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Proleoromena to the
Study of Greek Religion

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Prolegomena to the
Study of Greek Religion

by
JANE ELLEN HARRISON,

HON. D.LITT. (DURHAM), HON. LL.D. ABERDEEN,

STAFF LECTURER AND SOMETIME FELLOW OF NEWNHAM COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE,

CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE GERMAN ARCHAEOLOGICAL INSTITUTE

SECOND EDITION

Cambridge :

at the University Press

1908

First Edition 1903.
Second Edition 1908.

SRLF
URL

"?-/

ARTURO ET MARGARITAE VERRALL

HUIC AMICAE MEAE CONSTANTISSIMAE
ILLI ET AMICO ET MAGISTEO

HUNG LIBRUM DEDICO

INTRODUCTION.

The object of the following pages is to draw attention to
some neglected aspects of Greek religion.

Greek religion, as set forth in popular handbooks and even in
more ambitious treatises, is an affair mainly of mythologj^, and
moreover of mythology as seen through the medium of literature.
In England, so far as I am aware, no serious attempt has been
made to examine Greek ritual. Yet the facts of ritual are more
easy definitely to ascertain, more permanent, and at least equally
significant. What a people does in relation to its gods must
always be one clue, and perhaps the safest, to what it thinks.
The first preliminary to any scientific understanding of Greek
religion is a minute examination of its ritual.

This habit of viewing Greek religion exclusively througii
the medium of Greek literature has brought with it an initial
and fundamental error in method — an error which in England,
where scholarship is mainly literary, is likely to die hard. For
literature Homer is the beginning, though every scholar is aware
that he is nowise primitive ; for theology, or — if we prefer so to
call it — mythology. Homer presents, not a starting-pi)int, but
a culmination, a complete achievement, an almost mechanical
accomplishment, with scarcely a hint of origines, an accomplish-
ment moreover, which is essentially literary rather than religious,
sceptical and rnoribuinl ah-eady in its very perfection. The
Olympians of Ifomer are no more juimitive than liis hexameters.
Beneath this splendid surface lies a stratum of religious concejitions,
ideas of evil, of purification, of atonement, ignored or sni)pn'ssfd
by Honjer, but reappearing in later poets and notalily in
Aeschylus. It is this substratum of religions conceptions, at
once more primitive and more permanent, that 1 am concerned

ab

viii Introduction

to investigate. Had ritual received its due share of attention,
it had not remained so long neglected.

I would guard against misapprehension. Literature as a
starting-point for investigation, and especially the poems of
Homer, I am compelled to disallow ; yet literature is really
my goal. I have tried to understand primitive rites, not from
love of their archaism, nor yet wholly from a single-minded
devotion to science, but with the definite hope that I might
come to a better understanding of some forms of Greek poetry.
Eeligious convention compelled the tragic poets to draw their
plots from traditional mythology, from stories whose religious
content and motive were already in Homer's days obsolete.
A knowledge of, a certain sympathy with, the milieu of this
primitive material is one step to the realization of its final form
in tragedy. It is then in the temple of literature, if but as
a hewer of wood and drawer of water, that I still hope to
serve.

As the evidence to be set before the reader is necessarily
somewhat complex in detail, and the arguments of the successive
chapters closely interdependent, it may be well at the outset to
state, as simply as may be, the conclusions at which I have
arrived, and to summarize briefly the steps of the discussion.

In Chapter I. it is established that the Greeks themselves
in classical times recognized two forms of ritual, Olympian and
Chthonic. It is further seen that the characteristic ritual of
Homeric days was of the kind known to them as Olympian.
Sacrifice in Homer takes the form of an offering to the god
to induce his favour. Its formulary is do ut des. Moreover the
sacrificial banquet to which the god is bidden is shared by the
worshipper. In sharp contradistinction to this cheerful sacrificial
feast, when we examine the supposed festival of Zeus at Athens,
the Diasia, we find rites of quite other significance ; the sacrifice
is a holocaust, it is devoted, made over entirely to the god,
unshared by the worshipper, and its associations are gloomy. The
rites of the Diasia, though ostensibly in honour of Zeus, are found
really to be addressed to an underworld snake on whose worship
that of Zeus has been superimposed.

In the three chapters that follow, on the festivals of the

Introduction

IX

Anthesteria, Thargelia, and Thesmophoria, held respectively in
the spring, summer, and autumn, the Olyinpian ritual super-
imposed is taken as known and only alluded to in passing.
The attention is focussed on the rites of the underlying stratum.

In the Anthesteria, ostensibly sacred to Dionysos, the main
ritual is found to be that of the placation of ghosts. Ghosts, it is
found, were placated in order that they might be kept aw^iy; the
formulary for these rites is not, as with the Olympians, do ut des,
but do ut abeas. The object of these rites of Aversion, practised
in the spring, is found to be strictly practical ; it is the promotion
of fertility by the purgation of evil influences.

The ritual of the Thargelia is even more primitive and
plain-spoken. In this festival of the early summer, ostensibly
dedicated to Apollo, the first-fruits of the harvest are gathered
in. The main gist of the festival is purification, necessary as
a preliminary to this ingathering. Purification is effected by the
ceremonial of the pharmakos. Though the festival in classical
days was ' sacred to ' Apollo, the pharmakos is nowise a ' human
sacrifice ' to a god, but a direct means of physical and moral
purgation, with a view to the promotion and conservation of
fertility.

Thus far it will be seen that the rites of the lower stratum are
characterized by a deep and constant sense of evil to be removed
and of the need of purification for its removal ; that the means
of purification adopted are primitive and mainly magical nowise
affects this religious content.

This practical end of primitive ceremonies, the promotion of fer-
tility by magical rites, comes out still more strongly in the autumn
sowing festival of the Thesmophoria. Here the women attempt,
by carrying certain magical saa^a, the direct impulsion of nature.
In connection with these sacra of the Thesmophoria the subject
of 'mysteries' falls to be examined. The gist of all primitive
mysteries is found to be the handling or tasting of certain sacra
after elaborate purification. The sacra are conceived of as having
magical, i.e. divine, properties. Contact with them is contact
with a superhuman potency, which is taboo to the unpurilifd.
The gist of a mystery is often the removal of a taboo. From llu*
Olympian religion 'mysteries' appear to have been wliojly
absent.

X Introduction

In Chapter V. we pass from ritual to theology, from an
examination of rites performed to the examination of the beings
to whom these rites were addressed. These beings, it is found, are
of the order of sprites, ghosts, and bogeys, rather than of completely
articulate gods, their study that of demonology rather than
theology. As their ritual has been shown to be mainly that of the
Aversion of evil, so they and their shifting attributes are mainly
of malevolent character. Man makes his demons in the image
of his own savage and irrational passions. Aeschylus attempts,
and the normal man fails, to convert his Erinyes into Semnai
Theai.

In Chapter VI. the advance is noted from demonology to
theology, from the sprite and ghost to the human and humane
god. The god begins to reflect not only human passions but
humane relations. The primitive association of women with
agriculture is seen to issue in the figui'es of the Mother and
the Maid, and later of the Mother and the Daughter, later still
in the numerous female trinities that arose out of this duality.
In Chapter VII. the passage from ghost to god is clearly seen,
and the humane relation between descendant and ancestor begets
a kindliness which mollifies and humanizes the old religion
of Aversion. The culminating point of the natural development
of an anthropomorphic theology is here reached, and it is seen that
the goddesses and the ' hero-gods ' of the old order are, in their
simple, non-mystic humanity, very near to the Olympians.

At this point comes the great significant moment for Greece,
the intrusion of a new and missionary faith, the religion of
an immigrant god, Dionysos.

In Chapter VIII. the Thracian origin of Dionysos is established.
In his religion two elements are seen to coexist, the worship
of an old god of vegetation on which was grafted the worship
of a spirit of intoxication. The new impulse that he brought
to Greece was the belief in enthusiasm, the belief that a man
through physical intoxication at first, later through spiritual
ecstasy, could pass from the human to the divine.

This faith might have remained in its primitive savagery,
and therefore for Greece ineffective, but for another religious
impulse, that known to us under the name of Orpheus. To the

Introduction

XI

discussion of Orphism the last four chapters IX. — XII. are de-
voted.

In Chapter IX. I have attempted to show that the name Orpheus
stands for a real personality. I have hazarded the conjecture that
Orpheus came from Crete bringing with him, perhaps ultimately
from Egypt, a religion of spiritual asceticism which yet included
the ecstasy of the religion of Dionysos. Chapter X. is devoted
to the examination of the Orphic and Dionysiac mysteries. It has
been shown that before the coming of the Orphic and Dionysiac
religion the mysteries consisted mainly in the handling of certain
sacra after elaborate purification. By handling these sacra man
came into contact with some divine potency. To this rudimentary
mysticism Orphism added the doctrine of the possibility of
complete union with the divine. This union was effected in the
primitive Cretan rite of the Omophagia by the physical eating
of the god ; union with the divine was further symbolically
effected by the rite of the Sacred Marriage, and union by adoption
by the rite of the Sacred Birth. The mission of Orphism was
to take these primitive rites, originally of the crudest sympathetic
magic, and inform them with a deep spiritual mysticism. The rite
of the Omophagia found no place at Eleusis, but the other two
sacramental rites of union, the Sacred Marriage and the Sacred
Birth, formed ultimately its central mysteries.

With the doctrine and ritual of union with the divine there
came as a necessary corollary the doctrine that man could attain
the divine attribute of immortality. Orphic eschatology is the
subject of Chapter XI. Its highest spiritual form, the belief
that perfect purity issued in divinity and hence in immortality,
is found expressed in the Orphic tablets. Its lower expression,
the belief in a Hades of eternal punishment as contrasted with the
shadowy after-world of Homer, is seen in the vases of Lower Italy
and the eschatology denounced by Plato.

Finally in Chapter XII. it is shown how, as a concomitant
to their Eschatology, the Orphics, unlike Homer, developed a
Cosmoo-ony, and with this Cosmogony was ultimately bound tip
a peculiar and philosophic theology. In the fifth century U.c.
the puppet-show of the Olympians was well-nigh pliiy.'d out,
but the two gods of the Orphics remained potent. In ritual (hey
worshipped Diony.sos, l)ut their thc(.rctical theology recognized

xii Introduction

Eros as source of all things. The Eros of the Orphics was a
mystery-being, a daimon rather than a theos, a potency wholly
alien to the clear-cut humanities of Olympus.

With the consideration of Orphism it has become, I hope,
abundantly clear why at the outset attention was focussed on the
primitive rites of Aversion and Purification rather than on the
Service of the Olympians. The ritual embodied in the formulary
do lit des is barren of spiritual content. The ritual embodied
in do ut abeas contains at least the recognition of one great
mystery of life, the existence of evil. The rites of the Olympians
were left untouched by the Orphics ; the rites of purification and
of sympathetic magic lent them just the symbolism they needed.
Moreover in theology the crude forms of demons were more pliant
material for mysticism than the clear-cut limitations and vivid
personality of the Olympians. Orphism was the last word of
Greek religion, and the ritual of Orphism was but the revival of
ancient practices with a new significance.

The reader will note that in the pages that follow, two
authors, Plutarch and Euripides, have been laid under special
contribution. Plutarch's gentle conservatism made him cling
tenaciously to antique faith. According to him, one function
of religion was to explain and justify established rites, and in the
course of his attempted justification he tells us many valuable
ritual facts. Euripides, instant in his attack on the Olympian
gods, yet treats with respect the two divinities of Orphism,
Dionysos and Eros. I have suggested that, born as he was
at Phlya, the ancient home of Orphic mysteries, his attitude
on this matter may have been influenced by early associations.
In any case, a religion whose chief divinities were reverently
handled by Euripides cannot be dismissed as a decadent maleficent
superstition.

I would ask that the chapters I have written be taken strictly
as they are meant, as Prolegomena. I am deeply conscious that
in surveying so wide a field I have left much of interest un-
touched, still more only roughly sketched in. I wished to present
my general theory in broad outline for criticism before filling in
details, and I hope in the future to achieve a study of Orphism

Introduction xiii

that may have more claim to completeness. If here I have
dwelt almost exclusively on its strength and beauty, I am not
unaware that it has, like all mystical religions, a weak and
ugly side.

If in these Prolegomena I have accomplished anything, this
is very largely due to the many friends who have helped me;
the pleasant task remains of acknowledging my obligations.

My grateful thanks are offered to the Syndics of the
University Press for undertaking the publication of this book ;
to the Syndics of the University Library and the Fitzwilliam
Museum for the courtesy they have shown in allowing me free
access to their libraries ; to ni}^ own College, which, by electing
me to a Fellowship, has given me for three years the means and
leisure to devote myself to writing.

For the illustrations they have placed at my disposal I must
record my debt to the Trustees of the British Museum, to the
Hellenic Society, the German Archaeological Institute, and the
Ecole Fran^aise of Athens. The sources of particular plates are
acknowledged in the notes. The troublesome task of drawing
from photographs and transcribing inscriptions has been most
kindly undertaken for me by Mrs Hugh Stewart.

Passing to literary obligations, it will be evident that in
the two first chapters I owe much, as regards philology, to the
late Mr R A. Neil. His friendship and his help were lost to mc
midway in my work, and that loss has been irreparable.

It is a pleasure to me to remember gratefully that to Sir
Richard Jebb I owe my first impulse to the study of Orphism.
The notes in his edition of the Characters of Theophrastos first
led me as a student into the by-paths of Orphic literature,
and since those days the problem of ()r])hism, though often of
necessity set aside, has never ceased to haunt me.

To Professor Ridgeway I owe much more than can ap])ear
on the surface. The material for the early portion of my book
was collected many years ago, but, baffled by the ethnological
problems it suggested, I laid it aside in despair. The appeanince
of Professoi- Ridgeway's article, ' What peoi)le made the objects
called Mycenaean ? ' threw to me an instant flood of light on the

xiv Introduction

problems of ritual and mythology that perplexed me, and I returned
to my work with fresh courage. Since then he has, with the
utmost kindness, allowed me to attend his professorial lectures
and frequently to refer to him my difficulties. I have thought
it best finally to state my own argument independently of his
ethnological conclusions, first because those conclusions are, at the
time I write, only in part before the public, but chiefly because
I hoped that by stating my evidence independently it might,
in the comparatively narrow sphere in which I work, offer some
slight testimony to the truth of his illuminating theories.

To all workers in the field of primitive religion Dr Frazer's
writings have become so part and parcel of their mental furniture
that special acknowledgement has become almost superfluous.
But I cannot deny myself the pleasure of acknowledging a deep
and frequent debt, the more as from time to time I have been
allowed to ask for criticism on individual points, and my request,
as the notes will show, has always met with generous response.

Mr F. M. Cornford of Trinity College has, with a kindness and
patience for which I can offer no adequate thanks, undertaken the
revision of ray proof-sheets. To him I owe not only any degree
of verbal accuracy attained, but also, which is much more,
countless valuable suggestions made from time to time in the
course of my work. Many other scholars have allowed me to
refer to them on matters outside my own competency. Some
of these debts are acknowledged in the notes, but I wish specially
to thank Dr A. S. Murray, Mr Cecil Smith and Mr A. H. Smith
of the British Museunj for constant facilities afforded to me in my
work there, and Mr R. C. Bosanquet and Mr M. Tod for help
in Athens ; and, in Cambridge, Dr Haddon, Dr Hans Gadow,
Mr Francis Darwin, Mr H. G. Dakyns and Mr A. B. Cook.

