census of all the colonies in the district. What
is the honey output of each place for one season?

2. If only a few bees are found hi the district calculate
the loss to the district, supposing that each farmer could
easily keep twenty-five colonies.

3. Ascertain the returns from comb honey and from
extracted honey. Compare these methods in yields and
money value. Which is most followed in the district?
Why?

4. Make a list of the chief honey plants in the district —
early, medium, and late.

CHAPTER XXIX FEEDS AND FEEDING.

1. Make up a complete list of stock feeds grown hi the
district. Classify them as concentrates, roughage, root crops,
and others. Determine if possible what quantity of each is
raised, and their market values.

2. What kinds and amounts of concentrates and hay are
purchased from town by feeders in the district? What is the
cause of this? Is there any good reason for the purchase of
feeds that could be raised on the farms?

3. Make a list of the pasture crops grown in the district.

CHAPTER XXX CATTLE PRODUCTS.

1. Home projects in the weighing, sampling, and testing
of milk should be carried on by students.

2. Let students compare the methods of churning they
have observed at home and elsewhere with those given in
this chapter. Give reasons for differences.

3. If cream separators are found in the district, let
students inquire regarding their success or failure; then
see if they can aid in solving the troubles if any are
found?

APPENDIX 417

CHAPTER XXXI THE BUSINESS OF FARMING.

1. Make a survey of the farms in the district to deter-
mine to what extent the losses mentioned in this chapter are
found.

2. Make a list of farms where careful accounts of cost of
production are kept. Why do not all keep such accounts?

3. Make a list of young men who have left their farms
in the last few years and those who are now considering doing
so. What reasons can be assigned for this?

CHAPTER XXXII ROAD CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE

1. Determine the kinds and amount of private work done
by farmers or others to help maintain or improve the public
roads along their places. How many use road drags on their
own roads?

2. Make a list of farms in the district where there are
convenient and suitable rooms or buildings for use as work-
shops.

3. Make a survey to determine how many large field
machines are bought each year in the district; also how long
these last on the farms. Get some data regarding the cost
of repairs for these machines.

4. Boys should carry on home projects in the paint-
ing, repair, and maintenance of the farm machinery for
several months.

5. Exercises should be conducted in the over-hauling
of farm engines; installing of belt machines and power;
using concrete on the farm; structure of gates, poultry
houses, feeding, etc.

INDEX

Abbreviations, Preface, 395
Aberdeen Angus, 281, 282
Accounts, keeping, 364

to keep, 365

Adults of insects, 221, 223, 224
yEolian soil, 51

Agricultural experiment station, 394
Agriculture, teaching of, 1
Air for germination, 17

forming soil, 45, 46
in soil, 17
Airing milk, 350
Alfalfa as green feed, 111
a soil improver, 111
a chapter on, 111
curing of, 114
cutting, 113, 116
for soiling, 99
inoculation for, 112, 116
in rotation, 94
loading, 114
raking, 115

roots with nodules, 113
rules for, 115
seeding, 112, 116
stacking. 115
Alluvial soil, 47, 50
American Merinos, 297
saddle horse, 268, 270
trotter, 268, 269
Ammonia, sulfate of, 84
Analysis of feeds, 330
Animal production, section on, 259

products, section on, 344
Animals as soil formers, 45, 50
composition of, 327
improvement of, 259
Antennas of insects, 220
Annual denned, 20

weeds, 28

Appendages of insects, 220
Appendix tables, 391
Apple borer, flat head, 235

round head, 237
budding, 37
root grafts, 36
rust, 250, 251, 253
scab, 249, 250

and rust, 233
spraying for, 256, 257, 258
scions, 35, 37
stocks, 35
varieties, 213
worm. 232. 233

Apples picked from ladders, 218
propagation of, 35
studying. 214
Aquarium, 13, 14
Arbor Day planting, 188
Arithmetical problems, see Problems
Arsenate of lead, 258

Ashes and sour soil, 78

plant food in, 78
Ayrshire cattle, 288, 289

Babcock test, 355

principles of, 356, 357
outfit, 357

Bacon type of swine, 301, 302, 303
Bacteria in milk, 347
Bailey, Dr. L. H., quoted, 204
Balance in Nature, 13
Balanced rations, 340
Barley, 158
Barn, a clean, 348, 3~49

bad construction of, 348
good construction of, 348
manures, value of, 408
Barns, ventilation of, 349, 350
Barnyard manure, see Manure
Bean weevil, 221
Bee colony, 323

hives, 323. 325
-keeping, chapter on, 321
studies, 326
structure, 324
Beef breeds, 279

cattle, fattening, 337
cuts of, 344, 345
Bees and insects carry pollen, 18,

19

life of, 323
winter care of, 326
Beet pulp, 336
Belgian horse, 266
Beneficial insects, 239
Berkshire swine, 301, 302
Berries, fertilizer for, 404
Biennial defined, 20

