m mi] 1 J TT!T7TThe Feeding of Horses ^31 ' XV. Stables 247 XVr* Equitation 269 XVII. Vehicle, Harness, and Saddle 286 XVIII. Markets and Shows 296 XIX. Transportation 304 XX. The Mule 309 XXI. The Motor as a Factor 314 ILLUSTRATIONS riQ. PAGE Productive Horse Husbandry Frontispiece 1. Hind Legs, Propeller; Forelegs, Supportive to the Extent of Lifting the Forehand. (Exterior of the Horse) 3 2. Skeleton of the Horse, Showing the Vertebral Arch and the Bone Columns. (Adams' Horseshoeing) 4 3. Each and Every Phase of the Stride is Demonstrated 5 4. Situation of the Centre of Gravity in the Horse. (Exterior of the Horse) , 6 5. Diagram Showing Contact of Feet in Various Gaits 7 6. During the Greatest Effort the Base of Support is Rectangular, the Horse Being Practically on All Fours. (Exterior of the Horse) . . 8 7. Regions of the Horse Seen in Profile. (Exterior of the Horse) 11 8. Normal Eye. (Exterior of the Horse) 12 9. Plantar Surface of Right Fore-Hoof. (Adams' Horseshoeing) 13 10. The Erect Standing Position of the Foreleg, Viewed from in Front, as Determined by the Plumb-hne. (Exterior of the Horse) 14 11. The Correct Standing Position of the Foreleg, Viewed from the Side. (Schweiter) 14 12. The Correct Standing Position of the Hind Leg, Viewed from the Rear. (Exterior of the Horse) 15 13. The Correct Standing Position of the Hind Leg, Viewed from the Side. (Exterior of the Horse) 15 14. The Fast Trot, Characterized as a Diagonal Gait of Extreme Exten- sion and Rapidity of Stride 18 15. The High Stepping Trot, Showing Extreme Flexion of Knees and Hocks. (Champion Hackney Pony Berkley Bantam) 19 16. The Pace, a Lateral Gait of Extreme Extension and Rapidity of Stride 20 17. The Different Phases and Contacts in the Gallops. (Exterior of the Horse) 21 18. The Different Phases and Contacts in the Jump. (Exterior of the Horse) 22 19. Position of Direction of Leg to Course Taken by Foot in the Stride. (Adams' Horseshoeing) 24 20. Knee-sprung or Over on the Knees. (Exterior of the Horse) 25 21. Calf-kneed. (Exterior of the Horse) 25 22. Too Straight Pastern. (Adams' Horseshoeing) .-. 25 23. Base Narrow, Toe Wide, Nigger-heeled, or Splay-footed. (Exterior of the Horse) 26 ix X ILLUSTRATIONS 24. Toe Narrow or Pigeon-toed. (Exterior of the Horse) 26 25. Knock-kneed, (Exterior of the Horse) 26 26. Bow-kneed. (Exterior of the Horse) 27 27. Too Close at Ground. (Exterior of the Horse) 27 28. Too Wide at Ground. (Ex-terior of the Horse) 27 29. Bent, Sabre, or Sickle Hock. (Adams' Horseshoeing) 28 30. Cow-hocked. (Exterior of the Horse) 28 31. Bandy-legged or Wide at the Hocks. (Exterior of the Horse) 28 32. The Draft Type, Showing the Weight, the Low, Wide, Compact, Massive Form, the Bone and the Muscling which Characterize the Horse of Power. (Percheron Gelding, Champion International Live Stock Exposition) 36 33. The Way a Draft Horse Should be Able to Move. (Camot, Im- ported Percheron Stallion, Champion International Live Stock Exposition, Owned by W. S. Corsa, Whitehall, 111. Courtesy of the Owner) 38 34. The Speed Type, Representing the Long, Rangy, Angular, Narrow but Deep Form Correlated with Length and Rapidity of Stride. (Champion Trotting Mare Lou Dillon, 1.583^) 39 35. The Show Type, Representing the Close and Full Made Form. (Champion Hackney Show Mare, Lady Seaton) 41 36. A Weight Carrier, Illustrating the Bone Muscular Development which, with a Short Back and Legs, Render a Horse "up to" Two Hundred Pounds or More. (Prize Winning Heavy Weight Hunter, SoUtaire) 42 37. The Saddle Type, Showing the Short Top and Long Under Line, Sloping Shoulders, the High, Well-finished Withers, and the Long, Fine, Supple Neck Essential to the Saddle Horse. (Cham- pion Saddle Mare, Sonia) 43 38. A Trey or Three-way Hitch of Drafters to Truck, Showing the Scale, Form, and Conformation of Horses of this Class, also the Manner of Hitching. (Prize W^inning Percheron Geldings Owned by J. Crouch and Sons, Lafayette, Ind. Courtesy of the owners) . 50 39. A Draft Pair of Unusual Quality and Attractive Color 51 40. A Six-horse Draft Team to Packer's Van, Showing the Relative Balance between the Lead, Swing, and Wheel-pair, also Complete Appointments. (Prize Winning Clydesdale Geldings) 51 41. A Pair of Chunks to Truck, Showing the Extremely Drafty Form, Bone, and Ruggedness Typical to this Class. (Percheron Geldings Owned by H. S. Beaston, Philadelphia, Pa. Courtesy of the Owner) 52 42. An Expresser for Light Delivery Service, Showing the Combination of Draft Horse Size and Substance with Coach Horse Form and Finish. (Prize Winning Light Delivery Gelding, Owned by Strawbridge and Clothier, Philadelphia. Courtesy of the Owners) 53 ILLUSTRATIONS 3^ 43. A Class of Coach Horses to Brougham and Victorias. (Harness Class, Philadelphia Horse Show) 54 44. A Park Mare to Sayler Wagon. (Champion Hackney Show Mare, The Whip) 55 45. A Runabout Horse, with a Fair Degree of Both Pace and Action. (Champion Trottingbred Harness Horse, Newsboy) 55 46. A Cob to Runabout, a Big, Little Horse of Extremely Compact and Rotund Form. (Champion Small Harness Horse, Young Moun- taineer) 56 47. The Bent Hock-joint. (Exterior of the Horse) 57 48. A Gentleman's Road Mare. (Champion Road Mare, Alhe Nun).. . 58 49. A Trotter to Sulky. (Champion Trotting Mare, Sweet Marie, 2.02, McDonald up) 58 50. The Straight Hock- joint. (Exterior of the Horse) 59 51. A Steeple Chaser, Showing the Speed and Saddle Form of the Running Race Horse. (Merryman, Virginia bred hunter. Courtesy of the National Stockman and Farmer, Pittsburg, Pa.) 60 52. A Gaited Saddle Stallion. (Kentucky Choice, Owned by Mrs. Richard Tasker Lowndes, Danville, Ky. Courtesy of the Owner. Matt Cohen up) 61 53. A Walk-trot-canter Horse. (Champion Walk-trot-canter Saddle Horse, Poetry of Motion) 62 54. A Class of English Saddle Horses. (Saddle Class, International Horse Show, Olympia, London. Courtesy of the National Stock- man and Farmer, Pittsburg, Pa.) 63 55. A Light-weight Hunter. (Prize Winning Hunter Mare, Sunday Morning) 63 56. Heatherbloom, the World'sRecord High Jumper. (Record, 8 feet 3}/2 inches. Dick Donnelly up) 64 57. A Combination Horse. (Prize Winning Saddle Horse, Confidence, OwTied by Dr. Oscar Seely, Philadelphia) 65 58. The Fine Harness Horse of the South. (Kentucky Choice in Harness) 66 59. A Harness Pony under 46 Inches in Height. (Prize Winning Shet- land Pony, Lysander, Owned by Chas. E. Bunn, Peoria, 111. Courtesy of the Owner) 67 60. A Twelve-hand Ride and Drive Pony of Exceptional Merit. (Prize Winning Harness and Saddle Hackney Pony Mare, Helen Miller, Owned by Willisbrook Farm) 67 61. A Pair of Twelve-hand Ponies Properly Turned Out. (Prize Win- ning Pair of Welsh Ponies, Owned by Geo. A. Heyl, Washington, 111.) 68 62. A Polo Mount, Fast, Game, Handy, Intelligent, and up to Weight. (Prize Winning Polo Mount, Redman) 68 63. Arabian Stallion, Showing the General Refinement Characteristic of this Breed. (Naaman, Owned by Herman Hoopes, Philadelphia, Pa. Courtesy of the Owner) 74 Xii ILLUSTRATIONS 64. A Thoroughbred StaUion, the Sire of Race Horses, (Rocksand, Recently Sold by August Belmont to a Foreign Syndicate for $150,000) 78 65. A Thoroughbred Stallion Suitable to Get Saddle Horses and Hunters. (Chilton) 80 66. A French Post Coach Used Early in the Nineteenth Centurj'. (A Manual of Coacliing) 86 67. A Diligence Still in Use in Switzerland. (A Manual of Coaching).. 87 68. An Old-fashioned Percheron. (StaUion, Sultan, Imported by Wm. T. Walters, Baltimore, Md., 1882) 88 69. A Percheron Stallion. (Imported Imprecation; Champion Inter- national Live Stock Exposition, Owned by J. Crouch and Sons, Lafayette, Ind. Courtesy of the OwTiers) 89 70. A Belgian Stallion of the Most Acceptable Stamp. (Prize Winning Imported, Xa\'ier, OwTied by J. Crouch and Sons, • Lafayette, Ind. Courtesy of the Owners) 92 71. A Clydesdale Stallion of Most Impressive Character. (Flisk Prince, Imported, Champion International Live Stock Exposition, Owned by Conyngham Brothers, Wilkes-Barre, Pa. Courtesy of Owners) 95 72. A Shire Stallion of Most Approved Type. (Lockinge Hengist, Imported, Champion International Live Stock Exposition, Owned by Truman's Pioneer Stud Farm, Bushnell, 111. Courtesy of the Owners) 97 73. A Suffolk StaUion of the Punch Form. (Rcndlesham Sunshine, Imported Prize Winner, Owned by Conyngham Brothers, Wilkes- Barre, Pa. Courtesy of the Owners) 99 74. A Hackney Stallion. (Oxford Champion, National Horse Show, Madison Square Garden, New York City. The Only American Bred Horse that ever Won this Honor. Owned by Wm. White, Frazer, Pa. Courtesy of the OwTier) 103 75. A French Coach Stallion of the More Rcfmed Sort. (Decorateur, Imported, Champion International Live Stock Exposition, OwTied by M cLauglilin Brothers, Columbus, Ohio. Courtesy of the Owners) 104 76. A French Coach Sire which has Produced High-Class Harness Horses with Remarkable Regularity. (Troarn, Prize Winner, Owned by Geo. D. King, Springboro, Pa. Courtesy of OwTier) . . 105 77. A German Coach StaUion 107 78. The Lead Pair in this Road Four are Pure-bred OrlofTs. (0%vTied and Shown by Judge W. H. Moore) 109 79. Cannon, at the Head of the Government Stud of American Horses. (Courtesy of Geo. M. Rommel) 109 80. Pair of Trotting-bred Heavy Harness Horses to George IV Phaeton. (Lord Brilliant and Lord Golden, Many Times Champions) 110 81. A Standardbred Stallion, a Leading Sire of the Breed. (Bingen, Recently Deceased) 113 ILLUSTRATIONS xiii 82. Hambletonian 10, at 23 Years of Age 115 83. Monument over Grave of Hambletonian 10, at Chester, N. Y. (Courtesy of Prof. Henry W. Vaughn, Ohio State University) 116 84. Green Mountain Maid in 1873 118 85. Inscription on Monument of Green Mountain Maid at Stony Ford. (Courtesy of Prof. Henry W. Vaughn, Ohio State University).. . . 118 86. An "Ideal Representative " of the Standardbred. (Moquette, 2.10, Owned by W. H. Davis, Washington, Pa. Courtesy of the Owner) 119 87. A 16-hand, 1200-pound Standard Performer. (Stalhon Sisalson, Owned by Henry Palmer, Avondale, Pa. Courtesy of the Owner) 120 88. Original Photo of Ethan Allen, made in 1859 124 89. A Morgan StaUion. (Bobbie 3-) 125 90. General Gates, at the Head of the Government Morgan Stud 126 91. An American Saddle Stalhon. (Bourbon King One of the Leading Sires of Kentucky) 131 92. The Old Comitry Idea of Shetland Type is a Miniature Draft Horse. (Eirik and Silverton of Tamsey, Champion Shetland Stallions and the Highland Royal Shows) 134 93. A Shetland Stallion, American bred. (Grandee, 0^vned by Chas. E. Bunn, Peoria, 111. Courtesy of the Owner) 134 94. A Welsh Pony Stallion, Showing the Size and Form Characteristic of the Breed. (Llwyn King, Owned by Geo. A. Heyl, Washington, 111. Courtesy of the O^mer) 136 95. A Hackney Pony Stallion. (Horace, Jr., Imported Champion, Owned by Wilhsbrook Farm, Malvern, Pa. Courtesy of the Owners) . . . 137 96. Dentition of the Horse, as a ^^Tiole. (Exterior of the Horse) 152 97. Longitudinal and Median Section of a Permanent Inferior Pincer. (Exterior of the Horse) 153 98. Birth: None of the Incisor Teeth has Penetrated the Gums. (Ex- terior of the Horse) 154 99. One Year: Viewed in Front, All the Milk Incisors are Visible. (Exterior of the Horse) 155 100. Two Years : Jaws Belonging to a Colt of a Lymphatic Race, Having been Fed Almost Entirely on Forage. (Exterior of the Horse) ... 156 101. Three Years Past: Viewed in Front, the Four Permanent Pincers are Seen. (Exterior of the Horse) ' 157 102. Rising Four Years: Viewed in Front, there are Seen in Each Jaw, Four Permanent Incisors. (Exterior of the Horse) 158 103. Four Years: Viewed in Front, All the Permanent Superior Teeth are in Contact with the Inferior. (Exterior of the Horse) 159 104. Four Years Past: Viewed in Front, the Superior Permanent Inter- mediates are in Contact wdth the Inferior Intermediates, and on the Same Level as the Pincers. (Exterior of the Horse) 160 105. Rising Five Years: The Four Milk Corners have Fallen Out and are ReplacedbyThose of the Second Dentition. (Exterior of the Horse) 161 Xiv ILLUSTRATIONS 106. Five Years: The Mouth is Entirely Made. (Exterior of the Horse) 162 107. Six Years: Viewed in Front, the Jaws Present Almost the Same Char- acters as at Five Years. (Exterior of the Horse) 163 108. Seven Years: Viewed in Front, the Teeth Appear Whiter. (Exterior of the Horse) 164 109. Eight Years: The Direction of the Incisors Notably Changed. (Ex- terior of the Horse) 165 110. Nine Years: Nothing Special is to be Seen upon the Jaws in Front or in Profile. (Exterior of the Horse) 166 111. Ten Years: When Viewed from Front, the Jaws Become Prominent. (Exterior of the Horse) 167 112. Eleven Years: In Order to See the Teeth in Front, it is Necessary to Raise the Horse's Head. (Exterior of the Horse) 168 113. Twelve Years: The Incidence of the Jaws is More Oblique Than at the Preceding Age. (Exterior of the Horse) 169 114. Fifteen Years: Viewed in Front, the Inferior Teeth Appear Shorter than the Superior. (Exterior of the Horse) 170 115. Twenty-one Years: The Teeth have Become so Horizontal that, when Viewed in Front, it is Difficult to See their Anterior Face, Unless the Head of the Horse be Raised. (Exterior of the Horse) 171 116. Thirty Years: The Characters of this Period are of Extreme Old Age. (Exterior of the Horse) 172 117. This Horse has a Record of Twenty-three Years in the Delivery Service of a Large City Department Store. (Blue Roan Horse, Owned by Gimbel Brothers, Philadelphia. Courtesy of the Owners) 173 118. This Horse has Served Eighteen Years in the City as an Ambulance Horse : 174 119. This Horse has been Rendered Unserviceable by the Same Work in One Year 174 120. A Pedigree Registry Certificate. (Courtesy of Gurney C. Gue, Sec- retary, American Hackney Horse Society) 186 120a. Reverse Side of Registry Certificate 187 121. A Breeding Stud. (Irvington Stud Farm, Owned by W. D. Henry, Sewickley, Pa. Courtesy of the Owner) 193 122a and 122b. A Successful Sire of the Right Type. (Carnot, Courtesy of W. S. Corsa, Whitehall, 111.) 195 123. A Producer — Sweet, Refined, and Feminine. (Thoroughbred Brood Mare, luka. Courtesy of Jas. A. McCloskey) 199 124. A Brood Mare of Proven Worth. (A Clydesdale, Pride of Drum- landrig, Owned by Conyngham Brothers, Wilkes-Barre, Pa. Courtesy of the Owners) 200 125. The Line of Draft. (A Manual of Coaching) 224 126. The Angle Formed by the Traces with the Hames Should be as Near a Right Angle as Possible. (A Manual of Coaching) 226 ILLUSTRATIONS xv 127. The Scapulohumeral and Elbow-joint. (A Manual of Coaching) . . . 226 128. The Breast or Dutch Collar in Proper Position. (A Manual of Coaching) 226 129. The Model Work Horse Stable, Showing the Main Alley-way and General Interior Arrangement. (Courtesy of J. and P. Baltz Brew- ing Company, Philadelphia, Pa) 256 130. A Model Work Horse Stable. (Courtesy of J. and P. Baltz Brew- ing Company, Philadelphia, Pa.) 257 131. A Model Work Horse Stable. (Courtesy of J. and P. Baltz Brewing Company, Philadelphia, Pa.) 257 132. Plan and, Specifications for a Small Work Horse Stable with Open Front Stalls. (Courtesy of The School of Veterinary Medicine of the University of Pennsylvania) 258 133. Floor Plan and Specifications for a Convenient, Comfortable, and Sanitary City Stable. (Courtesy of The School of Veterinary Medicine of the University of Pennsylvania) 258 134. A Vacuum Grooming Machine in Operation. (Courtesy of the J. and P. Baltz Brewing Company, Philadelphia, Pa.) 260 135. An Untrimmed Hoof with an Excess of Horn at the Toe, which Breaks the Foot Axis Backward. (Adams' Horseshoeing) 263 136. An Untrimmed Hoof with an Excess of Horn at the Heels, which Breaks the Foot Axis Forward. (Adams' Horseshoeing) 263 137. Hoof Dressed and Foot Axis Straightened. (Adams' Horseshoeing) . 263 138. Tongue Held Back to Show the Bars of the Mouth upon which the Bit Bears. (Exterior of the Horse) 272 139. The Jointed Snaffle Bit. (A Manual of Coaching) 273 140. The Four-ring Snafile Bit. (A Manual of Coaching) 273 141. Port of Curb Bit. (A Manual of Coaching) 274 142. The Liverpool Bit. (A Manual of Coaching) 274 143. The Elbow Bit. (A Manual of Coaching) 275 144. The Buxton Bit. (A Manual of Coaching) 275 145. The Pelham Bit. (Exterior of the Horse) 275 146. The Side Check or Bearing Rein with Bridoon Bit. (A Manual of Coaching) 276 147. The Pulley Bridoon Bearing Rein. (A Manual of Coaching) 277 148. Adjustment of the Coupling Reins. (A Manual of Coaching) 278 149. Reins Held in Left Hand 281 150. The Take-back • 282 151. The Two-hand Grip 283 152. Riding Reins in One-hand Grip 284 153. Riding, Two-hand Grip 284 154. The Evolution of the Wheel. (A Manual of Coaching) 287 155. The Cylindrical Axle Arm. (A Manual of Coaching) 288 156. The Tapered Axle Arm. (A Manual of Coaching) 288 157. Tapered Axle Arm Pitched. (A Manual of Coaching) 288 Xv4 ILLUSTRATIONS 158. An Unpitched Tapered Axle. (A Manual of Coaching) 288 159. The Dished Arrangement of the Spokes in the Hub. (A Manual of Coaching) 289 160. The Staggered Arrangement of the Spokes in the Hub. (A Manual of Coaching) 290 161. One of the Cumbersome and Pretentious Early Coaches. (A Man- ual of Coaching) 290 162. Strap Supports in WTiich the Body of the Vehicle was Slung. (A Manual of Coaching) 291 163. A Class of English Harness Horses. (Harness Class at the Inter- national Horse Show, OljTnpia, London. Courtesy of the National Stockman and Farmer, Pittsburg, Pa.) 292 164. Philadelphia JMounted Police. (Courtesy of Dr. D. B. Fitzpatrick, City ^^eterinarian of Philadelphia) 294 165. The Style of Riding to which the Stock Saddle is Best Adapted. . . 294 166. Express Horse Car Partitioned into Stalls. (Courtesy of Country Gentleman, Philadelphia, Pa.) 305 167. Stock Car for Ship])ing Horses. (Standard Stock-Car Used by the Pennsylvania Railroad. Courtesy of Paul McKnight, Live Stock Traffic Agent) 306 168. Just Off the Car from the West. (Courtesy of Paul Connelly) 307 169. Representing the Kentucky Standard of Mule Excellence. (A Pair of Blue Ribbon Winners Through Kentucky Fair Circuit) . . . 310 170. A Rugged Pair of More Drafty Form and Ample Bone 311 171. A Kentucky Jack of the Size, Substance, and Shape Desired for Mule Breeding 312 172. The Right Stamp of Mares as Attested by Their Produce 313 173. Park Horse to Victoria, Correctly Appointed. (Dr. Selwonk, Cham- pion Heavy Harness Horse) 316 174. Motor Advantages Enjoyed by the Horse. (Courtesy of IMr. Frank B. Rutherford, Secretary Pennsylvania Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals) 318 PART I STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION PRODUCTIVE HORSE HUSBANDRY CHAPTER I THE HORSE— A MACHINE A iiORSE^s usefulness depends upon Lis power of locomotion. A clear conception of his simple mechanical features affords the best means of measuring his serviceability. As a mechanical structure the horse consists chiefly of an arch, represented by his vertebra?, supported upon four upright columns, his legs. The balance of this arch is largely determined fROFERrr urn iL estate a Fig, 1. — Hind lega, propellers; forelegs, supportive to the extent of lifting the forehand. by the position of the appended head and neck at one end, and the tail at the other. In the standing position all four legs have a supporting function, although greater weight is borne by the forelegs. In locomotion the hind legs are propellers, the forelegs retaining their supportive function, the degree of which is in- creased to the extent of constituting a lift (Fig. 1). The pro- 3 . STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION pulsive effort of the hindquarters is met by the forehand in such a manner as to maintain the equilibrium as the body is advanced. Locomotion is accomplished by the supporting columns being Fig. 2. — Skeleton of the horse, showing the vertebral arch and the bone columns, one pair of legs supporting, the alternate pair, partially flexed, in a stride. 1, bones of the head; 1', lower jaw; 2, cervical vertebrae; 3, dorsal vertebrae; 4, lumbar vertebrae, 5, sacral vertebrae (sacrum); 6, coccygeal vertebrae; 7, ribs; 8, sternum (breast-bone); 9, pelvis; 9', ilium; 9", ischium; 10, scapula (shoulder-blade); 11, humerus; 12, radius; 13, ulna; 14, carpus (knee); 15, large metacarpal bone (canon); 16, rudimentary metacarpal bones (splint-bones); 17, OS suffraginis (long pastern); 18, os coronae (short pastern); 19, os pedis (hoof-bone); 20, sesamoid bones; 21, femur; 22, patella (knee-pan, stifle); 23, tibia; 24. fibula; 25, tarsus, or hock; 26, large metatarsal bone (canon); 27, rudimentary metatarsals (splint bones); 28, OS suffraginis (long pastern); 29, os corona; (short pastern); 30, os pedis (hoof-bone, "coflBn-bone"); 31, sesamoid bones. broken, and the foot elevated, by the flexion of the joints, into a position from which it is advanced b}^ the subsequent extension of the joints. A single advance of one foot constitutes a stride, and a series of strides, which involve in turn the four feet, brings the entire structure to an advanced position (Fig. 2). Each alter- THE HORSE— A MACHINE 5 nate pair of legs supports the weight while the other pair is executing a stride. The primary motive for the stride is fur- nished by the hindquarters, the propulsive action of which dis- places the centre of gravity forward, to such an extent as to necessitate locomotion in order to maintain or regain the equi- librium. There are five distinct phases of the stride : li> J I 1. A preliminary, during which the leg is undergoing flexion, but the foot has not left the ground, at which point the real stride begins. 2. The breaking over, in which the foot is raised heel first, finally leaving the ground by being rocked up and over at the toe. Fig. o. — Each and every phase uf the .stride is demonstrated by some one of the ten foie and ten hind Ieg.s shown. 3. Flight, during which the foot is describing a more or less regular arc of a perpendicular circle. 4. Contact, at which point the foot is again brought to the ground. 5. Recovery, as the weight gradually falls on the foot and the original position of the leg is momentarily established, pre- paratory to a repetition of the stride (Fig. 3). Mechanical Analogy. — In order to carry out the idea of a mechanical analog^^ the digestive system of the horse may be regarded as the boiler whence the energy is supplied ; the mus- cular system as comprising the motors ; the power exerted by the muscle motors at the expense of the energy derived from the digestive boilers, operating the bone columns, by the alternate 6 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION flexion and extension of which locomotion is accomplished ; the whole procedure being under the control of the nervous system. Muscular Action. — In accomplishing locomotion, the part played by the muscles is fundamental. The chief characteristic of muscular tissue is its contractility. Contraction takes place on receiving a stimulus through the voluntary nerve, which ter- minates between tlie two extremities of the muscle. One end of Fig. 4. — Situation of the centre of gravity in the horse. the muscle has a fixed insertion ; the other is attached to a mov- able bone lever. The two bones are apposed end to end, by means of a joint, the surfaces of whicli permit of motion of one or both bones, the degree or amount of motion depending upon the kind of articulation. When, therefore, the contracting muscle drawls the movable bone to wdiich it is attached toward the bone to which it has its fixed insertion, either flexion or extension of the joint takes place. THE HORSE— A MACHINE The centre of gravity in tlie horse, standing naturally, has been fixed at that 2>oint in the median vertical plane of the body Avhere a perpendicular line from the posterior extremity of the breast-bone intersects the line of division between the lower and middle thirds of the body divided horizontally (Fig. 4). The centre of gravity is stationary only when the horse is standing A B c D 0 0 Q 0 1 1 e ) \ \ \ \ \ / \ V \ \ V 0 1 ^ ^ h Fig. 5. — Diagram showing contact of feet in various gaits. A, standing, rectangular base of support; B, walking, triangular base of support; C, trotting, linear base of support; D, running, point base of support. absolutely stilL Wlien moving, there is a constantly repeated displacement; ultimately in the direction taken by the leading foot, although prior to the commencement of the stride, there is a momentary displacement in the opposite direction, as the weight is shifted to the supporting leg in order to reduce the weight on the side of the foot to be advanced. 8 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION The stability of equilibrium is in direct proportion to the size and especially the width of the base of support. It is the measure of jWAver. Power and speed are not correlated but oppo- site extremes. Instability of equilibrium is the measure of speed. In order, therefore, that the horse may take strides in rapid succession, the base of sup2:)ort must be so reduced as to permit of the ready displacement of the centre of gravity. It may then readily follow^ the direction of each stride in turn. Increase in the rapidity of the stride has the effect of reducing the size of the base of sup- port, so that the faster a horse goes the more favorable are the condi- tions for still greater speed. This is exempli- fied in the fact that the base of sujiport is a rec- tangle in case of the hoi*se at rest(Fig.5). It is reduced to the general form of a triangle as the horse leads out with one foot at the walk. It takes tiie form of a line as the horse extends himself at tlie trot or pace ; and finally it consists of a point only as but one foot is on the ground at the run. On the other hand, the horse at the run is not capable of any draft effort except that w^hich comes from the momentum he has already attained; he has a better chance at the trot; can pull well at the walk, and he is capable of his greatest effort at the starting of the load, as he is practically standing on all fours (Fig. 6). j^. ^ REVIEW 1. Of what does the horse's mechanical structure consist ? 2. How is locomotion accompHshed? 3. What constitutes a stride and what are its phases'? 4. Explain the part played by the muscles in locomotion. 5. Where is the centre of gravity in the horse standing naturally? Fig. 6. — During the greatest effort the base of support is rectangular, the horse being practicallj' on all fours. THE HORSE— A MACHINE 9 6. How does the centre of gravity conduct itself when the horse moves 1 7. What is the relation of the size of the base of support to the stability of the equilibiium ? 8. What are the changes in the size and shape of the base of support which may occur as the horse progresses from the standing posi- tion to the run? 9. How does the stability of the equilibrium measure the power of which a horse is capable? 10. How does the instability of the equilibrium measure the speed of which a horse is capable? i/^ V CHAPTER II CONFORMATION— THE STRUCTURE Conformation is the " putting together " of the parts which, colloctively, compose the animal structure. Its study has refer- ence to the proportions, dimensions, external contour, and in- ternal constiTiction of the ])arts and their relation in the general arrangement. Not only sliouhl the parts he Avell formed indi- vidually, hut they must fit and hlend with the other ])arts in order to make the whole structure symmetrical and sound. The streng-th of a chain is measured hy the strength of its weakest link. In the same manner defection in one part of conformation may offset an otherwise perfect structure. Unlike a chain, how- ever, the parts or units of conformation in a horse are not iden- tical. Some are of greater relative importance than others, and interfere more with serviceability in case they prove defective. A study of conformation consists in the detection of points of superiority and inferiority of structure, and in allotting to each their proper significance. For the purpose of studying conformation, the structure may be divided into regions and each region subdivided into its com- ponent parts, with specifications for each (Fig. 7). Head and Neck. — Head. — Size proportionate to size of horse; dimensions — ^length, breadth, and depth — proportionate to each other ; face line straight ; features sharply defined ; lower jaw strong with open angle between branches so as not to com- press larynx when neck is flexed. Forehead. — Broad, full and flat. Ears. — Medium size, fine, pointed, set close, carried alert. Eyes. — Prominently set, large, full, clear, bright, lids thin, uniform curvature, no angle caused by atrophy (Fig. 8). Muzzle. — "Not too fine, nostrils large but not dilated, lips thin, trim, teeth regular, sound. Nech. — Long, lean, crest marked, but not too heavy, throat' latch fine, head well set on. 10 CONFORMATION— THE STRUCTURE U • s00503cowo5w^^^;^o^5tctot^^to^o^o^otOl-'>-'l-'l-J^-'^-'l-l^->^-'l-• ^ .^. ^ I X iT 3 • K3^ >^c:.»:2 p ~ 3 S £ oa« "O t» 3 ft) o 3 so rt) O 12 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION Forehand. — Withers. — Well set up, extending well back muscular but neither low nor lieavy, free from scars. Shoulders. — Long, oblique, smooth. Arms. — Short, muscular^ carried forward. Forearms. — Broad and muscular. Knees. — Size proportionate to the weight of the horse straight, broad, deep, smooth, strongly supported. Canons back. FetlocJcs. — AVide, smootli, well supported. Short, broad, fluted. Tendons, smooth, well set Fig. S. — Normal ej-e. Pasterns. — Long, sloping but strong. Feet. — Size in pro])ortion to the weight of the horse, uni- form ; form circular, walls straight, slope corresponding to slope of pastern ; height at toe, side wall, and heel as 3 to 2 to 1. Sole concave, bars strong, frog large, elastic, heels Avide, full ; texture of horn dense, smooth, dark colored (Fig. 9). . Legs. — Viewed from in front, a perpendicular line dropped from the point of the shoulder should divide the leg and foot into two lateral halves (Fig. 10). Viewed from the side, a perpen- dicular line dropped from the tuberosity on the scapula should CONFORMATION— THE STRUCTURE 13 pass tliroiigli the centre of the elboAV-joint and meet the ground at the centre of the foot ^ (Fig. 11). Body. — Chest. — ^Deep, full, large girth. Ribs. — Long, well sprung, close. Back.- -Short, straight. strong. Loins. — Broad, strong, coupling well back, smooth ; flank, close, full, deep; top line short, level ; under line long, let well down in flank. Hindquarters. — Hips, — Wide, smooth, level. Croup. — Long, level, broad, muscular. Tail. — Set high, well carried. Thighs. — Long, mas- cular, deep. Stifles. — Wide, thick, muscular. Gashins. — Long, broad, muscular. Ilochs. — Size in proportion to weight of horse, wide, deep, straight, flat, smooth, point prominent, well supported. Fig. 9. — Plantar surface of right fore-hoot: 0, a, bearing surface of the toe; a, b, bearing sur- face of the side walls or manimse; b, c, bearing surface of the quarters; d, buttress, or angle formed by wall and bar; e, bar; /, sole; /', branches of the sole; g, white line; it passes between the sole and bars and ends at g'; h, horny frog; i, branches of the frog; A-, heels, bulbs, or glomes of the hoof; 1, median lacuna of horny frog. Between the bars and the horny frog lie the lateral lacunae of the frog. * The correct standing position of the horse at rest has formerly been determined from side view by a perpendicular line dropped from the tuberosity of the scapula, which it was claimed should divide the leg to the fetlock and meet the ground just back of the heel. It has been frequently demonstrated, however, that the best horses do not confonn to this standard, but show, as a iiile, a slight deviation downward and backward, which brino-g the fetlock posterior to the line which termi- nates in the centre of the foot. Recently Doctor H. Schwyter, technical secretary to the federal chief veterinarian of Switzerland, has established the direction described above as beinj:: coiTect. By it the centres of weight-bearing and of the base of support coincide as they should. 14 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION Canons^ Fetlocl's, Pasterns, Feet. — Size in iDroportion to weight of horse, wide, deep, straight, flat, smooth, point prom- inent, well supj^orted. Fig. 10. — The correct standing position of the foreleg, viewed from in front, as determined bj' the plumb line. Fig. 11. — The correct stand- ing position of the foreleg, viewed from the side, as determined by the plumb line. Legs. — Viewed from the rear, a perpendicular line dropped from the point of the buttock should divide leg and foot into lateral halves (Fig. 12) ; viewed from the side, this line should CONFORMATION— THE STRUCTURE 15 toucli the point of the hock and meet the ground some little dis- tance back of the heel. A perpendicular line dropped from the hip- joint should meet the ground midway between heel and toe (Fig. 13). ^■;■^:■ i\ v^ ' ' 1 i \ i 1 ') Fio. 12. — The correct standing position of the hind leg, viewed from the rear, as determined by the plumb line. Fig. 13. — The correct standing position of the hind leg, viewed from the side, as determined by the plumb line. REVIEW 1. What sort of an eye should be avoided in selecting a horse? 2. Where are the withers and what are their desirable features? 3. When is the foreleg in the correct standing position and of what importance is it ? 16 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION 4. Describe the gi-ound surface of a normal forefoot. 5. In a horse of good confonnation, how should the top line compare with the under line? 6. What are the common undesirable features of the croup? 7. What kind of stifles should a horse have ? 8. What are the graskins? 9. Describe the hock that is most likely to remain sound under stress of wear, 10. What is the importance of having the hind legs well set? CHAPTER III WAY OF GOING— THE FUNCTION The temi, waj of going, is self-defining. Pace refers to the rate at Avliicli the horse moves. Action implies flexion of knees _^jtH(LJiocks. h\(J~' The Stride presents for study the following features : 1. Leng-th, the distance from the point of breaking over to the jDoint of contact. 2. Directness, the line in which the foot is carried forward during the stride. 3. Rapidity, the time consumed in taking the stride. 4. Power, the pulling force exerted at each stride. 5. Height, the degTee to -which the foot 4s elevated in the stride, indicated hy -the" radius of the arc described. 6. Spring, the manner in which the weight is settled upon the leg and foot at the completion of the stride. 7. 'Pegiilarity, the rhythmical precision wdtli which each ^ stride is taken, in turn. 8. Balance, the relative degree of any of the other features of the stride manifested by fore and hind legs. /^tX^gt^^THE GAITS A gait is a particular way of going which is characterized by definite and distinctive features regularly executed. Walk is a slow, flat-footed, four-beat gait; one of the most useful, whether in harness or under saddle, if executed with snap and animation, as it should be. Trot is a rapid, two-beat gait, in w^hicli the diagonal fore and hind legs act together. The fast stepping trot is characterized by the length and rapidity with wdiich the individual strides are accomplished, and is executed with an extreme degree of extension (Fig. 14). The high stepping trot is character- ized by the height and spring of the stride, the horse placing 2 17 18 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION himself, going collectedly and executing each step with an ex- treme degree of flexion and the utmost precision (Fig. 15). Pace is a rapid, two-beat gait, in which the lateral fore and hind legs act togetlier (Fig. 16). It is characterized by the readiness with which pacers can get away at speed, a minimum of concussion, more or less side motion, the absence of much knee fokl (although some pacers are trapi:)y), and the necessity for smooth, hard footing and easy draft, for its execution. It is difficult for most pacers to go in deep or heavy footing, such as Fig. 14. — The fast trot, characterized as a diagonal gait of extreme extension and rapidity of stride. fresh snow, sand or mud, and they have a jerky, unsteady way of pulling a wagon, if any pull is necessary. The increased draft of an additional person up behind or of a rough bit of road will swing most pacers into a trot if they can trot at all. Jogging down hill will force some trotters to pace, while an up grade will set pacers to trotting. The pace is more essentially a speed than a road gait. Amble is a lateral gait usually distinguished from the pace by being slower and more broken in cadence. Rack is a fast, flashy, four-beat gait, more clearly defined by the discarded name '^ single foot." It is rarely executed vol- untarily but under compulsion of hand and heel, and is charac- WAY OF GOING— THE FUNCTION 19 terized by quite a display of knee action, and many horses can rack very fast. Wiile most agreeable to the rider, it is most distressing to the horse, and should therefore be called for with discretion. Gallop is a fast, three-beat gait, in which two diagonal legs are paired, their single beat falling l>etween the successive beats of the other two legs, the hind one of which makes the first beat of the three (Fig. 17). With the third and last beat the horse is Fig. 15. — The high-stepping trot, showing extreme flexion of knees and hocks. projected clear of all contact with the ground, as in a leap, and there is a period of silence, broken by the contact of the indepen- dent hind foot, in the commencement of a new series. The two legs acting independently, the fore, with which the horse leads, and its diagonal hind, naturally bear more weight and are subject to more fatigue than are the other pair which act simultaneously, and, therefore, divide or bear jointly the Avork. The hind leg receiving the full weight at the phase of contact at the conclusion of the leap bears more than the foreleg, which supports the weight alone just before the projection of the horse at the beginning of the leap. The gallop may become so fast as to break the simul- 20 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION taneous beats of the diagonal pair, the hind foot striking first and causing four beats, although following in such rapid suc- cession as to be distinguished with difficulty. Canter is a restrained gallop in which tlie wxnght is sustained chiefly by the hindquarters, the lightened forehand rising and falling in a high, bounding fashion, the gait being executed in a slow, collected, rhythmical way, on either lead at command. Since the canter,, like the gallop, imposes a special wear on the leading forefoot and its diagonal hind, the lead should be changed frequently. AVhen the sinuiltaneous beat is of a lateral instead of a diagonal pair of feet, and falls between the successive beats Fig. 16. — The pace, a lateral gait of extreme extension and rapidity of stride. of the other lateral pair, the leading fore and hind on the same side, it constitutes a cross or lateral canter, and is productive of a twisting motion to one in the saddle. Jump, whether high or broad, is accomplished by the forelegs raising tlie forehand at the take-off, thus bringing the body in line with the direction in which the jump is to be taken, wdien a strong, propulsive effort of the hindquarters carries it over or across, as the case may be (Fig. IS). In alighting, the forefeet come in contact with the ground first and almost simultaneously, the leading foot being a little in advance, after which the horse quickly gathers himself in a stride to avoid the hind feet, w^hich follow quickly and strike the ground slightly ahead of the im- prints of the forefeet. WAY OP GOING— THE FUNCTION 21 22 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION The leap (preparation). The leap (propulsion) The leap (passing the obstacle). The leap (descent in front). The leap (descent behind). Fig. is. — The different phases and contacts in the jump. WAY OF GOING— THE FUNCTION 23 Running walk is a slow, single foot or four-beat gait, inter- mediate between the walk and rack, suggestive of a continued breaking out of a walk. It is the business gait in the South and West, where gaited horses are ridden extensively, since it can be maintained all day. It is good for six to eight miles an hour, with the greatest possible ease to both horse and rider. The fox trot is a short, broken, nodding trot, in which the hind legs go in more or less of a lateral step. It is used as a substitute for the running walk. The stepping pace is distinct from the ordinary pace of the harness horse, being characterized by very little if any side motion and a somewhat broken cadence in the action of the lateral pairs of legs. The traverse is a side step, in which the forehand and hind- quarters respond to both rein and heel; it is useful in open- ing and closing gates, when riding after cattle, also to " dress " or take position in a troop drill. FACTORS DETERMINING WAY OF GOING The factors determining a horse's way of going are either natural or acquired. The former consist of type, conformation, direction of leg and form of foot, and breeding. The acquired influences are schooling, handling, and mechanical appliances. Type. — The close observer of athletic events is impressed with either the distinctiveness which exists among the winners of the different events or the similarity of type of those who excel in the same feats. On account of the correlation between form and function, a horse must do as he is. His capabilities in the way of per- formance will be limited in some respects and extended in others, according to the plan of his structure. A short, thick, low set horse will have more power than speed, the reverse being equally true. A cobby horse has a trappy stride, while the stride of a tall, rangy horse is characterized by reach. Conformation. — A horse low in the forehand is liable to forge, while one long and loosely coupled will have a tendency toward an incoordinate way of going. 24 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION Direction of Leg and Form of Foot. — The relation that the direction of the leg bears to the f onn of the foot is most intimate, and each is an important factor in determining the directness, especially, of the stride. The form of the foot fixes the point at which the leg breaks over ; the centre of the toe, or the outer or inner quarter depending upon whether the foot is symmetrical or i) Q T Q Q Course taken by the foot in correct standing position. 0 Q 0 0 0 Course taken by the foot Course taken by the foot in base or toe wide direction in base or toe narrow direc- of leg. tion of leg. Fia. 19. — Relation of direction of leg to course taken by foot in the stride. the inner or outer quarter is higher. The direction of the leg de- termines the course taken by the foot during its stride, whether advanced in a straight line or describing the arc of a circle inward or outward, depending upon the deviation in the direction of the leg (Fig. 19). The form of the foot and the dire<»tion of the leg are correlated, usually, so that their combined influence on the way of going may be considerable. WAY OF GOING— THE FUNCTION 25 The following are the common deviations in the direction of Foreleg viewed from the side: Figs. 20, 21 and 22. 24, 25, 26, 27 the leg. Figs. 23, Foreleg viewed from in front and 28. Hind leg viewed from the side : Fig. 29. Hind eg viewed from the rear: Figs. 30 and 31. Deviations in the direction ofthe hor se' Fore legs ■ Hind legs Viewed from in front Viewed from the side Viewed from the rear Viewed from the side Knees too close — knock kneed. Knees too wide apart — bow kneed. Fetloclcs close, toes wide — splay I footed. [ Toes narrow — pigeon toed. Standing over at the knees— knee sprung or buck kneed. Standing back at the knees — calf kneed. Forefeet too far advanced— camped. Forefeet too far back — standing under. Steep pasterns. Weak pasterns. ( Hocks too wide apart— bandy legged. 1 Hocks too close together — cow hocked. Fetlocks close, toes wide. Toes narrow. ' Hock bent or acute angled, the point of the hock usually being too far back— sickle or saber hocked. Hock straight or open angled. Steep pasterns. Weak pasterns. Breeding has most to do with the particnlar gait at which a horse goes. One may visit a collection of foals or weanlings in a field, and npon starting them off across the field note that some sqnare away at a long, rcachy trot, others go high enough to clear the tops of the daisies, while still others break away in an easy gallop, each gait being executed with equal ease and naturalness. The reason is found in the fact that the first described lot are Trotting-bred, the second are Hackneys and the others are Thoroughbreds. Tn each of these the particular way of going is a matter of breed character, and the instinct to go that Avay is almost as strong as for either the field dog to point or the game bird to battle. Heredity. — Type, conformation, direction of leg and form 26 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION of foot are all more or less hereditary characters and are asso- ciated with a corresponding instinct. A colt is not likely to be endowed by inheritance with an instinct to trot and at the same time inherit a strncture which is only adapted to galloping. Horses are occasionally seen, however, which, though bred prop- erly, manifest a disposition to do what they are physically inca- pable of doing. Others seem striicturally qualified for superior performance of some one sort, but fall far short of doing anything remarkable, because they do not know how. Hence, we know Fig. 20. — Knee-sprung or over on the knees. Fig. 21.— Calf-kneed. Fig. 22.— Too straight pastern. that the highest order of performance can only be attained when the inherited instinctive tendencies are in line with the horse's inherited physical development. Schooling. — Horses, like men, reflect in their attainments: First, their inherent capabilities, and, second, what has been made of them. All the graduates of a given academic or gymnasium course are not equals, either in their mental or physical accom- plishments. Neither are all those who have been deprived of any educational advantages destined to a common level or rank in society. Some from the latter class may even reach a higher rung on the commercial or social ladder than others from the WAY OF GOING— THE FUNCTION 27 first class. An individual may owe his proficiency to either his opportunities or what is in him, exclusively, or to a favorable combination of both. Only the highest education, in accordance with the strongest natural aptitude, can accomplish the greatest attainment. Hence, it is hardly worth while to spend time and money in educating a colt in ways to which he is not adapted. It is a difficult and unsatisfactory task to school a born trotter to an acceptable show of action. Ample proof of the accuracy of this statement, reversed, is found in the earlier days of horse Fig. 23. — Baae narrow, toe wide; nigger-heeled or splay-footed. Fig. 24. — Toe narrow or pigeon-toed. Fio. 25. — Knock-kneed. shows in this country. It was common to find single-minded horsemen resorting to all sorts of ingenious ways and means of preventing a horse from going high in order to make a trotter of him. They often gave up in despair, and sacrificed him to the knowing buyer, who, by changing tactics and schooling him along the line of action for which he had a strong inclination, finally turned him out a show horse of note. If, on the other hand, we take a natural character and develop it by artificial means, we may expect results far in advance of what could otherwise be obtained. 'No race or show horse, of any class, comes to his high degree of proficiency without an education. The trotter must 28 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION not only be trained to make him pliysically fit for the race but he nnist be tauglit to step. The same is true of actors, saddle horses, jumpers, and others. They are all given the natural aptitude to begin Avith, but that is not sufficient to get the best out of them. Handling. — Handling is but the application of the school- ing. It is painful to see a well-schooled saddle horse, to whom every little movement of hand or heel has a meaning, with some awkward man up who is reaping the fruits of his ignorant hand- ling in a ride that is most distressing both to himself and his Fig. 2G. — Bow -kneed. Fig. 27. — Too close at ground. IiG. 28.— Too wide at ground. mount ; or to see a horse, on whom much effort has been spent in teaching him to flex his neck, knees, and hocks in a proud, col- lected, high way of going, put in light harness, with the omni- present Kimball Jackson overdraw, and a heavy-fisted driver up who boasts of how fast the horse can step. It is as essential that the handling be in accord with the schooling as that the schooling should follow the line of natural aptitude. The handling offers the stimulus, the schooling makes possible the response; har- mony is, therefore, imperative. There are individual differences in the methods of different handlers, though the same gen- eral system may be employed. Among all race and show riders WAY OF GOING— THE FUNCTION 29 or drivers, each fundamentally correct in his methods, there is always one who is capable of better results than the others. Mechanical appliances are chiefly accessories to the handling and schooling of horses. They consist of the bit, shoes, weight, and hopples. Bit. — The influence of the bit is strongly suggestive of one or the other ways of going, as discussed under equitation. Shoes. — The style of the shoe and the dressing of the foot for its application have considerable influence on the way of Fig. 29.— Bent, sabre, or sickle Fig. 30.— Cow-hocked. Fig. 31.