My debt to Dr A. W. Verrall is so great and constant that
it is hard to formulate. If in one part of my book more than
another I am indebted to him it is in the discussion of the
Erinyes. Chapter V. indeed owes its inception to Dr Verrall's
notes in his edition of the CJwephoroi, and its final form to his
unwearied criticism. Throughout the book there is scarcely a
literary difficulty that he has not allowed me to refer to him, and
his sure scholarship and luminous perception have dissipated for
me many a mental fog.

Introduction xv

Mr Gilbert Murray has written for me the critical Appendix
on the text of the Orphic tablets, a matter beyond my competence.
Many verse translations, acknowledged in their place, are also by
him, and uniformly those from the Bacchae and Hippolytus
of Euripides. It is to Mr Murray's translation of the Bacchae
that finally, as regards the religion of Dionysos, I owe most. The
beauty of that translation, which he kindly allowed me to use
before its publication, turned the arduous task of investigation
into a labour of delight, and throughout the later chapters of the
book, the whole of which he has read for me in proof, it will
be evident that, in many difficult places, his sensitive and wise
imagination has been my guide.

Jane Ellen Harrison.

Newxham College, Cambridge,
September 9, 1903.

In the second edition, errors to which the kindness of friends
and reviewers has drawn my attention have been corrected. The
tedious task of proof- revision has been again undertaken for me
by Mr Cornford. For the index of Classical Passages I have to
thank Mr F. C. Green of Trinity College. In the notes many
new references have been added to literature that has appeared
since my first edition. I would mention especially I)r Frazer's
Early History of the Kingship and the invaluable Archiv fUr
Religionswissenschaft, the issue of which in new form since 11)04
marks a fresh departure in the study of religion. In my second
edition however new material has been indicated rather than
incorporated. Save for obvious corrections and added references
the book remains substantially unaltered — not, I would ask my
friends to believe, because in the lapse of four years my views
remain the same, but because on some matters, especially on
magic, mimetic ritual and the mysteries, I hope before long, in
a volume of Epilegomena, to develope certain suggestions and to
remedy many shortcomings.

Jane Ellen Harrison.

Newnham College, Cambridge.
December , 1907.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

Olympian and Chthonic Ritual.

Mr Ruskiri on the absence of fear in the Greek genius. Religion, to writers
of the fifth century B.C., mainly a matter of festivals. In the Evihyphron
religion is 'doing business with the gods,' a form of 'tendance' (depaTrfla).
Contrast of 8fiai8aifiovia, ' fear of spirits.' Plutarch on ' fear of spirits.'
Distinction drawn by Isocrates and others between Olympian and apotropaic
ritual. Contrast between 'Tendance' (Ofpav-fia) and 'Aversion' {aTroTpoiri']).
Sacrifice to Zeus in Homer is a banquet shared. Contrast of the ritual of
the Diasia. The holocaust or uneaten sacrifice. Ritual of the Diasia addressed
primarily to an underworld snake. Superposition of the Homeric Zeus.
Evidence of art. The 'Dian' fleece, not the 'fleece of Zeus' but the fleece
of magical purification. Examination of the Attic calendar. The names of
festivals not connected with the names of Olympian divinities. The ritual of
these festivals belongs to a more primitive stratum than that of the Olympians,
pp. 1-.31.

CHAPTER II.
The Anthesteria. The Ritual of Ghosts and Sprites.

The Anthesteria, ostensibly dedicated to Dionysos, a spring festival of the
revocation and aversion of ghosts. Examination of the rites of the three days.
Meaning of the Chytroi, the Choes and the Pithoigia. Derivation of the
word Anthesteria. Rites of purgation among the Romans in February. The
Feralia and Lupercalia. The ritual of ' devotion ' (fvayia-fioi). Contrast of
dvfiv and (vayi^dv. The word Bvav used of Inirnt sacrifice to the Olympians,
the word fvayi^av of 'devotion' to underworld deities. The ritual <»f iiirt'ivippa.
Gist of the word (vayi(fiv is jnirgation by means of placation of gliosis. Cou-
tra.st of lept'iov, tln! victim saci'ificod and eaten, witli (rf/jii-ytoi', the victim wicri-
ficed and 'devoted.' The a-cfxiyin in use for the taking of oaths, P >r ] mrification,
for omens, for sacrifice to winds and other undf'rworid powers. Elements of
'tendance' in the ritual of 'aversion,' it|>. .32 — IH.

xviii Table of Contents

CHAPTER III.

Harvest Festivals. The Thargelia, Kallynteria, Plynteria.

The Thargelia au early summer festival of first-fruits. The Eiresione.
Object of the offering of first-fruits a release from taboo. The Australian
Intichiuma. Removal of taboo developes into idea of consecration, dedication,
sacrifice. The material of sacrifice. The god fares as the worshipper, but
sometimes, from conservatism, fares worse. Instances in ritual of survival of
primitive foods. The ov\oxvrai, the pelanos and the nephalia. The fireless
sacrifice. The bringing in of first-fruits preceded by ceremonies of purification.
The pharmakos. Details of the ritual. The pharmakos only incidentally a
' human sacrifice.' Its object physical and spiritual purgation. Meaning of
the term. The pharmakos in Egypt, at Chaeronea, at Marseilles. Analogous
ceremonies. The Charila at Delphi. The Bouphonia. The Stepterion.
Further ceremonies of j^urification. The Kallynteria, Plynteria, Vestalia.
General conclusion : in the Thargelia the gist of sacrifice is purification,
a magical cleansing as a preparation for the incoming of first-fruits,
pp. 77—119.

CHAPTER IV.

The Women's Festivals. Thesmophoria, Arrephoria, Skirophoria,

Stenia, Haloa.

Importance of these festivals as containing the germ of ' Mysteries.'
Detailed examination of the ritual of the Thesmophoria. The Kathodos and
Anodos, the Nesteia, the Kalligeneia. Gist of the rites the magical impulsion
of fertility by burying sacra in the ground. Magical rites preceded by puri-
fication and fasting. Analogy of Arrephoria, Skirophoria and Stenia with
Thesmophoria. Meaning of the word Thesmophoria, the carrying of magical
sMra. Magical spells, curses and law. deaixos and vojuoj. The curse and the
law. The Dirae of Teos. The Haloa, a festival of the threshing-floor, later
taken over by Dionysos. Tabooed foods. Eleusinian Mysteries a primitive
harvest-festival. Order of the ritual. The pig of purification. Other rites
of purification. The tokens of the mysteries. Ancient confessions rather of
the nature of Confiteor than Credo. The fast and the partaking of the kykeon.
The Kernophoria. Ancient mysteries in their earliest form consist of the
tasting of first-fruits and the handling of sacra after preliminary purification,
pp. 120—162.

Table of Contents xix

CHAPTER A^

The Demonology of Ghosts, Sprites and Bogeys.

Primitive demonology constantly in flux. Various connotations of the
word Ker. The Ker as evil sprite, the Ker as bacillus of disease. The Keres
of Old Age and Death. The Ker as Harpy and Wind-Dai mon. The Ker as
Fate in Homer and Hesiod. The Ker as Gorgon. Origin of the Gorgoneion.
Apotropaic masks. The Gorgon developed from the Gorgoneion. The Graiae.
The Evil Eye. The Ker as Siren. The Sirens of Homer. Problem of the bird-
form in art. The Siren as midday daimon. The Siren on funeral monuments.
The bird-form of the soul in Greece and Egypt. Plato's Sirens. The Ker as
Sphinx. Mantic aspect of Sphinx. The Sphinx as Man-slaying Ker, as
Funeral Monument. Tlie Ker as Erinys. The Erinyes as angry Keres.
Erinys an adjectival epithet. The Erinyes primarily the ghosts of slain men
crying for vengeance. The Erinyes developed by Homer and Herakleitos into
abstract ministers of vengeance. The Erinyes of Aeschylus more primitive
than the Erinyes of Homer. The blood-curse in the Choephoroi. The Erinyes
of the stage. The Erinyes analogous to Gorgons and Harpies, but not
identical. The wingless Erinyes of Aeschylus. The winged Erinyes of later
art. The Poinae. The Erinys as snake. The Semnai Theai. New cult
at Athens. New underworld ritual. The transformation of Erinyes
into Semnai Theai. The Eumenides at Colonos, at Megalopolis, at Argos,
pp. 163—256.

CHAPTER VI.
The Making of a Goddess.

Anthropomorphism. Gradual elimination of animal forms. The gods
begin to mirror human relations and at first those of 'matriarchal' type. The
Mother and the Maid, two forms of one woman-goddess. The Great Mother as
norma drjpoiv, as Kourotrophos. Influence of agriculture. Relation of women
to primitive agriculture. Demeter and Kore as Mother and Maid rather than
Mother and Daughter. Gradual predominance of the Maid over the Mother.
The Anodos of the Maiden. Influence of mimetic agricultural rites. The
evidence of vase-paintings. Pandora Mother and Maid. The iJesiodic sti>ry.
The Maiden-Trinities. Origin of Trinities from the duality of Mother and
Maid. K(jrai, Charites, Aglaurides, Nymphs. The Judgment of Paris a
rivalry of three dominant Komi— Hera, Atliene and Ai)liroditc. Evidence of
vase-])aintings. Development of Athene, her snake- and l)ird-f'orms. Atlicnc
finally a frigid impersonation of Athens. J)evelopm(!nt of Aphrodite. Mytii
of her sea-birth. Its origin in a ritual bath. The Ludovisi tlirono. Ultimate
dominance of the mother-form of Aphrodite as (icnetrix. Hera a.s maiden.
Her marriage with Zeus. Intrusion of Olympian 'patriarchal' cults on the
worshij) of the Mother and the Maid. Evidence from ;ut, ]>\>. 257- 321.

XX Table of Contents

CHAPTER VII.

The Making of a God.

The passage from ghost to god more plainly seen in the cult of heroes
than in that of heroines. Instances from heroine -worshi]). Helen and Hebe.
The hero as snake. Origin of the bearded snake. Heroes called by adjectival
ciiltus-titles rather than personal names. The 'nameless' gods of the
Pelasgians. The name ' hero ' adjectival. Origin of supposed ' euphemistic '
titles. The ' Blameless ' Aigisthos. The ' Blameless ' Salmoneus. Antagonism
between the gods proper of the Olympian system and local heroes. Benefi-
cence of the heroes. Asklepios and the heroes of healing. Asklepios originally
a hero-snake. Evidence of votive reliefs. Amynos and Dexion. The ' Hero-
Feasts.' Cult of Hippolytus. Zeus Philios. Hero-Feasts lead to Theoxenia.
Type of the Hero-Feast taken over by Dionysos. Evidence from reliefs,
pp. 322—362.

CHAPTER VIII.

Dionysos.

Mystical character of the religion of Dionysos. Dionysos an immigrant
Thracian. The legend of Lycurgus. Historical testimony. In Euripides
Dionysos an oriental. Explanation of apparent discrepancy. The Satyrs.
Analogy with the Centaurs. The Satyrs represent an indigenous people who
became worshippers of Dionysos. Cheiron the good Centaur. The Maenads
not merely mythological. The Thyiades of historical times. The Maenads,
Thyiades, Bacchants, women possessed by Dionysos. They are the nurses of
the god and worship him as Liknites. Dionysos son of Semele. Semele the
Earth-Mother. Cult of thunder-smitten places. Dionysos son of Zeus. Zeus
adopts Dionysos as god of the grape. Examination of the titles Bromios,
Braites, Sabazios. All three are titles of a god of a cereal intoxicant. The
cereal intoxicant preceded in the North the intoxicant made from the grape.
Tragedy the song of the cereal drink. Dionysos emerges from obscurity as
god of the grape. Dionysos the tree and vegetation god. Evidence of art.
The ' Principle of Moisture.' Dionysos the Bull-god. Animal incarnations.
The ' return to nature.' Dithyrambos and the Dithyramb. Dithyrambos the
Mystery-Babe. Plutarch on the Dithyramb. Possible association with the
Bee-Maidens, the Thriae, Moderation of the Greek in the use of wine. Sacra-
mentalism of eating and drinking. The ecstasy .of aceticism, pp. 363 — 453.

Table of Contents xxi

CHAPTER IX.

Orpheus.

Problem of relation between Orphens and Dionysos. Analogy and contrast
between the two. Orpheus a Thracian ; a magical musician. Possible
Cretan origin of Orpheus. The island route from Crete to Thrace. The
death of Orpheus. Representations on vase-paintings. Orpheus an enemy of
the Maenads. His burial and the cult at his tomb. His oi-acle at Lesbos.
His relation to Apollo. Orpheus a real man, a reformer, and possibly a
martyr ; heroized but never deified. Orpheus as reformer of Bacchic rites.
Influence of Orphism at Athens. New impulse brought by Orphism into
Greek religion. Spiritualization of the old Dionysiac doctrine of divine
possession. Contrast with the anthropomorphism of Homer and Pindar.
Consecration the keynote of Orphic religion, pp. 454 — 477.

CHAPTER X.

Orphic and Dionysiac Mysteries.

Our chief source a fragment of the Cretans of Euripides. The Ida&xn
Zeus the same as Zagreus. The Omophagia or feast of raw flesh. The bull-
victim. Bull-worship in Crete. The Minotaur. Evidence of Clement of
Alexandria as to the Omophagia. Narrative of Finuicus Maternus. Analo-
gous Omophagia among primitive Arabs. Account of Niliis. Sacramental
union with the god by eating his flesh. Reminiscences of human sacrifice in
Greek tradition. The Titans and the infant Zagreus. The Titans white-
e^crth men. The smearing with gypsum. The Orphic doctrine of the dis-
membered god. The Mountain Motlier. Iler image on a Cretan seal
impression. The Kouretes her attendants. The final consecration of the
mystic. Meaningof the word oo-to^f t's, 'consecrated.' Orphic taboo.s. Orphic
formalism. Parody of Orjjhic rites of initiation in the Clouds of Aristophanes.
The 'shady side' of Orphism. The Liknophoria. Dionysos Liknitos.
Symliolism of the liknon. Purification, rebirth. The W'ho^i and the Homeric
[dyo'n. The liknon in marriage ceremonies. The Sacred Marriage. Orphic
elements in Eleusinian Ritual. lacchos at Eleusis. The Liknophoria iit
Eleusis. The Sacred MaiTiage and the Sacred Birth at Eleusis. Tiicssalian
influence, Brimo. Thracian influence, Eumolpos. Dionysos at Eleusis. As
child, and as grown man. The pantomime element in the cult of Dioiiysos.
Its influence on the Eleusinian Mysteries, pp. 478— 57L

xxii Table of Contents

CHAPTER XI.

Orphic Eschatology.

The tablets our chief source for Orphic doctrines. Their provenance and
general character. The Petelia tablet of the British Museum. Analogous
tablets from Crete. The Well of Mnemosyne. Parallels in Fiji and Egypt.
Lethe in Greek Literature. Lethe in the ritual of Trophonios. The river of
Eunoe, Good Consciousness, in Dante. The Sybaris tablets. The tablet of
Caecilia Secundina. The confession of Ritual Acts on the Sybaris tablets.
The attainment of divinity through purification. The escape from the Wheel.
The kid and the milk. The formulary of adoption. Eschatology on Orphic
vases from Lower Italy. Orpheus in Hades. The tortured criminals. De-
velopment by Orphism of doctrine of eternal punishment. The Danaides and
the Uninitiated, pp. 572—623.