weeds, 29

Birds as insect eaters, 240
beneficial hawks, 242
chapter on, 240
encouraging, 243
enemies of, 244
food habits of, 241
food of, 243
harmful, 241
houses, 244
laws protecting, 244
seeds eaten by. 243
Bi-sulfide of carbon, 231
Biting insects, 220

sprays for, 395
Black Minorca pair, 307

spot of peach, 247
Blackberries, 216, 217
Blake's, Prof. M. A., list of peaches,

212

Blossoms, see Flower
Bone, ground, 84
Books, reference, 60, 391

419

420

INDEX

Bordeaux mixture, 233, 258,395, 396

Bottling milk and cream, 351

Boys' and girls' clubs, 6

Brahma hen, 308

Bran, 335

Breed defined, 259

Breeding, laws of, 259

Breeds, beef, 279

keeping pure, 259

of bees, 322

of horses, 263

sheep, 293, 294, 296

swine, 301. 302, 304
Brewers' grains, 336
Brooder houses, 320
Brown rot of peach, 247, 248

Swiss cattle, 284, 285
Budding apple trees, 37

peaches and plums, 38, 39, 40

sticks, 37, 39
Bud selection, 23
Buds, fruit, 210, 212
Bulletins, Farmers', how to secure

3, 390

how to use, 3
referred to, see end of

each chapter
Bushel measure, 401
Business of farming, 360

success, elements of, 363
Buttermilk, 353, 354, 356, 359
Butts of corn, 137
Buying feeds, 342
By-products and mill feeds, 335,
337

Cab horses, 266

Cables, how made. 376

Calf feeding, 337

iCalifornia, school gardening in, 192

Calves, dairy, 285

feed for. 406

Cambium layer of wood, 36
Capillary moisture, 60-64

experiment, 64
Carbohydrates, 329

and fat in feeds, 405
Carbon bi-sulfide, 231, 400

dioxide, 13, 14

in plants, 13, 14
Carniolan bees, 322
Casein of milk, 345
Catalo hybrid cattle, 282
Catch crops, 90, 91
Caterpillar-hunting beetle, 239
Caterpillars, 224, 225
Cattle, chapter on, 279

feed for, 406

judging. 289, 290

points of, shown, 289

products, chapter on, 344

types of, 279
Caucasian bees. 322
Cedar apple, 251. 252
Cellulose, 329
Cereal crops, 97
Certified milk, 352
Changes in insects, 223
Cheese-making, 355

Chester white swine, 201, 302
Cheviot sheep, 294, 295, 296
Chick creep, 388
Chicken houses, 310, 312
inside of, 311
location of, 311
plan for, 312
varieties, study of, 309

to keep, 309

Chickens, varieties of, 306-309
Chinch bug, 231
Chlorophyl, 11, 12
Cholera, hog, 304
Churning, steps in, 354
Cicada captured, 241
Clayey soil, 52, 53, 54, 58, 59, 63
Cleaning seed, 22
Cleveland Bay horses, 266
Clothes moth, 230
Clover, alsike, 106

compared with standard, 340,

341

crimson, 91, 106
for soiling, 99
in rotation, 92, 93
methods of starting, 107
nodules, 103, 104
red, 106

when to cut. 107
white, 106
Clubs, corn, 151, 152
Clydesdales, 265
Coach horses described, 266
Coarse wooled sheep, 293
Cob of corn, 13'J
Cocoon, 223, 225
Codling-moth, 232, 233

spraying for, 256, 257,

258

Cold frame, 194, 195, 196
Colluvial soil, 51
Colony of bees, 323
Column system of accounts, 364,

365

Commercial fertilizers, 83
Community centre, 6
Composition of animals, 327
corn, 331
feeds, 406

fertilizers, 402, 404
manures, 407
milk, 345, 346, 347
Composts of manure, 82, 83
Concentrated feeds, 332, 334, 335.

336

Concrete roads, 372
Condensed milk, 352
Contrasts in farming, 361
Cooling milk, 350
Copper sulfate. 400
Coppice growth of trees, 189
Corn after oats and peas, 96
as feed, 334
butts, 137
chapter on, 133
clubs, 150, 151, 152
cob, 135

composition of, 331
crop, 133

INDEX

421

Corn culture, 143

distances for planting, 144

-drying rack, 147

ensilage most aconomical, 149

fertilizer for, 402

festival, 153

finest in the world, 139

for forage, 96

for soiling, 100, 101

germs, weak and healthy, 142

grain, 135

harvesting, 146, 147, 148, 149

importance of, 133

in rotation, 92, 93

in United States, 133

keeping notes, 152

kernels, 134, 137

methods of planting, 144

new standard for, 150, 151

origin of, 133

planting, 144

dates for, 145

pollinati9n of, 19

preparation of soil for, 143

proportion of, to cob, 139

report hlanks, 152

root system, 146

rules for selecting and judg-
ing, 135

score card, 140

silks, 19

silos, 149

size of ears, 137, 138

soil and fertilizers, 143

stalks as feed, 332

storing, 146, 150

testing, 140, 141

tillage, 145

tips, 136

types of, 133, 134, 135.

