Jane fame egry 22 az Protected Areas Programme Protected Areas of _ the World A review of national systems DESK OFFICER COPY DO NOT REMOVE Compiled by The World Conservation Monitoring Centre IVth World Congress on National Parks and Protected Areas, Caracas, Venezuela DISPLAY COPY UN DO NOT REMOVE The World Conservation Union — j Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge http://www.archive.org/details/protectedareasot04wcmc Cd re F is i : if : 7 as x = =i 7 : i ( y ¥ 7 , A By . i we —_ =] : i= = cj . > , 7 a - ve a = i 7 j oP z : fe ~~ : i " : y J = a Fi : iv - 1 c, ® J J 7 et = < ‘ = 5 ‘ aos se 7 7 mriy, : ' i 7 a } ab a - ° > \ ont a 4 C : e va vee i Moy s wl v ee J - ys ‘ = P 7 a } é y; Es i v 0 . et Ao a:8 | o alee oor Protected Areas of the World A review of national systems Volume 4: Nearctic and Neotropical IUCN —- THE WORLD CONSERVATION UNION IUCN — The World Conservation Union brings together States, government agencies and a diverse range of non-governmental organisations in a unique world partnership: some 650 members in all, spread across 120 countries. As aunion, IUCN exists to serve its members — to represent their views on the world stage and to provide them with the concepts, strategies and technical support they need to achieve their goals. Through its six Commissions, IUCN draws together over 5000 expert volunteers in project teams and action groups. A central secretariat coordinates the IUCN Programme and leads initiatives on the conservation and sustainable use of the world’s biological diversity and the management of habitats and natural resources, as well as providing a range of services. The Union has helped many countries to prepare National Conservation Strategies, and demonstrates the application of its knowledge through the field projects it supervises. Operations are increasingly decentralised and are carried forward by an expanding network of regional and country offices, located principally in developing countries. IUCN — The World Conservation Union seeks above all to work with its members to achieve development that is sustainable and that provides a lasting improvement in the quality of life for people all over the world. WCMC - THE WORLD CONSERVATION MONITORING CENTRE The World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) is a joint venture between the three partners who developed the World Conservation Strategy and its successor Caring for the Earth: 'UCN — The World Conservation Union, UNEP - United Nations Environment Programme, and WWE — World Wide Fund For Nature (formerly World Wildlife Fund). Its mission is to support conservation and sustainable development through the provision of information on the world’s biological diversity. WCMC has developed a global overview database that includes threatened plant and animal species, habitats of conservation concer, critical sites, protected areas of the world, and the utilisation and trade in wildlife species and products. Drawing on this database, WCMC provides an information service to the conservation and development communities, governments and United Nations agencies, scientific institutions, the business and commercial sector, and the media. WCMC produces a wide variety of specialist outputs and reports based on analyses of its data. Protected Areas of the World A review of national systems Volume 4: Nearctic and Neotropical Compiled by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre in collaboration with The IUCN Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas for the IVth World Congress on National Parks and Protected Areas, Caracas, Venezuela, 10-21 February 1992 with the support of The British Petroleum Company p.l.c. IUCN — The World Conservation Union December 1992 Published by: Prepared by: Copyright: Citation: ISBN: Printed by: Cover photos: Produced by: Available from: IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK, with the financial support of The British Petroleum Company p.l.c. The World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK A contribution to GEMS — The Global Environment Monitoring System (1992) International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources WORLD CONSERVATION MONITORING CENTRE Reproduction of this publication for educational or other non-commercial purposes is authorised without prior permission from the copyright holder. Reproduction for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without the prior written permission of the copyright holder. IUCN (1992). Protected Areas of the World: A review of national systems. Volume 4: Nearctic and Neotropical. 1UCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. xxiv + 460 pp. 2-8317-0093-0 Page Bros (Norwich) Ltd, UK Lauca National Park, Chile: C. Sharpe; Cozumel Marine Reserve, Mexico: C. Fairhurst; Bryce Canyon, Utah: WWF/P. Huber; Monteverde Cloud Forest, Costa Rica: WWF/A. Petretti IUCN Publications Services Unit, Cambridge, UK, on desktop publishing equipment purchased through a gift from Mrs Julia Ward IUCN Publications Services Unit, 219c Huntingdon Road, Cambridge, CB3 ODL, UK The designations of geographical entities in this book, and the presentation of the material, do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IUCN, WCMC or BP concerning the legal status of any country, territory, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Vetorgeioigel Seana ta cp GeO GOT One: OD CUCR OSC CRATES On ER mE ETC coo Sn tee a ere a REN Vii THCrOOUGHONS tat gaa ee eee acted See oe carturieu sats a (ati Sie RAI eilavtatic way Greta amine eaaeuels viii TOMES 5 o.6 pimmo Do ooo OOOO DODD OO oD OOO Duco OD OO OOOO DO obo bo 6 ix Managing information on protected areasatWCMC ..... 2... 1. ee es xi Country accents and guidelines to theircontents ... 2... 2... eee ee es xiii IMapstandlleists\(explanalion|Oh) meee mer men mens clei) Ciel acme n- iin iene nie Xiv Intermationally-designated|Sitesin raea- 1. iw-wl ue wee) Ay oy coterie ebsch hee lie lth eu cured es eevee) aout) XV Wiestemy)Hemisphiere COnventtonimry ewer ver meme ievra teeter. sein os ioe teou fitch Me a mea a ees oe XX NEARCTIC AMAA er a aoe en URE ich. Pretich Pte tele Se OMSL 50 ar vomicv ine epastuentay rat cet mussyaslueg ramebrsirc oh rompoere mel tts 1 Greenland Denmark Seer cee es cen etre ane. ee ene eee hae ete er ot Seen Dee ey one memes 45 INTEXIG Oe Rie are oc een ere oe oreo Cnc te UG. cs, 1oycSp fey OE eae yas) isn fh) 2 gt) sh eee ys ure earlier 51 S pbierreiaa Miquelon] ntalCe seamen iia a mene i ne ciate ote 61 WnitedS tatesiofeAmenricaw yy sys ennai pesos aust Siva ee eects) iliac PE eas Eee earen 63 NEOTROPICAL - Central America VC LIZE RY RB rene SET ee ee ees oes Seay oh eats, Meanat eee te ee wae eae ke ewe 119 WostalRicawe erase ee ee es ae eee nee eas ee ee EOS Stok ea Geis a eRe eee 127 UES al vats rece CO a etetcl fo eter cir Relbicl oie -te we retisi ce} fon ey seiiet uss tke “ol tot wriebse: tec wo hme iorpemonton 137 Guatemala tyes sextet eee heehee lie) Ba tel, ekusie thie Rad ate, SS ee 143 [SCovteltignict pepose vag hs Oe ry REE Nn SMe Dros oh Toit ea ik ebay eae eM SA Ast On Ea ac cs ofc Puta 153 INICAPAP UAW Me Ned eh rman mre ery esa ees hee tous cise tn ei cyst oo) or hcliec) oMegichiel eas Mete Me RM) fetta e 161 ANNAN AN oes ec a tee a gay Len Cog vies FSR ey isick spa, coca. Ie fies Loy. (oe fortis. 101 vestsou erm abhaibia? ceils? Le dive / Awe : i - ; ; r wiet ts “i 4 i TRY POF Nieireecws A eae 4 St Wid te 4 — yd ey has ‘ WS Dev betria Lg : \ 5 st! merits cei wae y Lt ea ie ra “4 iy a x vit : +. ‘ owe 2 ei) Dare a ok ms - ma dj mir meee nee e A: SArbiegs Mae, & ‘ { : AG ie ee HWA, dingne fi Wh ena pia" re i “se “ss a Me Wee! exe —y r aes a y; vee (-@u/> woe Lande } ee? ' j eat eM ge eer weeny eon a eit c rn 1, aa arash Paget ert eas nora bi Oe ita a arene E 3 uv lip Segura pe | PETS gh ort one ee path 4 7 r fi Bt ste ath ha rer Tah . =n Mie Aa Wt 4 led) Le La atts 4 : ’ .‘ ro ae duadbcnet ow) a how Obl vW wy dolmenon es 5 = J q = > ate. are Ws aT ant 7 “s 7 - : ape al, ice . | 1 \ le i.” ~ © hee brace - ‘ ‘ ro ie : = — ad eri i : ae i Wr r ; MANAGING INFORMATION ON PROTECTED AREAS AT WCMC Many individuals and organisations need basic information on protected areas systems, lists of protected areas with certain features, or analyses of protected areas statistics, yet itis unlikely that they will have the time or resources to collect, compile and analyse all of the information for themselves. Such information also needs to be kept up-to-date, as properties are added or extended, and as legislation or administrative regimes change. Users may also require details about the major protected areas within national systems, such as physical features, vegetation and fauna, or on other aspects such as management status and constraints. It is to meet these needs that the WCMC Protected Areas Data Unit (PADU) was founded. This service enables users to obtain quickly information on protected areas from a single source, be it for purposes of analysis and assessment, or as briefing material. It is not intended that this service should by-pass any need for users to contact or visit the relevant national authorities for such information, but use of PADU’s resources enables users to be well informed prior to making such approaches and in a better position to ask the right questions when so doing. Institutional background IUCN -The World Conservation Union has been closely involved in protected areas issues for many years. As early as 1960, it established a Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas (CNPPA) to serve as the "leading international, scientific and technical body concerned with the selection, establishment and management of national parks and other protected areas". CNPPA has always emphasised the need for information on which to base effective conservation planning and management, and has been very active in collecting and disseminating information on protected areas. As the world’s network of protected areas has expanded and its management improved, information on national protected areas systems and individual protected areas has proliferated. This led CNPPA to set up PADU in 1981 to manage this increasing volume of information. Establishment of this Unit was supported by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), as part of its Global Environment Monitoring System (GEMS). Originally part of the IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre, PADU is now a unit within the World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC), restructured in July 1988 and jointly managed by IUCN, the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and UNEP. xi Objectives WCMC aims to provide accurate up-to-date information on protected area systems of the world for use by its partners (IUCN, WWE and UNEP) in the support and development of their programmes, and by other international bodies, governmental and non-governmental organisations, scientists and the general public. Such information covers the entire spectrum of protected areas, from national parks and sanctuaries established under protected areas legislation or customary regimes to forest reserves created under forestry legislation. It also includes privately-owned reserves in which nature is protected. Specific objectives are to: — maintain a comprehensive and up-to-date database of the world’s protected areas; — compile definitive, standard-format accounts summarising national protected areas systems; — hold maps of protected areas systems and digitise them; — compile definitive, standard-format accounts covering individual protected areas, particularly the major properties in tropical countries and those of international importance; — accumulate current and historical information on protected areas; and — provide support to regional and international activities, programmes and conventions relating to protected areas. Information capture, management and compilation Information is collected from official sources, namely national agencies responsible for administering protected areas, and other sources through a global network of contacts ranging in profession from policy-makers and administrators to land managers and scientists. It is also obtained from published and unpublished literature. Regional CNPPA meetings and other relevant scientific and technical meetings provide valuable opportunities for making new contacts and collecting fresh information. This material in itself is a major asset of the Centre. Information, ranging from books, reports, management plans, scientific papers, maps and correspondence, is stored as hard copy in manual files. Basic data on individual protected areas are extracted and, after verification, entered in a protected areas database, which currently holds some 32,000 records. This computerised database can be used for generating lists of protected areas meeting pre-defined criteria, together with summary statistics, as well as performing more complex Protected Areas of the World tasks. In addition, maps of protected areas are being digitised, using a Geographic Information System, in order to generate computerised mapped output and to allow other datasets, for example on habitats, to be overlain for analysis. The information is also used to produce accounts of protected areas systems and individual protected areas. These accounts are compiled according to standard formats developed over the years by WCMC in collaboration with CNPPA. Dissemination of information In keeping with its primary objective, WCMC aims to make available good quality information on protected areas to a wide range of users, including international organisations, governments, protected area managers, conservation organisations, commercial companies involved in natural resource exploitation, scientists, and the media and general public. Information may be provided or consulted by arrangement. Material may be prepared under contract: for example, WCMC regularly provides UNEP with summary data on protected areas for its biennial Environmental Data Report. WCMC is experimenting with providing outside users with direct access to its protected areas database. Trials have been ongoing with the US National Park Service since 1986 and it is hoped to be able to extend this service to other users shortly. Compiled information is periodically published in the form of regional or thematic directories and lists. Directories comprise sections on individual countries, each with a protected areas system information sheet, a list of protected areas and accompanying location map, and a series of site information sheets covering at least the more important properties. Prior to releasing or publishing documents, draft material is circulated for review by relevant government agencies and experts to help ensure that compiled information is accurate and comprehensive. Major lists and directories published to date are as follows: — United Nations List of National Parks and Protected Areas (1982, 1985, 1990) — IUCN Directory of Neotropical Protected Areas (1982) — IUCN Directory of Afrotropical Protected Areas (1987) — IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas (1990) — Protected Areas in Eastern and Central Europe and the USSR (1990) — IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania (1991) — Nature Reserves of the Himalaya and the Mountains of Central Asia (1992) xil — Information System: Biosphere Reserves: Compilation 4 (1986) — Biosphere Reserves: Compilation 5 (1990) — Directory of Wetlands of International Importance (1987, 1990) — Protected Landscapes: Experience around the World (1987) In addition, numerous draft directories, reports, papers and reviews have been produced. A list of these is available from WCMC. WCMC also disseminates information through the CVPPA Newsletter and Parks magazine. In the case of the latter, WCMC has assumed responsibility for compiling Clipboard in which world news on protected areas is featured. Special services WCMC has a very close working relationship with CNPPA. While the Commission provides expert advice and support through its network of members, WCMC supports many of the Commission’s activities through provision of technical information. WCMC has a particular responsibility for managing information on natural properties designated under international conventions and programmes, namely the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention), Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention), and the Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme. Thus, WCWMC cooperates closely with the Division of Ecological Sciences, Unesco, in maintaining information on biosphere reserves and World Heritage sites accorded by the MAB Secretariat and World Heritage Committee, respectively. Likewise, it works closely with the Ramsar Bureau with respect to managing information on Ramsar wetlands. The rest of the World Conservation Monitoring Centre Information on protected areas is only one aspect of the programme of the World Conservation Monitoring Centre, which also covers information on plant and animal species of conservation concern, important natural habitats and sites of high biological diversity, wildlife utilisation, and the international trade in wildlife. To monitor the impact of man on nature is a major task. This requires close collaboration between agencies, and between agencies and individuals, and the development and exchange of information. WCMC acts both as an information centre, and as a facilitator of information management and exchange. WCMC has now embarked on an ambitious programme to promote improvements in the availability of information, and to develop its database capabilities and information services. Information on the distribution and status of the world’s protected areas is an essential component of this programme. Information management COUNTRY ACCOUNTS: GUIDELINES TO THEIR CONTENTS In general, there is an account for each country, divided up into a series of sections with standard headings. The following notes summarise the type of information included in each section where it is available. In certain cases, accounts have been prepared for areas which are parts of countries, usually where the area concerned is geographically separate from the "parent" country. Country Full name of country or political unit, as used by the United Nations (United Nations Terminology Bulletin on Names of Countries and Adjectives of Nationality). Area Total according to the latest volume of the FAO Production Yearbook prepared by the Statistics Division of the Economic and Social Policy Department, FAO, unless otherwise stated (with full reference). Terrestrial and marine components are distinguished, if appropriate. Population Total population and its mean annual rate of growth according to the latest issue of World Population Prospects, published by the United Nations Population Division. Year of census or estimate is indicated in parentheses. If another source has had to be used, it is cited. Economic indicators Gross domestic product and gross national product per capita in US dollars (or net material product in the case of centrally planned economies), with year in parentheses, according to the latest issue of National Accounts Statistics: Analysis of Main Aggregates (prepared by the United Nations Statistical Office) and The World Bank Atlas. Policy and legislation Information on aspects of the constitution that are relevant to nature conservation and protected areas. Summary of national policies that relate to nature conservation, particularly with respect to the protection of ecosystems. This may include reference to policies relating to environmental impact assessments, and national/regional conservation strategies. Brief chronological account of past and present national legislation and traditions that relate to the establishment of the protected areas system, with names (in English), dates and numbers of acts, decrees and ordinances. Legislation covering forestry and other resource sectors is included, in so far as it provides for protected areas establishment. Procedures for the notification and declassification of protected areas are summarised. xiii Outline of legal provisions for administering protected areas National designations of protected areas are cited and their range of provisions outlined. Their legal definitions, together with the names of the authorities legally responsible for their administration, are summarised in an Annex (see below). Reviews of protected areas policy and legislation are noted, with any identified deficiencies in prevailing provisions highlighted. International activities Participation in international conventions and programmes (World Heritage and Ramsar conventions, MAB Programme, UNEP Regional Seas Programme) and regional conventions and agreements (such as the African, ASEAN and Berne conventions, the FAO Latin American/Caribbean Technical Cooperation Network, South Asian Cooperative Environmental Programme and the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme) relevant to habitat protection is summarised. Outline of any international, multilateral and bilateral cooperative programmes or transfrontier cooperative agreements relevant to protected areas, including mention of any transfrontier protected areas. Administration and management All authorities responsible for the administration and management of protected areas are named and described, with a brief history of their establishment, administrative organisation, staff structure, budget and any training programmes. Authorities responsible for different types of protected areas are clearly distinguished. Outline of the role of any advisory boards Cooperative agreements between management authorities and national or foreign universities and institutes, with details of any research underway or completed Names and brief details of non-governmental organisations concerned with protected areas. Reference to any national directories of voluntary conservation bodies is included. Effectiveness of protected areas management is noted where information has been provided. Attention is drawn to any sites registered as threatened under the World Heritage Convention, or by the IUCN Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas. Protected Areas of the World Systems reviews — Short account of physical features, biological resources, and land use patterns (with percentages if available), including the extent and integrity of major ecosystems. —Brief review of the development of nature conservation programmes, so far as it relates to the establishment and expansion of the national protected areas network. Emphasis is given to any systems reviews or comprehensive surveys of biological resources, with details of major recommendations arising from such studies. — Threats to the protected areas system beyond the control of the management agencies are outlined. Other relevant information — Tourism and other economic benefits of the protected areas system, if applicable — Other items, as appropriate Addresses — Names and addresses (with telephone, telex and fax numbers, and cable) of authorities responsible for administering protected areas. Names are given in the original language or transliterated, with English translation in brackets as appropriate, and followed by the title of the post of the chief executive. — Names and addresses (with telephone, telex and fax numbers, and cable) of non-governmental organisations actively involved in protected areas issues. Names are given in the original language or transliterated, with English translation in brackets as appropriate, and followed by the title of the post of the chief executive, References — Key references (including all cited works) to the protected areas system, in particular, and nature conservation, in general, are listed. ANNEX Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration. The annex includes the following sections: Title: Name and number of law in the original language or transliterated, with the English translation underneath, as appropriate. Date: Day, month and year of enactment, followed by dates of subsequent major amendments Brief description: Summary of main provisions (often this is stated at the beginning of the legislation) Administrative authority: Name of authority responsible for administering the law, given in the original language or transliterated, with the English translation undemeath as appropriate. This is followed by the title of the post of the chief executive. Designations: National designation of protected area in the original language or transliterated, followed in brackets by the English translation as appropriate. For each designation this would be followed by: definition of designation (if given in legislation), summary of activities permitted or prohibited, outline of penalties for offences, and, where relevant, reference to subsequent legislation relating to the original law. Source: This may be "original legislation", "translation of original legislation" or a referenced secondary source. MAPS and LISTS The descriptive sections are followed by lists of protected areas, and maps showing their location. In most cases, the lists comprise all of those areas qualifying for inclusion in IUCN management categories I-VIII, which have an area of over 1,000 hectares. However, forest and hunting reserves qualifying for IUCN Management Category VIII have been omitted, largely because our information is not comprehensive. Also, size restrictions have been ignored for island nations. Note that in certain cases, nationally designated areas (such as some national parks) will not appear in the lists, as they do not meet the criteria. World Heritage sites, biosphere reserves and Ramsar sites are also listed. xiv Categories and management objectives of protected areas I Scientific Reserve/Strict Nature Reserve: to protect nature and maintain natural processes in an undisturbed state in order to have ecologically representative examples of the natural environment available for scientific study, environmental monitoring, education, and for the maintenance of genetic resources in a dynamic and evolutionary State. Il NationalPark: to protectnatural and scenic areas of national or international significance for scientific, educational and recreational use. Ill Natural Monument/Natural Landmark: to protect and preserve nationally significant natural features because of their special interest or unique characteristics. IV Managed Nature Reserve/Wildlife Sanctuary: to assure the natural conditions necessary to protect nationally significant species, groups of species, biotic communities, or physical features of the environment where these require specific human manipulation for their perpetuation. \V_ Protected Landscape or Seascape: to maintain nationally significant natural landscapes which are characteristic of the harmonious interaction of man and land while providing opportunities for public enjoyment through recreation and tourism within the normal life style and economic activity of these areas. VI Resource Reserve: to protect the natural resources of the area for future use and prevent or contain development activities that could affect the Information management resource pending the establishment of objectives which are based upon appropriate knowledge and planning. VII Natural Biotic Area/Anthropological Reserve: to allow the way of life of societies living in harmony with the environment to continue undisturbed by modern technology. VIII Multiple-Use Management Area/Managed Resource Area: to provide for the sustained production of water, timber, wildlife, pasture, and outdoor recreation, with the conservation of nature primarily oriented to the support of economic activities (although specific zones may also be designed within these areas to achieve specific conservation objectives). Abridged from IUCN (1984). Categories and criteria for protected areas. In: McNeely, J.A. and Miller, K.R. (Eds), National parks, conservation, and development. The role of protected areas in sustaining society. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington. Pp. 47-53. INTERNATIONALLY DESIGNATED SITES In the field of nature conservation there are two international conventions and one international programme that include provision for designation of internationally important sites in any region of the world. These are the World Heritage Convention, the Ramsar (Wetlands) Convention, and the Unesco Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme. While there is a wide range of other international conventions and programmes, these cover only regions, or small groups of countries. Both World Heritage sites and Ramsar sites must be nominated by a State that is party to the relevant convention. While there is an established review procedure for World Heritage sites (and nomination is no guarantee of listing), all nominated Ramsar sites are placed on the List of Wetlands of International Importance. Biosphere reserves are nominated by the national MAB committee of the country concerned, and are only designated following review and acceptance by the MAB Bureau. Each Contracting Party to the Ramsar (Wetlands) Convention is obliged to nominate at least one wetland of international importance. However, a country can be party to the World Heritage Convention without having a natural site inscribed on the List, and may participate in the MAB programme without designating a biosphere reserve. XV World Heritage Sites The Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage was adopted in Paris in 1972, and came into force in December 1975. The Convention provides for the designation of areas of "outstanding universal value" as World Heritage sites, with the principal aim of fostering international cooperation in safeguarding these important areas. Sites, which must be nominated by the signatory nation responsible, are evaluated for their World Heritage quality before being inscribed by the iriternational World Heritage Committee. Only natural sites, and those with mixed natural and cultural aspects, are considered in this publication. Article 2 of the World Heritage Convention considers as natural heritage: natural features consisting of physical and biological formations or groups of such formations, which are of outstanding universal value from the aesthetic or scientific point of view; geological or physiographical formations and precisely delineated areas which constitute the habitat of threatened species of animals and plants of outstanding universal value from the point of view of science or conservation; and natural sites or precisely delineated areas of outstanding universal value from the point of view of science, conservation or natural beauty. Criteria for inclusion in the list are published by Unesco. Protected Areas of the World The following States Party to the Convention lie at least partially within the regions covered by this volume: Antigua and Barbuda Argentina Belize Bolivia Brazil Canada Chile Colombia Costa Rica Cuba Denmark (Greenland) Dominican Republic Ecuador El Salvador France (Guadeloupe) (French Guiana) (Martinique) (St Pierre & Miquelon) Guatemala Guyana Haiti Honduras Jamaica Mexico Nicaragua Panama Paraguay Peru St Kitts and Nevis St Lucia United Kingdom (Anguilla) (Bermuda) (British Virgin Islands) (Cayman Islands) (Montserrat) (Turks and Caicos) United States of America (Puerto Rico) (Navassa Island) (Virgin Islands) Venezuela The following natural World Heritage sites lie within the regions covered by this volume: Argentina Iguazu National Park Los Glaciares National Park Brazil Iguacu National Park Canada Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks Dinosaur Provincial Park Gros Morne National Park XVI Kluane-Wrangell/St Elias (with USA) Nahanni National Park Wood Buffalo National park Costa Rica Talamanca Range-La Amistad Reserves Ecuador Galapagos Islands Sangay National Park Guatemala Tikal National Park Honduras Rio Platano Mexico Sian Ka’an Biosphere Reserve Panama Darien National Park La Amistad International Park Peru Huascaran National Park Manu National Park Rio Abiseo National Park Sanctuario Historico de Macchu Picchu United States of America Everglades National Park Grand Canyon National Park Great Smoky Mountains National Park (Hawaii Volcanoes National Park) Kluane-Wrangell/St Elias National Park (with Canada) Mammoth Cave National Park Olympic National Park Redwood National park Yellowstone National Park Yosemite National Park Ramsar Sites The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat was signed in Ramsar (Iran) in 1971, and also came into force in December 1975. This Convention provides a framework for international cooperation for the conservation of wetland habitats. The Convention places general obligations on contracting party states relating to the conservation of wetlands throughout their territory, with special obligations pertaining to those wetlands which have been designated to the "List of Wetlands of International Importance". Each State Party is obliged to list at least one site. Wetlands are defined by the convention as: areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is Static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine waters, the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six metres. The following States Party to the Convention lie at least partially within the regions covered by this volume: Argentina Bolivia Canada Chile Costa Rica Denmark (Greenland) Ecuador France (Guadeloupe) (French Guiana) (Martinique) (St Pierre & Miquelon) Guatemala Mexico Netherlands (Aruba) (Netherlands Antilles) Panama Peru Suriname United Kingdom (Anguilla) (Bermuda) (British Virgin Islands) (Cayman Islands) (Montserrat) (Turks and Caicos) United States of America (Puerto Rico) (Navassa Island) (Virgin Islands) Uruguay Venezuela The following wetlands which lie within the region have been included in the List of Wetlands of International Importance: Argentina Laguna de Pozuelos Laguna Blanca Rio Pilcomayo Bolivia Laguna Colorada Canada Alaksen Baie de I’Ile Verte Beaverhill Lake Cap Tourmente Chignecto Delta Marsh Dewey Soper XVii Information management Grand Codroy Estuary Hay-Zama Lakes Lac Saint-Frangois Last Mountain Lake (northem part) Long Point Malpeque Bay Mary’s Point McConnell River Musquodoboit Harbour Outer Estuary Oak-Hammock Marsh Old Crow Flats Peace-Athabasca Delta Point Pelee Polar Bear Provincial Park Polar Bear Pass Queen Maud Gulf Quill Lakes Rasmussen Lowlands Shepody Bay Southern James Bay Sanctuaries Southern Bight-Minas Basin St Clair Whooping Crane Summer Range Chile Carlos Anwandter Sanctuary Costa Rica Cafio Negro Palo Verde Denmark - Greenland Agajarua-Sullorsuag Eqalummiut Nunaat-Nassuttuup Nunaa Hochstetter Forland Ikkatoq Kilen Kitsissunnguit Kuannersuit Kuussuat Naternaq Qinguata Marraa-Kuussuaq Ydre Kitsissut Ecuador Machalilla Manglares-Churute Guatemala Laguna del Tigre Mexico Ria Lagartos, Yucatan Netherlands Antilles De Slagbaai Het Gotomeer Het Lac Het Pekelmeer Het Spaans Lagoen Klein Bonaire Island and adjacent sea Protected Areas of the World Panama Golfo de Montijo Peru Reserva Nacional de Paracas Reserva Nacional Pacaya-Samiria Santuario Nacional Lagunas de Mejia Suriname Coppename Rivermouth United Kingdom (Turks and Caicos) North, Middle & East Caicos Islands Uruguay Bafiados del Este y Franja Costera Venezuela Cuare Biosphere Reserves The designation of biosphere reserves differs somewhat from that of either of the previous designations in that it is not made under a specific convention, but as part of an international scientific programme, the Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme. The objectives of a network of biosphere reserves, and the characteristics which biosphere reserves might display, are identified in various documents, including the Action Plan for Biosphere Reserves (Unesco, 1984). Biosphere reserves differ from World Heritage and Ramsar sites in that they are designated not exclusively for protection of unique areas or significant wetlands, but for a range of objectives which include research, monitoring, training and demonstration, as well as conservation. In most cases the human component is vital to the functioning of the biosphere reserve, something which is not always true for either World Heritage or Ramsar sites. The following biosphere reserves are located within the region: Argentina Parque Costero del Sur Reserva de la Biosfera de Pozuelos Reserva Ecologica de Nacufidn Reserva de la Biosfera San Guillermo Reserva Natural de Vida Silvestre Laguna Blanca Bolivia Estacién Biolégica Beni Parque Nacional Pilén-Lajas Reserva Nacional de Fauna Ulla Ulla Brazil Tijuca-Tingua-Orgaos Vale do Ribeira-Serra do Graciosa Canada Long Point Biosphere Reserve Mont St Hilaire Niagara Escarpment Biosphere Reserve Réserve de la biosphére de Charlevoix Riding Mountain Biosphere Reserve Waterton Lakes National Park Chile Parque Nacional Lauca Parque Nacional Fray Jorge Parque Nacional Laguna San Rafael Parque Nacional Torres del Paine Parque Nacional Juan Femandez Reserva de la Biosfera La Campana-Pefiuelas Reserva de la Biosfera Araucarias Colombia Cinturé6n Andino Cluster Biosphere Reserve El Tuparro Nature Reserve Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (inc. Tayrona NP) Costa Rica Cordillera Volcanica Central Reserva de la Biosfera de la Amistad Cuba Baconao Cuchillas del Toa Peninsula de Guanahacabibes Sierra del Rosario Denmark - Greenland North-east Greenland National Park Ecuador Archipiélago de Colén (Galapagos) Reserva de la Biosfera de Yasuni Guatemala Maya Honduras Rio Platano Biosphere Reserve Mexico Montes Azules Reserva de la Biosfera Sierra de Manantlan Reserva de la Biosfera de Sian Ka’an Reserva de Mapimi Reserva de la Michilia Reserva de la Biosfera "El Cielo" Panama Parque Nacional Fronterizo Darién Peru Reserva de Huascaran Reserva del Manu Reserva del Noroeste United States of America Aleutian Islands National Wildlife Refuge Beaver Creek Experimental Watershed Big Bend National Park Big Thicket National Preserve California Coast Ranges Biosphere Reserve Carolinian-South Atlantic Biopshere Reserve Cascade Head Experimental Forest Central California Coast Biosphere Reserve Central Gulf Coastal Plain Biosphere Reserve Central Plains Experimental Range (CPER) Champlain-Adirondak Biosphere Reserve Channel Islands Biosphere Reserve Coram Experimental Forest (incl. Coram NA) Denali National Park and Biosphere Reserve Desert Experimental Range Everglades National Park (incl. Ft. Jefferson NM) Fraser Experimental Forest Glacier Bay-Admiralty Is. Biosphere Reserve Glacier National Park Guanica Commonwealth Forest Reserve H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest (Hawaii Islands Biosphere Reserve) Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest Isle Royale National Park Jomada Experimental Range Konza Prairie Research Natural Area Land between The Lakes Mammoth Cave Area xix Information management Mojave and Colorado Deserts Biosphere Reserve New Jersey Pinelands Biosphere Reserve Niwot Ridge Biosphere Reserve Noatak National Arctic Range Olympic National Park Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument Rocky Mountain National Park San Dimas Experimental Forest San Joaquin Experimental Range Scenic Research Area Sequoia-Kings Canyon National Parks South Atlantic Coastal Plain BR Southern Appalachian Biosphere Reserve Stanislaus-Tuolumne Experimental Forest The Virginia Coast Reserve The University of Michigan Biological Station Three Sisters Wilderness Yellowstone National Park Puerto Rico - USA Guanica Commonwealth Forest Reserve Luquillo Experimental Forest (Caribbean NF) Uruguay Bafiados del Este Virgin Islands - USA Virgin Islands National Park & Biosphere Reserve Protected Areas of the World WESTERN HEMISPHERE CONVENTION Title: Convention On Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in The Western Hemisphere Date: 12 October 1940 Brief description: The governments of the American Republics wish to protect and conserve in their natural habitat representatives of all species of native flora and fauna, including migratory birds, in sufficient numbers and over areas extensive enough to prevent them from becoming extinct through man’s Protection will also be given to outstanding scenery and specific regions or objects of importance. To these means, the Convention provides the following conservation measures which the governments of the American Republic agree to intervention. put into effect. Designations: National park An areaset aside for the protection and preservation of exceptional scenery, flora and fauna of national significance for the benefit of the general public. Access by the general public is allowed under official regulations and supervision as park is placed under public control. Facilities will be provided for public recreation and education Park boundaries are not be altered. Commercial exploitation of resources within the area is prohibited. The hunting and capture of fauna and the destruction and collection of flora are also prohibited, except by officially authorised scientific investigations or under the direction of the park authorities. Nationalreserve Anarea under government control, established for the conservation and utilization of natural resources Plant and animal life will be protected as far as possible while complying with the objectives of the designation Naturemonument Anarea, object or living species of flora and fauna of aesthetic, historic or scientific interest to be given total protection. The area or objectis set aside, or the species named, as inviolable The only activites permitted are government inspections or scientific research by officially authorized personnel. XX Strict wilderness reserve An area under public control characterised by the presence of primitive conditions of flora, fauna and habitation, where there is no provision for the passage of motorised vehicles. All commercial developments and exploitation are prohibited. Protection will remain inviolate as far as practicable. The only activities permitted are government inspections consistent with the purpose for which the area was established or officially authorised scientific investigations. Migratory bird species _ Those species of birds in which all or some of its members may cross the boundaries between American countries at any season. Some species are named as examples: Charadriidae, Scolopacidae, Caprimulgidae, Hirundindae Suitable measures shall be taken to provide protection for migratory birds A list of plant and animal species in urgent need of protection is provided in the Annex to the Convention. Hunting, capture or collection of these species shall be permitted only under official authorisation and subject to strict regulation. The contracting governments shall take suitable measures to regulate the import and export of flora and fauna. The contracting governments will endeavour to establish areas in their territories under the designations described above, as soon as possible following the signing of the Convention. If establishment of such areas is not feasible immediately areas, objects or species shall be selected for later designation. The contracting governments agree to cooperate among themselves in promoting the objectives of the Convention and will provide and receive assistance for scientific research to increase the effectiveness of the provisions of the Convention. Establishment of protected areas shall be reported to the Pan American Union which will notify the contracting governments of any information from national or international scientific or other sources, relevant to the purposes of the Convention. The Convention remains open for signature by other American governments at any time. Source: Lyster, S. (1985). International Wildlife Law. Grotius Publications Ltd. 470 pp. Information management 000+ 0002 @ a uy ISI] eBeEILIOH PHO Fy) UO poquosut sous emmy[nd/jesmeu poxiw pue emeny uonuaauod, aBeIUOH POA oy) 0} sonsed Bunoenuod uonusAu0d, aseIUIH POA, By) 01 Aured jou sotnuNOD a Internationally Designated Sites — World Heritage Sites XXi Protected Areas of the World OOOVr 0002 —— | UUY soalosal a10ydsorg e SoAtosal oJaydsorg ipIM so“nUNOD Soalosal oJoydsoig inoWIM soLnUNOD [| Designated Sites —- Biosphere Reserves Internationally XXxii Information management 000+ 0002 0 = ha aouryoduy jeuoneUIa}U JO —— a ;: SpuepaAy JO ISI] oy UO PapnyouT sais uy UONUSAUOD (SpuepIs\) Jeswey yp 0} soned SunsenuoD UONUIAUOZD (Spuepe MA) Jesurey oy] 0} Ayed jou satnuno|D Internationally Designated Sites - Ramsar (Wetlands) Convention XXxill al vere of. LL a b ‘ a apne 4 Cae 7 eee nN! Ae ‘ (” epee’ OO L6 Ore cee * wi er ad en Aer, - zee +. wii hashed ME will Pre a aes, wae pt tees! * + ; — . ¥ es ae an a a hy = ae r i] i 4, ri i fe ~ t Sn aes ve TY, , ps + Pie aay ae, > a “iy a - ee ae i ns te rst CANADA Area 9,916,140 sq. km Population 26.5 million (1990) (Hunter, 1991) Natural increase: 0.77% (1990) Economic Indicators GDP: US$ 16,200 per capita (1987) GNP: US$ 15,080 per capita (1987) Policy and Legislation Canada, with all its dependencies, was formally ceded from Great Britain in 1763, although the various colonies were not united until the Act of the Imperial Parliament, the British North America Act, 1867. The Act provided that the constitution of the Dominion of Canada should be "similar in principle to that of the United Kingdom". In November 1981, a provisional constitution was agreed by the Canadian government (Constitutional Act, 1982) toreplace the Actof 1867 and the proposals were enacted by the United Kingdom Parliament as the Canada Act, 1982. This Act gave to Canada the power to amend its own constitution, although executive authority continues to be invested in the Sovereign. The Constitutional Act, 1982 strengthened provincial ownership of natural resources, and affirmed the existing rights of native peoples. Legislative authority is vested in the federal government and the ten provincial governments, with many constitutional powers being delegated to the provinces. More than 90% of Canada is held as public lands (WWF, 1992). Following subsequent revisions to the Constitution, a subject of federal/provincial negotiations, it is likely that provincial control over natural resources will increase, and the recognised rights of native peoples will become further entrenched (A. Hackman, C. Stewart and G. Francis, pers. comm., 1992). Current proposals recognise the inherent right to aboriginal self-government as a kind of third order of government in the country. In Northern Canada (north of 60), land claim settlements between the federal government and aboriginal peoples are at various stages of completion. The 1984 Inuvialuit Final Agreement covering the western Arctic, the 1991 Agreement-in-Principal to establish Nunavut, an Inuit governed region for the whole of the Eastern Arctic, and a 1990 agreement reached with the Council of Yukon Indians (and subsequently ratified by the various groups in 1991) are major developments in governance for the Territories, traditionally administered by federal authorities. Further, negotiations are still continuing with, and among the Dene and Metis groups in the Mackenzie Valley region. These agreements are prerequisites for the mutual recognition and management of protected areas in these Territories (G. Francis, pers. comm., 1992). Further, initiatives such as the Arctic Marine Conservation Strategy, the Inuit Regional Conservation Strategy, and the Task Force on Northern Conservation are aimed at improving arctic conservation, and giving local communities a larger role in making decisions regarding the use of land and wildlife (Anon, 1990). Similar issues and probleins with native land claims exist and are being addressed in most of the western provinces (C. Stewart, pers. comm., 1992). The first national parks were established on federal Crown land in the west, prior to the transfer of resources in 1930 which gave the western provinces control of Crown land. Thereafter, provincial protected areas were also established. In the east, where provinces had control of their natural resources, as set out in the British North America Act, provincial parks were created, beginning around the turn of the century, in addition to the early establishment of national parks (Eidsvik, 1989; Kun, 1981). Today, the major protected area designations are ecological reserve, national and provincial park, managed wildlife area, cultural heritage site, internationally designated area, and protected landscape. Federal policy and legislation Canada has a Federal Policy on Land Use, 1980 which is designed to guide federal policies and programmes as they affect land use, and to guide the management of federal lands. Statements within the Policy support the setting aside of protected areas and protection of significant values of lands, including fragile and critical habitats and natural heritage. Canada’s Federal Policy on Wetland Conservation, 1991 promotes wetland conservation on government lands using a number of strategies, including the development of a system of protected wetlands of national significance. Both of these federal policies work primarily through existing programmes and regulatory and decision-making mechanisms to advance wise land use and wetland conservation within the context of efficient delivery of federal services (Government of Canada, 1991; E. Zurbrigg, pers. comm., 1992). In1986, the Minister of Environment approved Canada’s first National Marine Parks Policy. The main goal of this policy is to protectand conserve representative examples of marine environments for the benefit, education and enjoyment of present and future generations. In 1990, the Canadian Wildlife Service (CWS) published "A Wildlife Policy for Canada on behalf of the Wildlife Ministers" Council of Canada. This national policy, which emphasises ecosystems and biodiversity, provides a framework for federal, provincial, territorial, and non-governmental policies and programmes that affect wildlife. Included in the policy is reference to protection of habitats and ecosystems through comprehensive systems of protected areas and other supportive approaches. There also exists a 1990 Canadian Parks Service policy related to protected areas Protected Areas of the World and the built heritage. A proposed revision of this document is currently in discussion form (C. Stewart, pers. comm., 1992). Relevant federal laws covering the whole of Canada include the National Parks Act, 1930 (amended to 1988); the Canada Wildlife Act, 1973; Fisheries Act; Endangered Species Act, 1989; and the Migratory Birds Convention Act, 1917 (amended to 1982)(see Annex). A Wild Animal and Plant Protection Act is currently (1992) before the federal parliament, and it has been recommended that a "federal" Ecological Reserves Act be passed. Currently, ecological reserves fall under provincial acts. The National Parks Act, as amended in 1974 and 1988, provides for: the establishment of national parks and national historic parks throughout Canada on Crown land; the designation of ecological integrity as a prime mandate; mandatory management plan reviews; and increased protection for protected areas (see Annex)(C. Stewart, pers. comm., 1992). When support for the establishment of a new national park is demonstrated, a federal-provincial agreement sets out the terms and conditions for the transfer of land to the federal government (Finkelstein, 1992; Kun, 1981). An Order-in-Council reserves a park area, but the National Parks Act must be amended to officially create a national park. Where there are unresolved land claims, a national park reserve may be established. In these areas, the National Parks Act and Regulations apply, but traditional hunting, fishing and trapping may continue, and final boundaries remain open to negotiation. Auyuittuq and Pacific Rim are two examples of national park reserves in the country. The Canada Wildlife Act, 1973 provides for the establishment of national wildlife areas through Order-in-Council (see Annex). The Migratory Birds Convention Act, 1917 provides for the designation of migratory bird sanctuaries. The federal government does not always own such areas; they can be designated by Order-in-Council on private lands with the consent of the landowner (see Annex). Marine protected areas may be established under the National Parks Act, and under some provincial ecological reserve and park acts. For example, marine provincial parks may be created under the Parks Act of British Columbia. Traditionally, the federal government has been responsible for the administration, management and control of most land in the Yukon and Northwest Territories, in a manner similar to that of the provinces. The Department of Indian Affairs and Northern Development Actis the basis of jurisdiction and land use control in both the Yukon and Northwest Territories through the Territorial Lands Act. Under this Act, land can be protected by simple withdrawal, although the Act only applies to Lands under the control, managementand administration of the Minister. Neither the Land Use Regulations nor the Territorial Lands Act provides any entrenchment for reserves or guidance to reserve administrators (Taschereau, 1985). Since the mid-1980s, major land claim settlements (and proposed settlements), and an evolution towards local government, have moved management of the territories away from the federal government. For example, Yukon now has a comprehensive territorial park proposal, based on territorial, not federal legislation (C. Stewart, pers. comm., 1992). Provincial policy and legislation Most provinces have policies in connection with wildlife conservation and protected areas, and at least six provinces have reworked their provincial park policies since the mid-1980s (C. Stewart, pers. comm., 1992). For example, in 1988, Ontario announced its new parks policy which has served to increase protection for wilderness and nature reserve parks, and has allowed for new parks to be added to the provincial system. This policy has recently been complimented by the release in 1991 of a wildlife strategy for Ontario, the goal of which is the provision of a diversity of healthy ecosystems and associated wildlife populations and habitats that will provide sustained social, cultural and economic benefits for all people (Ontario Wildlife Working Group, 1991). One of the tenets of this strategy is to ensure that Ontario has a system of protected areas which adequately represents ecosystems, landscapes and their associated wildlife populations. British Columbia, meanwhile, has entered into an agreement with Environment Canada to produce a provincial State of the Environment report. Further, the majority of provinces and territories have either completed or are in the process of drafting provincial conservation strategies (CSEB, 1987). Wetlands are coming under increasing scrutiny in a number of provinces. Most provinces have inventoried and classified their remaining wetlands, and some have formulated policies to protect the most valuable examples. For example, Ontario adopted a wetlands policy in June 1992 which directs municipalities and planning authorities to identify and protect provincially significant wetlands. A review of provincial legislation is given by Taschereau (1985). Further, key pieces of relevant protected areas legislation in each of the provinces are outlined in the Annex. Under these statutes, there are up to 75 legally defined designations of protected area, their titles and management varying from one province to the other, each with assorted meanings in terms of legal securement, function and management objectives (Turner, et al., 1991). Even when the title is the same between provinces, the definitions and management may be completely contrasting, and range from strict nature reserve, multiple-use management area to recreational area and cultural site with no natural elements. Some legally gazetted titles include provincial park, wilderness area, provincial nature reserve, game bird sanctuary, and ecological reserve (see Annex). In addition, every province and territory in Canada has historic or heritage sites which serve to protect not only cultural but also significant expanses of natural heritage. Each piece of legislation defines activities permitted in each protected area type, identifies the responsible managing authority, and sets out penalties associated with offences. Existing protected areas legislation is highly variable from province to province. It varies in length from Saskatchewan’s relatively simple two-page Act to Establish Ecological Reserves to the more detailed 15-page Wilderness and Ecological Reserves Act of Newfoundland. The legislation contrasts in dedication to public use, from the Quebec Act, which specifically excludes the public, to the Newfoundland Act, in which natural areas are set aside "for the benefit, education and enjoyment" of the public. Complementary to ecological reserves and other forms of provincial protected areas legislation are statutes for the protection of rare and endangered species through the protection of their habitats or natural ecosystems. For example, the Ontario Endangered Species Act recognises this by providing that: "no person shall wilfully destroy or interfere with the habitat of any species of fauna or flora declared in the regulations to be threatened with extinction" (Taschereau, 1985). Various legislative constraints have been identified by Taschereau (1985). Most provinces lack any umbrella legislation that would integrate the efforts of different agencies involved in natural area protection. However, exceptions are Alberta and Newfoundland, where the statutes under which ecological reserves are established also serve to designate other categories of protected natural area such as wilderness reserve. Only two provinces, Ontario and Prince Edward Island, are without specific ecological reserves legislation, although numerous nature reserve zones (ecological reserve equivalent) are designated within Ontario provincial parks. An ecological reserves act has, however, been recently proposed for Ontario. Only four provinces have passed wilderness legislation: Newfoundland, Ontario, Alberta and British Columbia. In some provinces, such as British Columbia, there is no provision for the acquisition of private land for the establishment of protected areas (Taschereau, 1985). Federally, one deficiency of the National Parks Act is a lack of provision for legislation on wilderness areas, and park boundaries are rarely set in federal or provincial legislation (C. Stewart, pers. comm., 1992). Although complex, the labyrinth of jurisdictions (federal, territorial, aboriginal) responsible for the North is rapidly evolving. For example, the recent Agreement-in-Principal for Nunavut, as well as the Western Arctic (Innuvialuit) Claims Settlement Act, 1984 provides for many new agencies with considerable authority over land and resource use (A. Hackman, pers. comm., 1992). International Activities | The Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Canada Heritage (World Heritage Convention) was accepted on 23 July 1976, and six natural sites had been inscribed by 1991. Canada acceded to the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) on 15 January 1981: one site was inscribed on ratification and a further 29 listed by 1991. Six sites have been accepted as biosphere reserves under the Unesco Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme. The Boundary Waters Treaty was signed by the USA and Canada in 1909, leading to the establishment of the International Joint Commission, formed in 1912, to report on pollution of boundary waters in the Great Lakes. Despite such early initiatives, the Great Lakes region has developed into one of the world’s great industrial and population centres, with levels of toxic chemical discharge reaching staggering proportions, threatening 43 major protected areas including seven national and provincial parks and one national marine park. It has been estimated that even given the situation of zero pollutant emissions into the Lakes, the time taken to flush out all polluted water would be in the order of 500 years for Lake Superior alone (IUCN East European Programme, 1989). Recent initiatives aimed at addressing this situation include the bringing together of at least 180 organisations in Canada and the USA to look at the environmental problems of the Great Lakes. This coalition, under an international umbrella body called Great Lakes United, had a collective membership exceeding half a million in 1989. One proposal which is currently being considered is to use the protected areas along the Great Lakes as reference areas or monitoring sites for assessing the "ecosystem health” of the Lakes, and using the biosphere reserve concept as a guide. Lake Superior could be the starting point for such work, and the establishment of a Great Lakes Heritage Data Network (linking databases from the eight states and two provinces bordering the Lakes) should enable the determination of conservation priorities from a Great Lakes-St Lawrence bioregional perspective, and allow for the identification of sites which could serve as monitors for ecosystem health (G. Francis, pers. comm., 1992). The Migratory Birds Convention between Canada and the USA was signed in 1916. The North American Waterfowl Management Plan, 1986 is a joint project involving Canada, the USA and Mexico, approximately 200 conservation groups and many corporations in the planning of programmes conserving waterfowl and wetland habitats. In Canada, the goal is to secure and improve the quality of 1.5 million ha of priority waterfowl habitat. The Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network is a cooperative programme of government and private organisations recognising and protecting essential staging areas for migratory shorebirds. Two sites have been designated in Eastern Canada, and have been twinned with sites in Suriname, South America (Government of Canada, 1991; E. Zurbrigg, pers. comm., 1992). Protected Areas of the World Glacier National Park in Montana and Waterton National Park in Alberta, Canada, were combined in 1932 to form the first international peace park in the world. Further opportunities for similar initiatives exist between the Yukon and Alaska, British Columbia and Alaska, and New Brunswick and Maine. Administration and Management Currently, there are over 120 different government and private programmes involved in acquiring and managing lands for conservation. Five bodies, including two agencies from Environment Canada, and the provinces of Quebec, Ontario and British Columbia, are responsible for about 80% of the total area protected. Combined, these agencies do, however, control 73% of the land mass (C. Stewart, pers. comm., 1992). Federaladministrationandmanagement Acentral administration for national parks was created in 1911, thereby enabling Canada to become the first country in the world to have a national parks service (Hummel, 1989). Today, responsibility for the National Parks Act is vested in the federal Department of the Environment (Environment Canada), and is undertaken by the Canadian Parks Service (CPS), formerly Parks Canada (and previously the National and Historic Parks Branch). The CPS is headed by an Assistant Deputy Minister. The Parks head office is responsible for policy direction and new park establishment, while five regional offices direct the planning and operations across the country. The oldest of the world’s modern protected area agencies, CPS is responsible for both the cultural and the natural heritage of the nation at federal level. CPS has 3,500 staff and is responsible for 18,054,900ha, with jurisdiction for 24.4% of all protected areas (R. Maslin, pers. comm., 1992). CPS intends to undergo major growth over the coming decade, as the systems plan is developed and implemented (Taschereau, 1985; Waugh and Perez Gil, 1992). Responsibility for the Canada Wildlife Act and the Migratory Birds Convention Act rests with the Canadian Wildlife Service (CWS) of Environment Canada, which has 323 staff nationally. Under these two acts, respectively, the CWS establishes national wildlife areas (of which there are 45 in Canada), and migratory bird sanctuaries (total of 101). Overall, CWS has responsibility for more than 11.4 million ha of protected areas, which is 15.5% of the total protected area. The CWS administers the implementation in Canada of the North American Waterfowl Management Plan (NAWMP) (see International Activities). The NAWMP offers long-term protection to lands through acquisition or lease. Significant contributions to the conservation of wetlands/waterfowl habitat are being made through habitat joint ventures, involving governments, non-government organisations (NGOs), the private sector and landowners. As well as national wildlife areas, the CWS jointly acquires and manages lands with the provinces, called cooperative wildlife areas. Each wildlife area is managed individually for the purpose of preserving or increasing its value to wildlife. The CWS also promotes the interests of wildlife habitat conservation by providing a secretariat for the Canadian Council on Ecological Areas, and is responsible for leading the implementation of the Federal Policy on Wetlands Conservation (E. Zurbrigg, pers. comm., 1992). In 1991, the combined annual expenditure of CPS and the CWS totalled US$ 282,992,000 (Waugh and Perez Gil, 1992). Other agencies concerned with protected areas include Indian and Northern Affairs Canada (DIAND), owning 439,093ha for strict nature conservation. It is the only government department to have undertaken comprehensive conservation planning in the northern region. The Northern Land Use Planning Program was, however, abolished in 1992 (A. Hackman, pers. comm., 1992). The Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO) has the primary mandate for marine mammals, and has jurisdiction over their marine habitat. Further, the DFO administers the Fisheries Act (Anon, 1990). Responsibility for the Canadian Heritage Rivers