— Bandy-legged or hock. wide at the hocks. going. By shortening or lengthening the too, the breaking over is either facilitated or retarded, with a consequent shortening or lengthening of the stride ; by raising or lowering the inner or outer quarter, the point at which breaking over takes place may be regulated, ^vithin limits. ^Ye^gllt. — By either putting weight on or taking it off the foot, the stride is heightened or lowered. Weight may be secured either by permitting an abnormal gTOwth of the foot itself or in the shoe. Weight fixed at the toe promotes extension on the prin- ciple of the pendulum, the weight coming into play toward the 30 STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION end of the stride to carry the foot out. On the other hand, weight well back in the shoe, toward the heel, is believed to be conducive to action by calling for extra flexion, in order to lift the foot. Whatever alterations are made in the matter of shoeing or weighting must be gradual, in order not to unbalance the horse in his stride. Hopples. — By uniting a hind and a fore leg by means of hopples, a horse is held to his stride and prevented from break- ing, mixing, or going any other gait. The straps are crossed or straight, depending upon whether the horse trots or paces. Hopples about the pasterns are sometimes put on harness horses to develop action. Going Surface — While not of a mechanical nature, the char- acter of the surface on which the horse steps has a marked influ- ence on the kind of stride he takes. As a general rule, heavv, soft, or deep going causes a high stride, while a hard, smooth surface is more conducive to speed. Of the speed horses, trotters and pacers require the hardest, smoothest track. Heavy going frequently influences doublc-gaited horses to trot instead of pace and seriously interferes with pacing performance. Runners do best on the turf or a dirt track that has had the surface loosened by a scratch harrow. Defects and Peculiarities in Way of Going. — Forging. — Striking the ends of the branches or the under surface of the shoe of a forefoot with tlie toe of the hind foot. Interfering. — Striking the supporting leg at the fetlock with the foot of the striding leg. It is predisposed in horses with base narrow, toe wide, or splay-footed standing position. ^^ Paddling. — An outward deviation in the direction of the stride of the foreleg, the result of a toe narrow or pigeon-toed standing position. Winging. — Exaggerated paddling, noticeable in high going horses. Winding. — A twisting of the striding leg around in front of the supporting leg in much the same manner as in pad- dling. This is most commonly seen in wide-fronted draft horses at the walk. WAY OF GOING— THE FUNCTION 31 Scalping, — Hitting the front of the hind foot above or at the line of the hair against the toe of the breaking over forefoot. Speedy Cutting. — The spreading trotter at speed hits the hind leg above the scalping mark against the inside of the break- ing over forefoot as he passes. Cross-firing. — Essentially forging in pacers, in which they hit the inside of the near fore and off hind foot or the reverse in the air as the stride of the hind leg is abont completed and the stride of the foreleg just begun. Pointing. — A stride in which extension is much more marked than flexion. It is especially characteristic of the Thorough- bred. The same term is also used to indicate the resting of one forefoot in an advanced position to relieve the back tendons. Dwelling. — A perceptible pause in the flight of the foot, as though the stride had been completed before the foot had reached the ground. Most noticeable in actors. Trappy. — A quick, high, but comparatively short stride. Pounding. — A heavy contact usually accompanying a high stride. Boiling. — Excessive lateral shoulder motion as in wide fronted horses. REVIEW 1. Name the features of the stride. 2. How may the pace be distinguished from the trot? 3. What are the special advantages and disadvantages under which pacers labor? 4. How may the gait of a racking horse be recognized in the dark? 5. Describe a cross canter. 6. What is the importance of changing leads at the canter or gallop? 7. How may a horse's way of going be predicted without seeing hira move? 8. To what extent may the schooling determine the horse's way of going? 9. What effect does weight in the foot, also the surface over which the horse steps, have on the stride? 10. What is understood by forging, interfering, pointing, and dwelling's PART II TYPES AND BREEDS CHAPTER IV THE TYPES OF HORSES A HORSE^s usefulness depends upon his power of locomotion, and whether he moves with power, speed, show, or to carry weight will determine Avhether he is a draft, a race, a show, or a saddle horse. The sum total of those characteristics, by which adaptability to the different kinds of service is detennined, con- stitutes tlie type. Draft Type. — The service of the draft horse is to furnish poAver to move the heaviest of loads, usually over the paved surfaces of traffic-congested city streets (Fig. 32). Special efficiency in this line of service depends upon the possession of : ^^^^ 1. Wei^-ht sufficient (1500 to 2400 pounds) to hold the horse ' to a secure footing during muscular exertion, by increasing the friction between the shoe and the opposing hard, smooth surface of the roadway or pavement. Weight thrown into the collar also supplements muscular exertion. 2. Low station, to bring the centre of gravity as near the base of support as possible, thereby increasing stability of equilib- rium, as stability of equilibrium is the measure of power. Length of leg is largely determined by length of canon bone, and a short canon is correlated with, and therefore indicative of a short, broad, deep, and compact horse. 3. Breadth^to. give a horse ample skeletal foundation for the support of great muscular development, and also to increase laterally the base of suj^i^rt, which affords a much more stable balance and in turn increases the power. 4. Depth, to afford heart, lung, and digestive capacity, which is a most essential asset to a horse which must expend much energy, almost continually, for long hours, and six days a week. 5. Compactness, to insure a short vertebral column, bring- ing the source of power, the hindquarters, nearer to the applica- tion of power at the shoulder, thereby minimizing loss in trans- mission, and making for strength and rigidity of the shaft, as it were. 35 36 TYPES AND BREEDS 6. ^Massiveness, which suggests heavy muscling with the thick, bulky power variety ; therefore, a horse cannot be drafty without being massive. 7. ^ime. The muscles oj^erate the bone levers by contracting upon them through a fixed point and a movable insertion. For that reason the resisting power of the bone must be proportionate Fig. 32.- -The draft type, showing the weight, the low, wide, compact, massive form, the bone and the muscling which characterize the horse of power. to the contracting force of the muscle. Horses have been known to fracture their own bones by tlie power of muscular contraction. Furthermore, a horse has the appearance of being unbalanced in his makeup if too fine in his undeq')inning. Hence the demand for heavy bone in draft horses is fully warranted, but should be made with a full knowledge of just what it means. The region of the canon, usTially regarded as the index of bone, in- cludes, in addition to the canon bone proper and the two rudi- THE TYPES OF HORSES 37 mentary splint bones, the flexor and extensor tendons, the suspen- sory ligament, a variable amount of connective tissue, and the skin and hair. The total circumference may, therefore, be con- siderable and yet not represent real bone. The bony structure itself is made up of inorganic and organic constituents; the former are the more essential to wear and determine the texture. As a matter of fact, coarse texture of tendons, ligaments, and bones tliemselves, together with too much connective tissue, a thick hide, and coarse hair, tend to increase size in tlie canon region Avithout increasing the wearing qualities of the bone. It is therefore real, and not apparent, bone which counts, and the eye and hand are more reliable than the tape line for determining its amount. Furthermore, the object of ^^ big bone " is not to insure against fracture of the horse's leg but to furnish joint surface of sufficient area and durability to insure the horse re- maining sound under stress of the wear to which it is subject in the course of its work. The bone of the canon region is, there- fore, but an index after all. 8. Quality, not being correlated with substance, is more diffi- cult of attainment in a draft horse, but there is an increasing favor expressed for more refined heads and necks, general finish, and better texture of bone, hoof, and hair. As much quality as is consistent with the required substance is desirable. 9. Temperament of the draft horse is generally lymphatic, but sluggishness is discriminated against. Wliile the nature of his work requires that the draft horse be steady, jiatient, and readily tractable, it is, nevertheless, essential that it be per- formed willingly and with some snap and aggressiveness. Dis- position should be good to offset frequent provocation. 10. Way of going. Most drivers, for well-regulated draft horse stables, are instructed to walk their teams both when loaded and light, and experience seems to justify such action. In the first place, a draft horse must walk at least one-half his time, and if he is never allowed to trot he acquires a rapid, snappy Avalk which will accomplish as many miles in the course of a day's work as can be done by the horse which is compelled to trot and allowed to walk only for the purpose of resting. The weight 38 TYPES AND BREEDS of the draft horse is so great and the surface he walks over so hard that concussion is a big factor in endurance and durability, and concussion is increased immeasurably at the trot. Condi- tions of traffic in most city streets are such as to make trotting impracticable. However, any draft horse should be able to trot well. The trot accentuates all features of the walk, so that to be able to trot well insures a good walk (Fig. 33). The draft horse gait, then, is the walk, a powerful, prompt, swinging stride of as much length as the short legs will allow. Fig. 33. — The wav a draft horse should be able to move. A powerful, straight, free stride, hocks sharplv flexed, well under and close together, good knee action but no rolling or pounding in front. The notion that a longer legged horse, with his longer stride, can accomplish more is not borne out in experience, except witli mules. A leggy drafter lacks coordination in his movements, which counts against him in the course of the day, even though his single stride is longer. Furthermore, correlated with his leng-th of leg is a general deficiency in draftiness. There is a tendency in massive draft horses to roll or paddle in front and go wide behind, on account of their broad fronts and thick thighs. This is objectionable, if very marked, as it results THE TYPES OF HORSES 39 in an unequal distribution of weight and work on the joints and foot, as well as being unsightly. /^;'. '^ Speed Type. — Wlien speed performance alone is considered, the minimum weight to be pulled or carried is imposed. Speed depends ujjon the length of the individual strides and tlie rapidity with which they can be repeated. Muscular contraction, there- fore, must be of greatest degi'ee and most quickly accomplished. Fig. 34. — The speed type, representing the long, rangy, angular, narrow but deep form correlated with length and rapidity of stride. Muscles capable of such contraction are long and band-like, com- 2)ared to the short and tliick muscles of power. Form. — A horse to be fast, at whatever gait, must have the following form : (1) ]\[ust be long and rangy in form to accommodate the length of muscles and to increase the length of the reach in extension. (2) Must be lithe, indicating a system of muscles of the speed sort (Fig. 34:). 40 TYPES AND BREEDS (3) Must be angular, not having tlie form rounded out by bulky muscles, and carrying no excess weight in fat. (4) Must be narrow, to permit of the greatest directness of shoulder motion and to offer the least resistance to the wind. ( 5 ) Must be deep, to insure ample heart, lung, and digestive capacity, Avhich it is not possible to secure by width. Quality, denoting the finest texture of structure, to insure durability, with least weight and bulk, is necessary in a horse that is to attain great speed. Stamina, bottom, and heartiness are most essential. The temperament should be nervous, affording tlie requisite nerve force and courage to properly control and sustain the per- formance of which the sjoeed horse is mechanically capable. Their way of going serves as a basis for further classification into (1) trotters or pacers, (2) iiinners or jumpers. Trotters and pacers accomplish what is asked of them by virtue of their ability to extend themselves into a long, reachy stride done rapidly. They are capable of the greatest length of stride, on account of the greater proportionate length of forearm and lower thigh Avhich they possess. Their muscles are corre- spondingly long, narrow, and band-like, with the capacity for rapid contraction in an extreme degree. Pacing is differen- tiated as a lateral instead of a diagonal gait, and usually goes Avith greater length of limb in proportion to body, lower fore- hand, longer, steeper croup, and more bent hocks than are seen in the trotter. In double-gaited horses these differences may not be apparent. The runner attains speed by a series of successive jumps, in which the propulsive power of the hindquarters is most marked. He is, therefore, characterized by gi*eater development of fore- hand, a thicker stifle, and a straighter hind leg with less propor- tionate length from the hip-joint to the hock than characterizes the trotter. His characteristic way of standing easy on his front legs is shoA\Ti by experience to have its influence in reducing con cussion, in the recovery at the end of each jump. As a rule, speed over the jumps is more a matter of schooling and temperament than of conformation, although there is alleged to be a certain straightness of top line, especially in the region of the loin, which THE TYPES OF HORSES 41 is distinctive of the steeple chaser. Then, too, tlie characteristics associated with a runner may be somewhat accentuated in a steeple chaser. Show Type. — So far as speed and power are concerned the show horse requirements are intermediate. It is the manner in which he moves and the appearance he makes while going, rather than the pace or the weight of the load, which count. In order to qualify as a show horse he must possess : "1 yfag Fig. 35. — The show type, representing the close and full made form, the quality and style essential to look the part, and the sort of conformation that enables a horse to be an actor. Form, close and full made, stout enough to pull a vehicle designed after the English notion that " to drive handsomely is to drive heavily," smoothly turned and rotund enough to har- monize with the lines and proportions of the vehicle to which he is put, and to look well before it (Fig. 3.5). Substance, present in a degree proportioned to the style and weight of the vehicle concerned. 42 TYPES AND BREEDS Quality, general refinement and finish to enhance good looks. Temperwrnent, active, stylish, proud, bold, and courageous. The actor or high going horse is such structurally and tem- peramentally. He must possess a general suj^pleness and flexi- bility that is found only with length of shoulder and pastern, neck and croup. But this is true in equal degree of the saddle horse. The actor, in addition, is close made in profile, full made from the end, in order that he mav hotter fit hcavv leather and . A ~ f 4 ^ 'I^H^B>^ s^J^^^^^M ^'^■ralL ^' WiSk^^ d^l^^^H^^^^H nl 'a^P'T ,-4»- \j^^ """"^"'^t^ ■dliS 'i ■Hi ^ '' 5 ' ^, . ^ - '.i Fig. 36. — A weight carrier, illustrating the bone and muscular development which with short back and legs render a horse "up to" two hundred pounds or more. conform to the heavy vehicles to which he is put. Furthermore, he must not only possess joints of such angles as to permit of extreme flexion, hut he must he thoroughly disposed so to go, bend- ing himself in every joint from the ground to the tip of his chin and to the last segment of his abbreviated dock. Height of stride is his, and he must have the style and finish to properly set off the shoAv he is to make. Saddle Type. — The saddle horse must carry weight from 135 to 200 pounds or over, with greatest satisfaction to his rider and THE TYPES OF HORSES 43 least distress to himself. The prescribed ways in which the weight is to be carried differentiate the classes of saddle horses. Ability to support weight requires comparatively short, stout legs, acting as columns, and a short, strong, closely coupled back and loin, constituting the arch (Fig. 3G). The actual carrying of the weight is accomplished by tlie liorse's placing himself in such a way as to balance his load. Fig. 37. — The saddle type, showing the short top and Ions under line, sloping shoulders, the high, well-finished withers, and the long, fine, supple neck essential in the saddle horse. going well off his hocks, and working his legs under him in such a way as to sustain the weight at all phases of the stride. There is a knack in carrying weight ; the remarkable feats of the expe- rienced baggage man in the handling of trunks can be accounted for on the same principle. Size is secondary to the way a horse is set up, and to the way he goes. A saddle horse must be light in the forehand, possess a supple 44 TYPES AND BREEDS neck, a responsive mouth, and a high order of intelligence in order to qualify for the schooling which is required to make a finished mount. His form is outlined by a short top and long under line, and is characterized by the development of the forehand. Shoulders shoukl be unusually long, sloping, and extended into high, narrow, well-finished withers, which have the effect of placing the saddle well back and holding it in that position, without suffering injury from its impingement (Fig. 37). The greatly desired "long rein" and "much horse in front of the rider '' are thus secured. Such a forehand will be comparatively narrow and deep, thus permitting a secure and comfortable seat without the spread of knees and thighs occa- sioned by the full-made harness horse. The chief characteristics of the saddle horse stride are spring and accuracy, both being most conducive to the comfort and security of the rider. All gaits but the gallop and run are exe- cuted in a collected manner, with only sufficient action to insure freedom of stride. A well-schooled saddle horse should be capable of a most finished performance ; he should change gaits, canter on either lead or in a circle, back, traverse, or side step, and be thoroughly responsive to the hand, rein, and heel. REVIEW 1. Whj^ should a draft horse be low set, broad, deep, compact, and massive ? 2. Explain how weight increases the power of the city draft horse. 3. Describe the ideal draft horse bone; of what importance is it? 4. How should the draft horse walk and why? 5. What is the relation of speed to draft? 6. What are the characteristics of the speed type and why? 7. How may a trotter, a pacer, and a runner be distinguished without seeing them go? 8. Describe the show type and J2:ive reasons for each feature. 9. Account for the fact that an < Cob A. / Race Horse (Runner) / B. Walk-trot-canter / IV. Saddle C Gaited / D. Hunter / Combination / / E. A. Under 46 inches (Shetland) / / / V. Pony B. 11-2 to 14-2 1 C, Polo M ount 50 TYPES AND BREEDS The Work Horse Division. — Drafters have already been described as the power type. Drafters are worked in single, pair, three-way, four-, or six-horse hitches. The demand for the highest class of draft hoi*ses comes chiefly from city business firms who make the appearance of their horses and wagons on the streets a feature of their advertising policies (Figs. 38, 39, and 40). In a consideration of draft form, height is secondary to weight and station. In the selection of market draft geldings, however, height is important. While the low set, compact horse Fig. 38. — A trey or three-way hitch of drafters to truck, showing the scale, form, and con- formation of horses of this class, also the manner of hitching. is most powerful, such chunky fonn is not conducive to as great size as that of more range and higiier stature. This is especially true of immature draft colts. There must be considerable " stretch " to them if they are to attain the required size at maturity. An upstanding growthy two-year-old gives greater promise than the smoothly turned, mature looking chunk of the same age. Growth takes place first upward, then doAvnward and outward. Appearance, as well as power, counts in the serv^ice for which the highest class of draft geldings are bought, and unless a horse has stature he appears " squatty " before the big wagons or trucks to which he is put. THE CLASSES OF HORSES 51 Loggers are up to draft horse requirements in all but quality. They are too coarse, unsymmetrical, low bred, or badly blemished to satisfy the city demand, and are therefore relegated chiefly to the lumber camps, where hard work only is required. Fig. ;'i. — A draft pair of unusual quality and attractive color. Fig. 40 — A six-horse draft team to parkor's van. fc-h()\Mnent hocks than the trotter. The size of the light harness horse is too variable to be defined by any but the widest limits. If horses of this type are of good size, well made, stylish, straight gaited, even though not possessed of extreme speed, and have good manners, they are classed as gentlemen's road horses (Fig. 48). On the other hand, extremely fast horses, either at trot or pace, whether they have anytliing else to recommend them or not, are classed as speed horses (Fig. 49). Koad horses are hitched singly or in pairs, while speed horses are seldom used to pole. The road wagon is the typical roadster hitch, while speed horses are hooked to bike sulkies, or speed wagons, the lightest type of vehicle built to meet the amateur requirements, which call for a four-wheeled wagon. Speed horses are classified according to their record perforiiiaiiccs. Saddle Horse Division. — The saddle horse was priuiai-ily a utility horse, as a matter of necessity, in pioneer times prior to the construction of roads and vehicles, but he has become in addition a most popular source of pleasure, with circumstances attending his use so diversified as to call for a variety of types. Some horses are ridden for the ease with which they carry one, wliile others are used for the exercise and liver stimulation which they afford. Then, again, some are ridden in a dignified manner ill the parks and on the boulevards, while others are ridden " rougli " in the field and cross country. The distinction be- tween the first two, in tliis country, is very largely one of school- ing and trimming, although tlie English type of walk-trot-canter saddle horse is quite distinctive in breeding and general make-up. The race horse is the truest exjwnent of the speed type, but is used essentially as a saddle horse^ a galloper^ and is therefore Fig. 47.— The bent hock-joint. 58 TYPES AND BREEDS Fig. 48. — A gentleman's road mare. Although of speed form, she is ot good size, symmetri- cal shaoe. faultless conformation, and shows great refinement, style, and intelligence. Fig. 49. — A trotter to sulky, adhering strictly to the speed type yet possessing more size and substance and better conformation than is common in horses of this class. THE CLASSES OF HORSES 59 classed in the saddle division. Runners are distinguished from trotters and pacers by greater development of the forehand, by a shorter back, more level cronp, straighter hind legs (Fig. 50), with less proportionate length from hip- joint to hock and more from hock to the ground. Their way of going is also distinctive ; they have a wonderful reach and leng-th of jump at the run, and gallop beautifully, but have a low, pointing stride at the trot (Fig. 51). They race on the flat, or over the steeple chase course of jumps, according to their own natural aptitude and the schooling which they have received. Running race horses are handicapped by the weight required to be carried, an impost of only an ounce making a considerable difference in a horse's finish. Gaited saddle horses are the distinctly American saddle horses (Fig. 52), although ambling saddle horses were at one time used in England, and at present the gaited horse is apparently losing favor in some important parts of this country to the walk-trot horse of English idea, Gaited horses are required to go at least five gaits : the walk, either the run- ning walk, fox trot, or slow pace; the trot; rack; and canter; all described under gaits. They carry full mane and tail and are the ideal of the Southern and Western saddle liorse contingent. WalJc-trot-canter saddle horses do just what is enumerated in the name, are usually docked and tlieir manes pulled (Fig. 53). Many of our best walk- trot-canter saddle horses are converted gaited horses, show- ing that there is no distinction in type except in their per- fonnance. The collected, springy, weight-carrying trot of the saddle horse should be distinguished from the extended, fast trot of the speed horse on the one hand, and the high acting, sometimes pounding, trot of the heavy harness horses on the other. Walk-trot-canter horses are referred to as hacks, and a dis- tinction is made between park and road hacks. The fonnev have Fig. 50. — The .straight hock-joint. 60 TYPES AND BREEDS the finish and style characteristic of all park horses, and are usually saddle bred, while road hacks are of a somewhat plainer but more serviceable stamp, capable of taking a run cross country in connection with a road ride, if desired. There is also a tendency to differentiate between the Saddle bred walk- trot-canter saddle horse and the one of Thoroughbred breeding and type. The former is characterized by high car- FiG. 51. — A steeple chaser, showing the speed type and saddle form of the running race horse riage of head and tail, alleged to resemble that of a peacock, more knee and hock action and usually less substance — the latter by a more exclusively saddle fomi perhaps, but too often an erratic disposition and a Ioav going trot, that are not conducive to either a safe or satisfactory ride (Fig. 54). Some most ac- ceptable representatives of the latter type have been brought out, however. Saddle horses are classified on the basis of height and the weight to which they are np. THE CLASSES OF HORSES 61 Hunters are ridden to fox hounds, cross country, and, as a rule, with considerable weight up. In order to qualify they must, in addition to being able to cariy weight, stay for long, hard runs, jump safely, and preferably in their stride, all common obstacles in the field, such as fences, walls, and ditches, and galloj) fast enough to keep pace with the pack. They must also Fig. 52. — A gaited saddle stallion; one of the best representatives of this class, which is the most popular of any in the South and West but has met only limited favor in the East. have good heads in order not to become hot in company and run away through fences or into quarry holes. In order to meet these requirements, a horse must have all the features of the weight carrier conspicuous in his make-up, esi>ecially strong, well-developed shoulders and withers, mus- cular quarters, and ample bone (Fig. 55). Quality is sacrificed to substance, but a hunter must show breeding and not appear 62 TYPES AND BREEDS cold. lie is not good looking in the same sense as the park horse, but has, nevertheless, a most impressive ai")pearance, as a horse of great resourcefulness and servicoabilitv. Size is being more and more insistently demanded by buyers and users of Fio. 5S. — A walk-trot-cantcr horse, showing the mold of form, the extreme refinement of head and neck, the peacocky carriage, the style and intelligence that are representative in highest degree of the American idea of a saddle horse of this class. hunters, and for a^Dparently good reasons. In the first place, a five-foot jump is four inches lower for a 16-hand horse than for one of 15 hands height. Many hunting folk are in the sport to keep do^\m their weight, so that it takes a horse of some size to be up to the weight at which they ride. Finally, the big THE CLASSES OF HORSES 63 Fig. 54. — A class of English saddle horses, the Thoroughbred type predominating. Fig. 55. — A light-weight hunter having strong, well-developed, sloping shoulders, high withers extending well back, muscular, quarters, ample bone, and suflBcient breeding to insure the requisite courage, stamina, and pace. 64 TYPES AND BREEDS horse is claimed to give a safer ride on account of the momentum of his gi-eater weight, insuring him a better chance of breaking through a fence in case of a blunder, instead of being tripped by it and coming down. Hunters are classified accordinc: to the Aveii^rht thev are capable of carrying, as light weight, up to from 135 to 165 pounds; middle weight, ir)5 to 100 pounds; and heavy weight, .190 ])ounds or over. A heavy weight hunter is shown as '^ a Fig. 56. — Heatherbloom, the world's record high jumper. weight carrier" (Fig. 36). They are also classified as green or qualified, the latter' having hunted one season with a pack recognized by the United Hunts and Steeple Chase Association. All hunters are jumpers in some degree, but a high jumper is by no means necessarily a hunter. A jumper may clear six feet at one time, and at another blunder over an ordinary post and rail fence, while to be a safe cross country horse he must be a consistent jumj)er of from 4 feet 6 inches to 5 feet only. THE CLASSES OF HORSES 65 The record high jump of Heatherbloom, over 7 feet 9 inches, in 1903 still stands (Fig. 56). The use of hunters is not restricted to the hunting field, although the number demanded for that purpose alone is rapidly increasing with the extension of the sport. Horses of this type are preferred by many who never ride to hounds, because they are most useful horses to ride and even to drive. The Combination Horse. — It is customary for all saddle horses, even some hunters, to go well in harness, but their forte, Fig. '. — A combination horse, departing somewhat from the saddle type in being of a more "harnessy" form. nevertheless, is under " pigskin." There is, however, a combi- nation class of horses from which an equally good performance, either to ride or to drive, is expected (Fig. 57). Combination horses, although shown customarily in harness first, are more especially saddle horses that drive well than they are harness horses capable of giving a good ride. They are distinguished from saddle horses by being some- what more of a harness form and showing more speed at the trotj with good manners when driven. 66 TYPES AND BREEDS A combination horse may go either the three or the five gaits under saddle, but those which walk, tTot, and canter are usually driven in heavy harness, while those which are gaited are driven in light harness. The " fine haraess " horse of the Southern shows, distinct from the " light harness '' horse in that he has no speed but is a " model " horse capable of going ten or twelve miles an hour in the best fonn, is in reality a gaited saddle horse in harness (Fig. 58). Fig, 58. — The fine harness horse of the South, a model of conformation, quality, style, and way of going. The Pony Division. — Generally speaking, any horse under 14-2 is a pony, but diminutive stature alone does not constitute pony type. There is a distinct pony build or form, characterized as an exaggeration, in miniature, of either the draft or heavy harness types. An undersized light harness horse, for instance, would be a runt, not a pony. Ponies permit of classification into three groups : ( 1 ) Those conforming to the Shetland standard of a 46-inch limit, (2) those 11-2 to 14-2 hands, and (3) the polo pony. THE CLASSES OF HORSES 67 ^^MiK :|B|*;P/ ' M^ '^jgy— Mmgjgjl^^^g^ >/VV z^ ^^HH|P^^«Rr ^^p ^^^g^ ■^m mH^.^ Fig. 59. — A harness pony under 46 inches in height. I'iG. oij. — A t\v(.lvc-haud ridu aud drivr pony of exceptional merit. 68 TYPES AND BREEDS Fig. 61. — A pair of twelve-hand ponies properly turned out. Fio. 62.— A polo mount, fast, game, handy, intcll THE CLASSES OF HORSES 69 Ponies not exceeding 46 inches should be of a miniature draft horse pattern, although a preference has been shown in American show rings for one with somewhat more refinement and action. These ponies are used almost exclusively for small children to ride and drive (Fig. 59). Patiies 11-2 and Not Exceeding 1J/--2. — These ponies are pocket editions of the coach horse, as it were, or little cobs, well adajDted to the use of youths and misses who may have graduated from the Shetlands (Figs. 60 and 61). Polo mounts are race horses or hunters on a small scale, used chiefly to play the game (Fig. 62), although making very accept- able little hacks in case they are mallet shy, or for any other reason are kept out of the game. Cutting cattle and playing polo are very similar so far as the requirements of horses are concerned, and the type is practically identical, but as the cow pony seldom gets to market, class preference is given to the polo pony. A recent ruling of the Polo Association has in- creased the height limit of polo mounts from 14—2 to 15-1. They are henceforth, therefore, to be called polo mounts instead of ponies and some show classifications have already adopted tliis revision. REVIEW 1. What is the distinction between a type and a class? 2. Name the hard, solid colors and give examples of the influence of color on the market value of hoi-ses. 3. Name the market classes of horses. 4. Describe a typical expresser and give reasons for each feature. 5. What is a cob f 6. What is required of a roadster besides speed? 7. Compare the perfonnance of the park horse with that of a road hoi-se. 8. What are the chief distinctions between the g-aited and the walk- trot-canter saddle horse? 9. How does a hunter differ in appearance from a park saddle horse ? 10. Describe what should distinguish a pony beside diminutive stature. ~y^^^^L CHAPTER VI THE BREEDS OF HORSES A BREED is a group of individuals possessing distinctive char- acteristics not common to other members of the same species, these characteristics being sufficiently well fixed to be uniformly transmitted. It is these distinctive features which give to each breed its greater or less erted into Russia. The Prussian Trakehner is derived from an admixture of Oriental and Thoroughbred blood with the native stock of the country. In America, imported Grand Bashaw, a Barb* brought from Tripoli, founded through his immediate descendants the Clay, Patchen and Bashaw families. Leopard, an Arab, and Linden Tree, a Barb, presented to General Grant, were used by Ran- dolph Huntingdon in his creation of the Clay Arabian. Zil- caadi, an Arab from Turkey, sired the darn of GobMust, the founder of the Morgan family of that name. THE THOEOUGHBRED Thoroughbred is the proper name of the Englisli runnincf race horse breed, and any other application of the tenn to horses is incorrect. It should not be confused nor used synonymously with " pure bred," the adjective employed to denote the absence of any alien blood in the ancestry. It is not probable, in view of what we know of the history of horses in Great Britain, that the origin of the Thoroughbred was of Oriental blood exclusively, although their lineage has Ix^en carefully guarded for so long that all trace of the common stock of the country, if any ever existed, has long since been bred out, and they are therefore truly " thoroughbred." THE BREEDS OF HORSES 77 The principal foundation to which the Thoroughbred traces consists of the Barb or Royal mares, imported by Charles Second (1660 to 1685), and the Darley Arabian, a pure Anazah, im- ported in 1706; the Byerly Turk, imported in 1689, and Godol- phin Barb, brought from Paris in 1724. The latter had been Avorking' in a water cart, a discard, no doubt, from the stable of some mend)er of the nobility to Avhoni he had been presented, as was commonly the custom. There are prominent families in the Thoroughbred and derived breeds wliich can be traced direct to each of these sires. Eclipse, tlie most conspicuous individual in the history of the English turf; Blaze, the foundation Hackney sire, and Messen- ger, tlie progenitor of the American Standardbred, were respec- tively four, three and six generations removed from the Darley Arabian. King Ito<-)d, a great race horse, Avas a line descendant of the ByerlAT'urlvpTnuU^tiltclieni, a noted race horse and sire, was a grandson of Godolphin Ba?b: — it has been stated that the American bred Thoroughbreds are, as a rule, closer to their Oriental ancestry than the English Thoroughbreds and that they follow their type more closely. Early Racing. — While the real era of Thoroughbred breed- ing is usually considered to have begun with the importation by Charles Second, horse racing of a primitive character was re- ported in the latter half of the twelfth century. The first real race Avas run in 1377, between Bichard Second and the Earl of Arundel. Heni-y the Eighth Avas the first king to maintain a racing stable of his OAvn, and the English sovereigns since that time have been enthusiastic patrons of the turf. Through these centuries of breeding the uiost ligid selection has been practised, turf performance alone being the standard. Customs of conducting races and the types of horses that could Avin have undergone considerable modification Avithin recent generations, hoAvever. Prior to 1880 it was customary to run four mile heats and carry top AA^eight, A\'hile the present system is to sprint short distances under close handicaps, starting as two-year-olds and campaigning for entire seasons. Thoroughhreds were introduced into this countiy by the English colonists in Old Dominion, and the Thoroughbred sen- 78 TYPES AND BREEDS timent is still strongest there, especially in Virginia. The first Thoroughbred of not© to be imported was Diomed, the winner of the first English Derby, the classic race in England. He was brought over in 1797. In a straight line of descent from Diomed came Sir Archy, the first truly American Thoroughbred ; Boston his grandson, conceded to have been the greatest American race horse, and liis son Lexington, a scarcely less remarkable per- former than Boston and a most influential sire, figuring in American Standardbred and Saddle families as well as in the Thoroughbred. Fig. 64. — A Thoroughbred stallion, the sire of race horses. Descnption. — The Thoroughbred represents the speed type in the extreme, and, having been the first breed improved, their distinctive characters are well marked (Fig. 64). Most char- acteristic are the extreme refinement; the small, well propor- tioned head; clearly defined features; straight face line; neat ear; fine throttle; sloping shoulders; well-made ^vithers, miis- cular thighs and quarters ; straight hind legs ; usually slightly- bucked knees ; oblique pasterns ; and a rather small foot of dense horn. Their way of going is especially characterized by being low and pointing at the walk and trot, but perfection at the THE BREEDS OF HORSES 79 gallop or run. Their temperament is naturally racy, of sucli a highly nervous organization as to cause them to become " hot " and erratic. Bay and chestnut with more or less white markings are the common colors, although black, gray, and white were frequent among the early Thoroughbreds. Typical Thoroughbred weight is about 1000 pounds, and they stand from 15 to 16 hands high. Sir Walter Gilbey estimates an average increase of 1 hand 2^2 inches from 1700 to 1900, 15-2% being the average at the present time. Relation to Other Breeds. — This breed is of the greatest his- toric importance. It was the first breed improved, and barring the Oriental from which it is derived it has the purest blood lines. For it the first studbook was established. Having been the first breed improved, the blood of the Thoroughbred has been most freely used in the improvement of other breeds and types. In all but tlie draft breeds the influence of the Thoroughbred may be demonstrated. In the heavy harness division the foundation blood lines are significant. The._IIai2kney descends from Shales, the son of Blaze, a Thoroughbred, out of a common mare of Norfolk. The French denv^.juMui refers to the cross of the Thoroughbred on French mares. Thoroughbreds are used ex- tensively in Gennan studs, the Prussian Trakehner being pro- duced from botliTlioroughbred and Oriental sires. The^York- shire^Qjc^ch horse represents a Thoroughbred-Cleveland Bay cross. The three most important foundation sires of American horses. Messenger. Justin Morgan, and Denmark, are credited with Thoroughbred pedigrees. In addition, the majority of hunters and polo ponies, as well as a great many saddle horses, are clean or part bred. The greatest value of the Thoroughbred as foundation stock has no doubt passed, as the breeds which have been evolved from a Thoroughbred foundation have been improved along their respective lines to a point where an out-cross to the Thorough- bred might be a step backward, although Thoroughbred ancestors are mthin a very few generations of some of the most noted and successful Hackney, French Coach, Saddle and even Standard- bred sires. 80 TYPES AND BREEDS There is a strong prejudice against the Thoroughbred in some parts of this country, where he is looked upon merely as a racing machine^ But any one familiar with the stamp of horse bred in Virginia, for instance, Avill recognize in the blood of the Tlioroughbred a breeding leaven, which judiciously and intelli- gently used produces most desirable results. When breeders of the Thoroughbred practice selection to saddle rather than to race horse requirements, with good dispo- d luintfrs. sition, size, shape, and substance as the features sought, this breed will not be so exclusively dependent on the status of the racing game for patronage. " Blood " is a term frequently used to indicate Thoroughbred breeding; " of the blood," " blood like," and " blood horse," all refer to the Thoroughbred. This being the blood and this breed being altogether of it, horses cariying but a fractional percentage are designated as part bred and the number of parts are specified as two, or half bred, in the case of the get of a Thoroughbred THE BREEDS OF HORSES 81 sire, out of a common bred mare; three parts or three-quarters being used to designate the get of a Thoroughbred out of a half bred mare. The blood is accounted for in this way even up to seven-eighths. Record of Best Performances on the Running Turf. Distance. M niile % mile 3>2 furlongs. y^ mile . . . . . 41^ furlongs. 5^ mile 5H furlongs. ♦Futuritj' c. . 6 furlongs. . . 614 furlongs. 7 furlongs. . . lli furlongs. 1 mile 1 m. 20 yds. 1 m. 40 yds. 1 m. 50 yds. 1 ni. 70 yds. 1 m.lOO yds. 1 l-16miles. 1% miles. 1 3-16 miles miles, 1 5-16 miles 1 m. 500 yds 1% IM V/s 2 2 1- 2% 2H 2% 3 miles, miles, miles, miles, miles, miles. 16 miles, miles, miles, miles . miies . miles . miles. miles. Name, Age, and Weight. Bob Wade, 4 Atoka, aged, 103 lbs Colisse, 2, 123 lbs Geraldine, 4, 122 lbs j Preceptor, 2, 112 lbs t Joe Morris, 2, 103 lbs Maid Marian, 4, 111 lbs f Plater, 2, 107 lbs t Fern L., 3, 92 lbs Kingston, aged, 139 lbs ( Artful, 2, 130 lbs ( Prince Ahmed, 5, 117 lbs.. . . f Priscillian, 5, 113 lbs < Lady Vera, 2, 90 lbs ( Brookdale Nymph, 4, 124 lbs. f Roseben, 5, 126 lbs \ Colin, 2, 122 lbs Restigouche, 3, 107 lbs r Salvator, 4, 110 Ibsf Kildecr, 4, 91 lbs ! Kiamesha, 3, 104 lbs Dick Welles, 3, 112 lbs Fern L., 3, 80 lbs Bourbon Beau, 3, 112 lbs.. . . ( Macy, 4, 107 lbs J Maid Marian, 4, 106 lbs. . . . ( Six Shooter, 5, 111 lbs f Preen, 4, 104 lbs \ Main Chance, 3, 114 lbs. . . . Vox Populi, 4, 104 lbs Bubbling Water, 4, 121 lbs Rapid Water, 6, 114 lbs f Roval Tourist, 3, 104 lbs.. . . -j Green Seal, 4, 109 lbs I Gretna Green, 5, 100 Ibn. . . . f Charles Edward, 3, 126 lbs. . 1 Green Seal, 4, 107 lbs Scintillant II., G, 109 lbs f Broomstick, 3, 104 lbs 1 Olambala, 4, 122 lbs Ballot, 4, 126 lbs Swift Wing, 5, 100 lbs Irish Lad, 4, 125 lbs Goodrich, 3, 102 lbs Fitz Herbert, 3, 122 lbs Major Daingerfield, 4, 120 lbs. . Orcagna, 4, 96 lbs Everett, 4, 107 lbs War Whoop, 4, 96 lbs Joe Murphv, 4, 99 lbs Ethelbert, 4, 124 lbs Kyrat, 3, 88 lbs Ten Broeck, 4, 104 lbs Hubbard, 4, 107 lbs Mamie Algol, 5, 108 lbs f Lucrezia Borgia, 4, 85 Ibs.f. . ( Messenger Boy, 5, 106 lbs. . . Place. Butte, Mont Butte, Mont Juarez, Mexico Morris Park (st. c.). . Belmont Park (st. c.) . Louisville (C. Downs). Morris Park (st. c.) . . Morris Park (st. c.) . . Seattle, Wash'n Sheeps'd B.(C.I.J.C.) Morris Park (st. c.) . . Empire City, N. Y. . . Hamilton, Ont Belm't P., L. I. (st. c.) Belmont Park, L. I.. . Belmont Park, L. I.. . Belm't P., L. I. (st. c.) Belmont Park, L. I.. . Monmouth P. (st. c.) Monmouth P. (st. c.) Belmont Park, L. I.. . Chicago (Harlem) .... Seattle, Wash'n Juarez, Mexico Chicago (Wash. Park) Chicago (Wash. Park) Chicago (Wash. Park) Buffalo, N. Y Buffalo, N. Y Seattle, Wash'n Oakland, Cal Oakland (Cal. J. C.).. Oakland. Cal Seattle, Wa.sh'n. . . . . . Fort Erie, Ont Brighton Beach Seattle, Wash'n Chicago (Harlem). . . . Brighton Beach Sheep.sh'd Bay (C.I.) Sheepsh'd Bay (C.I.) Latonia, Kv Sheepsh'd Bay (C.I.) Chicago (Wash. Park) Sheepsh'd Bay (C.I.) Morris Park, N. Y. . . Oakland, Cal Pimlico, Md Ontario (Tor'to J. C). Chicago (Harlem). . . . Brighton Beach, N.Y. Newport, Ky Lexington, Ky Saratoga, N. Y New Orleans (CitvP.) Oakland (Cal. J. C.).. Louisville, Ky Date. Aug. 20, Sept. 7, Jan. 17, Aug. 30, May 19, May 8, Oct. 9, Oct. 21, Aug. 8, June 22, Oct. 15, July 29, June 19, Oct. 19, Oct. 14, Oct. 16, Oct. 16, May 29, Aug. 28, Aug. 13. Oct. 9. Aug. 14, Aug. 15, Feb. 14, July 2, Julv 19, June 27, June 16, June 29, Sept. 5, Nov. 30, Nov. 30, Nov. 11, Sept. 12. Aug. 28, July 16, Aug. 20, Sept. 1. July 9, July 2, July 1, July 8, June 25, July 16, July 13, Oct. 3, Mar. 2, Oct. 31, Sept 23, Aug. 30, Aug. 4, Nov. 18. Sept. 16. Aug. 9. Feb. 16, May 20, Oct. 7, 1890. 1906. 1911. 1889. 1908. 1909. 1894. 1902. 1908. 1891. 1904. 1909. 1911. 1906. 1907. 1906. 1907. 1908. 1890. 1892. 1905. 1903. 1908. 1912. 1898. 1903. 1903. IfiOG. 1907. 1908. 1910. 1907. 1908. 1908. 1909. 1907. 1908. 1902. 1904. 1910. 1908. 1905. 1904. 1898. 1909. 1903. 1909. 1910. 1905. 1894. 1900. 1899. 1876. 1873. 1907. 1897. 1911. .39 2-5 46 .51 .52 4-5 56% 02>^ .05 .08 .08 1 11 1.16 3-5 1.17 2-5 1.22 1.23 1.311-5 1.35^ 1.37M 1.37 2-5 1.37 2-5 1.37 2-5 1.37 2-5 1.40 1.40 1.40 1.42 1.42 1.40 4-5 1.42 1-5 1.44 1-5 1.44 1-5 1.44 2-5 1.43 3-5 1.50 3-5 1.50 3-5 1.57 2-5 2.02 4-5 2.02 4-5 2.09 3-5 2.101-5 2.17 3-5 2.30>i 2.45 2.57 3.17 3-5 3.25 3-5 3.34J^ 3.42 3.49 1-5 4.241^ 4.58H 4.58^ 5.19 7.11 7.14 1-5 *170 feet less than % mile. 6 t Races against time. St. c, straight course. 82 TYPES AND BREEDS Heat Races. DiST. Name, Age, and Weight. li mile. % mile. J^ mile. % mile. % mile. 1 mile. 1 (3 in 5) 1 1-16 m. 1% miles. IJ^ miles. 13^ miles. 2 miles. 3 miles. 4 miles. Sleepy Dick, aged Bob Wade, 4 ( Eclipse, Jr., 4 -^ Bogus, aged, 113 lbs. . . . , I Bill Howard, 5, 122 lbs.. f Kittie Pease, 4, 82 lbs. . . \ Fox, 4, 113 lbs J Tom Hayes, 4, 107 lbs. . , ( Lizzie S., 5, 118 lbs Guido, 4, 117 lbs L' Argentine, 5, 115 lbs. . . . , Slipalong, 5, 115 lbs , What-er-Lou, 5.119 lbs Glenmore, 5, 114 lbs Patsy Duffy, aged, 11 5 lbs.. Miss Woodford, 4, 107H lbs Norfolk. 4, 100 lbs Glenmore, 4, 108 lbs Place. Kiowa, Kan Butte, Mont Dallas, Tex Helena, Mont Anaconda, Mont. . . Dallas, Tex San Francisco, Cal. Morris Park (st. c.) . Louisville Chicago (Wash.Pk.) St.' Louis Chicago (Wash.Pk.) San Fran.(Ingleside) Sheepshead Bay. . . . Sacramento, Cal. . . Sheepshead Baj'.. . . Sacramento. Cal. . . Baltimore, Pimlico.. Date. Time. Oct. 19, Aug. 16, Nov. 1, Aug. 22. Aug. 17, Nov. 2, Oct. 31, June 17, Sept. 28, July 11, June 14, Sept. 2, Feb. 18, Sept. 25, Sept. 17, Sept. 20, Sept. 23, Oct. 25, 1888. 1890. 1890. 1888. 1895. 1887. 1891. 1892. 1883. 1891. 1879. 1885. 1889. 1880. 1884. 1884. 1865. 1879. '0.21H 0.36M 0.48-0 0.48 1.00 1.00 3- 1.101^ \i.iSH !1.41H 1.43-1 1.513^ ,1.56 '2.10 2.41% 3.33 15.27^ 7.3034 -0.22 K -0.3634 .48-0.4 -0.48 -0.483^ -1.00 5-1.01 1-5 -1.125^ -1.13M -1.41 A4-IA7H -lASVz -1.54M -2.14 -2.41 -3.3334 5.2934 7.31 The English Derby, Epsom Downs — {English Turf.) (Distance, about VA miles, run since 1788.) Year. Owner and Winner. Sire. Time. Second. 1904. . . 1905. . . 1906... 1907. . . 1908. . . 1909 .. Leopold de Rothschild's St. Amant Lord Rosebery's Cicero Maj. Loeder's Spearmint Richard Croker's Orby E. Ginistrelli's Signorinetta King Edward's ^linoru St. Frusquin . Satire Carbine Orme Chaleureux. . . Cyllene Cyllene Sunbridge. . . . Cyllene 2.45 4-5 2.39 3-5 2.36 4-5 2.44 2.39 4-5 2.42 2-5 2.35 1-5 2.36 4-5 2.38 4-5 John O'Gaunt. Jardy. Picton. Siieve Gallion. Primer. Louviers. 1910... 1911... 1912... Mr. Fairie's Lemberg* J. B. Joel's Sunstar •. W. Raphael's Pagalie Greenback. Steadfast. Jaegar. On June 28, 1913, Whisk Broom 2(1, owned by Hany Payne Wliitney, established a new turf record when he v/on the Subur- ban handicap at a mile and a quarter in two minutes flat, caiTy- ing the heavy im^wst of 139 pounds. He was ridden by I^otter. It is a noteworthy fact that the record price for which any horse has ever been sold was paid for a Thoroughbred. A French racing man, Edmund Blanc, gave $200,000 for the ten-year-old English Thoroughbred stallion, AMiite Knight. Previous record prices were $196,875 for Flying Fox, $157,500 each for Cyllene and Diamond Jubilee, and $156,250 for Ormonde. Kocksand has recently been exported from this country at a price of $150,000. THE BREEDS OF HORSES 83 CLASSIFICATION OF BREEDS Breeds may be classified according to the type to which their representatives conform, as: Draft Breeds. — Percheron, Belgian, Clydesdale, Shire, and Suffolk. Heavy Harness Breeds. — Hackney, Yorkshire Coach, Cleve^ land Bay, French Coach, Gennan Coach, and Russian Orloff. Light Harness Breed. — American Standardbred. Saddle Breeds. — Thoroughbred, American Saddle Horse and Arabian. Ponies. — ^Shetlancl, Welsh, and Hackney. REVIEW 1. AVhat Is a breed? And of what impoi-tance are breeds? 2. What are the three factors that deteruiiue breed characteristics? 3. What are the essential thiii^s to consider in a stndy of the breeds? 4. What have been considered as the foundation stocks from which all breeds have had their origin? 5. What additional light have the investigations of Ewart and Ridge- Avay throAvn on this subject? fi. What are the most important facts concerning the horses in Arabia? 7. To Avhat extent may color indicate Arab blood? 