CHAPTER XII.

Orphic Cosmogony.

Orphic theology as seen in the Hymns. The World-Egg. Use of Eggs in
Orphic ritual of purification. Birth of Eros from World-Egg. Complex
origin of Orphic Eros. Eros as Herm. Eros as Ker of life. Evidence of
art. Eros as Ephebos. Eros and the Earth-Mother. Eros present at the
Anodos. Evidence of art. The Mystery-cult at Phlya, the birthplace of
Euripides. Pythagorean revival of the cult of the Mother. The mystic Eros
as Phanes and Protogonos. Contaminatio of Eros and Dionysos. Popular
Oqjhism on vases from Thebes. Eros as Proteurhythmos. The diviiiities of
Orphism are demons rather than gods. Orphism resumed, pp. 624 — 658.

Critical Appendix on the Orphic Tablets . pp. 659 — 673

Index of Classical Passages .... pp. 674 — 676
Index

I. Greek pp. 677, 678

II. General pp. 678—682

CHAPTER I.

OLYMPIAN AND CHTHONIC RITUAL.

'AAIMOCI MeiAl)(l'oiCIN iAACM^TA K(\i MAKApeCCIN

oypANioic'

In characterizing the genius of the Greeks Mr Ruskin says :
'there is no dread in their Jiearts; pensiveness, amazement, often
deepest grief and desolation, but terror never. Everlasting calm in
the presence of all Fate, and joy such as tliey migJit tuin, not indeed
from perfect beauty, but from beauty at perfect rest! The lovely
words are spoken of course mainly with reference to art, but they
are meant also to characterize the Greek in his attitude towards
the invisible, in his religion — meant to show that the Greek, the
favoured child of fortune yet ever unspoilt, was exempt from the
discipline to which the rest of mankind has been subject, never
needed to learn the lesson that in the Fear of the Lord is the
beginning of Wisdom.

At first sight it seems as though the statement were broadly
true. Greek writers of the fifth century B.C. have a way of speak-
ing of, an attitude towards, religion, as though it were wholly
a thing of joyful confidence, a friendly fellowship with the gods,
whose service is but a high festival for man. In Homer sacrifice is
hut, as it were, the signal for a banquet of abundant roast flesh
and sweet wine ; we hear nothing of fasting, of cleansing, and
atonement. This we might perhaps explain as part of the general
splendid unreality of the heroic saga, but sober historians of
the fifth century B.C. express the .same .spirit. Thucydides is
a.ssuredly by nature no reveller, yet religion is to hiui in the main
*a rest from toil' He makes Pericles say': 'Moreover we have

' Thuc. II. :^H, and in the .same spirit Plato {f^i'fj;/. <»;■>;{ n) writes deol Se oiKTti-
pavm rb twv avdpi'omjiv iTritrovov irecfiVKos y^vos dfairavXas re avroh ruv ir6vo)v ird^avro
Tai tQiv (OfjTwv ufj.oilias rois Onois.

'> 11. 1

2 Olynqnaii and Chthonic Ritual [CH.

provided for our spirit very many opportunities of recreation, by
the celebration of games and sacrifices throughout the year.'

Much the same external, quasi-political, and always cheerful
attitude towards religion is taken by the ' Old Oligarch i.' He is of
course thoroughly orthodox and even pious, yet to him the main
gist of religion appears to be a decorous social enjoyment. In easy
aristocratic fashion he rejoices that religious ceremonials exist to
provide for the less well-to-do citizens suitable amusements that
they would otherwise lack. 'As to sacrifices and sanctuaries and
festivals and precincts, the People, knowing that it is impossible for
each poor man individually to sacrifice and feast and have sanctu-
aries and a beautiful and ample city, has discovered by what means
he may enjoy these privileges. The whole state accordingly at
the common cost sacrifices many victims, while it is the People
who feast on them and divide them among themselves by lot';
and again^ as part of the splendour of Athens, he notes that
'she celebrates twice as many religious holidays as any other city.'
The very language used by this typical Athenian gentleman
speaks for itself Burnt-sacrifice {Ovaia), feasting, agonistic games,
stately temples are to him the essence of religion; the word sacri-
fice brings to his mind not renunciation but a social banquet ; the
temple is not to him so much the awful dwelling-place of a
divinity as an integral part of a 'beautiful and ample city.'

Thucydides and Xenophon need and attempt no searching
analysis of religion. Socrates of course sought a definition, a
definition that left him himself sad and dissatisfied, but that
adequately embodied popular sentiment and is of importance for
our enquiry. The end of the Euthyphron is the most disappointing
thing in Plato; Socrates extracts from Euthyphron what he thinks
religion is; what Socrates thought he cannot or will not tell^

Socrates in his enquiry uses not one abstract term for religion
— the Greeks have in fact no one word that covers the whole
field — he uses two*, piety (to ei)cre/3e<?) and holiness (to oacop).

1 Ps.-Xen. Rep. Athen. ii. 99. - Ps.-Xen. Rep. Athen. iii. 8.

^ Plat. Euthyph. 15 d.

* So far as it is possible to distinguish the two, to evae^es is religion from man's
side, his attitude towards the gods, rb oatov religion from the gods' side, the claim
they make on man. rb cktiou is the field of what is made over, consecrated to the
gods. The further connotations of the word as employed by Orphism will be
discussed later. 'Holiness' is perhaps the nearest equivalent to to octlov in the
Euthyphron.

i] Socrates on Religion 3

Euthyphron of course begins with cheerful confidence : he and all
other respectable men know quite well what piety and holiness
are. He willingly admits that 'holiness is a part of justice,'
that part of justice that appertains to the gods; it is giving
the gods their due. He also allows, not quite seeing to what
the argument is tending, that piety and holiness are 'a sort of tend-
ance {depaireia) of the gods.' This 'tendance,' Socrates presses on,
'must be of the nature of service or ministration,' and Euthyphron
adds that it is the sort of service that servants show their masters.
Socrates wants to know in what particular work and operation the
gods need help and ministration. Euthyphron answers with some
impatience that, to put it plainly and cut the matter short, holiness
consists in 'a man understanding how to do what is pleasing to
the gods in word and deed, i.e. by prayer and sacrifice.' Socrates
eagerly seizes his advantage and asks : ' You mean then that
holiness is a sort of art of praying and sacrificing ? ' ' Further,'
he adds, ' sacrifice is giving to the gods, prayer is asking of them,
holiness then is a art of asking and giving.' If we give to the
gods they must want something of us, they must want to ' do
business with us.' ' Holiness is then an art in which gods and men
do business with each other.' So Socrates triumphantly con-
cludes, to the manifest discomfort of Euthyphron, who however can
urge no tenable objection. He feels as a pious man that the
essence of the service or tendance he owes to the gods is of the
nature of a freewill tribute of honour, but he cannot deny that the
gods demand this as a qaid pro quo.

Socrates, obviously unfair though he is, puts his finger on the
weak spot of Greek religion as orthodoxly conceived in the fifth
century B.C. Its formula is do ut des. It is, as Socrates says, a
'business transaction' and one in which, because god is greater
than man, man gets on the whole the best of it. The argument of
the EatJnjphron is of importance to us because it clearly defines
one, and a prominent, factor in Greek religion, that of service
(depaTrela) ; and in this service, this kindly ' tendance,' there is no
elemoiit oi' fear. If man does his part in the friendly transaction,
the gods will do theirs. None of the deeper problems of what we
moderns call religion are even touched: there is no ipiestion
of sin, repentance, sacrificial atonement, purification, no fear of
judgment to come, no longing after a futiu'e complete beatitude.

1—2

4 Ohjinpian and Chthonic Ritual [ch.

Man offers what seems to him in his ignorance a reasonable
service to gods conceived of as human and rational. There is no
trace of scepticism ; the gods certainly exist, otherwise as Sextus
Empiricusi quaintly argues 'you could not serve them': and they
have human natures. ' You do not serve Hippocentauri, because
Hippocentauri are non-existent.'

To the average orthodox Greek the word depaireia, service,
tendance, covered a large, perhaps the largest, area of his conception
of religioD. It was a word expressing, not indeed in the Christian
sense a religion whose mainspring was love, but at least a religion
based on a rational and quite cheerful mutual confidence. The
Greeks have however another word expressive of religion, which
embodies a quite other attitude of mind, the word SeiaiBaL/j,ovia,
fear of spirits ; fear, not tendance, fear not of gods but of spirit-
things, or, to put it abstractly, of the supernatural.

It is certainly characteristic of the Greek mind that the word
BeiaiBaL/xovia and its cognates early began to be used in a bad
sense, and this to some extent bears out Mr Ruskin's assertion.
By the time of Theophrastos 6 BeKTiSaL/xav is frankly in our sense
' the superstitious man,' and superstition Theophrastos defines as
not just and proper reverence but simply 'cowardice in regard
to the supernatural' Professor Jebb- has pointed out that already
in Aristotle the word Beia-iBaifMcov has about it a suspicion of its
weaker side. An absolute ruler, Aristotle^^ says, will be the more
powerful ' if his subjects believe that he fears the spiritual beings '
(iav Seia-iSaifMova vofil^wcnv elvau) but he adds significantly ' he
must show himself such without fatuity' (avev d^e\repia<;).

Plutarch has left us an instructive treatise on ' the fear of the
supernatural.' He saw in this fear, this superstition, the great
element of danger and weakness in the religion that he loved so
w^ell. His intellect steeped in Platonism revolted from its un-
meaning folly, and his gentle gracious temperament shrank from
its cruelty. He sees^ in superstition not only an error, a wrong
judgment of the mind, but that worse thing a ' wrong judgment
inflamed by passion.' Atheism is a cold error, a mere dislocation
of the mind : superstition is a ' dislocation complicated, inflamed,

^ Sext. Empir. adv. Math. ix. 123.

- 'I'he Clmracters of Theophrastug, p. 264.

" Arist. Polit. p. 1315 a 1. * Plut. de Superstit. i.

i] Plutarch on Siqjerstition 5

by a bruise.' ' Atheism is an apathy towards the divine which
fails to perceive the good : superstition is an excess of passion
which suspects the good to be evil ; the superstitious are afraid of
the gods yet fly to them for refuge, flatter and yet revile them,
invoke them and yet heap blame upon them.'

Superstition grieved Plutarch in two ways. He saw that it
terrified men and made them miserable, and he wanted all men
to be as cheerful and kindly as himself; it also made men think
evil of the gods, fear them as harsh and cruel. He knew that the
canonical religion of the poets was an adequate basis for super-
stitious fear, but he had made for himself a way out of the
difficulty, a way he explains in his treatise on ' How the poets
ought to be taken.' ' If Ares be evil spoken of we must imagine it
to be said of War, if Hephaistos of Fire, if Zeus of Fate, but if
anything honourable it is said of the real gods'.' Plutarch was too
gentle to say sharply and frankly :

' If gods do aught that's shameful, they are no gods-,'

but he shifted the element of evil, of fear and hate, from his
theological ideals to the natural and purely human phenomena
from which they had emerged. He wants to treat the gods and
regard them as he himself would be treated and regarded, as
kindly civilized men. ' What!' he says^ 'is he who thinks there are
no gods an impious man, while he who describes them as the
superstitious man does, does he not hold views much more impious?
Well anyhow I for my part would rather people would say of me
there never was or is any such a man as Plutarch, than that they
should say Plutarch is an unstable, changeable fellow, irritable,
vindictive, and touchy about trifles ; if you invite friends to
dinner and leave out Plutarch, or if you are busy and omit to call
on him, or if you do not stop to speak to him, he will fasten on
you and bite you, or he will catch your child and beat him, or turn
his beast loose into your crops and spoil your harvest.'

But though he is concerned for the reputation of the gods, his
€hief care and pity are for man. Atheism shuts out a man, he says,
from the pleasant things of life. 'These most pleasant things,'
he adds* in characteristic fashion, 'are festivals and feastings in

' Pkit. dc ami. poet. 4. ^ Kur. frg. 292.

■* Plut. de Superntit. x. ■• I'lut. dc Supcmlit. ix.

6 Olymjnau and Chthonic Ritual [ch.

connection with sacred things, and initiations and orgiastic festi-
vals, and invocations and adorations of the gods. At these most
pleasant things the atheist can but laugh his sardonic laugh, but
the superstitious man would fain rejoice and cannot, his soul is
like the city of Thebes :

" It brims with incense and burnt sacrifice
And brims with paeans and with lamentations."

A garland is on his head and pallor on his face, he offers
sacrifice and is afraid, he prays and yet his tongue falters, he offers
incense and his hand trembles, he turns the saying of Pythagoras
into foolishness : " Then we become best when we approach the
gods, for those who fear spirits when they approach the shrines
and dwellings of the gods make as though they came to the dens
of bears and the holes of snakes and the lairs of sea-monsters." ' In
his protest against the religion of fear Plutarch rises to a real
eloquence \ ' He that dreads the gods dreads all things, earth and
sea, air and heaven, darkness and light, a voice, a silence, a dream.
Slaves forget their masters in sleep, sleep looses their fetters,
salves their gangrened sores, but for the superstitious man his
reason is always adreaming but his fear always awake.'

Plutarch is by temperament, and perhaps also by the decadent
time in which he lived, unable to see the good side of the religion
of fear, unable to realize that in it was implicit a real truth, the
consciousness that all is not well with the world, that there is
such a thing as evil. Tinged with Orphism as he was, he took it
by its gentle side and never realized that it was this religion of
fear, of consciousness of evil and sin and the need of purification,
of which Orphism took hold and which it transformed to new
issues. The cheerful religion of ' tendance ' had in it no seeds of
spiritual development; by Plutarch's time, though he failed to see
this, it had done its work for civilization.

Still less could Plutarch realize that what in his mind was a
degradation, superstition in our sense, had been to his predecessors
a vital reality, the real gist of their only possible religion. He
deprecates the attitude of the superstitious man who enters the
presence of his gods as though he were approaching the hole of a
snake, and forgets that the hole of a snake had been to his ancestors,

1 Plut. de Stiperstit. iii.

i] Plutarcli on Saperstition 7

and indeed was still to many of his contemporaries, literally
and actually the sanctuary of a god. He has explained and
mysticized away all the primitive realities of his own beloved
religion. It can, I think, be shown that what Plutarch regards
as superstition was in the sixth and even the fifth century before
the Christian era the real religion of the main bulk of the
people, a religion not of cheerful tendance but of fear and de-
precation. The formula of that religion was not do at des 'I give
that you may give,' but do ut abeas ' I give that you may go, and
keep away.' The beings worshipped were not rational, human,
law-abiding gods, but vague, irrational, mainly malevolent Ba!,fiove'i,
spirit-things, ghosts and bogeys and the like, not yet formulated
and enclosed into god-head. The word SeicriSai/jiovia tells its
own tale, but the thing itself was born long before it was baptized.

Arguments drawn from the use of the word BeicriSatfMovIa by
particular authors are of necessity vague and somewhat unsatis-
factory ; the use of the word depends much on the attitude of
mind of the writer. Xenophon' for example uses BetaiSai/jLovia in
a good sense, as of a bracing confidence rather than a degi-ading
fear. ' The more men are god-fearing, spirit- fearing {8€Lai8aifiove<i),
the less do they fear man.' It would be impossible to deduce from
such a statement anything as to the existence of a lower and
more 'fearful' stratum of religion.