System (CHRS) lies with the Canadian Heritage Rivers Board, based in the offices of the CPS. A national database on protected areas was created through the cooperation of several agencies, including CPS, CWS, and the State of the Environment Reporting Organization (SOER), all of Environment Canada, and the Canadian Council on Ecological Areas (CCEA) (Rubec et al., 1990). The database, the National Conservation Areas Data Base (NCADB), has also received advice from WWF (Canada) and from many provincial and territorial agencies. Information has been amassed on 2,945 parks, ecological reserves, and other categories of conserved or heritage areas, and is the most comprehensive data set of protected areas in Canada (valid to 1990). SOER is currently in the process of working with other agencies to develop a commonly-accepted database on protected areas, and will include those sites managed by NGOs. NCADB will be the nucleus of this system (Tumer, pers. comm., 1991). Project WILD (Wilderness is the Last Dream) of the Western Canada Wilderness Committee, is an initiative to map all remaining wild areas, both nationally and internationally (I. Parfitt, pers. comm., 1992). The Federal Provincial/Territorial Parks Council includes representation from each of the thirteen senior governments in the country, and coordinates information exchange activities between the national, provincial and territorial park agencies. Further, a classification system has been devised for the over 2,000 parks listed by the Council. This classification system is separate from, but overlaps considerably with the National Conservation Areas Data Base (A.M. Turner, pers. comm., 1992). The Canadian Council on Ecological Areas (CCEA) is an incorporated, nonprofit, independent national forum established in 1982 to encourage the selection, protection and stewardship of a comprehensive system of ecological areas. These areas are developed on the basis of representation and integrity, and are managed to the highest standard of ecological protection (CCEA, 1992). The CCEA, whose collective goal is the achievement of a nationwide network of ecological areas, is currently exploring ways to assess the extent to which the different ecoregions in Canada are represented by existing protected areas, to provide guidelines for the planning, management and research into ecological reserves, is looking into issues associated with marine protected areas, and recently completed a comprehensive document, the National Registry of Ecological Areas in Canada (Francis, 1991; Gray and Rubec, 1989). The CCEA is the successor to the earlier International Biological Programme (IBP-CT) in Canada. It draws its membership from federal, provincial and territorial governments, NGOs, universities and private citizens. Provincial administration and management Administration and management of areas designated under provincial legislation comes under the jurisdiction of the provincial governments themselves. Currently, the various provincial/territorial protected area administrations comprise the following: Alberta Department of Tourism, Parks and Recreation, Ministry of Tourism, Parks and Recreation; Natural and Protected Areas Branch, Department of Forestry, Lands and Wildlife, Ministry of Forestry, Lands and Wildlife; Department of Culture and Multiculturalism; British Columbia BC Parks, Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks (formally Environment and Parks); Department of Forests, Ministry of Forests; Manitoba Parks and Natural Areas Branch, Manitoba Natural Resources, Ministry of Natural Resources; New Brunswick Department of Recreation and Environment, Ministry of Natural Resources and Energy; Newfoundland and Labrador Parks Division, Department of Tourism and Culture; Northwest Territories Department of Economic Development and Tourism, Ministry of Economic Development and Tourism; Department of Renewable Resources, Ministry of Renewable Resources; Nova Scotia Parks and Recreation Division, Department of Natural Resources (formerly Lands and Forests), Ministry of Natural Resources; Department of Education, Ministry of Education; Ontario Provincial Parks and Natural Heritage Policy Branch, Ministry of Natural Resources; Canada Quebec Direction générale des parcs et des territoires fauniques, Ministére Loisir, Chasse et Péche; Direction générale de la conservation et du patrimoine écologique, Ministére de l’Environnement; Prince Edward Island Parks Division, Department of Tourism, Parks and Recreation (formerly Transportation and Public Works), Ministry of Tourism, Parks and Recreation; Department of Conservation and Planning, Ministry of Environment; Saskatchewan Parks Branch, Department of Natural Resources (formerly Parks, Recreation and Culture), Ministry of Saskatchewan Natural Resources; and Yukon Territories Parks and Outdoor Recreation Branch, Department of Renewable Resources, Ministry of Renewable Resources (A. Hackman, pers. comm., 1992). Further, nature reserves are managed by the Island Nature Trust in cooperation with the provincial government in Prince Edward Island (C.D.A. Rubec, pers. comm., 1992; A.M. Turner, pers. comm., 1992). Below the provincial level, the management of protected areas becomes complex in a number of provinces. In Ontario, for example, there are 38 Conservation Authorities which own more than 155,000ha of land and water, and administer a total of 303 conservation areas (Taschereau, 1985). In addition, advisory/wildlife committees have been provided for in most provincial legislation throughout the country. These committees make recommendations regarding the establishment of protected areas in the respective provinces and regulations for their management and use. A breakdown of provincial ownership of protected areas includes: Quebec which is responsible for 16.0 million ha (21.7%); Ontario with 7.47 million ha (10.1%); British Columbia, 5.81 million ha (8.0%); Manitoba, 4.6 million ha (6.2%); Saskatchewan, 0.97 million ha (1.3%); Alberta, 0.80 million ha (1.1%); Newfoundland, 0.51 million ha (%); New Brunswick, 0.34 million ha; Nova Scotia, 0.15 million ha; Prince Edward Island, 0.027 million ha; Northwest Territories, 3.1 million ha; and the Yukon, 0.90 million ha (Turner, et al., 1991; C. Stewart, pers. comm., 1992). In some cases, these figures include protected areas managed jointly by various governments, for example, in both the Northwest Territories and the Yukon. Other estimates of provincial ownership include: Ontario with 6.3 million ha (6% of total provincial area) contained within 261 provincial parks; Prince Edward Island with 6,000ha; New Brunswick with .023 million ha; Quebec with 0.5 million ha; British Columbia with 4.6 to 5.8 million ha; Alberta with around 0.7 million ha; Saskatchewan with 1.4 to 2.8 million ha; Manitoba with .06 to 6.6 million ha; and Nova Scotia with .005 to .16 million ha. These estimates vary depending on the definition of a protected area (MNR, 1992b; C. Stewart, pers. comm., 1992). Protected Areas of the World Non-government involvement in protected areas is of great significance. Currently, there are about 200 conservation groups, many of which are significant protected area landowners (Finkelstein, 1992). In the early 1990s, Ducks Unlimited (DU) was responsible for 3.9% of the total protected area coverage in Canada, with an estimated 2.9 million ha. The Nature Conservancy of Canada was responsible for 424 nature preserves protecting over 32,400ha, Wildlife Habitat Canada for over 15,000ha, the Nature Trust of British Columbia for 11,583ha, the Saskatchewan Wildlife Federation for 9,300 ha, the Manitoba Wildlife Federation for 8,000ha and the Federation of Ontario Naturalists for 530ha (Hilts, 1989; Turner, et al., 1991; D. Thompson, pers. comm., 1992). Currently, data is being compiled for over 40 NGOs responsible for some 10,000 sites across the country (A.M. Turner, pers. comm, 1992). The Nature Conservancy of Canada (NCC) is a private, non-profit organisation established in 1961, which is dedicated to preserving biological diversity through the protection of wildlife habitat, natural communities and ecosystems. The NCC has an independent board of trustees drawn from conservation-minded business and professional people and scientists, many of whom have been associated with other conservation organisations. It is funded by individuals, corporations, and foundation donations, and is the only national organisation dedicated to buying and preserving the best of Canada’s natural land (NCC, 1991). A long-term goal of the NCC has been to secure some form of protection for current priority sites (some of which may also have been identified during the International Biological Programme (IBP)) representing samples of significant ecosystems. Toward this end, the Conservancy is providing funds and legal assistance to help evaluate and purchase important sites identified on private land. The NCC maintains a short list of priority sites for each province, compiled in consultation with ecological reserves and provincial parks staff, academics, and others. Sites on Crown lands are not included because governments alone can presumably decide on their fate. Sites on the list are either entirely privately owned (often by many individual owners), or have a substantial component of private ownership. The NCC can often move reasonably quickly to purchase properties when they become available on the market (G. Francis, pers. comm., 1992). Traditionally, the Conservancy’s principal operating technique has been direct or indirect outright land acquisition with subsequent transfer of sites to public ownership for maintenance and preservation as a part of Canada’s natural heritage (in the form of nature preserves, parks, conservation areas and ecological reserves). In recent times, however, the Conservancy has itself acquired, maintained and operated a number of specific sites, and increasingly, land is being donated to the NCC (NCC, 1991; C. Stewart, pers. comm., 1992). Conservation of Canada’s great swamps is currently one of NCC’s top priorities, and the organisation publishes the newsletter The Ark twice yearly. In 1988, the Nature Conservancy of Canada and The Nature Conservancy (TNC US) formed a partnership for the introduction of Conservation Data Centres in Canada, using the software design and protocols for the databases developed by TNC for each of the states in the US (Taschereau, 1985; D. Thompson and G. Francis, pers. comm., 1992). Conservation Data Centres have now been established in Quebec, Saskatchewan and British Columbia, while discussions are at the contract stage in Ontario. These databases offer many advantages, including data exchange capabilities, and the provision of information on the status and distribution of rare and endangered species, natural communities, and other special ecological features. Wildlife Habitat Canada plays a similar role to that of the Nature Conservancy of Canada, although it emphasises direct private-stewardship programmes rather than acquisition projects (Hummel, 1989). These programmes arrange some form of protective conservation agreement with landowners, while leaving the natural habitat itself in private ownership. The Canadian Nature Federation (CNF) is a national, non-profit organisation representing provincial naturalists’ federations, local societies and individuals. Evolving out of the Canadian Audubon Society in 1971, it speaks for approximately 20,000 members through its Ottawa office and executive representatives across the country. The Federation has long been concerned with the establishment of national and provincial parks and ecological reserves, and their long-term management. Its national magazine, Nature Canada, has successfully drawn national attention over the years to the need to preserve such critical areas as South Moresby Wilderness Archipelago, Grasslands National Park, the muskoxen of Banks Island, and the north slope of the Yukon, home to one of the world’s largest caribou herds. Federation priorities for parks and protected areas are set through its Environmental Advisory Committee. The Federation is currently working to accelerate action by the federal government to complete the national parks system by the year 2000, and the national marine parks system by 2010. CNF is also promoting government action to expand its national wildlife areas and migratory bird sanctuaries. Its particular focus is on the need to establish new national parks in the Northwest Territories, British Columbia and Quebec. It is also involved in an international campaign to protect the Tatshenshini-Alsek Rivers in north-western British Columbia. The Federation is working to promote an ecosystem management approach through revisions to the government’s national parks policy, and in specific parks such as Wood Buffalo, Pacific Rim, Fundy and Pukaskwa (K. McNamee, pers. comm., 1992). The Canadian Institute of Forestry has established a Natural Areas Committee. In 1972, the Committee set forth a policy for selection, protection and management of natural areas. It recommended that representative examples of significant forest types across the country be protected in a network of reserves. These reserves would serve for non-destructive observational research, and would help to conserve the genetic stock of commercially valuable forest trees and their related vegetation and animals. The Committee serves only in an advisory capacity, but has greatly assisted the movement to establish ecological reserves. The Committee maintains a registry of forested natural areas which are legally protected and advocates the development of a national system of reserves (Taschereau, 1985). The Canadian Parks and Wilderness Society (CPAWS), formerly the National and Provincial Parks Association of Canada (NPPAC), is a national, non-profit, 14,000 member/supporter organisation established in 1963. Its purpose is the protection of natural ecosystems in parks, wilderness and similar natural areas to preserve the full diversity of habitats and their species. Through its nine chapters across Canada, it promotes awareness of ecological principles, and the inherent values of wilderness through education, appreciation and experience. Whether working cooperatively or encouraging individual action, the Society envisages a healthy ecosphere where people experience and respect natural ecosystems. The Society publishes Borealis (called Park News prior to 1988), a full colour quarterly magazine that examines nature, environmental and ecological issues in the Canadian context. The Society regularly holds public meetings, and lectures, and it publishes books. Members and trustees regularly attend environmental hearings, meet with government and elected officials and parks officials across Canada. Currently, the Society is involved nationally in promoting the Endangered Spaces Campaign that seeks the protection of 12% of Canada to protect representative ecosystems in every region. In recent years, the Society has worked for and secured the creation of national parks on South Moresby Island, in Northern Yukon, the Grasslands, Bruce Peninsula and many other areas. A new focus is the development of programmes that seek cooperation in protecting core wilderness areas by protecting or simply better managing lands surrounding important sites such as the Waterton/Glacier International Peace Parks in southern Alberta (D. Dodge, pers. comm., 1992). In 1989, the World Wildlife Fund (WWF-Canada) launched the Endangered Spaces Campaign, ‘to conserve Canada’s biological diversity by protecting a representative sample of each of the country’s 350 natural regions by the year 2000’, adding up to at least 12% of Canada’s lands and waters (WWF, 1991). It has targeted priority areas for the establishment of additional protected areas. More than 250 groups are now cooperating in the Endangered Spaces Canada Campaign, and the Canadian Wilderness Charter has been signed by more than 500,000 individuals (WWF, 1992; A. Hackman, pers. comm., 1992). WWF-Canada is also involved in numerous regional conservation programmes made up of many sub-projects. Examples include the "Carolinian Canada program” , initiated in 1984, which focuses on the endangered flora and fauna of the most southerly areas of Ontario, and consists of over 30 projects supervised by a steering committee made up of representatives of federal and provincial governments, foresters, naturalists, academics and citizens groups. WWF- Canada has also created the Prairie Conservation Action Plan. One objective of this plan is to establish protected areas that represent each of the four distinctive prairie grassland ecosystems (WWF, 1989). Ducks Unlimited (Canada) is a private, nonprofit conservation organisation dedicated to perpetuating and increasing North America’s waterfowl by preserving, restoring and creating breeding habitats. Founded in 1938, it now has offices in eastern, western and central Canada, and board members representing all regions. It employs about 400 regular personnel and about 150 additional individuals during the summer, including university students working on research projects. Ducks Unlimited (Canada) is the single largest conservation organisation in the country in terms of on-the-ground habitat programmes, and over 60% of its members are non-hunters dedicated to these programmes (C.D.A. Rubec, pers. comm., 1992). Contributions come mainly from the United States (C$ 24 million in 1981), but also partly from Canada (about C$ 1 million was raised in 1981). During the past few years, Ducks Unlimited has expanded its staff of biologists, and broadened its mandate to include a larger concern for habitat preservation rather than merely waterfowl production. One of the most notable developments has been the growth in public awareness of environmental issues, including those of the North. Evidence of this can be seen in the interest and involvement of people in the Polar Bear Pass issue, and in the formation of public interest groups such as the Canadian Arctic Resources Committee (CARC). Organisations such as CARC not only keep the public informed about northern developments, but also keep the responsible government officials alert. Training in protected areas is generally available at universities in field-oriented natural sciences relevant to park management, if not in park management as a separate discipline. Management constraints are centred around pressures to keep land open for alternate resource development, actions which have damaged existing protected areas and restricted and slowed further reserve and park establishment. For example, of 1,349 provincial/ territorial parks only a small percentage are reserved, with no logging, mining or hydro development (WWF, 1992). Management of renewable resources has Protected Areas of the World been, and continues to be, the most controversial issue in many areas, most notably in the west and north. To assist management, there is a need for active long-range management and monitoring programmes, greater cooperation with agencies involved in land management beyond protected area boundaries, and the establishment of buffer zones between protected areas and adjacent unprotected lands (Bonnicksen, 1988). Research into natural ecosystems to assist protected areas management is also a priority. The small size of so many existing reserves is also an area of concern (Taschereau, 1985). It has been estimated that over 80% of the most highly protected areas (IUCN categories I and II) are less than 1,000ha in size, and that of the total of 2,827 protected areas in TUCN categories I-V, about half are less than 100ha in size (Turner, et al., 1991). About 61% (1,737) of protected areas are strictly protected (IUCN categories I and II) (Government of Canada, 1991). Another constraint is lack of funds and a cutting back, on the part of the Government, of support for regular operations which could have implications for implementation of Canada’s Green Plan. Systems Reviews Canada is bounded to the south by the USA, to the west by the Pacific Ocean and Alaska (USA), to the east by the Labrador Sea and Atlantic Ocean, to the northeast by Baffin Bay, to the northwest by the Beaufort Sea, and to the north by the Arctic Ocean. The climate ranges from polar conditions in the north to cool temperate in ‘he south, but with considerable variation between east and west coasts and the interior. Mediterranean conditions are experienced on the east coast of Vancouver Island. The 39 natural regions (terrestrial) defined by the Canadian Parks Service are broadly divided into: Westem mountains; interior plains; Canadian shield; Hudson Bay lowlands; St Lawrence lowlands; Appalachians; Arctic lowlands; and High Arctic islands. Vegetation ranges from: Arctic tundra, north of the tree line; Alpine tundra on western mountains above the tree line (900-2500m); coniferous forest, covering about three-quarters of Canada, dominated by white spruce and black spruce extending from Newfoundland to Alaska; a complex assemblage of sub-Alpine, montane and coastal coniferous forest in British Columbia; grassland prairie of various types in a narrow band across central and western Canada; between the prairie and coniferous forest in the centre, a transition zone characterised by trembling aspen; between the coniferous forest and the tundra, transitional Taiga, characterised by open spruce woodlands with lichen ground cover; and in eastern Canada, around the Great Lakes region, mainly deciduous forest predominated by maple, oaks and conifers (Davis et al., 1986; Skoggan, 1978/ 1979). Wetland ecosystems occupy about 14% of the country, but are disappearing rapidly in a number of locations. For example, it is estimated that more than 75% of the original wetlands of southern Ontario have already been lost (Government of Ontario, 1992). There are about 3,269 native species of vascular plants and about 884 introduced species. Pleistocene refugia exist on northern Ellesmere Island, central and northern Yukon, the mountains of Labrador and the Gaspé Peninsula of Quebec, the eastern coastal plain, and the Queen Charlotte Islands of British Columbia. The most floristically diverse regions are southern British Columbia and southwestern Ontario. A rare plants project, conducted by Argus et al. (1990) from the National Museum of Nature in Ottawa, has provided lists and information on some 1,010 vascular plant taxa that are considered to be nationally rare in Canada. The project, which is nearing completion, provides provincial lists of rare plants and is available to the provincial Conservation Data Centres (Argus and Prior, 1990; G. Francis, pers. comm., 1992). The first protected areas were based on recreational areas, including Point Pleasant Park, Halifax in 1866, Mount Royal Park, Montreal in 1872, and subsequently High Park, Toronto in 1873, Banff National Park, Alberta in 1885, and Stanley Park, Vancouver in 1888. Early national parks in both eastern and western Canada were established for a variety of reasons, including: their establishment as wilderness areas remote from population centres; to preserve outstanding scenic areas for outdoor recreation and tourism; for preserving outstanding geology, plant and animal populations; to protect wildlife habitat for hunting purposes; to preserve bison herds (western Canada); and, in the case of Banff (Rocky Mountain National Park), to keep a hot spring in public hands (Government of Canada, 1991). In addition, the location of national parks was influenced by economic conditions and political circumstances of the time. In the early period, grazing, lumbering and mining were allowed within national parks. Within a decade of its establishment, Banff was enlarged and three other national units added (Waugh and Perez Gil, 1992). Between 1885 and 1929, 15 national parks were established (Hummel, 1989). Ontario’s first national park (Point Pelee, 1906) was established to preserve duck habitat for hunters, and it was not until 1936 that the Maritimes’ first national park was created. The first two national parks (La Maurice and Forillon) in Quebec were established in 1970 from provincial parks which had either been sold or leased to the federal government (C. Stewart, pers. comm., 1992). In 1923, the first opposition to industrial development in parks took place, with the formation of the Canadian National Parks Association to oppose a dam in Banff National Park. The government approved the dam, and reduced the size of the park to exclude the reservoir from the park boundaries. In 1930, the government passed a National Parks Act prohibiting certain activities within national parks. Federal policy here diverged from that of provincial parks which often tried to meet the needs of both resource extraction and conservation (Environment Canada, 1991; Waugh and Perez Gil, 1992). By the 1960s, an organised set of principles was applied to park management, and a sense of a parks system emerged. In 1967, the policy was to eliminate as quickly as possible all exploitative human activities from new national parks, a policy sometimes proven to be unworkable or undesirable. By 1970, a total of 19 national parks had been established, and with the publication of the National Parks Systems Plan (1971), a long-term goal for national parks began to develop (Finkelstein, 1992). In the 1970s, public participation in planning was introduced, the traditional rights of aboriginal groups were recognised, and land was purchased directly for new parks. Growth of the national park system continued under the system plan of the 1980s, and innovative arrangements continue, especially in the establishment of parks under native land-claim agreements, and in the planning for a system of marine protected areas. Northern Yukon National Park (1984) represented the first national park in Canada to be negotiated through a native land claim settlement (Finkelstein, 1992). In the Canadian north, reserves were established as early as 1894 to protect game for native hunters, and by 1938, 1.35 million sq. km or over one-third of the Northwest Territories had been reserved. From 1948, this was cut back to the present coverage (Kovacs, 1985). Last Mountain Lake (migratory bird sanctuary and national wildlife area), Saskatchewan, was created in 1887 and is North America’s oldest wildlife refuge, while the first established provincial park was Algonquin (1893) in Ontario. The WWF-Canada publication Endangered spaces: The future for Canada’ s wilderness provides an excellent overview of the development of provincial/territorial protected area systems, and on areas of current priority concern, worthy of protected areas status (Hummel, 1989). Overall, the growth of the protected areas system is such that between 1900 and 1930 an average of 1.7 protected areas were created per year, between 1930 and 1960, 13 sites were established per year, and since 1961, the yearly average has been 77 sites. Quebec, Yukon and Alberta all have 8% or more protected, while, in contrast, Newfoundland/Labrador, and Saskatchewan each have about 3% of their total respective areas protected (Turner, et al., 1991). As of 1991, there were a total of 2,945 conservation sites (IUCN categories I-V) owned or managed by various government levels, amounting to some 70.8 million ha, representing 7.1% of the country’s area, or 12.5% of the world’s protected areas. Added to this is another 3.2 million ha held by non-governmental organisations and private groups, bringing the total coverage to about 74 million ha or 7.4% of total area (Turner, et al., 1991). About 4.6% of this is, however, "highly" protected according to WWF’s standard (WWF, 1992). In 1991, major federal contributions included national parks and migratory bird sanctuaries accounting for some 42% (by area) of government managed sites. Provincial wildlife management areas occupied almost 30% of all protected areas, and provincial parks accounted for another 22%. There were 34 national parks covering 18,056,900ha, 101 migratory Canada bird sanctuaries covering 11,363,288ha, 45 national wildlife areas covering 106,159ha, 185 wildlife management areas covering 20,754,828ha, 56 wildlife protection areas covering 3,429,828ha, and 62 national capital commission areas totalling 52,165ha. In addition, there were 1,588 provincial parks with a total of 12,373,860ha, 204 ecological reserves totalling 286,500ha, 38 wilderness areas totalling 640,493ha and 10 nature trust areas totalling 698ha. Heritage areas of parks, and historic areas of parks, totalled 18 at 775ha and 55 at 15,479ha, respectively. In addition, there are more than 7,800 cultural heritage sites in the country (Carter, 1990). Running between 1964 and 1974, the International Biological Program (IBP) was established to help countries promote long-term ecological research, and to establish a set of relatively undisturbed protected areas in which this kind of research could continue (Francis, 1991). Sponsored by the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU), with its headquarters in Paris, the IBP Canadian subcommittee (IBP-CT) identified and documented about 1,300 ecological sites in the country. The success of this subcommittee was due to the combined energy and enthusiasm of the regional panels, and, in some provinces, the provincial government’s sympathetic reception of, and participation in the programme. The entire nationwide programme, however, was made possible by the federal government which provided funds through the National Research Council (Taschereau, 1985). Following the IBP-CT, and subsequent activities of the Canadian Council on Ecological Areas (CCEA), ecological reserves were, and continue to be, established across the country, with the objective of representing the major ecosystems. To date, about 200 ecological reserves and a total of 600 ecological or equivalent reserves (e.g. nature reserve zones in Ontario) have been created in Canada (Taschereau, 1985; C.D.A. Rubec, pers. comm., 1992). The Canadian Heritage Rivers System (CHRS) is a cooperative programme established in 1984 by the federal government and the provinces. The objectives of the CHRS are to give national recognition to important rivers, and to ensure long-term management to conserve their natural, historical and recreational values. Although not afforded any special legal protection, many heritage rivers are protected by provincial park status (Government of Canada, 1991). The first river, French, was designated in February 1986, and today there are 25 heritage rivers in the system comprising about 536,900ha (R. Maslin, pers. comm., 1992). There are no fewer than eight private-stewardship programmes in Canada, the objective being to arrange some form of protective conservation agreement with landowners while leaving natural habitat in private ownership (Hilts, 1989). Examples include Manitoba’s Habitat Enhancement Land-Use Program and Ontario’s Nature Heritage Stewardship Program. Conservation land trusts are relatively new, but there is rapidly Protected Areas of the World growing interest in them among conservation groups (G. Francis, pers. comm., 1992). The natural regions concept was first adopted in 1971 as a basis for the systematic planning of national parks, and was known as the National Parks System Plan. The principle of this plan, now superseded by the Environment Canada 1990 systems plan, was to protect outstanding representative samples of each of Canada’s natural landscapes (Finkelstein, 1992). Of 48 "natural regions", the Canadian Parks Service defined 39 terrestrial and 29 marine regions, and, following the Endangered Spaces campaign of 1989, the goal is to represent at least one national park in each region by the year 2000 (Government of Canada, 1991; Kun, 1981). Currently, national parks are in 22 of 39 natural regions, although there is either a national park or other protected area type in 33 of the 39 natural regions (Government of Canada, 1991). Only two marine regions currently have federal parks within them, although others are soon to be established. Gaps in the national parks system are predominantly found in the Northwest Territories, Quebec, British Columbia, Manitoba and Labrador (Finkelstein, pers. comm., 1992). In order to complete the national park network, it is anticipated that by the end of 1993 potential park sites will have been selected in all of the unrepresented natural regions. The most recent ecological classification, the Ecological Land Classification System, is based on identifying ecoregions and other levels of generalisation in a natural hierarchy: areas of the earth’s surface characterised by distinctive ecological responses to climate, physiography and hydrology as expressed by the development of vegetation, soils and fauna. Nationally, about 177 ecoregions have been identified, and are divided into 15 less detailed "ecozones", 45 "ecoprovinces” and 5,400 more detailed "ecodistricts" (Rubec et al., 1992; Wiken, 1986). Currently, 41 of the 177 ecoregions have more than 12% of their area protected, while 45 ecoregions have no protected areas. Up to 28% of Canada’s ecoregions have at least 8% of their area protected, and 44% have less than 1% of their area protected (Turner, et al., 1991). Using GIS technology, a model of ecological integrity for each ecoregion has been developed, with ecoregions being identified with the highest overall biodiversity risk. Rubec et al. (1992) have identified 14 ecoregions which are at greatest ecosystem risk to wildlife resource biodiversity. Another 120 ecoregions have moderate risk ratings, while 43 were identified as having low overall risk. These ecoregions have been adopted for national evaluation and generalised systems planning purposes including by the Canadian Council on Ecological Areas (CCEA) for a National Systems Plan, and most recently by the State of Environment Reporting Service of Environment Canada. Candidate sites with the highest degree of risk are to receive the greatest attention. Environment Canada has a National parks system plan, a systems review process in place, a "Draft Action Plan for Completing the National Parks System", and 10 anticipates completing the "National Marine Parks System Plan" by 1993. Further, the Canadian Environmental Advisory Council’s (CEAC) A protected areas vision for Canada (1991) calls on Canadians to identify and protect the complete range of representative and unique natural areas, wilderness landscapes, wildlife habitat, and the like, as a prerequisite to sustainable development (CEAC, 1991; Provincial Parks and Natural Heritage Policy Branch, 1992). As part of CEAC’s vision, Canada has initiated a 10-year programme to complete a network of national parks, and a 20-year programme for marine protected areas. WWF- Canada supports planning for an expanded protected area system through its Endangered Spaces Program, which facilitates public involvement in the implementation of the Green Plan at all levels. The Canadian Parks Services’ National parks system plan (1990), and the government’s environmental policy are described under the Green Plan. The Green Plan (1990) calls for the government to: set aside 12% of the country in protected areas; establish at least five new national parks by 1996; negotiate agreements for the remaining 13 parks required to complete the terrestrial park system by 2000; establish three new marine national parks by 1996 and an additional three by 2000; officially designate 18 rivers or sections of rivers to the Canadian Heritage Rivers System; develop an enhanced resource management programme for national parks involving applied studies for ecological integrity and regional integration; work with the provincial governments to establish a network of forest ecological reserves to preserve in their natural state the genetic stock of forest ecosystems; establish a national wildlife habitat network, and act to protect and conserve additional lands that are of prime importance to the goal of preserving valuable wildlife habitat; release in 1991 a discussion paper on a Canadian Oceans Act, which will provide a legal basis for the designation of marine protected areas; and work with the provinces to develop a programme to transfer to farmers those agricultural practices compatible with wildlife habitat needs (Environment Canada, 1991). When completed, the national park system will cover about 3% of the country’s area. As of 1989, the national park system, covering 182,000 sq. km, was considered to be about half complete (Hummel, 1989). What is still lacking and needed, however, is a comprehensive analysis of the ecological health of Canada’s protected areas (Government of Canada, 1991). Currently, the Canadian Wildlife Service (CWS) is proposing about 30 new migratory bird sanctuaries and national wildlife areas in the Northwest Territories and Yukon over the next six years, representing 3.7 million ha or an additional 0.4% of land area that would come under protected area status. Additional national wildlife areas will be negotiated in Southern Canada; for example, the Department of National Defence and Environment Canada have signed an agreement that will lead to formal designation of the Canadian Forces Base Suffield as a National Wildlife Area by Order-in-Council, thus protecting an area of undisturbed natural prairie (E. Zurbrigg, pers. comm., 1992). These will complement national parks proposals for the 1990s. Turner et al. (1991) have undertaken an initial analysis of a systems approach to conservation. In the discussion section, the analysis indicated that Canada still has some way to go in achieving an ecologically representative network of protected areas. Although 7.1% of land area may have some degree of government protected status, the ecological representation is widely disparate, as nearly 60% of the total areas conserved (IUCN categories I-V) are located in the Northwest Territories and Quebec. Recognised gaps in protected areas coverage include: Western mountains — Strait of Georgia lowlands; Interior dry plateau; Northern interior plateau and mountains; Interior plains — Manitoba lowlands; Canadian Shield — Tundra hills; Central tundra region; Northwestern boreal uplands; Laurentian boreal highlands; East coast boreal region; Boreal lake plateau; Whale river region; Northern Labrador mountains; Ungava tundra plateau; Southampton plain; Hudson Bay lowlands; Hudson-James lowlands; Arctic lowlands — Western Arctic lowlands; Eastern Arctic lowlands; High Arctic islands — Western High Arctic region (Environment Canada, 1991). It has been recognised that conservation efforts need to be focused on a broader range of participants to achieve ecological goals. For example, completion of the national parks system will only increase the national protected areas coverage by about 1.3%. Other agencies, therefore, including provincial administrations, must play a significant role to reach the national target of 12%. At the provincial/territorial level, each and every jurisdiction today has one or more protected areas programme and agency, as well as a mandate to establish new sites. Further, eleven of the thirteen jurisdictions (one federal, 10 provincial, two territorial) are officially committed to completing their representative protected area systems by the year 2000, the Endangered Spaces goal (A. Hackman, pers. comm., 1992). For example, the Ministry of Natural Resources, Ontario, released a draft "Natural heritage areas strategy for Ontario: Responding to the endangered spaces challenge", as part of the government’s commitment to completing the system of provincial parks and natural heritage areas by the year 2000 (MINR, 1992b). When completed, another 12% of Ontario’s lands and waters will be designated as parks and protected areas. Complementing this, system plans are in the process of being formulated for each jurisdiction. As of 1989, eight of twelve provinces and territories had park systems plans, but a number of these had yet to be completed (Hummel, 1989). For example, a systems plan for Nova Scotia is due to be released in March 1993, and there has been public discussion of systems plans in Saskatchewan and British Columbia, respectively, that identify candidate protected areas (CCEA, 1990). Further, the British Columbian government is committed to 11 Canada developing a Protected Areas Strategy (C. Stewart, pers. comm., 1992). This Strategy is a single, integrated process for coordinating all of the province’s protected area programmes and objectives. A component of this Strategy is "Parks and Wilderness for the 90s", which sets out to inventory study areas and establishes a timetable for evaluating sites for possible designation as provincial parks or wilderness areas. In Prince Edward Island, the Technical Advisory Committee (TAC), comprising representatives from each of the natural resource and land related branches of government and the Island Nature Trust (an NGO), was established in 1990 under the auspices of the Natural Resources Protection Act. This committee has prepared a Significant Environmental Areas Plan (SEAP), which was adopted by the government in 1991, and represents a major and systematic expansion of the province’s protected areas network, framed by a provincial classification of habitat zones (A. Hackman, pers. comm., 1992). To date, 25 sites have been completely designated, most of which are owned either by government or the Island Nature Trust. The work of this committee is on-going in the designation of more sites, in approving management plans, and in advising on Canadian Heritage Rivers in the province (G.D. Murray, pers. comm., 1992). In New Brunswick, recommendations from the Premier’s Round Table on Environment and Economy included the establishment of a system of protected areas by 1995, which will represent the important natural features of all the province’s biogeographic regions (WWF, 1992). Currently, all but two jurisdictions, New Brunswick and the Northwest Territories, have developed natural region classifications for their ecological area programmes (CCEA, 1992). When all 13 jurisdictional classifications are complete, WWF-Canada has estimated that there will be about 340 natural regions (including both terrestrial and marine) which will collectively define Canada’s landscapes (Peterson and Peterson, 1991). These classifications, although slightly different (provincially/territorially-based) from the national ecoregion classification and still evolving, are already providing the basis for commitments to complete representative protected area systems in Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Yukon, and by the federal government (CCEA, 1992). Currently, 87 of Canada’s 340 natural regions are now represented by protected areas (25%), 104 natural regions are partially represented (30%), and 149 natural regions (45%) have as yet not been represented (WWF, 1992). WWF (1992) contains a summary for each of the 13 major jurisdictions in the country, indicating new protected areas established over the past year, progress on systems planning, actions planned for the forthcoming year, and an assessment, based on grades, of progress made in protecting natural regions within the respective jurisdictions. Threats to protected areas and their surroundings are of critical concern, with factors ranging from degradation Protected Areas of the World of resources, continued resource exploitation, poaching, proposed hydroelectric developments, adverse visitor impacts, urban and agricultural encroachment, alteration of water flows or groundwater levels, lack of secure land rights, introduction of exotic plant species, and air and water pollution. Less than half of Canada’s protected areas are free from industrial activity or motorised interference. Several parks, particularly in southern Ontario and the Maritimes, have suffered significant species losses. Wood Buffalo is threatened by changing water levels caused by dams, disease among the bison herd, pollution from upstream pulp mills, and, until recently, commercial timber harvesting in the park (B. Amos, pers. comm., 1992; A. Hackman, pers. comm., 1992; C.D.A. Rubec, pers. comm., 1992). Little remains of the Carolinian forest of southern Ontario, prairie grasslands, or the virgin Acadian forests of the Maritimes. Further, west coast rain forest is being quickly lost to clearcut logging, estimates varying from 15-50 years before no large ecologically viable or commercially valuable areas of forest are left (R. Maslin, pers. comm., 1992). Kejimkujik is on the IUCN List of Threatened Protected Areas because of the impacts of acid rain (Waugh and Perez Gil, 1992). Other Relevant Information Tourism in national parks is monitored within reporting units. In June 1992, the national parks received 3.96 million person-entries, national historic sites 1.30 million person-entries, and historic canals 0.05 million (Environment Canada, 1992). Benefits produced in 1984/85 included an estimate of attributable visitor expenditures of Cnd$ 308 million. A realistic figure for 1990 is about Cnd$ 600 million (Mosquin BioInformation Ltd. and P.G. Whiting and Associates, 1992). Attendance figures and income accrued from provincial protected areas is also significant. In Ontario, for example, more than eight million people visited the provincial parks in 1991, contributing an estimated Cnd$ 655 million to the provincial economy through the purchase of goods and services (MNR, 1992a). A breakdown of annual park budgets (in Cnd$ 000s) in 1992 for the 13 jurisdictions are as follows: Federal — 413,586; Northwest Territories - 2,749; Yukon — 2,824; British Columbia — 35,456; Alberta — 30,185; Saskatchewan — 12,419; Manitoba — 13,501; Ontario — 55,989; Quebec — 16,500; Nova Scotia — 5,138; New Brunswick — 7,232; Prince Edward Island — 3,573; Newfoundland — 4,798, giving a national total of 603,950 (WWE, 1992). Addresses (Federal) Canadian Parks Service (Director General), Environment Canada, Jules-Leger Building, OTTAWA, Ontario KIA 0H3 (Tel: 819 997 2800; FAX: 819 997 2443; Tlx:053 3608 parcs) Canadian Council on Ecological Areas (Secretariat), c/o Canadian Wildlife Service, Place Vincent Massey Bldg., 351 St Joseph Boulevard, HULL, Quebec K1A 0H3 (Tel: 819 953 1444) 12 Canadian Wildlife Service (Director General), Environment Canada, Place Vincent Massey Bldg., 351 St. Joseph Boulevard, HULL, Quebec K1A 0H3 (Tel: 819 953 1444/1421; FAX: 819 953 6283) State of the Environment Reporting, Environment Canada, OTTAWA, Ontario K1A 0H3 Non Government Organisations (national) Canadian Nature Federation, 453 Sussex Drive, OTTAWA, Ontario KIN 6ZA (Tel: 613 238 6154; FAX: 613 230 2054) Canadian Parks and Wilderness Society, Suite 1335, 160 Bloor Street East, TORONTO, Ontario M4W 1B9 (Tel: 416 972 0868) Canadian Wildlife Federation, 1673 Carling Avenue, OTTAWA, Ontario K2A 3Z1 (Tel: 613 725 2191) Ducks Unlimited Canada, 1190 Waverley Street, WINNIPEG, Manitoba R3T 2E2 Nature Conservancy of Canada, 110 Eglinton Ave. West, TORONTO, Ontario M4R 1A3 (Tel: 416 469 1701; FAX: 416 469 1493) Western Canada Wilderness Committee (Project WILD), 20 Water Street, Vancouver, BC, V6B 1A4 (Tel: 604 683 8220; FAX: 604 683 8229) Wildlife Habitat Canada, Suite 301, 1704 Carling Avenue, OTTAWA, Ontario K2A 1C7 (Tel: 613 722 2090) World Wildlife Fund (Canada), 90 Eglinton Avenue E., Suite 504, TORONTO, Ontario M4P 2Z7 (Tel: 416 489 8800; FAX: 416 489 3611) Provincial Department of Tourism, Parks and Recreation (Director), Ministry of Tourism, Parks and Recreation, Standard Life Centre, 10405 Jasper Avenue, EDMONTON, Alberta T5J 3N4 (Tel: 403 427 6781; FAX: 403 427 5980) Natural and Protected Areas Branch (Manager), Department of Forestry, Lands and Wildlife, c/o Ministry of Forestry, Lands and Wildlife, 408 Legislative Building, EDMONTON, Alberta T5K 2B6 (Tel: 403 427 3674) Alberta Wilderness Association, Box 6398, Station D, CALGARY, Alberta T2P 2E1 (Tel: 403 283 2025) BC Parks (Director), Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 2nd Floor, 800 Johnson Street, VICTORIA, BC V8V 1X4 (Tel: 604 387 5002; FAX: 604 387 5757) Recreation Branch (Director), Department of Forests, c/o Ministry of Forests, Rm 128, Parliament Buildings, VICTORIA, BC, V8V 1X4 (604 387 6240) Friends of Ecological Reserves, Box 1721, Station E, VICTORIA, BC V8W 2Y1 (Tel: 604 731 6716) Parks and Natural Areas Branch (Director), Manitoba Natural Resources, 258 Portage Street, 4th Floor, WINNIPEG, Manitoba R3C 1K2 (Tel: 204 945 4362) Manitoba Naturalists Society, 302128 James Avenue, WINNIPEG, Manitoba R3B ON8 Department of Recreation and Environment (Director), Ministry of Natural Resources and Energy, PO Box 6000, FREDERICTON, New Brunswick E3B 5H1 (Tel: 506 453 2510) Conservation Council of New Brunswick, 180 St John Street, FREDERICTON, New Brunswick E3B 4A9 (Tel: 506 458 8747) Parks Division (Director), Department of Tourism and Culture, PO Box 8700, ST JOHN’S, Newfoundland AIB 4J6 (Tel: 709 729 0657) Protected Areas Association (of Newfoundland and Labrador), PO Box 1027, Stn C, ST. JOHN’S, Newfoundland A1C 5M5 Department of Economic Development and Tourism (Deputy Minister), Government of the Northwest Territories, PO Box 1320, YELLOWKNIFE, Northwest Territories XIA 2L9 (Tel: 403 873 7962) Department of Renewable Resources (Deputy Minister), PO Box 1320, Yellowknife, Northwest Territories X1A 2L9 (Tel: 403 873 7128) Parks and Recreation Division (Director), Department of Natural Resources, R.R. No. 1 Belmont, Colchester County, Nova Scotia BOM 1CO (Tel: 902 662 3030; FAX: 902 662 2160) Department of Education (Director), Ministry of Education, PO Box 578, HALIFAX, Nova Scotia B3J 2S9 (Tel: 902 424 7343) Nova Scotia Museum (Curator of Special Places), c/o Department of Education, PO Box 578, HALIFAX, Nova Scotia B3J 2S9 Federation of Nova Scotia Naturalists, c/o 1747 Summer Street, HALIFAX, Nova Scotia B3H 3A6 (Tel: 902 466 7168) Provincial Parks and Natural Heritage Policy Branch (Director), Ministry of Natural Resources, Whitney Block, Queens Park, 99 Wellesley Street West, TORONTO, Ontario M7A 1W3 (Tel: 416 314 2301) Federation of Ontario Naturalists, 385 Lesmill Rd., Don Mills, Ontario M3B 2W8 (Tel: 416 444 8411) Parks Division (Director), Department of Tourism, Parks and Recreation, PO Box 2000, CHARLOTTETOWN, Prince Edward Island C1A TN8 (Tel: 902 368 5500/5511; FAX: 902 368 5737: Tlx: 01444154) Department of Conservation and Planning (Director), Ministry of Environment, PO Box 2000, CHARLOTTETOWN, Prince Edward Island C1A TN8 (Tel: 902 368 5340) Island Nature Trust, PO Box 265, CHARLOTTETOWN, Prince Edward Island (Tel: 902 892 7513) Direction générale des parcs et des térritoires fauniques (Directeur de l’aménagement), Ministére Loisir, Chasse et Péche, 150 Boulevard StCyrille est, QUEBEC, Québec GIR 4Y1 (Tel: 418 643 6527) Direction générale de la conservation et du patrimoine écologique (Directeur), Ministére de 1’Environnement, 3900 rue de Marly, 6 étage, SAINTFOY, Québec G1X 4E4 (Tel: 418 643 8259) 13 Canada Fondation pour la sauvegarde des espéces menacées (FOSEM), 8191 Avenue du Zoo, CHARLESBOURG, Quebec G1G 4G4 (Tel: 418 622 0313) Union québécoise pour la conservation de la nature, 160 76th Street East, CHARLESBOURG, Quebec G1W 2G5 (Tel: 418 628 9600) Parks Branch (Director), Department of Natural Resources, 3211 Albert Street, REGINA, Saskatchewan S4S 5W6 (Tel: 306 787 2854) Saskatchewan Natural History Society, PO Box 4348, REGINA, Saskatchewan S4P 3W6 Parks and Outdoor Recreation Branch (Director), Department of Renewable Resources, Yukon Government Services, PO Box 2703, WHITEHORSE, Yukon Territory YIA 2C6 (Tel: 403 667 5811/5802; FAX: 403 667 2958/ 3518; Tlx: 0368466) Yukon Conservation Society, Box 4163, WHITEHORSE, Yukon Y1A 3T3 (Tel: 403 668 5678) References Anon (1990). Igalirtuug: A conservation proposal for Bowhead whales at Isabella Bay, Baffin Island, NWT. Prepared by the Community of Clyde River, NWT. 19 pp. Argus, G.W. and Prior, K.M. (1990). Rare vascular plants in Canada: Our natural heritage. (Unseen) Beardmore, R.M. (1985). Atlantic Canada’s Natural Heritage Areas. Canadian Government Publishing Centre, Supply and Services, Ottawa. 94 pp. Bonnicksen, T. (1988). Standards of naturalness: the national parks management challenge. Landscape Architecture 78(2):134. Canadian Society of Environmental Biologists (1987). Conservation Strategies in Canada. Canadian Society of Environmental Biologists, Toronto, Ontario. 106 pp. (Unseen) Carter, M. (1990). The state of protection of cultural resources in the environment. Prepared for Environment Canada, Canadian Parks Service. Unpublished. (Unseen) CCEA (1990). Report of the biennium: 1988-1990. Canadian Council on Ecological Areas, Ottawa, Ontario. 11 pp. CCEA (1992). Canadian Council on Ecological Areas framework for developing a nation-wide system of ecological areas: Part 1 —a strategy. CCEA, Ottawa, Ontario. Pp. 1-26. CEAC (1991). A protected areas vision for Canada. Canadian Environmental Advisory Council, Ottawa, Ontario. 88 pp. CSEB (1987). Conservation strategies in Canada. CSEB Newsletter/Bulletin 44:2. Canadian Society of Environmental Biologists, Toronto. 106 pp. Davis, S.D., Droop, SJ.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., Leon, CJ., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J., Synge, H., and Zantovska, J. [UCN (1986). Plants in Danger: What do Protected Areas of the World we know? IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Pp. 58-61. Department of Natural Resources (1985). A system plan for Manitoba’ s provincial parks — Technical report. Planning section, Parks Branch, Department of Natural Resources, Winnipeg, Manitoba. 63 pp. Eidsvik, H.E. (1989). Canada in a global contet. In: Hummel, M. (Ed.), Endangered spaces: the future for Canada’s wilderness. Key Porter Books, Toronto. Environment Canada (1986). National marine parks policy, September 26. Parks Service. Queens Printer, Ottawa. (Unseen) Environment Canada (1990). National parks system plan. Minister of Supply and Services, Ottawa, Ontario. 110 pp. Environment Canada (1991). State of the Parks Report 1990 (Canada’s Green Plan). 2 volumes. Canadian Parks Service, Environment Canada, Ottawa. Environment Canada (1992). Canadian Parks Service monthly attendance — June 1992. Canadian Parks Service, Ottawa. 20 pp. Finkelstein, M. (1992). National park dreams. In: Borealis 3(2)10: 32-42. Fisheries and Ocean Canada (1987). Canadian Arctic Marine Conservation Strategy. Supply and Services Canada, Ottawa. (Unseen) Francis, G. (1991). Joint session of the CCEA and the FPPC "Fostering participatory stewardship" — Panel presentation. Campbell River, British Columbia, 13 September 1991. 6 pp. Government of Canada (1991). The state of Canada’s Environment. Chapter 7, Protected areas. Government of Ontario (1992). Province to protect Ontario’s wetlands under planning act. News release communiqué — June 24, 1992. 2 pp. Gray, P.A. and Rubec, C.D.A. (1989). National Registry of Ecological Areas in Canada. Secretariat, Canada Council on Ecological Areas, Ottawa, Ontario. Griffiths-Muecke Associates (1982). Special places in Nova Scotia: History and context. The Nova Scotia Museum, Halifax. 45 pp. Harris, B. (1988). Canada’s National Parks. Bramley Books, Colour Library Books Ltd, Godalming, England. 256 pp. (Unseen) Hilts, S. (1989). Private stewardship. In: Hummel, M. (Ed.), Endangered spaces, the future for Canada's Wilderness. Key Porter Books Ltd., Toronto. Pp. 99-106. Hummel, M. (Ed.) (1989). Endangered Spaces, the future for Canada's Wilderness. Key Porter Books, Toronto. 288 pp. Hunter, B. (Ed.) (1991). The statesman’s yearbook — 128th edition: 19911992. The MacMillan Press Ltd., London. Pp. 271-335. IAND (1972). National Parks System Planning Manual. National and Historic Parks Branch. Indian Affairs and Northern Development, Canada. 138 pp. (Unseen) IUCN East European Programme (1989). Public Intervention in Pollution Aspects of Transboundary 14 watercourses and international lakes; European and North American case studies. IUCN Background Paper for Meeting on the Protection of the Environment Conference on Security and Cooperation in europe. IUCN East European Programme, Cambridge, UK. 24 pp. Kovacs, T. (1985). National Overview for Canada on National Parks and Protected Areas in the Arctic. In: Nelson, J.G. and Needham, R. (Eds), Arctic Heritage: the proceedings of a Symposium. Association of Canadian Universities for Northern Studies, Ottawa. Pp. 530-536. (Unseen). Kun, S. (1981). An Overview of Canada’s National Parks. Paper presented to the 16th international seminar on national parks and equivalent reserves. Jasper National Park, 5 August. 17 pp. Mosquin BioInformation Ltd. and P.G. Whiting and Associates (1992). Canada country study of biodiversity: Taxanomic and ecological census, economic benefits, conservation costs and unmet needs. Ottawa, Ontario. 250 pp. MNR (1992a). Class environmental assessment for provincial park management. Special report number one: an invitation to participate. Ministry of Natural Resources, Huntsville, Ontario. 17 pp. MNR (1992b). A natural heritage areas strategy for Ontario: Responding to the endangered spaces challenge. Draft. Provincial Parks and Natural Heritage Policy Branch, Ministry of Natural Resources, Ontario. 29 pp. Nature Conservancy of Canada (n.d.). Minister of Environment’s Task Force on Park Establishment. Parks 2000 — vision for the 21st Century. (Unseen) NCC (1991). The Nature Conservancy of Canada: 1991 Annual report. The National Conservancy of Canada, Toronto, Ontario. 17 pp. Ontario Wildlife Working Group (1991). Looking ahead: a wild life strategy for Ontario. Publications Ontario, Toronto, Ontario. 172 pp. Peterson, E.B. and Peterson, N.M. (1991). A first approximation of principles and criteria to make Canada’s protected area systems representative of the nation’s ecological diversity. Prepared for the Canadian Council on Ecological Areas as an Occasional Paper. Western Ecological Services Ltd., Victoria, B.C. 47 pp. Rubec, C.D.A., Turner, A., Chartrand, N., and Wiken, E.B. (1990). Conserving Canadian Ecosystems: a systems approach. Canadian Council on Ecological Areas Occasional Paper 10: 52-75. Rubec, C.D.A., Turner, A., and Wiken, E.B. (1992). Integrated planning for protected areas and biodiversity assessment in Canada. Proceedings of the 3rd National Workshop of the Canadian Society for Landscape Ecology and Management. June 1992. Saskatchewan Parks, Recreation and Culture (n.d.). Saskatchewan parks: The choice is yours! Communications Branch, Regina, Saskatchewan. Scoggan, H.J. (1978/1979). The Flora of Canada. 4 volumes. National Museum of Natural Sciences, Ottawa. Taschereau, P.M. (1985). The Status of Ecological Reserves in Canada. Canadian Council on Ecological Areas and the Institute for Resource and Environmental Studies, Ottawa. 120 pp. Thompson, D. (1987). The designation of wilderness in British Columbia. Unpublished report. 16 pp. Turner, A.M., Rubec, C.D.A. and Wiken, E.B. (1991). Canadian Ecosystems: a systems approach to their conservation. In: Proceedings, International Conference on the Science and Management of Protected Areas (SAMPA), May 14-19 ,1991, Acadia University, Wolfville, Nova Scotia. (in press) Waugh, J.D. and Perez Gil, R. (1992). North America Regional Review. Paper presented to the ITV World Congress on National Parks and Protected Areas, Caracas, Venezuela 10-21 February 1992. Wiken, E.B. (Ed.) (1986). Ecozones of Canada. Ecological Land Classification Series No. 19. Land Directorate, Environment Canada, Ottawa, Ontario. 26 pp. Canada Wiken, E.B., Rubec, C.D.A., and Ironside, G.R. (1992). Landscape ecoregions of Canada. National Atlas of Canada map. Energy, Mines and Resources, Ottawa. (Unseen) WWE (1989). Prairie conservation action plan — 1989-1994. World Wildlife Fund-Canada, Toronto, Ontario. WWE (Canada) (1990). Endangered Spaces: progress report No. 1. World Wildlife Fund—Canada, Toronto, Ontario. 34 pp. (Unseen) WWE (1991). World Wildlife Fund Canada: 1991 Annual report. World Wildlife Fund—Canada, Toronto, Ontario. 31 pp. WWF (1991). Endangered spaces: Progress report no. 2. World Wildlife Fund—Canada, Toronto, Ontario. 40 pp. WWE (1992). Endangered spaces: Progress report no. 3. World Wildlife Fund-Canada, Toronto, Ontario. 42 pp. ANNEX Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration Title: National Parks Act Date: 1930; amended 1974 and 1988, with 1992 amendments to the schedules Briefdescription: Provides for the establishment of national parks throughout Canada. Amendments to the National Parks Act in 1988 made ecological integrity of parks the principal management objective. Administrative authorities: Canadian Parks Service (Parks Canada), Environment Canada Designations: NationalPark Act to preserve for all times, areas which contain significant geographical, geological, biological, historic, or scenic features as a national heritage. Areas also established to encourage public understanding, appreciation and enjoyment of this natural heritage so as to leave it unimpaired for future generations. Representative samples of natural landscapes, seascapes and ecosystems are acquired and maintained through the National Parks Act. National parks are established for: health through outdoor recreation and relaxation; heritage preservation through conservation of exceptional natural landscapes and their wildlife; and economic opportunity, through tourism, generating business enterprises in travel and other visitor services, as well as local employment in park management, amongst others. 