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OVLTRY
QUINCY. ILLINOIS. V.

RELIABLE P

Copyright by the
RELIABLE POULTRY JOURNAL PUBLISHING COMPANY
Quincy, Illinois
1920

BND sur

PROFITABLE CULLING
| and
SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

Complete Details Regarding the Latest Approved Methods for
Culling, or the Selection of Layers--Simple and Practical
Instructions for Securing Permanent Improve-

“ment in Egg Production in Any Flock

Compiled by
HOMER W. JACKSON

an
GRANT M. CURTIS

‘‘In my opinion this matter of careful, systematic
culling is the biggest dividend earner that now
confronts the practical poultry keepers of this
country.’’---Prof. H. R. Lewis.

FULLY ILLUSTRATED

PRICE $1.50

PUBLISHED BY
RELIABLE POULTRY JOURNAL PUBLISHING COMPANY
QUINCY, ILLINOIS, U. S. A.

INTRODUCTION

NE of the most important advance steps in
commercial poultry keeping in recent years,
and one that promises to exercise a truly
great influence upon the development and
permanent upbuilding of the industry, is the

more exact knowledge poultry keepers now have of
the characters of individual fowls; also the extent to
which these characters, whether good or bad, are directly
transmissible to offspring. The disposition to look upon
the individual bird as too small and unimportant a “unit”
to receive separate attention is giving way to a demand
that each individual of the flock shall measure up to
definite standards in practical qualities. Progressive
poultry keepers realize that they can well afford to take
the necessary time to apply these standards to each fowl,
no matter how many there may be, thus to know, instead
of guess, what return each is capable of rendering for
the feed and care bestowed upon it.

This effort naturally centers chiefly upon the layers,
among which there exist the widest differences in rela-
tive productiveness. It has been demonstrated beyond
question that practically every flock contains some hens
that are either entirely nonproductive, or that will lay
only a comparatively small number of eggs even under
the most favorable conditions; also that there almost cer-
tainly are in the same flock some hens whose egg pro-
duction is quite high. The proportions in which good and
poor producers will be found in a given flock are deter-
mined by various factors, such as breeding, feeding, gen-
eral care, etc., but in the great majority of instances the
percentage of inferior producers is so high that, leaving
all other measures out of the question, it has been found
possible greatly to increase average production in any
flock, simply by eliminating the “slacker hens’. The
possibilities of securing better average production from
laying flocks in this way are fairly well understood by
poultry keepers generally, though comparatively few
realize how readily this may be achieved, or appreciate
the vital importance of doing so at times like the present,
when prices of feed are abnormally high.

During 1917 and 1918 an extraordinary situation de-
veloped. On the one hand, thousands of poultry specialists
sold off their flocks and retired permanently or tempo-
rarily from the business because they found it impossible
to continue except at a loss; and on the other hand, prac-
tical poultry keepers in the same localities reported as
great or greater net profits than those realized in former
years. Careful study of this anomalous condition has
shown that, while other influences may have been in-
volved, the chief factor in determining in which class the
individual poultry keeper found himself was THE AVER-
AGE PRODUCTION OF HIS FOWLS. In other words,
those who through modern methods of breeding and selec-
tion were able to realize a fairly high average of pro-
duction per fowl, made money; those whose average was
low, lost heavily.

There are numerous methods known to practical poul-
try keepers by means of which average production may
be increased. But in ease of application, and in prompt-
ness and importance of results secured, CULLING, or
the selection of laying fowls on the basis of external
characters, has no equal. That this can be done—is being
done by thousands of persons in all parts of the country—
and with a high degree of accuracy, does not admit of
any question. The evidence as given in the pages of this

book should convince anyone who may yet be in doubt as
to the utility of the method.

Of even greater practical importance than the imme-
diate increase in average production in the flock and re-
duction in feed cost through the elimination of poor pro-
ducers, is the opportunity which culling affords every
poultry keeper for breeding to secure increased egg pro-
duction by the simple and easily practiced method known
as SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING. It has been demon-
strated beyond question that heavy-laying ability is an
inherited character and thus is capable of being trans-
mitted to the hen’s offspring. Unfortunately, systematic
breeding for improvement along this line has only been
possible in the past to those who were in position to adopt
the use of trap nests—a certain but highly expensive
practice that the average breeder cannot afford to adopt.

Now that the method of estimating the hen’s ‘Jaying
ability by observing her external characters has heen de-
veloped to so high a degree of accuracy however, per-
manent improvement in production through systematic
breeding has been brought within the reach of every
earnest poultry keeper. It is only necessary for him to go
over his hens in the manner hereinafter to be described,
readily to identify his best producers and set them aside
for use as breeders the following year, thus limiting re-
production in the flock to the best layers in it, accom-
plishing by this simple and easily applied method much
that the user of trap nests achieves only at vastly greater
expense. Selective flock breeding DOES NOT take the
place of pedigree breeding; let there be no misunder-
standing on this point. But its superiority to the usual
method of selecting breeding fowls where trap-nest
records are not available is so great as to warrant the
belief that its general adoption would practically: revolu-
tionize the poultry industry in this country.

The selection of laying hens on the basis of external
characters being so vitally important, and also being now
a well-defined and fairly exact science, it obviously is
highly desirable that all trustworthy information on the
subject should be assembled in a permanent and readily
available form, not only giving poultry keepers and
students a reliable guide to the accurate and rapid cull-
ing of fowls, but also enabling them to secure a well-
balanced knowledge of the subject in all its phases. That,
in brief, is the object of this book. The material used in
compiling it has been collected from a variety of sources,
full credit being given for same wherever possible. Only
methods recommended and used by the best authorities
are given, and these are presented in so complete detail
that anyone should be able to apply them with entire
suecess, without any other instructions.

While it appears that some practical poultry keepers
have known for years that there are certain characters
distinguishing hens with reference to their productive
ability (see Chapter I), it is chiefly through the painstak-
ing work of the poultry departments of various state agri-
cultural colleges and experiment stations that attention
generally has been focused upon this important detail of
practical poultry management, and that methods of selec-
tion have been classified and their value thoroughly prov-
ed. Not only have these college poultry departments taken
the lead in the development of practical culling methods,
but a number of them, such as Connecticut, Missouri, New
Jersey, and New York (to mention only a few), by means

(Continued on page 9.)

©.a566274

PLATE I—A HEAVY-LAYING WHITE LEGHORN
above illustrates

» ey
Herics
period of

PLATE III—HEAD OF NONPRODUCER—HIGHLY PIGMENTED PLATE VI—GOOD LAYER—ALL PIGMENT BLEACHED OUT

PLATE IV—PIGMENTATION INDICATING 2-4 WKS. OF LAYING PLATE VII—PIGMENTED BAND INDICATING A LONG REST

PLATE V—PIGMENT INDICATING 4-6 WKS. OF LAYING PLATE VIII—PIGMENT COMING IN AFTER LAYING CEASES

Reproduced from Photos furnished by Cornell University.

Sage aia Saw shies i i ee

PLATE IX—HEAD OF NONLAYING BARRED PLYMOUTH ROCK PLATE X—HEAD OF LAYING BARRED PLYMOUTH ROCK

PLATE XI—HEAD OF NONLAYING WYANDOTTE PLATE XII—HEAD OF LAYING WYANDOTTE

PLATE XIII—HEAD OF NONLAYING RHODE ISLAND RED PLATE XIV—HEAD OF LAYING RHODE ISLAND RED
Reproduced from Photos furnished by Cornell University.

PLATE XV—FEET AND SHANKS OF NONLAYING HEN

The shanks are pigmented like the beak of the nonlayer
shown in Plate III and they are plump and full, showing
the presence of considerable fat under the skin. A hen whose
shanks are round and yellow like these, has certainly been
idle for many weeks, and if in this condition during the
laying season or near the end of it, she probably has never
been profitably productive. Photo from Cornell University.

PLATE XVII—REAR VIEW OF BODY OF NONLAYING HEN

Comparing this plate with Plate XVIII, the difference in
abdominal capacity, in condition of skin, and in size and
condition of vent, is clearly brought out. Photo from Cor-
nell University.

PLATE XVI—FEET AND SHANKS OF A GOOD LAYER

The shanks are the last of the pigmented sections to

lose their color as a result of production, requiring not
less than eight weeks or more. The pigment goes out of
the front of the shanks first, the back part next the hock
joint, being the last to fade. In this heavy layer they were
not only bleached out, leaving them white or pinkish, but
they also are thin and flat. Photo from Cornell University.

PLATE XVIII—REAR VIEW OF A HEAVY-LAYING HEN

Good spread of pelvic arch and wide span between arch
and keel are indicated, also loose, pliable skin and large
vent, Compare with the “slacker” hen shown in Plate XVII,
Photo from Cornell University.

INTRODUCTION

(Continued from page 4.)

of annual state-wide “culling campaigns” have spread the
information and demonstrated its practical value in a
manner that has proved of almost incalculable benefit to
poultry keepers.

The compilers of this book have sought to avail
themselves of every practical opportunity for getting the
latest and most complete information on the _ subject.
Both spent the better part of two weeks at Cornell Uni-
versity (July, 1919), in attendance at the Second Annual
Judging School, and in personal interviews with Pro-
fessor Rice and his able assistants—recognized leaders
in this field. Prior to this, the senior author spent sev-
eral weeks at the New Jersey Experiment Station, where,
through the cooperation of Professor Lewis and his assist-
ants, Dr. Thompson and V. G. Aubry, he was able thor-
oughly to investigate numerous special phases of the sub-
ject. During this visit to New Jersey he also was fortunte
in securing the helpful interviews with Professor Lewis
which are given in Chapters III and X; also the splendid
set of photos showing different stages in the culling of
fowls which are reproduced in Chapter III.

The réader will note that expense has not been spared

(Concluded)

in illustrating this book. In addition to the series of
photos received at New Jersey (mentioned in preceding
paragraph) there are four pages of color plates (pages
5 to 8) secured through the helpful cooperation of Dr. O.
B. Kent, of Cornell University; also, from the same
source, the series of photos illustrating steps in culling
high and low-producing Barred Plymouth Rocks, and a
number of miscellaneous photos. The excellent photos
reproduced in Chapter IV, showing the application of
tests to high and low-producing R. I. Red hens, were fur-
nished by the Storrs (Conn.) Experiment Station which
has, from the start, taken a leading part in the develop-
ment of practical culling methods.

The material in Chapter XVIII, on Culling Demonstra-
tions, was largely supplied by W. G. Krum, Extension
Poultryman at Cornell University. Special articles have
been contributed by Dr. C. T. Patterson, ex-Director of the
Missouri State Poultry Experiment Station, Professors L.
S. Palmer and H. L. Kempster of the University of Mis-
souri, and others. Numerous other station workers and
expert poultrymen have contributed directly or indirectly
to the contents of this book, or have assisted in its com-
pilation, and to all of these the authors wish to express
grateful appreciation and thanks.

Description of Color Plates

The color plates on pages 5 to 8 inclusive, are presented to
show the striking changes in pigmentation, color and condition of
comb, etc., which are brought about by continued egg production.
The way in which these changes are produced is fully explained
in the various chapters of this book dealing with these particular
subjects. The following brief description of the different plates
however, is here given for convenient reference:

PLATE I—The photograph from which this plate was repro-
duced, was taken in September, at which time this hen was still
laying heavily and her comb was full and bright red in color. While
this hen naturally had a yellow beak and shanks, the pigment in
these sections had entirely disappeared (as here shown) due to
long continued production of eggs. She had not yet begun to molt.
With proper management such hens should continue laying for
nearly two months before molting.

PLATE II—This nonlayer was photographed at about the same
date as the one shown in Plate I, at which time she had already
gone through the molt and her new coat of feathers was practically
complete. Further proof that she had not been laying for a long
time is found in the fact that her eye ring, ear lobe, beak, and
shanks are all highly pigmented, and there also was some pigment
in her feathers.

PLATE III—This plate shows the head of a nonlaying White
Leghorn, and illustrates quite clearly the yellow eye ring, ear lobe,
and beak that are characteristic of the nonlayer.

PLATE IV—This plate shows the gradual fading out of beak
pigment as laying progresses. This hen had been laying long
enough so that all pigment had disappeared from eye ring, ear
lobe, and from the base of the beak, though the pigmented tip shows
that she probably has been laying for only three or four weeks.

PLATE V—The head of this hen shows a more advanced stage
of laying than the one shown in Plate IV. The pigment has entirely
faded from the lower mandible and there is only a little at the tip of
upper one. This also will soon lose its yellow color if the hen con-
tinues to lay.

PLATE VI—This hen has been laying for a longer period than
any of the fowls whose heads are represented in preceding plates—
probably eight weeks or more—and as a result of this long period
of production the pigment has entirely faded out of the beak.

PLATE VII—The banded beak shown in this plate indicates
that the hen, after laying heavily for a time during which her eye
ring, ear lobe, and beak entirely faded out, stopped laying for a
considerable period, during which the pigment came back into the
ear lobes and most of the beak. Later she began laying again and
the pigment a second time faded out of eye ring, ear lobe, and
from the base of the beak. If she continues to lay a little longer
this band will entirely disappear.

PLATE VIII—This hen laid until the color entirely faded out

of her beak. At some time after that she stopped for a rest, and
the pigment came back into the eye ring, ear lobe, and the base of
the beak, showing that she has taken a rest of probably a month.

PLATE IX—This plate and the others on this page show heads
of good and poor-laying Barred Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, and
Rhode Island Reds. The Plymouth Rock here represented has a
completely pigmented beak as well as eye ring, showing that she
has been idle for a long time.

; PLATE X—The Plymouth Rock hen in this picture has been
laying long enough completely to fade out the pigment from the
beak. The red of her face and comb also has a different shade.

PLATE XI—This highly pigmented Wyandotte hen had not
been laying for a considerable period prior to the time when the
photo from which this reproduction is made, was taken. Note the
yellowish red of comb and face also, as compared with Plate XII.

PLATE XlII—There is a complete absence of pigmentation in
the head of this laying White Wyandotte.

PLATE XIII—This nonlaying Rhode Island Red shows high
pigmentation of beak though it is not so readily observed as in the
case of the Wyandotte and Plymouth Rock heads shown in above
plates, on account of the horn color in the upper mandible.

PLATE XIV—The complete absence of pigmentation in the
beak of this R. I. Red clearly shows her superiority to the one
shown in Plate XIII, as an egg layer. After a long rest her beak
will be just as yellow as that of the other.

PLATE XV—AlIl comments on preceding plates with reference
to pigmentation in beak due to poor laying, apply with equal force
to the shanks, though the pigment fades out in this section more
slowly. A hen with yellow shanks like these is either a nonlayer
or as been productive for a few weeks only.

PLATE XVI—The shanks of the bird here illustrated are not
only lacking in pigmentation but appear more shrunken than those
in Plate XV, which is also characteristic of good layers. It takes
two months or more of laying to take all the yelléw out of the
shanks.

PLATE XVII—This plate illustrates strikingly the difference in
color of skin and in general condition of a nonlaying fowl as com-
pared with a good layer such as the one shown in Plate XVIII.
The skin carries a great deal more pigment, is comparatively hard
and tight, and the abdomen generally is firmer and the space
between the pelvic bones is more contracted.

PLATE XVIII—In width and depth of abdomen (the latter
being indicated by the high keel bone), in looseness of skin and
flabbiness of abdomen, and in size and coloring of vent, this fowl
meets all the requirements of a good layer as these are commonly
understood, and presents a distinct contrast in all these characters
to the nonlayer in Plate XVII.

CHAPTER 1

Development of Modern Culling Methods

How the Science of Culling was Discovered and Developed—A Brief History of the Discovery of the Different Methods
Employed in Selecting Hens of High or Low Productiveness—Educational Value of Egg Laying Con-
tests and their Influence upon the Development of the Poultry Industry

ULLING, as the term is commonly used, refers
to the examination of fowls and their class-
ification as layers and nonlayers on the
basis of external characters. The ability to
do this with a good degree of accuracy has

been developed as the result of the observations of several

independent operators who, in comparatively recent years,
have discovered a number of such characters that bear
unmistakable evidence as to productivity, or the lack of it.

Experienced observers however, are able to go much
further than merely to learn whether the fowls are laying
or not at the time they are examined. They also can
determine, in the case of nonlayers, just how long they
have been nonproductive, or whether they have ever laid
at all; also whether they were good or poor producers
during the laying period, whenever that may have been.
Toward the end of the laying season they can estimate
with surprising accuracy the exact number of eggs pro-
duced, whether few or many, and can discriminate between
the hens that laid well in winter and those that were
only productive during the low-price season of the year.
Furthermore, they can take the pullets before they have
begun laying, or hens at the beginning of the laying
period, and estimate with a good degree of accuracy how
many eggs they will lay during the coming season.

It would be difficult to overestimate the practical im-
portance of this knowledge to the individual poultry
keeper. While it is not claimed that estimates of produc-
tion based on external characters are exact, the adoption
of culling methods enables the poultry keeper, to a greater
extent than ever before, to determine what production may
be expected from his fowls during the ensuing season,
to eliminate nonproducers at practically any time, and
toward the end of the season to pick out the hens that
have made the best records, and that, therefore, are the
ones he will want to keep for use in the breeding pen the

next year. He thus is able gradually to eliminate the
blood of poor producers from his flock, replacing these
with fowls descended only from high producers, and
therefore capable of greatly increased production and,
in turn, of transmitting this character to their offspring.

While the development of culling methods and their
popular adoption has been the work of recent years, it is
known that long before the present interest in culling
methods had developed, observant poultry keepers in dif-
ferent parts of the country had found that some external
characters were associated with heavy production. For
example, Dr. O. B. Kent of Cornell University writes as
follows in an article in the Journal of the American Asso-
ciation of Instructors and Investigators in Poultry Hus-
bandry under date of May, 1916: :

“A study of some of the various periodicals shows that
at least as early as 1876, a woman contributor to the
Cultivator and Country Gentleman recognized that late
layers are late molters, and that late molters molt rapidly.
This fact seems to have been rediscovered several times
before Cornell Bulletin 258, ‘The Molting of Fowls’, was
published. Until that bulletin was published, however,
it seems to have been the general practice strongly to
advise against using the late molters as breeders, even
if they were late layers.

“It has been known for some time that during pro-
duction the yellow pigment goes out of the shanks, beak,
ear lobes, plumage, and skin. The woman contributor
before mentioned, in an article on page 615 of the Culti-
vator and Country Gentleman for 1879, writes as follows:
‘Towards fall there comes a change over the birds. Their
plumage grows rusty, and the bright orange legs fade out
as the season advances for the second molt. Especially
is this true of persistent layers. Often and again have I
been disappointed in my fine yellow-legged birds of early
spring for, as the season advances, and they pile the eggs

io

FIG. 1-CAN YOU TELL WHICH ARE THE GOOD LAYERS AND WHICH ARE THE SLACKER HENS?
Two of the hens shown above were heavy layers producing over 200 eggs in their pullet year, and two did not lay enough eggs to pay

for their feed.
year’s operations.

Detecting the nonlayers and removing them from the flock may mean all the difference between profit and loss on the

DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN CULLING METHODS 11

up, the legs gradually bleach out until they become, by
August, a pale flesh or as generally termed, white. The
bloom is washed off, and in a Leghorn is almost a certain
indication of a good layer. In Leghorns, either Brown
or White, the whitest ear-lobed bird is apt to possess the
palest colored legs—often a pale lemon that fades to
flesh color. The deep orange tint will fade with egg pro-
duction.’

“The same idea has come out several times since, and
probably it came out much earlier.”

About 1905, Walter Hogan first published his system
of estimating probable production by means of measure-
ments of the pelvic arch and the span of pubic bones and
keel, and Potter’s “Don’t Kill the Laying Hen” (relating
to the same method) was issued.

Among college and station workers, the first reference
to external characters useful in estimating the value of
fowls as layers, so far as we have been able to learn, was
by Professor James E. Rice of
Cornell, who contributed an article
to the Farmers’ Institute Report
published by the New York Depart-
ment of Agriculture in 1909, in
which the following statement is
made:

“It was found in our molting ex-
periments that the best laying hens
as a rule were the ones to molt late.
Hen No. 61 laid 213 eggs in ten
months, and did not molt until the
middle of November when she was
neaily featherless.”

you to pick out the laying hens in the fall and winter.
The hen that is the largest layer is generally the one that
is eating the most food. She goes to roost late and gets
up early.”

In Bulletin 65 of the same Department, published in
1914, Professor Rice adds two more characters:

“The Width of the Pelvic Arch. Fowls ir a laying
condition may be said to be in a condition of pregnancy.
This physical condition causes in most animals a soften-
ing of certain ligaments and muscles which in a measure
modifies their physical conformation. In the case of the
fowl the arch of cartilagenous bones through which the
egg is expelled, enlarges and softens during conditions of
heavy laying, and hardens and contracts during periods of
dormancy. This condition enables a person to determine
at any given time, with considerable accuracy, the hens
that are laying at that particular time from those that
are not. In the case of large fowls the space between the

Circular No. 11 (1910) of the New
York Department of Agriculture,
written by Professor Rice, contains
the following reference to faded
shank color as an evidence of produc-
tiveness: “It is a well-known fact that the breeds
having yellow shanks will have laid the color out of their
shanks toward the close of the laying season.”

In Bulletin 37 of the N. Y. Dept. of Agriculture, pub-
lished in 1912, as a result of further investigations, Pro-
fessor Rice listed three factors in the selection of high-
producing hens:

“Highest Producers Molt Late. The first physical
character and the most valuable of all in selecting hens
for breeders that are high producers is lateness in molt-
ing. The hen that is born to lay a large number of eggs
and is well fed and handled will generally follow the line
of least résistance and continue to lay and thus fail to per-
form the natural process of molting. This is because she
has so much reserve power that she continues to lay, and
as a result her feathers do not die and loosen.

“High Producers Have Pale Shanks, Another import-
ant factor in selecting high producers is the color of the
shanks of the yellow-skinned breeds. If you were to exam-
ine the high-producing hens in the early fall, you would
see that their shanks are ‘laid out’, that is, pale in color.
The hens that have had little to do during the summer
except to loaf around and eat, usually have the finest
kind of colored shanks and skin, whereas, the high-pro-
ducing hens have laid out most of the color. After they
have rested a month or two, the color will come back.

“High Producers are Heavy Eaters. Watch the hens
and see them eat and observe how they act; it will help

ment Station

This pen of ten S. C. R. I. Reds laid 1966 eggs in their pullet year.
183, 150, 170, 177, 216, 241
Vineland Egg Laying and Breeding Contest in 1917-1918.

were 148, 202, 243, 207,

FIG. 2-PEN OF HIGH EGG-PRODUCING R. I. REDS

Individual records
This was the highest R. I. Red pen_in the
Courtesy of the New Jersey Experi-

pelvic bones will be sufficient to place three fingers of
average size. In the same fowl, in the dormant condition,
the pelvic arch probably would not be more than one to
two fingers wide.

“Size of Abdomen and Crop. The size of the abdomen
and crop, and the size, texture, and color of the comb
indicate the condition of health and productivity of the
fowl with fair degrees of accuracy. It may be said that,
in general, a hen in a condition of high production may
be expected to have a deep abdomen, a full crop, and a
large, soft, velvety, bright red comb for that particular
The size, texture, and color of the comb are an
Physical vigor generally is
of the

variety.
indication of physical vigor.
correlated with the active reproductive system
fowl.

“A pullet that is laying has a good appetite and there-
fore, usually a full crop. The laying fowl has an oviduct
that is many times larger than the same fowl will have
during a period of dormancy—at least twenty times as
large. The size of the oviduct and the fuller condition
of the intestines in the case of the productive fowl enlarges
the abdomen to such an extent that frequently one would
find difficulty in recognizing pictures of the same fowl
taken at different times of the year during different con-
ditions of productivity and dormancy.”

The first station publication on the subject, of which
we have knowledge, is a Press Bulletin issued by the
Maine Experiment Station as a synopsis of Bulletin 282,

12

on the “Histological Basis of the Different Shank Colors
in the Domestic Fowl”, and in which shank color is de-
scribed as a reliable means of determining the productive-
ness in fowls. This Maine Bulletin received a good deal
of attention in the poultry press, and was the first step
in arousing popular interest in the subject. The follow-
ing paragraphs are from this bulletin:

FIG. 3—PARTIAL VIEW OF POULTRY BUILDINGS AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY
The Poultry Department at Cornell has taken a leading part in the development of cull-

ing methods and their practical demonstration.
class rooms, laboratory, etc.
instructional work.
farm a mile or so distant.

“It is a well-known fact to every poultryman and
every visitor to a poultry show, that different breeds of
fowls have characteristically different colors of the skin.
In the United States generally yellow-skinned birds are
preferred over white-skinned ones for market purposes.
As a consequence of this preference nearly all of the so-
called American breeds such as, for example, Plymouth
Rocks, Wyandottes, Rhode Island Reds, etc., have a dis-
tinct yellow color to the skin. Correlated with this gen-
eral yellow skin color these Same breeds of poultry have
characteristic yellow shanks. This color of the shank is
one to which a good deal of attention is given both by
the judges in the show room and by the expert poultry-
man in picking out stock for his pens. A clear, bright
yellow leg is always preferred in these breeds by the
show room judge.

“The cause of the yellow skin color of birds is really
a layer of colored fat which lies in and below the skin.
This fat in the American and other yellow-skinned breeds
is colored by a particular kind of yellow fatty pigment
known as lipochrome pigment. Also probably this same
coloring matter gives the yellow color to the yolk of the
normally pigmented egg.

“This last consideration is one which calls attention
to the practical bearing of these results on shank color.
It is a well-established fact, both in cattle and in poultry,
that when the food does not supply a sufficient amount of
yellow coloring matter for the product, whether milk or
eggs, the animal then draws on its own body fat for the
further supply of this coloring matter. This results in a
bleaching of the body fat of its yellow color while keeping
up the color of the milk or the eggs. From this fact it re-
sults that the general skin color, and particularly the

PROFITABLE CULLING AND SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

shank color of a hen having naturally yellow shanks, is
much bleached out after the hen has been laying heavily,
and furthermore, the heavier the laying has been the
greater will be the amount of bleaching observed. In con-
sequence of this it is possible to go through a flock at the
end of a laying year and pick out at once by the color of
the shanks those birds which have been extremely heavy
layers from those which have been
drones. The drones will be the birds
which at the end of the season have
bright yellow legs, such as one is ac-
customed to see in pullets which have
not yet begun to lay. On the other
hand, birds which have done a hard
year’s work and produced many eggs
will have shanks completely white or
nearly so. Examination at this sta-
tion of many hundreds of birds whose
trap-nest records are known, makes
it possible to say positively that no
bird which has been a high producer
will have bright yellow legs at the
end of the laying season. ‘Two hun-
dred egg’ hens always have white
legs at the end of their pullet year.
“This point is one which may be

The large brick building contains offices,
The smaller buildings are devoted chiefly to fowls used in
The experimental pens and range for young stock are on a separate

of a great deal of value to the poul-
tryman when he is culling his flock
in the fall and deciding which of his
pullets he will keep over to use as
breeders the next year. If he has no
trap-nest records the color of the
shanks furnishes him one of the best indications he
can have as to the way in which these pullets have
laid during their first year of life.”

Development of Pigmentation Tests at Storrs

At the Storrs (Conn.) Experiment Station the ques-
tion of pigmentation and its connection with egg pro-
duction has received special attention, and in 1915 Messrs.
Blakeslee and Warner published an article in Science,
entitled “Correlation Between Egg-Laying Activity and
Yellow Pigment in the Domestic Fowl’, in which the
first experimental data in this connection appear to
have been presented. It is there stated that:

“In the Leghorns and the so-called American breeds,
such as the Plymouth Rocks, yellow in the form of yellow
fat is present in varying amounts in the legs and beak.
In these breeds individual birds may undergo considerable
change in the amount of the yellow pigment visible. The
paling or yellowing of the legs has been attributed by
poultrymen to various environmental factors. Of recent
years some individual poultrymen however, have claimed
that paling of the legs is due to heavy laying.

“So far as the writers are aware, no published data
are available which show in how far the leg color may be
of value in selecting the laying hen, and such suggestions
as have been made in this connection have confined
themselves almost entirely to a consideration of the legs
alone. The results tabulated in the present paper show
conclusively, it is believed, that a close connection does in
fact exist between the yellow pigmentation in a hen and
her previous egg-laying activity, and that in Leghorns
the color of the ear lobes is perhaps a better criterion of
laying activity than either legs or beak, and is more

DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN CULLING METHODS 13

readily recorded.” (For the data mentioned in preceding
quotation, see Chapter V.)

An interesting incident in connection with the dis-
covery of the influence of egg production upon pigmenta-
tion, at least so far as it relates to the development of
the method at the Storrs Agricultural College, is the
following:

Some years ago, Professor A. F. Blakeslee, a member
of the Horticultural Department of that institution, in-
spected the laying contest pens in company with Professor
Kirkpatrick, the latter pointing out the good producers
in the various pens, also the poor ones, using the actual
records of production which he held in his hands. After
having gone through a number of pens, Professor Blakes-
lee said: “Now let us go over these same pens and see if
I cannot tell you which are the good producers and which
are the poor ones without the use of your records.” They
proceeded to do this and to Professor Kirkpatrick’s sur-
prise, Professor Blakeslee was able to pick out the good
and poor layers with great accuracy. To the inquiry
as to how he was able to do it, he replied: “As you
pointed out the different fowls I noticed that the poor
layers had yellow shanks and in some cases yellow beaks,
whereas the heaviest producers had bleached-out legs and
beaks.”’ Professor Blakeslee’s attention was naturally
drawn to this detail as he had for years been engaged in
a line of research work that involved close observation
and comparison of colors and shades of color. Application

of Professor Blakeslee’s method by members of the Sta-
tion Poultry Department gave similar results and showed
quite clearly that pigmentation tests were capable of
general application.

Influence of Egg Laying Contests

In Chapter II special attention is called to the possi-
bilities in the way of increasing the average production
of fowls and the great practical importance of so doing.
It is probable that one of the most important agencies
in showing what can be done along this line and of awak-
ening interest in advance methods of poultry keeping, has
been the egg laying contests that have been conducted
in different parts of the country.

The first laying contest to be held in this country was
in 1894-5, and was conducted by the National Stockman
and Farmer. In this contest 224 pens were entered.
Weekly reports were required from each contestant, and

the value of the eggs laid was determined according to
the current price of eggs in the Pittsburg market.

The six highest pens were reported as follows:

First pen—eight W. P. Rocks; average, 289
Value of eggs, $5.02 per hen.

Second pen—eight cross-bred Leghorns; average, 283
eggs. Value of eggs, $4.82 per hen.

Third pen—eight W. P. Rocks; average, 280 eggs.
Value of eggs, $4.00 per hen.

Fourth pen—eight S. C. B. Leghorns; average, 277
eggs each. Value of eggs, $4.64 per hen.

Fifth pen—twenty-four S. C. B. Leghorns; average,
277 eggs each. Value of eggs, $4.89 per hen.

Sixth pen—twelve B. P. Rocks; average, 262 eggs
each. Value of eggs, $4.24 per hen.

The first of the annual contests held in this country
was the “International”, inaugurated in 1911. It was con-

ducted jointly by the Philadelphia North American and the
Storrs (Conn.) Station, and later by Storrs alone. The
number has gradually increased since that date, until eight
or more now are regularly conducted under state control
in various sections of the country.

Egg laying contests held under the management and
control of state institutions have a special value, since they
largely eliminate skepticism regarding the accuracy of the
results claimed, which is apt to be aroused by private rec-
ords. Knowing the character of the men in charge of these
contests, no one seriously questions the general accuracy of
their reports.

eggs.

Summary

Experienced observers are able to learn numerous facts
in regard to production of hens by a careful study of their
external characters.

Estimates of production based on culling methods prop-
erly applied, are accurate to a remarkable degree.

A correlation between the molt and productiveness was
observed as early as 1876.

The loss of pigmentation, as a result of continued egg
production, was noted in a newspaper article in 1879.

Among government workers the first reference to the
fact that late molters are the best layers, was in 1909; to
loss of pigmentation, in 1910; to pelvic arch test, in 1912.

The first experiment station bulletin relating to loss
of pigmentation as a result of egg production, was issued
by the Maine Station in 1914.

The first experimental data on pigmentation as a guide
to culling were published by Storrs Exp. Station in 1915.

The various egg laying contests conducted under state
supervision have been of the greatest value in awakening
interest in poultry keeping and in demonstrating what it
is practicable to accomplish along this line.

FIG. 4-BUILDINGS USED IN THE NATIONAL EGG LAYING CONTEST AT CONNECTICUT AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE

CHAPTER II

Importance of High Average Egg Production and How Secured

Capacity for High Egg Production a Common Inheritance in Fowls—Possibilities in the Way of Increased Average
Production and How It May Be Brought About—Per cent of Egg Yield Required to Insure Profitable
Production—Average Number of Eggs That Should Be Laid by Fowls of Different
Breeds Why Standard-bred Fowls Should Always be Kept

ROM a physiological point of view there appears

to be scarcely any limit to the number of eggs
that a hen can produce, aside from such as may
be imposed by individual capacity for rapid
assimilation of food and its transformation
into the various compounds employed in the composition
of the egg. The ovary of every maturing pullet contains
several times as many ova as she will ever be able to elab-
orate into fully formed eggs (see Chapter XVI) and the
total number actually produced will be determined by the
skill of the caretaker and the fowl’s individual laying
ability in each case.

There is indisputable evidence in the reports from State
Experiment Stations and laying contests conducted under
government control in this and other countries, showing
that the production of 200 eggs in the twelve months of
the pullet-hen year is a comparatively common perform-
ance in well-selected flocks; that many hens can and do
lay well over 250 eggs in one year; and that some have
even exceeded the 300-egg mark.

While the chances for securing such “record” layers

are greatly increased by breeding with that object in view,
since high producers most frequently are descended from
lines of heavy layers, they are by no means always of such
known ancestry. On the contrary, a study of the winning
pens at laying contests clearly establishes the fact that in
many instances they owe their rank more to skillful selec-
tion than to systematic breeding—thus proving that capa-
city for high egg production is a more or less common in-
heritance in fowls—at least among those belonging to
what are commonly called the “utility breeds.” It also is
true, however, that in every flock, no matter how carefully

Fr

The practical significance of this is that every poultry
keeper, regardless of breed kept (within the limits of the
“utility” breeds), has two definite means of improving
the production of his flock:

(a) He can secure increased egg pro-
duction by systematically breeding to that
end. Breeding gradually improves the gen-
eral level of flock production by raising the
maximum reached by “record” layers, by in-
creasing the proportions of high and medium
producers, and by reducing the percentage
of inferior layers.

(b) In every flock the average of pro-
duction can be raised at any time, simply
by removing inferior layers. This is culling
—the quick and simple way to keep produc-
tion up to a reasonable percentage. Culling
improves average production by removing
the inferior producers as they develop, cuts
down feeding expense, and increases profits.

While the average annual production per hen in this
country is not definitely known, the figures given in the
United States census of 1910 indicate that it probably
is in the neighborhood of 80 eggs. As will be shown
later on in this chapter, that average is altogether un-
necessarily low. Probably there is not a flock in this
country in which the average per hen cannot be raised
to a marked extent by proper culling. And speaking
generally it MUST be raised if the production of table
eggs is to remain a practical and_ efficient industry.
Whatever may have been the case in the past, under
present conditions a nation-wide average of 80 eggs per

hen should not be tolerated.

Causes of Low Average Production

Leaving the matter of breeding
out of consideration for the time
being, there are a number of practical
explanations for low production in
the average flock.

Lack of Interest. It ought to
revuire no argument to convince
every poultry keeper of the import-
ance of securing increased egg pro-
duction so far as it is practicable for
him to do so. The commercial poul-
try keeper, especially, with his heavy

FIG. S-A NEW JERSEY “MULTIPLE UNIT” LAYING HOUSE

Type of laying house popular throughout the state of New Jersey and well adapted to

use of family and commercial poultry keepers generally.

bred, there is a larger or smaller proportion of hens that
by no practical method of feeding or handling can be in-
duced to produce eggs in profitable numbers.

feed bill and his relatively large in-
vestment, and with his livelihood de-
pending in whole or in part upon the
net returns from his flock, should be
quick to learn and apply every practical method for secur-
ing increased egg yields. And yet, one of the chief reasons
why average production falls so low, is lack of interest.

IMPORTANCE OF HIGH AVERAGE EGG PRODUCTION AND HOW SECURED 15

Keeping Old Fowls. Keeping fowls that have outlived
their ability to produce eggs in profitable numbers is a
common cause of low flock averages. Included under
this head are practically all hens over three years old.
Where the plan of leg-banding each year’s pullets is
adopted, placing the bands on left and right legs on alter-
nate years or using a different colored band each year,
there is no danger of confusion on this point, and the old
hens are readily identified and culled out at will. An
exception must be noted here in the case of heavy layers,
which should be retained for use in breeding pens as long
as they keep in good condition and are reasonably pro-
ductive, regardless of age.

Malformed and Diseased Fowls. Almost every unculled
flock contains some hens that are obviously incapable of
laying eggs and may even be a source of danger to the
rest, the owner keeping them, as a rule, simply because
he dislikes the disagreeable job of disposing of them.
Under this head come fowls that have crooked backs or
are seriously lame; chronic sufferers from any disease;
hens that are extremely poor, showing that they have some
hidden disorder, or that are broken down behind (often
an indication of an abdominal tumor),—in short that
have any obvious defect. Hens so affected, even when
apparently in good health, rarely are profitable layers.
If they are fit for use on the table they should at once be
disposed of for this purpose, and if not, they should be
killed and burned or buried without delay, thus stopping
what in many flocks amounts to an important financial
loss, caused by wasted feed and labor.

Late-Hatched Pullets. The laying year ends with the
molting season, or along in September or October as a
rule, regardless of when the pullets were hatched. A
good first-year record is out of the question unless the
pullets get an early start. Those hatched so late that
they do not reach full development and laying maturity
until well along in winter do not have sufficient time in
which to make a good record, no matter what their inher-
ent productive capacity may be.

Feeding and Care. Improper rations, insufficient
feeding, uncomfortable or unsanitary houses all operate
directly against securing good egg yields. The person
who sets out to make the production of eggs a paying
occupation should appreciate the importance of giving the
fowls a chance. The conditions essential to good pro-
duction are neither numerous nor hard to meet. Any
one who is willing to be guided by the experience of
others will find it a simple matter to get results, and of
the most profitable sort.

Relation of Average Production to Profits

The direct relation of average production to net profits
and the imperative necessity for a higher average egg
yield for poultry flocks generally, is strikingly illustrated
in Bulletin No. 329 of the New Jersey Experiment Station
which gives the result of a survey of 150 egg farms in
that state during 1915-1916. In this bulletin it is clearly
shown that during those years “poultrymen did not begin
to make money until their hens produced 90 or more eggs
per year.” Above this point they began to make good
profits. Those who were able to reach an average of 148
eggs per year received a labor income of $1,823. The
highest producing flock included in the survey made an
average of 186% eggs per hen. There were 350 hens in
this flock, of which 300 were pullets, and the receipts for
eggs sold averaged $5.83 per hen. The owner also sold

baby chicks to the value of $168.00, 150 yearling hens for
$90.00, and 600 cockerels for $200. With due allowance
for increase in the flock, the total returns for the year
amounted to $38,121, and deducting the cost of feed
($1,160), the income was $1,603.

Compare these results with the meager returns realized
by those who accepted the low average of around 60 eggs
per hen (see following table) for the true explanation of
the wide differences of opinion that exist in certain quar-
ters in regard to the practical possibilities for profit in
commercial poultry keeping. It is true that it is not
proper to consider the difference between feed cost and
egg receipts as net profit. Labor, interest on investment,
depreciation in value of birds, and other items enter into
the cost of production. To get a clear idea of the relation
that different averages of production bear to net profits,
the following table is given, condensed from the bulletin
just referred to:

Relation of Production to Receipts on 150 Poultry Farms
in New Jersey

Total Receipts Above

Eggs Per Hen Receipts Expenses

Per Farm Per Bird Per Farm Per Bird

60 or less... $1,144 $2.20 $95 $0.17
61 to 80... 1,733 2.50 286 42
81 to 100... 2,050 3.10 629 94
101 to 120. 3,009 3.70 1,127 1.43
121 to 140..... 3,415 4.60 1,578 2.15
141 and over 4,540 5.50 2,232 2.70
$2,818 $3.82 $1,092 $1.48

The above table shows in the clearest manner the

Percent of Production —————
Percent of Receipts =---— =
14

0
Now Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept. Oct.
Months

FIG. 6~-AVERAGE MONTHLY PRODUCTION AND RECEIPTS ON
150 N. J. POULTRY FARMS

This illustration shows in graphic manner the unequal distri-
bution of production and receipts through the year, on the average
poultry farm. More attention paid to culling would bring fall and
winter production and receipts more nearly on a level with those
of summer. Reproduced from Bul. 329, of the N. J. Exp. Station.

16 PROFITABLE CULLING AND SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

practical importance of securing high egg yields. Not
until an average production of over 100 eggs per hen was
secured did the receipts represent a fair return on labor.

What Egg Yield Can Reasonably Be Expected

Accepting as reliable the results secured at various
egg laying contests, it would seem that so far as general
averages are concerned a practical, though no doubt only
a temporary limit, has been reached with reference to
average production. That is, while there is more or less
fluctuation in the high records made by individuals and
flocks every year, average production for all the fowls
in the contests is not increasing, at least to a noticeable
extent. This is illustrated by the following data from
the records of the past five years at the International
(Storrs) Laying Contest.

Annual Production Per Hen for Five Years at Storrs
Laying Contest
P. Rock W’nd’s R. I. Red L’horns Ave.

3rd Contest 140 153 136 155% = 145
4th Contest 146 165 155 158 152
5th Contest 160 169.6 158.7 165 162
6th Contest 161 165 158 167 163
7th contest 159 162 148 162 154

We do not have before us the records for the first and
second years of the contest, but in connection with the

Total Receipts per Bird

45.60

to
loo

Eoqs per Hen

FIG. 7~GRAPH SHOWING RELATION OF EGG YIELD PER HEN
TO TOTAL RECEIPTS

Note what an average increase of 20 eggs or more per hen
means in increasing receipts. Systematic culling will make this
difference in averages in almost any flock. Reproduced from Bul.
329, of the N. J. Exp. Station.

third contest the statement is made that the average for
that year is “somewhat lower than in preceding con-
tests”, which is believed to be due to the fact that the
pens for the first two years were limited to only five
fowls each, while in subsequent years the number was
ten. The winter during the third contest was exception-
ally severe, as was also the case in the seventh.

Production Standards for Poultry

The Monthly and Yearly Rate of Egg Production that
Should be Realized in Well-Bred Plymouth Rock,
Wyandotte, Rhode Island Red, and Leghorn Flocks

By MARCUS A. CANFIELD, Jr.

DITORIAL NOTE—If records secured at the various
E egg laying contests are taken as establishing the
limits of “reasonable expectation” in regard to the pro-
ductiveness of fowls of the different popular breeds when.
kept under favorable conditions, these may be made to
serve as standards of production by which poultry keepers
generally can measure the results secured in their own
flocks, and thus determine whether their fowls are fairly
measuring up to what may be expected of them. An effort
to establish production standards for several popular
breeds is described in the following article which is con-
densed from an unpublished thesis entitled “The Elabor-
ation of Production Standards for Poultry’, by Marcus A.
Canfield, Jr., New Jersey College of Agriculture. It is
not to be supposed that fowls kept in the large flocks
common on farms and commercial poultry plants gener-
ally, will reach the high average of production attained
by the five or ten hens that constitute the average contest
pen, though the advantage possessed by extremely small
flocks is not as great as is generally believed. In point
of fact, contest averages are regularly being equaled and
even exceeded by numerous commercial poultry keepers
having well-bred, carefully selected flocks.

HE years 1917 and 1918 proved an extremely diffi-

cult period for New Jersey poultry keepers, and
many found that at the profit per hen which they were
realizing, they were not making even a living wage. In
contrast with these however, there were others whose
returns were almost or quite equal to those of more favor-
able years.

To one studying the situation the question arises:—
Why are not all producers in the same losing rut? Why
are some men still highly optimistic and realizing a good
profit? The answer is:—Efficiency. The latter have
cut out the wastage in the cost of production. They have
made an intensive study of cost-accounting factors. Fur-
thermore they know their stock, and it is good. They
have by various means eliminated the greatest source of
loss to the average poultry raiser—the nonlaying hen—
or, in other words, the loafer. There are many such hens
in all ungraded flocks, and not only do they bring no
revenue whatsoever, but they counterbalance the profits
gained from high-producing hens. Hundreds of thousands
of “boarder” hens are being fed today in this country.
The simple elimination of such would be the means of
keeping hundreds of discouraged men in the business,—
of enabling them to realize a profit instead of a loss. A
survey of 150 White Leghorn farms in this state last
summer indicates that an average production of 100 eggs
per hen must be accepted as the minimum (under New
Jersey conditions) of profitable egg production.

The next question that arises is what is it possible or
practical to do to increase the average so as to secure a

IMPORTANCE OF HIGH AVERAGE EGG PRODUCTION AND HOW SECURED 17

reasonable profit: In other words, what should well-bred
and properly fed hens normally accomplish in the way of
average egg production? That is the purpose of this
investigation,—to determine standards of production to
which the farmer can compare the accomplishments of his
flock as individuals, with a view to eliminating all those
below the standard, and striving to attain a production
as much above it as possible, for this standard is to be an
average of production which poultry keepers should be
able to attain under favorable conditions, not a maximum.

For many years the Experiment Stations have realized
the importance of standardizing egg laying, and a number
have been slowly working toward that end through the
medium of egg laying contests. Some of -the best known
and most representative of these contests are the Connect-
icut Contest at Storrs; the Philadelphia North American
Contest at Newark, Delaware; the Missouri Contest, and
the Vineland (New Jersey) Contest. The records of these
different contests, it would seem, should afford sufficient
data on which to base a careful analysis of the average
per cent of egg production of each of the popular breeds
on both a weekly and a monthly basis, and to standardize
the latter. Such a standardization should enable one to
see just what a flock of a certain size and breeding should
normally be putting into the egg crate during any month
in the year.

In this determination the following egg laying con-
tests were considered:—Weekly reports of the Philadel-
phia North American, Sixth Storrs, and Vineland;
monthly reports of Third and Fourth Storrs, Missouri,
and Vineland. In obtaining the percentages of production,
the following method was pursued. The number of pens
of each breed was found in each contest; then the possible
production within a certain period was determined. The
total actual production, as found by adding together the
productions of all the pens, divided by the possible pro-
duction gives the per cent production for the breed. For
example, in the Vineland Contest, there are 54 pens of
S. C. White Leghorns, or 540 birds. In the month of
March, 1917, each hen had a possibility of laying 31 eggs
or 16,740 eggs for the breed. The actual production was
found to be 10,830, or 64.7 per cent.

A similar operation was carried out with each breed
in each contest, on both a weekly and a monthly basis,
and results tabulated. These tables are here omitted for
lack of space, but a study of them is found to reveal three
important facts:

1st:—The Leghorns for five months are far higher in
per cent of production than any of the other breeds; dur-
ing the rest of the year they are considerably lower.

2nd:—Quick and complete molting is characteristic of
the Leghorns.

8rd:—There is little to choose among any of these
breeds, as regards percentages of total production.

From the monthly production records a graph was
prepared (see Fig 12) showing the average monthly pro-
duction of each breed in all the contests. The graph,
shown in Fig 49, illustrates the average monthly produc-
tion of Wyandottes compared with that of the Leghorns.
From this can be seen the slight superiority of the Leghorn
over the heavy breeds in the amount of production. How-
ever, as is clearly indicated by this graph, the variation be-
tween high and low points of production is only 44 per cent
in the heavy breeds while in the Leghorns the correspond-
ing difference is 57 per cent, thus showing that Rocks,
Wyandottes, and Reds are, on the whole, steadier producers
throughout the year than are Leghorns. Collecting the
data herein referred to and putting it in tabulated form
we arrive at the following as our Standards of Produc-
tion for the breeds considered:

Standards of Monthly Preduction For Different Breeds

Rock Wyan. Red L’g’h’n
November . 12.6 28.4 16.2 24.8
December 21.8 35.1 26.1 24.2
January 30.5 38.6 34.4 25.1
February . 47.1 49.2 47.7 41.0
March 63.5 60.2 61.8 61.7
April 64.2 60.4 64.8 68.7
101 Fh a ne eee 62.1 59.2 56.5 69.3
June ~ 55.4 52.9 50.7 67.4
July 48.7 46.4 45.7 60.6
August . 43.7 45.5 43.2 54.2
September 37.0 39.9 39.7 33.1
October 25.0 30.2 30.8 12.8

FIG. 8-A COMMERCIAL POULTRY PLANT IN CALIFORNIA.

_ Commercial poultry keeping now is on a safer and more profitab le basis than ever before, because of the more exact knowledge of the
subject and the better methods generally practiced.

18 PROFITABLE CULLING AND SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

Setting this in terms of yearly production, the mark
which the poultryman should endeavor to have his hens
reach is:—

Bivmouth ROCK .ce-ce- cesses cosreeee .....155 eggs
IWiVerm Cl OLGG) Meteces can .tecast sree tence stot eee ss 163 eggs
Rhode Island Red....................-.-..2--.---- 157 eggs
Wihite bephorn:. 2.25 eier eee eee 165 eggs

Now by way of illustration we wish to bring in some
results secured in an intensely practical investigation
conducted in the summer of 1917, under the New Jersey
Experiment Station. This work was thoroughly to survey
150 typical White Leghorn farms of the State. From
some of the figures obtained in that survey, a table (pre-
sented herewith) was compiled, showing the average
monthly production on thirty-six of these farms as com-
pared with the production of the White Leghorns obtained
in the Vineland contest.

Ave. Per Cent
Production, 36 N. J.
Leghorn Farms

Avg. Per Cent
Production Leg-
horns at Vineland

Contest
November 10.0 24.8
December 22.2232 13.0 24.2
ANU Tage cones ee meee 19.7 25.1
Bebruary..:.222..: 28.2 41.0
Weanely sccceecscenseeceeseescees 38.9 61.7
IN ait Ree cere 44,2 68.7
May ..... 41.5 69.3
UNG! ereeeece eee 35.3 67.4
CH Ag Seer eis eee se 29.4 60.6
ANU BUSE coeceacee ont cawceees 22:9 54.2
September ........... 15.4 33.1
October ..............-..-...- 9.6 12.8

Fig. 130 is a graphic representation of this table. To-
gether they point out clearly and forcefully the discrepan-
cy between the production actually obtained in this state
on commercial egg farms, and the production which can
and should be secured.

Practical Value of Culling

More than one factor is involved in securing maximum
production in the laying flock, as has already been
shown. It would be difficult however, to exaggerate the
practical importance of culling as one means to this end.
Methods of breeding and feeding for increased egg pro-
duction will be considered in their proper place, but it is
of the first importance that every person engaged in the
production of table eggs shall realize the advantage
which is placed in his hands by the discovery of simple,
easily understood and applied methods of selection, by
raeans of which he may AT ONCE change his flock from
a low or no-profit basis to a truly paying one. The prac-
tical advantages of culling are set forth in a most im-
pressive manner in the following article.

Importance of Culling

The Practical Advantages of Culling as a Means of
Securing Increased Profit from the Laying Flock

By PROF. JAMES E. RICE

Our slogan should be to produce more eggs from the
same number of hens, or as many eggs from less hens,
with profit. This can be accomplished by introducing
more efficient methods of production, buying, and mar-
keting. Much can be done in each of these directions to

enable the poultry producer to meet present critical con-
ditions, without financial loss, while doing his part in
furnishing the world’s supply of food.

The one single factor of greatest importance in reduc-
ing the cost of production is to improve the productive
quality of stock. This may be accomplished in two ways
—first, by eliminating the unprofitable individuals, and
second, by using the best fowls for breeding. Each is
essential if we are to make the greatest improvement.

Fowls differ in the widest extremes in their laying
capacity. Until recently it has not been possible accur-
ately and cheaply to distinguish the more productive
from the less productive fowls. With our present
knowledge of how to pick out the laying from the non-
laying hens, and the highest from the lowest producers,
it is no longer necessary for poultrymen to breed without
regard to laying quality, or to keep unprofitable fowls
from year to year.

It is not only poor business, but is an economic and
national crime to use valuable feed to support, at a loss,
unproductive fowls. Our present knowledge of the ways
in which climatie conditions, time of hatching, and habits
of laying influence production, enables us to estimate
with considerable accuracy the proportion of fowls that
under normal conditions of care will cease and commence
to lay at different times of the year. It is certain that in
every flock many unproductive fowls are carried for
many months as unprofitable boarders. By culling these
out and selling them when they cease to lay for the year,
we accomplish a number of profit-making things.

First, we release a large amount of valuable feed for
productive purposes.

Second, we place upon the market immediately an
important supply of poultry meat.

Third, we keep only the profit makers, thus increasing
the average production and profit per fowl retained.

Fourth, we decrease the amount of labor required by
reducing the size of the flock earlier in the year, instead
of waiting until late in the fall.

Fifth, we secure a higher price for the culled stock
by avoiding the overstocked late-fall markets.

Sixth, we secure more efficient production, because of
less crowded conditions and better care given to the stock
that is retained.

Seventh, we get more satisfaction because of the
intellectual incentive which always comes with larger
profits and greater knowledge.

The only solution to the poultryman’s problem of
meeting the present situation is to secure a satisfactory
egg yield, in order to reap the advantage of high egg
prices. To the one who can secure a reasonable egg yield
the spectre of high feed prices vanishes. The most im-
portant factor in securing high egg yield is good hens.
Without efficient hens, the best of rations, buildings,
methods of incubation, breeding and marketing, are lost.
At a time when maintenance costs are high, it is even
more necessary to get production results than when pro-
duction costs are low.

For the season of 1919 we are planning on a much
more extended campaign than ever before in the matter
of culling and selection. THIS WORK IS BOUND TO
REVOLUTIONIZE THE BREEDING OF POULTRY
WHEN THE STATES WAKE UP TO ITS IMPOR-
TANCE.

IMPORTANCE OF HIGH AVERAGE EGG PRODUCTION AND HOW SECURED 19

Results Of a Culling Campaign in
Connecticut

How Culling Increased the Daily Average Egg Yield on
Seventy-five Poultry Farms from Twenty-eight
Per cent to Forty-five and one-half, and Re-
duced the Grain Bill Forty Per cent

By PROF. W. F. KIRKPATRICK

DITORIAL NOTE—Probably there is no better way
to illustrate the practical value of culling to poultry
keepers than to show what has been accomplished when
the method has been practiced. The Extension Depart-
ments of a number of State Agricultural Colleges and
State Departments of Agriculture have been quick to
realize the importance of state-wide culling and have con-
ducted intensive educational campaigns to that end, and
with most encouraging results. In Connecticut interest
has been especially keen and results highly satisfactory,
as shown by the following extracts from a communication
by Professor W. F. Kirkpatrick which appeared originally
in the Reliable Poultry Journal.

HE whole culling campaign has been based on the
fact that some hens quit laying in July, that a lot

of them quit in August and September, and that these
birds that quit too early are not of course the best pro-

large poster which was extensively circulated throughout
the state.

Theoretically this is of course all very nice, but it is
wasted energy unless one can get results. We have tried
to keep careful records because the campaign was new
to us, a project we had never before considered. Indeed
it has never before seemed so necessary as now when
New England poultrymen are paying such high prices
for feed, while at the same time many believe that poultry
products have not made relatively the same advance.

All demonstrations were of course properly an-
nounced and advertised beforehand. In addition to this,
we asked the breeders whose birds were to be examined
to keep a daily egg record of their flocks for one week
preceding the date of the demonstration. We asked them
likewise to keep a daily egg record of their flocks for one
week following the demonstration. We wanted to have an
absolute check on our work and to know for a certainty
whether or not we were doing any good.

I think the following figures tell a good story. Up
to the first of October the poultry department here had
conducted 75 selection demonstrations on 75 different
poultry farms, covering every county in the state. The
average attendance at each of these was nearly 19, and
these people who came to see the demonstrations passed
in signed cards, pledging that they would go home and

kIG. 9=A FARM CULLING DEMONSTRATION IN NEW ENGLAND

ducers. We have gone on the theory that a hen that
quit the job for a three or four months’ vacation was not
entitled to serious consideration; in other words, we have
considered such hens “slackers” as compared with those
that lay on up to the middle of October and even into
November.

We have of course employed the usual extension
organizations to reach the people; that is, the county
agents, poultry associations, and other organizations
interested in the work. I want to add, too, that we have
enjoyed the finest sort of cooperation and support from
the Committee of Food Supply of the State Council of
Defense. To assist in advertising the work we issued a

cull their own flocks, totaling nearly 55,000 hens. The
figures below show the results in the 75 flocks that the
demonstrator visited :—

Total number birds handled 7556

Average daily egg yield 2130 Eggs
Or 28 per cent.

Total number of birds kept 4419

Average daily egg yield 2018 Eggs
Or 45% per cent.

Rejected as slackers...............--..---- 3137

It can be seen from the above figures that these 75
breeders, after removing over 3,000 hens from their flocks,
suffered a loss of only 112 eggs a day; or in other words,

20 PROFITABLE CULLING AND SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

they decreased their flocks 41% per cent, but lost only a
little over 5 per cent of the eggs they had been getting;
or to put the case in still another way, they were able to
reduce their grain bills about 40 per cent, while losing
only about 5 per cent of their income from eggs.

In closing, I want to say that this campaign has seemed
to us to effect an immediate and direct saving to poultry
breeders; and not only this, but in most cases it has
automatically selected the best birds to keep over for

FIG. 11—A POOR LAYER
Photo from New Jersey Experiment Station.

next year’s breeding work; and lastly it reduces sub-
stantially the consumption of grain fed to nonproductive
animals.

A Culling Campaign in New Jersey and Its Results

The importance of eliminating nonproducing or low-
producing hens, and in that way increasing the average
egg yield of the flock, is duly appreciated by the Poultry
Department of the New Jersey Experiment Station.
Special efforts have been made to interest New Jersey
poultry keepers generally in culling methods, with what
success is shown by the following description of a culling
campaign, supplied by Professor H. R. Lewis, Head of
the Poultry Department:

“Our culling campaigns show that culling materially
reduces the number of birds in the flock without reducing
in any material degree the actual number of eggs received.
In other words, it greatly reduces the feed bill without
reducing the income from eggs. The following figures
from New Jersey’s campaign bear this out.

“During this state culling campaign twenty counties
were covered and eighty-one demonstrations were held.
The following tabulated results of this series of culling
lessons show how profitable a practice is really repre-
sented. These demonstrations were held in August and
September, 1917.

Total number of demonstrations 81
Number of persons present to see work

1,762

22,542

10,668

done 5 S

Number of birds handled..

Number of birds culled out

Number of culls to be kept for a short
while, as they were laying some at the
time of demonstration

Average number of birds actually
handled at each demonstration............ 128
Per cent of profitable birds held....52 per cent
Per cent of birds culled...... ..48 per cent

3,256

In the above campaign a record was kept on 7,532 of

the birds handled, for a period of seven days before cull-
ing and for seven days after culling, with the following
result: For 7 days before culling the birds laid a total
of 17,565 eggs, or practically 33 per cent, while for the
7 days following the remaining birds laid 17,205 eggs, or
a production of 32 per cent on the basis of the original
number of birds. This is a drop of less than 1 per cent,
while the number of birds culled was 47 per cent, which
meant a reduction in feed costs of practically 50 per cent,
with no appreciable loss of income.”

Standard-Bred Fowls Should Be Kept

The superiority of standard-bred fowls has been-demon-
strated beyond question, time after time, and there is no
excuse for or advantage in using those of mixed or mon-
grel breeding. Even though the poultry keeper may have
no desire to breed for show qualities and may have no
intention of attempting to realize the largely increased
prices that are always obtainable for breeding fowls, or
eggs for hatching produced by them, and may intend to
devote his attention entirely to commercial production,
he still cannot afford to breed or keep nonstandard fowls,
Whether comparison is made on the basis of egg produc-
tion, cost of maintenance, or salability of product, the
advantage invariably is with standard-bred stock and in
no small degree.

It is not denied that among fowls of inferior breeding
there may be some that will possess desirable characters,
even heavy laying ability. The proportion of such is
always small however, and their inability to transmit
such characters to their offspring with any degree of
certainty makes their use in the breeding pen disappoint-
ing. It is only by mating fowls whose ancestors have
been bred for generations towards a definite ideal, that
there can be reasonable certainty of improvement or uni-
formity in any desired character. Even if it is granted
that many breeders have been more interested in develop-
ing special markings of feathers or other superficial

FIG. 10-A GOOD LAYER
Photo from New Jersey Experiment Station.

characters than in developing size or productiveness, the
fact remains that the so-called “practical” poultryman
who makes his start with fowls of mixed or mongrel
breeding invariably finds that he has handicapped him-
self, cut his possibie financial returns in two or worse,
and has definitely set himself back one, two, or more
years as a truly successful poultry keeper.

IMPORTANCE OF HIGH AVERAGE EGG PRODUCTION AND HOW SECURED 21

Superiority of Standard Fowls

Some of the advantages of using standard-bred fowls
in commercial flocks are stated with special clearness in
the following extracts from a circular entitled “The Mat-
ing of Standard Poultry for Practical Results”, prepared
in the Poultry Division of the United States Department
of Agriculture:

“The term ‘practical’ is used here in the broad sense
in which it applies as truly to all things that help to
create and maintain interest in poultry production as to
the things which relate particularly and directly to the
production of eggs and meat.

“There is nothing in the nature of poultry that would
prevent supplying the world with all the poultry products
it could use from races of poultry not attractive to the
eye and not uniform in appearance. But there is that in
the nature of man which makes poultry keepers give
more careful attention to flocks in which they take pride,
and makes the sight of a uniform, handsome flock effec-
tive beyond all other things in extending interest in poul-
try culture.