Fortunately however we have evidence, drawn not from the
terminology of religion, but from the certain facts of ritual,
evidence which shows beyond the possibility of doubt that the
Greeks of the classical period recognised two different classes of
rites, one of the nature of 'service' addressed to the Olympians,
the other of the nature of ' riddance ' or ' aversion ' addressed to an
order of beings wholly alien. It is this second class of rites which
haunts the mind of Plutarch in his protest against the 'fear of
spirits' ; it is to this second class of rites that the ' Superstitious
Man' of Theophrastos was unduly addicted; and this second class of
rites, which we are apt to regard as merely decadent, superstitious,
and as such unworthy of more than a pa.ssing notice and condenniM-
tion, is primitive and lies at the very root and base of Greek
religion.

' Xen. Ctjropard. iii. 3. r>H.

8 Olympimi and Chthonlc Ritual [ch.

First it must clearly be established that the Greeks themselves
recognised two diverse elements in the ritual of their state. The
evidence of the orator Isocrates^ on this point is indefeasible. He
is extolling the mildness and humanity of the Greeks. In this
respect they are, he points out, ' like the better sort of gods.'
'Some of the gods are mild and humane, others harsh and un-
pleasant.' He then goes on to make a significant statement :
' Those of the gods who are the source to us of good things have the
title of Olympians, those whose department is that of calamities
and punishments have harsher titles ; to the first class both private
persons and states erect altars and temples, the second is not
worshipped either with prayers or burnt-sacrifices, but in their case
we perform ceremonies of riddance' Had Isocrates commented
merely on the titles of the gods, we might fairly have said that
these titles only represent diverse aspects of the same divinities,
that Zeus who is Maimaktes, the Raging One, is also Meilichios,
Easy-to-be-entreated, a god of vengeance and a god of love. But
happily Isocrates is more explicit ; he states that the two classes
of gods have not only diverse natures but definitely diferent rituals,
and that these rituals not only vary for the individual but are also
different by the definite prescription of the state. The ritual of
the gods called Olympian is of burnt-sacrifice and prayer, it is
conducted in temples and on altars: the ritual of the other class
has neither burnt-sacrifice nor prayer nor, it would seem, temple or
altar, but consists in ceremonies apparently familiar to the Greek
under the name of diroTrofi-Trai, 'sendings away.'

For a.Tro'TrofMTrai. the English language has no convenient word.
Our religion still countenances the fear of the supernatural, but we
have outgrown the stage in which we perform definite ceremonies
to rid ourselves of the gods. Our nearest equivalent to dnToiroix'Tral
is 'exorcisms,' but as the word has connotations of magic and
degraded superstition I prefer to use the somewhat awkward term
'ceremonies of riddance.'

Plato more than once refers to these ceremonies of riddance.
In the Laws' he bids the citizen, if some prompting intolerably

1 Isocr. Or. v. 117.

- Plat. Legtj. 854 b Wl iirl ras d7ro5to7ro/i7r^cr6is, Wi iirl deOiv airoTpowaiuv if pa
'iKiTTjs . . .Tas 5^ rdv KaKuiv ^vvovixlas (pevye dyueTacrrpeTrrt.

i] Ritual of Aversion 9

base occur to his mind, as e.g. the desire to commit sacrilege,
' betake yourself to ceremonies of riddance, go as suppliant to the
shrines of the gods of aversion, fly from the company of wicked
men without turning back.' The reference to a peculiar set of
rites presided over by special gods is clear. These gods were
variously called aTrorpoTraiot and dTroirofMiraloi, the gods of Aver-
sion and of Sending-away.

Harpocration* tells us that Apollodorus devoted the sixth book
of his treatise Concerning the gods to the discussion of the deol
anoTrofjLTraloi, the gods of Sending-away. The loss of this treatise
is a grave one for the history of ritual, but scattered notices enable
us to see in broad outline what the character of these gods of
Aversion was. Pausanias- at Titane saw an altar, and in front of
it a barrow erected to the hero Epopeus, and ' near to the tomb,'
he says, 'are the gods of Aversion, beside whom are performed the
ceremonies which the Greeks observe for the averting of evils.'
Here it is at least probable, though from the vagueness of the
statement of Pausanias not certain, that the ceremonies were of an
underworld character such as it will be seen were performed at
the graves of heroes. The gods of Aversion by the time of
Pausanias, and probabl}' long before, were regarded as gods who
presided over the aversion of evil ; there is little doubt that to
begin with these gods were the very evil men sought to avert. The
domain of the spirits of the underworld was confined to things
evil. Babrius^ tells us that in the courtyard of a pious man there
was a precinct of a hero, and the pious man was wont to sacrifice
and ))our libations to the hero, and pray to him for a return for his
hospitality. But the ghost of the dead hero knew better; only the
regular Olympians are the givers of good, his province as a hero
was limited to evil only. He appeareil in the middle of the night
and expounded to the pious man this truly Olympian theology:

' Good Sir, no hero may give aught of good ;
For t/iat pray to the gods. We are the givers
Of all things evil that exist for men.'

It will be seen, when we come to the subject of hero-worship, that
this is a very one-sided view of the activity of heroes. Still
it remains, broadly speaking, true that dead men and the powers
of the underworld were the objects of fear rather than love, their
cult was of ' aversion ' rather than ' tendance.'

' Harpocmt. 8. v. dn-oTro/uTds. •■' P. ii. 11. 1. ^ Babr. Fnh. «H.

10 Olympian and Chthonic Ritual [ch.

A like distinction is drawn by Hippocrates ^ between the
attributes, spheres, and ritual of Olympian and chthonic divinities.
He says: 'we ought to pray to the gods, for good things to Helios,
to Zeus Ouranios, to Zeus Ktesias, to Athene Ktesia, to Hermes, to
Apollo; but in the case of things that are the reverse we must pray
to Earth and the heroes, that all hostile things may be averted.'

It is clear then that Greek religion contained two diverse, even
opposite, factors: on the one hand the element of service {depaireia),
on the other the element of aversion^ {aTrorpoirt]). The rites of
service were coonected by ancient tradition with the Olympians, or as
they are sometimes called the Ouranians: the rites of aversion with
ghosts, heroes, underworld divinities. The rites of service were of
a cheerful and rational character, the rites of aversion gloomy
and tending to superstition. The particular characteristics of
each set of rites will be discussed more in detail later; for the
present it is sufficient to have established the fact that Greek
religion for all its superficial serenity had within it and beneath it
elements of a darker and deeper significance.

So far we have been content with the general statements of
Greek writers as to the nature of their national religion, and the
evidence of these writers has been remarkably clear. But, in
order to form any really just estimate, it is necessary to examine in
detail the actual ritual of some at least of the national festivals.
To such an examination the next three chapters will be devoted.

The main result of such an examination, a result which for
clearness' sake may be stated at the outset, is surprising. We shall
find a series of festivals which are nominally connected with, or as
the handbooks say, 'celebrated in honour of various Olympians;
the Diasia in honour of Zeus, the Thargelia of Apollo and
Artemis, the Anthesteria of Dionysos. The service of these
Olympians we should expect to be of the nature of joyous
' tendance.' To our surprise, when the actual rites are examined,

^ Hippocr. Trepi evvrrvLuv 639, iirl de tocctiv ivavrioLaw Kal 777 /cat ripwcnv awoTpbiraia
yev^crOai to. xaXeTrd Travra.

~ English has no convenient equivalent for aTroTpoTrrj, which may mean
either turning ourselves away from the thing or turning the thing away from us.
Aversion, which for lack of a better word I have been obliged to adopt, has too
much personal aud no ritual connotation. Exorcism is nearer, but too limited and
explicit. Dr Oldenberg in apparent unconsciousness of depaweia and diroTpowrj uses
in conjunction the two words Cultus and Abwehr. To his book, Die Religion des
Veda, though he hardly touches on Grreek matters, I owe much.

i] Ritual of OJjfmpkuis 11

we shall find that they have little or nothing to do with the
particular Olympian to whom they are supposed to be addressed ;
that they are not in the main rites of burnt-sacrifice, of joy and
feasting and agonistic contests, but rites of a gloomy underworld
character, connected mainly with purification and the worship of
ghosts. The conclusion is almost forced upon us that we have here a
theological stratification, that the rites of the Olympians have been
superimposed on another order of worship. The constrast between
the two classes of rites is so marked, so sharp, that the unbroken
development from one to the other is felt to be almost impossible.

To make this clear, before we examine a series of festivals in
regular calendar order, one typical case will be taken, the Diasia,
the supposed festival of Zeus ; and to make the argument in-
telligible, before the Diasia is examined, a word must be said as to
the regular ritual of this particular Olympian. The ritual of the
several Olympian deities does not vary in essentials ; an instance
of sacrifice to Zeus is selected because we are about to examine
the Diasia, a festival of Zeus, and thereby uniformity is secured.

Agamemnon', beguiled by Zeus in a dream, is about to go forth
to battle. Zeus intends to play him false, but all the same he
accepts the sacrifice. It is a clear instance of do ut des.

The first act is of prayer and the scattering of barley grains ;

the victim, a bull, is present but not yet slain :

'They gathered round the bull and straight the barley grain did take,
And 'mid them Agamemnon stood and jirayed, and thus he spake :
O Zeus most great, most glorious, Tliou who dwellest in the sky
And storm-black cloud, oh grant the dark of evening come not uigh
At sunset ere I blast t.he house of Priam to black ash,
And Viurn his doorways with tiei'ce tire, and with my sword-blade gash
His doublet upon Hector's breast, his conn-ades many a one
Grant that they bite the dust of earth ere yet the day be done.'

Next follows the slaying and elaborate carving of the bull for

the banquet of gods and men :

'When they had scattered barley grain and thus their prayer had made,
The bull's head btickward drew they, and slew him, antl they Hayed
His body and cut slices from the thighs, and these in fat
They wrai)ped and made a double fold, and gobbets raw tlHTcat
They laid and these they burnt straightway with Icatiess l)illcts dry
And held the spitted vitals Hcphaistos' Hame anigh —
The thighs they biu-nt ; the spitted vitiils next they tjistc, uik.h
The rest they slice and hcedfully they roast till all is done -
When they had re.sted from their task ami all the bantpK^t tlight,
They feasted, in their hearts no stint of feasting and delight.'

' Horn. //. n. 421.

12 Olympian and Clithonic Ritual [ch.

Dr Leafi observes on the passage: 'The significance of the
various acts of the sacrifice evidently refers to a supposed invitation
to the gods to take part in a banquet. Barley meal is scattered
on the victim's head that the gods may share in the fruits of the
earth as well as in the meat. Slices from the thigh as the best
part are wrapped in fat to make them burn and thus ascend in
sweet savour to heaven. The sacrificers after roasting the vitals
taste them as a symbolical sign that they are actually eating with
the gods. When this religious act has been done, the rest of the
victim is consumed as a merely human meal.'

Nothing could be simpler, clearer. There is no mystic com-
munion, no eating of the body of the god incarnate in the victim,
no awful taboo upon what has been offered to, made over to, the gods,
no holocaust. Homer knows of victims slain to revive b}^ their
blood the ghosts of those below, knows of victims on which oaths
have been taken and which are utterly consumed and abolished, but
the normal service of the Olympians is a meal shared. The gods
are as Plato- would say 'fellow guests' with man. The god is
Ouranios, so his share is burnt, and the object of the burning is
manifestly sublimation not destruction.

With the burnt-sacrifice and the joyous banquet in our minds
we turn to the supposed festival of Zeus at Athens and mark the
contrast, a contrast it will be seen so great that it compels us to
suppose that the ritual of the festival of the Diasia had primarily
nothing whatever to do with the worship of Olympian Zeus.

The Diasia.

Our investigation begins with a festival which at first sight
seems of all others for our purpose most unpromising, the Diasia ^
Pollux, in his chapter^ on 'Festivals which take their names from
the divinities worshipped,' cites the Diasia as an instance — 'the

1 Companion to the Iliad, p. 77. I have advisedly translated oi/Xoxi""a' 1>.V barley
qrain, not meal, because I believe the ov\oxvTai to be a primitive survival of the
custom of ollering actual grain, but this disputed question is here irrelevant.
I follow Dr H. von Fritze, Hermes xxxii. 1897, p. 236.

- Legg. 653 ^vvtopTaffrds.

3 The sources for the Diasia are all collected in the useful and so far as I am
aware complete work, Oskar Band, Die Attischen Diasien — ein Beitrag znr Grie-
chischen Heortologie, Wissenschaftliche Beilage zum Programm der Victoriaschule,
Ostern 1883 (Berlin). Many of the more important sources are easily accessible
in Mr Farnell's Cults of the Greek States, vol. i. pp. 171, 172. Mr Farnell regards
Zeus Meilichios as merely a form of the Olympian Zeus, not as a contaminatio
of two primarily distinct religious conceptions.

4 On. I. 37.

i] The Bias la 13

^louseia are from the Muses, the Hermaia from Hermes, the
Diasia and Pandia from Zeus (Ai6<i), the Panatheuaia from
Athene.' What could be clearer? It is true that the modern
philologist observes what naturally escaped the attention of
Pollux, i.e. that the i in Diasia is long, that in Atd? short, but
what is the quantity of a vowel as against the accredited worship
of an Olympian ?

To the question of derivation it will be necessary to return
later, the nature of the cult must first be examined. Again at the
outset facts seem against us. It must frankly be owned that as
early as the middle of the seventh century B.C. in common as well
as professional parlance, the Diasia was a festival of Zeus, of
Zeus with the title Meilichios.

Our first notice of the Diasia comes to us in a bit of religious
history as amusing as it is instructive, the story of the unworthy
trick played by the Delphic oracle on Cylon. Thucydides' tells
how Cylon took counsel of the oracle how he might seize the
Acropolis, aud the priestess made answer that he should attempt
it ' on the greatest festival of Zen^J Cylon never doubted that
'the greatest festival of Zeus' was the Olympian festival, and
having been (B.C. 640) an Olympian victor himself, he felt that
there was about the oracle ' a certain appropriateness.' But in
fine oracular fashion the god had laid a trap for the unwary
egotist, intending all the while not the Olympian festival but the
Attic Diasia, ' for,' Thucydides explains, ' the Athenians too have
what is called the Diasia, the greatest festival of Zeus, of Zeus
Meilichios.' The passage is of paramount importance because it
shows clearly that the obscurity lay in the intentional omission by
the priestess of the cultus epithet Meilichios, and in that epithet
as will be presently seen lies the whole significance of the cult.
Had Zeus Meilichios been named no normal Athenian would have
blundered.

Thucydides goes on to note some particulars of the ritual
of the Diasia; the ceremonies took place outside the citadel,
sacrifices were offered by the whole people collectively, and many

' Thucyd. i. 12() ^(ttl yai) /cat 'A6'7;i'atots Atdcria a KaXflrai Ai(k (opTTj MfiXixiov
fxeylcTTri, l^uj rrjs TroXews eV rj navOr}ix(i Ouovui noWa. oux iepua dX\ -^d,7«'o> Ovfiara
tTrixi^fia-.