vitality of, 136
Cornbelt States, 133
Correlation of subjects, 4
Cotswolds, 293, 294
Cotton, chapter on, 117

cultivation, 124

diseases, 128

fertilizers. 123

fibers, 118, 120

gin. 126, 127

harvesting, 124

importance of, 117

improvement of, 121

insects, 128-132

market grades of, 126

planting, 123

problem, 125

range of, 121

relatives of, 119

Sea Island. 119

selecting, 121

soil, 122

types, 119

upland, 119

uses, 117

Cottonseed meal, 336
Cover crop for orchards, 211
Cow peas, 92, 99, 104
mixtures, 105
Creaming, methods of, 353

Cream, ripening, 353

separators, 354

testing, 359
Cropping, companion, 96, 196

double, 9«, 195

succession, 95, 196

systems of, 88, 89
Crop, the fruit, 218
Crops, catch, 90, 91

classification of, 97

cover, in orchard, 92

planting, 362

rotation of, 88, 89, 194

soiling, 99

Cross-bred animals, 261
Crossing, bad effects of, 261
Cultivating, effects of, 64, 65

peach trees, 73
Cultivation of potatoes, 168

sweet potatoes, 173
Cultivators illustrated, 65
Culture of corn, 143

orchards, 211, 213
Curculio of plums and peaches, 233.
• 234

injuries of, 235
Currant worms, 224
Currants, 216, 217
Cutting seed potatoes, 166
Cuttings, kinds of, 42, 43
Cyprian bees, 322

Dairy breeds, 285, 289

calves. 285

farm rotations, 92

products, 344

records, 355, 356
Delaine Merinos, 297
Dent corn, 133, 134
Depth of planting seed, 193
Devon cattle, 283
Digestibility, influence on, 338

of feed, 405
Diseases of man, 229

plants, chapter on, 246
trees, 184, 185
vegetables, 408
Division of plants, 42
Dorset sheep, 294, 295, 296
Draft horses, 263, 266
Drainage, chapter on. 67

defects of, 64, 68, 69

for alfa^a, 113, 116

methods of, 67

warms the soil, 69

where needed, 69
Drains, reasons for, 67

ventilate the soil, 69
Drain tiles, 68, 70, 71
Drift soil, 50, 51
Drill, grain, 156

Drinking fountains, 313, 315, 319
Dry mashes for chickens, 315

matter shown, 327
in feeds, 405
Dual-purpose cattle. 282, 283, 284

horses, 263
Durham, see Shorthorn

422

INDEX

Duroc-Jersey swine, 301, 302
Dust boxes for hens, 313
mulch, 65, 66

Ear-row method, 23
Earth roads, 373
Egg breeds, 306, 307

packing, 318, 319

problems, 220

records, 307

testing, 319
Eggs, preserving, 320

weight of, 318

yolk of, 317

English shire horses, 265
Ensilage, 147, 148, 333
Essentials in feeds, 328
Evergreens, how to use, 204, 205
Exercise, frequent in all chapters,
see special topics, 409

referred to, 5
Experiment stations, list of, 393,

394
Experiment for school gardens, 200,

201, 202
Eyes of insects, 220

Fallow, bare, 90
Fanning grain, 22
Farm accounts, 364, 365

choice in buying, 369

crops, chapter on, 97, 411

equipment, repair of, 383

forest planting, 181, 182

getting started on, 368

going in debt, 369

management, section on, 360

mapping the, 362

need for better management,
367

renting plan, 368

school, plan of, 194

stepping stone, a, 368

the value of, 367
Farmer, a salesman, 365
Farmers' bulletins, see Bulletins
Farming, best men needed in, 361

causes for changes in, 360

changes in, 360

contrasts, 361

results of changes in, 361

special and general, 88

system in, 362
Fat in feeds, 330
Fats in milk, 345
Feed, for pigs, 303, 304

related to purpose, 338

succulent, 316, 317

troughs for poultry, 313, 314
Feeding beef cattle, 337

for winter eggs, 315

of insects, 220

plants, 83

principles of, 337

standards, 339, 406
Feeding, systems for poultry, 314,
315

young animals, 339
Feeds, analysis of, 330

and feeding, 327, 416

Feeds, buying, 342

change to tissue, 331

digestibility, table of, 405

essentials in, 328

fertility in, 405

list of, 405
Fermented milk, 353
Fertility in feeds, table of, 405
Fertilizer equivalents, 404