“It is a general fact in the history of modern poultry
culture that interest in poultry having distinctive appear-
ance is essential to any marked increase in poultry pro-
ducts. It is also a matter of common observation that
poultry keepers who are indifferent about the looks of
their stock rarely make notable success. Good work
with stock that does not look good is not impossible, but
what there is of it is occasional, irregular, and spasmodic.
As a rule, the owner of a flock of mongrel-looking poul-
try that does uncommonly well soon begins systematic
efforts to improve its appearance.

“A good looking flock is a stand-
ing advertisement of a certain

“The American idea of utility and beauty in combina-
tion in domestic animals and birds is that those forms
and elements of beauty which are expressions of actual
worth, and those which are attractive and in no way
inimical to utility qualities, should be cultivated, but that
those which are in any measure incompatible with use-
fulness ought to be eliminated.”

What Breeds to Keep

As has already been stated, it does not matter greatly
what breed of fowls the poultryman keeps, so far as egg-
producing ability is concerned. The records of laying
contests have shown that there are highly productive
strains in nearly all of the popular breeds. In these
ecntests Leghorns, Rhode Island Reds, Wyandottes, Ply-
mouth Rocks, Orpingtons, Minoreas, Anconas, Langshans,
—all have shared in the honors. What is of vastly more
practical importance than breed is to have a heavy-laying
strain within the breed selected, since it has clearly been
demonstrated that different strains in each breed vary
widely with respect to their average productiveness.

The poultry keeper who is interested chiefly or solely
in egg production will naturally favor Leghorns, par-
ticularly if his market prefers white-shelled eggs, or at
least does not discriminate against them. The chief
advantage which Leghorns have for commercial egg

farmers is not that they are necessarily better layers
than fowls of other breeds, but that they are more eco-
nomical producers, because they are smaller in size and so
require less feed per hen.

The feed cost of producing eggs with Leghorns will
average around 10 per cent less than with fowls of the

measure of efficiency in poultry cul-
ture. It is plain evidence open to all,
of skill in breeding and growing
poultry; while performance—espec-
jially in egg production—is celebrat-
ed only as far as detailed accounts
of it are published. Appearance
speaks for itself; performance in this
line must have some one speak for
it. Sufficient attention to appear-
ance to secure a pleasing uniformity

in a flock is in the highest degree
practical. Experience has shown ov-
er and over that where this is lack-

ing, interest is apt to flag and pro-

duction is not maintained.
“American standards for poultry

express the characteristic American

attitude in regard to combining

beauty with utility in the individual
bird and in the breed. While a few

breed types show the development of
superficial characters carried to ex-
tremes which unfit the breed for

common use, these extreme develop-

ments are all of foreign origin, the
popularity here of the breeds pos-
sessing them is very limited, and the
influence of the common American
demand for use with beauty tends
constantly to modify extreme types.

duction.

N. J. Exp. Station.

Vineland, Mountain Grove (Mo.), and North American contests were used.

FIG. 12-RATE OF EGG PRODUCTION OF HEAVY BREEDS COMPARED WITH

LEGHORNS

The lines in above illustration show how the different breeds compare in average pro-
In plotting these curves the records made by the different breeds at Storrs,

Courtesy of the

22 PROFITABLE CULLING AND SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

larger breeds—an important saving where great numbers
are kept. Leghorns may be housed in larger flocks, thus
reducing labor; they require less floor space per hen,
which means a smaller investment in buildings; they
respond better to wholesale methods of handling in
housing and feeding; they waste less time in _ broodi-
ness; as a rule, their eggs hatch better and the
chicks are more easily raised by artificial methods. For
such reasons as these Leghorns are used almost exclu-
sively in great egg-producing centers such as Petaluma,
Vineland, ete.

On farms however, Leghorns meet with less favor.
What usually is wanted there is a large fowl that will
also supply good-quality table meat, and that will have
a substantial market value when sold. For this use the
different varieties of Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, and
Rhode Island Reds are much in favor, choice between
them being largely a matter of personal preference or
fancy. As the demand for prime table fowls develops,
it is to be expected that the popularity of the larger
breeds will increase, and there is reason to believe that,
under many conditions, the production of poultry meat
may be made a feature of added profit even now, which
profit may more than offset the lower cost of egg produc-
tion in Leghorn flocks.

Especial attention however, should be called to the
fact that climate is, to some extent, a factor in choice of
breed. In the comparatively mild winters of Southern
New Jersey where the Vineland Laying Contest is con-
ducted, Leghorns easily lead all others not only in num-
bers of eggs per hen, but in net profit. At the Storrs
(Connecticut) Contest however, where the climate is more
severe, Wyandottes exceed all other breeds in productive-
ness, though even there, when returns per 100 pounds of
feed are considered rather than returns from individual
fowls, Leghorns are found to be most efficient.

Summary

Heavy-laying ability is more or less common in all
flocks, but is most highly developed
and most general where fowls are
systematically bred for this most im-

portant quality. |

The number of eggs laid by any given fowl is deter-
mined by her individual laying ability and the skill of the
caretaker.

The present general low average of production must
be raised in order to insure permanence of the poultry
industry as a profitable branch of farming.

There are numerous causes of low production, all
readily avoidable.

The average production of any flock may be largely
increased simply by culling out the inferior layers.

Under average conditions specialist poultry keepers
must secure a yearly average of at least 100 eggs per
hen to realize a fair profit on their labor and invested
capital.

An average of from 150 to 165 eggs per hen has been
secured with different breeds at egg laying contests, and
can be approximated by commercial poultry keepers gen-
erally.

The best way to overcome the present handicap of
high prices for feed is to secure larger average egg
yields.

State-wide culling campaigns have resulted in re-
markable savings in feed consumption without any appre-
ciable reduction in total number of eggs produced.

The most profitable commercial flocks are of standard
breeding. Where uniformity in the flock is lacking, inter-
est lags and not even production is maintained.

A combination of standard and utility qualities in the
same flock is possible and practicable.

There is little difference in the actual egg-laying abil-
ity of fowls of the popular breeds, but there are wide
differences in the productive capacity of various strains
in the same breed.

Leghorns are most popular on commercial poultry
plants because more cheaply housed, fed, and cared for,
than large fowls.

Fowls of the larger breeds are mostly preferred on
farms, and can be made an important source of added
profit through the production of superior-quality table

poultry.
| Climate should be considered in
selection of breeds to be kept for
egg production.

FIG. 13—-PROOF THAT STANDARD QUALITY NEED NOT BE SACRIFICED IN BREEDING FOR HEAVY EGG PRODUCTION.

All of the above fowls are of the bred-to-lay strain of White Leghorns on the U. S.
where standard quality and high egg production have been successfully combined.

hen that laid 230 eggs in her pullet year.
198, 208, 235, and 240 eggs
The grandsire on the sire’s side is a son of hen on the right.
is the great-grandmother of the cockerel shown on left.

Government Poultry Farm at Beltsville, Md.,
The White Leghorn cockerel on the left is out of a

Eight of her sisters and halfsisters produced as follows in their pullet year:—180, 187, 195, 196,
The sire of this cockerel is the son of a hen that laid 213 eggs in her pullet year and 536 eggs in three years.
This hen laid 214 eggs in her pullet year and 654 eggs in four years. She
The cockerel in center was one of the foundation birds used in this strain.

CHAPTER [1]

Culling Methods Outlined And Illustrated

This Chapter Gives in Brief Form the Important Details of Various Culling Methods In Common Use, Including the
Official Outline for Culling as Adopted and Standardized by the American Association of Instructors and
Investigators in Poultry Husbandry —A Truly Helpful Interview with Professor H. R. Lewis is Presented,

Clearly Explaining Difficult Points and Giving Much Additional Practical

HE purpose of this chapter is to present, in
condensed form, all the essentials of ap-
i proved culling methods, thus grouping the
GS J important details together for convenient
reference and for readily making a complete
application of them. In succeeding chapters these
methods are described more in detail, for the information
of those who wish not only to know how to apply, in their
complete form, the various tests recommended, But also
to have a thorough knowledge of the whole subject.
Culling methods can be applied to some extent at any
time of the year when the hens are laying. For several
reasons the tests may be made more accurately in summer
and early fall, when production falls off at the beginning
of the molting season. It then is a comparatively simple
matter to select not only nonproducers, but also those
that may have laid well for a short period during the
most favorable part of the year but that never reach a
profitable total and that, after the first or pullet year, are
apt to prove a source of serious
loss, and are particularly unde-
sirable in the breeding pen.

Many commercial poultry keep-
ers find it to their distinct
advantage to begin culling much
earlier than the date just sug-
gested, making the first test as
early as June, or whenever the
egg yield falls much below 50 per
cent. By doing this and by repeat-
ing the operation at suitable inter-
vals, they are able to keep the egg
yield around 50 per cent all summe -
through, thereby reducing the feed
bill and adding materially to the
net profit annually realized from
the flock. Where this practice is
followed, the flock is gradually
culled down to half its original size
by fall, or possibly one-third if it
contains an unusual percentage of
inferior producers.

The first section of this chap-
ter is devoted to the “Official
Culling Outline’ as approved and
adopted by the American Associa-
tion of Instructors and Investiga-
tors in Poultry Husbandry at the
1918 meeting, together with
amendments adopted at the Second
Annual Judging School at Cor-
nell University, in 1919. This out-
line is a summary of the methods
employed with great success by
College and Station Extension

GOOD

Moist
| White
White
White
; White

Wide
Thin

Brignh

i Bright
Bulging

Lean

contrast.

IT PAYS TO CULL

tO ELIMINATE INFERIOR BIRDS ;

O SELECT BEST FOR BREEDING

HOW TO TELL THE
from the

| Waite
Large ) Vent

Eye ring
Ear lobe
Beak
Shanks

» Span

Large
Plump . Comb
t

FIG. 14-CULLING IN A NUTSHELL
This effective chart was prepared by the New
Jersey Experiment Station and puts the principal be
external characters of good and poor layers in sharp

Information

workers generally, under whose care the various state cull-
ing demonstrations and organized campaigns are con-
ducted in late summer and early fall.

While this outline is simple and readily understood in
the main, there are some points mentioned in it which
persons unfamiliar with the subject will want to have
explained more in detail. The senior author of this book
had the privilege of paying a visit to the New Jersey Ex-
periment Station recently and, among other things, took
advantage of the opportunity to discuss this outline in
detail with Professor H. R. Lewis, Poultryman at the
New Jersey Experiment Station, and Secretary-Treasurer
of the American Association of Instructors and Investi-
gators in Poultry Husbandry, who has given a great deal
of attention to this subject and is, therefore, particularly
well qualified to explain and enlarge on the outline. He
consented to do this in a comprehensive interview which
forms one section of this chapter.

In addition to explaining such points in the Official
Outline as seemed to require ex-
planation, Professor Lewis kindly
arranged to furuish for our use a
valuable series of photos, by means
of which the whole culling opera-
tion is comprehensively illustrated.
These highly instructive photos
reproduced in halftone (see Figs.
17 to 34) and accompanied by the
illuminating comments of Prof.
Lewis, will also be found in this
chapter.

The concluding article in this
chapter, “Judging Fowls for Egg
Production,’ also is by Professor
Lewis. It describes a simple and
practical method of applying the
instructions given in the “Official
Outline.” The beginner should
not fail to provide himself with
some means of keeping a perma-
nent record of the “score” of his
hens, using either this score card
or the culling chart shown in Figs.
35 and 36. Either of these can
readily be prepared by any job

BAD

ellow
Small

Dry

Yellow
Yellow
Yellow
Yellow

Narrow
Thick
Small

Shrunk
Dull

printer, or written on .a_ type-
Dull writer. When filled out, such
Flat ecards are valuable permanent

records of the laying condition of
individual hens. They will prove
especially interesting and helpful
if the fowls are handled more
than once in a season, as should
done if true efficiency is
sought in the laying flock.

Flat

24 PROFITABLE CULLING AND SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

OFFICIAL OUTLINE OF CULLING METHODS*

N ORDER to lay well, a bird must have a sound
body. As a first consideration, the bird must be
vigorous and healthy if it is to be able to lay well. Vigor
and health are shown by a bright, clear eye, a well-set
body, a comparatively active disposition, and an indication
of good blood circulation. Further, the bird must be
free from physical defects, such as crooked beak, excess-
ively long toenails; eyelids that overhang so that the
bird cannot see well; excessively scaly legs, or anything
else that would keep the bird from seeing or getting an
abundance of feed.

Loss of Fat and Loss of Color of Fat Due to Laying Pig-
mentation Changes

A laying fowl uses up the surplus fat in the body.
Especially, it removes the fat from the skin. In yellow-
skinned breeds, this loss of fat can readily be seen by the
loss of the yellow color. The different parts of the body
tend to become white, ac-
cording to the amount of wy
fat which is being taken
from these parts, depend-
ing, of course, on the
amount of fat which has
been stored up in these
various parts, and the cir-
culation of blood through
them. It should be recog-
nized that all yellow-color
changes are dependent on
the feed, the coarseness of
skin, and the size of the
bird. A large bird fed on
an abundance of green
feed, or other material
that will color the fat deep
yellow, will not bleach out
in color in these various
parts as quickly as will a
smaller bird, or one which
naturally has pale yellow
coloring. The changes oc-
cur in the following order:

Vent. The vent changes
very quickly with egg pro-
duction, so that a white or
pink vent on a_ yellow-
skinned bird generally means
that the bird is laying,

FIG. 1+-CULLING NOMENCLATURE

not be confused with the loss of pigment due to production.
A very small ring just on the crest of the curve of the
beak often is the last part of the beak to lose its color. The
lower beak bleaches faster than the upper, but may be
used where the upper is obscured by a horn, or black
color as in Rhode Island Reds and Plymouth Rocks. On
the average-colored yellow-skinned birds, and on the
average-sized bird, a bleached beak means fairly heavy
production for at least the past four to six weeks.
Shanks. The shanks are the slowest to bleach out,
and hence indicate a much longer period of production
than the other parts. The yellow color leaves the outer
ring of the scales, then leaves the entire scale, on the
front of the shanks first, and finally, after a longer and
greater production leaves the scales on the rear of the
shanks. The scales on the heel of the shank—that part of
the shank just below the back of the hock joint—are the
last to bleach out, and for this reason may generally be
used as an index as to the natural depth of the original
yellow color of the various
parts of the bird. A
bleached-out shank on an
averaged-sized bird with an
average yellow color,indi-
cates that the bird has been
laying fairly heavy for at
least from 15 to 20 weeks.
Reappearance of Pig-
ment. When the bird stops
laying, the yellow color
comes back into the vent,
eye ring, ear lobes, beak,
and shanks in the same
sequence as it left, but the
color returns much more
quickly than it went out.
A vacation or rest period
can sometimes be deter-
mined by the end of the
beak being bleached and the
base being yellow, or a
longer vacation or rest can
be determined’ by . the
shanks being pale or some-
what bleached and_ the
beak showing a _ fair
amount of yeliow pigment.
In other words, if the de-
gree of yellow color in a

1—Vent. 2—Eye ring. 3—Ear lobe. 4—Beak. 5—Shank. 6—Hock bird gradually increases in
whi w vent means joint. 7—Abdomen. &—Pubic bone (rear part of pelvic arch). rime)
hile a yello as 9—Pelvic arch. 10—Rear of keel or breastbone. 11—Location of density, from the vent to

that the bird is not laying. 12—Face.

Eye Ring and Ear Lobe.

The eye ring, that is, the inner edge of the eyelid,
bleaches out a trifle more slowly than the vent. The
ear lobes of Leghorns and other white-lobed varieties
bleach out a little more slowly than the eye ring, so
that a bleached ear lobe means a longer or greater pro-
duction than a bleached vent or eye ring.

Beak. The color leaves the beak beginning at the base
and gradually disappearing until it leaves the front part
of the upper beak. The very tip of the beak is usually
white before the bird is making eggs, and_ should

lateral process.

*Reproduced from Hints to Poultrymen Vol. 6, No. 10, issued by
New Jersey Experiment Station.

13—Eye.

14—Comb. 15—Wattle. the eye ring, to the lobe,
to the base of the beak, to
the point of the beak, and to the shanks, it shows that the
bird has laid continually without rest for a period indicat-
ed by the amount of yellow present; whereas, if the bird
shows more yellow in any preceding part of the sequence
as outlined, it indicates a rest period depending on the

difference of the yellow color found in these parts.

Body Changes Due to Laying

Vent. A laying hen has a large, moist vent showing
a dilated condition and looseness, as compared with the
hard, puckered vent of nonlaying hens.

CULLING METHODS OUTLINED AND ILLUSTRATED 25

FIG. 16—A CRATE FOR USE IN CULLING

Various methods of handling fowls are used by different culling
operators. Where the birds are to be handled individually, probably
the best method is to use a crate such as the one shown above.
This crate is placed on the outside of the building on a level with the
exit door, being provided with legs of the right height for this pur-
pose. When ready to begin operations, the exit door is opened and
the fowls—a dozen or so, are allowed to go out {nto the crate. The
door then is closed and the birds are removed from the crate, one at
a time, and examined.

Abdomen. The abdomen is dilated as well as the vent,
so that the pelvic arches are wide-spread, and the keel
is forced downward away from the pelvic arches, so as
to give large capacity. The more eggs the bird is going
to lay in the following week, the greater will be the size
of the abdomen in proportion to the size of the bird. The
actual size of the abdomen is, of course, greatly influenced
by the size of the bird and to a certain extent, by the
size of the eggs laid.

and flat, the face is clean cut, and the eyes are full, round,
clear, and prominent, especially as seen from the front.

Feathering. The high layer is trimmer and always
apt to be somewhat more angular, that is, the feathers lie
closer to the body than on the poor layers, and after
heavy production the oil from the base of the feathers
does not keep the plumage relatively so sleek and glossy
as on a poorer layer. On the other hand, the plumage of
the heavy layer is apt to become worn and threadbare.

Comb, Wattles, and Ear Lobes. The comb, wattles,
and ear lobes enlarge or contract, depending upon the
activity of the ovary. If these parts are large, full, and
smooth, or hard and waxy, the bird is in full lay. If the
comb is limp, the bird is only laying slightly, but is not
laying at all when the comb is dried down, especially at
molting time. If the comb is warm, it is an indication
that the bird is coming back into production.

Molting. When a bird stops laying in the summer,
she usually starts molting. The later a hen lays in the
summer, or the longer the period in which she lays, the
greater will be her production; hence the high producer
is the late layer and the late molter. The length of time
that a hen has been molting, or has stopped laying, can
be determined by the molting of the ten large feathers at
the end of the wing,—the primary feathers. It takes
about six weeks to renew completely the primary feather
next to the middle feather of the wing, and an additional
two weeks for each subsequent or outer primary to be
renewed.

Temperament and Activity. A good layer is more
active and yet, more easily handled than a poor layer; she
shows more friendliness and yet elusiveness than a poor
layer. A poor layer or a bird which is loafing is apt to
be shy, staying on the edge of the flock, and will generally
squawk when caught.

1919 Amendments on Type

The following additions to the foregoing outline were

Quality of Skin. Heavy production is shown
by the quality of the skin. Fat goes out from
the skin and body with production, so that
the heavy producers have a soft, velvety skin
that is not underlaid by heavy layers of hard
fat. The abdomen in particular, is soft and
pliable.

Pelvic Arches. Heavy production is shown
by the quality and the thickness and stiffness
of the pelvic arches. In heavy producers
these are apt to show high qualities by being
thin and pliable rather than stiff and thick;
hence the thicker and blunter the pelvic arches
and the greater the amount of fat and meat
covering them, the less the production, or the
longer the time since production ceased.

Sternal Processes. These, like the pelvic
arches, should, in a bird of good production or
in a bird which is producing heavily, show good
quality by being soft and pliable, prominent,
and generally bent outward.

Head. One of the finer indications, yet one
of the most valuable in picking the high lay- '!©
ers, is the fineness of the head. The head
of a good layer is fine; that is, the wattles and
ear lobes fit close to the beak and are loose

17—EXAMINING A FOWL FOR EXTERNAL CHARACTERS INDICATING

PRODUCTIVENESS

In this illustration Prof. Lewis of the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment
Station is shown examining a hen, noting pigment in ear lobes, eye ring, face,
beak, and shanks, also noting condition of plumage and comb, and general indi-
cations of health and vigor.

Photo from New Jersey Experiment Station.

26 PROFITABLE CULLING AND SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

adopted at the Second Annual Judging School at Cornel)
University, July 7-12, 1919:—

In order to make a record a hen must nct only lay
long but heavily. In order to lay heavily she must have
sufficient body capacity to digest large amounts of food
rapidly. Large capacity in a laying hen is shown by a
body that is deeper at the rear end of the keel than at the
front end. The under line should be fairly straight as
shown in the illustration and the back should be com-
paratively horizontal.

A small capacity hen stands erectly. The body is
either very shallow or, in the case of beefy individuals,

the abdomen shows a pronounced sagging at rear of keel.
A small-capacity hen generally possesses a hump on the
back. The comb generally has sharp, narrow points,
with the blade pointing up.

The general body conformation of a heavy producer
conforms very closely to a rectangle with pronounced
angles rather than smooth curves.

A male shows the same general characteristics except
that the abdomen is not so deep.

The keel bone should be long and the body relatively
deep in proportion to weight or length.

FIG, 1S—HIGH-PRODUCING PULLET NO. 3411
The above is a good illustration of the general appearance of the

typical heavy layer. This pullet’s production, estimated on the
basis of the tests described in this chapter, was 120 eggs on the date
when photograph was taken—April 23. Compare with low-producing
pullet in Fig. 19. Photo from New Jersey Experiment Station.

FIG. 19—-LOW-PRODUCING PULLET NO. 2411
The estimated production of this pullet on date when photo was
taken (April 23rd) was only 40 eggs. She was hatched on the same
day as high-producing pullet No. 3411. To see how the culling score
of this pullet compares with that of No. 3411 see culling charts, Figs.
35 and 36. Photo from New Jersey Experiment Station.

Details of Official Culling Outline Explained

An Interview with Prof. H. R. Lewis of New Jersey Experiment Station in which He Explains Various Points in the
Official Outline and Gives Additional Valuable Information
on This Subject

S previously stated, Professor H. R. Lewis, head
of the Poultry Department of New Jersey Experi-
ment Station, kindly consented to an interview designed
to make plain, for inexperienced readers, various points
in the foregoing outline that might cause some confusion;
also to bring out additional details in regard to the prac-
tical application of culling methods which Professor
Lewis has developed in his extensive experience in this
line of work. In response to inquiries in regard to cull-
ing methods and the way in which they have been develop-
ed, Professor Lewis made, in substance, this general
statement:

The methods of culling in use, particularly as develop-
ed by college and station workers, consist in examining
fowls during the summer and early fall, doing this on a
basis of their external characters, the purpose being to
pick out birds that have ceased to lay, with a view to

marketing or otherwise disposing of them; also for the
purpose of picking out those birds that have laid well,
with the intention to retain them during the following
year, using them either as breeders or layers. By the
statement ‘‘external characters” is meant comb, beak,
ear lobes, and other head points, shanks, vent, skin, plum-
age, etc. These characters have been found to vary in
hens, particularly in good layers as compared with poor
layers. This variation may be, in some instances, with
respect to size, and in other cases to color, softness of
abdomen, pliability of skin, ete.

Culling methods are of comparatively recent origin,
having come into popular use during the last three years.
This method of culling was in a measure standardized at
the conclusion of a one-week culling school at Cornell
University in 1918. As a result of this week of study
and of conferences between experts in culling methods,

a

CULLING METHODS OUTLINED AND ILLUSTRATED 27

certain official rules, regulations, and descriptive material
were adopted. At the 1918 Annual Meeting of the Amer-
ican Association of Instructors and Investigators in Poul-
try Husbandry, which immediately followed the judging
school at Cornell, these standardized descriptions were
officially recognized and approved, thus giving culling
methods an official status, and at the same time stand-
ardizing the practice to a great extent. As will readily
be seen by a study of the outline, the various tests applied
in culling may be classified under the general heads of
pigment changes, body changes due to laying, and gen
eral temperament and activity.

Question—What is meant by “pigmentation” or “yellow
pigment” as described in the officia] outline?

Pigmentation as here used refers to the yellew coloring
matter found in the fatty tissues of certain sections of
the fowl’s body. This yellow pigment is an essential part
of the ordinary poultry ration and manifests itself most
clearly in the skin, shanks, beak, ear lobes, and vent. The
pigment which gives these parts their characteristic yel-
low color in such fowls as Leghorns, Plymouth Rocks,
etc., is the same pigment which makes the yolks yellow
and, as stated in the outline, is associated with the fat in
the fowl’s body.

Question—When a pullet or hen begins to lay, in what
succession do the yellow-pigment sections bleach out?

When a fowl begins to lay, her requirements for fat
and yellow material for the yolk become exceptionally
great, so that the ordinary ration does not supply the
amount needed for both yolks and body fat. As a result
the fowl draws upon the reserves of these materials in her
body to build the yolks, or she possibly uses her entire
supply of yellow pigment in the feed to manufacture
yolks and has none to deposit in her body parts, con-
sequently, as laying progresses, we find the yellow color
disappearing successively from different sections of the
body. It disappears first from those sections nearest to
the ovaries, and in sections having the most rapid blood
circulation. The fat, bearing with it its natural yellow

FIG. 20—-MEASURING SPREAD OF PUBIC BONES
The distance between the pubia bones (the so-called ‘“‘lay
bones’’) varies more or less, and is greatest in high producers. The
spread of the pubic bones is generally stated as being so many
“fingers”. The fowl here shown is No. 3411 (see Fig. 18) and is a
“three-finger” fowl. Photo from New Jersey Experiment Station.

pigment, is transported to the ovaries by the blood, and
there elaborated into egg yolks. Careful observation has
shown that the yellow color disappears from certain sec-
tions of the body in the following order: First from the
section around about the vent, next from the eye ring

and tace, then from the ear lobe, beak, and shank.

Question—In the case of each section, about how long
does the bleaching process require, as measured by eggs
laid and by time?

My observation is that it requires the laying of ap-
proximately six eggs, or from ten to twelve days, for the
vent to become entirely free from yellow.
the laying of from ten to fifteen eggs, or from fifteen to
twenty days, for the ear lobe to become entirely bleached
out. After laying from thirty to forty eggs, or
sixty to seventy-five days, the beak also will become en-
tirely free from pigment, while in case of the shanks it
will require from seventy-five to eighty eggs, or from
one hundred to one hundred and twenty days, for them
to become practically free from yellow. Since the shanks
are the last to lose their color, the last-named period is
the one required to make all sections practically free from
yellow. These time periods apply primarily to Leghorns.
Plymouth Rocks, Rhode Island Reds, and Wyandottes,
being heavier fowls, have a larger reserve supply of pig-
ment and body fat to draw from, hence require a greater
egg production, and consequently a longer time is required
in which to accomplish the same degree of bleaching. The
extra time required by larger fowls depends in large part
upon their weight, which is a measure of the reserve fat
supplied. In general it will require from three to six
weeks longer for the American breeds to bleach out than
for the Leghorns, depending however, upon how fat they
were when they began laying, and upon their amount of
production. It must be this connection
that much depends upon the rations fed and the condition
under which the fowls are kept. Theoretically the pig-
ment begins to fade from vent and eye ring as soon as

It requires

from

remembered in

FIG. 21—A “TWO-FINGER” LAYER
Low-producing pullet No. 2411 (see Fig. 19) is here shown under-
Only
indication of

going a test for spread of pubic bones. two fingers can be

placed between them—a clear inferior production.

Photo from the New Jersey Experiment Station.

28 PROFITABLE CULLING AND SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

FIG. 22—MEASURING CAPACITY OF ABDOMEN
Heavy-laying ability depends quite largely upon abdominal capa
ity. This is conveniently measured by the distance between thx
rear end of the keel and the pubic bones. When these are far enough
apart to admit four fingers, as in the case of the above pullet, high
production is to be expected. Photo from New Jersey Exp. Station

yolk development begins, and since it requires approx-
imately 14 days for the complete formation of a yolk to
the point where it is ready to burst from its follicle and
begin its passage through the oviduct, it frequently hap-
pens that the vent and eye ring become practically pig-
ment-free by the time the first egg is laid, especially
in the case of Leghorns fed on a grain ration which sup-
plies little pigment and where only a limited amount of
green feed is provided.

Question—When the fowl stops laying, what occurs,
as regards pigmentation?

When a fowl stops laying, the requirements for pig-
ment and fat for yolk formation promptly cease. The
fowl then ordinarily begins at once to redeposit fat in its
body, and quickly takes on pigmentation again. For-
tunately for the poultryman, the yellow color reappears in
the same order or sequence in which it disappears; that is,
it comes back in the vent first, followed in succession by
the eye ring, ear lobe, beak, and shank. It reappears,
however, decidedly more rapidly than it was withdrawn.
It follows from what has just been said that the first indi-
cation that the fowl has ceased laying is the return of
yellow color to the vent and, as a rule, one week of idle-
ness is long enough to permit a sufficient accumulation of
yellow color to show clearly that the fowl has stopped.
It is not practical however, to depend entirely upon the
appearance of yellow pigment in the vent for proof that
the fowl has permanently stopped laying, particularly in
the case of fowls of the larger breeds. Before concluding
that such hens have stopped for the season, it is necessary
to determine whether the check in production which
brought about increased pigmentation may not possibly
have been due to broodiness, or to a brief rest resulting
from faulty feeding or some other unfavorable condition
in connection with her management. It would not be safe
to say that such a fowl] has stopped laying for the season
even though the vent may be strongly pigmented, unless
the color also is seen to be coming back in her ear lobes,

also that her comb shows signs of drying up. If the con-
dition of her plumage indicates that she is beginning the
molt that, of course, would be good evidence, taken in con-
nection with the reappearance of pigmentation, that she
has stopped laying for the season. In attempting to apply
the foregoing suggestions in regard to the time required
for the return of pigment, the ration must be taken into
account. Fowls that are fed on liberal allowances of yel-
low corn, or that are kept on alfalfa or clover sod will
show a much more rapid reappearance of pigment than
those kept whose ration carries a much more limited sup-
ply of pigment.

Question—Is the presence or absence of yellow pig-
mentation looked upon as a safe guide in culling?

Yes, I regard the presence or absence of pigmentation
as one of our safest guides to use as a basis of determin-
ing the present and past performances of fowls, especially
when the test is applied in late summer and early fall.
In making close estimates the operator must know the
conditions under which the hens have been kept.

Question—In treating on the reappearance of pigment
after fowls have ceased laying, the outline refers to the
fact that yellow color gradually “increases in density.”
Are these increases of sufficient distinctness to enable the
poultry keeper to estimate with any degree of accuracy
the length of the rest period?

Increase in density certainly is easily distinguished by
the poultry keeper who makes a study of pigmentation in
connection with culling. The practical value of noting
the increase in density is to enable the observer to
determine whether the bird has been a persistent layer,
or whether she is taking a long rest. For example, fre-
quently in the early spring we find a bird the tip of
whose beak is white, also the base, while the center of
the beak is yellow (see color plate No. 7). The vent
also may be bleached out, and the ear lobes in the case of
Leghorns. This variation in density tells us this interest-

FIG. 2—A HEN WITH LIMITED EGG LAYING CAPACITY

The distance between the rear end of the keel and the pubic
bones in this fowl can readily be spanned by two fingers, thus show-
ing restricted size of abdomen and, as a result, low production is to
be expected. Photo from New Jersey Experiment Station.

CULLING

FIG. 24-ILLUSTRATION OF DIFFERENCE IN ABDOMINAL CAPACITY

1 soft, pliable abdomen of the high producer on the left, as
compared with the small, hard abdomen of the low producer on the right.
illustration also shows clearly the difference in size of vent in a good layer as
Photo from New Jersey Experiment Station.

Note the large,
compared with a poor layer.

ing story: This bird laid persistently for two months
or more, or until the color was faded out of the beak,
then she took a rest and the color returned, first to the
vent then to the ear lobe, then as far as the middle of
the beak. But before the beak had become completely
pigmented, she again started producing, so when we
handle her later on this statement of her performance is
found plainly recorded.

Question—What is meant by the following words
quoted from the official outline, “a bird that naturally has
pale yellow coloring?”

This statement applies to fowls which naturally do
not have as yellow skin and shanks—that is, are not so
heavily endowed with yellow pigment—as others. Yellow-
skinned fowls vary more or less in the degree of pigment
shown in skin, beaks, shanks, etc., and the observer must
take this fact into account in “‘scoring’’ his fowls, in order
to avoid the danger of giving the
naturally pale-colored fowl a higher
score than she really is entitled to.
There are comparatively few birds
however, that are lacking in pig-
ment to an extent that will interfere
seriously with the application of
pigment tests.

Question—How can danger of
errors be avoided in fowls having
pale (but not white) shanks?

The number of fowls with bleached
or pale shanks, among our yellow-
legged varieties, is so limited that I
doubt very much whether can
anticipate any practical error from
this cause. It should further be ap-
preciated that anyone who culls
purely on the basis of pigmentation
is making an error. Culling to be
accurate and practical, should be
based on a number of characteris-
ties, and the relative appearance of
all of these characteristics should be
considered in making up one’s mind

we

METHODS OUTLINED AND ILLUSTRATED 29
as to the disposal of each individual
bird. It should be understood further that

culling, especially in so far as pigmentation
is concerned, is not an effort to determine the
exact number of eggs laid by a bird, but
rather we are working with and considering the
two extremes in a large population; namely,
those birds which have been relatively poor
producers, which have quit laying and should
be disposed of, and on the other extreme, we
are after those birds which have laid remark-
ably well and which it is desired to keep for
breeding. The middle group, while they may
be in large measure fairly accurately graded,
do not interest us so much. In all the 2000
pullets which have passed through our Vine-
land Contest in the last three years, we have
found less than one per cent that possessed
natural pale or whitish shanks to such an ex-
tent that it will make us question our ability
to cull them by the use of the pigmentation
test together with other characteristics which
we regularly consider.

This

Question—Does the condition of shanks as
to fullness or hardness have any bearing on culling?

Undoubtedly the conditions of the shanks as regards
fullness and plumpness has a good deal to do with indicat-
ing the value of a bird as a layer. Fowls that have laid
heavily will have laid out the fat in all sections of their
body, including the shanks which will show a thin, lean
appearance, the scales on the back especially being quite
pliable. Those that have not laid heavily show a hard,
full shank due to the accumulation of fat under the scales.
This is simply a parallel to the condition of the face;
that is, those fowls which have laid heavily show a lean
face free from excessive fat, along with lean, thin shanks,
while the nonproducer has a full face with the fat show-
ing through the red, and this almost invariably is accom-
panied by hard, round shanks.

Question—How can the poultryman successfully apply
pigmentation tests at night, bearing in mind the fact that

FIG. 25-ABDOMINAL CAPACITY AND SIZE OF VENT COMPARED

Heavy layer is on the left.

of keel (at top), and the greater width at keel, showing spread of lateral pro
compared with the poor layer at right.

Note the larger vent, greater distance from vent to end

esses, as

30 PROFITABLE CULLING AND SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

FIG. 22—-LOOSENESS AND PLIABILITY OF SKIN, CHARACTERISTIC OF GOOD LAYEP
This illustration shows quite clearly the difference in the flexibility or softness of the
as compared with the poor layer on

abdomen of the good layer on the right,
Photo from New Jersey Experiment Station.

skin of the
the left

it is particularly difficult to detect yellow color by arti-
ficial light?

Where it is desirable to make pigmentation tests by
artificial light, we always use what is known as a “day-
light” flashlight. These
which the glass is tinted blue to destroy the natural yel-
low rays of the ordinary electric light. On commercial
plants a strong flashlight often is used with the glass
coated with light blue paint. An ordinary lantern globe
may be treated in the same way. This makes examining
the fowls on the perches easy, quick, and accurate, and
involves disturbing them much less than the individual
handling required in the daylight examinations.

Question—What is the most convenient method of
handling the fowls in daylight culling?

In daylight culling we use a large crate like a turkey
erate for catching the fowls, doing the work first thing
Keep the birds confined until ready, then

are provided with globes in

in the morning.
place the large crate on the outside of the house with the
When
enough fowls have gone out to fill the crate, close the
door and examine these birds and proceed in this regard
with the entire flock. This is a more laborious way than
night testing, though perhaps better suited to the require-

opening opposite the exit, and open the door.

FIG. 27—WIDE SPAN INDICATING A HEAVY LAYER
This is pullet No. 3411 with a span of four fingers between

pubic bones and keel, showing large abdominal capacity. Photo

from New Jersey Experiment Station.

ments of the beginner. The profes-
sional method however, is to examine
the fowls on the perches at night
using the flashlight with blue globe,
as already described.

Question—What importance is at-
tached to the condition of the vent?

The appearance and condition of
the vent is a most valuable clue to
the present productiveness of the
fowl. In the heavy-laying hen the
vent is large, soft, pliable, and moist.
It may be bluish or almost blue in
eee color. In case of the heaviest layers
== the folds of skin on either side of the
vent may be so blue as to present the
appearance of being bruised. In a
nonproducing bird the vent is com-

FIG. 22-THE POOR LAYER HAS A NARROW SPAN

The two-finger span of No. 2411 here indicated is character-
istic of limited egg laying capacity. Photo from New Jersey Experi-
ment Station

paratively small and rather dry; and where the hen is
laying no eggs, is yellow in color.

Question—What conditions of the abdomen and skin
are associated with high egg production, and why?

The abdomen of a heavy-laying hen is always soft
and flabby in condition, and the skin is loose and pliable.
This is an important indication of productiveness in all
The nonlayer on the other hand is apt to
have a hard, firm abdomen, while the skin will be tight
and thick, and frequently will be coarse in texture. The
skin of fowls varies more or less in the last named respect,
in different individuals, and in general it will be found
that the loss of pigment proceeds much more rapidly in
fowls having fine-grained skin, though this is not a differ-
ence that will readily be noted by the average observer,
nor does it need to enter extensively into a practical ap-
plication of culling methods.

Question—How does heavy egg production or the lack
of it affect body conformation?

The abdomen of the fowl is directly affected by pro-
duction, and in the heavy layer is always well developed
and deep. The space required for the accommodation of
active egg organs and their contents, and the relatively

instances.

CULLING METHODS OUTLINED AND ILLUSTRATED 31

large quantities of feed required in heavy egg production
call for large abdominal capacity, and this is in itself an
excellent indication of the productiveness of the fowl.

Question—What is the pelvic arch and what relation
does it bear to egg production?

The pelvic arch is the bony framework at the rear
part of the fowl’s body. It consists of three pairs of
bones on either side of the backbone, forming an incom-
plete circle through which the egg passes. In the fowl
about to begin laying it will be found that the bones of
the pelvic arch show a more or less increased spread, the
practical effect of which is to give greater room for the
egg organs and thus to permit the more ready passage
of the egg through the oviduct and, of course, to provide
generally the additional abdominal capacity already men-
tioned as being highly important in heavy laying. The
principal part of the pelvic arch in which the poultry
keeper is interested, and which is utilized to a consider-
able extent as a guide in selecting layers, is the pair of
pubic bones, sometimes called “lay bones”, which form
the lower end of the pelvic arch, and are readily felt in
the live hen, being the two bony points on either side of
the vent. The position of the pubic bones is regarded
as of decided importance in selecting layers. In non-
layers we find these pubic bones drawn close together,
while their apparent thickness also is much greater than
in hens that are laying heavily. This thickness is brought
about partly by an accumulation of fat under the skin
which overlies the pubic bones, and which is always char-
acteristic of nonlayers in good health, and partly by the
bones folding over on themselves. As ordinarily tested,
by folding the skin over them, the thickness of the pubic
bones may vary anywhere from one-eighth to nearly one
inch, thin bones always being a characteristic of the best
layers. In addition to the thinness, pubic bones in good

FIG. 29-SPREAD OF PUBIC BONES IN A GOOD LAYER
Photo from New Jersey Experiment Station.

FIG. 30—THE POOR LAYER HAS LITTLE ROOM BETWEEN
PUBIC BONES
Photo from New Jersey Experiment Station

layers appear much more soft and pliable. In nonpro-
ducers we find the ends of the pubic bones drawn close
together chiefly as a result of increased curvature.

Question—What are the sternal or lateral processes,
and what bearing do they have on egg production?

The sternal processes are the thin bony structures
which extend out from either side of the upper part of
the front of the st2rnum or keel bone. These processes
extend backward diagonally from the keel and serve par-
tially to enclose and protect the lower part of the abdo-
men. When the body cavity becomes filled and distended
with a mass of egg and digestive organs, as they will
during heavy production, these sternal processes
pushed outward, and due to this position and to the pliable
skin and its freedom from fat they then are prominent
and easily felt with the fingers. Prominence of sternal
processes, therefore, is simply another evidence of en-
In nonproductive fowls these

are

larged abdominal capacity.
bones are not readily detected from the outside.

Question—Given a normal healthy fowl that has ample
body capacity, what should we look for in head points,
with a view to estimating egg production ?

Head points generally are importe it in that they de-
note vigor and stamina, while the comb is an extra good
index to the condition of the egg-laying organs. The
laying hen has a prominent, bulging eye, wide open and
bright, and her head is free from an’ excess amount of
fat. The face is pink rather than yellowish in color, and
it has a dished, rather lean appearance. The
should be of moderate size, and both comb and wattles
should be of fine texture. In a heavy producer the comb
is always well developed and bright in color, full, plump,
and has a warm oily or waxy feeling, and when a portion
of it is pinched to remove the blood it will look whitish
rather than yellow. So far as the appearance of the
head is concerned it is readily distinguishable when the
observer has before him two birds showing the extremes
in this connection. In heavy layers the wattles fit close
to the head and hang rather near together, while in a
poor layer the head parts are fleshy and filled with fat,
cousing the wattles to appear distended and to stand out
more from the body. The changes in the appearance of
the comb are much more gradual than the return of pig-
ment to the vent. The experienced culler can determine

comb

32 PROFITABLE CULLING AND SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

by the comb
whether or not
the hen is laying
and can do so as
readily and as ac-
curately as by
noting the color
of the vent, but
the comb condi-
tion requires
longer to make
the change from
the bright, pliable
red condition,
characteristic of
the good layer’s
comb, to the dry,
shrunken — condi-
tion of the non-
producer.

Ques tion—
What effect does

broodiness have
upon the appear-
ance of fowls,

and is there any
danger of con-
fusing good lay-
ers when broody,
with inferior pro-

FIG. 31—FINDING THE LATERAL PRO
ESSES

The lateral or sternal processes are bones
extending backward from the upper part of

the front of the keel. They are widespread ducers?

and prominent in good layers. Photo from

New Jersey Experiment Station. The effect of
broodiness upon

the size or appearance of comb and wattles is not especial-
ly apparent if not too long continued. The physiological
changes which take place in fowls at this time require high
body temperatures and rapid blood circulation. The broody
fowl therefore, presents in most sections the same appear-
ance as when producing. While the brooding of the
hen causes a rest period which may halt the bleaching
process, this does not necessarily put her in the same
class, as regards appearance, with those that have quit
laying for the season and will go through a molt. Dur-
ing the period of broodiness the requirements of the
body heat no doubt draw upon the fowl’s food supply
and upon her body fat, as we know from records of the
weight of fowls during natural incubation. Her comb
and wattles remain bright however, and do not show
drying and shrinking as the hen that is taking a per-
manent summer rest. I doubt very much whether the
average person would confuse a bird of this type with
one that was ready for the discard as a result of having
gone into the summer and fall rest period.

Question—What connection does early and late molting
have with egg production?

The time of molting is an excellent indication of egg
producing ability in hens. Early molters, that is, hens
that molt in midsummer, generally take a long time to
molt which means a long rest period. Observation has
shown that the late molters, as a rule, are the ones that
have been so diligently at work laying eges that they
have not had time to change their plumage. Natural
or normal molting occurs in the late summer and cariy
fal! of the year following the spring in which they were
hatched. Individuals vary somewhat in their molting
periods however, depending primarily on the amount of
their egg production. As a rule, fowls of the same strain
or family, hatched about the same time and producing

about the same number of eggs, will molt in about the
same length of time. Anything which checks egg pro-
duction is apt to throw the hen into a molt, hence the
practical problem is to care for them so well that they
will keep on laying eggs well into the fall, in which case
the molt will take care of itself.

Question—What is the average length of time required
for molting?
The time required for molting varies so greatly with

individual hens that it is difficult to express an average.
Heavy producers usually molt much more quickly than
poor producers. We have records of hens taking three
months or more to change their entire coat of body
feathers and to grow a new coat. We also have records
of hens making the change in six weeks.

Question—What do you consider the relative value of
the different methods of culling as here described?

Placing them in the order of their relative value, I
would suggest first considering the condition of comb and
plumage (whether molting or not); next I would place pig-
mentation tests which are capable of being applied with
a good degree of accuracy when properly understood;
last I would place the position of the bones of the pelvic
arch. As I have previously stated, every precaution
should be taken to keep hens in laying condition, espec-
ially in the late summer and early fall, because just as
soon as their production is checked for any reason, they
naturally use their food supply to make feathers, and when
a hen is molting she is rarely ever laying. The molt is
dependent upon egg production and not egg production
upon the molt. We used to say, “our hens are molt-
ing, so they are not laying.’””’ We now say, “our hens
have quit laying, so they are molting.”

complete

FIG. 32—-TYPE IN GOOD AND POOR LAYERS

The carcasses of heavy-producing pullet No. 3411 and poor pro-
ducer No. 2411 in profile show clearly one difference in type. The
lines of the back and keel of the poor producer on the right are
almost parallel to each other, whereas in the good producer on the
left they are at a slight angle, being widest at the rear and thus
affording greater capacity. Photo from New Jersey Exp. Station.

CULLING METHODS OUTLINED AND ILLUSTRATED 33

Question—How should the average poultry keeper go
about culling his flocks?

If the egg production is noticeably under 50 per cent
he should go over his flock as early as the latter part of
June, picking out those birds that have already quit, as
evidenced by the condition of their external characters,
and promptly dispose of them. He should then repeat this
process every two weeks if necessary to keep his produc-
tion up to 50 per cent, and continue to do so throughout
the summer, until by fall about half will have been dis-
posed of in the ordinary flock. The remaining 50 per
cent left will include the most persistent layers and the
heaviest producers for the year.

Question—Is there any working rule to go by in esti-
mating what proportion of the flock is laying?

Yes, we have found that the per cent production dur-
ing the summer months is a good indication of the pro-
portion of the flock which is laying, also of the number that
should be disposed of. Speaking generally, a 50 per cent
production means that practically all of the birds in the
flock are laying. When this production drops below this
point, doubling the percentage, whatever it may be, will
give one an index as to the proportion of the number of
birds laying. For illustration, if we are getting a 40 per
cent production we are safe in assuming that 80 birds in

100 are laying, and by actual test we have found that 20 in
each 100 can be culled out and disposed of without
noticeably reducing the total number of eggs produced.
If we are only getting 30 per cent it means that about 40
out of each 100 are nonproducers and should be culled
out and sent to market.

Question—Do these foregoing facts in regard to eull-
ing apply with equal force to larger breeds than Leg-

horns, or do they relate chiefly to observations in the lat-
ter breed?

A great many of our observations in regard to culling
have been on our Vineland contest flocks where we have
60 pens of Leghorns and 40 pens of heavy breeds. Our
observations therefore, apply fully as much to the latter
as to Leghorns. However, it should be understood that the
practical application of culling methods is much harder
and less accurate in the heavy breeds than in the Leg-
horns, owing to the greater accumulation of body fat and
to the slower disappearance of the same when laying be-
gins. Also, in Rhode Island Reds, the presence of the
reddish horn in the beak and shanks makes it much harder
to detect the true condition as to pigmentation. There is
no question about the fact that the same general rules ap-
ply to all yellow-skinned and yellow-shanked birds, but
their application is, of course, a matter of practice.

Culling Methods Illustrated With Leghorn Hens

The Photos Here Reproduced Show the Correct Position in Which to Hold Hens When Testing for Egg Laying
Ability—After Testing the Live Hens They Were Killed and Plucked and Again Posed Before
the Camera in Order to Make Every Step as Plain as Possible

N ORDER to make plain to the beginner the various

steps in culling, the series of illustrations shown in

Fig. 17 to Fig. 34 has been prepared, these being secured

especially for this purpose at the New Jersey Experiment
Station, through the kindness of Professor H.

ter layer, but when they are examined for the different
characters already mentioned, the inferiority of No. 2411
becomes obvious.

Fig. 17 shows how to examine a hen for general con-

R. Lewis and his assistants, Mr. V. G. Aubry
and Dr. W. C. Thompson. The following
comments in regard to these illustrations are
by Professor Lewis. In this connection, the
reader’s attention is also called to the series
of illustrations for Plymouth Rocks in Chap-
ter IV, supplied by Cornell University, and
the Rhode Island Red series in the same chap-
ter, supplied by Storrs Agricultural College,
also the eighteen color plates on pages 5 to 8,
prepared from photographs supplied by Cor-
nell University. These plates show in nat-
ural colors, the various differences in pig-
mentation exhibited by good and poor-laying
fowls, or resulting from length of rest period,
whether due to broodiness or other causes.

The hens shown in the illustrations were
selected to illustrate a good and a poor layer
respectively, the high producer being shown

in Fig. 18 (pullet No. 3411, estimated produc-
tion on April 26—120 eggs), and the low pro-
ducer in Fig. 19 (pullet No. 2411, estimated
production 40 eggs). Both birds were scored
April 26th of this year. It is not probable
that any one could certainly tell from these
illustrations which of the two was the bet-

in a good layer.

FIG. 33-MEASURING THE THICKNESS OF THE PUBIC BONES

There is little or no actual difference in the thickness of the pubic bones in
different hens, but there is a great difference in the apparent thickness, which
is produced by the fat underlying the skin and surrounding the bones. The
good layer on the reader’s left has comparatively little fat and the skin is thin and
pliable so that there is a limited amount of tissue between the bone and the finger.
In the poor layer on_the right, the skin is thick, with a heavy layer of fat
underneath, thus making the pubic bones appear more than twice as thick as

Photo from New Jersey Experiment Station.

34 PROFITABLE CULLING AND SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

dition and external characters. This is a good way in
which to hold the bird, and while in this position color
(pigmentation) of the ear lobe, beak, face, eye ring, and
shank should be noted, also the size, color, and texture of
the comb. At the same time, or before the bird is taken
in hand, note the condition of plumage, and all general
evidences of health and vigor. Remember in this con-
nection that fowls may be pale in color as a result of poor
health, depredations of lice, etc., and that the degree of
yellow varies with individuals, environment, rations, etc.
If the fowl is sick, shows any deformities, is broken down
behind, or otherwise is plainly defective, it is needless to
proceed any further with the examination.

A fowl with white eye ring, moderately yellow upper
beak, and quite yellow shanks, is shown by this test to be
productive, but to have been laying only a short time.
Late in the summer after the fowls have ceased laying,
the pigment begins to come back and will be found first
in the vent, then in the eye ring, face, and lower beak, all
of which may be almost normal] in color, while the upper
beak and the shanks wiil still be faded. This condition in-
dicates to the experienced observer that the fowl while
not laying at the time of the test, probably made a good
record for the year.

In Fig. 20 is shown the method of determining the
spread of the pubic bones. The fowl in this illustration
is No. 3411 (see Fig. 18), and is here shown to be clearly
a “three-finger” fowl; that is, three fingers (pretty good-
sized ones at that) can be placed between the points of the
pubic bones. Fig. 21 illustrates low-producing pullet No.
2411 undergoing a similar test and showing only a “two-
finger’ space.

The distance between the pubic bones and the end of
the keel bone is determined as in Fig. 22. It took four fin-
gers to span the distance in No. 3411, an indication of am-

ple abdominal capacity.
only a “two-finger” space between pubic bones and keel.
Taken in connection with Fig. 21, showing the small
spread of her pubic bones, her limited capacity is plainly
indicated, even to the most inexperienced.

In applying comb tests remember that size alone is not
a reliable guide, since the size of the comb depends not
only upon breed, but upon the individual fowl. The gen-
eral character of the comb, its texture, its ‘feel’, and its
~freedom from the scale that usually is found on the combs
of nonproducers,—all are excellent indications of pro-
ductiveness. The comb test is not of much assistance to
the observer in determining length of laying period, but
clearly indicates whether the fowl is actually laying or
about to lay at the time of the test.

Examination of Geod and Poor Layers after
Being Plucked

After pullets No. 3411 and No. 2411 were handled and
“scored” in the manner just described, they were killed
and plucked and again photographed in different posi-
tions in order to bring out still more clearly the peculiar
differences in bodily structure which accompany or result
from high and low production.

In Fig. 24, hen No. 3411 is at the reader’s left and hen
No. 2411 at the right. In the former note the large moist
vent, the greater depth of abdomen, looseness of skin,
and absence of excessive accumulation of fat. The poor
producer at the right however, shows a small, dry vent
with less depth of body, more body fat, and the tight skin
characteristic of hens of her class.

Fig. 25 shows still more clearly the difference in ab-
dominal capacity and in shape. Note the full, soft, pli-
able body and the large abdomen of the high producer at
the left. The condition of the abdomen in this bird, which

is characteristic of high producers

generally, is readily contrasted with
the small, tight-skinned abdomen of
the low producer at the right.

Fig. 26 illustrates another way
of determining pliability of skin and
the general looseness of abdomen.
In this illustration the high producer
is at the right, as is readily seen by
the greater elasticity of the skin,
also by the noticeable difference in
depth of body as measured from keel
to backbone.

Fig. 27 is a companion view of
Fig. 22. The hen here shown is high
producer No. 3411 with a span wide
enough to admit all four fingers of
the operator’s hand, thus showing
that she had ample capacity for
eating and digesting large quanti-
ties of food and for accommodating
the greatly enlarged egg organs
characteristic of the heavy-laying
hen. Remember, however, that wide
span occasioned by a short keel, has

FIG, 34-EGG ORGANS AND DIGESTIVE SYSTEMS OF HIGH AND LOW

PRODUCING HENS

After undergoing the tests illustrated in Figs. 20 to 33, hens No. 3411 and No. 2411 were
opened to show the appearance of the reproductive and digestive organs.
laying at this time, but the high producer on the right had a much larger ovary and
There was a greater difference in the appearance of these
Photo from New Jersey Experiment Station. end

oviduct than the low producer.
organs than is indicated by the photo.

no value as a mark of capacity.
Fig. 28 is a companion view to
Fig. 23 and shows poor producer No.
2411. with her contracted abdomen
in which the distance between the
of the keel and the pubic

Both hens were

Fig. 23 shows No. 2411 with

CULLING METHODS OUTLINED AND ILLUSTRATED 35

New Jersey State Agricultural

CULLING CHART

PRODUCTIVITY BY EXTERNAL CHARACTERS

Experiment Station

locating the sternal or
These are flat
tures arising on either
front of the keel bone

lateral pro-
bony struc
side of the
and extend-

cesses.

Pigment Vent Pelvic Development . a 7 s
Classes Shank, Beak, Far, Vent Condition, Size Width, Thickness Span Plumage — Comb ing backward between the end of
; the keel and the ribs. In a good
layer these processes are prominent
c and well spread, while in the poor
3 layer they are depressed and much
4 less readily felt.
1 Ivory Very Moist Very Large Very Wide Very Thin Very Wide Old alll present’ Bright Fig. 33 shows the method of
Class 2 = Tint Moist Large Wide Thin Wide Old some absent — Dull measuring the thickness of pubic
Descriptions }3 = Medium Dry Medium Medium Medium Medium Growing new Dry ‘ dl
4. Yellow Very Dry Small Narrow Thick Narrow New throughout Shriveled bones. The high producer is on the
(1 To keep for special matings left, and the- difference hetween the
= +2. To keep for general laying and breeding Jele =
ees reer raldstceraanthver onuli layin cesses thickness of her pubic bones and

4 To sell immediately

Disqualficdtiions
a. Poor health or sickness
b. Lack of vigor or stamina
c. Broken down physically as result of heavy laying,

Note :—This chart is designed for use in the summer and fall to aid in the climination of non-productive hens, and to aid in

the selection of the best hens.
FIG. 35—CULLING

This chart was designed
servations in culling fowls.

CHART

to provide a

FOR

simple and convenient

which time

Station.

records the condition of pullet No. 3411 in April, at
credit. Courtesy of the New Jersey Experiment

bones can be spanned by only two fingers.

Fig. 29 shows how, in high-producing hens, the pubic
bones are spread apart, in this case affording sufficient
space between them to admit three fingers,—a further
indication of abdominal capacity, especially the upper part
of the abdomen where the egg organs are located.

Fig. 30 shows the contracted pelvie arch of poor pro-
ducer No. 2411 whose pubie bones were so close together
that only two fingers of the operator’s hand could be
placed between them. In exceptionally poor producers
the space between pubic bones may be reduced to not
much if any more than the width of a single finger. No.
2411, while classed as less than medium in this respect
at the time she was examined would, at the usual culling
time in late summer or in early fall, after she had entirely
stopped laying, be found to have these bones much closer
together—possibly enough to make
her only a “one-finger” fowl.

With the two fowls shown in
profile as in Fig. 32, their differ-
ence in capacity is clearly indicated.
High producer No. 3411 on the left,
with the rear end of her keel bone 1
pushed out to afford the extra ab-
dominal space required by the vari-
ous organs of a heavy layer, pre-
sents an altogether different ap- 4

‘

Pigment
Classes

tw

HIGH-PRODUCING

method of
A high and generally straight line, such as here shown, indi
cates that the fowl under observation was of exceptional merit as a producer.
she had

Shank, Beak, Ear, Vent

that of the poor producer on the
right, is here clearly shown. There
is practically no difference in the
actual thickness of the bones, but
in good layers the skin is soft and
pliable and has little fat under it,
while in others the skin is stiff and
thick, and under it is a heavy coat
of fat which greatly increases the
apparent thickness of the bones
when measured in this way.

The photo from which the half-tone engraving in Fig.
34 was reproduced was taken in the spring when both birds
were laying, and does not, therefore, show the difference
between the egg organs of a layer and a nonlayer, but
rather the difference between a good and a poor layer
in these respects. The heavy producer at the left had
laid consistently for the preceding five months, while the
low producer at the right had only come into laying.

The egg organs of each hen are shown at the side of
the body. Note the larger ovary and more numerous
ovules (yolks) in the reproduction system of the heavy
producer on the left. The illustration however, does not
clearly show the actual difference between the two fowls.
When the birds were cut open the oviduct of the heavy
producer was quite noticeably larger, longer, and more
vigorous in appearance than that of the low producer.

HEN

recording ob-

This chart
120 eggs to her

New Jersey State Agricultural Experiment Station

CULLING CHART

PRODUCTIVITY BY EXTERNAL CIITARACTERS

Vent
Condition, Size

Pelyic Development
Width, Thickness

Plumage. Comb

pearance from that of the poor layer 1 Ivory Very Moist Very Large Very Wide Very Thin Very Wide Old all present’ —_ Bright
A . at Class 2~~=«*Tint Moist Large Wide Thin Wide Old some absent Dull
on the right. Lines parallel with Descriptions ) 3 Medium Dry Medium Medium Medium Medium Growing -new Dry
back and keel extended to the front 4 Yellow Very Dry Small Narrow Thick Narrow New throughout Shriveled
of each bird would meet in the 1. To keep for special matings
7 - 2. To keep for gencral laying and breeding
heavy lay er, whereas they would b Sr) 3. To hold for month or until laying ceases
practically parallel in the case of 4. To sell immediately

the poor producer on the right. This
wedge-shaped profile in the good
layer is an excellent illustration of
what is meant by “egg type”. See
also illustrations showing the wedge
shape in the heavy layers in Chap-
ter VII.

Fig. 31 shows the manner of

Disgrahifiettions
a Poor health or sickness
b. Lack of vigor or stamina
c. Broken down physically as result of heavy laying

Note :—This chart is designed for use in the summer and fall to aid in the elimination of non-productive hens, and to aid in
the selection of the best hens.

FIG. 36—CULLING CHART FOR POOR PRODUCER

The line in this chart represents the condition of poor-producing pullet No
scored in April, at which time her estimated production was only 40 eggs
the New Jersey Experiment Station.

2411 when
Courtesy of

36 PROFITABLE CULLING AND SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

Judging Fowls for Egg Production

A Practical Score Card for Use in Selecting Layers is Here Presented—It Simplifies the Application of Culling Tests

and Should be Kept for Future Reference.

It Provides a Permanent Record of the

Laying Condition of Individual Fowls at Time When Laying
By PROFESSOR H. R. LEWIS*

During the last week of October and the first week of
November, 1919, a cooperative poultry conference was
held at the International Egg Laying and Breeding Con-
test at Vineland, New Jersey. Representatives of the
poultry departments of four of our eastern colleges and
experiment stations participated. The persons in attend-
ance were Prof. W. R. Graham, of the Ontario Agricul-
tural College, at Guelph; Dr. O. B. Kent, of Cornell Uni-
versity, Ithaca, N. Y.; Prof. W. F. Kirkpatrick and Roy
E. Jones, of the Connecticut Agricultural College, at
Storrs, and Prof. H. R. Lewis and Victor G. Aubry, of the
New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, New Bruns-
wick. This conference was held at the invitation of Prof.
H. R. Lewis of the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment
Station, the object being to study in great detail the
yearling hens at the Vineland Contest, especially to deter-
mine external body characters which can be used as an
accurate measure of determining past performance.

One outgrowth of the above conference was the devel-
opment of a preliminary score-card designed for use in
judging birds for egg production. It is appreciated by
the members of the conference that such score-card is
only preliminary and is simply a first step in the devel-
opment of a score-card, the final completion of which will
take many years of careful study.

In working out numerical values for the score-card at
this conference, the perfect bird was recognized as 100 per
cent, which was allowed to be equivalent to a production
of 300 eggs. Numerical values for all sections were then
so arranged that each per cent of value is equivalent to
three eggs, or put differently, a cut of one point in any
one section is equivalent to a cut of three eggs. In work-
ing out the following score-card, the principles evolved at
the judging school held at Cornell University during the
past 2 years were applied in so far as possible, and some
new and more recent observations added.