1988 amendments included increased 15 firearms control; strengthened authority of park wardens; expanded protection clauses to cover soil, waters, rocks, fossils, minerals and air quality, as well as the flora and wild animals already protected under the act; and provision for the setting and amending of fees and charges for park use. Motorised navigation and commercial fishing are permitted in marine national parks. Industrial activities are prohibited in national parks. Source: Kun (1981); Waugh and Perez Gil (1992) Title: Migratory Birds Convention Act Date: 1917; August 1982 Brief description: This act provides for the establishment of migratory bird sanctuaries throughout Canada and for enacting regulations to control and administer such sanctuaries in order to protect the birds, their nests and eggs. Administrative authorites: Canadian Wildlife Service, Environment Canada Designations: Migratory Bird Sanctuary Areas for the special protection of migratory birds and their habitat. The federal government does not always own such areas; they can be designated by order-in-council on private lands with the consent of the landowner. Such areas can be deregulated should consent be revoked on the Title: Protected Areas of the World part of the landowner or if the area loses its value to migratory birds. Regulations prohibit hunting of migratory birds or the taking of their eggs or nests. Activities such as clearcutting or mining are not prohibited provided they do not interfere with the "object species”. Sources: Government of Canada (1991); C. Stewart, pers. comm. (1992) Canadian Wildlife Act Date: 1973 Brief description: Provides for national wildlife areas and sanctuaries throughout Canada Administrative authorities: Canadian Wildlife Service, Environment Canada Designations: National Wildlife Area Such areas are owned and managed by the Canadian Wildlife Service on behalf of the Canadian government, and all such areas are on federal lands. Some areas may be left unmanaged, although others may include various activities including: the construction of new ponds to create breeding sites for waterfowl; trees and shrubs may be planted as cover for birds and deer, or the natural plant cover may be altered in other ways to increase the food and shelter for wildlife; grain may be planted to draw migrating birds away from farmers’ fields; haycutting and cattlegrazing may form part of the management programme; and hunting may be used to control populations. Such areas are also utilised for passive recreation and education, and many of them have interpretive facilities for this purpose. Limited human interference, including hunting and farming may be permitted. Originally established for wildlife conservation or interpretation in respect of migratory birds. Today, their scope includes the habitat of all wildlife. Source: Mosquin Bio-Information Limited and P.G. Whiting and Associates (1992) PROVINCIAL LEGISLATION ALBERTA Titles: Wilderness Areas, Ecological Reserves and Natural Areas Act (1980); Willmore Wilderness Park Act (1959); Wildlife Act (1980); Forest Act; Provincial Parks Act; Historic Resources Act; Order in Council Administrative authorities: Department of Tourism, Parks and Recreation; Natural and 16 Protected Areas Branch, Department of Forestry, Lands and Wildlife; Department of Culture and Multiculturalism Designations: Ecological Reserve Throughout the country, such areas are set aside for scientific, educational and conservation purposes. In Alberta, such an area is set aside where it is a representative example of a natural ecosystem, contains rare or endangered native plants or animals, is suitable for scientific research of natural ecosystems, serves as an example of a man-modified ecosystem that is recovering, or contains unique or rare examples of natural biological or physical features. In most provinces, existing leases for timber removal, mineral extraction and the like are allowed to expire or are cancelled forthwith, although in Alberta, oil and gas leases may be exempted. The Alberta Act is unique in that there is a special provision which allows for power to control land uses and activities in buffer zones surrounding or adjacent to reserves. Prohibited activities include: the construction, maintenance, or operation of any public work, road, railway, landing strip, structure or installation; travel, except on foot; the hunting or trapping of animals, or fishing; littering; the collecting, destroying or removing of any plant, animal, fossil, or other object of geological, ethnological, historical or scientific interest, lighting or maintaining an open fire; and the pollution of any land, water, plant or animal life, except with the consent of the Minister. Controlled Buffer Zone The Lieutenant Governor in council may designate any area of public land adjoining a wilderness area or ecological area as acontrolled buffer zone. No person shall cause, allow or undertake any strip mining, quarrying, or any major water resource projects. Natural Area _ Established to protect sensitive or scenic public land from disturbance, and to ensure the availability of public land in a natural state for use by the public for recreation, education or any other purpose. Wilderness Area ecological reserves Provisions generally as for Provincial Park Game Bird Sanctuary Historic Site Recreation Area Sources: Original legislation; Griffiths-Muecke Associates (1982); A. Landals, pers. comm. (1992) BRITISH COLUMBIA Titles: Parks Act; Environmental Land Use Act; Ecological Reserve Act, 1971; Ministry of Lands, Parks and Housing Act; Park (Regional) Act (1979); Heritage Conservation Act; Forests Act; Wildlife Act; Order in Council Administrative authorities: BC Parks, Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks; Department of Forests; Nature Trust of British Columbia Designations: Wildlife Management Area Wilderness Conservancy Roadless tracts in which ecological communities are preserved intact. No exploitation or development, except as may be necessary to preserve natural processes, is permissable. Ecological Reserve Such areas are set aside for research, education, and serve to protect areas of genetic diversity. Casual, non-consumptive, non-motorised use of most reserves by the public is allowed without a permit, while uses which could significantly alter the natural processes are prohibited. Hunting and fishing are prohibited. Provincial Park Free of all commercial resource tenures. Marine Provincial Park Recreation Area __ Represent transitions to parks where preexisting tenures are accommodated. In both provincial parks and recreation areas, it is possible to zone nature conservancies and wilderness. Wilderness Area Free of commercial forest harvesting, but open to continuous mineral evaluation and development. Sources: Thompson, D. (1987); D. Thompson, pers. comm. (1992) MANITOBA Titles: Ecological Reserves Act (1981); Provincial Park Lands Act (1972); Crown Lands Act; Wildlife Act (1980); Conservation District Act (1976); Order in Council Administrative authorities: Parks and Natural Areas Branch, Manitoba Natural Resources Designations: PROVINCIAL PARK LAND Dedicated to the people of Manitoba and visitors to Manitoba, and may be used by them for healthful enjoyment, and 17 Canada for the cultural, educational and social benefits that may be derived therefrom. Developed for: the conservation and management of flora and fauna therein; for the preservation of specified areas and objects therein that are of geological, cultural, ecological or other scientific interest; to facilitate the use and enjoyment of outdoor recreation therein. Most of the major provincial parks accommodate commercial harvesting activities, including trapping, agriculture, logging, mining, and commercial fishing. Provincial Natural Park Provincial Wilderness Park Provincial Recreation Park Provincial Recreational Trailway Provincial Parkway Provincial Recreational Waterway Provincial Heritage Park Special Use Park Wayside Park Marine Park Wildlife ManagementArea Managed to conserve habitats and maintain wildlife populations primarily for harvest purposes. Ecological Reserve Any area of Crown land in the proyince may be established as an ecological reserve. Scientific studies are encouraged but visits without an authorised permit are prohibited. Source: Department of Natural Resources (1985) NEW BRUNSWICK Titles: Parks Act, 1982; Ecological Reserves Act, 1976; Fish and Wildlife Act, 1980; Crown Lands and Forests Act, 1982; Order in Council Administrative authorities: Department of Recreation and Environment, Ministry of Natural Resources and Energy Designations: PROVINCIAL PARK Such areas are divided into seven classes: Rest Area Designated to meet the needs of the travelling public. Campground Park Designed to meet the needs of resident and non-resident campers for overnight camping. BeachPark Created to meet the need for suitable bathing and swimming areas. Recreation Park Designed to provide a full range of activities, including picnic grounds, campgrounds and beaches in one park. Protected Areas of the World Wildlife Park Established primarily to provide a public display of animals and birds native to the province. Resource Park A large, multiple-use park area, the primary function of which is to provide a large block of land for the enjoyment of outdoor recreation in a natural environment. Fishing is allowed on a controlled basis, hunting and trapping are not permitted, and the harvesting of natural resources is allowed under controlled supervision. Marine Park __ Designed to preserve the natural environment of marine and shore fauna and flora. Areas which will be reached primarily by boat and are to have no road access. Ecological Reserve May be established on private or Crown land. Regulations require that a management plan be prepared detailing the natural and cultural resources of each reserve and outlining the terms of use. No person shall hunt, fish, trap, conduct forestry, agriculture or mining operations, conduct exploration or boring, prospecting, levelling, or construction work; and in general, works of a nature that may alter any part of the terrain or of the vegetation, and any acts of a nature that may disturb the fauna or flora, are forbidden. Research or any other activity carried out requires a permit. Wildlife Management Area Wildlife Refuge Tend to be small and are intended to be used in the interest of public education. Sources: Original legislation; Beardmore (1985) NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR Titles: Wilderness and Ecological Reserves Act, 1980; Provincial Parks Act, 1970; Wildlife Act Wildlife Reserve Regulations, 1963; Order in Council Administrative authorities: Parks Division, Department of Tourism and Culture Designations: Ecological Reserve _ Established to protect living organisms in their natural habitats, and for the benefit, education, and enjoyment of present and future generations in the province. Road and facility construction, hydro development, mining, forestry, and motorised transport are prohibited. Hunting, fishing, trapping, canoeing and camping are permitted so long as they do not threaten the natural 18 resources. Some non-conforming uses may continue as long as they do not threaten the integrity of the reserve. PROVINCIAL PARK Such areas are divided into three categories: Camping Park Provides for a range of camping experiences. Day Use Park _ Designed solely for those wishing to spend an enjoyable day in a natural setting. Camping is not permitted. Natural Scenic Attraction Areas with special scenic qualities or natural significance. Picnicking is allowed but camping is not. Wilderness Reserve _ Established largely because of their natural scenic beauty, and are intended to be used for recreation. Hunting and fishing are permitted. Seabird Sanctuary Source: Taschereau (1985) NORTHWEST TERRITORIES Titles: Northwest Territories Wildlife Act, 1978; Territorial Lands Act; Territorial Parks Act, 1973; Land Use Regulations; Territorial Wildlife and/or Park Ordinances; Order in Council Administrative authorities: Department of Renewable Resources; Department of Economic Development and Tourism Designations: Ecological Areas CommunityPark Game Preserve Wildlife Sanctuary Territorial Park Source: Original legislation Canada NOVA SCOTIA ONTARIO Titles: Provincial Parks Act, 1988; Beaches Act, 1988; Wildlife Act, 1987; Conservation Easements Act, 1992; Special Places Protection Act, 1981; Museum Act Titles: Ontario Provincial Parks Act, 1980; Ontario Game and Fish Act, 1980; Wilderness Areas Act, 1980; Conservation Land Act; Conservation Authorities Act, 1980; Ontario Heritage Act, 1980; Endangered Species Act, 1971; Public Lands Act; Planning Act; Order in Council Administrative authorities: Parks and Recreation Division, Department of Natural Resources; Department of Education (Nova Scotia Museum) Designations: Ecological Site Can be designated on Crown land or on private land with permission of the owner. Consist of natural ecosystems, habitats of endangered plant or animal species, or other areas desirable for research and educational use. A management plan must be formulated before it is designated as a reserve. Heritage Site May be designated on Crown or private land and potential sites are protected while being investigated. These are areas containing archaeological, historical, or palaeotological objects or remains. Wildlife Management Area Private or public land where flexible regulations apply to the management and harvesting of wildlife. Established to protect wildlife and waterfowl habitat and to provide opportunities for natural history education and outdoor recreation. Game Sanctuary Established to allow the increase of game species and provide a reserve of game for surrounding forests. Hunting or disturbance of wildlife is prohibited. Nature Reserve Protected Beach Allows for the protection of sand dunes and a large variety of coast. Applies to all *beaches’ below high tide, and to designated beaches (including those on private land), with the landowners permission. Provincial Park Divided into the following general classes for statistical purposes: camping, picnic, beach, wildlife, and historic. SpecialPlace The province is considering a parks Classification system which will include the following designations: wildland park, natural heritage reserve, historic park, natural environment parks, outdoor recreation park, wayside park, wildlife park, and park reserve. Sources: comm. (1992) Beardmore (1985); D. Smith, pers. 19 Administrative authorities: Provincial Parks and Natural Heritage Policy Branch, Ministry of Natural Resources; Federation of Ontario Naturalists; Ontario Heritage League; Niagara Escarpment Commission Designations: Ecological Area Conservation Area Wildlife Area Game Preserve PROVINCIAL PARK Areas which are set apart to protect special natural and historical features. They also provide outdoor recreation and education opportunities. Divided into six classes: natural environment, nature reserve, wilderness, historical, waterway, and recreation. There are also six zones within any particular class of park: nature reserve, wilderness, natural environment, historical, access, and development. In all classes of park, mining activity, commercial hydroelectric development and logging (except in Algonquin) are prohibited. Eventually, commercial trapping, commercial wildrice harvesting and most commercial fishing will be eliminated. Hunting is not permitted in wilderness and nature reserve parks and zones. Wilderness Park Substantial areas where the forces of nature are permitted to function freely and where visitors travel by non-mechanised means and experience expansive solitude, challenge and personal integration with nature. Nature Reserve Areas selected to represent the distinctive natural habitats and landforms of Ontario, and are protected for educational purposes and as gene pools for research to benefit present and future generations. The closest equivalent to ecological reserves found in other provinces. Historic Park Areas selected to represent the distinctive historical resources of the province in open-space settings, and are protected for interpretive, educational and research purposes. Natural Environment Park Areas which incorporate outstanding recreational landscapes with representative natural features and historical Protected Areas of the World resources to provide high quality recreational and educational experiences. Waterway Park educational experiences. Recreation Park numbers of people in attractive surroundings. Sources: Taschereau (1985); MNR (1992a) PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND Title: Recreational Development Act, 1974; Natural Areas Protection Act, 1988; Planning Act, 1969; Provincial Parks Act, 1956; Fish and Game Protection Act, 1966; Order in Council Areas which incorporate outstanding recreational water routes with representative natural features and historical resources to provide high quality recreational and Areas which support a wide variety of outdoor recreation opportunities for large Administrative authorities: Parks Division, Department of Tourism, Parks and Recreation; Department of Environment; Technical Advisory Committee; Prince Edward Island Nature Trust Designations: Protected Area Protected Beach Ecological Reserve Wetland Area Wildlife Management Area Established to provide protected feeding and resting areas for waterfowl during migration. Also provide improved hunting opportunities around such areas, and provide opportunities for bird watchers, photographers and naturalist to observe, photograph and study waterfowl. Hunting, trapping or other disturbances of wildlife are prohibited. PROVINCIAL PARK Suchareas are divided into five classes: Nature Preserve Intended to protect and perpetuate in an undisturbed state, individual features of unique natural significance, possessing natural conditions of scientific and/or educational value. Plant and animal harvesting is not allowed within parks of the province. Nature Environment Park Natural lands set aside to educate and acquaint the user with the aesthetics and values of the natural landscape and to provide associated compatible forms of recreation. RecreationPark Established to provide areas that are adaptable to heavy use and offer a wide range of outdoor recreation opportunities. 20 Wayside/Beach Access Park Created to promote a safe and pleasurable travel experience, and are set aside at reasonable intervals for motorists to stop and Test, or to provide access facilities for good beaches. Historic Park __ Created to preserve, restore, and interpret buildings, sites, objects and related lands of historical, educational and cultural interest. Sources: Beardmore (1985) QUEBEC Titles: Provincial Parks Act; Ecological Reserves Act, 1974; Cultural Property Act; Wildlife Conservation Act; Order in Council Administrative authorities: Direction générale des parcs et des térritoires fauniques, Ministére Loisir, Chasse et Péche; Direction générale de la conservation et du patrimoine écologique, Ministére de l’Environnement Designations: Ecological Reserve Access requires written authorisation from the Minister of the Environment and is only given for scientific or educational purposes. PARK Conservation Park _ Established to permanently protect the representative areas of the province’s natural regions, or of natural sites presenting exceptional features, while rendering them accessible to the public for the purposes of education and cross-country recreation. Open to the public for educational purposes, the recreational activities offered within these areas require simple equipment which is unlikely to affect the environment. In conservation and recreation parks, hunting is prohibited, whereas the carrying out of certain traditional activities such as the production of maple syrup is allowed under strict regulation. All forms of prospecting, and any utilisation, harvesting, or harnessing of resources related to logging, mining, or the production of energy, and the laying of oil or gas pipelines or powerlines are prohibited within park boundaries. Recreation Park _Intended to encourage outdoor activities, while contributing to environmental protection and education. Source: Original legislation SASKATCHEWAN Titles: Parks Act, 1986; Ecological Reserves Act, 1980; Saskatchewan Wildlife Act; Critical Wildlife Habitat Protection Act, 1984; Regional Parks Act, 1979; Heritage Property Act, 1980; Order in Council Administrative authorities: Parks Branch, Department of Natural Resources; Saskatchewan Wildlife Federation Designations: Ecological Reserve Provincially administered Crown land which sustains or is associated with unique or representative parts of the environment. Wildlife Area Protected Area Park Land Reserve Recreation Site PROVINCIAL PARK Such areas are classified under four designations: Natural Environment Park Includes a wide range of natural and man-made attractions. Large areas, representative of natural landscapes, providing high quality outdoor recreation opportunities. Recreation Park Smaller areas which provide high quality recreation opportunities and facilities. Development occurs near urban population centres and travel routes. Wilderness Park _ Large, pristine tracts of land containing significant natural features and 21 Canada opportunities for activities such as canoeing, hiking, primitive camping and photography. Facility development is limited to basic comforts to ensure preservation of the environment. Historic Park Such areas are set aside to preserve, reconstruct and interpret the provinces history for the public. Regional Park A local, independent park authority is responsible for development and management of such areas, with maintenance and capital grants provided by the province. Source: Original legislation; Saskatchewan Parks, Recreation and Culture (n.d.); K. Lozinsky, pers. comm. (1992) YUKON Titles: Territorial Wildlife Act; Land Use Regulations; Territorial Wildlife and/or Park Ordinances; Territorial Park Act; Order in Council Administrative authorities: | Parks and Outdoor Recreation Branch, Department of Renewable Resources Designations: Ecological Reserve Territorial Park Game Preserve Wildlife Sanctuary Source: F. McRae, pers. comm. (1992) Protected Areas of the World Map ref. Nore NADNFW 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS (Environment Canada, 1990) Federal Protected Areas (National Map) National/international designations Name of area Alberta Migratory Bird Sanctuaries Richardson Lake Saskatoon Lake National Parks Banff Elk Island Jasper Waterton Lakes Wood Buffalo British Columbia Migratory Bird Sanctuary Victoria Harbour National Parks Glacier Kootenay Mount Revelstoke Pacific Rim* South Moresby* Yoho National Wildlife Area Columbia Manitoba National Park Riding Mountain New Brunswick National Parks Fundy Kouchibouguac National Wildlife Area Tintamarre Newfoundland National Parks Gros Morne Terra Nova Northwest Territories Migratory Bird Sanctuaries Akimiski Island Anderson River Delta Banks Island No.1 Banks Island No.2 Bylot Island Cape Dorset Dewey Soper-Res. 22 IUCN management category < i — | I Area (ha) 12,700 1,140 664,080 19,430 1,087,800 50,500 3,136,490 1,700 135,000 140,600 25,970 50,000 147,000 131,300 1,001 297,590 20,590 23,880 1,990 194,250 39,990 336,700 108,300 2,051,800 14,200 1,087,800 25,900 815,900 Year notified 1953 1948 1885 1913 1907 1895 1922 1923 1886 1920 1914 1970 1988 1886 1978 1929 1948 1979 1978 1973 1957 1941 1961 1961 1961 1965 1958 1957 42 43 57 59 National/international designations Name of area East Bay Harry Gibbons Kendall Island Mcconnell River Queen Maude Gulf National Parks Auyuittuq* Ellesmere Island Nahanni* Wood Buffalo National Wildlife Area Polar Bear Pass Reserve Nova Scotia Migratory Bird Sanctuary Sable River National Parks Cape Breton Highlands Kejimkujik National Wildlife Area Chignecto River Wildlife Management Areas Musquodoboit Harbour Outer River Estuary South Bight-Minas River Basin Ontario Migratory Bird Sanctuaries Fielding Hanna Bay Moose River Upper Canada National Capital Commission Areas Carlsbad Springs Mer Bleue The Greenbelt National Parks Bruce Peninsula Georgian Bay Islands Point Pelee Pukaskwa National Wildlife Area Long Point Prince Edward Island National Park Prince Edward Island Quebec Migratory Bird Sanctuaries Baie Des Loups Boatswain Bay Ile A La Brume IUCN management 23 category IV IV IV IV IV II II II II II IV IV IV 6,278,200 2,147,110 3,777,500 476,560 1,344,210 81,000 2,350 95,050 40,370 1,020 1,200 26,800 1,300 29,800 1,450 2,660 1,655 1,086 11,824 26,630 2,530 1,550 187,780 3,250 2,590 4,000 17,700 4,450 Canada Year notified 1959 1959 1961 1960 1961 1976 1982 1976 1922 1982 1977 1936 1974 1980 1987 1987 1952 1939 1958 1961 1987 1929 1918 1978 1980 1937 1925 1941 1925 Protected Areas of the World Map ref. 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 National/international designations Name of area Tle Aux Basques Ile Bonaventure And Perce Rock Iles De La Paix Iles Saint-marie Nicolet St. Augustin Watshishou National Capital Commission Area Gatineau Park National Parks Forillon La Maurice Mingan Archipelago Reserve National Wildlife Areas Cap Tourmente R. Lac St-Francois Saskatchewan Migratory Bird Sanctuaries Basin And Middle Lake Duncairn Reservoir Last Mountain Lake (Reserve) Lenore Lake Murray Lake Old Wives Lake Opuntia Lake Redberry Lake National Parks Grasslands* Prince Albert National Wildlife Areas Prairie Stalwart Wildlife Management Area Last Mountain Lake Coop Yukon Territory National Parks Kluane* Northern Yukon* * indicates a National Park Reserve 24 IUCN management category IV IV IV IV IV IV IV Vill II II Area (ha) 1,000 1,340 1,100 4,500 2,850 55,300 11,200 34,400 24,040 54,390 15,070 2,230 1,335 8,702 1,550 4,740 8,830 1,170 26,060 1,400 6,400 90,650 387,460 2,933 1,460 15,602 2,201,500 1,016,840 Year notified 1919 1972 1925 1925 1925 1974 1977 1984 1978 1978 1925 1948 1887 1925 1948 1925 1952 1925 1988 1927 1978 1978 1887 1976 1984 Map ref. ANDNAPWNK Noe SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS Provincial/Territorial Protected Areas and sites under multiple management agencies (provincial/teritorial maps) National/international designations Name of area Alberta Ecological Reserves Athabasca Dunes Hand Hills Kennedy Coulee Kootenay Plains Silver Valley Upper Bob Creek Wainwright Dunes Game Bird Sanctuaries Birch Lake Lac La Biche Many Island Lake Ministik Lake Miquelon Lake Pakowki Lake Richardson Lake Sheep River Wilderness Areas Ghost River Siffeur White Goat Provincial Parks or Areas Bow Valley Carson Pegasus Crimson Lake Cross Lake Cypress Hills Dillberry Lake Dinosaur Dry Island Buffalo Jump Hilliard’s Bay Kananaskis Kootenay Plains Lesser Slave Lake Notikewin Redwater White Earth Valley Whitney Lake William A. Switzer Willmore Winagami Young’s Point British Columbia Ecological Reserves Black Tusk Nature Conservancy Byers/Conroy/Harvey/Sinnett Islands Checleset Bay 25 IUCN management category ee Area (ha) 3,774 2,229 1,035 3,204 1,805 2,601 2,821 2,902 23,897 3,387 7,335 1,602 11,469 11,662 5,785 15,317 41,215 44,457 1,261 1,177 3,443 2,076 20,461 1,012 5,946 1,180 2,329 50,308 3,378 7,292 9,667 1,813 2,055 1,490 2,686 459,673 1,211 1,090 17,819 12,205 34,650 Canada Year notified 1987 1988 1987 1987 1987 1989 1988 1959 1982 1955 1955 1951 1957 1955 1970 1978 1977 1978 1966 1979 1971 1971 1982 1958 1956 1971 1974 1981 1981 Protected Areas of the World Map ref. National/international designations Name of area Dewdney And Glide Islands East Redonda Island Gingiet Creek Gladys Lake Goosegrass Creek Ilgachuz Range Kingfisher Creek Mount Griffin Narcosli Lake Ningunsaw River Purcell Wilderness Conservatory Robson Bight Sikanni Chief VJ. Krajina Provincial Parks or Areas Akamina-Kishinena Atlin Atlin Cla Babine Mountains Birkenhead Lake Bowron Lake Boya Lake Brooks Peninsula Bugaboo Alpine Cape Scott Carp Lake Cascade Cathedral Champion Lakes Coquihalla Summit Crooked River Cypress Darke Lake Desolation Sound Desolation Sound E.C. Manning East Sooke Elk Falls Elk Lakes Elk Lakes Eneas Lakes Eskers Fiordland Garibaldi Gitnadoix Golden Ears Gwillim Lake Hakai Hamber International Ridge Joffre Lakes Kakwa Kinaskan Lake Kokanee Glacier Park Kokanee Glacier Kwadacha Wilderness Lake Lovely Water 26 IUCN management category ee eee Area (ha) 3,845 6,212 2,873 48,560 2,185 2,914 1,441 1,376 1,098 2,047 131,523 1,248 2,401 9,834 10,915 38,445 232,695 32,400 3,642 123,117 4,597 28,780 24,912 15,054 19,344 16,680 33,272 1,425 5,750 1,016 2,489 1,470 2,550 5,706 71,400 1,422 1,087 11,620 5,625 1,036 1,603 91,000 195,083 58,000 55,594 9,199 122,998 24,518 1,905 1,460 127,690 1,800 25,832 25,900 167,540 1,300 Year notified 1971 1971 1985 1975 1974 1975 1973 1972 1973 1975 1974 1982 1973 1973 1986 1973 1973 1984 1963 1961 1965 1986 1969 1973 1973 1987 1968 1955 1988 1963 1975 1943 1973 1973 1941 1970 1940 1986 1973 1968 1988 1987 1920 1986 1967 1971 1987 1941 1989 1988 1987 1988 1989 1922 1973 1988 Area Canada National/international designations WnNnre Monashee Monkman Mount Assiniboine Mount Edziza Mount Judge Howay Mount Robson Mount Seymour Mount Terry Fox Mt Edziza Mt Judge Howay Mt Seymour Muncho Lake Naikoon Nancy Green Okanagan Mountain Sasquatch Schoen Lake Silver Star Skagit Valley Spatsizi Plateau St. Mary’s Alpine Stagleap Stikine River Stone Mountain Strathcona Strathcona Tatlatui Top Of The World Tweedsmuir Valhalla Wells Gray Wells Gray White Pelican Whiteswan Lake Wokpash Murtle Lake Wells Manitoba Ecological Reserves Baralzon Lake Long Point Reindeer Island Wildlife Management Areas Alonsa Assiniboine Basket Lake Broad Valley Cape Churchill Cape Tatnam Catfish Creek Cayer Clematis Dog Lake Grahamdale Gypsumville Hilbre Inwood IUCN management 3 Name of area category II II I II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II II (ha) 7,513 32,000 39,052 228,698 6,180 219,829 3,508 1,930 96,770 6,180 3,508 88,412 72,641 8,086 10,462 1,220 8,170 8,714 32,508 659,650 9,146 1,133 217,000 25,691 10,250 191,881 105,826 8,791 960,918 49,600 527,789 13,479 1,247 1,994 37,800 212,743 39,000 1,600 14,200 10,559 2,207 7,190 3,692 1,877,700 522,267 6,281 e522) 6,828 32,389 1,489 2,465 3,527 2,719 Year notified 1962 1981 1922 1989 1967 1913 1989 1982 1989 1989 1989 1957 1973 1969 1973 1968 1977 1989 1973 1975 1973 1964 1987 1957 1987 1987 1973 1973 1987 1983 1939 1987 1971 1978 1986 1968 1990 1987 1976 1974 1984 1974 1969 1978 1973 1969 1972 1974 1969 1969 1969 Protected Areas of the World Map ref. 18 19 20 21 Nore CAIN NAMNPW National/international designations Name of area Lake Francis Langruth Lauder Sandhills Lee Lake Little Birch Lundar Mantagao Lake Marshy Point Moose Creek Narcisse Oak Hammock Marsh Pembina Valley Peonan Point Point River Portage Sandhills Proulx Lake Proven Lake Rembrandt Sandridge Saskeram Sharpewood Sleeve Lake Souris River Bend Steeprock Tom Lamb Washow Bay Watson P. Davidson Westlake Whitewater Lake Provincial Parks or Areas Asessipi Atikaki Wilderness Birds Hill Clearwater Lake Duck Mountain Elk Island Grass River Grindstone Hecla Nopiming Paint Lake Spruce Woods Turtle Mountain Whiteshell New Brunswick Wildlife Protection Areas University of New Brunswick Utopia Refuge Wildlife Management Areas Bantalor Canaan River Kedgwick King’s Landing 28 IUCN management category Vil Vill Vil Vill Vill Vill Vill Vill Vill Vill Vill Vill Vill vill vill Vil Vill vil Vill Vill Vill Vill Vil vill Vill vill Vil vill Vill II IV II II II II II II II II II II II II IV IV IV IV IV IV IV IV Area (ha) 6,416 1,781 3,011 6,966 22,802 1,101 50,339 1,490 78,917 13,781 3,488 1,910 2,339 3,370 1,328 3,302 1,908 1,360 1,879 96,648 2,266 14,964 2,073 1,890 217,960 1,392 5,827 5,739 8,977 2,460 466,841 3,521 59,570 127,400 1,000 228,960 25,841 86,309 143,740 22,660 24,860 18,910 273,400 1,518 3,109 15,287 11,142 18,177 22,543 82,914 53,238 Year notified 1990 1965 1971 1969 1969 1969 1968 1984 1969 1974 1976 1969 1984 1984 1974 1984 1974 1969 1963 1969 1969 1968 1966 1965 1961 1984 1974 1964 1985 1964 1975 1962 1975 1963 1969 1969 1976 1969 1964 1962 1961 1949 1940 1930 1929 1934 1921 1923 1980 Canada Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified 9 Lepreau River IV 24,356 1927 10 Plaster Rock-renous IV 84,175 1939 11 Tracadie River IV 3,915 1937 Provincial Parks or Areas 12 Mount Carleton II 17,427 13 Sugar Loaf II 1,150 1971 Newfoundland Ecological Reserves 1 Cape St Mary’s I 1,260 1983 2 Funk Island I 1,860 1983 3 The Grass I 1,100 1987 4 Watt’s Point Ill 3,090 1986 Seabird Sanctuary 5 Baccalieu Island IV 1,210 Wilderness Reserves 6 Avalon II 107,000 1986 7 Bay Du Nord II 289,500 1989 8 Middle Ridge VI 81,600 1989 Provincial Parks or Areas 9 Barachois Pond II 3,497 1961 10 Butter Pot II 1,752 1964 11 Chance Cove II 2,068 1974 12 La Manche II ; 1,394 1966 13 Squires Memorial II 1,574 1959 14 Stag Lake II 1,278 1979 Northwest Territories Wildlife Sanctuaries 1 Bowman Bay IV 107,900 1957 2 Thelon IV 2,396,000 1927 3 Twin Islands IV 142,500 1939 Game Preserve 4 Peel River Vill 442,700 Territorial Parks or Areas 5 Blackstone II 1,430 1982 6 Reid Lake II 1,085 1975 Nova Scotia Game Sanctuaries 1 Chignieto IV 22,099 1937 2 Liscomb IV 45,327 1928 3 Waverley IV 5,698 1926 Wildlife Management Areas 4 Eastern Shore Islands IV 11,767 1976 5 Scatarie Island IV 1,555 1976 6 Tobeatic IV 49,213 1968 Provincial Park or Area q Uniacke House Natural Setting Vi 4,938 Ontario Nature Reservest 1 Agassiz Peatlands I 2,315 1985 29 Protected Areas of the World Map ref. NADU FWNY National/international designations Name of area Black Duck River (Polar Bear PP) Brent Crater (Algonquin PP) Brule Harbour (Lake Superior PP) Cape Chaillon (Lake Superior PP) Centennial Lake Coldspring Lake Watershed (Algonquin PP) Gina Lake (Obatanga PP) Greenleaf Creek Watershed (Algonquin PP) Hailstorm Creek (Algonquin PP) Johnston Herb/Pine Tree Pt Knife Creek (Obatanga PP) Lower Agawa River (Lake Superior PP) Lower Sand River (Lake Superior PP) Minnitaki Kames Nadine Lake Hardwoods (Algonquin PP) Nr Zone (Wasaga Beach PP) O’conner (Lake Superior PP) Pantagruel Creek Petawawa Rapids (Algonquin PP) Pigeon River Clay Plain Round Lake Site 416 (Polar Bear PP) Site 421 (Polar Bear PP) Tarn Lake (Algonquin PP) Treeby Lake (Lake Superior PP) Trout Lake Wachi Creek (Polar Bear PP) Windigo Bay Wood Creek (Polar Bear PP) Wildlife Areas Camden Lake Hullett Luther Marsh Mountain Point Petre St. Edmunds Wilderness Area Cape Henrietta-Marie Conservation Authority Areas Authority Forest Belwood Lake (43) Conestogo Lake (40) Depot Lakes (132) Fanshawe (21) Greenock Swamp Guelph Lake (38) Luther Marsh (44) Wildwood (22) Crown Game Preserves Brigden 30 IUCN management Area category (ha) I 100,000 I 1,390 I 1,274 I 1,948 I 3,830 I 5,396 I 1,323 I 3,730 I 1,092 I 2,008 I 1,495 I 2,393 I 1,150 I 4,340 I 1,105 I 1,000 I 1,565 I 2,200 I 1,411 I 2,870 I 4,620 I 9,300 I 9,300 I 1,004 I 1,005 I 7,850 I 50,000 I 8,300 I 50,000 IV 1,052 IV 2,100 IV 5,666 IV 1,457 IV 1,276 IV 6,799 I 58,320 Vil 1,094 Vill 1,348 Vill 2,348 VII 1,000 VIII 1,200 Vil 7,300 Vill 1,607 Vil 4,800 Vill 1,255 IV 2,613 Year notified 1970 1893 1950 1950 1989 1893 1967 1893 1893 1989 1967 1950 1950 1989 1893 1959 1950 1989 1893 1989 1989 1984 1984 1893 1950 1988 1984 1989 1984 1970 National/international designations Name of area Chapleau Dumfries Geikie Island Himsworth Nipissing Shirley Bay Yarmouth Provincial Parks or Areas Abitibi-de-Troyes Algonquin Aubrey Falls Awenda Bigwind Lake Bon Echo Butler Lake Cabot Head Carillon Castle Creek Chapleau-Nemegosenda River Cranberry Lake Esker Lakes Fathom Five Frontenac Fushimi Lake Greenwater Grundy Lake Halfway Lake Ivanhoe Lake Kabitotikwia River Kashabowie Kesagami Kettle Lakes Killarney Killbear La Cloche Lady Evelyn Smoothwater Lake Nipigon Lake Of The Woods Lake Superior Larder River Livingstone Point Lola Lake Mac Gregor Point Makobe-Grays River Matawin River Nature Mattawa River Michipicoten Island Missinaibi Mississagi Delta Mississagi Mississagi River Murphy’s Point Nagagami Lake Nagagamisis Neys Obatanga Ojibway 31 IUCN management category IV IV IV IV IV IV IV Area (ha) 811,054 11,068 765,345 4,860 2,917 1,970 6,644 3,400 4,514 1,417 1,075 8,165 2,800 3,237 9,976 5,130 5,294 5,350 2,554 4,730 1,589 1,965 2,055 55,977 1,261 48,500 1,756 7,448 72,400 1,458 12,900 155,659 2,500 1,800 6,572 1,204 1,427 2,615 3,258 36,740 44,061 2,395 2,883 19,814 1,240 1,650 8,131 3,445 9,409 2,630 Canada Year notified 1985 1893 1985 1975 1985 1971 1985 1985 1966 1985 1973 1985 1957 1972 1974 1979 1957 1959 1980 1957 1985 1985 1983 1957 1964 1971 1985 1983 1960 1967 1950 1985 1985 1985 1975 1985 1985 1970 1985 1970 1985 1973 1974 1967 1985 1957 1965 1967 1963 Protected Areas of the World Noe National/international designations Name of area Opasquia Wilderness Petroglyphs Polar Bear Quetico Quetico Wilderness Rene Brunelle Restoule Rondeau Sable Islands Samuel De Champlain Sandbanks Sandbar Lake Sedgman Lake Sibley Silent Lake Silver Falls Slate Islands South Bay The Pinery The Shoals Wabakimi Wilderness Wakami Lake Wanapitei Wasaga Beach West Bay Nature Reserve White Lake Winisk River Winnange Lake Woodland Caribou Wilderness Prince Edward Island Wildlife Management Area Malpeque Bay River Wetlands Area Quebec Ecological Reserves Lac-Malakisis Tantare Wildlife Sanctuaries Aiguebelle Ashuapmushuan Assinica Baie Trinite Baldwin Cap-chat Chics-chocs Duchenier Duchesnay Duniere Eastmain Fort George Fort Rupert Frontenac Ile D’ Anticosti Iles Aux Grues, Dune, L’oignon, P.Cochon Intowin 32 IUCN management category IV Area (ha) 473,000 1,555 2,408,700 475,819 475,819 2,964 1,200 3,254 1,980 2,550 1,509 5,083 5,710 24,435 1,450 3,261 6,570 1,525 2,533 10,644 155,000 8,806 2,700 1,545 1,120 1,726 173,530 4,745 450,000 24,440 2,000 1,491 3,950 448,700 888,500 35,600 23,000 12,100 112,600 27,000 8,800 55,300 434,400 1,816,600 1,124,000 11,900 511,400 2,500 8,800 Year notified 1983 1976 1970 1950 1950 1957 1963 1894 1985 1967 1970 1970 1985 1950 1977 1985 1985 1985 1957 1970 1983 1973 1985 1959 1985 1963 1969 1985 1983 1988 1978 1978 1945 1946 1961 1974 1974 1964 1949 1977 1972 1972 1976 1976 1976 1978 1974 1977 1976 COoynNAMPWNY National/international designations Name of area Kipawa La Verendrye Lacs Albanel, Mistassini & Waconichi Laurentides Mastigouche Matane Mistassini Nemiscau Nouveau Comptoir Papineau Labelle Parke Petite Nation Plaisance Pointe-Taillon Port Daniel Portneuf Post De La Baleine Rimouski Riviere Cascapedia Riviere Matamec Riviere Matane Riviere Matapedia Riviere Petite Cascapedia Riviere Port Daniel Rouge-Mattawin Saint Maurice Sept Iles-port Cartier Waswanipi Provincial Parks or Areas Aiguebelle Bic Frontenac Gaspesie Grands Jardins Jacques Cartier Mount-Orford Mount-Tremblant Oka Parc Mont Ste Anne Paul Sauve Pointe-Taillon Saquenay Yamaska Saskatchewan Protected Area Wildcat Hill Provincial Parks or Areas Big Buffalo Beach Bronson Forest Buffalo Pound Candle Lake Clearwater River Cypress Hills Danielson IUCN management category Vill IV IV IV IV IV Vil Vil Vil IV Vil Vill IV Vill IV IV Vill IV IV Vil IV IV IV IV IV IV IV IV Area (ha) 463,600 1,361,000 1,640,000 796,100 161,900 128,400 1,787,000 233,800 752,100 166,700 12,000 25,000 2,700 7,500 6,400 77,400 535,400 79,700 2,000 103,600 1,400 1,000 1,700 3,600 163,500 78,200 642,300 847,000 24,170 3,320 15,200 80,200 31,000 67,060 5,837 124,000 2,370 6,600 1,900 9,220 28,360 1,289 16,997 3,650 12,938 1,927 1,274 224,035 18,410 2,914 Canada Year notified 1950 1939 1953 1895 1971 1962 1953 1976 1976 1971 1961 1934 1978 1965 1953 1968 1976 1958 1982 1970 1972 1974 1945 1948 1935 1963 1965 1976 1985 1984 1986 1981 1981 1981 1980 1981 1986 1968 1962 1985 1983 1985 1971 1974 1963 1986 1986 1931 1971 Protected Areas of the World Map National/international designations ref. Name of area 9 Douglas 10 Duck Mountain 11 Good Spirit Lake 12 Green-water Lake 13 Jan Lake 14 Lac La Ronge 15 Meadow Lake 16 Moose Mountain 17 Nipawin 18 Saskatchewan Landing 19 Whiteswan Lake (Whelan Bay) 20 Woody River Yukon Territory Wildlife Sanctuaries 1 Kluane 2 Macarthur Game Preserve 3 Peel River Territorial Parks or Areas 4 Fishing Branch River 5 Herschel Island +The "nature reserve" category in Ontario actually refers to "nature reserve zones" which fall within the provincial parks. These are listed, however, as they are equivalent to the "ecological reserves" of other provinces in terms of protection afforded. The number and area of protected areas for Ontario is, therefore, inflated due to inclusion of this category. Category headings are generic in some cases and may not be defined in legislation (Annex). The database list for Canada was supplied by Environment Canada, dated September 1990. Upon receiving database lists from the various 34 IUCN management Area Year category (ha) notified IV 4,434 1973 IV 26,159 1931 IV 1,901 1931 IV 20,720 1932 II 1,854 1976 IV 344,470 1939 IV 156,967 1959 IV 40,060 1931 IV 53,613 1934 IV 5,597 1973 II 1,834 II 15,540 IV 422,200 1943 IV 169,600 1958 Vil 300,000 Vill 384,000 1978 IV 11,200 1989 provincial/territorial administrations, the database record will be amended accordingly, and will be reflected in subsequent publications. Map information (polygons and point sources) from the National Atlas Information Service (1992) is to be regarded as preliminary only. Locations and boundaries of protected areas are currently being verified by the National Atlas Information Service. When completed, a revised spatial dataset will replace the one used in this publication for subsequent work by WCMC. Canada Projection Lambert Conic Conforma| Federal Protected Areas - Canada 35 Protected Areas of the World Provincial Protected Areas - British Columbia 36 Canada Provincial Protected Areas - Alberta Si/ Protected Areas of the World Provincial Protected Areas - Saskatchewan 38 Canada Provincial Protected Areas - Manitoba 39 Protected Areas of the World 183 #5 0131 9°33 61 eS 200 Provincial Protected Areas - Ontario 40 Canada s Uy Zi Oe $ Provincial Protected Areas - Quebec 41 Protected Areas of the World eS ISLAND eg \ \ Re 5 /) PRINCE EDuaRD e 10 BRUNSWICK ) Provincial Protected Areas - Maritime Provinces 42 Canada eae Soa 1 JAMES BAY Territorial Protected Areas - Northwest & Yukon Territories 43 a a 7 italien ii a ‘ei GREENLAND (DENMARK) Area 2,175,600 sq. km Population 55,558 (1990) (Hunter, 1991) Natural increase: 1.3% per annum (1980) (estimate from Anon., 1984a) Economic Indicators GDP: No information GNP: No information Policy and Legislation In 1979, Greenland acquired home rule; full internal self-government was established under the Greenland Home Rule Authorities (Gronlands Hjemmestrye). Prior to this, the highest political assembly was the Greenlandic Council, which had an advisory capacity under the Danish authorities, except in relation to hunting and fishing where the Council had legislative powers which were applied to pass certain hunting regulations (Meyer, 1987). In 1962 the sub—Arctic valleys of south-west Greenland, with their unique and fragile "woods", were declared preserves by the Greenlandic Council (Meyer, 1987). The Conservation (Nature and Ancient Relics) Act for Greenland was enacted on 25 May 1974 (Act No. 266). The chief purpose was "to safeguard and care for Greenland’s natural scenic assets". It gave authority to protect plant and animal species, and also areas of land where preservation or scientific considerations merit this. Protected areas are established through executive orders within this Act. Thus, in 1974, the two major protected areas were first established, under two separate orders: Northeast Greenland National Park (the largest national park in the world, some 972,000 sq. km) and Melville Bay National Wildlife Reserve. These executive orders were maintained by the Home Rule Government in the Landsting Act No. 11 of 12 November 1980 on the preservation of natural amenities. This Act was later amended in the Landsting Act No. 15 of 9 November 1988, under which Northeast Greenland National Park was expanded in size. Some areas have been declared breeding reserves for birds, where certain restrictions operate only during a defined season (Anon., 1984b; Meyer, 1987). A ruling concerning the preservation of in situ relics and buildings, the Landsting Act No. 5, was passed by the home rule government on 16 October 1980. There is no right to private ownership of land. All land uses requiring areas to be withdrawn from common usage require permission; this is granted by municipal authorities in built-up areas, and by home rule authorities elsewhere. Local authorities are empowered to designate their own protected areas, and to take their own conservation measures (Helms, 1991). 45 International Activities Denmark acceded to the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) on 2 September 1977; Greenland was added to this Convention on 27 January 1988 and 11 sites covering 1,044,000ha have been listed, two of these within NorthEast Greenland National Park. NorthEast Greenland National Park was declared a biosphere reserve in 1977. Unlike mainland Denmark, Greenland is not covered by the World Heritage Convention. It is no longer part of the European Community, and therefore not covered by Community conservation regulations, although there have been some moves to rejoin for economic reasons. Administration and Management Prior to 1980, protected areas administration was under the jurisdiction of the Danish authorities, but since this date it has been under the autonomous home rule government. The Office of the Environment is responsible for the park system, and collaborates closely with the Danish Ministry of the Environment. The Natural Resources Office works on the Ramsar sites, amongst other things (Helms, 1991). Administration of NorthEast Greenland National Park is under the jurisdiction of the home rule Premier, who is advised by a National Park Board consisting of four members of the Greenland Assembly, four scientists and a chairman (Meyer, 1987; Fredskild, pers. comm., 1986). On the ground administration and management is carried out by the Danish military through their Sirius Sledge Patrol (Silis, 1990). Systems Reviews — Greenland is the world’s largest island (excluding continental islands). Most of its land area is within the Arctic circle. Iceland lies some 300km off the eastern coast; Canada lies to the west, separated by the Davis Strait in the south and Baffin Bay further north. Ellesmere Island (Canada) in the north is only some SOkm from Greenland, separated by the Nares Strait. Some 80% of total land area is covered by an ice-cap 2,500km long, 1,000km wide and up to 3km thick. An icefree zone of some 384,000 sq. km borders the coast. This zone is generally quite narrow, but broadens to 200 — 300km in some places, and is intersected by deep fjords which connect the inland ice with the sea. The country is also much influenced by sea ice. Polar basin ice permanently blocks the north and north-east coast, and pack ice often drifts down along the east coast. In summer this pack ice drifts southwards along the east coast, and passes around Kap Farvel and northwards along the west coast (Anon., n.d.; Grimmett and Jones, 1989). The country is underlain by Precambrian bedrock, with younger rock overlying it in places. It is largely mountainous, but with some areas of more gentle relief in the coastal zone. The climate is largely low- to Protected Areas of the World high-Arctic, although in the extreme south some sheltered valleys may be considered subArctic. The northern high-Arctic areas have very low precipitation and short growing seasons; they are sparsely vegetated. Much of the low-Arctic is covered by dwarf-shrub heaths, dominated by 1m high Salix. In the sub-Arctic valleys Betula woods are found reaching a height of 2-4m. It is largely in marshy areas, along streams and around lakes that the vegetation is relatively luxuriant (Grimmett and Jones, 1989). A total of 497 species of vascular plants has been described, including 15 endemics (Bécher et al., 1978). Fishing is the principal industry. Subsistence hunting is also important. There is some sheep farming in South Greenland, also reindeer farming and haymaking in some areas. Mining for lead and zinc occurs, as well as oil and mineral exploration. Tourism has also begun to develop, although it is limited at present (Anon., 1983). The protected areas system comprises Northeast Greenland National Park, Melville Bay Nature Reserve, several Ramsar protected areas along the west and east coasts, which cover 10,500 sq. km, and a huge mosaic of regulated coastal areas, each with its own rules depending on the season and the animal species occurring there (Helms, 1991). Threats to wildlife, including that within some of the protected areas, may arise from excessive hunting (Grimmett and Jones, 1989). The expansion of sheep-farming is also cause for some concern (Meyer, 1987). Most of Greenland’s Ramsar sites lie on the coast, such that any marine oil spills are potential hazards to the fragile ecological integrity and balance of these sites (Ministry of the Environment, 1990). A research programme has been carried out to establish the most effective cultivation measures in southern regions, and how to avoid erosion in these areas (Meyer, 1987). This programme involved the laying out of protected areas as "reference areas". It is suggested (Meyer, 1987) that the research project should create a basis for decisions regarding further regional preserves to safeguard natural assets and recreational use. Other Relevant Information Greenland has been a Danish possession since 1380. It became an integral part of the Danish kingdom on 5 June 1953. A referendum in January 1979 led to home rule from 1 May 1979, followed by full internal self government in January 1981 (Paxton, 1989). Addresses Gronlands Hjemmestyre (Greenland Home Rule Authorities), Direktoratet for Boliger, Teknik og Miljo, Dept. Fysisk Planlaegning and 46 Naturforvaltning, Postbos 1070, 3900 NUUK (Tel: 299 23000; FAX: 299 24693) Danish Polar Centre, Hausergade 3, COPENHAGEN K, Denmark 1128 References Helms, H.J. (1991). Nature Conservation in Greenland. In: Andreasen, C., Angantyr, L.A., Bay, C., Boertmann, D., Born, E.W., Elling, H., Helms, H.J., Larsen, F., Olesen, C.R. and Siegstad, H. Atuakkiorfik. Nature Conservation in Greenland Research Nature and Wildlife Management. 132 pp. Anon. (1983). Factsheet Denmark, Greenland. Royal Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Copenhagen, Denmark. 12 pp. Anon. (1984a). Greenland in Figures. The Ministry for Greenland. 29 pp. Anon. (1984b). Guidelines on Greenland Expeditions. Ministry for Greenland and the Secretariat of the Commission for Scientific Research in Greenland. 16 pp. Anon. (n.d., post-1984). Greenland. Danish Tourist Board in cooperation with the Greenland Home Rule Authorities, Tursarliivik. 8 pp. Bocher, T.W., Fredskild, B., Holmen, K. and Jacobsen, K. (1978). Gronlands Flora. 3rd Edition, Haase, Kobenhaven. 326 pp. (Translated from Danish 2nd Edition by T.T. Elkington and M.C. Lewis) Grimmett, R.F.A. and Jones, T.A. (1989). Jmportant Bird Areas in Europe. ICBP, Cambridge, UK. 888 pp. Helms, H.J. (1991). Nature Conservation in Greenland. In: Andreasen, C., Angantyr, L.A., Bay, C., Boertmann, D., Born, E.W., Elling, H., Helms, HJ., Larsen, F., Olesen, C.R., and Siegstad, H. Atuakkiorfik. Nature Conservation in Greenland Research Nature and Wildlife Management. 132 pp. Meyer, H. (1987). Protected areas and national parks in Greenland. In: Nelson, J.G., Needham, R. and Norton, L. (Eds), Arctic Heritage, Proceedings of a Symposium, August 24 —28 1985. Association of Canadian Universities for Northern Studies, Ottawa, Canada. Pp. 567 — 575. Ministry of the Environment (1990). Danish Report 1990 on the Ramsar Convention, Denmark and Greenland. Ministry of the Environment, National Forest and Nature Agency, Horsholm, Denmark. Pp. 127 — 149. Paxton, R. (Ed.) (1989). The Statesman’ s Yearbook. The MacMillan Press Ltd, London and Basingstoke, UK. Silis, I. (1990). The World’s Greatest National Park, North and East Greenland. The Greenland Home Rule Authorities, Department of Environment and Wildlife, Nuuk. Greenland (Denmark) ANNEX Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible fortheiradministration Title: No information Brief description: | General acts giving authority to protect plant and animal species as well as areas Date: 1962 of land. Sites are nominated individually by executive orders within these acts. Brief description: A declaration by the Greenlandic Council for the protection of the Administrative authority: Greenland Home "woods" in the subArctic valleys of southwest Rule Authorities Greenland. Administrative authority: No information Designations: Designations: Not applicable All dwellings and all cutting of trees are prohibited; sheep are not allowed to graze in these areas, and camping and hunting are restricted. Title: No information Date: No information Title: Conservation (Nature and Ancient Reics) Act (Act No. 266) and Executive Orders formed within the framework of this Act, maintained by the Landsting Act No. 11 on the preservation of natural amenities, amended in Brief description: No information Administrative authority: | No information the Landsting Act No. 15. Designations: Date: 25 May 1974 (Act No. 266); 12 November Breeding reserve for birds No trespassing or 1980 (Landsting Act No. 11); 9 November 1988 traffic is allowed within 500m between 1 June and (Landsting Act No. 15) 31 August. 47 Protected Areas of the World SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified National Park 1 Greenland II 97,200,000 1974 Nature Reserve 2 Melville Bay I 1,050,000 1977 Biosphere Reserve Northeast Greenland National Park IX 70,000,000 1977 Ramsar Wetlands Agajarua-Sullorsuag R 30,000 1988 Eqalummiut Nunaat-Nassuttuup Nunaa R 500,000 1988 Heden R 125,000 1988 Hochstetter Forland R 140,000 1988 Ikkatoq R 35,000 1988 Kilen R 30,000 1988 Kitsissunnguit R 16,000 1988 Kuannersuit Kuussuat R 4,500 1988 Naternaq R 150,000 1988 Qinguata Marraa-Kuussuaq R 6,000 1988 Ydre Kitsissut R 8,000 1988 48 Greenland (Denmark) a 75° 70° 65° 60° 55° 50° 45° 40° a Ff 20 rise m0? AW WS CH, aS aN = 70? 68° 60° 55° 50 é UNITED MEXICAN STATES (MEXICO) Area 1,958,201 sq. km Population 81,140,922 (1990) Natural increase: 2.01% (1990) Economic Indicators GDP: US$ 1,686 per capita (1987) GNP: US$ 1,990 per capita (1989) Policy and Legislation Mexico is a representative, democratic and federal republic, comprising 31 states and one federal district. Each state is autonomous in all internal affairs (Hunter, 1991). In practice, nature conservation began during the Prehispanic era (before 1521). The most notable example is the Maya civilisation, which based its development on a balanced agricultural-forestry system, which involved the strict protection of numerous areas, and provided "rest" periods for exploited areas (Gdémez-Pompa, 1987; G6mez-Pompa and Kaus, 1990). This early commitment to resource protection was also shown by Nezahualc6yotl, who planted forested areas in Chapultepec, Molino de las Flores, El Contador and others, and the botanical gardens and zoological parks established by the Emperor Moctezuma II in the 16th century (SEDUE, n.d.a; Vargas, 1984). The Spanish conquest of Mexico destroyed or modified patterns of traditional resource use. Rapid demographic growth and intensive exploitation of many natural resources left only inaccessible areas, or those remaining under indigenous control, in their natural state (Alcérreca et al., 1988). Prior to the first Forestry Law of 1926, the declaration of national parks or reserves was carried out by virtue of presidential decrees for individual areas. By this means, the first protected area was created in 1876, the first forest reserve (reserva forestal) in 1898 and the first national park in 1917 (SEDUE, n.d.b). The first legal definition of a protected natural area appeared in the Forestry Law (1926), although this definition was rather ambiguous as it allowed the establishment of both forest and tourist areas. A great increase in the number of protected areas was brought about by President Lazaro Cardenas (1934-1940): under his presidency, 40 national parks and seven reserves (58% of the present day system) were created, and major improvements were made in administration (Alcérreca et al., 1988; SEDUE, n.d.b; Vargas, 1984). The 1942 Forestry Law made more detailed provisions for the protection of national parks and their resources (Vargas, 1984). In addition, the Regulation of National and International Parks (Reglamento de Parques Nacionales e Internacionales) was approved in the same year (SEDUE, n.d.a.), and 51 provided the clearest concept on national parks so far (Vargas, 1984). In 1944, further regulations to the 1942 Forestry Law were published, providing some measures for wildlife protection. The 1948 Forestry Law provided some control of forest exploitation. The Regulations of the 1948 Forestry Law were published in 1950. The Forestry Law and its Regulations also provided for the establishment of forestry protected zones. The Federal Hunting Law (Ley Federal de Caza), 1952 made provisions for the establishment of wild faunal refuges (Vargas, 1984). Between 1950-1980, a policy of creating "vedas forestales” (hunting reserves) was carried out. These were declared over large areas of the country, but the scheme was a failure and caused serious over-exploitation of resources and corruption (Vargas, 1990; E.J. Jardel, pers. comm., 1992). The current Forestry Law was promulgated in 1960, and it provided for the establishment of national parks for public use within suitable forested areas by the Federal Executive (SEDUE, n.d.a). In 1973, the National Commission of Works in Natural Parks (Comisién Nacional de Obras en Parques Naturales) (CONOPAN) was created within the erstwhile Ministry of Public Works (Secretaria de Obras Publicas). CONOPAN promoted the unlegislated concept of "natural parks” (parques naturales) which caused increased confusion within the existing system (SEDUE, n.d.a). In 1976 CONOPAN was dissolved. Protected areas thrived again under the presidency of José Lopez Portillo (1976-1982): nine new national parks and 20 new reserves (reservas) were declared and administrative changes were made (SEDUE, n.d.b). In 1977 the first two national biosphere reserves, Michilia and Mapimi, were created (Alcérreca et al., 1988), and a third, Montes Azules, was declared the following year (SEDUE, n.d.b). The Ministry (Secretariat) for Urban Development and Ecology (Secretaria de Desarrollo Urbano y Ecologia) (SEDUE) was created in 1982. Within the SEDUE, the Sub-secretariat for Ecology (Subsecretaria de Ecologia) was created in 1983, and it established the national system of natural protected areas (sistema nacional de areas naturales protegidas) (SINAP) in 1986 as part of the National Programme for Ecology. The SINAP is an instrument to ensure the preservation, rational use and value of the natural and cultural resources, determining their management and priorities (SEDUE, n.d.a). Prior to the 1980s, national biosphere reserves were established by virtue of individual presidential decrees (Vargas, 1984). In addition, the Fisheries Ministry has established aquatic faunal refuges by virtue of the Fisheries Legislation, 1972 and 1986. Similarly, there are a few protected areas that have been established by Protected Areas of the World virtue of other laws, i.e. the Federal Hunting Law, the Fisheries Legislation, state decrees and other government agencies (Vargas, 1984). Experimental forestry plots (campos experimentales forestales) (CEFs) and experimental biological stations (estaciones experimentales de biologia) (EEBs), administered by the SARH (Secretaria de Agricultura y Recursos Hidraulicos) and the UNAM (Universidad Nacional Autonoma de México), respectively, appeared around 1961. Although these two types of experimental areas were set up mainly for research, they provided some degree of protection (Vargas, 1984). The current law governing protected areas is the 1988 General Law for Ecological Equilibrium and Environmental Protection (Ley General del Equilibrio Ecolégico y la Proteccién al Ambiente) was finally promulgated in 1988 (see Annex). This regulates natural protected areas, makes legal provisions for SINAP, defining categories used and making provisions for wild and aquatic flora and fauna (SEDUE, 1989). It also provides for the decentralisation of environmental management to the federal agencies and municipalities, and includes an ecology code and guidelines for environmental impact assessment (FAO, n.d.). Another positive step appears to be the publication of the General Law for Ecolegical Equilibrium by 19 states (SEDUE, n.d.a). Early legislation problems included limitations on the area of jurisdiction (Vargas, 1984). In addition, the concept of ’natural park’, introduced by CONOPAN in 1973, caused considerable confusion, as these were established within legally existing areas such as the national parks of El Chico, Iztaccihuatl-Popocatépetl, Cumbres de Ajusco, Lagunas de Montebello, Nevado de Toluca, and others (SEDUE, n.d.a). In the past, the protected areas system has been unable to protect adequately the natural richness of the country due to lack of legislation and resources for management (Vargas, 1984; Alcérreca et al., 1988; WCMC, 1988). This has been compounded by the fact that many of the existing decrees have not been carried out (SEDUE, n.d.a). Ambiguity over management arises because areas designated as national parks often remain in private ownership (Halffter, 1992; Jardel et al., 1992; G. Aguirre, pers. comm., 1992). In 1992, the President reformed Mexico’s Constitution and introduced important changes into the structure of federal government. The full extent of these changes is not yet known (Pérez-Gil and Jaramillo, 1992). International Activities Mexico signed the Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the Westem Hemisphere (Convencién sobre la Proteccién de la Flora, de la Fauna y de las Bellezas Escénicas Naturales de los Paises de América) (Western Hemisphere Convention) in 1940, and ratified it subsequently. Mexico became a signatory to the 52 Convention concerning the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) in 1984 and the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) in 1986. Mexico participates in the Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme and has six internationally recognised biosphere reserves. It is also a signatory to the Convention on the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena Convention) (IUCN, 1985). Mexico signed this Convention and the related Protocol concerning the Cooperation in Combatting Oils Spills in the Wider Caribbean Region on 24 March 1983. It ratified both these agreements on 9 April 1985. The second Protocol concerning Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife (SPAW) was signed in June 1991. Mexico, through SEDUE, participates in the FAO Latin American Network Programme (Red Latinoamericana de Cooperacién Técnica en Parques Nacionales, Otras Areas Protegidas, Flora y Fauna Silvestres). Administration and Management _—_ Up until 1976, protected area management was the responsibility of various bodies within the forestry sector. In 1901, the Central Board for Forests and Woods (Junta Central de Bosques y Arbolados) was created througha Presidential Decree as the first body responsible for protected areas (Vargas, 1984). Until 1910, natural areas were the responsibility of the Central Board of Forest and Woods; from 1910 to 1912 they were covered by the Forest Department (Departamento de Bosques) (SEDUE, n.d.a). From 1914 to 1920 they were the responsibility of the Department of Forests, Hunting and Fishing (Departamento de Bosques, Caza y Pesca), and from 1932 to 1934 this responsibility was placed on the General Directorate of Forestry, Hunting and Fishing (Direcci6n General Forestal y de Caza y Pesca) (Vargas, pers. comm., 1992). Between 1934 and 1939, with the creation of a large number of new protected areas, special institutes were created for the administration of these areas. The first was the Forests and National Parks Office (Oficina de Bosques y Parques Nacionales) as part of the Autonomous Department of Forestry (Departamento Auténomo Forestal). The Office was then raised to the status of a department, the Department of National and International Parks (Departamento de Parques Nacionales e Internacionales), within the Direccién General Forestal y de Caza, a part of the Secretariat for Agriculture and Public Works (Secretaria de Agricultura y Fomento) (SAF). Between 1940 and 1951, the Department of Reserves and National Parks (Departamento de Reservas y Parques Nacionales) dealt with protected areas within the General Directorate of Forestry and Hunting of the SAF. There were a great number of changes between 1951 and 1972 and the responsibility for protected areas was shifted between numerous government departments. The short-lived National Commission of Works in Natural Parks (Comisién Nacional de Obras en Parques Naturales) (CONOPAN) was created in 1973, but dissolved three years later due to its incompatibility with existing administrative bodies. From 1976 to 1982, five government agencies were responsible for protected area management: the Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources (Secretaria de Recursos Hidrdulicos), the Ministry of Human Settlements and Public Works (Secretaria de Asentamientos Humanos y Obras Publicas), the Government of the Federal District (Gobernacién del Distrito Federal), the Ministry of Tourism (Secretaria de Turismo) and the Ministry of Fisheries (Secretaria de Pesca) (Pérez-Gil and Jaramillo, 1992). The Ministry for Urban Development and Ecology (Secretaria de Desarrollo Urbano y Ecologia) (SEDUE) was created in 1982. Within SEDUE, the Subsecretariat of Ecology was responsible for protected areas through the General Directorate for Ecological Conservation of Natural Resources (Direccién General de Conservacién Ecoldgica de los Recursos Naturales) (DGCERN), created in 1985. DGCERN was formed by the amalgamation of the former General Directorate of Reserves and Ecological Protected Areas (Direccién General de Parques, Reservas y Areas Ecoldgicas Protegidas) (DGPRAEP) was established and the General Directorate for Wild Flora and Fauna (Direccién General de Flora y Fauna Silvestres) (Alcérreca et al., 1988). The administration of protected areas was the responsibility of SEDUE, although this responsibility could also be delegated to states and municipalities by SEDUE (SEDUE, n.d.a). Management may also be contracted to NGOs in certain cases (L. Gonzalez, pers. comm., 1992). In May 1992, SEDUE was dissolved and its functions taken over by the new Ministry for Social Development (SEDESOL) (Pérez-Gil and Jaramillo, 1992). Further information is not currently available. Systems Reviews Mexicois the third largest country in Latin America after Brazil and Argentina. It is bounded in the north by the USA, west and south by the Pacific Ocean, south-east by Guatemala, Belize and the Caribbean Sea, and north-east by the Gulf of Mexico. It is mainly mountainous, with less than 35% of its surface area below 500m, and more than half above 1,000m (WCMC, 1988). Volcanic activity is considerable and has formed much of the topography. The Sierra Madre Occidental is the main mountain chain (1,400km) running parallel to the Pacific coast. The Sierra Madre Oriental (600km) runs north-west to south-east down the Atlantic coast. Between these two cordilleras is the Altiplanicie Mexicana, a plateau at an altitude of 3,000m. The Baja California mountain system is continuous with the Sierra Nevada in N. California; being almost completely surrounded by sea, its biological characteristics, like those of the Yucatan Peninsula, resemble those of an island. The 950km Eje Neovolcanico runs east to west and includes Mexico’s highest peak, Pico de Orizaba (5,675m). South of this is 53 United Mexican States (Mexico) the 1,100km Sierra Madre del Sur. The south-east mountain system runs from Chiapas, and is contiguous with the Central American mountain chain (Rzedowski, 1978; G. Aguirre, pers. comm., 1992). The coastline extends for nearly 10,000km, 6,760km on the Pacific and 2,900km on the Atlantic. There are an important number of islands on both the Pacific and the Atlantic sides of the country, as well as varied and important marine and coastal habitats such as coral reefs, mangroves and estuaries. The Usumacinta Delta (11,000 sq. km) on the Atlantic coast is considered one of the most important wetlands in North America (Duever and Sprunt, 1978). There are two main river basins, the Gulf and the Pacific, with some enclosed basins in the interior of the country. Mexico ranks fourth in the world after Indonesia, Brazil and Colombia in terms of biodiversity (Toledo, 1988). It is also among the top ten countries in the world for the number of restricted-range bird species and endemic bird areas it supports (ICBP, 1992). It has the highest diversity of reptiles in the world, the second greatest mammal diversity and holds 8.7% of the worlds amphibian species, 11% of reptile, bird and mammal species and 14% of fish species. Furthermore, 32% of Mexico’s terrestrial vertebrates and 40-50% of her plant species are endemic (Alcérreca et al., 1988; Flores-Villela and Gerez, 1988). This biological richness results from great habitat variation and diverse ecological regions, complex topography, climate, geology and geographical location. Ecosystems range from deserts to rain forests and mangrove swamps. In addition, Mexico, like Indonesia, bridges two major biogeographic realms, the Nearctic and the Neotropical, which provide exchanges between elements of northern temperate and tropical origins (Rzedowski, 1978). Reviews of Mexico’s terrestrial biodiversity have been undertaken by Toledo (1988), Flores-Villela and Gerez (1988) and WCMC (1988). Mexico has tropical and subtropical zones, which, together with the complexity of its terrain, result in a great variety of climates. The Atlantic region is wetter than the north-west. Alpine climate is found in mountains higher than 4,000m. Vegetation can be divided into three approximately equal areas: the tropical/subtropical, temperate and semi-arid/arid. The tropical/subtropical region includes tropical rain forests originally covering 6% of the country, but half of which has been destroyed. The vegetation of the temperate region occupies the main cordilleras and about 15% of the country; the principal forest consists of a wide diversity of pines Pinus spp. and oaks Quercus spp.; 80% of plants found in the pine forests are endemic (Rzedowski, 1978). In addition, pine forests supply 80% of national timber production (E. Jardel, pers. comm., 1992). In the higher parts of the cordilleras, to 3,300m, forests of silver fir Abies spp. occur. The semi-arid/arid zone is found mainly in the north and centre (Sonoran and Chihuahuan deserts and Protected Areas of the World central altiplano) and includes mostly open shrubland (matorral), cacti and xerophytic monocotyledons (Davis et al., 1986). Until recently, the majority of existing protected areas have represented temperate ecosystems. The SINAP intended to include areas representative of all the ecosystems found in the country (SEDUE, n.d.a). However, at present national biosphere reserves are the only protected areas to have been selected using biological criteria; they are also the only ones which fulfil the minimum management requirements for conservation (E. Jardel, pers. comm., 1992). In terms of biological diversity, ecological value and vulnerability, conservation priorities are: montane broad-leaved forest, mangroves and coastal wetlands, moist tropical forest, dry tropical forest and arid zones (E. Jardel, pers.comm., 1992). There appear to be discrepancics in the definitions and number of established protected areas. According to Vargas (1984 and pers. comm., 1992), at present there are 15 legally defined categories. Flores Villela and Geréz (1988) also reported the same number, although the categories differ, while Alcérreca et al. (1988) suggest that the number is as high as 26. The SINAP’s current categories only include nine definitions (SEDUE, n.d.a.). By 1969 there was a total of 40 protected areas covering 795,760ha, of which 34 were national parks (649,778ha) and six were special biosphere reserves (145,982ha) (SEDUE, n.d.a). However, Vargas (1984 and pers. comm., 1992) reports 46 national parks only for the same period. By 1992 the total number of protected areas administered by SEDUE had increased to 68 (SEDUE, n.d.a). Although 20% of national territory is protected, these protected areas have not functioned in practice (Jardel, 1990). In view of this, biosphere reserves are the ideal type of protected area as they adapt well to socioeconomic conditions (Halffter, 1984; 1991; Jardel et al., 1992). Some of the problems facing protected areas include: lack of clear objectives, scientific research and management plans, appropriate legal support, and management resources; irregularities in land tenure and pressure form settlements in and around protected areas; and lack of public awareness (Alcérreca et al., 1988; SEDUE, n.d.a). By the early 1980s, property rights had been left undefined in 60% of national parks (Vargas, 1984). The majority of protected areas have been established on communal land or ejidales. This has led to conflicts between nature conservation and local utilisation (Jardel, 1990). The legal situation is further complicated when the limits of protected areas are confused or erroneous, as is frequently the case in existing decrees (Alcérreca et al., 1988). The following are the principal threats: deforestation, poaching, rubbish dumping, plant poaching, mineral exploitation, Over-grazing and erosion. Activities, like the expansion of agriculture have resulted in loss of soil, exhaustion of watercourses and pollution (Alcérreca er al., 1988; SEDUE, n.d.a). More detailed analyses of the problems 54 relating to protected areas are made by Vargas (1984) and Alcérreca et al. (1988). For example, in 1970 it was reported that 69.1% of the national parks had human settlements, containing 73,715 people (Vargas, 1984). Thirty-three parks were overgrazed by livestock, hunting occurred in 31 parks, and deforestation and/or tree-cutting occurred in 30 (Vargas, 1984). Addresses Secretaria de Desarrollo Urbano y Ecologia (SEDUE), Subsecretaria de Ecologia (Directora General), Direccidén General de Conservacién Ecolégica de los Recursos Naturales, Rio Elba No. 20, 10 Piso, Colonia Cuauhtémoc, Delegacién Cuauhtémoc 06500, MEXICO DF (Tel/FAX: 525 553 9462) Centro de Ecologia, Universidad Nacional Aut6noma de México (UNAM), Aptdo. Postal 70-275, MEXICO 04510, D.F. Amigos de Sian Ka’an, Apartado 770, 77500 Canciin, QUINTANA ROO Fundacion Chiapaneca Miguel Alvarez del Toro para la Proteccion de la Naturaleza (FUNDAMAT), A.C. Apartado Postal No. 970, Tuxtla Gutiérrez, CHIAPAS CP 29000 Laboratorio Natural Las Joyas de la Sierra de Manantlan, Universidad de Guadalajara, Aptdo Postal 1-3933, 44100 GUADALAJARA (Tel. 268655) Mariposa Monarca, Avenida Constituyentes 345-806, Colonia Daniel Garza, 1 183 0 MEXICO, DF (Tel: 525 515 9910) PRONATURA, A.C., Apartado Postal 14, 53160 NAUCALPAN , Estado de México (Tel: 525 545 1776) References Alcérreca, C., Consejo, J.J., Flores, O., Gutiérrez, D., Hentschell, E., Herzig, M., Pérez-Gil, R., Reyes, J.M., y Sanchez-Cordero, V. (1988). Fauna silvestre y Greas naturales protegidas. Universo Veintiuno. 