formulas, 402, 404

in feeds, 342
Fertilizers, collection of, 80

commercial, 83-87

for corn, 143

for pastures, 109

for special crops, 402, 404

high grade, 85, 86

low grade, 85, 86

problems on, 87

value of, 85
Fibre crops, 97
Field records, 365
Fillers in orchards, 212
Film moisture in soils, 60, 61
Fine wooled sheep, 293, 296, 297
Flax, fibre, 159, 160, 161

growing, 160

harvesting, 160

where grown, 160
Flies carry disease, 229

life of, 228, 229

remedies for, 229, 230

trap for, 387
Flight of insects, 220
Flint corn, 100, 101, 133
Floats, 84
Flowers, imperfect, 18

of strawberry, 18

parts of, 19

perfect, 17

pollination of, 18, 19

purpose of, 17
Food value of milk. 345
Forage crops, 97, 98

for midsummer, 101
Forest care and management, 189

influences, 179, 180, 181

planting, 178-182

trees, distances. 184. 186
mixed plantings, 185
nurseries, 183
propagation of, 182
shade, 183

Forestry, chapter on, 178, 413
Formalin for grain, 254

potatoes, 253

Fountains, drinking, 313, 315
Free water in soils. 60, 61, 62
French coach horses, 266, 267

Merinos, 297
Frost and rainfall, 197

vegetables injured by, 193
Fruit buds, 210, 212

crop, care of, 218

crops, 98

planting, distances for, 407

production, chapter on, 206,
413

trees, raising of, 35
Fruits small, 216

INDEX

423

Full-blood, see Pure-bred
Fungicides, 258, 395

Gallon measure, 402
Galloway cattle, 281
Gang plow, 74
Garden crops, 97

marker, 387

planning, 191, 192

plants, setting, 193, 194
Gardening, chapter on, 191, 413

landscape, 202

ornamental, 202

school, 198-202

success in, 191

vegetable, 191
Gate latch, 387
German coach horses, 267

black bees, 322
General-purpose chickens, 306, 308

horses, 26'3

Ginseng, shelter for, 183
Glaciers as soil formers, 49, 50
Gluten meal, 335
Good roads, 371
Gooseberries, 216, 217
Grades defined, 260

high, 261
Grafting, cleft, 40, 41

wax, making, 37
Grain, drill, 156

heads of, 161

moth, 230, 231

remedy for, 231

samples of, 159

sifting and fanning, 22

small, 154

smut, 253, 254, 255
Grapes, 216, 217
Grass seed, good and poor, 25
Grasses for soiling, 99
Gravel, 59, 63
Green crops as manures, 75

forage crops, 332

manure, 56

benefits of, 76
for potatoes, 164
planning for, 76
plowing under, 72
use of, 76
Grit boxes, 313
Ground beetle, 239
Grub of beetle, 224
Guard cells, 12
Guernseys, 286, 287

Hackney horses, 267
Halter, rope, 382
Hampshire sheep, 294, 295

swine, 302

Hardy vegetables, 193
Harrowing, effect of, 64, 65

pastures, 109
Harrow, spike-toothed, 66
Harvesting corn, 145, 146, 147

grain, 156, 157, 158

potatoes, 170, 171

sweet potatoes, 173
Hawks, 241, 242
Hay as feed, 332

Hay caps for alfalfa, 114
fertilizers for, 405
in rotation, 93

measure of, 401
Hayrack lifter, 385
Hay-stacking machine, 115
Heading, see Pruning
Hedge-row system, 214, 215
Henry, W. A., credit given, 406
Heredity, law of, 259
Herefords, 280, 281, 289
Highways in United States, 371
Hill-row method, 214, 215
Hives, 323, 325
Hog cholera, 304
Holstein-Friesians, 286, 288
Holstein, pedigree of, 400
Home plot for school garden, 202
Honey-bees, 239

poisoning, 256

-making, 323

Hoppers for chickens, 313, 314
Horses, age of, 273

care of, 271

chapter on, 262, 414

examining in barn, 271, 272

feed for, 406

inspecting, 271, 272

judging, 274

measurements of, 273

origin of, in America, 262

points of, shown 274

pure breeds of, 263

types of, 263

unsoundness of, 273
Horticultural crops, 97
Horticulture defined, 191
Hot-bed, 194, 195, 196, 199

for sweet potatoes, 172

plants from, 173
Houdon chicks, 310
House fly, 332, 333

for chickens, 310

for pigs, 304
Humus, 55, 58, 59, 63
Husking and shredding machines,

147
Hygroscopic moisture, 60, 61

Improvement, kinds of, 72

of animals, 259, 414

of soils, 71, 410
Impurities of seeds, 28
Incubator, running an, 317, 318
Inoculation of soils, 112
Insecticides, 220, 221, 258, 395
Insects, beneficial, 239