Score-Card
Perfection Egg-Production

Body Type (as seen in coop or Points Value
ONE OOS) cose ceeereeecee cee canc ees : 25 75
Head and Adjuncts .............-... 15 45

Body Conformation (as deter-
mined by handling) -........ i 30 90
Handling Quality ~...22-..--:- 10 30
Legs and Toes 5 15
(GONCUEL ON. «soem cceceseceeene seers 15 45
Total Perfection Score...... 100 300

The above score-card is designed to apply to hens as
well as to pullets. In applying the above score-card, the
following description of the various sections will aid in
a common understanding of the various ideals sought for.

BODY TYPE
Perfect Score—25 Points, 75 Eggs

A bird of good body is usually well balanced in that
the body itself must be deep, showing a nearly rectangular
form, well developed in breast and abdomen. Great depth
of body is especially desirable, but apparent depth must
not be due to loose feathering, which is generally shown
by an evidence of loose thigh feathers. Cochin and Ex-
hibition Game type and feathering are usually associated
with poor production. Large capacity is essential if a
hen is to lay long and heavily. Such capacity is designat-
ed by a body that is deeper at the rear end of the keel
than at the front end. The underline should be fairly
straight and the back should be comparatively horizontal.
Prominent breast development, with evidence of a long
keel are desirable qualities in a high-producing hen. The
general body conformation of a heavy producer conforms
very closely to a rectangle with pronounced angles rather
than smooth curves.

“Condensed from ‘Hints to Poultrymen” (N.
Vol. 8, No. 2.

J. Exp. Station)

A small-capacity hen generally stands erect. The
body is either very shallow and cut away at the breast
and abdomen or in the case of beefy individuals, the ab-
domen shows a pronounced sagging at the rear of the
keel due to large accumulations of fat. Extremely poor
producers frequently show a hump on the back.

HEAD AND ADJUNCTS
Perfect Score—15 Points, 45 Eggs

One of the best indications in picking high layers is
the fineness of the head. The head of the heavy producer
is fine, showing a lean face, free from wrinkles and
overhanging eyebrows. The wattles and ear lobes fit close
to the head and are not loose and flabby. The face is
clean cut, the eye is full, round, and prominent, especially
when see from the front. An eye which gives a clean-
cut wide-open appearance is desirable. The eyeball of
the heavy producer is generally set in the rear of a large
oval socket, showing considerable of the white eye mem-
brane in front of the eyeball. The head of a heavy pro-
ducer should be well balanced, being moderately deep and
broad. The extremely fat, full head of the beefy bird and
the long, thin, pointed head of the low-vitality bird are
both undesirable and should call for heavy cuts in this
section. The low-producing bird generally shows a de-
pressed eye with overhanging eyebrows and wrinkled skin
at the back of the eye. The extremely long sharp beak is
usually possessed by the low producer, while the medium
stout, well-curved beak is a mark of the high producer.

BODY CONFORMATION
Perfect Score—30 Points, 90 Eggs

When taken in the hands, a heavy producer will show,
by the sense of touch, great depth of body, especially at
the front and rear of the keel bone. The keel must be
moderately straight, relatively long and carried well back.
The space between the pelvic bones and the keel must
be free from excessive accumulations of fat. Birds which
are laying heavily can be readily detected by the develop-
ment of the abdomen. Such birds will show pelvic arches
which are widespread and a keel which is forced down
away from the pelvic arches so as to give large capacity.

The poor producer generally shows a shallow body
especially at the front of the keel, a small shrunken abdo-
men, together with all evidences of small capacity.

HANDLING QUALITY
Perfect Score—10 Points, 30 Eggs

The skin of the heavy-producing hen is thin, soft, and
pliable, especially the skin on the abdomen must be thin
and loose. The skin of the poor producer is generally
thick, hard, and rather coarse to the touch. The thin vel-
vety skin is almost always associated with heavy ovarian

activity.
LEGS AND TOES
Perfect Score—5 Points, 15 Eggs

The shanks of a heavy producer are flat, pliable, and
smooth scaled. In hens at the end of their laying year,
or pullets which have been laying heavily for some time,
the shanks will be bleached out. The toes should be
straight and the toenails show indication of proper activ-
ity. The shanks of the poor producer are usually round,
hard, and rather coarse scaled.

CONDITION
Perfect Score—15 Points, 45 Eggs

A bird to be capable of highest sustained production
must be first of all healthy. She must show vigor and
activity and be well fleshed. Late molting in hens is
desirable. Early molting and slow maturing, as shown
by the primary feathers, should be cut severely. Late
developing and late maturing usually indicate low pro-
duction. In applying this section to hens, health and
molting conditions should be given primary consider-
ation. In applying this section to pullets, health and ma-
turity should be given primary consideration.

CHAPTER

lV.

How to Cull Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes and R. I. Reds

Characters Indicating Heavy Laying Are Similar in All Breeds, But Pigment Changes Are Made More Slowly in Large
Fowls Than in Leghorns—For This Reason the Observer Must Depend More Upon Egg Laying Capacity with
Rocks, etc.,— Why Wyandotte Breeders Must Give Special Attention to Capacity—

Fowls of Standard Size Are Better Layers Than Those Conspic-
uously Over or Undersize for the Breed

IRECTIONS for culling as given in Chapter III
apply directly to Leghorns, but in a general
way may be used in culling fowls of any of
the yellow-legged breeds, making due allow-
ance for such modifications in detail as are

required by physical variations characteristic of breed
and variety. The capacity tests for Leghorn hens, as
illustrated in Figs. 20 to 23, also pigment tests, may be
applied to fowls of the larger breeds in the same way
and in the same order, keeping in mind however, that
changes in pigment take place more slowly in fowls of the
larger breeds. Pigmentation tests therefore, do not give as
clear-cut results as in Leghorns but, on the other hand,
capacity tests can be even more successfully applied.

It will readily be understood that in large fowls the
distance between pubic bones, also the span between pubic
bones and rear of keel bone will be uniformly greater
than would be the case in Leghorns with similar egg
records. For example, a large Plymouth Rock of quite
inferior laying ability may show greater actual measure-
ments in these sections than would be found in a high-
producing Leghorn, due to the greater dimensions of all
parts of her body. Other necessary readjustments in
directions for culling Leghorns, when applied to the larger
breeds, relate to shape of body, size and shape of comb,
color of beak, ete.

FIG. 37—A GOOD-PRODUCING BARRED PLYMOUTI
ROCK HEN

laid 126 eggs from November 1,
Photo from

This hen (G61)
August 20, 1919, when the photograph was taken.
Cornell University.

1918, to

Since fowls of the larger breeds generally have red
ear lobes, the lobe test cannot be as readily applied as
with Leghorns. However, it should be understood that
yellow pigment is deposited not only in ear lobes but
also in comb and wattles just as in the skin, beak, etc.,
and is subject to fading and renewal in precisely the
same way. The presence of pigment in these parts is
shown by a yellowish tinge in the red and its absence by
a whitish or bluish shade as shown in color plates on
pages 5, 6, It was found at the University of
Missouri that the presence of pigmentation in comb and
wattles may readily be detected by pinching them and
noting color before the blood comes back.

The temperament of large fowls is much less nervous
and high strung as compared with that of Leghorns, for
which reason heavy producers in these breeds will not
exhibit the same degree of activity or nervous energy as
will Leghorns of the same grade. Within the breed how-
ever, it will be found that the best layers are the active,
energetic, and intelligent birds. Inasmuch as there is a
quite general tendency in fowls of the larger breeds
toward the beefy type, the test for activity and intel-
ligence is especially valuable and should never be ignored.
Conformation of head, shape and position of eyes (see
Chapter VI), are particularly helpful when applied to

and 7.

FIG. 33—A POOR-LAYING BARRED PLYMOUTH ROCK HEN

This is hen No. M14 as described in text. She has an es-
timated production of 50 eggs from November Ist to August
20th. Photo from Cornell University

38 PROFITABLE CULLING AND SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

fowls of large
breeds, because
they denote to a
marked degree,
the intelligence
or mental activ-
ity which will al-
ways be found
associated with
heavy layers.
Egg laying
capacity as indi-
cated by a full
breast, a good
spread of the pel-
vic bones, and a
large, pliable ab-

FIG. 39—A HEAVY-LAYING WHITE
PLYMOUTH ROCK domen are al-
This White Plymouth Rock hen, belong most invariably
ing to the Government Experiment Farm s . _: s
it 3eltsville, Maryland, was not trapped associated with
until January 25 and from that time until itv .
September 11 she laid 176 eggs. During this the capacity for
period she produced 84 eggs in 92 consecu heav y produc-
tive Saye and 109 eggs in 122 consecutive tion. Remember,
however, that

there are other factors which enter into the question,
such as the inherent ability to lay, normal development
of the egg organs, etc., while previous care and feeding
clearly have a most direct bearing upon results secured.
There is room here for the use of a good degree of prac-
tical judgment in scoring birds, particularly where their
previous performance and treatment or feeding has not
been normal. A hen with capacity for only moderate
performance may compare favorably in actual production
with a hen having capacity for much greater production,
but which, because of the improper feeding or management
has never developed her powers fully.

In culling large fowls, one factor that is apt to cause
some confusion as compared with the culling of Leghorns
is the rest period or broodiness. As is shown in Chapter
IX, the fact that most fowls of the large breeds go
through one or more periods of broodiness during the
laying season does not necessarily prove that they will,

oY A ats,

4 ~~

on this cccount, lay tewer eggs in a year than non-
brooding Leghorns. With the exception of extremely
high producers, fowls of all breeds have periods of rest
and recuperation, and it appears to matter little, as re-
gards the total number of eggs for the year, whether
they are broody during the rest period or merely non-
productive,—provided the brooding fowls are properly
cared for, are prevented from wasting too much time in
brooding, and are well fed.

In culling at the end of the laying season there will
be little or no difference between the pigmentation of a
fowl that has had one or more short rest periods during
the spring and summer and that of one that has been
laying more or less steadily without becoming broody.
Where the broody period has been a long one, however,
the fowl may show a banded beak, the position and ex-
tent of the pigmented and nonpigmented sections being
determined by the time that has elapsed since the rest
period occurred.

In early culling however (June and July), the observer
will have to use due caution successfully to distinguish
between fowls that have discontinued laying for the sea-
son and those that have stopped for a broody period and
probably will resume laying again shortly. This can be
readily detected in most cases as there appears to be a
distinet difference in the condition of the ovary of a good
laying hen that is going through a short brooding rest,
and a poor producer that has ceased laying for the sea-
son. In the latter the ovary is inactive, and comb, pig-
mentation, and other characters take on all the marks
of nonproduction, while in the former the ovary remains
more or less active, pigmentation changes either are not
made at all or much more slowly, while the comb often
»emains bright and plump. In a good laying hen, if
well fed, the ovary frequently resumes yolk formation
just as soon as broodiness ceases, and as it requires about
two weeks for the formation of a complete yolk during
which time there will be no deposition of pigment in
skin, beak, ete. Hens that begin laying within three weeks
of the time they become broody, may not show any
change in pigmentation at all, or only about the vent.
Marked variations in pigmentation, size of comb, spread
of bones, etc., indicate long rest periods.

FIG. 40-HEAD OF GOOD-PRODUCING PLYMOUTH ROCK
Note particularly shape of comb, development of eye, and the
“lean” appearance of the face. Photo from Cornell University.

FIG. 41—HEAD OF POOR-PRODUCING PLYMOUTH ROCK
Compare the high comb and full, beefy face of this bird with
head of good producer in Fig. 40. Photo from Cornell Univ.

HOW TO CULL PLYMOUTH ROCKS, WYANDOTTES AND R. I. REDS 39

Special Points in Culling Plymouth Rocks

Plymouth Rocks Should be Standard Size.
Keel ..eeds Special attention.

Length of

HE Plymouth Rock is the largest of the three breeds
considered in this chapter that
everything that has been said in regard to making allow-

and for reason
ance for size, applies with special force to the culling of
fowls of this breed. Particularly in applying the finger
test to spread of pubic bones and span between
bones and keel, keep this point in mind.

It is not desirable for the poultry
keeper to select small hens in this or any of the popular
breeds in the belief that larger size is opposed to pro-
ductiveness. That appears to be true only when the fowl
considerably exceeds standard weight.

pubic

necessary nor

Speaking gener-

FIG. 42—A “3-FINGER” BARRED PLYMOUTH ROCK
This is the heavy-laying hen No. Gé6l,
Photo from Cornell University.

shown in Fig. 37
ally, those that approximate standard weight for the
breed to which they belong, are the ones that are most
normal in development and hence best fitted physically
for the strain of heavy and long-continued production.
There are important practical reasons why the person
who keeps Plymouth Rocks should breed them approx-
imately to standard weights. If he wants smaller fowls
he should change to a breed that is naturally smaller
rather than to spoil his Rocks by deliberately breeding
them down to an inferior level, in which he is
likely to lose in productiveness, than to gain.

The ear lobes of Plymouth Rocks are red, but the
eye ring or edge of eyelid, is pigmented. The upper
mandible of the Plymouth Rock, in some varieties, fre-
quently carries some dark or horn color, which interferes
with the application of beak pigment tests to some extent,
but the close observer will note a distinct difference in
shade due to the presence or absence of yellow with its
modifying effect upon the horn color. The pigmentation
ef the lower mandible, which is free from horn color,
fades out much more quickly than in the upper, and
therefore is not so helpful in estimating rest periods.

The life-like plates Nos. IX and X on page 7 show, in
their natural colors, the head of a heavy-laying Barred

more

FIG. 43—A NARROW PELVIC ARCH

his illustration shows limited space between pubic bones—
a common character in poor producers Photo represents hen
No. M14 shown in Fig. 38. Photo from Cornell University

Rock hen, also the head of a nonlayer. These plates
bring out clearly the difference in pigmentation of beak
and eye ring, also shape and color of comb and wattles.

The shanks of Plymouth Rocks are apt to carry more
or less black, particularly in pullets from cockerel mat-
ings, but seldom enough seriously to interfere with cull-
ing tests. The shape of comb, with reference to the
development of serrations and the position of the blade,
are as indicative of productiveness or the lack of it, as
in Leghorns.

One Plymouth Rocks that must be
watched with special care is the tendency to short keels.
This has the effect of limiting abdominal capacity and
is likely to cause “bagging down” behind after the pullet

character in

FIG. 44-MEASURING ABDOMINAL CAPACITY OF A
GOOD LAYER
Hen No. G6l shows a ‘4-finger’’ span between pubic

bones

and keel. Photo from Cornell University.

40 PROFITABLE CULLING AND SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

This con-
dition interferes with the proper functioning of the diges-

year—a common fault in fowls of this breed.

tive organs, and is apt to result in the development of
Such

records, should

conditions. fowls, though they
never be used in
test to the

span between pubic bone and keel therefore, note par-

yathological
may
he breeding

even

have made good

pen. In applying the finger
icularly whether the space between them is due to depth
merely to shortness of keel. A short-
xeeled bird may show a span of three or four fingers and

of abdomen or

yet grade very low in capacity.
In culling Plymouth Rocks, keep in mind the alleged

act mentioned in Chapter VI, that size of comb is a good
index as to size of egg organs and therefore of the eggs

produced. This means that hens with extremely small
combs may be expected to be
this

naturally

producers of small eggs.
that
small-combed

Obviously, does not mean eggs produced by

fowls of a breed, such as the

Plymouth Rock, will be

smaller than those produced by

FIG. 45—LIMITED CAPACITY MEANS LIMITED PRODUCTION
Hen No. M14 has only a ‘ yer’? span betw pul
bones and keel Photo from Cornell Universit

known not to be the
Neither is there any proof that a strain of Plymouth

Leghorns, because this is case.
Rock distinguished by larger than average combs will
But when it is known that

eggs of inferior size are being produced, the members of

lay larger than average eggs.

this flock that have noticeably small combs for the breed
are properly under suspicion.
Culling of Barred Plymouth Rocks Illustrated
The excellent photographs reproduced in Figs. 37
were supplied by Dr. O. B. Kent of Cornell Uni-
versity and are designed to illustrate the application of
culling tests to types of good and poor producers, in this

and 47,

particular breed and variety.
The hen shown in Fig. 37 (Cornell No. G61), has a
record of 126 eggs from November 1, 1918 to August 20,
1919, on which latter date this series of photos was taken.
Her carriage is not of the best though this may be due
largely to fright. She shows however, the wedge-shaped
profile that is expected in good laying birds of any breed,
the rear end of keel dropping well down below a line

FIG, 44—A GOOD AND POOR PRODUCER CONTRASTED

Good
yn the

producer No. G6l is on the right. The poor layer
left apparently has as much capacity as G61 but is of a
yeefy type—is lacking in 1 “quality.” Photo from

} laying
Cornell University

coarse

horizontal with the back, and having good length. In Fig.
The face
generally corresponds to the description for a good layer,
as given in the official outline in Chapter III.

Fig. 42 shows the spread in the pelvic arch, while
Fig. 44 plainly the hen’s large abdominal
capacity, measuring from the pubic bones to the rear end
of the keel. This fowl has a fairly long keel bone so that
in measuring the span, the fingers would be almost hori-
zontal if the bird were in her normal position, or almost

40 the head points are clearly brought out.

illustrates

at right angles with the back.

FIG. 47—INTERNAL ORGANS OF GOOD AND POOR
PRODUCING HENS CONTRASTED
The good producer (G61) is on the right and M14 on the left
The difference in size of oviduct is clearly shown, also the much
greater development of the intestines in G61. Photo from Cornell
University

PROFITABLE CULLING AND SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING 41

Fig. 38 shows a poor laying hen (Cornell No. M14),
selected for comparison with the good layer just described.
The production of this hen was estimated at 50 eggs from
November 1, 1918 to August 20, 1919. She is shorter in
the back than G61, and her keel bone is more or less
tucked up in the rear, thus reducing her span to only
about three fingers as shown in Fig. 45, with a corre-
sponding reduction in abdominal capacity, as a result of
which, good production could hardly be expected. Her
head, shown in profile in Fig. 41 is of a coarser, more
beefy type, than hen No. G61; the blade of her comb
extends upward instead of following the contour of the
neck, while her face is full and fat. Compare this illus-
tration carefully with Fig. 40, in order to get the distinc-
tion between these two head types clearly in mind.

Fig. 46 shows G61 (on the right) and M14, plucked
and hanging up, to illustrate the difference in abdominal
capacity. The fact that G61 is evidently smaller than
-M14 is not to be taken as evidence that the smaller size
contributed to her better egg record, the difference in
this respect being accidental no doubt. M14 is of a
coarser, more beefy type, however, from which only
medium to poor production can be expected, regardless
of size. It has already been shown that within the stand-
ard weights for the breed, size is not necessarily a handi-
cap in egg production.

Fig. 47 shows these hens cut open, oviducts removed,
and intestines spread out to indicate the difference in
their development. It will be noted that the oviduct of
G61, the good layer, is much larger than that of M14, due
to the fact that the one hen is still laying while the other
has entirely ceased. However, as is shown in Fig. 34,
the oviduct of the poor layer is regularly much smaller
in size than that of the good layer, even when both are
producing. The development of the intestines of G61
would alone establish her identity as the better layer of
the two, these being larger and longer, thus showing
greater capacity for digesting food.

Culling Wyandottes---All Varieties

Wyandottes Have Proved to be Superior Winter Layers
Standard-bred Type is No Bar to High Egg Production
if not Carried to Extremes, Capacity Being Se-
cured by Depth Instead of by Length as in
Fowls of Some Other Breeds

T HE Wyandottes have long been one of the most popu-
lar breeds of fowls. They have good size and are
excellent layers. The graph shown in Fig. 49 which was
prepared from five-year records at the Storrs Egg Laying
Contest indicates the superiority of Wyandottes over Leg-
horns in cold weather production at this institution. In
Figs. 48 and 50, 52 and 53 are shown some high record
egg-contest layers that would be a credit to any breed.
By way of contrast note the 20-egg hen in Fig. 51.
Much that has been said in regard to the culling of

Plymouth Rocks applies
with equal force to Wyan- 22855 Pendle
dottes, but the difference
in shape of comb must
be taken into considera-
tion. The comb of the
good laying Wyandotte
will be fine in texture,
not too small, nor so
large as to be coarse and
beefy, and will be a dis-
tinct “rocker” comb in-
stead of standing up at
the rear.

Color plates XI and XII
on page 7 show the life-

FIG. 48—-A SILVER WYANDOTTE

like heads of a good layer HEN WITH A RECORD OF
. 223 EGGS IN 12 MONTHS
and a slacker. Pigmen- ee ee LON TH
“ . Photo from Missouri Poultry
tation is dependent upon Exp. Station.

production, just as in the

case of Leghorns and Plymouth Rocks. Note also that
the difference in pigment extends to
the red of the face, comb, and wat-

anges =

tles which has a yellowish tinge in
the nonlayer that is not apparent in

these parts in the productive hen.
There is a distinct difference in

the body type in standard Wyandottes
as compared with standard Plymouth

& Rocks, the latter being decidedly
longer, while the Wyandottes have
greater depth. This must be care-

fully considered in judging laying

capacity, as the strict application of

the Plymouth Rock standard of com-

parison would lead to serious under-

a valuation of all Wyandottes in this

respect. In culling fowls of this

breed the observer will expect great-

er relative depth of body as measured

tT by the span from pubie bones to end

Bc el of keel, capacity being secured in this

FIG. 49-GRAPH COMPARING PERCENTAGE OF PRODUCTION OF

WYANDOTTES WITH LEGHORNS

The lines shown above indicate production percentages by weeks.
duction records of all Wyandottes and White Leghorns entered in the Storrs Laying Con-
test for a period of five years were used in preparing this graph. Here, while the Leghorns
excelled in summer production, the Wyandottes were distinctly in the lead through the

high-price months.

! way that, in the Plymouth Rock, is
afforded by greater length.

The Wyandotte breeder, there-
fore, must give the question of capa-
city more attention than is necessary
in either of the other breeds.

The weekly pro-

42 PROFITABLE CULLING AND SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

FIG, S0O—A WHIT!
DOTTE WITH RECORD OI
194 EGGS IN 12 MONTHS

WYAN- FIG
DOTTE

ered in this chapter, and should bear in mind that the
extremely short, almost spherical type which was popular
in this breed a few years ago, is much more apt to be
associated with reduced capacity than one of moderate
length such as is now favored by many exhibition fowl
breeders and positively demanded by practically all com-
mercial poultry keepers vsing Wyandottes
Wyandotte Type

With Wyandottes it is hardly practicable to apply the
triangle test for laying type (see Figs. 82, 83, and 84).
The Wyandotte is too blocky and.round to meet this ex-
treme description of type, except i1 cases where individual!
fowls approximate Plymouth Reek type in length of body.
That, however, is no reason for assuming that Wyandottes
are at any disadvantage with respect to their productive
ability. Abdominal capacity can be and is associated
with depth and breadth of body as well as with length,
and it cannot make any material difference which way it
is secured. Depth, or distance from back to rear end of
keel bone, is a marked character of Wyandottes, as also
is breadth, and with these two qualities well developed
there will be ample room for digestive and egg organs,
even in a comparatively short body. However, the ex-
tremely “snowball” Wyandotte, popular among
fanciers some years ago, was quite apt to prove inferior
in productiveness because, in the effort to secure the
nicely rounded underline, breeders were indifferent to,
if they did not actually favor, a “tucked-up” keel.

Tova extent, the exhibition Wyandotte
much of its roundness to loose feathering, rather than to

round,

large owes

actual bodily dimensions. Among some families of Wyan

ee

FIG, 53—-A HEAVY LAYING CONTEST PEN OT
SILVER WYANDOTTES

This pen was entered in the Fifth Australia Egg Laying Con-
test, and the hens averaged 199 eggs each in twelve months.

5I—W HITE
WITH

RECORD OF

WYAN FIG. 52—A WHITE WYAN-
A YEAR'S DOTTE WITH RECORD OF
20 EGGS 232 EGGS IN 12 MONTHS
dottes the feathering is extremely loose, approaching

the Asiatic type in this respect. This is another objec-
tionable character to the commercial poultry keeper, how-
ever, as it is the belief of most culling experts that it
usually is accompanied by inferior laying ability.

With the present tendency toward moderate length of
body, the difference between the Wyandotte fancier and
the commercial poultry keeper is comparatively slight. If
the former will yield a little on this point, there is no
practical difficulty in the way of effecting an entirely
satisfactory combination of exhibition quality and capacity
for high egg production,—and most certainly is it in the
best interests of the breed to do this.

Merits of Wyandottes as an Egg Breed

The practical merits of Wyandottes are well establish-
ed by the records made by fowls of this breed at the
International (Storrs) Egg Laying Contest. A summary
of the production of the leading breeds at this contest
(fifth year) shows that the Wyandottes there led all
others, not only in numbers of eggs produced, but in their
market value. The following quotation in regard to this
is from Bulletin No. 89 of the Storrs Experiment Station:

“The table presented herewith, gives the number and
weight of all eggs produced by each of the principal
breeds represented in the contest, and the average value
per dozen. It will be noted that the Plymouth Rocks
lead in weight of eggs per dozen, while the Wyandottes
hold last place. As the last column shows a value of
35.3 cents per dozen for Wyandotte eggs against 34.6
cents for eggs from Plymouth Rocks, one may wonder
whether large eggs are, after all, worth no more on the
market than small ones. The explanation lies in the fact
that the Wyandottes produced a larger proportien of
their eggs during the months of high prices. Further-
more, the factor of size was not considered in determining
the values presented in the last column. All eggs which
weighed over one and one-third ounces (.08 lb.) were con-
sidered marketable at current prices. In a competitive
market this would not be true.”

Table Showing Value of Eggs Per Dozen

(Based on total number of eggs produced by all pens of named
breeds entered in Fifth International Laying Contest.)

Eggs Total Wt. per Value

No. per Number Total Dozen per

Breed Birds Bird of Eggs Value in Oz. Dozen
Plymouth Rocks ... 170 160.4 27,273 $787.41 26.4 34.6c
Wyandottes _.. _ 170 169.6 28,803 846.92 23.5 35.3c¢
R. I. Reds ............... 210 158.7 33,327 961.63 24.4 34.6c
White Leghorns .... 350 165.4 57,890 1,653.93 23.8 34.3¢
Miscellaneous . . 100 147.2 14,719 413.82 24.3 33.7c

All Breeds 1000 162.0 162,012 $4,663.71 24.3 34.5¢

HOW TO CULL PLYMOUTH ROCKS, WYANDOTTES AND R. I. REDS 43

Culling Rhode Island Reds

Pigment Tests Are Not as Readily Applied to Reds as to
Many Other Breeds. Standard Body Type However is
Exceptionally Favorable to Development of
Ample Abdominal Capacity

T HE typical Rhode Island Red is a longer bird than
the Plymouth Rock in proportion to its depth, is
narrower across the back, and a little higher on its legs.
If not bred for too narrow a back, which will result in
pinching the pelvic arch (an objectionab!e character in
any laying breed), the standard Rhode Island Red hen
conforms to the generally accepted requirements as to
egg laying capacity to an unusual extent.
As compared with Wyandottes, the
Red can have a shorter span between pubic arch and
keel and still have equal capacity, but tendency
toward short keels should be avoided, just as in Plymouth
Rocks. An obstacle in applying pigment tests in Reds
is the horn-colored beak, which color also is frequently
found in shanks and For these
is not as readily made as with any of the breeds prev-
iously mentioned, nor is it possible to determine past
preduction with the sz:me degree of Even
expert demonstrators do not find it possible to cull R. I
Reds as closely and as accurately as Leghorns or even
Rocks and Wyandottes, but there is no practical diffi-
culty in eliminating the poorest producers nor in select-
ing the best, and with experience a high degree of accur-
acy can be realized.

Rhode Island

any

toes. reasons selection

accuracy.

Culling of Rhede Island Rcds Lilustrated

The color plates on page 7 illustrate how pigmenta-
modified by the horn-colored beak common in
fowls of this breed. With experience however, this test
can be applied with a good degree of accuracy. The
photographs from which Figs. 54 and 63 were repro-

tion is

FIG, 54—-A GOOD
RHODE

PRODUCING YEARLING
ISLAND RED HEN

Note the full, deep body and the clean-cut
rom Storrs (Conn.) Experiment Station.

head Photo

FIG. 55—-A POOR

PRODUCING

YEARLING

RHODE ISLAND RED HEN
Compare this bird with the one shown in Fig. 54, noting
particularly the difference in depth of body and in expression

of eye Photo from Storrs (Conn.) Experiment Station

duced, taken this book, under the
personal direction of Professors Kirkpatrick and Jones
of the Poultry Department of Storrs (Conn.) Agricul-
tural College. These two fowls here shown were select-
ed from a typical farm flock of 300 on July 14, 1919.
Trap-nest records were not available but estimating on
the basis of external characters, the production of the
hen shown in Fig. 54 (a yearling Rhode Island Red)
from November 1,1918 to July 14, 1919, was 150 eggs.
Note the full, deep body and clean, alert head. The
yearling Rhode Island Red Fig. 55 was
selected from the same flock, her estimated production
for the same period being 70 eggs. This differed
distinctly from the other with respect to body shape and

were expressly for

hen shown in

hen

appearance of head and eye.

Fig. 56 shows a good spread of the pelvic arch, allow-
ing three fingers to be readily placed between the
of the pubic bones, whereas in the hen in Fig. 58 these

ends

bones are much closer together, allowing only two fingers
to be placed between them, notwithstanding the fact that
this hen was actively laying at the time the test was
made. Such hens rarely make good records.

In Fig. 57, which illustrates the capacity test, it will
be seen that the demand for room in the body cavity of
the high producer has forced the breastbone downward
until there is ample room for the whole width of the
hand between the pubic bones and the rear end of the
keel. This means that there is plenty of room for com-
plete development of the egg organs and also capacity for
the large digestive system necessary to maintain the hen
and keep the egg organs properly supplied with egg-form-
ing material, functioning properly. Compare the span of
the hen in Fig. 59 this
is the body cavity of the poor producer,

with one to see how contracted

her breastbone
being so close to the pubic bone that there is only room
to admit two fingers between them. Fig. 61 shows these
fowls killed and plucked in order to make plainer the
marked difference in the spread of the pelvic areh. Fig.

62 emphasizes the difference in abdominal capacity, the

44 PROFITABLE CULLING AND

FIG. 56—A “3-FINGER” RED HEN
This is the high producing hen shown in Fig. 54.
from Storrs Experiment Station.

Photo

fingers being placed in the same position as in Figs. 57
and 59. Fig. 60 illustrates in another way the difference
in size and development of the rear part of the body.

Fig. 63 shows these high and low producing hens in
profile with the high producer on the left. The body of
this bird is full and round, having greater depth in the
rear. The lines of the back and breastbones are nearly
parallel in the high producer, while in the low producer
the keel slopes toward the back.

The ovary and oviduct development of these two hens
is shown in the exceptional photograph reproduced in
Chap. XVI. While both hens were laying when killed and
there is an egg in process of formation in each oviduct,
note in that illustration the difference in size of vent,

FIG. 58—A “2-FINGER” RED HEN
This is the low producer shown in Fig. 55. See also Fig 59 for
further evidence of inferiority as a layer. Photo from Storrs Ex-
periment Station.

SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

FIG. 57—GOOD PRODUCING RHODE ISLAND RED HEN

Posed to show span between pubic bones and keel. Photo

from Storrs Experiment Station.

size and length of oviduct, and observe particularly the
number and size of developing yolks taken from each.

Summary

Pigmentation tests do not give as clear-cut results
with Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, and Reds as with
Leghorns.

The presence of yellow pigment has a modifying effect
upon the red color of comb, wattles, and ear lobes.

Yellow pigment in comb, wattles, etc., can be plainly
detected by pinching these parts.

The best layers in large breeds are intelligent, ener-
getic, and active, though not so nervous and high strung
as Leghorns.

FIG. 59—LOW PRODUCING RHODE ISLAND RED HEN
Posed to show limited abdominal capacity, the keel being
so close to the pubic bones that only two fingers can be placed
between them. Photo from Storrs Experiment Station.

HOW TO CULL PLYMOUTH ROCKS, WYANDOTTES AND R. I. REDS 45

Capacity tests are especially help-
ful in culling fowls of large breeds.

Egg laying capacity is indicated
by a full breast, good spread of pelvic
bones, and a large abdomen.

In culling fowls of the breeds men-
tioned in this chapter it is particu-
larly important to note the conditions
under which they have been kept.

The observer must distinguish
between fowls that have stopped lay-
ing for the season and those that have
stopped temporarily on account of be-
coming broody.

In any breed, fowls that approxi-
mate standard size are better layers
than those that are conspicuously

pr Caeaeates

ae

ISLAND RED HENS

FIG 60-HIGH AND LOW PRODUCING RHODE

FIG. 61—-HIGH AND LOW PRODUCING RHODE ISLAND REDS

Posed to show difference in spread of pubic bones. The high-producing hen is shown
on the reader’s left in the illustration. Photo from Storrs Experiment Station.

rieties of Wyandottes, remembering, however, that such
changes take place more slowly than in the Leghorns.

Abdominal capacity in Wyandottes may be secured by
depth, instead of length, as in Rocks and Reds.

The triangle test for egg type cannot readily be ap-
plied to Wyandotte hens.

The extremely round or “snowball” type of Wyandotte
should be avoided in the commercial laying flock, if it
involves a “tucked-up” keel and, therefore, reduced ab-
dominal capacity.

Present tendency among Wyandotte breeders is to-
ward moderate length of body.

At the Fifth International Laying Contest, at the
Storrs Experiment Station, Wyandottes led all other
breeds in number and market value of eggs produced.

In moderately good laying R. I. Reds, the keel line
may be no more than horizontal with line of back.

More skill is required in culling R. I. Reds than Leg-
horns, but a good degree of accuracy can be attained.

Rhode Island Reds are longer than Rocks and Wyan-
dottes, and in type conform well to requirements as to

Posed to show difference in development of rear of abdomen egg-laying capacity
This illustration shows, with unusual clearness, the much greater gg-aying P y :
abdominal capacity of the good producer on the left as compared Reds should not be bred too narrow in the back, and

with the poor producer on the right. Also compare the large,
moist vent of the high producer with the small, puckered vent

short-keeled birds should be rejected.

of the other. Both of these hens were laying at the time they Pigment tests are less readily applied to Reds on ac-
were killed, but the one on the right had produced a compar- : his 7
atively small number of eggs, and probably never would produce count of their horn-colored beaks and for this reason

many. Photo from Storrs Experiment Station.

over or under weight.

Those who keep Plymouth Rocks
may breed them for standard weight
without any fear that such size will
affect their productiveness.

Where the upper mandible of the
Plymouth Rock is so dark as to in-
terfere with pigment tests, the lower
mandible may be used.

In selecting Plymouth Rocks, give
special attention to length of keel;
too-short keels are objectionable.

Plymouth Rock hens with ex-
tremely small combs are apt to pro-
duce small eggs.

Wyandottes have proved superior
layers in numerous egg laying con-
tests, particularly at Storrs.

There should be no difficulty in
applying pigment tests te most va-

more attention must be given to capacity.

FIG. 6—SPAN BETWEEN PUBIC BONE AND KEEL ILLUSTRATED
IN DRESSED FOWLS
The bird on the left in this illustration is the high-producing R. I. Red hen, shown
in Fig. 54, and the one on the right, the low-producing hen shown in Fig. 55. Note the
greater distance between keel and pubic bone, also the much rounder breast of the heavy
layer, caused not by fat but by the more prominent sternal processes. Photo from Storrs
Experiment Station.

CHAP PERRY

Culling Methods Applied to Anconas, Campines, Minorcas,
Orpingtons, Langshans, Brahmas, etc:

The So-called Popular Breeds Have no Monopoly in Egg Production--Remarkable Records Have Been Made by Repre-
sentatives of Each of the Breeds Mentioned Above--General High Average Production is Readily At-
tainable if the Fowls Are Bred Systematically to That End--Breeders Should See to It That Standard
Requirements Are not Allowed to Conflict with Characters Essential to High Egg Production

OPULARITY of Leghorns, Plymouth Rocks,
Wyandottes, and R. I. Reds among practical
poultry keepers is unquestioned. It is only
now and then, relatively speaking, that other
breeds receive serious consideration in estab-

lishing a commercial laying flock. But it does not follow

from this that fowls of these breeds most in popular favor

are necessarily the only ones that can be brought to a

general high average of production. As has been stated

in Chapter II, the capacity for developing a high degree
of productiveness is a common inheritance of fowls in
practically all breeds. It is only necessary that they
be systematically bred for this quality, and that no arti-
ficial requirements are set up that oppose its development,
or that make its achievement so difficult that it becomes

a practical impossibility.

There is, for example, no reason for believing that
the inherit capacity of Leghorns for heavy production
is any greater thin that of any of the breeds mentioned
in the title of this chapter. On the contrary, the egg
laying contests in this and other countries have brought
to public notice fowls in practically all of them that
have made authoritative records that closely parallel the
best performance of Leghorns. It rests entirely with
breeders to say whether or not such records shall be
more or less exceptional. This will be determined large-
ly by their attitude toward ‘fancy’? points—by whether
they will develop these at the expense of practical quali-
ties or, by systematically selecting and breeding from
their best producers, will increase their productiveness
until it equals or exceeds the performance of the best
of the four popular breeds.

With the exception of the Anconas and Light Brahmas
pigment tests cannot be used in any of the breeds repre-
sented in this chapter as all the rest are characterized
by dark or black shanks and white skin. Those who
have nonpigmented breeds should give especial attention
to capacity, to head parts, etce., and will find that while
a little more experience is required, they can, with prac-
tice, reach a good degree of accuracy in identifying the
layers, whether the purpose be to bring up the average
of production in the general flock or to practice selective
flock breeding, and thus year by year improve the laying
qualities of their favorite breed.

Culling Anconas

Anconas are practically Leghorns, as regards their
type and general characters, and the culling methods
that are applied to Leghorns may all be used on Anconas
with about equal accuracy. The beak of the Ancona is
yellow with the upper mandible shaded with black. Ear
lobes are white or creamy white, and the legs are yellow
or mottled with black.

The body type of the standard Ancona is practically
the same as that of the Leghorn. Breeders however.
should bear in mind the objection to this type as raised
by the commercial poultry keeper who contends that the
back and under curve of the standard Leghorn limits
abdominal capacity. In other words, the commercial egg
producer wants a fowl with more depth in the rear than
is shown by the standard Leghorn, and generally he
wants greater length of body. This subject is treated
more fully in Chapter VII, but it is proper here to call

VIG. 63-HIGH AND LOW PRODUCING RHODE ISLAND
RED HENS IN PROFILE

The high producer on the left shows a keel bone and back

almost parallel, as compared with the tucked-up appearance of
the keel of the poor producer on the right. A still better pro-
ducer would show rear end of the keel pushed out enough to
give the body a slightly wedge-shaped appearance. Photo froin
Storrs Experiment Station.

CULLING METHODS APPLIED TO ANCONAS, CAMPINES, MINORC AS, ORPINGTONS, ETC.

FIG. 64-AN ANCONA WITH A RECORD OF 1 EGGS
803 IN 3 YEARS
This famous Sheppard Strain Ancona not onl)
but proved an exceptional layer in her second and third ye
daughters have made two-year records of 596, 594, anc 32 ege
attention to the existence of this demand, and the An

cona breeder cannot afford to ignore it. The black in the
upper mandible of the Ancona and in the shanks, inter-
feres somewhat with pigment tests, but not to

extent.

a serious

Head points are the same as for Leghorns, and

the tests for activity and disposition are identical.

of the
bottom of the foot generally will be found a good index
of this
x laying con-

BS

Where the shanks are quite dark, the color

to pigmentation changes in this section. Fowls
breed have not been well represented in eg:

tests, but the few that have been entered have made an
In this it fair to
that in comparing the records made at various contests

eo

excellent showing. connection is say
by the different breeds, one is apt to get an altogether
wrong impression of their h
considers only the number of or

pens reported.

relative laying ability if
high-producing fowls
Other things being equal, the breed hav-
ing the largest number of entries will of course, always
have the greatest number of high producers to its credit.
To form a fair estimate of
their
fore, it is necessary to keep
in mind the smal]
of fowls of the less popular

performance there-

number

breeds entered in laying
contests. Where this

done, the relative showing

is

made by Anconas and oth-
er comparatively neglected
breeds should prove highly
encouraging to those truly

interested in developing
their productive possibili-
FIG. Ses ORPINGTON sae) Pil) aneasure.
Has a record of 207 eggs Particular attention is

called
Ancona

to 64

which

Fig.

hen

illustrating an

has not only

made an extraordinary egg

record
but has transmitted her ability to
her offspring, as is shown by the
records made her

by daughters

While photos of fowls as they ar
ordinarily posed are apt to be mis
leading as to the actual appearance
of the birds, it will readily be seen
that Queen Bess and the heavy-lay-

Ancona 68 fully

ing’ shown in Fi

meet modern requirements as to ab
dominal capacity, ete.
Culling Campines
Campines are similar to Leg

horns in general appearance and

characters. The respective standard
weights of hens and pullets are the
same, but the Campines are longer

in body, thus perhaps giving’ more

body capacity. The beak is horn
color and the shanks leaden blue.
A good type of heavy-laying Cam

pine is shown in Fig. 70. Pigmenta-

Se tion tests are out of the question
with fowls of this breed.

It will be found, however, that

ee al capacity and condition tests may

readily be applied, and by the “feel”

of the abdomen one can Jearn much in regard to their pres

ent and past performance. The observer who finds a

Campine with well-spread pubic bones, a good span be

the of

prominent

tween these and rear keel, a soft, pliable, thin

skinned abdomen, sternal and good

head points generally will unhesitatingly place her in the

processes,

good to high-producing class though, in the absence of
little
production, since persistence in

pigmentation, he may have to be a more conserva-

tive in estimating exact
laying or length of the productive period is not so readily

determined.
Culling Minoreas

Minoreas belong to the same class (Mediterranean) as

Leghorns, but are larger, longer in body, and excellent

layers of white eggs of the largest size, being especially
valued by persons who cater to high-class trade in table
eggs where white shells are at a premium.
The greater length of body in Minoreas, as compared
with Leghorns, appears to be a distinet practical advant
age, and they can be bred
to a high average of pro-
duction, particularly where
breeders avoid going to ex-
weight, size of
No other breed

white

tremes In
comb, ete.
laying eggs equals
the Minorca in size of eggs
produced, their
petitor in this respect be-

ing Light Brahmas,

only com-

whose

eggs are about equal in

size but with brown shells.

The records of the fowls

shown in Figs. 69 and 71, Ene eB ee
from pens entered in Mis- Has a recor 07 eggs

48 PROFITABLE CULLING AND SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

souri (Mountain Grove)
Laying Contests, show
what is possible in the
way of high egg produc-
tion in this breed. These
record layers plainly show
capacity. Photos of these
hens were taken Nov. Ist.

Minoreas have black
beaks, and black or slate
colored legs and cannot
be culled by pigment
tests, for which reason
the breeder will find it
necessary to study more
closely the general type
of his birds, their capa-
city, condition, and head points. To what extent the large
combs of Minoreas are associated with the extra-large
eggs produced by them has not been clearly shown, but it
obviously is not practical to go to extremes in comb
development, particularly where severe winters are to be
expected. Large combs do afford exceptional opportuni-
ties however, for observing differences in shape, texture,
condition, ete. To the careful observer such combs tell
a surprising number of details as to productiveness. See
Chapter VI for full instructions in this method of culling.

ORPINGTON

FIG. 67—BUFF
HEN

Has a record of 223 eggs.

Culling Orpingtons

Orpingtons have attained a fair degree of popularity
as “utility” fowls, though they are not often found in the
yards of extensive commercial poultry keepers. The gen-
eral appearance of Orpingtons is “beefy”, which along
with the characteristic white skin no doubt interferes
greatly with their popularity in many quarters. There is
no room to question their excellence as egg producers
however. The records made by different varieties of
Orpingtons at contests held in this and in other countries
have shown that they have this character developed to a
high degree. A few photos of
heavy-laying Orpingtons are re-
produced in this chapter (see
Figs. 65 to 67, also 72). Whole
pages could be filled with such,
showing only fowls with official
contest records.

It rests with Orpington breed-
ers to determine the future of
this truly valuable breed. Selec-

FIG. 69—-A HIGH RECORD
BLACK MINORCA

FIG 70—TYPE OF HEAVY-LAYING CAMPINE
This hen, owned by Homestead Campine Farm,
does not have a season’s trap-nest record but was an
exceptional winter layer, and during the breeding sea-
son laid at the rate of 5 and 6 eggs a week.

tion for high producers
in the breeding pen,
avoidance of extremes as
regards roundness of
shape, looseness of feath-
ering, and size, will an-
ticipate every practical
objection that the com-
mercial poultry keeper
can urge against them.
The white beak and’
shanks of the Orpington
eliminate pigment tests
and, as in the case of most
of the other breeds men-
tioned in this chapter, de-
pendence must be placed
in capacity tests, development and shape of eye, comb,
etc., along with activity and intelligence.

In all breeds loosenees of feathering is held to be an
undersirable character in layers, and as there is a marked
tendency to this in many strains of Orpingtons, special
attention is here directed to it. It may be well to repeat
here that while many of the “points” used in culling are
still more or less tentatively held, the tendency of expert
demonstrators to discount loose feathering appears to
rest on a fairly well-proved theory regarding its undesir-
ability, and Orpington breeders can well afford to take
this subject under serious consideration.

FIG. 6—A HEAVY-LAYING
ANCONA
Has a record of 218 eggs.

Culling Langshans

Langshans belong in what usually is termed the meat
class, though their standard weights are no greater than
those of Plymouth Rocks. The ideal Langshan stands
much higher on its legs than the Plymouth Rock and is
rounder in body, looser in feathering, with lightly feath-
ered legs, black beak and shanks, and a white skin. That
they are capable of making excellent production records
is shown by reports of laying contests in Australia and
at the National Contest at Moun-
tain Grove. To meet the require-
ments of the culling operator, ex-
treme development in length of
leg, roundness of body, and loose-
ness of feathering must be avoid-
ed. The illustrations here given
show that it is possible to com-
bine excellent production how-
ever, with standard type. This

FIG. 71—A_200-EGG BLACK
MINORCA

CULLING METHODS APPLIED TO ANCONAS

breed deserves a_ higher
standing among “utility”
poultry keepers than it
now has. The distinctive
breed characters _ previ-
ously mentioned will need
especial attention in cull-
ing, especially if this is
done with a view to selec-

tive flock breeding. Re-
member, however, that
abdominal capacity may

be secured to a large ex-
tent by depth as well as
by length, as in the case
of Wyandottes. Lang-
shans with excellent records are illustrated in Figs. 72
and 74. Both of these hens were in pens entered in
National (Mo.) Egg Laying Contests.
Culling Light Brahmas

The average commercial poultry keeper, who is apt to
associate comparatively small size with high egg pro-
duction, seldom considers Light Brahmas (the largest of
all the breeds recognized in the Standard) as having any
possibilities in the way of record egg production, classing
them almost invariably as a “meat” breed. As a matter
of fact, some of the highest egg records ever made are
credited to fowls of this breed, and while a greater measure
of ability is required in their management than with fowls
of the smaller breeds, they are, when properly handled,
excellent producers, in spite of their size. As is the case
with other loose-feathered fowls, the roundness of the
Brahma is more a matter of plumage than of body shape,
and the standard Brahma, if not bred for extreme develop-
ment of exhibition points, has ample capacity. In New
England especially, Light Brahmas have always been
more or less in favor as producers of market eggs. In
uniformity of color and in size of eggs produced, this
breed has no equal. Light Brahmas in laying contests
have not particularly distinguished themselves, though
this may be due in part to the fact that they are not at
all likely to do their best under contest conditions where
rations and methods of feeding are more or less stand-
ardized and, as a rule, much better adapted to the re-
quirements of smaller and more active fowls.
One of the
first 300-egg pro-
ducers on record
was a Light
Brahma--bred and
-and owned by the
veteran I. K.

FIG.

72—BLACK LANGSHAN—
RECORD, 204 EGGS

Felch. More re-
cently we have
“Molly Welling-
ton” (see Fig.

73) with a record
of 335 eggs in
twelve months,
also a Felch-
strain Brahma. It
is not to be ex-
pected that high
egg production
will be secured
in Light Brahmas

FIG. 73—-A_LIGHT BRAHMA WITH
RECORD OF 335 EGGS

, CAMPINES, MINORCAS, ORPINGTONS, ETC. 49

along with extreme weight, but the breeder who adheres
to the normal size for fowls of this breed will find them
responsive in a marked degree to well-directed efforts to
secure greater productiveness.

Light Brahmas have yellow skin, shanks, ete., and
while they carry a dark strip down the upper mandible
and have feathered legs, these offer no serious difficulty
to the application of pigment tests. Owing to their size
it is to be expected that pigmentation changes will take
place more slowly than in Leghorns, or even in Plymouth
Rocks. In selecting Brahmas for the breeding pen, the
breeder will want to avoid extreme length of legs, short-
ness of body, coarseness of skin, and the general beefy
tendency to which some strains in this breed are inclined.
Otherwise he should have no difficulty in combin-
ing high average production along with good size and
with that beauty of plumage which is one of the striking
characters of this breed.

Summary

Fine egg records have been made by fowls of all the
breeds described in this chapter.

Excellent egg laying strains can be developed in any
of these breeds if systematically bred for this quality.

Pigment tests cannot be used in connection with cull-
ing fowls of these breeds, with the exception of Anconas
and Light Brahmas.

Where pigment tests are
not applicable, special at-
tention must be given to
capacity tests.

Anconas are practically
Leghorns, and can be treat-
ed like them in culling.

Breeders of Anconas
who wish to increase the
popularity of their fowls
should be careful not to go
to extremes in type, but
should note carefully the
requirements of commercial
poultry keepers as regards
abdominal capacity.

Where the shanks of
Anconas are too dark for
pigment tests, the bottom
of the foot should be con-
sidered.

Campines are similar to Leghorns, and can be culled
in the same way, except that pigment tests cannot be
used.

Minoreas are of good size and long in body, and
therefore more accurately culled by capacity tests than
fowls of smaller breeds.

Many regard it as probable that the large combs of
Minoreas are associated with the extra-large eggs pro-
duced by them.

While the general appearance of the Orpington is
“beefy”, fowls of this breed have made some extra-
ordinary records in egg laying contests.

Excellent laying strains in Orpingtons are being devel-
oped by breeders who avoid extremes in regard to exhibi-
tion qualities.

Looseness of feathering is considered an undesirable
character of good layers—a point that needs to be
especially considered by Orpington breeders,

Langshans, while belonging to what is termed the
“meat class”, have made extraordinary records in laying
contests.

Extremes in length of leg, roundness of body, and
looseness of feathering, are to be avoided in developing
laying strains of Langshans.

Abdominal capacity in Langshans is secured by depth
rather than length of body, being similar in this respect
to Wyandottes.

Light Brahmas are capable of great development as
egg producers where they are not bred for extra-large
size and extreme exhibition qualities.

FIG.

74—BLACK
RECORD, 200 EGGS

LANGSHAN

CHAPTER: V1

Culling by General Appearance, Conduct and Molt

The Laying Ability of Fowls is Indicated by a Number of Details in Appearance and Conduct — Intelligence Is a Highly
Important Character in Good Layers—The Molt an Extra-valuable Point in Selecting the Heaviest
Layers for Next Year’s Beeeding Pen—How to Estimate the Date When Hen
Stopped Laying by Her Wing Molt

AREFUL observance of the genera] appearance
and conduct of fowls is an important aid in
determining the probable value of fowls as
layers, independent of pigment tests, pelvic
arch measurements, etc.

to estimate actual production in this way with much ac-

curacy, but no one who has cultivated the habit of care-
fully observing his hens should go far wrong, at any sea-
son of the year, in classifying them into layers and non-

It is not possible

layers.

In considering the fowl’s general appearance, state of
health should, of course, receive first notice. Fowls that
exhibit any of the signs of low vigor or health (see Chap-
ter XI) are hopeless from the viewpoint of production, no
matter what good “points” they may appear to have.
One evidence of good health is bodily activity. All fowls
are naturally quite active, and slow-moving, sluggish,
indolent birds are never highly productive and seldom
A popular measure of activity in
The active, busy

are in good health.
older fowls is the length of the toenails.
fowl that is on the move all day long, scretching and dig-
litter or in the searching for grain,
is apt to have comparatively short toenails.
with toenails is

ging in the run,
worms, etc.,
On the other hand, a hen
almost certain to be an indolent, if not unhealthy,
ual, and therefore, of little value as a layer. However,
a good deal depends upon the conditions under which the

overgrown
individ-

birds are kept. For example, fowls on concrete floors
will have much shorter toenails than equally active ones
on dirt floors or on open range.

Along with poor health may be included, as undesir-
able qualities, all important physical defects, such as
crooked backs, lameness, etc. Among these, though not
noticeable unless the fowls are handled, may be included
erooked breastbones. At Cornell University, it has been
found that there is a larger percentage of crooked breast-
bones in heavy layers than in medium or poor ones, due
possibly to the fact that the best producers draw more
heavily upon material stored in the body so that the
strength of their bones is below that of poor layers. In
view of this fact, it is not advisable to discard fowls sim-
ply because they have deformed breastbones, but they
certainly should not be used in the breeding pens, as this
character or the tendency to it appears to be more or
less hereditary.

Appetite is a distinguishing character of the good
layer. The fowl] that is constantly on the hunt for some-
thing to eat—that never seems quite satisfied with what
is given her—is almost invariably producing heavily.
Appetite is much more closely associated with production
than is sometimes realized. Attendants at egg contests,
for example, have found that they can estimate with a
wood degree of accuracy the probable production during
any given week, by the appetites of the fowls. A falling
off in feed consumption is a pretty certain indication

that the egg yield for the ensuing week will show a more
or less definite slump, and when consumption picks up
and is in excess of a corresponding previous period the
attendant knows that the egg yield is going to increase,
and knows this in advance of any recorded improvement.
The disposition of fowls is regarded by close observers
important indication of their probable value as
At the Vineland Contest for example, hens are
to disposition into “wild”, ‘distant’, and
“tame”, and it has been found that the “distant” hens are
These are the hens
that are neither wild and suspicious, constantly on the
watch for trouble, nor so tame that they are constantly
feet of the attendant. Extremely quiet and
rarely associated with the highly
organization that along with
The hen that, ‘while not especially
wild, yet keeps her distance—is unafraid but ready for
These distinctions as
to disposition, while more readily noted in Leghorns, can
also be applied in some degree to fowls of larger breeds.
the observer believes in a
not, he cannot question the fact
that there can be no ability to produce eggs on a large
scale unless there is ample capacity for digestion of food
and abundant room for development of the egg organs.
Consequently abdominal capacity is one of the first points
to be noted, and indication of it may be accepted as an
important point in favor of the individual. However, the
beginner will need to exercise due care in his observa-
especially with large fowls in which an accumula-
tion of fat in the abdomen is apt to give it a distended
appearance, often mistaken for large capacity when the
birds are not handled. With the appearance of abdominal
capacity therefore,
should be associat-
ed softness. pli-
ability, and a loose,
comparatively thin
skin. While a rea-
sonable amount of
fat is
found in
laying fowls, ex-
cept possibly to-
ward the close of
a long laying pe-
riod, any tendency
to extreme fat
should be avoided.
Avoid coarse, raw-

as an
layers.
classified as

almost invariably the best layers.

under the
gentle dispositions are
developed,
production.

nervous goes

heavy

emergencies—is the hen that lays.

Regardless of whether

special “egg type” or

tions,

always
heavy-

boned, and_ beefy
individuals, which = Ss
may or may not oe

FIG. 75—A 261-EGG RHCDE
RED HEN

ISLAND
Photo from N. J. Ex. Sta.

be inclined to ac-

CULLING BY GENERAL APPEARANCE, CONDUCT AND MOLT :

cumulate fat, but which in any case are rarely profitable the appearan of being swollen as if trom some injur,
producers of eggs. It will be bright red in color, warm, and with a w ix
The character of the feather coat should receive atten leeiing If the fowl is one that has laid for a time and
tion, as it is believed that loosely feathered fowls are has then gone through a rest period, her comb a he ap
much less apt to be good layers than those whose feather proaches laying again will present a slight sealy appea
are reasonably close and tight. Looseness of feathering, ince
as a rule, goes along with coarseness, slow maturity, and \ he fowl gets well underway in laying, the co
other characters associated with poor production litioi anu appearance of the comb change. It still 1
Significance of Head Points ns large, but 1s not so warm to the touch and without
A great deal of importance is attached to head point the peculiar swollen appearance which it had just wh«

in the selection of laying hens. Included in this term ar beginning to

The color then is not so bright and t}

such characters as comb, wattles, beak, face, eyes, eat blade may be quite dark at times due to the fact tha
lobes, etc. The heads shown in Fig. 76 illustrate point the blood is being directed to the ovary and oviduct
that are sought in the high producer and those that ar rather than to the comb and other extremities .
to be avoided as indicating inferior laying ability. It per the fowl ceases laying, the comb shrinks in size, but before
haps should be explained that some undesirable points ar¢ this shrinkage becomes perceptible there is anothe
indicative of general or permanent inferiority, whi change, the comb now becoming lighter in color and with

others simply show that the fow] is not productive when

a powdery appearance not amounting to a scale but di
examined. ferent enough from the appearance of the comb of th:
The comb is regarded as an espe good index to aying hen so that many observers feel that they <

the condition or activity of the ovary, and is especial] more pl ptly pic it hens that have stopped laying
helpful in culling Leghorns, ete. When the ovary i apply! mis test taan in any other manne
developing yolks at a rapid rate, the comb, whether large A fa.r.y good generat t2st is the shape of the com
or small, will be engorged with blood, giving it sometime In sing.e comb biras the points of the good layer’s comb
generally are broad at the base as ecmpared with th
“pencil” points of the poor producer. [The rocker ap
HIGH PRODUCER LOW PRODUC! omb—this is, one that follows the contour of the ne¢
FULL LAYING SOT LAYING be.ieved to be a good indication of productiveness, while
1 1, bright eT a comb with blade sticking up at the rear is apt to
ict i worn by a distinctly poor layer While this point appear
MSE = ee: poe . ; to “hit”? a good deal oftener than it “misses”, it is not
“deat oo ae Laat to be too implicitly relied upon, as there are numerou

exceptions to the rule
Side View of Head Tr , 9 — ;
The eyes are well worth careful study. The hea

ayer generally will have prominent eyes and thes

be more or le llel in the head, whereas the eyes
the poor layer will “toe in” toward the |} Accord
to D Kent of Cornell University, th eye of the he
aye uaily is inclined to be oval rather than round, wit]
the e located in the center or back of the cent

while the eye of the poor layer is round or, if oval,
eyeball located toward the front. This is we

in Color Plates IX and X, also XI and XIJI.

Tests for General Appearance and
Conduct Applied to Hens

The preceding comments in regard to appearance a

conduct apply with about equal force to both pullets and
Front View of Head hens. In observing the latter however, there are som
indications of good laying or a lack of it that are no:
generally noticeable in the case of pullets, such as tend
ency to overfatness; dull or snaky eyes, quite inconsistent
with the nervous temperament of the good layer; empty
crops at night, a condition never associated with good
egg production; too much time spent on the perches dw
ing the day and all such indications of poor health o
indolence. Among hens of the larger breeds bagging
down behind is especially to be watched for and sucl
birds promptly discarded. The development of spurs ir
hens is usually regarded as indicating old age and a cor

sequent failure of the egg organs to function, resulting ir

the development of secondary sexual characters. If, alons

FIG. 76--HEAD PARTS OF HIGH AND LOW PRODUCERS with the spurs, there is an abnormal development of com
The photos shown above are excellent illustrations of approaching the appearance of that of a male, it may |

the : earance of comb, wattles, and face n hig and low z :

prod cig fowls Seapectively> Phiotastvoni ‘Cornell Uniwersity accepted as certain that the egg organs have permanently

ceased to function. The development of spurs alone,

52 PROFITABLE CULLING AND SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

however, is not a reliable indication of this change, as
these frequently appear as the result of an accident or
Spurs have frequently been observed on com-
paratively young hens in which production was known
to be fully equal to that of the rest of the flock.

Culling Pullets

It is to be hoped that the reader will not make the
common mistake of depending chiefly on the annual cull-
ing campaign to detect his nonlayers but will, by con-
stant observation and repeated culling, get rid of most
of his inferior pullets by the time they have reached
maturity. The poultry keeper who is in earnest about
keeping up the efficiency of his flock and maintaining
economic egg production, will begin culling almost as
soon as the chicks are hatched. Weakly or sickly chicks,
or those that are crippled or handicapped by any form of
physical disability or malformation, should be disposed of
without delay. Even though they may live and grow,
they will do so at a slow rate and the feed used in raising
them will cost more than the value of the chick, whether
it is ultimately sold as a table fowl or, worse still, is kept
in the laying flock. Evidences of constitutional weakness
that may develop during the growing period are indica-
tions of inferiority that should not be ignored. It has
been clearly demonstrated that constitutional vigor is
vitally important in heavy production. No matter what
the heredity of a fowl may be, and no matter what its
apparent capacity for production, if it is lacking in con-
stitutional vigor, in ability to digest and assimilate large
quantities of food and transform this into the delicate
and highly nutritious compounds contained in the egg,
its productiveness is certain to be only moderate at best
and the danger of loss through disease is greatly in-
creased and cannot wisely be ignored.

One evidence of inferior laying ability in pullets is
slow development. As a rule it has been found that the
first pullets of a given brood to come to maturity and
begin laying are the best layers in that brood. Where
the poultry keeper does not know the age of the pullets,
it is difficult for him to judge accurately with regard to
their development since he is apt to confuse the slow
developing pullet of an early brood with a rapidly matur-
ing pullet of a later one. It is desirable, therefore, to
know the exact age of the pullets—information that the
poultry keeper readily can provide by a simple system of
leg banding that will enable him to distinguish between
different hatches. It is not necessary to employ numbered
leg bands for this purpose. The simple, round, colored
bands now in common use will answer as well, and the
different broods are more readily distinguished. A per-
manent record, if desired, may be provided by the use of
the toe punch.