193 pp. Anaya, A., De la Maza, J., Consejo, J.J., Garcia, J.M. (1985). Conservacién del patrimonio natural de México. World Forestry Congress. Unpublished. (Unseen) Beltran, E. (1973). Los Parques Nacionales y la Semana de los Cinco Dias. Instituto Mexicano de Recursos Naturales Renovables, A.C. México. (Unseen) Davis, S.D., Droop, S.J.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., Leon, C.J., Villa-Lobos, J., Synge, H., and Zantovska, J. (1986). Plants in Danger —-What do we know? IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 461 pp. Duever, M.J. and Sprunt, A. (1978). Ecosystem analysis of the Usumacinta Delta, Tabasco and Campeche, Mexico 1978-1981. A proposal to IUCN. 123 pp. FAO (n.d.). La Red Latinoamericana de Cooperacién Técnica en Parques Nacionales, Otras Areas Protegidas, Flora y Fauna Silvestres. Oficina Regional de la FAO para América Latina y el Caribe, Santiago, Chile. 8 pp. Flores-Villela, O. and Gerez, P. (1988). Conservaciénen México: sintesis sobre vertebrados terrestres, vegetacién y uso del suelo. INIREB, Conservation International. 302 pp. G6mez-Pompa, A. (1987). On Maya silviculture. Mexican Studies 3(1): 1-17. (Unseen) G6émez-Pompa, A. and Kaus, A. (1990). Traditional management of tropical forests in Mexico. In: A.B. Anderson (Ed.), Alternatives to Deforestation: Steps toward Sustainable Use of the Amazon Rain Forest. Columbia University Press, New York. Pp. 45-64. Gonzalez, A. and Sanchez L., V.M. (1961). Los parques nacionales de México. Instituto Mexicano de Recursos Naturales Renovables, A.C. 149 pp. Halffter, G. (1984). Las Reservas de la Bidsfera: Conservacion de la Naturaleza para el Hombre. Acta Zool. Méx. 5: 448. Halffter, G. (1991). El concepto de la reserva de la bidsfera. Memorias del Seminario sobre Conservaci6n de la Diversidad Biolégica de México 1: 1-25. Halffter, G. (1992). Areas naturales protegidas de México: una perspectiva. Instituto de Ecologia. (Unpublished). 12 pp. Hunter, B. (1991). The Statesman's Year-Book 1991-1992. The Macmillan Press Ltd, London. ICBP (1992). Putting biodiversity on the map: priority areas for global conservation. International Council for Bird Preservation, Cambridge, UK. Pp. 90. IUCN (1985). Status of multilateral treaties in the field of environment and conservation. [UCN Environmental Policy and Law Occasional Paper 1: 1-6. Jardel, E.J. (1990). Conservacién y uso sostenido de recursos forestales en ecosistemas de montafia. In: Rojas, R. (Ed.) En busca del equilibrio perdido: el uso de los recursos naturales en México, Editorial Universidad de Guadalajara. Pp. 209-235. Jardel, E.J., Aguirre, G., Santana, E., and Halffter, G. (1992). Desarrollo de las reservas de la bidsfera en México. Paper presented at Workshop III.3 of IV World Parks Congress, Caracas, Venezuela. Melo, G.C. (1977). Balance analitico de la operacién del sistema mexicano de parques nacionales. 55 United Mexican States (Mexico) Instituto de Geografia, UNAM. Serie Varia 1(3): 155-231. (Unseen) Ormazabal, C. (1988). Sistemas nacionales de Greas silvestres protegidas en América Latina. Basado en los resultados del taller sobre Planificacién de Sistemas Nacionales de Areas Silvestres Protegidas, Caracas, Venezuela, 9-13 junio 1986. Proyecto FAO/PNUMA sobre manejo de areas silvestres, areas protegidas y vida silvestre en America Latina y el Caribe. Oficina Regional de la FAO para América Latina y el Caribe, Santiago, Chile. Pp. 20-23. Pérez, R., and Jaramillo, F. (1992). Natural Protected Areas in Mexico. Report by PG7 Consultores, S.C. for IUCN-BID. 21 pp. (unpublished) Rzedowski, J. (1978). Vegetacién de México. Editorial LIMUSA, México DF. 432 pp. SEDUE (n.d.a). Resefia de la conservacion de dreas naturales protegidas en México. 23 pp. SEDUE (n.d.b). Sistema nacional de dreas naturales protegidas. 24 pp. SEDUE (n.d.c). Sistema nacional de dreas naturales protegidas (SINAP), México. 9 pp. SEDUE (1989). Informacién bdsica sobre las dreas naturales protegidas de México. Subsecretaria de Ecologia. Direcciédn General de Conservacién Ecoldgica de los Recursos Naturales (DGCERN). SINAP. 82 pp. Toledo, V.M. (1988). La diversidad bioldgica de México. Ciencia y Desarrollo. 14(81): 17-30 (Unseen) Vargas, F. (1984). Parques nacionales de México y reservas equivalentes. Instituto de Investigaciones Econémicas, UNAM. 266 pp. Vargas, F. (1990). Las dreas naturales "protegidas" en México; una utopia, basada en simulaciones, mitos, demagogia y autoritarismo. II International Symposium on Protected Areas in Mexico. Centro de Ecologia UNAM. 22-26 October 1990. WCMC (1988). Mexico —Conservation of biological diversity. World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK. 19 pp. Protected Areas of the World ANNEX Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration Title: Ley General del Equilibrio Ecoldégico y la Protecci6n al Ambiente (General Law for Ecological Equilibrium and Environmental Protection) Date: 1 March 1988 Brief description: The backbone of ecological regulation in the country and is an integrated approach to the ecology issue and the commitment to tackle the related problems through the combin efforts of the state and society. The first sev categories are federal while the remaining two are local interest. Administrative authority: Desarrollo Urbano y Ecologia (SEDUE) Designations: Reserva de la Bidsfera (Biosphere Reserve) ed en of Secretaria de Area no less than 10,000ha containing relevant biogeographic representative areas at the national level, of one or more ecosystems not significantly altered by human action, with at least a pristine area inhabited by endemic, threatened or endangered species. Reserva Especial de la Bidsfera (Special Biosphere Reserve) Representative area of one or more ecosystems not significantly altered by man, inhabited by endemic, threatened or endangered species. Their smaller size and ecosystems are the main differences with the above. Parque Nacional (National Park) Biogeographic representative area at a national level of one or more ecosystems which are significant as a result of their scenic beauty, their scientific, educational, recreational or historic value, their nationally important flora and fauna and their suitability for tourist development. Monumento Natural (Natural Monument) Area with one or more natural elements of national importance, consisting of natural places and objects that due to their unique or exceptional character, aesthetic interest, historic and scientific value are incorporated into a system of absolute protection. Parque Marino Nacional (Marine National Park) Marine areas, beaches and federal maritime- terrestrial neighbouring areas, dedicated to t he preservation of the aquatic ecosystems and elements, ecological research and the rational use of their resources under specific norms of ecological protection. 56 Title: International Parks (Reglamento de Parques Nacionales e Internacionales) Area de Proteccién de Recursos Naturales (Natural Resource Protection Area) Areas destined to preserve and restore forested areas and to the conservation of the soil and water. The following areas are further found within this category: (a) forest reserve, (b) national forest reserve, (c) protective forest area, (d) area of forest restoration and propagation and (e) protection area for rivers, springs, deposits and in general, sources for urban water replenishment. Area de Proteccién de Flora y Fauna Silvestre y Acudatica (Wild and Aquatic Flora and Fauna Protection Area) Areas containing critical habitats for the existence, transformation and development of species of wild and aquatic flora and fauna. Parque Urbano (Urban Park) Areas for public use with natural, artificial ecosystems or nature elements dedicated to protect a healthy environment for recreation of the population and for the protection of artistic and historical values and natural beauty of regional or local significance. Zona Sujeta a Conservacion Ecoldgica (Ecological Conservation Zone) Areas with one or more ecosystems in good conservation state, destined to preserve natural elements indispensable for ecological equilibrium and general welfare. Urban parks and areas subject to ecological conservation are the responsibility of state governments and municipalities. Source: SEDUE (1989) Regulation of National and Date: Promulgated 15 April 1942; published 29 May 1942 Brief description: Provides the clearest national parks concept in the Mexican park legislation Administrative authority: Federal government Designations: Parque Nacional (National Park) Areas destined to ensure the protection of natural scenic beauties and flora and fauna of national importance, which the public may better enjoy by being placed under official surveillance. Source: Original legislation United Mexican States (Mexico) SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified National Parks 1 Benito Juarez II 2,737 1937 2 Bosencheve II 15,000 1940 3 Cafién del Rio Blanco II 55,900 1938 4 Cajfién del Sumidero II 21,789 1980 5 Cascada de Bassaseachic II 6,263 1981 6 Cerro de la Estrella II 1,100 1938 if Cofre de Perote II 11,700 1937 8 Constituci6n de 1857 II 5,009 1962 9 Cumbres de Majalca II 4,772 1939 10 Cumbres de Monterrey II 246,500 1939 11 El Chico II 2,739 1982 12 EI Cimatario II 2,447 1982 13 El Gogorr6on II 25,000 1936 14 El Potosi II 2,000 1936 15 EI Tepozteco II 24,000 1937 16 El Veladero II 3,159 1980 17 Grutas de Cacahuamilpa Ill 1,600 1936 18 Insurgente Jose Maria Morelos y Pavon II 4,324 1939 19 Insurgente Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla II 1,760 1936 20 Isla Isabela II 194 1980 21 Iztaccihuatl-Popocatépetl II 25,679 1935 22 La Malinche II 45,711 1938 23 Lagunas de Chacahua II 5 14,187 1937 24 Lagunas de Montebello II 6,022 1959 25 Lagunas de Zempoala II 4,669 1936 26 Los Marmoles II 23,150 1936 27 Nevado de Colima II 22,200 1936 28 Nevado de Toluca II 51,000 1936 29 Palenque Vv 1,772 1981 30 Pico de Orizaba II 19,750 1937 31 Pico de Tancitaro II 29,316 1940 32 Sierra de San Pedro Mantir II 63,000 1947 33 Zoquiapan y Anexas II 19,418 1937 Biosphere Reserves (National) 34 Calakmul Vv 723,185 1989 35 El Pinacate Vv 480,956 36 El Triunfo I 119,177 1972 37 El Vizcaino Vv 2,546,790 1988 38 Mapimi Vv 103,000 1977 39 Michilia V 42,000 1977 40 Montes Azules II 331,200 1978 41 Sian Ka’an II 528,147 1986 42 Sierra de Manantlan Vv BEES 1987 Marine Reserve 43 La Blanquilla IV 66,868 1975 Faunal Reserve 44 Isla Cedros I 1,000 1978 Cetacean Sanctuary 45 Isla de Guerrero Negro I 40,000 1979 Protected Areas of the World Map ref. Nationall/international designations IUCN management Name of area category Refuges La Mojonera IV La Primavera IV Sierra de Alvarez IV Sierra del Pinacate IV Valle de los Cirios IV Natural Monument Cerro de la Silla I Natural and Typical Biotope La Encrucijada IV Special Biosphere Reserves Cascadas de Agua Azul III El Ocote IV Isla Contoy I Isla Guadalupe I Isla Tiburon VII Islas del Golfo de California I Mariposa Monarca I Ria Celestuin IV Ria Lagartos IV Sierra de Santa Martha VII Volcan de San Martin Vil Park Omiltemi II Forest Reserves Bavispe VIII Campo Verde VIII Centenario VIII El Gavilan VIII Mesa del Pitorreal Vil Papigochic Vill Porcidn Boscosa de San Luis Potosi VIII San José de los Molinos VIII Sierra de Juarez VIII Sierra de Los Ajos, Buenos Aires y Purica Vill Sierra de Pedro Martir Vill Sierras de Hansen y San Pedro Martir, y Mesa Pinal VIII Tequixquipan Vill Terenos de Puebla y México Vill Tutuaca Vill Protection Area for Wild Flora and Fauna Corredor Biolégico Chichinautzin IV Biosphere Reserves El Cielo IX Montes Azules IX Reserva de Mapimi IX Reserva de la Michilia IX Sian Ka’an IX Sierra de Manantlan IX 58 Area (ha) 9,201 30,500 16,900 28,660 3,500,000 6,045 30,000 2,580 48,140 176 25,000 120,800 150,000 16,100 59,130 47,840 20,000 1,500 3,600 198,164 78,792 3,000 9,682 4,900 172,480 29,885 2,995 140,000 21,494 74,000 1,249,000 32,000 18,215 364,952 37,302 144,530 331,200 103,000 42,000 523,147 139,577 Year notified 1981 1980 1981 1979 1980 1991 1972 1980 1982 1961 1922 1963 1978 1980 1979 1979 1980 1979 1939 1938 1949 1923 1923 1939 1923 1942 1951 1936 1951 1923 1935 1926 1937 1988 1986 1979 1977 1977 1986 1988 United Mexican States (Mexico) Map National/international designations ‘ IUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified Ramsar Wetlands Ria Lagartos, Yucatan R 47,480 1986 World Heritage Site Sian Ka’an Xx 528,000 1987 Protected Areas of the World Protected Areas of Mexico 60 ST PIERRE AND MIQUELON (FRANCE) Area 242 sq. km (SaintPierre group: 26 sq. km; MiquelonLanglade group: 216 sq. km) Population 6,392 (1990) Natural increase: No information Economic Indicators GDP: No information GNP: No information Policy and Legislation The eight islands of the St Pierre and Miquelon archipelago were first settled from France in the 17th century they were ceded by Britain to France in 1776. They remained French territory from 1816 to 1976 and an overseas department until 1985. In June 1985 they were reformed as a collectivité territoriale, with intermediate status between overseas department and overseas territory (Hunter, 1991). As a dependency, the islands adhere to the policy and legislation of France (Frean, 1991; Hunter, 1991), and are administered by a General Council, which is represented in the National Assembly in Paris. The French government is represented on the islands by a Commissioner. The Constitution of the Fifth Republic, superseding that of 1946, came into force on 4 October 1958. It has 92 articles and gave rise to the current conservation legislation. The general framework for establishing protected areas in France and its dependencies is provided by the Law Relating to the Creation of National Parks No. 60.708 of 22 July 1960 and the Nature Conservation Act No. 76 629 of 10 July 1976, which includes provision for the general framework for defining, designating and establishing nature reserves (réserves naturelles). No information is available concerning protected areas in St Pierre and Miquelon. International Activities No international sites have been designated in the islands, although France itself is a signatory to the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) (1 October 1986) and the Convention conceming the World Natural and Cultural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) (27 June 1975), and is also a participant in the Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme. France has not signed a number of important regional treaties in North America, most notably the Migratory Birds Convention which was signed between Canada and the USA in 1917 and the North American Waterfowl Management Plan (NAWMP): a joint project involving Mexico, the USA and Canada. Administration and Management As a collectivité territoriale, authority is vested in the Commissioner. The 61 ordinary budget for 1989 was balanced at FF 87.4 million. Administrative responsibility for nature conservation throughout France lies with the Ministry of the Environment (Ministére de 1’Environnement), which was established in 1971. Bodies involved in the central organisation within France include the Agency for the Quality of Life (Délégation 4 la qualité de la vie), the Directorate for Water and the Prevention of Pollution Risks (Direction de l’eau et de la prévention des pollutions et des risques), the Directorate for Nature Conservation (Direction de la protection de la nature), and the High Committee for the Environment (Haut Comité de 1’Environnement). There are several semi-autonomous bodies which fall under the supervision of the Ministry of the Environment; these include the National Hunting Office (Office national de la chasse), the Higher Council for Fishing (Conseil supérieur de la péche), the National Parks and the Coastal and Lakeshore Conservancy (Conservatoire de lV’espace littoral et des rivages lacustres) (CERL). The Higher Council for Fishing has had some involvement in negotiations with the government of Canada and the province of Newfoundland over fishing rights for the islands (Frean, 1991). Systems Reviews The eight islands of the Archipelago lie in the northwest Atlantic, some 20km off the south coast of Newfoundland, west of the Burin Peninsula. Much of the area of the islands is rocky, while ponds, swamps and marshes cover over half of the total area. Most of the land area is treeless; however, some of the valleys are wooded. Agriculture is not a major feature of the landscape, although some vegetables and livestock are kept for local consumption (Davis et al., 1986; Hunter, 1991). There are 391 native species and 96 introduced species of vascular plants (Davis et al., 1986). Fisheries provide the economical mainstay of the islands, although fish stocks are now severely depleted due to overfishing (Horsfield, 1990). The islanders claim a 200mile fishing zone to the south and east of the islands. This fishing zone is the source of a major dispute with the Canadians, who blame the islanders for overfishing in the area (Frean, 1991; Hunter, 1991). Other Relevant Information For further information relating to national French policy, administration and management, see the relevant section in Volume 2. In 1989 there were 14,100 visitors to the islands. Protected Areas of the World Addresses Commissioner, Collectivité Territoriale, St Pierre, Saint Pierre et Miquelon, France References Davis, S.D., Droop, SJ.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., Leon, CJ., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J., Synge, H., and Zantovska, J. (1986). Plants in danger: What do we know? IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 62 De La Rue, E.A. (1963). SaintPierre et Miquelon. Paris. Frean, A. (1991). Battle rages over the islands of fog. The European. Weekend 2628 July. P. 11. Horsfield, M. (1990). Gee whiz! It’s France’s North American foothold. The European. Weekend November 911. Pp. 2223. Hunter, B. (1991). The Statesman’s Yearbook. 128th edition. The MacMillan Press Ltd, London and Basingstoke, UK. Pp. 483521. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Area 9,372,614 sq. km Population 249,224,000 (1989) Natural increase: 0.72% per annum Economic Indicators GDP: US$19,049 per capita (1989) GNP: US$21,100 per capita (1989) Policy and Legislation The Declaration of Independence of the American colonies from Great Britain was adopted by Congress on 4 July 1776 and the Treaty of Peace ratified on 14 January 1784. The Constitution dates from 17 September 1787, and by this the national government is divided into executive, legislative and judicial coordinated branches. Under Article 1 Section 1 all legislative powers are vested in the Congress of the United States (US). The US is a federal nation, comprising 48 coterminous states, as well as the disjunct states of Alaska and Hawaii. Each of these 50 states has its own Constitution and legislation. Overseas, the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam and the Virgin Islands each has a local legislature, the acts of which may be modified or annulled by Congress. For detailed information concerning Puerto Rico and the US Virgin Islands see the relevant sections in this volume. For information relating to Hawaii, American Samoa and Guam see the relevant sections of Volume 1. In North America the protected area systems are large and complex. Policy and legislation for the conservation of protected areas is found at both state and federal level, whilst, within states, a number of sites have been protected at the local and regional levels. This report deals largely with protected areas declared under federal legislation and administered by federal agencies. When first colonised by Europeans, North America was very much a wilderness, with a vast and largely undisturbed wealth of natural resources. The native Americans had a great respect for the natural environment, on which their livelihood, religion and culture were almost wholly dependent. For generations sacred areas had been respected by the tribes, entry forbidden, or such activities as hunting and fishing restricted, and in a number of locations this philosophy continues to the present day (Gattuso, 1991). The evolution of the modern concept of protected area is generally regarded as having started in the State of Georgia which boasted a reserve for public use as early as 1825. However, there is some evidence which traces the history of parks to a state reservation in Massachusetts in 1641. Parks conservation began in earnest, however, on 30 June 1864, when President Abraham Lincoln signed a law granting the Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Grove of Giant Sequoias to California to be held for "public use, resort, and 63 recreation...inalienable for all time.” A short time after this, on 1 March 1872 Yellowstone was declared as a "national park", widely accepted as the first national park in the world. The Antiquities Act, 1906 granted the President the power unilaterally to declare sites of historic or scientific value as monuments. The Act favoured cultural and historical preservation, but President Theodore Roosevelt interpreted the criteria of scientific value broadly, and invoked his new executive powers widely to create national monuments in areas of value for nature conservation. Federal Policy and Legislation Legislation governing protected areas is largely covered under single organic acts or series of laws enacted by Congress giving protected area jurisdiction to specific agencies. These organic acts impose on the agencies certain duties or areas of responsibility for a whole range of laws pertaining to protected areas. These areas of responsibility have been grouped into systems such as the National Park System with a number of different park designations. The main systems listed here include the National Park System, National Wilderness Preservation System, National Forest System, National Wild and Scenic Rivers System, National Marine Sanctuary Code/Natignal Estuarine Research Reserves System and the National Wildlife Refuge System (see below and Annex). Individual federal laws are contained in a series of volumes (Statutes at Large) in the order in which they were passed, and subsequently codified and put into the United States Code (USC). The President may also delegate specific duties to specific departments and agencies by Executive Order. Regulations for the differing categories of protected area are drafted in the relevant department or agency and put before the public in open hearings and published both in the draft and final form in the Federal Register. Final regulations are, like individual pieces of legislation which are passed by Congress, codified, appearing in the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) (see Annex). National Park System National parks and other categories of lands within this system are established by individual acts of Congress (prior to 1980, national monuments could also be established by the President on federal lands by proclamation under the Antiquities Act, 1906). The National Park Service was established by the Act of 1916, Title 16 of the USC, Chapter 1 (16 USC 1). It contains the authorising legislation, or "organic act" for the National Park Service. This law stipulates that "the Service...shall promote and regulate the use of the federal areas known as national parks, monuments, and reservations hereinafter specified..." The National Park Service has responsibility for three broad types of areas, natural, historical and recreational, represented by some Protected Areas of the World 16 categories of nomenclature under the National Park System. These include: national park, national monument, national reserve, national preserve, national recreation area, national historic site, national historic park, national battlefield, national seashore, national lakeshore, national scenic trail, national river, as well as national wild and scenic river (see Annex). Detailed definitions for these different categories are not provided under general legislation, and restrictions and regulations vary considerably between sites of the same category. National Wilderness Preservation System This is based on the Wilderness Act (Wilderness Act, 1964, PL 88-577, 16 USC 1131-1136) and dates from 3 September 1964. The Act establishes criteria for the management of areas of land as "wilderness" and the processes under which many areas have been added to the system, areas are added only by individual acts of Congress (see Annex). Four federal agencies (US National Park Service, US Forest Service, US Fish and Wildlife Service and US Bureau of Land Management) are authorised and mandated to manage wilderness. A large proportion of the designated areas lie within other categories of protected land administered by the federal agencies, and, where this is the case, the additional categorisation as wilderness will generally increase the degree of protection. National Forest System This is based on the Forest Reserves Act, often referred to as the Creative Act, 1891 (USC Title 16, Chapter 2 (16 USC 2); the Organic Administration Act, 1897 (16 USC 475); and the Weeks Law and Resources Planning Act. The Resources Planning Act, 1974 incorporated the term national forest system into the statutes. Under the System the US Forest Service has responsibility for national forests, national grasslands and land utilisation projects. Within national forests are a number of administrative designations: forests are classed into general or special interest areas, the latter listed as scenic areas, palaeontological areas, geological areas, botanical areas and zoological areas (see Annex). The resources of these lands are managed according to the Multiple Use-Sustained Yield Act, 1960 and the National Forest Management Act, 1976. The former established the policy that national forests be established and administered for "outdoor recreation, range, timber, watershed and wildlife and fish purposes", while the latter required the development and implementation of integrated plans for the management of forest and rangeland ecosystems. Under these Land and Resource Management Plans management direction is provided for the entire National Forest System: lands may be protected from or managed for various uses and at varying levels of intensity, and, in this way, a form of de facto protection status is provided for large areas. Two further administrative designations on Forest Service land are game refuges and game preserves, of which there are 21 sites, mostly in the eastern US, which provide an additional degree of habitat protection within parts of some national forests (McCloskey, 1992). In addition to its own legal and administrative categories, the Forest Service manages lands in the following categories: wilderness area, national recreation area, research natural area, national wild and scenic river, and national monument. In terms of degree of protection and area covered, the wilderness areas on USFS land are undoubtedly the most important form of protected area for conservation purposes. The Forest Service maintains probably the largest network of research natural areas of any federal agency. It also administers a number of large natural monuments, notably Misty Fjords and Admiralty Island in Alaska, and Mount St Helens in Washington. National Wild and Scenic Rivers System This is based on the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act (USC, Title 16, Chapter 28) of 2 October 1968. The system was authorised by Congress in 1968, declaring certain selected rivers of the nation as national wild and scenic rivers. They are designated as wild river areas, scenic river areas or recreational river areas, and include both federal and state land. The Law states that the system shall comprise rivers that are designated by Act of Congress or designated by a legislature of the state(s) through which they flow (see Annex). National Estuarine Research Reserves System and National Marine Sanctuaries Congress has authorised the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) to maintain two types of protected areas: national marine sanctuaries and national estuarine research reserves. The National Marine Sanctuary Programme was authorised by the Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act, 1972 (PL 92-532), as amended, 16 USC 1431 et seq. Programme regulations for the national marine sanctuary programme are found at 15 CFR 922. National Marine sanctuaries are established in the ocean and coastal environment for resource protection and management of compatible uses. The National Estuarine Research Reserve System was authorised by section 315 of the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 (PL 92-583), as amended, 16 USC 1451 et seq. Programme regulations for the national estuarine research reserve system are found at 15 CFR 921. National estuarine research reserves are established primarily as "natural laboratory" areas for estuarine research (see Annex). National Wildlife Refuge System The Organic Act relating to national wildlife refuges is the National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act, 1966, which expresses policy and provides guidelines for operating the system. The most important category in this system is the national wildlife refuge, although waterfowl production areas and coordination areas also form part of the system. The Refuge Recreation Act, 1962 authorises the purchase of adjacent lands to serve as recreational areas and as buffer areas to the refuges (funds for the purchase of such lands under the Land and Water Conservation Fund Act, 1965). The Wilderness Act, 1964 and the Endangered Species Act, 1973 (revised 1982, supplemented in the International Environmental Protection Act, 1983) have some bearing on the system. The Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act, 1934 (amended 1958) authorises federal water resource agencies to acquire lands in connection with water resource projects specifically for the conservation of wildlife. In 1903, Pelican Island, Florida, was protected asa wildlife refuge under an executive order. Subsequent growth in numbers of wildlife refuges created under executive order resulted in the need for a management authority. Policy and direction for the Refuge System are identified in the USFWS’s refuge manual. This gives four broad goals for the management of the System: to preserve, restore and enhance populations of species that are becoming endangered; to perpetuate the migratory bird resource; to preserve a natural biodiversity on refuge lands; and to provide for an understanding and appreciation of ecology and man’s role in the environment and provide for recreation where this is compatible with the primary purposes of the specific refuge. Management plans have been, or will be developed for each refuge Bureau of Land Management (BLM) Lands The Federal Land Policy and Management Act, 1976 (PL 94-579; 43 USC 170) is the equivalent of an organic act which contains the authorising legislation for the BLM and the declaration of congressional policy with respect to public lands administered by the BLM. The Act specifies that the public lands be managed in a manner that: will protect the quality of scientific, scenic, historical, ecological, environmental, air and atmospheric, water resource, and archaeological values; where appropriate, the BLM will preserve and protect certain public lands in their natural condition; management will provide food and habitat for fish and wildlife and domestic animals; will also provide for outdoor recreation and human occupancy and use; and that regulations and plans for the protection of public land areas of critical environmental concem be promptly developed. The Act also states that: public lands should generally be retained in Federal ownership; goals and objectives be established by law as guidelines for public land use planning; and management should be on the basis of multiple use and sustained yield, unless otherwise specified by law. Several different categories of protected areas are operative on public lands administered by the BLM. The first type of designations are administrative designations, such as: scenic areas, areas of environmental concem, trails, natural areas, research natural areas, special recreation Management areas, by-ways, significant caves and others. Such administrative designations are made by the general authority of the Secretary of the Interior in administering the public lands, or by the BLM under the resource management planning process (eg. areas of critical environmental concem) using the authority contained in Section 202 of the Federal Land Policy and Management Act. The other categories of protected area are those founded in legislation and enacted as public land laws 65 United States of America on a generic basis such as wilderness areas under the authority of the Wilderness Act, scenic and recreation rivers under the authority of the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act, or by special laws on an ad hoc basis for a specific area, such as national recreation areas, national conservation areas, national historic trails, national scenic trails, national outstanding natural areas and others. Department of Defense Lands The Organic Act relating to Department of Defense (DoD) land, federal statutes (Title 16, USC) authorises the Secretary of Defense "to carry out a programme of planning for, and the development, maintenance, and coordination of wildlife, fish and game conservation and rehabilitation in military reservations". There are a number of other laws which also relate specifically to conservation on military lands, for example Public Laws 86-797, 90-465, 93-452 and 96-561. Several sections of the US Code (Title 10) provide for conservation on military land. Finally, worth mentioning, is the Department of Defense Directive Number 4700.4, the Natural Resources Management Program (Keystone Center, 1991). Also of relevance at the federal level is the system of national natural landmarks which are designated on any areas of land outside the national park system. This is an administrative rather than a legal designation, participation in the scheme by private landowners is entirely voluntary (see Annex). Another non-legislated category is that of research natural area, designated by any one of eight federal agencies on federal land. Their objective is to preserve a representative array of natural and mostly undisturbed natural ecosystems, and to use these for education and research into these areas. Most of these sites lie within existing protected areas (see Annex). The Endangered Species Act, 1973 has some relation to the protection of land. This Act lists some 600 species (a further 3,000 species are considered as candidates for listing). Among the measures listed for the protection of these species is the designation of critical habitat for listed species and that this habitat should also receive protection. Current controversies concerning the fate of the northern spotted owl and its equally threatened habitat of oldgrowth temperate forest of the Pacific north-west coast of North America are clearly putting the habitat protection clauses of this Act to the test, and it remains to be seen how much of its fast-disappearing critical habitat receives protection in the near future. There is also a considerable body of legislation which relates to the protection of wetland areas within the US, this includes: the Clean Water Act, 1977; Executive Order 11990 Protection of Wetlands, 1977; the Food Security Act, 1985 (Swampbuster and other provisions); Emergency Wetland Act, 1986; Tax Reform Act, 1986; and Water Resources Development Act, 1986. Although these do not actually provide a legal category of protection, or provide clearly delineated boundaries, it is Protected Areas of the World estimated that the total area of wetlands protected under such legislation may be in excess of 40 million ha. The 1965 Land and Water Conservation Fund Act established the Land and Water Conservation Fund which is largely supplied from tax revenues. Money from the fund is used for protection purposes, with approximately half going to federal agencies, and half to individual states. The federal money is used largely for land acquisition purposes for the establishment or expansion of protected areas, and some of the state money is also used for this purpose, although much of the remainder is granted more broadly to a range of outdoor recreation activities. State Policy and Legislation Each of the 50 states within the United States has its own state park system, with at least one protected area management agency (Myers and Green, 1989). The state of New York created Niagara Falls Reservation in 1883, and Adirondak Park two years later. By 1907, the state of Wisconsin had developed a park system plan. It is beyond the scope of this publication to describe in detail the situation of each and every one of the 50 states (for greater detail see TNC, 1976). The establishment and expansion of the conservation units in Alaska is governed by the Alaska National Interests Lands Conservation Act, 1980, which provided for the additional preservation of some 42 million ha within this state. All of these areas fall within federal protected area systems. International Activities The United States participates in the Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme, with 47 sites having been recognised as part of the international biosphere reserve network. The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) was ratified on 18 December 1986, and ten sites have been listed. The United States ratified the Convention Conceming the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) on 7 December 1973. Ten natural sites have been inscribed on the World Heritage List, including a joint nomination with Canada. The United States ratified both the Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena Convention) and the Protocol Concerning Co-operation in Combating Oil Spills in the Wider Caribbean Region on 31 October 1984. The Protocol Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife has also been signed. The United States is party to the South Pacific Regional Environment Programme, and the 1986 Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment of the South Pacific Region (SPREP Convention) has been signed (25 November 1986), but not yet ratified. The Migratory Birds Convention was signed between Canada and the USA in 1917. The North American Waterfowl Management Plan is a joint project involving Canada and Mexico, 27 US states, approximately 200 conservation groups and many corporations, in the planning of programmes conserving waterfowl and wetland habitats. A similar programme is in development for international cooperation in the protection of neotropical migrants. The US Fish and Wildlife Service and the US National Park Service maintain cooperative agreements with protected area agencies throughout the world for technical assistance in support of protected area management. There are a number of transboundary protected areas. Glacier National Park in Montana and Waterton National Park in Alberta, Canada were combined in 1932 to form the first international peace park in the world. Others include the Wrangell-St Elias national park (USA) and Kluane national park (Canada); Arctic national wildlife refuge (USA) and Northern Yukon national park (Canada); Boundary Waters Canoe Area national forest wilderness (USA) and Quetico Wilderness provincial park (Canada); Pasayten national forest wilderness (USA) and the complex of Cathedral, Cascade and Manning provincial parks (Canada). A management agreement is currently being discussed concerning the establishment of a 2 million ha border park between the USA and Mexico along the Rio Grande which would incorporate Big Bend national park in the USA. Administration and Management There are five principal federal authorities, and at least four others with minor roles; the overall expenditure of federal agencies on protected areas in 1991 alone was US$ 1,962,704,000 (Waugh and Perez Gil, 1992). Federal Land National Park Service (NPS), US Department of the Interior was established in 1916 with two main aims: to conserve the scenery and natural and historic objects and wildlife within the areas under its jurisdiction; and to provide for public access and enjoyment of these areas. The efforts to balance these two missions have shaped the development of this agency, making it unique among the federal natural resource management agencies. The NPS administers over 360 units, covering over 32 million ha, including sites of both natural and cultural significance, visited by over 360 million people each year. Under the Director of the NPS are associate directors responsible for: Natural Resources (includes the NPS science programme); Cultural Resources (includes the NPS history and archaeology programmes); Operations (includes visitor services, Tanger activities, and interpretation); Budget and Administration; Planning and Development (includes the Denver Service Center); and Management Systems. Appropriations legislation for the fiscal year 1993 has designated some US$ 992.4 million for the operation of the national park system, with a further US$ 118.9 million to be derived from the Land and Water Conservation Fund to be granted for land acquisition and state assistance, and with a further US$ 231.8 million for construction, improvements, repair or replacement of physical facilities. The National Fish and Wildlife Foundation has recently recommended a restructuring of the NPS budgets. One of the main aims of this is to shift the emphasis away from development within parks, notably the large sums directed to accommodating visitor needs and services, towards an increase in funding for natural resource management under four headings: protection, mitigation, inventory and monitoring, and research (NFWF, 1992). NPS has over 13,000 full time employees, and nearly double this number, with part time employees and volunteers, during peak visitation periods. As part ofits science programme, the NPS maintains ties to research and academic institutions through a network of Cooperative Park Study Units at major universities. Authority for most national monuments administered by the Forest Service was transferred to the NPS in 1933, and responsibility for national battlefields was transferred from the Department of the Army soon after. Other federal agencies, including the Forest Service and the Bureau of Land Management, continue to maintain significant holdings in national monuments and recreation areas. The US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) of the US Department of the Interior: Federal involvement in the conservation of fish and wildlife began with the establishment of the Bureau of Fisheries in 1871 in the Department of Commerce. The Bureau of Biological Inventory was established in 1885 in the Department of Agriculture. In 1939 both of these agencies were transferred to the Department of the Interior, where they were later consolidated into the USFWS. The central aim of the Service is to conserve, protect and enhance fish and wildlife populations and their habitats — it has principal authority and responsibility for migratory birds, threatened and endangered species and lands under Service control. In terms of protected areas the USFWS has responsibility for the National Wildlife Refuge System. The Service employs around 7,000 people, with a headquarters in Washington, and eight regional offices. Appropriations legislation for the fiscal year 1993 has designated some US$ 535.1 million for resource management (as a guide, in 1990 somewhat less than one third of this figure went to "refuge operations and maintenance"). A further US$ 76.2 million has been designated for land acquisition to be derived from the Land and Water Conservation Fund in 1993, and a further US$ 82.1 million for construction of buildings and other facilities. The most important protected areas under USFWS jurisdiction include national wildlife refuges, waterfowl production areas, and coordination areas. The Service also manages wildlife research centres, fish hatcheries and fish research stations. There are a number of federal acts which give the USFWS an important role in projects and activities concerning fish and wildlife resources on non-USFWS lands. Through these, for example, the Service plays an important role 67 United States of America in the protection and restoration of wetland habitats. It is also able to influence the land management strategies of other federal agencies, such as the Department of Defense. The Service began work in 1990 onacombined plan and environmental impact statement for management of the system through the year 2003, the 100th anniversary of the establishment of the first national wildlife refuge on Pelican Island, Florida. The US Forest Service (USFS), US Department of Agriculture was established in 1905 and has often been faced with the balancing the conflicting demands of production and protection in the forest resources under its authority — the Multiple Use Sustained Yield Act and the National Forest Management Act have helped to refine this balance to some degree. Appropriations legislation for the fiscal year 1993 has designated some US$ 1,318.5 million for the management, protection, improvement, and utilisation of the national forest system, with a number of large additional funds covering fire protection, firefighting, construction, research and land acquisition. In this latter fund, US$ 62.9 million have been designated for land acquisition, to be derived from the Land and Water Conservation Fund in 1993. Of the 77.4 million ha managed in the National Forest System, some 24 million ha are considered as potentially suitable for timber production, although a proportion of these will remain protected from timber production. The USFS maintains a network of forest research laboratories, through which it cooperates with academic and research institutions. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), US Department of Commerce was established in 1970 with a broad range of aims from managing marine resources, to mapping, to meteorology, to oceanographic and atmospheric research. NOAA’s programmes are grouped into six areas: the National Ocean Service which manages ocean and coastal resources, National Marine Fisheries Service, Oceanic and Atmospheric Research, National Weather Service, National Environmental Satellite, Data and Information Service, and Program Support. Appropriations legislation for the fiscal year 1993 has designated some US$ 1,539 million for the operations, research and facilities for this entire organisation. Only a very small proportion of this, however will in any way be related to protected areas (see below). Through the Sanctuary Programme, NOAA is empowered to enforce protected area regulations, and to manage protected areas in two distinct programmes covering national estuarine research reserves and national marine sanctuaries. NOAA works cooperatively with state agencies and with research institutions in the management of the national estuarine research reserve system. NOAA’s mandate to manage marine protected areas has no parallel in the federal system; because it does not manage titled land, but an intensively-used public resource, NOAA is thus required to develop collaborative mechanisms with numerous bodies. The annual budget for managing the national marine sanctuary programme is less than US$ Protected Areas of the World 10 million annually. The federal share of the budget for the administration of national estuarine research reserves is US$ 3.2 million annually (NOAA, pers comm, 1992). The Bureau of Land Management (BLM), US Department of the Interior was established in 1946 through the consolidation of the General Land Office and the Grazing Service. It is responsible for over 100 million ha of federal land, as well as many millions of hectares of subsurface, reserved mineral rights. Under the Federal Land Policy and Management Act, 1976, the BLM was required to review and inventory its roadless lands of 5,000 acres (2,025ha) or more, as well as roadless islands, in the contiguous 48 states. The aim of this exercise was to report to the President, with a recommendation as to the suitability of each such area or island for preservation as a wilderness area. Certain areas identified as natural or primitive areas prior to 1975 were also to be reported to the President. Public lands administered by the BLM in Alaska were exempt from the FLPMA wilderness review, and may be studied for wilderness as part of the regular land and resource use planning process used by the BLM, as provided for by the provisions of the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act, 1980, as amended. Appropriations legislation for the fiscal year 1993 has designated some US$ 544.9 million for the management of lands and resources. BLM’s protected areas are typically "islands within the lands" administered for multiple uses, including forestry, mining, and grazing. BLM has developed proficiency in community outreach that can be applied in participation in the planning and management of its protected areas. Its managers are responsible not only for the protected areas, but for the managed areas that constitute potential buffers. BLM’s routine interactions with the public in these more intensively-used areas provide a basis for cooperation in management of the protected areas as well. The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), US Department of the Interior, authorised under Title 25 of the US Code, does not have a specific mandate for protected areas, but under general provisions for welfare of Indian citizens of the US, can administer reservation lands for nature conservation. BIA provides technical assistance to tribes, with a general mandate for multiple uses, and assists, upon application of a tribe, in protected area management. Management authority is reserved by the tribe. Navaho Park is an example of management by a tribe of tribal lands for nature conservation. The Bureau of Reclamation, US Department of the Interior, and the Tennessee Valley Authority are not specifically authorised to manage protected areas, but do maintain protected lands under executive orders to maintain watersheds and water resources. These sites are frequently developed and managed as recreation areas similar to those of other federal agencies. 68 The four services of the Department of Defense manage approximately 10 million ha between them. Although not responsible directly for conservation issues, the DoD clearly has an enormous wealth of natural resources on its lands. It does maintain some programmes dealing with monitoring, research, protection and restoration, often in coordination with federal, state and local agencies, whilst in December 1988 it entered into a cooperative agreement with The Nature Conservancy. Funding for the majority of this environmental work comes from the DoD Natural Resources Reserves Account, and from similar accounts in the individual services this money is largely generated from the sale of hunting and fishing licences, timber, and rents paid for agriculture and grazing leases. Money generated in this way amounts to approximately US$ 30 million per year. The DoD employs over 300 professional resource managers, and a number of military personnel who are assigned natural resource functions. Another important and extremely influential body is the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) which was established in 1971 as an independent agency of the government. Discussions are underway concerning the raising of the rank of this organisation to that of a department (Department of Environmental Protection). Although not specifically responsible for any categories of protected area, the EPA has considerable powers in the field of pollution control, waste dumping and water control in federal and other lands, which can lead directly to the protection of resources. This is particularly true in relation to wetlands. The principal authorities relating to wetlands in the US are the US Army Corps of Engineers, the EPA and the USFWS. Permits are required for most activities relating to wetland use, even on private land these are granted by the Corps, with input from the EPA and the USFWS, and this form of strict control provides some form of protection for all major wetlands. Management constraints in the protected areas systems of North America vary greatly, however the USNPS has been singled out here for a more detailed appraisal, to provide a single, but wide-ranging example. According to the National Parks and Conservation Association (NPCA), industrialisation and urbanisation are "making islands of ...national parks...impairing natural processes in the larger ecosystems upon which the parks depend". In the USNPS, federal budgets have failed to keep pace with inflation; combined with a doubling in size of the national parks system over the past 20 years, this has reduced the relative managerial capacity of the NPS to effectively manage properties under its jurisdiction by as much as 20%. Pay has not kept pace with the cost of living for park rangers. Experienced rangers are leaving; low pay, a stressful work environment, and a restricted career path are drawing top talent away from parks. Overall, the backlog of repair, maintenance, preservation, and public health and safety projects in national parks exceeds US$ 2 billion. There is a US$ 500 million backlog just for essential monitoring and resource management projects that must be addressed immediately in parks. According to the NPCA, development of credible fundraising mechanisms for parks worth US$ 250 million is needed to supplement the US$ 1.2 billion appropriated annually (Waugh and Perez Gil, 1992). An assessment of the threats reported by units of the NPS was undertaken in 1988 (USNPS, 1988): some twenty-one major issues stemming from the threats were identified. Representative of the threats facing the protected area estate as a whole, these include: overpopulation of species; impacts to, or loss of, plant and animal species; degradation of resources due to non-native plants and animals; disruptions due to past land practices; disruption of natural fire regimes; degradation of water quality; alteration of water flows or groundwater levels; lack of secure water rights; loss of visibility and biological diversity and damage due to air pollution; and lack of basic data about sites. State Land Every state has its own state park system, with at least one protected area management agency, and often more, as the fragmentation at the federal level is characteristic of the state activities too (Myers and Green, 1989). All 50 states also have coordinated programmes to protect flora, fauna and their habitats through establishment of parks and other protected areas; the first such programme began in 1951 although there is considerable variation from one state to the next. Many state agencies have cooperative agreements with such agencies as the BLM and the USFS. The situation described above for the national parks system is regarded as being much worse in state parks, many of which have been forced to close their gates to users as a result of budgetary shortfalls in 1990-91 (Waugh and Perez Gil, 1992). Private Land A number of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) are responsible for the acquisition and management of protected areas. With a number of these, purchased land is later sold to federal or state protected area authorities, who frequently are unable to buy land at short notice. Many of these NGOs are extremely powerful economically, and also have an influential role politically. Amongst these, The Nature Conservancy (TNC) is pre-eminent. Since its founding in 1951, TNC has conserved over 2 million ha, much of which has been passed to federal or state agencies. TNC has created a 50-state natural heritage network that sets protection priorities for itself, and which is also used by most states and a growing number of federal agencies. The projected income in 1991 was US$ 122.8 million. TNC has launched a Last Great Places initiative, aimed at protecting 75 large, landscape level, ecological systems and plans to invest US$ 1 billion from public and private sources (including grants from the federal Land and Water Conservation Fund) in this enterprise over the next five years. Also of great importance is the Trust for 69 United States of America Public Land which, after TNC, is largest and most active land acquiring agency in the country. Of the other larger citizen groups involved with protected areas ownership or administration, the National Audubon Society, owns or leases a number of sanctuaries. The Society of American Foresters has designated over 500 natural areas. There are several other programmes in private land conservation, notably the Conservation Fund, the Land Trust Alliance, Ducks Unlimited and Trout Unlimited. The Land Trust Alliance represents local land trusts across the continent which together manage a very large area this land is either held outright, or under easements, where the landowner voluntarily, or for payment, surrenders rights to certain types of development and use. Public-private partnerships have been central to the history of conservation in the USA, suchas the Boone and Crockett Club and the Sierra Club. The National Fish and Wildlife Foundation, a non-profit organisation established by Congress in 1984 to foster cooperation, uses funds appropriated by Congress as seed money for partnerships in challenge grants to be matched by private-sector institutions. The foundation has supported more than 120 projects, and spent US$ 31.5 million on habitat protection and restoration in cooperation with the USFWS and other organisations. The National Parks Foundation is a similar body, established by the US government. Systems Reviews The US is among the largest countries in the world. Including the disjunct states of Alaska and Hawaii, it covers a vast range of latitude, from the Arctic Circle in northern Alaska to the tropics in southern Hawaii, and over 120 of longitude, from the east coast of Maine to the westernmost of the Aleutian Islands and also the westernmost of the Hawaiian Islands. The east coast of the 48 coterminous states runs along the Atlantic Ocean from Maine to Florida and then runs west along the north coast of the Gulf of Mexico until the border with Mexico at the Rio Grande. America’s largest river, the Mississippi, also flows into the Gulf. Moving west from the Atlantic coast, the Appalachian mountains run from Georgia in the south to the states of new England in the north reaching 2,037m. North-west of these, along the Canadian border, lie the Great Lakes: Ontario, Erie, Huron, Michigan and Superior, and, to the south of these, the Mississippi Basin. West again lie the Great Plains of the mid-west which stretch to the base of the Rocky Mountains. The Rockies are a huge band of geologically recent mountains, which run north-south along the entire length of the continent, and stretch up to 1,500km east-west from the Great Plains to the Pacific coast there are a number of peaks in these ranges that rise above 4,000m. Alaska, the largest state, lies some 900km north-west of Washington, separated by the western seaboard of British Columbia in Canada. Alaska has a long border with Canada, with an even longer coastline, facing the Protected Areas of the World Arctic Ocean to the north, the Chukchi Sea and Bering Sea to the west, and the Pacific to the south. Much of the state is mountainous, dominated by the Brooks Range to the north and the Alaska Range to the south, which includes Mount McKinley, the highest peak in the US, reaching 6,194m. The Hawaiian Islands are a chain of volcanic islands lying in the North Pacific, and stretching some 2,300km from Hawaii in the southeast, to Kure Atoll in the northwest. For reasons of their geographic location, the Hawaiian Islands have been included in a separate account, in Volume 1 of this work. The following is a simplified summary of the major vegetation types. Tundra of low scrub dominated by willows and birches is found in Alaska, with plant cover decreasing northwards. Large areas of coniferous forest, mainly pine, spruce and fir, are found in Alaska, in a belt stretching over much of Canada and down the Pacific coast to central California. Montane coniferous forest is found in the Rockies, the Appalachians and on other mountain ranges; in eastern North America, the original vegetation cover was deciduous forest of many different associations that variously included bald cypress, hemlock, hickory, maple and oak, but is now extensively cleared. In the centre, from the Rockies east to Indiana, and from Canada south to Mexico, the former massive grassland (prairie) has largely been cleared for agriculture, and now survives only in relicts. In the west, from Washington south to Mexico, deserts, including the Great Basin, Mojave and Sonoran, are found. On coastal California, the chapparal, a high, dense scrub, is found. Subtropical vegetation, including mangrove, is found in Florida. Anderson (1977) gives an indication of the area covered by each type. Klopatek et al. (1979) present a map showing loss in natural vegetation, based on Kuchler’s 1964 map of potential natural vegetation. Twenty-three of Kuchler’s 106 predominant vegetation types have lost more than 50% of their potential area, including the Florida Everglades, California steppe, southern floodplain forest, bluestem prairie and beech-maple forest (Davis et al., 1986). A preliminary assessment of the status of major terrestrial ecosystems on federal and Indian lands in the United States has been prepared by Crumpacker et al. (n.d.). This used 135 potential natural vegetation types of Kuchler. Their results indicate that at least 33 types are inadequately represented, and 9 of these have no representation, whilst 11 others have relatively little representation as they are either naturally rare or have been largely converted to non-natural uses. All of the federal agencies mentioned undertake some regular form of inventorying and monitoring of the land resources under their control. The NPS has no centrally coordinated systems review procedure. Most of the lands under its jurisdiction, however, have some inventory and/or ongoing monitoring programs, arranged on a site-by-site basis. The BLM conducts inventories of soils, vegetation and wildlife — to date soil surveys have 70 been completed for a large proportion of BLM lands, but only 15% (outside Alaska) has received the mandatory minimum vegetation survey, and less than 5% has been surveyed under the standard wildlife inventory system. The USFWS carries out inventory, monitoring and research activities which provide information for the management of refuge lands; it also carries out other surveys relating to migratory and breeding birds, selected populations of fish stocks, the effects of pesticides and toxic chemicals in the environment and waterfowl and wetlands surveys which form part of the National Wetlands Inventory. The Forest Service has a comprehensive system of inventorying, mapping and monitoring of its lands, with a large amount of this information stored on a highly developed computer network. Inventories have been compiled for a large proportion of DoD lands, often undertaken in conjunction with local authorities or educational establishments, or with local or national NGOs (Keystone Center, 1991). The number of land management agencies complicates systematic approaches to protected area conservation. As a result, there is no comprehensive system plan for the United States. The government in general lacks action plans for the completion of protected area systems at the federal level, with the exception of the NOAA, which is authorised by legislation to develop a programme for marine reserves. The 500 or more national natural landmarks designated since 1962 by the Secretary of the Interior, on advice from the USNPS, are listed in the National Registry of Natural Landmarks which is published regularly. In order to augment government efforts, NGOs such as the National Parks and Conservation Association have produced their own action plan which covers the National Parks System. Other bodies advocating programmes for protected areas agencies include the Sierra Club, the Wilderness Society (wilderness issues, especially with the Forest Service), Defenders of Wildlife (formed an alliance with the Fish and Wildlife Service) and the American Rivers (National Wild and Scenic Rivers System). The Natural Heritage System organised by TNC, together with the initiatives of other citizens groups, provides a foundation for a scientifically-based interagency planning programme. The North American Waterfowl Management Plan (NAWMP) isa joint project involving Mexico, USA and Canada, 27 states and approximately 200 conservation groups and many private corporations, in planning programmes to conserve waterfowl and wetland habitats. The establishment of Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Grove of Giant Sequoias in 1864 was the first instance of the nation setting aside a natural area through legislation to be protected explicitly for public use. The federal government ceded Yosemite to a state government for management as a public park during a period when there was no precedent for federal management of parks. Even as President Abraham Lincoln signed the act transferring Yosemite to a state government, the United States was in the grips of a civil war over the issue of state sovereignty. Had the territory of Yellowstone fallen under the jurisdiction of a state rather than an unincorporated territory in 1872, Yellowstone would have been handed over to the state authorities, just as Yosemite had been 18 years before. The establishment of Yellowstone as a national park under the jurisdiction of federal rather than state authorities was an historic precedent. It provided the first instance of the exercise of federal power, an ascendant force in American public life, for the sequestration of land for conservation. Yellowstone represents the transition of the US from a federation of sovereign states to a nation united in which all parties participate in a common vision of the future. An upwelling of support for parks followed the Yellowstone experiment, and Congress authorised additional parks in 1890 (Sequoia, General Grant, later incorporated into Kings Canyon, and Yosemite); in 1899 (Mount Rainier); and 1902 (Crater Lake). The basis for the current National Wilderness Preservation System began with an administrative designation established by the USFS, that of wilderness and wild areas. The first such area to be designated was Gila Wilderness in New Mexico in 1924. All of the former USFS wilderness and wild areas became part of the National Wilderness Preservation System in 1964. Approximately 2.6 million sq. km, or nearly 30% of the US land area, is owned by the federal government, with the great majority lying in the western half of the country and in Alaska. The remainder of the land lies within state, local or private ownership, and hence can only be added to the federal protected areas network through purchase, lease, exchange or other agreement by federal agencies. By 1893, the government had reserved 5.25 million ha of forest, and, by 1910, the system of national forests rose to 60 million ha. In 1916 there were 35 national parks and monuments. By 1992 the National Park System included 360 units covering nearly 32.5 million ha; the National Forest System, included over 77 million ha including 154 national forests, 19 national grasslands and 17 land utilisation projects; the National Wildlife Refuge System included 492 national wildlife refuges covering some 35.75 million ha administered by the FWS; National Marine Sanctuaries and the National Estuarine Reserves System, administered by NOAA included 8 national marine sanctuaries covering some 3.1 million ha, and 21 national estuarine research reserves; Bureau of Land Management had responsibility for over 28 research natural areas on 23,000ha, 40 other natural areas including outstanding natural areas and primitive areas on 328,000ha. The national wilderness preservation system consists of 492 wilderness areas covering 37.3 million ha (well over half of this lies in Alaska). A large proportion of these areas are further protected under the other protection systems listed above (Hendee et al., 1990). More than one-third of the Wilderness System (13.1 million ha) is managed by the USFS, including nearly 80% of the 71 United States of America wilderness area outside Alaska (CRS, 1989). Of the Federal lands administered by the BLM, approximately 10,754 ,000ha were designated as wilderness study areas for possible wilderness designation. Of these lands, the BLM recommended, and the Secretary of the Interior concurred, that 3,950,000ha were suitable for designation as wilderness. By 1992, some 652,000ha had been legally designated as wilderness under the National Wilderness Preservation System, comprising 66 units in nine different states. The National Association of State Park Directors (NASPD) annually publishes data relating to state park systems: in June 1990 there were 2,040 state parks covering 2.98 million ha. These state agencies frequently manage other areas - NASPD (1991) lists over 80 categories, covering forests, natural areas, recreation areas, historic sites, water use areas, environmental education areas and state trails. The total for all these categories (including state parks) is 4,022 sites covering over 4.5 million ha. This is not a comprehensive figure for all state protected areas however, given that it only covers sites managed by one agency, and in many states there are likely to be others, for example dealing specifically with forestry, or with fish and wildlife, which are not included. Private protected areas include over 1,300 preserves covering 650,000ha administered by The Nature Conservancy (Waugh and Perez Gil, 1992), the National Audubon Society owns or leases over 100 sanctuaries, covering over 60,000 ha (NAS, 1991); the Society of American Foresters has designated over 500 natural areas which overlap with the Research Natural Areas network established under the federal government; Ducks Unlimited administers 161,780ha of wetlands; the local land trusts across the continent represented in the Land Trust Alliance administer a total of 828,630ha (McCloskey, 1992); Operation Stronghold is an alliance of 800-900 private landholders who have undertaken conservation measures on private land estimated to cover 2-2.5 million ha (Waugh and Perez Gil, 1992). In a recent analysis McCloskey (1992) estimates that some 11% of the total area of the US is protected in areas managed in categories equivalent to IUCN categories I-V, with the federal government protecting 9.2% of the territory, and non-federal agencies the remaining 1.8%. Of the non-federal agencies the most important are the state government agencies, although the figure also includes a number of local government protected areas, tribal lands and private protected areas. This analysis estimates that more than 8 million ha of federal lands are awaiting permanent legal designation mostly land that is already being administered as wilderness by the Forest Service or the BLM. Actually data for the percentage cover, and for the total area covered, by the federal protected estate are to some degree misleading, as they are skewed by the very high proportion of protected land in the western states and Alaska, and by the vast area of protected land in Alaska. Protected Areas of the World Waugh and Perez Gil (1992) list the priorities for action in the North American region, most of which could be applied equally to the US. These include: enhancing the capacity to manage protected areas; strengthening the constituency of protected areas; assessing and demonstrating benefits; extending coverage; developing the capacity to protect marine and coastal areas; putting all protected areas on a sound financial footing; strengthening protected areas through development planning; restoring the quality of degraded parks and applying the lessons of science and management. The General Authorities Act, 1976 directed that the Department of the Interior investigate, study, and continually monitor the welfare of areas whose resources "exhibit qualities of national significance” that have potential for inclusion in the National Park System. The Secretary of the Interior was directed to transmit a listing each year of not less than 12 areas for consideration of inclusion in the system. In 1981, Congress retracted the funding to undertake these studies and expansion of the system in favour of additional funding to improve management of existing areas. The USFWS and the University of Idaho are undertaking an analysis of gaps in protected area coverage of biological resources, on a state-by-state basis. Completion of this process is expected to take five to ten years. Other Relevant Information Recreation and tourism is a major element of the protected areas philosophy. Visits to parks increased from six million in 1942 to 33 million in 1950, and 72 million in 1960. In 1990 more than 250 million visitors came to national parks, whereas State parks hosted 723 million visitors (NASPD, 1991; Waugh and Perez and Gil, 1992). Huge numbers of visitors in many parks are causing problems of erosion, waste and pollution and general overcrowding and disturbance. Addresses US National Park Service (Director), US Department of Interior, Washington, DC 20240 (Tel: 1 202 208 1100) US Fish and Wildlife Service (Director), US Department of Interior, Washington, DC 20240(Tel: 1 202 208 1100) Bureau of Land Management (Director), US Department of Interior, Washington, DC 20240-9998(Tel: 1 202 208 3100) Land Resources Office, US Department of the Interior Bureau of Indian Affairs, Washington, DC 20240 (Tel: 1 202 208 4004) Office of Resource Management (Director), Bureau of Reclamation, US Department of the Interior Denver Federal Center, Denver, CO 80224 (Tel: 1 303 236 2389) Forest Service (Chief Forester), US Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC 20240 Tel: 1 202 447 6661) 72 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (Assistant Administrator for Ocean Services and Coastal Zone Management), US Department of Commerce, Washington DC 20230 (Tel: 1 202 377 4699) Department of Defense (Deputy Assistant Secretary for Environment), OASD(PandL)E, The Pentagon, Room 3D-833m, Washington DC 20301-8000 (Tel: 1 703 695 7820) Tennessee Valley Authority (Senior Vice-President), Muscle Shoals, AL 35660 (Tel: 1 205 386 2601) Select References Anderson, J.R. (1977). Land use cover and land cover changes a framework for monitoring. J. Res. U.S. Geological Survey 5(2): 143-153. Crumpacker, D.W., Hodge, S.W., Friedley, D. and Gregg, W.P. (n.d.). A preliminary assessment of the status of major terrestrial ecosystems on federal and Indian lands in the United States. Manuscript. 33 pp. Dahl, T-E. and Johnson, C.E. (1991). Status and Trends of Wetlands in the Coterminous United States, Mid-1970s to Mid-1980s. US Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C. 28pp. Davis, S.D., Droop, S.J.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., Leon, C.J., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J., Synge, H., and Zantovska, J. IUCN (1986). Plants in Danger: What do we know? IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Pp. 381-396. Gattuso, J. (1991). Native America. Insight Guides. Apa Publications (HK) Ltd. 389 pp. Gorte, R.W. (1989). Wilderness: overview and statistics. Congressional Research Service, Washington, DC. US Government Printing Office. CRS report for Congress 89-460 ENR, August 4. Hamilton, B. (1989). Unfinished business. Sierra September/October. Pp. 48-51, 106-108. Sierra Club, San Francisco. Hartzog, G.B. (1972a). Part one of the National Park System plan: history. U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, DC. 164 pp. Hartzog, G.B. (1972b). Part two of the National Park System plan: natural history. U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, DC. 140 pp. Hendee, J.C., Stankey, G.H. and Lucas, R.C. (1990). Wilderness Management. Second Edition, revised. North American Press, Golden, Colorado. 546pp. Keystone Center (1991). Final Consensus Report of the Keystone Policy Dialogue on Biological Diversity on Federal Lands. The Keystone Center, Keystone, Colorado. 98pp. Klopatek, J.M., Olson, R.J., Emerson, C.J. and Jones, J.L. (1979). Land use conflicts with natural vegetation in the United States. Environmental Conservation 6(3): 191-199. McCloskey, M. (1992). Protected areas in the United States: What is the US record? In press. 19pp. Myers, P. and Green, S.N. (1989). State Park in a New Era. The Conservation Foundation, Washington. NFWF (1992). National Park Service. In: FY 1993 Fisheries and Wildlife Assessment. National Fish and Wildlife Foundation. Pp. 1-42. NAS (1991). Wildlife Sanctuaries. National Audubon Society Sanctuary Department, Sharon, Connecticut. 42 pp. NASPD (1991). Annual Information Exchange, April, 1991. National Association of State Park Directors. 19 pp. TNC (1975). Preserving our natural heritage. Volume 1. Federal activities. The Nature Conservancy, Washington, DC, published in cooperation with the U.S. Man and the Biosphere Program, Washington DC. 323 pp. TNC (1976). Preserving our natural heritage. Volume 2. State activities. The Nature Conservancy, Washington, DC, published in cooperation with the United States of America U.S. Man and the Biosphere Program, Washington DC. 671 pp. USFS (1977).A Directory of Research Natural Areas on Federal Lands of the United States of America. Federal Committee on Ecological Reserves, Forest Service, US Department of Agriculture. Pp. 5-8. USNPS (1988). Natural Resources Assessment and Action Program Report. US Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Office of Natural Resources, Washington DC. Waugh, J.D. and Perez Gil, R. (1992). North America Regional Review. Paper presented to the IVth World Congress on National Parks and Protected Areas Caracas, Venezuela 10-21 February 1992 Wilderness Society (1989). Wilderness America: a vision for the future of the nation’s wildlands. The Wilderness Society, Washington DC. ANNEX Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration Title: National Park Service Act, United States Code: Title 16, Chapter 1 (16 USC 1): the National Park System; related acts include Cooperation Agreement Act (16 USC 17) Date: 25 August 1916 (National Park Service Act); 1946 (Cooperation Agreement Act); 1964 (Land and Water Conservation Fund Act) Brief description: Contains the authorising legislation, or "Organic Act" for the National Park Service. This law stipulates that "the Service...shall promote and regulate the use of the Federal areas known as national parks, monuments, and reservations. It provides for the establishment of national parks networks with over 11 categories throughout the USA. The Act of 25 August 1916 (39 Stat. 535) provides for the creation of the US National Parks Service. It has the authority to identify areas within the national parks system which are established by individual acts of Congress. The Cooperation Agreement Act, 1946 permits large natural areas of land to come into the park system without specific acts of Congress. Eight units of the park system entered through the 1946 Act. Administrative authorities: National Park Service (NPS) of the US Department of the Interior Designations: Three broad categories are placed within the National Park System: natural, recreational and 73 historic. All sites are established by Acts of Congress. The National Parks System as a whole holds two, occasionally contradictory, missions: to provide for public access and enjoyment of natural and historic areas, and to conserve their scenery and natural resources. Within each park, regardless of management category, all lands are classified into a land-use system with flexible zoning and sub-zoning. They are divided into natural zones, historic zones, development zones and special use zones. The Natural zone may be sub-divided into wilderness/wilderness study subzone; environmental protection subzone; outstanding natural feature subzone; and natural environment subzone. Exact definitions vary within the different categories of protected area in the System, and there may well be similarities and overlaps between the different categories. The designations under the system include the following: Naturalsites These include: national park, national monument, national reserve, and national preserve. Recreation sites These include: national recreation area, national seashore, national lakeshore, national scenic trail, national river, and national wild and scenic river. Historic sites These include: national historic site, national historic park, national battlefield. Source: US Department of the Interior (1992); TNC (1975) Protected Areas of the World Title:An Act to establish a National Wilderness Preservation System for the permanent good of the whole people, and for other purposes. Short title: the " Wilderness Act". PL 88-577, 16 USC 1131-1136. Date: 3 September 1964 Brief description: Federal agencies are authorised and mandated to manage areas of land as wilderness under the Wilderness Act, 1972. Under this Act of Congress, the statute states that the National Wilderness Preservation System was established with major objectives "to secure for the American people of present and future generations the benefits of an enduring resource of wilderness". The system consists of federally-owned lands designated by Congress as Wilderness areas. All lie within the National Parks System, the National Forest System, the National Wildlife Refuge System, and public lands administered by the Bureau of Land Management. The Wilderness Act does not apply to public or Federal Lands administered by Departments or Agencies other than these. Administrative authorities: | US National Park Service, US Forest Service, US Fish and Wildlife Service, US Bureau of Land Management Designations: Wilderness area To "be administered for the use and enjoyment of the American people in such manner as will leave them unimpaired for future use and enjoyment as wilderness, and so as to provide for the protection of these areas, the preservation of their wilderness character, and for the gathering and dissemination of information regarding their use and enjoyment as wilderness." Wilderness as "in contrast with those areas where man and his own works dominate the landscape, is hereby recognised as an area where the earth and its community of life are untrammelled by man, where man himself is a visitor who does not remain." An area of wilderness is further defined to mean in this chapter an area of undeveloped federal land retaining its primeval character and influence, without permanent improvements or human habitation, which is protected and managed so as to preserve its natural conditions and which: — generally appears to have been affected primarily by the forces of nature, with the imprint of man’s work substantially unnoticeable; — has outstanding opportunities for solitude or a primitive and unconfined type of recreation; 74 — covers at least 5,000 acres (2023.4ha) of land or is of sufficient size as to make practicable its preservation and use in an unimpaired condition; — may also contain ecological, geological, or other features of scientific, educational, scenic, or historical value." Source: US Department of Interior (1992), TNC (1975) Title: Forest Reserves Act, often referred to as the Creative Act, 1891, United States Code: Title 16. Chapter 2 (16 USC 2); Organic Administration Act (16 USC 475); Weeks Law; Resources Planning Act: National Forest System; National Forest Management Act Date: | May 1891 (Forest Reserve Act/Creative Act); 4 June 1897 (Organic Administration Act); 1905 (US Forest Service establishment); 1911 (Weeks Law); Resources Planning Act, 1974; National Forest Management Act, 1976. Brief description: In 1891 Congress passed the Forest Reserve Act (Creative Act), giving the President authority to withdraw portions of the public domain and designate them as forest reservations. A system of administration of the reserves was set forth in the Organic Administration Act, 1897. The US Forest Service (USFS) was established in 1905. Authority for the USFS is contained in Chapter 2 of Title 16, US Codes, that grants the Secretary of Agriculture authority to administer the nation’s forest reserves. The Resources Planning Act, 1974 incorporated the term "National Forest System" into the statutes. Under the System the USFS has responsibility for national forests, national grasslands and land utilisation projects. The resources of these lands are managed according to the Multiple Use-Sustained Yield Act, 1960. The rules which require the integration of land and resource planning can be found in 36 CFR Part 219, the implementing regulations for the National Forest Management Act. Administrative authorities: US Forest Service of the US Department of Agriculture Designations: NATIONAL FOREST _ The laws contained in Chapter 2 specify that each Forest Service unit develop an integrated management plan. Chapter 36 of the same Code requires the USFS to develop guidelines for multiple-use management of reserves under its authority that "require the identification of the suitability of lands for resource management; provide for obtaining inventory data on the various renewable resources, and soil and water, including pertinent maps, graphic material, and explanatory aids; and provide for methods to identify special conditions or situations involving hazards to the various resources and their relationship to alternative activities." The law makes provision for land management plans that: "ensure consideration of the economic and environmental aspects of various systems of renewable resource management, including the related systems of silviculture and protection of forest resources, to provide for outdoor recreation (including wilderness), range, timber, watershed, wildlife, and fish; provide for diversity of plant and animal communities based on the suitability and capability of the specific land area in order to meet overall multiple-use objectives, and within the multiple-use objectives of a land management plan adopted pursuant to this section, provide, where appropriate, to the degree practicable, for steps to be taken to preserve the diversity of tree species similar to that existing in the region controlled by the plan; (and) ensure research and evaluation (based on continuous monitoring and assessment in the field) of the effects of each management system to the end that it will not produce substantial and permanent impairment of the productivity of the land.” Under the Organic Administration Act (36 CFR 294) areas worthy of special classification within the National Forest, are classed as special interest areas, and listed as the following: Scenic area place of outstanding beauty which requires special management to preserve its qualities; Palaeontological area containing relict palaeontological specimens of fauna and flora; Geological area _ unit of land with outstanding formations or unique geological features of the earth’s development, including caves and fossils; Botanical area contains specimens or group exhibits of plants, plant groups and plant communities which are significant for a variety of reasons; Zoological area _ contains authentic, significant and interesting evidence of American natural heritage. Source: TNC (1975) US Department of Agriculture (1992) Title: Wild and Scenic Rivers Act, National Wild and Scenic Rivers System, United States Code, Title 16. Chapter 28 Date: 2 October 1968 75 United States of America Brief description: The National Wild and Scenic Rivers System was authorised by Congress in 1968. This statute, found in Title 16, US Code, Chapter 28 declares as national policy "that certain selected rivers of the Nation which, with their immediate environments, possess outstandingly remarkable scenic, recreational, geologic, fish and wildlife, historic, cultural, or cther similar values, shall be preserved in free-flowing condition, and that they and their immediate environments shall be protected for the benefit and enjoyment of present and future generations. The Congress declares that the established national policy of dam and other construction at appropriate sections of the rivers of the United States needs to be complemented by a policy that would preserve other selected rivers or sections thereof in their free-flowing condition to protect the water quality of such rivers and to fulfil other vital national conservation purposes." Administrative authorities: Relevant federal authorities Designations: NATIONAL WILD AND SCENIC RIVER The system shall comprise rivers that are designated by Act of Congress or designated by a legislature of the state(s) through which they flow. Every wild scenic or recreational river in its free-flowing condition, or upon restoration to this condition, shall be considered eligible for inclusion in the national wild and scenic rivers system and if included, shall be classified, designated, and administered as one of the following: Wild river area those rivers or sections of rivers that are free of impoundments and generally inaccessible except by trail, with watersheds or shorelines essentially primitive and waters unpolluted. These represent vestiges of primitive America. Scenicriverarea those rivers or sections of rivers that are free of impoundments, with shorelines and watersheds still largely primitive and shorelines largely undeveloped, but accessible in places by roads. Recreational riverarea those rivers or sections of rivers that are readily accessible by road or railroad, that may have some development along their shorelines, and that may have undergone some impoundment or diversion in the past. Source: TNC (1975) Protected Areas of the World Title: National Marine Sanctuary Program: Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act of 1972 (PL 92-532), as amended, 16 USC 1431 et seq. (authorization); 15 CFR 922 (program regulations). National estuarine research reserve system: Section 315 of the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 (PL 92-583), as amended, 16 USC 1451 et seq. (authorization); 15 CFR 921 (program regulations). Date: 1972 Brief description: Congress authorises the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) to establish and maintain two types of protected areas: national marine sanctuary and national estuarine research reserve. The Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act authorises the Secretary of Commerce to designate ocean waters as marine sanctuaries. Administrative authorities: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Designations: National marine sanctuary Acknowledging that the US has directed most protected area efforts towards the terrestrial estate, the statutes reflected in this code affirm that "certain areas of the marine environment” possess qualities of "conservation, recreational, ecological, historical, research, educational, or aesthetic qualities which give them special national significance." The Code characterizes this programme as serving "to enhance public awareness, understanding, appreciation, and wise use of the marine environment." National Estuarine Research Reserves System Title 15 of the Code of Federal Regulations, Chapter IX, provides regulations for the National Estuarine Reserve Research System. The mission of the National Estuarine Reserve Research System, according to the Regulations, "is the establishment through Federal-State cooperation, of a national system of estuarine research reserves representative of the various and management, regions and estuarine types in the United States." Estuarine research reserve education, and interpretation and: — to ensure a stable environment for research through long-term protection of estuarine reserve resources; — address coastal management issues identified as significant through coordinated estuarine research within the System; established to provide opportunities for long-term research, 76 — enhance public awareness and understanding of the estuarine environment and provide suitable opportunities for public education and interpretation; — promote federal, state, public and private use of one or more reserves within the System when such entities conduct estuarine research; and — conduct and coordinate estuarine research within the System, gathering and making available information necessary for improved understanding and management of estuarine areas." — Under the provisions of the Act an area may be designated as an estuarine reserve only if the area is a representative estuarine ecosystem that is suitable for long-term research. Source: NOAA (1992) TNC (1975) Title: National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act: National Wildlife Refuge System. Incorporates the Migratory Bird Treaty Act (16 USC 703-711); Migratory Bird Hunting and Conservation Stamp Act, 1934; Migratory Bird Convention Act, 1929; Land and Water Conservation Fund Act, Wilderness Act, 1964; Endangered Species Act, 1973 (revised 1982, supplemented in the International Environmental Protection Act, 1983); Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act, 1934 (amended 1958); Fish and Wildlife Improvement Act, 1978 Date: 1966 (National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act) Brief description: Expresses policy and provides guidelines for operating the system. The Refuge Recreation Act, 1962 authorises the purchase of adjacent lands to serve as recreational areas and as buffer areas to the refuges (funds for the purchase of such lands under the Land and Water Conservation Fund Act, 1965). The Wilderness Act, 1964 and the Endangered Species Act, 1973 have some bearing on the system. The Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act, 1934 (amended 1958) authorizes Federal water resource agencies to acquire lands in connection with water resource projects specifically for the conservation and enhancement of fish and wildlife, and requires consultation with the FWS and the wildlife agency of the state concerned. Administrative authorities: Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), US Department of the Interior Designations: Within the Refuge System are a series of the following different categories as defined in the Code of Federal Regulations (Title 50, Chapter 1, Section 25): Migratory Bird (Waterfowl) Areas; Migratory Bird (General) Areas; Big Game Areas, National Game Ranges; National Wildlife Ranges and Waterfowl Production Areas. National wildlife refuge maintained for the primary purpose of developing a national programme of wildlife and ecological conservation and rehabilitation. These refuges are established for the restoration, preservation, development and management of wildlife and wildlands habitat; for the protection and preservation of endangered or threatened species and their habitat; and for the management of wildlife and wildlands to obtain the maximum benefits from these resources. Supplementary designations may be applied to parts of, or entire, refuges. These include wilderness areas, research natural areas, wild and scenic rivers, natural landmarks, international shorebird reserves. The FWS also has obligations for wildlife management areas or coordination areas under cooperative agreements with federal, state, local and private agencies and organisations. Source: TNC (1975) Title: Department of Defense, United States Code, Title 16 Date: 1966 Brief description: | The organic act relating to Department of Defense (DoD) land. Federal statutes (Title 16, US Code) authorise the Secretary of Defense "to carry out a programme of planning for, and the development, maintenance, and coordination of wildlife, fish and game conservation and rehabilitation in each military reservation in accordance with a cooperative plan mutually agreed upon by the Secretary of Defense, the Secretary of the Interior, and the appropriate State agency designated by the state in which the reservation is located.” Administrative authorities: Defense Department of Designations: Military reservation Cooperative plans under this authority are intended to include "fish and wildlife habitat improvements or modifications...range rehabilitation where necessary for support of wildlife,...control of off-road vehicle traffic, and...specific habitat improvement projects and related activities and adequate protection for species of fish, wildlife, and plants considered threatened or endangered." Cooperative plans are to be "reviewed as to operation and effect by the parties thereto on a regular basis, but not less often than every 5 years, . . . shall, if a multi-use natural resources management plan is applicable to the 77 United States of America military reservation, be treated as the exclusive component of that management plan with respect to wildlife, fish, and game conservation and rehabilitation." The statute continues, "the Secretary of each military department shall manage the natural resources of each military reservation with the United States that is under the jurisdiction of the Secretary ... so as to provide for sustained multipurpose uses of those resources; and to provide the public access that is necessary or appropriate for those uses; to the extent that those uses and that access are not inconsistent with military mission of the reservation." Source: TNC (1976) Title: The National Natural Landmarks Program Date: 1963 Brief description: An administrative rather than a legal designation, national natural landmarks are designated on any areas of land outside the national park system. Participation in the scheme by private landowners is entirely voluntary. Guidelines concerning the objectives of this designation are given in the Federal Register Volume 40, No.87, 5 May, 1975, p.19504. Administrative authorities: National Parks Service, US Department of the Interior Designations: National natural landmark Sites must lie outside land already administered by the National Park Service. They are designated if they are of national significance in illustrating the diversity of the country’s natural history. Sites are entered on the National Registry of Natural Landmarks this is voluntary and does not change ownership. Inclusion "is intended to: 1) encourage the preservation of sites illustrating the geological and ecological character of the US; 2) enhance the educational and scientific value of sites thus preserved; 3) strengthen cultural appreciation of natural history; and 4) foster a wider interestand concern in the Nation’s natural heritage". Source: TNC (1976) Title: The Research Natural Areas Program Date: No information Brief description: An administrative rather than a legal designation, research natural areas are designated by any one of eight cooperating federal agencies with the aim of preserving a representative array of all significant natural ecosystems and providing for their research Protected Areas of the World Administrative authorities: Forest Service in the US Department of Agriculture; Bureau of Indian Affairs, Bureau of Land Management, Fish and Wildlife Service and National Parks Service in the US Department of the Interior; Department of Defense; Energy Research and Development Administration; Tenessee Valley Authority Designations: Research naturalarea to preserve an array of all significant natural ecosystems and their inherent processes as baseline areas, and to obtain from them, through research and education, information 78 concerning the natural systems, their components and comparisons with representative manipulated systems. Restrictions and regulations vary depending on the administrative agency and the specific site, but generally sites are areas of minimal human intervention and activities such as logging, grazing burning or restocking are prohibited. Hunting, fishing and trapping, as well as camping, swimming and hiking are generally not encouraged. Research is encouraged, although generally it must be non-destructive in character. Source: USFS (1977) United States of America SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified Alabama National Wildlife Refuges 1 Bon Secour (FWS)* IV 1,819 2 Choctaw (FWS) IV 1,708 3 Eufaula (FWS) IV SL 2ilil 4 Wheeler (FWS) IV 13,839 National Estuarine Research Reserve 5 Weeks Bay (NOAA)* IV 1,483 1986 Parkway 6 Natchez Trace (NPS)* Vv 18,300 1938 Wildernesses** 7 Cheaha (FS)* I 3,031 1983 8 Sipsey (FS) II 10,484 1975 Alaska National Parks 9 Denali (NPS) II 1,911,495 1917 10 Gates of the Arctic (NPS) II 2,939,689 1980 11 Glacier Bay (NPS) II 1,304,550 1925 12 Katmai (NPS) II 1,504,774 1980 13 Kenai Fjords (NPS) II 271,255 1980 14 Kobuk Valley (NPS) II 708,502 1978 15 Lake Clark (NPS) IT a’ 1,068,805 1978 16 Wrangell-St Elias (NPS) II 3,382,014 1978 National Preserves 17 Aniakchak (NPS) II 188,427 1978 18 Bering Land Bridge (NPS) II 1,125,124 1980 19 Denali (NPS) II 529,800 1980 20 Gates of the Arctic (NPS) II 383,246 1980 21 Glacier Bay (NPS) II 23,385 1978 22 Katmai (NPS) II 151,096 1980 23 Lake Clark (NPS) II 568,546 1980 24 Noatak (NPS) II 2,655,870 1978 25 Wrangell-St. Elias (NPS) II 1,962,115 1980 26 Yukon Charley Rivers (NPS) Il 915,000 1978 National Wildlife Refuges 27 Alaska Maritime (FWS) IV 1,440,597 1980 28 Alaska Peninsula (FWS) IV 1,417,500 1980 29 Arctic (FWS) IV 7,714,940 1980 30 Becharof (FWS) IV 486,000 1978 31 Innoko (FWS) IV 1,559,250 1980 32 Izembek (FWS) IV 129,961 1960 33 Kanuti (FWS) IV 579,150 1980 34 Kenai (FWS) IV 797,850 1980 35 Kenai National Moose Range (FWS) IV 698,920 36 Kodiak (FWS) IV 755,325 37 Koyukuk (FWS) IV 1,437,750 1980 38 Nowitna (FWS) IV 631,800 1980 39 Selawik (FWS) IV 870,750 1980 40 Tetlin (FWS) IV 283,500 1980 41 Togiak (FWS) IV 1,662,525 1980 42 Yukon Delta (FWS) IV 7,947,905 1980 79 Protected Areas of the World Map Nationall/international designations ref. Name of area 43 Yukon Flats (FWS) National Monuments 44 Admiralty Island (FS) 45 Aniakchak (NPS) 46 Cape Krusenstern (NPS) 47 Misty Fjords (FS) Wildernesses 48 Chuck River (FS) 49 Coronation Island (FS) 50 Endicott River (FS) 51 Karta River (FS) 52 Kootznoowoo (FS) 53 Kuiu (FS) 54 Maurelle Islands (FS) 55 Misty Fjords (FS) 56 Petersburg Creek-Duncan Salt Chuck (FS) 57 Pleasant/Lemusurier/Inian Islands (FS) 58 Russell Fjord (FS) 59 South Baranof (FS) 60 South Etolin (FS) 61 South Prince of Wales (FS) 62 Stikine-LeConte (FS) 63 Tebenkof Bay (FS) 64 Tracy Arm-Fords Terror (FS) 65 Warren Island (FS) 66 West Chichagof-Yakobi (FS) Arizona National Parks 67 Grand Canyon (NPS) 68 Petrified Forest (NPS) National Wildlife Refuges 69 Buenos Aires (FWS) 70 Cabeza Prieta (FWS) 71 Cibola (FWS) 72 Havasu (FWS) 73 Imperial (FWS) 74 Kofa (FWS) National Memorial 715 Coronado (NPS) National Monuments 76 Canyon de Chelly (NPS) TI Chiricahua (NPS) 78 Organ Pipe Cactus (NPS) 79 Saguaro (NPS) 80 Sunset Crater (NPS) 81 Wupatki (NPS) Wildernesses 82 Apache Creek (FS) 83 Bear Wallow (FS) 84 Castle Creek (FS) 85 Cedar Bench (FS) 86 Chiricahua (FS) IUCN management 80 category Ee ii ARBRE ES ———— a Area (ha) 3,495,150 387,530 55,514 267,206 928,491 29,341 7,783 39,954 15,640 386,732 24,514 1,998 866,939 18,930 9,364 141,115 129,325 33,849 36,825 181,640 27,049 264,333 4,525 107,140 493,441 37,880 45,126 348,042 1,277 3,138 7,206 267,102 1,145 33,536 4,853 133,925 33,836 1,230 14,267 2,193 4,484 10,534 6,050 35,491 Year notified 1980 1980 1978 1978 1980 1990 1980 1980 1990 1980 1990 1980 1980 1980 1990 1980 1980 1990 1980 1980 1980 1980 1980 1980 1919 1962 1941 1941 1939 1952 1931 1924 1937 1933 1930 1924 1984 1984 1984 1984 1964 134 135 136 139 140 141 142 143 National/international designations Name of area Escudilla (FS) Fossil Springs (FS) Four Peaks (FS) Galiuro (FS) Granite Mountain (FS) Hellsgate (FS) Juniper Mesa (FS) Kachina Peaks (FS) Kanab Creek (FS) Kendrick Mountain (FS) Mazatzal (FS) Miller Peak (FS) Mount Baldy (FS) Mount Wrightson (FS) Munds Mountain (FS) Pajarita (FS) Pine Mountain (FS) Pusch Ridge (FS) Red Rock-Secret Mountain (FS) Rincon Mountain (FS) Saddle Mountain (FS) Salome (FS) Salt River Canyon (FS) Santa Teresa (FS) Sierra Ancha (FS) Strawberry Crater (FS) Superstition (FS) Sycamore Canyon (FS) West Clear Creek (FS) Wet Beaver (FS) Woodchute (FS) Aravaipa Canyon (BLM)* Arrastra Mountain (BLM) Aubrey Peak (BLM) Beaver Dam Mountains (BLM) Big Horn Mountains (BLM) Cottonwood Point (BLM) Coyote Mountains (BLM) Dos Cabezas (BLM) Eagletail Mountains (BLM) East Cactus Plain (BLM) Fishhooks (BLM) Gibraltar Mountain (BLM) Grand Wash Cliffs (BLM) Harcuvar Mountains (BLM) Harquahala Mountains (BLM) Hassayampa River Canyon (BLM) Hells Canyon (BLM) Hummingbird Springs (BLM) Kanab Creek (BLM) Mount Logan (BLM) Mount Nutt (BLM) Mount Tipton (BLM) Mount Trumbull (BLM) Mount Wilson (BLM) Muggins Mountains (BLM) Needle’s Eye (BLM) IUCN management 81 category United States of America Area Year (ha) notified 2,104 1984 8,963 1984 24,716 1984 30,885 1964 3,966 1984 15,151 1984 3,076 1984 7,534 1984 25,803 1984 2,635 1984 102,139 1964 8,171 1984 2,865 1970 10,222 1984 9,879 1984 3,003 1984 8,118 1972 23,040 1978 19,099 1984 15,617 1984 16,406 1984 7,499 1984 12,991 1984 10,838 1984 8,438 1964 4,348 1984 64,652 1964 22,637 1972 6,167 1984 2,491 1984 2,266 1984 7,972 1984 $2,528 1990 6,232 1990 6,070 1984 8,498 1990 2,776 1984 2,064 1990 4,735 1990 40,712 1990 5,921 1990 4,249 1990 7,604 1990 14,986 1984 10,137 1990 9,259 1990 4,978 1990 4,290 1990 12,626 1990 2,711 1984 5,929 1984 11,194 1990 13,258 1990 3,189 1984 9,672 1990 3,092 1990 3,545 1990 Protected Areas of the World Map Nationall/international designations IUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified 144 New Water Mountains (BLM) II 9,955 1990 145 North Maricopa Mountains (BLM) II 25,576 1990 146 North Santa Teresa (BLM) II 2,347 1990 147 Paiute (BLM) II 35,572 1984 148 Paria Canyon- Vermilion Cliffs (BLM) Il 36,179 1984 149 Peloncillo Mountains (BLM) II 7,867 1990 150 Rawhide Mountains (BLM) II 15,568 1990 151 Redfield Canyon (BLM) II 4,019 1990 152 Sierra Estrella (BLM) II 5,827 1990 153 Signal Mountain (BLM) II 5,403 1990 154 South Maricopa Mountains (BLM) Il 24,322 1990 155 Swansea (BLM) II 6,637 1990 156 Table Top (BLM) II 13,921 1990 157 Tres Alamos (BLM) II 3,359 1990 158 Trigo Mountains (BLM) II 12,262 1990 159 Upper Burro Creek (BLM) II 11,105 1990 160 Wabayuma Peak (BLM) II 16,187 1990 161 Warm Springs (BLM) II 45,487 1990 162 White Canyon (BLM) II 2,343 1990 163 Woolsey Peak (BLM) II 25,900 1990 National Recreation Areas 164 Glen Canyon (NPS) Vv 483,404 1972 165 Lake Mead (NPS) IV 1,000 1964 Arkansas National Park 166 Hot Springs (NPS) II 2,330 1921 National River 167 Buffalo NaRiv (NPS) WY 38,100 1972 National Wildlife Refuges 168 Big Lake (FWS) IV 4,466 169 Cache River (FWS) IV 1,898 170 Felsenthal (FWS) IV 26,285 1975 171 Holla Bend (FWS) IV 2,274 1957 172 Overflow (FWS) IV 2,875 173 Wapanocca (FWS) IV 2,219 1961 174 White River (FWS) IV 45,746 National Military Park 175 Pea Ridge (NPS) Vv 1,729 1961 Wildernesses 176 Black Fork Mountain (FS) II 3,066 1984 177 Caney Creek (FS) II 5,852 1975 178 Dry Creek (FS) II 2,554 1984 179 East Fork (FS) II 4,361 1984 180 Flatside (FS) II 4,089 1984 181 Hurricane Creek (FS) II 6,093 1984 182 Leatherwood (FS) II 6,772 1984 183 Poteau Mountain (FS) II 4,405 1984 184 Richland Creek (FS) II 4,782 1984 185 Upper Buffalo (FS) II 4,445 1975 California National Parks 186 Channel Islands (NPS) II 100,987 1980 82 United States of America Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified 187 Kings Canyon (NPS) II 187,069 1940 188 Lassen Volcanic (NPS) II 43,293 1916 189 Redwood (NPS) II 42,400 1968 190 Sequoia (NPS) II 163,115 1890 191 Yosemite (NPS) II 308,273 1890 National Wildlife Refuges 192 Butte Sink (FWS) IV 3,275 193 Clear Lake (FWS) IV 13,543 194 Coachella Valley (FWS) IV 1,049 195 Colusa (FWS) IV 1,636 196 Delevan (FWS) IV 2,282 197 Grasslands (FWS) IV 10,669 198 Imperial # (FWS) IV 3,223 199 Kern (FWS) IV 4,297 200 Kesterson (FWS) IV 2,388 201 Lower Klamath (FWS) IV 19,027 202 Merced (FWS) IV 1,038 203 Modoc (FWS) IV 1,038 204 Pixley (FWS) IV 2,426 205 Sacramento (FWS) IV 4,367 1937 206 Salton Sea (FWS) IV 15,219 207 San Francisco Bay (FWS) IV 6,978 1972 208 San Luis (FWS) IV 3,009 209 San Pablo Bay (FWS) IV 4,737 210 Sutter (FWS) IV 1,049 1945 211 Tule Lake (FWS) IV 15,646 1928 212 Willow Creek-Lurline (FWS) iv 1,586 National Marine Sanctuaries 213 Bitter Creek (NOAA) IV 5,482 1973 214 Channel Islands (NOAA) Vv 405,506 1980 215 Cordell Bank (NOAA) V 128,777 1989 216 Gulf of the Farallones (NOAA) Vv 307,044 1981 National Monuments 217 Death Valley (NPS) Il 837,388 1933 218 Joshua Tree (NPS) I 226,781 1936 219 Lava Beds (NPS) Il 18,856 1925 220 Pinnacles (NPS) Ill 6,587 1908 National Seashore 221 Point Reyes NS (NPS) Vv 28,733 1972 Wildernesses 222 Agua Tibia (FS) II 6,448 1975 223 Ansel Adams (FS) II 93,182 1964 224 Bucks Lake (FS) II 8,498 1984 225 Caribou (FS) II 8,315 1964 226 Carson-Iceberg (FS) II 64,195 1984 227 Castle Crags (FS) II 3,491 1984 228 Chanchelulla (FS) II 3,318 1984 229 Cucamonga (FS) II 5,172 1984 230 Desolation (FS) II 25,688 1969 231 Dick Smith (FS) II 27,438 1984 232 Dinkey Lakes (FS) II 12,141 1984 233 Dome Land (FS) II 37,952 1964 234 Emigrant (FS) II 45,437 1975 235 Golden Trout (FS) I 122,827 1978 83 Protected Areas of the World Map ref. 236 237 238 279 280 281 282 283 National/international designations Name of area Granite Chief (FS) Hauser (FS) Hoover (FS) Ishi (FS) Jennie Lakes (FS) John Muir (FS) Kaiser (FS) Machesna Mountain (FS) Marble Mountain (FS) Mokelumne (FS) Monarch (FS) Mount Shasta (FS) North Fork (FS) Pine Creek (FS) Red Buttes (FS) Russian (FS) San Gabriel (FS) San Gorgonio (FS) San Jacinto (FS) San Mateo Canyon (FS) San Rafael (FS) Santa Lucia (FS) Santa Rosa (FS) Sheep Mountain (FS) Siskiyou (FS) Snow Mountain (FS) South Sierra (FS) South Warner (FS) Thousand Lakes (FS) Trinity Alps (FS) Ventana (FS) Yolla Bolly-Middle Eel (FS) Trinity Alps (BLM) Yolla Bolly-Middle Eel (BLM) National Recreation Areas Golden Gate (NPS) Santa Monica Mountains (NPS) Whiskeytown Shasta Trinity (NPS) Colorado National Parks Mesa Verde (NPS) Rocky Mountain (NPS) National Wildlife Refuges Alamosa (FWS) Arapaho (FWS) Browns Park (FWS) Monte Vista (FWS) National Monuments Black Canyon of the Gunnison (NPS) Colorado (NPS) Dinosaur (NPS) Florissant Fossil Beds (NPS) Great Sand Dunes (NPS) IUCN management 84 category —— a a <<< Area (ha) 7,708 3,054 19,668 16,632 4,164 234,849 9,186 7,997 97,831 40,032 18,169 13,697 3,237 5,455 6,536 4,856 14,616 22,955 13,050 15,574 61,100 7,559 5,579 16,950 61,788 14,718 33,218 28,577 6,611 201,591 66,441 59,366 1,871 2,891 29,611 60,729 17,213 20,830 107,519 4,523 7,393 5,449 5,746 5,682 8,274 82,655 1,698 14,596 Year notified 1984 1984 1964 1984 1984 1964 1976 1984 1964 1964 1984 1984 1984 1984 1984 1984 1968 1964 1964 1984 1968 1978 1984 1984 1984 1984 1984 1964 1964 1984 1969 1964 1984 1984 1972 1978 1965 1906 1915 1962 1967 1933 1911 1915 1969 1932 United States of America Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified Wildernesses 284 Big Blue (FS) II 39,847 1980 285 Cache La Poudre (FS) II 3,739 1980 286 Collegiate Peaks (FS) II 67,468 1980 287 Comanche Peak (FS) II 27,029 1980 288 Eagles Nest (FS) II 53,955 1976 289 Flat Tops (FS) II 95,116 1975 290 Holy Cross (FS) II 49,529 1980 291 Hunter Fryingpan (FS) II 30,108 1978 292 Indian Peaks (FS) II 28,479 1978 293 La Garita (FS) II 42,082 1964 294 Lizard Head (FS) II 16,669 1980 295 Lost Creek (FS) II 42,529 1980 296 Maroon Bells-Snowmass (FS) II 73,233 1980 297 Mount Evans (FS) II 30,109 1980 58 Mount Massive (FS) II 11,323 1980 259 Mount Sneffels (FS) II 6,679 1980 300 Mount Zirkel (FS) II 56,583 1964 301 Neota (FS) II 4,016 1980 302 Never Summer (FS) II 5,567 1980 303 Raggeds (FS) II 24,087 1980 304 Rawah (FS) II 29,570 1964 305 South San Juan (FS) II 51,675 1980 306 Weminuche (FS) II 185,996 1975 307 West Elk (FS) II 71,295 1964 National Recreation Area 308 Curecanti (NPS) Vv 16,985 1965 Delaware National Wildlife Refuges 309 Bombay Hook (FWS) IV 6,124 310 Prime Hook (FWS) IV 3,929 Florida National Parks 311 Biscayne (NPS) II 41,967 1980 312 Everglades (NPS) II 592,920 1947 National Preserve 313 Big Cypress (NPS) II 21,198 1974 National Wildlife Refuges 314 Arthur R. Mitchell Loxahatchee (FWS) IV 58,994 1951 315 Chassahowitzka (FWS) IV 12,317 316 Crocodile Lake (FWS) IV 1,619 317 Great White Heron (FWS) IV 2,996 318 J.N. "Ding" Darling (FWS) IV 2,037 1945 319 Lake Woodruff (FWS) IV 7,494 1964 320 Lower Suwannee (FWS) IV 15,856 321 Merritt Island (FWS) IV 56,356 322 National Key Deer (FWS) IV 3,068 323 Okefenokee (Florida) (FWS) IV 1,490 1937 324 Pelican Island (FWS) IV 1,780 325 St. Johns (FWS) IV 2,533 326 St. Mark’s (FWS) IV 26,399 1931 327 St. Vincent (FWS) IV 31,650 1968 85 Protected Areas of the World Map ref. 328 329 330 331 332 333 334 335 336 337 338 339 340 341 342 343 344 345 346 347 348 349 350 351 352 353 354 355 356 357 358 359 360 361 National/international designations Name of area National Marine Sanctuaries Key Largo Coral Reef (NOAA) Looe Key (NOAA) National Estuarine Research Reserve Rookery Bay (NOAA) National Monument Fort Jefferson (NPS) National Seashores Canaveral NS (NPS) Gulf Islands (Florida) NS (NPS) Wildernesses Alexander Springs (FS) Big Gum Swamp (FS) Billies Bay (FS) Bradwell Bay (FS) Juniper Prairie (FS) Little Lake George (FS) Mud Swamp/New River (FS) Georgia National Wildlife Refuges Banks Lake (FWS) Blackbeard Island (FWS) Eufaula (FWS) Harris Neck (FWS) Okefenokee (FWS) Piedmont (FWS) Savannah (FWS) Wassaw Island (FWS) Wolf Island (FWS) National Marine Sanctuary Gray’s Reef (NOAA) National Military Park Chickamauga and Chattanooga (NPS) National Battlefield Park Kennesaw Mountain (NPS) National Estuarine Research Reserve Sapelo Island (NOAA) National Monument Fort Pulaski (NPS) National Seashore Cumberland Island NS (NPS) Wildernesses Blood Mountain (FS) Brasstown (FS) Cohutta (FS) Mark Trail (FS) Raven Cliffs (FS) Rich Mountain (FS) IUCN management 86 category Il IV Area (ha) 32,388 1,554 8,585 19,083 23,321 57,084 3,116 5,504 1,263 9,956 5,366 1,012 3,157 1,639 2,275 1,309 1,119 158,518 14,044 4,586 4,078 2,076 5,441 3,278 1,488 2,892 2,229 14,924 3,157 5,000 14,264 6,831 3,465 3,840 Year notified 1975 1981 1991 1935 1975 1971 1984 1984 1984 1975 1984 1984 1984 1940 1962 1939 1927 1968 1930 1981 1890 1917 1976 1924 1972 1991 1986 1975 1991 1986 1986 United States of America Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified 362 Southern Nantahala (FS) II 5,034 1984 363 Tray Mountain (FS) II 3,926 1986 Hawaii For a list of sites, a map, and detailed information concerning this state, see Volume I Idaho National Scenic River 364 Salmon River (FS) Vv 12,943 1968 National Wildlife Refuges 365 Bear Lake (FWS) IV 7,269 1968 366 Camas (FWS) IV 4,284 367 Deer Flat (FWS) IV 4,562 368 Grays Lake (FWS) IV 6,652 1965 369 Kootenai (FWS) IV 1,123 370 Minidoka (FWS) IV 8,386 National Monument 371 Craters of the Moon (NPS) Il 21,669 1924 Wildernesses 372 Gospel Hump (FS) II 83,270 1978 373 Hells Canyon (FS) II 33,917 1975 374 Sawtooth (FS) II 87,853 1972 375 Selway-Bitterroot (FS) Il 440,711 1964 376 Frank Church-River of No Return (FS) Il 957,224 1980 National Historic Park ’ 377 Nez Perce (NPS) Vv 1,212 1965 Illinois National Wildlife Refuges 378 Chautauqua (FWS) IV 2,510 379 Crab Orchard (FWS) IV 17,682 380 Mark Twain (FWS) IV 6,714 1958 381 Mississippi River Caue (FWS) IV 8,148 Wildernesses 382 Bald Knob (FS) II 2,373 1990 383 Bay Creek (FS) Il 1,160 1990 384 Burden Falls (FS) Il 1,486 1990 385 Clear Springs (FS) Il 1,914 1990 386 Garden of the Gods (FS) Il 1,323 1990 Il 387 Lusk Creek (FS) 1,807 1990 Indiana National Wildlife Refuge 388 Muscatatuck (FWS) IV 3,128 National Lakeshore 389 Indiana Dunes (NPS) Vv 5,073 1966 Wilderness 390 Charles C. Deam (FS) II 5,235 1982 Iowa National Wildlife Refuges 391 De Soto (FWS) IV 1,417 392 Mark Twain (FWS) IV 4,241 393 Mississippi River Caue (FWS) IV 12,278 87 Protected Areas of the World Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified 394 Union Slough (FWS) IV 1,152 1938 395 Upper Mississippi (FWS) IV 8,230 1924 Kansas National Wildlife Refuges 396 Flint Hills (FWS) IV 7,478 1966 397 Kirwin (FWS) IV 4,365 398 Quivira (FWS) IV 8,837 Kentucky National Park 399 Mammoth Cave (NPS) Il 20,541 1934 Wildernesses 400 Beaver Creek (FS) II 1,925 1975 401 Clifty (FS) II 5,029 1985 National Historic Park 402 Cumberland Gap (NPS). Vv 8,150 1940 Louisiana National Wildlife Refuges 403 Atchafalaya (FWS) IV 6,178 404 Bogue Chitto (FWS) IV 8,324 405 Breton (FWS) IV 3,664 1904 406 Catahoula (FWS) IV 2,150 407 D’Arbonne (FWS) IV 7,055 408 Delta (FWS) IV 19,763 1935 409 Lacassine (FWS) IV 13,213 410 Sabine (FWS) IV 56,472 411 Tensas River (FWS) IV 22,259 412 Upper Ouachita (FWS) IV 8,460 1978 Wilderness 413 Kisatchie Hills (FS) II 3,521 1980 National Historic Park 414 Jean Lafitte (NPS) Vv 3,480 1978 Maine National Park 415 Acadia (NPS) II 15,590 1919 National Wildlife Refuges 416 Moosehorm (FWS) IV 9,211 1937 417 Petit Manan (FWS) IV 1,350 418 Rachel Carson (FWS) IV 1,280 Wilderness 419 Caribou-Speckled Mountain (FS) II 4,856 1990 Maryland National Wildlife Refuges 420 Blackwater (FWS) IV 6,353 421 Martin (FWS) IV 1,791 422 Patuxent (FWS) IV 1,896 National Estuarine Research Reserve 423 Chesapeake Bay (NOAA) IV 2,374 1981 88 United States of America Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified National Seashore 424 Assateague Island NS (NPS) V 16,038 1965 Parks 425 Catoctin Mountain (NPS) Vv 2,334 1936 426 Piscataway (NPS) Vv 1,701 1961 National Historic Park 427 Chesapeake and Ohio Canal (NPS) Vv 50,161 1971 Massachusetts National Wildlife Refuges 428 Great Meadows (FWS) IV 1,168 1944 429 Monomoy (FWS) IV 1,094 430 Parker River (FWS) IV 1,888 National Estuarine Research Reserve 431 Waquoint Bay (NOAA) IV 1,077 1988 National Seashore 432 Cape Cod (NPS) Vv 18,018 1961 Michigan National Park 433 Isle Royale (NPS) II 215,740 1940 National Wildlife Refuges 434 Kirtlands Warbler (FWS) IV 2,127 435 Seney (FWS) IV ; 38,659 436 Shiawassee (FWS) IV 3,639 1953 National Lakeshores 437 Pictured Rocks (NPS) V 28,661 1966 438 Sleeping Bear Dunes (NPS) V 28,775 1970 Wildernesses 439 Big Island Lake (FS) II 2,363 1987 440 Delirium (FS) II 4,804 1987 441 Horseshoe Bay (FS) II 1,534 1987 442 Mackinac (FS) II 4,949 1987 443 McCormick (FS) II 6,819 1987 444 Nordhouse Dunes (FS) II 1,396 1987 445 Rock River Canyon (FS) II 1,878 1987 446 Sturgeon River Gorge (FS) II 5,868 1987 447 Sylvania (FS) II 7,417 1987 Minnesota National Park 448 Voyageurs (NPS) II 87,772 1971 National Wildlife Refuges 449 Agassiz (FWS) IV 24,726 1937 450 Big Stone (FWS) IV 4,371 451 Mid-Continent WMP (FWS) IV 1,999 452 Minnesota Valley (FWS) IV 2,973 453 Mississippi River Caue (FWS) IV 6,246 454 Rice Lake (FWS) IV 6,629 455 Sherbume (FWS) IV 11,981 1965 456 Tamarac (FWS) IV 14,252 1938 457 Upper Mississippi (FWS) IV 7,189 89 Protected Areas of the World Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year ref, Name of area category (ha) notified Wilderness 458 Boundary Waters Canoe Area (FS) II 323,457 1964 Mississippi National Wildlife Refuges 459 Bogue Chitto (FWS) IV 2,648 460 Hillside (FWS) IV 6,239 1975 461 Mississippi Sandhill Crane (FWS) IV 7,692 1974 462 Morgan Brake (FWS) IV 1,324 463 Noxubee (FWS) IV 18,786 1940 464 Panther Swamp (FWS) IV 10,993 465 Yazoo (FWS) IV 5,051 Wilderness 466 Black Creek (FS) II 2,028 1984 Missouri National Scenic River 467 Ozark NScRv (NPS) Vv 32,209 1972 National Wildlife Refuges 468 Clarence Cannon (FWS) IV 1,513 1964 469 Mingo (FWS) IV 8,779 470 Squaw Creek (FWS) IV 2,802 471 Swan Lake (FWS) IV 4,321 1937 Wildernesses 472 Bell Mountain (FS) II 3,633 1980 473 Devils Backbone (FS) II 2,669 1980 474 Hercules Glades (FS) II 4,983 1976 475 Irish (FS) II 6,522 1984 476 Paddy Creek (FS) II 2,841 1983 477 Piney Creek (FS) II 3,273 1980 478 Rockpile Mountain (FS) II 1,655 1980 Montana National Park 479 Glacier (NPS) II 410,058 1910 National Wildlife Refuges 480 Benton Lake (FWS) IV 5,015 481 Bowdoin (FWS) IV 5,094 482 Charles M. Russell (FWS) IV 364,808 1936 483 Creedman Coulee (FWS) IV 1,105 484 Halfbreed Lake (FWS) IV 1,748 485 Lake Mason (FWS) IV 6,773 486 Lake Thibadeau (FWS) IV 1,567 487 Lee Metcalf (FWS) IV 1,131 1964 488 Medicine Lake (FWS) IV 9,243 489 National Bison Range (FWS) IV 7,509 490 Pablo (FWS) IV 1,030 491 Red Rock Lakes (FWS) IV 14,050 492 UI Bend (FWS) IV 22,700 493 War Horse (FWS) IV 1,293 Wildernesses 494 Absaroka-Beartooth (FS) II 372,445 1978 495 Anaconda-Pintler (FS) II 63,890 1964 496 Bob Marshall (FS) II 408,474 1964 497 Cabinet Mountains (FS) II 38,151 1964 90 United States of America Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified 498 Gates of the Mountains (FS) II 11,559 1964 499 Great Bear (FS) II 116,024 1978 500 Lee Metcalf (FS) II 100,744 1983 501 Mission Mountains (FS) II 29,897 1975 502 Rattlesnake (FS) II 13,292 1980 503 Scapegoat (FS) II 96,840 1972 504 Selway-Bitterroot (FS) II 101,756 1964 505 Welcome Creek (FS) II 11,386 1978 506 Lee Metcalf (BLM) II 2,428 1983 National Recreation Area 507 Bighorn Canyon (NPS) V 48,644 1966 Nebraska National Wildlife Refuges 508 Crescent Lake (FWS) IV 18,556 509 De Soto (FWS) IV 1,751 510 Fort Niobrara (FWS) IV 7,563 1912 511 North Platte (FWS) IV 2,044 512 Valentine (FWS) IV 27,174 1935 National Monuments 513 Agate Fossil Beds (NPS) Il 1,236 1965 514 Lehman Caves (NPS) III 3,098 1922 515 Scotts Bluff (NPS) Vv 1,209 1919 Wilderness F 516 Soldier Creek (FS) II 3,154 1986 Nevada National Park 517 Great Basin (NPS) II 31,080 1986 National Wildlife Refuges 518 Ash Meadows (FWS) IV 5,174 519 Desert (FWS) IV 643,471 520 Fallon (FWS) IV 7,250 521 Paharanagat (FWS) IV 2,179 522 Ruby Lake (FWS) IV 15,230 523 Sheldon (FWS) IV 231,037 1931 524 Stillwater (FWS) IV 9,802 Wildernesses 525 Alta Toquima (FS) II 15,378 1989 526 Arc Dome (FS) II 46,539 1989 527 Boundary Peak (FS) II 4,047 1989 528 Currant Mountain (FS) II 14,569 1989 529 East Humboldt (FS) II 14,933 1989 530 Grant Range (FS) II 20,234 1989 531 Jarbidge (FS) II 45,797 1964 532 Mount Charleston (FS) II 17,402 1989 533 Mount Moriah (FS) II 33,184 1989 534 Mount Rose (FS) II 11,331 1989 535 Quinn Canyon (FS) II 10,927 1989 536 Ruby Mountains (FS) II 36,422 1989 537 Santa Rosa - Paradise Peak (FS) II 12,545 1989 538 Table Mountain (FS) II 39,659 1989 539 Mount Moriah (BLM) II 2,604 1989 91 Protected Areas of the World Map ref. 540 549 550 551 552 553 554 555 556 557 558 559 560 902 561 562 563 564 565 566 567 568 569 570 571 572 573 574 575 576 National/international designations Name of area National Recreation Area Lake Mead (NPS) New Hampshire National Estuarine Research Reserve Great Bay (NOAA) Wildernesses Great Gulf (FS) Pemigewasset (FS) Presidential Range-Dry River (FS) Sandwich Range (FS) New Jersey National Reserve Pinelands NaR (NPS) National Wildlife Refuges Edwin B. Forsythe (FWS) Great Swamp (FWS) National Recreation Area Delaware Water Gap (NPS) New Mexico National Park Carlsbad Caverns (NPS) National Wildlife Refuges Bitter Lake (FWS) Bosque del Apache (FWS) Grulla (FWS) Las Vegas (FWS) Maxwell (FWS) San Andres (FWS) Sevilleta (FWS) National Monuments Bandelier (NPS) Chaco Canyon (NPS) White Sands (NPS) El Malpais (NPS) Wildernesses Aldo Leopold (FS) Apache Kid (FS) Blue Range (FS) Capitan Mountains (FS) Chama River Canyon (FS) Cruces Basin (FS) Dome (FS) Gila (FS) Latir Peak (FS) Manzano Mountain (FS) Pecos (FS) San Pedro Parkss (FS) Sandia Mountain (FS) Wheeler Peak (FS) White Mountain (FS) Withington (FS) 92 IUCN management category IV IV Area (ha) 606,123 3,002 2,247 18,211 11,080 10,117 438,210 14,017 2,809 28,340 18,921 9,457 23,162 1,309 3,499 1,498 23,172 92,394 14,904 8,708 58,614 46,170 81,753 18,060 11,859 14,026 20,356 7,284 2,104 225,764 8,094 14,923 90,380 16,646 15,328 7,957 19,509 7,689 Year notified 1964 1989 1964 1984 1975 1984 1978 1964 1965 1930 1939 1969 1973 1916 1907 1933 1987 1980 1980 1980 1980 1978 1980 1980 1964 1980 1978 1964 1964 1978 1964 1964 1980 United States of America Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified 577 Bisti (BLM) II 1,597 1984 578 Cebolla (BLM) II 25,414 1987 579 De-na-zin (BLM) II 9,087 1984 580 West Malpais (BLM) II 16,066 1987 National Historic Park 581 Chaco Culture (NPS) V 13,760 1907 New York National Wildlife Refuges 582 Iroquois (FWS) IV 4,381 1958 583 Montezuma (FWS) IV 2,605 584 Oyster Bay (FWS) IV 1,298 National Estuarine Research Reserve 585 Hudson River (NOAA) IV 2,023 1982 National Seashore 586 Fire Island NS (NPS) Vv 7,834 1964 National Historic Park 587 Saratoga (NPS) Vv 2,222 1938 North Carolina National Wildlife Refuges 588 Alligator River (FWS) IV 56,297 589 Cedar Island (FWS) IV 5,073 590 Great Dismal Swamp # (FWS) IV 9,945 591 Mackay Island (FWS) IV : 2,526 592 Mattamuskeet (FWS) IV 20,323 593 Pea Island (FWS) IV 2,376 594 Pee Dee (FWS) IV 3,418 595 Pungo (FWS) IV 5,002 596 Swanquarter (FWS) IV 6,335 National Estuarine Research Reserve 597 North Carolina (NOAA) IV 4,743 1982 National Seashores 598 Cape Hatteras NS (NPS) Vv 12,270 1937 599 Cape Lookout National Seashore (NPS) Vv 11,493 1966 Wildernesses 600 Birkhead Mountains (FS) II 1,938 1984 601 Catfish Lake South (FS) II 3,076 1984 602 Ellicott Rock (FS) II 1,590 1975 603 Joyce Kilmer-Slickrock (FS) II 5,314 1975 604 Linville Gorge (FS) II 4,441 1964 605 Middle Prong (FS) II 3,197 1984 606 Pocosin (FS) II 4,452 1984 607 Sheep Ridge (FS) II 3,861 1984 608 Shining Rock (FS) II 7,466 1964 609 Southern Nantahala (FS) II 4,895 1984 North Dakota National Park 610 Theodore Roosevelt (NPS) II 28,150 1978 National Wildlife Refuges 611 Ardoch (FWS) IV 1,092 612 Arrowwood (FWS) IV 6,453 1935 93 Protected Areas of the World Map ref. 613 614 615 616 617 618 619 620 621 622 623 624 625 626 627 628 629 630 631 632 633 634 635 636 637 638 639 640 641 642 Nationall/international designations Name of area Audubon (FWS) Chase Lake (FWS) Dakota Lake (FWS) Des Lacs (FWS) J. Clark Salyer (FWS) Lake Alice (FWS) Lake George (FWS) Lake Ilo (FWS) Lake Nettie (FWS) Lake Zahl (FWS) Long Lake (FWS) Lostwood (FWS) Rock Lake (FWS) Silver Lake (FWS) Slade (FWS) Tewaukon (FWS) Upper Souris (FWS) Willow Lake (FWS) Ohio National Wildlife Refuge Ottawa (FWS) National Recreation Area Cuyahoga Valley (NPS) Oklahoma National Wildlife Refuges Optima (FWS) Salt Plains (FWS) Sequoyah (FWS) Tishomingo (FWS) Washita (FWS) Wichita Mountains (FWS) Wildernesses Blackfork Mountain (FS) Upper Kiamichi (FS) National Recreation Area Arbuckle (NPS) Oregon National Park Crater Lake (NPS) National Wildlife Refuges Ankeny (FWS) Baskett Slough (FWS) Bear Valley (FWS) Cold Springs (FWS) Hart Mountain (FWS) Klamath Forest (FWS) Lewis and Clark (FWS) Lower Klamath # (FWS) Malheur (FWS) Umatilla (FWS) Upper Klamath (FWS) William L. Finley (FWS) 94 IUCN management category II Year notified 1956 1908 1932 1941 1935 1975 1930 1971 1943 1988 1988 1965 1902 1965 1965 1909 1969 1928 United States of America Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified National Estuarine