breathing of. 222

cages for, 225, 226

changes of, 223

chapter on, 220, 414

enemies, 225

feeding of, 220

growth of, 222, 223

moulting of, 222

mounting of, 226

skeleton of, 223

specimens of, 238

structure of, 220
Inventory, an, 366, 367

424

INDEX

Iodine test for starch, 13
Irrigation of the garden, 192
Italian bees, 322

Jersey cattle, 285, 287
Journal ruling for records, 365
Judging corn, rules for, 134, 139

cattle, 291, 292

horses, 275, 277

sheep, 299

Kaffir for soiling, 100, 102
Keeping farm accounts, 364, 365
Kernels of corn, 134, 137
Kerosene emulsions, 222, 395, 396
Kinds of forest trees, 182, 183, 189,

190
King system of ventilation, 349,

350

Ladders used in picking fruit, 218
Lady-beetle, 239, 240
Lambs, winter or hot-house, 192
Land drainage, chapter on, 67, 410

measuring, 401
Landscape gardening, 202
Lard type of swine, 301
Larva of insects, 221, 223, 224
Lattice shade for nurseries, 183
Laws of breeding, 259

protecting birds, 244
Layering, tip, mound, vine, 41
Leaf curl of peach, 248, 250
skin of, 11
structure, 10

Lean type of swine, 301, 302
Leaves, chlorophyl in, 11
moisture from, 10, 11
of plants, 10
openings in, 11
stomates in, 11, 12
Legal milk, 352

weights of grain, 399
Leghorn hen, 306
Legumes denned, 102, 193
gather nitrogen, 103
learning, 103
Leicester sheep, 293
Lens, use of, in examining seeds, 24
Life, duration of, 20

of insects, 223
Light horses, 263, 267, 268

see Sunlif/ht
Lime and sour soil, 78
and scab, 252
benefits of, 77
for pastures, 109
Lime in soil, 55, 58, 59
slacking, 77
sulfur, 247, 250. 256, 258

forms of, 397, 398
water, 77

Liming for alfalfa, 112, 116
Lincoln sheep, 294
Linseed meal. 336
Little-peach diseases, 249, 252
Loam, 52, 54, 56, 58, 59, 63
Loose smut of oats. 254
Loss from feeds, 331

Macadam roads, 372
Maggot of fly, 234
Malaria mosquitoes, 226, 227
Manure and scab, 235
care of, 80
composition of, 408
composts, 82
for pastures, 109
green, .55, 72, 75, 76
heating of, 79
leaching of, 79
loss in, 79
spreading, 80, 81, 82
using, 81
VcJue of, 78, 79
Mapping the farm, 362

school grounds, 363
Market, fruit ready for, 218
garden crops, 97
milk, form of, 351, 352
Marl, 52
Masses of trees and shrubs, 203,

204, 205

Matted row system, 214, 215
Measure, cubic, and land, 401

of a pound of fsed, 405
Meat breeds of chickens, 306, 308
Men needed in farming, 361
Merino sheep, 296, 297
Metamorphosis, see Changes
Middlings of wheat, 335
Milk as food, 344
bacteria in, 347
bad flavor in, 347
composition of, 345
fats in, 345
minerals in, 346
pails, 349, 350
pure, 348 .

showing difference in, 346
sugar in, 346
varies naturally, 346
Millets for soiling, 99
Mill feeds, 335
Mineral matter, 330
in milk, 346
plants, 16

Mixed planting, reasons for, 185
Modern agricultural teachings, 368
Modified milk, 353
Moisture increasing in soil, 64
saving in soil, 64, 65
used by plants, 62
Morgan horse, 270
Mosquitoes, 224, 225
malaria. 226, 227
yellow fever. 227, 228
Moth, clothes, 230

grain, 230, 231
MouMboards, forms of, 74
Moulting of insects. 222
Mouth parts of insects, 220
Movement of moisture, 62
Mowing pastures, 109, 110
Muck, 55
Mulch, effect of, 65

dust, 65

Mules, classes of, 268
Mutations defined, 260

INDEX

425

Native stock, 261

Nitrate of soda, 84, 86, 402, 404

Nitrogen, 402. 404

fertil zers, 83

in feeds, 405

manures, 407
Nodules on legumes, 103, 104

studying, 113
Nozzles for spraying, 357
Nutrients, 332
Nutritive ratios, 340
Nymph stage of insects, 225