The comb of the pullet, even though quite small is, as
has already been suggested, a good index to the condition
of the ovary and therefore a fairly certain indication of
the approach of laying maturity. The beginner may
have some difficulty in distinguishing between the bright
red color of the healthy, immature pullet’s comb and that
of the maturing pullet, but there is a distinct difference,
and with a little handling of the birds the caretaker can
soon become familiar with the engorged appearance, and
the peculiar waxy, or “oily” feel, which is a distinct
characteristic of the fowl that is about to lay.

For instructions in estimating the probable future egg
yield of pullets see Chapter X.

sealy leg.

The Molt in Its Relation to Egg Production
The renewal of the worn-out feather coat regularly
takes place in late summer and early fall, and while this
is the natural time for the molt, it proves a serious incon-
venience to the poultryman since it results in a stoppage
in egg production just when the season of highest prices
is beginning. In growing stock the feathers are changed

FIG. 77

HEAVY LAYING HENS USUALLY ARE LATE

MOLTERS
Chis Leghorn hen laid 120 eggs up to October 16th, when
photographed. She produced 23 more eggs before stopping to molt
and began laying again on January 7th. Photo from North Caro-
lina Experiment Station.

several times, but so gradually that it takes careful work
to determine with certainty the exact number of molts.
Referring to the investigations at Cornell, it is stated
in “Hints to Poultrymen” (New Jersey Experiment Sta-
tion) that “by staining the feathers in the wings and tail,
it was observed that three successive lots of feathers
were produced in the period between the fourth or fifth
weeks and the thirteenth week. This sequence of molts
corresponds closely with the molts of young wild birds.
After the thirteenth week no changes were observed until
just before the young birds reached maturity, when they
went through a complete change, the females taking on
their full plumage. In these early molts, as in the later
annual ones, the sequence with which the feathers are
changed is practically the same, namely, the older feath-
ers are always shed first.”
How the Molt Progresses

The regular order for the molt is first, neck feathers,
then body, tail, and wing. In the neighborhood of three
months are required for the complete molt when it takes
place early. In late molting the change appears to pro-
ceed at a more rapid rate, and sometimes is not complete,
many old feathers being carried over. In a slow molt
the feathers drop a few at a time and in some cases the
change is scarcely noticeable. The neck molt often
begins as early as May and a few pin feathers may be
found in this section four to six weeks before the body
feathers begin to drop.

The marked irregularity in the occurrence of the molt
in various individuals suggests the possibility of develop-
ing still wider variations in molting dates. For example,
in almost any large flock it will be found that some hens

CULLING BY GENERAL APPEARANCE, CONDUCT AND MOLT 53

molt as early as July, while others may retain their old
plumage until well along in winter, and occasionally one
will go through the entire winter season without molting
at all. It is common knowledge also that the molt can
be hastened or retarded to some extent, and there are
some practical poultrymen who believe, or at least hope,
that strains of fowls may presently be developed in which
the molt will proceed so gradually and be extended ove
so wide a period of time that it will scarcely have any
direct effect upon production.

In the adult molt there is a great deal of variation in
the way in which the molt normally progresses. In some
cases the fowls lose almost all of their feathers at one
time, while others molt slowly, section by section. A
good illustration of this sectional] molt is presented in
Fig. 79. Dr. B. F. Kaupp of the North Carolina Experi-
ment Station, who furnished the photo from which this
illustration was reproduced states that “the feather tracts
‘are molted complete, also that every other tract is molted
at a time. The feather tract of the wing is completely
molted, but not the tract on either side, which will not
molt until the feathers in the bare tract have grown out.”

Season and climate probably have some influence upon
the date and duration of the molt, but there are few defin-
ite data on these points. Apparently fowls that molt in
the summertime require considerably more time .for the
operation than those that molt in cold weather. About
six weeks are required for growing a new feather, but
the length of the time required to make a complete change
in plumage will be affected by the rapidity with which
the old feathers are dropped, also, possibly, by difference
in rapidity of the growth of new feathers. At Cornell
University where several flocks were under observation,
the average time taken for a complete molt was 95 days,
or slightly over three months.

Effect of Molt Upon Production

To the poultry keeper, the chief interest in the molt
is with reference to its effect upon egg production. It is
generally assumed that the almost complete cessation
in fall production, observed in flocks of hens one year
old or over, is due to the coming on of the molt. As con-
trasted with this, some investigators are of the opinion
that egg production controls the molt rather than that
the molt controls egg production. In other words, it is
held that as long as hens continue to produce eggs the
molt will be postponed, but that an interruption in pro-
duction at almost any time from July on, is apt to be
followed by molting. For example, wide publicity was
given to a plan for forcing the molt which was suggested
as a means by which the poultry keeper could get his
hens through the molt and have them come into laying
in the fall, after which it was expected that they would
continue laying throughout the winter.

Utilizing the fact already noted—that a break in egg
production must precede the molt—those who wished to
produce a “forced” molt simply cut down the rations of
the fowls thus stopping egg production. To do this it
often was necessary to reduce the feed to one-third or
less of the quantity normally consumed by the fowls, and
to continue these starvation rations for two to four weeks.
As soon as production ceased and the feathers had begun
to drop freely the feed was increased and gradually
changed to a good laying ration. July or August usually
was selected for the attempt so that the molt might be
completed and production resumed early in the fall. It

was found that there is no serious difficulty in securing
an early molt in this way, though it often appears to be
only a partial one, the finish occurring later in the fall.
The forced molt has few advocates now, not because it is
not a comparatively simple matter to bring it on almost
at will, any time after the first of July, but because
there is no practical advantage in doing so, since expecta
tions in regard to fall and winter production are seldom
if ever fully realized.

What actually happens where the forced molt is at
tempted is to lose the eggs the hens would naturally
produce during late summer and early fall with no com-
pensating winter production. For example, in one experi-
ment a pen of 27 hens that had laid 321 eggs in August
was divided September Ist, and 18 were put through the
forced molt while the rest were kept on full feed. During
September the forced-molt pen laid 26 eggs while the

other laid 147. In October the production was 3 and 128

FIG. 73-BEWARE OF THE EARLY MOLTER

This S. C. White Leghorn hen laid 81 eggs in her secon
year, stopping on June 20th, when she went into a full molt,
after which she did not resume laying again until March of the
following year. At the time photo was taken, August 16th, her
new coat of feathers was thoroughly grown except the tail feathers
which had not reached full size. Photo from North Carolina Ex
periment Station.

respectively. There was no noticeable difference in the
winter production of the two pens so that the adopting
of the early-molting method meant simply a loss of 250
eggs in total production.

Early and Late Molters as Winter Layers

It is now generally conceded that the late molters are
the best layers in the flock and, as a rule, these hens
prove to be the best layers the following winter, in spite
of their late molt. No definite date can be named, before
which fowls may be considered early molters and poor
layers, and after which they may be considered late molt-
ers and, therefore, desirable to be retained in the flock.
As extremes, July and August certainly are “early”, and
December clearly is “late”; but in considering the mid-
season molters for their probable egg-laying ability, other
tests also must be applied.

It should be remembered in this connection, that while
late molters are practically certain to be the best layers
during the following year, the medium-late molters, that
is those that stop laying and molt earlier in the fall, often
prove to be the best winter layers. The hens that do not
begin to molt until November may not secure their new
coats and be ready to resume laying until winter is well
along. Many believe, also, that the medium layers will

54 PROFITABLE CULLING AND SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

FIG. 79-SECTIONAL MOLT IN HENS
The above is an excellent illustration of the way in whicl
hens sometimes molt in sections. That is, one section or feather
act molts while those adjacent to it retain the old coat until

he molting section has acquired its new feathers

tr
t } Photo from the
North Carolina Experiment Station

produce the best hatching eggs early in the season. This
should make it clear that while late molting is an almost
certain indication of heavy laying it is not wise to go to
extremes in selection by this method. While the total
medium-late molters may be somewhat
lower, the net profit realized from them may be even
greater than that secured from the extremely late molters.
Speaking generally the practical thing to do is to keep
production up to the maximum point throughout the fall
avoiding, as far as possible, anything that will tend to
check production and give the molt a chance to begin.
The hens that under this treatment go through an early
molt and have their new coats fully developed by the
last of September may safely be eliminated as undesir-
able. All that molt later than this should be kept over,
provided pigmentation and capacity tests and head points
are favorable, while the extremely late molters, if in good
physical condition, scarcely need to be subjected to any
other used as breeders. Where, as
sometimes happens, there is difficulty in distinguishing
between extremely late molters and those that have molt-
ed so early that their new coats have already begun to
show wear, pigment tests usually will settle the question.

production of

tests unless to be

The Wing Molt as an Indication of Productiveness

Flight Feathers Are Molted in Regular Order, and Renewed in a Certain Time —Hence, the State of the Wing Molt
Shows Just How Long the Hen Has Been Unproductive

By FRANKLANE L. SEWELL

accurate records and observes causes and effects,
learns that nothing that affects his birds comes
just by accident. There are long-established natural laws
governing all that happens. The beautiful
wild birds interest the

T HE experienced poultry husbandman who keeps daiiy

plumage of
lover of nature,
and the plumage that so marvelously clothes our domestic

never ceases to

fowls and gives them a new dress every year causes the
fancier to marvel at the all-controlling mind that evolved
these laws of nature.

Students watching the progress of their fowls in prep-
aration for exhibition have often noticed that it requires
about six weeks for them to molt and grow the larger
feathers. Credit for bringing out the significance of this
rest period, showing the relation between the production
of eggs at this time and the length of time it takes to
molt and grow new wing flight plumage, must be given to
Dr. O. B. Kent of Cornell University whose interesting

lecture cn this subject at the Cornell Judging School
forms the basis of this article.
Trap-nest records have preved the wing-flight

feathers are molted to be a fair indication of the hen’s
period of egg production during certain seasons of the
autumn.

immer and At such times the hen may take

somewhat protracted periods of rest, or may quit laying
altogether in which case she is apt to turn her attention
to growing new plumage.

During the past year Prof. Kent has been studiously
observing the manner of and the time required for bleach-
ing the skin, shanks, and plumage of the yellow pigment
which is taken from the bird’s body by continued egg
production. While in daily contact with the birds and
their trap-nest records, he studied also the molting of the
wings of wild birds and the latter suggested to him that
ther

should be some correlation between the pericds of

laying and molting in our domestic fowl. The result of
his study is a revelation to fanciers, and the knowledge
of the existence of such a correlation gives them a keener
interest in observing the changes of plumage in the wings,
which section has always been significant to the breeder
of quality in color and vitality.

[he hen’s history and her capacity for egg production
is not fully indicated by any one section. Those who wish
to become expert judges of fowls—of their utility quali-
ties those show-quality points already
standardized, have a broad field for investigation. Earnest
students like Prof. Kent are constantly learning some-
thing new—or perhaps we should say, becoming conscious
of some old law that breeders of poultry have never ap-
plied in any practical way.

Kindly note the seven illustrations of wings shown on
In Wing 1

combined with

the numbers one to ten show the
which the flights are molted normally.
wing begins to molt the first feather to be
eplaced by a new one is the first inside flight feather
marked “1” in the Nature has provided a
order in which these feathers are replaced.

In the case of the wild fowl, the protection—the very
life of the bird—so largely depends upon flight in escap-
ing from its enemies that, if their wing-flight feathers
were all molted at once, there would be a period in each
bird’s life when it would be at the mercy of those enemies
whose chief desire is to devour it. Nature wisely planned
that the season of molting for a fowl’s wing-flight feath-
ers should extend over twenty-four weeks, each feather
in the sector requiring six weeks to develop in full, each
succeeding feather being dropped about two weeks after
the one just preceding it. It is the natural habit for the
wing molt to begin almost immediately after the hen
Apparently, the strength, ceasing to be

page 55.
order in
When the

wing

drawing.

regu_ar

ceases to lay.

CULLING BY GENERAL APPEARANCE, CONDUCT AND MOLT

needed for egg production goes into the formation of
those important flight feathers.

An average hen would lay out her clutch of eggs and
then molt first the inside flight feather (No. 1) of both
wings, then No. 2, 3, 4, ete., in regular order, as indicated
in the wing at the top of the group. In all but the top
wing shown herewith, special emphasis has been given
the flight feathers under consider-
ation by using strong black lines,
while dotted lines are used to show
the remaining construction of the
wing. Other parts of the wing are
molted with less regularity, often
in groups, and they did not appear
to show any relation to the periods
of egg production.

In Wing 2 the flight feathers
have been in what we may call the
normal process of molting sixteen
to seventeen weeks. Al] but the end
flight has dropped. From_ indica-
tions the ninth feather has been
growing about one week. The eighth
feather has grown about three
weeks, the seventh about five
weeks, the sixth has been full
grown from six to seven weeks. The
numbers on the feathers of the
wing in Wings 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6,
refer to the weeks (at least) that
the wing has possessed the new
feathers. The shaded, un-numbered
flight feathers in Wings, 2, 4, 5, 6
and 7 represent the old feathers
that have not been molted.

Wing 3 represents flight feath-
ers as having uninterruptedly molt-
ed during the full twenty-four
weeks. The first inside flight
feather has been in at least the full
time or twenty-four weeks, as indi-
cated by the number 24. Each of
the other feathers was molted two
weeks later until the last or end
feather, which was the 10th in turn.
It has just finished its six weeks
attained its full growth. It
will be noticed that the end feather
and those near the end in the wing
of a normal fowl are not so long
nor so large as those that are num-
bered in the top wing 3, 4, 5, 6 and
7, for example. FIG

In Wing 4 the flight feathers
have been in process of molting for
about six weeks and the first feath-
er is full grown. The next one
shows four weeks’ growth and the
next under that, two weeks.’ In the
natural course this bird probab'y
has rested from laying for the six weeks it has taken to
proceed thus far in moltinz.

In Wing 5 one easily reads by the feathers that the
bird has used eight weeks in molting; that is, two weeks
for the short feather showing about one-third growth,

and

seventeen weeks
1 has had only about

Wing 7 shows a

80—HOW

Wing 1 shows. the
The inside flight feather,
order, about two weeks
It takes six weeks for
a week's growth, the
6 has completed its growth
new feathers have attained
shows six weeks of molting; wing 5, eight weeks:
“vacation” molt

mn
on

four weeks for the one two-thirds grown, six weeks for
the one full grown, and as that feather must have been
started two weeks later than the first feather, eight weeks
must have passed in order for the wing to show that
condition on examination.

In Wing 6 the last about as far

molted feather is

along as the shortest one in Wing 2, which would indicaté

A HEN MOLTS HER WING FEATHERS

order in which a hen normally molts the wing flight feathers
marked 1, is the first to be molted, and the others crop in regular
apart Wing 2 has been in process of molting from sixteen to
a wing flight to mature, so the new feather marked
others, two, three, and five, while the one marked
In wing 3 all the flight feathers have been molted and the
their weeks Wing 4

from twelve to thirteer eek

wing 6,

Sketch by Sewell
about a week’s growth. So by allowing two weeks for
each of the other feathers molted, it is apparent that this
hen has been molting for twelve weeks—and in all prceb
ability has not laid during that length of time And the
bird may go on molting and producing no eggs until her

56 PROFITABLE CULLING AND SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

wing feathers are replaced and full grown, as in the case
of Wing 8, which means that for 24 weeks she would lay
no eggs. Not many fowls have the vitality to lay while
they are molting.

Can Be Bred to Lay More Eggs Per Annum

Producing eggs throughout the greater part of the
year can be brought about successfully only as a result of
selective and pedigree breeding just as great producing
dairy cattle have been brought into being by breeding
strong vitality through a line of individuals particularly
fashioned and cared for in order to develop certain organs
whose line-bred habits and inbred qualities serve the pur-
pose the breeders had in view. This method of breeding
leads toward ideals and standards that are right.

The conjunction of bloods from abnormal freaks that
simply exhausted themselves in producing great quantities
of eggs, would not result in forming reliable egg-laying
strains; but line breeding heavy layers for a number of
generations will produce heavy laying strains of domes-
tic fowl.

Wing 7 is that of a persistent layer that took a
“vacation” of perhaps six to eight weeks. Probably she
had the vitality to start laying soon after the fourth
feather had started, possibly when it was about a week
old, gaining strength enough to finish those feathers
already started, but she did not cast any more quills.
In estimating the number of eggs such a hen has laid,
it is safe to guess that she stopped laying at least six
weeks. Other indications might show that she is not in
full lay. The fact that she stopped molting and did not
continue, as indicated by the full growth of the last
feather produced, leads one to conclude that her substance
was again contributed mostly to egg production instead
of feather making.

In examining the fowls for wing molt it is important
to bear in mind that, according to Dr. Kent, “the good,
high-laying birds do not molt all of their flight feathers.
They go through what I call a “vacation” molt, that is
they drop a few of the wing feathers and then go on laying
again. I do not believe that a bird molts and lays at the
same time; that is, sheds feathers and lays. She may
grow feathers and lay, but not drop them and lay. Hence
the longer period over which a hen lays the shorter will
be her molting period and, therefore, the fewer the wing
feathers shed. The wing molt thus shows when the hens
stopped laying, and makes it possible to pick out the per-
sistent high-laying birds from the drones almost any time
from June to January”.

'
oes - ‘
'¢ Ww

A 54 egg hen

’ J,

\ (ams >
mreow Md Is

Summary

The general appearance and conduct of fowls is an
important aid in determining their value as layers.

Health, activity, appetite, and temperament should
be particularly noted.

Abdominal capacity is one of the first points to be
noted, exercising due care to avoid being misled by ap-
parent capacity resulting from accumulation of fat.

Avoid too-loose feathering—a character which usually
goes along with coarseness and slow maturity, and hence
nonproductiveness.

The comb is a good index to the activity of the ovary.

Good layers are apt to have rocker-shaped combs with
broad serrations. Poor layers usually have combs high in
the rear, with “pencil points’.

The eyes of the good layer are prominent and more
or less parallel in the head rather than “toeing-in” toward
the beak as is usually the case in poor layers.

Bagging down behind may indicate overfatness or a
tumor. It often results from a short keel.

The presence of spurs on the legs of hens is not
necessarily an indication of age or nonproductiveness.

Culling should begin as soon as the chicks are hatched,
and should be continued throughout the growing period.

Discard all your pullets that at any time show lack
of health or vigor, or any important physical defects.

Early maturity is generally regarded as an indication
of superior productiveness.

The comb of the maturing pullet indicates with re-
markable clearness the stage of development of the ovary.

The regular order for the molt is first, neck feathers,
then body, tail, and wing.

Late molters molt more rapidly than early molters.

The occurrence of the molt in various individuals is
extremely irregular, heavy-laying fowls particularly molt-
ing quite late in the season and often dropping only part
of their feathers.

The average time taken for a complete molt is about
three months.

.The molt can be “forced”, but there is no practical
advantage in doing so.

Late molters are almost invariably the best layers.

Medium-late molters are believed to produce the best
hatching eggs early in the season.

Hens that have their new coats fully developed by the
last of September may usually be thrown out as unprofit-
able producers.

The feathers of the wing are molted in pairs.

By noting progress of wing molt in the fall, it is
possible to determine with a fair degree of accuracy the
length of time for which the hen has been nonproductive.

N
AEN 7

A 76 egg hen

A 203 egg hen

FIG. 8I—TYPES OF GOOD AND POOR LAYING LEGHORN HENS

The above outlines indicate the general shape of the hens whose trap-nest records are here given.

These outlines were pre-

pared hy Dr. O. B. Kent of Cornell University, and are intended to illustrate the descriptions of type given in the Official Culling Outline.

CHAPTER VII

Culling by Ege Type and Physical Tests

Is There an Egg Type?—Why Abdominal Capacity Is of Great Importance in Securing High Records Laying Capacity
and Laying Ability Are Not the Same Thing—Condition of the Abdomen a Reliable Indication
of Productiveness—Pubic Bone Measurements Are Mainly Capacity Tests—
How to Secure Individual Hen Records Without the
Use of Trap Nests

HE question of whether or not there is an egg
type is more or less in dispute among poultry
keepers generally, though many of those who
have carefully studied external characters in
their relation to production are fully con-

vinced that there is such a type and that it is fairly dis-
tinct. General belief in the existence of an egg type will
depend much upon what is included in the term. If it is
intended to convey the impression that heavy layers,
regardless of breed, have a distinctive body shape that
can be relied upon as certainly indicating their rank as
producers, there probably are few who could be enlisted
in its support. Not only does breed type have to be
reckoned with in this connection but, as is well known,
even fowls within the breed vary more or less widely
as to shape, and without necessarily being handicapped
as producers thereby. However, if type is taken to mean
simply BODY CAPACITY, plus a few other characters
that are known to be the direct result of high production
in any breed, then there would seem to be little ground
for controversy since there certainly is a physiological
distinction between the good and the poor layer, whether
readily observed in the live fowl] or not.

Every one who has had occasion to compare good and
poor layers by handling them, has been impressed with
the fact that heavy laying in fowls of any breed does
have a marked influence upon the condition and shape
of the body. The active egg organs of the high producer
weigh in the neighborhood of one-half pound more than
when these are in a dormant condition, and the digestive
organs also are decidedly larger. These internal changes
necessitate a considerably increased abdominal capacity
and cause other definite changes which taken together
may fairly be said to form an egg type.

As a matter of fact, the various tests for body capac-
ity, such as pubic bone tests, span between pubic bone
and keel, location of sternal processes, etc., as prescribed
in the Official Culling Outline (see Chapter III) and
more fully described elsewhere in this book, are designed
simply to afford a means of identifying egg type by
physical measurements for abdominal capacity. And the
observer who carefully studies his fowls and who learns
to measure body capacity with his eye instead of with his
fingers, recognizes egg type whether he calls it by that
particular name or not.

Accepting the foregoing definition of egg type, it is
plain that its presence may be indicated without con-
formity to any special body shape. For example, the
Leghorn egg type as described by Prof. H. R. Lewis in
Chapter III and as illustrated herewith, calls for a fowl in
which the keel bone drops below a line parallel with the
backbone, giving the bird a wedge-shaped appearance
from front to back, as in Fig. 85. Such a hen also will
have a well-filled breast which gives her a triangular

appearance when viewed from in front, as in Fig. 82.
When viewed from the rear in the position shown in Fig.
83 she always will have a wedge-shaped appearance due
to the large, well-filled abdomen. If the numerous illus-
trations of record-laying Leghorns given in this book
are carefully compared with this description, their gen-
eral adherence to it will readily be noted. It is under-
stood of course, that many fowls may have good capacity
and yet be nonlayers by reason of malformed or injured
egg organs, a condition that the average operator is not
apt to note until he handles the fowl.

In heavy layers of breeds characterized by depth of
body rather than length, such as Wyandottes, Orpingtons,
etc., this wedge shape may never develop so that it can
be noted in the contour of live fowls, and yet the greater
body capacity will be obvious, particularly to any one
who handles them.

In birds with large, rectangular bodies, such as the
standard Rhode Island Reds, the increased abdominal
capacity necessary for heavy egg production often is se-
cured without forcing the keel out of a position parallel
with the backbone. It is rare, however, for a hen of any
breed to make a good record whose keel is noticeably
“tucked up” at the rear so as to produce a wedge-shaped
appearance with the base toward the front.

Egg type would be more readily recognized were it
not for the fact
that the outline of
the live bird is af-
fected so largely by
the development and
position of feathers
and by the fowl’s
general carriage and
position. The angle
at which the hen
carries her _ tail,
the tightness or
looseness of her
plumage, whether
she is observed when
in full feather or
at some stage in the
molt, the position in
which she happens
to hold herself when
under observation—
all of these factors
quite materially af-
fect her general out-
line and 1ender very
much more difficult
the problem of es-
tablishing the exist-

FIG. 82-GOOD EGG TYPE—FRONT
VIEW

58 PROFITABLE CULLING AND SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

ence of a laying type and of describing it.

At the Second Annual Judging School at Cornell in
1919, this subject was quite thoroughly discussed and at
one of the concluding sessions the following amendment
to the Official Culling Outline, descriptive of egg type,
was adopted without a dissenting vote among the
students, in whose number were included well-known
government workers, poultry fanciers, judges, and com-
mercial poultry keepers. (This amendment, which was ac-
companied by the drawings reproduced in Fig 81, appears
in the Official Outline in Chapter III, but is repeated
here for convenient reference.)

TYPE
In order to make a record a hen must not only lay

long but heavily. In order to lay heavily she must have
sufficient body capacity to digest large amounts of food

rapidly. Large capacity in a laying hen is shown by a
body that is deeper at the rear end of the keel than at
the front end.
The under line
should be fairly

straight as
shown in the il-
lustration, and
the back should
be comparatively
horizontal.

A small capac-
ity hen stands
erectly. The body
is either very
shallow or, in the
case of beefy in-
dividuals, the ab-
domen shows a
pronounced sag-
ging at rear of

keel. A small
capacity hen
generally pos-
sesses a hump
on the back. The
comb ~~ generally
has sharp, nar-

row points, with
the blade point-
ing up.

A general body conformation of a heavy producer
conforms very closely to a rectangle, with pronounced
angles rather than smooth curves.

A male shows the same general characteristics except
that the abdomen is not so deep.

The keel bone should be long and the body relatively
deep in proportion to weight or length.

Culling by Physical Tests

Under the head of physical tests comes the observation
of such characters as the condition of the abdomen and
vent, the development and position of the pelvie bones
and keel, ete. All of these characters are helpful in
estimating the fowl’s past performance and, to some
extent, in determining her prospective production. The
condition of the abdomen and vent shows quite clearly
the relative value of the birds as producers, while the
position of the pelvic bones is regarded by many as af-
fording a clear idea not only of the fowls’ previous per-

FIG. 8—-GOOD EGG TYPE—REAR
VIEW

formance but, in the case of pullets, of their probable
value as producers and, in the case of males, their ability
to transmit heavy-laying ability.

The condition of the abdomen of the heavy-laying
hen is so distinctive that even the most inexperienced
should have no difficulty in judging between extremes
in handling the birds. In good layers the abdomen will
be found to be large for the breed, well developed, free
from excessive fat either under the skin or around the
abdominal organs, and it has a characteristic loose, flab-
by condition that cannot possibly be confused ‘with the
firm, hard abdomen of the nonlayer This peculiar con-
dition of the abdomen is clearly brought out in Fig. 91
which contrasts looseness of skin in this section of a
heavy-laying hen, with that of a nonproducer. Any
one who has had any experience in handling fowls will
realize from the appearance of the photos the marked
difference in the pliability of the skin in the heavy layer
and in the loose, flabby condition of the abdominal walls.

By condition of the vent is meant its relative size
and appearance which, in the heavy layer, is always large
in size and relaxed, with more or less moisture present.
This is well illustrated in Fig. 90. The nonlayer or the
comparatively poor layer has a vent much smaller and
less moist. Some demonstrators determine whether the
hen has laid within the last day or two by spreading the
first and second fingers of the hand on either side of the
vent and pressing down. If the hen has laid recently a
quantity of watery fluid will escape, but practically none
will be present if no egg has been laid within twenty-four
to forty-eight hours.

The pelvic bones of the fowl consist of three bones in
pairs. These are known as the ischium, ilium, and pubis.
These bones are separate in the baby chick but are more
or less fused in the adult fowl, and are capable of expand-
ing but slightly, so that the pelvic arch as a whole varies
little in the mature fowl under any condition. The loca-
tion and general appearance of these bones is shown in
Fig. 84. Taken together they form what is known as the
pelvie arch.

In practice the poultry keeper gives little attention
to the pelvic arch as a whole, but centers his attention
almost exclusively upon the position of the rear of the
arch, or the posterior ends of the pubic bones. The spread
of these bones varies widely in the fowl at different
stages of laying. They are readily found in the live fowl
when held in the position shown in Figs. 56 and 58, being
located on either side of the vent and a little below it.
The space between these two bones may measure any-
where from one to four inches, depending upon the size
of the fowl and its productiveness. These bones naturally
curve in toward each other, the curvature being compara-
tively slight in heavy-laying fowls, while in nonlayers
they may be turned in at a decided angle, with the ends
approaching each other quite closely.

The Pubic Bone Test

The usual method of measuring the distance between
the pubic bones is by means of the fingers, the term,
“one finger’, “two finger’, “three finger”, etc., referring
to the number of fingers that can be accommodated in the
space between the bones. The hen shown in Fig. 58 for
example, is a “two-finger” fowl and therefore inferior, or
at best only a medium layer, whereas the “three-finger”
hen shown in Fig. 56 is a good layer, though not neces-
sarily one of the best in which a spread of “four-fingers” is

CULLING BY EGG TYPE AND PHYSICAL TESTS 59

expected. The signifiance of this character as a means of
judging the past or prospective laying ability of a fowl
is in the fact that it indicates abdominal capacity.

The thickness of the pubic bones means their thickness
as observed in the live fowl when the end of the bone
is felt between the fingers. This thickness varies wide-
ly, ranging anywhere from an eighth of an inch up to in
the neighborhood of one inch. Pubic bones do not actually
vary in thickness, at least to any noticeable extent, but are
always quite thin,their apparent thickness being due to
the skin and fat overlaying them. In nonlayers there
usually will be found a thick layer of fat which, with the
stiff, unpliable skin itself, results in making the pubic
bones appear quite thick when felt with the fingers, as
is shown in Fig. 89. In the laying hen, however, any fat
that may have accumulated in this section of the body is
quickly absorbed, while the skin itself becomes much more
pliable, thus greatly reducing the apparent thickness of
the pubic bones which thus become an important clue to
the laying ability of the fowl. Along with spread of pubic
bones and their thickness is noted their pliability which is
quite marked in good layers. This greater pliability is
due in part to their freedom from the thick blanket of fat
that usually covers them in a poor layer, but without
doubt the bones themselves are more pliable, due to
some modification in their texture.

The position of the keel has even more significance than
the pubic bones, as a measure of capacity. The keel,
or the breastbone, as it is commonly called, is indicated
at “B” in Fig. 84.
skeleton at the rear but swings from the shoulders. As

FIG. 84—‘X-RAY”

SKETCH SHOWING PELVIC
ARCH AND KEEL

a. Pubic bones, forming rear part of pelvic arch.
b. Rear of keel or breastbone.
c. Lateral or sternal processes.

This bone is not attached to the -

a pullet develops
and comes
laying, or as an
adult hen after
passing through

into

a rest period re-
sumes production,
the egg organs
increase in _ size
and weight, and
the rear end of
the keel is pushed
downward and
outward to give
more room. The
distance between
the end of the
keel bone and the
end of the pubic
bones is usually spoken of as the span, and is measured
by the fingers. Illustrations of narrow and wide spans
are presented in Figs. 57 and 59.

For this test to be of value in judging for egg pro-
duction, it is important to note that the measurement of
the distance between keel and pubic bones must be verti-
cal rather than horizontal. Obviously, a fowl, the end of
whose keel bone is practically on a level with the end of
the pubic bone, as shown in Fig. 88, has much less
abdominal capacity than the one shown in Fig. 86, though
so far as the actual distance between the bones is con-
cerned they have approximately the same span.

FIG. 85-GOOD EGG TYPE—SIDE
VIEW

Some Exact Measurements
The point should be made plain that not only do fowls
differ among themselves in width of span, spread of pubic
bones, etc., but these measurements will vary noticeably

Table Showing Weekly Measurements of a White

Leghorn Pullet, Taken at Cornell University
Eggs laid

Date Keel Comb Pelvic Pelvis Weight in follow-
Measured to Tail Height Arch to Keel in lbs. ing week
Feb 2 9.9 4.3 4.3 6.1 3.65
9 10.5 4.5 4.4 6.4 3.80
16 11.2 4.5 4,7 7.6 3.90
23 10.8 4.0 5.2 7.0 4.05 0
Mar. 1 11.2 4.7 ah) 8.0 4.10 4
8 11.1 4.5 rite 8.0 3.90 4
15 10.2 5:2 5.1 7.6 3.65 2
22 10.6 5.0 5.0 75 3.55 2
29 10.1 4.9 4.6 6.2 3.30 3
Apr. 5 10.3 5.5 4.5 6.5 3.35 4
12 9.9 4.6 5.1 6.5 3.15 5
19 11.2 4.8 4.7 6.8 3.30 5
26 10.4 4.8 5.0 YA 3.40 5
May 3 9.3 4.6 4.2 5.9 3.10 0
10 9.3 4.5 3.9 5.4 3.10 1
17 11.1 4.5 4.5 7.7 3.40 5
24 10.7 4.7 4.9 Td 3.50 6
31 10.7 4.7 4.8 6.1 3.35 Z
June 7 9.6 4.5 KW 5.3 3.00 0
14 10.4 4.5 4.5 6.1 3.35 4
21 10.8 4.8 5.0 7.9 3.70 6
28 10.8 4.9 4.7 7.8 3.40 3
July 5 9.3 4.5 4.0 5.3 3.20 0
12 10.6 4.5 4.6 6.6 3.55 2
19 11.2 4.8 5.0 7.7 3.70 5
26 11.0 5.0 4.8 Tal 3.40 4
Aug. 2 10.9 4.7 4.8 7.8 3.25 1
9 10.1 4.4 3.9 nis) 3.10 0
16 10.7 5.0 4.8 6.8 3.55 0
23 11.2 4.3 4.5 7.2 3.70 4
30 11.0 4.8 Sik 79: S05 5
Sept. 6 11.3 5.5 4.6 7.3 3.65 5
13 10.9 5.0 4.6 6.8 3.50 2
20 11.4 4.9 4.8 6.7 3.75 0
27 10.7 4.4 4.2 6.3 3.50
Oct 4 10.5 4.5 3.7 6.5 a5,
11 10.1 3.9 3.8 5.9 3.30
18 10.0 3.8 3.4 5:3 3.30
25 9.5 KA 39 4.8 3.25
Nov at 10.0 3.8 3.7 5.9 3.40

60

FIG. 8—-LOCATION OF PUBIC BONES AND KEEL IN

GOOD CAPACITY”
1—Pubic bones; 2—Keel.

FOWL

in the same fowls when bodily dimensions in laying and
nonlaying conditions are contrasted. At Cornell Uni-
versity, Dr. Kent took weekly measurements of a White
Leghorn Pullet as she approached laying maturity, and
throughout her first laying year, carefully recording

the variations that took place in the characters noted. —

These measurements are reproduced in the accompanying
table and are worthy of careful study. (See page 59.)

In the foregoing table, measurements are recorded in
centimeters; weights in pounds and decimals of a pound.
“Pelvic arch’ corresponds to spread of pubie bones as
the term is used in this book. “Pelvis to keel” corre-
sponds to span between pubic bones and keel. Measure-
ments prior to Feb. 2nd are omitted to save space.

It will be noted that up to March 1, when the pullet
began laying, there was a gradual increase in all dimen-

rn

FIG. 8—HOW A SHORT KEEL MAY CAUSE
“BAGGING DOWN”

; The abdomen of a normally shaped hen would follow dotted
line at “3”, instead of the lower solid line.

PROFITABLE CULLING AND SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

sions. After that the measurements follow the egg yield
closely, the abdomen noticeably contracting after even
a single week of idleness, and promptly expanding again
as soon as egg production was resumed. On Oct. 25th,
after 6 weeks of nonproduction, comb, arch, and pelvis-
to-keel measurements were at their minimum for the
entire period. The distance from keel to tail, while re-
duced, was greater than at three former periods (evidently
this dimension is not so closely correlated to production). —
As was to be expected, the greatest fluctuations were in
comb and pelvis-to-keel dimensions. The last measure-
ment recorded (Nov. 1st) shows all dimensions increas-
ing again, also weight, and an early resumption of laying
would be expected if conditions generally were favorable.

In connection with the keel bone the lateral processes
also should be observed. These processes are well illus-
trated in their natural position (C) in the excellent
“X-Ray” drawing by Artist Sewell, reproduced in Fig.
84. The value of lateral processes in tests for productive-

FIG. 88—-A FOWL OF EXTREMELY INFERIOR CAPACITY
The distance or span between 1 and 2 in this outline is the

same as in Fig. 86, but abdominal capacity is much less. To get

fair capacity “l’’ should be at point indicated by ‘3’.
ness is that they indicate abdominal capacity, also con-
dition. Fowls that are laying heavily, and therefore
eating heavily, will have the lateral processes well spread
out, and because of the comparatively thin, fat-free skin
and highly pliable abdomen their bones will readily be
felt by the fingers when placed as in Fig. 93. In the
well-fed nonlaying hen the walls of the abdominal cavity
will have a comparatively heavy layer of fat, while the
lateral bonés themselves will be drawn in somewhat and
so less easily located.

Where it is particularly important to make no mistake
in determining which hens are laying (as in culling: val-
uable breeding stock), physical tests are not only simple
and accurate but less laborious than trap nesting. Per-
sons who wish to use trap nests but who have trouble
with the hens laying on the floor will find that the meth-
od described in the following article overcomes this diffi-
culty. The method here described has also been in reg-
ular use at the Utah Experiment Station for several years.

CULLING BY EGG TYPE AND PHYSICAL TESTS 61

Experiment in Accurate Method of Culling

These Experimental Records Show that Almost Com-
plete Accuracy Can be Realized in Individual Eg¢
Records Without the Use of Trap Nests
By PROF. ROY H. WAITE*

N applying this method of testing hens, it is recom-
mended to examine the entire flock in the morning
before the hens have begun to lay. Test at least three
days in succession, for hens do not lay every day. You
can only determine which ones are to lay the day you
test. Shut the hens in the poultry house the night before
testing, unless you get out early enough in the morning
(before daylight) to catch them from the roosts. If you
have a droppings board under the roosts you can fasten
the hens underneath it and catch them readily. The hens
are more easily managed if the catching closet is made
dark. I find that an old door or platform or other opaque
material placed against the droppings board makes a
very satisfactory catching closet.
Catch the hens one at a time and examine. If you
have two pens, place the layers in one and the non-

FIG. 90-STRIKING COMPARISON OF

LOW PRODUCERS
Hen on left is the high-producing R. I. Red, shown in Fig. 54;
the one on the right is shown in Fig. 55. Photo from Storrs
Experiment Station

HIGH AND

rear of the body. Learn its position with reference to the
pelvic bones for one of these serves as a guide to the fin-
gers when testing. There is only the skin, a thin layer of
mesentery, and the wall of the oviduct between the fingers

and the egg when the test is made.

FIG. 89-COMPARING THICKNESS OF PUBIC BONES IN HIGH AND LOW PRODUCERS
Note how the accumulation of fat under the skin has given the pubic bone of the
low producer on the right the appearance of being two or three times as thick as in the

high producer. Photo from Storrs Experiment Station.

layers in the other. If you have only one pen it will be
necessary to mark the layers in some manner so that
they can be distinguished when it becomes time to dispose
of the nonlayers. Leg banding is a very satisfactory
method of marking. You should be able to get most of
the layers out in two days.

A study of trap-nest records shows that the large
majority of hens do not skip laying more than one day
at a time when they are in good lay-
ing condition. A few hens skip two

Hold the bird to be tested with
its right side down, its shanks or legs
in your right hand, and its back rest-
ing in the palm of and on the fingers
of the left hand (see Figs. 96 and 97
herewith). Slip the fingers of the
left hand under the bird’s body until
the tips pass the pelvic bone. Then
gently, yet firmly, press the tips of
the fingers into the side of the fowl’s
body and up under the pelvic bone
towards the back. If an egg is pres-
ent it will be felt as a hard lump.

The operation will seem rather
awkward at first, but after a little
practice the fingers become “educated”
to the feel, and the effort in testing
becomes mainly that required in catching the birds. In
making the test do not mistake the gizzacd for the egg.
The gizzard is lower down in the abdominal cavity. The
egg is well up toward the back. While learning, it may
be of some assistance to check on your results by feeling
the egg in the oviduct. This can be done by pushing the
forefinger into the vent of the hen and up the oviduct
until the egg is felt.

days at a time and a small percent-
age skip three and
many as ten or more. It will thus be
seen that a two or three-day test
will get out a majority of the best
layers, but if you wish to get out
every laying hen, test over a longer
period. Of course if the flock is just
beginning to lay, a three-day test
will not tell you much.
Method of Feeling the Egg

Study Fig. 94 carefully and note the
position of the egg in the fowl’s body
on the day of laying. It is suspended

sometimes as

FIG, 91—-GOOD AND POOR PRODUCERS CONTRASTED AS TO FLEXIBILITY OF SKIN
near the back and well toward the The skin of the high-producing hen on the left is much more pliable and freer
*Extracts from Bulletin 221, Maryland Ex- from abdominal fat than the low producer on the right. Photo from Storrs (Conn.) Experi-

periment Station. ment Station.

62 PROFITABLE CULLING AND SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

If it seems more natural to you there is no reason
why you cannot hold the fowl’s legs with the left hand
and feel the egg with the right. It seems more natural
to me to catch the bird with my right hand and there is
no lost motion when I feel for the egg with my left hand.

After a little experience you will find that the method
of testing is so simple. that-you will not have to pick the
bird’s feet from the floor, but can feel the egg while hold-
ing her in a natural upright position.

Experiments
A test of four flocks was made and the results are
given in Tables I-IV inclusive: . ;

TABLE I
Single Comb White Leghorn Hens

No. of eggs No. of eggs

Date No. of hens shown by test gathered

No test made 14

15 14

14 14

13 14**

7 7

18 17
7 6***

15 15

5 5

16 16

4 4

14 14

6 6

9 9

14 14

6 6

15 14

9 9

12 12

* Sold 41 hens.

** One egg on roost before the test was made.
*** One egg eaten. Remains of shell found.
**** Two hens sold.

The results obtained by this experiment would seem to
indicate that the method of testing laying hens is very sat-
isfactory for the Leghorn breed. In none of these birds
was there’ the
least difficulty
found in locating
the egg. The
% slight discrep-
ancy between the
number found by
the test and the
number gathered
on Aug. 14, 18,
and 29 could eas-

7 South Front ily be explained
FIG, 92-METHOD OF CATCHING FOWLS by hens eating

With a light screen (C-D) across pen, eggs that had be-

and an assistant at B, operator (A) can
handle fowls rapidly. Courtesy of Utah Ex- come broken or
by error in count-

periment Station.

ing the hens as they were tested. It is significant that
in no case were any eggs found in any of the pens where
nonlayers, as shown by the test, were placed.

Fowl door F should be about 18
to 24 inches from the corner

z
wv
5
&
=

TABLE II
Barred Plymouth Rocks =

No. of eggs No. of eggs
Date No. of hens shown by test gathered
PBUBUSE 14 aiicecsoceene mesmo 38 No test made : 5
August 15 ... ed 4 2 2
August 16... 38 6 6
August 17 . 38 2 ibe
August 18 .. . 38 3 ace

* Neglected to examine nests after testing at about 8 o'clock.
** One egg laid in cull flock. Two birds escaped before being
caught. One of these may have laid.

These results (Table II.) would indicate that the test
can be applied to the heavier breeds. This flock was
exceedingly fat, and the test was a little more difficult
than with the Leghorn flock, but it was entirely practical.

FIG. 93-LOCATING LATERAL PROCESSES IN HIGH AND LOW
PRODUCERS

This illustration shows how lateral processes are found
Note the larger capacity of the fowl on the left with well-spread
processes. Bones are plainly felt in this case while in bird on
right they are not noticeable unless considerable pressure is

exerted.
TABLE III
Mixed Breeds Flock
No. of eggs No. of eggs
Date No. of hens shown by test gathered
AUP USt 1S! cc psneesk aaceneseese 6 No test made 4
PBUEUSt 19 oy nasa dsccsinesesan 6 1 1
AU BUSt 20>. cease cena 6 4 4
August 20)... cesscessesosicuae 8* 1 1

* Two broody hens released.

These results (Table III) show that the ordinary mixed
farm flock can be tested. There was no difficulty at all
in finding the eggs inside these hens for they were in
good laying condition as regards flesh.

TABLE IV
White Wyandotte Hens
No. of eggs No. of eggs
Date No. of hens shown by test gathered
(AU PUSt IS" crs. sweep ten setts 4 No test made 1
August 19 ...... et 2 2
AMEISt 20) i scau sais a4 1 2:
August 21 ...... 4 0 0
AUPUSE 22 jescenenc ens osaceaus 4 1” Zz
PAU PUSt (23) sca siaistesssacuonceene 4 0* 1
* Bird No. 53 laid but did not react to test.
Three of the Wyandotte hens were easy to

test, but in one (No. 53) the egg seemed to be

CULLING BY EGG TYPE AND PHYSICAL TESTS _ 63

formed in front of the usual place and while
it could be felt by making a special effort, the
test would not be practical if all fowls were
as difficult to test as this hen. The egg she
laid was ill-shaped and small, therefore were
she put into the nonlayer class to be sold
there would be no great loss. The results of
this experiment, while not so conclusive as
those of the other breeds, indicate that the
test is practical with Wyandottes.

Time Required for Making Tests

The first flock I tested was the White
Leghorns. It required a little less than
twenty minutes to go over the sixty-nine birds
the first time. This is about seventeen seconds
per bird. With practice a person soon becomes
very proficient and can make the test almost
as fast as the fowls can be caught. The hens
soon get accustomed to being handled and
become easy to manage. The eighth time I
tested this flock of Leghorns there were
twenty-six birds and the time required was
two minutes and twenty seconds. This is a
little less than six seconds per bird, or ten
birds per minute.

Injury to the Birds

In no case did the testing seem to injure
the birds in any way. The egg is so near the surface and
the pressure required is so gentle that there is no danger
of injury if the test is properly made. There are no vital
organs in the region where the egg is held before laying.
The principle danger of injury is in catching and handling
the birds. Laying hens should be handled gently at all
times.

Time of Year to Make the Test

The flock can be tested at any season of the year,
but of course the greatest saving is made by taking out

FIG. 94—-POSITION OF EGG IN BODY OF FOWL
The egg remains in the uterus of the ovary for several hours while the shell is being
formed, and in this position is readily felt by the fingers, holding the bird as shown in
Figs. 96 and 97. Photo from Maryland Experiment Station.

FIG. 95—-BONY FRAME OF A HIGH AND A LOW PRODUCER

On the left is shown the bony framework of the high-producing Rhode
Island Red hen shown in Fig. 54. The one on the right is the low producer
shown in Fig. 55. In this photo, spread of pubic bones is indicated by the white
strips. The difference in distance between pubic bones and rear end of keel
also is clearly seen, while the greater spread of the lateral processes in the
heavy layer on the left are shown with exceptional clearness. Photo from Storrs
Experiment Station.

the hens that stop laying during the summer. This is
especially true of those flocks in which a large percentage
of the hens stop laying in late summer and do not begin
laying again until late winter.

The Value of the Test to the Poultry Breeder

This method of recording eggs laid will enable the
poultry breeder to keep more reliable records of the flock
from which he intends to select his hens for breeding
than the method of trap nesting, and will save a vast
amount of time. By using this test the breeder with his
small flock will be able to keep indi-
vidual records of his fowls for he can
“mark up” his egg record early in the
morning and then go about his regular
work the balance of the day.

In making the test regularly a defi-
nite system should be adopted so that
the fowls will become trained to know
what to expect. By doing this, much
time will be saved and the birds will
not be injured by being frightened. It
is surprising how quickly they learn
to run up to the attendant to be ex-
amined.

The records published by the Utah
Station and our results obtained so
far at this station show that the ex-
ternal test is more accurate than the
trap nest, in making certain that the
eggs laid are credited to the proper
hen. By these methods of testing, the
floor eggs are credited to the hen that
lays them. On the other hand, there
is some indication that an egg is oc-
casionally held over until the next day
before being laid, in which case the
hen would be credited with the same
egg twice.

64 PROFITABLE CULLING AND SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

FIG. 96-TESTING FOR PRESENCE OF EGG
This illustration shows the proper way to hold a fowl while
making the test to determine which hens are laying. Photo from
Maryland Experiment Station.

Identifying Layers By Tests at Utah Experiment Station

The advantage this method of detecting layers are
thus described in Billetin 162 of the Utah Station:

“One of the chief advantages of this method is in the
time saved. In a trial for time, two men working together
went through 30 pens in a long house and through 16
colony houses, testing over 500 hens in 37 minutes. When
the testing was done they were free for other work un-
til time to gather the eggs in the afternoon. In running
trap nests on the same fowls it took one man more than
cne-half his time of a ten-hour day to look after the nests,
record the eggs, and free the fowls.

“Where only the individual egg record is desired and
no pedigree breeding is to be done, this method of obtain-
ing the record saves the expense of equipping the houses
with trap nests. It also lessens the labor required in car-
ing for the fowls and gives a more complete individual
record than the trap nests now in common use.

“By keeping a careful record of the number of eggs
tested and gathered with a note on the difference as a
check, it was possible to reduce the number of unrecorded
eggs to one-half of one per cent. During the year 1915
the test showed 42,886 eggs. The sum of the eggs short
at time of gathering was 110 and the sum of those in ex-
cess was 128. The error will be greater than this unless
the work is carefully done soon after daylight.
some hens lay shortly after leay-
ing the perch, it is necessary to

Since

Summary

There is no distinct body type that can be relied upon
to certainly indicate the rank of fowls as producers.

There is, however, a physiological difference between
the good and poor layers and the careful observer usually
can detect it.

Pubie bone tests, measurement of span, location of
sternal processes, etc., are valuable chiefly as tests for ab-
dominal capacity.

A keel in which the rear end drops down sufficiently
to place it at a slight angle with the back is accepted as
a good indication of abdominal capacity.

In fowls having long bodies, capacity may be secured
without this wedge-shaped development.

Hens whose keels are noticeably “tucked up” in the
rear are seldom, if ever, good producers.

The chief difficulty in recognizing body changes due
to production is the fowl’s heavy coat of feathers and the
way in which apparent shape is affected by carriage and
position.

In any breed, a heavy-laying hen must have sufficient
body capacity to be able to digest large amounts of feed.

The abdomen of the heavy-laying hen will always
be found to show a characteristic loose, flabby condition
that need never be confused with the firm, hard abdomen
of the nonlayer.

The vent of the heavy layer is large in size, relaxed,
and moist.

The pelvic arch as a whole varies little in shape but
the rear part of it, represented by the pubic bones,varies
greatly in its spread at different stages of laying.

Fowls in which only two fingers can be placed between
the pubic bones are inferior, or at best only medium layers.

If three or more fingers can be placed between the
bones, the hen usually is a good layer.

In nonlayers, the pubic bones appear quite thick, ow-
ing to the abdominal layer of fat with which they are
covered.

The laying hen has little fat under the skin of the
abdomen, hence the pubic bones appear quite thin.

The span between pubic bones and keel is an important
measurement for abdominal capacity.

Actual tests show that the comb, spread of pubic
bones, and span between pubic bones and keel follow close-
ly the variations in productiveness in fowls.

Well-spread lateral processes are an indication of good
capacity.

It is possible te secure accurate individual egg records
by physical tests, without the use of trap nests.

make the test early enough to
catch these early layers.

“As there is no way by which
the eggs of a certain hen can be
identified, individual pedigree
breeding cannot be carried on by
this method. For this reason the
trap nest must be used during the
breeding or hatching season in
breeding experiments requiring an
individual pedigree. At the Utah
station, since nearly all the houses
are equipped with trap nests, they
are available for the pedigree-
breeding work during the hatch-
ing season. As soon, however, as

this time is past the trap is tied
down and the record kept by test-

FIG. 97-HEN KILLED AND PLUCKED TO SHOW POSITION OF HAND IN TESTING

This illustration shows the position of fingers in testing hens for productiveness
ing. without. the use of trap nests.

Photo from Maryland Experiment Station.

CHAPTER: VIII

The Value of Pigmentation Tests in Culling

What Makes Skin, Beaks, Shanks, Etc., Yellow, and Why the Color Fades When the Hens Begin to Lay—How to
Determine Approximately How Long Hens Have Been Laying and the Number of Eggs Produced, Doing
so by Observing the Degree of Yellow in Different Sections of the Body~Why the Pigment

Comes Back into the Faded Sections

HE APPLICATION of pigmentation tests to
different sections of the fowl’s body is, in
the case of all yellow-skinned fowls, a valu-
able aid in determining present productive-
ness, also in estimating the probable length

of time during which the fowl has been laying. By pig-
mentation, as the term is here used, is meant the yellow
color naturally present in skin, eye ring, beak, and
shanks in fowls of such breeds as Leghorns, Plymouth
Rocks, Wyandottes, Rhode Island Reds, etc. In the case
of Leghorns the color also is observable in the ear lobes.
This yellow color, wherever found, is due to the presence
of xanthophyll, a pigment that is always present in cer-
tain feeds, such as yellow corn, alfalfa, clover, and other
plants, and which is taken up by the fowl’s digestive or-
gans and distributed to practically all sections of the
outer surface of the body.

Several observers, working independently, have definitely
established the fact that egg production has a distinct
influence upon the color of the parts mentioned, the ef-
fect being to reduce the natural yellow color until, in
the case of long-continued production, the loss of pigment,
commonly described as “fading’’, leaves the fowl’s beak
and shanks practically white or pinkish white, remaining
so as long as the fowl is productive. This change takes
place regardless of the amount of pigment present in
the rations. For a brief history of the discovery and
development of this method of detecting layers or non-
layers, see Chapter I. General directions for applving
pigmentation tests are given in Chapter III, and need not
be repeated in this chapter which is devoted to con-
sideration of special phases of the subject.

Pigmentation of Comb and Wattles

In all yellow-skinned breeds, yellow pigment is present
in face, comb, and wattles, just as in eye ring and beak,

as Soon as Laying Stops

and it fades out with production and returns when lay-
ing ceases, in precisely the same way. The pigmentation
of these parts has received little attention because not
distinetly visible, though close observers will note a de-
cided difference in the shade of red in comparing these
parts in layers and nonlayers, the comb and wattles of
the latter having a yellowish cast. This is brought out
in some of the color plates on pages 6 and 7. An apparent
exception to this rule is often encountered in hens whose
combs appear white rather than yellowish red, due to the
presence of a fine scale—see Plate II, page 5. Yel-
low pigment when present can readily be detected in
comb and wattles simply by pinching them with the
fingers and noting the color before the blood comes back.

Observations in Loss of Pigment at Storrs
Experiment Station

By way of presenting definite data on loss of pigmen-
tation due to egg production, the following extracts are
reproduced from an article originally published in
“Seience”, in 1915, by A. F. Blakeslee and D. E. Warner
of Storrs Experiment Station. For their investigations
these observers used the fowls entered in the Inter-
national Laying Contest conducted at that institution,
and as these fowls were all handled substantially alike,
the possible influence of environmental factors could be
largely ignored:

“The amount of yellow was measured by means of the
Milton Bradley color top which, when spinning, acts as
a color mixer. The top readings of the White Leghorns
listed in Tables I and II were taken at three different
periods in October. Table I shows the nercentage of
yellow in ear lobes of 312 birds according to the records
of October 19-21, together with monthly and yearly egg
records for the different color groups. In Table II the
records at the three different readings have been used.

TABLE I

Average Egg Records For Different Amounts Of Yellow In Ear Lobes Of 312 White Leghorns

RPeriGentuvellows. 4242020 baahawseacsteGbiesacars 5-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46-50 51-55 56-60 61-65 66-70 71-7
BN ora Dil Sintec craters eters cise: store cislbrelaraiaizibye.cl etsias. ciate ns ciele see aw 7 36 40 16 20 31 33 41 39 30 RIS 4 1 1
Average No. eggs in September..................0.+. 19.7 18.2 16.9 16.4 10.3 5.5 61 4.9 4.0 3.6 2.4 1.3 0.0 0.0
Average No. eggs in October .............ccecceeeeees 15:3 14.2 9 11.7 8.1 3:2 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0
FAVETape: NOs CRESS IMs VAT ..asin's cic crralels-cia tie dicterea ibdasie 197.1 187.9 184.3 164.3 148.5 139.1 139.6 134.2 138.2 137.8 124.7 100.8 0.0 83.0

TABLE II

Percentage Of Hens Laying And Average Number Of Days Since Laying For Different Amounts Of Yellow

In Ear Lobes

Per Cent Yellow.

INGSELECOLOS vase sictslaisiae site notes eicasleuste can tieeee eer 41 125 80
Average days since laying: s<cwctcse isesecscss 0.4 1.6 7.3
INOS” TECOLdS—la ying Wissiecleetatsca o niee s.aahs crereieers 36 98 44
Per cent records—layin By sec sees cscciaceescs wcsieces 87.8 78.4 55.0

5-10 11-15 16-20 21-25

17.1

25.4

36-40 41-45 46-50 51-55

26-30 31-35 56-60 61-65 66-70 71-7

67 62 92 94 94 108 84 44 28 * 9 4
26.2 37.9 41.5 44.0 45.1 $1.3 55.9 61.4 50.3 71.0

3 0 1 0 2 0 0 0 0 0

04.8 0 01.0 0 01.9 0 0 0 0 0

66 PROFITABLE CULLING AND SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

A bird laying on the day of record, or on a later day
within the month, is considered to be laying and credited
with a zero. If she laid on the day before the record
but not later, she is credited with ‘one day since laying’;
and in a similar way a longer period of inactivity in
laying is indicated by a larger number of days since
laying. With the exception of a few cases where this
was not possible, three records were taken of each bird.

“Since October is the season of decreasing egg pro-
duction, the majority of the birds increased their quan-
tum of yellow, and consequently most birds are listed
in more than a single color grade. Beginning with the
41 records in the 5-10 per cent color grade, which show
an average of only 0.4 days since laying, the number of
days inereases_ consist-
ently with the amount
of yellow in the ear lobes.
The percentage of records
that indicate actual lay-
ing drops rapidly from
87.8 per cent for 5-10 per
cent yellow, to zero for

grades of yellow above
30 per cent. The three
eases of laying among

records above 30 per cent
yellow were for sporadic
layers.

“The table shows that
is practically certain
that a bird with an ear lobe showing more than 30 per
cent yellow at the time of the records is not in a laying
condition. Observations regarding the percentage of
yeliuy: in the ear lobes of 312 birds on October 20th show
that in general, as the percentage of yellow increases, the
egg production falls off, and that the correlation is most
marked during the periods nearest the time when the
records were taken. A distinct correlation with color
seems to show in the yearly average but is largely an
indirect one. It is generally only the best birds—those
that make the large yearly records—that are laying in
October. Therefore, any method that selects the laying
birds at this season will select at the same time the
birds laying above average throughout the year, and
consequently give high yearly totals. Thirty per cent
seems to be a critical amount of yellow. Above this
amount comes the sudden drop in egg production for the
months of September and October and also above 30
per cent yellow the yearly totals fall to between 130 and
140 with but slight change thereafter.”

LEGHORN

FIG. 9—BROWN
Record 210 Eggs if

Nature of Yellow Pigment in Egg Yolk, Skin,
and Body Fat of Fowls

It is chiefly to the investigations of Professor L. S.
Palmer, of the Dairy Department, University of Missouri,
that we owe such definite information as we possess in
regard to the nature of the yellow pigment in the egg
yolk, skin, and body fat of fowls. These investigations
are briefly summarized in the following extracts from
an article by Professor Palmer published in the “Journal
of Biological Chemistry” (Vol. 23, No. 1).

“A physiological relation between the primary egg-
yolk pigment and the xanthophylls of the feed is
reasonably well established by published observations of
the influence of various feeds upon the color of the yolk.

Thus the Maryland Agricultural Experiment Station has.
carried on feeding trials of this character in which yel-
low corn, comprising about half the ration and fed as a
seratch feed with bran, gluten meal, and meat scrap to
laying hens, was compared with a ration in which the
yellow corn was replaced by whole wheat, and in another
case with equal parts of yellow corn and wheat. The
eggs from the lot receiving yellow corn all showed yolks
with a deep yellow color; those from the lot receiving
corn and wheat showed yolks with a fair yellow color;
while the eggs from the wheat-fed lot had yolks notice-
ably very pale colored. The simplest explanation of this
result is found in the fact that yellow corn is very rich in
xanthophyll.

“In feeding experiments conducted by the author, a
gradual ‘reduction in the amount of pigment deposited
in the yolk accompanied the change from a ration carry-
ing a moderate amount of xanthophyll (preliminary
ration) to a ration carrying a very small amount of
xanthophyll. In eight days the color of the yolks of
the nonpigment group had become so pale that the hard-
boiled yolks showed scarcely enough color to measure
with a tintometer. Very little further reduction in color
occurred until the bran was removed from the ration on
March 16. In eight days the color had reached the
lowest level attained, the tintometer reading of the raw
yolk showing only 3.2 units of yellow and 1.0 unit of
red. It is not probable that the color of the yolks of
this lot of hens would have been reduced further. The
ration still contained a small amount of xanthophyll,
certainly sufficient to account for all that was deposited
in the yolks when it is considered that the pigment found
there represented the accumulated pigment carried in the
blood through the period during which the yolk was
being formed

“Very interesting results were obtained on increas-
ing ‘the xanthophyll in the ration in the case of the
xanthophyll-fed hens. As anticipated, a considerable
increase in the color of the yolks accompanied the ad-
dition of more xanthophyll. A marked increase in
the color was noted on the second day after the change
in ration. This was no doubt due to the fact that the
greatest part of the yolk is formed during a relatively
short period of time. As a matter of fact, it was ob-
served, in the case of the highly colored yolks from the
eggs laid on February 24 and 26, that it was the outer
part of the yolks that was more intensely colored. The
high color obtained at the beginning of the experiment
did not persist, however, but a gradual reduction occurred
until the level of the preliminary ration was reached.
This was judged to be due to a failure to consume the
seratch feed which contained by far the greater propor-
tion of the xanthophyll of the total ration. When this
was remedied by reducing the scratch feed to one-third
instead of two-thirds of the ration, and increasing the
amount of yellow corn in the mash by a corresponding
amount (March 16), a rapid rise in the color of the
yolks occurred at once, a maximum of 7.8 units of yellow
and 5.1 units of red being reached on the fifth day after
the change. The pronounced orange tint of the color
is notable, the tintometer reading showing 5.1 units of
orange and 2.7 units of yellow,—nearly twice as much
orange as yellow.

“Experiments made with carotin in place of xantho-
phyll as the color pigment gave results in every respect

THE VALUE OF PIGMENTATION TESTS IN CULLING 67

similar and nearly identical with the results from the
hens fed a pigment-free ration”.