Research Reserve 655 South Slough (NOAA) IV 2,502 1974 National Monument 656 John Day Fossil Beds (NPS) Ill 5,671 1974 Wildernesses 657 Badger Creek (FS) II 9,712 1984 658 Black Canyon (FS) II 5,423 1984 659 Boulder Creek (FS) II 7,730 1984 660 Bridge Creek (FS) II 2,185 1984 661 Bull of the Woods (FS) II 14,124 1984 662 Columbia (FS) II 15,783 1984 663 Cummins Creek (FS) II 3,712 1984 664 Diamond Peak (FS) II 21,928 1964 665 Drift Creek (FS) II 2,346 1984 666 Eagle Cap (FS) II 145,065 1964 667 Gearhart Mountain (FS) II 9,231 1964 668 Grassy Knob (FS) II 6,961 1984 669 Hells Canyon (FS) II 52,648 1975 670 Kalmiopsis (FS) II 72,722 1964 671 Menagerie (FS) II 1,942 1984 672 Middle Santiam (FS) II 3,035 1984 673 Mill Creek (FS) II 7,042 1984 674 Monument Rock (FS) II 7,952 1984 675 Mount Hood (FS) II 18,826 1964 676 Mount Jefferson (FS) II 5 43,305 1968 677 Mount Thielsen (FS) II 22,298 1984 678 Mount Washington (FS) II 21,342 1964 679 Mountain Lakes (FS) II 9,337 1964 680 North Fork John Day (FS) II 49,110 1984 681 North Fork Umatilla (FS) II 8,270 1984 682 Red Buttes (FS) II 1,518 1984 683 Rock Creek (FS) II 3,024 1984 684 Rogue-Umpqua Divide (FS) II 13,436 1984 685 Salmon-Huckleberry (FS) II 18,033 1984 686 Sky Lakes (FS) II 47,065 1984 687 Strawberry Mountain (FS) II 27,802 1964 688 Three Sisters (FS) II 115,418 1964 689 Waldo Lake (FS) II 15,864 1984 690 Wenaha-Tucannon (FS) II 26,861 1978 691 Wild Rogue (FS) II 10,383 1978 692 Table Rock (BLM) II 2,327 1984 693 Wild Rogue (BLM) II 3,630 1978 Pennsylvania National Scenic River 694 Middle Delaware NScRv (NPS) V 1,113 1978 National Wildlife Refuge 695 Erie (FWS) IV 3,238 National Estuarine Research Reserve 696 Narragonsett Bay (NOAA) IV 1,286 1980 Wilderness 697 Hickory Creek (FS) II 3,468 1984 National Historic Park 95 Protected Areas of the World Map ref. 698 National/international designations Name of area Gettysburg (NPS) National Recreation Area Delaware Water Gap (NPS) South Carolina National Wildlife Refuges Cape Romain (FWS) Carolina Sandhills (FWS) Pinckney Island (FWS) Santee (FWS) Savannah # (FWS) Waubay (FWS) National Monument Congaree Swamp (NPS) Wildernesses Ellicott Rock (FS) Little Wambaw Swamp (FS) Wambaw Swamp (FS) South Dakota National Parks Badlands (NPS) Wind Cave (NPS) National Wildlife Refuges La Creek (FWS) Pocasse (FWS) Sand Lake (FWS) Wilderness Black Elk (FS) Tennessee National Park Great Smoky Mountains (NPS) National Scenic River Obed (NPS) National Wildlife Refuges Chickasaw (FWS) Cross Creeks (FWS) Hatchie (FWS) Lower Hatchie (FWS) Tennessee (FWS) Wildernesses Bald River Gorge (FS) Big Frog (FS) Big Laurel Branch (FS) Citico Creek (FS) Gee Creek (FS) Joyce Kilmer-Slickrock (FS) Little Frog Mountain (FS) Pond Mountain (FS) Sampson Mountain (FS) Unaka Mountain (FS) IUCN management category Vv Vv 22a Area (ha) 1,377 11,478 13,861 18,319 1,641 17,673 5,785 1,047 6,125 1,137 2,086 1,929 98,463 11,223 6,650 1,047 8,039 3,976 209,160 2,125 6,266 3,589 5,285 1,678 20,800 1,506 3,232 2,530 6,566 1,009 1,551 1,896 2,681 3,367 1,902 Year notified 1895 1965 1932 1975 1941 1976 1975 1980 1980 1978 1903 1935 1980 1934 1976 1965 1984 1984 1986 1984 1975 1975 1986 1986 1986 1986 Map ref. 733 734 735, 736 737 738 739 740 741 742 743 744 745 746 747 748 749 750 751 752 753 754 755 756 757 758 759 760 761 762 763 764 765 766 767 768 769 National/international designations Name of area Texas National Parks Big Bend (NPS) Guadalupe Mountains (NPS) National Preserve Big Thicket (NPS) National Scenic River Rio Grande (NPS) National Wildlife Refuges Anahuac (FWS) Aransas (FWS) Attwater’s Prairie Chicken (FWS) Big Boggy (FWS) Brazoria (FWS) Buffalo Lake (FWS) Hagerman (FWS) Laguna Atascosa (FWS) Lower Rio Grande Valley (FWS) McFaddin (FWS) Moody (FWS) Muleshoe (FWS) San Bernard (FWS) Texas Point (FWS) National Seashore Padre Island NS (NPS) Wildernesses Big Slough (FS) Indian Mounds (FS) Little Lake Creek (FS) Turkey Hill (FS) Upland Island (FS) National Recreation Areas Amistad (NPS) Sanford (NPS) Shadow Mountain (NPS) Utah National Parks Arches (NPS) Bryce Canyon (NPS) Canyonlands (NPS) Capitol Reef (NPS) Zion (NPS) National Wildlife Refuges Bear River (FWS) Fish Springs (FWS) Ouray (FWS) National Monuments Cedar Breaks (NPS) Natural Bridges (NPS) 97 IUCN management category II Il <<< United States of America Area Year (ha) notified 286,572 1944 31,364 1972 34,712 1974 3,885 1978 9,897 1963 42,407 1937 3,234 1972 1,770 4,941 3,104 4,585 1945 18,301 10,662 17,397 1,424 2,352 9,904 1967 3,626 54,196 1968 1,450 1984 4,418 1984 1,542 1984 2,139 1984 5,027 1984 26,260 1965 16,603 1965 7,369 1952 29,260 1971 14,405 1924 136,542 1964 97,870 1971 59,308 1909 26,337 5,758 1959 4,651 2,469 1933 3,040 1908 Protected Areas of the World Map ref. 770 771 772 773 774 775 776 777 778 7719 780 781 782 783 784 785 786 787 788 789 790 791 792 793 794 795 796 797 798 799 800 801 802 803 804 805 806 807 808 National/international designations Name of area Wildernesses Ashdown Gorge (FS) Box-Death Hollow (FS) Dark Canyon (FS) Deseret Peak (FS) High Uintas (FS) Lone Peak (FS) Mount Naomi (FS) Mount Nebo (FS) Mount Olympus (FS) Mount Timpanogos (FS) Pine Valley Mountain (FS) Twin Peaks (FS) Wellsville Mountain (FS) Beaver Dam Mountains (BLM) Paria Canyon-Vermilion Cliffs (BLM) National Recreation Area Glen Canyon (NPS) Vermont National Wildlife Refuge Missisquoi (FWS) Wildernesses Big Branch (FS) Breadloaf (FS) Bristol Cliffs (FS) George D. Aiken (FS) Lyle Brook (FS) Peru Peak (FS) Virginia National Park Shenandoah (NPS) National Wildlife Refuges Back Bay (FWS) Chincoteague (FWS) Great Dismal Swamp (FWS) Plum Tree Island (FWS) Wallops Island (FWS) National Memorial IUCN management category II Fredericksburg and Spotsylvania Co. Battle (NPS) Vv National Battlefield Manassas (NPS) Petersburg (NPS) Park Prince William Forest (NPS) Wildernesses Barbours (FS) Beartown (FS) James River Face (FS) Kimberling Creek (FS) Lewis Fork (FS) Little Dry Run (FS) << II 98 Area (ha) 2,833 10,421 18,211 10,320 184,823 12,176 17,948 11,331 6,475 4,350 20,234 4,587 9,652 1,469 9,308 580,558 2,365 DeT9, 8,693 1,513 2,048 6,274 2,800 84,921 1,859 3,853 33,154 1,327 1,366 1,483 1,101 1,103 7,048 2,266 2,446 3,677 2,258 2,348 1,376 Year notified 1984 1984 1984 1984 1984 1978 1984 1984 1984 1984 1984 1984 1984 1984 1984 1927 1984 1984 1975 1984 1975 1984 1926 1938 1973 1940 1926 1936 1988 1984 1975 1984 1984 1984 United States of America Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified 809 Little Wilson Creek (FS) II 1,560 1984 810 Mountain Lake (FS) II 3,340 1984 811 Peters Mountain (FS) II 1,346 1984 812 Ramseys Draft (FS) II 2,722 1984 813 Rich Hole (FS) II 2,610 1988 814 Rough Mountain (FS) II 3,764 1988 815 Saint Marys (FS) II 4,083 1984 816 Shavers Run (FS) II 1,459 1988 National Historic Park 817 Colonial (NPS) \Y/ 3,810 1930 Washington National Parks 818 Mount Rainier (NPS) II 95,268 1899 819 North Cascades (NPS) II 204,284 1968 820 Olympic (NPS) II 371,225 1938 National Wildlife Refuges 821 Columbia (FWS) IV 11,985 1944 822 Conboy Lake (FWS) IV 2,290 1965 823 Little Pend Oreille (FWS) IV 16,200 824 McNary (FWS) IV 1,470 1955 825 Nisqually (FWS) IV 1,145 826 Ridgefield (FWS) IV 1,874 827 Saddle Mountain (FWS) IV 12,478 1971 828 Turnbull (FWS) IV , 6,304 1937 829 Umatilla (FWS) IV 5,672 830 Willapa (FWS) IV 5,830 National Monument 903 Mount St Helens (FS) Ill 44,550 1982 Estuarine Sanctuary 831 Padilla Bay (NOAA) IV 12,570 1980 Wildernesses 832 Alpine Lakes (FS) II 146,748 1976 833 Boulder River (FS) II 19,698 1984 834 Buckhorn (FS) II 17,911 1984 835 Clearwater (FS) II 5,908 1984 836 Colonel Bob (FS) II 4,840 1984 837 Glacier Peak (FS) II 231,618 1964 838 Glacier View (FS) II 1,264 1984 839 Goat Rocks (FS) II 42,347 1964 840 Henry M. Jackson (FS) II 41,550 1984 841 Indian Heaven (FS) II 8,482 1984 842 Lake Chelan-Sawtooth (FS) II 61,284 1984 843 Mount Adams (FS) II 18,869 1964 844 Mount Baker (FS) II 47,562 1984 845 Mount Skokomish (FS) II 5,267 1984 846 Noisy-Diobsud (FS) II 5,719 1984 847 Norse Peak (FS) II 20,778 1984 848 Pasayten (FS) II 214,497 1968 849 Salmo-Priest (FS) II 16,728 1984 850 Tatoosh (FS) II 6,374 1984 851 The Brothers (FS) II 6,751 1984 852 Trapper Creek (FS) II 2,416 1984 853 Wenaha-Tucannon (FS) II 44,940 1978 99 Protected Areas of the World Map ref. 854 855 856 857 858 National/international designations Name of area William O. Douglas (FS) Juniper Dunes (BLM) National Recreation Areas Coulee Dam (NPS) Lake Chelan (NPS) Ross Lake (NPS) West Virginia National River New River Gorge (NPS) Wildernesses Cranberry (FS) Dolly Sods (FS) Laurel Fork North (FS) Laurel Fork South (FS) Mountain Lake (FS) Otter Creek (FS) Wisconsin National Scientific Reserve Ice Age (NPS) National Scenic Rivers Lower St. Croix (NPS) St. Croix (NPS) National Wildlife Refuges Horicon (FWS) Mississippi River Caue (FWS) Necedah (FWS) Trempealeau (FWS) Upper Mississippi (FWS) National Lakeshore Apostle Island (NPS) Wildernesses Blackjack Springs (FS) Headwaters (FS) Porcupine Lake (FS) Rainbow Lake (FS) Whisker Lake (FS) Wyoming National Parks Grand Teton (NPS) Yellowstone (NPS) National Wildlife Refuges National Elk (FWS) Pathfinder (FWS) Seedskadee (FWS) National Monuments Devil’s Tower (NPS) Fossil Butte (NPS) Parkway John D. Rockefeller, Jr. Memorial (NPS) IUCN management 100 category II II Vv Vv Vv —i—— Ill Area (ha) 68,104 2,792 40,424 25,044 47,582 25,101 14,514 4,134 2,450 2,427 1,012 8,094 13,153 3,512 25,373 8,495 16,338 17,681 225 19,425 17,084 2,382 7,328 1,720 2,664 2,972 124,140 899,139 9,989 6,807 6,011 1,346 3,280 9,672 Year notified 1984 1984 1946 1968 1968 1978 1983 1975 1983 1983 1988 1975 1964 1972 1969 1941 1970 1978 1984 1984 1975 1978 1929 1872 1965 1906 1972 1977 National/international designations Name of area Wildernesses Bridger (FS) Cloud Peak (FS) Encampment River (FS) Fitzpatrick (FS) Gros Ventre (FS) Huston Parks (FS) Jedediah Smith (FS) North Absaroka (FS) Platte River (FS) Popo Agie (FS) Savage Run (FS) Teton (FS) Washakie (FS) Winegar Hole (FS) Biosphere Reserves Aleutian Islands National Wildlife Refuge Beaver Creek Experimental Watershed Big Bend National Park Big Thicket National Preserve California Coast Ranges Carolinian-South Atlantic Cascade Head Experimental Forest Scenic Research Area Central Gulf Coastal Plain Central California Coast Central Plains Experimental Range (CPER) Champlain-Adirondak Channel Islands Coram Experimental Forest (incl. Coram NA) Denali National Park and Desert Experimental Range Everglades National Park (incl. Ft. Jefferson NM) Fraser Experimental Forest Glacier National Park Glacier Bay-Admiralty Is. HJ. Andrews Experimental Forest Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest Isle Royale National Park Jornada Experimental Range Konza Prairie Research Natural Area Land between The Lakes Mammoth Cave Area Mojave and Colorado Deserts New Jersey Pinelands Niwot Ridge Noatak National Arctic Range Olympic National Park Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument Rocky Mountain National Park San Dimas Experimental Forest San Joaquin Experimental Range Sequoia-Kings Canyon National Parks South Atlantic Coastal Plain BR Southern Appalachian 101 IUCN management category United States of America Area (ha) 173,241 76,502 4,097 80,341 116,145 12,379 49,959 141,838 9,206 41,225 6,046 236,838 285,011 4,336 1,100,943 111,300 283,247 34,217 62,098 125,545 7,051 72,964 404,863 6,210 3,990,000 479,652 3,019 2,441,295 22,513 585,867 9,328 410,202 1,515,015 6,100 3,076 215,740 78,297 3,487 1,560,000 83,337 1,297,264 445,300 1,200 3,035,200 363,379 133,278 106,710 6,947 1,832 343,000 6,125 215,596 Year notified 1964 1984 1984 1976 1984 1984 1984 1964 1984 1984 1978 1964 1964 1984 1976 1978 1976 1981 1983 1986 1976 1983 1988 1976 1989 1976 1976 1976 1976 1976 1976 1976 1986 1976 1976 1980 1976 1979 1991 1990 1984 1988 1979 1976 1976 1976 1976 1976 1976 1976 1983 1988 Protected Areas of the World Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified Stanislaus-Tuolumne Experimental Forest Ix 607 1976 The University of Michigan Biological Station Ix 4,048 1979 The Virginia Coast Reserve IX 13,511 1979 Three Sisters Wilderness IX 80,900 1976 Virgin Islands National Park Ix 6,127 1976 Yellowstone National Park Ix 898,349 1976 Ramsar Wetlands Ash Meadows R 9,509 1986 Cache-Lower White Rivers R 145,690 1989 Catahoula Lake R 12,150 1990 Chesapeake Bay R 45,000 1987 Cheyenne Bottoms R 8,036 1988 Edwin B Forsythe NWR R 13,080 1986 Everglades R 566,143 1987 Horicon Marsh R 12,911 1990 Izembek R 168,422 1986 Okefenokee R 159,889 1986 World Heritage sites Everglades National Park 4 585,867 1979 Grand Canyon National Park >. 4 493,270 1979 Great Smoky Mountains National Park ».4 209,000 1983 Mammoth Cave National Park X 21,191 1981 Olympic National Park ».4 362,848 1981 Redwood National Park xX 42,400 1980 Yellowstone National Park X 898,349 1978 Yosemite National Park > 4 308,283 1984 * Abbreviations following the site name give the name of the management agency responsible for the site, which are as follows: FWS US Fish and Wildlife Service NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration NPS National Park Service FS US Forest Service BLM Bureau of Land Management ** Wilderness areas have only been listed here when they do not overlap with other categories of protected area included in this list. There are a large number of other wilderness areas which lie within national parks, national monuments, national wildlife reguges and other categories. 102 United States of America Federally Protected Areas of the USA Alaska 103 Protected Areas of the World Federally Protected Areas of the USA Idaho, Montana, Oregon, Washington, Wyoming 104 United States of America Federally Protected Areas of the USA California, Nevada 105 ies — of 4 Protected Areas of the World Federally Protected Areas of the USA Arizona, New Mexico 06 1 United States of America Federally Protected Areas of the USA Colorado, Utah 07 1 Protected Areas of the World Federally Protected Areas of the USA Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota 108 United States of America Federally Protected Areas of the USA Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Texas 109 Protected Areas of the World Federally Protected Areas of the USA Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee 110 United States of America Federally Protected Areas of the USA Florida 111 Protected Areas of the World Federally Protected Areas of the USA Michigan, Wisconsin 112 United States of America Federally Protected Areas of the USA Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Ohio 113 Protected Areas of the World Federally Protected Areas of the USA Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia 114 United States of America Federally Protected Areas of the USA New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania 115 Protected Areas of the World Federally Protected Areas of the USA Connecticut, Massachussets, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Vermont 116 United States of America Federally Protected Areas of the USA Maine 117 Wire Re wala teal), ; ° Wiseeees a | —_ 2 a iy 7 * a . ne» Le Si Se ee ee eee : gm er ee oo ad er BELIZE Area 22,965 sq. km Population 191,000 (1991) Economic Indicators GDP: US$ 1,304 per capita (1987) GNP: US$ 1,720 per capita (1989) Policy and Legislation _ Belize, formerly known as British Honduras, obtained independence from Britain in 1981, although it has been self-governing since 1964 (Van Rest, 1986). Belize participates in the Tropical Forestry Action Plan (TFAP) of the FAO, an international strategy for maximising the contribution of forestry sectors to national economic and social development while maintaining conservation principles. A country Action Plan was drawn up in 1989 with support from a number of international aid agencies. Much of the plan is devoted to economic development and maximising resource utilisation in a sustainable manner, through legislative changes, institutional strengthening and changes in management techniques. On conservation, the plan proposes several measures to counter the current deterioration of forests, including the establishment of an Office of Conservation within the Forest Department. This has now been established (S. Matola, pers. comm., 1992; O. Salas, pers. comm., 1992). Production of resource inventories is recommended so that gaps in the existing protected areas network can be highlighted (OFI, 1989). The UK Overseas Development Agency has taken over conservation aspects of the Action Plana forest planning and management project was established in May 1992 to run for five years (S. Zisman, pers. comm., 1992). The first piece of legislation concerning forest resource regulation and protection was the Forest Ordinance, 1927, revised in 1958. This provides for the establishment and management of forest reserves within which timber extraction is strictly regulated (Hartshorn and Green, 1985; US-AID, 1988). Forest reserves are established under individual decrees, and controlled timber extraction is permitted within them. Approximately 22% of the land in forest reserves is recognised unofficially as protection forest, which cannot be utilised except for selective fellings of minor importance. The Crown Land Ordinance, 1924, revised in 1958, enabled the relevant Minister to categorise sites on an ad hoc basis, leading to the designation of a number of sites, sometimes known as crown reserves. These included a number of bird sanctuaries (see Annex) which have not been renotified under the more recent legislation (Zisman, 1989). The first crown reserve, Half—Moon Cay, was established in 1928. 119 The principal protected area legislation currently in effect is the National Parks System Act No. 5, 1981, which provides for the declaration by the government of national parks and other protected areas to be administered by the Chief Forest Officer. However, no regulations have been drawn up for the implementation of this legislation (US-AID, 1988). Definitions are given for four categories of protected area (see Annex) that are to be established by the Minister. The process whereby areas are delimited and developed as a protected area are given. Licences for construction and other activities within the area may be issued only by the Minister. The final piece of legislation relating directly to protected areas is the Fisheries Ordinance, 1977, which enables the designation of marine nature reserves (see Annex). Further reference to these is covered under the Fisheries Amendment Act, 1983 (Zisman, 1989). The Wildlife Protection Act No. 4, 1981 provides for the conservation, restoration, development and regulation of wildlife resources. Hunting regulations are detailed, and the Forest Department is authorised to ensure compliance with the regulations. Under this Act, all wild animals are protected from unregulated capture, while some 30 mammal species and all but six bird species are completely, protected. A seven-year moratorium on harvesting wildlife for commercial purposes was due to expire in 1988. It has been extended, however, and is due to expire in December 1992 (US-AID, 1988; D. Rosado, pers. comm., 1991). International Activities Belize is a member of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM). It is a member of the Caribbean Conservation Association (CCA), a regional, non-governmental, non-profit organisation dedicated to promoting policies and practices which contribute to conservation, protection and wise use of natural and cultural resources, and to the Central American Commission on Development and the Environment (CCAD). Belize ratified the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) on 6 November 1990, but no natural sites have been inscribed to date. Belize is not party to the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention), nor does it participate in the Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme, although it is currently considering the advantages of joining these, as well as the Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the Western Hemisphere (Convencién sobre la Proteccién de la Flora, de la Fauna y de las Bellezas Escénicas Naturales de los Paises de América) (Western Hemisphere Convention). A proposed agreement between Belize and Mexico has been drawn up concerning the protection of the Protected Areas of the World environment in the border areas between the two countries (D. Rosado, pers. comm., 1991). Efforts are also underway to establish an international protected area around Gran Petén between Mexico, Guatemala and Belize. Also known as the Azul Triangle, this is a vast and mostly uninhabited region, with numerous Mayan ruins. On the Belize side, some 85,000ha have already been established for conservation, and limited sustainable exploitation in the Rio Bravo Conservation Areas managed by the Programme for Belize. A further proposed international initiative concerns the Chiquibul/Mayan Mountain project between Guatemala and Belize. Administration and Management The Forest Department within the Ministry of Natural Resources (formerly in the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries) is nominally responsible for all protected areas in the country. In reality, the main burden of conservation work has been undertaken by non-governmental organisations (NGOs), notably the Belize Audubon Society (BAS), and also the Programme for Belize, a consortium of conservation organisations (US-AID, 1988). BAS has been given authority to manage the government reserves established between 1981 and 1990, in the absence of an appropriate government authority. The only categories not managed by BAS are forest reserves and the single marine nature reserve. BAS also has an important role in promoting environmental awareness, and identifying and promoting new sites for nature reserves. The Programme for Belize owns and manages over 85,000ha for conservation purposes. Another NGO, Coral Cay Conservation, has worked closely with the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries in surveying the coastline, including existing and proposed protected areas, and drafting up management plans (PFB, 1992). The Forest Department is responsible for managing all forest reserves in the country. Around 62% of forested land is owned by the public sector, just under half of which comes under designation as 15 forest reserves (US-AID, 1988). This Department comprises a Chief Officer, three forest officers, three foresters, two conservation officers, 11 rangers, 20 forest guards and support staff. However, training facilities are lacking for staff, and none has received training in wildlife or parks management. Lack of adequate equipment and funding also restricts the effectiveness of the department (US-AID, 1988). Responsibility for the administration of marine resources, including marine nature reserves, rests with the Fisheries Administrator in the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (Zisman, 1989). The government’s decision to hand over policy and management responsibilities concerned with the protected areas sector is widely felt to be unacceptable. It is felt that a systematic approach to the conservation of the country’s biodiversity is required, to ensure that all ecosystems are properly represented in the protected 120 areas system, while an administrative and managerial body within the public sector may be essential if external assistance in planning, research, training and managementis to be effective. A Conservation Advisory Board was established in February 1989 to advise the Forest Department on matters relating to conservation and the Environment, but has no statutory powers, and is ineffective. Proposals put forward by the World Wildlife Fund-US for the establishment of a Conservation Division, or an Office of Conservation, within the Forest Department, were incorporated in the Forest Department Annual Report and in the Belize Tropical Forest Action Plan, and a Conservation Division has now been established, to manage some or all of the protected areas (S. Matola, pers. comm., 1992; O. Salas, pers. comm., 1992). WWF-US also proposed that some form of systems review should be undertaken, to identify areas of critical importance for inclusion in an expanded protected areas network (OFI, 1989; WWFE-US, 1989; D. Rosado, pers. comm., 1991). In 1992, the government of Belize approved in principle a Belize Revenue Generation Strategy for Protected Areas (O. Salas, pers. comm., 1992). Systems Reviews _ Belize is the second smallest and the least populated country in Central America. It lies in the northern portion of the Mesoamerican land bridge, and shares its borders to the north with Mexico, and to the west and south with Guatemala. To the east there is a long coastline on the Caribbean Sea, with numerous offshore islands and coral cays. Many of these lie in a chain some 15-40km offshore, along the second largest barrier reef in the world, which is almost continuous for some 257km. The country can be subdivided into the level and low-lying northern half, which continues to the south along a coastal strip, and the Maya Mountains in the south central area of the country. The low-lying areas, which are continuous with the Mexican Yucatan Platform, are dominated by limestone topography, while the mountain range, which rises to 1,120m, is largely composed of metamorphosed sediments, with granitic intrusions. The country lies within the subtropics, and has a history of devastating effects of cyclones (Hartshorn et al., 1984; US-AID, 1988). Following the Holdridge (1967) classification system, and the work of Hartshorn ef al. (1984), six life (ecological) zones have been described in Belize: subtropical moist forest, subtropical lower montane moist forest, subtropical lower montane wet forest, subtropical wet forest, tropical moist — transition to subtropical, and tropical wet — transition to subtropical. Mangroves are a major feature of the coastal and marine ecosystems (Hartshorn et al., 1984; OFI, 1989). Coral reefs are highly developed and contain a typical Caribbean fauna (IUCN, 1988). The most recent estimates of forest cover suggest that closed broad-leaved forest covers some 74% of the land area, and open pine forest a further 5% (P. Simonetti, pers. comm., 1992). More than 1,000 years ago the Maya civilisation was widespread, and extensive areas of the country were farmed. The decline of this civilisation led to the abandonment of many of these farms, and permitted forest regeneration. In most cases, this regeneration has reached the stage where it is widely regarded as climax vegetation (US-AID, 1988). Although Belize is not noted among the Central American countries as having particularly high biodiversity, itis nonetheless very diverse, especially for its size, with approximately 4,000 species of flowering plants. The flora in the north is closely allied to that of the Yucatan Peninsula, which is thought to comprise up to 17% endemics. Another feature which raises the status of Belize as a country of considerable conservation importance is the fact that much of the habitat is undisturbed, and relatively unthreatened at present. Hence, populations are more stable here than in many other countries (Hartshorn et al., 1984; WWF-US, 1989). Belize is unique in tropical America in that the country’s geopolitical identity is related directly to its forest resources. Settlement of the region in the mid-17th century was for cutting logwood, and for nearly three centuries the local economy depended on exported logs and imported food. By 1984 only 2% of land area was used for agriculture, of a maximum of 16% which is considered suitable for mechanised agriculture without large financial and technical investments (Hartshorn et al., 1984). The protected area system has its origins in a series of crown reserves, focusing on major sea-bird rookeries, and 15 forest reserves, established for timber exploitation rather than wildlife exploitation. The first crown reserve, Half-Moon Caye, was established in 1928. In 1977, seven tiny mangrove cays were established as crown reserves to protect rookeries, with administration entrusted to BAS. One of BAS’s first projects was to raise funds to purchase the remaining privately-owned land on Half-Moon Caye, an important breeding ground for red-footed booby Sula sula. Half- Moon Caye Natural Monument was established in 1982. Similar initiatives by BAS have resulted in the creation of other protected areas, such as Crooked Tree Wildlife Sanctuary in 1984. The collective efforts of BAS, the Belize Centre for Environmental Studies, Programme for Belize, Belize Zoo and the government have consolidated the conservation system (Simons, 1988; S. Matola, pers. comm., 1992). Since 1981, five national parks have been established. By 1991 there were some 20 legally declared conservation areas, which covered some 10% of the total area (US-AID, 1988). BAS has identified a further 15 sites for potential protection, including designating the barrier reef, associated cays and lagoons as a World Heritage site (Hartshorn et al., 1984; US-AID, 1998). 121 Belize The governmentis the largest land-owner in the country, and as such it has a strong influence on conservation. Some 21,323 sq. km, or 93% of the total national territory, is classified by the governmentas "forest land", over 60% of which is state-owned. Actually, this figure does not give an accurate reflection of current land use, as it contains a considerable area of open grassland and small farms which were not included in calculations. Within the state-owned forestry system there are 15 legally notified forest reserves that cover 6,368 sq. km, or 28% of total area. The majority of the land in these forest reserves is broad-leaved forest, although there is also some open woodland and pine. Approximately 22% of the land in these reserves is recognised unofficially as protection forest, a further 33% has been described as inaccessible. Despite this, however, a number of these reserves have lost forest to illegal agriculture, and at least one has been degazetted. None of the existing forest reserves has a formal management plan, and it is unclear to what extent they will contribute to conservation in the long-term (Hartshorn et al., 1984; US-AID, 1988). Tourism is growing exceptionally fast, and tourism in protected areas doubled between 1987 and 1989. Unless properly managed this could seriously threaten sites. However, tourism also presents a great potential source of revenue for a sector that is particularly short of funding. There is currently no legal mechanism to guarantee the capture of revenue from protected areas, although a WWF-US/Government of Belize project is looking into this (WWF-US, 1989). Several innovative conservation projects have been implemented. For instance, in 1985, following a survey of the black howler monkey range, the 777ha Community Baboon Sanctuary was established, involving more than 60 private land-owners who have pledged to leave parts of their land undisturbed. Tourism has been especially encouraged in the area to provide jobs for local people (Simons, 1988). There are two other large private nature reserves: Shipstern Nature Reserve and Rio Bravo Conservation Area (Zisman, 1989). Hartshorn et al.’s 1984 comprehensive review includes a chapter on natural resources and another on institutional and legal aspects of enviromental issues. The chapter on natural resources comprises sections on forests, including forest reserves, and wildlands conservation including the status of conservation units. Addresses Commissioner of Lands and Survey, Ministry of Natural Resources, Belmopan Chief Forest Officer, Department of Forestry, Ministry of Natural Resources, Belmopan (Tel: 8 22711; FAX: 8 22333) Fisheries Administrator, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, PO Box 148, Belize City Belize Audubon Society, 29 Regent Street, PO Box 1001, Belize City (Tel: 2 77369; FAX: 2 78562) Protected Areas of the World Coral Cay Conservation, The Sutton Business Centre, Restmor Way, Wallington, Surrey SM6 7AH, UK (Tel: 081 669 0011; FAX: 081 773 0406) Programme for Belize, PO Box 749, Belize City References Hartshorn, G.S., Nicolait, L., Hartshorn, L., Bevier, G., Brightman, R., Cal, J., Cawich, A., Davidson, W.., DuBois, R., Dyer, C., Gibson, J., Hawley, W., Leonard, J., Nicolait, R., Weyer, D., White, H., and Wright, C. (1984). Belize Country Environmental Profile. A Field Study. US-AID Contract No. 505-0000-C-00-3001-00. 151 pp. Hartshorn, G.S. and Green, G.C. (1985). Belize. Wildlands conservation in North-Central America. September. 6 pp. IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World, Volume 1: Atlantic and Eastern Pacific. TUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK. 373 pp. 122 OFI (1989). Belize Tropical Forestry Action Plan. Report by Oxford Forestry Institute. Unpublished. Oxford Forestry Institute, Oxford, UK. 273 pp. PFB (1992). Programme for Belize. Newsletter 6. Programme for Belize, Suffolk, UK. Simons, P. (1988). Belize at the crossroads. New Scientist, 29 October: 61-65. US-AID (1988). Tropical forests/biodiversity. Annex to US-AID/Belize FY 89-90 Action Plan, March. 26 pp. Van Rest, J. (1986). Partners in development: Belize. Horizons. Spring. Pp. 13-17. WWFE-US (1989). The establishment of the conservation division and expansion of a protected areas system in Belize. Unpublished report submitted to the Biodiversity Support Program. Pp. ? Zisman, S.(1989). The Directory of Protected Areas and Sites of Nature Conservation Interest in Belize. Occasional Publications No. 10, Department of Geography, University of Edinburgh, UK. 110pp. ANNEX Belize Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration Title:: Crown Land Ordinance (Section 6, Chapter 110) Date: 1924, revised 1958 Brief description: Chapter 110 provides the Minister with the power to establish sites, sometimes known as crown reserves, on an ad hoc basis. A number of these remain today as bird sanctuaries Administrative authority: Belize Audubon Society Designations: Bird sanctuary No information is available concerning regulations, although Zisman (1989) states they may be considered as IUCN Management Category IV. All sites are small (between 0.4 and 21ha). Title: Fisheries Ordinance and Fisheries Amendment Act Date: 1977, Amendment 1983 Brief description: Section 9 (A) enables the designation of marine nature reserves Administrative authority: Fisheries Unit, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Designations: Marine nature reserve The hunting, killing or taking of certain species of marine mammals and crocodiles is prohibited. Only one site has been designated. This site was declared to prevent overfishing, and to protect the coral resources largely because of their value to tourism, fishing and as a genetic resource. The existing site has been zoned, with Zone (A) being closed to fishing and coral collecting, and two further zones where regulations are less strict. Title: The National Parks System Act No. 5 Date: 25 November 1981 Brief description: | Provides for the creation of national parks and other protected areas, which collectively comprise the National Parks System. Definitions for the different management categories to be employed, and prohibited activities common to all of them, are given. 123 Administrative authority: Chief Forest Officer, Forest Department, Ministry of Agriculture Designations: National park An area set aside for the protection and preservation of examples of natural or scenic value, considered to be of national significance, for the benefit and enjoyment of the public. Entry is permitted only for scientific research, recreational or educational purposes, with prior authorisation from the Minster of Natural Resources. Nature reserve An area set aside for the protection of biological communities or species, to allow the continuation of natural processes in an undisturbed state, and to ensure that ecologically representative examples of the natural environment are available for purposes of scientific research, education and the maintenance of genetic resources. Entry is prohibited unless under the authority of the Ministry, and following regulations given in the legislation. Wildlife sanctuary An area set aside for the protection of nationally significant species, or groups of species, biotic communities or physical features that require human manipulation for their continuing survival. Hunting or capture of wildlife, and the destruction of bird or reptile nests or eggs, are prohibited. Natural monument An area set aside for the protection of nationally significant features of special interest or unique characteristics for the purpose of education, research and public enjoyment. Disruption of features of the national monument is prohibited, but the monument may be used for educational, interpretational and research purposes. Activities prohibited in all four categories include: Hunting or capturing wildlife species, fishing, destroying or collecting floral specimens, and the construction of structures for permanent or temporary residence or other purposes. The Minister may issue permits to appropriate organisations, scientists or suitably qualified professionals for the collection of specimens, at his discretion. Source: Original legislation Protected Areas of the World WbY SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS National/international designations Name of area National Parks Chiquibul Nature Reserves Bladen Branch Rio Grande Society Hall Wildlife Sanctuaries Cockscomb Basin Crooked Tree Marine Nature Reserve Hol Chan National Monument Half Moon Caye Forest Reserves Chiquibul Columbia River Commerce Bight Deep River Freshwater Creek Grants’ Work A Machaca Manatee Lagoons Mango Creek Maya Mountains Mountain Pine Ridge Sibun Silk Grass Sittee River Swasey-Bladen Archaeological Reserve Caracol IUCN management category 124 Vill Area (ha) 107,607 39,256 2,340 2,729 102,400 1,470 411 3,925 184,955 44,789 1,200 31,647 29,593 3,439 2,300 3,300 23,224 52,124 51,282 42,966 2,641 37,938 6,200 20,000 Year notified 1991 1990 1968 1986 1986 1984 1987 1982 1991 1954 1989 1991 1960 1986 1954 1987 1984 1920 1987 1920 1977 1958 = pce =e co | 88.5° cae + 18.5° 2 ‘ 18° 4 -17.5° ml SS Protected Areas of Belize 125 Belize ated ne oe as pain woe Se cbs i ee P a : SUMMARY 03° PUTEETER ARES 1 — - “sn ee es -_ et cata ——— as ble S| RE eat ae eke eee TNA ee Ay wt ere Thee oe ee ‘Tee COSTA RICA Area 50,900 sq. km Population 3,015,000 (1990) Natural increase 2.25% per annum Economic Indicators GDP: No information GNP: US$ 1,780 per capita (1989) Policy and Legislation Information on natural resource protection given in the Political Constitution of the Republic of Costa Rica (Constituci6n Politica de la Republica) is currently not available. Two major strategies for the conservation and sustainable use of natural resources have been adopted (Bradley et al., 1990). Costa Rica participates in the FAO Tropical Forestry Action Plan (TFAP), an international strategy for maximising the contribution of forestry sectors to national economic and social development while maintaining conservation principles. In 1989, the government formulated its Forestry Action Plan (Plan de Accion Forestal para Costa Rica), to interpret the global designs of TFAP to suit national interests (Bradley et al., 1990; MIRENEM, 1990). The Forestry Action Plan reviews the current situation of the forest sector, and proposes measures to make forest conservation more effective. These include increasing coordination between the numerous institutes involved in forest management; supporting the establishment of a coordinated national system of protected areas; and increasing scientific knowledge of forest resources, necessary to implement sustainable use programmes (MIRENEM, 1990). The Conservation Strategy for Sustainable Development (Estrategia de Conservacién para el Desarrollo Sostenible) (ECODES), completed in 1989 under the direction of the Ministry of Natural Resources, Energy and Mines (Ministerio de Recursos Naturales, Energia y Minas) (MIRENEM), marks a significant advance in governmental policies for natural resource protection (Quesada, 1990). The strategy provides acomprehensive review of the current situation of natural resource management, and establishes national guidelines for sustainable development: preserving genetic diversity; maintaining essential ecosystems; and ensuring sustainable natural resource use. In 1987, an Executive Secretariat (Secretaria Ejecutiva) was established within MIRENEM to supervise the formulation of ECODES, which took several years, and to execute its implementation (Bradley et al., 1990; Quesada, 1990). Natural resource regulation dates back to 1853 when hunting was prohibited close to human settlement (SPN, 1979). Law No. 13 of 10 January 1939 makes reference to national forests (bosques nacionales), and prohibits the enclosure of uncultivated land, and the destruction 127 or cultivation of mountain habitats. Areas of land 200m wide along the length of coasts, and 500m wide on either side of rivers are declared protected for forest conservation purposes (SPN, 1979). The term national park (parque nacional) first appeared in legislation in Law No. 197 (1945), which prohibited forest exploitation for 200m on either side of the Panamerican Highway, and declared part of the remaining construction area as a national park. However, Owing to economic problems, this law was never put into effect, and the first strictly protected natural area was not established until 1963 (SPN, 1979; Ugalde, 1992). The promulgation of the Forestry Law (Ley Forestal) No. 4465 (1969) was a significant step for the effective establishment and management of protected areas (Ugalde, 1992). Under this law, the General Forestry Directorate (Direccién General Forestal) (DGF) was created within the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock (Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia) (MAG), to be responsible for various categories of protected area. Definitions of these categories are to be given in the individual legislation providing for the creation of the each area. National parks and reserves are to be created by executive decree and, once established, their boundaries can be altered only by a Congressional Law (Ley de Congreso). Provision is made for the expropriation of privately-owned land for the creation of strictly protected areas where necessary, and penalties for infringements are given. In order to implement the provisions of the 1969 Forestry Law with respect to protected areas, the DGF established within itself the Department of National Parks (Departamento de Parques Nacionales). In 1977, Law No. 6084 officially raised the status of this department to that of a separate general directorate within the MAG, known as the National Parks Service (Servicio de Parques Nacionales) (SPN) (SPN, 1979; Ugalde, 1992). Wildlife resources are considered under the provisions of Law No. 6919 Wildlife Conservation Law (Ley de Conservaci6n de Fauna Silvestre), 1984, which state the regulations governing hunting and fishing. It is the responsibility of the Wildlife Department (Departamento de Vida Silvestre) (DVS), under MIRENEM, to ensure compliance with the legislation. The Regulations to the Wildlife Conservation Law, Decree No. 15403, 1984 provide further details of wildlife protection, and list prohibited activities and penalties. Provision is made for the creation of the Coordinating Committee for Wildlife Conservation (Comité Coordinador de Conservacién de Fauna Silvestre), comprising representatives from the various agricultural and environmental institutes including the National Parks Service, to supervise and assess activities relating to wildlife conservation. Protected Areas of the World In 1986, MIRENEM was established under Law No. 7152, specifically responsible for formulating national policies for natural resource protection and use. Both the DGF and the SPN became part of this new ministry upon its creation, and the Wildlife Department became the Wildlife Directorate, independent of the DGF (Ugalde, 1992). In 1990, the Reformation of the Forestry Law (Reforma de la Ley Forestal) No. 7174 replaced the 1969 Forestry Law and its subsequent modifications. The responsibilities and structure of the DGF are detailed, and provision is made for the creation of the National Forestry Council (Consejo Forestal Nacional) to assess the activities of MIRENEM with respect to the protection, exploitation and administration of forest resources. Definitions are given for five categories of protected area (see Annex). Establishment requirements include a preliminary inventory, stated objectives and a management plan for each area, to be formulated by the DGF or the SPN. There is no single piece of legislation uniting protected areas by stating national conservation objectives, and providing a legislative framework fora coherent national system (MIRENEM, 1990). In 1991, MIRENEM submitted a project for a new law to the Legislative Assembly (Asamblea Legislativa), as part of the ongoing process of consolidating protected areas into a coordinated national system (MIRENEM, 1991a; Ugalde, 1992). The Project for a Law of the National System of Conservation Areas (Proyecto de una Ley del Sistema Nacional de Areas de Conservaci6n) does not replace current legislation on protected area management, but is intended to implement a new management system for protected areas which will unify the national system to a greater degree, and in which local and private participation will be encouraged (MIRENEM, 1991a; Ugalde, 1992). International Activities Costa Rica signed the Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the Western Hemisphere (Convencion sobre la Proteccién de la Flora, de la Fauna y de las Bellezas Escénicas Naturales de los Paises de América) (Western Hemisphere Convention) in 1940 with subsequent ratification. Costa Rica ratified both the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) on 23 August 1977, with one natural site inscribed in 1983, and the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) on 27 March 1992 and two sites have been listed. Costa Rica participates in the Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme and two biosphere reserves were approved in 1982 and 1988. In 1982 Costa Rica signed the Basic Convention for Creation of the Park (Convenio Basico de Creacién 128 del Parque), a binational agreement with Panama for the creation, joint planning and administration of the La Amistad transfrontier park. Costa Rica and Nicaragua are also cooperating closely on the development of the binational protected areas system along the border between the two countries through the SIAPAZ project. A binational commission (comisién binacional) was established in October 1990, and Costa Rica and Nicaragua signed a cooperative agreement on 15 December 1990 for collaboration with frontier protected areas (4reas protegidas fronterizas). Costa Rica, through the National Park Service participates in the FAO Latin American Network programme (Red Latinoamericana de Cooperacién Técnica en Parques Nacionales, Otras Areas Protegidas, Flora y Fauna Silvestres). This programme aims to coordinate the activities of participating countries, to assist in the implementation and functioning of a coherent and effective national system of protected areas in each country (FAO, n.d.). Administration and Management _‘The structure of protected areas and forestry administration has existed in its present form since the creation of MIRENEM, in 1986. By establishing a ministry specifically responsible for natural resources and the environment, such issues are afforded a relatively high status within government (Quesada, 1990). MIRENEM incorporates those organisations that administer natural resources and protected areas: the General Forestry Directorate (DGF) and the National Parks Service (SPN), both formerly part of the Ministry of Agriculture (Ministerio de Agricultura) (MAG); and the Wildlife Directorate (Direccién de Vida Silvestre) (DVS), formerly a department within the DGF (MIRENEM, 1991b; Ugalde, 1992). The Responsibilities for protected area management are assigned to the DGF or the SPN according to management category; the DVS is responsible for wildlife, and does not administer protected areas (A.F. Ugalde, pers. comm., 1992). The DGF, established in 1969, has a broad range of responsibilities for forest resource administration, including the management of forest reserves (reservas forestales), protective zones (zonas protectoras) and faunal refuges (Bradley et al., 1990; A.F. Ugalde pers. comm., 1992). The principal aim of the areas managed by the DGF is the sustainable production of natural resources. Land within these areas may be privatelyowned, and the state is not obliged to acquire territory for the establishment of these categories (Ugalde, 1992). The SPN, established as a separate directorate in 1977, manages national parks (parques nacionales), biological reserves (reservas bioldégicas) and national monuments (monumentos nacionales). It has the principal responsibility for formulating and implementing protected area management policies under the supervision of MIRENEM (Bradley et al., 1990; Ugalde, 1992). The principal objective of the areas administrated by the SPN is the conservation of national biodiversity and for this reason, land under these categories must be acquired by the state (Ugalde, 1992). In total, there are approximately 600 personnel working in protected area management (Ugalde, 1992). There are numerous other organisations and institutions involved, directly or indirectly, in the protection and utilisation of forest resources. The DGF and the SPN are the two principal institutions responsible for coordinating and directing forest related activities (MIRENEM, 1990). The National Forestry Council, created in 1990, is responsible for assessing the activities of forest resource use and protection activities of MIRENEM. It comprises the minister and viceminister of MIRENEM, the Director General of the DGF; the Minister of National Planning and Economic Policy (Ministro de Planificacién Nacional y Politica Econémica); and presidents or representatives from several governmental and private institutions concerned with agrarian and environmental affairs. The National Commission of Indigenous Affairs (Comisién Nacional Asuntos Indigenas) (CONAI) is responsible for a number of indigenous reserves (reservas indigenas) which play an important role in the conservation of forests and natural resources (Bradley et al., 1990; MIRENEM, 1991a). Although CONAI does not directly define management policies for these reserves, it coordinates management activities with the various indigenous development associations and local groups (Bradley et al., 1990). There are seven privately-owned protected areas that cover 24,357ha, and constitute an important addition to the protected area network (MIRENEM, 1991b). These may be owned by universities, private individuals or institutions such as the Tropical Science Centre (Centro de Ciencias Topicales) (CCT), which manages Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve, and the Organization for Tropical Studies (OTS), which manages La Selva Biological Research Station (Bradley et al., 1990). A number of other NGOs are working in conservation issues. Among the oldest and most active in protected area support are the National Parks Foundation (Fundacién de Parques Nacionales) (FPN), the Neotropical Foundation (Fundacién Neotrépica) and the National Biodiversity Institute (Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad) (INBio) (Bradley et al., 1990). The main objectives of FPN include promoting environmental education and working towards the establishment of an effective legal framework for environmental protection (Alfaro, pers. comm., 1986). The FPN is responsible for administering funds generated by debtfornature swaps in Costa Rica (Bradley et al., 1990). In 1983, the FPN together with The Nature Conservancy, developed the Natural Heritage Programme (Programma de 129 Costa Rica Patrimonio Natural) to carry out biological inventories on endangered species and natural habitats in the country and to maintain a data base of information on the current situation of protected areas (Alfaro, pers. comm., 1986). The Fundacién Neotrépica, is also involved in the Natural Heritage Programme, besides playing a broader role in education about protected areas. INBio, established in 1988, promotes environmental education and training of field personnel to work in protected areas (Bradley et al., 1990). It also manages conservation databases. Funding for protected areas is through state budgets, and funds generated by NGOs and foreign governments. Financial support from the government was greatest during the 1970s, but funds were reduced during the 1980s (Ugalde, 1992). In 1987 a debtfornature swap was established, by which the protected area system received significant financial support in the form of a bilateral government cooperation, and from international NGOs (Ugalde, 1992). Between 1987 and 1990 the state funds assigned to the SPN and the DGF, were US$ 27 million, with a further US$ 19 million from private foundations (Ugalde, 1992). Problems in protected area management arise from a lack of coordination between the responsible institutes, and the lack of participation of local communities, combined with the absence of a clear legislative framework for implementing conservation objectives (MIRENEM, 1990). The existence of two principal administrative entities in charge of protected areas has resulted in an unnecessary duplication of effort (Ugalde, 1992). Also, a lack of funding results in inadequate staffing levels and inadequate training of personnel (MIRENEM, 1990). There are noticeable differences in the effectiveness of protected area management under the various administrative authorities. Only national parks and biological reserves may be considered adequately protected and receiving effective management (Ugalde, 1992). The new law proposed by MIRENEM in 1991 provides for the reorganisation of protected area administration. The SPN would be changed to the National Service for Conservation Areas (Servicio Nacional de Areas de Conservacién) and vested with the responsibility for the management, planning and development of the new national system of protected areas (MIRENEM, 1991a; Ugalde, 1992). Management agreements may be established with NGOs. Local participation would be encouraged through the creation the advisory National Council on Conservation Areas (Consejo Nacional de Areas de Conservacién) and numerous Regional Councils (Consejos Regionales), which incorporate local people and enable group decisions to be taken (MIRENEM, 1991a). Significant developments in tourism in protected areas have also taken place (Ugalde, 1992). Protected Areas of the World Systems Reviews Costa Rica lies between two oceans, with a mountainous topography shaped by volcanic activity and an altitudinal range from sea level to 3,819m (MIRENEM, 1990). The entire country is tropical with an mean annual rainfall of 3300 mm (Bradley et al., 1990). The interrelationship of geographical, physical and climatic features within a relatively small area has given rise to a large variety of environments and habitats. Studies indicate that over half a million species, equivalent to around 7% of the world’s biodiversity, are found in the country (Bradley et al., 1990; Quesada, 1990). Following the Holdridge (1967) classification system, 12 Life Zones and eight transitional zones have been identified. Two Life Zones, tropical moist forest and tropical wet forest cover almost 50% of the country (Bradley et al., 1990; CCT, 1982; Ugalde, 1992). There are great differences between the two coastlines. The Pacific coastline extends for 1,328 km, is characterised by a mixture of beaches, rocks, headlands, and peninsulas, and has extensive tracts of mangrove forest along the rivers and estuaries running into the Pacific Ocean. This coast is physically more diverse than the 212km of Caribbean coastline which consists mainly of deltas, canals, alluvial plains and freshwater swamps fronted by long barrier beaches (Bradley et al., 1990; Quesada, 1990). Three mountain ranges mun northwest to southeast across the country. The Cordillera de Guanacaste in the northwest comprises five volcanic massifs reaching an altitude of 2,020m. The lowlands extending from the foothills of this range to the Caribbean coast cover around 20% of the total land area of the country (Bradley et al., 1990; Quesada, 1990). Just below the Cordillera de Guanacaste lies the Central Cordillera, reaching altitudes of 3,432m, and, south of this range, the Cordillera de Talamanca extends almost to the Caribbean coast. Between the Cordillera Central and the Cordillera de Talamanca lies the Central Valley, the most densely populated region in the country. Around 52% of the population lives in the valley, an area that accounts for only 3.83% of the total national territory, and in which are situated the national capital and three provincial capitals (Bradley et al., 1990; Quesada, 1990). The economy is based on agriculture. Indiscriminate deforestation for agriculture and timber production has left many areas in a fragile situation, particularly the heads of water basins and water sources (MIRENEM, 1990; Bradley et al., 1990). Between 1950 and 1987, forest coverage was reduced from 53% to 29%, much of which now lies within the network of protected areas. However, forest resources in Costa Rica are severely threatened by overexploitation, and in 1987 the government declared a moratorium on industrial forest activities in order to allow forest recuperation (MIRENEM, 1990). 130 The first effectively managed protected area was established in 1963 (Ugalde, 1992). Since then, the development of a protected area system has been relatively rapid, and Costa Rica has the second greatest proportion of territory under protection in Latin America. By January 1992, the National System of Protected Wildlands (Sistema Nacional de Areas Silvestres Protegidas), under the administration of MIRENEM, comprised 70 areas covering 1 million ha, equal to 21% of the total national territory (Ugalde, 1992). Around 11% of the total national territory is under absolute protection with management categories that prohibit the extraction of natural resources. Forest reserves and protective zones account for the remaining 10.2% (Bradley et al., 1990; Quesada, 1990). Indigenous reserves cover 6.6% of the country area, giving a total of 28% of the total land area under protection (MIRENEM, 1991b). Protected areas incorporate 19 of the 20 Life Zones identified in the country (MIRENEM, 1991b; Ugalde, 1992). Estimates of the proportion of forested land within the protected area system vary from 65% (MIRENEM, 1990) to 86% (Ugalde, 1992). The effectiveness of protected areas is limited by the lack of strategic planning, and the extent of privately-owned land (MIRENEM, 1990). Land tenure has become an increasingly serious problem in the past few decades. National parks continue to contain private property within their boundaries (MIRENEM, 1991a; Ugalde, 1992). Since the mid-1960s a combination of population growth and private land ownership has exacerbated land shortage, and agricultural expansion and migration into protected areas has had a severe impact (Bradley et al., 1990; MIRENEM, 1991a). This migration process is encouraged indirectly by the Agrarian Development Institute (Instituto de Desarrollo Agrario) (IDA), which recognises squatters’ rights, and provides for compensation for eviction (Bradley et al., 1990). The majority of protected areas are not of sufficient size to fulfil their conservation objectives, and they are all inadequately developed, from basic protection activities to facilities for personnel and visitors (MIRENEM, 1990; Ugalde, 1992). Protected areas are assigned a low level of national importance. Natural resources are not considered part of the national capital, and are not included in economic analyses, resulting in a lack of information about their economic potential and the extent of deterioration they have suffered so far (Ugalde, 1992). As the areas are not utilised to their full economic potential, there is a significant lack of benefits for local populations and conflicts often arise (Ugalde, 1992). As a combined result of these factors, protected areas have become biogeographically isolated (MIRENEM, 1990; Ugalde, 1992). In an attempt to halt this isolation process, and to better coordinate conservation activities, MIRENEM has proposed a restructuring of the entire protected area system: the National System of Conservation Areas (Sistema Nacional de Areas de Conservacién) (SINAC) (MIRENEM, 1991a). This involves regrouping protected areas into conservation areas (areas de conservacién) as the basic management unit, which will integrate local communities to a greater extent (Bradley et al., 1990; Ugalde, 1992). A conservation area consists of a grouping of protected wildlands, contiguous or close to each other, which are divided for managerial purposes into zones according to their ecological characteristics and the presence of neighbouring communities (Bradley et al., 1990; Ugalde, 1992). The areas have one or more Strictly protected core zone owned by the state, surrounded by zones that allow sustainable development and use of natural resources, under private ownership, and is similar to the concept of the biosphere reserve (Bradley et al., 1990; Ugalde, 1992). So far, eight conservation areas have been identified, each comprising a collection of national parks, other protected areas, forest reserves, and in some cases indigenous reserves. A further four satellite areas, that owing to their geographic isolation cannot form part of a conservation area, are also to be included in SINAC (Bradley et al., 1990; MIRENEM, 1991a). The system is to be implemented and administered by the National Service for Conservation Areas, currently the SPN, with the collaboration of NGOs and local communities (MIRENEM, 1991a; Ugalde, 1992). SINAC was created by four governmental institutions involved in protected area management (the DGF, SPN, DVS, and CONAN), and is more a result of independent work by the these institutions and conservationists than of formal longterm planning (MIRENEM, 1991a). The consolidation of the system into conservation areas will require the creation of corridors and protection of additional small areas not included in the system at present. However, around 7% of the land included in SINAC is still privatelyowned and must be purchased (MIRENEM, 1991b). Consolidation is intended to take place during the five years after the 1991 proposal for the new law. Details on the degree of implementation are not available. Addresses Servicio de Parques Nacionales, (SPN), Ministerio de Recursos Naturales, Energia y Minas (MIRENEM), Aptdo 101041000, SANJOSE (Tel: 335673/336213; FAX: 338840) Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad (INBio), Aptdo 3100, Santo Domingo de HEREDIA (Tel: 364269; FAX: 362816) Centro de Ciencias Tropicales (CCT), Aptdo 83870, 1000 SAN JOSE (Tel: 252649; FAX: 534963). Fundaci6én de Parques Nacionales (FPN), Programa de Patrimonio Natural de Costa Rica (PPN), Aptdo 10094, SAN JOSE (Tel: 229260; FAX: 236963) Fundacién Neotrépica, Programa de Patrimonio Natural (PPN), Aptdo 2361002, SAN JOSE 131 Costa Rica Organization for Tropical Studies (OTS), Aptdo 6762050, SAN PEDRO (Tel. 406696; FAX: 406783). References Boza, M.A. (1978). Los Parques Nacionales de Costa Rica. Incafo, Madrid. 224 pp. Boza, M.A. and Mendoza, R. (1981). The National Parks of Costa Rica. Incafo, Madrid. Bradley, T., McCaffrey, D., Rodriguez, F., Losilla, M. (1990). Costa Rica natural resource policy inventory. USAID/ROCAP RENARM project, Volume II, The Inventory, October 1990, Technical Report No. 112. Agricultural Policy Analysis Project, Phase II (APAP II), under contract to the Agency for International Development (AID), Maryland, USA. 151 pp. CCT (1982). Areas potenciales para unidades de conservacion de recursos naturales en Costa Rica. Informe preparado para el Ministerio de la Presidencia por el Centro Cientifico Tropical (CCT), San José. 306 pp. FAO (n.d.). La red latinoamericana de cooperacién técnica en parques nacionales, otras areas protegidas, flora y fauna silvestres. Oficina regional de la FAO para América Latina y el Caribe, Santiago, Chile. 8 pp. FPN (1985). Areas de Manejo en Costa Rica. Programa patrimonio natural de Costa Rica. Fundacién de Parques Nacionales. Herrera, J.C.G. (1984). Planificacién estratégica del Subsistema de Parques Nacionales y Reservas equivalentes de Costa Rica, y una metodologta para redefinicién de limites de dreas protegidas. Magister Scientiae. Centro Agronémico Tropical de Investigacion y Ensefianza (CATIE), Turrialba. Holdridge, L.R. (1967). Life zone ecology; revised edition. Tropical Science Centre, San José. 206 pp. (Unseen) MIRENEM (1990). Plan de acciénforestal para Costa Rica; documento base. Ministerio de Recursos Naturales, Energia y Minas (MIRENEM), con la colaboracién del gobierno del Reino de los Paises Bajos, San José. 84 pp. MIRENEM (1991a). Consolidation of the national system of conservation areas. Ministry of Natural Resources, Energy and Mines (MIRENEM), Republic of Costa Rica. A proposal submitted by the Costa Rican government to the World Bank’s consultative group, Paris, France, 1991.71 pp. MIRENEM (1991b). National Study of Biodiversity; costs, benefits and needs for financing the conservation of biological diversity in Costa Rica. Executive Summary. Ministry of Natural Resources, Energy and Mines (MIRENEM), Government of Costa Rica, January 1991). 