Oat smut, treatment, 254, 255
Oats, 156, 157, 158

and grain ^or soiling, 101
hay* 100

for peas, 99, 100
in rotation, 95

as feed, 335

fertilizers for, 402

in rotation, 92, 93
Oil meal, 336

presence of, 330
Olericulture defined, 191
Ornamental chickens. 306, 309

gardening, 202, 203

planting, 188
Orchard cover crops, 92, 211

culture, 211, 213

site and soils, 206, 207

trees, pruning, 207, 208
setting, 207
when to plant, 207
Osmosis defined, 14

use of, 14

with egg, 15

with potato, 15
Owls, 342

Oxford sheep, 294, 295
Oxygen in plants, 13, 14

and air, 16, 17

Pageants, 7

Palatnbllity of feed, 341, 342
Parasites of insects, 240
Paris green, 258, 395
Pasture, in rotation, 93

plants, 108

system, 101
Pastures, bad conditions in, 109

how to keep, 109, 110

permanent, 108
Peach culture, 211

leaf curl, 248, 250

scab, 247

tree borer, 235

varieties, 212, 213

yellows, 247, 248, 251
Peaches injured by curculio, 235
Pea root nodules, 104
Peaty soil, 52, 55, 59, 63
Pedigree, sample, 400
Pedigrees, 261
Percherons, 264
Perennial weeds, 30
Perennials defined, 20

place for, in garden, 192
Perfect strawberries, 216
Permanent pastures, 108

Phosphate rock, 84
Phosphoric acid, 402, 404
fertilizers, 84, 85
in feeds, 405
in manures, 407
Phosphorus, study of, 85
Picking and packing fruit, 218

bag for fruit, 387
Pig management, 302, 303
Pipe wrench, 387
Pistillate strawberries, 216
Plan for farm school, 194

school grounds, 198
Planning crops, 362
Plans for planting shrubs, 204, 205
Plant diseases, 246, 247

prevention of, 247
studying, 247

food in soil*. 15, 58, 59

improvement, chapter on, 22,

409
Planting corn, 144

experiment, 144

distances for fruits, 408
vegetables, 408

methods of, 181, 188

mixed, for trees, 185

need of, 179, 181

on the farm, 181

ornamentals, directions for,
205

potatoes, 167

principles of, 203

time of, 192

trees, 179, 180, 181

vegetables, 193
Plants and moistures, 10, 11

as soil formers, 45, 48

breathing of, 12

division of, 42

feeding of, 83

flowers of, 8, 17

for pasture, 108

get 'food from air, 12

leaves of, 8, 10

mineral matter in, 10, 11, 14

needs of, 16

parts of, 8

per acre for vegetables, 408

roots of, 8

stems of, 8, 9

water used by, 62
Plowing, depth of, 64, 75

fall, 74

for potatoes, 164

objects of, 72, 73
Plows, form of, 73, 74

gang, 74

Plum curculio. 233, _34
Plymouth Rock hen, 308, 309
Poison for insects, 395
Poland China swine, 301, 302
Polled Angus, 281

cattle, origin of, 260

Durhams, 280
Pollen, how carried, 18
Pollination, cro&s, 19

of corn, 19

self, 19
Pony breeds, 263

426

INDEX

Pore spaces in soil, 62
Potash, 402, 403
fertilizers, 85
in feeds, 404
manures, 404
muriate of, 85
sulfate of, 85
Potato beetle, 231, 232
diggers, 171
harvesting, 170, 171
scab, 252, 253

Potatoes, chapter on, 162, 412
blight, 169, 170
cultivation of, 168
diseases, 169, 170
fertilizer for, 164
crops, 167
importance, 160
insects, 168, 169
Irish, 162

origin and types, 162, 163
planting, 167, 168
plowing, 164
score card, 166
second crop, 167
seed, 164, 165, 166
soil, 163
spraying, 169
treatment for scab, 255
varieties, 165, 166, 168
weights and. yields, 171
Poultry, care of, 316

chapter on, 305, 415
kinds of, 305
rations, 315
Powdered milk, 352
Principles of planting, 203
of spraying, 257, 258
Problems, 7, 16

arithmetical, 4
feeds, 342
fertilizers, 87
on eggs, 320

Products of cattle, listed, 344
Projects, 409

the dairy, 344
Propagation of forest trees, 182,

183, 184
plants, 35, 410
Property, value of, 366
Protein, 328

in feeds, 411

Pruning a budded tree, 38
annual, 208
care in, 210
choice in, 209

currants and gooseberries, 217
grapes, 217
high and low, 208
illustrated, 208-211
instruments, 210, 212
methods of, 209, 210
practice in, 210
principles of, 207
raspberries; and blackberries,