Sequence of Pigmentation Changes

In Chapter III. was given a brief statement of the
way in which the pigmented sections of the fowl’s body
vary with respect to the rate at which the yellow color
is removed and restored again after laying has ceased.
A more comprehensive statement of the cause of the
change in pigmentation, and of the sequence in which it
occurs, is given in Cornell Ex. Bul. No. 21, as follows:

“The intestines and their contents, the ovary, and the
oviduct decrease very decidedly in size and weight after
a fowl stops laying, and yet the total weight of the hen,
as records show, tends to increase. This is due to the
depositing of a layer of fat nearly all over the body just
underneath the skin, and of a thick mass of fat in the
abdomen. A hen is able to deposit this layer of fat only
when she is not forming yolks at a rapid
they are composed very largely of fat. In fact, during
heavy production, a fowl draws on the reserve of fat
held in the body.

“Of course such a change in fat deposition could not
occur without its becoming manifest externally. When
a hen stops laying, fat is deposited around the pelvic
bones so that they feel blunt and stiff as compared with
those of a laying fowl. When a hen becomes sick and
all the fat in the body is used up, the pelvic bones feel
very thin and pliable. The emaciated condition alone
would show that the fowl could not possibly be laying.
In a healthy fowl the apparent thickness of the pelvic
bones is a fair indication of production. The thicker
the bones (bone and fat) the longer it is since the fowl
stopped laying. The backs of the shanks fill up with
fat and become firm and round after a hen has stopped
laying for some time. The face fills out and the back
parts of the wattles drop down, giving the face a full,
coarse, masculine appearance, and the top line of the

rate, since

wattles is more nearly perpendicular to the line of the
eye and beak.

“These changes in fat have a direct bearing upon
changes in color or pigmentation, but fortunately,-while
it takes several weeks for sufficient fat to accumulate
to be apparent, in the yellow-skinned breeds the yellow
pigment that accompanies the fat is
only a small amount of

noticeable when
fat is deposited or withdrawn.
A heavy-laying hen is pure or nearly pure red in comb
and face, and flesh color in beak and eye ring, while a
hen that is not laying is distinctly yellow in beak and
eye ring, while the red of face and comb has a yellow
cast. The rate at which yellow pigment disappears from
any section depends mainly on the rapidity or amount
of the cireulation through the part affected, the nature
of the food supply, and the amount of fat stored within

the section.

How to Apply Pigmentation Tests in Culling

“If the hens are given an abundance of green feed or
yellow corn, the yellow pigment will color highly any fat
that is in the body, so that only a little fat is needed to
become apparent.
range do not bleach out nearly so quickly as those that
are confined to bare yards and are not given green feed.
The heavy breeds, because of their coarseness, carry much
larger supplies of fat, and hence do not bleach out so
quickly as the light breeds. This difference is especially

Consequently, hens on good grass

In considering color changes
it should be borne in mind that they indicate what a fowl
has done, not what it will do.

“While all the color characters so far described are
applicable to all Leghorns and
Anconas show a change in the color of their ear lobes
The not change so
quickly as that of the vent or the eye ring, and does not
have such universal application, but because of its prom-

noticeable in the shanks.

yellow-skinned breeds,

also. color of the ear lobes does

inence it is of considerable value in selecting Leghorns.”

FIG. 99-SCENE ON COMMERCIAL

Even a_ small layers in a

owner. Systematic

percentage of
culling will

poor
make

POULTRY

flock of 2 ;
a great difference in the net profits realized.

CALIF

PLANT AT PETALUMA,

this size means a serious financial loss annually to the

68 PROFITABLE CULLING AND SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

The Physiological Relation Between Fecundity and the Natural Yellow Pigmentation
of Certain Breeds of Fowls

This Article Gives the Results of Some Recent, Highly Interesting Investigations Which Afford a New Explanation
for the Well-known Fact That the Natural Yellow Color of Skin, Beaks, Shanks, Etc., of Leghorns
and Other Yellow-skinned Fowls Fades Out as a Result of Heavy Egg Production

By Prof. L. S. PALMER and Prof. H. L. KEMPSTER

DITORIAL NOTE:—During the last few years

Professor L. S. Palmer of the Dairy Chemistry
Laboratory, University of Missouri, assisted by Pro-
fessor H. L. Kempster, Head of the Poultry Department
of the same institution, has investigated various ques-
tions relating to yellow pigment in fowls, doing so with
painstaking care and thoroughness. Important data se-
cured in the course of these investigations have been
published under the above title in the “Journal of
Biological Chemistry”, Vol. 39, No. 2 (Sept. 1919), of
which the following article is an abstract. In this article
the authors express their opinion that the common ex-
planations of why the vent, ear lobe, beak, and shanks of
yellow-skinned fowls fade when heavy laying occurs are
unsatisfactory, and advance a new theory which will ap-
peal to many as offering a reasonable explanation for
some known facts that do not appear to harmonize with
the common explanation of the way in which pigmentation
changes take place.

RACTICAL poultrymen have recognized for several
p that a close relation exists between the
amount of yellow pigment in the shanks, ear

lobes, beak, etc., of hens of certain breeds of poultry.

years

Data collected at various Experiment Stations, especially
at Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station, show that
im hens which naturally carry yellow pigmentation a posi-
tive correlation exists between pale shanks, ear lobes,
beak, etc., and a more or less heavy egg production.
The results show however, that use of this observation
as a practical guide in the selection of heavy and light-
laying hens must be made only immediately after the
close of the laying season.

The hypothesis which has been advanced and adopted
by Blakeslee and Warner in explanation of the relation-
ship which has been observed between fecundity and pig-
mentation is that the growth of the egg abstracts the
pigments from the body tissue with the resulting nega-
tive correlation between egg production and the quantity
of yellow pigment present in ear lobes, shanks, beak, etc.

The theory here advanced is.that the fading of the
yellow pigmentation in the visible skin parts as a result
of fecundity is not due to the subtraction of pigmented
fat from these parts and the subsequent incorporation

in the egg yolk, but that the normal appearance of
xanthophyll (yellow pigment) in the beak, shanks, etc.,
of yellow-skinned breeds is the result of a natural ex-
cretion. Fecundity merely deflects this path of secre-
tion to the egg yolk, thereby removing the source of pig-
ment to the visible parts of the fowl. The result is
that the pigment present in the skin at the onset of
fecundity is gradually excreted towards the epidermis
where it either becomes oxidized (decolorized) or wears
away as the result of structural changes of the epidermis.

In support of this theory two full-grown White Leg-
horn cockerels which had been grown on a carotinoid-free*
(colorless) ration, and which as a result showed complete
absence of pigment in the skin, etc., were fattened on a
colorless ration. The birds were then fed a ration con-
taining a large proportion of yellow corn. Within 72
hours yellow color began to appear and on the fifth day
the shanks and beak began to show a yellow color. The
following day it was plainly visible in the ear lobes,
eye ring, etc. On the eighth day one of the birds was
killed and an abundance of pigment was found in the
blood serum, Malphigian layer of the epidermis, beak,
ear lobes, comb, and shank. The remaining bird was
fed on a yellow corn diet for 42 days, and by this time
not only were the shanks, beak, ear lobes, etc., highly
colored but his plumage also had a distinctly creamy,
almost yellow appearance.

This bird and four other highly colored cockerels
were then put on a carotinoid-free (pigmentless) ration,
and killed at various intervals. After 60 days it was
no longer possible to detect yellow color in the ear lobes.
The comb, when pressed, failed to show any yellow ap-
pearance; the base of the beak was distinctly lighter in
color than the tip, and the shanks also had begun to
show a noticeable fading. The feathers which had been
smoothly creamy were now mixed with white and yel-
low feathers. The bases of the feathers were colorless.
The blood serum was free from xanthophyll, although
the adipose tissue was distinctly yellow. Ninety days
after the change to a colorless ration, the beak, ear
lobes, comb, skin, eye ring, and vent of the birds were
entirely colorless, and a marked de-

colorization of the shanks had taken
place. After 200 days no pigment
remained in the shanks except that
deposited under the thick horny layer
on the sides of the leg. If these
birds had thinner shank skins like
the females of this breed they would
have been, no doubt, entirely color
less by this time.

*(To guard against confusion on the par'
of the reader it should be explained thai
“carotinoid” is a general term including
both carotin and xanthophyll (the pigmen
in egg yolk), as well as carotin which en

FIG. 100—BUILDINGS AND YARDS USED AT NATIONAL LAYING CONTEST

MOUNTAIN GROVE, MO

ters but slightly into pigmentation ir
fowls. The carotinoid-free ration describec
in this article is, therefore, one that contain:
NEITHER xanthophyll nor carotin.--Ed.)

THE VALUE OF PIGMENTATION TESTS IN CULLING

Microscopic examination of vertical sections of the
skin taken from the bottom of the foot showed that the
yellow pigment is deposited in the outer parts of the
epidermis and especially in the rete of the Malphigi large-
ly as granular masses. These granular masses are also
seen lining the blood capillaries in the
layer.

lower corium
Fat is found in the subcutaneous layers. There
is almost complete absence of fat in the epidermis. The
fact that the pigment found in the epidermis took a
distinct color stain which does not occur if fat is present
shows that the yellow pigment of the epidermis is not
dissolved in fat.

That the color of the shanks is not due to the pig-
ment of the fat was also shown by the feeding of Sudan
III to a bird raised on a colorless ration. After 8 days
of feeding Sudan III no trace of the dye was found in the
shanks, skin, ear lobes, beak, etc., although the bird
showed an abundance of pink color in the fat.

As the xanthophyll gradually faded from the shank
skin, microscopic observations showed first a disappear-
ance of the pigment from the corium,
then from the outer layer of the
epidermis which gradually extended
to the rete of Malphigi, the last pig-
ment to disappear being the xantho-
phyll at the base of the Malphigian
layer.

The interpretation of the obser-
vations is that when the supply of
xanthophyll is cut off by reason of
its removal from the food, any pig-
ment present in the corium layer of
the shanks, etc., is normally deposi-
ted in the rete of the Malphigi. At
the same time the xanthophyll de-
posits in the outer layer of the epi-
dermis either wear off by normal
replacement of the outer cells by
those lower down, is oxidized
(decolorized) by contact with the
air. The xanthophyll deposits in the
rete of the Malphigi gradually be-
come a part of the outer layer of the
epidermis, and are lost also, until
the skin becomes free from visible yellow pigment.

According to the hypothesis advanced, if fecundity
deflects the path of excretion of the xanthophyll from
the skin to the ovaries, and thereby removes the supply
of yellow pigment from the shanks, etc., it is to be ex-
pected that no restoration of the xanthophyll in these
parts can be effected as long as fecundity continues.
As proof of this theory hens which were laying and had
been fed since hatching on a xanthophyll-free ration,
were fed rations which were rich in xanthophyll. After
30 days’ feeding of yellow corn in one case and green
food in another the yolks were highly colored. No pig-
ment whatever was deposited in the ear lobes, beak,
shanks, ete. It was also found that the adipose tissue
was also practically colorless, a further proof that fe-

cundity deflects the path of excretion of xanthophyll to
the ovaries.

or

FIG.

10I—A WHITE
RECORD OF
12 MONTHS

69

Shank, Beak, and Ear Lobe Color as a Criterion
of Fecundity

Absence of color in the shanks, etc., at the end of a
laying period is indicative of a recent long period of
fecundity. This is true whether this results in the lay-

ing of a large or a small number of eggs. Two birds

selected at random from the University flocks were
examined. One showed no color in the beak, eye ring,

or ear lobes, and very little in the shanks. The fat also
showed 12 per cent yellow color. The other showed yel-
low color in the beak, shanks, etc., while the fat contained
47 per cent of yellow. Both were laying and the egg
yolks were the same color. An examination of the egg
records showed that the “colorless” bird had laid 184
eggs against 131 for the “yellow”. The explanation of
these apparent inconsistencies is readily seen when one
compares the trap-nest records. Hen 2754, the yellow-
shanked bird, did not lay from July 17 to September 29,
while the other bird, 2854, had stopped laying for a
shorter period—July 25 to August 25. The difference in
appearance October 28 was not due to a wide difference
in egg production but because 2754
lost her fecundity for a sufficiently
period to restore the normal
path of excretion to the shanks, etc.,
and had thus regained her skin pig-
mentation. Hen 2854 lost her fecun-
dity for a short time, or not at all,
so that she went into October and up
to the time she was killed, with pale
shanks, ete., which had resulted from
a deflection of pigment from these
parts during continuous fecundity
since February 13.

Absence of pigmentation is there-
fore, an index of continuous fecundity
rather than of heavy laying.

long

Conclusions

1. The fading of the yellow pig-
ment from the ear lobes, beak, shanks,
ete., of of the Leghorn and
American breeds during fecundity is
due to the fact that fecundity deflects
the normal path of excretion of the
xanthophyll from these parts of the
skin to the egg yolk.

The xanthophyll deposited in the epidermis of the
above mentioned parts gradually disappears as the re-

hens

ROCK HEN

WITH
281 EGGS IN °

sult of the natural physiological change in the structure
of the skin.

The thicker the epidermis, the more slowly will the
xanthophyll disappear.

2. The xanthophyll in the
lobes, beaks, shanks, etc., of Leghorn and American

epidermis of the ear
breeds of fowls, is largely in granular form with little
It is found chiefly in the
rete of Malphigi but also along the blood capillaries of

or no fat associated with it.

the subcutaneous tissue.

3. It is impossible to restore xanthophyll to the skin
of hens as long as fecundity exists, no matter how large
an excess of pigment is fed.

4. Adipose tissue also fails to take up the xantho-
phyll from the food during egg laying even on rations

70 PROFITABLE CULLING AND SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

rich in xanthophyll, the pigment being excreted wholly
in the egg yolks.

5. The fading of the ear lobes, beak, and shanks
of the Leghorn and American breeds of hens as the re-
sult of egg laying is an index of continuous fecundity
only,—not of heavy egg laying.

6. Yellow color in these parts, immediately after the
end of the laying season, indicates either intermittent
fecundity or a more or less recent loss of fecundity.

Accuracy of Pigmentation Tests

There is a good deal of variation in the accuracy of
reported pigmentation tests, apparently depending in
some instances upon the skill of the operator, and in
others on the season at which the test is applied. As
a rule, pigment tests are apt to be somewhat misleading
if applied too early in the season, and general opinion
favors making the tests in September and October.
Storrs Bulletin No. 92 states that “records taken in July,
September, and October indicate that October, at the end
of the pullet year, is in general the best time in which
to use the color test in selecting superior layers.”

In all culling operations, allowance must be made
for natural differences in pigmentation in individual

fowls. Some hens inherit much lighter colored shanks,
beak, ete., than others, and hens regularly carry less
color than they did as pullets. The ration, and even

the soil on which the fowls are yarded, also has a great
deal to do with the degree of color normally present.
Where this fact receives due consideration, pigment tests
have been found to be quite satisfactory.

Because of the different sections affected and their
variations in rate of loss and recovery of pigment, such
tests afford a variety of combinations that offer excep-
tional opportunities for close estimates on production.
The inexperienced however, are apt to be confused by
the way in which different degrees of yellow merge into
one another, and even expert demonstrators always employ
other tests as checks on their conclusions.

No matter how clear cut the pigment tests may appear,
head points, body capacity, condition, plumage, etc., should
always be considered, particularly with fowls of the gen-
eral-purpose breeds, or where details in regard to feed-
ing and general care are not known. .

The Missouri State Poultry Experiment Station is con-
ducting an interesting test during the current year (1919-
1920), comparing the production of twenty “low producer”
hens culled from farm flocks by comparatively inexperi-

.

enced operators, with that of an equal number of hens
from the same flocks, selected as good layers. This test
began September 15th, and at the end of the fifth month
(February 15th) the total production of the selected layers
was 669 eggs as against 437 from the culls. This com-
paratively high showing for the “cull” flock is due to the
fact that included in the number are a few individuals that
are much better layers than some that were in the “layer”
flock.

In a personal letter to the editors of this book, Herbert
E. Cosby, Extension Poultry Specialist, in charge of this
test, makes the following statement: ‘The forty hens in
this test afford an interesting study. Two hens, in par-
ticular, were sent in as decided culls. They were quite
yellow in beak, vent, and shanks, and the pubic bones
were close together. For this reason they were culled
out in September, the operator failing to observe that
these hens had thin, straight pubic bones, good body
depth, bright eyes, and, above all, old plumage. I believe
that possibly five of the twenty “cull” hens will prove to
be good layers.

“To often people cull their flocks and, after keeping the
culls a few days and getting no eggs, conclude that they
have certainly identified the poor producers, and dispose
of them as such, failing to correlate all the principles of
culling and failing also to take into consideration the fact
that probably many of these hens were not in condition
to be culled at the time they were examined.”

Pigment tests are most reliable when applied to ex-
tremes—that is, hens that are characterized by bright
yellow vent, eye ring, beak, and shanks, are reasonably
certain to be nonlayers, whether observed in June or
October. Similarly, those hens that at any time are
quite noticeably faded out in these sections are almost
certainly laying heavily. Whether such should be
classed as high producers however, will be determined to
some extent by the season of the year in which the ob-
servations are taken. For example, if a flock is scored
for production during June, the observer is apt to include
among the good layers many hens that have laid only
during the natural season and whose total or yearly pro-
duction is quite small. Later in the season, or from
August to October, these poor layers are rarely produc-
tive, and only the best layers in the flock are laying at
this time, consequently, if the birds are scored for pro-
ductiveness then, those that are thoroughly bleached out,
showing that they are still laying, will be found to be the
most persistent producers in the flock, and hence the ones
that have the largest egg yields to their credit.

FIG. 102—PARTIAL VIEW OF

BUILDINGS AND YARDS AT

VINELAND EGG LAYING CONTEST

THE VALUE OF PIGMENTATION TESTS IN CULLING 71

As an illustration of the degree of accuracy realized at
different seasons in pigment tests, also of the relative
value of color tests as applied to vent, beak, and shanks,
the following data from Circular 197 of the California
Experiment Station are given:

“These tables which were compiled from observations
made during the spring and summer of 1917 upon trap
nested S. C. White Leghorns of different ages as they
would be found in a typical flock, show in detail how yel-
low-color observations compare with actual trap-nest
records. The trap-nest records are for the year ending
August 31, 1917, which represents about the normal lay-
ing year from molt to molt. While these tables indicate
considerable iraccuracy in color observations as compared
with actual trap-nest performance, especially as regards
the medium and poor layers, the general trend of the re-

rations fed, age of fowls, yarding conditions, ete.
Leghorn hens in confinement, and given a_ ration
limited in pigment will lose their yellow color in all sec-
tions at a much more rapid rate than will fowls of the
larger breeds. It has been found at Cornell that with
Leghorns in close confinement, the fading of the skin
around the vent progresses far enough to be distinctly
noticeable by the time the first egg is laid. Bearing in
mind the fact that it requires, in the neighborhood of
two weeks for the complete development of an egg yolk,
and remembering the explanation of Professors Palmer
and Kempster to the effect that activity in the oviduct
promptly diverts the course of excretion of pigment from
the skin to the ovary, it will readily be seen how this
may occur. Under extreme conditions a few days of
laying are sufficient to bleach out the eye ring, ear lobe,
and the base of the beak, and the entire beak may be-

TABLE

Showing How Yellow-Color Observations Made On S. C. White Leghorn Hens Of Varied Ages Compare With Their Average Trap-
nest Records For The Laying Year Ending August 31, 1917.

Shade Shanks Beak

Date of No. Aver. No. Aver
observed color hens eggs hens eggs
(G24: (oe ARR aera] 290 147.2 294 140.8
ian 5 1 Ae (Meéditim -.<ésse0020 163 148.5 136 150.3
(Mellowi "2 cs.-00-000 65 132.8 78 134.4
Cale Ts ceesacineein es 364 157.4 370 158.1
(ok) b 2 (Medium 36 132.5 27 123.5
(Yellow 8 112.7 8 121.7

CPaler es cosnateanicette.s 202 161.5 196 164
WeQQ AP esata salcrec (Medium .........- 9 139.2 abl 150.3
5 122.5 7 105.5
305 4 271 162.2
74 135.8 Ba 136.0
84 127.4 ° 105 139.2

sults secured is such as to warrant a reasonable measure
of dependence on such observations in culling and grad-
ing for egg production.

“A study of this table would indicate that May is
perhaps somewhat early and September a little late in
this section of the country to secure best results from the
use of yellow-color indications for culling. This is
probably due to the fact that the fowls do not lay enough
eggs before June to affect sufficiently the yellowness of
their shanks; and by September, many of the poor layers
whose production approaches the line of separation be-
tween the culls and the profit-earning hens, have already
begun to slow down rapidly in their laying. The average
production of the pale birds however, is so uniformly
high in the June, July, and September observations as
to show that the better layers may be picked out with
considerable accuracy during these months.”

Pigmentation Changes Shown in Color Plates

On pages 5 to 8 of this book are presented a number
of color plates illustrating pigmentation changes which
indicate different stages in egg production. These plates
were prepared, having in mind the directions already
given, both in this chapter and in Chapter III, for making
pigment tests, and should be carefully studied in order
clearly to understand the changes that take place, and
their practical signifiance. In the footnotes under the
plates, also in the fuller description of them given on
page 9, are estimates of the exact length of laying peri-
od, as determined by amount of pigment present. It
should be understood that these estimates represent gen-
eral averages. In practice there will be rather wide
variations from these estimates occasioned by breeding,

Vent Shanks and Beak Shanks and Vent Total

No. Aver. No. Aver. No. Aver. Total Total
hens eggs hens eges hens eges hens eggs
401 148.7 240 153.6 272 153.1 1,497 150.7
73 145.2 85 149.4 42 150.2 499 148.7
40 135.9 48 131.5 35 130.6 266 133.0
394 157.3 354 158.7 354 157.4 1,836 157.8
7 113.1 15 116.2 aes eae 85 121.3
oe ee 6 118.0 ae aaaes 22 117.5
207 162.8 195 164.3 198 162.9 998 163.1
3 116.3 6 145.8 nate Sora 29 137.9

5 113.2 4 113.2 3 151 24 121.1
271 161.9 262 162.4 273 161.8 1,382 161.3
56 143.6 29 122.2 34 135.4 246 134.6
64 138.3 71 135.7 54 134.1 378 135.0

come free from pigment in much less time than the

estimates given in connection with these color plates.

With fowls of larger breeds and with Leghorns on range,

the estimates given will be found to be fairly accurate.
Summary

The yellow color of skin, beaks, and shanks, in fowls
of the yellow-skinned breeds, is due to the presence of
xanthophyll, a pigment common in certain poultry feeds.

Egg production causes a rapid fading out of this pig-
ment, leaving the naturally yellow section white or pink-
ish white in color.

Carotin (the yellow pigment in carrots, butter, etc.)
has practically no influence on yolk or skin color.

Rate at which pigment disappears from any section
depends upon the ration, the amount of fat stored up,
and the rapidity of blood circulation.

Hens on grass range do not bleach out as rapidly as
hens in confinement.

The skin around the vent is first to lose its color, fol-
lowed in turn by eye ring, ear lobe, lower mandible, up-
per mandible, and shanks.

Yellow color comes back after laying ceases in the
same order in which it went out, but more rapidly.

According to some observers, yellow pigment is ex-
ereted through the skin in the case of noniayers, but is
promptly diverted to the ovary when this is active.

Experiments indicate that no yellow pigment will be
deposited in skin, shanks, etc., as long as the fowl is
laying, regardless of how much may be in the ration.

Absence of yellow in naturally yellow-skinned fowls
indicates a long laying period, but not necessarily the
laying of a large number of eggs.

Accuracy of pigment tests depends upon skill of oper-
ator and on the season.

Pigment tests in the fall are more apt to be accurate
than in summer, but are fairly accurate for extremes at
any season.

CHAPTER IX

How Egg Production Is Affected by Cycle and Rhythm, Rest Period,
Broodiness, Weight, Etc.

Many Apparently Unimportant Characters are Closely Correlated With Productiveness in Fowls—Meaning of Rhythm
and Cycle, and How These May Indicate Future Production—How the Summer Rest Period
and Weight of Fowls Limit the Number of Eggs Produced—Method of
Estimating Production by Weight of Eggs Laid

HERE are various characters or peculiarities
in egg production that have a more or less
direct bearing upon the number of eggs laid
by fowls, and some perhaps that are as help-
ful in estimating their productiveness as are

pigment, pelvic arch, and capacity tests. Usually they

require an exact knowledge of individual performance for

a longer or shorter period, such as is afforded by trap-

nest records. While not, therefore, practicable for the use

of the average poultry keeper, some of these tests are
highly interesting and valuable, even though some still
are in the experimental stage.

The cycle and rhythm in which the individual fowl pro-
duces eggs is an especially valuable index to her fecundity.
By cycle, as the word is commonly used, is meant the num-
ber of consecutive days during which a hen lays without
missing a day, while “rhythm” means the regularity and
the promptness with which the cycles are repeated. In
order to observe cycle and rhythm, trap nests are neces-
sary, or daily physical tests as described in Chapter VII.

In every flock the hens with the poorest cycles and
rhythm will almost invariably be the poorest layers, but
the exact character of their cycles and rhythm, perhaps
even the fowls’ relative standing as producers, will be de-
termined quite largely by whether or not conditions are
reasonably favorable, not only for the flock as a whole,
but for individual requirements. Many fowls, because of
timidity or lack of adaptability to the ration regularly

New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station
NOVEMBER }, 1916 OCTOBER 31, 1919

VINELAND INTERNATIONAL EGG LAYING AND BREEDING CONTEST

fed, never get a chance to develop cycles and rhythm that
fairly represent them. This really has no practical bear-
ing upon the matter, however. The mere fact that they
are not able to function normally under conditions that
permit other fowls to do so is a good-enough reason for
discarding them.

Professor H. R. Lewis of the N. J. Experiment Station,
having the trap-nested pens of the Vineland Egg Laying
Contest under his supervision, is in an exceptionally fav-
orable position for studying cycle and’‘rhythm. His meth-
od of utilizing these in estimating production is described
in the following article:

Observations on Cycle and Rhythm at the

New Jersey Experiment Station

The Well-known Differences in Egg Records Made by
Hens Are Largely Due to Distinct Variations in
Their Inherent Ability as Producers— This
Ability Appears to Be Indicated by
the Cycle and Rhythm in
Which Eggs Are Laid

By PROF. H. R. LEWIS
E have had an exceptionally good opportunity to
WwW study the relation of cycle and rhythm to egg
production through the records secured at the
Vineland contest, and have come to attach quite a good
deal of importance to this.

By cycle is meant the number of eggs which a bird
lays successively without a skip. Hens have two-egg
three-egg cycles, and longer.
Leghorns generally lay with a very
regular rhythm, but short cycles fre-
quently repeated. The American

cycles,

VARIETY 8.c White Leghorn. i] RECORD 1st eYEAR

breeds generally have longer cycles

Owner OOkLand Parme

with longer rest periods.

Owner's Aol

By rhythm is meant the frequency

Sato

or order in which the cycles are re-

peated. For example, in November

and December, as the pullets start to

lay, we find one which lays one egg

and skips a day, one egg and skips,

repeating this performance regular-
ly. We may say that she is a 50 per
cent producer. On the other hand,

if we find a hen which lays three

eggs, skips a day, three eggs, skips

a day, and repeats this cycle and

rhythm with great regularity, we

L- Dare t We GH i Dare [

nov t | Bed v1

et ee

Man ft 4.2 or 3!

r ae tT [ = I sian a _ ~ a i aheomea
May I — t >=

may say this hen is a 75 per cent pro-
ducer, and far superior as a winter

FIG. 1033—EGG RECORD OF A HEN WITH POOR CYCLES
Courtesy of the New Jersey Experiment Station.

— layer to the 50 per cent bird. Again
we frequently find hens which lay an
egg and skip two or three days, lay

HOW EGG PRODUCTION IS AFFECTED BY

another egg and skip three days. Such birds are only
25 per cent producers, and are very poor specimens to
keep for sustained production. We are convinced that
the trapping of pullets in their laying year and the de-
termination of their cycle and rhythm is one of the best
methods by which we can foretell, in a practical way, the
probable future production of the individual being studied.

By way of illustrating cycle and rhythm, the daily
egg records of three contest hens are reproduced in Figures
103, 104, and 105 which show clearly the way in which

New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station
NOVEMBER 1, 1916 OCTOBER 31, 1919

VINELAND INTERNATIONAL EGG LAYING AND BREEDING CONTEST

CYCLE AND RHYTHM, REST PERIOD, ETC.

On the Rhythm of Egg Production

Hens, Particularly if Good Layers, Tend to Produce Eggs
According to a More or Less Regular Schedule as
to Time of Day—-Rhythm Appears to Be
Independent of Egg Formation

BY DR. H. D. GOODALE*

DITORIAL NOTE—The author of this article was

one of the first to note the rhythmic nature of egg
production, and his observations here recorded shed much
light on this subject. To avoid pos-
sible confusion, it may be well to ex-
plain that the term “rhythm” is not
here used in quite the same sense as

73

VARIET | Recoro

Pen No

2 in the article by Prof. Lewis. There

__| Bano No

627 is, however, no contradiction between

Owner HOLlistom Hill Poultry Farm.

the two. Dr. Goodale recognizes a

Owner's ADDRESS
Owners Aooress HOD

“daily rhythm” and larger “superim-

posed rhythm’. In Professor Lewis’

article, and in common usage, the
“daily rhythm” now is called “cycle”,
“rhythm” being used to indicate the

rate of repetition of “cycles”, or the
“superimposed rhythm” as here de-

HE term rhythm of egg produc-

seribed by Dr. Goodale.
tion is used rather than rate,

in order to emphasize the

rhythmical character of egg extru-

sion. Although true that the ob-
served rhythm is by no means regu-

lar, still each hen often tends to pro-
duce eggs according to a fairly char-

acteristic rhythm. Superimposed on

FIG. 10#-EGG RECORD OF A LAYING HEN WITH GOOD CYCLES

Courtesy of the New Jersey Experiment Stati

cycle and rhythm may be used as a measure of produc-
tion.

Fig. 103 shows a bird with very poor winter produc-
tion and with no tendency toward development of cycle
and rhythm. In the natural laying season, or from March
to April, she attained a fairly good production, though
showing an undesirable and ununi-
form production.

Fig. 104 shows a better hen, one

the daily rhythm are evidences of
other rhythms having a beat measur-
ed by months or years. Of course,
from another standpoint, egg production is a more or less
continuous process.

Rhythm as Shown by Time of Day the Egg Is Laid

The time of day at which the eggs have been collected
from the trap nests has been recorded at half-hour inter-

on.

*Journal of American Association of Instructors and Investigators
in Poultry Husbandry, Vol. 1, No. 3.

| VINELAND INTERNATIONAL EGG LAYING AND BREEDING CONTEST

New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station
NOVEMBER 1. 1916 OCTOBER 31, 1919

T

which early indicated a tendency to ||_vsnery $C, White Leghorne Recoro L_ Bt evean eh Penno 88 =
produce an egg every other day | owes JePeroy Van Zandte an <— Bano no 9890 _

through the winter, and which, in the _Ownen's Ao
spring, maintained a fairly sustained |

cycle and rhythm, laying three eggs
and skipping one day with a good de-
gree of uniformity.

Fig. 105 shows an exceptionally
fine example of pullet development

with a good laying cycle and uniform
rhythm. It will be noted that this
hen started in November, regularly

laying three or four eggs with only
a skip of one day, and maintained

xy YI Sfariselectsdseie iia anal
this with great uniformity throughout |--"— | IXIX | KIX] XK) GX IK AX CX XK P| IF 230 |
the year, increasing the length of the SS ee a | REMDNE —_
eyele during the heavy producing ||‘! | 3.4 pe 3.6 | Mowit Sept.1st
season, or in March and April, drop- fein | Se@e lee: (Pat 7
ping back again toward the four-egg 3.8 | 3.6 | : 7
cycle in June and July. Birds which |-“*7}~*~ 70 Sy _weh_+ oo
develop such long and pronounced 1 | S68 | | as 7 oe
!

cycles in the winter of their pullet
laying year are almost without excep-
tion remarkable producers.

FIG. 105—GO¢

9D CYCLES WITH FREQUENT AND UNIFORM RHYTHM

Courtesy of the New Jersey Experiment Station

74 PROFITABLE CULLING AND SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

vals, and as they are collected at least every hour and a
half, the time when collected represents approximately
the time when the egg was dropped. This data has not
yet been reduced, but some interesting facts are easily
observed on inspection.

Most hens lay for a period of several days and then
skip one. The first day of a series the hen lays early in
the morning. The time she lays the next day depends
largely on the character of her particular rhythm. If
the rhythm is such that she lays only every other day,
she usually lays about the same time each day, i. e. 10,
0, 11, 0, 10, 0, 11. If she lays two days out of three, the

first egg is laid during the morning and the second dur-
As

ing the afternoon, i. e. 10, 3, 0, 10, 2, 0, 9, 1, 5, 0.

Rhythm and High Egg Production

Pearl found on the basis of winter egg production
that his birds fell into three classes, viz., high, mediocre,
and zero producers. The dividing line between the high
and mediocre producers came at about 30 eggs. Our
statistics are in essential agreement with this statement.
Observation, however, shows great variation in the num-
ber of eggs laid by birds in the over-30 class. Brood-
iness, age, and time at which laying commences in the
fall all influence the number of eggs laid. But aside
from these factors, birds of the same age, beginning to
lay at approximately the same time, and which do not
become broody, do not lay at the same rate.

Here are two full sisters, hatched the same day, one
of which, after making due allowance
for the advantage gained by a two
weeks’ start of the better bird, laid
43 against 69. The records show that
one bird laid only about every other
day, while the second laid about 5
days out of 6. The rhythm, then, is
an important factor in determining
| the absolute number of eggs laid.

Rhythm and High Egg Production

The curve of the winter egg pro-
| duetion of our flock does not slope
| evenly to the base line, but forms a
| shoulder at 70-80 eggs. This should-
er I take to be an indication, from a
genetic standpoint, of a group of in-
dividuals differing genotypically in
their capacity for egg production
from the remainder of the high class.
The existence of this group must be
due in part to the high frequency
pullets. Various causes may inter-
fere with the normal rhythm, such
as environment, season, method of
management, and interna] factors, as

FIG. 10e-HOW CYCLES AND RHYTHM ARE PRODUCED i ;

This illustration shows the egg organs, the ovaries removed, and 60-day records of broodiness. The inheritance of egg
six hens. Hen No. 1 had cycles of good length (as is shown by her daily record) and good rhythm is a subject on which we have
rhythm. Hen No. 6 had neither good cycles nor rhythm. Hen No. 3 had good cycles but Oe 7
with a poor rhythm, while hens Nos. 4 and 5 had good rhythm but poor cycles. Hen No. 2, little data. Full sisters, however,
while a good producer, was irregular in both cycles and rhythm. The varying number of Ps : .
yolks in the ovaries andi the different stages of their development explain the cause of may lay at different rates so that if
variations in cycle and rhythm. Photo from Dr. C. T. Patterson. rhythm is inherited it indicates segre-

the period lengthens, the number laid in the morning in-
creases until the larger proportion are laid before noon.
Thus: 8). 9,710; *10; 10; 1029) 10.95. 11, 5. 21. at:
2, 2,4, 0. There is, however, much variation.

Types of Rhythm

As a working basis, we may assume an egg a day as
a standard rhythm, and, although this rhythm is rarely
reached for extended periods, we may refer the observed
rhythm to it. Some hens lay every other day or, we
may say, a 1-2 rhythm, others 2-3, i. e. 2 days out of 3,
others 3-4, and so on.
repeated without the intervention of a zero day.

None of these types are characteristic of any one hen.
Many individuals, however, seem to center about a par-
ticular rhythm, e. g. 2-3. While these individuals may fall
to the 1-2 type, they do not often, except in the spring,
exceed the 3-4 type. While little stress can be laid on
this point, it is interesting to note this tendency partic-
ularly in certain individuals.

Occasionally the series may be

gation.

Rhythm Independent of Formation and Growth of an Egg
One of the most interesting things in connection with
the rhythm of egg production as observed by Pearl is the
existence of hens which never lay an egg, but which visit
the nests according to a definite rythm. We are able
to add to this record for we find the hours of such visits
fall into the same sort of rhythm as normal hens. These
facts point strongly to the existence of some mechanism
other than the formation and depositation of an egg which
controls the extrusion of the egg. It is interesting to note
that if one of these hens is removed from the nest before
she is ready ‘to leave, she returns and persists in doing so
until, shall we say, she thinks she has laid her egg.
Laying hens often visit the nest at the proper day and
hour, but fail to lay. Such hens usually lay the day
previous and the day after in regular routine, though at
times they may pay two or more such nonproductive
One hen laid well during the winter,
and then stopped producing eggs although continuing

visits in succession.

HOW EGG PRODUCTION IS AFFECTED BY CYCLE AND RHYTHM, REST PERIOD, ETC. 75

to visit the nest in about the same rhythm as when laying.
(In Chapter XVI the reader will find a physiological ex-
planation of how the foregoing may occur.—Ed.)

Ht
ot
H
ttt
4
i
HEH seth
se

fe

eggs. Out of 422 birds which rested from 1 to 70 days
(a comparatively short rest) there were only 75 which
did not lay over 150 eggs. A curve drawn over the cor-
relation table would show that as
the days of rest decrease the num-
ber of eggs increases. It will be
noted that every bird which rested
more than 130 days, with the ex-
ception of only one individual, did

not lay over 150 eggs. So it may
be said that the number of eggs
laid by a hen in a year is in defi-
nite direct proportion to the length
of her rest period during the sum-
mer. It is also an assured fact
that the earlier a hen starts to rest

aH
8
3s

TA
ee

TH

in summer the longer will be her
rest period. Hence, by culling ‘the

hens which rest early in the sum-
mer, say from June to the middle

FIG. 1077—AVERAGE WEIGHT OF FOWLS OF DIFFERENT BREEDS AS ENTERED
IN THE VINELAND EGG LAYING AND BREEDING CONTEST

As explained in this chapter, fowls of approximately standard weight for the breed
that weight.
Rhode Island Reds,
Courtesy of the New Jersey Experi-

lay better than those that are noticeably above or below

shows the average monthly weight of the Leghorns,
Plymouth Rocks entered in the New Jersey Contest.
ment Station.

The Rest Period in Relation to Egg
Production

There Is a Distinct Correlation Between the Length of the
Average Hen’s Summer Rest Period and the Num-
ber of Eggs Produced by Her During Year—

Body Weight and Broodiness Also
Are Important Factors
BY PROFESSOR H. R. LEWIS

ITH the exception of extremely high producers,
WwW practically all layers have periods of nonproduc-

tiveness of greater or less length, commonly
called the “rest period’. The average bird molts a part
or all of her feathers during these periods. The frequency
and the duration of these vary greatly with individual
fowls, and in order to determine whether there is any
correlation between the length of the rest period and egg
production, a careful study was made of the short-time
periods in the Vineland Egg Laying and Breeding Contest
with reference to this character. A particular object in
doing this was to determine just what would be the loss
as regards total egg production, if the birds that took
a summer vacation were disposed of on the basis of that
test but that, if retained in the flock, would have come
back into laying again later in the season. In other
words, this study was with special reference to the prob-
able losses due to early culling.

The correlation table shown on this page indicates quite
clearly that there is a positive and clear-cut correlation
between the shortness of the rest period and the number
of eggs laid. Leghorns only are represented in this table
(Fig. 108), but data at hand show the same correlation
existing in the production of heavy breeds.

In studying the table, it will be noted that out of a
total population of 532 birds, 347 laid over 150 eggs and
rested only from 1 to 70 days, while out of 120 birds
which rested longer than 70 days only 30 laid over 150

of August, we are automatically
eliminating the poor hens or those
which rest a long time and which
lay less than 150 eggs. Again, by
keeping those hens which lay late
and which do not rest until about
the first of September, we keep
those hens which lay a relatively
large number of eggs.

At the bottom of the correlation table will be seen
figures which show the number of hens coming back into
laying following a summer rest period taken before No-
vember Ist. It will be seen that out of 56 hens resting
from 1 to 10 days, only one came into laying again. But
what is of even greater significance and importance is
the fact, as shown by these figures, that out of the 532
birds which took a rest period from June Ist to Novem-
ber Ist, only 45 came back into laying again by November
1st and these 45 succeeded in laying only 135 eggs, or an
average of 3 eggs per bird.

The horizontal column at the bottom of each table,
marked “Weighted Average”, gives the average egg pro-
duction of the number of birds falling in each particular
group. For instance, in the table showing the correla-

This graph
Wyandottes, and

CORRELATION OF EGG PRODUCTION WITH LENGTE
OF SUMMER REST PERIOD

Leghorns

o So 8

Se a
° Oo © oOo o Oo rt
a) a oe Se hie 1) oe ete es
Piet 2 eg ee SN) Sl ee aes
[( w@oad a
Fre Seether Ge coe os Sie ict art

£60 ee BEBE YEAR

: e :
> fb ro re)
a Seats

in

a

a

of

:
re

FIG. 108—CORRELATION OF EGG PRODUCTION WITH
REST PERIOD

This table shows clearly the rapid decrease in the number

of productive fowls as the length of the rest period increases.
“Rest period” means the time during which the hens were not
laying, regardless of whether they were broody or not. Cour-

tesy of the New Jersey Experiment Station.

76 PROFITABLE CULLING AND SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

tion of egg production with length of summer rest period,
we find that the weighted average production for the 56
birds taking: a rest period of from one to ten days was
224 eggs. Likewise, in the second group, there were 35
birds taking a rest period of from eleven to twenty days.
The weighted average production of these 35 birds was
206 eggs.

SORRELATION OF PRODUCTION WITH BODY WEIGHT
HEAVY BREEDS
Weight In Pounds

SJ]

z _EGG PRODUCTI ON-PULLET oY RAR,

FIG.

109—CORRELATION
WEIGHTS—HEAVY BREEDS

OF PRODUCTION WITH BODY

This table is prepared to illustrate the statement made else-
where in this chapter to the effect that hens approximating stand-
ard weight are more productive than those that are much over or
under weight. Breeds represented are Plymouth Rocks, Wyan-
dottes, and Rhode Island Reds. Courtesy of the New Jersey Ex-
periment Station.

We note that as the days of rest periods increase, due
to molting in the late summer, the weighted average pro-
duction for the birds in each succeeding group DE-
CREASES until we find that 21 birds resting over 131
days have a weighted average per bird of only 83 eggs.

It seems to be an assured fact that the culling of
hens that stop laying and take a rest period in the early
summer is a safe practice, for by so doing the low-pro-
ducing hens naturally are sold and the expense of car-
ing for these fowls is eliminated. Futhermore, it is
entirely possible to detect hens that have stopped laying
and have gone into their rest period, by studying cer-
tain external characters. The culling of hens by exter-
nal characters is bound to take a more and more impor-
tant place in poultry management. It is one of the sur-
est and quickest means of reducing cost of production.

Correlation of Production With Body Weights

According to the records at the Vineland Egg Laying
and Breeding Contest, there is a rather distinct corre-
lation between body weight and production. It was found
there that among the light breeds, chiefly Leghorns, the
best producers were fowls whose weight ranged from
three to four pounds. Fowls weighing less than three
pounds or over four and one-half were comparatively in-
ferior producers.

With reference to the larger breeds it was found that
the best producers were within the weights of five and
seven and one-half pounds, the latter weight applying
particularly to .Plymouth Rocks. In other words, the
standard size for such breeds as Plymouth Rocks, Wyan-
dottes, R. I. Reds, ete., are approximately the weights
within which the best production within the breed is
secured. Using the records of the Vineland Egg Laying
and Breeding Contest as a basis, Professor Lewis of the

‘than this are less productive.

New Jersey Experiment Station has had prepared two
tables showing the correlation between the weights of
the light and heavy breeds (see Figs..109 and 110) and
their production during their first and second years. He
states that “We find that the Leghorns averaging 3 1-2
to 4 pounds are the best producers; that smaller birds
In our heavy breeds the
same thing is true—namely, that the nearer the required
standard weight they can be bred, apparently the better
producers on the average they will be.”

Relation of Broodiness to Egg Production

Poultry keepers who have fowls that become broody
find that, in addition to the annoyance of having to care
for them and break them up, the time spent in broodiness
often represents a definite loss in production. A number
of attempts have been made to show the loss of time
or of production due to the fowls becoming broody. This.
subject has been quite thoroughly studied at the New
Jersey Experiment Station, using the records secured at
the Vineland Egg Laying and Breeding Contest, and the
charts prepared (see Figs. 111 and 112) show the ap-
parent loss of time due to broodiness in Plymouth Rocks,
Wyandottes, and R. I. Reds, as compared with Leghorns.

It should be borne in mind, however, that in actual
practice there may not be quite as much difference be-
tween the heavy and light breeds in this respect as ap-
pears on the surface. Leghorns spend about as much
time resting during the laying season as do the larger
breeds but, because they do not become broody or rarely
so, the fact is not so apparent. A great deal depends
upon the care that the poultry keeper gives to his fowls
and the promptness with which broodiness is broken up.
If the hens are promptly removed from the nests as soon
as they show signs of becoming broody, and are placed
in suitable coops or similar quarters where they will
have no opportunity to sit, they will soon change their
minds, and in a comparatively short time will resume lay-~
ing again. If neglected, however, and allowed to sit on
the nest week after week, there is no question about the
fact that their average production for the year will be
seriously cut down.

To show that the time spent in broodiness does not
necessarily represent a definite loss in production, with
proper management, but rather a simple rest period such
as is taken also by the nonsitting Leghorns, the follow-

CORRELATION OF PRODUCTION WITH BODY WEIGHT
LIGHT BREEDS
Weight In Pounds

inn rimae ec
[| T faro] [real 264

110—CORRELATION OF PRODUCTION WITH BODY
WEIGHTS—LIGHT BREEDS

Fowls represented in the above table are chiefly Leghorns. It
is quite clear from this table that the most productive birds in
the light breeds are those whose weight is around 3 1-2 to 4 lbs.
Courtesy of the New Jersey Experiment Station.

x
Zz
i=)
o
ae
=
a
co
a
me
f&

FIG.

HOW EGG PRODUCTION IS AFFECTED BY

ing table has been prepared from data secured in the
Sixth National Egg Laying Contest at Mountain
Grove, Missouri. Commenting on these data, Direc-
tor Noland states: “I donot think broodiness has
very much to do with egg production. A hen may be an
extra-good layer and although she may go broody a num-
ber of times in the season, yet she will finish with a good
egg record. Usually a high-laying hen, when broody,
will begin laying again in a week or ten days after being
broken up, if properly cared for, and this period repre-
sents nothing more than a reasonable rest period—no
more than is taken by the nonsitting breeds, as a rule.
I think the length of the brooding period, however, is de-
termined quite largely by the individual rather than the
breed. It appears to be a matter of strain rather than
of breed.”

TABLE SHOWING CORRELATION BETWEEN BROODINESS
AND EGG PRODUCTION

No. Per Cent Average Per Cent
Hens Broodi- Eggs of 200-
Variety ness Egg Hens
Plymouth Rocks ....... 55 198 176 29.1
Rhode Island Reds 40 278 182.4 37.5
Wyandottes : 25 164 184 31
BP Oe TSO tic cura ctaisiclatensasrerseces 70 19.5 178.3 28.6
The data in above table were secured during the Sixth An-
nual National Egg Laying Contest at Mountain Grove, Missouri
It will be seen by comparing the average egg production of differ

ent breeds represented that, in spite of the much greater percent

age of broodiness among the heavy breeds, they still averaged to
lay fully as well as the Leghorns, and even exceeded them a little
in percentage of 200-egg layers

As a matter of convenience and of efficiency in the
poultry yard, the breeder naturally will aim to eliminate
the most persistently broody ‘hens in his flock and those
that become broody at frequent intervals, though care
should be taken that in so doing he does not also throw
out some of his best layers.

At What Age Do Fowls Cease To Be Profitably
Productive?

In the average flock there is a distinct correlation be-
tween the percentages of pullets and hens comprising it
and the net income realized by the owner. This is due
to the fact that, while a certain proportion of hens must
be kept for breeding, the pullets are much more productive.

While there are many hens that reach their highest
annual production in their second or even their third lay-

i

mE]

{

FIG. 111I-DIAGRAM SHOWING NUMBER OF DAYS LOST BY

BROODY HENS DURING A YEAR

Note in this diagram that while the per cent of broodiness is
less the second year than the first (see Fig. 112), the number of
days lost per hen is greater in the second year. In other words,
one-year-old hens are harder to “break up” than pullets. Courtesy
of the New Jersey Experiment Station.

CYCLE AND RHYTHM, REST PERIOD, ETC. 77
ing year, there is, on the average, a marked falling off
in the number of eggs produced each year after the first.
At the Utah Experiment Station the average production
of unselected Leghorn flocks was found to be as follows:

Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 if 8
No. of Eggs 124 119 106 82 74 66 51 52

Ree PEE
SMM Fist Year Fer Cent Broody of Total
L HES Second Year| || Mamber in.Breed.

1122—DIAGRAM SHOWING RELATIVE PERCENTAGE OF
BROODY HENS IN DIFFERENT BREEDS

Contrary to what would naturally be expected, the per cent of
broody hens to total number is smaller in the second year than
in the first. The data represented in this diagram, also in the
diagram shown in Fig. 111, were secured at the Vineland Egg Lay-
ing Contest. Courtesy of the New Jersey Experiment Station.

FIG.

The percentage of decrease from year to year appears
to be much greater in heavy-laying flocks. The bulletin
from which the foregoing figures are taken (Utah Bul-
letin 148) states that the average production of selected
Leghorn flocks (including data from various laying con-
tests) was 180 the first year, 146 the second, and 119 the
third. Among fowls of the larger breeds the annual
decrease in production is considerably greater than in
Leghorn flocks. In the bulletin just referred to, the pro-
duction of selected flocks of general-purpose breeds is
given as 177 for the first year, 116 for the second, and
93 for the third

A study of these figures will make plain why the com-
mercial poultry keeper seldom keeps hens beyond the
end of their second laying season, unless they are to be
used in breeding pens. It is true that individual fowls
often prove to be better layers in their second and even
in their third year than in their first, due to their being
hatched late or to other conditions that were not favor-
able to maximum production the first year. The hen
shown in Fig. 113, for example, has the remarkable trap-
nest record given in footnote. It clearly would have been
a mistake to have disposed of her as a poor layer at the
end of her first year. It is very doubtful, however, wheth-
er the number of such hens is large enough to make it
worth while for the practical poultry keeper to take
them into consideration, especially since few have any
means of identifying such individuals. Another reason
for disposing of hens at a comparatively early age, that
is even more important than the falling off in total num-
ber of eggs produced, is the fact that the profit realized
from yearling or older hens rarely equals that secured
in their pullet year, since, even though such hens may lay
a fair number of eggs, these are produced mainly dur-
ing the low-price season.

78 PROFITABLE CULLING AND SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

Selecting Fowls by the “Patterson Index”

Relative Accuracy of Different Methods of Testing Hens
for Productiveness Compared—This Article Also
Presents a Method of Determining a Hen’s
Probable Egg Record Where Her
Productiveness for a Short
Period is Definitely
Known
By DR. C. T. PATTERSON

NE of the most important subjects connected with
O the poultry business is the subject of selection, and

the ability of the poultryman properly to select
for a definite purpose usually determines the degree of
his success. The continuous process of selection practiced
by nature on both plants and animals, which results in the
“survival of the fittest”, is not a good practice for the
farmer or poultryman, for weeds will survive and corn be
destroyed if natural selection is followed; and if a large

FIG. 113-A HEN WITH A REMARKABLE EGG LAYING
RECORD

Some hens do not have an opportunity to do their best work
the first year, due to late hatching or unfavorable environment.
The hen illustrated above (Cornell No. D1437) has the following
trap-nest records 1915-16, 114 eggs; 1916-17, 193; 1917-18, 186;
1918-19, 158. Photo from Cornell University.

number of chicks are crowded together tili nature selects
the stronger and destroys the weaker, the birds of high
production suffer most.

In the development of poultry many ideals have been
fixed, each calling for a different method of selection.
Some of the characters for which poultrymen select and
breed are:—The production of eggs, meat, color, size,
shape, vitality, etc., and some characters of less impor-
tance, such as broodiness, disposition, etc. Each of
these characters requires special attention. In this ar-
ticle selection for productiveness alone is considered.

Every one who has observed the performance of hens
recognizes the fact that there is a great variation in the
production of different hens in the same flock. The prob-
lem which concerns most poultrymen is how to select the
high and low producers, the former to be used as breeders
and the latter to be removed from the flock.

Methods of selection for productiveness may be divided
into two general classes. The first class includes methods
employed where the bird itself is examined and the char-
acters used as a guide in selection, while for the other
ciass trap nests are used for longer or shorter periods.

Accuracy of Physical Tests

The first method we will notice is where the number
of hens is reduced simply by catching the number
to be sold without any definite plan in mind, except to
have fewer hens. This is purely a guess and probably
would be 50 per cent accurate, i. e., 50 per cent of whatever
number was sold would be good hens and 50 per cent would
be poor producers.

The Hogan System deals principally with the pelvic
bones on each side of the vent, the ability of the hen to
perform being measured by the shape, thinness, and rig-
idity of these bones. The value of this system was de-
termined in a special test in the All-Northwest Egg
Laying Contest, where Mr. Hogan handled the hens and
estimated the number of eggs each bird would lay. The
accuracy of the estimates was determined in the following
manner: The number of eggs produced by each hen, as
recorded by the trap nest during the year, was taken as
100 per cent and any variation from this number was
considered an error in Mr. Hogan’s estimates. To illus-
trate,—if a hen produced 150 eggs and the estimate was
200 eggs, the estimate was 50 eggs in error which is 33 1-3
per cent of the 150, therefore this estimate was 66 2-3
per cent accurate. After the per cent of accuracy for
each hen was thus determined they were all averaged
which gave an average of 64 per cent accuracy.

The time when hens molt is sometimes used as a guide
in selecting the high and low producers. The basis used
in determining the value of this method is that the later
the hens molt the higher the production, and the earlier
they molt the lower the production. In a concrete test of
this method we allowed the last two weeks of October for
the normal molt so that hens which molted, or rather
stopped laying on account of the molt, during the last two
weeks of October, were considered average with a pro-
duction of 150 eggs each, which was the average for the
2,000 hens tested. For each day the hen continued to lay
after November lst, three eggs were added to the 150,
and for each day the hen missed before October 15th on
account of the molt, three eggs were taken from the 150.
In this test selection by molt proved to be 68 per cent
accurate. It should be noted that broodiness, feed, houses,
health, etc., affect the molt so that in making a compara-
tive test, hens should be kept under the same conditions.

Another method often used is to select the winter lay-
ers as the high producers. In one test the average pro-
duction per hen in a flock of 2,000 hens was 25 eggs for
November, December, January, and February, and the
average for the year was 150. It was found that for each
egg laid during these months the hen would lay six eggs
during the year, hence by multiplying each hen’s produc-
tion during November, December, January, and February
by six, her total year’s production can be approximated.
In a careful test this method was found to be 69 per cent
accurate.

The shank-color test is often used with hens which
have yellow shanks. The fowls whose shanks bleached
out first were considered the highest producers, and the
ones which retained the yellow color the longest were

HOW EGG PRODUCTION IS AFFECTED BY

considered the lowest, etc.
per cent accurate.

The shank-color test when applied on the 15th of
March, April, and May proved to be the most satisfactory
of any of the tests where the trap nests were not used.
The test was applied as follows: On the 15th of March
all hens in the flock which had yellow shanks were banded,
then on April 15th all hens with yellow shanks were
banded, and again on May 15th the same process was
followed. All hens with three bands on were of course
the lowest producers, the ones with two bands on were
the next higher, the ones with one band were the next,
while the ones with no bands on were the highest. The
test applied in this way is about 82 per cent accurate.
All fowls were kept under the same conditions and start-
ed with good, rich yellow shanks.

This method proved to be 70

Another method often practiced is selecting by weight.
In applying this test, fowls having the weights fixed by
the “American Standard of Perfection’? were taken as
the highest producers, and one-fourth pound was used as
a seale for recording variations. The farther the weight
varied from the standard, up or down, the lower the pro-
duction was considered. The hens were weighed only
three times during the year which is not a good basis for
averaging the weights. The results given however, in-
dicate that to select by weight alone is about 60 per cent
accurate.

Another test often used is to select the earliest ma-
turing pullets as the highest producers, taking November
first as the beginning date. This method proved to be
65 per cent accurate. A difficulty in using this test is
the different ages of pullets.

Short Period Trap-nest Records

The second class or group of methods of selection is
the interpretation of trap-nest records. Through use
or custom the year has become the standard measure of
a hen’s production. Every one familiar with trap-nest
records recognizes the fact that one year is not a true
measure of a hen’s performance. The value of one
year’s record as a basis for selection is estimated by
comparing each hen’s record for one year with her record
for four years. The results indicate that the first year’s
trap-nest record is only 72 per cent accurate, the second
year’s trap-nest record is 79 per cent
accurate, while the third year’s trap-
nest record is 81 per cent accurate. It

CYCLE AND RHYTHM, REST PERIOD, ETC. 79

eggs in a cycle, and after missing only one day pro-
duces another cycle of equal length and continues at
this rate for at least sixty days, is a high-producing hen.
She has proven that she has ability to produce eggs at a
rapid rate and has a constitution which is strong enough
to hold up under heavy production. The sixty days cover
a period long enough to demonstrate whether the hen
will be affected by broodiness, the increase or decrease of
fat, or any change in climatic or weather conditions.
Through a careful study of the cycle and rhythm of egg
production the Patterson Index Method of Selection was
developed. This method when compared with either one
or four-year records of hens proved to be 87 per cent ac-
curate, which is the best showing made by any: method
tested.

The Patterson Index Explained

Nature has fixed a tnaximum producing standard of
an egg each day. The hen which produces an egg each
day for thirty days has a perfect rate, and if she contin-
ues to produce at this rate for the next thirty days she
has a perfect persistency, endurance, or ability to con-
tinue. Then multiply the rate by persistency and we get
the life’s production. Thus, a thirty-egg rate multiplied
by a thirty-egg persistency equals 900 eggs which is the
hen’s estimated life production and, as the first year’s
production as an average is one-third of the life’s pro-
duction, the perfect year would be 300 eggs. Now we
have the perfect rate of thirty eggs in thirty days, the
perfect persistency of thirty eggs during the next thirty
days, the perfect life’s production of 900 eggs, and the
perfect first year’s production of 300 eggs.

If a hen produces 24 eggs during thirty days and 25
eggs during the next thirty days, her life’s production
would be 600 eggs and her first year’s record should be
200 eggs. The hen which produces 21 eggs during thirty
days and twenty during the next thirty days has a life
index of 420 eggs or a year’s index of 140 eggs.

The time to make this test is during the spring season
of the first laying year, because it is when the hen is
given every possible advantage that it becomes possible
to measure her ability to perform. If her performance is
measured under adverse conditions such as poor houses,

TABLE ILLUSTRATING PATTERSON INDEX METHOD OF ESTABLISHING

LAYING VALUE OF HENS

will be seen from this that in trap
nesting for one year, only 73 per cent

Jan |Feb |

——

of the good hens are located. In oth-

er words, of the number selected as

Mar| apr May |June guly| Augl sept Oct jl y
$= ; +
18 | Pan eras)
24 | 25

high producers in a term of four
years 28 in ‘every 100 prove poor pro-

ducers, and in every 100 discarded as

poor producers there are 28 that will

prove good layers in the following

year or years.

27 22
22 | 25 20 | 19'|
22| 24 | 21] 21
25125) | 12) | 319
ae 22 | 20
23 | 24 | 21] 16

Cycle and rhythm is a practical

method of selecting high and low pro-

ducers from trap-nest records. The 12 | 12) 18
eyele is the number of eggs a hen 9 21 | 7 | 16
lays without missing a day, while the ree eee

a A i a - ; ;
thythm is the continuation or repeti Table showing record of 10 hens—number of eggs produced each month, the number for
tion of these cycles. The hen which one year and the number for four years. The index value is shown for one year, also for
1] life. For practical work multiply the two highest consecutive months together for the
ays as many as three or more |ife’s index and take one-third of this for one year.

80 PROFITABLE CULLING AND SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

bad feed, and changeable weather, the records would mean
that the hen’s ability was equal to her performance plus
the handicaps; and if the handicaps form an unknown
quantity her performing ability cannot be determined
from such records. But where all advantages are given
to the hen a true measure can be secured of her perform-
ing ability.

There is no arbitrary time for making this test but
the most practical time is to trap nest through March,
April, May, and June, selecting the highest sixty con-
secutive days during this time.

Selecting Heavy Layers By the Weight
of Their Eggs

This Article Suggests a Means of Detecting High and
Low-producing Hens, Doing so by Comparing
the Weights of the Eggs Laid by Them
at Different Seasons
BY DR. PHILIP HADLEY

N connection with a study of the manner of inherit-
if ance of egg-weight in the domestic fowl, conducted

for several years at the Rhode Island Agricultural
Experiment Station, there has been evolved a new method
for the detection of those birds in a flock that are char-
acterized by higher producing ability. The method is
not based upon data involving observed numerical pro-
duction in any way, but upon the tendency on the part
of normal hens to manifest, at certain periods of the year,
a gradual increase or a gradual decline in the size and
weight of the eggs which they lay.

It has been found that when the numerical production
curve of a flock of hens of the same approximate age and
condition, and characterized by mediocre producing abil-
ity, is plotted on monthly ordinates (aside from the mode
of December production of the pullet year, which is some-
times manifested if the hens were hatched very early in
the season or are high producers), two modes appear, one
in April and one in September. These modes, or maxima,
represent the peaks of production for the pullet year.

It has also been found that when the curve of mean
egg-weight is plotted on similar monthly ordinates, two
modal points appear, one in April and the other in Septem-
ber. These weight modes, or weight maxima, are approx-
imately coincident with the production maxima.