8. Review the important facts in the history of the Thoroughbredr^ 0. Discuss the Thoroughbred in its relation to other breeds. \^ 10. AVhat are the possibilities of the Thoroughbred at the present time? / CHAPTER VII DRAFT BREEDS The breeds of draft horses here considered are the Percheron, the Belgian, the Clydesdale, the Shire, and the Suffolk. THE PERCHEROX France affords an exani])le of the couiniuiiity svstem of breeding. While the production of the different types of horses is extensively practiced in the country at large, the breeders of different districts are devoting themselves to the production of one type more or less exclusively, witli the result that many a horse breeding section is noted for a class of horses distinctive of and bearing the name of that community. Thus, we have the Percheron of LaPerche, the Boidonnaise from that part of the country contiguous to Boulogne, the Nivernais of ^Uevre, the Ardennaise of Ardennes, and others. In America, by common consideration and studbook regis- tration the Percheron is disting-uished from the other French draft breeds collectively. In France, both the Percheron and Boulonnaise are represented by studbook associations. LaPerche is a district comprising about three thousand square miles, situated in the northeni or inland part of Xonnandy. It has a country-Avide rej^utation for its grass land and the horses produced thereon. Flemish blood predominated in Avhat may be regarded as the native stock of France. On this cold blood base, repeated top crosses of Oriental blood were made, the relative ]u'oportions of hot and cold blood varying in the case of the different French breeds. The foundation of the Percheron was composed of the Xor- man descendants of the original Flemish stock, mated with Oriental stallions, these crosses being either incidental to cur- rent events or made with a definite purpose in ^dew. They had a most important significance in determining the type of horse 84 DRAFT BREEDS 85 which the Percheron was to be. When the Saracens invaded France in 732 and were defeated bj Charles Martel, the Orien- tal horses upon which they were mounted, mostly stallions, fell into the hands of the Franks and were eventually, by this means, distributed throughout the different parts of the country. The successful Crusaders also brought back with them entire horses, as the spoils of war, and here was a direct though unintentional infusion of Oriental blood. Later when the desirable effect of this Oriental top cross was manifested, there were more or less systematic im]:)ortations of Oriental sires, the most notable of which was Gallipoli, a gray liorse, introduced from the Orient in 1820, whose impress on the horses of the country, especially through his grandson Jean Le Blanc, was most marked. Good grass and selection are the other factors chiefly respon- sible for the Percherons we have to-day. LaPerche is world- famed as a grazing district. Early Service. — The service in which the Percheron first attained distinction was as a stage-coach horse, in the ante-rail- road days, when all freight and express as well as passengers were moved in this way (Figs. GQ and 67). It was a rapid draft job, hauling loads at an eight mile clip for long and hard stages. An ordinary road horse could not pull the load, while an ordinary draft liorse could not stand the pace nor the dis- tance. The breeders of LaPerche specialized in tlie production of this type of horse, and their success marked the beginning of Percheron popularity (Fig. GS). The advent of railroads in the nineteenth century struck a telling blow at the diligence or stage-coach horse. At tliis crisis the Frencli breeders displayed a foresight that might well be emulated by horse breeders of the present motor period. Instead of howling calamity and defaming the locomotive, they had fore- sight enough to perceive a new era of agricultural production on the one hand and of commercial traffic on the other, which had never before been possible, and which would require horses in greater numbers than ever. But the nature of service in the new field created essentially by the locomotive and railway train would require horses of quite a different stamp than had pre- 86 TYPES AND BREEDS DRAFT BREEDS 87 o £. 5-^ o < 88 TYPES AND BREEDS viouslj been produced in LaPerche ; the loads to be moved would be greater, the distance less, and time allowance more liberal. The true draft horse was to supersede the old ^' diligence " type, but even in their effoits to meet the demand for a horse of greater weight and j^ower, the LaPerche breeders did not lose sight of the desirable characteristics of hot blood derivation, and so far as they were correlated with the increase in size and draftiness, attributes of the cold parent stock, they were retainene is ideal ; the conformation of the hocks the most perfect of any of the draft breeds ; the slope of the pasterns offers tlie great- est relief to concussion, and at the same time affords an angle of greatest degree through w^hich to lift. In size and form the feet reflect the gi*eat care that has been exerted in selection, although the texture of horn, especially in white points, is not as dense and tough as in the case of the Percheron. The amount of feather has been materially reduced in compliance with American demand, 96 TYPES AND BREEDS its quality being of the finest. The Scotchman still holds to the presence of feather, even stimulating its growth by artificial means in some instances. The superiority of the Clydesdale in action is a point quite generally conceded. The direction and conformation of his legs are such as to insure the straightest, springiest stride of which a draft horse is capable. Color. — Gray Clydesdales have been common at times in the history of the breed, but are now discriminated against in favor of bays and bro^^^lS, witli occasional blacks, chestnuts, and roans. White markings are characteristic, to the extent of splashes of white on tlie body or an even distribution of white hair through- out the coat, in addition to white in the face and on all four legs. Judged by the standards of other breeds, the Clydesdale has been criticised as deficient in scale and draftiness, and as be- ing plain in the head, low in the Imck, short in the rib, with a shelly foot, and too nmch white, with no regularity of distribu- tion. Although introduced at a comparatively early date, the Clydesdale has not received the consideration in this country Avhich he seems to merit THE SHIRE It has already been pointed out, in reviewing the history of the Clydesdale, that from essentially the same original material the Scotchman has evolved the Clydesdale and the Englishman the Shire, in accordance with their own divergent conceptions of what a draft horse should be, and that, while they have much in common, the characters which distinguish them are extremely unlike. To be sure, the low-lying fenn country of Cambridge and Lincolnshire is more conducive to massive growth than is Scotland, it being also the home of the largest breed of sheep. Here the Shire and his antecedent, the black Lincolnshire cart horse, have been chiefly bred, but this environment has only sec- onded the English breeder in the attainment of his ideal. Characteristics. — The typical Shire will weigh more on the average than any other draft horse, although he is scarcely as blocky in form as the Belgian (Fig. 72). He possesses the most substance, such as it is, but there is an absence of quality, marked DRAFT BREEDS 97 in size and contour of head, texture of hair, bone, and hoof — the hair showing an inclination to be coarse and kinky, espe- cially in the feather, the bone to be round and meaty, and the hoof to be of a loose, spong;)", or shelly texture. His tempera- ment is extremely lymphatic, rendering him slower than is desired by many. On the basis of the scales and tape line stand- Fio. '2. — A Shire stallion of most approved type, combining an unusual degree of quality and character with the size, substance, and draftiness typical of this breed. ard, the Shire measures up well, but analyzed in minute detail he is subject to some criticism, especially in so far as liis materials of construction are concerned. Color. — The range of color in the Shire is greater than in any other draft breed. Originally of sooty black, with white points, he. may now be found of any color, from black through the different shades of bay, brown, and chestnut to roan and 7 98 TYPES AND BREEDS gray. A considerable amount of white, frequently too much, on face and legs is common. The popularity of the Shire in this country has been re- stricted rather than general. There are some parts where he is bred almost exclusively, others in which he is almost unknown. His grossness, abundant feather, and sluggish moyements pre- vent him from making a strong bid for general favor in compe- tition with the other breeds. Crosses. — A percentage of Shire blood, especially in the dams from which market geldings are produced, is acknowl- edged to be a valuable asset Attention has been called to the fact that much credit which belongs to the Shire has been as- signed to other breeds through just this sort of mating, the sires usually being most conspicuous and the dams obscure. Size and substance can be derived with greater certainty from Shire blood than from any other line of breeding. SUFFOLK The Suffolks are characterized as being of the purest lineage, most uniform color, and are bred more exclusively for farm work than any of the draft breeds. Their origin is untraced, but horses of this stamp are known to have been bred in Suffolk for over two centuries. So care- fully has their lineage been guarded that practically all of the pure-bred representatives of the breed trace back to a common ancestor, The Crisp Horse of Ufford, foaled in 1768. They are produced almost exclusively in Suffolk and adjoining Essex, in eastern England, by farmers and for farming purposes. Their especial adaptability for farm service is found in their good dispositions, which render them so easy of control as to make it possible to work them in tandem hitches without lines ; their easy keeping quality, working long hours between feeds; and their persistence at the collar, pulling true under all circum- stances. Their distinguishing characteristics are tlie invariable chest- nut color of varying shades (Fig. 73) , mth little if any white, but often with flaxen manes and tails; their smooth, rotund form; DRAFT BREEDS 99 and a clean boned leg, devoid of feather. The old-fashioned ex- aggerated punch form is no longer common. Suffolks have been alleged to be under draft weight, too light in bone, unbalanced in the proportion of body to legs, and with a foot inclining to be flat and shelly. These points have all been materially strengthened in the most approved type of the present- day Suffolk. Fig. 73. — A Suffolk stallion of the punch form, the clean bone and the chestnut color char- acteristic of this breed. Distribution. — Suffolks have never been imported or bred in any considerable numbers in this country, although in some sections there is an unaccountable prejudice in their favor, espe- cially among farmers, and in many instances they have been enthusiastically received when shown. It is claimed they are not available in large numbers, the area devoted to their produc- tion being limited and there being an active demand for them 100 TYPES AND BREEDS at home and in South America, Africa, Eussia, Xew Zealand, Australia, and Canada. Crosses. — So far as their grades have heen seen, thej have been of a rich chestnut color, making it easy to match up a team, smooth turned, well formed of body, of good size, and set upon feet and legs not subject to serious criticism. The prepotency of the Suffolk sire on grade mares is well marked in other re- spects than color. Grade Suffolk mares are said to make most ■acceptable dams from which to breed mules on account of their smooth form. REVIEW 1. Name the draft breeds and the eoiintiy to which each is native. 2. How are the most distinctive charactei-s of the Pereheron accounted for? 3. To what is the g-eneral popularity of the Pereheron in this country due? 4. What characteristics of the Belgian are responsible for the increas- ing favor sho^^^l them in this countiy? 5. What improvement has been marked in this breed since its intro- duction into America ? 6. Review the early hoi^se history of Great Britain. 7. Compare a- typical Clydesdale and a typical Shire and give reasons for the differences noted. S. Describe a representative Clydesdale stallion. 9. Of what value is Shire blood in the production of gn'ade geldings? 10. To what kind of work is the Suffolk, as a breed, claimed to be best adapted and why? CHAPTER VIII THE HEAVY HARNESS BREEDS Six breeds are here included. They are discussed in the following order: The Hackney, the French Coach, the Genuan Coach, the Cleveland Bay, the Yorkshire Coach, and the Rus- sian Orloff. The American Carnage Horse, now being bred by the U. S. Government, is of this type. THE HACKNEY --^-v^t Curiously enough, tliis horse, which is preeminently a show- harness horse today and more generally criticised as deficient in stamina than in any other one respect, was originally a road horse of most unusual endurance, used chiefly under saddle and carry- ing great Aveight. The very name '' Hack '^ to which Hackney was contracted is suggestive of tliis type of horse. The term Hackney is adapted from the French Haquenee, originally de- rived from the Latin Equus. Early Hackney history was set in Norfolk and adjacent counties where there existed a remarkable family of distance trotters as early as the latter part of the eighteenth century. This was in the primitive days of roads and vehicles, so that these l^orfolk trQtters*v as they were called, were used chiefly under saddle. Well-authenticated records of seventeen miles an hour over ordinary roads exist. The fact that this was the first line of trotters is most significant. England had already developed the nmning race horse, and there had existed at one time ambling riding horses,, but this was the first horse in the world to trot fast. This fact is emphasized, as it has a bearing on the later evolution of our own Standardbred trotter. This trotting instinct in the prototype of the modern Hackney has been accounted for in various ways. Since these horses were originally stoutly made, blocky, and heavy-fronted and have remained so until comparatively recently, it is reasonable to suppose that they carried, in addition to the Thoroughbred blood which predominated at that time, some degi'ee of cold blood. 101 102 TYPES AND BREEDS Duteh stock has been suggested as a possible source of this. There were big black trotters in Friesland, but they showed no such speed at tliis gait as did the Xorfolk Cob. Perhaps the speed, courage, and stamina of the Thoroughbred, coupled with the natural inclination to trot of the colder blooded Friesland " hart-draver," resulted in the square-gaited, fast, enduring, and rather high going Norfolk trotter. The real beginning of the Hackney breed is fixed at the original Shales horse, foaled 1760, bv Blaze, Thoroughbred race horse, three generations removed from the Darley Arabian, out of a stout, common, probably hunting mare of Norfolk. Families conspicuous in the history of the t>reed have been the Fireaways, the Denmarks, the Danegelts and the Purick- willows. Leading sires at the present time are Polonius, Mathias, Royal Danegelt, and His Majesty. With the improvement in roads and vehicles. Hackneys were used more in harness, and their naturally high, trappy step was cultivated. They have eventually become the harness horse par excellence in America as in England. Description. — Typical Hackneys are comparatively short legged horses, rarely standing over 15—3, although they weigh well for their stature. They are of true harness form most uni- formly of any of the breeds (Fig. 74). Their heads are square in outline, deep in the jowl ; necks well crested, but frequently too strong, lacking finish at the throttle, and giving a heavy forehand. Xatural action, esj^ecially in hocks, is perhaps their most distinguishing feature ; but it must not be a labored action that hits the ground hard. Color, — Chestnut color, with flashy white markings all 'round, has been most common, although bays, bro\vns, roans, and blacks are all acceptable. Originally, hard, solid colors pre- dominated in the breed. Popularity. — The Hackney's premier position in the show ring in this country is only occasionally contested by represen- tatives of any other breed, and they contribute largely to the ranks of the park harness horse. The Hackney stallion is strong THE HEAVY HARNESS BREEDS 103 in the impress of liis shape and action, and nicks most satisfac- torily with either Standardbred or Thoroughbred mares in the production of a high class of harness or saddle horses. Registration. — The American Hackney Horse Society main- tains, in addition to the full registration in its studbook, a half registry, to which the filly foals of registered Hackney stallions, out of mares of Standardbred or Thoroughbred breeding that Fig. 74. — A Hackney stallion, showing in high degree the distinctly harness form, the finish, the bold carriage, and the flash markings which have, together with their natural action, enabled them to win premier rank in the show ring. liave been approved by an authorized representative of the So ciety, are eligible. The filly foals of half-registered Hackney mares are eligible to full registration. FRENCH COACH Origin. — Since the seventeenth century, when the Govern- ment studs or " haras " were established, the French have been systematically breeding horses for army service. Their method 104 TYPES AND BREEDS up to 1840 was to mate Thoroughbred stallions with the native French mares of Xonnandy, where much of this breeding was done. These mares being of Flemish descent, the mating con- stituted practically a hot top cross on a cold base. Horses so bred were called, most appropriately, demi sang (half blood). Since 1840 the half-breds have been inter-bred, although Thor- oughbred blood is still close up to many of the French coachers that have come to this country. Fig. 75. — A French coach stallion of the more refined sort. One of the imported stallions, Young Ivattlcr, brought to France in 1820, gave rise to the side line of coach horses, whose production was originally incidental to the breeding of cavalry mounts. The get of Young Rattler for succeeding generations were notable for their heavy harness fonn, style, and action. Some of the demi sang horses show considerable speed. Trot- ting races, on the turf under saddle for distances from two to three miles, are common events. THE HEAVY HARNESS BREEDS 105 There are really three types of demi sang: The cavalry horse, the trotter, and the so-called coacher. The latter have been most extensively imj^orted to this country, although there have been some record trotters among- them. The correct type of French Coach horse as we know him in this country (Fig. 75) is a gooil-sized, rather uji-standing indi- vidual, close and full made, but quite bloodlike in head and neck, Avithers, feet and legs. The big, drafty coacher is not Fig. 76. — A French Coacli sire whioh, mated to trotting bred marcs, has produced high class harness horses with remarkable regularity. ty])ical of this breed. As a class, they do not flex tlieir hocks so sliarply as do the Hackneys, and are not always faultless in knee action. Color. — Bays, browns and chestnuts, with occasional blacks and roans, are the us'lial colors, with one or two but rarely more white points. The French Coach as a Breeder. — Some almost perfect in- dividuals are found in this breed, yet they have never proven a great success in the stud in this country. There are two possible reasons for this: Having had a cross-bred origin not so many 106\ TYPES AND BREEDS generations back, the type is not always fixed, as is exemplified among the breed representatives themselves, hence they may not breed trne; they have been largely mismated, being stood along with draft stallions and getting only those common bred mares that w^ere considered too small to raise a draft colt. Bred to trotting-bred mares, results have proven very satisfactory in many instances, in the production of good-sized, well-shaped, and high-going harness horses (Fig. T6). GERMAN COACH Origin. — The different States of Germany have* been pra ducing big, stout horses for mounting the German cavalry for so long a time that their origin is obscure. Some Thoroughbred crosses have been made, no doubt, more especially in certain States, but as a rule the German horse shows very little of the refining influence of this blood. It is probable that some Oriental crosses have also been made, but cold blood dominates in their veins. They have been bred more or less under government super- vision, although the system is not so complete as in France. Each State has been, to a certain extent, a law unto itself, and has developed a type somewhat distinctive. Size and substance requisite to 'carry the heavy weight of the fully equipped Ger- man trooper have been sought more regularly than the pace and action of the harness horse. The type of German coacher which has been brought for- ward in this country is derived chiefly from Oldenburg and East Friesland. It is the largest of any of the heavy harness breeds (Fig. 77), weighing 1500 pounds in some instances, with an ideal haniess form, if not too drafty, as may be the case, but quite gen- erally deficient in quality, finish, style, pace, and action — in short, too cold. The more refined individuals present a most imposing stamp of coach horse, and some go very well. Color. — Hard, solid colors are so prevalent that importers will sell a stallion under a guarantee to get a high percentage of colts that wdll be bay, brown or black, with very little if any white. THE HEAVY HARNESS BREEDS 107 Influence when Mated. — The finer sort of German horses, mated with mares of trotting or Thoronghbrecl breeding, possess- ing the quality and snap which the sire lacks, have produced with a fair degree of uniformity high class harness horses of the Fig. 77.— a German Coach stallion, showing the size, shape, and color typical of this breed. brougham type. Their long line of pure breeding has made the German Coach horse more prepotent than his French contem- porary. Mated with drafty mares, the result is not satisfactory. The coach horse is strongly of cold blood extraction, and coupled with a mare of like inheritance the produce is neither one tiling 108 TYPES AND BREEDS nor the other. A good rule is never to mate a coach stallion with mares larger than he is. CLEVELAND BAY The Cle^-eland Bay was an old-fashioned stagecoach horse, occupying mnch the same position in England as the diligence Percheron did in France, although never so popular nor so ex- tensively bred. Like the latter, too, he was largely put out of business by the locomotive. Unlike the Percheron, however, the line of breeding of the Cleveland Bay, following the advent of the railroad, resulted in such a dissipation of the blood as to practically exterminate the breed. The original Cleveland Bay' could not qualify as a harness or saddle horse, so the mares were bred to Thoroughbred sires. In turn the best half-breds were inter-bred, or remated with the Thoroughbred, and produced either good hunters or carriage horses. YORKSHIRE COACH The Yorkshire Coach horse is the result of sucli breeding. The Cleveland Bay takes its name from the Vale of Cleveland in Yorkshire, the coach horse from the county itself. THE ORLOFF The Russian Orloff is not of much economic importance in' America, but is of interest in that it is the only other light har- ness breed beside our own, and from tlio fact tliat there is a decided interest in American trotters in Kussia. The breed was developed solely by Count Alexis Orloff Tschismensky, from whom it takes its name. The Orloff foundation was laid in a quarter-bred Arab stal- lion called Bars I, whose dam was a Dutch mare (another in- stance of the trotting instinct tracing to the black trotter of Friesland). The sire's dam was a Danish mare. The grandsire was the gray Arab Smetanxa. This breeding was begun early in the last quarter of the eighteenth century. THE HEAVY HARNESS BREEDS 109 Fig. 78. — The lead pair in this road four are pure-bred Orloffs. Fig. 79. — Cannon, at the head of the government stud of American carnage horses. 110 TYPES AND BREEDS AYliat few Orloffs have come to this coimtrr have been con- sidered as heavy harness horses, and the breed is therefore classed in this division, leaving the Standardbred supreme in the light harness division (Fig. 78). AMERICAX CAEEIAGE HORSE The United States Government has taken advantage of the fact that it is not unusual to find a trotting-bred horse conform- ing to heavy harness specifications and that certain blood lines are most unifonnly productive of this type (Fig. 79), to as- i-iu. mj. — rairoi t ruiuiig-ui l-u lit- a \ \ luii af.->> iiui ?t-> io Cit-oi gt^ IV phaeton. Undefeated in their day, either single, aa a pair, or tandem, by representatives of any other hea>'y harness breed. semble such representatives as are available, for tlie foundation of an American Carriage Horse breed. It will apparently yet require many generations of selective breeding before these horses can fulfil the requirements of a breed. Trotting-bred heavy harness horses are better qualified to meet " pace and action " requirements than they are those of the high stepping classes (Fig. 80), Their action is frequently unbal- anced, being deficient in hocks, but they can step away. THE HEAVY HARNESS BREEDS 111 REVIEW 1. Describe the Norfolk trotter and show his relation to the Hackney and the Standardbred. 2. What breed characteristics have enabled the Hackney to win suprem- acy in the show ring? 3. Name a noted Hackney sire. 4. Explain fully the meaning of the tenii " demi sang." 5. Aecomit for the lack of uniformity in the representatives of the French Coach breed imported to this country, also among their get. 6. What are the most commendable features of the German Coach hoi-se? 7. To what sort of mares should coach stallions be mated ? 8. What was the original pai'entage of the Yorkshire Coach horse? 9. Describe the origin of the Orloff. 10. What is the so-called American Carriage Horse ? ^^ CHAPTER IX AMERICAN BREEDS Native American Horses. — Conditions in this country have proven most congenial for the production of horses, yet there were none inhabiting this continent when it was discovered by Columbus. This is all the more remarkable in view of the fact that fossil remains of a prehistoric horse have been found in abundance in different parts of this country. It is believed that the horses originally on this continent passed over what is now Behring Straits, into Asia, during the early ages. The restocking of America Avas coincident with its explora- tion and colonization. Columbus landed horses on his second ex^^edition, but it is not knoAAii whether or not they ever reached the mainland. The horses brought by Cortcz, in his conquest of Mexico, in 1519, are credited with being the first to gain American soil. In 1527, Cabeza de Vaca brought horses to St. Augustine, Florida, which were aftenvard liberated. De Soto's expedition was equipped with horses when he discovered the Mississippi in 1541, although the majority of them were killed for their flesh after De Soto's death. These Spanish horses were derivatives from a Barb foundation with which Spain was orig- inally stocked. Horses, presumably of the old Xorman and Breton stock, were taken by the French into l^ova Scotia in 1004, and four years later were introduced into Canada. One stallion and six mares. Thoroughbred, reached Virginia witli the English in 1607. In 1625 Dutch horses, possibly the black trotter of Fries- land, arrived at I^ew E'etherlands. In 1629 the first horses to inhabit Xew England came with the English to Boston. This was the composite origin of the American horse stock, out of which our breeds have been evolved. As early as 1678 the descendants of horses that had escaped from, or were liberated by the early Spanish expeditions, were ranging wild in gi-eat bands over the prairies of this continent. The American breeds of horses are the Standardbred, includ- 112 AMERICAN BREEDS 113 ing the Morgan, and the Saddle horse. The first pure breed to gain a foothold here was the Thoroughbred, and naturally the Thoroughbred has been the chief contributor in the foundation of the American breeds. STANDARDBRED This breed is so named because the members are bred to a standard of speed performance, that is, one mile in 2.o0 or better WJ Fig. si. — A Standardbred stall ion, a leading sire of the breed. trotting, 2.25 or better pacing. In fact, the question has been raised whetlier or not the Standardbred fulfils the requirements which constitute a breed, as long as individuals may become standard by performance, though not by breeding. It is prob- able that in the very near future the rule admitting horses to registry by standard performance alone Avill be rescinded. 114 TYPES AND BREEDS Origin. — Orange County, N^ew York, was the original seat of this breed; then Kentucky, and eventually the States in general, California in particular. The chief interest in trotters centered about ^ew York City, where the improvement in the construction of roads gave a great stimulus to road driving.- Their foundation blood lines were laid in Orange County. The two most notable foundation sires in America were im- ported Messenger and Justin Morgan. Messenger was a gray Thoroughbred, six generations re- moved from the Darley Arabian, imported from England, as an eight-year-old in 1788. He stood most of his life about Xew York and Philadelphia, where he left numerous progeny. Al- though himself a running race horse, brought to this country for the improvement of runners, he soon became noted as a sire of trotters, and upon his trotting sons and grandsons, daughters and granddaughters^ the Standardbred is based. It has been suggested that the fact that the horse stock about New York was descended from the horses brought over by the Dutch, and that a family of trotters were native to Friesland, would account for so many of the get of Messenger being trotters. The infer- ence is that Messenger imparted the speed and stamina, while his get derived their instinct to trot from their Dutch-bred dams. The most notable of Messenger's sons was Mambrino, the sire of Mambrino Paymaster and Abdallah. Mambrino Paymaster in turn sired Mambrino Chief, from whom the Mambrino family of trotters and the Chief family of Saddle horses of Kentucky are descended. Abdallah sired Hambletonian 10, the most conspicuous sire of the Standardbred. Hambletonian lo, or Eysdyk's Hambletonian, is regarded as the progenitor of tlie Standardbred, so far as one individ- ual can claim that distinction (Fig. 82). He was foaled tho property of Jonas Seeley near Chester, Orange County, 'New York, in 1849, but soon passed into the hands of the man he made famous, Wm. M. Rysdyk. iJ^otwithstanding the fact that his stud fees later amounted to $184,725.00, Rysdyk dick- ered a long time before the purchase price of $125.00 for the mare and foal was agreed upon. Tliis would indicate that neither party to the transaction had any conception of the ultimate value AMERICAN BREEDS 115 and importance of this colt. Attention was first directed, to Hambletonian by his gelded son Dexter, who in 1864, 1865, 1866, and 1867 defeated the best horses of the day, George Wilkes, George M. Patchen, Goldsmith Maid, Lady Thome, Flora Temple, and others. The year that Dexter began his sensational performances Hambletonian bred 217 mares and got 148 colts ; subsequently he was so extensively patronized tliat ^je Immmi j^tcmI, llicrc is :i woeful l;ick el" uiiiroiMiiil V niiioiii;' Irollrrs. 'TIicv ('oiiie ill nil s1iii|M'S, sizes, :iii(l eitldi's. Aliioiii;- llie repi-eseiil al i\'es of llie lu'eetl \\\'{\ iimnv ideiil iiuli\ i«lu:ils willi a wide I'liiii^v »d' :idM|>laltilil_v ( b'i^\ S('») |() almost aii\ kind of ser\iee, l)ul l<>iir|tese wherein the race I rack has faileil in lliis eonneelion, and it is i;ral i t'vini^ to s(>e a nniforni slandai'd of exeellenei" ii'radnallv Immiii;- evolved. The versatility of the Standardbred is demonsl raled hv ihe fnef that llu> ehainition lieavv harness horse of ihis eounlrv, Nala, ami the champion saddle niar(> (d' a few v(>ars hack. Miss Anne, were holh «d' this hreediiio', wliil(> in iiiaiiv parts of the Masl, hii«', stout, i^-ood headed trotters are doino- the farm work (Fig. STV Many Imntei-s are all m- part StamlardhreH\, i'uvorcd for i\\<: f)n>'liif'J Io»i of aririy n;- HioiiiitH \)y i\i(>H() wlio i\rc w(rll infonncd. 'Dicrc }in; ^r(!}it [H)HHi- ((ilitir'H in tlif \)V('j'<] wfiicJi liavf; \><'(tu ovi^rlookcd in ;in ill Jidvi-itrl effort, to rjii-r- vucc }ir>rH(tH uu(\ nicAi lior.scjH only. Rules of Eligibility. — TIk; Hi^nificancc! of tho rninic. Stanrj- anlf>n;H in nuido (•U-nr by a cr>n.Hi(l(;ration of tiie. rulcH of cli^i- bilit,y t// n'^i.Hlry in tfir; Ani(!ri('an Trotting itf^i.stfr. '/'Ar^ 'rrotliruj Hlfindard. — Wbfti ;ui ;inin)al rncctH tJicHc rc- qnircnicntH ;in'l i-; duly nr^int/'rcd it, h[i}jII b(; afvcptf*! ms a Stand ardbnd trotter: I. TIkj [jro^eny *)f' a n'^'iHtci'f'd Ht,;i,n'l}iry re^i,Ht(;rod Htandard trotting' \\orHCH, prrjvirjed H[)(r berHelf ban a trotting record of 2.-'f() or is tbe djini of one trolt(-r witb u reeoni of 2.'>0. / 4. A mare sintd by a registered .standard trottifi^^ bor-f, pr<^ vidrfd hIk* is tbe dam of two trr)t,t/;rH witb rrrr^ords of 2.'>(). r>. A mure .-^ired by a re^i.ntered Htfindji rd trotting bor.se, [)ro- vided ber first, seeond, and tbird dams an- ejieb Hii'(;d f^y a re^JH- tered standard trotting bor.se. 7'lif' /^aciuf J Standard. — Wb(;n Jin jinifnMl incciH i]\('M<', r('j\\\\rcr ments find is duly nj^istered, it sbiill be }ieer-|, t(;d jis a Standard- l>red [);ieer: 1. TIh' progeny of a ro^istx-rrrd Ht;ind;irrl ]mcj})^ bor.se }ind a. regist^Ted standard })aein^ mare. 2. A tttallion si nrd by a rr^^islered stMiidurd pjiein^ bor.sf;, firmidefj iii-, dfim jind ^nn\(\ntn worr; Hired by rf;^Ht/;r(»d Htandard f)aein^' liorses, {inrj lie bifnself bas a pjjejn^' rer^ord of 2.25, and is tbe. sin; of tbn^* f)ae,ers witb reer)rds of 2.25, from diffrtre.if rnaroH. / 3. A marf; wbose sire is a r(;^istered standard \m('An^ fiorsr; and wb^iHO dam anrl grandam werr5 nircd by rr^^isterfid ntandanl 122 TYPES AND BREEDS pacing horses, provided she herself has a pacing record of 2.25, or is the dam of one pacer with a record of 2.25. 4. A mare sired by a registered standard pacing horse, pro- vided she is the dam of two pacers vnth records of 2.25. 5. A mare sired bj a registered standard pacing horse, pro- vided her first, second, and third dams are each sired by a reg- istered standard pacing horse. 6. The progeny of a registered standard trotting horse out of a registered standard pacing mare, or of a registered standard pacing horse out of a registered standard trotting mare. Speed Records. — The follomng are the record perfonn- ances to date for one mile (from " Horseman's Annual ") : Gelding, trotter "Uhlan" 1.583^ Gelding, pacer ''Prince Albert" 1.59^ Stallion, trotter "The Harvester" 2.01 Stallion, pacer "Dan Patch" 1.55M Mare, trotter "Lou Dillon" 1.58^ ^Z: ^^S?;::::::::::::::::"EatMaudc"}'^------ ^-ooj^ Yearling, trotter "Miss Stokes" filly 2.19M Yearling, trotter "Wilbur Lou" colt 2,193^ Yearling, pacer "Present Queen" filly 2.20}4 Yearling, pacer "Frank Perry" colt 2.15 Yearhng, pacer "Rollo" gelding 2.283^ Stallion, trotting to wagon "John A. McKerron" 2.10 Stalhon, pacing to wagon "Dan Patch" 1.57^^ Mare, trotting to wagon " Lou Dillon" 2.00 Mare, pacing to wagon " Aileen Wilson" 2.0434 Gelding, trotting to wagon "Uhlan" 2.00 Gelding, pacing to wagon " Little Boy" 2.01 14 Team, trotting { lii^ui^""^" I ^.07^ Team, pacing {;;?atTaud C'^'' } 2.02M The Light Harness Type.— The Standardbred (Fig. 81) represents so ti-uly the light harness type that his detailed de- scription would be a duplication of that already given under the light harness division, in the classification of horses (see Chapter V). THE MORGANS The propriety of designating the Morgan a breed is ques- tionable. To be sure, there is a studbook maintained which has been duly recognized, but the requirements for registry are so AMERICAN BREEDS 123 open as to include many individuals that could not fulfil the specifications of a breed. The important part played by the Morgan horse in the establishment and development of tlie Stand- ardbred and the American Saddle horse is sufiiciently important, however, and his characteristics distinctive enough, to justify his being considered apart from the other breeds with which he has been closely identified. Justin Morgan shares honors with Messenger as a founda- tion sire of the Standardbred, and tlie correction and verification of pedigrees of noted sires and dams have increased the credit due him. He was a remarkable individual foaled at Springfield, Mass., in 1789, and lived to be thirty-t\vo years old. He was a small horse, about 14—2 hands high and 950 pounds weight. Of him wonderful performances of endurance, speed, pulling power, and intelligence are recorded. His individuality was no more striking than the prepotency with which he impressed his get. Had the Morgan blood been kept pure, there can be little ques- tion of its having ultimately fulfilled all the requirements for recognition as a breed. Even the wide dissemination of the blood has not resulted in the complete obliteration of the Morgan character, which may be discerned though but a fractional part of Morgan inheritance is represented. The breeding of the original Morgan horse has never been satisfactorily established, as the horse himself and those who knew of him were dead before any effort was made to trace his ancestry. Colonel Joseph Battell, who has devoted much time to an investigation of this matter, has given the sire as a Thor- oughbred called Beautiful Bay and the dam as a member of the Wildair family of Thoroughbreds. Such breeding is not indi- cated, however, by the descriptions of the horse with which we are furnished, although the Thoroughbreds of his time Avere more like him than are the Thoroughbreds of the present. A Dutch origin similar to that of the I^orfolk trotter has been sug- gested and does not seem unreasonable, since Dutch blood was available at the time of his breeding and he more closely re- sembles in type the old-fashioned Hackney than any other breed. The Thoroughbred ancestry, however, is the one usually ac- cepted, though not altogether satisfactory. 124 TYPES AND BREEDS Sons of Justin Morgan— The three most notable sons of Justin Morgan were: (1) Bnllrush Morgan, the descendants of whom are especially noted for their size, substance, and sound- ness, and represented by the Morrill family; (2) Woodbury Morgan, who is described as possessing attractive action and spirit and ^\dio was the progenitor of the Gifford and Morgan Eagle branches; and (3) Shennan Morgan, from whom came, in -r^t"^'.-^^ Fig. 88. — Original photo of Ethan Allen made in 1859. It shows the inaccuracy of some of the old cuts alleged to be true likenesses of this hor.se. successive generations, the three greatest horses of their days. Black Hawk (Vermont or Hill's), Ethan Allen (Fig. 88), and Daniel Lambert. In Daniel Lambert the type underwent some alteration, as the blood lines of the two foundation American sires were brought together, Fanny Cook, the dam of Lambert, being by Abdallah, grandson of Messenger and sire of Hamble- tonian. Morgan Blood in Other Breeds. — With the development of trotting speed and the increasing popularity of the Hambleton- AMERICAN BREEDS 125 ians, the prestige which the Morgans had enjoyed as road horses was shattered. Morgan mares were mated with, sons and grandsons of Hambletonian, and later those of Denmark, to such an extent that for years the breed, in its original purity and type, has been threatened with extinction. To this very fact, however, may be attributed, in some part at least, the merit that has been attained in the Standardbrcd and the American Saddle horse. A study of the blood lines of a great many of the most conspicu- FiG. 89. — A Morgan siiillion, showing the size, form, and character typical of thia family of horses. ous representatives of the two breeds reveals to what extent the Morgan has been incorporated, especially through foundation mares. The blood has, therefore, been spent rather than lost. A description of Justin Morgan is typical of his descendants (Fig. 89). lie was brown, slightly over 14 hands in height, 950 pounds in weight, very compactly made, with a short, strong back, round, deep rib, broad loin, and strong coupling; a breedy head, proudly carried, rather heavy neck, with prominent crest, short legs well set and of unusual substance ; and an airy, busy, but not high way of going. Bay, bro^vn, and black colors prevail 126 TYPES AND BREEDS in the breed outside the Lambert familj, where chestnut with a light sprinkling of white predominates. Improving the Breed. — The United States Department of Agriculture has undertaken to assemble enough representative Morgans to form the nucleus of a stud, the objecc of which shall be the preservation of the stock and improvement in the line of a more approved type, better calculated to meet modern demand, 1- iG. UO. — General Gates, at the head of the gov^ernment Morgan stud. especially in the matter of size (Fig. 90). We are reminded, in this connection, of the statement that when an Arab exceeds 14—2 he ceases to be an Arab. There is reason to believe that it may be necessaiy to sacrifice some of the most distinctly Morgan characters in order to attain the desired size, and in view of the active demand for cobs, which old-fashioned Morgans are, the wisdom of such a course is not altogether apparent. The Morgan Horse Club, recently organized, has inaugu- rated an active campaign in the interest of the Morgan horse. AMERICAN BREEDS 127 At recent Vermont State fairs and ITational horse shows some very creditable classes of Morgans have been exhibited under the auspices of this club. ,-,A/sM^ n^izi y ^ - 'THE AMERICAN- SADDLE HOESE The development of this breed has been parallel in many respects with that of the American trotter. Both are the result of a Thoroughbred top cross on what might be termed a native mare foundation, and in each case the descendants of one indi- vidual have constituted a family which has dominated the breed. Their respective histories are also more or less contemporaneous. Denmark, the Thoroughbred whose progeny founded the Saddle breed, was foaled in 1839, while Messenger reached this country in 1788 and his great grandson Hambletonian was foaled in 1849. Evolution of the Saddle Horse — The chief differences which influenced the evolution of the Saddle horse and the trotter are those which concerned the native mares and the ends in view of the breeders. The original American Saddle horse was born, of necessity, on the frontier where horses' backs afforded the chief means of transportation. The easy, lateral, ambling gait was cultivated, and those horses which showed greatest aptitude in this direction were selected for breeding. On the other hand, road and vehicle construction progressed most rapidly in the vicinity of the large Eastern cities, hence the breeding of the trotter or road horses centered around ITew York City and Phila- delphia, and the foundation was laid in mares which had proven themselves best adapted to trotting in harness. While horses were more extensively used for riding than for driving purposes in this country during the earlier period, the Saddle breed, in its present degree of development, is of more recent origin than the Standardbred. Furthermore, selection in the case of the Saddle bred horse has not been to a standard of performance alone, but ideals in type, conformation, and quality as well have been sought and are as clearly ma-rked in the prepotency of the foundation families as is performance. 128 TYPES AND BREEDS Foundation Stock. — In order to establish a definite begin- ning, the American Saddle Horse Breeders' Association orig- inally accepted these sires as constituting foundation stock : Denmark (Thoroughbred) by Imported Hedgeford. John Dillard, by Indian Chief (Canadian). Tom Hal (Imported from Canada). CabelPs Lexington, by Gist's Black Hawk (Morgan). Coleman's Eureka (Thoroughbred and Morgan). Van Meter's Waxy (Thoroughbred). Stump-Tlie-Dealer ( Thoroughbred ) . Peter's Halcorn. Davy Crockett. Pat Cleburne, by Benton's Gray Diomcd. Influence of the Thoroughbred. — The extent to which the Thoroughbred has been involved in the origin and development of the Saddle breed is shown by the following census of the breeding of all individuals registered in Vol. I of the studbook: Thoronghbred 3 50 per cent. Thoroughbred blood -10 25 per cent. Thoroughbred blood 290 12*73 per cent. Thoroughbred blood 343 6M: per cent. Thoroughbred blood 152 3 per cent. Thoroughbred blood 36 Uncertain 203 Denmark was a Thoroughbred, by Imported Hedgeford, of whom little else is recorded, foaled in Fayette County, Kentucky, in 1839. He never achieved great fame as a race horse, although it is claimed that his races were characterized by unusual game- ness and stamina. He had a numerous progeny, the most notable of which was Gaines' Denmark, whose dam, the Stevenson mare, w^as a great natural ambler, representing the then common stock of the country and believed, by some, to be of greater foundation importance than Denmark himself. Gaines' Denmark is considered the founder of tht breed, although other lines have since been developed from which good AMERICAN BREEDS 129 results have been secured, either independently or in combina- tion with the line of Denmark. These blood lines are shown below. i Gaines' Denmark 61 Polly Hopkins 46 by Cockspur. fRex Denmark 840 1884-1902 Daughter of. Lucy Mack 2459. Black Squirrel 58. 1876-1898 Star. Bourbon Chief. No. 976 (S.). Harrison Chief . No. 1606 (S.). Belle. Annie C Wilson's King. . No. 2196 (S.). By. fStar of the West ^Daughter of fMohawk [Black Eagle 74 1869-1888 MoUie 70 Old Star Davis fKing William 67 IKitty Richards (th.) IGiltner's Highlander Betty 69 by McDonald Mollie /Sam Martin's Farmer Clark Chief. No. 89. Lute Boyd. \ fMambrino Chief. J No. 11. (Little Nora. fjoe Downing. No. 710. Eagle, by 1 Bruce. Robert Latham's Denmark. No. 69 (S.). By. Harrison Chief. . No. 1606 (S.). {Washington Denmark. No. 64 (S.). Queen. No. 48 (S.). [Bellfounder. f Clark Chief. I No. 89. (Lute Boyd. (Parsons' Abdallah. By Yellow Jacket. No. 112 (S.). flndian Chief. Richelieu No. 1718 (S.). Kentucky Chief, by Indian Chief No. 1718 (S.). By Salmon's Glencoe (Th.). By. By. 130 TYPES AND BREEDS The above pedigrees of two of the greatest sires of the breed represent the two lines of breeding, the former being a strongly bred Denmark, while the latter has a combination of the blood of Mambrino Chief, Gaines' Denmark, Edwin Foi-rest, and Black Hawk through Harrison Chief, Latham's Denmark (grandson of Gaines' Denmark) and Indian Chief. The pedi- gree of Bourbon King also shows a degree of close breeding which is rather typical. The Chief family which Bourbon King rep- resents are the principal contemporaries of the Denmarks. Other prominent sires are Highland Denmark and Chester Dare, both by Black Squirrel and out of daughters of Dave Akin, Montgomery Chief, by Bourbon Chief, Wilson's King, by Har- rison Chief, and Wyatt's Red Cloud, by Indian Chief, the latter two being more particularly the sires of harness horses. Three of the greatest producing mares are (1) Xannie Gar- ret, by Dave Akin, (2) Annie C, by "Wilson's King, and (3) Little Kate, the dam of four of the best horses showTi in 1913 — Kentucky's Choice, Kentucky's Best, Kentucky's Selection, and Undulata Queen, all by My Own Kentucky. The chief centres of Saddle horse breeding are the central counties of Kentucky and the region about Columbia and Mexico, Missouri. The War a Setback. — The Civil War caused a serious set- back to the progress of the Saddle horse breed, all available mounts being pressed into ser\dce, many of w^hich were sacri- ficed, while others were kept out of breeding for a considerable period. Some of the most noted stallions of the breed served as officers' mounts during the Civil War. This breed also suf- fered from the increased popularity of the Standardbred during the period subsequent to the war. Many of the best Saddle bred mares were mated with Standardbred stallions. The present popularity of the Saddle horse has brought this breed into a more conspicuous position than it has ever before occupied. Characteristics. — The Saddle horse is characterized by being rather up-standing, possessed of a most beautifully molded and set head and neck, a very smoothly turned form, short back, level croup, and high set tail (Fig. 91), From an artistic point of view, he is perhaps the most beautiful of all horses, being the AMERICAN BREEDS 131 extreme embodiment of quality and finisli, an ideal which has been fostered by the so-called " model '' classes of Southern shows. Some have been bred so very fine, however, as to be markedly de- ficient in substance. His flashy way of going, with head and tail carried high, has led to his being rather contemptuously dubbed a '' peacock " by advocates of the jolainer but perhaps more substantial part-bred hack. Fig. 91.— An American Saddle stallion, showing the heautifully molded form, the stylish carriage of head and tail, and the extreme refinement characteristic of this breed. Colors of the Saddle horse are not confined mthin any limit, although certain families are very uniform in the transmission of color, especially black in the Denm arks and chestnut in the Chiefs and Kings. Bay is also common. Gaits. — Saddle horses~wefe previously required to go the five gaits in order to qualify, but the increased demand for walk-trot- 132 TYPES AND BREEDS canter horses has led to their being given more consideration by Saddle horse breeders. Uses. — The American Saddle horse is not used exclusively for saddle purposes. Not only are all representatives schooled to go in harness, but some of our best American bred harness show horses have been produced by Saddle breeding. Also some of the best harness horses in Kentucky and Missouri have event- ually become winners in the saddle classes of the greatest Ameri- can shows. Horses of this breed meet the present demand for combination horses more naturally than those of any other breed. Their intelligence, instinctively good manners, beautiful con- formation, style, and finish, as well as their dual usefulness, enable them to command the admiration especially of those who use horses for the horse's sake. Their ability to go the slow gaits has also led to their being used for riding after cattle and for general business saddle purposes, while much has been claimed for them as cavalry mounts and officers' chargers. Saddle-bred horses make most acceptable models for artists and sculptors. REVIEW 1. Review the original stocking of this continent with horses. 