217

Pruning small fruits, 216
time for, 210
young trees, 208
Pupa stage, 223

Pure-bred animals, 260

milk, difficulty in obtaining,347

how to get, 348
Purity of corn, 136

Quantity of seeds for crops, 399
Questions, review, see end of each
chapter

Rag doll corn tester, 142
Rainfall, absorbing, 63

and frost, 197
Rambouillet sheep, 297
Raspberries, 216, 217
Rations, balanced, 340
Records for dairy cows, 355, 356

of fields, 365

Red polled cattle, 283, 284
Reference books, 391

tables, appendix, 391

to books, 60

References to bulletins, see Bulle-
tins
Remedies for codling-moth, 233

curculio, 234

flies, 229

grain moth, 231

mosquitoes, 227

potato scab, 252, 253

scale, 238

Reversion defined, 260
Review questions, see end of each

chapter

Rings of wood, 187
Ripened milk and cream, 353
Roads, concrete, 372

construction of, 373, 417

drainage of, 374

drag for, 373

earth, 373

grade of, 373

gravel, 372

importance of, 371

kinds of, 372

maintenance, 373

mechanics, 371

reasons for, 372
Robin arithmetic, 242
Roof garden, 201
Root crops, 97, 333

for dairy cows, 100

grafting, 36, 37

hairs, 8, 9

system of corn, 146
Roots, effects of drainage on, 68

for chickens, 213

of plants, 8
Rope, halter, 382

hitches, 378, 379

how made, 376

knots, 376, 377, 378

splices, long, 381

short, 380
Rotation courses, 94

of crops, benefit of, 90
need of, 90
reasons for, 88

for dairy farms, 92
Rotations, a few, 92
quick, 93

INDEX

427

Roughage, 332

Rows of kernels on corn, 139

Rules for alfalfa growing, 131, 132

corn judging, 134, 139

farmers, 401,
Rust of apple, 205, 251
Rye, 158, 159

Saddle horse, 268, 270
Salesman, the farmer a, 365
Sampling milk to test, 357
Sandy soil, 52, 54, 59, 63
San Jose scale, 237, 238
Scab of apples, 249, 250

potato, 252, 253
Scale, San Jose, 237, 238
Schedule for placing agriculture, 4
School gardening, 198, 202
equipment, 199
experiments, 200, 201
in California, 192
place for, 199
plots, 198, 202
products of, 202
suggestions for, 199, 200
grounds described, 204
mapping of, 363
needs of, 204
plans for, 198
Scions for apples, 35, 37

peaches and plums, 39
Score card for cattle, 291, 292
corn, 140
horse, 275, 277
Scrub, see Native Stock
Seed analysis, 25
cheap, 27

collection, 27
corn, harvesting, 145
storing, 145, 147
depth of planting, 193
for crops, quantity, 367
good, chapter on, 22"
immature, 27

impurities, examining for, 28
potatoes, cutting, 166

treating, 253
samples of, 30
selection, 22, 23
testing, 25
what to buy, 27
wheat, 156

Seeding alfalfa, 112, 116
oats, 157
pastures, 109

Seeds, forest tree, 182, 183, 184
mounted, 29
purpose of, 20
structure of, 20
study of, 20

Selecting corn, rules for, 134, 139
Separators, hand, 854
Shallow tillage, 75
Sheep, care of, 298

chapter on. 293, 415
judging, 299
to kill weeds, 110
types of, 293

Shelter belts, 180. 181, 182, 185
Shire, English, 265

Shorthorns, 279, 280
Shorts, 335
Shropshire, 294, 295
Shrubs, masses of, 203
Sifting, grain, 22
Silage, see Ensilage
Silk worm, 239
Silo, capacity of, 149

filling, 148, 334

masonry, 149

metal, 149

stave, 149

underground, 149
Silt, 52

Site for orchard, 206
Skim milk, 356. 359
Slips, see Cuttings
Small fruits, to grow, 207

grains, chapter on, 154, 412
Soil, agencies in forming, 45

and fertilizers of, 154

builders, 45

clayey, 52, 53, 54, 59, 63

defined, 44

farm, 58

for barley, 158

improvement, chapter on, 71,
410

kinds of, chapter on, 52, 410

loamy, see Loam

moisture, chapter on, 60, 410

names of, 59

oats, 157

packing of, 62

perfect, 58

plant-food form, 15

potatoes, 163

preparation for corn, 143

rocky, 53

sampling, 59, 60

sandy, 52, 54, 59, 63

texture of, 57

transported, 50, 51

warmed by drainage, 69

wind-blown, 45, 51
Soiling crops, 98, 99, 333

entire, 98

for the dairy, 98

partial, 98, 101

system, 98
Soils, characteristics, chapter on, 52

how formed, chapter on, 44

inoculation of, 112

water-holding power, 62, 63

in, 60, 63
Soluble oil, 238

Sorting and grading fruit, 218 219
Souring of milk, 351, 353
Southdown sheep, 294 295
Soy beans, 92. 99, 104
Specimens, preserving, 238, 239
Sphinx caterpillar, 241
Sports defined. 260
Spray mixtures, 395