Schol. iid luc. Uu/jLUTa- riva v^fx/xaTa th SV'^" IJi-op<p6.s rtrvKUniva. iOvov.

14 Oli/nqncDi and Chthonic Ritual [ch.

of those who sacrificed offered not animal sacrifices but offering's
in accordance with local custom. The word lepeta, the regular ritual
term for animal sacrifices, is here opposed to Ovfiara eTrtxti^pta,
local sacrifices. But for the Scholiast the meaning of ' local
sacrifices' would have remained dubious; he explains, and no doubt
rightly, that these customary ' local sacrifices ' were cakes made in
the shape of animals. The principle in sacris sinuilata pro veris
accipi was and is still of wide application, and as there is nothing
in it specially characteristic of the Diasia it need not be further
exemplified.

Two notices of the Diasia in the Clouds of Aristophanes ^ yield
nothing. The fact that Strepsiades bought a little cart at the
Diasia for his boy or even cooked a sausage for his relations is of
no significance. Wherever any sort of religious ceremony goes on,
there among primitive peoples a fair will be set up and outlying
relations will come in and must be fed, nor does it concern us to
decide whether the cart bought by Strepsiades was a real cart or
as the Scljoliast suggests a cake-cart. Cakes in everj^ conceivable
form belong to the common fund of quod semper quod ubique.
Of capital importance however is the notice of the Scholiast on
line 408 where the exact date of the Diasia is given. It was
celebrated on the 8th day of the last decade of the month
Anthesterion — i.e. about the 14th of March. The Diasia was a
Spring festival and therein as will be shown later (p. 52) lies its
true significance.

From Lucian we learn that by his time the Diasia had fallen
somewhat into abeyance ; in the Icaro-Menippos Zeus complains
that his altars are as cold as the syllogisms of Chrysippos. Worn
out old god as he was, men thought it sufficient if they sacrificed
every six years at Olympia. 'Why is it,' he asks ruefully, 'that for
so many years the Athenians have left out the Diasia ? ' It is sig-
nificant that here again, as in the case of Cylon, the Olympian
Zeus has tended to efface from men's mind the ritual of him who
bore the title Meilichios. The Scholiast^ feels that some explana-
tion of an obsolete festival is desirable, and explains : ' the Diasia,
a festival at Athens, Avhich they keep with a certain element of

1 vv. 864 and 408.

2 Luc. Icaro-Menip. 24 sehol. ad loc. Aiaaia eopri] ' Mriv-qaiv, jjf iweTiXovf fxerd

TLVOS <TTVyi'6TT]T0S, dvOVTeS (V aX'TTj Ad Met\tx^(f».

i] Tlie Did si a 15

chilly gloom (aTvyvoTrj^;), offering sacrifices to Zeus Meilichios.'
This ' chill}' gloom ' arrests attention at once. What has Zeus
of the high heaven, of the upper air, to do with 'chill}- gloom,'
with things abhorrent and abominable ? Styx is the chill cold
water of death, Hades and the Erinyes are 'chilly ones' (a-Tvyepoi),
the epithet is utterly aloof from Zeus. The Scholiast implies that
the ' chilly gloom ' comes in from the sacrifice to Zeus Meilicliios.
Zeus qua Zeus gives no clue, it remains to examine the title
Meilichios.

Xenophon in returning from his Asiatic expedition was hin-
dered, we are told ^ by lack of funds. He piously consulted a
religious specialist and was informed that ' Zeus Meilichios ' stood
in his way and that he must sacrifice to the god as he was wont
to do at home. Accordingly on the following day Xenophon
' sacrificed and offered a holocaust of pigs in accordance with
ancestral custom and the omens were favourable.'

The regular ancestral ritual to Zeus Meilichios was a holocaust
of pigs, and the god himself was regarded as a source of wealth,
a sort of Ploutos. Taken by itself this last point could not be
pressed, as probably by Xenophon's time men would pray to Zeus
pure and simple for anything and everything; taken in conjunction
with the holocaust and the title Meilichios, the fact, it will pre-
sently be seen, is significant. There is of course nothing to prove
that Xenophon sacrificed at the time of the Diasia, though this
is possible ; we are concerned now with the cult of Zeus Meilichios
in general, not with the particular festival of the Diasia. It may
be noted that the Scholiast, on the passage of Thucydides already
discussed, says that the ' animal sacrifices ' at the Diasia were
wpo^ara, a word usually rendered ' sheep ' ; but if he is basing
his statement on any earlier authority Trpo^ara may quite well
have meant pig or any four-legged household animal; the meaning
of the word was only gradually narrowed down to 'sheep.'

It may be said once for all that the exact animal sacrificed is
not of the first importance in determining the nature of the god.
Pigs came to be associated with Demeter and the uudci-uorld

' Xen. AiKib. VII. 8. 4 rrj Si varepaiq. 6 'Z(vort>CM> ...idi/tro nal u)\o»fai5r6« x^W^'* ''V
iraTfjujifi fOfMifj Kal tKaWdpei. The incident pioljiibly took pliice in Fcl)riittry, the
month of the Diasia. See Mr H. G. Dakynn, Xcii. vol. i. ji. HIT*.

16 OlyiKplan and CJithonic Ritual [cii.

divinities, but that is because these divinities belong to a primitive
stratum, and the pig then as now was cheap to rear and a standby
to the poor. The animal sacrificed is significant of the status of the
worshipper rather than of the content of the god. The argument
from the pig must not be pressed, though undoubtedly the cheap
pig as a sacrifice to Zeus is exceptional.

The manner of the sacrifice, not the material, is the real
clue to the significance of the title Meilichios. Zeus as Meilichios
demanded a holocaust, a whole burnt-offering. The Zeus of Homer
demanded and received the tit-bits of the victim, though even these
in token of friendly communion were shared by the worshippers.
Such was the custom of the Ouranioi, the Olympians in general.
Zeus Meilichios will have all or nothing. His sacrifice is not
a happy common feast, it is a dread renunciation to a dreadful
power ; hence the atmosphere of ' chilly gloom.' It will later be
seen that these un-eaten sacrifices are characteristic of angry
ghosts demanding placation and of a whole class of underworld
divinities in general, divinities who belong to a stratum of thought
more primitive than Homer. For the present it is enough to
mark that the service of Zeus Meilichios is wholly alien to that of
the Zeus of Homer. The next passage makes still clearer the
nature of this service.

Most fortunately for us Pausanias, when at Myonia in Locris,
visited ^ a sanctuary, not indeed of Zeus Meilichios, but of ' the
Meilichians ' He saw there no temple, only a grove and an altar,
and he learnt the nature of the ritual. ' The sacrifices to " the
Meilichians" are at night-time and it is customary to consume the
flesh on the spot before the sun is up.' Here is no question of
Zeus ; we have independent divinities worshipped on their own
account and with nocturnal ceremonies. The suspicion begins to
take shape that Zeus must have taken over the worship of these
dread Meilichian divinities with its nocturnal ceremonial. The
suspicion is confirmed when we find that Zeus Meilichios is, like
the Erinyes, the avenger of kindred blood. Pausanias- saw near
the Kephissos 'an ancient altar of Zeus Meilichios; on it Theseus
received purification from the descendants of Phytalos after he
had slain among other robbers Sinis who was related to himself
through Pittheus.'

1 P. X. 38. 8. ^ P. I. 37. i.

i] The Diasia 17

Again Pausanias' tells us that, after an internecine fray, the
Argives took measures to purify themselves from the guilt of
kindred blood, and one measure was that they set up an image of
Zeus Meilichios. Meilichios, Easy-to-be-entreated, the Gentle, the
Gracious One, is naturally the divinity of purification, but he is
also naturally the other euphemistic face of Maimaktes, he who
rages eager, panting and thirsting for blood. This Hesychius'^
tells us in an instructive gloss. Maimaktes-Meilichios is double-
faced like the Erinyes-Eumenides. Such undoubtedly would have
been the explanation of the worship of Zeus Meilichios by any
educated Greek of the fifth century B.C. with his monotheistic
tendencies. Zeus he would have said is all in all, Zeus Meilichios
is Zeus in his underworld aspect — Zeus-Hades.

Pausanias^* saw at Corinth three images of Zeus, all under the
open sky. One he says had no title, another was called He of
the underworld (xOovio^), the third The Highest. What earlier
cults this triple Zeus had absorbed into himself it is impossible
to say.

Such a determined monotheism is obviously no primitive con-
ception, and it is interesting to ask on what facts and fusion of
facts it was primarily based. Happily where literature and even
ritual leave us with suspicions only, art compels a clearer definition.

The two reliefs in figs. 1 and 2 were found at the Peiraeus
and are now in the Berlin Museum^. From the inscription on
the relief in fig. 1 and from numerous other inscribed reliefs
found with it, it is practically certain that at the place in
which they were found Zeus Meilichios was worshipped. In any
case the relief in fig. 1 is clearly dedicated to him. Above the
splendid coiled beast is plainly inscribed ' to Zeus Meilichios '

1 P. II. 20. 1. ^ Hesych. s.v. Matyud/crTys- fj-eiXlxtos, KaOdpaios.

■' P. II. 2. 8.

'' Permission to republish the two reliefs figured here and that in tiK. 5
has been courteously granted nie by Professor Kekule von Stradowitz, Director
of the Berlin Museum, and I owe" to his kindness the e.xceiient pliotoKraplis
from which the repro<luctionK are made. Prom the ollicial catalogue {ll<scliiYihiiii<i
der Antiken SkulxHuren in Berlin) I (luotc the following particulars as to material,
provenance &c.

1. Cat. 722, H. O-GK, J5r. 0-:Jl. Hymettus marble found with No. 72;i at tin;
Zca Jjarbour not far from filler's house. Taken to B(,'rlin lH7i). Inscribed _^ 1 1
,\Ii;i.\IXISM. Date fourtli century ii.c, see CIA. u. 3, 15H1, cf. CIA. n. 3. 1.078,
1582, 1583.

2. Cat. 723, material, provenance, date, same as 722.

H. 2

18

Olympian and Chthonic Ritual

[CH.

,-«***?■■

>-•---

(Aa MeikixUo). We are brought face to face with the astounding
fact that Zeus, father of gods and men, is figured by his wor-
shippers as a snake.
So astonishing is
the inscription that
M. Foucart\ who
first discussed these
reliefs, suggested
that in Zeus Meili- ;

chios we have J /

inerely a Hellenic
rendering of a Phe-
nician divinity, Baal
Melek or Moloch.
The worship of such
a divinity would be
well in place at the
harbour of Muny-
chia, and as M.
Foucart points out,
the names of the
dedicators lack the
demotic. Unfortu-
nately for this in-
teresting theory we
have no evidence

that ' Moloch ' was Fig. l.

ever worshipped in

snake form. Another way out of the difficulty was sought ; the
snake it was suggested was, not the god himself, but his attribute.
But this solution does not square with facts. Zeus is one of the
few Greek gods who never appear attended by a snake. Asklepios,
Hermes, Apollo, even Demeter and Athene have their snakes,

^;

/:i

1 Bull, de Corr. Hell. vii. p. 507. I regret that in the first edition of my book
I treated M. Foucart's theory with, I fear, scant ceremony. The possibility of a
contaminatio between the Phenician Baal and Zeus Meilichios cannot be lightly
dismissed. For a discussion of the subject see especially Clermont-Ganueau, Le
dieu Satrape, p. 6-5, on the river Meilichos at Patrae, and Lagrange, Etudes sur les
Religions Semitiques, p. 105. But until evidence is forthcoming of the snake-form
of Moloch it is simpler to see in the snake Meilichios an indigenous snake demon
of the under world.

I]

The Diasia

19

•*^

Zeus never. Moreover when the god developed from snake form
to human form, as, it will later be shown, was the case with
Asklepios, tlie snake he once was remains coiled about his staff or
attendant at his throne. In the case of Zeus Meilichios in human
form the snake he once ivas not disappears clean and clear.

The explanation of the snake as merely an attribute is indeed
impossible to any unbiassed
critic who looks at the relief
in fig. 2. Here clearly the
snake is the object wor-
shipped by the woman and
two men who approach with
gestures of adoration. The
colossal size of the beast as
it towers above its human
adorers is the Magnificat of
the artist echoed by the wor-
shippers. When we confront
the relief in fig. 3, also found
at the Peiraeus, with those
in figs. 1 and 2, the secret
is out at last. In fio-. 3 a
man followed by a woman
and childapproachesan altar,
behind which is seated a
bearded god holding a scep-
tre and patera for libation. Fjq 2.
Above is clearly inscribed

'Aristarche to Zeus Meilichios' {'Apiarapxv ^^^ MeLXcx^o)). And
the truth is nothing more or less than this. The huuian-shaped
Zeus has slipped himself quietly into the place of the old snake-
god. Art sets plainly forth what has been dimly shadowed in
ritual and mythology. It is not that Zeus the Olympian has
' an underworld aspect ' ; it is the cruder fact that he of the iii)per
air, of the thunder and lightning, extrudes an ancicut serpent-
demon of the lower world, Meilichio.s. Meilichios is no foreign
Moloch, he is home-grown, autochtlioiious before the fnniiuhitii)n
of Zeus.

2—2

20 Olympian and Chthonic Ritual [ch.

How the shift may have been effected art again helps us to

Fig. 3.

conjecture. In the same sanctuary at the Peiraeus that yielded the
reliefs in figs. 1 and 2 was found
the inscribed reliefs in fig. 4. We
have a similar bearded snake and
above is inscribed ' Heracleides to
the god.' The worshipper is not
fencing, uncertain whether he
means Meilichios or Zeus ; he
brings his offering to the local
precinct where the god is a snake
and dedicates it to the god, the
god of that precinct. It is not
monotheism, rather it is parochial-
ism, but it is a conception tending
towards a later monotheism.
When and where the snake is
simply ' the god,' the fusion with
Zeus is made easy.

In fig. 5 is figured advisedly a monument of snake worship,
which it must be distinctly noted comes, not from the precinct
of Zeus Meilichios at the Peiraeus, but from Eteonos in Boeotia.
When we come to the discussion of hero-worship, it will be seen
that all over Greece the dead hero was worshipped in snake form

1 Bull, de Corr. Hell. 1883, p. 510.

Fig. 4.

I]

The Diasia

21

and addressed by euphemistic titles akin to that of Meilichios.
The relief from Boeotia is a good instance of such worship and is

iMNMaWMMIHMtajttMMI

wmmmm

r

J

\

Fig. 5.

chosen because of the striking parallelism of its art type with that
of the Peiraeus relief in fig. 3. The maker of this class of
votive reliefs seems to have kept in stock designs of groups of
pious worshippers which he could modify as required and to
which the necessary god or snake and the appropriate victim
could easily be appended. Midway in conception between the
Olympian Zeus with his sceptre and the snake demon stands
another reliefs (fig. 6), also from the Peiraeus sanctuary. Meilichios
is human, a snake no longer, but he is an earth god, he bears the
cornucopia-, his victim is the pig. He is that Meilichios to whom
Xenophon offered the holocaust of pigs, praying for wealth ; he
is also the Zeus-Hades of Euripides. We might have been
tempted to call him simply Hades or Ploutos but for the inscrip-
tion [K/3tTo]/36Xj7 Att '^eiki-yiw, ' Kritoboule to Zeus Meilichios,'
which makes the dedication certain.