2. Why is the foundation of the Standardbred laid in New York, that of the Saddle horse in Kentucky? 3. Explain the relation of Messenger to the Standardbred. 4. Identify Hambletonian 10, George Wilkes, Mambrino Chief, Green Mountain Maid, Henry Clay. 5. Of what economic importance is the Standardbred? 6. In what respects were the foundations of the Standardbred and the American Saddle horse similar and in what respects did they differ? 7. Describe the Denmark branch of the American Saddle breed. 8. What of the outlook for the American Saddle horse, and why? 9. Who are Bourbon King, Rex McDonakl, Cabell's Lexington, Har- rison Chief, Little Kate? 10. Describe Justin Morgan and explain his work ay a foundation American sire. CHAPTER X PONY BREEDS Here are discussed the Shetland ponies, the Welsh ponies, and the Hackney ponies. THE SHETLAND PONY Environment has had more to do in determining the charac- teristics of the Shetland than any other breed of horses. It has not, however, been the only factor, as suggested by Darwin, there having been a separate pony race indigenous to this part of the world, the Equus celticus of Ewart. The Shetland Islands, situated about 200 miles off the north coast of Scotland and within 350 miles of the Arctic circle, are rough and unproduct- ive, and the people poor. Only a few of the large group of islands are inhabited. This breed of ponies has developed under the most adverse conditions, being close companions in adversity with the native crofters, even to the extent of sharing their huts and provisions. Their most characteristic diminutive size, hardiness, good dis- positions, and meagre requirement-s may be thus accounted for. Their chief occupation in the islands is to carry peat for the use of the crofters, the customary load consisting of from 120 to 140 pounds, which is packed and carried over the roughest and hardest of trails. The first real impetus to their systematic breeding came from Scotland and England, where they were found to be of service in working out the shallow veins of coal. They were bred most extensively for mine use by the Marquis of Londonderry. It was later that there arose an active demand for Shetlands as children's ponies, and it is claimed this call came chiefly from Amenca. The type of the old country Shetland is that of a draft horse (Fig. 92) in miniature, the maximum of horse power in the smallest compass. In this country more refinement, in keeping 133 134 TYPES AND BREEDS with saddle and harness use, is desired (Fig. 93). A slightly less blocky pony not so low do^vn is better shaped for riding and will have more stride. Wtt' ■ *»*• - ^m M- r-^5^*a^ ■ - '•^tMS^^^r "^^^^^^MWBal^Bi^^^Sii^^"'~~^wi^^^^^ -•■;.:; M. i^ii g„^ i Fig. 92. — The old country idea of Shetland type is a miniature draft horst ^>^ -y^--M tL Ik" ^— Fig. 93. — A Shetluud siullion, American bred, and representative of tlie t\"po most in favor in this country. This breed's chief asset for their work in this country is their patient, docile, and demonstrative disposition. They are generally fearless and thoroughly reliable under all circum- stances. They do not have an ideal saddle conformation nor PONY BREEDS 135 heads and necks that make for light mouths, but the notion enter- tained by some that they are bullish and wilful is largely due to the fact that, being naturally tractable, they receive but the most elementary schooling. A standard height of 42 inches has been fixed in this coun- try, with a proportionate discount up to 46 inches. If in excess of this they are disqualified. Colors. — Solid colors, black or a cinnamon brown being most typical, are preferred by breeders, while buyers of ponies to use generally express a preference for the skewbalds and piebalds. The widest range of oddest colors is permissible, but broken colors are suggestive of some Iceland or Faroe Island foundation in the remote ancestry. Too Little Discrimination. — While the demand for chil- dren's ponies is strong and they meet with ready sale, there is not sufiicient discrimination among buyers to stimulate much im- provement in the breed. All ponies look alike to the majority, it seems, and so long as they are clever and safe, no further ques- tions are asked. The result is that the average pony falls short of ordinary horse standards, leggy, coarse^headed, flat-ribbed, steep-rumped, cat-hammed, and crooked-legged individuals, with no step, being all too common. On the other hand, some wonder- fully typical, good-going ponies have been brought out by those who have given time and study to their production. THE WELSH PONY The Welsh pony is native to the rough mountain districts of Wales, but has long been bred for actual road work. Their open life, ranging in bands, has made them extremely rugged and thrifty. Some improvement in their way of going has been secured by the use of small ]N'orfolk trotting stallions from time to time, although not enough crossing has been done to destroy the original integrity of the breed. The true type of Welsh pony is comparable to a miniature coach horse (Fig. 94), pony built, yet with a good head, neck, and forehand, well formed legs, and considerable speed and action at the trot, with unusual endurance. They are snappy and free. 136 TYPES AND BREEDS all horse for their size, and are, therefore, better adapted to the use of junior equestrians than as playmates for little children, the field of the Shetland pony. The foreign Welsh Pony and Cob Studbook gives this classi- fication according to height : A. Ponies not exceeding 12 hands, 2 inches. B. Ponies 12 hands, 2 inches to 13 hands, 2 inches. C. Ponies 13 hands, 2 inches to 14 hands, 2 inches. D. Ponies 14 hands, 2 inches to 15 hands, 2 inches. Fig. 94. — A Welsh pony stallion, showing the size and form characteristic of the breed. The last three show an increasing percentage of the Norfolk cob blood. Those of class D are in excess of the pony limit and are therefore cobs proper. Colors are chiefly bay, although brown, chestnut, gray, and roan occur. Importance of Size. — The frequency ^vith which motors are met on the road and the consequent danger in sending children PONY BREEDS 137 out unattended make a pony of more size than the typical Shet- land in greater demand than formerly. Furthermore, Welsh ponies are really useful and need not be confined to children's use. A smart pair, properly appointed, is well adapted to ladies' use. THE HACKNEY PONY The Hackney pony is a representative Hackney under 14 hands, 2 inches (Fig. 95), eligible to the same registration and Fig. 95. — A Hackney pony stallion; a typical representative of the Hackney breed, under the pony limit of stature. frequently bred in similar lines on one side as are full-sized Hackneys. As Hackneys have been used in the improvement of the gait and action of the Welsh breed, there has no doubt been a reciprocal cross in the making of Hackney ponies. Some Welsh breeding in the dams of registered Hackney ponies is not uncom- mon nor prohibited by the rules of registry. Show Ponies. — Hackney ponies are the smartest thing in horse form, possessing all the flash and excessive action of their larger namesakes in an exaggerated degree. A distinction should 138 ' TYPES AND BREEDS be drawn, however, between a child's pony and a show pony, and few of the sensational Hackney ponies of the show ring inspire much confidence in their trustworthiness for children. On the other hand, there is a well-marked preference expressed for the larger ponies, if thoroughly reliable, as mounts for juvenile equestrians, the number of which is increasing. OTHER PONY BREEDS Other pony types or strains to which reference is sometimes made but for which no studbooks exist, in this countrv^ at least, are the Exmoor, Dartmoor, 'New Forest, Cumberland, and West- moreland of England ; the Connemara of Ireland ; the Galloway and Highland ponies of Scotland; and Arabs under 14 hands, 2 inches, as many of them are. REVIEW 1. What is believed to be the foundation stock from which all pony breeds are derived? 2. Which of the pony breeds has been most influenced by environment and how? 3. What is the difference in the accepted type of Shetlands in America and Great Britain and how is it accounted for? 4. To what breed characteristics does the Shetland owe its universal popularity ? 5. Describe the origin of the Welsh pony. 6. What out-crosses have been made and why? 7. What larger type is the typical Welsh pony the miniature of ? 8. What classification of Welsh ponies and cobs is made? 9. What is the Hackney pony; to what purpose are they chiefly devoted? 10. Name the other pony stocks. CHAPTER XI JUDGING HORSES Purpose. — Judging is selection ; the means by wliicli the breeder niohls forms by mating the approved and culling out the undesirable individuals. It should not be understood to mean the placing of awards in the show ring only, although that is a most important function of the judge, imposing upon him the responsibility of establishing ideals and standards which are to lead or mislead the rank and file of breeders. The successful buyer or breeder must be a competent judge, whether he has ever placed a ribbon in a show ring or not. What Judging Involves. — Judging is more than measuring to a standard or the analysis of the individuals imder considera- tion ; the element of comparison must figure in the observations, from w'hich definite conclusions can be drawn. It is the balanc- ing of the sum total of merit and deficiency of one individual against that of another, after the same fashion that a judge on the bench weighs all the evidence before returning a verdict. There are capable buyers of market horses, who, in car load after car load, will not have a poor one, yet they would not essay the task of designating the first, second, third, and fourth choice in any one car lot. They have a definite standard in mind by which they can accept or reject, with unerring accuracy, but when it l>ecomes necessary to arraign an especially good head and neck but rather defective hocks of one against a good back but poor feet of another, they fail. Yet selection in breeding and buying most frequently involves the choice of one from among several, as does the ranking of show entries. Accuracy and Rapidity. — The dispatch with which decisions are arrived at is second only to the accuracy of the decisions themselves. The man who stands at the sales ring side and buys at the rate of a horse a minute must have rapid, accurate decision ; so must he who picks his short leet and ultimate winners from a class of half a hundred stallions. The expert is able to place an 139 140 TYPES AND BREEDS entire class of show horses or to pick out a car load in the time required by the novice to score one individual. The former has a fixed standard and a trained eye, which enable him to discern instantly any deviations from his standard. Furthermore, he recognizes the law of con-elation and goes by indices, largely, ^Wthout delaying to consider each detail minutely. One feature or part is correlated Avith another, while to a third it may be extremely opposed. Dimensions of the same class are coiTelated, for instance, while those of opposite classes are related as extreme. A long legged horse is also long in neck, body, and stride, but is proportionately narrow and shallow bodied ; a horse in which width is marked will be short and deep bodied, with a short, thick neck, low set on his legs, and having a short but perhaps trappy stride. A systematic method of making observations contributes both to accuracy and dispatch in judging. By this means each look is made to count, re|>etitions or omissions ai*e avoided, the pro- portions and relations of the parts are kept in mind, and a more comprehensive conception of the whole is obtained. System of Examining. — The most logical system of exami- nation begins with a view of the horse from in front, noting the temperament and disposition as indicated by the expression of the countenance, all features of the head, the ^Wdth and depth of chest, the station, the direction and conformation of the forelegs and feet. Then passing to the side, near side usually, consider the stature and scale, length or compactness, station, depth (espe- cially in the flank), the carriage and shape of head and neck, the shortness and levelness of the top line, the length and straight- ness of under line, height and shape of the withers, the slope of shoulder, direction and conformation of forelegs and feet, the back, rib, loin, flank, coupling, croup, tail, stifle, thigh, direction and confonnation of hind le2:s and feet. From the rear the s^^n- metry, levelness, width and rotundity of hips, fulness of thighs and quarters, direction and confonnation of hind legs and feet may l>e determined. Viewing from the opposite side to confirm the original side view would complete the examination of the horse standing. He should then be moved away from tlie obsen^er, in order JUDGING HORSES 141 that the directness and rapidity of his stride, especially behind, may be seen. Then as he comes back, or " meets you,'' note the directness, rapidity, and freedom of the stride in front, the bold- ness, courage, and manners displayed. As he is led past deter- mine the length, the height, spring, regularity, and balance of the stride, together with the placing or set of the horse in action. An expert judge may seem careless of and indifferent to any system, yet this very manner may have been acquired from long practice, in a systematic way. A show ring judge should not act without good and sufficient reasons. He should have the courage of his convictions and be able to give a full account of the whys and wherefores of his work. The Avisdom of an award appears very different to on- lookers at the ring side many times, with the light of the judge's reasons thrown upon it. Features to Consider in Judging Horses. — The features to which the judge should give special consideration in making his observations may be summarized as follows : 1. General Appearance : (a) Height, (h) weight, (c) style, (d) symmetry, (e) color and markings. 2. Form: (a) Station (setting on legs), (h) width, (c) depth, (d) compactness, (e) contour. 3. Confonnation. (As outlined in Chapter II.) 4. Quality: (a) Hide and hair, (h) bone, (c) finish, (d) general refinement. 5. Substance: (a) Proportion of weight to height, (h) bone, (c) muscling. 6. Constitution: (a) Chest and abdominal capacity, (h) evidence of thrift and vigor. 7. Condition: (a) Degree of fatness, (h) fitness for work. 8. Way of Going. (As outlined in Chapter III.) 9. Age: (a) Determination of, (h) significance of. 10. Soundness: (a) Examination for, (h) importance of. 11. Temperament and Disposition. SCORE CARD The score card consists of a word picture of the ideal horse in which a numerical value is attached to each part for the pur- 142 TYPES AND BREEDS pose of indicating its relative importance. The hock is a no more essential part of the horse's anatomy than the forearm, yet tlie defects to which the hock is subject are so much more numerous, and their effect on the serviceability of the horse of so much more importance, that it is deserving of more careful con- sideration. On this basis the hock is allotted six units or counts, the forearm two. Scoring is the application of the score card as a standard of merit to the individual, for the purpose of detennining and expressing numerically his degree of perfection. Applied suc- cessively to a number of individuals, it affords a means of deter- mining their relative merits. However, this system is not appli- cable to show ring judging or sales ring selection. The chief use of the score card is in the classroom, where continued practice in scoring affords the best means of training the eye in making accurate obser\^ations, while there is being acquired, at the same time, a mind picture of the ideal. Once the ideal expressed on the score card is indelibly fixed in the mind, the card may be given up and the mental picture take its place as a standard of judgment. In the development of good judgment the score card is indispensable, but for the practice of judging it is of little use. Condensed or summarized score cards have been arranged which facilitate scoring for such objects as the advanced registry of dairy cattle and other purposes, but for students' use the full, detailed accounting of every part is essential. The Draft Horse Score Card. — Following is the scale of points and standard of excellence for tlie draft horse : General Appearance. — 16. Counts 1. Weight 2. Height 3. Form — low station, wide, deep, compact, massive 4 4. Substance — bone ample, joints broad, proportioned to scale 4 5. Quality — bone dense and clean, tendons and joints sharply defined, leg broad and fiat, hide and hair fine, refinement of head, finish 4 6. Temperament— energetic, disposition good, intelligent 4 Head and Neck. — 7. 7. Head — size and dimensions, in proportion, clear cut features, straight face line^ wide angle in lower jaw 1 JUDGING HORSES 143 8. Muzzle — ^broad, nostrils large but not dilated, lips thin, even, trim 1 9. Eyes — prominent orbit; large, full, bright, clear; lid thin, even curvature 1 10. Forehead — broad, full 1 11. Ears — medium size, fine, pointed, set close, carried alert 1 12. Neck — long, muscular but not thick, well crested, throttle well cut out, head well set on 2 Forehand. — 24. 13. Shoulders — long, sloping, smooth, muscular 2 14. Arm — short, muscular, elbow in 2 15. Forearm — wide, muscular 2 16. Knees — straight, wide, deep, strongly supported 2 17. Canons — short, broad, flat, tendons sharply defined, set well back 2 18. Fetlocks — wide, tendons well back, straight, well supported 2 19. Pasterns — long, oblique (45 degrees), smooth, strong 2 20. Feet — large, round, uniform, straight, slope of wall parallel to slope of pastern, sole concave, bars strong, frogs large and elastic; heels wide, full, one-third height of toe; horn dense, smooth, dark color 6 21. Legs — direction viewed from in front, a perpendicular line dropped from the point of the shoulder should divide the leg and foot into two lateral halves. Viewed from the side, a perpendicular line dropped from the tuberosity of the scapula should pass through the centre of the elbow- joint and meet the ground at the centre of the foot 4 Body.—n. 22. Withers — well defined but muscular 2 23. Chest — wide, deep 2 24. Ribs — well sprung, long, close 2 25. Back — short, straight, strong, broad . 2 26. Loin — short, broad, strongly coupled 2 27. Flank — deep, full, long, low under line 1 Hindquarters. — 32. 28. Hips — wide, level, muscular 2 29. Croup — long, level, muscular 2 30. Tail — attached high, well carried 1 31. Thighs — deep, muscular 2 32. Stifles — broad, thick, muscular 2 33. Gaskins — wide, muscular 2 34. Hocks — straight, wide, point prominent, deep, clean cut, smooth, well supported 6 35. Canons — short, broad, flat, tendons sharply defined, set well back 2 36. Fetlocks — wide, tendons well set back, straight, well supported. . 2 37. Pasterns — long, oblique (50 degrees), smooth, strong 3 38. Feet — large, round (slightly less than in front), uniform, straight, elope of wall parallel to slope of pastern, sole concave, bars strong, frog large, elastic; heels wide, full, one-third height of toe; horn dense, smooth, dark color 4 144 TYPES AND BREEDS 39. Legs — direction viewed from the rear, a perpendicular line dropped from the point of the buttock should divide the leg and foot into lateral halves; viewed from the side, this same line should touch the point of the hock and meet the ground some little distance back of the heel. A perpendicular line dropped from the hip-joint should meet the ground near the centre of the foot 4 Way of Going. — 10. 40. Walk — straight, strong, active 6 41. Trot — powerful, free, moderate action 4 Total 100 » The Heavy Harness Horse Score Card. — The following is tlie standard of excellence and scale of points for the heavy harness horse: General Appearance. — 12. Counts 1. Height 2. Weight 3. Form — close, full made, smooth turned, symmetrical 4 4. Quality — bone clean, dense, fine, yet indicating substance, ten- dons and joints sharply defined, hide and hair fine, general re- finement, finish 4 5. Temperament — proud, bold, stylish, disposition good, intelligent. 4 Head and Neck. — 7. 6. Head — size and dimensions in proportion, clear cut features, straight face line, wide angle in lower jaw 1 7. Muzzle — fine, nostrils large, lips thin, trim, even 1 8. Eyes — prominent orbit; large, full, bright, clear; lid thin, even curvature 1 9. Forehead — broad, full 1 10. Ears — medium size, fine, pointed, set close, carried alert 1 11. Neck — long, lofty carriage, high crest, throttle well cut out, head well set on 2 Forehand.— 22. 12. Shoulders — long, oblique, smooth 2 13. Arms — short, muscular, carried well forward 1 14. Forearm — broad, muscular 1 15. Knees — straight, wide, deep, strongly supported 2 16. Canons — short, broad, flat, tendons sharply defined, set well back. 2 17. Fetlocks — wide, tendons well back, straight, well supported 2 18. Pasterns — long, obhque (45 degrees), smooth, strong 2 19. Feet — large, round, uniform, straight, slope of wall parallel to slope of pastern, sole concave, bars strong, frog large, elastic, heels wide, full, one-third height of toe, horn dense, smooth, dark color ; 6 JUDGING HORSES 145 20 Legs— direction viewed from in front, a perpendicular line dropped from the point of the shoulder should divide the leg and foot into two lateral halves; viewed from the side, a perpendicular line dropped from the tuberosity of the scapula should pass through the centre of the elbow-joint and meet the ground at the centre of the foot 4 Body.—n. 21. Withers— well set up, narrow, extending well back 2 22. Chest — wide, deep ^ 23. Ribs— well sprung, long, close ^ 24. Back— short, straight, strong, broad ^ 25. Loin— short, broad, strongly coui)led ^ 26. Flank— deep, full, long, low under Ime 1 Hindquarters. — 32 27. Hips— broad, round, smooth 2 28. Croup — long, level, round, smooth ^ 29. Tail— set high, well carried ^ 30. Thighs— full, muscular ^ 3L Stifles— broad, full, muscular ^ 32. Gaskins— broad, muscular • • • ^ 33. Hocks— straight, wide, point promment, deep, clean cut, smootn, well supported ,• • , ^ • •,• • ' 1 ' ' ii Y ' i" o 34 Canons— short, broad, flat, tendons sharply defined, set well back Z 35. Fetlocks— wide, tendons well back, straight, well supported. ... 2 36. Pasterns— long, obUque (50 degrees), smooth, strong ... ^ 37 Feet— large, round (slightly less than in front), uniform, straight, slope of wall parallel to slope of pastern, sole concave, bars strong, frog large and elastic, heels wide, full one-third height of toe, horn dense, smooth, dark color • • • •. • • 4 38. Legs— direction viewed from the rear, a perpendicular line dropped from the point of the buttock should divide the leg and foot into lateral halves; viewed from the side, this same hne should touch the point of the hock and meet the ground some little distance back of the heel. A perpendicular hne dropped from the hip-joint should meet the ground near the centre ot the foot Way of Going. — 16. 39. Walk— straight, snappy, springy, proud, stylish J V ' V ' 40. Trot— in line, bold, flashy, extreme flexion of knees and hocks, balanced, regular Total 100 The Light Harness Horse Score Card. — Following is tlie scale of points for the light harness horse : General Appearance. — 12. 1. Height 2. Weight , 4 3. Form— rangy, deep, lithe, angular .••••••. • • • • • ' • 4. Quality— bone clean, dense, fine, yet indicating substance, ten- dons and joints sharply defined, hide and hair fine, general refinement \' '■ ' i li-' '1 a 5. Temperament— nervous, active, disposition good, intelligent * 10 146 TYPES AND BREEDS Head and Neck. — 7. 6. Head — size and dimensions in proportion, clear cut features, straight face line, wide angle in lower jaw 1 7. Muzzle — fine, nostrils large, lips thin, trim, even 1 8. Eyes — prominent orbit; large, full, bright, clear; lid thin, even curvature 1 9. Forehead — broad, full 1 10. Ears — medium sized, fine, pointed, set close, carried alert 1 11. Neck — long, lean, crest well defined, extended carriage, well cut out in the throttle, head well set on 2 Forehand. — 23. 12. Shoulders — long, oblique, smooth 2 13. Arms — short, muscular, carried well forward 1 14. Forearm — long, broad, muscular 2 15. Knees — straight, wide, deep, strongly supported 2 16. Canons — short, broad, flat, tendons sharply defined, set well back 2 17. Fetlocks — wide, tendons well back, straight, well supported 2 18. Pasterns — long, obhque (45 degrees), smooth, strong 2 19. Feet — large, round, uniform, straight, slope of wall parallel to slope of pastern, sole concave, bars strong, frog large, elastic, heels wide, full, one-third height of toe, horn dense, smooth, dark color 6 20. Legs — direction viewed from in front, a perpendicular line dropped from the point of the shoulder should divide the leg and foot into two lateral halves. Viewed from the side, a perpendicular line dropped from the tuberosity of the scapula should pass through the centre of the elbow-joint and meet the ground at the centre of the foot 4 Body.— 11. 21. Withers — well set up, narrow, extending well back 2 22. Chest — medium w^dth, deep 2 23. Ribs — well sprung, long, close 2 24. Back — short, straight, strong, broad 2 25. Loins — short, broad, strongly coupled 2 26. Flank — deep, full, long, low under line 1. Hindquarters. — 3 1 . 27. Hips — broad, round, smooth 2 28. Croup — long, level, smooth 2 29. Tail — set high, well carried 1 30. Thighs — full, muscular 2 31. Stifles — broad, full, muscular 2 32. Gaskins — broad, muscular 2 33. Hocks — straight, wide, point prominent, deep, clean cut, smooth, well supported 6 34. Canons — short, broad, flat, tendons sharply defined, set well back 2 35. Fetlocks — wide, tendons well back, straight, well supported 2 36. Pasterns — long, oblique (50 degrees), smooth, strong 2 37. Feet — large, round (slightly less than in front), uniform, straight, slope of wall parallel to slope of pastern, sole concave, bars strong, frog large and elastic, heels wide, full, one-thirS height of toe, horn dense, smooth, dark color 4 JUDGING HORSES 147 38. Legs — direction viewed from the rear, a perpendicular line dropped from the point of the buttock should divide the leg and foot into lateral halves; viewed from the side, this same line should touch the point of the hock and meet the ground some little distance back of the heel. A perpendicular line dropped from the hip-joint should meet the ground near the centre of the foot 4 Way of Going. — 16. 39. Walk^ — long, free stride 6 40. Trot — long, rapid, straight, reachy stride 10 Total 100 The Saddle Horse Score Card. — Following is the scale of points and standard of excellence for the saddle horse: General Appearance. — 12. Counta 1. Height 2. Weight 3. Form — close but not full made, deep but not broad, symmetrical. 4 4. Quality — bone clean, dense, fine, yet indicating substance, ten- dons and joints sharply defined, hide and hair fine, general refinement, finish 4 5. Temperament — active, disposition good, intelligent 4 Head and Neck. — 8. 6. Head — size and dimensions in proportion, clear cut features, straight face line, wide angle in lower jaw 1 7. Muzzle — fine, nostrils large, lips thin, trim, even 1 8. Eyes — prominent orbit; large, full, bright, clear; lid thin, even curvature 1 9. Forehead — broad, full 1 10. Ears — medium size, pointed, set close, carried alert 1 11. Neck — long, supple, well crested, not carried too high, throttle well cut out, head well set on 3 Forehand. — 22. 12. Shoulders — very long, sloping yet muscular 3 13. Arms — short, muscular, carried well forward 1 14. Forearm — long, broad, muscular 1 15. Knees — straight, wide, deep, strongly supported 2 16. Canons — short, broad, flat, tendons sharply defined, set well back 2 17. Fetlocks — wide, tendons well back, straight, well supported 2 IS. Pasterns — long, oblique (45 degrees), smooth, strong 2 19. Feet — large, round, uniform, straight, slope of wall parallel to slope of pastern, sole concave, bars strong, frog large, elastic, heels wide, full, one-third height of toe, horn dense, smooth, dark color 5 20. Legs — direction viewed from in front, a perpendicular line dropped from the point of the shoulder should divide the leg and foot into two lateral halves. Viewed from the side, a perpendicu- lar line dropped from the tuberosity of the scapula should pass through the centre of the elbow-joint and meet the ground at the centre of the foot 4 148 TYPES AND BREEDS Body.—\2. 21. Withers — high, muscular, well finished at top, extending well into back 3 22. Chest — medium wide, deep 2 23. Ribs — well sprung, long, close 2 24. Back — short, straight, strong, broad 2 25. Loin — short, broad, muscular, strongly coupled 2 26. Flank — deep, full, long, low under line 1 Hindquarters. — 3 1 . 27. Hips — broad, round, smooth 2 28. Croup — long, level, round, smooth 2 29. Tail— set high, well carried 2 30. Tliighs— full, muscular 2 31. Stifles — broad, full, muscular 2 32. Gaskins — broad, muscular 2 33. Hocks — straight, wide, point prominent, deep, clean cut, smooth, well supported 5 34. Canons — short, broad, flat, tendons sharply defined, set well back. 2 35. Fetlocks — wide, tendons well back, straight, well supported 2 36. Pasterns — long, oblique (50 degrees), smooth, strong 2 37. Feet — large, round (slightly less than in front), uniform, straight, slope of wall parallel to slope of pastern, sole concave, bars strong, frog large and elastic, heels wide, full, one-third height of toe, horn dense, smooth, dark color 4 38. Legs^-direction viewed from the rear, a perpendicular fine dropped from the point of the buttock should divide the leg and foot into lateral halves; viewed from the side, this same line should touch the point of the hock and meet the ground some Httle distance back of the heel. A perpendicular line dropped from the hip-joint should meet the ground near the centre of the foot 4 Way of Going. — 15. 39. Walk — rapid, flat footed, in line 5 40. Trot — free, straight, smooth, springy, going well off hocks, not extreme knee fold 5 41. Canter — slow, collected, either lead, no cross canter 5 Total 100 SOUNDNESS A horse is sound provided there be not a partial or total loss of function, preventing or likely to prevent him from perform- ing the ordinary duties of his class. The real significance of soundness is quite generally misun- derstood by the tisers of horses, much to their own disadvantage and to the misfortune of many an unsound horse. The impor- tance of an existing unsoundness is directly proportionate to the extent to which it incapacitates a horse for the service to which he is otherwise best adapted. If it causes him little or no incon- JUDGING HORSES 149 venience, and is not liable to, it is of little or no consequence. The technically sound horse is an exceptional individual and has less actual additional value over the serviceably sound horse than is generally credited to him. On the other hand, the nature or extent of an unsoundness may be such as to cause the total disability of a horse either at present or in the future. Serviceable soundness is all that it is practical to seek or require; and just what constitutes service- able soundness is arbitrarily determined by the nature of the work which the horse is expected to do. If more thought were given to the real causes of unsoundness, present and prospective, and less to its technical existence, it would probably give less annoyance. The durability of any machine is a matter of construction, covering the grade of materials used, the assembling of all parts, the alignment and adjustment of all bearings and wearing parts in order to minimize friction, distribute wear, and to facilitate operation in general. Allow any little cog to slip or an adjust- ment to become displaced, and either the whole machine is rendered useless or its operation is greatly impaired. The Equine Machine. — It is so with the equine mechanism. Most unsoundnesses have their origin in stinictural defects or imperfections. The spavin and the curb make their appearance on the crooked hind leg as a result of the cuneifonn l)onc and curb ligament being called upon to do more than their nonnal share of the work of the leg, on account of the deflection in the line in which weight is borne and power applied. Side bones are most common on the outer quarters of wide- fronted draft horses, because such horses are inclined to be " toe narrow," which brings the outer quarter nearer to the centre of weight bearing, thereby imposing weight and wear which should be borne by the other quarter. As a consequence the cartilage ossifies or changes to bone. If an existing unsoundness has apparently developed, inde- pendent of predisposing causes of conformation, and does not impair the horse's usefulness, it is of less account than when the causative defect in confonuation is apparent but no actual unsoundness exists yet. In the first place, a repetition of the 150 TYPES AND BREEDS unusual condition to which the unsoundness is due is not likely ; while in the second case, the predisposing cause is continually operative, and the ultimate development of actual unsoundness is well nigh inevitable. Once developed, its condition is repeat- edly aggravated by the same means which originally induced it. Rejecting for Unsoundness. — It is not consistent to reject a horse, in all other respects suitable for one's purpose, because he cannot be certified absolutely sound, only to finally accept on the strength of a certificate of soundness a horse woefully deficient in regard to most other requirements. Counsel of the veterina- rian should be on the true importance of the unsoundness, if it exists, rather than for its mere detection. Soundness is but one of the attributes which render a horse of service. Horses unsound in some degree are giving perfectly satisfactory service in all fields in which horses are engaged, and, so long as that is the case, it is unjust to the horses and detri- mental to the owners to discard them for a mere technicality. Provided a horse goes sound in spite of some unsoundness to which he is subject, and promises to continue so to go, the un- soundness should not outweigh in importance the other essentials of a good horse, as type, conformation, and performance. Age. — The Determination of Age. — There is nothing mys- terious nor empirical about the determination of the age by tlie teeth. Up to five years, it is simply a matter of the eruption of the teeth, which in the normal individual follows the same reg- ular course that characterizes all other physiological processes. After the permanent teeth are all in, the indications are the result of wear, which is uniformly accomplished in the normal mouth on account of the extreme durability of the individual teeth and their arrangement. Certain general features must be understood before any at- tempt is made to differentiate the appearance of the mouth at various years. The permanent teeth may be distinguished, after their eruption, from the milk teeth, which are shed as the perma- nent teeth come through, by greater size, a broader neck showing no constriction, perpendicular, parallel grooves and ridges on their face, and a whiter color. The incisor teeth, which are the ones depended upon because JUDGING HORSES 151 they are most easily exposed to view, are originally oval-shaped at the table or wearing end, gradually becoming triangular to- ward the root. The longitudinal dimensions of the teetli are curved, with the convexity forward, toward the lips, the con- cavity toward the mouth. The table itself is cupped out in the centre by a depression, into which tlie enamel of the tooth dips. As wear commences, the surface enamel is worn off, leaving two distinct enamel rings, one around the margin of the table and the other around the cup. This cup itself becomes gradually more shallow until it is finally worn almost completely away. As wear on the table removes more and more of the end of the tooth, the level of the pulp cavity in the centre of the tooth is finally reached, and the exjiosed tip of this canal appears between what is left of the cup and the front of tho t twelve. Aft^r a horse passes eight and has had some city wear, the market classes him as second-handed and discounts his. value accordingly. 152 TYPES AND BREEDS .5 t« Co 4J O s a as JUDGING HORSES 153 Fir.. 07. — Longitudinal and median section of a permanent inferior pincer (enlarged). FA, anterior face; FP, posterior face; C, cement; E, enamel; /, ivory; PL, pulp cavity; CU, cup; T, table; R, root. 154 TYPES AND BREEDS i u ^ U.S. o S 13 7? S d o m - c3 J: ,, s 2 S « o * 0.2-^ u if g t- c'^.2 I '^ « U r- O ■-3 c c<— ^ « a g3 I, o^ a JUDGING HORSES 155 rs-tiiMf Fig. 99.- ough the g •der of the ght of this the degree ich is surrc icers and th e corners a -One urns. pince bordc of w •unde eintc ,re sti Year: In pr rs and 3r, acco ear of d by t] ;rmedia ill virgi PJS?3.D^§.^ ?■ ^ ^ 5'^ ~s- , the inter g to ante emai Ift The j-.crP 2.r*-g aj ►-. &.0 <* c CO P (1) 2 o 2 « ^ S. g S 13 ^tJ-a p g ^ si 2:2 "^ P O M. 5:5 CO "" » 00 3 55S"§p'lr.- s ^" a. 3' p. 1 0 0 p 3 ffl g a 0 0 i "< ^ 3' p 0 3 1 K 2 0 a- ^ 3. 3t at' S. !r a _;i n 3- cc 0 3 p W CD p ct-' r: (S 2 p cr 3 1? fc" 5' CD g. ?^ ^ ? CD 00 3 c 0 1 0 P cT 0' 0 P 0 f B p 0 2. P «^ CD p' 0 3 > p If 1 0 1 1 P S CD (T 2 -Ts 0 w 5 1 3 B CO CT & S.S" (R S- (t CP a> -i ^ 0 fT> ■1 Cf P g'^ OS p IQ CR li p f6 3 P 0 3- CD ^0 C o 2 o S ^; B "^ CO W ^ CD 1 R ^(D 3"5 2.: » B-'-E-p o : 156 TYPES AND BREEDS W © to iTSTJ © *"*-• '^2 o * '*^ tfJ O fci *^ « ~ is o "S »- ** O-^" ^ c ^ S "^ i:3 a) Jl? r^ a a a i-i a a a » ^-'i ° O 3 >£ii ea e3 i:: 3 ti'? a^ rt i' 3 4; ■is Ojs-- 3^ S « o =3 S 3 "ja JUDGING HORSES 157 •3 crcrcr C (t n (6 158 TYPES AND BREEDS .^- S u = 3 ^"£'*r a i " c^^ 'k '^ a o ^" £ c^ „• fe i" 2 •'* ?T^ u ^c -- o if c « « g I'M nil c ^ =! ='5^5 £ y c^ =<"^ S =3 "S ^ X* O" » X tc^^ t- c " o-2--"c 2 03 2 fe.S'B * o r-'i- I' C = O 3 3 O oca; §•■" o ? o c u-r — ^ S uT S C I fe O ^ S^ C t fl JUDGING HORSES 159 ^ -^ M S fB rt- O 5;-'< <^ T M • e* ^ ^ -^"O m • it™ o"? IB =-^ GO a> H 5.-1 i Is. ffl « p g » = §g-S°3'g « 2..^„ erg p (D s-o-r m — CO 2 _. o 1 <^ * n.EiB rt- •o?3a'a§ (D (p (* ffl cr ti. o P •ffl Bi» r^ C» c<- "^ S'f' S.^ ^" g o ~S S- « a 0 o.v'^ „ o « '^cr^ ►-•iihc-o/: 2 160 TYPES AND BREEDS CO a »H — ^.s O I. rt JUDGING HORSES 161 '^■"^ n> O CB -1 2 cc £.3 •* S ^^ B <* «. 2.2.S C f» (T> 5*2. CD o <^ a 5 S » CD 1 O too ?• o 3? ? -P O O 01 -. 2 5 f» o p p iPa 11 162 TYPES AND BREEDS *o . ^ a; g1 ^a |l 1 1 1:11 £ a; >>-C EC'S S'^ U.5 gc3 is MS© I t^ m r* '-'■■-' ^ -tj-i-' a> « OB c^ 'JUDGING HORSES' 163 164 TYPES AND BREEDS c 73 cj Mrs o o — •* c 2 '■ -'S c t c og ■»- t: =j= o c 5 JUDGING HORSES 165 « 3 g r g 5 .^ g crp c 5 ai H =•3 •Cto' cra'< w c r*^ 2 ?^0 3 (t) (I> ^ :; a <; n 2 o r<- CO oa. HH?S* p :? 0 cr-^ B j ta" o CO o ai >:- ■ CL. «> « 2 O X- "> - . O O I CT^^ o p o c S- 3 o ^«o - _^o I P fO 5-cr ■'OTi'^ -i " Co "^ ~'->"a 5 o « . , . 5 sip'^ a »• CD (B P< 166 TYPES AND BREEDS JUDGING HORSES 167 O tB 1-1 <2.p o ^ ■^ as o 1 '-' i-^CR i-( ^^r+ crP il rt> (B -TO fD O rf -j-ci.:^ «> -< o '^ ft) ?^&^^.a o p f;-l? rti o ::. (T^ >:^- p o (Tp &'■ ffi r^ rt> ►-.P' •- '-'^ "^O o P 16S TYPES AND BREEDS JUDGING HORSES 169 o- r^ a s g; p S p P to 1-1 3 crp S3 s p o p o III |3f« 3 3 CO p i a. p 1 p p p &. 1 QQ ?5 ■^ i* 5 2 1 i ^ o fS ►1 w < p cc B CO - (t p o o p- a 3 o a> P P p_ S p (T> p P o m &. '< (B - s B 2. P p p p o o o 3 2. 0- t^^ ^ P Cfl i'"' P- p- a <—. •1 p p o ^ a S3 ^ O O-ffi CD ffi s S' ►I p D ^ 3 P 3 n S ?■ p- 1 ai o o ? p-a o m CCm s p o CD t3 p GO c p M JB "O "- » P rt> « 3 TO 5 3 (T> a o P p P o C3 ^ m >5J 3 P O Z "§. m p ^ p- o S o a D" 2 (6 s P- 3 O 1 n p 2 p_ 0 S- p ri Q g 1 P- s. p <^ 1 '^ > 2, p" ^ ^ r*- ai a p" P' P ►- o-p GO c 3. O P p" a -1 ^ o o o 0 p- 1 ►1 170 TYPES AND BREEDS JUDGING HORSES 171 "p 3 St'' ^St 5-S^n^S " 2 ^ P O p 3 rti 0 pS.S'2,S.p.o O p CB j:*p O •-< o'2 o ^ S • ^ O 1 JT^' ft) SpO??3a- p 1 cr^ -tj"" 3 H :5 ^ B.p o ^^ 5 p 2 fS- o ^a o So ^ ^g p g ??-°,Er O n C- ai re ft> ,^ S =r«.3-p c ^ H, re 3 O 3^ ^ ffi »"< ^^^ ? O- p p re 2 p 5V. e-« E-i 3 : = ^o o s S'S. o " ^ re 3 <* 3 -.« r're re {i,CR q^ ^ ^ p C <"£,p'^ o'^^ S p p O -1 3 ^ ^ r" CTre P ^ ^o ^"^S-p T o 1 re f° 3 o P «. p ?^si P 2.^ o P-.o p O '* 2.ai ^^ H ^ re ~a3 0 g'-gpS^f tip P m a a 172 TYPES AND BREEDS fmmti o £ £ «.2 c t. E CS 0- _ Ci ::i — T s 0) " 08 z: w £ o « c 3-3 a cj P i c2 c Ti.S-^ r:* h'"" o 5 > Cm « a> 2 C^ c .; > !K :3 £.2 Eh O o ■^ ? C- 4)^- — • > r.« x ~^ (u o c o to c ^15 J S o g- = «i « 0-E «-j=_-^ c 5 o "^ •- « i;-;? 2 S £• c >> Tc => 05 03 6 i:'^ P a* >»4J-5 aj o o S3 c 2^'^ is g S 0.02^ £ 83 JUDGING HORSES 173 This is more in response to demands of buyers than to any real depreciation in the serviceability of the horse. The average horseman reckons the probable period of usefulness as the dif- ference between the present age and the age to which the average horse lives ; but there are too many other influences which may impair a horse's usefulness or terminate his existence altogether to make this a sound line of reasoning. A horse that has with- lii;. I 17. — 'I'lii-^ \\i>r'u-' h:n :\ r(-fc,rcl nf twonty-thrne years in the delivery service of a large city depurtnient store. The reason is evident in the superior breeding and conforma- tion which he manifests. stood ordinary wear so well that he is comparatively fresh and sound at twelve years of age gives promise of having more years of usefulness ahead of him than the average six-year-old just from the country. Both city stables and the farm afford numer- ous instances of horses that have been from sixteen to twenty years on the job and still give little evidence of the infirmities that are supposed to come with advancing years (Fig. 117). The 174 'TYPES AND BREEDS Fig. 118. — This horse has served eighteen years in the city as an ambulance horse and, by virtue of his superior type, conformation, and intelligence, is still serviceable. FlO. 119. — This horse, o£f type and of inferior conformation, with little sense, has been rendered unserviceable by the same work in one year. JUDGING HORSES 175 mechanical excellence of conformation is a much more important factor in determining the period of usefulness of a horse than his age (Figs. 118 and 119). Disposition and intelligence have much to do mth a horse's usefulness. Together they determine the character of his per- formance, within the limits of his possibilities as fixed by type, conformation, and soundness. A good, honest, game horse will oftentimes give more satisfactory service in spite of some phys- ical infirmity than a sound horse that is sour, crabbed, or deficient in horse sense, WTiether one rides or drives for profit or pleasure, that end is greatly enhanced by the cheerful responsiveness with which the horses do their work. Horses are being more and more exclusively used for sporting purposes and to realize the greatest delight from a ride or a drive the horse should enter fully into the spirit of the occasion. Both intelligence and disposition are reflected in the horse's countenance — the expression of the eye, the poise of the ear, and his general behavior. Some horses are much more demonstrative than others. REVIEW 1. What are the responsibilities of the judge? 2. What does judging- involve beside an analysis of the individuals under consideration ? 3. Of what assistance is the law of con-elation to the practical judge? 4. What is the importance of a system of examination in judging? Outline the most logical system. 5. What features are to be considered in judging? 6. Discuss the proper use of the score card. 7. Upon what will the importance of an unsoundness depend? 8. What Ls the relation of confonnation to the possible occurrence of unsoundness? 9. How do the teeth come to have a definite appearance at different ages ? 10. What can be said in defence of the old horse? PART III THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING 12 CHAPTER XII THE BREEDING OF HORSES The breeding of horses is done on a limited scale as a side issue to a general farming proposition, more commonly than the breeding of any other class of stock. The majority of farmers raise only a few colts, the bulk of the market supply being pro- duced on a small rather than a large scale. Ideals Differ Geographically. — The corn belt farmer is most concerned Avith the weight of a horse, and scorns all that cannot work, no matter how proficient they may be in other lines of service. On the other hand, the Kentuckian is for a " model " horse, possessing quality in the extreme and capable of a sporty performance, either in the show ring or on the race track, be he saddle or harness horse. The Southerner has no more time for a ^' bull '' of a drafter than his contemporary of the Middle West has for the '^ dude " show or iniquitous race horse. In many parts of Virginia the first thought concerning a horse is ^' How well can he jump ? " and it is regarded as desecration of blood to breed to anything but a Thoroughbred stallion. The average Eastern breeder measures all other types to a road horse standard, and he may be found stinting common farm mares to a little crooked legged pacer that may happen to be the idol of the community since winning the county race at the last fair. It is all a matter of difference in the point of view, and in some communities this point is so indelibly fixed as to make it unwise to advocate a change, but rather to recommend the pursuit of the local ideal in the most intelligent manner. There is a ready market for a good horse of almost any type, and a breeder will usually do best by that which he favors most. It may be imprac- ticable, for instance, to force the breeding of draft horses on the Kentucky farmer whose family traditions, intuitive genius, and available blood all make for a very different stamp of horse. Qlnvestm^it^^^Horse breeding requires a larger initial in- vestmesf lor a longer time than most other live stock enter- 179 180 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING prises, but if well managed yields a proportionately greater return. Principles of Breeding. — Breeding is the direction and con- trol of tlie inherent life forces, heredity and variation, by means of selection and mating. Its practice offers a means of regulat- ing the progeny by control of the parentage. Improvement should be the motive, it being something more than a mere mul- tiplic>yyy J- /jr/^//ju/// /j//^r ^yy y/y-'/M^ ////.///////////>// « ,>]^^x^ jt*?--tiji'iii?A'^4-'- "•*^- /// //^^ ///f/^/f ry /yu ////// A/z.^f /■ /'/■//^/z yy^ /////y y/z/t /' r/ yy^ ^ l' > /// ^ff ft y/ /zz// /f //y/.j/f //// /// /y* ' y///< / //ff// . y/z/ry /// /y /A/z/ . /zfYy /////// ///y y/y///.^///:y r/ ,v/ / z///^/ //^//// y/z//'/ :l; i:.: i: 188 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING Revision of the rules is generally in the direction of increased requirements and is justified in the case of comparatively new or young breeds which have increased in numbers to a point where the old and more liberal rules are no longer necessary. The American Trotting Registry Association has already dropped rules which during the formative perio<^l of the breed were essen- tial. It is reported that they contemplate further tighteniug up tlieir requirements by elimination of tlie " standard by per- formance " clause. Stallion Legislation. — Stallion license laws have been passed by a numlx r of the States. Because of the much longer time and greater capital involved in the breeding of horses than of other classes of li\^ stock, some legal regulation of the standing of stallions f of public service, having in view the protection of tlie mare owr .