time to, 259. 255. 256, 257
Spraying, 246, .250, 255, 258

orchards, 255, 257

principles, 257
Standarized milk, 352
Standards of feeding, 339, 362

428

INDEX

Starch, 329

in plants, 13

State experiment stations, 393
Stems of plants, 9

relation of light, 10
sap in, 10
Steps in churning, 354

cheese-making, 355
Stock feeding, 337
Stocks for j.pples, 35

peaches, 38, 39
Stomates, 11, 12
Storage of sweet potatoes, 173
Stored grain, treatment of, 231
Storing corn, 147, 151, 152

vegetables, 196
Stover corn, 147, 152
Stratifying peach seeds, 39
Straw as feed, 332
Strawberries, 214. 215, 216

flowers of, 216

methods of planting, 214

varieties of, 216
Structure and physiology of plants,

chapter on, 8
Subjects in school, 4, 5
Subsoil and plow, 58
Success, elements of, 363

in gardening, 191
Succulent feed, 316
Sucking insects, 220, 221

sprays for, 395
Suffolk Punch, 266
Sugar in milk, 346

plants, 13
Sugars, 329, 330
Suggestions to teachers, 2, 409
Sunlight aids plants, 12

need of, 12, 13
Super for hives, 325
Superphosphate, 85, 87
Swarming of bees, 325
Sweet corn, 100, 101, 102

potatoes, 171. 172. 173
cultivation, 173
fertilizer for, 403
harvesting, 173
hot-bed, 173
plants, 171
soil for 171
storage. 173
Swine, chapter on, 300, 415

feed for. 406

four stages in life of, 303

mineral of, 300

types for, 300
Syrian bees. 322
System in farming, 362
Systems, cropping, 88, 411

Tables, consult Appendix, 391

Tachinid fly, 229

Tamworth swine, 302

Tankaere. 84

Teachers, suggestions to. 2

Temperature and souring. 350, 351

in soil farming, 45, 46
Temperatures, 16
Tender vegetables. 193
Tester for ear method. 141

Testing milk and cream, 355, 359

results, 142

seed corn, 140

Thinning plants, lessons in, 201
Thorax of insects, 220
Thoroughbred, 260, 267, 269
Three-horse eveners, 385
Tillage, 72, 75

of corn, 145
Timber crops. 98
Time to prune, 210
Tips of corn, 136
Toads destroy insects, 240
Tobacco, care of, 176, 413

curing, 177

harvesting, 176

nicotine in, 175

seeding, 176

soil for, 175

sorting, 177

transplanting, 176

types, 175

varieties, 177

where grown, 175
Tomatoes, fertilizer for, 403
Tongue graft, 36
Treatment of seed potatoes, 253
Tree planting, 179, 188
Arbor Day, 188

seeds, 182, 183, 184
Trees influence water supply, 180,

kinds of, 182, 190

raising of, 35

shape of, 180

top- working, 40
Trotter, American, 268, 269
Tuber crops, 97
Type of corn, 135
Types of cattle, 279

horses, 263

wheat, 154, 155
Typhoid flies, 229

Underdrainage, effects of, 64

principles of, 69
Unsoundness in horses, 273

Value of manures, 407

property, 306

the farm, 367
Variation among animals, 260

In milk, causes of, 346

laws of, 260
Varieties of chickens, 306, 309

fruit, 316. 317
Vegetable gardening. 191, 197

matter in soil, 55
Vegetables, hardy and tender. 193

planting distances for. 408
Ventilation by drainage, 69

of barns, 349, 350
xr-^rh, 99

Vines on buildings, 204
Vitality of seed cor:;, 136

Waeon jack, 387
v'asp witi> cicada, 241
Water, canillarv. 60-64
free in soils, 60, 61

INDEX

429

Water in flesh, 327

plants. 14

soils, 60, 63
Water in soil formation, 46, 47, 48

influenced by trees, 180, 181
Wax for grafting, 37
Waxing cotton for grafting, 37
Weathering of rocks, 46
Weed nuisance, 27

seeds, identifying, 25

sprouting, 112, 116
Weeds classified. 28, 32, 409

collecting, 38

common table of, 33

defined, 28

fighting perennial, 31

persistent, 30

preventing, 75

spraying, 31

Weevils, treatment for, 396
Weights of seeds, 399
Wet mashes for chickens, 316
Wheat, 154, 155, 156

fertilizer for, 402

Wheat, good and poor, 23

harvesting, 156

heavy seed, 156

in rotation, 92, 93

planting, 155

soil for, 155

types of, 154, 155
Whip grafting, 36
Wind-breaks, 180, 181. 182

for poultry, 311
Wings of insects, 314
Wood lot. 179, 181, 189

mounted samples, 187

rings of. 187
Wool, samples of, 299

yolk of, 299
Wrigglers of mosquitoes, 224, 226,

227
Wyandotte hen, 309

Yellow fever mosquitoes. 227, 228
Yellows of peach, 247, 248, 251
Yorkshire, large, 302, 303
Young animals, feeding, 339