By the light then of these reliefs the duality, the inner
discrepancy of Zeus Meilichios admits of a simple and straight-
forward s(jlution. It is the monument of a superposition of cults.

' From a photograph (Peiraeus 12) publislied by kind permisaion of tho German
Archaeological Institute, see Kpli. Arch. 1HH(J, p. 47.

'^ The cornucoi)ia would be a natural Httril)ute for Zeus Ktcsios who Dr Martin
Nilsson kindly tells me appears in Hiiuke form (inscribed) on a votive relief in tho
local Museum at Thebes.

22 Olympian and Chtlionic Ritual [cH.

But the difficulty of the name of the festival, Diasia, remains.
There is no reason to suppose that the name was given late ; and,
if primitive, how can we sever it from Aio? ?

\=ff0t^

Fig. 6.

It is interesting to note that the ancients themselves were not
quite at ease in deriving Diasia from /^c6<i. Naturally they were
not troubled by difficulties as to long and short vowels, but they
had their misgivings as to the connotation of the word, and they
try round uneasily for etymologies of quite other significance.
The Scholiast on Lucian's Timon^ says the word is probably
derived from Stacralvetv ' to fawn on,' ' to propitiate.' Suidas^
says it comes from hta^vyelv avrov<; eu^o.?? ra? a(7a<;, because in
the Diasia ' men escaped from curses by prayers.' If etymologi-
cally absurd, certainly, as will be seen, a happy guess.

Such derivations are of course only worth citing to show that
even in ancient minds as regards the derivation of Diasia from
Ato9 misgiving lurked.

The misgiving is emphasized by the modern philologist. The
derivation of Diasia with its long from Ato? with its short i is
scientifically improbable if not impossible. Happily another
derivation that at least satisfies scientific conditions has been
suggested by Mr R A. Neil. Not only does it satisfy scientific
conditions but it also confirms the view arrived at by independent
1 LuciaD, Twi. c. 7. ^ Suidas s.v. Aidcria.

i] The Diem Fleece 23

investigation of the ritual and art representations of Zeus
Meilichios. Mr Neil ^ suggests that in several Greek words show-
ing the stem Slo this stem may stand by the regular falling away
of the medial a for 8lao and is identical with the Latin dvro\
dirus, he notes, was originally a purely religious word. Such
words would be the Diasia, whatever the termination may be, the
Aia of Teos, and perhaps the UdvSia of Athens. Seen in the
light of this new etymology the Diasia becomes intelligible : it is
the festival of curses, imprecations ; it is nocturnal and associated
with rites of placation and purgation, two notions inextricably
linked in the minds of the ancients.

We further understand why Meilichios seems the male double
of Erinys and why his rites are associated with ' chilly gloom.'
The Diasia has primarily and necessarily nothing to do with Ato9,
with Zeus ; it has everything to do with ' dirae,' magical curses,
exorcisms and the like. The keynote of primitive ritual, it will
become increasingly clear, is exorcism.

In the light of this new derivation it is possible further to
explain another element in the cult of Zeus Meilichios hitherto
purposely left unnoticed, the famous Ato? kwSiov, the supposed
'fleece of Zeus.' The Ato? kcoSiov is, I think, no more the fleece
of Zeus than the Diasia is his festival.

Polemon, writing at the beginning of the second century B.C.,
undoubtedly accepted the current derivation, and on the statement
of Polemon most of our notices of ' the fleece of Zeus ' appear to
be based. Hesychius^ writes thus : ' The fleece of Zeus: they use
this expression when the victim has been sacrificed to Zeus, and
those who were being purified stood on it with their left foot.

1 J. U.S. XIX. p. 114, note 1.

'■^ Mr P. (Jiles kindly tells me that a rare Sanskrit word dveshas meaning 'bate'
and the like exists and phonetically would nearly correspond to the Latin dirus.
The corresponding form in Greek would appear as Seios, iniless in late (ireek. But
from the end of the fifth century n.c. onwards the pronunciation would be the same
as oios, and if the word survivtid only in ritual terms it would naturally be confused
with oios. Almost all authorities on Latin however regard the ;•// in dirus as a suHix
containing an original /• as in )iiirus, diirus etc. This view, which would be fatal
to the etymology of dirus pioposed in the text, seems supported by a slateini'iit of
Servius (if the statement be accurate) on Aen. iii. 235 'Sabini et llnibri (piae nos
mala dira appellant,' as, though « between vowels passes in Latin and Unibriau
into r, it remains an x sound in Sabine.

3 Hesych. s.v. 6 ot iloX^/xwv rb iK tov Ad reOvfi^vov Upelov. From Athenaoufl also
we learn that Polernon had treated in some detail of the 'fleece of Zeus'; Atiienaeua
says (xi. p. 478 c), [loX^fjLUv 5' tV T<f wepl rou 5lov KtodLov (j>yi<rl...

24 Olympian and Clitlionic Ritual [ch.

Some say it means a great and perfect fleece. But Polemon says
it is the fleece of the victim sacrificed to Zeus.

But Polemon is by no means infallible in the matter of
etymology, though invaluable as reflecting the current impression
of his day. Our conviction that the Ato? Kcchiov is necessarily
' the fleece of Zeus ' is somewhat loosened when we find that this
fleece was by no means confined to the ritual of Zeus, and in so far
as it was connected with Zeus, was used in the ritual only of a Zeus
who bore the titles Meilichios and Ktesios. Suidas ^ expressly
states that ' they sacrifice to Meilichios and to Zeus Ktesios and
they keep the fleeces of these (victims) and call them " Dian," and
they use them when they send out the procession in the month of
Skirophorion, and the Dadouchos at Eleusis uses them, and others
use them for purifications by strewing them under the feet of those
who are polluted.'

It is abundantly clear that Zeus had no monopoly in the fleece
supposed to be his ; it was a sacred fleece used for purification
ceremonies in general. He himself had taken over the cult of
Meilichios, the Placable One, the spirit of purification ; we con-
jecture that he had also taken over the fleece of purification.

Final conviction comes from a passage in the commentary of
Eustathius- on the purification of the house of Odysseus after the
slaying of the suitors. Odysseus purges his house by two things,
first after the slaying of the suitors by water, then after the hang-

1 Suidas s.v. dvovcri re rai re MetXtx'V '^^'■^ '''V RrT/ir/y Ad, to. d^ Kudia tovtup
<pv\d<T<yovcn Kal Ala {87a) TrpocrayopevovTai., xpcDcrat 5' avrois ot re '^KipocpopMV t7)v
TTO/xTTTiv <TT^WovT€S Kai 6 dadovxos €V KXevcrifi Kai dWoi tlv^s vpos Kadapixoiis inrotXTOp-
vvvTes avTO. rots woal tuiv ivayGiv. For A^a Gaisford conjectures Alos but from the
passage of Eustathius (see infr.) it is clear that we must read dla.

- Eustatb. ad Od. xxii. 481 § 1934 — 5 iobKow yap oi "EWrjves ovtui to. Toiavra
/xijar) Kadalpecrdai, 5i.oTroiJ,wov/j,eva. /cat erepoi jxev brfKovffL rpdirovs Kadapcriiov erepovs, a
Kai e^dyovres tQv olkuv fxera to,^ iOL/uLovs eTraotSas Trpoa^ppnrTov dix(f>68ois ^fnra\ii> to.
TTpoacoTra aTpe<povTes Kai iwaviovTes dfieracrTpeirTi. 6 de ye ironqriKos ^OSvaaevs ovx ovtoj
TToiei dXX' €T^pu}s dirXovcTTepov. (prjcri yovv olcre dieiov ypfjv KaKuiv dKOs...TrXeov iroi'qffa%
ov8ev ...dieiov de 6vfMid/j.aTOS eldos Kadaipeiv Bokovvtos tovs fiLacr/jLOvs. 5i6 Kal diaareiXas
KaKuv aKos aiird cp-qaiv 6 TroLrjrrjs, oilre 34 rives evravda ewcpdai crvvrjdeis rots TraXatots
oiJTe arevoiTrds ev cp dvdpaKes dwaybixevoL avruj dyyeiuj ippiirTovro owicrOoepavQs. iariov
de OTi ov ix6vov did Oeiov eyivovro Kadappiol Kadd TrpocrextDs eypd(pr] dXXd Kal (pvrd riva
eis TOVTO ;(/3^(ny(ta rjv. dpiffTepeiov yovp, (pVTOv Kara llavcraviav ewLTr]5eLov eis Kadap/jLov
Kai crvi de eh Toiaura, iariv ov, irapeXafi^dvero, cbs ev IXtdSt (paiverai.. Kal oi to
dioTTo/jiTreiv d^ epp-rfvevovris (paaiv on diov eKdXovv Kihdiov iepetov rvOevTos Ad p.ei\ixi-V
iv Toh Kadapfxoh, (pdivovros M.aijj.aKT'qpiQivo'i fxijvoi ore ijyovTo rd wofXTraia, Kai KadapjuQv
e\'/3oXat eis rds rpiddovs eyivovro. elxov de fierd ^etpas wop.irbv • birep rjv, cpaai, KijpuKiov,
cijias 'Ep/xoO. Kai iK rod roiovrov ttoixttov Kai row p7)divTos dlov rd dioTro/JLTreiv . . .dWuis
di KOLvbrepov dioTrofXTrelv Kai dTrodioTrofiTreiv e<palveT0 ro Aios dXe^iKdKov iTnKXrjaei.
iKir^fXTveiv rd <pavXa. Eustathius passes on to speak of purification by blood and
the (pap/xaKoi, see p. 95.

i] The Dian Fleece 25

ing of the maidens by fire and brimstone. His method of purifying

is a simple and natural one, it might be adopted to-day in the

disinfecting of a polluted house. This Eustathius notes, and

contrasts it with the complex magical apparatus in use among the

ancients and very possibly still employed by the pagans of his

own day. He comments as follows : ' The Greeks thought such

pollutions were purified by being "sent away." Soaie describe one

sort of purifications some others, and these purifications they carried

out of houses after the customary incantations and they cast them

forth in the streets with averted faces and returned without

looking backwards. But the Odysseus of the poet does not act

thus, but performs a different and a simpler act, for he says :

" Bring brimstone, ancient dame, the cure of ills, and bring me fire
That I the hall may fumigate." '

In the confused fashion of his day and of his own mind
Eustathius sees there is a real distinction but does not recognise
wherein it lies. He does not see that Homer's purification is actual,
physical, rational, not magical. He goes on : ' Brimstone is a sort
of incense which is reputed to cleanse pollutions. Hence the poet
distinguishes it, calling it " cure of ills." In this passage there are
none of the incantations usual among the ancients, nor is there
the small vessel in which the live coals were carried and thrown
away vessel and all backwards.'

What half occurs to Eustathius and would strike any in-
telligent modern observer acquainted with ancient ritual is that
the purification of the house of Odysseus is as it were scientific ;
there is none of the apparatus of magical ' riddance.' Dimly and
darkly he puts a hesitating finger on the cardinal difference
between the religion of Homer and that of later (and earlier)
Greece, that Homer is innocent, save for an occasional labelled
magician, of magic. The Archbishop seems to feel this as something
of a defect, a shortcoming. He goes on : ' It must be understood
that purifications were effected not only as has just been described,
by means of sulphur, but there are also certain plants that were
useful for this purpose ; at least according to Pausanias there
is verbena, a plant in use for purification, and the pig was
sometimes employed for such purposes, as appears in the Iliad.'
This mention of means of purification in general brings irre-
sistibly to the mind of Eustathius a salient instance, the very

26 Olympian and Chthonic Ritual [ch.

fleece we are discussing. He continues : ' Those who interpret
the word BcoTro/nTreiv say that they applied the term Blov to the
fleece of the animal that had been sacrificed to Zeus Meilichios
in purifications at the end of the month of Maimakterion* when
they performed the Sendings and when the castings out of
pollutions at the triple ways took place : and they held in their
hands a sender which was they say the kerukeion, the attribute of
Hermes, and from a sender of this sort, pompos, and from the Stov,
the fleece called "Dian," they get the word StoTro/xTretz^, divine
sending.'

From this crude and tentative etymological guessing two im-
portant points emerge. Eustathius does not speak of the 'fleece
of Zeus,' but of the Dian or perhaps we may translate divine
fleece. 8co<i is with him an adjective to be declined, not the genitive
of Zev^. This loosens somewhat the connection of the fleece with
Zeus, as the adjective Bio<i could be used of anything divine or even
magical in its wonder and perfection. Further, and this is of
supreme importance, he connects the Dian fleece with the difficult
word StoTTo/ATreiz/, and in this lies the clue to its real interpretation.
' That this,' he goes on — meaning his derivation of SioTrofnTelv from
irofxiro'i the kerukeion of Hermes and hlov the divine fleece — ' is so
we find from special investigation, but in more general parlance
by SioTTOfiTTeiv and dTroScoTro/xTreiv is meant the sending away of
unclean things in the name of Zeus Averter of Evil.' Eustathius
evidently gets nervous ; his ' special investigation ' is leading him
uncomfortably near the real truth, uncomfortably far from the
orthodox Zeus, so he pulls himself up instinctively.

The explanation of the strange word d'rroStoTro/j.'Tretv, to which
Eustathius at the close of his remarks piously reverts, is still
accredited by modern lexicons. a7roSi07royu,7reto-^ai— the middle
form is the more usual— means, we are told, ' to avert threatened
evils by offerings to Zeusl' Are scholars really prepared to
believe that dTroSioTro/xTreiaOai means, to put it shortly, ' to Zeus
things away ' ? The lexicons after this desperate etymology proceed:
'hence, to conjure away, to reject with abhorrence,' and finally,
under a heading apart, ' dTroStoTro/xTreladac oIkov, to purify a house.'
Surely from beginning to end the meaning inherent in the word

« Maimaktes, it will be remembered, is the other face of Meihchios, see supra.
2 See Liddell and Scott, s.v.

i] The Dian Fleece 27

is simply 'to rid of pollution'; airohLOTro^Trela-Oai is substantially
the same as diroTri/MTretv, to send away, to get I'id of, but — and
this is the important point — the element Slo emphasizes the means
and method of the ' sending.' The quantity of the c in aTroSto-
irofiTrelc-Oai we have no means of knowing, the i in Diasia the
feast of Zeus Meilichios is long, the i in the 8tov kcoScov used in
his service is long, the Slav KcoStov is used in ritual concerned with
8i07rofi7rov/j,eva, its purpose is aTroSioTro/jLTreladat. Is it too bold
to see in the mysterious 8lo the same root as has been seen in
Diasia and to understand dTroSioTro/uLTreiadai as ' to effect riddance
by magical imprecation or deprecation ' ?

The word dirus is charged with magic, and this lives on in the
Greek word 8lo<; which is more magical than divine. It has that
doubleness, for cursing and for blessing, that haunts all inchoate
religious terms. The fleece is not divine in our sense, not definitely
either for blessing or for cursing ; it is taboo, it is ' medicine,' it
is magical. As magical medicine it had povver to purify, i.e. in
the ancient sense, not to cleanse physically or purge morally, but
to rid of evil influences, of ghostly infection.