^r and the promotion of the interests of the good bi-eed- ing sires, is important. The idea is not new ; all foreign coun- tries in which horse breeding has made any great advancement have either patronized or protected the horse breeding interests by statute. The French systeui is perhaps the most elaborate. The Fren-ch System, — All breeding stallions in France are either oT\nied by the government or have government authority to stand for service. All privately owned stallions which are accepted for service must be free from roaring and moon blind- ness or periodic ophthalmia, as detennined by inspection to Avliich they are required to submit, aud this fact is attested by the star branded on their necks. Then they are classified according to merit. Those of the l^est class are designated as " approved/^^^ and many of them are liberally subsidized in order that they may be made available to all owners of high class mares ; those which are not quite up to the requirements for approval but are yet desirable sires are classed as " authorized " ; while all others which have passed the veterinary inspection covering roaring and moon blindness are simply '' certified." The stallions from the government ^' haras " are systematically distributed through- out the breeding districts during the season. Ideals in stallion license laws differ, there being a marked lack of uniformity in the provisions of those enacted in the dif- ferent States. A stallion may be licensed to stand for sen^ice THE BREEDING OF HORSES 189 in one State while barred from service in another. Local con- ditions govern, of course, in the case of each State, but there can hardly be sufficient difference in the prevailing conditions to- warrant such a variety of laws. The objects of stallion laws should be (1) to protect the mare owner, by preventing misrepresentation of the breeding or the soundness of the stallion; (2) to protect the owners of superior breeding stallions by eliminating or discouraging the use of infe- rior competitors ; (3) to promote the interests of the mare owners by encouraging the purchase and standing of better stallions ; and (4) to promote the interests of the stallion 0A\Tier by edu- cating the mar© owner to be discriminating in his patronage. The first object is best insured by requiring an examination of the pedigree registry certificates and a uniform inspection, by one board or commission, of every stallion for which applica- tion for license is made, all stallions found acceptable to be class- ified according to breeding, whether pure-bred, grade or scrub, sound or unsound, and said classification to be specified clearly in the license certificate. Purity of Breeding. — Pure-bred is such an arbitrary term, contingent upon so many conditions, that it is more accurate and just in many cases to certify a stallion to be registered or unreg- istered rather than of pure breeding or not of pure breeding. In many instances ineligibility to registry may be strictly technical, due to neglect on the part of previous owners, and may not in any way alter the purity of breeding of the stallion or his value as a sire. The fact that the horse is unregistered, however, can- not be disputed. Hereditary unsoundness is such an elusive condition, so diffi- cult of prognosis, that to specify just what conditions of unsound- ness shall, by their presence, disqualify for sei'v^ice, will necessi- tate the elimination of many individuals of much breeding value, although their get may be in no way predisposed to the unsound- ness which they themselves possess. The same unsoundness may be quite regularly transmitted in one case while perhaps never appearing to be hereditary in another. The most careful obser- vation and inquiry warrant the conclusion that spavin and roar- ing, for instance, can only be regarded as of an hereditary nature 190 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING when their transmission has actually been demonstrated in the progeny. The existence of a defective confonnation is to be regarded witli as much apprehension as the actual unsoundness itself, especially if the latter be unaccompanied by an apparent pre- disposing cause. In making such a determination, it must be borne in mind that some unsoundnesses, as roaring, may not manifest themselves, even though transmitted, until such age that the horse in question may have been lost track of, although, as a rule, a sire of colts that develop unsoundness with any degree of uniformity can soon be detected. Suitable Laws. — Any law to be workable and meet the varied conditions, as they exist in most States, should have some flexi- bility in its application, permitting arbitrary consideration of each case by those in charge of its administration. With a suffi- cient number of registered, sound stallions available to the breeders of a community, a law might be very strict in its re- quirements as to breeding and soundness, but there are localities where the interest in horse breeding is such as to need a boost and is not capable of withstanding much of a knock. As long as the State itself is not empowered or equipped to place there a good stallion, but must depend upon private o^\Tiership for whatever breeding there is done, stallions that should be barred from service, if in competition with good sires, may be permitted to stand, if not doing more harm than good. Meanwhile, the efforts of the stallion board or commission may be devoted to an educational campaign which will ultimately bring better stallions into that distpiet.^ ^ to drag a colt by the halter in order to sugge&t to him that his bu-siness is to follow. As a matter of fact, the reverse effect is usual, and the harder a colt is pulled, the harder he pulls back. If, on the contrary, he is coaxed along some accustomed route, as to the water trough and back, he will soon catch on and follow promptly whenever the halter is taken in hand. The first time the colt is tied up by the head, see to it that the halter will hold him in case he pulls. If it does and he fails in 14 210 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING the first few attempts, a string mil probably ser^^e as well as a chain to keep him in his place tliereafter, while if he succeeds in freeing himself at the first few attempts he will never cease trying to repeat what he has once accomplished. Bridle and Harness. — The first step toward getting a colt going successfully in harness is to properly bit and mouth him. In the old countries a common practice is to back the colt into a slip stall and hold him there by cross-ties snapped in the bit rings. He thus works against the iron, first bearing, then yield- ing, until he becomes accustomed to its presence and tlie pressure exerted by it. The dumb jockey or more simple bitting ring, commonly used here, serves much the same purpose, but no mechanical device is as effective as the pressure of the hand on the rein ; better mouths are made in this way. One of the most effective ways of developing a good mouth in a colt and of teaching him to flex his neck is by riding him as soon as he is old enough to be " backed.'' Many of the best harness horses received much of their preliminary schooling from the saddle. Inasmuch as the conveyance of the master's thought to the horse's mind, for execution, is via hands, reins, bit, and mouth, no progress can be made and none should be attempted until this fundamental means of communication has been established. Simple physical power is a poor means of control when applied to the horse. On the contrary, control is a matter which involves to a greater extent the mental faculties of both horse and master. If he has been inspired from colthood with the idea of man's dominance, obedience will receive a great deal more consideralion from him than will rebellion. AMiile teaching the horse subordination by loading liim to underestimate certain of his powers, it is also essential tliat he be made to believe that there is no limit to certain others. In the breaking process the kick strap should not be left off until the habit has been acquired, nor should any pains be spared to prevent an initial performance at either rearing, backing, wheel- ing, or running. On the other hand, it is just as important not to overload a pair of draft colts, with a view of creating in them the notion that they can pull anything with two ends loose. For THE BREEDING OF HORSES 211 the same reason a prospective race horse should be given no occasion to believe that he is anything but invincible. Thus by exaggerating our equine servant's notion of those of his powers which are most useful to us, and at the same time deceiving him as to those attributes wkich, if realized, might impair his use- fulness, we promote his serviceability. It is not necessary here to discuss the various systems of breaking, nor the art of driving. The idea is simply to impress upon the breeder the importance of properly handling the colts and fillies w^hich he has bred. At all events, give them a liberal education and begin early. Then, when the buyer comes along, the colt so handled is more likely to sell well for three reasons : ( 1 ) He is worth more ; ( 2 ) the owner has a better opportunity to shoAV the colt oil to his oavti advantage, presenting him with the best foot forward, as it were; and (3) the buyer has a much better chance to observe the real merit that he possesses. Sterility is thK-cau^eofco^sid^fable loss to horse breeders annually. Since actual test in the stud is the only means of de- termining its existence, large prices may be paid for breeding animals wliich prove utterly useless for that pur]30se. Some knowledge of the causes of sterility may enable the breeder to guard against the purchase of barren animals, to prevent it in his breeding stock, or to regain the breeding power of animals in Avhich it is temporarily impaired. Sterility may be either permanent or temporary, and involves both sexes. Permanent sterility is usually congenital, the result of an incomplete or abnormal development of the generative organs. Temporary sterility is caused by injuries or disease affecting the genital system, or such general constitutional con- ditions as may result from a change of environment, either ex- treme obesity or general debility, and excessive use in the stud. Sterility in the stallion may consist either of an inability or an indisposition to sen^e a mare ; or that operation may be accom- plished but with no resulting impregnation on account of the 212 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING absence of live, vigorous spermatozoa. Sterility of the latter class may be complete or only partial, as when the breeding powers are impaired but not lost. Double cryptorchids, in which both testicles are retained undeveloped in the abdomen, are usu- ally sterile, while single cryptorchids (ridglings), in which one testicle only is involved, may be sure breeders. The latter are objectionable as sires, hoAvever, since the condition is frequently transmitted, thereby seriously complicating the 0}:)eration of castration. Many instances are reported of imported stallions which have had successful stud seasons abroad proving impotent the first year or two in this country, after which their potency is regained. Stallions remain potent to an old age as a rule. Many valu- able sires are sacrificed just as their true worth is beginning to be appreciated, because they are growing old. Experienced breeders who retain their proven sires find them potent to an advanced age and much more valuable than many untried young stallions prove to be. Most stallions are sold Avith a guarantee to get 60 per cent of breedable mares in foal, but a much higher percentage is maintained by some. Sterility or barrenness of the mare consists of an inability to produce a living colt. She may either be unable to conceive, to carry the foal the full period of fcetal development, or to de- liver the foal alive at the conclusion of gestation. Some mares are so irritable or excitable in the presence of the stallion as to make it necessary to resort to artificial impreg- nation in order to get them bred. If a twelve or fourteen-year-old mare has never had a foal, her generative organs have probably undergone more or less atrophy from disuse, and the possibility of getting her with foal is much lessened. There are numerous instances, however, of quite old mares having become pregnant for the first time. Mares frequently suffer from cysts or tumors of the ovaries, the irrita- tion of which keeps them almost continually in heat and renders them practically useless, yet they fail to get in foal, when bred. Such mares should be spayed and considered as work geldings rather than brood mares. THE BREEDING OP HORSES 213 Extensive breeders of imported mares have experienced con- siderable difficulty in getting some of them in foal the first season or two after their arrival unless they were in foal when brought over; others breed as readily as native mares. Occasionally a mare is encountered which breeds only every other year. Others will not come in season, or at least conceive^ while suckling a foal. It is usually more difficult to get mares in foal in the fall than in the spring. The age to which maret? will continue to breed is variable, but many have remained pro- ductive after passing the quarter century mark. Their breeding power declines gradually, being marked by occasional misses, occurring with increased frequency. A mare which produces a good foal regularly is of priceless value in the breeding stud. When an apparently valuable breeder, although not in foal at the time, is offered for sale, it is safe to assume that she has proven herself barren or at least a shy breeder, unless, of course, there are other obviously good reasons to account for her being sold. Herniaphrodites, individuals in which the sexual organs of both sexes are more or less completely represented, are, of course, sterile. Reproduction is a natural function which requires simply a normal state of health and vigor for its accomplishment. The stallion does not need the artificial stimulation of drugs to in- sure his potency, neither can there be any virtue in " breeding remedies '' for mares, other than that they may, like any anti- septic preparation, overcome acidity or correct a catarrhal con- dition in the genital tract. When intelligent management of breodins: animals, insuring, especially, a balance between feed and exercise, fails, it is probable that breeding is either str'^cturally or functionally impossible. Artificial impregnation is. quite generally resorted to now by breeders of all classes of horses, both as a means of extending the services of the stallion and to insure the mares' getting in foal. The method of conveying the spermatic fluid from the vagina of the mare served, into the uterus of the same or other 214 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING mares, by means of either the gelatine capsule or the impreg- nator — a specially designed syringe — is familiar to most hoi*se breeders. When first advocated, artificial impregnation was opposed by mare owners, but when it is demonstrated that colts so conceived can not be distinguished from colts sired in the natural way, this prejudice gradually disappears. Peter the Great, the leading sire of trotters, got from seventy to eighty foals a year as a result of artificial impregnation being used in his case. It is fundamental to the successful practice of artificial im- pregnation to know that the vitality of the male geiTa cell is so susceptible to the infiuence of light and temperature that it must be carefully handled and quickly transferred. " Colts by mail '' is hardly feasible. Artificial Insemination. — This method of breeding is re- ported to have been long practiced in crude fashion by the Arab horsemen and by dog men, in a limited way, but it has recently come into more general adoption by horse breeders. The simpler anatomical arrangement of the cervix and the longer heat period of the mare make artificial insemination much more practical in horses than in cattle. The objects of resorting to artificial means to inseminate mares are to distribute, yet conserve, the services of a valuable sire, to insure conception in some mares which fail to settle to the ordinary service of the stallion, and to obviate the danger of serving some nervous or irritable mares. The technic consists in collecting the seminal fluid from the depressed floor of the vagina of a mare just served by the horse, in the regular way, by means of an uncovered capsule or a syringe, carrying it to the genital tract of other mares ready to be bred and inserting it directly through the cervix into the uterus of these mares. All this must be accomplished without subject- ing the semen to much variation from body temperature, in order not to impair the \atality and motility of the germ cells. It may be advisable to capsule the mare already served by the horse. The strictest cleanliness should be obser\^ed throughout the operation and mares showing vaginal discharge or any unhealthy THE BREEDING OF HORSES 215 condition of the generative organs should be avoided. The oper- ator's nails should be short and clean, the hand and arm thor- onglily washed and lubricated with mild soap suds or vaseline. The utmost care must be exercised not to abrade or infect the mucous surfaces in manipulation. The collection of the semen is best made with a syringe which can be boiled and a flexible nozzle is an advantage. The fluid is then transferred, one by one, into as many one-ounce conical shaped gelatine capsules as there are mares to breed, the syringe being immersed in water at body temperature, in the interval between the filling and insert- ing of each capsule. No special restraint is necessary, as a rule, but restive mares may have a twitch applied to the nose, and possibly a side line to hold up one foot. Heavy or stiff tails would be better tied to one side or bandaged. Testing the Potency of a Stallion. — Recognizing the part the male may play in sterility, it is important to test the semen from time to time, not only to detect impotency, but to determine the results of too heavy service, masturbation, overfeeding, emacia- tion or any condition which may affect the vitality of the male germ cells. A sample of semen is received in a clean container at the conclusion of a service, and a few drops placed on a slide or cover glass to be examined under a low power microscope. Normally the spermatozoa or male sex cells will be seen actively motile, forcing their way across the field by a vigorous lashing of their tails. They are present in great numbers, 428,000 per cm.* Their motility is gradually lost under the influence of drying, light, and high temperature. REVIEW 1. Describe the forces involved in breeding. 2. What is the relation of the parent to the ancestry on the one hand and the progeny on the other? 3. Explain the greater breeding value of the pure-bred parent. What is the pedigree? 4. What is meant by prepotency and upon what may it depend? 5. What are the objections to cross-breeding and when is it justifiable? * Lewis, Okla. Exp. Station Bui. 93 and 96. 216 THE PRINCIPLES OF BREEDING 6. What is the importance of studbook registration? 7. What are the objects of stallion legislation? 8. Why is " pure bred " an arbitrai-y teiin ? 9. When may an unsoundness be considered hereditaiy? 10. Name the advantages of the community system of breeding. 11. Of what does the proper equipment of a breeding stud consist? 12. Describe the ideal sire and direct his care and. management. 13. Describe the ideal brood mare and direct her care and management. 14. What can be said of breeding two-year-old fillies; of fall foaling? 15. What should the proper care of the foal from birth to marketable age include and how much should it cost? PART IV THE HORSE IN SERVICE CHAPTER XIII RELATION BETWEEN HORSE AND MASTER History. — Tlie first reference to the domesticated horse is in the Book of Genesis, Chapter xii^ verse 43, and records him in use hy the Egyptians in Joseph's time, 1715 B.C. Modem research, however, leads us to believe tliat the Egyptians derived their horses and ideas of horsemanship from the Libyans, the people (jf the other division of the Hamitic branch of the white race inhabiting [N'ortheni Africa and with whom the Egyptians were frequently brought in contact. From this centre the general distribution of horses throughout Arabia, Asia Minor, Asia, and Europe was accomplished with greater rapidity than has marked the advance in the domestication of any other animal. Con- trary to a popular belief, there were no horses in Arabia at the beginning of tlie Christian Era. The horse has been and is yet, in primitive countries, preceded as a beast of burden by the dog, camel, ox, and ass. Recently archaeologists have uneartlied evidence that the horse not only existed but was subjugated to the service of man in the Old Stone Age, when men lived in caves, worked and fought with implements and weapons of stone of most crude design, and were supposed to have domesticated only the dog and the reindeer. The first use made of the horse was in warfare. The war chariot has been regarded as a creation of the Egyptians, but it is believed now that the design was borrowed from the Libyans. Later, the Avar horses were ridden, and hand-to-hand combat with spear or lance and shield was waged by their riders, although at first the horses served only for the transportation of the com- batants to the field of battle, where they dismounted and fought on foot. With the adoption of annor, the size of the horse was materially increased, in order that he might be capable of carry- ing the gross weight of rider and armor both for man and horse. 219 220 THE HORSE IN SERVICE With the invention of gunpowder the type of war horse was modified in accordance with the change in methods of warfare. Our modem cavalry charger is quite a different horse from the ancient '^ Great Horse '' of the armored knight, which eventually became the prototype of our present drafter. In ancient times it was customary for the victors in a con- flict to drive their chariots through the towns in celebration of their victory, a practice now emulated by college students. This led to the adoption of the chariot as a feature not allied to war but representing the Church and State. White horses were pre- ferred for this service, and a. race of white horses was perpetu- ated in Lombardy and the purity of their lineage was guarded with great zeal solely for this purpose. The horse has been an important factor in civil and religious ceremonies ever since. At an early period the horse was engaged in the sports and pastimes of the people. During the latter half of the twelfth century primitive horse sports, the most remote antecedents of modern polo and the gymkhana, were popular in England. In 1377 the first race was run between Richard Second and the Earl of Arundel. Racing and hunting have been followed in England for five centuries. The general use of horses in the industries came later, although there is evidence of their having worked at draft in England during the eleventh century. Their importance in this line of service has increased in proportion to the development of agri;e consist? and what personal qualifications are involved? 10. What may be the consequences of working horses when not in con- dition ? CHAPTER XIV THE FEEDING OF HORSES One of our leading texts on feeding has this most appro- priate quotation on its fly leaf : '^ The eye of the master fattens his cattle/' The feeding of stock is both an art and a science. The artist docs not employ a T-square and compass, nor does he resort to mathematical equations to express his conceptions on canvas. The accuracy of his results is in proportion to his skill. The scientist, on the other hand, is exact to the fifth decimal and is held to the most absolute accuracy in his methods of determi- nation. Scientific research has provided us witli most valuable data bearing on the subject of nutrition, but the possession of such data alone does not constitute all of the qualifications of a suc- cessful feeder. In an effort to make feeding an exact science there is danger of losing the art. Provide two feeders of similar classes of stock with the same scientific data and allow them both access to the same mows and bins, yet there may be a wide varia- tion in the results obtained by each. One lacks the art of apply- ing the science; it is as essential to know how as what to feed. Art in Feeding Horses. — This is especially true of the feed- ing of horses. The block animal has simply to &(3 a superior carcass, and to tliis end he is provided with every advantage, and requires from but a few wrecks to three years, at the most, for its attainment. A horse's obligation is to do rather than to he; he is required to perform more complex functions, and for a period of such duration as Avill justify the gTcater initial invest- ment which he represents. The nature of a horse's work is so exacting and yet so variable, his opportunity for mental and physical disturbances so great, and his misuse so common, that in his case no standard or rule can be applied unalterably. Successful horse feeders are " artists " with eyes for the " fattening " of their stock. They balance their rations, not so 231 232 THE HORSE IN SERVICE much from a knowledge of either German or American feeding standards, as from the actual requirements of the horses them- selves. These requirements are indicated by their spirit or " feel " ; the expression of their countenance ; the condition of their coats and legs ; and the color, odor and consistency of the faeces. If feeders read these signs aright it will usually be found that the rations fed will check up very closely to what would be a balanced ration if calculated on the basis of generally accepted feeding standards. Two Systems Compared. — In the feeding of cattle and hogs the lot is the usual unit, but in the case of horses, even more than with dairy cows, the individual is the unit, and even his individ- ual requirements may be subject to considerable variation. One system of supposedly economic feeding is to calculate, in the office, from the requirements set forth in the Wolff-Lehmann or modified standards, the rations to be fed, compare them with the stock of feed on hand and the number of horses to be fed, then notify the stable boss that his feed should last till a certain date, and hold him responsible for any shortage. This system ignores, completely, the individual requirements of the different horses, which only the artist feeder can appreciate and meet. Another way is to employ a thoroughly competent feeder, pro- vide anything and everything that he may desire in the feed line, allow him every latitude in the use of it, and then hold him responsible for results only, as measured by the fitness and capacity of his horses for their work. The former method may be more economic of feed consumed, but the latter will be much more productive per unit of feed consumed, which is the real economic consideration. How the Feed is Used. — The horse utilizes the constituents of his ration, — the water, ash, protein, carbohydrates and fat, chemical compounds, — in the growth and maintenance of his body structure, in supporting the vital processes by which he lives, and in performing those functions which we designate as work. The extent to which the ration contributes to either or all of these depends upon the relative proportions of each of the compounds it contains. Water is present in considerable amount in all tissues, being THE FEEDING OF HORSES 233 contained in the protoplasm of tlie cell, the unit of structure of the animal body. The inorganic material of bone, to which its strength and texture are due, is largely calcium phosphate, although other mineral or ash constituents are present in other tissues of the body. Protein is the chief source of the cell protoplasm and is the most important tissue builder. The carbohydrates are fat formers and, in addition, furnish the energy necessary to do" work, after the operation of the vital functions and the maintenance of the body temperature have been taken care of. Fat ser\^es the same purposes, but with a caloric or heat value 2.25 times as great. Rations Not All Alike. — ^It is obvicms that mature animals at work, at rest, pregnant mares, or growing colts require rations made up of these compounds in different proportions. When the proportions of the protein on the one hand and the carbohy- drates plus the fats on the other are such as to just meet the requirements of the horse in question, with no excess of either, the ration is said to be halanced. The relation of the protein to the carbohydrates plus fats is expressed as the nutritive ratio. This is determined by adding to the digestible carbohydrates contained in the ration, the fats multiplied by 2.25, then divid- ing the sum by the amount of the protein. The protein is to the carbohydrate as one is to the quotient. The ration is considered wide if the ratio of carbohydrates plus fats is large Avhen compared with the protein. If the ratio is small the ration is called narrow. There is no relation between the balance and the sufficiency of the ration. A horse may stance on a perfectly balanced ration of insufficient quantity, or he may be surfeited with feed and yet suffer from malnutrition if the relative amounts of protein and carbohydrates plus fats are not properly balanced. In view of the fact that maintenance requirements, which amount to about 50 per cent of a full ration, Avill be satisfied before anything is available to be turned to work, the full ration, so far a^ quantity is concerned, is most productive. 234 THE HORSE IN SERVICE Nutritive Requirements of the Horse. — The horse's daily nutritive requirements, according to the Wolff-Lehmann feed- ing standards, are as follows. The amounts are for one thousand pounds of live weight : Dry Carbo- Nutritive matter Protein hydrates Fats ratio Light work 20 lb. 1.5 lb. 9.5 lb. .4 lb. 1:7 Medium work 24 1b. 2 lb. 11 lb. .6 1b. 1:6.2 Heavy work 26 lb. 2.5 lb. 13.3 lb. .8 lb. 1:6 Smith * concludes, however, from the investigations of Lang- worth, of the United States Department of Agriculture, and others, that the protein standard is too high ; that the majority of American work horses are doing their work acceptably, with- out loss in condition, on a ration of 1 to 8 instead of 1 to 6. Three Types of Feed. — A ration may be composed of three types of feedstuffs, — concentrates, roughage, and succulence. The relative amounts of each, which the ration should contain, will be determined by the class of horses fed. The horse is an automobile in that he moves by his own power, and is not a sta- tionary engine, as are cattle, sheep, and hogs, so far as their pro- ductiveness is concerned. It is important, therefore, that he expend as little as possible of energy available, in simply trans- porting the mass of his o^vn body. Hence, the horse at work must carry his ration in more or less concentrated form, according to the nature of the work. But some bulk in the digestive tract is necessary, for physiological reasons. A horse would prac- tically starve to death on concentrates alone. Roughage should be allowed but its amount regulated according to the nature of the work, and it should be fed mostly at night, when it will cause least interference. An idle horse can take a greater proportion of his ration in roughage than one at work, and the drafter moving at a walk, with weight an advantage, can be allowed more roughage than the race horse, in whose case weight is a handicap and bulk an impediment. Succulence is useful in the ration, not only for the nutrients it contains but for the palatability which it lends and its physio- * Profitable Stock Feeding. THE FEEDING OF HORSES 235 logical effect on the digestive tract and condition of the animal in general. The use of succulence for horses at work must be g-uarded or it will induce such a lax condition of the bowels as to seriously interfere with their serviceability. Succulence is admissible according to the nature of the work a horse does, as in the case of roughage. CONCENTRATES FOR HORSES Oats. — The concentrate best adapted to the feeding of horses is oats ; on account of both chemical and physical composition, they stand first in this class. They not only meet the protein and carbohydrate requirements best, but the hull is an advantage, in so extending the kernel as to insure most complete digestion. Besides, there seems ample reason for believing that oats improve the fettle, especially of haniess and saddle horses. The cost ])rice of oats is high, however, and in the interests of economy they may be displaced by the other feeds, either wholly or in part, without any serious detriment to the ration. Corn is the logical substitute for oats in most sections of this country. In fact, economy demands the use of corn in the ration of the work horse to a much greater extent than it is used at present. Wlien its general use in the corn belt States is considered, much of the prejudice of the Eastern feeders loses weight. The average Iowa horse, for instance, is produced by a dam which was raised on com, and had no other grain during the period of carrying and suckling her foal. The foal receives a little cracked corn or even cob com for his first bite, with the amount gradually increased until he is allowed from 20 to 40 ears per day at maturity. In spite of this fact, when these very horses come East, top our markets, and pass under the management of the city stable boss, com is absolutely prohibited as dangerous to feed; yet it requires a long time to induce and teach some of these horses to eat anything else. Corn Supplements. — An exclusive com ration is not to be recommended, but com in combination with either oats and bran, bran or cottonseed meal alone is all right. Recent inves- tigations at the Iowa station have shown that com with cotton- 236 THE HORSE IN SERVICE seed meal, in the proportions of 9 to 1, constitutes a perfectly satisfactory ration for the work horse, and is effective of a very material saving in cost. Ear corn is most desirable for horse feeding, as the kernels keep best in the original package, as it were. There is a certain freshness about it that horses prefer, and, besides, they are com- pelled to eat it slowly. Corn in this form, however, is bulky to handle in the trade and few city stables are equipped to store it in any quantity. The most reasonable objection to the more general feeding of com, off the farm, is the difficulty in securing ear com in good condition. Shelled or cracked com is more convenient for all but the farmer feeder. It is not so safe nor satisfactory as ear corn, however. Cornmeal coarsely ground, and in combination with oats, bran, or cottonseed meal is excellent, providing the corn can be ground as required. But the commercial meal is more liable to cause trouble by its oil becoming rancid and the mass spoiling than is corn in any other form. It is probable that the opposition to corn for horses, so common among both city feeders and their veterinary advisers, is due more to the qviality and condition of the corn which usu- ally reaches city horses than to the composition of the com itself. The satisfactory results which attend its judicious use in the country, generally, would seem to vindicate the contents of the com crib from responsibility for the alleged evils of com feed- ing. By properly balancing the ration of which corn forms a part, the nuich dreaded " heating " effect may be largely over- come. Bran ranks third as a horse feed, although it can hardly be considered as an exclusive feed, except for occasional or exce]> tional use. In work stables it is customary to feed a bran mash, preferably wet, at least once a week, and that Saturday night. The practice is commendable, as it tends to offset the effect of continued high feeding of horses at hard work, as well as being acceptable to the horses for the sake of variety. Much depends upon the preparation of the mash. The coarse, flaky, winter wheat bran is preferable; add sufficient water to moisten it THE FEEDING OF HORSES 237 thoroughly, so that it breaks nicely, but without any sem- blance to a slop, then season with salt and a little ginger or gentian. Shorts and middlings are too concentrated to be fed to horses except in small quantities, and then they should h^ in combina- tion with some of the other more bulky grains. Some horses show an especial susceptibility to digestive disturbances when mid- dlings are fed. Dried brewers* grains, now quite generally fed to dairy cattle, have not been utilized by horse feeders to the extent that trials of their feeding value would seem to justify. The in- creasing demand for them among dairymen will no doubt ad- vance the price, but they are comparatively much cheaper than either oats or bran. In combination with either of these or with com they have given satisfaction so far as they have been tried. They are reckoned about equivalent to oats, pound for pound. Barley is the most common cereal feed for horses in some parts of the country where it is extensively grown. It is well adapted for that pui'pose provided it is crushed before feeding. The presence of the awns may prove irritating to the horse's mouth. Canada field peas deserve more general consideration than they receive from horse feeders. When available they may be profitably employed in combination with other concentrates in making up the work horse ration. Linseed oil meal is more commonly fed as a conditioner than for its nutritive properties, although the Iowa station has sho\vn favorable results from oil meal combined with corn and oats for the purpose of reducing the cost of the ration, the oil meal dis- placing the oats otherwise required to balance the com. It has a most valuable physiological effect on the bowels, coat, and the nutritive functions in general. It helps restore condition in horses which have either been overdone by feeding or are in a state of malnutrition. It is usually fed to secure finish and bloom, in fitting horses for show or sale, in quantities up to but not exceeding a pound per day. Cottonseed meal has been tested in feeding trials at both the Pennsylvania and Iowa stations, with such satisfactory re- 238 THE HORSE IN SERVICE suits that it is now generally recommended as a complete or partial substitute for oats, in combination with corn, to cheapen the ration. No bad results are repoi-ted from feeding two pounds per day. It is not palatable and its taste should be obscured in the mixture with other feeds. Molasses. — Little was said of molasses as a horse feed, al- though it had been fed to a limited extent as a conditioner, until about 1900, w^hen a United States Army veterinarian, Doctor Griffin, reported its exclusive use with hay by the native Cubans, their hardy ponies doing remarkably well. This report was pub- lished in the American Veteriyiary Review and engaged the at- tention of Doctor Geo. L. Bems, of Brooklyn, New York, who gave it a thorough trial in some of the large stables of draft horses under his supen'ision. The results were such as to thor- oughly convince him that molasses deserved a place in the dietary of all work horses, not alone for the sake of economy but because it has a most beneficial effect upon the digestive system. Dr. Berns still holds to this opinion, which has been quite generally confirmed by otbers who have made observations along this line. Remarkable results have been secured by a liberal feeding of molasses in bringing back to condition horses either convalescent from sickness or those in very poor flesh. It is a valuable " coaxer '' to shy feeders. Its laxative effect must be guarded against to a certain extent. Molasses is usually fed in quanti- ties of from one pint to one quart, per feed, diluted with at least an equal quantity of water and preferably mixed with other feeds. Reports are made of feeding as much as ten pounds per day to mules in Louisiana. There are about twelve pounds to the gallon. It is especially well adapted to the coarse, mixed ration in which cut hay or straw forms the base. Whatever the ration, its palatability as well as its nutritive value is increased by the addition of molasses. It is a constit- uent of many proprietary feeds, serving to disguise and render more edible the fraudulent ones. The black strap cane molasses, not the beet-sugar product, is the kind fed. Undiluted molasses is unsatisfactory, as it smears the muzzle, and from it the sides of the horse, and is especially objectionable in fly time. Wheat and rye both make acceptable horse feeds provided THE FEEDING OF HORSES 239 they are crushed to prevent tlie formation of paste in the mouth. The market price of wheat, especially, allows of its being fed only under unusual conditions. Other materials, the availability of which is more or less restricted, may prove worthy of a place in the horse's ration Avhen and where they can be secured at low cost For example, one enterprising Philadelphia city teamster met the high cost of oats and com, of recent years, by introducing a ration of mo- lasses and stale bread, on which his horses did well. ROUGHAGE FOR HORSES Timothy is in a class by itself as a roughage for horses, the leafless nature of the plant insuring nearly perfect curing and freedom from dust in the hay. In addition there is a constrin- gent property in timothy by virtue of which horses filled up with it keep hard and do not become washy on the road, as horses will if fed on the hay from a legume or on fresh grass. The market value of timothy hay is not in accordance with its chemical com- position. The very feature which horsemen favor in it is cor- related with a low coeflicient of digestibility. As a means of affording, in the ration, the bulk and volume necessary for a physiological distention of the digestive tract, to maintain it normally functional, timothy is ideal. Horses like it, if not too ripe, but as a source of nutriment it is inferior to the hay of clover, alfalfa, and other legumes. Legumes, with their extensive leaf surfaces, are much richer in digestible nutrients but more difiicult to properly cure. When im]^roperly cured they are unfit to be fed to horses. The causal relation between clover hay and heaves has been fairly well estal)lished. It is alleged not to be due to the dust, in general, with which clover hay is likely to be filled, but to a specific fungus, the growth of which is peculiar to legumes. It is true that the history of most cases of heaves reveals clover hay in the ration, although there is notliing remarkable about this, as tlie majority of horses are so fed. On the whole, we cannot afford to count clover-mixed hay out of the ration of the average horse. But in view of the possibility that may result from feeding it, we should consider carefully the quality, and guard the quan- 240 THE HORSE IN SERVICE tity, of that allowed. It is best mixed with timothy in about such proportions as come in the second season's cutting from a timo- thy-clover seeding. Alfalfa is in the experimental stage as a constituent of the horse's ration. There is no reason why its judicious use, in com- bination with timothy, should not be recommended. Grood alfalfa hay is about the most tempting thing that can be put before a horse in the winter time, as he himself will attest if allowed tlie opportunity. In addition to its paiatability and high content of easily available protein, alfalfa has a beneficial action on the digestive tract. The amount fed, with timothy, can be so regulated as to control the bowels to a fine degi^ee. On account of its 10 to 15 per cent of protein, alfalfa should be balanced by the other constituents of the ration, lest an excess of protein be fed. An excess of nitrogen would require elimina- tion by the kidneys, which may prove injurious. Alfalfa hay has not been fed in the East extensively enough to determine whether or not it may induce heaves. Those parts of the country where it is most extensively grown and fed fur- nish only exceptional cases of heaves from any cause. It would be difficult to obtain a cured forage plant in a more perfect state of preservation than some of the alfalfa hay that is produced in the semi-arid Kocky Mountain States. So long as hay produced under the ideal conditions for growth and curing Avhich prevail there can be placed on Eastern markets, to compete with the home-grown product, favor is likely to be shown the fonner. The Eastern fanner should be encouraged in the production of alfalfa. The addition of alfalfa hay to a ration will both reduce the cost of maintenance and improve the condition of any class of horses. Groimd alfalfa may be used in place of bran, in combination with other concentrates, but unless combined with molasses or moistened it is so light and fine as to be readily blown away, and has the objection of being dusty. Many prepared alfalfa feeds, of this class, are offered to the trade. The hay has the same nutritive value and, if of good quality, will be as com- pletely and enthusiastically consumed as when artificially pre- pared. These facts argue for the more general use of the hay. Cow pea and soy bean hay are both reported upon favor- THE FEEDING OF HORSES 241 ablj by those who have fed them as a part of the roughage. Like corn stover they are available to feed only on the farms where grown. Corn Stover. — In the early winter, before the leeching and blowing away of its most nutritive and palatable parts has been accomplished, corn stover is one of the best kinds of roughage for horses, eitlier at rest or at work. It has a nutritive value about equal to timotliy hay, from which it affords a change. Horses do not fill to excess on it as they do on hay, and it is posi- tively beneficial to horses which have mild cases of heaves aggravated by the feeding of hay of even good quality. Horses eat the leaves and pick at tlie stalks readily without shredding. In fact, they seem to prefer stripping the leaves from the stalks rather than seeking out tlie finer parts from among the sections of stalk, in the cut or shredded stover. Idle horses will strip and eat quite a large portion of the stalk itself, if not over-sup- plied with the finer parts. More com stover will be eaten if hay is not furnished at the same time. In many parts of tlie Soutli the tops and leaves are pulled from the corn plants, cured, and done up in bundles for horse feed. Pulled com and sheaf oats are highly esteemed for the purpose of bringing back a stale show or race horse or to start one already in poor condition. Oat straw, if bright, well cleaned, and not too Hpe, does well for horses not at hard work. Its feeding condition is im- proved by chaffing and moistening with diluted molasses. Sheaf Oats. — ^\^len available, sheaf oats are excellent for horses with am]^le time in which to feed. Cereal Hay. — The cereals, especially barley and oats, either or both in combination with field peas, make excellent hay for horses if cut in the dough stage. Their use, like that of sheaf oats and pulled corn, would he resorted to in order to meet special requirements or secure unusual results, rather than in the eco- nomic maintenance of horse power. SUCCULENCE Succulence is most essential to horses which do not have the stimulating effect of tlieir ration offset by an abundance of ex- 16 242 THE HORSE IN SERVICE ercise, although its use is not objected to either with work horses or even race horses in training. Pasture. — Grass is the most natural and satisfactory form in which to furnish succulence, as it also necessitates healtliful exercise in the open air in order to secure it. Unfortunately, it is not available at all seasons of the year nor under all circum- stances. It must, therefore, be substituted or supplemented. Carrots are the best root crop for horse feeding. Like other roots, their physiological benefits outweigh their nutritive value. For the winter feeding of colts and brood mares they are espe- cially desirable, while they form a staple article of diet in most stallion-importing establishments, where it is necessary to carry the horses along in high condition all the time and yet keep them right Carrots are fed either whole or sliced, but to slice them to a size too large to swallow but too small to chew is more liable to induce choking than if fed uncut. Soiling crops are sometimes fed to breeding or sho-w horses. In France it is common to feed green cut alfalfa (Lucerne). Such green material must be fed to horses as soon as \\dlted and before heating or decomposition of any degree begins. Silage has been condemned by most horse feeders and justi- fiably so, for much of the data concerning its us& have been unfavorable, fatal results being commonly reported. Recent feeding experiments, however, have demonstrated that silage may be safely fed to work horses and growing colts, if of best quality and limited to from ten to twenty pounds- per day. Silage the least bit moldy or spoiled is dangerous for horses. WATER Water of good quality and ample quantity is essential to the good health, comfort, and efiiciency of horses at work. A thirsty horse does not make the most of his ration ; his digestive func- tions are impaired by the sense of thirst. Horses should be watered regularly, so they may be able to anticipate their oppor- tunities. Regular watering at frequent intervals will probably insure the horse drinking more of fresher w^ater in the course of the day than though allowed free access to water in the stall at THE FEEDING OF HORSES 243 all times. The idea, more prevalent than one would believe, that a horse should be stinted in his water supply is incompre- hensible. If the horse has much liberty in this matter he will rarely drink to his own detriment. Watering when Warm. — It is dangerous to allow a fill of water when the horse is very warm, but better then than never, as is liable to be the case in many poorly managed stables. A moderate drink will refresh and benefit any horse at any time. Public Watering Troughs. — Indiscriminate patronage of public watering troughs in cities is fraught Avith the danger of glanders infection. A bucket, which could be filled direct from the inflow, and the horses watered from it, might well be made a part of the equipment of each Avork horse outfit. 