When, however, one analyzes the performance of indi-
vidual birds at the period of these maxima, one finds that,
while the majority show an egg-weight which has mark-
edly increased over the mean weight of the first ten eggs
laid at the beginning of the laying year, some have not
shown such an increase, and some have shown an actual
decrease. When the increase or decrease in mean egg-
weight is measured as a percentage-increase or as a per-
centage-decrease, some birds may show an increase of 10
per cent or more while others show a decrease of equal
amount.

The question naturally arose whether the hens which
showed the greater increase in mean egg-weight for April
and for September also manifested the higher productions
for the first laying year. Such correlations were com-

puted and it was learned that in the majority of cases’

the hens which gave the higher percentage-increase in
egg-weight during these months also showed the higher
productions for the year. The flock could easily be
separated into production-groups based upon the per-

centage of increase (or decrease) in mean egg-weight. As
a rule the correlation was more perfect in September than
in April.

Correlations between the percentage of increase in
mean egg-weight and numerical production were also at-
tempted when the former were based upon the mean
weight of ONLY TEN EGGS laid as nearly as possible
at the absolute weight made for April and for Septem-
ber respectively. It was learned from these computations
that the correlation was even more perfect when the
smaller number of eggs was employed in the computa-
tions. The following tables give the results for the
spring and autumnal weight maximum, based on the
“10-weight maxima”, based on the “10-egg test.”

wn ¢ ’ i=}
ages fe 3
og i gn] Sf alee
gisz2 BE ul ilBUpe
ao 8 wo Ae ° eyes
gees 25 faites
oa ORS BS a" 8
saSPE ZzEs x88
10 per cent (increase) . 3 142 eggs
8 per cent (increase) ie 141 eggs
7 per cent (increase) 9 140 eggs
6 per cent (increase) 13 138 eggs
5 per cent (increase) nhs) 127 eggs
4 per cent (increase) 22 126 eggs
3 per cent (increase) 23 125 eggs
2 per cent (increase) rH 123 eggs
1 per cent (increase) 29 122 eggs
0 per cent (increase) 31 122 eggs
0 per cent (decrease) 6 106 eggs
6 per cent (including decrease) 24 109 “eggs
Total flock 37 120 eggs

Table I

Showing the mean annual production for the first laying year of
groups of hens selected for varying percentages of increase or de-
crease in mean egg-weight of ten eggs or less laid at the period
of the spring weight maximum.

It may assist readers in quickly getting the meaning of this
table to explain that each number in the second column includes
ALL hens in the flock, whose eggs showed a given increase in
weight or over. For example, there were 3 hens whose eggs showed
an increase of 10 per cent or over; there were 7 (including the
preceding 3) whose eggs showed an increase of 8 per cent or over;
9 (including the preceding 7) whose eggs showed an increase of 7
per cent or over, and so on. In the “0 per cent (decrease)” class
are included all whose eggs showed any decrease, while in the “6
per cent (including decrease)” class are included. all hens in the
flock whose eggs showed a decrease, or an increase that did not
exceed 6 per cent.

By way of further explanation it may be stated that
the line “0-26-124” in Table II, and all preceding lines in
this table, mean that the eggs laid by fowls whose records
are there presented, show an increase in weight, and that
the increase in percentage was above the amount stated.
The line “0-5-108” means that five hens showed a decrease
in mean egg-weight. The line “6-19-112” indicates that
there were nineteen hens that failed to show a percentage
of increase of 6 per cent or higher. This group contains (a)
hens that showed increases of less than 6 per cent and (b)
hens that showed an actual decrease. The “6-19-112”
class therefore includes the “0-5-108” class.

Dividing the flock on the basis of a 6 per cent increase
in egg-weight, we get the following results:

Hens Eggs
Increase of 6 per cent and over ib 139
Increase from 0 to 6 per cent eet) 112
Decrease: (255.0. 2.22.2 ee 5 108

The same explanations (with suitable changes in the
figures) also apply to the data given in Table I.

As to the serviceability of the percentage of increase
in mean egg-weight of September eggs for estimating the
SECOND-YEAR production, no sign of correlation is dis-
coverable between the increase in weight of either April
or September eggs of the first laying year, and this
second year’s production. There is, however, a correlation

HOW EGG PRODUCTION IS AFFECTED BY CYCLE AND RHYTHM, REST PERIOD, ETC. 81

a S eg eg
nn se sl 3

TERE s £3 ae

vo 9 }° = @ Oua

we one cofV hare ak

Sie ens » 28 Eo

3 bo = 2 3 aa &

See RE Bea as

fasts ase Bes
13 per cent (increase) 3 147 eggs
11 per cent (increase) 6 145 eggs
10 per cent (increase) 7 143 eggs
9 per cent (increase) 8 144 eggs
8 per cent (increase) 10 144 eggs
7 per cent (increase) Alb 139 eggs
6 per cent (increase) 12 139 eggs
5 per cent (increase) 14 135 eggs
4 per cent (increase) 16 134 eggs
3 per cent (increase) 19 131 eggs
2 per cent (increase) 21 125 eggs
1 per cent (increase) 23 125 eggs
0 per cent (increase) 26 124 eggs
0 per cent (decrease) 5 108 eggs
6 per cent (including decrease) LS 112 eggs
Total flock ol 120 eggs

Table II

Showing the mean annual production for the first laying year
of groups of hens selected for varying percentages of increase or
decrease in mean egg-weight of ten eggs or less laid at the period
of the autumnal weight maximum. (See explanatory footnote to

Table I.)

between the increase shown in April eggs of the second
year and the total second-year production, and a very
marked correlation between the weight increase in Sep-
tember (second year) eggs and the total second-year pro-
duction. The correlation in both years is best shown in
September, and it appears to be shown better on the record-
ed weight of only ten September eggs as compared with
a full month’s production.

From the data presented in these tables it appears
that higher production is correlated very definitely with
higher percentages of increase in egg-weight. The max-
imum group-production (147) occurred in those hens
whose mean increase in eg,-weight was above 13 per
cent in the “10-egg test.” Selecting above 10 per cent

Pv 8 Tn ip.

| Peace

gave seven birds whose mean production was 143 eggs.
Selecting above 6 per cent gave 12 hens whose mean pro-
duction was 139 eggs. On the other hand, selecting the
hens which gave a decrease in egg-weight (see Table II)
gave five hens with a mean production of only 108.

The superiority of the “10-egg test’? in establishing
the correlation with numerical production in this instance
clearly brings the testing of egg production of hens into
the same class with testing milk production of dairy cows,
in which case Gavin and also Wilson have pointed out
that under suitable conditions the one-day test is of great-
er value than the seven-day, the 30-day, or the year test.

With these points openly in mind, and only with the
purpose of stimulating further investigation and discus-
sion, the author presents the following brief summary
of his results with a single flock as expressing a biologi-
cal fact which, if later proved to be of general application,
may take its place as a fundamental law of production
in the domestic fowl:

The innate egg producing ability of a hen is manifest-
ed, not only by the number of eggs laid within a year, or
within some longer or shorter period of time, but also by
the degree of increase or decrease in the mean weight of
her eggs, when this increase or decrease (calculated as a
percentage-increase or percentage-decrease) is measured
at those periods of laying (the vernal and autum-
nal maxima) characterized by the markedly increased
laying of the flocks; and on this basis, groups of hens
characterized by higher producing ability can be differ-
entiated as accurately as, and more easily than by any
other known means.

Summary
There is a distinct correlation between cycle and
rhythm and productiveness.
Season, feeding, management, broodiness, etc., may

interfere with normal cycle and rhythm,

Practically all layers have seasons of nonproductive-
ness, or rest periods.

The number of eggs laid by a hen in a year is in def-
inite proportion to the length of her summer rest period.

By culling early in summer, the hens with a long
rest period are eliminated.

By keeping those hens which lay late and which do
not rest until the first of September or after, the best
layers are automatically selected.

There is a distinct correlation be-
tween body weights and production.

Among the larger breeds it is be-
lieved that the best producers are
found within the weights of 5 and 714%
pounds.

Careful observers have found that

Leghorns averaging from 3%4% to 4
pounds are the best producers.
Broodiness often causes a serious
loss in production.
The loss due to this cause is much
-less where the fowls are properly
cared for, and broodiness promptly

broken up.

The tendency to broodiness does
not necessarily prevent high egg pro-

Eee
[eesaeraers

FIG. 114-DIAGRAM SHOWING HOW INCREASED WEIGHT OF EGGS ACCOMPANIES

INCREASED PRODUCTION

This chart shows in graphic manner the way in which egg weight increases during
the spring and autumn periods of maximum production, and the relation existing between
The figures on the left give the total

The upper black line is the produc-
tion line; the lower indicates the monthly average egg weight; and the shaded ‘peaks’
indicate the periods when comparisons between the two are made for the purpose of de-
Reproduced from Journal of the Amer-
ican Association of Instructors and Investigators in Poultry Husbandry.

such increases and the productiveness of the flock.
monthly egg yield of the flock employed in the test.

termining the probable productiveness of the flock.

duction.

A thorough test of the Hogan Sys-
tem of selecting layers, made at the
Wash. Exp. Station, proved about 64
per cent accurate.

The Patterson Index Method of se-
lecting layers proved 87 per cent ac-
curate.

Hens whose eggs show an increase
in weight over 6 per cent at the pe-
riod of maximum production in spring
and fall are more productive than
those, the weight of whose eggs show
a decrease or a gain of less than 6
per cent.

CHAT TER. xX

How to Select Prospective Good Layers

There Are a Number of Characters That Indicate Prospective Good Layers—The Poultry Keeper Who Learns How to
Select His Best Pullets at the Beginning of the Laying Year Has a Great Advantage Over Others—
Method Employed in Selecting Pullets at the New Jersey Experiment Station

] HAT has been said in previous chapters in
| regard to culling has applied particularly to
the identification of good layers after they
have been productive for some time—after

—=—I) they have gone through the first laying season
or the greater portion of it and, unfortunately, after they
have in many cases boarded at the expense of the owner
for many months of idleness or relatively poor production.
It is unfortunate that, to date, comparatively little is
known in regard to selection for prospective good layers.
There are, however, various characters, such as comb,
shape and position of eye, abdominal capacity, general
evidences of low or high constitutional vigor, etc., to go
by, and close observation of these will enable the operator
to form a fair estimate of the probable record that either
pullets or hens will make in succeeding months.

Especial attention has been given to the subject of
selecting prospective good layers at the Michigan Agri-
cultural College. In a recent bulletin from that institution
(No. 21, Extension Series) the following statements on
this subject are made:

“Egg type in poultry is more reliably indicated by the
head than by any other single part of the body. The head
reveals health, constitutional vigor, age, refinement,
coarseness, and masculinity. Lady Activity (record 263
eggs in 365 days) was selected as the record hen in the
college flock in 1916 just as she began to lay, selection
being based chiefly on refinement of head. Care and
judgment must be exercised however, or refinement of
head will lead to the selection of individuals that are not
sufficiently robust to stand up under the continuous strain
Small heads and extreme fine-

of heavy egg production.
ness of features generally
broodiness.

“Early maturity also is correlated with heavy egg pro-
duction. The pullet that feathers earliest over the back
has, in nearly every case, made the highest yearly rec-
ords. Early feathering over the back is an indication of
both early maturity and constitutional vigor. Chicks al-
ways feather in the following definite order: wings, tail,
neck, breast, fluff, and back. Chicks of the heavy breeds
should be feathered over the back at seven weeks of age.
Leghorns or lighter breeds, a week earlier. Preference
should also be given to close, tight feathers, along with
early feathering.”

It is of the first importance that methods of selecting
pullets be developed to the greatest possible accuracy,
and many competent investigators are at work upon the
subject. The need for practical tests of this sort was
forcibly brought out during the course of a visit which
one of the authors of this book, in company with Professor
H. R. Lewis, paid to the Vineland District where com-
mercial egg production has become a highly important
local industry.

The owner and manager of a 2,500-hen commercial egg
plant said, in discussing the general subject of culling: “I

indicate a propensity for

ean tell readily enough which hens are laying well, also
those that have laid well and stopped; but what we prac-
tical poultrymen want to know is how to tell which pul-
lets are going to make the good layers, doing this before
we waste houseroom, feed, and time on them during the
fall and winter. For example, one of the White Leghorn
pullets that I entered in the Vineland Contest has not laid
an egg—not one. Can’t you tell us how to come nearer
selecting the good layers before the time for them to
begin laying?”

The reader will be interested in learning that this non-
laying pullet was given a post-mortem examination which
developed the fact that she apparently had been laying
internally through some malformation of the oviduct. It
is not probable that it will ever be possible to elaborate
methods of selection to a point where such fowls can be
detected before production begins but, without doubt, much
greater accuracy in the selection of prospective layers
can be attained than has yet been generally done.

The following helpful suggestions in regard to the
selection of pullets contributed by Prof. H. R. Lewis of
the New JerSey Experiment Station, are of great practi-
cal value. The information here presented was obtained
in a personal interview which is here reproduced in con-
nected form, simply omitting the questions to which Pro-
fessor Lewis’ statements are direct replies.

Prospective Good Layers

Suggestions for the Selection of Pullets on Basis of Proba-
ble Productiveness— Observations Made at Vineland
Laying and Breeding Contest—How Regular
Culling Methods May Be Applied to
Pullets Just Coming Into Laying
By PROF. H. R. LEWIS.

T is evident, judging by tests easily made by any
I practical poultryman, that exterior characteristics and

appearances can be relied on to a large extent in tell-
ing which hens are laying, or have laid to a liberal extent;
now how about picking out the good prospects in handling
pullets that have not yet begun to lay?

Our knowledge regarding the culling of fowls has ad-
vanced wonderfully during the last two years. The poul-
try fraternity has available very accurate information
pertaining to the selection of hens on a basis of their
past and present performances. The application of these
tests enables the poultry keeper to weed out cull birds
and select the better, more productive hens for breeding.
Our exact knowledge pertaining to the selection of pullets
on the basis of their future production is much less com-
plete and the results less accurate. We have been study-
ing this problem pretty carefully in connection with work
at the Vineland Egg Laying Contest and I have personally
handled and observed hundreds of pullets and made esti-
mates as to their probable future production. We expect
to publish something on this shortly. Until this work is

HOW TO SELECT PROSPECTIVE GOOD LAYERS

published, our most complete information to date and the
methods and factors which we most commonly use in
picking pullets are as follows:

Early Maturity

Other things being equal, the early maturing pullets
are by far the best producers. I have observed hundreds
of pedigree pullets in the summer and fall, and the rule
is, almost without exception, that those pullets which ma-
ture normally, with well-developed bodies, in from 4% to
6 months, depending on the breed, are by far the best pro-
ducers; while those which linger in their maturing and
require from 4 to 8 weeks longer than they normally
should, are always the poor producers. We find this test
true in full sisters. Early maturity means continued and
sustained production. With the average American breeds
(Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, and Reds) we expect them
to mature in from six to seven months; that is, birds
hatched in March will mature in October. For this rea-
son, New Jersey poultrymen like to bring their Rocks,
Reds, and Wyandottes out in middle or late March. It
requires, on the average, five months to mature well-
grown April-hatched Leghorn pullets, hence April-hatched
pullets should mature in October. The time of hatching
is, of course, governed largely by the danger of the fall
molt. April-hatched Leghorn pullets will rarely molt until
they are a year and a half old. That is, they will go
through the fall and winter of their first laying year
without molting, whereas, pullets hatched in March or
earlier will usually molt in November and December.
There is, however, an advantage in bringing off a certain
number of the pullets in February, especially with Leg-
horns. This advantage is an important one to the commer-
cial egg producer, notwithstanding the fact that these Feb-
ruary pullets will molt in the winter. (See Chapter XVII
for more on this subject.—Ed.)

Natural Figure

The second point which we use in selecting the pullets
for future production is the natural figure of the bird.
They must have every evidence of vitality and stamina
as expressed by well-developed, good-sized bodies, vig-
orous head development, round, prominent eyes set well
back in large, open eyelids. They must have ample body
capacity; that is, their bodies must be relatively long,
broad, and deep for the breed or variety. By body capacity
is meant breadth, depth, and length of the bird, which
means capacity for the greatly enlarged egg organs and
intestines which are characteristic of heavy-producing
hens. In other words, we do not want to select pullets
which have small, short, narrow bodies, and are tucked
up or pinched behind. °

Cycle And Rhythm

A third factor which we always consider can be de-
tected after the birds have been laying two or three
weeks is the cycle and rhythm with which they begin to
produce. Pullets placed in the laying pens and trap
nested from the time they lay their first egg, will show
individual traits of production. Some will lay two eggs
and skip a day, others will lay every other day, some will
lay three eggs and skip a day, others will lay long periods
without a skip, and then take long rests. The way in
which the birds lay their eggs is termed their rhythm and
cycle. The birds with a long cycle of steady protluction
with short skips, which cycles are regularly repeated,
prove by far the best producers.

83

Type

I am fully convinced that there is such a thing as egg
type in all of our strains of poultry, and nowhere is its
practical importance greater than in judging the probable
production of maturing pullets. In discussing type, the
mistake must not be made of disregarding the breed shape
or type, for it can readily be seen that there cannot be one
egg type for all breeds, owing to the differences in body
shape. The egg breeds, however, bear a close similarity
to each other in their breed type, and it may thus be as-
sumed that this general conformation represents the de-
sired form.

Tail Carriage

As regards tail carriage, the average Leghorn pullet
coming into maturity has a moderately low, well-formed
tail, generally fairly well spread. As she continues to
lay, the tail becomes changed and is carried at a much
higher angle. This, I believe, is due in large part to the
development of the egg organs, and the pressure which
they exercise on the muscles of the back and tail causes

New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station

DEPARTMENT OF POULTRY HUSBANDRY

EGG PRODUCTION vs. CERTAIN EXTERNAL CHARACTERS

CORRELATION FACTORS BY COMPARISON

vies 8 OW Coa. Band No. 4UY43 Sex 4

Pen 4Y
BAAD ee POM weet Qe

wold (eer

Length | long paneer short
Head Depth deep sere shallow
Width wide Sees narrow
Ear Lobe { Color weer tint white
Color good Sa watch eye
Eye Lustre kage = dull
Bulge (prominent <xdbete depressed
|
Size | large maatbbieee = small
Comb Texture soft : coarse
Lustre bright dur
Svength | tong modem short
Beok ( Color | tint white
|
Neck { Length | long ocd = short
Length | long mote — short
Bock Width wide eee narrow
Depth | deep roedawm = shallow
|
L. Keel medium hort
Breast Span | wide eee = short close
Bone . sl. crooked dec. crooked
| x‘
Girth {ininches | \Q Vy
Toil § Carriage high aoe low
i | Shape | spread mili §=— pinched
Thickness | thick weber = thin very thin
Lay Bones Width wide meade arrow
| Pliability medium soft
Vent { Color —_— tint white
Legs { Length long weedeere short
{ Color tint white
Toe Nails - 4 Length long —— short

visceianeous ‘lag | Ord z
Sut SVL.

Vdd vardsstion (loo) Getinr®

115-CHARACTERS OF AN INFERIOR LAYER CHARTED
LAYING PERIOD

FIG

AT BEGINNING

OF

Ape,
\os

84 PROFITABLE CULLING AND SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

the muscles controlling the tail to be drawn upward, car-
rying the tail higher. Likewise, in the male bird as the
breeding season approaches, we find the tail assuming a
higher carriage. I am strongly opposed to squirrel tails,
and do not believe they are necessary to maximum egg
production. On the other hand, I am equally opposed to
low, drooping tails which in the majority of cases are due
to a lack of stamina and inherent vigor and vitality. I
do not believe that tail carriage within normal limits,
avoiding either extreme, has any influence upon egg pro-
duction, or can be used as a measure of it.

I do not regard pigmentation tests as of much value
in selecting for prospective laying ability. It is true that
pigmentation signs of production appear immediately
after pullets start to produce, but it is a question in my
mind as to whether we should practice culling to eliminate
slackers at that time. Pullets that have been grown to ma-
turity and which have been kept until December or there-
about will then only have to be held at the longest a month
or two before practically all will come into the natural
spring laying season and will continue to lay more or less
heavily for two to four months. I believe these late start-
ers and poor winter layers should be held through the

New Jersey Agncultural Experiment Station

DEPARTMENT OF POULTRY HUSBANDRY

EGG PRODUCTION vs. CERTAIN EXTERNAL CHARACTERS

CORRELATION FACTORS BY COMPARISON

en WD

ret SOW gt No. WaeY Sex Ge:
~B-NQNT Ave

Weight 3.5 Bha

Length long ee short
Head Depth esas medium shallow
Width ale medium narrow
Ear Lobe { Color yellow tint cme
Color — poor watch eye
Eye Lustre ameter: dull
Bulge eee flat depressed
Size | large i commana small
Comb Texture soft ee coarse
Lustre bright — dry
§ Length long medium ee
Beak Color yellow penne white
Neck { Length ——_ medium short
Length — medium short
Back Width wide preveewee ng narrow
Depth — medium shallow
L. Keel — medium short
Breast Span | wide med short close
Bone al sl. crooked dec. crooked
Girth { in inches 14th esa Aree
- { Carriage . medium low
Past | Shape spread medium ee
{ Thickness | thick pewney thin very thin
Lay Bones ) Width wide meadeure = narrow
{ Pliability | hard reedenwmee soft
Vent { Color yellow tint ae
Legs § Length — medium short
( Color <a tint white
Toe Nails { Length long medium Cd
Miscellaneous Lusaroa| Odd
. . -
Obesrver,

dy oan -

WARS
Vredarhad. Vaedisstinn (ve 200) Citas Vrednetr~

FIG. 116-CHARACTERS OF AN EXTRA-GOOD PULLET
CHARTED AT BEGINNING OF LAYING PERIOD

winter and into this heavy laying spring period. These
birds will be the earliest ones to quit in June and July
however, and they can and should be culled out at that
time.

Charts for Prospective Layers

In order to have a permanent record of observations
on the characters of pullets, the chart shown in Figs. 115
and 116 is used at the N. J. Exp. Station. This chart was
designed for use in studying fowls at this station and is
not regarded as having any special value to commercial
poultry keepers. However, those who are applying cull-
ing tests to prospective layers will find such “scores”
quite helpful in checking up on predictions.

The two pullets whose score cards are reproduced were
both S. C. W. Leghorns, entered at the Vineland Contest
during the fall of 1916. This study was made on January
8, 1917. All of the thousand birds at the Vineland Contest
were gone over three times during their pullet year and
studied on the basis of the characters listed on the card.
One hundred birds, or ten pens, were gone over in the
same way in two-week periods.

These cards are laid out with the character to be
studied at the left and standard descriptions of each char-
acter listed at the right. When handling a bird, all that
is necessary in order to designate her condition with refer-
ence to any character is to draw a line through that term
describing the condition which she shows. If the size of
the comb, for instance, is between medium and small, we
would extend the line through medium over toward small.
If the comb is dry to dull we extend the line through dry
over toward dull. In this way the chart enables us to
describe in great detail and very quickly many characters
in a large number of birds. From these records we can
plot our correlations and make our observations.

At the time these two particular observations were
made, on January 8th, I predicted the production of bird
No. 448 would be about 100 eggs. She actually laid 105
eggs during the year. At the same time I predicted the
performance of bird No. 424 to be over 200. She actually
laid 263 eggs. It was not my intention, in these predic-
tions, to attempt to get an exact prediction but rather to
throw the birds into certain groups of poor producers,
medium producers, good producers, and very good produc-
ers. It was with considerable interest that we followed —
these results and found that, in the main, our predictions
were remarkably accurate.

Summary

The selection of pullets with reference to their prob-
able future production is of vital importance but is poor-
ly understood. Present information on the subject may
be summed up as follows:

Grow the pullets well, weeding out during the sum-
mer growing period any which do not develop properly
or which show evidence of slow growth or lack of vitality.

Pick the pullets to put into the laying pens in the
fall on a basis of good size, pronounced vigor, and ample
body capacity.

Bear in mind that it is the early-maturing pullets
which lay the most eggs, for they not only have more
stamina and productive ability, but they get an earlier
start.

If possible, pullets should be trap nested for a few
weeks, in order that their cycle and rythm of production
may be determined.

Pigmentation tests are not of much practical value
in determining future production.

Tail carriage within normal limits does not appear to
have any direct significance as to productiveness.

CHAP T ER

X I

Importance of Selective Flock Breeding

To Realize the Full Benefits of Culling, Only the Best Layers Should Be Used in the Breeding Pen—By Following
This Practice Average Production Can Be Greatly Increased, and at Practically No Added
Cost—How to Select the Highest Producers In the Flock and the Ones
That Are Best Able to Transmit Their Characters

i) N preceding chapters the subject of culling has
} been discussed chiefly with reference to the
} direct effect of this practice upon average egg
yield, and the economic importance of applying
= culling methods to all laying flocks, regardless
of their size or the conditions under which they are kept.
It has there been shown that culling is a highly valuable
aid in increasing average production; that it enables the
poultry keeper to detect with a good degree of certainty
the nonlayers and the poor layers as well, thus cutting
down his feed bill by getting rid of all hens that do not
lay a profitable number of eggs, and doing so without
noticeably reducing the total number of eggs produced
by his flock.

Without minimizing the importance of these advan-
tages, it should be-clearly understood that the greatest
advantage in culling is not in the immediate benefits re-
ceived from eliminating low producers, but in the opportu-
nity which it affords for bringing about permanent im-
provement in the flock through the use of only the best
layers in the breeding pen. Getting rid of inferior pro-
ducers as they stop laying in the summer means much to
the practical poultry keeper, but it means still more, so to
conduct breeding operations that eventually such fowls
can be completely eliminated from the flock, at the same
time gradually getting better records from the best indi-
vidual members of it, year by year. As a means of
effecting such improvement, breeding only from fowls
that have demonstrated their ability to produce great
numbers of eggs, or from fowls descended from such,
is of unquestioned value. Evidence has been piled up to
show that the productive capacity of fowls can be greatly
improved through proper breeding, and this book could be
filled with authentic records showing how, in practically
all popular breeds, strains have been developed in which
the average of production has been so increased.

How Fecundity Is Transmitted

It is admitted that our knowledge of the laws govern-
ing the inheritance of fecundity is not complete. There
are yet important differences of opinion among well-post-
ed authorities, which have not been harmonized, and there
are observed facts in the experience of practical poultry
keepers that are not readily accounted for. But after
conceding all this, the fact remains that fecundity is
transmissible, that great numbers of breeders have
brought about marked improvement in the production of
their flocks by systematic breeding, and that such im-
provement can be secured in any flock, regardless of
breed, by following similar methods.

According to Dr. Raymond Pearl, whe for years was
in charge of the poultry breeding work at the Maine Ex-
periment Station, inheritance of fecundity is chiefly or
solely through the male line. Not all practical poultry
keepers nor all investigators in poultry breeding prob-

lems accept Dr. Pearl’s conclusions in regard to inheri-
tance of fecundity. While it is generally conceded that
the male does have a most important influence on inher-
itance of this character, there is not lacking evidence
pointing to the fact that the mating of heavy-laying hens
with such males is an important factor in securing desired
improvement in production. The general practice among
poultry keepers is, while breeding from males descended
from high producers, to use along with them the best
producing females obtainable.

The ability of high-producing females to transmit this
character to their offspring undoubtedly varies in indi-
viduals. To date no one has discovered a certain method
of determining degree of ability to transmit fecundity,
though it is believed that high constitutional vigor is an
important and the most important factor in-
volved.

possibly

Pedigree Breeding and Use of Trap Nests

No one will dispute the statement that the most exact
and most satisfactory method of breeding for improved
quality, whether it be high egg production or any other,
is pedigree hatching. The breeder who makes individual
matings rather than flock matings, and who adopts a sys-
tem that enables him to keep an accurate record of results
secured from individuals, is in a position to make more
rapid progress than can be achieved in any other way.
This method of breeding, however, involving as it does

Bock

FIG. 1177—A PREPOTENT BARRED PLYMOUTH ROCK MALI

This bird mated to grade females and others of standard qual
ity, produced ten granddaughters, laying 1956 eggs (ar verage
of 196.6 each) in the Vineland Contest, 1916-1917 One of the ten

laid 272 eggs and another 278

86 PROFITABLE CULLING AND SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

the use of trap nests during a whole or a large part of
the year, is a relatively expensive practice. To the pro-
fessional breeder this expense may not be a serious factor,
but it makes the method quite impractical for the aver-
age person. For this reason trap nesting is not, and
probably never will become, generally popular. What the
everyday poultry keeper wants, and fortunately now can
have, is a simple method by which he may breed his best
producers, selecting these without the use of trap nests
or elaborate records.

Selective Flock Breeding

Selective flock breeding means simply the annual selec-
tion of the best layers by the application of well-known
and reasonably accurate methods of identifying them by
external characters, and the exclusive use of such females
in the breeding pen, mating them with males of known
heavy-laying ancestry if possible. This simple and inex-
pensive plan may be adopted by anyone and, as has been
abundantly shown in practice, it results in prompt and
marked improvement in production. As an instance of the
way in which improvement may be

secured by this method of breeding,
the following statement in regard to ey
the development of the farm flock of
G. W. Buck, of New Jersey, may be LY
mentioned. Mr. Buck is a farmer
owning and operating 140 acres of
highly fertile soil, chiefly devoted to
the production of potatoes, corn, al-
falfa, and timothy hay. His poultry
flock is more or less of a side issue,
though he frankly states that in re-
cent years it has been “the best pay-
ing crop on the farm”.

At the solicitation of the New Jer-
sey Station poultry authorities Mr.
Buck entered a pen of ten pullets in
the Vineland Egg Laying Contest,
which pen made a remarkable record.
In the following interview (reproduced
from Reliable Poultry Journal, June,

FIG. 118-PREPOTENT MALE OF A
HEAVY-LAYING STRAIN

egg production as well as for standard type and color, and
Mr. Arey also helped out in type and color. The combi-
nation gave us well-bred, average-quality, standard stock.
These birds had been line bred for egg production on the
College Farm for two or three years, where they were
trap nested and selected also for type and color. Mr.
Buck bought one hundred eggs from this flock, paying
ten dollars for them, and since then he has used no other
outside blood. The ten dollars therefore, represented his
entire new investment.

“In the spring of 1915, on one of my visits to Mr.
Buck’s farm, a male bird was selected from this hatch
for a special mating, and this cockerel, as a yearling, was
used as a breeding male in the spring of 1916, and sons
of his were used that same spring on the old flock—mean-
ing the original Buck grade stock—and with other pullets
raised from the hundred eggs. The ten birds entered by
Mr. Buck in the Vineland Contest, fall of 1916, were
daughters and granddaughters (through his sons) of the
original male shown in Fig. 117. These ten birds at Vine-
land laid 1,956 eggs in twelve months, an average of 195.6

eggs each, one of them laying 272
| eggs and another 278 eggs—which
| were remarkable performances indeed.

“This Vineland Contest is not a
one-year egg laying contest, but is
a three-year laying and breeding con-

test, as set forth in the rules and
regulations. In the spring of 1918,
therefore, a cockerel was sent by

Mr. Buck to Vineland, to mate to the
pen that had laid the 1,956 eggs in
twelve consecutive months. This
cockerel was the grandson or a great-
grandson of the old original 1915
male. The daughters of this cocker-
el and original pen are at present be-
ing trap nested at the contest and
now are second high pen (week end-
ing April 17, 1919) in the entire con-
test, with a production to date of
1,000 eggs, the first high pen being

1919) with V. G. Aubry, Extension This cock produced 10 daughters that a pen of S. C. White Leghorns with
so Te : _ 3 in their pullet year (Nov. 1, 1918. to ¥ zn 9
Poultry Specialist, who has been in Aug. 13, 1919) averaged to lay 159 eggs NM egg yield to date of 1,102 eggs.
close touch with Mr. Buck in regard aes SoMinate yeaa we phat The mothers of these Buck Barred

7 “, = the male shown_in Fig. s 100¢ oreec a 4
to his poultry work for a number of ing pays. Photo from Cornell University Rocks, up to the same date in their

facts were
brought out in regard to Mr. Buck’s flock and the results
secured from his contest pen:

years, the following

“In the spring of 1914 I was working in Monmouth
County as Extension Poultryman, sent there on that er-
rand by Professor Lewis. I did not then know that Mr.
Buck had Barred Plymouth Rocks, but was with the county
agricultural agent who wanted to see Mr. Buck about the
potato crop. As we drove into the place he told me I
would see here a good flock of farm-range Barred Rocks
—and I did. Their color did not impress me especially,
but I at once noted their size, health, and apparent vigor.
That day Mr. Buck told me how well they laid, just as
a farm flock, and said he would like to know where to
buy one hundred hatching eggs; that he wanted some new
blood and would like to have something ‘a little better’,
as he expressed it. At the College Farm we had some
good-quality Barred Rocks, carrying standard blood of
the Dan Lambert strain, also of the M. S. Arey strain,
Benton Harbor, Mass. Judge Lambert had bred for high

year of test (1916-17) had laid only
997 eggs, a difference of 103 eggs in favor of the line-bred
pullets to the end of the twenty-fourth week, equivalent
to April 17th of this year.

“Furthermore, three daughters of bird No. 19 in the
pen entered in the first year of the contest, which hen
laid 278 eggs, are laying more eggs to date than
did the original bird. Her yield to April 1st of her test
was 108 eggs, while these daughters have an average of
119 eggs to the same date, one of the three daughters
having laid 85 days in succession with but one skip and
having a trap-nest record to April 1st of 139 eggs, or 31
eggs more than her mother laid in the same length of
time when she helped produce 1,956 eggs in 365 consecu-
tive days as one of a flock of ten pullet-hens.

“Each year, beginning with the fall of 1915, a member
of the department here has helped Mr. Buck in the selec-
tion of birds to be kept for laying and breeding purposes.
These birds from the first were selected according to
pigmentation tests and each summer the flock has been

IMPORTANCE OF SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

rigidly culled. In mating the birds, standard values in
the form of type and color were also considered as im-
portant, and only the best birds on the basis of egg pro-
duction and standard type and color were kept for breed-
ers. The original male bird undoubtedly had remarkable
egg prepotency; also he put the color on them and helped
the type. After that it was a matter of selection, in
which type, color, and barring were favored.”

How to Proceed in Selective Flock Breeding

Anyone who wishes to breed for increased egg pro-
duction has only to master the selective methods describ-
ed in the previous chapters of this book, and apply them
to his flock, to be able the following season to place in
his breeding pens only the best layers of the year before,
thus restricting his hatching entirely to eggs from his
best producers. In this system of flock mating the breed-
er necessarily cannot know definitely the ancestry of his
male birds, so that while the females may all, or practi-
eally all, be high producers, there is the possibility that
an inferior male bird may be selected to mate with them,
thus to some extent nullifying his ef-
forts. Where only the best layers are
used for breeding, however, and male
birds selected from the results of thes>
matings, they must all be from high
producers, regardless of whether their
pedigrees are known or not. In any
event this method of breeding is so
greatly superior to the method com-
monly followed, that improvement is
assured from the start and may be
expected to increase in intensity as
the practice is continued through suc-
ceeding years.

To the breeder who proposes to
adopt this practice a word of warning
should perhaps be given against a mis-

take too frequently made. The indi- FIG.
vidual poultry keeper who has

119—A LEGHORN COCK OF
LAYING ANCESTRY

This cock produced 17 daughters that

87

velopment of any sort of physical defect, should be
disposed of the instant these are noted, thus saving the
feed that otherwise would be wasted in securing their
slow and unprofitable growth.

In the case of growing fowls that show some inferior-
ity, but which are to be kept for a time, most practical
poultry keepers adopt a method of marking them by
the use of leg bands or even by cutting off the end of a
toe, thus insuring that, no matter what development they
may make later on, they will by no chance get into the
breeding pen where their constitutional weakness, which
is not always apparent in adult birds, will be passed
on to their offspring.

A good time for culling is during the period when the
pullets are coming into maturity at which stage the
poultry keeper who knows the age of his pullets is able
readily to identify the slow-growing, slow-maturing' in-
viduals which, as a rule, are unprofitable at all times and
which he particularly wishes to keep out of the breeding
pen, whatever use he may make of these elsewhere.

Use Hens in the Breeding Flock

While there are peculiar condi-
tions under which it sometimes
necessary or desirable to employ pul-
lets as breeders, the use of hens is
always preferred, and these should be
chiefly depended upon for that pur-
pose. The poultry keeper, who while
trying to breed for increased egg pro-
duction resorts to pullet matings, has
to contend with serious difficulties.
If he selects his best producers, he
will have to take those that have been
laying all winter long and that, as a
direct result of the general weaken-
ing effect of months of heavy produc-
tion, are not capable of transmitting
high vigor to their chicks. If he uses
younger pullets that are not open to
this objection there will be no way of

is

POOR

familiarized himself with the remark- RAM THeiEe pulleth VeaENCNGG. <lao1setor Aue
able results secured through culling 13, 1919) averaged to lay only 89 eggs determining their relative value as
each. Photo from Cornell University

is apt to lay too much stress upon

selection of adult fowls, depending almost entirely upon
late summer or early fall culling, which is the period
of the year when the method can most readily be applied,
and when most publicity is given to the practice. For
the breeder to do so is to result in his overlooking other
opportunities for selection which, to those earnestly striv-
ing to improve their flocks, are much too important to be
omitted. Regardless of what may be accomplished by
the application of Various culling methods at the end of
the first laying year, the poultry breeder should remem-
ber that to get best results he should overlook no steps
prior to the main summer culling that will enable him
to effect improvement in the general average of his flock.
This means in practice that culling should begin with the
chick.

There is no good reason why any poultry keeper
should fall into the costly error of allowing individuals
to remain in the flock that at any time in their exist-
ence have developed apparent unfitness. Chicks that are
weakly when hatched, or that at any stage of their
growth and development show a lack of constitutional
vigor, such as slow growth, delayed feathering, or the de-

producers, and as a result many of
the birds selected will prove to be inferior layers and high-
ly undesirable as breeders.

Those who use hens one year old or over find that
they come into laying just about at the beginning of the
breeding season, and are at their best as regards health
and vigor, provided they have been properly handled,
and will transmit to their chicks the greatest measure of
health and constitutional vigor that they are capable of
giving, and they should continue to do this practically
throughout the entire hatching period. The eggs laid by
hens are always larger than those produced by them as
pullets, and as the size of the newly hatched chicks is
determined by the size of the eggs from which they are
hatched, it is readily seen that the chicks hatched from
eggs laid by hens have a distinct advantage.

Prepotency

All fowls possess some degree of ability to transmit
racial and individual characters to their offspring. The
measure of ability to do this, however, varies greatly in
individuals, both male and female. Occasionally a bird
discovered which possesses extraordinary power to

is

88

stamp its characters upon its offspring. This is pre-
potency as the poultry breeder uses the term. Obviously,
it is highly desirable to be able to detect such fowls, and
many efforts have been made to find some means of do-
ing so. One method that has received a good deal of
publicity is based upon skull measurements, but its prac-
tical value has never been satisfactorily demonstrated.
To date there is no certain way of detecting prepotency
except by actual test in the breeding pen. It is known
that fowls of the purest blood are most likely to possess
this power; hence line breeding is regarded as especially
effective in intensifying characters and the ability to
transmit them.

To show the influence of a strongly prepotent male
upon egg laying ability, the following incident is related:
In the first year of the Vineland Laying and Breeding
Contest, W. P. Laing entered a pen of Buff Wyandotte
pullets. They made a comparatively poor showing, the
average production for the pen being only 84.5 eggs. The
second year Mr. Laing sent a cockerel to be mated with
the pen and, from the chicks produced, a pen of ten pul-
lets was selected for the third year contest. Nothing

PROFITABLE CULLING AND SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

tion will do well to use high-record females, as well as
males descended from such.

TABLE SHOWING IMPROVEMENT IN PRODUCTION DUE TO
USE OF PREPOTENT MALE

lst year 3rd year
Hen record Pullet record Out of
number 12 months number 36 weeks Hen No.

sl 98 1 169 1

72 2 151 2

3 149 3 67 3

4 66 4 148 1

5 109 5 114 5

6 80 6 143 6

7 52 7 125 7

8 171 8 1ll 8

Wy 0 9 142 1
10 48 10 134 6

The Breeding Flock and Its Management

The poultry keeper who adopts the suggestions given
in foregoing chapters in regard to selection will find that
in the fall, after the regular end-of-the-season culling,
the question of selecting fowls for his next season’s breed-
ing pens has been greatly simplified, since he will have
left in his flock few inferior individuals. He will, how-

ever, if a true breeder, want to mate

his pens in conformity with the estab-
lished principles of standard poultry
breeding. The importance of keeping
standard fowls and of breeding for
such qualities along with high egg
production are presented elsewhere in
this book and need not be referred to
here further than to repeat, by way
of emphasis, that THERE IS NO
PERMANENTLY SUCCESSFUL
POULTRY INDUSTRY WHERE

FIG. 1200—A BRED-TO-LAY

from “Dorcas”
12 months.
ior laying qualities to her daughters with great uniformity.

special was known in regard to the breeding of the cock-
erel but he proved to be exceptional in ability to trans-
mit heavy egg laying qualities, as shown by the fact that
his pullets, up to the middle of July, had already aver-
aged to lay 130.4 eggs. The table here presented gives
the individual first year record of the hens in the original
pen, and of the pullets descended from them. The hens
in this mating appear to have had little influence, as the
best-laying pullets were descended from the poorest lay-
ers, while the poor-laying pullets were from the birds
that made the best records in the first year contest.

Similar evidence in regard to the influence of males
upon productiveness of offspring has been secured at
Cornell University. The cock shown in Fig. 119 (Cornell
No. D 1452) had 17 daughters, raised during the season
of 1917-1918, whose average production during their pul-
let year (Nov. Ist to Aug. 13th) was only 82 eggs. The
cock shown in Fig. 118 (Cornell No. F 563) had 10 daugh-
ters whose average from Noy. 1, 1918 to Aug. 13, 1919
was 159 eggs.

The foregoing may or may not be exceptional cases.
There certainly is plenty of evidence to show that hens
often do have an important influence upon the production
of their pullets, and there are excellent reasons for be-
lieving that those who seek to secure increased produc-

FLOCK OF WHITE WYANDOTTES

These laying-strain Wyandottes, bred by John S. Martin of Canada, are descended

(the hen indicated by an X in the illustration) with a record of 241 eggs in
This hen has proved to be a highly valuable female, transmitting her super-

STANDARD QUALITIES ARE IG-
NORED.

The fowls that remain after the
flock has been culled in the fall must
again be culled with reference to
standard qualities before final selec-
tion as breeders. As a rule, this final culling will take
place near the beginning of the breeding season, when
the fowls are in full feather and in their best physical
condition, and when their general conformity to standard
requirements can most readily be determined. It may
involve something of a struggle to reject a hen that is

an exceptionally good producer because of her unfitness

as a breeder when judged from the Standard viewpoint,
but certainly such fowls should not be admitted to the
breeding pen.

Fall and Winter Treatment of Breeding Fowls

It hardly need be said that fowls intended for breed-
ers the foilowing season should not be fed for egg produc-
tion prior to that time. Unfortunately the knowledge
that the birds should not and, as a rule, will not be pro-
ductive in fall and early winter, no matter how they are
fed, often results in their being grossly neglected. Just
because they are not going to be productive for two or
three months, however, is no reason why they should be
mistreated and kept in uncomfortable or unsanitary quar-
ters, or underfed. That is the poorest kind of economy.
On the contrary, they should, if possible, be placed in
permanent quarters before winter sets in and thereafter
should be fed on a well-selected nutritious ration that will

IMPORTANCE OF SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

keep them in best physical condition but will have no ten-
dency to force production. At this time the birds should
have a comfortable house and ample yards or range to
which they should be given access even in winter, ex-
cept in extremely cold or stormy weather, and should be
fed chiefly on scratch grains.

Litter should be provided freely, and all grain should
be buried in it. Nothing will do so much to keep hens in
good physical condition and insure high fertility and
high vitality in the embryos as an abundance of exercise
not only during the breeding season but during the fall
and winter months leading up to it. Dry mash should
be supplied in hoppers, but its composition should be
such that the fowls will not be tempted to consume it
too freely. A good grain mixture for the prospective
breeding pen is: two parts of cracked corn, one part of
wheat, and one part of barley if available. For the mash:
two parts by weight of bran and one part of middlings,
to which should be added not over ten per cent of
meat scrap. The proportion of corn in the scratch grains
can safely be increased to one-half or two-thirds in se-
verely cold weather, if cracked and fed in plenty of
litter. No oats need be provided in the scratch grain if
a daily feed of sprouted, boiled, or soaked oats is given.
If this is not done then oats should be added to the grain
mixture, in which case a better formula will be three parts
of cracked corn, one to two parts of oats (depending upon
quality), and one part of wheat. Do not make the mis-
take of omitting meat scrap entirely from the mash
mixture simply because the fowls are not expected to lay.
A reasonable amount of meat is needed in the ration of
fowls at all times, though the percentage in the case of
nonlayers should not be as high as in the ration for lay-
ing flocks.

As the breeding season approaches the fowls should
be carefully examined and final selection made, and if
not already in their permanent quarters they should be
placed there not later than January Ist, as a general
average for the larger breeds, such as Plymouth Rocks,
from which eggs for hatching probably will be required
by about the 1st of February. If the modern method of
balancing the flock by providing some extra-early pul-
lets is adopted (see Chapter XVII), Leghorns also should
be in permanent quarters by about the same date.

The breeding pens should have comfortable, sanitary
quarters not differing from those usually provided for
the laying flocks, aside from the fact that it is desirable
to give the former more floor space per hen. Where
winters are extra severe, a somewhat warmer house may
be required, in order to avoid any danger of frosted
combs. Whether the breeding pen shall consist of a sin-
gle male mated with a suitable number of females rang-
ing from eight upwards,—this number to be determined
by season, breeding, age of male birds, ete-—or a much
larger flock with several males (flock mating), will be
determined largely by individual conditions. As a rule,
better results are secured with small pens mated to a
single individual, but flock matings are better suited to
the dimensions of the average poultry-keeper’s houses.
This method also calls for less labor and, when properly
managed, gives excellent results.

The ration for the breeding pen should be changed
gradually as the hatching season approaches, placing the
hens on substantially the same ration as that fed to the
laying pen. However, if eggs are to be produced through

89

2 long hatching season, any tendency to force production
must be avoided. High production early in the season
means that the fowls will use up their vigor and their
vitality, and the eggs produced by them later on will prove
unsatisfactory as regards incubation.

A good grain ration at this time is equal parts by
weight of cracked corn, wheat, and oats. Provide sprouted
or soaked oats as a regular daily feed. This grain is
regarded as a most valuable one for all kinds of breeding
stoek, and should never be omitted from the ration of
breeding fowls. If the oats are plump and heavy they
can be added to the secratch-grain mixture to good ad-
vantage, but if light in weight their use in this way is
apt to result in serious waste, and the fowls will not get
as much of this grain as they should have. Heavy feed-
ing of light, dry oats often causes serious intestinal dis-
orders due to the excess of crude fibre.
freely fed, it is always safer
soaked, or boiled.

Where oats are
to give them sprouted,

The mash mixture during the breeding season may
consist of equal parts by weight of bran, middlings, corn
meal, and rolled oats, and twenty per cent of meat scrap.
If the fowls will not eat this mash mixture freely in the
dry state, it should be fed as a moist mash once a day.
At this time the mash part of the ration should amount
to approximately fifty per cent of the total day’s feed
consumption. Supply milk to drink whenever possible,
and where this is available the proportion of meat scrap
in the mash mixture may be proportionately reduced.
Continue to supply litter liberally and give special at-
tention to the exercise of the fowls. Green feed, of course,
must be provided. Many experienced breeders prefer
cabbage to any other form of green stuff for the breed-
ing pen. Where this is not available, probably there is
no better source of supply than sprouted oats. Provide
grit and oyster shell as for the laying flock, and see to
it that the fowls have fresh, pure water at all times.
Since health and vigor are of primary importance in the
breeding pens, it is advisable to supply as large yards as
practicable and give the fowls access to them at all
times, regardless of weather conditions.

How to Mate the Breeding Pens

The number of females that can be mated with one
male cannot be arbitrarily fixed, as much depends upon
the season, age and individuality of the males, and the
breed to which the fowls belong. In cold weather fowls
do not mate as readily as in warmer weather, neither do
they mate as readily in confinement as on open range.
In a general way it may be said that with the larger
breeds such as Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, ete., the
number of females should be limited to not more than
eight if a cock is used, or ten to twelve if mated with a
cockerel. Later in the season, particularly if on free
range or practically so, the number in each case may be
increased 25 per cent or more. With Leghorns in con-
finement the minimum number need not be below ten,
and may be increased to twenty with vigorous young birds,
With fowls on open and in the height of the
breeding season these numbers may be further increased.

range

In Leghorn flock matings males usually are provided in
proportion of from four to six for each one hundred fe-
males. In the case of larger breeds the number of males
should be increased to six or eight. Where this method
is practiced, it is necessary to use care in handling the

90 PROFITABLE CULLING AND SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

male birds so as to reduce to the minimum the injuries
that are liable to result from fighting. If the birds are
well acquainted with each other before they are put into
the breeding pen, serious trouble is not apt to occur,
though they should be kept under close observation for

FIG. 121—HIGH-VITALITY MALE

Contrast the alert, vigorous, snappy appearance of this bir«
with the low-vitality specimen in Fig. 122. It is from such birds
as the above that the poultry keeper can expect the high con
stitutional vigor that is one of the most important characteris-
tics of the heavy producer, particularly of those that have the
vitality not only to produce large numbers of eggs but to trans-
mit this ability to their offspring Photo from New Jersey

Experiment Station.

a time. Especially pugnacious individuals should either
be removed and used in single pens, or their beaks and
spurs should be trimmed in order to reduce the danger
of injury from fighting.

Constitutional Vigor and Its Relation to
Production and Growth

The Importance of Using Only Highly Vigorous Fowls in
the Breeding Pen Can Hardly Be Overemphasized—
Causes of Constitutional Weakness In Fowls,
How Detected and Prevented

By PROF. H. R. LEWIS*

| see aia NOTE—Constitutional vigor in breeding
fowls is one of the characters that rarely receives

the attention it should. Low fertility, poor hatches,
weakly chicks, slow growth, and even inferior production
in adult flocks may, in a great many instances, be traced
back directly to the inferior physical condition of the
breeding stock. This subject is of especial importance to
those who are breeding for increased egg production. No
matter what a given fowl’s ancestry may be as regards
laying ability, she will not be capable of sustained heavy
production without great constitutional vigor. There is
reason to believe that the proportion of high-record hens
would be much greater than it now is if it were not for

“Hints to Poultrymen, Vol. 2, No. 4, New Jersey Experiment Station.

the fact that so many having heavy-laying ability are not
physically able to digest and assimilate the relatively
large quantities of feed essential to such performance.
The relation of vigor to productiveness is quite clearly
explained in the following article:

Y observing flocks of different ages it will be noted

that, from the time they are hatched till death, fowls

differ considerably in regard to their constitutional
vigor. Chicks at hatching time show inherited differences,
some being weak and stunted and slow growers, while oth-
ers are exceptionally strong and vigorous, and character-
ized by a rapid, uniform growth. Many others fall into
groups midway between these two extremes. Carrying the
study still further, we see these same differences in cock-
erels and pullets during the growing period, and experi-
ments show conclusively that birds which are weak and
show lack of vitality during early life will never produce a
profitable dozen eggs or a profitable pound of meat. ~ To
continue the same study with mature birds, he who will
take time to observe one or more flocks will see that
marked differences exist between females in reference
to vigor as exemplified by size and shape of body, general
carriage, prominence and lustre of the eye, shape of head
and beak, and angle of tail. It is quite possible for the
student to go into almost any flock and weed out many
culls or so called drones which, owing to their form and
structure and lack of inherited vitality, are producing
few if any eggs, and are living at the expense of the bet-
The elimination of these inferior individuals
be one of the first objects of the

ter hens.
by selection
poultryman.

Selection for vigor and vitality should be continually
practiced therefore, not only in mature birds and in the
breeding pen, but throughout the entire brooding and
growing period. Fowls of any age or sex which show at
any time a lack of constitutional vigor will prove unpro-
fitable for any purpose, and should be eliminated. The
motto and aim of the poultry farmer should be “fewer
birds, but better birds.”

should

Some Signs of High and Low Vitality

Signs of high vitality, or lack of it, are easily dis-
tinguished. The following are a few:

The actions and movements of fowls probably best
indicate their physical condition. The physically weak
are inactive and dull, and are more likely to sit than to
stand. They do not range to any extent in search of
forage, nor do they scratch in search of feed. They re-
main longest on the perches, possibly spending the entire
day there.

The loudness and frequency of the crow of the male,
and the cackle of the female, are indications of physical
strength and superiority. Weak fowls seldom crow or sing.

There are certain signs which indicate lack of vigor
in a fowl as, for instance, long neck, thin beak, narrow
head, or a long, slender body, long legs and thighs, or a
stilted appearance. The reverse is true of vigorous birds.

In the young growing chick, common signs of low
vitality are stunted growth, slow feathering, pronounced
crow-like beak, drooping wings and head, and a low
squatting walk.

The strong bird, at any age, should have a bright,
prominent eye, a well-developed, blocky body, bright
plumage, and erect carriage, bright comb and wattles,
and should be active and sprightly in movement.

IMPORTANCE OF SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING 91

Some Possible Causes for Loss or Lack of Vigor

Increased Productiveness. The modern hen is expected
by good care and management to lay from 120 to 160 eggs
a year, and, at the same time, these eggs, or some of them,
must be hatched into chicks with as much strength and
vigor as the parent. It is evident that any increase in the
production of eggs must be accomplished by a proportion-
ate increase in the physical strength of the bird, to enable
her to assimilate the increased amount of food required
for this increased production.

In-and-In Breeding. Inbreeding is often resorted to
in order that the high producing qualities may be better
and more quickly fixed. But where due consideration is
not at the same time given to vigor, loss of vitality is
bound to follow.

Pullets Instead of Hens for Breeding. Vigor will cer-
tainly be lowered by producing progeny from immature
parents. Pullets lay small eggs, which hatch small chicks,
which in turn result in small adults at maturity. The
greatest size and vigor in pullets and cockerels can doubt-
less be obtained by using yearling or two-year-old hens in
the breeding pen, mating them to large, vigorous, early-
hatched cockerels.

Fall and Winter Egg Production. Under normal con-
ditions the fowl is allowed a part of the year in which to
rest and store up energy for future seasons of heavy pro-
duction, and it will be found that forced feeding and heavy
production are antagonistic to the highest fertility and
greatest degree of vigor in the offspring. It is well there-
fore, at as early a date as possible, to pick out all the
adults which are desirable for use as breeders, and give
them time to rest during the winter and store up energy
and physical strength during the natural resting season.

Excessive Crowding of Breeding Stock. The modern
intensive system of handling poultry is responsible for
much of the present low vitality in fowls. Where it is
desirable to raise future producers, it should be the policy
to handle the breeding fowls on extensive rather than on
intensive producing plants. Both young stock and breed-
ers have more vigor when raised on land used for other
purposes, such as fruit growing, grass, and grain crops.

Lack of Exercise for Breeding Stock. This is another
direct cause of low fertility and consequent low vitality.
The breeders during the winter should be kept in an open,
dry house, and practically all of their feed should be fed
in deep litter where they will be compelled to work for it.
Exercise keeps the blood in rapid circulation which main-
tains health.

Improper Methods of Hatching and Rearing. Rather
early hatching induces better growth, as the chicks get
well started before hot weather. Plenty of moisture in
artificial incubation insures better hatches of larger chicks,
which seem to possess higher vitality as exemplified by a
lower mortality. Extreme variations in brooder temper-
ature accompanied by sloppy sour feed are often responsi-
ble for heavy mortality and loss of vitality in the chicks
that manage to survive such treatment.

Breeding Stock Low in Vigor. If the desire is to in-
crease or even maintain a high degree of vitality, selec-
tion of breeders of superior vigor is of paramount im-
portance. Vitality and stamina are directly affected by
two conditions: inherited factors and environmental con-
ditions. If we are to succeed permanently, we must prac-
tice systematic and rigid selection, first in our breeding
flocks, and second in our laying flocks, and in addition to

these we must surround our birds with a congenial en-
vironment which is most conducive to health. GOOD
HEALTH IN THE FLOCK IS THE FOUNDATION OF
SUCCESSFUL POULTRY FARMING.

The truly great importance of culling and of selec-
tive flock breeding as a practical means of improving
poultry flocks generally, is fully appreciated by the Poul-
try Department at Cornell University, which has adopted
plans for giving practical assistance along these lines,
that promise to be of the greatest importance in the de-
velopment of the poultry industry in the state of New
York. What these plans are, is fully set forth in the fol-
lowing article which, it is hoped, will prove helpful in
interesting the poultry departments of other state colleges
in taking similar steps.

Practical State-Wide Poultry Project

An Excellent Summary of the Money-making Benefits of
Down-to-date ‘‘Culling’’—Also Rules Governing the
New York State Method of Certifying Breeders

By EDITOR OF R. P. J.*

HE logical growth and consistent development of
LC the various lines of activity of the Poultry Depart-

ment of the New York State College of Agriculture,
at Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y., read almost like a
romance. The Cornell plan represents what R. P. J.
considers to be one of the best poultry projects—if not
the best—that to date has been worked out and “put
across” in the interests of poultry culture as a science
and for the welfare of the poultry industry in this great
agricultural country of ours. All due credit to Prof. James
E. Rice and his capable, hard-working, loyal assistants.
Following is the story—and it is one of genuine impor-

“Reprinted from Reliable Poultry Journal, October, 1919.

FIG. 122-—LOW-VITALITY MALE

Photo from New Jersey Experiment Station.

92 PROFITABLE CULLING AND SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

tance to many R. P. J. readers. Fact is, every state in the
Union, meaning in particular the states in which agricul-
ture (including live stock) is the foundation of general
business and the bulwark of prosperity, SHOULD ADOPT
this same method or a quite similar one without unneces-
sary delay, the work to be done by the state agricultural
colleges, respectively.

First, we have this lately discovered and expertly
elaborated method of practical culling, with the object of
eliminating the nonproducers, poor producers, and early
quitters, thus to protect the feed bin and the bank account
of the owner of the fowls, few or many.

But that is not enough—is only one step in the right
direction. The next step, in logical order, is “certified
breeders.” Of what real permanent use would it be, if the
field-extension men of the Poultry Department at Cornell
were to continue to visit the farm flocks of New York
State every late summer and fall to “cull out’? the poor
producers, the early quitters, ete, IF NO REAL PROG-
RESS WAS TO BE MADE by the owners of these flocks
along the line of better breeding and better stock, both
as regards standard qualities and high egg production?

And after the plan of selecting out good breeders from
every culled flock and styling them “certified breeders”’
had been followed to a practical stopping place, what
then? Was this ALL that needed to be done—all that
COULD be done—in the best interests of earnest poultry-
men and poultrywomen in New York State who look to
their flocks for profitable returns?

No, there was another logical step to be taken—and
now it is to be taken. Briefly it is this: the powers that
be have made a special appropriation of funds for the
Poultry Department of the New York State College of
Agriculture, by the use of which a “Breed Proving Sta-
tion” is now being established. New buildings that will
contain twenty to twenty-five breeding pens of moderate
size are to be erected this fall as the nucleus—as the start-
ing point of a proving station for breed or strain testing
that before long is expected to be a big establishment, a
large and vitally important part of the well-equipped and
expertly managed Poultry Department at Cornell Univer-
sity.

After this Breed Proving Station has been put into
operation, the course of procedure in the Empire State,
as regards this line of work or “project” of the Poultry
Department of the State Agricultural College will be sub-
stantially as follows: first, expert culling of good-sized
flocks throughout the state to be done by field-extension
men of the Department, these men to instruct the owners
of the flocks respectively how to do the work themselves;
second, these same experts, at this time or later, will select
from the best birds of each owner’s flock, those that should
be used for breeding purposes, these specimens to be “cer-
tified”, to be given leg-band numbers, to be kept track
of, etc.; third, and later, after the owner of “certified”
specimens has shown fully his or her active and intelli-
gent interest in better poultry and more of it, two or more
such flock owners in each county of the state will be
invited to send a pen of these “certified breeders” to Cor-
nell University, where they will be placed in the Breed
Proving Station, kept under trap nest, and line bred,
pedigreed, etc., for a considerable length of time, at state
expense.

The foregoing is the order of procedure, and we sub-
mit to the interested reader that it is a remarkably fine
project—AND FOR SOUND REASONS. Its chief virtue,
perhaps, exists in the fact that all these flocks belong to
the people who are to be relied on to take care of them,
help improve them, and be responsible for feeding, hous-
ing, management, ete. The flocks also will be widely
separated and until a limited number from each flock is
sent to the Breed Proving Station ALL responsibility, or
practically so, is to rest with the owners of the birds.

A second valuable element in the plan is that numer-
ous earnest, intelligent, and progressive poultrymen and
poultrywomen of New York State will be getting the full
benefit, if they so desire, of all knowledge, experience,
and down-to-date advice that the Poultry Department at
Cornell University, with its ten capable workers, headed

by Prof. Rice, can give them, and this extraordinary help
will be brought right to their farm or poultry plant. Such
visits should be worth a great deal to every poultry keeper
in that state who carries several dozen, several hundred,
or several thousand head of fowl for productive purposes.
Also it will help these field-extension men who are work-
ing to improve not only the breeding stock and layers,
but also the methods of management in caring for them
to obtain really profitable results.

Finally, this plan will allow a limited number of poul-
try keepers—taking New York State as a whole—to adopt
and follow up intelligent, down-to-the-minute breeding
methods, so that they can get the benefits of line breeding,
of pedigree work, ete——and they will be getting this in-
valuable help at public or state expense. It is help that
perhaps they could not get otherwise. Line breeding, trap
nesting, and pedigreeing represent expensive work. Only
poultrymen regularly in the business can afford to do this
and do it right, as a general rule. But the Poultry De-
partment at Cornell can do such work and do it with
thoroughness,—doing it with public funds, and not a tax
payer in New York State will ever know the difference.
In that immensely rich commonwealth if a “mathemat-
ical” tax payer were to try to figure out how much this
work is to cost him, on the dollar basis, on a hundred
dollar basis, or even on a thousand dollar basis, he would
not be able to find the item—it would be that small!