21 pp. Quesada, C.A. (1990). Estrategia de conservacién para el desarrollo sostenible de Costa Rica. Ministerio de Recursos Naturales, Energia y Minas (MIRENEM). San José. 162 pp. Rodriguez, J.M. (1983). Costa Rica. Informe de la Mesa redonda sobre Parques Nacionales, otras 4reas Protected Areas of the World protegidas, flora y fauna silvestres. FAO, Santiago de Chile, 8-10 Junio 1983. Pp. 21-25. SPN (1979). Breve resefia hist6rica sobre la conservacion y el programa de parques nacionales en Costa Rica. Servicio de Parques Nacionales (SPN), Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia. 12 pp. Thelen, K.D. and Dalfelt, A. (1975) Systems and Policies for Wildland Management and Policies and 132 Regulations for National Parks Management - Costa Rica. Report presented to the Ministerio de Planeacién Nacional de Costa Rica. Ugalde, A. (1992). Draft country report on Costa Rica. 4 pp. USAID (1982). Costa Rica; Country Environmental Profile. Field Study. Tropical Science Centre, San José. Title (English title): Forestal (Reform of the Forestry Law), No. 7174 ANNEX Costa Rica Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration Reforma a la Ley Date: 28 June 1990 Brief description: Replaces the Forestry Law (Ley Forestal) No. 4465 of 1969 and its subsequent modifications. Gives details of the structure, function and objective of the General Forestry Directorate (Direccién General Forestal) and provides for the creation of the National Forestry Council (Conesjo Forestal Nacional) as a high level organization to assess the activities of the Ministry of Natural Resources, Energy and Mines (Ministerio de Recursos Naturales, Energia y Minas) (MIRENEM) with respect to the protection and utilization of forest resources. The national forest estate is defined and regulations for forest resource use given. Definitions for five management categories of protected area and the prerequisites for their establishment are also given. These areas form part of the national forest estate. Administrative authority: The Direccién General Forestal (General Forestry Directorate) (DGF) is responsible for managing forest reserves; protective zones and wildlife refuges. The National Parks Service (Servicio de Parques Nacionales) (SPN) is responsible for managing national parks and biological reserves. Both institutes are within the Ministry of Natural Resources, Energy and Mines (Ministerio de Recursos Naturales, Energia y Minas) (MIRENEM). Designations: Parque Nacional (National Park) An area containing one or more ecosystems that have not been transformed by human activity, or to a minimal extent, in which floral or faunal species, geomorphological formations, and habitats are of special scientific or recreational interest, or which contain landscape of outstanding national scenic beauty. The area is set aside for the protection and conservation of natural beauty, flora and fauna of 133 national importance with the aim of allowing public assess and enjoyment under supervision and subject to regulation. It is the responsibility of the highest authority in the country to take adequate measures to remove and prevent, as soon as possible, exploitation or occupation within the entire area to affect the protection of the species or structures for which the area was established. Exploitation of natural resources is prohibited. Reserva Bioldégica (Biological Reserve) An area comprising forest and forested land whose principle use is the conservation, study and research of wildlife and the habitats in which it lives. Exploitation of natural resources is prohibited. Zona Protectora (Protective Zone) An area comprised of forest and land suitable for forests, in which the principle objective is the protection of soil, the regulation of water resources and the conservation of the environment and water basins. Exploitation of natural resources is permitted only with prior authorization from the DGF and is subject to regulations given in the legislation. Reserva Forestal (Forest Reserve) An area comprising forest whose primary function is the production of timber, and by those forested lands which are naturally particularly suitable for these aims. Exploitation of natural resources is permitted only with prior authorization from the DGF and is subject to regulations given in the legislation. Refugio Nacional de Vida Silvestre (National Wildlife Refuge) An area comprising forest and land whose primary function is the protection, conservation, augmentation and management of floral and faunal species. Exploitation of natural resources is permitted only with prior authorization from the DGF and is subject to regulations given in the legislation. Protected Areas of the World Map ref. OMANDMNHPWNK SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS National/international designations Name of area National Parks Arenal Ballena Barra Honda Braulio Carrillo Cahuita Chirripé Corcovado Guanacaste Isla del Coco La Amistad (Talamanca) Palo Verde Rincén de la Vieja Santa Rosa Tortuguero Volcan Irazi Volcan Pods Biological Reserves Cabo Blanco Carara Hitoy-Cerere Isla del Cafio Islas Guayabo y Negritos Lomas Barbudal Faunal Refuges Barra del Colorado Cafio Negro Gandoca y Manzanillo Golfito Isla Bolanos Tapanti Protection Zones Acuiferos de Gudcimo y Pocosi Arenal Caraigres Cerros de Escaziti Cerros de Turrubares Cerros de la Carpintera Cuencas del Rio Tuis El Rodeo Juan Castro Blanco La Cangreja La Selva Las Tablas Miravelles Rio Grande Rio Pacuare Rio Sombrero - Rio Navarro Rio Tivives San Ram6én Tenorio Tortuguero IUCN management category 134 ih ——— sn Area (ha) 2,000 4,200 2,295 44,099 1,067 50,150 54,568 32,512 2,400 193,929 13,228 14,083 37,217 18,946 2,309 15,600 1,172 4,700 9,154 200 143 2,279 Year notified 1991 1990 1974 1978 1970 1975 1975 1991 1978 1982 1982 1973 1971 1975 1955 1971 1963 1978 1978 1978 1973 1986 1985 1983 1985 1985 1981 1982 1987 1991 1976 1976 1983 1976 1986 1976 1968 1984 1982 1981 1991 1976 1991 1984 1986 1991 1991 1990 National/international designations Name of area Forest Reserves Cordillera Volcdnica Central Golfo Dulce Grecia Los Santos Manglares Rio Macho Volcan Arenal Anthropological Reserves Abrojos Alto Chirripé Alto Pacuare Awari Bajo Chirripé Barbilla Boruca Boruca-Terraba Cabagra China Kicha Chirrip6 Cocles Conte Burica Corina Coto Brus Guatuso La Estrella Matambi Nimari Bukiri Osa Rey Curré Salitre Sibuju Norte Talamanca - Bribri Talamanca - Cabécar Talamanca Tayni Telire Térraba Ujarras Salitre-Cabagra Ujarraz Zapaton Biosphere Reserves Reserva de la Bidsfera de la Amistad Cordillera Volcanica Central Ramsar Wetlands Cafio Negro Palo Verde World Heritage Sites Cordillera de TalamancaLa Amistad IUCN management 135 category ik Area (ha) 61,542 67,287 2,000 62,000 35,000 69,604 5,256 1,480 71,973 1,336 1,332 18,783 2,077 12,470 31,983 27,860 2,459 75,824 3,538 11,910 1,555 7,500 2,743 13,616 1,710 7,439 1,700 10,620 11,700 2,195 43,690 22,729 62,253 13,616 16,260 9,350 56,561 19,040 2,855 584,592 144,363 19,800 9,969 Costa Rica Year notified 1975 1978 1973 1975 1977 1964 1969 1978 1976 1976 1982 1956 1957 1956 1976 1977 1976 1976 1976 1985 1985 1956 1976 1976 1976 1976 1976 1956 1957 1956 1981 1982 1988 1992 1992 1977 Protected Areas of the World \\, “Age « CCS ogw SS Protected Areas of Costa Rica 136 EL SALVADOR Area 20,935 sq. km Population 5,252,000 (1990) Natural increase 2.47% per annum Economic Indicators GDP: No information GNP: US$ 1,070 per capita (1989) Policy and Legislation There are currently no official national policies regarding the utilisation and protection of natural resources and the environment in El Salvador. A national forestry plan and a conservation policy are required (Nijiez et al., 1990). The main legislation concerning forest resources is the 1973 Forestry Law (Ley Forestal), Decree No. 268, although this is now outdated in many respects (Nuijfiez etal., 1990). The object of the Forestry Law is to regulate the conservation, rational use and management of forest resources on a sustainable basis to ensure the continuation of forest industries. Reforestation, the control of erosion and the establishment of national forests and parks are all in the national interest. Provision is made for the creation of the Forestry and Wildlife Service (Servicio Forestal y de Fauna), known simply as the Forestry Service (Servicio Forestal), within the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock (Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia) (MAG), to be responsible for all forest resources and implementation of forestry legislation. The Forestry Law also provides for the creation of various categories of protected areas: protective zone (zona protectora), forest reserve (reserva forestal), national park (parque nacional) and equivalent reserves (reserva equivalente), which may be established by decree. Private land may be expropriated for the creation of protected areas where necessary. These areas are to be administered by the Forestry Service, and the exploitation of forest resources within them is strictly regulated. However, detailed definitions of the different categories and details of the regulations governing their management are not given and no regulation to the Forestry Law has been formulated (Nujfiez et al., 1990). Ministerial Decree No. 236 of April 1981 raised the status of the National Parks and Wildlife Section (Seccién de Parques Nacionales y Vida Silvestre) from a department within the Forestry Service to that of a service itself, creating the first institute specifically responsible for protected area management. All mandates included in the Forestry Law regarding national parks and wildlife management are transferred to the National Parks and Wildlife Service (Servicio de Parques Nacionales y Vida Silvestre). Although the 1981 Basic Land Reform Law (Ley Basica de Reforma Agraria) does make provision for the 137 protection of natural areas (Serrano, 1992), there is no comprehensive law providing regulations for the establishment and management of national parks and equivalent reserves. Such a law was drafted in 1980 but has never reached the appropriate authority, and there are no current high level governmental proposals to revise legislation (Alvarez, 1992; Nifiez et al., 1990). Protected areas are created by individual decrees. However, only two natural areas currently have specific legislation providing for their declaration as national parks: Decree 53 (1987) established Montecristo National Park, a cloud forest along the joint border with Honduras and Guatemala; and Decree 20 (1989) established El Imposible National Park near the Pacific coast in western El Salvador. There are five other protected natural areas which, although lacking specific individual decrees, have been acquired by the government through agrarian reform, and their ownership has been transferred to the Natural Resources Centre (Centro de Recursos Naturales) (CENREN) which is the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock (Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia) (MAG) unit within which is found the National Parks and Wildlife Service. In addition, approximately 40 small areas totalling 13,000ha were reserved in the name of CENREN:as part of the land reform process which began in 1980, but lack both individual decrees and formal transfer of land ownership to CENREN. International Activities El Salvador signed the Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the Western Hemisphere (Convencién sobre la Proteccién de la Flora, de la Fauna y de las Bellezas Escénicas Naturales de los Paises de América) (Western Hemisphere Convention) in 1940 and ratified it later. It participates actively in the Central American Commission on Environment and Development (Comisié6n Centroamericana del Ambiente y Desarrollo). El Salvador has not ratified the Convention Conceming the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) nor the Convention on Wetlands of Intemational Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention), neither does it participate in the Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme, although several areas have been proposed (Benitez et al., 1992). El Salvador participates in the FAO Tropical Forestry Action Plan, but no funds for work are yet available (J.M. Alvarez, pers. comm., 1992). El Salvador, through the National Parks and Wildlife Service, participates in the FAO Latin American Network (Red Latinoamericana de Cooperacién Técnica en Parques Nacionales, Otras Areas Protegidas, Flora y Fauna Silvestres). This programme aims to coordinate Protected Areas of the World the activities of participating countries, to assist in the implementation and functioning of a coherent and effective national system of protected areas in each country (FAO, n.d.). It is hoped that projects can soon get underway for joint management initiatives between El Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua for the shared mangrove estuaries and coastal zone of the Gulf of Fonseca (J. Barborak pers. comm., 1992). In 1987 the governments of El Salvador, Honduras and Guatemala signed an agreement to create a trinational cloud forest biosphere reserve El Trifinio or Brotherhood Biosphere Reserve (Reserva de la Bidsfera La Fraternidad) in the mountainous region where the three nations meet. Formal efforts are also under way to elaborate a cooperative management plan for the reserve, which would include Montecristo National Park, and to obtain official recognition as an international biosphere reserve (Mardones, 1988; Ugalde and Godoy, 1992). El Salvador has received very limited international financial and technical assistance for its conservation programmes during the past decade. The major Salvadorian Environment Programme (Programa del Medio Ambiente Salvadorefio) (PROMESA), which is to be carried out by US-AID and includes support for coastal parks and reserves, is currently in the design phase (J.M. Alvarez, pers. comm. 1992). An increase in international aid is expected to come from the current biosphere reserves and trinational park projects (Benitez et al., 1992). The Nature Conservancy has included El Imposible National Park in their "Parks in Peril Program", and will start work on this national park with Eco Activo 20-30 in the near future. The consortium Paseo Pantera (Wildlife Conservation International and Caribbean Conservation Corporation) is working with Eco Activo 20-30 and AMAR on a proposal for work in El Imposible National Park and Barra de Santiago Wildlife Refuge and the areas in between for submission to US-AID (J.M. Alvarez, pers. comm. 1992). Administration and Management The first protected area was established for recreational purposes on privately-owned land that was donated to the Salvadorean Institute of Tourism (Instituto Salvadorefio de Turismo) (STU). Therefore, the ISTU was the first institute with managerial responsibilities of this nature (Alvarez, 1992; Nifiez et al., 1990). Following the 1973 legislation, natural resources were the responsibility of the Forestry Service under the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock (MAG). In 1974 a unit was created within the Forestry Service to manage protected areas, which became known as the National Parks and Wildlife Unit (Unidad de Parques Nacionales y Vida Silvestre) (Alvarez, 1992). The new unit conducted inventories, identified areas throughout the country for protection and undertook various activities regarding wildlife management. It comprised two sections: National Parks and Equivalent Reserves (Secci6n de Parques Nacionales y Reservas Equivalentes), and 138 Wildlife (Seccién de Vida Silvestre). In 1981, the status of the unit was formally raised to that of a service (Alvarez, 1992). Protected areas are the responsibility of the National Parks and Wildlife Service (Servicio de Parques Nacionales y Vida Silvestre) (SPNVS), which is itself directly dependent on the Natural Resource Centre (Centro de Recursos Naturales) (CENREN) within the MAG. It comprises two specific departments: the Natural Areas Department (Departamento de Areas Naturales) in charge of managing natural ecosystems; and the Wildlife Department (Departamento de Vida Silvestre), responsible for a wide variety of activities including the study, protection and management of all native faunal species (Alvarez, 1992; Nuifiez er al., 1990). Towards the end of the 1970s, the SPNVS was managing five areas but its activities were severely limited by the inability to buy additional iand for restoration and protection. The agrarian reform of 1981-1982 significantly changed this situation by expropriating over half of the potential protection forest in El Salvador in the first phase of the reformation. This increased both the size of the areas under protection and the effectiveness of their administration (Alvarez, 1992; Niifiez et al., 1990). Five other protected natural areas, although lacking specific individual decrees, have been acquired by the government through agrarian reform, and their ownership has been transferred to CENREN (Benitez et al., 1992). A large number of other small areas were identified at the same time for protection but there are no plans or budgets available for their management (Alvarez, 1992). In addition to the area managed by the SPNVS, the Salvadorean Institute of Tourism (ISTU) manages two small reserves, Deininger National Park and Cerro Verde National Park (Benitez et al., 1992). Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) may also play an important part in protected area management. There are over 20 conservation-directed NGOs. Several are involved in promoting the creation and management of a number of small parks, and in developing environmental education and buffer zone management around existing protected areas (Benitez et al., 1992). In 1991, an agreement was signed between the MAG and an NGO, the Active 20-30 Salvadorean Ecological Foundation (Fundacién Ecolégica Salvadorefia Activo 20-30), known as Eco Activo 20-30 or FESA, for the cooperative management of El Imposible National Park (Alvarez, 1992; Benitez et al., 1992). Eco Activo 20-30 is concentrating on raising money to purchase land for the consolidation of this national park. The Foundation was created in 1990 and is the only NGO involved in protected area management (J.M. Alvarez, pers. comm. 1992). The SPNVS continues to manage and administer the park, but it receives support from Eco Activo 20-30. This is the first agreement of its kind between a governmental authority and an NGO (Alvarez, 1992). Another NGO, Friends of Trees (Amigos del Arbol) (AMAR), assists in protection of Barra de Santiago Wildlife Refuge. Problems in protected area management stem from the lack of appropriate legislation, which impedes the implementation of an effective administrative infrastructure (Alvarez, 1992; Niifiez et al., 1990). Official regulations are not specified for the management of national parks and equivalent reserves, and there are no definitions or regulations stated in the legislation to provide specific management guidelines (Niifiez et al., 1990). The effectiveness of the SPNVS has also been impeded by the division of the country into four administrative regions by CENREN (Alvarez, 1992; Niifiez et al., 1990). Following this regionalisation, funding for the SPNVS at the operational level such as wardens, was reduced. The SPNVS also lost direct authority over field personnel which become dependent on the Tespective regional divisions of CENREN (Alvarez, 1992; Nufiez et al., 1990). This has made it increasingly difficult for the government to administer widely-dispersed, small areas, and the return of centralised administrative authority to the SPNVS has been suggested (Nuifiez et al., 1990). Systems Reviews El Salvador is the smallest mainland nation in the Western Hemisphere (Benitez et al., 1992). The high population density (300 people per sq. km) has resulted in an advanced state of deforestation, and reforestation projects are very limited. Less than 12% of the country is forested, and only 3% remains in its natural State (Benitez et al., 1992; Nufiez et al., 1990; SPNVS, 1987). Excessive exploitation of natural resources has taken place since the colonial era, and, as aresult, around 80% of the natural vegetation has been destroyed, and around 77% of the country has been seriously affected by soil erosion (Anon., n.d.; SPNVS, 1987). Very little research has been carried out on biodiversity, and there are no inventories of national wildlife or plant species (Nufiez et al., 1990). Owing to its small size and more limited altitudinal and climatic variability than neighbouring nations, and the fact that it only adjoins one ocean, El Salvador has the lowest biodiversity in the Central American region (Benitez et al., 1992). Altitudes do not exceed 2,730m, and the most distinctive topographic characteristic of the country is the rugged and broken landscape resulting from volcanic activities (Anon., n.d.). A thin coastal plain, interrupted by mountains and deep fissures, runs parallel to the Pacific Ocean. The volcanic soils of the coastal plain are rich, and commercial agriculture is extensive in the region. In contrast, the soils of the coastal mountains just inland from the plain are poor, and this region has suffered severe erosion and environmental degradation. The northern region of the country, where the highest mountains are located on the border with Honduras, is also characterised by extensive deforestation and soil erosion (Anon., n.d.). Following the Holdridge (1977) classification system of natural habitats, six life zones are found within the country. 139 El Salvador The conservation of natural areas began with the donation to the Salvadorean Institute of Tourism (ISTU) in 1972 of 704ha of privately-owned land covered with secondary forest, (Alvarez, 1992). Although the primary objective of the area was recreational, the written agreement with ISTU specified that the natural conditions of the area were not to be altered. Towards the end of the 1970s, five protected areas were under the administration of the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock. International tourism has been quite limited for the past decade due to civil strife. Owing to its degraded habitats and small size, it is the Central American nation least likely to become a major international ecotourism destination in coming years (Benitez et al., 1992). Lack of public awareness is a considerable problem for conservation. Hunting and fishing are not regulated, as a result of the lack of national policy and legislation (Nufiez et al., 1990). Owing to the small size of remaining natural habitats and the severe pressure on them by neighbouring communities, many native plant and animal species have become extinct over the past few decades. Particularly noticeable is the disappearance of species that require large areas of pristine habitat, or are susceptible to intense hunting pressure, such as jaguar, harpy eagle, and scarlet macaw (Benitez et al., 1992). The establishment of protected areas is not taking place fast enough to offset the continuous destruction of the natural environment. The main limiting factors are the lack of financial resources and governmental support. The majority of the areas identified for conservation purposes are without any form of protection, and only four have park wardens (Niufiez et al., 1990). Of 47 properties expropriated for nature conservation during the 1981 agrarian reform, only one is being administered by SPNVS; the rest are affected by agriculture, hunting, firewood gathering and construction of houses (Serrano, 1992). None has facilities for recreation or tourism, which limits the number of visitors and hence public awareness. Classification of natural areas is vague, and the scarcity of studies on biogeographic regions in the country or species present inhibits the identification of priority areas for protection (Niifiez et al., 1990). Because of widespread civil strife during the past decade, combined with the small size and relative lack of international importance of most of its protected areas, El Salvador has received very little international financial and technical assistance for its conservation programmes. Much of the international support which has arrived in recent years has been diverted to the war rather than to more profitable activities (Serrano, 1992). A minimum of 14,000ha still needs to be bought for administration by SPNVS (at a total cost of some US$ 10.5 million) in order to produce a representative system of national parks (Serrano, 1992). Protected Areas of the World Fortunately, IUCN and WWE have maintained support and, with their assistance, CENREN has been planning a coordinated national wildlands system since 1988 which will soon be completed (Benitez et al., 1992). A major new programme for conservation activities including park management is now being planned by US-AID which includes support for coastal parks and reserves. Support from the European Community is hoped for through the trinational Trifinio project, and from several donors through the Central American Tropical Forestry Action Plan for the Gulf of Fonseca mangrove project (Benitez et al., 1992). Addresses Servicio de Parques Nacionales y Vida Silvestre, (Director), Canton El Matasano, Soyapango, Apartado 2268, SAN SALVADOR (Tel: 270484/770622; FAX: 770490) Amigos del Arbol (Amar), Calle Los Granados #9, Colonia Las Mercedes, SAN SALVADOR Fundacién Ecoldégica Salvadorefia Activo 20-30 (Eco-Activo 20-30), 79 Avenida Norte No. 509, Colonia Escal6n, SAN SALVADOR (Tel: 23-8947 FAX: 233620) References Alvarez, J.M. (1992). Apoyo privado al Servicio de Parques Nacionales y Vida Silvestre: el Caso del Parque Nacional El Imposible. Paper presented at IV World Parks Congress, Caracas, Venezuela, 10-20 February 1992. 13 pp. Anon. (n.d.). Perfil ambiental de El Salvador. US-AID/EMTESCA. 266 pp. Benitez, M. et al. (1987). La conservaci6n de las dreas naturales y culturales de El Salvador. Informe ala II Conferencia Centroamericana de Conservaci6on de Recursos Naturales y Culturales, Guatemala. San Salvador. 66 pp. (Unseen) Benitez, M., Hasbun, C.R., Barborak, J. (1992). El Salvador — Draft country report. 3 pp. FAO (n.d.). La red latinoamericana de cooperacién técnica en parques nacionales, otras areas protegidas, flora y fauna silvestres. Oficina regional de la FAO 140 para América Latina y el Caribe, Santiago, Chile. 8 pp. Holdridge, L.R. (1977). Mapa ecolégico de El Salvador. Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia, Direccién General de Recursos Renovables y Programas de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo/ FAO, San Salvador. 98 pp. (Unseen) Mardones, C. (1988). Trifinio: un desafio de la conservacion para tres paises. Flora y fauna y dreas silvestres 3(7). Oficina Regional de la FAO para América Latina y el Caribe, Santiago, Chile. Pp. 18-22. Niifiez, R.D., Serrano, F., Martinez, A.C., Guerra, H. (1990). El Salvador Natural Resource Policy Inventory. USAID/IROCAP RENARM Project. Technical report No. 113, prepared for the US Agency for Intemational Development, El Salvador. Pp. 76-98. Serrano, F. (1992). Los parques nacionales y la reforma agraria en El Salvador. Paper presented at IV World Parks Congress, Caracas, Venezuela, 1992. SPNVS (1991). Anteproyecto de Ley de Proteccién y Manejo de Vida Silvestre. Documento interno. Servicio Nacional de Parques Nacionales y Vida Silvestre (SPN). 17 pp. (Unseen). SPNVS (1990). Marco metodolégico y conceptual para la evaluacién de las Greas del sistema nacional de Greas naturales protegidas de El Salvador. Servicio de Parques Nacionales y Visa Silvestre (SPN), San Salvador. 87 pp. (Unseen) SPNVS (1987). Elaboracién del plan y estrategia del sistema nacional de dreas silvestres protegidas de El Salvador. Servicio de Parques Nacionales y Vida Silvestre, Centro de Recursos Naturales, Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia, Soyapango. 74 pp. SPNVS (1984). Anteproyecto de Ley de Parques Nacionales y Reservas Equivalentes. Documento interno. Servicio de Parques Nacionales y Vida Silvestre (SPN). 12 pp. (Unseen). Ugalde, A. and Godoy, J.C. (1992). Regional Review: Central America. Regional reviews. IV World Parks Congress, Caracas, Venezuela, 10-21 February 1992. Pp. 13.3-13.27. ANNEX El Salvador Definitions of protected area designations as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration Title : Ley Forestal (Forestry Law), Decree No. 268 Date: 1973 Brief description: States the regulations governing forest use to ensure the conservation, improvement and development of forest resources in a sustainable manner. Provides for the establishment, by decree, of various categories of protected areas, but does not give detailed definitions of these nor regulations governing their management. Administrative authority: The Servicio Forestal (Forestry Service) within the Ministry of Agriculture (Ministerio de Agricultura) Designations: Parque Nacional (National Park) An area of forested land that, owing to its location, natural scenic beauty, flora and fauna of national importance, or other circumstances, merits protection as a national park. It is in the public interest to protect such areas as national parks. Public access is permitted under authorised official supervision. Within the area, forest resources may be exploited only by the Forestry Service. Reserva Equivalente (Equivalent Reserve) An area of forested land protected for scientific and recreational purposes, in the public interest Public access is permitted under authorised official supervision. Within the area, forest resources may be exploited only by the Forestry Service. Zona Protectora (Protective Zone) Anextension of forested land which is protected for its importance in maintaining and regulating water resources, to improve the living conditions of the local populations in the area and for other suitable reasons such as the presence of rivers, streams or lakes Natural resources may be exploited in the zone, within the regulations established in the respective legislation providing for the creation of the area. Specific characteristics of the area must also be taken into account. Reserva Forestal (Forest Reserve) A forested area maintained in its complete state for future exploitation The area may be mountainous, of low productivity owing to infertile or rocky soil, or an area where the protection of forest cover is considered essential for the following reasons: production of forest products; regulation of water resources; development of projects and works involving water resources; for the protection of agricultural land to prevent soil erosion; and for general use The area may comprise state-owned or privately-owned land. The Ministry of Agriculture may at any time, declare permanent forest reserves for the supply of forest products required by the government, for works or public services. Source: Original legislation SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS Map ref. WNe uns National/international designations Name of area National Parks Cerro Verde El Imposible Montecristo Wildlife Refuges Barra de Santiago El Jocotal IUCN Management Area Year Category (ha) notified IV 6,500 1981 II 5,600 1983 IV 3,893 1979 IV 2,200 1983 IV 1,200 1978 141 Protected Areas of the World Protected Areas of El Salvador 142 GUATEMALA Area 108,889 sq. km Population 9,197,000 (1990) Natural increase 2.88% per annum Economic Indicators GDP: No information GNP: US$ 910 per capita (1989) Policy and Legislation A commitment to preserve the environment is made in the Political Constitution of Guatemala (Constitucién Politica de Guatemala) which declares it in the national interest to conserve, protect and improve the natural heritage of the country. For this purpose, the state shall establish inalienable protected areas. The conservation of forest resources and reforestation activities are of national priority (Detlefsen et al., 1991). Guatemala participates in the Tropical Forestry Action Plan (TFAP) of the FAO, an international strategy for maximising the contribution of forestry sectors to national economic and social development while maintaining conservation principles. In 1991, Guatemala formulated its Forestry Action Plan (Plan de Accion Forestal para Guatemala) (PAFG), to interpret the global designs of TFAP to suit specific national interests (Detlefsen et al., 1991; Ministerio de Agricultura, Ganaderia y Alimentacion, pers. comm., 1991). The Office for Formulation of the Forestry Action Plan for Guatemala (Oficina de Formulacién del PAFG) was established for this reason and has drawn up the basic document which includes several recommendations and details of projects to increase the effectiveness of the forestry sector in Guatemala (Ministerio de Agricultura, Ganaderia y Alimentacién, pers. comm., 1991). The PAFG stresses the importance of protecting forest resources and includes the conservation of forest ecosystems, reduction of deforestation and promotion of reforestation activities among its objectives. However, national policies on forest conservation, management and recuperation have been unclear and inconsistent (Detlefsen et al., 1991). The first natural resource legislation was the 1921 Forestry Law (Ley Forestal) (Detlefsen et al., 1991). Provision for establishing protected areas was first made in the Forestry Law of 1945, but the first protected areas, designated as national parks, were not actually created until 1955 (Nations et al., 1988). Several modifications to the forestry legislation were passed subsequently, but all previous acts are replaced by the 1989 Forestry Law (Ley Forestal) Decree No. 7089, currently in effect. This law was passed in response to the increasing degradation of forests, and States the importance of protecting and renovating forest resources while improving their administration and utilisation. Under provision of the 1989 Forestry Law, 143 a new forestry institute, the General Forestry Directorate (Direcci6n General de Bosques) (DIGEBOS) was created, replacing former forestry authorities. DIGEBOS is responsible for managing and administering forest resources in compliance with national conservation objectives. All extraction concessions must gain the approval of the conservation authorities before they may be issued by DIGEBOS. However, DIGEBOS often grants concessions without consulting conservation authorities such as CONAP (J.C. Godoy, pers. comm., 1992) (see Adminstration and Management). The 1989 Forestry Law prohibits the destruction of rare or protected tree species, and the extraction of forest resources from within protected areas, except where specifically authorised, and penalties are given. Resource guards (guardarecursos) ensure compliance with forestry regulations. Regulations to the 1989 Forestry Law were passed in 1990, but further details are not available. In the past, policies on the trade and development of wildlife resources have not been conducive to their protection (Detlefsen et al., 1991). However, a major step in wildlife protection was taken in 1989 with the Forestry Law and new protected area legislation (see below). Both these laws comprise a significant policy of regulation of forest and wildlife resources (Detlefsen et al., 1991). The first organisation specifically responsible for environmental issues, the National Environment Commission (Comisién Nacional del Medio Ambiente) (CONAMA), was created under provision of Decree No. 6886 Law for the Protection and Improvement of the Environment (Ley de Proteccién y Mejoramiento del Medio Ambiente), 1986. The law attempts to reduce pollution, and restrictions are placed on the construction of buildings for industrial or other purposes. Provision is made for the establishment of conservation units and the government is to create an unified national system of protected areas. Environmental impact studies for industrial projects become obligatory, though these are rarely carried out in practice (J.C. Godoy, pers. comm., 1992). CONAMA is responsible for assessing and coordinating environmental activities throughout the country. A significant step towards increasing the number and effectiveness of conservation units was the passing of Decree No. 4-89, the Law of Protected Areas (Ley de Areas Protegidas), in 1989. Under provision of this decree, an extensive national system of conservation units in the country was created, the Guatemalan System of Protected Areas (Sistema Guatemalteco de Areas Protegidas) (SIGAP). All existing areas previously managed as protected areas but lacking legal notification were legalised and incorporated into SIGAP, together with those areas already legally established. A total of Protected Areas of the World 44 new sites was declared under special protection (proteccién especial), to be designated appropriate management categories upon their delimitation, and incorporated into SIGAP. However, by 1992, none of these 44 sites had been legally declared or incorporated into SIGAP, and none managed. The Law of Protected Areas names six different management categories together with objectives and selection criteria (J.C. Godoy, pers. comm., 1992). Also declared protected are: 3km of both oceans measured out from the high tide line; 200m around all lake shores; 100m on each side of navigable rivers; and 50m on each side of water sources and springs. Protected areas under private ownership are officially recognised, provided that the area is managed according to the terms and regulations of the law. Regulations are given for natural resource use within protected areas. Prohibited activities include hunting, and collecting or destroying specimens of fauna or flora. However, both Law No. 6886 and Law No. 4-89 lack regulations which would allow for fines for breaches of the law (J.C. Godoy, pers. comm., 1992). The Law of Protected Areas also makes provision for the creation of the National Council for Protected Areas (Consejo Nacional de Areas Protegidas) (CONAP) as a means of increasing the efficiency of protected area management. CONAP is responsible for formulating and implementing a national conservation strategy, and has the ultimate responsibility for the direction and management of SIGAP. Protected areas may be managed by a number of different institutions but their activities are assessed and coordinated by CONAP. An Executive Secretariat (Secretaria Ejecutiva) executes the policies and objectives of CONAP. The Regulation to the Protected Area Law (Reglamento de la Ley de Areas Protegidas), Governmental Accord No. 75990 (1990), provides definitions for the terms used in the Law of Protected Areas, and details the processes involved in the selection, establishment and declaration of protected areas. Definitions for the 15 managementcategories to be employed in SIGAP are given (see Annex). Inventories are to be conducted for those areas previously established by law, and management plans are obligatory for all areas. Two laws in 1990 provided for the creation of the largest protected areas to date in Guatemala: Decree No. 590 which declared a significant portion of the forest in the Department of Petén as a biosphere reserve; and Decree No. 4990 declaring a second new biosphere reserve in the eastern lowlands (Godoy and Castro, 1990). Implementation of the two major environmental laws in effect today, the 1989 Forestry Law and the 1989 Law of Protected Areas, is hindered by the lack of human and financial resources (Detlefsen et al., 1991). In order to achieve their stated objectives, strengthening of the institutions involved, and increased coordination between the public and private sectors, is required. Strategies need to be formulated to develop educational 144 programmes and involve local communities in forest conservation and management to a greater degree (Detlefsen et al., 1991). International Activities Guatemala signed the Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the Western Hemisphere (Convencién sobre la Proteccién de la Flora, de la Fauna y de las Bellezas Escénicas Naturales de los Paises de América) (Western Hemisphere Convention) in 1940 and ratified it later. Guatemala ratified both the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) on 16 January 1979 with one natural site inscribed to date, and the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) on 26 June 1990 with one site listed. Guatemala participates in the Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme with one biosphere reserve internationally recognised in 1990. Guatemala participates in the Latin American Network of Technical Cooperation in National Parks, Other Protected Areas, Flora and Wildlife (Red Latinoamericana de Cooperacién Técnica en Parques Nacionales, Otras Areas Protegidas, Flora y Fauna Silvestres) of the FAO. This programme aims to coordinate the activities of participating countries to assist in the implementation and functioning of a coherent and effective national system of protected areas in each country (FAO, n.d.). In 1987 the governments of Guatemala, Honduras and El Salvador signed an agreement to create a trinational cloud forest biosphere reserve El Trifinio or Brotherhood Biosphere Reserve (Reserva de la Bidsfera La Fraternidad) in the mountainous region where the three nations meet. Efforts are now underway to elaborate a cooperative management plan for the reserve that will integrate the local populations of all three nations, and to obtain official recognition as an international biosphere reserve (Mardones, 1988; Ugalde and Godoy, 1992). Projects have also been proposed for a binational protected area Chiquibul/Maya Mountain between Guatemala and Belize, and a network of protected areas in the Gran Petén region involving cooperation between Guatemala, Mexico and Belize (Ugalde and Godoy, 1992). Administration and Management There are currently around 60 institutions whose activities are directly or indirectly related to protected areas and wildlife. Of these, 29 are state or independently owned, and the rest are national and international non-governmental conservation organisations (Detlefsen et al., 1991). The National Environment Commission (CONAMA) was created in 1986 as a dependency of the President, and is responsible for assessing and coordinating all activities related to the protection and improvement of the environment. CONAMA has been instrumental in creating an Environmental Commission (Comisién del Medio Ambiente) within the National Congress to assess environmental issues at a high level within the government (Nations et al., 1988). The first institute specifically vested with responsibility for protected areas is the National Council for Protected Areas (CONAP). Established in 1989, the aim of CONAPis tocreate a high level governmental institution with sufficient autonomy that it may be entirely dedicated to the administration of the national system of protected areas (Godoy, 1990). CONAP is directly dependent on the President of the Republic (Presidencia de la Republica) and it sits on the Coordinating Council of CONAMA (Consejo Coordinador). Protected areas may be managed directly by CONAP or by other organisations or individuals through a legal agreement with CONAP and under its supervision. CONAP coordinates the activities of the various institutions in order to comply with national conservation objectives. Vigilance within protected areas and the enforcement of regulations is the responsibility of CONAP and the resource guards (Guardarecursos), and authorisation for activities permitted within protected areas must be issued by CONAP. CONAP comprises representatives from the different institutions with protected area management responsibilities: CONAMA; the Forest Directorate (Direccién de Bosques); the Guatemalan Tourism Institute (Instituto Guatemalteco de Turismo) (INGUAT)); the Institute of Anthropology and History (Instituto de Antropologia y Historia) (IDAEH); the National Agrarian Transformation Institute (Instituto Nacional de Transformacién Agraria); the Centre for Conservation Studies (Centro de Estudios Conservacionistas) (CECON); the Association of Municipalities (Asociacién de Municipalidades); the National Council for Urban and Rural Development (Consejo Nacional de Desarrollo Urbano y Rural); three delegates from non-governmental conservation organisations and one representative from the Committee of Agricultural Associations (Comité de Asociaciones Agricolas), a total of 14 individuals (Detlefsen et al., 1991; Godoy, 1990). The policies of CONAP are implemented by an Executive Secretariat (Secretaria Ejecutiva), which comprises departments of research, studies and planning; execution, development and control; and administration. An Executive Secretary (Secretario Ejecutivo) assigned by the President of the Council is responsible for directing the activities of the Executive Secretariat. Forests are presently the responsibility of the General Directorate of Forests and Wildlife (Direccién General de Bosques y Vida Silvestres) (DIGEBOS), created in 1989 and replacing the former National Forestry Institute (Instituto Nacional Forestal) (INAFOR). DIGEBOS is part of the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Food (Ministerio de Agricultura, 145 Guatemala Ganaderia y Alimentacién) (MAGA). At the local level, it is represented in eight administrative regions of the country, but its financial management is centralised and the distribution of funds often does not reflect the true requirements of the regions (Detlefsen et al., 1991). Around 1,915 personnel are employed by DIGEBOS, of which 1,550 are unqualified manual labourers. Forest and conservation authorities work closely together. Concessions for forest extraction issued by DIGEBOS must first be approved by CONAP and CONAMA. Forests within protected areas are not the direct responsibility of DIGEBOS but are managed by, or under the supervision of, CONAP (Detlefsen, et al., 1991). Because of inadequate government support for protected areas, a large number of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) are involved in protected area administration. The Defenders of Nature Foundation (Fundacion Defensores de la Naturaleza) manages Sierra de las Minas Biosphere Reserve, and the Interamerican Foundation for Tropical Investigation (Fundacién Interamericana de Investigacidn Tropical)(FIIT) manages another area. The Ecodevelopment and Conservation Foundation (Fundacion para el Ecodesarrollo y la Conservacién) (FUNDAECO) and the Mario Dary Rivera Foundation (Fundacién Mario Dary Rivera) are each carrying out sustainable development projects in one protected area. Other NGOs working with rural communities in and around protected areas are: Friends of the Forest (Asociacién Amigos del Bosque), Guatemalan Natural History Society (Asociacién Guatemalteca de Historia Natural), Environment Defence Association (Asociacién Prodefensa del Medio Ambiente), Association for Research and Social Studies (Asociacién de Investigacién y Estudios Sociales) (Asi Es), and the Centre for Conservation Studies (Centro de Estudios Conservacionistas) (CECON). Since the creation of CONAP, significant improvements in protecied area management have been initiated, but these are still not sufficient to bring about the effective planning and administration of the areas. One limiting factor is the lack of human resources to implement the conservation legislation, and the lack of adequate training and qualification for such personnel. Only 68 personnel are employed directly in the management of protected areas. Only six areas have management plans, and more than 80% have still not resolved problems concerning land ownership; although most legally declared protected areas are stateowned, many lack official boundaries. There is little or no infrastructure and many areas are isolated within their regions. An analysis of the 54 areas declared legally protected reveals critical problems in their administration and financing, and a lack of managerial capacity to put protection measures into effect (Detlefsen et al., 1991). Additionally, there is a serious lack of communication between CONAP and DIGEBOS. DIGEBOS often grants licences for timber extraction within the 44 areas under special protection by Law No. 489 without Protected Areas of the World consulting CONAP. This makes the creation of new protected areas and the formulation of a national strategy for the conservation of forest resources difficult (J.C. Godoy, pers. comm., 1992). Systems Review The topographical variation within Guatemala, and its geographical location as a bridge between two continents with coastlines on two oceans, gives rise to one of the richest biodiversities in Latin America (Nations et al., 1988). Guatemala has an altitudinal range from sea level to 4,000m and, following the Holdridge life zone classification system, 14 life zones occur in the country (Detlefsen et al., 1991; URL y ICATA, 1984). Two distinct biogeographic realms are identified: the lowlands of the Petén and Caribbean region are Neotropical, while the interior highlands and high Pacific mountains are classically Nearctic. This combination gives rise to a high degree of biodiversity, with representative wildlife and flora from each realm, and of endemism (Detlefsen et al., 1991; Nations et al., 1988). Guatemala may be divided roughly into four main regions according to physical biogeographic characteristics: the Pacific coastal plain; the Pacific mountain chain; the Interior Highlands; and the Petén and Caribbean lowlands (Nations, ef al., 1988). The Pacific coastal plain was entirely forested, until the 1940s, but the region has undergone great environmental transformation into pastures and swamps as a result of agricultural development. Cattle ranching is concentrated on the fertile, volcanic soils of this region (Nations and Komer, 1984). Mangrove forests found along the coast have been seriously degraded by intensive shrimp production, salt extraction and fuelwood production (Nations, et al., 1988). The Pacific mountain chain consists of a chain of 33 volcanoes running parallel to the Pacific Ocean. Forests are found at the base of the mountains, giving way to cloud forest higher up. These highland montane forests have around 70% endemism amongst animal species, but, as a result of colonisation, wood timber extraction and agriculture, they represent some of the most endangered ecosystems in the country (Nations et al., 1988). The interior highlands reach altitudes of 4,000m, and are quite heavily populated. This region has also suffered environmental degradation from agricultural practices. The Petén and Caribbean lowlands in the northeast are the most sparsely populated region, in the country. The Department of Petén contains the largest tracts of undisturbed tropical forest, and one of the largest remaining in Central America (Nations et al., 1988). However, the Department of Petén is threatened by the imminent construction of a road connecting the region with the capital city, and providing access to neighbouring Belize through the forested lowlands of Petén. This will also open the area up to oil exploration (Anon., 1991). The total forest cover is around 40% of 146 total land area, and protection forests account for 13% of this coverage (Detlefsen et al., 1991). Unequal exploitation of natural resources has been a feature of the nation’s history. Much land was converted into banana plantations around the turn of the century to satisfy foreign markets. As a result of land reformations, there is a severe shortage of land available for the Guatemalan peasantry, giving rise to overpopulation in many areas and colonisation into previously undisturbed rain forest regions. In recent years the government, through the National Institute of Agrarian Transformation (Instituto Nacional de Transformacién Agraria) (INTA), has embarked on a largescale colonisation programme which relocated around 60,000 people to the northern forest region, with a further 100,000 proposed (Colchester, 1991). Migration to forest areas often results in inappropriate land use and degradation of forest ecosystems (Detlefsen et al., 1991). The first protected areas were established in 1955 with the declaration of 10 national parks (Godoy and Castro, 1990; Nations et al., 1988). Between 1955 and 1988, a total of 52 conservation areas were declared, but the majority of these areas did not meet international criteria for protected areas and were ineffectual (Godoy and Castro, 1990; Nations et al., 1988). Several management categories were employed in this first step towards creating a system of protected areas, such as wild reserve (reserva silvestre), multiple use reserve (reserva de uso multiple) and national monument (monumento nacional). The unification of protected areas into a national system took place in 1989 as a result of the Law of Protected Areas (Godoy, 1990). The Guatemalan System of Protected Areas (SIGAP) was created as a union of all protected areas throughout the country, whether previously established by law or not. SIGAP incorporates six reserves administered by CECON that had been without legal support, declaring them legally established, and has raised the status of 26 small areas managed by various other institutes to a higher level of legal protection. Finally, 44 new sites were declared areas of special protection (4reas de proteccién especial) to be studied and legally declared under the appropriate management categories at a later date (Godoy, 1990). At the same time, the National Council of Protected Areas (Consejo Nacional de Areas Protegidas) (CONAP) was established to coordinate protected area management. With the creation of SIGAP, protected area coverage increased from less than 0.01% to around 2.22% of total land area. With the incorporation of the new areas, coverage will reach between 8 and 14%, and encompass nine of the 14 Holdridge life zones (Detlefsen et al., 1991; Godoy, 1990). Around 44.4% of the protected areas in SIGAP are located in the Department of Petén (Detlefsen et al., 1991). The national system employs 15 different management categories, grouped into six types based on the common characteristics (Godoy and Castro, 1990). The oldest management category in use is cultural monument (monumento cultural), and over half of the present protected areas are classified as such. However, as the primary objective of this category is the protection of national archaeological remains, the flora and fauna in the majority of areas has suffered severe degradation (Detlefsen et al., 1991). A regional network of protected areas has been proposed for the Department of Petén, the Integrated System of Protected Areas in Petén (Sistema Integrado de Areas Protegidas de El Petén) (SIAP). At the time of development of the national system, Petén was recognised as being of high priority for conservation efforts owing to its important forest ecosystems and the increasing rate of their destruction (Godoy and Castro, 1990). SIAP will comprise three national parks; five forest reserves; six wildlife refuges; four archaeological monuments; two biotopes; four natural monuments; one biological reserve; one experimental station; and one biosphere reserve, and management objectives are given for each area. These areas have been proposed in an order of priority for development and instigation of protection measures. Implementation of the system will be the responsibility of the institutions that comprise CONAP, together with the municipalities of the region. SIAP aims to encourage a decentralisation of CONAP to improve the coordination of protected area administration at the regional level (Godoy and Castro, 1990). The extent of implementation of this proposed system is not known. Despite significant improvements in protected area coverage and coordination, as a result of the creation of SIGAP and CONAP, the effective conservation of ecosystems, with the exception of a few areas, has not been achieved. SIGAP is characterised by a lack of human and financial resources which impede the achievement of protection objectives, a situation that has worsened in recent years (Detlefsen et al., 1991). Many areas have been legally declared protected but no funds have been assigned to them in order to implement this protection. One of the major threats to protected areas is the exploitation of floral and faunal resources by neighbouring local communities. Many of the areas do not have physically defined limits, and are not protected from uncontrolled exploitation, primarily hunting and timber extraction. Around 35% of protected areas have human settlements within their boundaries, and more than 80% do not have buffer zones and are surrounded by agricultural communities. The administration and planning of protected areas needs to be strengthened to integrate conservation and tourism practices to a greater extent, to allow local populations to benefit from the existence of such areas (Detlefsen et al., 1991). 147 Guatemala Addresses Direccién General de Bosques (DIGEBOS), Ministerio de Agricultura, Ganaderia y Alimentacién (MAGA), Ta Avda 680 Zona 13, CIUDAD DE GUATEMALA (Tel: 2 720509/735213; FAX: 2 735214) Consejo Nacional de Areas Protedigas (CONAP), Presidencia de la Reptiblica, 7a Av, 400, Zona 1, CUUDAD DE GUATEMALA (Tel: 2 21816/532477; FAX: 2 535109) Asociacién Amigos del Bosque, 9a Calle 223, Zona 1, CIUDAD DE GUATEMALA (Tel. 2 83486; FAX: 513478) Asociacién de Investigacién y Estudios Sociales (ASIES), 10 Calle 760, Zona 9, CIUDAD DE GUATEMALA (Tel: 2 347178/9; FAX: 2 314950) Asociaci6n Pro Defensa del Medio Ambiente (APRODEMA), 20 Calle 1952, Zona 10, CIUDAD DE GUATEMALA (Tel: 2 682000; FAX: 2 372084) Centro de Estudios Conservacionistas (CECON), Ave. Reforma 063, Zona 10, CIUDAD DE GUATEMALA (Tel: 2 310904; FAX: 2 347664) Fundacion Defensores de la Naturaleza, 7a. Ave. 1301, Zona 9, CIUDAD DE GUATEMALA (Tel: 2 325064; FAX: 2 322671) Fundacién Mario Dary, Ave. Reforma 063, Zona 10, CIUDAD DE GUATEMALA (Tel: 2 310904; FAX: 2 347664) FUNDAECO, 14 Calle B 1424, Zona 10, CIUDAD DE GUATEMALA (Tel: 2 337527/8; FAX: 2 682454) References Anon. (1991). Carretera a Petén sera una realidad. Prensa Libre. Guatemala, September 13, 1991. Colchester, M. (1991). Guatemala: the clamour for land and the fate of the forests. The Ecologist 21(4): 177185. Detlefsen, G., Castafieda, L.A., Oliva, E. (Eds) (1991). Plan de accién forestal para Guatemala (PAFG). Oficina del Plan de Accién Forestal para Guatemala, Guatemala. 227 pp. FAO (n.d.). La red latinoamericana de cooperacién técnica en parques nacionales, otras dreas protegidas, flora y fauna silvestres. Oficina regional de la FAO para América Latina y el Caribe, Santiago, Chile. 8 pp. Godoy, J.C. (1990). El sistema de d4reas protegidas de Guatemala: el pequefio que se agiganta. Flora, Fauna y Areas Silvestres 4(12). Oficina Regional de la FAO para América Latina y el Caribe, Santiago, Chile. Pp. 1316. Godoy, J.C. and Castro, F. (1990). Plan del sistema de areas protegidas de El Petén, Guatemala, SIAP. Proyecto de conservacion para el desarrollo sostenido en América Central, Centro Agronémico Tropical de Investigacion y Ensefianza (CATIE) y el Union Mundial para la Naturaleza (UICN), Turrialba, Costa Rica. 105 pp. Hartshorn, G.S. and Green, G.C. (1985). Wildlands conservation in Northern Central America Guatemala. 8 pp. Protected Areas of the World Holdridge, L.R. (1967). Life zone ecology; revised edition. Tropical Science Centre, San José, Costa Rica. 206 pp. (Unseen) Mardones, C. (1988). Trifinio: un desafio de la conservaci6n para tres paises. Flora y fauna y Greas silvestres 3(7). Oficina Regional de la FAO para América Latina y el Caribe, Santiago, Chile. Pp. 1822. Nations, J.D. and Komer, D.I. (1984). Conservation in Guatemala: Final report. Presented to the World Wildlife Fund, US, Washington DC. Centre for Human Ecology, Austin, Texas, USA, February 1984. 170 pp. Nations, J.D., Houseal, B., Ponciano, I., Billy, S.,Godoy, J.C., Castro, F., Miller, G., Rose, D., Rey, M., Azurdia, C. (1988). Biodiversity in Guatemala: biological diversity and tropical forests assessment. Center for International Development and Environment, World Resources Institute, Washington D.C., USA, December 1988. 110 pp. Ugalde, A. and Godoy, J.C. (1992). Regional Review: Centroamerica. Regional reviews, IUCN, IV World Congress on National Parks and Protected Areas, Caracas, Venezuela, 1021 February 1992. Pp. 13.113.26. URL y ICATA (1984). Perfil ambiental de la Republica de Guatemala, tomo IT. Universidad Rafael Landivar y el Instituto de Ciencias Ambientales y Tecnologia Agricola (ICATA), URL/AIDGuatemala/ROCAP, Ciudad de Guatemala. 249 pp. Zepeda, E.G. (1986). Situacién actual de las dreas silvestres protegidas de Guatemala. Instituto Nacional Forestal (INAFOR), Departamento de Parques Nacionales y Vida Silvestre, Guatemala. 