'Time to Water. — Theoretically, watering should precede feeding, in order not to flush on into the intestines the incom- pletely digested feed contained in the stomach, at the time the drink is taken. In practice, ho«w"ever, it is found that many horses Avill refuse to drink before eating, especially in the morn- ing, and will seek a drink soon after feeding, if allowed any free- dom in the matter. It is best not to follow feeding immediately by a drink. A horse's drinking periods should be so arranged that he will not go to work immediately after a full drink. The common practice of alloAving horses to drink their fill upon coming into the stable from work and again when going out is most conven- ient, but is not safe, although often followed with impunity. The one time at which a horse requires and appreciates a drink most, yet is offered it least frequently, is the last thing at night, after having consumed his full allowance of roughage and being ready to lie down to sleep. Every horse, having worked through the day, should be allowed an opportimity to drink at this time. SALT Salt is required in small quantities, frequently, and regu- larly. The irregular allowance of too much salt with its con- sequent drinking of an excess of water does not meet the require- ments in this respect. If given frequently or provided for the 244 THE HORSE IN SERVICE horse to help himself, only limited amounts will be taken. A satisfactory method of furnishing salt is to season the grain feed. A limip of r(x?k salt in the feed box does fairly well, although the quality of the salt is not good. One of the best patented de- vices is a container for a cylindrical cake of high-grade salt, so arranged that the cake rotates as the horse licks the bottom of it. This insures the salt being used off evenly, the cylinder last- ing until it is but a thin disc. The container screws into the wall of the stall at a convenient height. Loose salt should not be made too easv of access. METHODS OF FEEDING Regularity of Feeding. — Horses are creatures of habit and should be so managed that their daily routine is regular in order that each event may be anticipated in turn. This rule applies to feeding Avith especial force, it being the most important event of the day. Regularity of feeding promotes digestion, assimi- lation, and peace of mind. All horses in a stable should be fed at once, with as little delay as possible in getting to each, in turn, after the operation has begun. In most large stables the drivers have nothing to do with the feeding, that matter being better attended to by one man, who feeds each horse impartially and in accordance with his individual requirements. Time of Feeding. — The daily ration is divided into three feeds given, when circumstances will permit, about six hours apart. City delivery service often necessitates much longer in- tervals between meals. Just a bit of roughage should he allowed in the morning, the bulk of it going with the evening feed. The division of grain is about equal for the three feeds, less being allowed at noon if tlie dinner hour is short. Omission of the noon feed is practiced by some employers of horses and with apparent good judgment. The horse's di- gestive system, unlike that of the ruminating cattle and sheep, is so arranged that he requires feed in small amounts, at com- paratively frequent intervals. There can be no argument of the fact that, under ideal or natural conditions, he should receive at least three feeds a day. But it is economically impossible to in- THE FEEDING OF HORSES 245 sure, to all work horses, ideal conditions. Short noon hours, horses hot when noontime arrives, and compelled to stand in the sun and fight flies while eating, wasting much of their ration, and then to go directly to hard work after feeding — this is the experience of many work horses. The nose-bag or other feeding device which will prevent the waste of a large part of its con- tents, especially in fly time, has not yet been perfected. It is as injurious to feed a hot, tired horse as it is to water him when liot. Feed consumed under such conditions is not well digested and assimilated, even if it does no harm, and its nutritive value to the horse is, therefore, small. The danger of colic from putting a horse to work immedi- ately after eating is unquestionable, as most cases of indigestion in working horses occur between one and four o'clock in the afternoon. In view of all these facts, there is good reason to conclude that the noontime spent in rest after a moderate drink, and the amount of the noon feed added to the night allowance, would be more beneficial to the horse if it is impossible to allow him proper time and place in which to feed. The character and amount of the ration should be modified to meet each change in the work of the horses. Those well fed and working regularly are very susceptible to the so-called " Monday morning " disease, if laid off for a day or two. A short period of idleness calls for a material reduction of the con- centrates of the ration and an increase in the lighter constit- uents, as bran or succulence. Horses temporarily put out of business by storms or holidays should be exercised, in addition to having their ration cut do^vn. Once a horse has shown, by previous attacks, that he is especially predisposed to trouble of this character, he demands the closest attention, yet if this be accorded him he may work as satisfactorily as any horse in the stable. Special preparation of the feed is of little advantage to the normal horse, under usual conditions. The crushing of oats at the ordinary mill is not considered worth while; although the installation of small mills, in stables which are already supplied with the electric current, may bring the cost of crushing down to a point where the end justifies the means. For old or over- 246 THE HORSE IN SERVICE worked horses, the artificial mastication insures the more com- plete utilization of the feed. Crushed or rolled oats have a corrective effect on the bowels of horses prone to be washy, which would warrant their use in such cases. Cutting or chaffing hay or straw makes it possible to com- bine it witli the concentrates of the ration to the mutual improve- ment of both. The roughage extends the concentrates, so that they will be more slowly eaten and more perfectly digested. The addition of the concentrates induces the horse to eat more of the roughage, especially if tlie latter is straw. Moistening hay or straw, especially if chaffed or dusty, im- proves its condition. Variety in the ration is most acceptable to the horse and is to be sought, but its introduction should not involve any sudden or radical change, especially if either corn or middlings be used. REVIEW 1. Why should horse feeders, especially, be "artists"? 2. How is the feed used by the horse? 3. What are the daily nutritive requirements of a horse? 4. Of what three types of feed may the ration be composed, and what are the special requirements of the horse in regard to each? 5. Why are oats considered the most desirable concentrate for horse feeding? 6. What are the advantages and disadvantages of com as a hoi-se feed? 7. To what extent may molasses be fed to advantage? 8. Why is timothy hay especially in demand by horse feeders? 9. Of what value is alfalfa to the horse feeder and how should it be fed? 10. What is the importance of succulence for horses and what may be its source? 11. At what times, in what quantities, under what conditions and where should horees be pennitted to drink? 12. Why should horses be fed at regular periods? 13. Under what circumstances may it be advisable to eliminate the noon feed? 14. What precautions should be observed in the feeding of work horses, temporarily idle? 15. When should the grain be ground, the roughage cut, or the ration varied? CHAPTER XV STABLES The character of the habitations in which horses are re- quired to live varies from the simplest kind of an enclosure, affording no protection whatever, to the most luxuriantly ap- pointed quarters, as those in which some gentlemen's show horses are stabled. As a rule, the more artificial the conditions under which horses are used, the more complete the system of stabling required. There are two general classes of stables, town and country, the principal features of location, design, constniction, and man- agement of which are, necessarily, quite different. Location. — There can usually be very little option exercised in the selection of the site of the town stable, but in the country the situation of the horse's quarters should be given careful con- sideration. The horse stable may be distinct from or included within the farm barn; but in either case it should be built on high, well-drained ground, with a southern exposure, if prac- ticable. The benefits of the light and heat of the sun's rays are insured for a longer period in the day, and the temperature of the stable is maintained more uniform, if admitted through southern vdndows. If a double row of stalls, back to back, are to be provided for, an east and west exposure will be fairest to the occupants of both sides. The design and arrangement of stables should be made with a view to providing sufficient room to accommodate' the requisite number of horses and vehicles to be housed, proper light, venti- lation and drainage, comfort and security of the horses, and con- venience of attendants and patrons. These being insured, the simpler the design the better. Construction.^ — Frame stables predominate in the country, and if well built are entirely satisfactory, so far as the essentials outlined above are concerned, mth the exception of greater danger from fire. Town stables are more frequently built of 247 248 . THE HORSE IN SERVICE brick, stone, concrete, terra-cotta block, or plaster. In the use of these materials for construction it should be borne in mind that a solid wall of masonry is cold and damp, and therefore sweats when the moist, wann air of the stable comes in contact with it. ^\llen horses are to stand next to outside walls they should be built with a hollow centre for a dead air space. Either concrete blocks, the hollow tile, terra cotta, or plaster have this advantage over the solid wall of stone or brick or the poured concrete construction. The plaster or stucco, either rough cast or smooth finished, on expanded metal lath, is a form of con- struction which has proved very satisfactory in a limited way and is comparatively inexpensive. Dimensions of a stable are determined by the individual allowance for stalls, alleys, floor space, and other requiromonts. Stalls are of two sorts, (1) tfi^ loose box stall and (2) the straight, standing, or slip stall. Box stalls allow a horse more liberty, either standing or lying doA\ai, and freedom to roll, an opportunity very much appreciated by most horses. Every stable should have at least one, but on account of the additional room and extra care required they are not practicable for all horses in large stables. The idea of turning a horse ^' loose " to " run " in a box stall is unreasonable. There is no advantage in having them larger than twelve feet square except in the case of a maternity or hospital st:all, where it is necessary to get about the horse readily and to accommodate a foal. The straight stall is the one in Avhich the majority of horses are confined, and should be of sufficient length to protect the horse from being kicked liack of the heel post, and wide enough to enable him to lie down in comfort, yet not to induce him to attempt to roll. At least eight feet from manger to heel post and five feet in width is necessary for that purpose, the size of the horse to govern. Horses shoAv better in shorter stalls, and in sale and show stables safety is often sacrificed on this account. Stall partitions should be about eight feet high in front and five to six feet in the rear, heel posts carried to the ceiling, and should not be built up solid, but be open to allow a free circula- tion of air through the stalls. In a stall with solid walls the horse lying down is deprived of fresh air to such an extent as to STABLES 249 almost smother him in some stables. Planks or panels should be horizontal, not upright, in order not to be split or shattered if kicked. This arrangement brings the impression of the shoe across the grain of the wood. Floors can be kept drier and be more thoroughly cleaned if the partition does not come quite to the floor (Fig. 130). Bales. — One of our most experienced American authori- ties * is an ardent advocate of the bale in place of the fixed par- tition to separate hoi*ses, claiming for it economy of space and more latitude and comfort for the hoi*ses, with equal safety. The bale consists of two planks or boards, _ironed together, to make a widtli of three feet, suspended 18 inches\from the floor by a hook and ring in the Avail at the head of the stall and by a rope or cliain at ihe rear. Four feet is a sufficient allowance for an ordinary sized horse between Ijales, and they will do well in even less. Stall Floors. — Stall floors may be of clay, plank, or pave- ment. In the selection of flooring material there are many ends to be considered. Well tamped clay is noiseless, affords a firm footing unless wet, and without question places the horse on the most natural tread. It does very well in country stables where the clay is available, straw is cheap, and manure is of value, with the horse out of the stable much of the time. It is especially well adapted for use in box stalls. However, it is not easily cleaned and requires frequent repairing to keep the surface even and free from holes and depressions. Plank floors do not tire a standing horse, are warm to lie upon, and are not slippery, but they are neither durable nor sanitary, being more or less pervious and absorbent. Paved floors liave the advantage of durability and are most sanitary, being impei-vious and easily drained, but they are hard to stand upon, slippery, noisy, cold to lie upon, and generally undesirable from the horse's point of view. Notwith- standing, they are well-nigh indispensable in large city stables, and a satisfactory compromise, in consideration of the horse's personal preference in the matter, is made by supplying a well- fitted rack. This is made of slats running lengthwise of the * Ware, " First Hand Bits of Stable Lore." 250 THE HORSE IN SERVICE stall, fixed at such distance apart as to admit but not catch the narrow calks or to prevent the entrance of broad calks, depending upon the type of horse to be stalled, the entire rack to be readily taken out, permitting thorough cleaning of the floor beneath. These racks, of course, wear out, but are more easily replaced than a floor, and while the horse stands on wood the sanitary features of the paved floor are procured. Concrete, rough cast or corrugated, vitrified or cork brick, are the common paving materials. Concrete floors may be made comparatively dry and wann by insulating the top coat from the rough bottom Avith a layer of tar paper or two coats of tar paint. Cork brick has proven satisfactory in dairy stables but has not yet been much used under horses. Drainage. — The drainage of stalls may be by open or cov- ered drains. Common experience is in favor of the open drain, the covered drain becoming stopped up frequently in spite of gratings and traps to prevent such occurrences. Drains consist of either a central or. two lateral troughs, running either from about half way to the front of the stall, or the centre of the box, to a main drain passing in the rear of the stalls. Two lateral drains at the sides of the stall interfere less with the horse stand- ing or getting up and do\Aai than does the central drain. The stall floors should incline slightly toward the drain but not enough to unbalance the standing position of the horse. Undrained stalls, in which absorbent litter is depended upon for the removal of the liquid manure, are most practicable for the average coun- try stable and can be kept sanitary provided an abundance of litter is used. The high cost of bedding materials and the objectionable features of accumulated manure, together with the available sewer connections and possibility of frequent flush- ing, render the drained stable much more desirable in the city. Litter for Bedding. — Bedding is used for several purposes : (1) To insure comfort to the horse, thereby inducing him to lie down and save his feet and legs as much as possible ; ( 2 ) to keep the horse clean and free from stable stain ; (3) to absorb and thvis facilitate the removal of liquid manure ; (4) to dilute and thus STABLES 251 improve the physical condition of the manure for fertilizing purposes. Bedding materials consist of stra,ws, sawdust, shavings, peat moss, and, in the country, corn stover and leaves. The durability of the straws is in the order of rye, wheat and oat, while their absorbing capacity is reversed. Their relative values, therefore, will depend upon whether or not they are to be used in drained stalls. If that is the case they will be valued in the order named, but with an abundance of straw, and value attached to the manure, tliey would have an inverted valuation in the undrained stable, where the absorption by the bedding is depended upon for the removal of the liquid manure. The chaffy nature of oat straw would make it objectionable to use in drained stables. The market price is greatest for untangled rye straw, which is espe- cially demanded in high-class stables, where the appearance is much enhanced by ^^ setting fair'' the bedding; then tangled rye, wheat, and oat in the order named. Shavings and sawdust have the advantages of economy in most locations, a cleanly appearance in the stable, and to a cer- tain extent they counteract odors, but they are difficult to handle, rather cold to lie upon, and undesirable in the manure on accou.nt of their dearth of plant food. Sawdust holds better on the stall floor but it is not so easily removed from the horses' coats as are shavings. Peat moss is much more commonly used in England and Scotland than in America. It is imported by the shipload in large bales, chiefly from Holland and Germany, and is there- fore cheapest in the Eastern cities. It has the advantage of durability, will absorb about ten times its volume of Avater, while straw absorbs but three, prevents stable odor, affords a comfortable bed either to lie or to stand upon, and does not stain gray horses, a property which alone is responsible for its use in many large stables. Like shavings and sawdust, stalls thus bedded are somewhat difficult to muck out. Peat moss has some fertilizing value and is therefore not objectionable in the manure, as are shavings and sawdust. If available at a price of about $12 per ton it will be found a most economical and satisfactory litter. 252 THE HORSE IN SERVICE Com stover must be either cut or shredded in order to be conveniently used for bedding. It is customary to feed a gen- erous allowance and permit what is not consumed to go under the horses for bedding. Feed boxes sliuuld be easily taken out in order that they may be frequently cleansed and kept sweet. Vai'ious schemes have been devised for the purjDOse of preventing too rapid bolting of feed and throwing it out. Aside from the i)atent slow feeth himself and others in the stable, but the method of tying should be such as to enable him to rest comfortably, yet w^ithout danger of becoming either cast or entangled in the halter shank. Comfort requires that a horse be permitted to lay his head flat on the floor, yet much more length than this ^vill enable him to get a foot over the halter. Both comfort and safety are met by attaching a weight to the end of the halter shank equiva- lent to the weight of the shank itself, allowing the shank to slip through either a ring or a hole in the manger without being tied. The weight keeps the halter shank taut to the extent of not being STABLES 253 slack in ^^iiatever position the horse's head may be Tvithout ex- erting any drag on the head. Another method is to tie a short halter shank to a ring which travels a perpendicular rod, in much the same manner as some cow ties are made. The length and adjustment of both rod and halter shank should be such a^ to allow the horse ample freedom, either standing or lying down, yet never permitting any slack in the strap. Halter shanks, whether rope, strap, or chain, should be attached to the head stall by a snap to insure certain and prompt release of the horse in case of emergency. Passageways both behind and between stalls should bo of ample ^ddth, and if paved should be roughed in some manner to prevent slipping. A smoothly finished concrete or asphalt pavement mav be made safe by a thin coating of shai-p sand re- plenished daily, or, better yet, the concrete may be corrugated or rough surfaced, even to the extent of a layer of fine crushed stone to give a foothold. This last, however, is more difficult to sweep and clean. If bricks are used they should be laid on an angle and be so bevelled and pointed as to afford a catch for the shoe. Doors should be so located as to be most convenient yet least productive of drafts in the stable. Single doors should not be less than four feet in width and double doors eight feet. The usual height is eight feet. Kolling doors are preferable to hinged doors, especially in the interior of the stable as on box stalls, for the reason that'^they are always out of the way, while a partially open hinged door may project into a passage in such a way as to seriouslv injure a horse. Windows should be ample in size and number to provide requisite light and ventilation. They should be placed high enough over the horses' heads to protect their eyes from the direct lio-ht^of the sun. In the simpler systems of ventilation, the wtndows serve for inlets, and should for that purpose be so con- structed as to drop inward from the top, thus directing the air toward the ceiling where it becomes diffused and gradually settles to the floor of the stable. The sides of the windows should be protected bv fenders, which prevent side and downward drafts. The opening should be regulated in accordance with the velocity 254 THE HORSE IN SERVICE of the wind. Outlets are usually provided at the ridge pole, by direct flues from below or by an open ceiling. The King system of ventilation is to be recommended when- ever its installation is i^racticable. It is made up of two kinds of flues: (1) Those for intake of fresh air, and (2) those for the outtake of foul air. The intake flues start at a point two feet or more above the ground outside and extend to the inside near the ceiling. The outtake flues start near the floor of the barn and ex- tend above the highest point of the roof. Fresh Air Requirements. — The fresh air and cubic space requirements per horse should be considered in the constmction of stables and the provision of windows. It has been estimated that a horse of average size requires approximately 15,000 cubic feet of fresh air per hour, and this is the ideal aimed at in the English Army. Col. Fred Smith in his book on Veterinary Hy- giene describes a simple method of arriving at the horse^s fresh air requirements and of determining whether or not these require- ments are being met He bases his conclusions on the fact that the horse inspires about 100 cubic feet of air per hour while in the stable, and his expirations completely vitiate air, to the ex- tent that it would not sustain the life of a mouse, at the rate of twenty-five cubic feet per hour. This air requires a dilution of 150 times in order not to be injurious when rebreathed as it would be in the ordinary stable. De Chaumont's test makes it very simple to detect an injurious amount of respiratory impurity in the air. By actual analysis it has been determined that the sense of smell upon first entering the stable from the outside may be relied upon, not only to detect but to gauge the amount of res- piratory impurities present. An amount up to .2 per thousand may be present without being perceptible; .4 per thousand gives to the air a smell suggested by the term " rather close " : .67 per thousand " close " ; .9 per thousand " very close — offensive." Therefore, it is concluded that sufficient vitiation to be detected by smell renders the air unfit to be breathed and .2 per thousand has been taken as a standard of requirement. By the equation Amount of carbonic acid exhaled per hour ( ^^^t- ^j^ required, I5,OJ)0 -— ; — — — ; — I f-. = \ cubic feet per hour is de- The permissible organic impunties ( termined to be necessary. STABLES 255 The cubic air space of the stable should be ample to insure to each horse the requisite 15,000 cubic feet per hour without such frequent changes of the volume of air as to cause drafts or a continuous fluctuation of temperature. Sixteen hundred cubic feet per head, requiring a complete change in the volume of air nine and one-half times per hour in order to furnish 15,000 cubic feet per head per hour, is the ideal aimed at in the design- ing of the English Army stable. Changing the air so frequently keeps the stable decidedly fresh and renders a horse more fit for sei-vice than for show. About one cubic foot per pound of weight is the usual rule in figuring the air space of the stable. It should be remembered, however, that the nearer the tempera- ture and the atmosphere of the stable approaches that outside, the more capable the horse is of hard and fast work. The size of the inlet or window necessary to admit the re- quired amount of air is computed from the following table : Daiaj or Calculating Size of Inlet Description of wind Mean velocity in milea per hour Size of inlet to admit 15,000 cubic feet of air per hour Calm Light air 3 8 13 23 28 Sq. ft. 1 04 Light breeze 0 2 Moderate breeze Fresh breeze 0.12 0.12 Rule for Computing. — Multiply the number of animals to be supplied with air by tlie size of the inlet corresponding to the estimated velocity of the wind. This divided by the number of ventilators on the inlet side of the building gives the size in square feet which each ventilatx)r or window should be opened. Outlets should have the same opening in order to facilitate the movement of the air. Fresh Air for Horses. — On account of the fact that most horses work regularly in the open air, the principles of ventila- tion are violated with greater impunity in their case than in the 256 THE HORSE IN SERVICE case of dairy cows. Existence in some citj subway stables would be impossible were it not that the horses spend most of their time outside. The care of the stable and stable drainage are both factors concerned with fresh air, and j^roperly done they remove an important source of contamination of the atmosphere. The interior of the stable should be made as free from ])rojecti()ns and possible sources of injury to the horses as may 1)0. All hardware should be countersunk; harness hooks put Fig. 12U. >Tk horse stable, .showing the main allt arrangement. above the level of the horses' heads ; dung forks, shovels, and all other implements put safely away; manure pits and trap doors thoroughly ])rotected. Wagon and harness rooms should be completely shut off from the stable and so situated as to be convenient for the har- nessing and putting- to of the horses. In fact, the whole stable arrangement should be such that the turning out of the equipage, whether for business or pleasure, may be accomplished by pro- gressive steps, Avith no retracing, from the grooming floor to the outside door. STABLES 257 Fig. 130.— a in..(K.l w(,rk horse stable, .shuwiiig width of stalls, corrugated concrete floors, wooden racks in stall floors, width of alleys, drains and ventilating flues. f- 4. J ■ I'i-— '^^od^l^ork horse stable, showing length oi stalls, open partitions and iront doors, the latter being a convenience for caretakers and obviating the danger of back- ing heavy horses on shppery floors. 17 258 THE HORSE IN SERVICE The assignment of stalls should be made with a view of pro- moting congenial relationships between neighboring horses and avoiding the consequences of incompatibility. Furthermore, ■L '> ~ D^o n^» n n •* n n 76.0O c.c.r. 6 < ., 06 r-S^ e.B. 3" k 5' £fi EB UncoverecL ccretm tr&.j> Folding Blarikei JfoVer .fa 3" A S EB Fig. 132. — Plan and specifications for a small work horse stable with open front stalls. Fig. 133. — Floor plan and specifications for a convenient, comfortable, and sanitary city stable. in large work stables, it is well to stable togetlier those horses which work during the same hours. This enables them to rest better, with less disturbance while in the stable (Figs. 129, 130, 131, 132, and 133). STABLES 259 STABLE MA^-AGEMENT Grooming is essential to the health and general appearance of the horse. Systems of grooming vary from the simple use of the hare hand and arm, as practiced hy the Indians, to the most thorough and vigorous employment of a variety of utensils. The more highly hred, finer coated horses require more delicate treatment than the heavier coated and phlegmatic work horses. Utensils in common use are the metal curry-comb, bristle body- bnisli, com brush, rub rag, sponge, wisp, and hoof pick. All grooming should be thorough but gentle, with due consideration for the sensibilities of the horse. Dandimff consists of shed particles of skin, Avaste products of metabolism, fat, and some salt. It complete removal is the primary object of grooming. The first step usually is the use of the curry-comb the reverse way of the hair for the removal of dandruff and diy. stable dirt, if there be any. The curry-comb should never be used about the head nor below the knees and hocks, should be dull (new ones preferably filed dull), and used with the greatest care. It is not permitted in many well-regulated stables, the wisp of straw and the com brush accomplishing the same purpose. The bristle or body brush is used the right way of the hair tO' remove what the curry-comb or wisp has brought to the surface, also to brush the head and legs. The corn brush is used chiefly on mane and tail, although the latter may require additional picking by hand. The use of a comb, except on docked tails and pulled manes, is not desirable. The rub rag, used the right way of the hair unless in cooling out hot horses, puts the final finish on the coat. In show and race horses the rubbing may amount to a most vigorous massage. The eyes, muzzle, and region under the tail should be sponged off ; also the feet, after having been picked out. AMiite points may be washed if necessary. Motor brushes and vacuum cleaners have not as yet been very generally adopted, even in large stables (Fig. 134). Washing. — The frequent application of soap and water de stroys the lustre of a horse's coat, beside rendering him espe- ciallv liable to chill if not thoroughly dried out. Except in the 260 THE HORSE IN SERVICE case of jiure white horses or in hot weather, washing is not to be commended, but is too frequently resorted to by indolent care- takers. There is really nothing gained in either time or labor, as it is as difficult to properly wash and dry a horse as to groom him completely. Fig. 134. — A vacuum grooming machine in operation. A vacuum is maintained in the pipes which draws the dirt out of the hair and conveys it to a receptacle where it collects and can be removed. Care of the Legs. — Horses of a lymphatic temperament, as most business horses are, working continuously in all kinds of going, require especial attention to keep them right in their legs. A proper balance between feed and exercise is the first consid- eration in keeping legs right. Then they must be thoroughly groomed, and dry grooming keeps the skin much less predis- STABLES 261 posed to disorder. So does the presence of hair, the arrangement of which, about the fetlock, naturally turns the water off the leg instead of iimning it down into the heel where the skin is most delicate. The most intelligent and exj^erienced managers of city work horse stables, where the clipping of legs in the winter lias been tried out, are opposed to it on this basis. Once the skin becomes affected, it may be necessary to remove the hair in order to reach the seat of the trouble. The old country plan of rub- bing out legs with considerable feather is the best means of dry grooming them. Too much rough brushing may be irritating. Horses' legs should not be washed unless thoroughly dried. If necessary to put away wet, the legs may be loosely bandaged to prevent chilling, until they have dried out. The fetlocks, pasterns, and heels may be protected against the snow brine common on city streets, and other irritating influences, by smear- ing them thoroughly with a coating of linseed oil before leaving the stable. Care of the Feet. — The importance of having a horse ^^ good on the ground," as the saying goes, is generally appreciated ; but the structure of the foot itself, as a most important feature of conformation, is not always well understood. Furthermore, the necessity for keeping horses shod, Avliich, in itself, is an injuri- ous practice at best, renders consideration of tlie principles in- volved especially essential. Shoeing. — The foot is not an innnobile block to which a shoe can be nailed, but is capable of motion, interference with which will defeat the purpose which the foot is most ingeniously de- signed to serve, namely, the relief of concussion. Comi^are the unshod foot of the colt with the foot .of the horse that has been shod in the ordinary way, for a number of years, and the detri- mental influence of shoeing will be apparent. Xotice the smooth, worn foot surface of the shoe that has been properly applied and the extent to which the foot expands and contracts, laterally, will be indicated. Physiological Movements of the Foot. — This is what happens when the foot comes to the ground at the conclusion of the stride : As the weight drops on the foot the fetlock and pastern settle downward and backward, the internal structures of the foot are 262 THE HORSE IN SERVICE borne down upon, and in the normal unshod foot further de- pression is opposed by the contract of the frog with the ground. The structures compressed between the pedal or coffin bone above and the unyielding ground or roadway beneath are elastic, and yield in the line of least resistance, which is laterally. Fig. 134a. Longitudinal median section of the foot, showing the internal structure. Three bones form its osseous base and permit it to accomplisli its various movements. These are: the third phalanx or pedal bone (a); the second phalanx, or coronanj bone {b)\ finally, the navicular, or fniall sesamoid bone (r), situated behind the preceding and comple- menting the articulation which the other two form. Short, strong ligaments consolidate the joint on the sides, while two wide fibro-cartilagi- nous plates, lateral cartilages of the third phalanx, intimately united to this bone, seem like two elastic and diverging springs, placed on the outside and on the inside of this bone, to prevent it from descending or rocking too suddenly in the hoof at the moment when the latter strikes the ground. Two strong, expanded tendons terminate upon the third phalanx: the anterior (d) carries it into extension; the posterior (e) permits, on the contrary, the flexion of this bone upon the OS coronae. It glides over the inferior face of the navicular bone by means of a synovial sheath designated under the name small sesamoid sheath (better called the naiictdar sheath). Finally, a voluminous fibro-elastic cushion (?/), called the plantar cushion, bifurcated behind and pointed in front, is placed under the flexor tendon, to which it serves as a flexible bufl'er when the foot has reached the ground. All pressure upon the hoof from below up- ward tends to depress it and force it against the lateral parts, where it is maintained by the two elastic cartilages indicated above. (Gonbaux and Barrier.) This sidewise expansion of the internal structures of the foot presses the bars and lateral cartilages outward, and with them the wall at the quarter, thus increasing the transverse diameter of the foot from one-fiftieth to one-twelfth of an inch. As this expansion is most marked in the back half of the foot, there is a corresiDondino^ narrowing of the hoof head in front. Fig. 134a. Interference, by shoeing or otherwise, with this lateral ex- STABLES 263 pansion of the quarters, not only causes the full force of the con- cussion incident to the contact of the foot with the ground to bo felt, but induces a cramped, stilty stride, as a result of the horse's effort to come down easily and thus spare himself the pain of concussion. It is a. condition analogous to that of a man with a tight shoe, which pinches as the weight is borne on it. The destruction of the elasticity of the lateral cartilages by ossification, in the formation of side bones, has the same effect, marked both in the stride and in the altered form of the foot, the quarters becoming more narrow and straight. Fig. 135. — An untrimmed hoof with an excess of horn (a) at the toe which breaks the foot axis backward. Fig. 136. — An untrimmed hoof with an excess of horn (b) at the heel, which breaks the foot axis forward. Fig. 137.— Hoof dressed and foot axis straightened by removing excess of horn below dotted lines in the two preceding illustrations. Proper shoeing consists, first, in so dressing the foot that the removal of surplus horn does not destroy the balance of the foot, but leaves it with its axis unbroken either up or down, in or out, tlius insuring an even distribution of weight and wear on the joints above (T'igs. 135, 136 and 137). Only such horn should be removed from the sole or frog as is loose; the bars, natural braces to prevent contraction, should not be cut through, the heels " opened up," nor the sole concaved. The shoe must be uiade to fit the foot, not the converse, its upper surface being perfectly level and smooth to favor the sliding of the wall in the outward expansion of the quarters, not bevelled to turn the heels out ; the nails should be placed far enough foi-ward to leave the back of the foot free to expand on the branches of the shoe. Hot fitting, properly done, insures a better fit than is possible when the shoe is fitted cold, and is not injurious to the horn ; in fact, there is some advantage in searing over the ends of the horn tubules. Common styles of shoes are the plain open shoe, the bar 264 THE HORSE IN SERVICE shoe, designed for the purpose of giving frog pressure or pro- tecting weak heels, tips, and pads. Hoof Dressings. — The boot blacking idea applied to the feet of horses is inexcusable. No dressing is so attractive as the natural horn, perfectly clean. If it is desired to prevent the drying out of the horn after the removal of the natural varnish in the operation of shoeing, neatsfoot oil without the customary lampblack does not disguise but rather improves the natural appearance of the foot. Clipping. — The removal of the hair consists of trimming and incomplete or complete clipping. Trimming is the removal of the hair from certain parts only, as the foretop, fetlocks, or ears. Trimming is largely a matter- of fashion. Fashion in Horses. — The rule of fashion is not confined to the boxes about the arena of the horse show; it prevails also in the loose boxes adjoining the paddock. In compliance with the dictates of fashion heavy harness and walk-trot-canter saddle horses are docked, their manes pulled, but foretops left. By the same authority, light harness and gaited saddle horses carry full manes and tails ; while the former have foretops removed, as a rule, the latter have their tails artificially set and have been known to wear " wigs." Hunters and polo mounts must submit to a hogging of manes and foretops, while the tails nowadays are suifcred to remain full length, except for a square blocking of the end, perhaps, while the bulk of the tail is reduced by pluck- ing the hair from the sides of the dock. Drafters are docked but the hair is not trimmed. In the show ring their manes are plaited * or rolled f and tails tied and decorated.:}: The docked tail of the harness and saddle horsv may be trimmed short like a brush, or have the hair parted, breaking straight down when the tail is set, with the ends evenly trimmed off, or the hair may be left untrimmed, as in French tails ; the second method is most popular in this country. All " light-legged " horses have the feather and fetlocks re- * Lisher, Breeders' Gazette, March 11, 1915. f Dinsmore, Breeders' Gazette, September 24, 1913. % McChord; Montana Stallion Registration Board, Circular No. 4. STABLES 265 moved to give a trim appearance, while some feather at least is desirable on the draft horse, to augment the appearance of bone, and even mild blisters may be resorted to for the purpose of stimulating its growth. Business horses may have foretops trimmed and tails blocked as a matter of convenience. In stables of 100 horses, for in- stance, the additional time required in doing up and brushing out a long tail in bad weather is a considerable item in labor. Partial clipping consists in removing the hair from the legs but not from the body, as is frequently done with business and road horses; or the reverse, as is customary with hunters, the hair being left on the legs for the protection it affords in the hunting held. Complete clipping is justifiable and even necessary under certain conditions. The horse naturally grows a heavy protec- tive coat of hair in the fall which would be of the gi'catest service to him under his original natural conditions. However, the artificial conditions under which the average horse lives and works render an excessively heavy coat objectionable. The horse thus protected sweats unduly at either ordinary or fast work, is generally enervated and his system is relaxed, thereby rendering him especially liable to contract colds. Furthermore, it is difii- cult and sometimes impossible to completely dry him after a day's work. The removal of such a coat early enough in the fall so that a light, protective coat may yet be grown before severe weather is encountered, with care that • artificial protection is always afforded, will render the horse more fit for work. Unless a horse is afflicted with an exceptionally heavy coat, and cer- tainly not unless he will be provided with ample clothing at all times when not at work, he should not be clipped. Clipping is also resorted to in the spring after the shedding process has begim, but before the new coat has started to grow out, to obviate the disagreeable features of the shedding coat, especially in the case of gray horses. Here, too, the substitu- tion of blankets for the natural coat is required. Clothing consists of blankets of various weights, hoods, and bandages. It serves to protect from cold, flies, and dii*t. Show horses are heavily blanketed and covered for the purpose of 266 THE HORSE IN SERVICE keeping down their coats, althongli some fitters of draft horses secure the highest bloom without blanlvcts. All blankets should fit comfoi-tably, have their girth adjusted, and be put on in such a Avaj" as to leave the hair smooth beneath them. The hlanhet is usually folded once each way, the cross fold being made first, then caught up so as to double lengthwise. The blanket should be taken up in such manner as to unfold in the reverse order from that in which it was folded up. If this is done the longitudinal fold will open as it is thrown over the horse, and if carried well over his withers, with the open edges of the transverse fold forward, the last step in the unfolding will bring the blanlvct over the horse's loins and croup, drawing it in the direction of the hair. To remove, it should be folded trans- versely backward, then caught up where the lengthwise fold is to come {ind drawn off backwards in such a manner as to leave the hair smooth. Hoods are used m conjunction with blankets on race and show horses to cover all but the eyes, ears, and muzzle. It is impor- tant that they should fit well about the eyes and ears. Bandages are used either to protect the extremities from chill, in which case they are rolled loosely, or to exert gentle pressure in order to prevent filling of the subcutaneous tissue, commonly termed stocking. They are applied by starting at the middle of the canon, rolling down to or including the fetlock joint, then up to the knee, and back to the starting point. By rolling down- Avard first better support for the bandage is secured. Stable Vices. — Wind suching, as indicated by the name, is a practice in which the horse assumes a position with the upper teeth bearing on the manger or other projecting object and pro- ceeds to suck wind into his stomach, accompanied by a long- grunting sound. Wind suckers are difficult to keep in condition. Crih-hiting is a vice in which the edge of the manger or any other projection is gi-asped between the teeth and gTadually bitten away. The habit results in a characteristic bevelling of the front margins of the teeth, although the wear of a rounded iron feed box may produce much the same appearance of the teeth. Wind sucking and crib-biting are usually associated, although a horse may be subject to one and not the other. The habit is not con- STABLES 267 fined to the stable, but may be practiced whenever the oppor- tunity offers. Either a smoothly finished stall in which there is nothing to offer a toothhold or the use of a strap fitted closely enough about the throat to compress the lar^Tix when pressure is borne on the teeth, but causing the horse no discomfort when not indulging in the vice, are the usual means of preventing, al- though not curing, the habit. Weaving is a rhythmical shifting of the weight of the fore- hand from one forefoot to the other in much the same manner that is displayed by a bear in captivity. As a rule, enforced idleness is an active cause. It has been suggested that horses tied with chain halter shanks have acquired this habit in order to rattle the chains. KicMng. — Horses kick from various motives, such a mali- ciousness, good feeling, or wilful attempts to injure either com- panions or attendants. A gTcat many horses which never mani- fest an inclination to kick elsewhere acquire the habit of kicking in the stable. Mares are more frequently wickers than geldings. Some horses kick only at feeding time, thus giving vent to their impatience. A true stable kicker appears to have no other ex- cuse than the satisfaction of kicking; for such horses a swing- ing bale partition is recommended. It offers little resistance to the kick and for that reason seems to destroy the desire. Either hobbling the two hind feet or even shackling one to a weight is sometimes resorted to, but such practices are attended with more serious danger than the original offence. Some horses kick only in the dark, and the presence of a light in the stable will stop them. Some are provoked to kick by an especially uncongenial companion in the next stall. Finally, horses perfectly well behaved in the stable under ordinary cir- cumstances kick from sheer spirit and energy when confined for an unusually long period. Tail Biihhing. — The presence of animal parasites or neglect of the region under the tail, which may become foul, are usually the causes of the first offence at tail rubbing. Once acquired, however, the practice will be persisted in, even after the correc- tion of the conditions which originally induced it. If thorough gi'ooming will not stop it, the horse may have to be put into a specially constructed loose box, provided either with a fender 268 THE HORSE IN SERVICE arranged at such a level that the horse can neither rub his tail against it nor touch any other part of the stall, or, better yet, a bevelled wall to about the height of the horse, giving it an upward and outAvard slope from the floor so that the horse, with his heel against the wall, cannot reach it to rub, at the height of his tail. Shields and bandages may be employed, but they are liable to injure the hair of the tail. Halter Pulling. — Confirmed halter pullers are best secured by ropes or chains snapped across behind them. The habit may be broken in the earlier stages by a slip noose about the flank, the rope being carried forward between the front legs, through the halter ring, and then fastened securely. After pulling back and tightening the noose about the flank the horse will usually take gTeat care to keep the rope slack. Bad Ilahits. — Horses are most likely to fall into bad habits from want of something else to do. A regular daily routine, therefore, of either moderate exercise or work, and a ration not too stimulating, are the best safegiiards against their acquisition. Furthermore, much can be done to make the stable life of n horse congenial by so arranging the occupants as to promote good fellowship and avoid incompatibility among them. REVIEW lid well-an-anged stables provide? determines the dimensions of a stable? ,^ive specifications for a straight stall. 1 1 t. How large should a box stall be and why? y^ 5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of paved stall floors? /^^ / and how may the disadvantag-es be partially overcome? ' G. What pui-poses does bedding seinre? Name the bedding materials iji common use and the relative ments of each. 7. What should govern the number, size, and placing of the windows? 8. What are the fresh air requirements of the average horse and what cubic space in the stable is necessary to meet them ? 9. What consideration should be given to the assignment of stalls in the stabling of horses? 10. What special care do the legs of horses require? 11. Of what does proper shoeing consist? 12. Discuss the advisability of clipping horses. 13. How does fashion govern the trimming of horses? 34. To what extent do horses require clothing? 