Magical fleeces were of use in ceremonies apparently the most
diverse, but at the bottom of each usage lies the same thought,
that the skin of the victim has magical efficacy as medicine
against impurities. Dicaearchus^ tells us that at the rising
of the dog-star, when the heat was greatest, young men in the
flower of their age and of the noblest families went to a cave
called the sanctuary of Zeus Aktaios, and also (very significantly
it would seem) called the Cheironion ; they were girded about
with fresh fleeces of triple wool. Dicaearchus says that this was
because it was so cold on the mountain ; but if so, why must the
fleeces be fresh ? Zeus Aktaios, it is abundantly clear, has taken
over the cave of the old Centaur Cheiron ; the magic fleeces, newly
slain because all ' medicine ' must be fresh, belong to his order as
they belonged to the order of Meilichios.

Again we learn that whoever would take counsel of the oracle
of Ainphiaraos'^ must first purify himself, and Pausanias himself

' Dicaearch. Frg. If int. u. 202.

2 P. I. 34. 2—5. Strabo (vi. p. 284) says that the DauniunB when tbcy coiiHultctl
the oracle of the hero Calohas sacrificed a l>hick ram to him and Hlept on the fleece.
The worHhipper.s of the ' Syrian GoddeHH,' Lucian Hayn (I)f Sijr. Dea :J5), knelt on the

28 Ohjmpian and Clitlionic Ritual [ch.

adds the explanatory words, ' Sacrificing to the god is a ceremony
of purification.' But the purification ceremony did not, it would
appear, end with the actual sacrifice, for he explains, ' Having
sacrificed a ram they spread the skin beneath them and go to
sleep, awaiting the revelation of a dream ' ; here again, though the
name is not used, we have a hlov kcoBlov, a magic fleece with
purifying properties. It is curious to note that Zeus made an
effort to take over the cult of Amphiaraos, as he had taken that of
Meilichios ; we hear of a Zeus Amphiaraos', but the attempt was
not a great success ; probably the local hero Amphiaraos, himself
all but a god, was too strong for the Olympian.

The results of our examination of the festival of the Diasia
are then briefly this. The cult of the Olympian Zeus has over-
laid the cult of a being called Meilichios, a being who was
figured as a snake, who was a sort of Ploutos, but who had also
some of the characteristics of an Erinys ; he was an avenger of
kindred blood, his sacrifice was a holocaust offered by night, his
festival a time of 'chilly gloom.' A further element in his cult
was a magical fleece used in ceremonies of purification and in the
service of heroes. The cult of Meilichios is unlike that of the
Olympian Zeus as described in Homer, and the methods of puri-
fication characteristic of him wholly alien. The name of his
festival means ' the ceremonies of imprecation.'

The next step in our investigation will be to take in order
certain well-known Athenian festivals, and examine the cere-
monies that actually took place at each. In each case it will be
found that, though the several festivals are ostensibly consecrated
to various Olympians, and though there is in each an element
of prayer and praise and sacrificial feasting such as is familiar to
us in Homer, yet, when the ritual is closely examined, the main
part of the ceremonies will be seen to be magical rather than what
we should term religious. Further, this ritual is addressed, in so
far as it is addressed to any one, not to the Olympians of the
upper air, but to snakes and ghosts and underworld beings ; its

ground and put the feet and the head of the victim on their heads. He probably
means that they got inside the skin and wore it with the front paws tied round the
neck as Heracles wears the lion-skin.
^ Dicaearchus i. 6.

I]

The Attic Calendar

29

main gist is purification, the riddance of evil influences, this rid-
dance being naturally prompted not by cheerful confidence but
bv an ever imminent fear.

In the pages that follow but little attention will be paid to
the familiar rites of the Olympians, the burnt-sacrifice and its
attendant feast, the dance and song ; our Avhole attention will be
focussed on the rites belonging to the lower stratum. This course
is adopted for two reasons. First, the rites of sacrifice as described
by Homer are simple and familiar, needing but little elucidation
and having already received superabundant commentary, whereas
the rites of the lower stratum are often obscure and have met
with little attention. Second, it is these rites of purification
belonging to the lower stratum, primitive and barbarous, even
repulsive as they often are, that furnished ultimately the material
out of which ' mysteries ' were made — mysteries which, as will be
seen, when informed by the new spirit of the religions of Dionysos
and Orpheus, lent to Greece its deepest and most enduring
religious impulse.

ATTIC CALENDAR.

Note. Names of Festivals selected for special discussion are printed in
large type. Names of Festivals incidentally discussed in italics.

Kronia, Panathenaia

Metageitnia

Eleusinia and Greater Mysteries

Thesmophoria. Pyanepsia and
Oschophoria [Id. Oct. (Oct. 15)
October Horse]

Haloa

Gamelia (Lenaia?)

Anthesteria, Diasia, Lesser

Mysteries [xv-. Kal. Mart. (Feb.

15) Lupercalia] [(Feb. 21)

Feralia]
Dionysia
Munychia, Brauronia

Th a Rti E M A, KnUijH teria, Pfi/x teria
(May 1") Argci, June 15 Vcst-
alia, Q. St. D. F.)
Skiropliorid, Arrephoriti, DipD-
lia, J>()U[ili(>nia

began in the monlli Jli'c-a-

tombaiou (July — August) at the summer's height. In it was

1.

Hecatombaion

July, August

2.

Metageitnion

Aug., September

3.

Boedromion

Sept., October

4.

Pyanepsion

Oct., November

5.

Mairaakterion

Nov., December

6.

Poseideon

Dec, January

7.

Gamelion

Jan., February

8.

Anthesterion

Feb., March

9.

Elaphebolion

March, Ajn-il

10.

Munychion

April, May

11.

Thargelion

May, June

12.

Skirophorion

June, July

The Athenian oflicial calendar

30 Olym^yian mid Chthonic Ritual [ch.

celebrated the great festival of the Panathenaia, whose very name
marks its political import. Such political festivals, however
magnificent and socially prominent, it is not my purpose to
examine ; concerning the gist of primitive religious conceptions
they yield us little. The Panathenaia is sacred rather to a city
than a goddess. Behind the Panathenaia lay the more elementary
festival of the Kronia, which undoubtedly took its name from the
faded divinity Kronos ; but of the Kronia the details known are
not adequate for its fruitful examination.

A cursory glance at the other festivals noted in our list shows
that some, though not all, gave their names to the months in which
they were celebrated, and (a fact of high significance) shows also
that with one exception, the Dionysia, these festivals are not
named after Olympian or indeed after any divinities. Metageitnia,
the festival of ' changing your neighbours,' is obviously social or
political. The Eleusinia are named after a place, so are the
Munychia and Brauronia. The Thesmophoria, Oschophoria, Skiro-
phoria and Arrephoria are festivals of ccwrying something ; the
Anthesteria, Kallynteria, Plynteria festivals of persons who do
something ; the Haloa a festival of threshing-floors, the Thargelia
oi. first-fruits, the Bouphonia of ox-slaying, the Pyanepsia of hean-
cooking. In the matter of nomenclature the Olympians are much
to seek.

The festivals in the table appended are arranged according to
the official calendar for convenience of reference, but it should be
noted that the agricultural year, on which the festivals primarily
depend, begins in the autumn with sowing, i.e. in Pyanepsion. The
Greek agricultural year fell into three main divisions, the autumn
sowing season followed by the winter, the spring with its first
blossoming of fruits and flowers beginning in Anthesterion, and
the early summer harvest (oTrcopa) beginning in Thargelion, the
month of first-fruits ; to this early harvest of grain and fruits was
added with the coming of the vine the vintage in Boedromion, and
the gathering in of the later fruits, e.g. the fig. All the festivals
fall necessarily much earlier than the dates familiar to us in the
North. In Greece to-day the wheat harvest is over by the middle
or end of June.

No attempt will be made to examine all the festivals, for two
practical reasons, lack of space and lack of material ; but fortunately

i] The Attic Calendar 31

for us we have adequate material for the examination of one
characteristic festival in each of the agricultural seasons, the
Thesmophoria for autunin, the Anthesteria for spring, the Thar-
gelia for early summer, and in each case the ceremonies of the
several seasons can be further elucidated by the examination of
the like ceremonies in the Roman calendar. To make clear the
superposition of the two strata^ which for convenience' sake may
be called Olympian and chthonic, the Diasia has already been
examined. In the typical festivals now to be discussed a' like
superposition will be made apparent, and from the detailed
examination of the lower chthonic stratum it will be possible to
determine the main outlines of Greek religious thought on such
essential points as e.g. purification and sacrifice.

It would perhaps be more methodical to begin the investigation
with the autumn, with the sowing festival of the Thesmophoria,
but as the Thesmophoria leads more directly to the consum-
mation of Greek religion in the Mysteries it will be taken last.
The reason for this will become more apparent in the further
course of the argument. We shall begin with the Anthesteria.

^ As regards the ethnography of these two strata, I accept Prof. Ridgeway's view
that the earUer stratum, which I have called chthonic, belongs to the primitive
population of the Mediterranean to which he gives the name Pelasgian ; the later
stratum, to which belongs the manner of sacrifice I have called ' Olympian,' is
characteristic of the Achaean population coming from the North. But, as I have
no personal competency in the matter of ethnography and as Prof. Ridgeway's
secoud volume is as yet unpublished, I have thought it best to state the argument
as it appeared to me independently, i.e. that there are two factors in religion, one
primitive, one later. Recent study has led me to feel that these factors are
themselves, specially in the case of the primitive stratum, far more complex tban I
at first thought.

CHAPTER II.

THE ANTHESTERIA.

The Ritual of Ghosts and Spirits.

Our examination of the unpromising Diasia has so far led
us to the following significant, if somewhat vague, results. The
festival in all probability did not originally belong to Zeus,
but to a being called Meilichios, a snake god or demon. The
worship of this being was characterized by nightly ceremonies,
holocausts which the sun might not behold ; it was gloomy in
character, potent for purification. The name of the festival is
probably associated with dirae, curses, imprecations.

The Diasia, gloomy though it is, is a spring festival and its
significance will be yet more plainly apparent if we examine
another, the other spring festival of the Greeks, i.e. the
Anthesteria, which gives its name to the first spring month
Anthesterion.

If we know little about the Diasia, about the Anthesteria ^ we
know much. Apollodorus, quoted by Harpocration, tells us that
the whole festival collectively was called Anthesteria, that it was
celebrated in honour of Dionysos, and that its several parts, i.e. its
successive days, were known as Pithoigia (cask-opening), Choes
(cups), Chytroi (pots). The exact date of the festival is fixed,
the three successive days falling from the 11th to the 13th of
Anthesterion I

1 The sources for the Anthesteria are collected and discussed in the Lexicons of
Pauly-Wissowa and of Daremberg and Saglio and more completely in Dr Martin
Nilsson's Stiulia de Dionysiis Atticis (Lundae, 1900), which has been of great
service to me.

2 Harpocrat. s.v.

CH. n] The AntJiesteria 33

On the first day, the 11th of Anthesterion, i.e. the Pithoigia,
Plutarch^ tells us 'they broached the new wine at Athens.
It was an ancient custom,' he adds, ' to offer some of it as a
libation before they drank it, praying at the same time that the
use of the drug (^apfiaKou) might be rendered harmless and
beneficial to them.' This is a clear case of the offering of first-
fruits-. Among his own people, the Boeotians, Plutarch adds, ' the
day was called the day of the Good Spirif*. the Agathos Daimon,
and to him they made offerings. The month itself was known as
Prostaterios.' The scholiast to Hesiod'* tells us that the festival
was an ancestral one (ev toi<; Trarploi'i), and that it was not allow-
able to hinder either household slaves or hired servants from
partaking of the wine.

The casks once opened, the revel set in and lasted through
the next day (the Choes or Cups) and on through the third
(the Chytroi or Pots). The day of the Choes seems to have
been the climax, and sometimes gave its name to the whole
festival.

It is needless to dwell on all the details of what was in intent
a three days' fair. A ' Pardon ' in the Brittany of to-day affords
perhaps the nearest modern analogy. The children have holidays,
fairings are bought, friends are feasted, the sophists get their
fees, the servants generally are disorganized, and every one down
to the small boys, as many a vase-painting tells us, is more or less
drunk. There is a drinking contest presided over by the King
Archon, he w^ho first drains his cup gets a cake, each man crowns
his cup with a garland and deposits the wreath in keeping of the
priestess of the sanctiiary of Dionysos in the Marshes. On the day
of the Cups takes place the august ceremony of the wedding of the
wife of the King Archon to the god Dionysos. On that day alone
in all the year the temple of Dionysos is opened ■'.

On the third day, the Chytroi or Pots, there was a dramatic
contest** known as Xvrpivoi, Pot-contests. During this third
day the revel went on; Aristophanes'' has left us the

' Plut. Q. Syrup, in. 7. 1.

- Tho gi.st oi' Huch olfc;iings will bo considered under the Tliuriirlia.

" I'lut. (J. Sijvq). VIII. ."}.

* Op. 'M)H.

'• Discussed in relation to Dionysos, see infra, Chapter viii.

« See p. 76.

7 Ar. Jiau. 212, trans. Mr Gilbert Murray.

H. 3

34 The Anthesteria [ch.

picture of the drunken mob thronging the streets at the holy

Pot-Feast :

' brood of the mere and the spring,
Gather together and sing

From the depths of your throat

By the side of the boat
Coax, as we move in a ring.

As in Limnae we sang the divine
Nyseian Giver of Wine,

When the people in lots

With their sanctified Pots
Came reeling around my shrine.'

The scholiast on the Acharnians^, a play which gives us a
lively picture of the festival, says that the Choes and the Chytroi
were celebrated on one day. The different days and acts of the
whole Anthesteria were doubtless not sharply divided, and if each
day was reckoned from sunrise to sunset confusion would easily
arise.

So far a cursory inspection clearly shows that the Anthesteria
was a wine-festival in honour of Dionysos. Moreover we have the
definite statement of Thucydides- that 'the more ancient Dionysia
were celebrated on the 12th day of the month Anthesterion in the
temple of Dionysos in the Marshes.' The reference can only be
to the Choes, so that the festival of the Choes seems actually to
have borne the name Dionysia. Harpocration^ goes even further;
he says, quoting Apollodorus, that 'the whole month was sacred to
Dionysos.'

A more searching examination of the sources reveals beneath
the surface rejoicings, as in the case of the Diasia, another and
more primitive ritual, and a ritual of widely different significance.
It has escaped no student of Greek festivals that through the
Anthesteria there ran ' a note of sadness.' Things were not
altogether so merry as they seemed. This has been variously
explained, as due to the ' natural melancholy of the spring,' or
more recently as evidence of the fact that Dionysos had his
' chthonic side ' and was the ' Lord of souls.' A simpler ex-
planation lies at the door.

The clue to the real gist of the Anthesteria is afforded by

1 Aristoph. Ach. 1076, scbol. ad loc. ^ Thucyd. ii. 15.

^ Harpocrat. s.v. X6es.

n] The CJn/troi 35

a piece of ritual performed on the last day, the CkytroL The
Greeks had a proverbial expression spoken, we are told, of those
who 'on all occasions demand a repetition of favours received.'
It ran as follows : ' Out of the doors ! ye Keres ; it is no longer
Anthesteria.' Suidas^ has preserved for us its true signification ;
it was spoken, he says, ' implying that in the Anthesteria the
ghosts are going about in the city.' From this fragmentary state-
ment the mandate, it is clear, must have been spoken at the close
of the festival, so we cannot be wrong in placing it as the last act
of the Chytroi.