On the other hand, this work is destined to be of im-
mense benefit to poultry culture, on practical. lines, in-
New York State. As time goes on every one of these
strains of line-bred stock, based first on selective flock
mating, second on the use of “certified breeders”, third on
the benefits of “proved strains’, as tested and demon-
strated at the Breed Proving Station at the State Col-
lege of Agriculture, will be just that many sources
or near-by “fountains” where the ninety and nine in-
terested poultry keepers of New York State can obtain
surplus breeding males, small pens of breeders, eggs for
hatching, and day-old chicks, this stock and the products
therefrom to be of decidedly superior value to the average
run of present-day farm poultry, even in New York State.

Summary

The greatest practical value in culling is in the oppor-
tunity it affords for selecting the best layers for the
breeding pens.

Fecundity is transmitted through. both male and fe-
male lines.

Trap nesting is too laborious and expensive for the
average commercial producer.

Selective flock breeding insures gradual improvement
at slight expense and with little trouble. ,

Fall culling alone is not sufficient in selection of
breeders.

Fowls intended for the breeding pen should be under
observation from the time they are hatched.

Hens are much better than pullets for the breeding
pen.

Breeding stock must not be neglected and mistreated
when nonproductive.

Exercise for breeders is highly important both in and
out of the hatching season.

The breeding pen should not be fed for heavy egg pro-
duction at any time.

Wide differences exist in fowls as regards constitu-
tional vigor, and these are accentuated by the artificial
conditions under which they are kept.

The hen is the most efficient transformer of raw ma-
terial into finished product on the farm; and exceptional
constitutional vigor is required to keep her in good con-
dition.

Selection for vigor and vitality should be continually
practiced from the brooder to maturity.

Low constitutional vigor may be caused by heavy pro-
duction, inbreeding, use of pullets instead of hens, too
heavy feeding, lack of exercise, improper methods of
hatching and brooding, etc.

Good health in the flock is the foundation of success-
ful poultry farming.

CHA Pr EK

x It

Culling Methods Particularly Adapted to the Farm Flock

Poultry Keeping Is an Important and Profitable Branch of the Farm Live Stock Industry and Is Capable of Yielding
Still Greater Returns When Properly Developed—The Efficiency of the Farm Flock Is Increased
By Systematic Culling—How To Do This in the Most Convenient Manner

HE farms of this country have always been by
far the most important source of supply for
table eggs and poultry, and the annual market
value of their poultry products amounts to a
truly enormous sum. In spite of this fact, how-
ever, the possibilities of the farm flock as a source of
income are not half appreciated. In too many cases the
fowls are largely left to shift for themselves—in fact, are
tolerated only because of their ability to do this. By util-
izing otherwise waste food materials, cost of maintenance
is reduced to so low a level that even though they fall far
short of the commercial poultry keeper’s standards of pro-
duction a substantial profit is still assured.

The ability of fowls partially to support themselves
should always. be fully utilized on the farm. But to get
the best returns from them the resources of the range
should be regularly and adequately supplemented. Fowls
are entitled to rank with other classes of farm animals
as a practical medium for turning the raw products of
the field into human As a matter of fact, they
do this with an efficiency unequalled in any other
branch of live-stock production; and as this becomes
better understood a great increase in this branch of farm
production may safely be predicted.

food.

What Breeds to Keep on the Farm

Where eggs oniy ar: wanted, there is no question
about the fact that small fowls will produce them at
less cost than will large ones, while there are many
economies in the way of labor, houseroom, and equip-
ment, which are practical with such
fowls as Leghorns, that are out of
the question with the larger breeds.
Notwithstanding this fact, Plymouth
Rocks, Wyandottes, and R. I. Reds
undoubtedly are most popular with
farmers, and probably will remain so
for many years to come. Under the
conditions found on the average farm
the cost of producing table poultry
is comparatively low, and it is doubt-
ful whether there would be any ad-
vantage in giving up this important
source of added revenue for such ad-
vantages in low cost of egg produc-
tion and economy in labor as are
realized where Leghorns are kept.
It is fortunate therefore, that good
egg production can be secured with
fowls of large breeds as well as with

The illustrations of high producers of various breeds
given in Chapters IV and V, are sufficient proof that no
breed or variety has a monopoly of high egg records,
and there is opportunity to satisfy a wide range of pre-
ference as to size, shape, and color without in any man-
ner sacrificing egg production. As a rule, farmers in the
northern part of the country where the summers are short,
particularly if they are going to depend upon natural
methods of incubation and brooding, should select Wyan-
dottes or R. I. Reds for the simple reason that fowls of
these breeds should mature about one month earlier than
Plymouth Rocks hatched on the same date. Thus the
time required to bring pullets into maturity before cold
Where artificial
of incubating and brooding are followed however, this

weather is decidedly reduced. methods

consideration ceases to have much practical significance.

Importance of Culling on the Farm

farm
flocks, as the fowls often are of mixed breeding and us-
ually contain many more old hens than is the case in
commercial flocks.

Culling is a matter of special importance in

For these reasons it is common ex-
perience in culling demonstrations to find that, with one-
third or one-half of the flock thrown out as culls, the
fowls that are kept actually produce more eggs than the
entire number did before.

In all culling operations it is important to bear in
mind that many fowls are thrown out as unprofitable
producers because they have been neglected, underfed, or
otherwise prevented from doing their best.

One of the

small ones, and that it does not mat-
ter greatly which of the different
breeds is kept, provided only that
stock from a heavy-producing strain

is secured. iment Station.

Scene on the farm of G. W. Buck.
(see Chapter XI). A pen of Mr. Buck’s Barred Plymouth Rock pullets mz
age of 195.6 eggs each, at the First Vineland Laying Contest. Courtesy of New

FIG. 123-A GOOD NEW JERSEY FARM FLOCK

The breeding of this flock is described elsew

94 PROFITABLE CULLING AND SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

essential conditions of accurate culling, therefore, is to
see that the fowls have had good care and feeding. When
an owner reports as many eggs daily from his culled
flock, as he previously secured from the entire number,
that may not mean that the hens taken out were worth-
less as layers, but rather that the housing or the feeding
was inadequate for the original flock or that the culled
birds received better care due to the awakened interest
of the owner.

taining these birds bore the legend, “Good Layers and
Poor Layers.” On a small card at the front of each coop
was given the laying record of each hen.

Two women who were fond of chickens stopped be-
fore the exhibit and began discussing the birds.

“That first Leghorn is a fine’looking hen,” remarked

one lady. “She must be the good layer.”
“I wouldn’t have that pale-shanked Rock in my
flock,” exclaimed the other. “She doesn’t look very

healthy.”

Then they looked at the egg re-
cords and found that the fine look-
ing Leghorn had laid only 52 eggs,
and that the shabby one had 168 to
her credit. They also found that the
yellow-shanked Rock was a poor pro-
ducer, while her faded companion
had a businesslike record.

Just at this point the man in
charge of the exhibit politely in-
quired if the ladies could pick out
the high producers in their own
flocks. He proceeded to explain that

FIG. 124—A SCENE IN THE MISSOURI CULLING CAMPAIGN

In this illustration, H. E. Cosby, Extension Poultry Husbandman of the United States
Department of Agriculture, is shown explaining before his hearers just how to tell a good

layer from a poor one.

It often is not realized to what extent the production
of hens is affected by their treatment or by the rations
supplied. Often the farmer who knows that neglect,
mistreatment, or underfeeding will result immediately
in a decrease in the amount of milk produced by his cows,
fails to appreciate the fact that exactly the same re-
sults accompany similar mishandling of his hens, though
the consequences may not be as plainly seen.

To illustrate the economical saving that culling ef-
fects in farm flocks we reproduce here an article which
appeared in the Reliable Poultry Journal, January, 1919,
giving the results secured in a culling campaign in Mis-
souri during the previous season.

Remarkable Success of a Farm Flock
Culling Campaign

How Missouri’s Slacker Hens Were Culled Out and Disposed
of in a State-wide Culling Campaign—Eighteen
Carloads of Culls Sent to Market
From Only Four Counties

By T. S. TOWNSLEY

SN IGHTEEN carloads of slacker hens have been sent
E to market from four counties and a trainload of
feed saved as a result of a Poultry Culling Cam-

paign in Missouri. And the sale of these hens has made
no noticeable reduction in the nuniber of eggs produced.
In the Poultry Booth at the University of Missouri
Exhibit at the State Fair at Sedalia, August 10-16, 1918,
were two White Leghorn and two Barred Rock hens
which attracted a great deal of attention. One of the
Leghorns and one of the Rocks were fine looking, clean-
feathered, yellow-shanked birds, while the other speci-
men of each breed wore dirty, ragged plumage, and had
pale, faded shanks and beak. A sign over the coops con-

the color of the shanks in the fall,
and the time the hen molted, were
two good indications of the number
of eggs laid. He pointed out as
slackers the hens that had yellow
shanks and had molted early.

“Most of my hens are slackers then, said one of the
women, “because I always keep the early molters.”

“And I always sell the pale-shanked ones,” added the
other lady.

During the fair week thousands of farmers and their
wives who visited the fair saw the four hens, and a large
per cent of them were surprised to find which hens were
the good layers and which were the poor.

The County Campaigns

The State Fair exhibit was the first move employed
by the Poultry Division of the University of Missouri
Agricultural Extension Service in the campaign against
slacker hens. Following this a vigorous campaign was
carried on through the Farm Bureaus in the various
counties. Missouri Farm Bureaus are organized with
the community as the unit through which most of the work
is done. A community is determined by the natural
groupings of the people rather than by geographical lines.
A community usually centers around a village, a church,
or store, or some other point of common interest. The
number of communities in representative counties varies
from about twelve to as many as twenty. A community
usually embraces from four to eight school districts.
In each community the Farm Bureau las a committeeman
to represent each line of work carried on by the organiza-
tion. 3

To start the culling work in a county an Extension
Poultry Specialist from the College of Agriculture at
Columbia, with the assistance of the County Agent or
Home Demonstration Agent, conducted a one-day culling
school at some central point in the county. At this
county school the poultry committeemen and _ poultry
leaders from each community in the county were taught
the methods of detecting the low-producing hens.

After the county culling school the community com-

CULLING METHODS PARTICULARLY ADAPTED TO THE FARM FLOCK 95

mitteemen arranged a similar school in each community.
A poultry leader from each school district in the commun-
ity was asked to attend this local school. These schools
were usually conducted by the County Agent or the Home
Demonstration Agent, with the assistance of the commun-
ity committeeman. At these schools the representative
of each school district learned how to detect the slackers.
After the community school the poultry leaders from each
school district were asked to hold local demonstrations
and teach the culling methods to their neighbors. In this
way a culling campaign was quickly organized which
brought the information on culling within the reach of
every person in the county who cared to secure it.

To most people this method of separating the good
layer from the poor producer was entirely new and the
campaign created a great deal of interest and enthusiasm.
Many people were skeptical at first and these had to be
“Shown.” The large number of tests, when the hens were
kept separated and it was found that the hens chosen as
culls laid no eggs, soon convinced the doubters that the
method was good and culling enthusiasm ran high. Hun-
dreds of farmers who had never before shown any interest
in poultry caught the spirit and examined every hen on
the farm to see whether she was worth keeping.

How to Cull

Farmers who have a sufficient number of fowls to
make it worth their while to do so, can largely adopt the
methods followed by commercial poultry keepers, and
with equally good results, but on the average farm, where
the poultry flock is comparatively small, it is not to be
expected that the more or less continuous and extra-
thorough culling practiced by the commercial poultry
keeper will be carried out in full. The common tendency
to depend exclusively upon a single summer or fall cull-
ing, however, is unfortunate. It is impossible to realize
the full advantage of present knowledge on this subject
where this practice is followed. As has already been
stated, culling tests can be successfully applied to ex-
tremely poor layers at almost any season and it is true
economy to remove these without delay.

Culling tests can and should be applied always in the
selection of fowls for table use and, where many fowls
are thus used, or retail sales made from time to time,
the culling that the flock will receive in this way may in
itself be sufficient to keep the per-
centage of egg production up to a
high standard throughout the whole
laying season. Continuous culling in
the manner just suggested, is un-
doubtedly the most efficient way of
handling the small flock. Failing in
this, there should be one or, better
still, two regular cullings each sum-
mer, as well as one in the fall.

The first one should be about mid-
summer. At this time the inferior
layers will be dropping out for the
molt and, if they are disposed of
promptly, several months of expen-
sive feeding will be saved. This
culling should not be too severe, as
many good hens may not be laying
at the precise time the test is made, pi eere Bi

eek y

rest. Such hens will resume laying later on and often prove,
extra-good producers of fall eggs, when prices are almost
double what they were in early summer. The fall culling,
in September or early October, can be much more thor-
ough, as the inferior hens may be detected then by sever-
al tests and those that are still laying can scarcely be
overlooked on the most superficial examination. It is tak-
en for granted that the pullets also will be thoroughly in-
spected when placed in winter quarters, or after they
have been laying for a short time. If this is done, apply-
ing the tests described in Chapter X, it is possible to re-
duce quite largely the percentage of poor layers that will
have to be carried through the winter.

Yellow Legs Need Not Be Sacrificed to Productiveness

There is a tendency among many to show a preference
for yellow-legged fowls at the annual fall round-up, when
surplus stock is disposed of and the flock culled down to
winter strength. Selecting fowls for this character in the
fall is just about certain to result in retaining the poor-
est layers, while the best hens in the flock—the bleached-
out, ragged looking individuals—are sent to market. So
long as the consuming public demands yellow-skinned
fowls, clearly the practical thing to do is to cater to this
preference. And it should be generally understood that
there is no necessary conflict between this market re-
quirement and the bleached-out shanks of the heavy-lay-
ing hen. Bear in mind that such hens may have just as
yellow legs as any, in the nonlaying season; also that
shanks bleached out as the result of laying have no in-
fluence on color of the legs of chicks, which are just as
likely to have yellow legs as if descended from highly
pigmented hens.

There is a marked difference, however, in the degree
of yellow normally present in shanks of different fowls,
and presumably such differences are inherited. The poul-
try breeder, therefore, must discriminate between fowls
whose shanks are naturally pale in color and those in
which the pigmentation normally present is temporarily
bleached out as a result of heavy and long-continued pro-
duction. It is not difficult to avoid confusion on this
point if the birds are examined at the proper time. They
should be culled for laying qualities at the end of the
laying season, and culled again for yellow shanks at the
beginning of the next laying or breeding season. If this

ee 4

————

having stopped temporarily on ac-
count of broodiness or for a_ short

F1G. 12382—FOWLS SHOULD KEEP IN GOOD HEALTH AND BE HIGHLY PROFITABLE

AMIDST SUCH SURROUNDINGS

ae

96 PROFITABLE CULLING AND SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

practice is followed there should be no difficulty in hav-
ing the desired yellow legs on the market stock, along
with constant improvement in egg production.

Selective Flock Breeding on the Farm
Trap nesting, pedigree breeding, and extreme methods
generally are out of the question on the farm where the
poultry work must not, as a rule, be allowed to make
serious demands upon either time or attention. Selective

FIG. 126—-A FARM CULLING SCHOOL IN MISSOURI

flock breeding, however, is a simple, practical method
readily adopted by any person who takes any interest at
all in the improvement of his flock and in increasing his
net profits. Selective flock breeding can be applied to
any flock, regardless of the breed or quality of the fowls
mated, but it would be a great waste of opportunity to
try thus to improve a flock of mixed or mongrel breeding,
when standard-bred stock of excellent quality can be so
cheaply secured.

It is not necessary to use fowls of exhibition quality
if the owner is not interested in this branch ef the bus-
iness and has no disposition to profit from the sale of
eggs for hatching and breeding stock. The experience
of every one who has given standard-bred utility stock a
fair trial however, has been that, with such fowls, better
egg yields can be secured, also larger and more rapid
growth, and greater uniformity in the product as to size,
color, and quality. Moreover, the greatly increased at-
tractiveness of the well-bred flock is something that ap-
peals to practically every one.

Those who now have flocks of mixed breeding need not
feel that it is necessary for them either to continue with
their present low-grade stock or to dispose of it entirely
and start over again. There are two ways in which these
mixed flocks can be improved, and at comparatively slight
expense. One way, and probably the best way in the long
run, is to continue to keep and to breed the stock on hand,
culling carefully, however, in order to use only the best
producers.. At the same time, provide some standard-
bred stock of good quality by the purchase of a small
breeding pen or, if that is too expensive, by the purchase
of a single sitting of eggs or a few day-old chicks of the
preferred breed. Give these blue-blooded chicks the best
possible chance, but do not try to keep them separate
from the remainder of the flock. Let them have the ad-

vantage of free range and farm conditions generally while
growing. At the beginning of the breeding season exam-
ine them carefully to see whether or not they will meet
the general tests prescribed for good layers, then put
them in a separate pen where they will have plenty of
room, give them the best of care and attention, and save
every desirable egg for hatching.

Another plan of improving flocks of mixed breeding,
which is simpler and which, therefore, commends itself
to many, is to grade them up by the use of standard-bred
males. It is astonishing what results can be secured in
a season or two by mating a high-class breeding male
with common stock. In starting to grade up the flock
in this way, the farmer should determine definitely what
breed he prefers and then adhere rigidly to this decision,
avoiding the common tendency to change from one breed
to another, thus sacrificing each year what was gained
the year before, and leaving the flock no better than it
was originally.

The experimental work done at the Kansas Exp. Sta-
tion shows what can be accomplished along this line at
slight cost. Flocks of mixed breeding, such as are or-
dinarily found on average Kansas farms, after only three
years of grading up, presented the appearance of good
standard-bred stock, and at the same time average pro-
duction was increased almost 100 per cent.

In securing new males, whether for grading or for use
in standard-bred flocks, it is important to be sure that
they are from strains distinguished for heavy production.
Even in the same breed there are great differences in the
productiveness of various strains and, as the males are
believed to be highly important in the transmission of
egg laying ability, it is of the greatest importance al-
ways to select those that are descended from high-produc-
ing hens. The more generations of heavy-laying ancestry
back of them, the more likely they are to possess, in a
high degree, the ability to transmit this character to
their offspring. Do not be afraid to pay a good price for
such males. Let all matings be truly constructive in the
sense that they are intended to secure not only increased
production but, along with it, the other highly desiraple
qualities of truly standard-bred fowls.

Summary

Fowls probably excel all other classes of live stock in
the efficiency with which they are able to turn grain into
human food.

The larger breeds are most popular with farmers and,
under average conditions, probably are more profitable
on farms than the so-called egg breeds.

Accurate culling of fowls is only possible where they
have been reasonably well fed and cared for.

In a culling campaign in Missouri, eighteen carloads
of slacker hens were sent to market from four counties,
which illustrates the high percentage of such hens in the
average unculled flock.

Where continuous culling is not practiced, there should
be at least two regular cullings each season—the first
about midsummer, and the second in early fall.

Pullets should be culled about the time they are placed
in winter quarters or shortly after they have begun to lay.

Yellow legs need not be sacrificed to productiveness
if the breeders are properly selected. ‘

The bleached-out shanks of a heavy layer have no in-
fluence upon the color of the legs of chicks.

Selective flock breeding is of special importance to the
farm poultry keeper. This method can be applied to any
flock regardless of breed.

Those who have mixed flocks often find it most prac-
tical to improve them by securing a small pen of standard-
quality breeding stock, gradually replacing their mixed
fowls with the superior chicks raised from this pen.

Many prefer to improve their flocks by grading, mat-
ing the best hens each year with standard-bred males of
bred-to-lay ancestry.

aero

CHAPTER XILI

Systematic Culling for the Commercial Flock

The Commercial Poultry Keeper’s Special Problems and How He Can Meet Them Most Successfully —To Realize
the Largest Profit From the Commercial Flock, Thorough and Persistent Culling Must Be Practiced—
How the Summer Egg Yield Can Be Kept up to Fifty Per Cent and the Feed Bill Greatly Reduced

HE last few years have seen a great increase
in the number of commercial flocks kept in
different sections of the country and, as a
rule, these have been operated with a higher de-
gree of success and profit than ever before.
More thorough knowledge of the principles of productive
poultry keeping, improved facilities for doing the work
economically, and better methods for increasing the ef-
ficiency both of the poultry keeper and his flock have
been largely responsible for this development.

When it comes to a question of low-cost production,
few if any commercial poultry keepers can compete with
farm flocks, with their free range, cheap feed, and almost
unnoticed expense for labor.

However, the commercial
poultry keeper finds that with good management he is
more than able to overcome this handicap of increased
cost by the greater production which he realizes from
his fowls, and by the higher prices which he is able to
obtain as a result of the superior quality of his products
and the better opportunity he usually has for marketing
them to good advantage.

The commercial poultry keeper finds that in a num-
ber of respects his methods must be distinctly different
from those of the farmer. Because feed costs are greater,
he must learn to buy to as good advantage as possible,
and must scrupulously avoid waste; the capital invested
usually much exceeds the amount needed for a corre-
sponding number of farm fowls, hence both land and build-
ings must be more heavily stocked—often to the prac-
tical limit; since labor must be figured at the regular
rate, methods of management must be as efficient as pos-
sible, and maximum growth and production must be se-
cured at all times.

The commercial poultry keeper must give special at-
tention to the marketing of his pro-
ducts. Failure to do this means the
loss of a large part of his possible
profit and may, in fact, make his ven-
ture a losing one instead of a finan-
cial success. Those who live close to
market have some advantages over
those who operate at a distance, and
to this fact many attribute the extra-
ordinary development of commercial
poultry keeping in the vicinity of
Boston, Philadelphia, and New York
the greatest poultry markets in the
United States. Just to what extent
this localization of the industry is due

Developments in intensive poultry keeping have been
especially marked in New Jersey and the Petaluma Dis-
trict (Calif.) where many conditions are favorable to this
method. There is no reason to believe, however, that
either New Jersey or any other especially popular center
of production has a monopoly on opportunities for engag-
ing in commercial poultry keeping. When the producers
of the Petaluma District can ship eggs clear across the
continent, as they now are doing, realizing prices only
slightly below quotations on strictly near-by eggs, there is
the best reason for believing that producing centers could
readily be developed in many sections at a distance from
market but where other conditions are scarcely less fav-
orable than in these two widely known localities. As a
matter of fact, this has already been done, for example,
in the Morristown District in eastern Tennessee, where a
poultry industry of decided magnitude has sprung up in
recent years, without any special advantages except a
fairly mild climate, good railroad connections, and (which
appears to have been by far the most important) the
presence in the community of a few public-spirited men
who have made it their business to encourage and promote
the development of the industry. Without doubt, equal or
greater successes could be realized in many other sections
of the country.

Why Culling Is Especially Important to the Specialist

Most commercial plants are devoted chiefly to the pro-
duction of market eggs. While the surplus fowls are
salable at good prices, the net sum that can be realized
from them is not regarded as important, nor does the
production of table fowls as a specialty appeal to the
average person who wishes to engage extensively in poul-
try keeping. Because of the fact, therefore, that his in-

to superior marketing facilities, and
how much to other causes not directly
associated with such advantages, has
not been clearly established.

In the mild

best results.

climate of
covered front and no

FIG. 1277—SCENE ON NEW JERSEY LEGHORN FARM

construction with muslin-
recommended, however, for

houses of low-cost
used. Glass is

New Jersey,

glass are successfully

98

come is derived almost exclusively from eggs, there is no
one to whom culling is of greater importance than to
the commercial poultry keeper. Every day that he
keeps a nonproducing hen in flock he losing
money on her.

Poultry surveys in New Jersey have shown that, in
that section at least, it is necessary to secure an average
production of 100 to 110 eggs per fowl, or 110 to 120 when
feed is extremely high, in order to realize a satisfactory

his

is

PROFITABLE CULLING AND SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

vals in order to eliminate the quitters as they develop.
The methods of culling described in the foregoing
chapters make it possible to pick out the nonlayers with
a good degree of accuracy within a very few days after
they have stopped. A week’s idleness produces a marked
change in pigmentation about the vent, and within a few
days more its presence may be detected in the ear lobes
and at the base of the beak. At this time, also, the birds
which are only indifferent layers may be detected and re-
moved, their inferiority being betray-

ed by imperfectly bleached shanks,
poor head points, lack of abdominal
capacity, etc. ALL of the methods
of culling that have been described
in previous chapters should be applied
to these birds—do not make the mis- ©
take of relying upon only a single
character.

The appearance of the vent will
show unmistakably whether the hen
is laying at the time she is examined,

FIG. 12883—-VIEW ON EGG FARM NEAR MORRISTOWN, TENNESSEE

Morristown, in eastern Tennessee, is the center of a prosperous commercial poultry

farming section. White Leghorns are kept on most of these farms.

ator car service to New York City is maintained, and producers get good pricey for

eggs the year around

income. While this is much above average production,
taking the country as a whole, it is not a difficult
standard to reach with any of the popular breeds. It is
doubtful, as a matter of fact, whether any properly culled
flock will fall below an average of 100 eggs per hen, no
matter what breed is represented, and well-bred fowls,
properly cared for, should do much better.

The commercial poultry keeper, with his high cost of
feed, and his high labor cost and “overhead’’, cannot af-
ford to follow the practice of the average farmer in cull-
ing only once or twice in a season. He must, in order to
keep his flock at a high state of efficiency, begin culling
almost with the baby chicks, watching them through the
season and promptly marketing any pullets that develop
undesirable characters or those that are indicative of low
constitutional vigor or inferior egg laying capacity.

In the fall when the pullets are to be placed in winter
quarters, he will cull them with special care and, without
fail, will market those that do not
respond favorably to the tests applied.
Few poultry keepers find it necessary
or desirable to do any special culling
during late winter and spring, aside
from promptly removing from the
flock any birds that develop marked
indications of poor health, low consti-
tutional vigor or inability to lay. Af-
ter carrying the birds up to this time,
it is wiser to keep them through the
regular laying season when even the
poorest producers usually will make
at least some return for their winter’s
feeding. By June, however, summer
culling begins in earnest on the up-to-
date poultry plant and, from this time
on until practically all the birds have
stopped for the molt in the fall, cull-
ing will be repeated at frequent inter-

=

while the eye ring, ear lobe, beak, and
shanks in succession give their clues
as to the length of the period during
which she has laid. The egg farm-
ers of New Jersey depend quite large-
ly upon the appearance of the comb in
detecting the hens that have stopped laying (see Chapter
VI). The beak is helpful in determining whether or not
the hen is a constant heavy layer or takes long rest
periods. The spread of the pelvic bones and the keel show
capacity, while the condition of the abdomen is an almost
infallible indication of high and low productivity. By ap-
plying all the tests as herein described, the observer may
rest assured that he can readily detect the best layers and
can eliminate the unprofitable ones with a great degree
of accuracy.

Through refriger-

How to Secure Fifty Per Cent Production

By the foregoing term is meant a daily egg yield equal
to one-half the total number of fowls in the flock. For
example, fifty per cent production in a flock of one hun-
dred hens means an average of fifty eggs a day. During
the natural laying season, or from the first of March to
the first of September, as a general average, it is not only

FIG. 122—EVERY NEST OCCUPIED AND A GOOD WAITING LIST

The owner of this commercial flock was dissatisfied with his summer production,
and culled his hens. Above photo was taken in the house containing the selected lay-
ers showing every nest occupied.
EMPTY in the house containing the CULLS.

At the time this photo was taken all the nests were

SYSTEMATIC CULLING FOR THE COMMERCIAL FLOCK 99

possible to secure such production, but the commercial
poultry keeper cannot afford to fall much short of this
standard. This subject is considered more in detail in
Chapter XVII, but the importance of systematic culling
as a means to this end is so great as to warrant calling
particular attention to it here.

It is safe to assume that when production falls below
fifty per cent during the period just mentioned, there are
some hens in the flock that are not laying. According to
Professor Lewis of the New Jersey Experiment Station
(see page 33), the number of layers in any flock can be
estimated approximately by doubling the percentage of
production. That is, forty per cent production indicates
eighty layers in a flock of one hundred hens; in other
words, there are twenty in the flock that are nonproduc-
tive. To secure a fifty per cent egg yield therefore, these
twenty idle hens must be detected and removed.

The farmer with his low production costs may safely
adopt a lower standard for his flock if he wishes to do so;
the breeder who generally keeps a much larger percentage
of old hens, and who desires maximum production dur-
ing the breeding season, may not want heavy summer
production; but the commercial poultry keeper cannot re-
tain in his flock a large percentage of nonproducers with-
out serious and unnecessary loss.

Selective Flock Breeding

The commercial poultry keeper has an exceptionally
good opportunity to apply methods of selective flock
breeding to his flock. He usually is better equipped with
facilities for separately housing his breeding birds, and
for giving special care to the chicks hatched from such
stock; he also has more to gain by giving this subject his
particular attention. The importance

ly wiped out, those who have brought their flocks up to a
high average of production find that their profits are still
good, possibly even greater than under what would gener-
ally be termed more favorable conditions. For example,
almost without exception, those whose flocks had reached
a high average of productiveness reported that their prof-
its during the years 1916-17, and 1917-18, which proved so
disastrous to many, were fully as great as in any former
year, or even more so, due to the fact that while the price
of feed was high, the price of their products was higher
still. The poultry keeper, therefore, who makes high
average production his goal, is not only certain of greater
profits under normal conditions but, as just shown, has a
safe margin of profit under conditions which may mean
actual loss to those whose flocks are on a low level of
productiveness.
Summary

More exact knowledge and the development of better
methods have resulted in a marked increase in number of
commercial poultry flocks in recent years.

Poultry specialists cannot compete with farmers in low
cost of production, but have a number of important ad-
vantages that may more than overcome this handicap.

The commercial poultry keeper must give especial at-
tention to cost figures and to marketing his product.

No one locality has a monopoly of opportunity for
engaging in successful poultry keeping.

The poultry specialist must get an average of 100 to
120 eggs per hen to realize a fair income. To do this he
must cull persistently.

Fifty per cent production in summer is largely a mat-
ter of systematic culling. ;

Selective flock breeding means permanent improve-
ment in production averages in any laying flock.

The best protection against low prices of eggs or ab-
normally high prices for feed is high average froduction.

of securing high average production
has already been described, and the
only way in which this can be brought

about permanently is by persistently

breeding from such producers. With

good breeding methods applied to his
flock the poultry keeper will find not

only that his average egg yield will

increase, but also that he will have

to meet a rapidly increasing demand

for eggs for hatching and day-old

chicks. And, as this trade can be

cared for without interfering with

commercial production and represents

a much better per cent of profit, it

affords a source of additional revenue

that few can afford to ignore. This

is another reason for seeing to it that

commercial flocks are of good stan-

dard quality, within practical limits,

and that the breeding fowls receive

the additional care and attention re-

quired in order to produce hatching

eT

eggs of the highest quality.

It cannot be too plainly stated
that selective flock breeding followed

fg Sept Oct

year after year means permanent im-
provement in production averages. In
seasons of low prices for eggs or

FIG. 130-GRAPH SHOWING WHOLESALE EGG PRICES IN NEW YORK CITY MARKET

NOV. 1, 1915, TO MAY 1, 1919

] j This illustration makes it plain that a large part of the commercial egg farmer's profit
high | gherKetee! for feed, when the aver- depends upon the percentage of production he secures during the high-price months. He can
age poultry keeper’s margin of profit well afford to provide comfortable houses for his early-hatched pullets, and to do every

is greatly reduced or perhaps entire-

thing else in his power,
production up to a high point—or 50 to 60 per cent, as a safe average.

including the use of artificial illumination, to bring his winter

CHA PUMPER. (xX LV

Practical Culling Methods for Back-Yard Flocks

Advantages in Keeping Back-yard Flocks, and Methods Best Adapted to Their Requirements—How Culling Keeps Down
the Cost of Feeding the Flock Without Decreasing Production—Keep the Home Table Supplied by Killing
Off the Slacker Hens—How to Turn the Nonproducers into Special-quality Table Fowls

N THE last few years there has been a great
}] increase in the number of back-yard flocks
kept, and undoubtedly this has been to the dis-
tinct advantage of their owners. Back-yard
egg production is a practical economy that few
can afford to ignore. A flock of 10 to 15 fowls, consum-
ing the table scraps and waste from the kitchen garden,
helped out by necessary feed from the poultry supply
store, will provide enough eggs to meet all the require-
ments of the average family, and at a fraction of their
cost if bought at regular market prices.

What is of even greater importance to the average
household is that a good home flock insures having eggs
when wanted, particularly during the high-price season
when they otherwise would

the home table, of having persons get tired of eggs when
freely used, is readily met by more variety in serving
them. There are many highly palatable ways in which
eggs may be prepared for the table, hence the number con-
sumed is largely under the control of the housewife.
Methods Simplified
Methods of poultry keeping have become greatly sim-
plified and results are much more satisfactory and success
more certain than was the case a few years ago. The
method now ‘commonly followed, of keeping the back-yard
flock confined to the house practically the year around, re-
moves one of the objectionable features, that of dirty,
foul-smelling yards which are almost unavoidable where
Where the fowls are provided with convenient, com-
fortable, and attractive

practically unobtainable.
Observation has

be
too,
that, with strictly fresh eggs
of

consumption quickly increas-

shown

unquestionable quality,
es so that many more eggs
are regularly consumed than
would ever be called for un-
der other conditions. Many
who have back-yard flocks of
good size find that they can
reduce their meat bill by one
-half, not only effecting a
decided saving in the cost of
living but often with marked
improvement in health. Of
all the animal foods avail-
able, none is more readily di-
gested or more healthful than eggs. It is for this reason
that they invariably are prescribed for invalids and chil-
dren, and they are just as healthful and nourishing for
the able-bodied.

Where there are growing children in the family, the
liberal use of eggs is especially important. Recent re-
searches have established the fact that eggs and milk are
the best and cheapest sources of a group of important nu-
tritive elements known as vitamines. These are regarded
as essential to normal growth and development. Unfor-
tunately, in the average home the free use of eggs is out
of the question during a large part of the year on account
of cost. It is true that eggs can successfully be put down
in water glass in the summer and kept for winter use at
an important saving, but such eggs are not fresh. The
same is true as regards storage eggs. These are used in
enormous quantities each winter but no one expects to
find in them the delicate, appetizing flavor that charac-
terizes newly laid eggs, and in the absence of which max-
imum consumption can never be secured. With a home
flock all this is changed, and eggs at once take the im-
portant place in the diet to which their qualities clearly
entitle them. The difficulty sometimes encountered at

The J. W.

above practically

Parks’
all
Whatever breed is selected,

some good bred-to-lay strain.
fer, State College, Pa.

FIG. 131—THE BACK-YARD POULTRY KEEPER HAS THE BES1

CHANCE TO SECURE MAXIMUM PRODUCTION

strain Rocks in the
exceeded 200 eggs in the twelve months of
their pullet year. One of them has a record of 313 eggs in that time.
i the foundation stock should be of
Photo from Prof.

houses, such as the one
shown in Fig. 133, and kept
confined.to it constantly, san-
itary conditions may be of
the best, and with proper
care and feeding the fowls
will lay almost as well as if
on open range. So managed,
poultry keeping becomes a
pleasure as well as a source
of profit, and there is ample
room to keep a flock in even
the smallest of back yards.
It is always wise to build
the house’ on runners for
easy moving, but by all
means build it substantially
and neatly. It only costs a
little more to have a house that is attractive from the
outside, comfortable for the hens, and convenient for the
caretaker, as compared with the makeshift structures so
often provided with mistaken economy. The right kind of
a house will aid in getting much better returns from the
flock, it can be cared for with half the labor and annoy-
ance, and if it becomes necessary to dispose of it through
any change of plans it can be sold to some one else, pro-
vided it is built so that it can readily be moved.

PER HEN

small pen illustrated

E. F. Grundhoef-

Special Need for Culling

The back-yard poultry keeper, even though he may
have only a small flock, will find that culling is relatively
as important to him as to those who number their fowls
by the hundred. Just because only a few birds are kept
is no reason why one should be satisfied to keep any that
are making no adequate return for the feed and care be-
stowed upon them. Moreover, the average back-yard flock
is almost always overcrowded and in practically all such
cases the removal of one or two or more of the poor pro-
ducers not only cuts down the feed bill, but the remaining
birds, with more room and perhaps better feeding, will
lay more eggs than before. This is one of the reasons

ee

PRACTICAL CULLING METHODS FOR BACK-YARD FLOCKS 101

why so many culling reports show better production
after culling than was secured from the larger number
in the original flock.

Many back-yard poultry keepers cannot or do not
wish to raise their own stock, but plan to buy a new
adult flock each fall, killing off the fowls in the summer
as they stop laying, thus to avoid feeding them through
the nonproductive period of fall and early winter, and
incidentally providing a supply of Sunday chicken din-
ners through the summer. The flock then is replaced
in the early fall with another lot. Starting in the fall is
especially popular since reasonably quick returns may
be expected. If early-hatched pullets can be secured at
fair prices they may be brought into laying with only
slight delay. Later-hatched pullets and yearling hens
must be fed for a considerably longer period before they
become profitably productive.

Perhaps one of the errors that the back-yard poultry
keeper is most apt to fall into is in being too impatient
with his new flock, expecting the fowls to lay almost as
soon as he acquires possession of them, and being greatly
concerned when he sees no returns coming in for the feed
given daily. There are good reasons why the new flock
is not apt to begin laying at once, and some delay is al-
ways to be expected. Any change in quarters may inter-
fere with the productiveness of fowls, either pullets or
hens, and if they are not in good condition when bought
several weeks’ feeding may be required before many eggs
will be secured. If the owner gets impatient or discour-
aged and neglects them or, as is too often done, tries to
economize by reducing the feed, he may never get the
returns that he should and could have secured. It is im-
portant to bear in mind that there is nothing especially
difficult about securing good egg production when the
fowls are in condition to lay, but enough time must be
allowed to bring this about. Even though there may be
weeks of delay in getting started, they can confidently
be counted on to return a substantial profit for the year
if properly cared for.

With either late pullets or molting hens, the waiting
period can be greatly reduced by the

were placed in one flock and the remaining 500 in an-
other. These pullets were described by the owner as be-
ing “the weakest, smallest, and most unpromising of our
entire flock (naturally including the latest hatches.—Ed.).
We greatly regretted that two pens, or 200 of these birds,
we had not sold to market”,
ber this ‘‘poor”

During October and Novem-
flock was noticeably far behind the other
in percentage of production, but within ten days after arti-
ficial illumination had
(which were without
and within about a month was producing 40
to 65 per cent, while the better pullets were ranging from

introduced _ it
earlier-hatched and better pullets
srapnibs, Diy

was passed the

Similar results have been se-
cured at Cornell University and elsewhere, thus showing

only 25 to 35 per cent.

that the back-yard poultry keeper who cannot secure
early-hatched pullets need not, therefore, be disappointed
in having a productive winter flock.

Always Cull New Stock

Obviously, it is necessary in buying undersized and
inferior pullets culled from some other flock thoroughly
to understand the practice of culling so that the least
productive individuals can be thrown out. Notice pat
ticularly the head points, and cull rigidly for fowls of low
constitutional vigor.

The beginner, in purchasing his stock, is apt to select
inferior specimens unless he has given careful study to
the subject. This is particularly the case in purchasing
in the open market, since so many of the fowls offered
him are likely to be nonlayers culled from some well-
posted poultry keeper’s flock. Whe her buying pullets
in the fall or laying hens in the spring, it is quite im-
portant to become familiar with the characters of good
If pullets are to be purchased, care-
To do this will

and poor producers.
fully apply the tests herein suggested.

enable the buyer to discard the most inferior ones offered,
with a marked increase in the total number of eggs se-
cured during the year—probably at no greater initial ex-
pense for the stock.

Age and season must be taken into consideration in
close culling. If any of the fowls are laying when handled

use of artificial illumination which
has been proved beyond question to
be of great value in bringing fowls
quickly into laying in fall and early
winter. It is growing increasingly
difficult to secure first-class early-
hatched pullets at prices’ within
the reach of the average buyer’s
pocketbook, and it is worth while to
understand that with the help of arti-
ficial illumination the long period of
heavy feeding that used to be neces-
sary in order to bring late-hatched
pullets and yearling hens into laying
condition can be noticeably shortened.
Experiments have shown that with
artificial lighting late pullets can be
brought quickly into laying and even
made to exceed the production of
“unlighted” pullets hatched much Mier
earlier. For example, at Sunny Crest =
Farm, East Aurora, New York, 2,100
pullets were sorted over in the fall,
and 1,600 of the best and earliest

FIG. 132—A PRACTICAL BACK-YARD POL

Jersey Exp. Station.

ILTRY PLANT

House here shown has been in use for several years by Prof. H. R. Lewis of New
It is doubtful whether the back-yard space occupied by
and small run could be put to any more profitable use.

this house

102

it is comparatively easy to pick them out. In the fall,
good, well-matured pullets can be scored before laying
has begun, doing so with a good degree of accuracy by
following the suggestions given in Chapter X. In buying
either hens or pullets in the spring, a good many are apt
to be included that will lay only under the most favorable
conditions. Where only a few are purchased this may not
be important, as the inferior ones can be culled out and
used on the table as their unfitness develops.

In early-summer culling some judgment must be exer-
cised, particularly as regards broody hens. Often these
will “come back” after a rest and prove to be the best
late summer and fall layers in the flock. Whether they
are likely to do this or to molt and remain idle all fall
can usually be determined by careful examination, apply-
ing the various tests elsewhere described. Begin culling
just as soon as the egg yield falls below 50 per cent--which
may be in June. Any percentage below that means that
there are some idle hens in the flock, and many of them will
not be profitably productive at any time thereafter. Be-
cause of the small size of his flock, and the close ob-
servation that he is able to bring to bear upon it, the
back-yard poultry keeper need have no difficulty in detect-
ing his unproductive fowls at any season.

Owing to the heavy feeding that the average back-
yard flock receives, along with close confinement and
limited exercise, overfattening is of common occurrence.
In almost any flock some hens will get overfat on rations
that are well adapted to the needs of the rest. Such hens
often are naturally good layers but to do well require
a different ration from the others, or at least different
feeding methods. It usually is not practical to give them
special care, however, and as in this condition they are
especially susceptible to disease, they should be culled out,
no matter what showing they may make under regular

PROFITABLE CULLING AND SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

culling tests. It is much better to use them on the table
than to lose them through disease as is almost certain to
happen sooner or later, if they are retained in the flock.

How To Select Layers When Buying

By no means all of the pullets and hens that are found
on the market have been culled out as nonproducers. The
application of culling tests is now so general, however,
that the wise buyer will assume that this has been done
in the case of any fowls offered him, and will accordingly
use due caution in making his selections.

Buying in the fall, where selection is to be made from
early-hatched pullets, it is advisable always to choose
those that are best matured, plump, and well developed,
giving special attention to their head points (see Chapter
VI). If choice is limited to later-hached, more or less
immature pullets, size, condition of plumage, head points,
and general indications of thrift will be helpful in select-
ing those that are likely to mature earliest. Pullets that
are in poor flesh, but apparently in good health, indicating
that the lack of flesh is due simply to scant feeding, often
will make remarkable improvement in appearance with a
few weeks’ feeding.

In buying yearling hens in the fall notice with partic-
ular care their physical condition. If they have been un-
derfed, ordinary culling tests will be misleading if too
strictly applied. If the birds are in good health, if they
have fairly good span between pubic bones and keel, and if
their abdomens are reasonably soft, they may prove to be
good layers with proper care, even though they may be
poor in flesh, and too highly pigmented, and their pubic
bones too close together and too thick as judged by ordi-
nary standards of comparison. Avoid all hens that have
noticeable physical defects, particularly those that “bag

down” or that have abdomens con-
1 taining a hard lump, indicating a
tumor or some other abnormal con-
dition.

Summary
Back-yard poultry keeping is a
practical economy that few persons
can afford to ignore.

Modern methods of back-yard poul-
try keeping are simple, and success
practically certain.

Providing a comfortable and con-
venient house is half the battle.

Do not be too impatient with the
new flock, however. Pullets or hens
moved to a new location need a little
time to get started.

Where early-hatched pullets are not
obtainable, good winter production
can be secured in later pullets and
yearling hens by the use of “lights”.

The back-yard poultry keeper must
know the marks of good and poor lay-
ers in order to avoid getting culls
when buying in the open market.

In early-summer culling be careful
to avoid throwing out good producers

FIG. 133—A GOOD BACK-YARD POULTRY HOUSE—CAPACITY, AS

ILLUSTRATED, 18-25 FOWLS

This practical and comfortable house, used with complete success in the Vineland Egg
Laying and Breeding Contest, is well adapted to back-yard use. It is 8x10 feet, 8 feet high
As here shown it has a sand floor, but for gen-
eral use a double-board floor should be provided unless house is to be permanent, in

at highest point, 5 feet, 5 inches at rear.

which case a concrete floor is desirable.

that are simply taking a short “brood-
ing” rest.

In buying pullets select for early
maturity and general thrift.

Do not apply culling tests too
strictly to hens that have evidently
been underfed or mismanaged.

.

CHAPTIrER XV

What Culling Means to the Fancier

The Growing Demand for Superior-Quality Breeding Stock With Heavy-Laying Ability Is Developing a New Field for
the Fancier—Great Possibilities Open to Those Who Can Supply the Right Kind of Stock —-Many Breeders
Already Have Successfully Combined High Egg Production With Standard Quality —

Doing This Is Essential to the Best Interests of the Poultry Industry

O THE fancier the chief value of information
regarding the characters that indicate egg-lay-
ing ability or the lack of it lies in its applica-
tion to his breeding problems. He is directly
interested, of course, in eliminating poor pro-
ducers from his flock and in keeping only fowls that show
a good profit in eggs produced, but he is much more deep-
ly concerned with utilizing his newly acquired knowledge
further to improve the productive capacity of his fowls
without injury to or neglect of their showroom quality.

by
AS

GE)

That this is not an extremely difficult problem is prov-
ed by the records of production at every laying contest
in this and other countries where (with the exception
of Prof. Dryden’s new egg breed, the “Oregons’’) prac-
tically every high producer has been standard-bred. So
far as the popular breeds are concerned at least, breeding
intensively to meet the requirements of the Standard has
in no way injured the pro-
ductivity of the fowls—has
in fact, resulted in develop-
ment along lines THAT
MAKE GREAT EGG REC-
ORDS POSSIBLE. This is
all the more creditable to
the fancier since, up to a
comparatively recent date,
neither he nor the utility
poultry keeper had any ac-
curate knowledge of how
to breed specifically for
egg production or how to
identify the physical char-
acters indicating it.

It is true that the win-

relationship to all other pens of the same variety. Inas-
much as there has been considerable agitation on the ques-
tion of whether or not show qualities and egg-laying abil-
ity can be combined in the same individual, it is interest-
ing to see what the contest records have to show on this
problem. The average production per pen of ten birds
in the seventh competition was 1690, 1394, 1683, 1530,
1480, and 1628 eggs respectively for Barred Rocks, White
Rocks, White Wyandottes, Buff Wyandottes, Rhode Island
Reds, and White Leghorns. The corresponding figures
for those pens comprising the best 25 per cent of each
variety when considered from a showroom standpoint were
1739, 1346, 1834, 1582, 1390, and 1672 respectively. In
the case of White Plymouth Rocks the number of pens
was only four, and consequently the figures are less sug-
gestive than in the case of White Leghorns, where forty-
three pens were entered. Taken as a whole, this material
certainly constitutes an ar-
gument for the contention
that showroom and utility
qualities can be combined
in the same strain of birds.”

More evidence of the
same sort is presented in
Fig. 137 which indicates
the correlation existing be-
tween standard
and egg production as ob-
served in the Plymouth
Rocks entered in the Vine-
land Egg Laying and
Breeding Contest. In study-
ing this table it should be

qualities

remembered that the birds

FIG. 134—-HEAVY-LAYING PEN OF STANDARD-BRED WHITE

ners in some contests, PLYMOUTH ROCKS were scored as they enter-
while listed under breed The hens here shown averaged to lay 188.8 eggs each, in 12 ed the contest, and were
= . 5 months, at National (Mo.) Laying Contest. They also are good E Rat ate Se i
names, have not been good representatives of the breed from the fancier’s viewpoint by no means in showroom
representatives of the condition. It was stated

breed, and much has been made of this fact in some quar-
ters. But it also is true that the particular strains of
inferior quality that a few years ago were in the lead
now are being distanced by fowls that conform more near-
ly to standard requirements. By way of illustrating the
practical combination of standard qualities and produc-
tiveness already achieved by breeders, note the following
from Storrs Bulletin 100, regarding the fowls entered in
the Seventh Annual International Egg Laying Contest:
“In considering the birds entered in the seventh com-
petition from the viewpoint of showroom quality, the man-
agement decided to dispense with the score-card system
of judging employed in the previous three years. Ac-
cordingly all birds were judged on a comparison basis.
This method simplified the judging process considerably
and saved a great amount of clerical work, while at the
same time each pen could be placed in exactly its proper

that “On the ground of condition alone these birds could
have been made to score four or five points higher, on the
average, than they actually did,’ which indicates that they
were of even better than ordinary exhibition quality. In
this table it will be seen that the majority of the best
layers (averaging 180 to 210 eggs) scored around 86-88
points. There were almost no low-scoring birds among the
high producers, and but few high-scoring fowls among the
inferior layers. Similar correlation tables for Reds, Wy-
andottes, and Leghorns in this contest (see Figs. 138, 139,
and 140) all illustrate the same combination of good ex-
hibition quality with productiveness.

Egg Type in Standard Fowls

There is no reason for questioning the fact that all
the essentials of egg type (or to speak more accurately—
egg-laying capacity), so far as this subject now is under-

104

stood, can be secured in any of our popular breeds with-
out change in standard type. At the
Second Annual Poultry Judging and Breeding School at
Cornell University, July 1919, where laying capacity was
definitely defined (see Chapter VII), it developed that
most of the government experts there assembled believed
that heavy-laying fowls in certain breeds, particularly

any important

FIG. 135—HOW PRODUCTION MODIFIES TYPE—A GOOD LAYER
The hen here illustrated was a heavy producer and has the large
soft abdomen and wide span between pubic bones and keel that
give ample capacity for necessary development of digestive and egg
organs. Compare with Fig. 136. Photo from Cornell University.

Leghorns and Wyandottes, are longer bodied than repre-
sentatives of the extreme show type. It is important to
remember however, that length of body is a relative term,
and in practical breeding may mean little more than the
longer appearing, less rounded underline which may be
produced without any change in body dimensions other
than the spreading of the keel bone. For illustration of
this compare Figs. 135 and 136, showing in profile the
body of a good and a poor layer. The good layer here
is no longer than the other but in full plumage would
certainly appear so, owing to the position of the keel.
With these two fowls in mind, a study of the Standard’s
“ideal” Leghorn and Wyandotte will suggest how breed-
ing for a smoothly rounded underline may readily result
in a “tucked-up” a highly objectionable character
fram a practical viewpoint. This clearly is a character
that the fancier must avoid even if, to do so, it should be-
come necessary to modify the Standard description on this
detail. That the standard Wyandotte type does not nec-
essarily interfere with good egg production is proved by
the outlines of the 309-egg hen shown in Fig. 141.

keel

Relation of Size to Productiveness

The results secured at the Vineland Egg Laying and
Breeding Contest, as set forth in the correlation tables in
Figs. 109 and 110, show clearly that standard requirements
as to weight are no handicap in productiveness in the case
of any of the breeds represented. White Leghorns rang-
ing in weight from three and a half to four pounds were
better layers than those above or below that weight, while
best production in R. I. Red, Wyandotte, and Plymouth
Rock pens was secured with birds ranging from five to
seven pounds, or seven and one-half in the case of Ply-
mouth Rocks.

PROFITABLE CULLING AND SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

Pigmentation Not a Serious Problem

Standard requirements in regard to yellow pigment in
such breeds as Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, etc., are no
more difficult of adaptation to reasonable “utility” de-
mand than is breed type. The commercial poultry keeper
and the fancier alike want rich yellow skin and shanks in
their fowls WHEN NOT LAYING.

The exhibitor well knows that his pullets are at their
best just before they begin to lay, and he plans to have
them reach this stage of development about showtime,
when their beaks and shanks will be as yellow as they ever
will be. To demand that a pullet shall show more or less
loss of pigment at this time as a proof that she is a good
layer would be to handicap all except extra-early-hatched
birds and also would, in practice, put a premium upon pale
beaks and shanks—a defect fully as objectionable to the
commercial poultry keeper as to the fancier. As regards
hens, by the time these have progressed sufficiently in the
molt to be in winter showroom condition they will have re-
gained their pigment in all sections. It may be practicable
to modify the Standard so as to avoid handicapping pullets
and hens that have been laying for some time when shown,
such as hens at fall shows and extra-early pullets, but is
an open question whether for the time being that had not
better be left to the discretion of the judges.

About the only time that the fancier is in serious dan-
ger of going astray in pigmentation tests is when mating
up his breeding pens, and then only when this is done
comparatively late in the season. At this time the pref-
erence for fowls with bright yellow shanks may result
in putting a premium on late-maturing pullets, or on
hens that are apt to lay only for a short time in the spring
—none of which should ever be admitted to the breeding
pen no matter what their exhibition quality may be.

The principle should be accepted by fancier and com-
mercial poultry keeper alike, that shanks that have faded
out as a result of production are in no way objectionable
in breeding stock, since chicks from such fowls will have
just as yellow legs as any. If the breeder will keep in
mind that during the laying season bleached shanks are
a badge of merit, and will look with suspicion upon any

' ia
FIG. 136-HOW PRODUCTION MODIFIES TYPE—A POOR LAYER

This hen was a very inferior producer. Her abdomen is much
smaller than that of the one shown in Fig. 135 because her egg
organs weigh nearly half a pound less, and her digestive organs
also are smaller since she requires much less food. In actual
length of body, however, she differs but little, if any, from the good
layer shown in Fig. 135. Photo from Cornell University.

WHAT CULLING MEANS TO THE FANCIER

hens or pullets having highly pigmented shanks at this
time, he will have no difficulty in maintaining the yel-
lowest of legs and skin in his fowls, doing this without
putting them at any disadvantage whatever as regards
productiveness.

CORRELATION OF BXHIBITION S8OORE WITH PRODUCTION
PLYMOUTH ROCKS us

Standard Score m

. aa

90 89 88 87 86 85 8 ae
=

BGG PRODUCTION-PULLET YEAR

FIG. 137-STANDARD QUALITY NO HANDICAP IN LAYING
CONTESTS

This correlation table for Plymouth Rocks at Vineland Laying
Contest shows that the best production was secured with hens
ranking above the general average of exhibition-quality fowls of
their breed. Correlation tables of the Wyandottes, Reds, and Leg-
horns entered at this contest (see Figs. 138, 139, and 140) show
similar quality. Courtesy of New Jersey Experiment Station.

Yellow Pigmentation in the Showroom

This Article Suggests Changes In the Standard With
Regard to Pigmentation Which the Authors Be-
lieve Would Give Heavy Layers a Fair
Chance In the Showroom

Condensed from Storrs (Conn.) Experiment Station
Bulletin No. 92

OULTRY shows are one of the most valuable agen-

cies for fostering interest in the poultry industry.

They afford an opportunity for a ready comparison
of a large number of different poultry breeds, strains,
products and apparatus that would not be gotten to-
gether otherwise. Of equal value probably is the occa-
sion which they offer for the informal interchange of
ideas between progressive poultry breeders. The more
valuable an institution, the more care should be exercised
to insure its improvement in response to the changing
ideals of the times.

Plants and animals have been domesticated and cul-
tivated for one or both of two main reasons—for the
pleasure which their presence gives us, or for some use-
ful product which they yield in the form chiefly of food,
clothing, or labor. The distinction is not absolute, even
as the distinction between beauty and utility cannot be
absolute, but in general we may distinguish the forms
primarily ornamental from those primarily useful. The
first are grown as pets, the second for utility. Orna-
mental things may be useful, and the market value of a
product is not diminished by the inherent beauty of the
producer. In fact, the perfection of form and color that
appeals to the eye may indirectly affect the yield. The
pride of the flock or of the field will be most tenderly
cared for.

A visible character that has a direct connection with
yield may be called a utility point, while one that has
no such direct connection may be called a fancy point.
Each may be developed without injury to the other, but
the man who aims at but a single target is most likely
to reach his mark. To the practical breeder the most
valuable thing is yield. This the showroom almost en-
tirely leaves out of consideration, either directly or by
scoring on a multitude of fancy points that often have
at best only a fancied connection with the object for which
the breed is supposed to be cultivated. In the score card
for dairy cattle no place is left for the quantity or

quality of milk which the animal is capable of giving.

105

In the ear of corn attention may be given to the straight-
ness of the rows and the completeness with which the tip
of the ear is filled out, but the yield per acre is not re-
corded. The score card for poultry gives ten points each
for comb, wings, and tail, but no credit is given for the
number of eggs a bird has laid.

Attempts in many cases have been made to use char-
acters in the score card that may be indicative of yield.
In corn, the filling out of the tip, the size of the ear, the
size and compactness of the kernels, are all characters
that influence the amount of food substance carried by
an individual ear, but are not of necessity correlated with
the yield per acre. In the experience of the Connecticut
Experiment Station, poor scoring strains of corn have
been found to outyield better scoring strains in compar-
ative test cultures.

In poultry, probably less attempt is made to use char-
acters in the score card indicative of yield than in most
other economic breeds of animals or of plants, and the
standards may be fictitious in that they are even directly
opposed to the natural development of the animal.

Most fancy points probably are indifferent so far as
they directly influence the practice of breeding plants
and animals for utility. The danger is that they tend to
substitute a fictitious standard for real value, and there-
by distract the aim of the breeder. In some cases, how-
ever, the standards may be in direct opposition to utility.

The presence of yellow pigment is a case in point.
It has been conclusively demonstrated in the present bul-
letin that visible yellow pigment in the breeds investi-
gated is indicative of poor laying ability. Our investi-
gations have shown however, that the yellower the beak
and legs, the longer since the last egg was laid.

The “Standard of Perfection”, which controls the
judges in the show room, demands yellow in the beak and
legs of Leghorns and the American breeds. Other things
being equal therefore, in preferring the bird with yellow
beak and yellow legs, the poultry judge is preferring the
poorer layers. In other words, production is penalized.

As a_ specific contribution toward improving the
“Standard of Perfection”, we would suggest changes in
the score card relating to pigmentation in breeds in which
the amount of pigment is affected by laying. The present
color standards are irrational in several respects. Let
us consider the White Leghorns for example.

The “Standard of Perfection” calls for white ear lobes
and for yellow beak and legs in both sexes. Such a stand-
ard is inconsistent. The white in ear lobes is opposed
to the yellow in beak and legs. Moreover, while white
in the lobes of the females may be indicative of laying,
in males it certainly is not. It is a peculiarity of certain
strains or is brought about by lack of vigor due to sick-
ness or by other environmental factors.

We suggest that male White Leghorns be required
to show yellow in the ear lobes as well as in beak and
legs. If males with pale lobes are used as breeders,
strains are likely to be favored in which the ear lobes
will be of little value in selecting layers. The ear lobes
in males therefore, should show a high percentage of
yellow. It would be possible to require the color to come
up to any desired standard,—say at least 40 per cent

CORRELATION C¥ EXEIBITION SCORE WITH PRODUCTION
RHODE ISLAND REDS

is
Standard Score au
en +
ae Oo
aS a
= l=
270-241
“e, 240-211| |
fa 210-161
E 180-15
= 16
iS)
Ln]
a
3)
=)
a
3
m4
Be
oO
Srotal
'
Ce 126/178)
FIG. 1383—STANDARD-BRED R. I. REDS ARE GOOD LAYERS
Courtesy of New Jersey Experiment Station.

106 PROFITABLE CULLING AND SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

yellow as determined by the color top. It might seem
fairer to competitors who have developed strains under
the old standards, to place the requirements not too high
at first, and raise them later. It is our belief however,
that ultimately a high percentage of yellow in the ear
lobes of male White Leghorns should be demanded by
the score card.

CORRELATION OF EXHIBITION SCORE WITH PRODUCTION
WYANDOTTES 0

‘

Standard Score a 3

an +?

xe Oo

ge
240-2 : |
"210-16 4) 25)
B 1e0-152 L | |
* tbe + + (27
Sih0-121 en: 5. 33
He aie ah
A 20-61 | | | | | 22)
& Ad-31_. f | af 6,
3 BO-1_ | | as Lae Lea
aa 22 150)
Yet "4. | ]
= 155 144)

FIG. 139—BIRDS OF STANDARD QUALITY LEAD IN PRODU(

TION AT VINELAND CONTEST

In the female bird, decided yellow pigment is indica-
tive of lack of laying activity within the recent past. A
study of the preceding pages indicates that the ear lobes
and vent are the first to change color in response to a

change in the laying activity, that the beak is next,
while the legs are the last of all to be affected. Futher-

more, paling in visible yellow pigment may at times be
brought about by other influences than laying. The
presence of yellow pigment therefore, is more decisive
than its absence. These facts should be taken into con-
sideration in the showroom. A good-laying bird might
not have lost the yellow from her legs early in the sea-
son, although her vent and beak would be pale, while,
toward the end of the laying year, yellow legs would be
almost a sure sign of a poor layer. In most of the fall
fairs and early poultry shows, pullets are exhibited be-
fore they normally begin to lay. Such pullets one would
expect to be abundantly supplied with yellow pigment.
Pullets in early shows therefore, should not be judged
in the same manner as the birds in the regular later
shows, when a bird certainly should be penalized which

_is evidently a poor producer.

The suggestion may appear drastic, but it would
prove of great service to the poultry industry and ulti
mately to the poultry shows themselves, we believe, if
during the laying season, any hen or pullet were dis-

qualified from the showroom which did not show evidence
of being in a laying condition.

The foregoing article is presented for the serious
consideration of breeders of Leghorns and all yellow-
skinned fowls. If it should prove to be true that yellow

skin and white ear lobes in Leghorns are definitely op-

CORRELATION OF EXHIBITION SCORE WITH PRODUCTION
LEG!