15*. To what are most bad habits, which hoises acquire in the stable, due? CHAPTER XVI EQUITATION Horsemanship involves the mastery of mind over matter in a way, but the control of the matter is accomplished, indirectly, by the mastery of a superior over an inferior intellect. A horse's usefulness is in proportion to the completeness of his subjuga- tion, and the more we know of his mental capacity the more completely may we accomplish his subjugation. Control of the Horse. — There is a sentimental opposition to a recital of the horse's mental limitations wliich must be over- come, and these limitations appreciated, if the most satisfactory service is to be had from him. For instance, it has been alleged that the horse is both a fool and a coward, and while these un- complimentary terms may arouse tlie ire of horse lovers, and apparently justly so, it is the actual possession of these two traits, perhaps more moderately called credulity and depend- ence, which makes it possible to use horses, at all, with safety and satisfaction. Our whole system of breaking, schooling, and driving is fundamentally deceptive. We aim to give the horse an exalted notion of those of his powers which are useful to us and at the same time create the idea that certain others, which might prove detrimental to our purpose, are hardly worthy of the horse's consideration. The all too common notion that the primary essential in riding or driving is to be able to '' hold liim '' leads one wide of the mark in the rudiments of real horsemanship. Such misconception of facts is responsible for many of the disasters in which runaway horses are conspicuous. !Most convincing proof of the absurdity of such an idea is the faultless performance wliich a pair of horses may put up in a class for ladies to drive, while the same pair, under identical conditions, had proved unmanageable for some heavy-handed, strong-armed man driver in a preceding class. Control, or at least the only system which renders horses serviceably safe, is of the mental, not muscular activities of the 269 270 THE HORSE IN SERVICE horse; therefore, the proper method is by suggestion, rather than by force. The execution of whatever act has its origin, so far as the horse is concerned, in his brain, not his bra^\Ti ; so- that is the logical headquarters through which to transmit instruc- tions. If the orders, emanating from this centre, for execution on the horse's o^^^l initiative, should happen to conflict with the physical efforts of the rider or driver, tliere is liable to be a rebellion in favor of the horse, who regards his o^^tl motive as taking precedence. On the other hand, by suggesting to the extent of bringing the horse to be of the' same mind as the driver, there can be no conflict of orders, and most harmonious response on the part of the horse results. Compare the horse which has been educated and driven by the strong arm method, which requires a flogging to make-him go, a man's weight to stop him, and two hands to pull him. round a corner, with the possibility that he may conceive and carry out, at any time, some fool notion which it is beyond the physical power of man to check, with the thoroughly schooled horse re- sponding to the light yet firm and strongly suggestive hand of the master reinsman, who is able to stop, back, start, and drive any place, without a word or even a perceptible twist of the wrist. Transmitting the Impulse to Act. — Xow that the principle has been exposed, the system may be outlined. It may be sum- marized in a consideration of hands and mouths. These are the two essential factors in the system of control, ser\dng alternately as transmitters and receivers. By means of the former, either the instructions or demands in the mind of the driver are con- veyed, by the medium of the reins, to the sensitive structiu'es constituting the mouth of the horse ; to be forwarded after being received through the sensory nerve-trunks to the brain of the horse; thence the motor nei'ves convey the authorized instruc- tions, as it were, to the proper parts for execution. Wliat is here described at length and in detail is aceomplished in a flash, but it is well to follow the actual transmission of an im- pulse in order to appreciate good horsemanship. If we are to realize the most prompt and delicate response, the horse must be taken and kept well in hand, so that, telegraph- ically speaking, the line of transmission from hand to mouth EQUITATION 271 may be instantly called into requisition witliont waiting to get the wires up and connections made. Driving with a careless rein or continually jabbing not only lets tlie driver but the horse off his guard, and both must be called to attention by taking in hand, before communication can be established. Delays of even tliis long may be disastrous. Hands of the right sort are capable of such delicate manipu- lation as to constantly feel and be felt by the mouth, without maintaining a drag, which destroys all sensibility in both. Such hands convey to the mouth graduated pressure, from the lightest touch to the most compelling pull if occasion demands, and all with a firmness that is convincing. Relation of Hands' and Mouth. — Mouths are the product of hands, therefore reciprocal in every respect. The heavy, rough hand is productive of a hard, unresponsive mouth and destruc- tion of any other kind ; while tlie light, impressionable hand can be> relied upon to create or preserve a most sensitive mouth. There are features of this- relationship between hands and mouths which can neither be described nor prescribed. They are best learned by contact, the one with the other ; only one who has experienced the intimacy of such a fine system of communication has any conception of all that it means. With many the possession of good hands is intuitive ; they can neither tell why or how they do as they do; others are heavy handed in spite of tliemselves, and are fully conscious of their offence and its attendant bad result. Of course, practice has much to do Avith this ; one accus- tomed to driving trotters will find himself in trouble with the lighter mouth and different bitting arrangement of the actor; while he who has had his schooling with the latter class of liorses may be incapable of taking a strong enough hold to steady and support the horse at speed. The bit is the instrument by means of which communication between the hands of the driver and the mouth of the horse is car- ried on. An impulse arising in the mind of the driver is repre- sented in a manipulation of the reins, so as to bring the pressure of the bit on the structures of the mouth with which it is in contact in such a manner as to suggest a corresponding notion in the mind of the horse, which, if he be well schooled, he imme- 272 THE HORSE IN SERVICE diately executes. In the reverse order the horse may conceive the idea of taking some steps on his own initiative, the premedi- tation of which will be felt by the driver, and if not in order he flashes back counter instructions. This is the advantage of keeping the horse always in hand. Intelligent use of the bit requires some knowledge of the t'iG. 138. — Tongue held back to show the bara (a) of the mouth upon which the bit bears. structures of the mouth involved and the methods by which the bit operates. Following are the structures with which the bit is more or less in contact, the extent and nature of their importance depend- ing upon the style of tlie .bit : 1. The bars of the mouth, that region of the lower jaw be- tween the incisor and molar teeth (Fig. 138). 2. The tongue. 3. Angles of the lips. '•>• *:i' EQUITATION 273 4. The skill of the groove on the under surface of tlie lower jaw just in front of the union of its branches. 5. The lower premolar teeth, in some instances. Classification of Bits. — Bits may be classified as snaffle, curb, and special. Snaffle bits consist of a straight or jointed bar, in which the principle involved is a direct pull on the mouth. The jointed snaffle (Fig. 139) is more severe, as it puts the pressure chiefly on the bars of the mouth, while the plain snaffle bears equally on the tongue, which has a cushioning effect. The four-ring snaffle (Fig. 140) is doubly sever© on account of the rings at the ends of the cheek pieces being drawn into tlie mouth. Curb bits consist of a plain or port bar furnished with a cheek lever or shank at each end, in place of snaffle rings, at the Fio. 139. — The jointed Fig. 140. — The four-ring snaffle bit. snaffle bit. upper ends of which are attached the chain or strap which bears in the groove imder the lower jaw, wliile near the lower ex- tremity of the shank the reins are attached. The length of the shank is usually one^third above the mouth-piece and two-thirds below. The principle involved with the curb is one of leverage, the restraint of the u])per arm of the shank by the curb cliain or strap constituting tlie fulcrum, the power being aj^plied on the lower arm of the shank, the pasition of the attachment of the reins determining the leverage, while the weight is the mouth- piece of the bit borne by the bars and t>oiigue. The lower the loop into which the reins are buckled, the stronger the leverage. The possible attachments of reins are the plain cheek, the half cheek, the first or second loop. The bearing of the curb chain is in- tended to be sufficient only to establish the leverage of the shank by holding its upper extremities stationary and establishing a fulcnim. The severity of the bit may be increased, however, by 18 274 THE HORSE IN SERVICE shortening the chain or strap or roughing the chain by twisting its links. The action of the curb bit is also made more severe by the U-shaped mouth-piece (Fig. 141) which ^^rovides a port, into which the tongue passes when the bit is in operation, thus throw- ing all the pressure upon the bars of the mouth. Without the port in the bit, the pressure is cushioned on the tongue before being borne by the bars. The plain bit is usually corrugated on one side, if of the reversible Liverpool pattern, which makes it a little more severe than if the smooth side is used. There are four standard styles of curb bits : The Liverpool, the elbow, the Buxton, and the Pelham. The Liverpool (Fig. 142) has a straight shank. The elbow (Fig. 143) has an angle Fig. 141.— Port of curb bit. Fig. 142.— The Liverpool bit. in the shank to prevent the horse from catching it in his lips and preventing the operation of the bit. The Buxton (Fig. 144) has a long S-shaped shank serving the same purpose as the elbow, the lower extremities being united by a cross-bar to pre- vent their becoming caught in parts of the harness. The Pelham (Fig. 145) is the style of bit commonly used in riding bridles. The special class of bits includes all those designed to meet extraordinary requirements, and tliey are too numerous to men- tion. The majority of them are a modification or corruption of the snaffle type, causing such distortion of the horse's mouth as to make any hold of the bit impossible. Many are ruinous to a good mouth and aggravating to a bad one. The Bitless Bridle. — There has recently been put on the market a bitless bridle, in which a metal nose band is equipped EQUITATION 275 with, rings through which pass the ends of a flexible chin strap into which the reins are buckled. The idea is an old one, sim- ilar bridles having long been in common use in Southern Europe. For some horses with spoiled mouths this bridle might give good service, but with it the nicer responsiveness of a good mouth to light hands is impossible. The proper fit amd adjustment of a bit are as essential to the preservation of a good mouth as is the type of tlie bit itself. It should just hang easily in the mouth, wide enough not to pinch the cheeks and low enough neitlier to stretch the angles of the mouth nor to draw the cheeks in against tlie teeth. Curb bits should be lower in the mouth, as a rule, than the snalile, some Fig. 143. — The elbow bit. Fig. 144.— The Buxton bit. Fig. 145.— The Pelham bit. being constructed so that the bar has play up and down on the shank in order that the position of the bit may be, to a certain extent, automatically adjusted. The curb chain should be loose enough to admit from two to three fingers when the bit hangs naturally with no pressure upon it. Then the bit should be so adjusted as to bring the chain into its proper groove. If too hig-li, its pressure comes on the sharp margins of the low^er jaw with injurious effect. Accessories. — ChecJc or Bearmg Rein. — The overdraw check, attached either to a small check bit, a chin strap, or some modi- fication of either or both, takes the bearing directly over the pole and therefore has the effect of extending the nose and at least favoring, if not suggesting, an extension of stride. It also 276 THE HORSE IN SERVICE prevents the compression of the larynx and the interference with breathing, which come from sharp flexion of the neck under a pull. The overdraw check rein accompanies the snaffle bit, never the curb. The rein should not be attached to the snaffle bit itself, as its bearing will displace the bit in the horse's mouth, tliereby destroying its relation with the structures on which it is supposed to bear. This rein is used on speed and road horses Avhich are not reined up long periods at a time and are driven at a pace, at which they go against the bit in such a way as to put the head Fig. 146. — The side check or bearing rein with bridoon bit. and nock in a position in which the bearing of the check rein is very nuicli relieved. The check bit may even be dropped com- ])letely out of the mouth, although the rein seemed tight when the horse was standing. They are out of place on the horse which is required either to do continuous road work, to pull any load, especially up hill, or to stand hitched for any length of time. Ignorant or thought- less use of the overdraw check is one of the most common and severe abuses which horses have to endure. The side or bearing rein is attached either directly to the EQUITATION 277 bridoon bit (Fig. 14:G) or to a pulley bridoon (Fig. 147). It places the bearing at the side of the head, having the effect of drawing the chin in and arching the neck mthout necessarily elevating the head very much. This rein is an adjunct to the curb bit, co-operating with it in suggesting a shorter but higher stride and a more collected way of going. Its use is especially indicated in the case of horses which yield to the curb with the entire neck instead of with the head only, which brings the chin to a position almost against tlie breast. Severe reining of this character, especially in short, thick-necked horses, may seriously compress the larynx, in addi- tion to causing extreme discomfort and nmscular cramp. Fig. 147. — The pulley bridoon bearing rein. The Coupling Rein. — In pair harness the reins consist of tlie draught or outside reins and the inside or coupling reins, one of which is attached to each draught rein and passes to the inside of the bit of the opposite horse. A pull to right, for in- stance, is thus communicated to the off side of each horse's mouth and in equal degree, provided the adjustment of the coupling reins has been properly made. Coupling is the finishing touch in putting a pair of horses together, and determines whether they are to drive " like one horse '' or whether the driver is to be ever conscious of the pres- 278 THE HORSE IN SERVICE ence of two horses in. his team. In order to exert equal pressure on both sides of each mouth, the relative carriage of heads, promptness in driving, disposition, etc., of both horses must be taken into consideration. Witli a pair of horses closely matched in everv way, the coupling reins should be from four to six inches longer than the draught reins, since they are the hypo- theni of triangles. If one hoi*se carries his head higher than tlie other, his coupling rein should be on top in order not to be borne down upon by that of the lower headed horse. If one-horse sets his liead and neck in a flexed position, his rein should be short- ened to take up the slack so. produced. Or if one drives more freely than the other, his rein must be shorter to keep, him under restraint without juilling the other horse. In order, however, to keep the horses' heads an equal distance apart and their bodies N N' Fig. 1-JS. — The adjustment of the coupling reins is shown by the dotted lines. parallel VMth the pole, whatever is taken up in one rein must be let out in the other. Having the coupling reins too short draws the heads together and throws the horses out from the pole, some- times causing them to fall, on pavements and do^vn grades. Too long coupling reins turn the heads out and the bodies in against the pole. Fig-ure 148 illustrates by solid lines the position of the reins when the horses carry their heads and necks alike, AB and CD representing the bits of the two horses, AM and DN the draught reins, BN and CM the coupling reins. If, however, the off horse carries his chin in, or for other reasons requires his rein to be shortened, the altered position of the coupling reins is sho^vii by the dotted lines. Coupling rein BN is taken up on the draught rein to iV^, the take back on the draught rein to ^^ being made by the hand of the driver. This, however, would shorten coupling EQUITATION 279 rein CM unless it be let out on its draught rein to the same extent that BN has been shortened. The more* nervous horse is often put on the off side so as to bring the other horse between him and objects to be passed in the road, it being the. American rule of the road to keep to the right. It also brings him closer to the hands of the driver, who sits on tlie right side. The largest horse is customarily put on the off side for the reason that in turning to the right on roads the sur- faces of which are crowned, as is usually the case, the off horse is called upon to pull more in retuniing the load to the centre of the road. Blinds or Winhers. — Many horses are rendered much more serviceable by having their field of vision restricted to the direc- tion in which they are supposed to go. Both nervous horses, which will jump at any sudden movement of those behind them, and lazy horses, which are disposed to loaf, usually drive much more steadily and promptly with winkers. Careful adjustment of the winker, both as to height and as to length of the winker stay, should be made so as to prevent the horse's looking over it, but. allowing full vision forward. A sudden change from a blind to an open, bridle or the reverse may bo most disconcerting to the horse. Appointments require winkers on heavy harness; with light harness they are optional. Martingale. — There are two varieties, standing and ring. A standing martingale is a strap passing from the belly band, between the forelegs, to eitlier the bit or nose band, and has the effect of preventing the elevation of the head beyond a certain level. It is most generally employed on trotters that are diffi- cult to catch in breaks, saddle horses that rear, and polo ponies that endanger their riders by throwing their heads up in response to the severe curb, when pulled up sharply. The ring martingale is not attached to the horse's head, but terminates in two rings througli which the reins pass. Its action is generally the same as the standing martingale but in less de- gree. Its adjustment should always permit of the reins being almost at the level of the bit and turret rings, thus holding but not pulling the horse's head down. It is used on both light bar- 280 THE HORSE IN SERVICE ness and saddle horses ; the snaffle rein only, in the case of the latter, passing through it. Nose Band. — The object of the nose band is to keep the mouth shut and the bit in position, thus preventing jawing and lugging. It also serves as an attachment for the standing mar- tingale. IIea\^ harness and most riding bridles are regularly equipped with nose bands. Chill Strap. — This is a strap that passes under the chin either in front of or through the bit especially designed for it, and serves to place the bearing of the check rein under the chin instead of on the upper jaw, to keep the mouth shut, and to prevent the lateral pulling of the bit through the horse's mouth. The bristle bun- is a round leather disc fitted around the bit inside the ring or shank, against the cheek, and is often applied to one side only. It is used on horses which either side rein or bolt to one side, in order to keep them off that side of the bit. The Word. — Well-schooled horses, in competent hands, may either be started, pulled up, stopped, backed, or changed in their gait without a word being spoken. Only a few words, such as " whoa," '' back," and possibly " steady," are justifiable under any circumstances, and tliey should be spoken distinctly and always for the same purpose. It is more the tone and modulation of the voice, in speaking, tlian the word itself, which the horse interprets. The objection to a careless and indiscriminate use of Avords in either driving or riding is that they are not only con- fusing oftentimes to the horse for which they are intended, but may disturb all other horses mthin hearing. Every horse should know and heed the command " whoa," which should always mean a full stop. The whip should be used more for punishment than persua- sion. The continued tapping of the whip, like the jabbing of the reins, will make a loafer of any horse. Discretion in its application will insure both uniform and prompt response. FOEM There are two ends sought by good horsemanship : First, the safety and comfort of the individuals who are riding or driving, which depends upon one's ability to keep his horse both between EQUITATIOlsr 281 fences and on his feet ; and second, the ease with which this is accomplished. Form may be simply defined as the manner in which a thing is done. So much importance is attached to form in some in- stances that results are all form and nothing else. Form usu- ally marks the made equestrian, whose real horsemanship still lacks something. On the other hand, it is probable that the naturally good rider or driver will number form with his other accomplishments. Following the thought of the definition, it may be inferred that good form consists in doing a thing in the correct way. Fia. 149. — Reins held in left hand, right hand free for take-back or whip. Right, in this sense, does not mean according to the dictates of fashion but in that manner which insures its being done with greatest efficiency and readiness. We should accept what has been established as the correct manner of riding and driving as that which contributes most to the safety, comfort, and appear- ance of those directly concerned. If beginners in horsemanship could be induced to take advice from some one who really knows, ultimate results would be much more satisfactory to both them- selves and their horses. One frequently sees accidents narrowly averted or the most flagrant cruelties practiced purely through the ignorance of the perpetrators, who would be as much dis- 282 THE HORSE IN SERVICE tressed as any one if they fullv realized the seriousness of their mistakes. The Rudiments of Driving. — The rudiments of the proper way to drive are as follows : Under ordinary conditions drive with the left hand, with the right hand free for either take-up or whip ; hold the near rein ov^er the forefinger, the off rein between tlie middle and ring fingers, thus leaving the reins separated by two fingers, which allows sufficient space to introduce the fingers of the right hand (piickly, to take back (Fig. 149). This is done by dropping the thumb and forefinger of the right hand over Fig. 150.— The take-back. tho near rein, slipping the remaining three fingers between the two reins at. such distance in advance of the left hand as may be required (Fig. 150). The reins should be gripped by their edges rather than by their flat sides. Either rein may be taken up by the right hand as in the case of a turn, and the off rein may be released by the left hand, passing through the right hand and over the thumb in case a two-hand grip is desired (Fig. 151). The position of the left hand should be with the knuckles turned forward and perpendicular, the forearm honzontal and at very nearly right angles with the reins. This position insures the greatest freedom of wrist and fingers, is conducive to a light EQUITATION 283 hand, and renders almost impossible a continuous, dragging pull. Gloves permit of botli a better grip and more easy manipu- lation of tlie reins, but tliev should be a size too larce and un- buttoned to allow the greatest freedom of the fingers and wrist. Riding,— Holding the Reins. — The usual method of hokling tlio reins of a curb and snalHc riding bridle is to take the near snaille rein over tlie little finger of the left hand, the near curb rein between the little and ring fiugers, then pass the off curb rein between the rinc: and niiddlo finaers and the off snaffle rein Fig. 151. — The two-hand grip. between the middle and index fingers, the ends of all four reins coming out of the hand over tlie index finger and clasped by the thumb (Fig. 152). Eitlier curb or snaffle reins can be taken up independently by tlie right hand back of the left, or the right hand may be dropped in front of the left, the little finger between the off curb and snaffle reins in case a two-hand grip is desired (Fig. 153). The hands may be separated and their position on the reins changed by running the reins through the fingers as the hands are drawn apart. The single rein from the plain snaffle bridle is usually simply crossed through the hands. 284 THE HORSE IN SERVICE The trooper holds his single curb reins in the left hand, the two separated by the little finger, then passed through the hand and over the index finger, where they are clasped bj the thumb. Fig. 152. — Riding, reins in one-hand grip, a, a', snaffle reins; B, B' , curb reina. Fig. 153. — Riding, two-hand grip, a, a', snaffle reins; B, B', curb reins. The COW puncher uses an open, unbuckled rein which falls to the ground the moment it is released from the hand, serving to hold his pony as though anchored securely. He usually holds EQUITATION 285 the reins loosely, separated by the forefinger, or with both reins gripped between the thumb and forefinger. The trooper, mounted officer, or cowboy rides with one hand in order to have a free hand for sabre, gun, stick, or rope, but for riding in the park and cross country it is not only per- missible but advisable to use both hands. Continued one-hand riding with tlie other hand hanging disengaged has a tendency toward an unsymmctrical development and carriage of shoulders. Since the trooper and cow puncher guide their horses by the rein on the neck exclusively, using the bit only for restraint, the finger- ing of the reins in their cases is quite different from that which is employed in riding a gaited or high school horse, for instance. The use of the reins implies pressure on the bit, with one notable exception — the saddle horse. All saddle horses, but especially those ridden with a single rein, are schooled to respond to pressure of the rein on the neck (rein wise), turning away from the side against which the rein is carried. If the reins are crossed in front of the horse's neck, pressure on one side of the neck puts pressure also on the opposite side of the mouth, with the usual result so far as the horse is concerned. Gradually he can be taught to respond to the rein on the neck without wait- ing for the pressure on the bit ; clever horses even learn to follow the movement of the hand as though bringing the rein against the neck on one side or the other. Of course, the reins are not crossed after the habit has been acquired. REVIEW 1. Of what importance are the horse's mental limitations? 2. What is the principle which underlies our system of control? 3. What is the line of iransmission, from driver or rider to horse, of instructions for execution? 4. What are irood hands; a good moutli; and wliat is Iheir rehition? 5. Describe the snaffle and the curb bits, naming* the structures of the mouth involved by each. G. When is a bit of the i-ight size and properly adjusted? 7. For what puri:)Ose was the over-draw check designed and to what extent is it abused? 8. When are the coupling reins of a pair of hoi-ses properly adjusted? 9. To what extent should the word be used in riding or driving? Why? 10. What is the proper manner of holding the reins in driving? Why? CHAPTER XVII VEHICLE, HARNESS, AND SADDLE It is quite natural to assume that horses were ridden long before they were driven, although the war chariot is mentioneil in some of the earliest references to the horse in the service of man. The use of the vehicle is so generally dependent upon the construction of roads, and the nature of the roads in early times was so poor, that the comfort of passengers and safety of goods were much greater on the backs of horses and mules. It is so even to-day in the newer parts of our ovm countrs^ Even after roads were built, the primitive vehicles were so crude and luml^jer- ing that they Avere used chiefly for agricultural hauling. After the pillion method of conveying people came the horse litter (fifteenth century), a carriage swung between two poles which were supported at botli ends by horses which were either led or ridden. The evolution of the wheeled vehicle may be traced in steps : First, the most cmde sort of a sledge, often consisting of the forked branches of a tree, dragged in the manner of a stone boat ; second, the addition of fixed rollers ; third, the turning of large rollers into the fomi of wheels or rollers on the ends of a revolv- ing axle, this being the first semblance of wheels (Fig. 15-i) ; fom'th, a fixed wooden axle on which the wheels revolved, being held in place by pins; fifth, the construction of the metal axle with boxed hub wheel, designed to meet if not to minimize friction ; sixth, the highest development of this idea, represented in the modern lubricated or even roller and ball-bearing axles, with wheels of the strons^est vet lightest constniction. The Wheel. — The roller is the means bv which rubbino^ fric- tion is transformed into rolling friction, which requires very much less draught to overcome, and the wheel is the highest type of roller. The two parts of the wheel concerned with friction are the tire, which rolls on the road, and the box of the hub, 286 VEHICLE, HARNESS, AND SADDLE 287 which rubs on the axle. The tire rolls not only on the ground but also over any obstacle which the surface of the road may present. The widdi of the tire has already been discussed under " Draft of the Load/' Chapter XIII. The resilience of the tire is a matter the importance of which has been made more appar- ent by the development of bicy- cling and motoring. The resil- ience is the springing back of the tread behind the point of contact of the wheel with the ground. It may be present either in the tire of the wheel or the surface over which the wheel rolls. The force of the resilience is equivalent to the additional force required to compress the tread ahead of the j^oint of contact, as the wheel rolls. Rubber tires have the general effect of the wheel travelling over a yielding surface, which in- creases the draftj but if the rubber is sufficiently resilient to restore the force thus expended, the actual draft required may be reduced, since the rubber cushion acts like a spring in ab- sorbing shock and thus prevent- ing waste of power in lifting the load over every little obstacle, then letting it fall, with a pound, on the road again. This saving Fig. 154. — The evolution of the wheel. is greater the higher the speed at which the vehicle is pulled. The pneumatic tire, acting on the same principle, very mate- rially reduces the draft of vehicles so equipped, as shown by the experiments of Morin : 288 THE HORSE IN SERVICE Iron tires — Walk three miles per hour .require traction of 48 lb. per ton Iron tires — Trot GVa miles per hour. . . .require traction of 59 lb. per ton Iron tires — Fast trot 9.4 miles per hour .require traction of 77 lb. per ton Pneumatic tires — Walk require traction of 48 lb. per ton Pnemuatic tires — At other paces requii'e traction of 50 lb. per ton Bearings. — Rubbing friction between the axle and tlie box of the hub with which it is in contact is controlled by lubrication and special bearings of rollers, cones or balls, in place of the simple friction bearing. (ZZ Fig. 155. — The cylindrical axle arm. Fig. 156. — The tapered axle arm. Axles are either cylindrical or tapered. The cylindrical axle arm (Fig. 155) insures a truer bearing and easier imnning, in case the road is level from side to side, the tire at right angles to the face of the wheel and the arm itself horizontal. There are many reasons for modifying these conditions prerequisite to the best results from tlie cylindrical axle, however, which render the tapered axle better adapted to common use. The tapered arm ^. y/y/v7^y////////. Fig. 1571-^— Tapered axle arms pitched. Fig. 158. — An unpitched tapered axle. (Fig. 15G) is stronger for a given weight, since it is heaviest at the point of greatest strain, the shoulder. With the tapered axle it is a much simpler matter to maintain a good fit between axle and box by the use of leather washers placed between the wheel and the shoulder of the axle than in the case of the cylindrical axle, in which no subsequent adjustment is possible. For tliis reason the tapered axle is much more easily constructed. Axle anus are so pitched (Fig. 157) as to keep the wheel running VEHICLE, HARNESS, AND SADDLE 289 snug to tlie shoulder instead of running off as it would tend to do witli an unpitched tapered axle (Fig. 158). Incidentally, this pitch places tlie tops of the wheels fartlier apart and, there- fore, throws the mud or dust away from instead of against the body of the wagon. Wheels are dished, that is tlie spokes are set in the hub at an angle, instead of perpendicularly, for several reasons (Fig. 159). In the case of a pitched axle, dish- ing brings tlie spokes of the lower half of the wheel into an upright position, in which they are capable of sustaining the greatest weight. Dishing also braces the wheel against being spnmg by a lateral thrust from the inside, as occurs when the vehicle bounds back and forth from side to side over the road. Dishing also affords an automatic means of keeping wheels tight The effect of wear and con- tinued battering over stones, rails, and all kinds of rough roads is to expand metal tires, thus allowing the sjDokes to loosen in both hub and felloe. In the dished Avheel, however, the spokes are not only set at an angle, but the tire, after being expanded by fire, is fitted so close that when suddenly contracted by cold water it draws the ends of the spokes into a still greater dished position than they were originally set in. Therefore, any expansion that occurs in the tires is immediately taken up by the spokes springing toward the perpendicular. The centrifugal force of the revolving wheel also operates to throw the spokes into a per- pendicular position, Avhich assists in keeping tliem taut against the felloe and tire, by which they are bound. In pitching the axle arms or dishing the wheels, care must be taken to keep the tire parallel with tlie road surface so as not to drag or scuff, as motorists say, but roll evenly over its entire width. 19 Fig. 159. — The dished arrangement of the spokes in the hub. 290 THE HORSE IN SERVICE Very light wheels may have the spokes set in the hub in staggered fashion (Fig. 160) in order to brace the wheel against being sprung by a side thrust from either direction. Instead of being lined up in tlie hub evei*y other spoke is set outside the centre of the hub, which is directly in line with the felloe, the other spokes being set inside. Thus each alternate half of the spokes braces the wheel in opposite directions. Wheeled passenger vehicles were first intro- duced into England in 1555, according to Sir Walter Gilbey, and were in limited use in France a little before that time. Queen Elizabeth was the first sovereign to use a coach, it having been brought from the ^Netherlands and pre- sented to her by a Dutchman, William Boonen, who later became her coachman. This was one' of the first carriages seen in England and was of most cumber- some but pretentious design (Fig. 161). Progress in carriage building was as rapid as the gradual im- FiG. 160.— The staggered arrange- ment of the spokes in the hub. Fig. 161. — One of the cumbersome and pretentious early coaches. provement of the roads would permit, and they remained in very bad condition until late in the eighteenth century. Steel springs were first used in 1670, although our buckboard idea had been represented at a much earlier time, in the way of VEHICLE, HARNESS, AND SADDLE 291 strap siipi")Oi*ts in which the body of the vehicle was slung (Fig. 162) J or two long, supple poles, supported at the ends by the axles, and upon which the body was suspended. Iron tires were rej)orted in the first half of the nineteenth century, although wooden rims, braced with iron at the joints, had been previously used. Use of Biihher. — Early attempts Avere made at shock absorp- tion, it being no doubt more imperative then than now, on ac- count of the rough condition of the roads. The pneumatic tire Avas patented in France in 1846, but proved impracticable at that time. Before this, inflated cushions over the springs, Fig. 162. — Strap supports in wliich the bodj^ of the vehicle was slung. rubber cushions inside the hubs, and spring spokes had all been attempted. In 1883 rubber cushions under the iron tires were tried. The first brakes Avere used 1860 to 1865. Superior IFoor/xS. — A distinct advantage is claimed for American carriage builders over those of any other country on account of the superior AA^oods Avhich are available to them. Hickory is fast replacing oak in carriage construction, and American AA^oods are extensively exported for the use of foreign manufacturers. The American idea in carriage design is light, rigid strength of the " split hickory " sort, Avhile foreign car- riages are much heavier. It is interesting to note the exchange of ideas betAveen England and the United States ; while carriages 292 THE HORSE IN SERVICE of English type have come to dominate our show rings, the Eng- lishmen are showing their high steppers to a bike wheeled vehicle not unlike our American road wagon (Fig. 163). Fig. 163. — A class of English harness horses. Vehicles Classified. — Vehicles may he classified as follows : I. For the transportation of merchandise : 1. Van 5. Wagon 2. Dray 6. Express Delivery 3. Truck T. Light Delivery 4. Cart II. Four-wheelers for the transportation of passengers: 1. Omnibus 9. Eockaway 2. Opera Bus 10. Mail Phaeton 3. Wagonette 11. Demi Mail Phaeton 4. Station Wagon 12. Stanhope Phaeton 5. Berlin 13. Spider Phaeton 6. Landau 14. George I V( Lady's) Phaeton 7. Brougham 15. Sayler Wagon 8. Coupe 16. Victoria VEHICLE, HARNESS, AND SADDLE 293 17. Cabriolet 22. Trap 18. Surrey 23. Park Drag 19. Eun about 24. Eoad Coach 20. Road Wagon 25. Brake 21. Spe«d Wagon Two-wheelers for the transportation of passengers 1. Gig 4. Brake Cart 2. Hansom 5. Jogging Cart 3. Jaunting Car 6. Sulky THE HARNESS There are three general classes of harness, — work, hea\^, and light. The chief distinctions bet^veen the latter have already been referred to. Heavy harnesses are differentiated as coach, gig, and runabout. The typical light harness is also designated as a single strap or track harness. THE SADDLE Horses were ridden long before saddles were thought of, but saddles of various sorts were described at an early period. The horse cloth was used first (800 b.c), but real saddles, with trees, were reported in tlie fourth century a.d. The side-saddle w^as introduced by Anne of Bohemia in the last half of the fourteenth century. Types. — There are in general three types of saddles and, cor- respondingly, three ^vays of sitting them or " seats ": The English or flat, pig skin saddle is used for park riding, hunting, polo, and racing, wdth some modifications especially adapting it to each purj^ose. Its chief characteristics are a low tree, also low pommel and cantle, padding, skirts usually with knee pads, buckled girths usually double, and open steel stir- rups. Seat. — Natural sitting posture, stirrups medium length, knee grip, posting the trot. See illustrations of gaited and walk- trot-canter saddle horses. Chapter V. 291 THE HORSE IN SERVICE The McClellan saddle is the regulation United States Anny saddle. Its features are a medium liigli, open tree, open seat, Fig. 164.— PLilaJciijLia u.uuni.--d p^'li.- 'Muipi-.-l u curb bridle.s. MrCl-lll dlks and single-rein Fig. 165. — The style of riding to which the stock saddle is best adapted. high, pommel and cantle, blanket pad, cinch, and hooded stirrups. Scat. — Close, pommel and cantle support, long stirrup and thigh grip (Fig. 164). VEHICLE, HARNESS, AND SADDLE 295 The stock or Texas saddle is used exclusively for range work and for rough riding in general throughout the West. Its feat- ures are a heavy steel tree, a very high pommel surmounted with a horn for roping, deep seat, very high cantle, heavy square skirts, double cinch, no buckles, and heavy wooden or steel, hooded or open stirrups. Seat. — Comparatively loose but balanced, straight leg and long stirrup (Fig. 165). BRIDLES Eiding bridles are snafEe, curb, or curb and snaffle. The plain snaffle is used on race horses, some hunters, and ponies; the curb alone in cavalry and police ser\ace and by stockmen; the curb and snaffle on either gaited or walk-trot-canter saddle horses, some hunters, and polo ponies. A special hunting snaffle, with double rein, one of which is run through a ring martingale, is most commonly used on hunters. REVIEW 1. Why do we presume that horses were ridden before they were driven ? 2. What were the steps in the evolution of the wheeled vehicle 1 3. Why does a wheeled vehicle require less traction than a stone boat? 4. What is the effect of rubber tires on draft? 5. Why are axle anns pitched? 6. Wh}^ are wheels dished? 7. How are vehicles classified? Give an example of each class. 8. What are the three classes of harness and the essential features of each? 9. What are the chief differences in the three types of saddles and the " seats " with which they are ridden ? 10. Name the types of riding bridles and the uses of each. CHAPTER XVIII MARKETS AND SHOWS The horse show serves a manifold purpose. It entertains the jDublic, furnishes high-class sport for exhibitors, stimulates interest in horses and equestrianism, promotes the horse breed- ing industiy by affording the best means of advertising, and, most imix>rtant of all, it establishes ideals or standards for the guidance of breeders. Classes of Show Horses. — Show horses are classified into market and breeding divisions. In the market division the classes are made up on the basis of type, primarily, the hoi-ses of each type being classified either according to weight, height, or performance and further into singles, pairs, threes, fours, sixes, and so on. Age, sex, and breed are not as a rule consid- ered in the market classification. Any class may in addition have special requirements, as " performance only to count " or " conformation 40 per cent., performance 60 per cent.'' Breeding classes are made up on the basis of age, duplicated for each sex and in connection with each breed. In addition there are usually classes for get of sire, produce of dam, groups either bred or o^\Tied by exliibitor, and specials. Fitting horses for the show ring consists in schooling them for a creditable performance and feeding and grooming them into the condition and bloom in which tliey make the best ap- pearance. All show horses, of whatever type, should be fat in some degree. Showing. — Breeding classes are shown " in hand " either with lead bridle or on the lung-e rein, in the case of stallions; to halter frequently, in the case of mares. Trotters and pacers are usually sho^m beside a pony, while drafters and heavy har- ness horses are sho^\ni by runners on foot. Market classes are shown in harness or under saddle, as the case may l^e. An exception is made in the case of drafters, which are shown to halter as well as in harness. Harness horses 296 MARKETS AND SHOWS 297 should be put to appropriate veliicles ; appointments may or may not count, as indicated in the class requirements. Harness and saddle horses should be either driven or ridden well into the corners of the ring, in order to go as much of the route as pos- sible straight away. Exliibitors are at all times subject to the direction of the ring master, who acts under the instmctions of the judges. Con- testants, not in the short leet or disqualified for any reason, are dismissed from the ring or '^ given the gate." HORSE MARKETS C^ommerce is the interchange of commodities, and the market is the medium for this. The exchange takes place between the producer on the one hand and the consumer on the other, market vahies being dctennined by the balance maintained between the amount produced and the anioimt consumed. Consumption be- ing fixed, over-production bears or depresses the market while under-production will bring about an increase in market values. With a given amount produced, excessive consumption bulls or increases market values, while a decrease in the demand from the consumer \\i\\ have an opposite effect on values. The demand of the consumer not only determines market values, but also the character of the product for which the top price can be secured. Therefore, while both the producer and the consumer are concerned in maintaining the strength of the market and with the character of the product involved, it is the consumer who really rules. This is a most important fact for the horse breeder to realize. The Breeder and the Market. — ^Unfortunately there is a dif- ference between horse breeding and the production of market horses. Too many breeders operate independently or in total ignorance of market conditions and requirements. Their ideal of a market horse is both single and selfish and does not comprehend t\^e or class distinction. It is not unusual to find an ow^ner sacrificing a colt which has some real outcome in a market class for which the demand is strong but of which the owTier knows nothing, while trying to secure his price for one of whose value 298 THE HORSE IN SERVICE he lias either an erroneous or exaggerated notion. '' Picked out of the bushes " means bought cheaply from an obscure owner who had no concei)tion of the hole's idtimate value. It represents the practice of buyers who measure tlieir profits by the ignorance^ in horse matters, of those from whom they buy. With the exception of drafters, the horse breeder receives a smaller percentage of the price his colt eventually brings than in the case of any other live stock product. It is true that most fanners are not equipped with time or facilities to properly school or train high-class saddle, show, or race horses, the ex- pense of which is usually w^orth about as much as the original cost of the green horse, but they frequently do not receive full value for their product in the rough, to which they are justly entitled. In order to produce salable colts and to realize full value for them, the breeder must keep himself well informed as to the character of the horses that are topping the markets. And the horse that brought the high price years ago may not be the best seller to-day, since market demand is continually undergoing some modification which should be taken into account by the producer, if he is to be successful. Furthermore, the breeder should be able to see, in prospect, into just what his colt is capable of developing. A knowledge of dealers, conditions of sale, and other essen- tials also aids materially in negotiating a satisfactory sale. The particular class desired will of course depend upon the purpose for which the horse is purchased. It is important, how- ever, that the requirements of some definite class shall be met, as those horses which are oft' type or misfits constitute the remnant stock of the horse market for which the lowest price and least profit are realized. First-handedness. — Service in the city usually draws the line between first- and second-handedness. Marked evidence, of a horse's being second-handed consists of the blemishes and minor unsoundnesses which come as a result of wear and tear, such as jniffs, sprung knees, and cocked ankles. The dealer in buying first-hand country horses prefers that they should be untrimmed in any way. MARKETS AND SHOWS 299 Sex. — As a rule geldings outsell mares on account of their more general usefulness throughout the season and also in view of the possibility of mares being in foal. Spring fann trade may demand mares. The Origin of Market Classes. — The origin of market classes is based on utility. Horses are required to perform a certain kind of service, and it is determined tliat those of certain definite features are better adapted to do this particular line of work than liorses of any other sort. Thus, demand takes the form of S])ecific requirements by the consumer, and there are created distinct market classes. Some of the classes are more or less arbitrary as to name and requirements, so that on different markets it is not always easy to distinguish between them. The major divisions, however, can be differentiated on the broad basis of type. Market horses are, first of all, either classified or unclassified (see chapter on the Classes of Horses). Sales are eitlier public or private. Public sales are con- ducted by auctioneers and dealers; private sales by private owners and dealers. Sales, whether public or private, are usually followed as soon as possible by a transference of the liorse to the buyer, who is allowed two days in which to give the liorse fair examination and trial, at the end of which time, if the hoi-se is not returned, the sale is considered complete. '^ Two days " is the rule most strictly abided by, but under certain conditions this may be extended to ten days or even two weeks, if so stated. Letters or evidence bearing upon a contract may complete it m law, -so that when horses are bought by correspondence the letters and documents act as a part of tlie contract. When any defects or unsoundnesses, otherwise apparent, are purposely covered up or hidden in any way, and discovered after the sale, the buyer has redress. The measure of damages he can recover is the difference between the price paid hy him and the price he receives upon selling the horse in an open market . Auctioneers are usually licensed as such and are legally bound to conduct their sales under certain conditions. Conditions of Sale. — The buyer should familiarize himself with the conditions of sale. In all cases horses must be as rep- 300 THE HORSE IN SERVICE resented, but in catalogues or bills the owner's statement below the description of a horse is not to be taken as a part of the con- tract or guarantee. As a nile, age, height, weight, and speed are not guaranteed in these sales. Sales are usually for cash, subject to the terms set forth in catalogues and bills and specified at the opening of the sale by the auctioneer. The owner is the only responsible party in sales. The auc- tioneer is an intermediate party acting as the owner's agent or representative, but he is also a protection to the buyer, as he can hold the seller to any statements he may make concerning the conditions under which the horse is sold. In most markets horses previously sold may be run through the sale like any other horses in order to give it life, color, and en- couragement, and this is not considered an unlawful practice. Sales Ring Warranty. — In Chicago, the largest horse market in America, horses are sold under five different guarantees of soundness, viz. : 1. Sound. — The horse meets all requirements of soundness ; comparatively rare. 2. Serviceahhj Sound. — Unsound in some respect, which does not interfere with his fitness for the particular service for which sold. 3. Sound to Wind and Work. — The horse's wind is good and he will work, but he is otherwise unsound. 4. Worker Only. — True to woi*k; all other conditions are to the eye of the buyer. 