The statement of Suidas in itself makes the significance of the
words abundantly clear, but close parallels are not wanting in the
ritual of other races. The Lemuria at Rome is a case in point.
According to Ovid- each father of a family as the festival came
round had to lay the ghosts of his house after a curious and
complex fashion. When midnight was come and all was still, he
arose and standing with bare feet he made a special sign with his
fingers and thumb to keep off any ghost. Thrice he washes his
hands in spring water, then he turns round and takes black beans
into his mouth ; with face averted he spits them away, and as he
spits them says, ' These I send forth, with these beans I redeem
myself and mine.' Nine times he speaks, and looks not back.
The ghost, they believe, picks them up and follows behind if no
one looks. Again he touches the water and strikes the brass of
Temesa and begs the ghost to leave his house. When nine times
he has said, 'Shades of my fathers, depart' (Manes exite paterni !),

^ Suidas s.v. ^t//3afe- l^oj ttjs Ovpcu-

Ovpa^e Kapes, ovk ^t' 'AvOecrr-qpia,
ot /JLfi/ Sia w\ri6os olKiTwv KapiKQv elprjadai (paaiv, ws iv rois ' AvOeffTTjpioii evwxov/x^vwv
aiiTuiv Kal ovk epya^o/xei'cji'. rrji ovv eopTTJs TeXeadeicn]'! Xiyav iirl to. ^pya. eKiriiiirovTai
avTovs ■

Ovpa^e Kapes, ouk ?t' ' A-vOear-qpia.
Tives 06 ovTU) TTjV TTapoL/j-lap (paai'

dvpa^e KTjpez, ovk ^vi 'Avdeffrripia,
U3S Kara Tr)v ir6\iv tois ' AvdecTTripioii tCiv ^j/vx<^v irepi.epxop^ivwv.
Photius 8.V. substantially identical.

To the information here given Zenobius {Cent. Paroimiogr.) adds: Eiprjrai di r)
irapoip-ia iwl tCiv to. olvto. itn^-r)TovvTO}i> irdvroTe Xa/j.jSdi'eti'. It is fortunate that Suidas
records his second conjecture, as his first is rendered plausible by the fact tliat we
know the household servants were admitted to the Pithoigia. Probably in classical
days KTJpes had already become an old fashioned word for souls and the formulary
may have been easily misunderstood. Mouunsen in his second edition {FfsU; tier
Stadt Athan, p. aBfi) argues that the form /c^pej is impossil)le Itecause 'Gespenstcrn
zeigt man nicht die Thiir wie einem lieltler,' a dilliculty that will scarcely bo felt
by any one acquainted with primitive customs.

■^ Ovid, Fasti v. 143.

3—2

36 The Anthesteria [ch.

he looks back and holds that the rite has been duly done. We
cannot impute to the Anthesteria all the crude minutiae of the
Lemuria, but the content is clearly the same — the expulsion of
ancestral ghosts. The Lemuria took place not in the spring but
in the early summer, May — a time at which ceremonies of puri-
fication were much needed.

A second striking parallel is recorded by Mr Tylor^ He says
of a like Sclavonic custom, 'when the meal was over the priest
rose from the table and hunted out the souls of the dead like
fleas with these words : " Ye have eaten and drunk, souls, now go,
now go".' Dr Oldenberg- calls attention to another analogy.
In sacrifices in India to the dead the souls of ancestors are first
invoked, then bidden to depart, and even invited to return again
after the prescribed lapse of a month.

The formula used at the close of the Anthesteria is in itself
ample proof that the Anthesteria was a festival of All Souls ;
here at last we know for certain what was dimly shadowed in the
Diasia, that some portion at least of the ritual of the month
Anthesterion was addressed to the powers of the underworld,
and that these powers were primarily the ghosts of the dead.
The evidence is not however confined to an isolated proverbial
formulary. The remaining ritual of the Chytroi confirms it.
Before they were bidden to depart the ghosts were feasted and
after significant fashion.

The scholiast on Aristophanes ^ commenting on the words rot?
iepoiai 'K.vrpoLo-i, ' at the holy Pot-feast,' explains the ceremonies
as follows : ' The Chytroi is a feast among the Athenians ; the
cause on account of which it is celebrated is explained by Theo-

pompos who writes thus: "They have the custom of sacrificing

at this feast, not to any of the Olympian gods at all, but to Hermes
Chthonios"; and again in explaining the word ')(VTpa, pot: "And
of the pot which all the citizens cook none of the priests tastes,

1 Primitive Culture ii. p. 40. ^ Religion des Vedas, p. 553.

^ Schol. ad Ar. i?<m. 218 To?s iepoicrt XiVpoicrr Xvrpot. eoprr] -rrap^ 'Adtjvaiois' ayerai
he vapa Tavrrjv rijv airiav, rjv /cat QeoTro/UTros iKTideraL ypd<pwv ovrcos' < > ...^'Tretra"

6v€Lv avTols 'idos e'xoi'crt tuv p-kv "OXv/jlttLwu OeCiv ovbevl to irap6.Trav, 'Epp-rj 5e x^o^^'i'-
Kal Trjs xvrpas, iji' ei/'Oi'crt navTes oi Kara tt]v iroXiv, ovSeh yeverat tQv lepeuv • rovro 5i
TTOioOffL rrj <ty > yjpLipa. Kai ' roiis rore irapayiuop^vovs iiwep tQiv dTroBavovrciiv
IXdaacrdai tov 'Epp-iju. iepuv Eav., (ep^wi' Yen.: whichever be followed, the mandate
of not tasting is clear.

ii] The Chytroi 37

they do this on the (13th) day"; and again: "Those present
appease Hermes on behalf of the dead ".' The scholiast on
another passage in Aristophanes^ says substantially the same,
but adds, again on the authority of Theopompos, that the practice
of cooking the dish of seeds was observed by those who were
saved from the deluge on behalf of those who perished. The
deluge is of course introduced from a desire to get mythological
precedent; the all-important points are that the ')(^vTpa, the dish of
grain and seeds, was offered to none of the Olympians, not even
to Dionysos in whose honour the festival was ostensibly celebrated,
but only to Hermes Chthonios, Hermes of the Underworld, and
that of this sacrifice no man tasted. It was no sacrifice of com-
munion, but like the holocaust made over utterly to dread chthonic
powers, and behind this notion of sacrifice to the underworld
deities lay the still earlier notion that it was dead men's food,
a supper for the souls.

Before we leave the -^vrpa it is necessary to examine more
precisely the name of the day, Chytroi. August Mommsen ^ has
emphasized the fact, too much neglected, that the name of the
festival is masculine, ol 'xyrpoi not at ')(yrpai. The feminine
form ')(VTpat means pots artificially made ; the masculine form
•X^vrpoi, which occurs far less frequently, means in ordinary parlance
natural pots, i.e. holes in the ground. Pausanias^ speaks of a certain
natural bath at Thermopylae which the country people called ' the
Chytroi of the women ' ; and Herodotos^ describes it in the same
terms. Theophrastos^ in his History of Plants speaks of a certain
plant as growing in a place between the Kephisos and the Melas,
' the place being called Pelekania, i.e. certain hollows in the marsh,
the so-called Pot-holes.' Hesychius", interpreting ol ■^vrpivoi, says
they are ' the hollow places of the earth through which springs
come up.' The word KoXvfjL^rjdpa itself, in classical Greek a
natural pool, became in mediaeval Greek a font, and it may be

1 Schol. ad Ar. Ach. 1076 X^rpovs- Oe6irofiiroi tovs SiaffwdkvTa^ U rov KaTaKkvafiov
ifriaal (p-qcn xiJTpas Travainpula^ lidfv ovtu KXrjOrjvai, ttj^ iopriju . . .ttjs 5k x^Tpo-S ovd^fa
yeixraaOai..

2 Fexte der Stadt Athen, p. 385.

^ P. IV. ii'). 9 Ko\vfj.[irjOpa 'rjVTLva 6voh6.^ov<tlv ol iirix^P^o'- X"'"'/""'' yvvaiKdoxii.
* Herod, viii. 170.

•"' Theoph. Hint. Plant, iv. II. H ovrot 8k 6 rbno^ wpoaayopeveTai p.lv UiXtKavla.,
TOVTO 5' i(TTlv &TTa X"'''P°'- Ka\ov/J.(voi jiaOv(T/J.aTa Trjs }\.ip.vi]i.
^ He.sych. h.v. oi x'^TpLvoi.

38 The A^ithesteria [ch.

noted that the natural chasms that occur in western Yorkshire
still locally bear the name of ' Pots.'

It is possible therefore that the festival took its name from
natural holes in the ground in the district of the Limnae where it
was celebrated, a district to this day riddled with Turkish cisterns
made of great earthen jars (771601). Such holes may have been
used for graves, and were in many parts of Greece regarded as the
constant haunt of ghosts going up and down. They were perhaps
the prototypes of the ' chasms in the earth ' seen in the vision of
Er\ Near akin were the megara or chasms of Demeter at
Potniae-, and the clefts on and about the Pnyx where the women
celebrated the Thesmophoria (p. 125). Such chasms would be the
natural sanctuaries of a Ge and ghost cult.

It is obvious that the two forms 'xyrpot and 'xyrpac would
easily pass over into each other, and it is hard to say which came
first. It is also to be noted that, though the masculine form more
often means natural hole, it is also used for artificial pot. Pollux^
in discussing 'the vessels used by cooks,' says that when Delphilos
speaks of the big pot {')(VTpov /meyav) at the cook's, he clearly
means the ')(yTpa, not the foot-pan {')(yTp6'rToha). Though the
form "^vrpoL ultimately established itself, the associations of
Xvrpa, artificial pot, seem to have prevailed, and these associa-
tions are important and must be noted.

Hesychius'' says that by (papfxaKt] is meant the xu'^P"' which
they prepared for those who cleansed the cities. From the
scholiast on the Choephor'oi of Aeschylus^ we learn that the
Athenians purified their houses with a censer made of a pot ;
'this they threw away at the meeting of three ways and went
away without turning back.' Here we have of course the origin
of ' Hecate's suppers.' These were primarily not feasts for the
goddess but purification ceremonies, of which, as no mortal might
taste them, it was supposed an infernal goddess partook. The day
of the Chytroi was a day of such purifications. From some such
notion arose the Aristophanic word ijx^Tpl(^eLv,'to pot,' i.e. to utterly
ruin and destroy, to make away with. The scholiast® explains it as

1 Plato, Rep. 614 c. 2 P. ix. 8. ^ Qn. x. 99.

■* Hesych. s.v. (pap/j.aKri' tj x^'''P°- V" riToifJ.a'i^ov rots Kadaipovai rds 7r6Xet5.

5 V. 96.

6 Schol. ad Ar. Vesp. 289.

ii] The Choes 39

referring to the practice of exposing children, but Suidas^ knows
of another meaning ; he says the e<y')(yTpi<jrpLai were those 'women
who purified the unclean, pouring upon them the blood of the
victim,' and also those who 'poured libations to the dead,' those in
a word who performed ceremonies of placation and purgation.

It is curious that, though most modern writers from Crusius
onwards have recognised that the Chytroi was a dies nefastus and
in the main a festival of ghosts, this day has been separated off
from the rest of the Anthesteria, and the two previous days have
been regarded as purely drinking festivals : — the Pithoigia the
opening of the wine-cask, the Choes the drinking of the wine-
cups. And yet for the second day, the Choes, literary testimony
is explicit. Spite of the drinking contest, the flower-wreathed
cups and the wedding of Dionysos, all joyful elements of the
service of the wine-god, the Choes was a dies nefastus, an unlucky
day, a day to be observed with apotropaic precautions. Photius -,
in explaining the words fitapa rjfiepa, ' day of pollution,' says such
a day occurred 'in the Choes in the month of Anthesterion, in
which (i.e. during the Choes) they believed that the spirits of
the dead rose up again. From early morning they used to chew
buckthorn and anointed their doors with pitch.' Buckthorn,
known to modem botanists as Rhamnus catharticus, is a plant of
purgative properties. The ancient Athenian, like the modern
savage, believed that such plants have the power of keeping off
evil spirits, or rather perhaps of ejecting them when already in
possession. Chewing a substance was naturally a thorough and
efficient way of assimilating its virtues. The priestess of Apollo
chewed the laurel leaf. It seems possible that she may have
primarily had to do this rather as a means of ejecting the bad
spiiits than to obtain inspiration from the good. Fasting is a
substantial safe-guard, but purgation more drastically effective.
The prophylactic properties of rhamnus, buckthorn, wore well
known to the ancients. Dioscorides •' in his Materia Medica

' Suidas s.v. iyxvYpicrTpiai.- ai ras x""' ''"'''^ rereXeuTrjKSa-iv iiri<pipovaai...i'}ix^P'-'
(TTpia^ oi X^yeffdai Kal offai tous ti/ayei^ Kadalpov<Ti.v, al/xa ^irixiovaai iepelov.

'■' Pliotius s.v. niapa ri/x^pa- iv Toh Xovalv ' AvOeaT-qpiCivos nrjuui, tV (^ doKovffiv at
xj/tfXal Twv TeXdirrjadvTWi' avUuai, pd/xfuu iwOev iixaaCjvro Kal ttIttji rds Ovpai exptof-

•' DioBC. De mot. mcd. i. IIIJ X^yirai ok Kal K\C]va.^ auTrj$ Ovpaii ij Ovpaai irpoare-
O^vrai diroKpovdv rds tQv (Itap/xaKuiv KaKovpyla^. For this rcfcroncd I nm indebted tO
the kindncBS of Dr Frazer, who also notes tliat in Ovid xpinu nllxi, wliitc thorn, ifl

40 The Anthesteria [ch.

writes, ' it is said that branches of this plant attached to doors
or hung up outside repel the evil arts of magicians.' Possibly,
in addition to the chewing of buckthorn, branches of it were
fastened to doors at the festival of the Choes, and served the same
purpose as the pitch. Pitch, Photius tells us in commenting on
rhamnus, was on account of its special purity used also to drive
away sprites at the birth of a child — always a perilous momenta

It is not easy to imagine an enlightened citizen of the Athens
of the fifth century B.C., an Aeschylus, a Pericles, chewing buck-
thorn from early dawn to keep off the ghosts of his ancestors, but
custom in such matters has an iron hand. If the masters of the
house shirked the chewing of buckthorn, the servants would see
to it that the doors were at least anointed with pitch ; it is best
to be on the safe side in these matters, and there is the public
opinion of conservative neighbours to be considered. Be this as
it may, it is quite clear that the day of the Choes was a day of
ghosts like the day of the Chytroi.

But, if tlie ceremonies of the Choes clearly indicate the ' un-
lucky ' nature of the day, what is to be made of the name ?
Nothing, as it stands. Choes, Caps, are undeniably cheerful. But,
as in the case of Chytroi, there may have been a confusion
between approximate forms ; the two words x°V> funeral libation,
and %o{)9, cup, have a common stem ;)^ojr. May not ^oe? have
superimposed itself on x^'''^' wine-cups upon funeral libations ?
A scholiast on Aristophanes - seems to indicate some such a con-
taminatio. In explaining the word %oa9, he says the meaning is
' pourings forth, offerings to the dead or libations. An oracle was
issued that they must offer libations (x^f^'i) yearly to those of the
Aetolians who had died, and celebrate the festival so called.