Standard Score 3
90 89 88 87 86 85 84 83 62 81 OO 79 78 é
300-271 1 1|
preru 1 4) afa| el 2
240-211 | 4

10 1B 22 71412) 4
© 210-18 40 3
Ennpeseeesgee!

SB er
o Phe | plitia
J
E It So

BGG PRODUCTION-P

FIG. 140—NO ONE WHO LOOKS AT THIS TABLE
THE SUPERIORITY OF STANDARD-BRED LEG-
HORNS AS LAYERS

CAN QUESTION

posed to each other, then the Standard should and no
doubt will be amended in this particular. It is just as
well however, to bear in mind that the identification of
characters that indicate laying ability, or the lack of it,
is still a new and obviously incomplete science, and the
fancier can scarcely be blamed for feeling that, in view
of the remarkable progress already made under the pres-
ent Standard, changes in it should be made only after
the need for them has been clearly demonstrated.

The Fancier’s Opportunity

The wonderfully awakened interest in the poultry in-
dustry in this country, and the great importance which
is and should be attached to keeping only high-quality,
bred-to-lay stock means that there is developing for the
fancier a greater market than he has ever known before,—
is making prospective purchasers of practically every
farmer and commercial poultry keeper in tl.e country.
One of the bugbears of the fancier has been the disposal
of his medium-grade stock. There never is any question
of his ability to place his exhibition specimens at good
prices, but for the medium birds—those not good enough
to win in hot competition or to use in select breeding pens,
—he has a limited demand. The commercial poultry keeper
and the farmer however, are not, as a rule, interested in
exhibition birds, though they do want standard-bred fowls.

No breeder can afford to be indifferent to the re-
quirements of this
trade. Instead, he
will cater to it and
will permit no un-
necessary obstacles
to be interposed.
If his breed or
variety does not
quite measure up

to the reasonable
demands of com-

mercial poultry
keepers he will
quickly see to it
that their condi-
tions are met, even
if that involves a
modification of
present Standard
values. However,
those who consider
the present sit-
uation carefully
will find that they
need sacrifice noth-

WITH

FIG. 141—WHITE WYANDOTTE
RECORD OF 309 EGGS

ing essential and ;

with right breed- This hen was one of a pen entered ate
: athods they International Laying Contest. Is a good il-
ing methods NEY justration of the fact that conformity to

have it type in this breed is not necessarily a
handicap in egg production. Courtesy of
Conn. (Storrs) Experiment Station.

certainly
within their power
to realize a volume
f sales that in for-
mer years was entirely out of the question.

Summary

the foundation of a permanent

Standard fowls are
poultry industry.

Practically all high egg
standard-bred fowls.

In the popular breeds, breeding for standard qualities
has been in no way a handicap as regards capacity for-egg
production.

At the Storrs Egg Laying Contest the production of
the highest scoring pens regularly exceeded the average
for all entries in the respective breeds,—further proof
that showroom quality is not necessarily secured at the
expense of productiveness.

At the Vineland Contest correlation tables show that
the best layers in all the popular breeds average high in
exhibition quality.

The requirements of the “Standard” as regards yel-
low pigment need but little adjustment, if- any, to meet
all reasonable demands of the commercial poultry keeper.

records have been made by

CHAPTER. XVI

The Physiology of Egg Production

Fowls May Have Great Capacity For Egg Production Without Making Exceptional Records Unless Conditions Generally
Are Favorable—Persons Who Are Culling Fowls and Poultry Keepers Who Are Trying to Secure
Maximum Production Need to Understand Fowl Nutrition and the Physiology of Egg Pro-
duction—How the Fowl’s Egg Organs Function Is Here Briefly Described,

Also the Influence of Feed and Care Upon High Egg Production

TTENTION has been called elsewhere to the
fact that a fowl may have excellent egg-lay-
ing capacity as determined by body measure-

ferior in actual performance unless the condi-
tions under which she is kept, the methods employed in her
eare, the rations fed, etc., are such as will give her a
chance to do her best in this respect. Speaking gener-
ally, the number of eggs laid by any hen is simply the
measure of her ability to produee UNDER EXISTING
CONDITIONS.

For this reason, the poultry keeper who is interested
in securing maximum returns from his flock needs to
understand pretty thoroughly the physiology of the fowl,
at least in so far as it relates to egg production and to
the digestion and assimilation of food upon which high
egg records in so large measure depend. He needs to
know what organs are involved in these operations, the
manner in which they work, the circumstances under
which they can best fulfill their natural functions and
the conditions which the poultry keeper should provide
in order to give the fowls the best possible chance to
reach maximum production.

The influence of external conditions upon egg yield
should receive especial emphasis in presenting the sub-
ject of culling to the beginner, who is quit@ prone to
accept rules as hard and fixed, and to apply certain tests
without taking other characters into consideration or
without investigating the condition under which fowls
have been kept. Without in any manner detracting from
the practical value of culling methods the beginner
should understand that he must take breeding, feeding,
and general management into careful consideration if
he would escape serious errors in classifying fowls with
reference to their laying ability.

Egg Organs of the Hen

The ovary in an inactive state is a comparatively small
organ resembling in appearance a dimunitive bunch of
grapes. It is attached near the backbone of the fowl,
just in front of the kidneys, and contains an indefinite
number of undeveloped ova, which when they reach full
development are known as yolks. The ova have been
counted by different observers who have reported any-
where from 2,500 to 4,000 as visible to the naked eye.
In addition to those that may be so counted there prob-
ably are many more that can only be counted by the use
of a microscope. The number actually visible in the
ovary of even the poorest layer however, is much greater
than the number of eggs that any hen can possibly lay,
hence there is no reason to believe that the number

ments, heredity, etc., and yet prove quite in-

of ova present bears any direct relation to the hen’s pro-
ductiveness.

The oviduct is the organ which receives the yolk when
it reaches full size and escapes from its follicle, and in
which the albumen and shell are deposited. In the non-
laying hen the oviduct is extremely small, being only a
few inches in length at most. In the active state
it is from 18 to 24 inches long in which condition it oc-
cupies a good deal of space—one reason why the abdom-
inal capacity of a heavy layer must be large. The upper
end of the oviduct, known as the funnel, is not directly
attached to the ovary, but at the time when each yolk
bursts from the follicle the funnel rises up so as partly
to enclose it, thus to insure its entrance into the oviduct.

Development of the Egg

After the yolk has dropped into the upper end of the
oviduct it is gradually forced onward by peristaltic action.
As the egg progresses spirally through the oviduct it
accumulates successive layers of albumen until it reaches
the isthmus where it receives the membraneous coating
of soft shell. It then passes on to the uterus where the
hard shell is deposited. It also receives in the neighbor-
hood of 40 per cent of its total albumen at this point. Ac-
cording to observers it takes in the neighborhood of 14
days for the yolk to develop from its initial stage to full
size, and for the formation of the egg after the yolk has

FIG, 142

WHY SOME HENS DO NOT LAY

Illustration shows condition of egg organs of hen No. &38,
tails of whose post-mortem are given herewith—see page 108

108

entered the oviduct it is stated that 24 hours or more
are required.

The size and shape of eggs vary with individual fowls,
and the commercial poultry keeper must give close at-
tention to the character of the eggs produced, particularly
with reference to quality. Size of egg and color of shell

PROFITABLE CULLING AND SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

escape into the body cavity without entering that organ;
also how it is possible for an egg, after being partly
formed or perhaps even after receiving its shell, to make
its way back up through the oviduct by a reversal of the
peristaltic action and drop out at the upper end into the
abdominal cavity. The yolks or partially formed eggs,
after escaping into the body cavity
may be walled off or encysted, and
more or less completely reabsorbed,
or their presence may cause acute in-
| flammation and death.
| Partially formed eggs may also es-
cape into the abdominal cavity through
a rupture of the walls of the oviduct,
| often without any serious consequenc-
| es so far as the general health of
| the fowl is concerned. A_ peculiar
condition sometimes met with is il-
lustrated in Fig. 142. The hen
shown was entered in the Vineland
Laying Contest but had only a sin-
gle egg to her credit in six months.
She was carefully examined by Dr.
W. C. Thompson of the Poultry De-
partment, New Jersey Experiment
Station, and her condition described

= * as follows:
“oe _ .
FIG. 143—PELVIC ORGANS OF LAYING HEN S. C. W. Leghorn pullet No. 838
showed every indication of being a
1—Ovary and yolks in process of formation; 2—active oviduct with egg ready to be

laid at 3; 4+the rectum; 5—the liver; 6—retroperitoneal storehouse for fat.

in second edition of “Poultry Culture, Sanitation, and Hygiene”.

are but slightly under the poultryman’s control though
size is noticeably affected by the rations fed, amount of
water consumed, and the supply of shell material. The
quality or flavor of the eggs is normally determined by
what the fowl eats and drinks.

The color of the egg yolk is affected in a marked
measure by the rations fed, and as a bright yellow yolk
is always desired, those who are catering to first-class
markets must keep this point in mind. The color of the
yolk is produced by the same pigment that makes yel-
low skin, beak, and shanks, and if it is not present in the
ration it cannot appear in the yolk.

Abnormal eggs, meaning eggs abnormal in shape,
size, and shell usually result from some unfavorable
condition in the oviduct or from physical conditions af-
fecting that organ. Fowls that are overfat or that are
underexercised, (resulting in the weakening of the ab-
dominal muscles) or that do not have an ample supply
underexercised (resulting in the weakening of the ab-

normal eggs, particularly at the height of the laying
season. At this time also blood clots are apt to be found

ii. the eggs and various diseases of the egg organs may
develop. The remedy in practically all of such cases
is not medicinal treatment, but a correction of the ration
and of the conditions under which the fowls are kept,
which will set the organs to functioning in a normal
manner. When this is done, ordinary derangements will
correct themselves if not too acute or of too long stand-
ing.
Why Some Hens Do Not Lay

The explanation of the manner in which the complete
yolk enters the oviduct suggests how yolks may sometimes

good producer, with faded shanks,
white ear lobes, whitish beak, and
good development of comb, and ex-
hibited other signs of being in full producing condition.
Post-mortem examination was ordered and made. A
large, round, hard mass of yellowish matter was found,
about the size of a large orange and encased within a
membraneous sac which was formed in the side-wall of
the oviduct. Many yolks had been formed normally in
the ovary and then passed into the oviduct where a small
amount of albumen had been secreted and the whole mass
pushed on into the sac instead of following the regular
channel of egg formation. These had accumulated for
some time and finally formed this tumor-like mass.”

After Kaupp,

The Digestive Organs of the Fowl

The fowl’s ability to produce great numbers of eggs
is quite largely conditioned upon her capacity for di-
gesting and assimilating food. ‘When it is remembered
that a fowl laying 200 eggs in a year must reproduce her
weight in egg substance in the neighborhood of five
times during this period, it will be seen that the demand
upon her digestive organs is great, and there must not
only be room for storing large quantities of food at
feeding time, but there must be rapid digestion to en-
able her quickly to transform the crude nutrients in the
ration into the highly complex compounds of which the
egg is composed. While the fowl’s digestive organs are
naturally designed for the rapid assimilation of food,
it has been found that where heavy production is sought,
assistance must be given by having a large part of the
ration finely ground and in that way partly prepared
for digestion.

The crop, which is the first organ of digestion, is a
comparatively thin-walled sac, capable of great disten-
sion and serving as a storehouse for food. It also ex-

THE PHYSIOLOGY OF EGG PRODUCTION 109

cretes a mucus which moistens the food and probably
has some digestive action. The food remains in the crop
for a period of some hours, during which time it be-
comes quite soft, and is then passed on to the stomach
or proventriculus, a glandular organ secreting the gas-
tric juice. The food then passes to the gizzard where
it is reduced to a very fine condition, and is thoroughly
acted upon by the digestive juices, after which it passes
into the intestine. The first portion of this forms a loop
in which hes the whitish-yellow pancreas, a gland which
secretes another digestive juice. Bile from the liver
also enters the intestine near the gizzard. Its part in
the digestive process is more or less mechanical; that is,
it emulsifies the fats and neutralizes the acidity of the
food in solution as it enters the intestine. The liver itself
is largely concerned with the absorption of food, in doing
which it transforms certain compounds into more easily
assimilated ones. In addition to the digestive juices
already mentioned there are several others secreted by
glands in the wall of the small intestine, each performing
an essential part in the digestion of the food.

This is not the place to go into a complete discussion
of poultry feeds and feeding.. That is done in detail in
a new book issued by Reliable Poultry Journal Publish-
ing Company, entitled “How to Feed Poultry for Any
Purpose With Profit”, and to which the interested reader
is referred for down-to-date information on this impor-
tant subject. There are, however, some practical de-
tails in regard to the subject that are so important to
every one interested in increased egg production that
they clearly should receive at least some attention in this
chapter. Probably the most effective manner in which
this can be done is to present the results of some obser-
vations made at the Vineland Egg Laying and Breeding
Contest where the rations of laying fowls have been
very carefully studied. During the visit of one of the
authors of this book to the Experiment Station at New
Brunswick and to the contest plant, he interviewed Prof.
H. R. Lewis, who kindly furnished the following infor-
mation regarding the feeding methods in use there, and
the results secured.

Nutritive Requirements for Egg Production

Herewith Is Presented a Most Instructive Interview With Prof. H. R. Lewis, Head of Poultry Department, New
Jersey Experiment Station, Giving Valuable Data Based on Records of the Vineland Egg Laying
and Breeding Contest, 1916-1917—Full Information Is Given Regarding Rations

Used, Food Consumed, Cost of Production, Etc.,

Question—What rations were used at the First Vine-
land Egg Laying Contest?

Special rations were evolved for the feeding work
et the contest. The aim in evolving these rations was
to secure simplicity and at the same time insure maxi-
mum efficiency. ‘The basic grains, corn, wheat, oats,
and their by-products were selected as the ingredients
for the rations. The mash ration consisted of 100
pounds of wheat bran, 100 pounds of wheat middlings,
100 pounds of ground oats, 100 pounds of corn meal, 100
pounds of meat scrap. This dry mash was kept before
the birds in hoppers and was supplemented by a scratch
grain ration consisting of equal parts of cracked corn,
wheat, and oats. During extremely cold weather in the
winter the corn in this scratch ration was doubled, giv-
ing to the ration more heating properties. In addition
to this mash and scratch ration, the birds were fed a con-
siderable amount of succulence, and grit, shell, and char-
coal were kept before them in hoppers constantly. Dur-
ing the spring, summer, and fall they were allowed to
run on alfalfa ranges.

Question—Briefly, what was the method of feeding?

The method of feeding was just as simple as it was
possible to make it. The mash was kept before the birds
constantly in hoppers, and the scratch grain mixture
was fed to the flocks three times a day, morning, noon,
and night in rather restricted quantities, and in such
amounts as to insure the proper consumption of mash.
No wet mash was fed, no tonics or panaceas of any
kind were given. The object in feeding the grain in
small quantities three times daily was to keep the birds
active and hungry, and not allow them to fill their crops
full at any one time with hard grains. Only a very small
amount of scratch feed was fed morning and noon, the
bulk of it being given at night.

Ete.

Question—Do you regard the mash ration as the egg-
maker, so to speak?

The nutritive ratio of the mash was 1:2.65 and the
nutritive ratio of the grain was 1:7.7. When these are
fed in about equal proportions a nutritive ratio for the
daily diet of the flock of about 1:4% to 5 is secured.
Of course it is true that the bird uses both the mash
and the grain ration in part from which to manufacture
eggs, and in part to maintain her body weight and to
provide heat and energy; yet when we appreciate the
fact that one-third of the dry matter of an egg is pro-
tein, one can readily appreciate the importance of pro-
tein in the daily diet of a flock of layers, and it will
be obvious that the mash mixture, due to the presence
of 20 per cent of meat scrap, is essentially the egg-
making part of the ration. Experiments conducted at
the New Jersey Station show conclusively that maxi-
mum egg production cannot be secured unless the flocks
are compelled to eat large amounts of a well-balanced
mash, containing at least 20 per cent of meat scrap.

Question—In your opinion then, is there a good reason
for the claim that the grain ration is used largely for
the fowl’s maintenance?

This reasoning is largely correct from the fact that
the grain ration is primarily composed of carbohydrates
and fat, although there is, of course, considerable pro-
tein present. Since maintenance requirements call for
heat, energy, and reserve food supply, it is more eco-
nomical and efficient to provide these maintenance re-
quirements from the grain rations.

Question—Were records kept showing what propor-
tion of mash and what proportion of grain was con-
sumed?

Recent feeding tests at the New Jersey Agricultural
Experiment Station have brought out interesting results

PROFITABLE CULLING AND SELECTIVE FLOCK

This remarkabl

Fig. 54, and or
poor producer’s
noticeably

(

Photo trom

ovary

smaller size

onn

OVARY

AND OVIDUCT OF

yn the reader’s left, the ovary
hen in

ans from the poor-laying

org
lower
ct which

Exp. Station

state of
suggests

activit
also that

and oviduct

BREEDING

Fig. 55 (see page 43). Both hens were actively laying, but
between—and this is confirmed by

GOOD AND POOR-LAYING HENS CONTRASTED
f the heavy-laying Rhode Island Red hen illustrated

shorter cycles

}

the h

er

with long periods
has not been laying for so long a period as the one on the

THE PHYSIOLOGY OF EGG PRODUCTION

regarding the proper proportion of mash and grain to
feed. Formerly it has been suggested that 2 parts of
grain and 1 part of mash were about right. Feeding
tests disclose the fact that the best results are secured,
especially in late spring and summer, if the birds are
restricted in their grain feed and compelled to eat
greatly increased amounts of mash. Mash is
the cheaper of the two mixtures, and _ its
greater use tends to lower feeding costs.

111

It will be seen here that it cost $2.43 to feed each
heavy-breed bird, and $2.19 to feed each light-breed bird
of the Leghorn type.

Question—Did the records show that the fowls con-
sumed an increased amount of feed during the period
of high egg production?

Table Showing Relation Between Feed Consumption and Egg Production

: : : : WEEK PLYMOUTH WYANDOTTES RHODE LEGHORNS
Mash also contains more protein, which is ROCKS ISLAND REDS
= . . . Feed Eggs Feed Eggs Feed Eggs Feed Egg:
the egg making material, hence its larger Consumed Laid Consumed Laid Consumed Laid Consumed Laid
use tends to force greater production. The- 1 227.9 111.6 73 630.4 1046
: - ae: 01.2 7 321.9 32
following table has been worked out showing 3 4 ere ees tee
the proper amount of grain to feed layers i iy hr: aS iran
! 28. 545
during each month. With this amount of 6 5 ale ee 1703
F . 7 7 vo. 37 7 83
grain they will naturally eat the remainder 8 4 128.8 157 : 1172
‘ : : 9 3 126.3 15: 3 88
of their requirements in the form of mash 10 5.1 5 157.5 133 86: ae
A rT) e - 11 3 4 156 211 92 1407
which will insure the correct proportions be 13 9 e Tae oh Bae aie
tween the two. 18 R 6 8 5 148-4 247 ‘ 1496
: ; : ; 278 92: 585
15 7 9 422 6 279 ‘ 528
Amount of Scratch Grain to Feed Layers Each 16 . 0 29 475 rh 4 if “ 2028
a 5 5 2 75 a 9: 1787
Month in the Year 17 3.2 6 540 143.9 98k 226
Month Pounds per oe Pounds for Soe Feeding a + 566 Le race
100 Birds A. M. >. M. 2. ¢ ! 52.7 56.6
Nevanier. 1g 4 8 20 5 7 649 151.9 1041.5
Mecembar 12 4 8 21 5 9 698 155.4 968.7
Deanery, 3 4 8 22 2 2 683 146.1 1064.2
February 12 4 8 23 5 0 674 152.9 1057.9
March ~ 12 4 Ss 24 al 8 ie S| 1036.7
April 12 4 8 25 15 7 4 1055.9
; 0 5 26 0 a3 3 5.7
acy 1 4 6 97 1 : 5 i
une 10 4 6 < : ‘ 48
July ig 3 3 28 2 2 0 -6
August 6 2 4 29 3 5 6 8
September 5 2 3 30 0 0 8.4 6
October 5 2 3 31 2 3 3.7 .4
32 iB 9 5 s
] _ 3 5 4 e
The fact that at the Vineland Contest ap- oe ef * mE car a a
proximately equal parts of mash and grain LH Hf 7 rc 310 Rae a
36 ; 5 : : ;
were consumed throughout the year is of 37 248.8 530 3 iz 0
; aT ‘ : 38 258.1 553 3 3.8 8
special significance since it has been the gen- 39 239-7 501 9 6 ‘
eral custom heretofore to recommend feeding re eee ie ree
twice as much grain as mash. Our practice abe ae . eae
. a _ P c 241, 417 7 .2 937
not only insures sufficient protein material 44. 243.7 312 HS 5 1501
3 : 45 238.4 282 “1 al 1035
for egg production, but it also cheapens the 46 259.9 326 9 it sil
D * 47 260.4 369 9 .2 828
ration, for the mash is generally cheaper 48 273.2 385 3 0 306
than the scratch grain. In addition it may a Beata ee ni e (i
P Hi 5 4 -< me * “0 ea
be stated that birds require slightly more 51 1.6 331 8 6 64
2 . a a2 SOLS 319 9 5 537
grain than mash until they come into full : = mor en ee ek ene a
er sats Ts Total 15263,4 26355 12051.6 9 21641 12047 45714.3 101832
laying condition; equal parts of mash and ree 293.5 506.8 231 7 116.2 931.7 879 | 1938.3
grain while laying heavily in the late win-
ter and spring; considerably larger amounts of mash than Yes, the records show that feed consumption in-

grain during late summer and fall.

Question—Are these proportions the same for hens
as for pullets?

Yes, the above proportions are approximately the
same for hens as for pullets with the one exception that
the feeder must use special care not to feed yearling
hens in the fall and early winter as heavily of grain as
is done with the pullets, for such practice would result
in their taking on too much body weight, and therefore
becoming too fat for egg production.

In this connection it may be of interest to learn the
relation which existed between grain and mash con-
sumption and feed costs, also comparing the light and
heavy breeds. These details are shown in the following
table:

Amount of Mash and Grain Consumed per Pen in Heavy and
Light Breeds, and Cost of Feeding---Vineland Laying Contest

No. of Mash Grain Total Cost Ratio Cost

Birds Cons’d Cons'd Feed Feed of Mash per100

per Pen per Pen per Pen per Pen. per Pen to Grain Birds
Heavy breeds 400 452.2 399.9 852.1 $24.30 1.13:1 $243.
Light breeds 600 387.2: 375.9 763.1 21.90 Lee 219;

creased quite materially as egg production increased.
In fact, we find a close correlation between the curves
of egg production and the curves of feed consumption;
the rise and fall in the curve of feed consumption being
slightly ahead of the corresponding rise and fall in the
curve of production. Birds in heavy-laying condition
during the spring months will consume from 80 to 100
per cent more feed than they will during the resting
The accompanying table shows in a very in-
teresting this
tween feed consumption and egg production.

period.

way uniform relation which exists be-

Question—How much feed is required to produce a
dozen eggs in the case of the four breeds under considera-
tion at the Vineland Contest?

The Leghorns lead in efficiency, requiring 5.4 lbs. to
produce one dozen eggs; the Wyandottes next with 6.12
lbs.; Plymouth Rocks next with 6.85 lbs.; and Rhode
Island Reds next with 6.9 lbs.

CHAP TER. XxXVaAd

Balancing the Flock, and Methods of Increasing Fall Production

For Best Results the Laying Flock Should Be Properly Balanced as to Proportion of Pullets and Hens—Production in the
Average Flock Generally Drops to a Low Level in the Fall—How This Can Be Prevented by Proper
Handling of Hens and by Early Hatching of Pullets—With Leghorns a Practical Plan Is
to Have a Flock of Extra-early Pullets to Begin Laying in August

REASONABLY uniform production of eggs
the year around is the poultry keeper’s ideal,
but as a rule he falls far short of achieving
it. Beginning in late summer the egg yield
of the average flock falls off rapidly and

reaches an extremely low level during the fall and early

winter months. Greater uniformity in production and
better profits can be secured by properly balancing the
flock. By this term is meant maintaining the correct
proportion between the number of hens and of pullets,
also having pullets of different ages.

The production of their
lower than in their first, speaking in

hens in second year is al-
ways

and they seldom begin laying until after the first of the

averages,

year, so that the average price of their eggs is decidedly
lower than that of early-hatched pullets. One-year-old
hens, however, are much better for breeding purposes
than pullets and their chief value to the poultry keeper,
therefore, is in producing eggs for hatching. The fact
that such hens do not begin laying until after the first
of the year is no objection,—indeed, is an advantage, as
it insures a supply of eggs for hatching from fowls that
are just coming into laying after a long rest period and
that are capable of transmitting the highest vigor and
vitality of the embryos.

Poultry keepers have long recognized the fact that
their only chance for keeping up the production of the
flock and securing a goodly number of eggs during the
high-price months is to have a large percentage of early-
hatched pullets, meaning by this, pullets that will come
There
proportion of

into laying during October, as a general average.
are practical reasons however, why the
such pullets in the flock usually is comparatively low,
and it is something of a problem for the average poul-
try keeper to determine how many he should try to raise
and when these should be hatched, to maintain just the
right balance between hens and pullets.

In a survey of 150 poultry farms, reported in
tin 829 of the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment
Station, the correct proportion of hens and pullets in
the flock, as determined by actual experience, has re-
ceived careful attention and the conclusions reached are
set forth in the following extracts from that publication:

“Poultrymen usually recommend that the major por-
tion of the flock be made up of pullets in order to have
the most profitable producers. The hen lays a larger
number of eggs the first year of her life than the sec-
ond, and a larger number the second year than the third,
decreasing the number each year as she grows older.
The poultrymen of the farms included in this survey
keep a portion of the flock as yearlings and the remain-
der as pullets. The best pullets are kept the second
year as yearlings and the inferior ones sold. Those sold
are selected according to the best judgment of the oper-
ator, who tries to pick the poorest layers.

3ulle-

“By dividing these flocks according to the proportion
of pullets and yearlings, the advantage or disadvantage
of keeping a large proportion of yearlings in the laying
flock should be shown. In a number of tables (neces-
sarily omitted from this chapter owing to lack of space—
Ed.) it is made plain that the poultrymen whose flocks
have 50 to 70 per cent of their number in pullets obtain
greater total receipts per flock and per hen than any
other They also receive the highest number of
eggs per hen, except in the class having 80 to 90 per
of their flock in pullets. A well-balanced flock
must carry 30 to 50 per cent of yearlings to produce
eggs for hatching, otherwise the poultryman will need
to buy his eggs for hatching. This proportion allows
the development of a flock with good vitality, and with
enough old hens to give it stability. The average pro-
portion of pullets on these farms was 61 per cent. They
have just about the right proportion on the average.”

class.

cent

Better Fall Production From Hens

With more attention to the subject, even the one
and two-year old hens can be handled so as to get more
eggs from them during the fall months, doing this by
giving them a needed rest in early summer before there
is any tendency to molt, and pushing them for eggs till
they stop for the molt in the fall. If this is properly
done the molt can be delayed for several weeks in the
fall and the laying correspondingly prolonged.
We have a good deal yet to learn about the molt, but in

period

the case of persistent layers at least, production appar-
ently governs it to a great extent, so that in the words

FIG. 1445—A FEBRUARY-HATCHED LEGHORN PULLET LAY-
ING AT AGE OF 129 DAYS

This pullet was hatched February 25th, and laid her first
egg July 4th—just 129 days after hatching. Such pullets should
ice a large number of eggs in late summer and early fall

lus ¢ rT: . c . .
before going into molt. Photo from University of Missouri.

BALANCING THE FLOCK, AND METHOD S OF INCREASING FALL PRODUCTION 113

of Professor Lewis of the New Jersey Experiment Sta-
tion, “We used to say that our hens are molting, so they
have stopped laying; now we say our hens have stopped
laying, and so they are molting.”

The idea of a few years ago that the poultry keeper
should try to secure an early molt in the hope that it
would be followed by good fall and early winter pro-
duction has given away to the more practical plan of
securing the greatest possible production before the
birds stop laying for the molt. It is not to be expected
that hens will produce eggs throughout the entire season
without a rest; only the most persistent layers in the
flock will do that. But if the poultry keeper watches
the performance of his fowls carefully and at the pro-
per time in early summer allows them to drop off in
production for a time, by making judicious changes in
the ration, and then after a few weeks brings them back
gradually, he will find that he can “carry over” a good
many summer eggs into the fall.

It is believed by many that special attention to the
exercise of hens in the fall assists greatly in postpon-
ing the molt and securing increased production at
this time. Mr. R. S. Moseley of Sunny Crest Farm,
New York, states: “To retard molting in case it starts
earlier in the season than you think is natural or neces-
sary, increase the litter to practically a foot deep and
every time you go through the pens sprinkle a little
hard grain in the litter. We have
found that more exercise on the part
of our layers induces a hardening
of the feathers and if the birds are
treated in this way they will post-
pone molting, at least in many cases,
and go on laying.

Another method that aids great-
ly in increasing fall production of
hens is the use of artificial light.
Evidence has been heaped up to show
that “lights” do, without question, in-

“crease egg production, not only in
pullets but also in hens. For exam-
ple, at Cornell University it was
found that where unlighted pens of
hens gave a production of only 4 per cut.
cent in October, hens under lights “Y*'c™ Possible.
reached 27.2 per cent in the same
month and on the same rations.

Culling to Keep Up Percentage of Egg Yield

Many progressive poultry keepers are maintaining
the percentage production of their hens at a high point
by persistent culling. Experience has shown that in the
summertime an average production of less than 50 per
cent means that some of the hens in the flock are not
laying at all. It is the opinion of Prof. Lewis of New
Jersey Experiment Station that where the production
of the flock is under 50 per cent, the number of idle
hens will be found to approximate two per cent for each
point below. In other words, if the production of the
flock is only 40 per cent, 20 per cent of the hens are
nonproductive. Keeping production around 50 per cent,
of course, accomplishes nothing in the. way of securing
uniform production; it simply reduces the size of the
flock and keeps down the cost of production—a prac-
tical step of much importance to every ege producer.

of the row of houses.

What Can Be Done With Early-Hatched Pullets

Every poultry keeper realizes the advantage of hav-
ing early-hatched pullets, meaning those that reach ma-
turity and begin laying during the month of October
as a general average. It is such pullets as these that
produce by far the greater proportion of eggs secured
during the fall and early winter months.

With many it has become something of an art to
decide at just what time to hatch their pullets so that
they will come to maturity early in the fall and keep lay-
ing constantly thereafter, but avoiding the well-known
danger of having them come in too early, in which case
they are almost certain to go into a molt after laying
a month or two, after which they will lay few eggs until
the winter is practically over.

Delaying the maturity of early pullets that are com-
ing in a little too late for profitable summer production
and too early for continuous winter production, are
measures that the careful poultry keeper resorts to when
occasion requires. This may be done by shifting the
pullets frequently to new quarters, supplying bulky
feeds, using only limited amounts of animal matter,
grains rich in oil, ete. In doing this, however, avoid ex-
treme measures, which may cause injury to the fowls and
result in loss rather than gain.

There is another method of securing increased fall

production which in recent years has come rapidly

FIG. 1446—ARTIFICIALLY LIGHTED LAYING HOUSES ON BROAD ACRES FARM

The above illustration shows arrangement of houses at Broad Acres Farm, Connecti
The 20x30-ft. laying houses are so located that a single fence makes a double yarding
The hens range in one large flock either on the east or the west side
During the season of lighting a single lantern was used in each of
these houses, and egg production largely increased.
aid to securing increased fall and winter egg production.

The use of “lights’’ is an important
Photo from Prof. Roy E. Jones
into prominence as a practical measure: This is the
plan of bringing out some extra-early pullets which will
begin laying in late summer. It is most commonly
practiced by Leghorn breeders, since these quick-growing
pullets are particularly well adapted to this method.
Practically all such pullets will molt in the fall, but if
they are hatched early enough so that good production
can be secured before they go into the molt they may
be utilized to excellent advantage.

The value of February-hatched Leghorn pullets is
set forth in “Hints to Poultrymen’”, Vol. IV, No. 4, a
monthly publication of the New Jersey
Station, in an article by E. H. Wene. Extracts from this
article are given herewith including a table showing the
production of a flock of 190 February-hatched Leghorns
at the New Jersey Experiment Station, including not
only their production, but the profits realized.

Experiment

114

“February hatching has not been carried on to a great
extent in the past, possibly because of the fact that
market eggs sell for such a high price at that time that
the poultrymen have not considered early hatching pro-

TOTAL WEEKLY PRODUCTION OF FLOCK, aus, 27 To pee. 31, 1916

—FPullets ——Hens ---fotal

Aug. September October Novembe

27-2 S48 915 16-22 25-29 30-6 7-13 14-20 21-27 28-4 5-11 12-18 19-25 26-2 |

4000 |

r

PROFITABLE CULLING AND SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

should be moved to their laying houses, as they will be
producing a few eggs by this time, and during the months
of September, October, and November, if the pullets have
been properly reared and well fed, a good supply of eggs
may be expected. Special care should
be given to their feeding. In the
morning the pullets are fed equal
parts of wheat and oats scattered in
deep litter, feeding about one pound
to twenty birds. Special care should

December
3-9 10-16 17-23 m-a

be used to see that the litter is kept

dry, deep, and coarse. In the after-

noon scratch grains are fed, the mix-

ture consisting of one part of oats,

one part of wheat, two parts of

cracked corn. About one pound to

every ten birds should be fed. In ad-

dition to these standard grain rations

the regular winter laying mash is fed

Per, “Wee i

iy

in large open hoppers. This mash

consists of:

2 parts wheat bran, 2 parts wheat

middlings, 1 part gluten meal, 1 part

B

corn meal, 1 part ground oats, 1 part

alfalfa meal, 2 parts meat scrap.

“In addition to the grain rations

mentioned, a constant supply of clean,

fresh water should be kept before the

birds all of the time. Sour skim milk

Numberogt Eggs

is also a valuable addition to the feed-

ing ration if it can be bought at a

reasonable figure. From 25 to 50

cents for a 40-quart can is a fair

price.

Total

“Accompanying table gives results

obtained from a pen of 190 Single

Comb White Leghorn pullets hatched

ce |

Y

on February 9, 1914. These pullets

FIG. 147—EGG PRODUCTION AT MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE f Z

POULTRY PLANT—FALL OF 1916 were placed in a New Jersey Multiple

This graph and the one shown in Fig. 148 should be studied in connection with article Unit Laying House the last of July.

by Prof. Graham. Above graph shows the production of pullets and hens in the college They began laying soon after being

flock where no effort was made to “balance’’, thus resulting in the usual low level of pro- placed in permanent quarters, and
duction during the early fall months. To show how balancing the flock raises the average .

of production at this season, see Fig. 148. continued to lay. a good number of

eggs except during the molt which

fitable. The fertility is apt to run lower during the took place in November, December, and January. The

winter months, a fact which also would tend to discour-
age the practice. Although there are, therefore, one
or two disadvantages in early hatching there are a num-
ber of important ways by which it can be made of great
help to the poultryman. It is our firm belief that the
farmer can plan to have from one-quarter to one-third
of his chicks hatched during February. This would
give him plenty of time to care for them before the
rush of the spring work. Also, by early hatching it is
possible for the poultryman to get a greater supply of
hatching eggs during the following spring from his
February-hatched birds, for such birds make the best
possible breeders by the next April, being yearlings in
fact in that they are over one year old and have molted.

“By the middle of July, the February-hatched pullets

Record of Eggs Laid in 12 Months by a Flock of 190 February-hatched Leghorn

Pullets, and Cost of Production

number of eggs laid during the year, the per cent produc-
tion, the value of the eggs, the amount of feed consumed,
and the profit are shown here as the proof of their work.”

The value of a flock of extra-early pullets in helping to
secure uniformity in annual production is also explained in
the following article:

Keeping Egg Production at a High Level
During Fall Months

In Leghorn Flocks It Is Recommended That One-third of
the Pullets Raised Each Year Be Hatched the Last of
February so as to Have Them Laying in August
By PROF. J. C. GRAHAM*

WILL not take time to tell how this subject came to
if our attention as a vital factor in poultry farming, but
suffice it to say that observations on our early-hatch-

ed pullets (those hatched by the winter-course students
the last week in February) proved that they

were not only our most profitable ones but that

their production filled that great gap between
September 15th and November 16th caused by

Number Per Cent Total Cost Value Profit
Month of Eggs Production of Food ot Eggs or Loss the sudden falling off of the eggs from hens
9 ; y
Kugesta = 1245 21.1 $17.43 $39.42 $21.99 profit and the lack of maturity on the part of the pul-
Bentember He ed af = : ae i nie pron lets hatched during the customary period. In
October ‘ 32.9 5 79.75 -27 profit co = ;
November 593 nea | 15.58 29.11 13.53 profit other words, the necessity for early hatched
December 132 0.2 16.75 6.38 10.37 loss pullets to meet college requirements accidental-
1915, ; 1
Piviaaay = as Bota, 7.96. prokt ly demonstrated, in part, how to meet this great
February 2155 40.0 62.85 41.85 profit need, long felt by specialty poultry farmers.
March a ae ea 62 Pee profit These observations have enabled us to arrange
May 3619 el 7248 43.98 prot @ Series of hatching dates, coupled with the
June 2927 51.4 64.48 39.78 profit number of pullets in each lot, to bring the pul-
July 3029 52.0 71.96 50.02 profit lets to production during the two months men-
Torals 26280 $679.30 $421.83 tioned above, to within about 70 per cent or 75

BALANCING THE FLOCK, AND METHODS OF INCREASING FALL PRODUCTION

per cent of the normal production in August. We believe
that production under this plan ean be raised still higher
at that period of the year but the number of early pullets
would be abnormally high. To get the maximum results,
the hens must be kept laying at as high a rate as possible
until well into November or December, so we found that
putting this plan into operation on a college and experi-
mental plant required the solution of many intricate prob-
lems. We discovered very early in the demonstration
that the hens could not be transferred very much later
than August Ist without a serious drop in production and
a poor come-back; that after the pullets had begun to
lay fairly well, a removal or transfer
would result in a serious drop, this
being especially true with the early-
hatched ones. To allow an early s
transfer of the hens from the regular 27-2 3-8

115

and 148), the first showing the production of the entire
college and experimental flocks at our poultry plant for
the fall of 1916, and the second for that of 1917.

Reprinted from Journal of American Association of Instructors and
Investigators in Poultry Husbandry, Vol. V, No. 4
Summary

Uniform production the year around is desirable but
this ideal can only be partially realized in practice.

Early-hatched pullets are essential to good production
in fall and early-winter months,

TOTAL WEEKLY PRODUCTION OF FLOCK,AUG, 27 TO DEC. 31, 1917

—Pullets ——Hens —--Total

Ovo t) 0 b..e+> November December
7-13 14-20 21-27 26-4 5-11 12-18 19=25 26-2 39 10-16 17-23 %-31
iP T ae | ia ies cae ne |

laying house and to do away with dis-

eee eT ia ER ES

=
a

=o

turbance by a second or third transfer

met

of the pullets, open growing sheds

i
PK
4

were built in the rear of the peo

yard of the winter quarters, to

Be =k wa

which the hens were transferred

during the month of July. The
first year they were transferred

|

to these sheds when broody, and after

they were broken up production was

resumed with only a normal loss of

=

cae ;

== Baigey
wae ae

|
-
|
|
ha |

time due to broodiness. The last two

le He

T

|

|
1} |]

| |
WIEN

years they have been transferred en

+

masse during June or July. The first

of these two years the drop in produc-
tion was slight, but the past season

++
co

the reduction due to the transfer was

marked, but only for about ten days.

+
|

+

Our conclusion in regard to the re-

moval is that, with the broody races,

it is better to make the transfer dur-

|
ichaleialeheleleleta ab

|

et

|

ing the broody period unless the birds

can be moved without serious disturb-

ance. They continue production in

[
+ +
+ +
a + a |

|
oa eal (=

these sheds well into November. Of

Total Pe eee Per Week

sient = ea |
t

11

course, judicious culling does away

with a large portion of the hens so
that two complete flocks are not kept
at the same time. After the transfer
the houses are thoroughly cleaned and

r
a | |
sd ES i nt PS WR a ee) OL DH Dt

a

FIG. 143—EGG PRODUCTION AT MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE
POULTRY PLANT, FALL OF 1917, WITH BALANCED FLOCK

ready for the pullets about the first The production lines cross during the early part of October, but the total production

5 ei for hens and pullets is decidedly above that of previous year (see Fig. 147), due to the
of August when | the early hatched presence of a flock of February-hatched pullets. These, if properly grown, can be de
ones are brought in, and the medium pended upon to bring up the egg production during September and’ October when hens

and later-hatched ones are placed in
winter quarters when they begin to
show signs of maturity; but we plan
to have them all in by the last of October or slightly ear-
lier if possible. As can readily be seen, this plan en-
ables us to have, at this particular season of the year, a
double flock, so to speak, which, overlapping in produc-
tion, holds the egg production near the desired level.

Some flocks of early-hatched pullets molt, but the
manner in which they do this varies greatly. Some lots
will go through almost a complete molt, and egg produc-
tion will nearly cease, while other flocks will molt very
slowly and give a production of something like 25 per
cent or 30 per cent during the molting period. We have
found that by hatching out about one-third of the pullets
the last of February or the first of March, another third
from three to four weeks later, and the last third from
three to four weeks following the second lot, the second
and third lots will begin production somewhat in advance
of the slackening of the first lot and the almost ceasing of
the hens. Of course the dates for hatching depend large-
ly upon the age at which the pullets may be expected to
come to laying maturity. Again, the rate at which the
hens keep up production in the fall is another factor that
must be considered. At present writing, our demonstra-
tion is closing the third period with most satisfying re-
sults. We herewith present two charts (see Figs. 147

are falling off.

Prof.

Graham states that the results during the
similar to those of 1916 and 1917.

fall of 1918 were very

A well-balanced flock requires 30 to 50 per cent of
yearling hens.

The flocks of the New Jersey commercial poultry
farmers contain 50 to 70 percent of pullets on the aver-
age.

Too large a proportion of pullets results in increas-
ing cost of production.

Better fall production can be secured with yearling
hens, with proper management.

Hens may be made to molt later in the fall by giving
special attention to exercise for them.

The use of artificial light produces a marked increase
in fall egg production.

The summer egg yield of hens can be kept up to 50
per cent by systematic culling.

Extra-early-hatched pullets may be made a profitable
source of supply for summer and fall eggs.

Extra-early pullets may be profitably used to pro-
vide eggs for hatching for the following spring.

Extra-early hatching enables the poultry keeper to
lengthen his hatching season, thus modifying the usual
spring rush and getting double service from the hatch-
ing and brooding equipment.

CHA PT hi x Velie

A Demonstration in Culling the Poultry Flock

One of the Most Popular Educational Practices Introduced by College Extension Workers Is the Culling Demonstration —
Poultry Keepers Everywhere Take Great Interest in Watching the Work—How One Well-known
Extension Poultry Specialist Conducts Such a Demonstration and Teaches
His Hearers to Apply the Methods to Their Own Flocks

O OTHER new development in poultry keeping
has ever met the immediate popular approval
that has been accorded to culling. This has been
due in part to the comparative simplicity of the
method and the startling results secured, but
chiefly, no doubt, to the fact that the methods lend
themselves so readily to practical demonstrations. Great
numbers of extension workers on agricultural col-
lege and experiment station staffs have enthusiastically
taken up the work of introducing the practice in their
respective states, and almost uniformly with good results.
Culling campaigns have profited largely by the fact that
in the last few years the educational work in poultry hus-
bandry has been unusually well organized and manned.
Almost every state has one, and many have several work-
ers who devote their entire time to poultry extension, and
by cooperating with the county farm bureaus these agri-
cultural advisers have been able to interest great numbers
and to make their culling demonstrations unusually ef-

fective.

Every demonstrator has his own methods of interest-
ing the public, of getting the attention of those who at-
tend the school or demonstration, of enlisting their sup-
port, and of getting them enthused to the point where
they will go home and apply what they have learned to
the culling of their own flocks. Usually demonstrations

are arranged through the county agent, who is in a posi-
tion to determine where they can be held to best advan-
tage, and to arrange the necessary details so that the
of time,

demonstrator can do the work without loss
and thus is able to cover
more territory than would
otherwise be possible.
While attending the
Judging School at Cornell
University in July, 1919,
the authors of this book ar-
ranged with W. G. Krum,
extension instructor in the
Poultry Department of that
institution, to give a demon-
stration for the express
purpose of illustrating the
Cornell method of carrying
on this work. Cornell Uni-
versity has been a leader
in the development of cull-
ing methods and in getting
these before the public. Mr.
Krum, who has been with
the department for many

ly successful in this line of work. Following, Mr. Krum
tells in his own words how he organizes a demonstration,
how he gets the interest and sympathy of his hearers,
how he illustrates methods and shows how to apply them
practically. In the course of this demonstration many
valuable hints are given in regard to detecting layers
and nonlayers, in determining the length of time that
the bird may have been laying or resting, also of es-
timating her probable production. Every person who has
occasion to demonstrate culling methods we believe will
find much that will be helpful in this interview.

A Culling Demonstration

Method of Conducting a Culling Demonstration Fully
Outlined—Numerous Helpful Comments on
Scoring Special Types of Fowls
Demonstration by W. G. Krum, Extension Instructor,
Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

through the farm bureau managers who look after

publicity, arrangement of the place, provide stock
to be used and have it housed previous to the meeting.
Demonstrations usually are at some farm and, if the farm-
er has only one variety, arrangements frequently are
made to have the neighbors bring in others.

Discs in selection are arranged

At the beginning of the demonstration I usually use a
chart showing the difference in egg production between
a good and a poor pen, and
the money value of their
product. Then I select from
the birds as many differ-
ent types as I ean find,—
all the way from hens that
have not laid in several
months to hens that are
laying practically every
day. These are passed
around to the audience and,
without any instruction
whatever as to their laying
quality, the persons holding
them are asked to form in
two lines or groups, those
who have birds that they
consider laying, standing
on one side, and those who
think their birds are not
laying, en the other. Then
I pass down the line and

years and knows the laying
hen as do few other men in
this country, has been high-

FIG. 149—W. G. KRUM, EXTENSION INSTRUCTOR, CORNELL
UNIVERSITY, GIVING A FARM DEMONSTRATION
IN CULLING

vick out a few of the birds
that are in the wrong place
and explain what the hens

A DEMONSTRATION IN CULLING THE POULTRY FLOCK

are or are not doing. This usually creates considerable
amusement and in that way you get the full attention of
the audience. Then I pick out the various types of
birds, usually beginning with the poor layer, and point
out to the audience all the various points indicating their
rank as producers.

Hen No. 1

(At this point Mr. Krum took up a Leghorn hen that
had been brought in from the college flock and proceeded
to apply culling tests with running comments as made
under regular demonstration conditions.—Ed.) This
Leghorn is not laying at the present time as indicated
by a dry, puckered-up vent that shows a large amount
of yellow pigment. This also is noticeable about the
edge of the eyelid or eye ring. She has yellow ear
lobes, which would indicate that she has not laid for a
week or more. Her beak is entirely yellow and as it
takes four to six weeks for all of the yellow to come
back into the beak after it has been laid out,
it is an indication that she has not laid for

117

loose, which means that she is through laying for this
season and is going through a complete molt. All these
are indications pointing to the fact that this hen proba-
bly stopped laying to molt about the middle of May and
hence has not likely laid more than 50 to 75 eggs.

The comb is small and cocked up in the rear—the
type of comb that usually goes with poor layers. The
eye is small and surrounded by a puckered eyelid so
that none of the membrane surrounding the eye is vis-
ible, in fact some of the eyeball is not visible, being
partially covered with the puckered eyelid. Hens with
this type of eye usually lay only from 5 to 10 eggs a
month at their best

The pelvic bones are quite close together and covered
with thick layers of fat. This hen’s back and breast lines
are not parallel, being much closer together at the rear
of the keel than at the front, showing a lack of capacity
for digestion of food. The skin of this bird is very coarse.

that length of time. Finally, she has round,
plump, bright yellow shanks which indicate
that she never laid very many eggs.

With reference to the foregoing state-
ment it should be remembered that this hen
is being scored early in July. Plump yellow
shanks on a hen scored in September or
October would not necessarily mean that she
had never laid many eggs but that, though
she might have been a good spring layer, she
had been idle for a long time. In July, how-
ever, a hen with plump yellow shanks could
scarcely have been very productive, even in
the spring.

This hen is just beginning to molt a few
neck feathers but if she was a good layer
she should still be laying and growing a few
pin feathers at the same time. A good lay-
er usually shows a few pin feathers in the
neck about four to six weeks before she goes
into the regular molt. The indications are
that this hen has always been a poor layer.

Hen No.
Hen No. 2 is not laying at the present

time although she has laid within a week be-
cause only a little color shows at the vent.

4

Pigment coming in around the vent usually
shows first right along the edge where the
feathers begin to show.

This hen has laid enough eggs to take all
the color out of her beak, but she has va-
cationed long enough to put some of it back.
It goes out first at the corner of the mouth because of
the high circulation of blood at that point and gradually
keeps fading out, leaving the lower mandible first and
finally the extreme tip of the upper beak. It comes back
in the same order and inasmuch as this hen shows about
one-fourth of her beak yellow, it would indicate that she
has already had a good vacation. Notice that this hen
is very white naturally, having an almost pure white
quill. Allowance must be made for this in applying pig-
mentation tests.

With

the escape

Under some conditions, with birds normally well pig-
mented, and on farm range where the yellow color comes
in much more quickly than in the case of hens kept in
confinement, a beak with this amount of yellow might
indicate only a two weeks’ vacation, or less, whereas
this bird’s wing molt indicates that she has not laid for
probably eight weeks.

The primary wing feathers beginning next to the
secondaries are molted usually in pairs, one in each wing,
the pairs dropping about two weeks apart. A complete
feather grows in in six weeks and in two weeks more

FIG

the
of

another one finishes its growth This hen has two com- ~

plete primaries and four growing. This would indicate
that she has been®growing feathers for eight weeks. Her
body is full of pin feathers and the old feathers are

150

TESTING

4 HEN FOR RECENT EGG PRODUCTION
will «

so

1 slight pressure
4

fingers spread on either side of vent,

watery fluid if hen has laid within past 24 hours or

Good layers, like good milch cows, have a thin, pliable
skin. This hen’s is tough, hard, and leathery.

Hen 5}

Hen No. 3 is laying at the present time as indicated
by her large moist vent. She is in good health and in a
laxative condition, so that by pressing lightly on each
side of the vent with the first and second fingers a wat-
ery discharge comes from the vent—a certain indication
that she has laid within the last 24 hours.

This hen’s ear lobes are pure white, which indicates
that she has been laying more than a week. Absolutely
no color in beak, which shows she has been laying for at
least two months, and the shanks have lost almost all
of their color and are thin and wedge-shaped, the sharp
point of the wedge being at the rear. While the hen is
plump and full there is no fat left in her shanks, which
indicates she has laid very heavily. This hen has the
comb that is known as the rocker comb, showing a ten-
dency to follow the neck. The points are tapered, wide
at the base, and wedge-shaped.

The comb and face are very bright, indicating that
she is not laying very heavily at the present time,—
possibly every other day. A bright comb an indica-
tion of good health and laying condition rather than the

No.

18

118

rumber of eggs the hen produces. When a hen is pro-
ducing heavily, her comb will be full and waxy and
almost as shiny as a doorknob. After laying heavily
for several weeks however, the comb loses some of its
color, as also does the face, and she is pale.

This hen has very good eyes. They are more nearly
parallel in the head than in hen No. 2, whose eyes have
a tendency to sink in at the corner. The position of
the eyes is observed by holding the fowl so as to get a
direct front view of the head. The eyelids are drawn
back by high nerve tension and show quite a good deal
of the membrane in the corner of the eye.

This hen’s abdomen is full and soft. The pelvic
bones are four fingers wide in a 4%-pound Leghorn.
The width between the pelvic bone and the breastbone
or the keel is five fingers and the body is wider at the
rear than at the front, and the keel is long. A long
keel indicates capacity for laying. The pelvic bones have
practically no fat on them and are very pliable. This
hen, while still laying, has an occasional pin feather
started in her neck which would indicate that she, unlike
the other hen that has already quit, will probably con-
tinue to lay for six weeks or more.

The time at which the rest period begins, with ref-
erence to the molt, will vary with different hens. In
a good layer, production will stop as soon as she starts
shedding wing feathers. This hen has already dropped
two pairs of feathers earlier in the season, indicating
that she took a month’s vacation.

Hen No. 4

Hen No. 4 is laying, as indicated by the same char-
acters that we noted in hen No. 3, but her comb is swol-
len to the limit anc is waxy and shiny, indicating tuat
she is laying practically every day. She has a pale face
and slightly pale coml.

Bear in mind that the swollen comb of the heavy
layer is not necessarily bright red. The enlarged con-
dition apparently is not due to the comb being engorged
with blood but may be due to expansion of the cells.
The comb at this time usually feels cold, because the
blood is being used for the preduction of eggs and is
drawn toward the reproductive organs rather than to
the comb. ;

This hen’s face is quite pale which also indicates that
she has been laying heavily for quite a long time. She
has all the other marks of a good layer that the previous
hen had and the eyes of this hen are about the same.
This hen however, has rougher plumage than the other,
more broken, and the feathers are dryer, indicating that
she has used up more fat from the skin. The oil on the
feathers does not come from the oil sac as supposed, but
it comes out through the skin and onto the feathers by
capillary attraction through the oil ducts.

This plumage is badly broken because it is dry and
because of heavy laying. There are no loose wing feath-
ers at all, and no loose feathers or pin feathers in the
body. This hen will probably be laying for a long time.
She has three-finger capacity, is wider at the rear, and
has a longer breastbone, same proportion of abdomen
as the other hen but with a longer keel, which would
indicate greater capacity than the last hen.

Hen No. 5

This hen laid long enough to take the color all out of
her beak. Then she took a good vacation, and the yel-
low returned to two-thirds of her beak. When she re-
sumed laying again, she took the color out at base of
beak, which resulted in leaving a yellow ring over a
quarter of an inch wide near the middle. She presents
an appearance often observed in farm flocks at this sea-
son. Where a number of hens in the flock are like this
it usually will be found that the farmer shut his hens
up about the middle of May because they were digging
up the corn, and that they all stopped laying because of
the change of environment. Then, after about a month’s
vacation, they began laying again.

A Couple of Plymouth Rocks

Here is a Plymouth Rock hen that laid fairly well
previous to her vacation as nearly all of the yellow

PROFITABLE CULLING AND SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING

went out of the front of her shanks, but at the present
time the front is more yellow than the back, due to the
fact that during vacation it comes into the front before
it does the back. The thinness of the back of the shank
and its medium-yellow color would indicate capacity for
laying, but she fell down because of some unfavorable
condition, such as being confined in a bare yard, or pos-
sibly because of a poor ration. She shows a few pin
feathers.

Here is another Plymouth Rock that has taken a
long vacation, evidently a month or two, but all of her
feathers are tight, and her comb is hot, indicating that
she is coming into laying again. My supposition is that
this hen was broody and reared chickens, otherwise the
feathers would be loose at this time. If she had stopped
for the molt the comb would be shriveled and not hot and
swelling. -

Scoring Nonpigmented Hens

In the case of fowls that do not have yellow skin
and shanks we can get some idea of their productiveness
by their shape. If a hen is in laying condition it would
be shown by the condition of the vent the same as in
Leghorns; capacity would be shown by the shape and
texture of the body, the muscles being soft, the skin
soft, oily, and pliable. The shape of the eye also indi-
cates a hen’s ability to lay and her past performance will
be indicated very plainly by the condition of the shanks,
the poor layer having hard, plump shanks, the good lay-
er having wedge-shaped shanks, very tapering to the rear,
the fat having all been removed. Coarse scales are al-
ways correlated with heavy, thick skin and therefore are
found only on poor layers.

The texture of the comb also is correlated with that
of the skin. If the surface of the comb is rough and
coarse the skin will also be of the same character and
these are found on poor layers. In a good layer, the
comb, whether large or small, should be very smooth and
waxy on the surface, indicating thin skin.

Comments on Special Points in Culling

When the hen takes a rest and the comb shrivels, a
fine, white scale forms. If she starts up again, the comb,
in the process of enlarging, cracks this scale which re-
mains in patches on the comb for some time. So when
you see a comb with a white surface broken in patches
you know that she is coming back into laying again and
this comb, of course, always will be warm at this stage.

A short keel usually indicates poor production be-
cause a short-keeled bird has not sufficient abdominal
capacity to handle large quantities of feed and if she
attempts to do it there is a tendency for her abdomen
to bag down over the end of the breastbone, often making
serious trouble.

A good many of the keels of high producers are crook-
ed, due to a lack of knowledge in feeding hens. The min-
eral matter is laid out of the bones and they are easily
bent. We find many more crooked keels with high pro-
ducers than with low producers.

I almost never, in judging in the fall, throw out the
bird that has taken a vacation unless she has some pin
feathers, because it may have been a case of broodiness,
or it may be due to improper feeding, or to shutting
them up. That would not be the hen’s fault, and if there
are no pin feathers I do not throw her out but try to
bring her back into laying again. I always investigate
the feeding, housing, and yarding methods so I know to
what extent these are responsible for the performance of
the hens.

We begin culling work sometime in July and run up
to September and October. Speaking in averages, I feel
that on most commercial farms a hen that is laying on
September 1st is worth carrying over as a layer but not
as a breeder; and all hens still laying on October Ist, if
of desirable type, should be marked and set aside for
next season’s breeding pen.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION — a ee
COLOR PLATES
DESCRIPTION OF COLOR PLATES
CHAPTER I
DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN CULLING METHODS
i CHAPTER II
IMPORTANCE OF HIGH AVERAGE EGG PRODUCTION AND HOW SECURED

Production Standards for Poultry a id -Mareus A. Canfield, Jr
Importance of Culling----- : _....-Prof. James E. Rice.
Results of a Culling Campaign in Connecticut : : =. = Prof. W. F. TETRA ieee

CHAPTER III
CULLING METHODS OUTLINED AND ILLUSTRATED

Details of Official Culling Outline Explained A = ate E E Prof. H. R. Lewis
Culling Methods Illustrated with Leghorn Hens_---.- Prof. H. R. Lewis --
Judging Fowls for Egg Production..-. oe oi - _Prof. H. R. Lewis

CHAPTER IV
HOW TO CULL PLYMOUTH ROCKS, WYANDOTTES, AND R. I. REDS

CHAPTER V

CULLING METHODS APPLIED TO ANCONAS, CAMPINES, MINORCAS, ORPINGTONS,

BRAN EUNDAS -C6Cs cee. the gu die DEER gee tee dle an
CHAPTER VI
CULLING BY GENERAL APPEARANCE, CONDUCT, AND MOLT
The Wing Molt as an Indication of Productiveness Franklane LL. Sewell
CHAPTER VII
CULLING BY EGG TYPE AND PHYSICAL TESTS
Experiments in Accurate Method of Culling Prof. Roy H. Waite

CHAPTER VHI

THE VALUE OF PIGMENTATION TESTS IN CULLING. a On cs
Observations in Loss of Pigment at Storrs Experiment Station --- A. F. Blakeslee and D. E. Warner
Nature of Yellow Pigment in Egy Yolk, Skin, and Body Fat of Fowls- os Prof. L. S. Palmer--- - -

The Physiological Relation Between Fecundity and the Natural Yellow Pigmentation

of Certain Breeds of T’owls eae Oe otea __....--Profs. L. S. Palmer and H. L.

CHAPTER IX

HOW EGG PRODUCTION IS AFFECTED BY CYCLE AND RHYTHM, REST PERIOD, BROODINESS,

DWV EGET UG cata cus, doe wo lave © ole. he «, ura spare Soaianatnig sys w hb fins a : :
Observations on Cycle and Rg thin at the New Jersey Mxperiment Station _.Prof. H. R. Lewis
On the Rhythm of Egg Production—__-.--- _...Dr. H. IY. Goedale
The Rest Period in Relation to Egg Prodietiont _.-Prof. H. R. Lewis
Selecting Fowls by the ‘Patterson Index"'_:_--- __Dr. C. T. Patterson
Selecting Heavy Layers by the Weight of Their Eggs _._-Dr. Philip Hadley

CHAPTER X
HOW TO SELECT PROSPECTIVE GOOD LAYERS
Prespective Good Layers z Prof. H. R. Lewis
CHAPTER XI
IMPORTANCE OF SELECTIVE FLOCK BREEDING as. :
Constitutional Vigor and Its Relation to Production avd Growth _..---Prof. If. R. Lewis -
Practical State-wide Poultry Project—----- - Editor of R. P. J
CHAPTER XII
CULLING METHODS PARTICULARLY ADAPTED TO THE FARM FLOCI
Remarkable Success of a Farm Flock Culling Campaign ___._T. 8. Townsley
CHAPTER XIII
SYSTEMATIC CULLING FOR THE COMMERCIAL FLOCK
CHAPTER XIV
PRACTICAL CULLING METHODS FOR BACK-YARD FLOCKS
CHAPTER XV
WHAT CULLING MEANS TO THE FANCIER
Yellow Pigmentation in the Showroom
CHAPTER XVI
THE PHYSIOLOGY OF EGG PRODUCTION
Nutritive Requirements for Egg Production = Prof. H. R. Lewis
CHAPTER XVII
BALANCING THE FLOCK, AND METHODS OF INCREASING FALL PRODUCTION
Keeping Egg Production at a High Level During Fall Months- .. - Prof. J. C. Graham
CHAPTER XVIII
A DEMONSTRATION IN CULLING THE POULTRY FLOCK

A Culling Demonstration. -.-------------- oe -...W. G. Krum

From Storrs (Conn.) Ex. Sta. Bul. No

LANGSHANS,

Kempster

Qo

4

5-6-7-8

9

10

46

ee
4

65

66

97

100

103
105

-107
.109

112
ils

116

22116

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