6. At the Halter. — Carrying witli it no warrant or guarantee Avhatever. Often horses sold at the halter are those that have been sold under previous guarantee and turned back, or sold to adjust some dispute or difficulty. With all Faults. — AMien a horse is sold " with all faults " the seller is relieved from all liability. Private Sales. — It is often desirable for intending pur- chasers to buy from private o\Miers or dealers, under conditions which pei-mit of more thorough examination. How to Buy a Horse. — There is probably nothing about the MARKETS AND SHOWS 301 purchase of which there is so much suspicion and misgiving as a horse, yet there are horses sold on their merits and at prices which they are well worth. It may be further stated that there is nothing else in the purchase of which the buyer expects so much for so little. There probably always will be gyp dealers, but the only excuse for their existence is the credulity, ignor- ance, short-sightedness, and narrow policy of buyers. These traits of character constitute the business assets of tlie illegitimate seller. On the other hand, much has been accomplished in an effort to ])ut the horse business* on a sound basis, where dealers stake their reputation on their sales the sauie as is done with pianos, real estate, diamonds, or any commodity of trade. Oue does not hesitate to pay a premium for a watch, a hat, or even a bottle of milk, which is the product of a house or finn Avith a i'e])utatiou for furnishing full value* in their gooxls. Yet a horse dealer is charged with unfairness and even chicanery, in many cases, if he charges much more than the cost of the raw material after having " made " the horses and sold them with a guarantee which protects the buyer from even the inevitable. This; is done at the risk of the seller, who hazards niiiny things for which he is in no way responsible, even should they occur. Another source of difficulty is the indiscriminate manner in which advice is accepted. The coachman, the town liveryman, the village black- smith. Uncle Hiram, and all the others are regarded as the wise ones, whose conflicting opinions must be accorded more consid- eration than the claims of the perfectly respectable citizen whose own business prosperity depends upon the horses he sells making good all he claims for them. It is a ridiculous situation. Any person who cares suffi- ciently for a horse to use him intelligently and with satisfaction should be competent to buy one. He should be able to deter- mine, by trial, whether or not the horse meets the buyer's require- ments ; and if he is, temporarily at least, sound of eyes, wind, and limb. If there is any question in regard to an obscure un- soundness, the services of a veterinarian should be employed to settle that point. If one does not feel qualified to make his oa\ti selection, but finds it necessary to seek advice, he should go direct 302 THE HORSE IN SERVICE to the dealer — onlj reputable ones to be considered — admit his ignorance, state his requirements, and put himself, without any reservation, in the dealer's hands. It should not be difficult to find a dealer who would measure up to a responsibility of this kind. But he will charge, in the price of the horse, a reasonable fee for telling the truth about things of which the buyer is free to confess he knows little or nothing. For such advice the buyer can well afford to pay. If, however, he 2)laccs no faith in the dealer, nor credits him with any conscience, but he and his advising friends proceed to bluff their way to a satisfactory jmrchase, they are tempting fate — and the dealer. Avoid all go-hetweens who are '^ in the deal " for a profit. If it is a harness or saddle horse that is to be bought, do the dealer the honor to eliminate the coachman from the transac- tion. It is astonishing how gentlemen who consider themselves so thoroughly competent to manage their own affairs that they resent the least suggestion on most matters, make their coachmen tlic absolute masters of the situation in all affairs pertaining to their stables. This is one of the most difficult and aggTavating l)ropositions witli which the square-dealing horse seller has to contend, and has much to do with keeping the price of horses high. If some '^ direct to the consumer " method of conducting the horse business were permitted by buyers, it would be much to the mutual benefit of all concerned. When huying gree7i Jiorses in the country, or whenever the buyer has no recourse but to rely on his own ingenuity in making a selection, some system should be followed. It is import.ant that the horse be inspected in the stable. !N'ote the condition of his stall ; this is the place to detect such vices as kicking, crib- bing, and weaving. Consider how he stands on his feet and the manner in which he backs out on the floor. The first few steps taken after standing vnW often reveal what the next few will quickly obscure. "Watch him harnessed, put to, and driven out Here again and here only many disagreeable traits may be dis- covered. Try him out in whatever way desired, ^ever buy a horse " hot," i.e., warmed up. It may be more convenient to have a horse or a pair brought round for inspection, but there are a number of conditions of unsoundness that a horse may be MARKETS AND SHOWS 303 wanned out of. Examine the eyes with a shadow cast on them ; note the relative size of the two front feet; then wind him and work him to see how he goes. The company plan of selling stallions may or may not be a perfectly legitimate transaction. It has its advantages and disadvantages to both buyers and sellers. It frequently happens that ten or twelve mare o^vners in a community w^ould prefer taking a share or two of company stock to owning a stallion out- right. To them the company plan renders available the services of a valuable stallion of which they would otherwise be deprived. If they simply subscribe for their own stock and take no further part in the deal, they may expect the expense of organizing the company and selling the horse to them to be included in his cost price. Yet if a good selection is made, each subscriber may re- ceive good value, allowing for his o^vn time saved. When, how- ever, the company plan is adopted as a means of unloading a counterfeit stallion for which there is no sale at the firm's stables, the horse being shipped to the to^vn selected, accompanied by a smooth salesman abundantly supplied ^\atli cash with ^diich to mix among prospective subscribers and finally put through a sale, it should be condemned. The company plan of huying is preferable to the company selling plan. Let the organization of the company be instigated and perfected by tliose interested, and one or more of the mem- bers be delegated to go direct to the seller's headquarters, make a selection, and pay cash. Othen^^se the cost of the same stallion will be about 20 per cent more, if sold on the company plan and the cost of the sale a.dded to his price. REVIEW 1. What is a market, and how are market classes and values determined 1 2. What is the importance of market information to the breeder and feeder? 3. Explain the creation of market classes. 4. What is a second-handed horse ? 5. What are the usual conditions of sale"? 6. Name six "don'ts" to obsel'^'e in buying; a horse. 7. Is the company plan of seHins: stallions commendable? 8. How are show horses classified ? 9. Of what does fitting for show consist ? 10. How are the different classes of horses shown? CHAPTER XIX TRANSPORTATION Hace and sliow horses and also market horses for sale, which are shipped long distances, as from the Middle West to the Eastern markets, are usually carried by exj^ress, while individ- ual horses or even a carload, shipped to or from local points, ordinarily go l>y freight. Express Cars. — The express companies furnish either horse cars fitted with adjustable stall partitions which accommodate from twelve to sixteen horses standing four abreast lengthwise of the car (Fig. 166) ; or large, loose horse cars open about one- fourth the way down from the top and accommodating twenty- eight head with sufficient space to permit of their moving about and picking mates. The former type of car is used most by stal- lion importers, while the latter is preferred by the shippers of market geldings. For freight shipment open stock cars are found to be less draughty and afford better ventilation than closed box cars. Ex- perienced shippers of the highest class of horses declare they have less sickness subsequent to shipment, even in winter, in the open car. Horses are much less likely to contract colds if con- tinuously exposed to low temperatures than if chilled, even slightly, after a period of overheating, and the danger of infec- tion is always inverse to the amount of fresh air available. Most stock cars built nowadays are equipped with double coil springs to insure easy riding whether loaded heavy or light, a rigid steel underframe to prevent sagging, shock-absorbing draw-bars, rounded edges, countersunk bolt-heads and nuts in the interior, and are even of steel construction (Fig. 167). It is further advised, on good authority, to turn horses loose in the car, even if but one or two are to go. They are less liable to be thro^Mi than if tied, ride much more comfortably, some in- stinctively lying do^\Ti as soon as they enter a well-bedded car, and they come off the car at the end of the trip in much better shape. 304 TRANSPORTATION 305 The more common practice, however, is to cross tie and even tie from above, allowing but little play. It usually matters not whether the horse is headed or backed to the locomotive, as a car rarely arrives in the same direction in which it was started, Fig. 166.— Express horse car partitioned into stalls, four groups of four stalls each lengthwise of the car. unless on a short, straight run. If a mixed car of stock is shipped, necessitating the partitioning of the car, such partitions should be very substantial in both material and construction. Horses have been seriously injured an^ ji^rmanently blemished by being thro^vQ through or against frail or makeshift partitions. 20 306 THE HORSE IN SERVICE Freight tariffs are not Tiniform the country over, but the fol- lowing one is fairly typical : A carload is hilled at a minimum of 20,000 pounds ; single horses or less than a carload at 5000 pounds for one mare or gelding; 3000 pounds for each additional head. Stallions are rated at YOOO pounds straight, whether alone or in a mixed car of stock other than horses, although a stallion shipped in a full carload of horses only is not discriminated against. Care During Shipment. — Shipments of horses come under the federal law requiring all stock to he unloaded, fed, and watered every twenty-eight hours ; this time may he extended to thirty-six hours if so agreed between the shipper and carrier Fig. 107. — Stock car for shipping horses. beforehand. Less than a carload, accompanied by an attendant who feeds and waters them, are not subject to this law. Most carloads of horses are shipped unattended, as a man can do little to either prevent or overcome trouble in the car en route. Horses are best prepared for shipment by a good fill of tim- otliy hay and only a moderate ration of soft feed. They require little if any feed en route within a twenty-eight-hour limit, a small amount of hay to pick over being sufiicient. The Penn- sylvania Railroad is eliminating the hay racks from its latest featured stock car, on the ground that hay is unnecessary with the operation of the twenty-eight-hour unloading law, that much of it is usually wasted, and that the racks take up valuable head room and, becoming loose or broken, as they frequently do, are a constant source of danger to the heads and eyes of horses. TRANSPORTATION 307 Race and show horses are frequently covered from tip to toe, hoods, blankets, and bandages being provided to protect them from possible draughts. Unless accustomed to much clothing, horses so covered are liable to become overheated and not ship so well as others that are but lightly blanketed or perhaps not covered at all. The closeness of the quarters insures against a very low temperature if there are many horses in tlie car. Band- ages rolled low around the coronets to protect from tramping, Fig. 168. — Just off the car from the West. pads about the eyes and poll, and knee pads are often provided as an extra precaution. Injury During Shipment. — The chief injury to horses in transit consists of bruises at the point of the hocks. There is little difficulty occasioned by horses getting down in the car, and if they dp get down tliey usually experience little trouble in getting up on their feet again unless old or crippled, as is often the case in the second-hand horse trade. The well-nigh inevitable influenza or shipping fever, so-called, could probably be controlled to a certain extent if thorough dis- infection of cars were insisted upon. 308 THE HORSE IN SERVICE Some liigli-stnuig, ncn'ous horses are subject to car fits, as they are called, a form of hysteria resulting from the excitement and perhaps the cramped position which causes extreme dis- comforts They will sometimes rear, pitch, and throw themselves to such an extent as to make it necessary to stop the train and remove them from the car in order to prevent them from doing serious damage to themselves or mates. ]\Iuch travel will some- times enable them to overcome tlie dithculty, while in other cases it simply aggravates their condition (Fig. 168). REVIEW 1. When are lioi-ses shipped by express and when by freight? 2. Describe the express cars furnished to hoi-se shippei-s. 3. AVhat type of freiji'ht cars are best for hoi-se shipments and why? 4. Should horses be tied or turned loose during shipment? 5. How are horses best prepared and cai*ed for during shipment? CHAPTER XX THE MULE The importance of the mule as a factor in American agri- culture justifies a consideration of his production and use in a general discussion of Horse Husbandry. The mule conforms to the definition of a hybrid in that his sire is of one species, Equus asinus, and his dam is of another species, Equus caballus, the common ancestor within the genus being so remote as to render the hybrids sterile. Mule breeding was practiced by the ancients, and in some countries they are depended upon almost altogether for work. The inverse cross, which produces a hinny, is more difficult to accomplish, the hybrid being smaller and less useful as a rule, although it is contended by some that hinnies cannot be distin- guished from mules. Mules have always been bred most extensively in semi-tropical regions, the line being quite shar[)ly drawn between the produc- tion of mules and draft horses. Classes of Mules. — An extended classification of mules is given, but they are all bred for essentially two purposes, — work in the fields and in the mines. Fann or plantation mules, or sugar and cotton mules, as the market classes tliem, are bred chiefly from well-bred mares of so-called hot blood and are therefore rangy, fine, and snappy movers. The Southerner regards it as no desecration to mate good saddle or trotting bred mares with a jack, and some extremely breedy mules are the result (Fig. 109). The mine demand, which is of necessity for a draftier, bigger lK>ned mule (Fig. 170), is met by mating the smaller, smoother class of draft mares with big-boned jacks. Mine mules work l)oth on the surface and down in the mines. The latter range in height according to the veins in which they are to work. The little 12-hand pitters are much in demand and bring a price out of proportion to their size. 309 310 THE HORSE IN SERVICE As Draft Animals. — Mules are not a success for heavy draft work on city streets, as tbey do not have either the weight or cir- cumference of foot to give them a good hold on pavements. Fur- thermore, it is the experience of teamsters that a mule pulls by a direct forward push instead of by the lift with which draft horses start their load. This, too, is conducive to slipping. Some light pairs of mules do well in light delivery ser^^ice, and their feet ^Hthstand the battering of the jDavements especially welt I ! ''. — Representing the Kent 1 - i Imli't imili- ixcclltuir. Their size, rangy, smooth form, quality, breediness, and temperament are such as are reciuired of the highest class sugar mule. on account of a very thick, strong wall and sole, and their 2>eculiar shape, which prevents both a contraction of heels and dropping of sole. The Mule's Advantages. — The mule has some distinct ad- vantages over the horse for some kinds of work. They may be enumerated as follows : He stands hot weather better and is less susceptible to diges- tive disorders and founder, it being customary to feed mules from troughs, where they may take tlieir fill, like cattle. A mule takes better care of himself in the hands of an incompetent driver THE MULE 311 than a liorse does, accepting his lot more philosophically, being naturally more of a plodder and therefore more steady and less fretful. On account of the peculiar fonn and structure of the mule's foot, he is less subject to foot lameness and the ordinary injurious effects of shoeing than is the horse, which is more connnonly incapacitated for work on this account than any other. Lame- Fio. 170.- -A rugged pair of more drafty form and ample bone, representative of the best grade sought for mine use. ness in a mule is most often due to spavins and ringbones, but he will get along with a spavin which would practically put a horse out of business. Mules are almost invariably good walkers. Stabling requirements for mules are much less elaborate than for horses, double stalls, with or without bales, or even pens in which a number are turned loose, being all that is needed. Age and infirmities seem to count less against mules, and as a rule an old or second-hand pair will outsell horses of equal merit. 312 THE HORSE IN SERVICE Mules are subject to a general prejudice which militates against them in all but limited parts of this country, and on account of this it is difficult to secure competent drivers for them. The mule is usually more sagacious than the horse, and is scarcely less responsive to proper treatment, yet the idea prevails that whatever service is gotten out of him must be knocked out, the black-snake whip and gag bit being considered essential fea- tures of mule team appointments. Fig. 171. — A Kentucky jack of the aize, aubaiauv^ iiiuie bfcediug. Mare mules outsell horse mules on account of their smoother turned bodies and the fact that they are more easily kept in condition. The Jack. — Jack stock breeders distinguish between the type of jack best adapted to mating with jennies for the production of jack breeding stock and the stamp of jack best suited to mating with mares for the production of mule hybrids. The Standard of Excellence, — The jack most desired for THE MULE 313 mule breeding is at least 16 hands high. The more weight and substance he has the better. He is long and wide in form, having good-sized, wTll-shaped head and ears, straight legs of ample bone, and well-shaped feet of good size and texture (Fig. 171). Black with light points is the color most favored, not only for api^earance sake, but because the get of such a jack out of mares of 'any or all colors have proven most uniformly of good colors. He should also be stylish. The native jack, so-called, although but a few generations removed from imported stock, has the reputation of getting a higher class of mules than the imported jacks themselves. Of the imjiorted breeds, the Catalonian, Poitou, Maltese, Andalu- sian, Majorcan and Italian, the former is most popular. Fig. 172. — The right stamp of mares as attested by their produce. The Mare. — The mule is believed to take after the sire in the matter of head, ears, bone, and foot, while its stature and form of body, especially, are derived chiefly from the dam. There are many exceptions to this rule, however. Mares of good size and shape, black, bay, brown, or chestnut in color, and with a dash of hot blood, are best adapted to the production of mules (Fig. 172) . REVIEW 1. What is a mule? a hinny? 2. What are the two general classes of mules and how is each produced ? 3. What can be said in favor of using mules instead of horses for farm work? 4. What type and breeding of jack is most desired for breeding mules ? 5. What sort of mares make the most satisfactory dams of mules ? CHAPTER XXI THE MOTOR AS A FACTOR The force of the foregoing statements concerning the profit- able production and use of horses will be influenced by one's conception of the future status of the horse. To this end the motor must be reckoned with. At no time in history has the horse been subjected to such keen competition for place and favor as at the present. The motor is such an important factor as to require considera- tion in any discussion of equine affairs. The view-point, how- ever, should be fair and logical, not obscured by such sentiment or entliusiasm as characterizes a partisan review of either side of the question. There are ardent motorists who would have the horse annihilated for all time, while some riders and drivers would legislate the same end for all motordom; yet neither of these positions is warranted by the facts. Other Factors. — History is but repeating itself, apparently, as in the case of the invention of gunpowder ; the advent of canals and, later, railroads ; tlie adoption of the cable and the trolley on street railways ; and the past popularity of the bicycle ; each of which in turn threatened to supplant horses in their different fields. Advantages of the Motor. — An analysis of the situation at present concedes to the motor three distinct advantages over the horse: Speed, endurance, especially in hot weather, and vogue. Whenever the miles covered or the time consumed is the sole consideration it is reasonable to suppose that the motor will be shown the preference. So it is in the case of the doctor or the sales solicitor, men whose earning capacity is limited by the facility with which they can get about; likewise the travelling public and society folk have become so accustomed to a minimum time allowance for making trains or keeping engagements that they could hardly be expected to dispense with the taxicab or limousine. Suburban deliveries are made much more expedi- 314 THE MOTOR AS A FACTOR 315 tiously by auto when tliej entail long, straight-awaj runs with few stops ; and die moving of large loads to a distant distributing point can be more quickly and cheaply done by the big motor trucks even than by railroad freight. Advantages of the Horse. — For the about-town delivery of many small parcels, each one to a different house, requiring almost continuous starts and stops, with frequent runs in and out of short streets, the auto deliveries are more costly and less effi- cient. Horses have their routes, and lend their assistance in anticipating stops and starts or even turning round themselves and waiting round the comer while their driver resorts to a short cut across lots. ^ATierever much time is spent in standing or waiting the ad- vantage is with the horse-dra^vn vehicle on account of the smaller investment ^presented and the less depreciation involved. Cost of Feed and of Gasoline. — Clever motor salesmen have taken advantage of the abnormally high cost of horse feeds for the past few years in their calculations of the relative economy of horse-drawn and motor vehicles. But with feed inclining again to a normal level, while the cost of gasoline is advancing at such a rate as to threaten automatically to check the patronage of the motor, unless other fuel or motive power is resorted to, there is little weight in such arguments. A Motor Age — There is every evidence of this being a motor age ; the motor idea is conspicuous in our mode of dress ; it pre- dominates in our conversation. Whereas the small boy of past generations straddled the broomstick or harnessed two overturned chairs and played horse, he now turns his ingenuity to the con- struction and operation of racing pushmobiles of the latest type and full equipment; patrons of the remnant counters demand that the goods purchased by them shall be delivered by auto, in case the firm is so derelict as to still retain some antiquated speci- mens of the genus Equus in their delivery service. All this is fully appreciated by those engaged in the business of catering to public patronage, and it is played upon in every possible way by the auto salesman. Vogue gives to the automobile, however, a much less stable advantage over the horse than does its greater efficiency in long, 316 THE HORSE IN SERVICE fast runs. Popular favor is self-limiting, and the stronger the wave of general popularity the harder the brakes will set. The pacemakers of fashion are the ultra-exclusive set; a^ soon as a fad which thej have started gains sufficient momentum to reach the butcher, the baker, and so on, it is considered common and is dropped by the very ones who first became sponsors for it, and their example is invariably followed (Fig. 173). The remark- able increase in the number of cars used each season, together with the great variety of individuals enlisting in the ranks of 1 1 A i l« g ^^^Bb^ %^t^'' r^^BBn^^^^g -■.Sl^ ^. I . Fig. 173. -Park horse to victoria, correctly appointed. An equipage with an individuality which can never become common. the motorists, suggest that we are rapidly approacliing the crest of tlie wave. The horse markets, shows, park drives, and bridle paths offer substantial evidence that the horse is being gradually reinstated, not in his former capacity perhaps, because the automobile has modified uses and customs, but in gTcater favor than ever, so far as some types are concerned. If the activities of the' motor road monopolists were properly regulated, both as to the con- struction and use of roads, a preference for the horse would be shown by many drivers who have been forced off the road by fear of fallen horses and collisions. THE MOTOR AS A FACTOR 317 With the present vogue abated, the motor will become, no doubt, a cold business proposition, which facilitates affairs in such a multitude of ways as to be indispensable, like the tele- phone. Supplements to the Horse in Service The roadster the touring car, and the limousine have all added so much to our possibilities in their respective fields that they must be included in every completely equipped establishment, but there is nothing to render them incompatible with the horse in a kindred relation- ship. The commercial truck, also, performs so many lines of service so much more acceptably than the. horse> ever can, that its supremacy within limits cannot be denied. Yet in this the motor is supplementing, not supplanting, the horse in service. Demand for Saddle Horses. — It may seem like overdrawn optimism to attribute to the automobile any advantages accruing to the horse, but such is not difficult of demonstration. The motor car has been a most important factor in the prevalent countiy life movement. Distances are so contracted by its use as to place the country within easy access of many who could not otherwise enjoy it. The country without a, horse is like a library without books. Fox limiting is becoming the sport of a greater number, of people in this country each season, partly, at least, on account of the rapid transit facilities offered by the automobiles. There are more people riding to-day on doctors' pre- scriptions than ever before. The convenience of the auto has removed the necessity for even a physiological amount of exer- cise, which must be compensated for in some other Avay. Thus, while no doubt depi-essing the market for coach and road horses, the automobile has furaished a boom to the saddle horse trade. There is a sentimental side to the subject under discussion. Motor possibilities have left horses, except those in the commer- cial field, chiefly in the hands of people who want them because they are horses, with the result that they are in their highest estate, a condition most satisfactory to them and most gratifying to those interested in their well-being (Fig. 174). ^o one who cares for horses regrets either the substitution of the taxicab for the hoi-se-drawn hansom or four-wheeler, nor the transference of the ordinary livery patronage to the garage. He w^ho rides only 318 THE HORSE IN SERVICE for the thrill would confer a favor on horse kind by devoting himself to aeronautics. Breeding of Better Horses. — Finally there is an economic significance to tlie whole situation. Competition stimulates to best efforts. I^ow the consumers of horses are discriminating; demand is for horses of the highest type. It has been observed that after an experience in buying and maintaining automobiles Fig. 174. — Motor advantages enjoyed by the horse. in service one becomes more appreciative of horse values and more liberal in his allowance for cost. The result Avill be more intelligent and systematic breeding for a definite purj^ose, with consequently less failures, and, finally, a more liberal profit to him who meets the demand of those who can afford to discriminate and pay well for what they require. Costs of Delivery With Horses and Trucks. — Figures taken from the books of Wilson & Co. show that it cost in the month of March 25 cents per cwt. to deliver products by use of two-ton trucks, 13.3 cents per cwt. by use of one-horse wagons, 7.9 cents THE MOTOR AS A FACTOR 319 per cwt. by use of two-horse wagons, and 5.9 cents by use of four-horse wagons. The information from which these costs are figured is embodied in the following tables : Wagon Report. Single Double 4-Horse Wagon Wagon Wagon Days in service 26 26 26 Hours in service 325 3261/2 337 Pounds hauled 132,007 274,000 517,500 Miles travelled 599 297 483 Loads ■ 56 62 53 Average pounds per load 2,357 4,418 9,764 Average miles per trip 10.6 4.8 9.1 Average stop per trip 10.9 1.6 1.4 Stops 614 101 77 Expense. Interest, 6 per cent $1.50 $2.25 $4.24 Depreciation 4.42 6.80 13.10 Fire insurance .28 .56 .84 Liability insurance 1.68 3.36 5.00 Labor, driver and helper 138.13 146.93 171.87 Stable help .2.00 4.00 8.00 Oats 9.36 18.72 37.40 Hay 7.35 14.79 29.39 Straw 96 1.92 3.84 Shoes 3.40 6.80 13.60 Medicine 20 .40 .80 Grease .20 .40 .80 Estimated repairs and overhauling 5.00 6.15 9.61 License and tools 1.80 3.60 5.40 Total expense $176.28 $216.68 $303.89 Average cost per cwt. hauled $.133 $.079 $.059 Truck Report. Days operated 24 Hours operated 27 1 ^/^ Pounds hauled , 118,978 Mileage 1,162 Loads 48 Average pounds per load 2,478 Average miles per trip 24 Average miles per gallon gasoline 5 Average stops per trip 9 320 THE HORSE IN SERVICE Expense. License for month $ 2.76 ^Mechanic's labor 25.25 Parts 44.03 Interest 8.10 Depreciation 30.00 Insurance 0.72 Driver's labor 125.09 Garage expense 9.24 Gasoline 44.48 Oil 4.30 Grease .75 Alcohol glycerine .98' Total expense $302.36 Average cost per owt. hauled $ .25 Average cost per mile .25 The trucks referred to are of two-ton capacity. They are geared at 30 miles an hour. They cost $2,200 each. Sixteen of them are used to deliver packing-house products in the Chicago suburbs bounded by Waukegan, West Chicago and Gary. They leave the Wilson plant at 6 a.m.^ and get back at 4 p.m. They are out on the long drive only three days a week. One extra truck is used for replacement purposes. It replaces a different truck every day, so that one tnick is overhauled every 1(3 days. This system is found to lengthen the truck's life by 2 years. Tlie cost of delivery will be 5 cents per ewt. higher this year than a year ago, because the trucks are a year older and require more repairs, tires, and so on. The Wilson delivery teams weigh from 3^200 to 3,500 pounds. They jouniey to the loop with more than 2 tons to the load. They may be loaded up to 41/0 tons or more than twice as much as the trucks will carry. An overloaded truck soon goes to pieces ; an overloaded team will struggle along for awhile and the owner is out only an extra handful of oats. A single horse will haul easily 4,000 pounds, which is the capacity load for one of the trucks in question. The average cost of teams is about $500. A double wagon costs $375 aud harness about $95. The highest-priced work THE MOTOR AS A FACTOR 321 horse in the Wilson stables cost $28Y. As an instance of how depreciation works ont in the stables, the South Chicago branch house took out a team 8 years ago at $540. Recently the team was sent back and the branch house manager thought enough of it to bill the horses back at $540 ! The Avage scale for truck chauffeurs is 46% cents per hour. Drivers of four-horse teams receive 50 cents an hour, drivers of two horses 45 cents, and drivers of single horses 421A cents. A horse driver is allowed 30 minutes to clean his horse before starting out. * * * The cost for incidental help to keep equipment in shape is of course much higher with the trucks than with the horses. For 23 pieces of auto equipment four mechanics and six helpers must be maintained. For 92 horses and 40 wagons three barn men and two wagon washes are required. REVIEW 1. What other factors have in the past threatened to supplant the horse as in the present case of the motor? 2. What are the undisputed advantages of the motor car in commercial service ? 3. What advantages must be conceded to the hoi-se in commercial service ? 4. Why may the present vogue of the automobile be expected to abate ? 5. What classes of horses have felt most keenly the competition mth the motor car? 6. What classes owe their increased demand in part, at least, to the motor car? 7. How has the adoption of the motor vehicle improved the welfare of some horses? 8. Will the motor vehicle supplant or supplement the hoi-se in sei-vice ? 9. What will be its probable effect on the horse breeding industry? 10. To what extent has the common use of the motor affected the horee maa-ket? INDEX Accessories to bit, 275 blinds, 279 bristle burr, 280 chin strap, 280 coupling rein, 277 martingale, 279 nose band, 280 overdraw check, 275 side or bearing rein, 275 whip, 280 word, 280 Age, 141 dentition of horses, 152 determination of, 150 importance of, 151 mouth at different ages, 154-173 structure of tooth, 153 Alfalfa, 240 American Breeds, 112-132 native American horses, 133 American Carriage Horse, government stud of, 110 American Saddle horse, 127 characteristics of, 130 color of, 131 evolution of, 127 foundation stock of, 128 gaits of, 131 influence of Thoroughbred on, 128 producing mares of, 130 prominent sires of, 130 uses of, 131 Arabian, strains of color of, 73 Artificial impregnation, 212 insemination, 214 Atavism, 183 Auctioneers, 299 responsibility of, 299 Axles, 288 bearings, 288 conical, 288 - Axles, cylindrical, 288 pitched, 288 Azaturia, 245 Bad habits, 268 Barb, 75 Bariey, 237 Base of support, effect of rapidity of stride on, 8 Bedding, 250 corn stover, 251 peat moss, 251 purposes of, 250 sawdust, 251 shavings, 251 straw, 251 Belgian, 90 American type of, 91 origin of, 91 use of sires, 92 Bitless bridle, 274 Bits, 271 classification of, 273 fit and adjustment of, 275 structures with which in contact, 272 use of, 272 Blinds or winkers, 279 open bridle, 279 Bourbon King, pedigree of, 129 Bran, 236 mash, preparation of, 236 Breeding, 25, 179, 317 a side issue to general farming, 179 brothers in blood, 184 community system, 192 cross-breeding, 182 dams, 184 ideals geographically different, 179 323 324 INDEX Breeding, inbreeding, 182 investment required, 179 line breeding, 182 spring or fall foaling, 206 stud, 192 top cross, 184 Breeds of horses, 70 classification of, 83 definition of best breed, 70 inherent qualities of, 71 study of foundation stock, 71 Bridles, 295 classes of, 295 uses of, 295 Bristle burr, 280 British breeds, history of, 93-100 Brothers in blood, 184 Canada field peas, 237 Capacity for work, 221 daily capacity, 221 horse power, 221 pulling capacity, 222 weight carrying capacity, 222 Care of feet, 260 of legs, 260 Carrots, 242 Celtic pony, 73 Centre of gravity, 7 displacement of, 8 location of, 7 stability of, 8 Cereal hay, 241 Charles Kent mare, 116 Chin strap, 286 Chunk, 51 Classes, origin of, 299 Classes of horses, 45 basis of distinctions, 45 chart of, 49 differentiation from types, 49 Cleveland Bay, 108 Clipping, 264 complete clipping, 265 fashion, 264 partial cUpping, 265 Clipping, trimming, 264 Clothing, 266 bandage, 265 blanket, 265 hood, 265 Clover, 239 Clydesdale, 94 characteristics of, 94 origin of, 94 quality of bone of, 95 Scotchman's standard, 94 Coach Horse, 53 Cob, 55 Colic, 245 Collar, 225 Dutch or breast, 225 fit of, 225 Color, 45 bay, 46 black, 47 black points, 48 brown, 47 chestnut, 47 classification of, 46 cream, 48 dun, 48 gray, 47 importance of, 46 leprous spots, 49 mouse, 48 odd markings, 49 piebald, 48 roan, 48 skewbald, 48 tiger spots, 49 white markings, 48 Combination horse, 65 Common stock, origin of, 72 Community system, 192 advantages of, 192 Concentrates, 235 Condition, 45, 141, 228 conditioning, 229 degree and time involved, 229 fat and element of, 228 importance of, 228 INDEX 325 Condition, indication of, 228 the result of, 228 Conformation, 10, 23, 141 regions of, 11 sti:.dy of, 10 arms, 12 back, 13 body, 13 canons, 12-14 chest, 13 croup, 13 ears, 10 eyes, 10 feet, 12-14 fetlocks, 12-14 forearms, 12 forehand, 12 forehead, 10 gaskins, 13 head, 10 hindquarters, 13 hips, 13 hocks, 13 knees, 12 loin, 13 muzzle, 10 neck, 10 pasterns, 12-14 ribs, 13 shoulders, 12 stifles, 13 tail, 13 thighs, 13 withers, 12 Constitution, 141 Corn, 235 com meal, 236 cracked, 236 ear corn, 236 opposition to, 236 pulled com, 241 shelled, 236 stover, 241 supplement, 236 Cottonseed meal, 235, 237 Coupling, 277 Coupling rein, 277 Cow pea hay, 240 puncher, 284 Crib biting, 266 Cross-breeding, 182 advantages of, 183 climatic out-cross, 183 methods, 182 purposes, 182 results, 183 Cross-firing, 31 Curb, 149 bit, 273 Buxton, 274 curb chain, 273-275 elbow, 274 Liverpool, 274 operation of, 273 Pelham, 274 port in, 274 principle of, 273 Dealers, 298 auctioneers, 299 conditions of sale, 298, 299 knowledge of, 298 private sales, 300 Denmark, 128 Dexter, 115 Direction of leg and form of foot, 24 relation of deviations in, 25 Draft breeds, 84-100 type, 35 bone, of, 36 class, 49 form of, 35 height of, 50 quality in, 37 score card, 142 temperament, 37 way of going of, 37 Dried brewers' grains, 237 Driving, 282 reins, 283 rudiments of, 282 Dwelling, 31 326 INDEX Equitation, 269 control of horses, 269 horsemanship, 269 mental limitations, 269 Equus celticus, 133 Ewart, Professor, researches of, 72 Expresser, 52 Fecundity, 182 Feeder, 52 Feeding horses, 231 an art, 231 concentrates, 234 feed, how used, 232 methods of, 244 nutritive requirements, 234 omission of noon, 244 rations, 233 regularity of, 244 research concerning, 231 roughage, 234 succulence, 234 systems of, 232 time of, 244 types of feed, 234 Fences, 193 ''Fine" harness horse, 66 Flemish horse, 71 Foal, 202 bitting of, 210 care of feet of, 207 deception concerning powers of, 210 education of, 209 feeding, management in, 204 halter-breaking, 209 handling of, 208 impaction in, 202 importance of education of, 211 navel infection in, 203 tj-ing up, 209 weaning of, 206 Forelegs, 3 direction of, 12 function of, 3 Forging, 30 Form, 45, 141, 280 definition of, 281 importance of, 281 French Coach, 103 as a breeder, 105 color of, 105 correct type, 105 demi sang, 104 origin of, 103 types of, 105 draft breeds, 84 Ardennaise, 84 Boulognaise, 84 Breton, 84 Xivernais, 84 Gaines' Denmark, 128 Gaited saddle horse, requirements of, 59 Gaits, 17 amble, 18 canter, 20 fox trot, 23 gallop, 19 jump, 20 pace, 18 rack, 18 running walk, 23 stepping pace, 23 traverse, 23 trot, 17 walk, 17 General appearance, 141 George Wilkes, 115 sons of, 116 German Coach, 106 color of, 106 influence of, 107 origin of, 106 type of, 106 Gloves, 283 fit of, 283 use of, 283 Grade, 184 grade stallion, 190 grading up, 184 INDEX 327 Grade, high, 184 Green Mountain Maid, 119 Grooming, 259 stallion, 198 Hack, 59 park, 59 road, 59 Hackney, 101 color of, 102 derivation of name, 101 description of, 102 history of, 101 ponies, 137 breeding of, 137 show ponies, 137 popularity of, 102 registration of, 103 Hals, 117 Halter pulling, 268 Hambletonian 10, 114 dam of, 116 sons of, 116 Hands, 270, 271 position of, 282 Harness, 293 classes of, 293 Hay, 246 chaffing of, 246 cutting of, 246 moistening of, 246 Heavy harness breeds, 101-112 division, 52 score card, 144 suggestiveness of term, 52 Height, 45 Heredity, 25, 180 germ plasm, 181 law of ancestral inheritance, 180 transmission from ancestors through parents, 181 High School horse, 285 Hind legs, 3 direction of, 14 function of, 3 History of horse in service, 219 History of horse in the feral state, 220 man's obhgation to, 220 under domestication, 221 Hoof dressings, 264 Horse in service, 221 application of power, 226 capacity for work, 221 economic efficiency of, 221 factors determining severity of, 222 work, 222 Horsemanship, 280 driving, 282 form, 280 riding, 282 Horse's mechanical structure, 3 How to buy a horse, 301 buying green horses, 302 company plan for buying stal- hon, 303 employment of veterinarian, 302 go-betweens, 302 Hunter, 61 classification of, 64 requirements of, 61 size of, 62 Hybridization, 183 bovine hybrids, 183 equine hybrids, 183 Inbreeding, 182 advantages of, 182 methods, 182 purposes, 182 results, 182 Intelligence, 175 Interfering, 30 Jack, 312 distinctions in type, 312 imported jacks, 313 native jacks, 313 the mare for mule breeding, 313 type most desired, 312 Judging horses, 139 accuracy and rapidity in, 139 328 INDEX Judging, features to consider in, 141 law of correlation, 140 system in, 140 what is involved in, 139 Jumper, 64 Justin Morgan, 123 breeding of, 123 description of, 125 eons of, 124 Kicking, 267 Legiunes, 239 Light harness division, 56 horse, 57 pacers, 57 road horses, 57 score card, 145 speed horses, 57 trotters, 57 Line breeding, 182 advantages of, 182 methods, 182 purposes, 182 results, 182 Linseed or oil meal, 237 Locomotion, 4 Loggers, 51 Mambrino, 117 Manners, 45 Mare, 191 after foaling, 202 artificial impregnation, 212 attitude of owners, 191 breeding fillies, 204 brood mare, 198 care and management of, 199 exercise and work, 201 extremes of condition in, 201 feeding of, 199-202 foaling time, 199 ideal conditions for, 200 importance of, 198 next breeding, 204 patronage by owners, 191 potency of, 212 Mare, relative influence of, 198 selection of, 198 sterility or barrenness, 212 Market classes, 299 origin of, 299 Markets, 297 auctioneers, 299 classes, 299 consumers, 297 dealers, 298 prices, 298 producer, 297 sales, 299 sales ring warranty, 300 second-hand horses, 298 sex, importance of, 299 values determined by, 297 Martingale, 279 ring, 279 standing, 279 Mechanical analogy, 5 appliances, 29 bit, 29 going surface, 29 hopples, 29 shoes, 29 weight, 29 Messenger, 114 Middlings, 237 Molasses, 238 "Monday Morning Disease," 245 azaturia, 245 Mongrel or scrub, 184 Morgan, 122 as a breed, 122 blood of, in other breeds, 124 description of, 125 government breeding of, 126 Morgan Horse Club, 126 Motor, 314 advantages of, 314 advantages of horse over, 315 age, 315 breeding horses, influence of motor on, 317 cost of feed and gasohne, 315 INDEX 329 Motor, demand for saddle horses, 317 draft horses, influence of motor on, 319 importance of, 314 other factors influencing demand for horses, 314 prices of horses, influence of motor on, 318 supplementing horse in service, 316 vogue of motor, 315 Mouths, 270, 271 Mule, 309 advantages of, 310 breeding of, 309 classes of, 309 importance of, 309 mare mules, 312 Muscular action, 6 Nick, 183 Nose band, 280 Oat straw, 241 Oats, 235 crushed, 245 oat straw, 241 sheaf oats, 241 Oriental horse, 72 influence of, 76 Orloff, 108 Overdraw check, 275 abuse of, 275 use of, 275 Paddling, 30 Park horse, 53 Pasture, 242 Pastures, 192 limestone in, 192 Pedigree, 181 certificate, value of, 185 duplicate, 185 eligibility for registration, 185 short pedigree, 190 transfers, 184 value of registration, 184 Percheron, 84 distinctive features of, 88 early service, 85 foundation of, 85 importance of, 90 modification of type of, 85 Pilots, 117 Pointing, 31 Polo ponies, 69 Ponies over 1 1-2, not exceeding 14-2, 69 under 46 inches, 69 Pony breeds, 133-139 division, 66 classification of, 66 Pounding, 31 Prepotency, 182 definition of, 182 determined by, 182 Principles of breeding, 180 definition of breeding, 180 heredity, 180 law of ancestral inheritance, 180 variation, 180 Private sales, 300 Pulled corn, 241 Pure-bred, 184-185, 189 Quality, 45, 141 Race horse, 57 runner, 59 hind leg of, 59 Raising horses, 213 Ration, 245 amount of, 245 character of, 245 preparation of, 245 sudden changes in, 246 variety in, 246 Reins, 282 fingering of, 282 grip of, 282 take-up of, 282 Reversion, 183 330 INDEX Rex McDonald, pedigree of, 129 Ridgeway, Professor, researches of, 72 Riding, 283 curb rein, 283 holding reins, 283 open unbuckled reins, 284 plain snaffle bridle, 283 single curb rein, 284 snaffle rein, 283 Rolling, 31 Roughage, 239 Runabout, 54 Rye, 238 Saddle, 293 cow or Texas saddle, 295 seat, 295 early use of, 293 types of, 293 English saddle, 293 seat, 293 horse, 317 division, 57 classification of, 60 height, 60 score card, 147 weight, 60 McClellan saddle, 294 seat, 294 type, 42 form of, 44 performance of, 44 way of going of, 44 weight carrying, 43 Sales ring warranty, 300 at the halter, 300 serviceably sound, 300 sound, 300 sound to wind and work, 300 with all faults, 300 worker only, 300 Salt, 243 necessity for, 243 provision of, 244 Scalping, 31 Schooling, 26 Schooling, bitting of, 210 education of foal, 209 halter breaking, 209 handling, 28 handUng of foal, 208 importance of education of foal, 211 Schwyter, Dr. H., 13 Score card, 141 chief use of, 142 ■ draft score card, 142 heavy harness score card, 144 light harness score card, 145 saddle horse score card, 147 scoring, 142 Scrub or mongrel, 184 Sheaf oats, 241 Shetlands, 133 chief asset of, 134 color of, 135 discrimination in, 135 height of, 135 types of, 133 Shire, 96 characteristics of, 96 crosses of, 98 Shoeing, 261 hoof dressings, 263 hot fitting, 262 physiological movements of the foot, 261 proper shoeing, 262 removal of horn, 262 Shorts, 237 Show type, 41 form of, 41 quality of, 42 substance of, 41 temperament of, 42 way of going of, 42 Showing, 296 in hand, 296 in harness, 296 rules, 297 under saddle, 296 Shows, 296 INDEX 331 Shows, classes of, 296 fitting for, 296 horses for, 296 purposes of, 296 Side bone, 149 Side or bearing rein, 275 use of, 277 Silage, 242 Snaffle, 273 jointed, 273 four-ring, 273 Soiling crops, 242 Soundness, 141 definition of, 148 durability of equine machine, 149 hereditary unsoundness, 189 rejection for unsoundness, 150 significance of, 148 Soy bean hay, 240 Spavin, 149 Special bits, 274 Speed type, 39 form of, 39 quality of, 40 runner, 40 temperament of, 40 trotter and pacer, 40 way of going of, 40 Speedy cutting, 31 Springs, 290 first use of, 291 Stable management, 259 care of feet, 261 care of legs, 260 clipping, 263 clothing, 265 grooming, 259 hoof dressings, 263 physiological movements of the foot, 261 shoeing, 261 washing, 259 Stables, 247 arrangement of, 247 assignment of stalls, 258 classes of, 247 Stables, construction, 247 design of, 247 dimensions of, 248 doors, 253 interior of, 256 location of, 247 passageways, 253 quarters for breeding stock, 192 vices, 266 wagon and harness rooms, 256 windows, 253 Stale bread, 239 Stallion, 191 average of merit, 191 care and management of, 196 exercise of, 197 feeding of, 196 grooming, 198 legislation, 188 French system, 188 ideals in laws, 189 importance of, 188 objects of, 189 stallion license laws, 188 suitable laws, 190 potency of, 212 regulation of service, 197 selection of, 194 service of, 196 service of colts, 196 sterility, 211 testing of, 194 the draft stalHon, 197 the Thoroughbred stallion, 19 the trotting stallion, 197 Stalls, 248 bales, 249 bedding, 250 classes of, 248 dimensions of, 248 drainage of, 250 feed boxes, 252 floors of, 249 mangers, 252 partitions of, 248 ties, 252 332 INDi^.X' Standardbred, 113 American Trotting Registry As- sociation, 188 demand for, 119 eligibility rules for registration of, 121 foundation blood lines of, 117 notable individuals, 114-120 origin of, 114 pacing standard, 121 significance of name, 113 speed records of, 122 standard by performance, 188 trotting standard, 121 versatility of, 120 Sterility, 211 artificial impregnation, 212 potency of, 212 barrenness in mares, 212 breeding remedies, 213 classification of, 211 cryptorchids, 212 importance of, 211 in stallion, 212 potency of, 212 Straw, 246 chaffing of, 246 cutting of, 246 moistening of, 246 Stride, 4 features of, 17 phases of, 5 Stud, 192 definition of, 192 equipment of, 192 stud horse, 192 the breeding stud, 192 Substance, 45, 141 Succulence, 241 Suffolk, 98 distinguishing characters of, 98 distribution of, 99 origin of, 98 TaU rubbing, 267 Temperament, 45 Temperament and disposition, 141 Thoioughbred, 72 "blood" significance of, 80 description of, 78 early racing, 77 foundation of, 77 importance of, 79 introduction into America, 78 origin of, 72-76 records of, 81 "relation to other breeds, 79 significance of term, 76 Timothy, 239 Transportation, 304 car fit, 308 care in transit, 306 express, 304 express car for, 304 freight, 304 freight tariffs, 305 injury during, 307 preparation of car, 305 preparation of horses for, 307 shipping fever, 307 stock cars for, 304 Trappy, 31 Trooper, 284 Type, 23 definition of, 35 Turk, 75 Unsoundness, 189 demonstration of, 190 rejection for, 150 unsound stallions, 190 Variation, 180 Vehicle, 286 American road wagon, 292 axles, 288 classification of, 292 construction of, 291 evolution of, 286 introduction of, 290 primitive, 286 progress of, 290 INDEX 333 Vehicle, springs, 290 superior woods for, 291 wheeled, 2o6 wheels, 286 Ventilation, 254 calculation of requirements of, 255 cubic air space, 255 fresh air requirements, 254 impoifance for hon-es, 255 King system, 254 Vices, 266 Walk-trot-cantor horse, 59 saddle bred, 60 Thoroughbrv:d, 60 trot of, 59 Washing, 259 Water, 242 allowance of, 242 necessity for, 242 public watering troighs, 243 time to water, 243 Way of going, 17, 141 action, 17 defects and peculiarities in, 30 factors determining, 23 pace, 17 Weaving, 267 Weight, 45 Welsh, 135 classification of, 136 colors of, 136 size of, 136 type of, 135 use of, 137 Wheat, 238 Wheels, 286 dishing of, 289 experiments of Mcrin, 287 resilience of, 287 rubber. 287-291 size of, 223 staggered spokes, 290 tire, width of, 223, 286 Whip, 280 Winding, 30 Wind sucking, 266 Windows, 253 as inlets, 253 Winging, 30 Winkers, 279 Word, 280 Work, 222 application of power, 226 attachment of traces to hames, 224 collar, fit of, 225 distribution of load, 223 draft of load, 222 duration of period of, 226 factors determining, 222 friction of box on axle, 223 gravity, 222 horse division, 50 fine of draft, 224 rate at which load is moved, 225 road bed, 222 severity of, 222 size of wheel, 223 width of tire, 223 Yorkshire Coach, 108 nOPERTY UMURY N. 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