18 pp. ANNEX Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration Title (English title): Reglamento de la Ley de Areas Protegidas (Regulation to the Protected Areas Law), Acuerdo Gubernativo No. 75990 Date: 22 August 1990 Brief description: Provides further details governing the establishment and functioning of the Guatemalan System of Protected Areas (Sistema Guatemalteco de Areas Protegidas) (SIGAP) and the National Council for Protected Areas (Consejo Nacional de Areas Protegidas) (CONAP), both of which are created under provision of the Protected Areas Law (Ley de Areas Protegidas), Decree No. 489 of 7 February 1989. Definitions are given for the management categories to employed in SIGAP. Administrative authority: The protected areas that form SIGAP may be managed by a number of different institutions or private individuals, but the ultimate responsibility for supervising, directing and coordinating the national system lies with the National Council for Protected Areas, (Consejo Nacional de Areas Protegidas) (CONAP). Designations : Protected areas management categories conform to six major groups: Parque Nacional (National Park); Reserva Biolégica(BiologicalReserve) Area of relatively large extension essentially unaltered by human activities, that contains ecosystems, populations or samples of flora or fauna species of scientific 148 importance and/or national or international interest, whose ecological processes have been allowed to continue with the minimum interference. The area is to be managed for the protection, conservation and maintenance of natural biological processes and biodiversity in an unaltered state, so as to be available for scientific research, environmental monitoring, education and limited ecological tourism activities. Visitors will have access to certain parts of the area under special conditions, for education, cultural and recreation purposes. Prohibited activities include the extraction of timber, hunting and mineral exploration and exploitation. Collecting or destroying floral or faunal specimens is also prohibited unless for scientific research purposes and with prior authorisation from the respective administration authority and approved by CONAP. No new human habitation is allowed except where necessary for administrative purposes. Where habitation already occurs, methods to integrate these populations with the objectives of the area are sought. If this is not possible, relocation of the communities to other suitable areas is to take place. Biotopo Protegido (Protected Biotope); Monumento Natural (Natural Monument); Monumento Cultural (Cultural Monument); Parque Histérico (Historical Park) Area that generally contains one or more example of outstanding natural beauty, archaeological or historical remains, or other natural examples of national or international importance. The ecosystems may not necessarily be in an intact state, and the size of the area depends on the example or specimen that is to be protected. The area is to be managed for conservation purposes and its ecosystems maintained to as near a natural state as possible. Limited recreation, tourism, education and scientific research activities are permitted. Area de Uso Miiltiple (Multiple Use Area); Manantial (Spring); Reserva Forestal (Forest Reserve); Refugio de Vida Silvestre (Wildlife Refuge) Relatively large area, generally covered by forest. May contain zones appropriate for the sustainable production of timber, water, floral and wildlife resources without adversely affecting the ecosystems of the area. The area may have been altered by human intervention, but still retains a large portion of its natural habitat. The area may be under public or private ownership. Management objectives are to ensure the sustainable use of water, forest, plant, wildlife, or marine resources. Conservation may be oriented primarily to support economic activities with zones of strict conservation within the area, or it may be a primary objective in itself. The importance of economic and social objectives must always be maintained, and environmental education and ecological recreation is stressed. Planning and management of the area must ensure that all exploitation is carried out in a sustainable manner to maintain the continuing productivity of the area. Where insufficient management plans exist, to ensure sustainability exploitation of any sort is prohibited except for the traditional exploitation by local indigenous communities until such a plan is implemented. Area Recreativa Natural (Natural Recreation Area); Parque Regional (Regional Park); Rutas y Vias Escénicas (Scenic Paths and Roads) Area where conservation activities are required to protect natural communities or wild species, but the emphasis is on educational and recreational 149 Guatemala functions. Generally, the area contains scenic qualities and some attraction for the general public, and is easily accessible. Minimum alteration or modification of the natural habitat is permitted. The area may be under private or public ownership. Regional parks are usually under municipal ownership. Management objectives are aimed at recreation and education. Reserva Natural Privada (Private Natural Reserve) Area that is owned by a private individual or organisation, whose owners have voluntarily dedicated the area to conservation purposes. The area is legally established and is recognised by the state. Management objectives are to ensure the continuance of natural conditions required to protect significant species or groups of species, ecosystems, or cultural or environmental examples on the private property. In very exceptional cases, the production of renewable natural resources may occur, but it is of secondary importance to the management objectives. The size of the area depends on the proposal by the owner who maintains his rights to the area and is responsible for its management. Reserva de la Bidsfera (Biosphere Reserve) Area of global importance with respect to its natural and cultural resources. All the areas in this category must be previously approved by the Unesco Man and the Biosphere committee. The principal management objective of this area is to allow various land uses and sustainable natural resource use with emphasis on traditional activities, as well as effect strict conservation in the nuclear core of the area. Scientific research is permitted. The areas provide important sites for environmental monitoring and facilities for environmental education, training and controlled tourism. Criteria for selection, and zoning within the area are as given by the Unesco programme. Protected Areas of the World SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified National Parks 1 Atitlan Vill 54,773 1955 2 Bahia de Santo Tomas Vv 1,000 1956 3 El Rosario Vil 1,031 1980 4 El Tigre II 350,000 1990 5 Lacand6én II 200,000 1990 6 Laguna Lachua II 10,000 1978 7 Mirador/Dos Lagunos/Rio Azul II 147,000 1990 8 Rio Dulce Vill 7,200 1955 9 Santa Rosalia Vill 1,000 1956 10 Sipacate-Naranjo IV 2,000 1969 11 Tikal II 57,400 1957 12 Trifinio II 4,000 1987 13 Volcan de Pacaya Il 2,000 1963 Biotopes 14 Chocén-Machacas IV 6,265 1981 15 Mario Dary Rivera (Quetzal) IV iil72 1976 16 Monterrico vill 2,800 1977 17 San Miguel - El Zotz IV 42,000 1989 18 Biotopo Universitario para la Conservaci6én del Quetzal IV 1,153 1977 Forest Reserves 19 Area de Uso Multiple R.B.M. Vill 650,000 1990 20 Area de Uso Multiple R.S.M. Vill 34,000 1990 21 Franja Transversal del Norte Vill 1,200 1981 22 Rio Chixoy Vill 28,000 1980 23 Rio Salama Vill 63,124 1956 Cultural Monuments 24 Aguateca Til 1,709 1987 25 Ceibal Il 2,100 1984 26 Dos Pilas Il 3,166 1987 27 Machaquilla III 2,000 1974 Biosphere Reserve 28 Sierra de las Minas (Zona Nicleo) I 105,700 1990 Biosphere Reserve Maya IX 1,000,000 1990 Ramsar Wetland Laguna del Tigre R 48,372 1990 World Heritage Site Parque Nacional Tikal Xx 57,400 1979 150 Guatemala Protected Areas of Guatemala 151 row las “4S tJen ’ = a * We. , : La ib ' 5 J a U ' Bi ( wy aid ? : ate Y : i ry } i * . “i Lea ht Sa #49 A + = pe Ls ie aan ee he ee a) AMSA) A ail: a Mee AN ms =k Co ib : / “i “" a ¥ sitet pecebatcitery , 7 . Ls ' Prey ele a ae ria p ere yt Soytimnetp h Pet nT er ) KHAN wipaiagewiiie hime 0, | Sate sh . sa AAS “ee end aes : ————— eo hg remem ee os sy Sanaa Aes i cS : yt ) ATs c ay . >. m= ~ - bs pans : \ ~ ~< A ss lama, — a i ~ ee a e% . a idfe Ree ) ‘ ‘i ai . - i xy c * j he @ Mctee ree (le i)g , Pig Wires 4 = S| Laie Cus ‘ f 2 d . : »iee Pet pay = es epee _ — - ey 1 e mn =I : Sau Y + a} ei A (a LU te | Py - . = . ad +? < - p - é ' a ape) = > és <= » _ lore 4 ba eee @ a PU % ‘oe f) 7 ! ¥ i ar p — ae = | L “fh 4 . a ¥ : et 3 zar4 4 / Pa he ad 4 i é —™. F . oe) & a ¢ 7 i” & 1 a hs a i ee - +e y ~~ ‘ OC, AP 8 - ~ i t | =a s i i 7 t * Ne A ~— a r te ate a & Oo A 4 4 a 7 a « =) T ~ 7 et te ; f - as : =~ ( serpin es oe eo aah Tovive ; L_—- i" ee ee ae? 7 FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF BRAZIL Area 8,511,996 sq. km Population 155,562,917 (1990) Natural increase: 1.87% per annum Economic Indicators GDP: US$ 2,306 per capita (1987) GNP: US$ 2,540 per capita (1989) Policy and Legislation The present government structure consists of 26 states and one federal district. Each state has its own administrative, legislative and judicial authorities, its own constitution and laws, which must, however, agree with the constitutional principles of the Union (Hunter, 1991). Protected area legislation is summarised in the Environment Chapter (Capitulo do Meio Ambiente) of the 1988 Brazilian Constitution (Constituicao Brasileira) (Dias et al., 1991; IBAMA, 1991), the eighth since independence from the Portuguese in 1822 (Hunter, 1991). An important aspect of this chapter is the recognition of a new right of the people to enjoy an ecologically balanced environment, which is considered the common property of the population (IBAMA, in Dias et al., 1991). It is the duty of the government and the community to safeguard and preserve the environment in the interests of present and future generations. A national conservation strategy has not been prepared, and Brazil does not participate in the FAO Tropical Forest Action Plan. Principles for nature conservation were first established by virtue of the Royal Charter of 1797, which provided measures for forest protection as well as severe penalties for burning or destroying forests (Anon., n.d.). Later, José Bonifacio, the Father of Independence, published an article, "Vision of the Great Motherland" (Visdo da Grande Patria), in which he suggested the creation of a government portfolio to protect the forests that were being progressively destroyed by serious environmental and climatic modifications (Anon., n.d.). The first national parks (Itaiaia and Serra dos Orgdos) were not established until the following century (1937 and 1939, respectively). The first modem legal measures relating to protected areas were taken in the 1930s: amongst important developments were the promulgation of the First Forestry Code (Primeiro Cédigo Florestal) Decree No. 23.793 (1934), the Hunting and Fisheries Code (Codigo de Caca e Pesca) and the Water Code (Cédigo de Aguas) (Dias et al., 1991). They were later replaced by the New Forestry Code (Novo Cédigo Florestal) Law No. 4.771 (1965) and the 1967 Faunal Protection Law (Lei de Protecdo a Fauna) Law No. 5.197 which are still in force (see Annex). The New Forestry Code made provision for the creation of parks (parques), biological reserves (reservas bioldégicas) and forests (florestas), each at national, state and municipal levels (see Annex). Decree No. 97.635 (1989) regulates Article 27 of the 1965 Forestry Code, and makes provision for the prevention and fighting of forest fires. The 1967 Faunal Protection Law makes provision for the protection 197 of fauna, and the creation of biological reserves and hunting parks (parques de caca) (Anon., n.d.; IBAMA, 1991). Although biological reserves were briefly defined by this Law, the regulations which define and characterise them have still to be established (BAMA, 1991; Rylands, 1990). Law No. 6.902 (1981) provides for the creation of ecological stations (estac4o ecoldégica) and environmental protected areas (4rea de protec4o ambiental) (APA), both categories to be administered by SEMA (created in 1974 to design and implement Brazil’s environment policy) (see Annex) (Dias et al., 1991; IBAMA, 1991; Schenkel and Kaniak, 1992). The basis for modern environmental protection is established by the National Environment Policy (Politica Nacional do Meio Ambiente) which was established by virtue of Law No. 6.938 (1981). This Policy makes provision for the creation of the National Environment System (Sistema Nacional do Meio Ambiente) (SISNAMA), constitutes the National Environment Council (Conselho Nacional do Meio Ambiente) (CONAMA), and institutes the National Directory of Environmental Institutions (Cadastro Nacional das Instituigoes que Atuam na Area do Meio Ambiente), an official register (BAMA, 1990a, 1990b). CONAMA’s role is to advise the President on environmental policy, and to produce guidelines for environmental management and sustainable development. Laws Nos 6.902 and 6.938 are further regulated by Decree No. 99.274 (1990) (BAMA, 1991). Decree No. 89.336 (1984) recognises as ecological reserves (reservas ecolégicas) those areas established by the public sector as well as those established by Law No. 6.938, 1981 (see Annex) (Anon., n.d.). Decree No. 84.017 (1979) approves the Regulation for Brazilian National Parks (Regulamento dos Parques Nacionais Brasileiros) and defines them more clearly. Resolugao CONAMA No. 11 (1988), provides resolutions for the use of forests affected by fires; the use of burnt wood, which can only be used in and around the conservation area, and educational programmes on the control and prevention of fires in natural areas (IBAMA, 1991). Areas of relevant ecological interest (area de relevante interesse ecolégico) are established by virtue of Decree No. 88.351/83 (1983) and are further recognised by Decree No. 89.336 (1984). Private flora and fauna reserves (reservas particulares de flora e fauna) can be registered on the basis of Portaria No. 217/88 (1988) (Anon., n.d.). Resolugo CONAMA No. 13 (1990) details the protection of ecosystems in existing conservation units. Scientific research in conservation units is strictly regulated through Portaria No. 174/81P (1981) (IBAMA, 1991). Law No. 7735 (1989) led to the creation of the Brasilian Institute for the Environment and Renewable Natural Resources (Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais Renovaveis) BAMA). IBAMA’s objectives are to carry out national environment policy, and to conserve and control the use of the renewable natural resources (Dias et al., 1991). Protected Areas of the World pressure from rubbertappers led to the passing of Law No. 7.804 to provide for the creation of extractive reserves (reservas extrativistas). The protection of the historical and cultural heritage, and of outstanding landscapes, is by virtue of Law Decree No. 25 of 30 (1937). The protection of archaeological and prehistoric monuments was further advanced by Law No. 3.924 (1961) (see Annex). Provisions for the establishment of special areas and sites of touristic interest (Areas especiais/locais de interesse turistico) were made by virtue of Law No. 6.513 (1977). This Law is further regulated through Decree No. 86.176 (1981) (Anon., n.d.). Decree No. 99.556 (1990) makes provisions for the protection of natural caves (cavernas) (Anon., n.d.). Private natural heritage reserves (reserva particular do patrimonio natural) are established by virtue of Decree No. 98.914 (1990). The Constitution of 1988 makes provision for the establishment of anthropological reserves (reserva antropolégica) through several of its Articles (see Annex) (Anon., n.d.). Although Brazil does not have specific legislation for a protected area system, it has begun work to establish one. A Conservation Units Plan was prepared by the IBDF, Phase I in 1979 and Phase II in 1982. This plan proposed new protected areas, several of which have now been declared. New management categories, linking local, Tregional and national protected area designations more closely with those used by IUCN, have been put forward. A proposal for a National System of Conservation Units has been developed by FUNATURA and IBAMA and approved by CONAMA,; it still awaits the approval of the National Congress and publication in law. The System consists of three groups of units as follows: Group I. Integral Protection Units Their resources can only be "indirectly" used, and ecosystems must remain in their natural state with only a minimum of disturbance. Management categories are: biological reserve, ecological station, national park, natural monument and wildlife refuge. Group II. Provisional Management Units Total protection of natural resources. "Indirect use" of resources is compatible, and native communities are allowed to use resources directly on a sustainable basis. The only category is natural resource reserve. Group III. Sustainable Use Units This comprises faunal reserve, environmental protection area (APA), national forest, and extraction reserve (Schenkel and Kaniak, 1992). International Activities Brazil signed the Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the Western Hemisphere (Western Hemisphere Convention) in 1940, and ratified it subsequently. Brazil is developing joint programmes with other Latin American countries through the Amazonian Treaty which it signed in 1978. Member countries of this Treaty integrate the subnetwork 198 of planning and management of protected areas in the Amazon Region. Within this Treaty, Brazil supports the importance of preserving continuous areas in the Amazon region which will transcend geopolitical boundaries (Dias et al., 1991). Brazil participates in the Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme and two biosphere reserves were recognised in 1991. In 1977, Brazil ratified the International Convention on Civil Responsibility for damages caused by oil pollution. In 1977, it ratified the Convention concerning the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) and one site was inscribed in 1986. However, it has not yet ratified the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) (Diegues, 1990). Brazil participates in the FAO Latin American Network programme (Red Latinoamericana de Cooperacién Tecnica en Parques Nacionales, otras Areas Protegidas, Flora y Fauna Silvestres) (FAO, n.d.; Ormazabal, 1988). An extensive technical cooperation programme for the environment is being carried out with Germany, Canada, USA and UK (B. Griesinger, pers. comm., 1992). Administration and Management Shortcomings in protected area administration were largely resolved with the creation of IBAMA in 1989. Prior to this, particularly between 1981-1989, problems arose because conservation units were administered at national level by two different bodies under separate ministries. The Institute of Forestry Development (Departamento de Instituto Brasileiro de Desenvolvimento Florestal) (IBDF) was created under the Ministry of Agriculture in 1967. It was responsible for national parks, biological reserves and national forests. In 1973, the Special Environmental Secretariat (Secretaria Especial do Meio Ambiente) (SEMA) was created within the Ministry of the Interior (MINTER), to manage ecological stations, ecological reserves and environmental protection areas (APAs) (Schenkel and Kaniak, 1992). Additionally, SEMA prepared an incoherent programme of establishing a network of ecological stations to represent all major ecosystems (Nogueira-Neto and Carvalho, 1979; Rylands, 1990). The Directorate of National Historic and Artistic Heritage (Diretoria do Patrimonio Hist6rico e Artistico Nacional) within the Ministry for National Historic and Artistic Heritage (SPHAN) maintains a register of archaeological monuments (Anon., n.d.). Currently, the main organisation responsible for the formulation and coordination of national environmental policies is the Ministry of the Environment (Secretaria do Meio Ambiente) (SEMAM), created by virtue of Law No. 99.244 (1991). In 1989, the IBDF and SEMA were merged together with other superintendencies to form the Brazilian Institute for the Environment and Natural Renewable Resources (BAMA) under the Ministry of the Environment (Rylands, 1990). Within IBAMA, two directorates deal with protected areas: the Directorate of Renewable Natural Resources (Directoria dos Recursos Naturais Renovavais) and the Directorate of Ecosystems (Directoria de Ecosistemas) (Schenkel and Kaniak, 1992). IBAMA has initiated a programme of consolidation of its conservation units through the national Programme for the Environment (PNMA) with financial resources in the order of US$ 117 million for its first phase (B. Griesinger, pers. comm., 1992). Numerous government and nongovernment organisations (NGOs) are concerned with the environment, working at local, regional or national level. These are listed in the national register (cadastre) produced by IBAMA. Some NGOs working national level are Fundagdo ProNatureza (FUNATURA), the Brazilian Foundation for Nature Conservation (Fundag4o Brasileira para a Conservacgao da Natureza) (FBCN), and Fundagao SOS Mata Atlantica. FUNATURA has established a network of private wildlife refuges which are of considerable importance and are better protected than government areas (Mittermeier, 1988b). Problems with protected areas have been apparent from colonial times, when the Portuguese showed little regard for the native wildlife while exploiting natural resources, and ignored existing regulations (Anon., n.d.). Currently, the main problems related to conservation units are insufficient and irregular funding, and lack of personnel and infrastructure. A large proportion of the conservation units have not been implemented or do not have the minimum infrastructure to function adequately. Parks which are affected include Pico da Neblina and S4o Joaquim which, despite being established in 1979 and 1961, respectively, do not have any infrastructure (Dias et al., 1991). Only 10% of national protected areas have a management plan (Dourojeanni, 1988). None of the ecological stations has a management plan (Rylands, 1990). IBAMA employs 548 people to administer and manage 158,000 sq. km of protected areas (one person to 29,000ha) (Dias et al., 1991). Unfortunately, at present only three people in the current system are trained to a degree level adequate to conduct basic activities in the conservation units, leaving them vulnerable to invasion, poaching, deforestation, illegal agricultural and livestock exploitation, pollution of watercourses and soils, disorganised tourism, mining and fires. Only 20% of the territory included in the protected areas has some form of management (Schenkel and Kaniak, 1992). This is an extremely serious problem especially for protected areas in the Amazon or other distant and inhospitable parts of the country (Dias et al., 1991). Systems Reviews Brazil is the fifth largest country in the world, with a 7,500km long coastline (4°25’N — 33°45’S). It is bounded by the Atlantic on the east, and, on its northern, western and southern borders, by all 199 Federal Republic of Brazil South American countries except Chile and Ecuador (Hunter, 1991). It is mainly located in the tropics and has three main geographical zones: the Amazon basin (c. 3,500 000 sq. km); the plains ("chapadas"), and two mountains chains: the Guyanas and the Atlantic massif. Because of the large variety of its habitats, it harbours potentially one of the greatest biological diversities in the world (Dias et al., 1991). The large area of inland water (55,457 sq. km) (Hunter, 1991) results in a wide diversity of wetlands of ecological and socioeconomic importance, amongst them the Pantanal, the Amazon floodplain (varzeas) and innumerable important coastal ecosystems (Diegues, 1990). Mangroves are particularly important, as Brazil has the largest areas of mangrove in the world. In addition, there are thousands of square kilometres of artificial wetlands such as dams and reservoirs (Diegues, 1990). However, they are still under serious threat (Diegues, 1990). The Amazon has extensive alluvial plains created by meandering rivers, raised plateaux worked by erosion, low cliffs and rivers with black, clear and white waters. Approximately 30% of the world’s tropical forests occur in Brazil. Representative ecosystems include the Amazon forest, the Atlantic forest, Caatinga ecosystems (dwarf vegetation and cacti), closed ecosystems, Araucaria forests, swamps, southern washes, mangroves, coastal shrubs ("restingas") and palm tree zones (Dias et al., 1991). The Amazon forest occupies 40% of total land area, representing around 2.7 million sq. km. (Dias et al., 1991). The "chapadas" are residuals of an ancient crystalline massif which gradually ascend from west to east toreach altitudes over 1,000m in some areas of Goids and Mato Grosso. The highest mountain is Roraima (2,875m), part of the Guyanas range. The Atlantic mountain ranges form an abrupt maritime relief, and comprise various systems: Serra Geral, Serra do Mar (Pico Bandeira, 2,790m), Serra de Mantiqueira (Pico da Itatiaia, 2,787m), Serra do Espinhaco and Chapada Diamamtina. According to the definition given by the FAO Latin American Network Programme, Brazil is in the process of developing a coherent national system. The first management plan for federal conservation units was produced in 1979, based on IUCN methodology. Currently, only 16 of the 34 existing national parks and five of the 22 biological reserves have management plans, and the majority of these require updating. There are no such plans for any of the ecological stations (Dias et al., 1991). The current protected area system is made up of several superimposed subsystems (at local, state and national levels). All systems lack human and financial resources, and face severe threats; particularly from agriculture. Notall Brazilian ecosystems are adequately represented. Omissions include: caatinga (arboreal, sertao, seridé and cariri), cerrados, veredas, pantanal, Araucaria forest, Protected Areas of the World northeast Atlantic forest, savannas, Amazon forest and caves (Dias et al., 1991; Dourojeanni, 1988; Schenkel and Kaniak, 1992). The public sector has expressed an interest in financing the system of conservation units. In addition, the governments of Japan and Germany have expressed interest in funding activities related to protected area establishment and management (Dias ef al., 1991). Addresses Divisdo de Gerenciamento de Unidades de Conservag4o (DIGER/DEUC) (Chefe), IBAMA, Sain Av. L4 Norte Ed. Sede, 70.910 BRASILIA, Brasilia DF (Tel: 61 223 7879/321 2324; T1x: 614304) Instituto de Meio Ambiente (IMAC), Rua Rui Barbosa No. 450, Centro CEP 69.900, Rio Branco, ACRE (Tel: 68 224 5497) Conselho Estadual de Protegio Ambiental (CEPRAM), Rua Dr. Cincinato Pinto No. 503, Centro, CEP 57.000, MACEIO, Alagoas (Tel: 82 221 1427/221 4188/223 3856) Coordenadoria Estadual do Meio Ambiente (CEMA/AP), Av. Mendonga Furtado No. 900, CEP 68.000, MACAPA, Amapa (Tel: 96 222 4669) Instituto de Desenvolvimento dos Recursos Naturais e Protegéo Ambiental do Estado do Amazonas (IMA), Rua Recife No. 3280, Flores, CEP 69.000, MANAUS, Amazonas (Tel: 92 236 2574/236 2064) Conselho Estadual de Protegio Ambiental (CEPRAM), Rua Rio Sao Francisco No. 01, Mont Serrat, CEP 40.425, Salvador, BAHIA (Tel: 071 312 3365/312 7191) Conselho Estadual do Meio Ambiente (COEMA), Rua Barao de Aratanha No. 1319, Fatima, CEP 60.000, FORTELEZA, Ceara (Tel: 85 231 8118/231 5945) Secretaria de Meio Ambiente, Ciéncia e Tecnologia do Governo do Distrito Federal (SEMATEC), Edificio Sede da Shis, Q.6, 6 Andar, Setor Comercial Sul, CEP 70.300, BRASILIA DF (Tel: 61 255 8314/321 8448 R. 176/229) Instituto de Ecologia e Meio Ambiente, Edificio Sede da Shis Q.6, 6 Andar, Setor Comercial Sul, CEP 70.300, BRASILIA DF (Tel: 61 225 8314/321 8448 R. 176/229) Instituto de Terras Cartografia e Florestas (ITCF), Av. Princesa Isabel No. 599, Centro, CEP 29.010, VITORIA, Espirito Santo (Tel: 27 222 6766) Fundacgdo Estadual do Meio Ambiente de Goias (FEMAGO), Décima Primeira Avenida No. 1272, Setor Universitario, GOIAS (Tel: 62 261 2780/261 6292) Conselho Estadual do Meio Ambiente (CEMEMA), Praca Teixeira Mendes No. 01, Sao Francisco, CEP 65.000, SAO LUIS, Maranhao (Tel: 98 235 1511/235 1575/235 1543) Secretaria Estadual do Meio Ambiente (SEMA), Edificio da Saude, Centro Politico Administrativo, CEP 78.000, CUIABA, Mato Grosso (Tel: 65 313 3184/313 352/2 3109) 200 Secretaria do Meio Ambiente do Estado do Mato Grosso do Sul, Av. Calégeras No. 616, CEP 79.005, Campo Grande, Mato Grosso do Sul, CX Postal 856 (Tel: 67 383 3161/383 3831/383 3014/382 0681) Instituto Estadual de Florestas (IEF), Rua Paracatu No. 304, CEP 30.180, BELO HORIZONTE, Minas Gerais (Tel: 31 295 4266) Conselho Estadual de Saide Saneamento e Meio Ambiente, Rua Presidente Pernambuco No. 489, CEP 66.000, BELEM, Para (Tel: 91 224 4011) Departamento de Meio Ambiente (DMA), Rua Presidente Pernambuco No. 489, CEP 66.000, BELEM, Para (Tel: 91 243 1697) Superintendéncia de Desenvolvimento do Meio Ambiente (SUDEMA), Av. Monsenhor Walfredo Leal No. 181, Tambid, CEP 58.000, JOAO PESSOA, Paraiba (Tel: 83 222 1647/222 4663/222 3149) Instituto de Terras, Cartografia e Florestas (ETCF/SEAB), Rua Desembargador Motta No. 3384, CEP 80.410, CURITIBA, Parana (Tel: 41 234 1611) Secretaria de Planejamento do Estado de Pernambuco, Av. Marques de Olinda, CEP 50.000, RECIFE, Pernambuco (Tel: 81 224 4509/224 7061) Secretaria Estadual do Meio Ambiente, Ciéncia e Tecnologia e Desenvolvimento Urbano, Rua 24 de Janeiro No. 330, Sul, CEP 64.000, TERESINA, Piaui (Tel: 86 222 8000/222 8019) Fundacdo Instituto Estadual de Florestas (IEF/RJ), Av. Treze de Maio No. 33, 15 Andar, Centro, CEP 20.031, RIO DEJANEIRO RJ (Tel: 21 240 7655/282 1252) Conselho Estadual de Ciéncia, Tecnologia e Meio Ambiente (CECTEMA), Centro Administrativo do Estado, Lagoa Nova, Bloco, Seplan, BR 101, CEP 59.059, NATAL, Rio Grande do Norte (Tel: 84 231 6946/231 6082 R. 10/21) Departamento de Meio Ambiente (DMA), Av. A.J. Renner No. 10, Navegantes CEP 90.250, PORTO ALEGRE, Rio Grande do Sul (Tel: 512 42 0224/43 5799) Departamento de Recursos Naturais Renovaveis, Centro Administrativo do Estado, 20 Andar, Av. Borges de Medeiros No. 1501, CEP 90.068, PORTO ALEGRE, Rio Grande do Sul (Tel: 512 26 3298) Instituto Estadual de Florestas (IEF/RO), Av. Getulio Vargas No. 1693, Centro, CEP 78.900, PORTO VELHO, Rondonia (Tel: 69 221 4229/221 4321) Secretaria de Agricultura de Roraima, Rua General Penha Brasil No. 1123, Sao Francisco, CEP 69.300, BOA VISTA, Roraima (Tel: 95 224 7841/224 0990) Conselho Estadual de Tecnologia e Meio Ambiente, Av. Osmar Cunha No. 25, CEP 88.000, FLORIANOPOLIS, Santa Catarina (Tel: 482 23 6813) Conselho Estadual do Meio Ambiente (CONSEMA), Rua Tabapua No. 81, 14 Andar, CEP 04.533, SAO PAULO SP (Tel: 11 883 3482/883 0766 R. 201/204) Conselho Estadual de Meio Ambiente, Praca Fausto Cardoso S/N, Ed. Walter Franco, 6 Andar, CEP 49.000, ARACAJU, Sergipe (Tel: 79 224 7959) Funda¢do Natureza do Tocantins (NATURANTINS), Rua Hosana Gongalves Cavalcante No. 322, CEP 77.570, MIRACEMA DO TOCANTINS, Tocantins (Tel: 62 866 1482) Fundac4o Biodiversitas (Director), Rua Maria Vaz de melo 71, B. Dona Clara, CEP 31.250, BELO HORIZONTE, MG (Tel: 031 4432119; Fax: 031 4417037) Fundagao Brasileira para a Conservagao da Natureza, Rue Miranda Valverde 103, RIO DE JANEIRO, Rio de Janeiro 22.281 Fundagao ProNatureza (FUNATURA) (President), C.P. 020186, 70.001 BRASILIA DF References Anon. (n.d.). Unidades de Conservacao no Brasil. 57 pp. (part of a larger unseen document) Dias, I.F.O., Goncalves, A.R., Borges, M. and Meneses, E.O. (1991). Sistema de unidades de conservacdo federais do Brasil. [BAMADIRECDEUC. 11 pp. Diegues, A.C.S. (1990). Programa de pesquisa e conservacdo de areas umidas no Brasil. Inventario de Areas Umidas do Brasil. Versaio Preliminar. Universidade de S40 Paulo/[UCN/Ford Foundation, Sao Paulo. 450 pp. Dourojeanni, M. (1988). Brazil National Environment Project. Conservation Unit component. Draft. FAO (n.d.). La red latinoamericana de cooperacién técnica en parques nacionales, otras Areas protegidas, flora y fauna silvestres. Oficina regional de la FAO para América Latina y el Caribe, Santiago, Chile. 8 pp. Hunter, B. (1991). The Statesman’s YearBook. Statistical and Historical Annual of the States of theWorld. 19911992. The MacMillan Press, London. IBAMA (1990a). Cadastro nacional das instituigoes que atuam na area do meio ambiente. IBAMA, MINTER. 4a. Edigdo. Volume 1. 50 pp. IBAMA (1990b). Cadastro nacional das instituicgoes que atuam na area do meio ambiente (Instituicoes nao governamentais). IBAMA, SEMAM, SINIMA. 4a Edicdo. Volume 2. 115 pp. IBAMA (1991). Volume Legislacdo ambiental referente a parques nacionais, reservas biolégicas e Federal Republic of Brazil estaciones ecolédgicas. DIGER/DEUC/DIREC. 4a. Edicdo. IBAMA, MINTER, Brasilia. TUCN (1990). 1990 United Nations list of national parks and protected areas. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 275 pp. Jorge Padua, M.T. and Magnanini, A. (1972). Parques Nacionais do Brasil. Caracteristicas Gerais, Situacao Atual, Aspectos da Fauna. M.A. Instituto Brasileiro de Desenvolvimento Florestal. 32 pp. Jorge Padua, M.T. and Rocha Porto, E.L. (1979). Plano do sistema de unidades de conservacao do Brasil. M.A. Instituto Brasileiro de Desenvolvimento Florestal, Fundacdo Brasileira para Conservacao da Natureza, Brasilia. 105 pp. Mittermeier, R. (1988b). Biological diversity in Brazil. 5 pp. (Unpublished) NogueiraNeto, P. and Carvalho, J.C. (1979). A programme of ecological stations for Brazil. Environmental Conservation 6(2): 95-104. (Unseen) Ormazabal, C. (1988). Sistemas nacionales de Greas silvestres protegidas en América Latina. Proyecto FAO/PNUMA sobre Manejo de Areas Silvestres, Areas Protegidas y Vida Silvestre en América Latina y El Caribe. Oficina Regional de la FAO para América Latina y El Caribe, Santiago, Chile. 205 pp. Rylands, A.B. (1990). Evaluation of the current Status of federal conservation areas in the tropical rain forest of the Brazilian Amazon. Volume 1. Review of Conservation Units System. WWF Project No. 6083, Washington, DC. 156 pp. Schenkel, C.S. and Kaniak, V.C. (1992). Sistemas de unidades de conservacion. In: Amend, S. and Amend, T. ;Espacios sin Habitantes? Parques nacionales de América del Sur. YUCN/Editorial Nueva Sociedad, Caracas. Pp 107-113. Strang, H.E., Sobrinho, J. de P.L. and Tosetti, L.D. (1982).Parques estaduais do Brazil, sua characterizagdo e esséncias nativas mais importantes. Fundacdo Brasileira para a Consérvacdo da Natureza, Rio de Janeiro. Congresso Nacional sobre Esséncias Nativas. Campos de Jordaio (SP), 12— 18 September 1982. 143 pp. 201 Title: Title: Protected Areas of the World ANNEX Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration Decree Law No. 25 Date: 30 November 1937 Brief description: Organises the protection of the historical and artistic national heritage. Administrative authority: Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais Renovaveis (Brazilian Institute for the Environment and Natural Renewable Resources) within the Ministry of the Environment (Secretaria do Meio Ambiente) Designations: Monumento Natural (Natural Monument) Sites or landscapes which should be conserved and protect because of their notable natural or manmade features. Source:Anon. (n.d.) Title: Law No. 3.924 Date: 26 June 1961 Brief description: Makes provision for archaeological and prehistoric monuments Administrative authority: Secretaria do Patrimonio Histérico e Artistico Nacional Designations: Monumento Arqueolégico ou PreHistérico (Archaeological or PreHistoric Monument No authorisation will be given for research or production of calcareous shells with the characteristics of an archaeological or prehistoric monument without prior knowledge of the Directorate of Historic and Artistic National Heritage office. Source: Anon. (n.d.) Forestry Code, Law No. 4.771 Date: 15 September 1965 Brief description: | Provides protection to all existing forests and other forms of vegetation. Makes provisions for the creation of national parks, ecological reserves and forests. Administrative authority: Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais Renovaveis (Brazilian Institute for the Environment and Natural Renewable Resources) within the Ministry of the Environment (Secretaria do Meio Ambiente) 202 Title: protection of fauna and other provisions) Designations: Parque Nacional, Estadual e Municipal and Reserva Bioldgica (National, State and Municipal Parkand Biological Reserve) Set aside to protect areas with exceptional natural attributes, conciliating the overall protection of the flora and fauna with use for educational, recreational and scientific purposes Foresta Nacional, Estadual e Municipal (National, State and Municipal Forest) Set aside for economical, technical or social purposes, even in areas that are not covered by forest but are intended for use as forest Article 16 limits the use of privately-owned forests and sets a minimum limit of 20% to 50% of the area in each property with localised tree cover to be respected. This extensive Article distinctly limits the use of the properties for each region of the country. Prohibited activities in these conservation units include destroying or damaging the forest or other forms of vegetation; cutting trees without adequate permits; entering the area with arms or any other prohibited substance or instrument; lighting fires without proper care; making, selling, transporting or releasing balloons which may cause fires; preventing or hindering natural regeneration; receiving or transporting timber or timber products without licence; failing to return expired licences to the authorities; releasing animals or failing to take necessary precautions to prevent domestic animals from entering the forests; extracting stones, sand, lime or any type of mineral. Source: Original legislation Law No. 5197 (Dispositions on the Date: 3 January 1967 Brief description: Provisions for the protection of fauna and the establishment of biological reserves and hunting parks. It revokes DecreeLaw No. 5894 of 20 October 1943. Administrative authority: Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais Renovaveis (Brazilian Institute for the Environment and Natural Renewable Resources) within the Ministry of the Environment (Secretaria do Meio Ambiente) Title: Title: Brazilian National Parks) Designations: Reserva Biolégica Nacional, Estadual e Municipal (National, State and Municipal Reserve) Areas where activities relating to the use, persecution, hunting, harvest (gathering), or introduction of specimens of wild and domestic fauna and flora, as well as any modifications of the environment are prohibited, with the exception of scientific activities dully authorised by the authorities. Parque de Caca Federal, Estadual e Municipal (Federal, State and Municipal Hunting Park) Areas partially or totally open to the public where hunting is allowed either on a temporary or permanent basis with recreational, educational and touristic purposes. Source:Original legislation Law No. 6.513 Date: 20 December 1977 Brief description: Makes provisions for the establishment of special areas and sites of touristic interest. Administrative authority;EMBRATUR Designations: Area Special de Interesse Turistico e Local de Interesse Turistico (Special Area of Touristic Interest and Site of Touristic Interest) Set aside due to their cultural and natural value, they are protected by specific legislation especially regarding historic, artistic, archaeological or prehistoric wealth Continuous spaces which include territorial waters and which should be preserved and valued in the cultural and natural sense, destined for tourist development plans and projects. Their development will depend on the areas not being subjected to special protection regulations and their respective entorno of environmental protection. Source: Anon. (n.d.) Decree No. 84.017 (Regulation for Date: 21 September 1979 Brief description: Provides definitions of national parks at the three levels (federal, state and municipal) Administrative authority: Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais Renovaveis IBAMA (Brazilian Institute for the Environment and Natural Renewable Resources) 203 Title: Federal Republic of Brazil Designations: Parque Nacional (National Park) Extensive and defined geographical areas with exceptional natural attributes, permanently protected. Destined for scientific, cultural, educational and recreational purposes and are created and administered by the federal government. Constitute the wealth of the Union destined for the use of the people and should be preserved and maintained untouched by the authorities. Main objective is the preservation of the ecosystems from any modification. Source: Anon. (n.d.) Law No. 6.902 Date: 27 April 1981 Brief description: Allows for the creation of ecological stations, environmental protected areas and other provisions. Administrative authority: Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais Renovaveis (Brazilian Institute for the Environment and Natural Renewable Resources) within the Ministry of the Environment (Secretaria do Meio Ambiente) Designations: Estacao Ecolégica (Ecological Station) Areas representative of ecosystems destined for basic and applied ecological research, the protection of the natural environment and the development of conservation education. Afford protection to 90% of the area, the rest may be modified for research purposes. They can be established by federal, state and municipal dependencies. Area de Protecaéo Ambiental (Environmental Protection Area) Areasset aside by the Executive Power for the protection of the environment to ensure the welfare of the human population and to conserve or improve the local ecological situation. The following activities are prohibited: the establishment or functioning of potentially polluting industries capable of affecting water streams; the alteration of the soil through canalisation; activities capable of causing soil erosion or water basin siltation; and activities which threaten rare species within the protected area with extinction. Source: Original legislation Title: Title: Protected Areas of the World Decree No. 89.336 Date: 31 January 1984 Brief description: ecological reserves Makes further provision for Administrative authority:Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais Renovaveis IBAMA (Brazilian Institute for the Environment and Natural Renewable Resources) Designations: Reserva Ecoldégica (Ecological Reserve) Those areas for permanent preservation mentioned in Article 18 of Law No. 6.938 of 1981, as well as those established by the Public (Executive) Power. Exceptions to this include those areas established as ecological stations by virtue of Laws No. 6.938 and 6.902 of 1981. These areas may be public or private according to the status of their land tenure. Source: Anon. (n.d.) Decree No. 98.914 Date: 31 January 1990 Brief description: Makes provision for the establishment of natural heritage private reserves. Administrative authority: Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais Renovdveis IBAMA (Brazilian Institute for the Environment and Natural Renewable Resources) Designations: Reserva Particular do Patrimonio Natural (Natural Heritage Private Reserve) Area set aside permanently by its owner in which natural primitive or semi primitive, recovered conditions will be identified or whose characteristics justify recovery action due to their landscape aspects or for the preservation of the biological cycle of the native species of fauna or flora. Article 4 of this Decree states that these areas will be recognised as such in the public interest through the President of IBAMA. They will be exempt of rural tax. Source: Anon. (n.d.) 204 Title: Decree No. 99.274 Date: 6 June 1990 Brief description: § Regulates Law No. 6.902 of 27 April 1981 and Law No. 6.938 of 31 August 1981 by governing the processes of establishment and management of ecological stations. It further determines that any activity which may affect the biota within a distance of 10km from any ecological station will depend on provisions supplied by CONAMA. Administrative authority: Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais Renovaveis IBAMA (Brazilian Institute for the Environment and Natural Renewable Resources) Designations: Estacao Ecolégica (Ecological Station) Created by virtue of Public Executive decrees, through proposals of the Secretary of the Environment. The act should define its geographical limits, its denominations and entities responsible for their administration and management and zoning. Any activity carried out within 10km of the surrounding area that could affect the biota of the conservation unit will be subject to regulations by CONAMA. Area de Protegao Ambiental (Environmental Protection Area) At the federal level it is the responsibility of the Secretary of the Environment in accordance with IBAMA to propose the establishment of such areas to the President of the Republic. The decree should mention its denomination, geographical limits, main objectives and any prohibitions or restrictions in the use of its environmental resources. The supervisory entity should direct and assist owners so that the legislation objectives are followed. Any action or omission that result in noncompliance of regulations will be regarded as an offence. Amongst others, this includes actions that cause decline in water or environmental quality, any type of pollution which affect cultivated or wild plants, carry out activities which may potentially degrade the environment without appropriate licence, injury, killing or capture of rare species in the conservation unit. Source: Original legislation Federal Republic of Brazil SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified a re hd National Parks 1 Amazonia (Para-Amazonas States) II 994,000 1974 D Aparados da Serra (R Grande Sul-Sta Catarina) II 10,250 1959 3 Araguaia II $62,312 1959 4 Brasilia II 28,000 1961 5 Cabo Orange II 619,000 1980 6 Caparao (Espirito Santo - Minas Gerais) II 26,000 1961 q Chapada Diamantina II 152,000 1985 8 Chapada dos Guimaraes II 33,000 1989 9 Chapada dos Veadeiros II 60,000 1961 10 Emas (Gioas - Mato Grosso) II 131,868 1961 11 Grande Sertao Veredas (Bahia and Minas Gerais) II 84,000 1989 12 Iguacu II 170,000 1939 13 Itatiaia (Rio de Janeiro-Minas Gerais) II 30,000 1937 14 Jau II 2,272,000 1980 15 Lagoa do Peixe II 34,357 1986 16 Lencois Maranhenses II 155,000 1981 17 Marinho Fernando de Noronha II 11,270 1988 18 Marinho dos Abrolhos II 91,300 1983 19 Monte Pascoal II 22,500 1961 20 Monte Roraima II 116,000 1989 21 Pacaas Novos II 764,801 1979 22 Pantanal Matogrossense II 135,000 1981 23 Pico da Neblina II 2,200,000 1979 24 Sao Joaquim II 49,300 1961 DS Serra da Bocaina (Sao Paulo - Rio de Janeiro) II 100,000 1971 26 Serra da Canastra II 71,525 1972 27 Serra da Capivara II 97,933 1979 28 Serra do Cipo II 33,800 1984 29 Serra do Divisor II 605,000 1989 30 Serra dos Orgaos II 11,000 1939 31 Sete Cidades II 6,221 1961 32 Superagui II 21,000 1989 33 Tijuca II 3,200 1961 34 Xingu II 2,200,000 1961 Ecological Reserves 35 Jutai-Solimoes I 284,285 1983 36 Raso da Catarina I 200,000 1983 Ecological Stations 37 Aguas Emendades IV 9,768 1968 38 Anavilhanas IV 335,000 1981 39 Ilha Maraca-Jipioca IV 72,000 1981 40 Ilha do Mel IV 2,240 1982 41 Jari (Amapa and Para States) IV 227,126 1982 42 Juami-Japura IV 745,850 1985 43 Jureia-Itatins IV 80,000 1987 44 Mamiraua IV 1,124,000 1990 45 Piria-Gurupi (Maranhao and Para) I 341,650 1988 46 Rio Acre IV 77,500 1981 47 Serido IV 1,116 1982 48 Serra das Araras IV 115,000 1982 49 Taiama IV 12,000 1981 205 Protected Areas of the World Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) Biological Reserves 50 Abufari I 288,000 1982 51 Atol das Rocas (R. Grande do N and Maranhao) I 36,249 1979 52 Guaribas I 4,321 1990 53 Lago Piratuba I 357,000 1980 54 Pedra Talhada (Alagoas - Pernambuco) I 4,469 1989 55 Rio Trombetas I 385,000 1979 56 Tapirape I 103,000 1989 57 Uatuma I 560,000 1990 Federal Biological Reserves 58 Augusto Ruschi (Nova Lombardia) I 4,000 1982 59 Caracara I 61,126 1971 60 Corrego Grande I 1,504 1989 61 Corrego do Veado I 2,392 1982 62 Marinha do Arvoredo I 17,600 1990 63 Poco das Antas I 5,000 1974 64 Santa Isabel I 2,766 1988 65 Serra Negra I 1,100 1982 66 Sooretama I 24,000 1982 67 Tingua I 26,000 1989 68 Una I 11,400 1980 Federal Ecological Stations 69 Aiuaba IV 11,525 1981 70 Babitonga IV 7,833 1987 71 Caracarai IV 394,560 1982 72 Carijos IV 11,295 1987 73 Coco-Javaes IV 37,000 1981 74 Cunia IV 104,000 1982 75 Foz do Sao Francisco/Praia do Peba IV 5,322 1981 76 Guaraquecaba IV 13,638 1982 77 Ique IV 200,000 1981 78 Itabaiana IV 1,100 1987 79 Jureia IV 24,065 1986 80 Maraca IV 101,312 1981 81 Niquia IV 286,600 1985 82 Pirai IV 4,000 1982 83 Pirapitinga IV 1,090 1987 84 Taim IV 33,995 1986 85 Tamoios IV 4,070 1990 86 Tupinambas IV 4,628 1987 87 Unucui-Una IV 135,000 1981 Federal Environment Protection Areas 88 Cairucu Vv 33,800 1983 89 Cananeia - Iguape e Peruibe Vv 202,832 1984 90 Carstre do Lagoa Santa Vv 35,600 1990 91 Fernando de Noronha- Vv 1,692 1986 92 Guapi-Mirim V 14,340 1984 93 Guaraquecaba Vv 291,500 1985 94 Morro da Pedreira Vv 66,200 1990 95 Petropolis V 44,000 1982 96 Serra da Mantiqueira (M Gerais-S Paulo-R Jan) Vv 402,517 1985 97 Serra da Tabatinga (Maranhao - Tocantins) Vv 61,000 1990 Faunal Reserve 98 Secundario Perimetro de Sao Roque VI 23,900 1978 206 National/international designations Name of area Area of Outstanding Ecological Interest Manguezais da Foz do Rio Mamanguape State Forest Parks Espigao Alto Nonoai Rondinha Environmental Protection Areas Abaete Algodoal Bacia do Descoberto (D Federal - Goias) Bacia do Rio Sao Bartolomeu Bacias do Gama e Cabeca do Veado Cachoeira Andorinhas Cafuringa Caverna do Moroaga Cavernas do Peruacu Floresta do Jacaranda Gruta dos Brejoes/Vereda do Romao Gramacho Igarape Gelado Jericoacoara Lago Ayapua Mangaratiba Marituba do Peixe Parintins Nhamunda Piacabucu Santa Rita Serra de Baturite National Forests Amapa Amazonas Araripe Bom Futuro Capao Bonito Caxiuana Chapeco Cubate Cuiari Ibirama Icana Icana-Aiari Irati Jamari Macaua Mapia Mapia-Inauini Pari Cachoeira I Pari Cachoeira II Passo Fundo Pira/Auara Purus Rio Preto Roraima Sao Francisco de Paula Saraca Taquera Tapajos Tapirape-A quiri 207 IUCN management category <<<<<<<<<4<<<<<<<<< << <<< FES vill Vill Vill Vill Vill Vill Vil Vil Vill Vill Vill Vill Vill vil Vil Vill Vill vill Vill Vil Vil Vil Vil Vill Vill Federal Republic of Brazil Area (ha) 412,000 1,573,100 38,262 250,000 4,347 200,000 1,686 416,532 107,516 57,058 200,561 491,400 3,495 215,000 173,475 311,000 311,000 18,000 654,000 1,260 631,436 Year 1985 1949 1949 1982 1987 1990 1983 1983 1986 1989 1988 1990 1989 1983 1985 1989 1983 1990 1987 1988 1990 1983 1984 1990 1989 1989 1946 1988 1968 1961 1968 1990 1990 1988 1990 1990 1968 1984 1988 1989 1989 1989 1989 1947 1990 1988 1990 1989 1947 1989 1974 1989 Protected Areas of the World i ee EEE EE EEE a En Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) 151 Taracua I Vill 647,744 1990 152 Taracua II Vil 559,504 1990 153 Tefe Vill 1,020,000 1989 154 Tres Barras Vill 4,458 1968 155 Urucu Vill 66,496 1990 156 Xie Vill 407,935 1990 Forest Reserves 157 Gorotire VI 1,843,000 1961 158 Jaru VI 1,085,000 1961 159 Juruena VI 1,800,000 1961 160 Mundurucania VI 1,377,000 1961 161 Parima VI 1,756,000 1961 162 Pedras negras VI 1,171,000 1961 163 Rio Negro VI 3,790,000 1961 164 Tumucumaque VI 1,793,000 1961 Indigenous Reserves 165 Amanayes Vil 261,000 166 Apiaca-Kayabi vil 111,410 167 Areoes vol 218,515 168 Irantxe vil 46,790 169 Jarina vil 268,813 170 Marechal Rondon vil 98,500 171 Merure vil 82,301 172 Nambiquara vil 1,011,961 173 Parabubure vil 224,447 174 Pareci Vil 563,586 175 Pimental Barbosa vil 328,966 176 Sao Marcos vil 188,478 177 Xerente vil 167,542 Indigenous Areas 178 Alto Purus vil 265,000 1987 179 Alto Rio Guama Vil 278,000 1990 180 Alto Tarauaca vil 23,840 1987 181 Alto Turiacu vil 530,524 182 Anambe vil 7,912 1988 183 Ananas vil 1,769 184 Andira Marau vil 465,868 185 Aningal, Mpio Alto Alegre vil 7,627 186 Anta vil 2,250 187 Apinayes Vil 141,904 188 Apiterewa vil 981,722 1988 189 Araca Vil 50,018 190 Arara I vil 247,010 1990 191 Arara II vil 46,232 192 Arara vil 1,060,400 193 Arara do Igarape Humaita vil 27,700 1987 194 Arariboia vil 413,288 195 Arawete vil 985,000 1987 196 Aripuana (Mato Grosso and Rondonia) Vil 753,400 197 Awa vil 232,000 198 Bacaja VI 192,126 1979 199 Bacurizinho vil 82,432 200 Bakairi vil 61,405 201 Barata Livramento vil 18,830 202 Bau Menkranotire Vi 1,850,000 1986 208 National/international designations Name of area Bom Jesus Boqueirao Cabeceira do Rio Acre Cachoeira Seca/Iriri Cajueiro Campinas Cana-Brava Canauamim Capoto Caru Catete Cubate Cuminapanema Curua Deni Escondido Est. Rondon Estivadinho Estrela da Paz Evare 1 Evare 2 Figueira Figueiras Funil Galibi Gaviao Geraldo e Toco-Preto Governador Guapenu Iauarete Ibirama Icana-Ajari Icana-Xie Igarape Lages Igarape Preto Igarape Ribeirao Ilha Jacare Xipaca Ipixuna Jaboti Jacamim Jaminawa Arara Jaminawa do Igarape Preto Japuira Jaquiri Jarina/Margem Direita Jarudore Jatuarana Jumina Kampa do Rio Amonea Kampa do Rio Envira Kanamari Kanela Karaja Santana do Araguaia Kararao Karipuna Karitiana Katukina/Kaxinawa IUCN management category 209 Federal Republic of Brazil Area (ha) 1,313 13,950 18,870 760,479 4,304 28,862 131,868 6,324 186,000 172,667 439,151 1,023,000 2,059,700 13,000 998,400 275,100 2,400 1,970 16,300 596,000 165,000 25,973 10,000 16,000 6,689 7,980 16,588 41,644 2,450 990,000 14,156 896,000 480,000 107,321 79,500 47,863 2,044 179,640 8,000 107,000 28,280 23,117 148,450 1,830 139,000 4,706 5,251 24,000 91,200 238,400 607,563 125,212 1,126,000 224,000 195,000 89,682 17,750 Year 1988 1989 1985 1987 1987 1988 1987 1977 1986 1987 1987 1988 1984 Protected Areas of the World Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) 260 Kaxarari (also Rondonia) VI 127,540 261 Kaxinawa do Igarape do Caucho vil 9,540 1986 262 Kaxinawa do Nova Olinda vil 32,150 1986 263 Kaxinawa do Rio Breu Vil 23,840 1987 264 Kaxinawa do Rio Humaita vil 127,383 1984 265 Kaxinawa do Rio Jordao vil 92,000 1984 266 Kayabi Vil 117,246 1982 267 Kayapo vil 3,204,000 1985 268 Koatinema vil 288,600 1988 269 Kraolandia Vil 302,533 270 Krikati VI 85,500 271 Kulina do Igarape do Pau vil 14,400 1987 272 Kulina do Medio Jurua vil 770,300 273 Kulina do Rio Envira vil 48,400 1986 274 Lago Aiapoa vil 25,500 275 Lago Beruri vil 4,600 276 Lagoa Comprida vil 13,198 277 Lamerao vil 49,500 278 Lauro Sodre vil 9,600 279 Macarrao VII 25,312 280 Mae Maria vil 62,488 1981 281 Malacacheta vil 16,150 282 Mamoadate VI 313,646 1985 283 Mangueira Vil 4,064 284 Manoa/Pium vil 43,337 285 Mariene vil 10,793 286 Mekrangnoti vil 4,913,000 1990 287 Menku vil 47,094 288 Mequens vil 105,250 289 Miratu vil 28,800 290 Mundurucu Vil 1,965,000 1978 291 Murutinga VII 1,210 292 Nhamunda Mapuera (part) vil 845,400 293 Nhamunda Mapuera vil 1,022,400 294 Nove de Janeiro vil 234,400 295 Nokini vil 30,900 1986 296 Ouro vil 13,573 297 Paquicamba vil 4,351 1990 298 Paracana vil 351,697 1985 299 Paracuhuba Vil 1,040 300 Pari-Cachoeira VI 1,152,000 301 Paru d’Este Vil 1,182,800 302 Perigara vil 10,740 303 Piraha Vil 389,000 304 Pirineus de Souza vil 28,212 305 Pium vil 3,180 306 Ponta de Serra Vil 15,597 307 Porquinhos VI 79,520 308 Poyanawa vil 19,987 1986 309 Raimundao vil 4,300 310 Raposa/Serra do Sol vil 1,401,320 311 Recanto da Saudade vil 13,750 312 Rikbaktsa vil 79,935 313 Rio Bia Vil 1,180,200 314 Rio Branco VI 236,137 315 Rio Formoso Vil 19,700 316 Rio Gregorio vil 92,859 1983 210 Federal Republic of Brazil Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) 317 Rio Guapore vil 128,196 318 Rio Negro Ocaia vil 104,063 319 Rio Paru do Leste vil 1,182,800 320 Rio Pindare vil 15,002 321 Rodeador vil 2,319 322 Roosevelt (part with MT) Mpio Pimenta Bueno vil 233,055 323 Roosevelt vil 233,055 324 S. Ines vil 29,698 325 S. Leopoldo vil 55,000 326 Sagarana vil 8,400 327 Sai-Cinza vil 125,552 1988 328 Saluma vil 533,940 329 Sangradoura/Volta Grande Vil 11,660 330 Sangradouro vil 88,620 331 Santana vil 35,471 332 Sao Domingos vil 5,474 333 Sao Marcos vil 653,949 334 Sarare vil 67,420 335 Serra Morena vil 148,300 336 Serra da Moca VI 11,626 337 Sete de Setembre (Rondonia and Mato Grosso) Vi 247,870 338 Sororo vil 26,258 1977 339 Sucuba Vil 5,983 340 Tabalascada vil 7,000 341 Tadarimana vil 9,785 342 Tapirape/Karaja Vil 66,166 343 Taracua-Uaupes v0, 1,666,000 344 Tembe vil 1,075 1989 345 Tenharim/Transamazonia vil 488,550 346 Terese Cristina vil 25,694 347 Terra Vermelha vil 8,750 348 Ticuna Feijoal vil 1,320 349 Ticuna Porto Espiritual vil 3,550 350 Ticuna de Santo Antonio vil 1,450 351 Tirecatinga vil 130,575 352 Tora VII 24,600 353 Tracaja vil 1,550 354 Trincheira Vil 1,550 355 Trincheira/Bacaja vil 1,438,856 1989 356 Trocara vil 21,722 1982 357 Truaru vil 6,640 358 Tubarao Latunde vil 116,000 359 Tuere Vil 640,000 360 Uaca, 1 and 2 VII 434,660 361 Uai-Uai vil 330,000 362 Uaimiri Atroari vil 2,585,911 363 Uati-Parana vil 102,187 364 Umariacu Vil 1,600 365 Umutina Vil 28,120 366 Uneiuxi vil 405,000 367 Uru-Eu-Uau-Uau vil 1,832,300 368 Urucu-Jurua vil 12,697 369 Utiariti vil 412,304 370 Vale do Guapore Vil 242,593 371 Vale do Javari vil 8,338,000 372 Vui-Uata-In vil 125,000 373 Waiapi vil 543,000 211 Protected Areas of the World Map ref. 374 375 376 377 National/international designations Name of area Waimiri-Atroari Xambioa Zoro Zuruaha Indigenous Parks Araguaia Aripuana Tumucumaque Xingu Yanomami (Amazonas and Roraima) State Parks Alto Ribeira Bacanga Brigadeiro Campos do Jordao Carlos Botelho Caxambu Delta do Jacui Desengano Ibitipoca Ilha Anchieta Ilha Bela Ilha Grande Ilha do Cardoso TItacolomi Jacupiranga Jaiba Mananciais da Serra Mirador Morro do Chapeu Morro do Diabo Pedra Branca Rio Doce Serra Caldas Novas Serra Furada Serra do Mar Serra do Tabuleiro Sumidouro Tainhas Terra Ronca Turvo Vascununca Vila Velha State Biological Reserves Aguai Araras Canela Preta Guapore Jaru Mata Acaua Parauna Praia do Sul Rio Ouro Preto Sassafraz Serra Geral IUCN management 212 category vil vil vil vil vil Vil vil vil vil Ln len Nil een eee Bilan Bl coon Bee lee le Bae Area (ha) 2,440,000 3,265 431,700 233,900 1,395,000 1,258,323 2,700,000 2,642,008 7,751,945 37,712 3,075 32,500 8,286 37,797 1,040 4,322 22,500 1,488 828 27,025 15,000 22,500 7,542 150,000 6,358 2,249 385,000 6,000 34,441 12,500 35,973 12,315 1,329 314,800 87,405 1,300 4,924 14,493 17,491 1,484 3,245 7,672 2,068 1,844 600,000 268,150 5,000 3,490 3,600 46,438 5,416 1,700 Year 1968 1958 1980 1988 1941 1982 1979 1976 1983 1973 1977 1958 1978 1962 1967 1969 1973 1980 1973 1986 1974 1944 1970 1980 1969 1975 1980 1975 1965 1970 1953 1983 1972 1980 1982 1979 1974 1979 1981 1990 1977 1982 Federal Republic of Brazil Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) 426 Tracadal I 22,540 1990 State Ecological Stations 427 Angatuba IV 1,394 1985 428 Bracinho IV 4,606 1984 429 Caetetus IV 2,188 1987 430 Chauas IV 2,700 1987 431 Itirapina IV 2,300 1984 432 Jatai IV 4,532 1982 433 Paraiso IV 4,920 1987 434 Santa Barbara IV 2,712 1984 435 Xitue IV 3,095 1987 State Environment Protection Areas 436 Bacia dos Rios Piracicaba e Juqueri - Mirim VY 390,000 1987 437 Cabreuva Vv 26,100 1984 438 Cajamar Vv 13,400 1987 439 Campos do Jordao Vv 26,900 1984 440 Corumbatai-Botucatu-Tejupa Vv 641,000 1984 441 Ibitinga Vv 64,900 1987 442 Ilha Comprida Vv 19,375 1987 443 Jundiai Vv 43,200 1984 444 Serra das Mangabeiras Vv 96,743 1983 445 Serra do Mar Vv 548,100 1984 446 Silveiras Vv 42,700 1984 447 Tiete Vv 45,100 1983 448 Varzea do Alto Tiete Vv 8,500 1987 State Forest 449 Antimari Vil 66,168 Extractive Reserves 450 Alto Jurua Vill 506,186 1990 451 Antimari Vill 260,277 1988 452 Cachoeira Vill 24,099 1987 453 Cajari-2 Vill 82,000 454 Cajari-3 Vill 104,000 455 Cautario, Mpio Costa Marques Vil 230,000 456 Chico Mendes Vill 970,570 1990 457 Iratapuru Vil 70,000 458 Jaciparana and Mutumparana Vill 240,000 459 Macaua Vill 103,106 1978 460 Maraca-1 Vill 75,000 1988 461 Maraca-2 Vill 22,500 1988 462 Maraca-3 Vill 226,500 1988 463 Matauau Vil 68,000 464 Ouro Preto Vill 170,000 465 Pacaas Novos vill 180,000 466 Porto Dias Vill 22,145 1987 467 Remanso Vill 43,502 1987 468 Rio Cajari Vill 481,650 1990 469 Rio Ouro Preto Vill 204,583 1990 470 Rio Pedras Negras Vil 180,000 471 Riozinho Vil 35,896 1988 472 Santa Quiteria Vill 43,248 1980 473 Terrua Vill 139,295 1989 213 Protected Areas of the World Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) Biosphere Reserves TijucaTinguaOrgaos IX 67,600 1991 Vale do RibeiraSerra do Graciosa IX 1,794,500 1991 World Heritage Site Iguacu National Park X 170,000 1986 214 Federal Republic of Brazil Protected Areas of Brazil North-West Brazil 215 Protected Areas of the World B FUN AUN ny ESA x Le, 5 & cs 5 2 8, Che ha °n~ 85 ep ” 6 5 8 ) a a Protected Areas of Brazil North-East Brazil 216 Federal Republic of Brazil 3 3) re 5 (SN 4 ng eee 200 400 600km a 45° 1 Protected Areas of Brazil Southern Brazil 217 a4 thie RRS | CHILE Area 756,943 sq. km Population 13,173,000 (1990) Natural increase: 1.55 % per annum Economic Indicators GDP: US$ 1,511 per capita (1987) GNP: US$ 1,770 per capita (1989) Policy and Legislation Article 19 of the 1980 Political Constitution of Chile (Constitucién Politica de la Republica de Chile) states that all inhabitants are assured the right to live in an environment free of contamination, and that the state is responsible for nature protection. However, little importance is afforded to protected areas as part of a national development strategy, and a comprehensive strategy for protected areas is lacking (Stutzin et al., 1991; Gutiérrez, 1992). Although there is abundant legislation (over 20 legal texts) referring to national parks, it is disperse, ambiguous and contradictory (Gutiérrez, 1992), and there is no consolidated law to cover national protected areas (Araya and Cunazza, 1992). The first legislation to make provision for protected areas was the 1925 Forests Law (Ley de Bosques), Decree Law No. 656, which authorises the creation of national parks and forest reserves. This was amended by the 1931 Forests Law, Supreme Decree No. 4363, which provides for the expropriation of private land for protected areas, and the establishment of national tourist parks and forest reserves to conserve national natural beauty and certain tree species. Land set aside for protection cannot be used for any other purpose. The Agriculture and Livestock Service (Servicio Agricola y Ganadero) (SAG) is assigned responsibility for management of protected areas. Decree Law No. 1939 (1977) on the Acquisition, Administration and Disposition of State or Fiscal Property (Adquisicién, Administracién y Disposicién sobre los Bienes del Estado o Fiscales) replaces Decree Law No. 701 (1974) of the same name, and makes provisions for managing state property including parks and reserves. Trees may only be felled with prior authorisation from the National Forestry Corporation (Corporacién Nacional Forestal) (CONAF). CONAF is an autonomous state corporation, under the Ministry of Agriculture, responsible for forests and protected areas. CONAF manages the National System of Wild Protected Areas (Sistema Nacional de Areas Silvestres Protegidas del Estado) (SNASPE). Definitions are given for the protected area categories of national park, natural monument, national reserve and wilderness reserve, and provisions made for reclassifying protected areas accordingly. Forest reserves are now known as national reserves (CONAF, 1989). No wilderness reserves have been declared. CONAF is obliged to develop a 219 management plan for each protected area in the SNASPE. In 1988, Law No. 18768 formally transfers administrative responsibilities for national parks and forest reserves from the SAG to CONAF. In practice, transfer had already taken place several years earlier following an agreement between the two institutions (CONAF, 1989). Improvements in legislation for protected areas and natural resource management took place in 1984 with the promulgation of two new laws: Law Nos. 18348 and 18362 (CONAF, 1989). However, for administrative and financial reasons they have not come into effect yet (Stutzin et al., 1991; Gutiérrez, 1992). Law No. 18348 provides for the creation of the National Corporation for Forests and the Protection of Natural Renewable Resources (Corporacién Nacional Forestal y de Protecciédn de Recursos Naturales Renovables) (also known as CONAF), as an autonomous state institution. This new institution would be part of the Ministry of Agriculture, controlled financially by the General Auditor of the Republic (Controlaria General de la Republica). Some of the conservation, protection and natural resource regulation activities that were previously assigned to the SAG would be transferred to the new CONAF, including forest exploitation and regulation enforcement. Professionals from appropriate fields can be deployed to assist in research projects. The new Corporation that would be formed under this legislation takes over all responsibilities and property from the former National Forestry Corporation. From 1980 onwards, CONAF advocated a single law, No. 18362, to consolidate all aspects of protected area legislation. This law, promulgated in 1984, but not yet in effect, provides for the creation of a new, coherent National System of Wild Protected Areas (SNASPE). The five conservation objectives of the SNASPE are given as: maintaining areas unique in character or representative of national ecological diversity for continuity of natural processes and public education; maintaining natural resources and ensuring their sustainable use; maintaining the productive capacity of soils and hydrological systems; and preserving natural scenic beauty and cultural heritage. Protected area designations are given (see Annex). International Activities Chile signed Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the Western Hemisphere (Convencion sobre la Proteccién de la Flora, de la Fauna y de las Bellezas Escénicas Naturales de los Paises de América) (Western Hemisphere Convention) in 1940, and ratified it in 1967. However, national legislation transgresses the Western Hemisphere Convention, particularly in the case of mineral resource exploitation within protected areas (Gutiérrez, 1992; Astorga, n.d.). Chile ratified the Protected Areas of the World Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) on 16 January 1980 (through Decree No. 3056 of 1979), but no natural sites have been inscribed. Chile ratified the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) on 27 July 1981 (through Decree Law No. 3485 of 1980 and Supreme Decree No. 771 of 1981) and one wetland has been listed. Chile also participates in the Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme, and has seven biosphere reserves. In 1979, the Convention for the Conservation and Management of Vicufia (Convenio para la Conservacién y Manejo de la Vicufia) was signed by Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, and Peru, and was ratified in Chilean legislation in 1981. The United Nations Development Programme and the FAO carried out a study on protected areas in arid and semi-arid zones, with a view to improving their management and identifying further areas for protection, between 1986 and 1988. Among the recommendations made was the inclusion into SNASPE of several areas in the northern regions. Support for conservation projects and training park guards is received from several international organisations including WWF, WCI-NYZS, the World Monument Fund, the FAO, United Nations Environment Programme and Unesco (CONAF 1989). Administration and Management Legal responsibility for protected areas is assigned to the Ministry of Agriculture (Ministerio de Agricultura), which delegates all aspects of administration and management to the National Forestry Corporation (CONAF). Financial and policy-making responsibilities are divided within the central administration of CONAF. The Executive Director (Director Ejecutivo) is responsible for the internal administration of CONAF, and all financial matters. The Executive Council (Consejo Directivo), comprising the Minister of Agriculture, the Executive Director of CONAF, the Executive Director of SAG, the Vice-president of the Institute for Agricultural Development (Instituto de Desarrollo Agropecuario) and the Director of the Office of Agricultural Planning (Oficina de Planificacién Agricola), develops conservation policies and implements projects which are annually reviewed and modified where necessary. CONAF comprises four departments: Wild Heritage (Patrimonio Silvestre) responsible for protected areas management, Forest Control, Fire Control and Fire Management (Ramirez, pers. comm., 1991). CONAF has offices in each of the country’s 13 regions. Seven professionals are employed in central administration and 27 regionally, including forestry engineers, biologists and agricultural technicians. Regional offices are responsible for protected areas management. By 1989 there were 350 park guards distributed among 59 of the 220 75 protected areas in the SNASPE, and seven national training courses had taken place. A further 160 technicians and administrative personnel are employed (CONAF 1989). CONAF is also responsible for wildlife management within the SNASPE. By 1989, 17 projects had been undertaken to study wildlife and implement management plans for certain species such as the vicufia and chinchilla (CONAF 1989). CONAF’s administrative faculties are not sufficient for it to adequately carry out its duties. Infringement of protected areas by private timber and mineral companies isa major problem (Stutzin et al., 1991; Gutiérrez, 1992). This is due to lack of resources, and also because of CONAF’’s status as an autonomous state corporation. Its powers are further limited by the fact that infringements are not defined in the legislation (Gutiérrez, 1992). By 1989, 14 of the country’s protected areas were occupied (Cunazza, 1989). On a general level, national and regional policies do not put sufficient importance on either conservation or sustainable development: areas designated for protection are often also designated for other incompatible uses by other government institutions (Stutzin et al., 1991; Araya and Cunazza, 1992; E. Astorga, M. Stutzin and H. Verscheure, pers. comm., 1992). Recently, CONAF has turned to industry as a source of additional financial support for its work. Non-governmental conservation organisations (NGOs) also fund specific aspects of CONAF’s work, such as environmental education and research (Stutzin et al., 1991). In the northern region of Chile an NGO, the Flora and Fauna Defense Committee (Comité Nacional Pro Defensa de la Flora y la Fauna) (CODEFF), supports protected areas, and works towards increasing environmental protection and preventing pollution (Guerra, pers. comm., 1991). It has sections in seven cities, and manages a private reserve in the south of Chile. The Austral Ecological Defence Initiative (Iniciativa de Defensa Ecolégica Austral) (IDEA) works on issues related to protected areas in the south of Chile. The National Network for Ecological Action (Red Nacional de Accién Ecolégica) (RENACE) links NGOs throughout the country via a monthly news bulletin, Ecoprensa. Systems Reviews Chile extends 4,200km from 17S to 56S, with an altitude range from sea level to 7,000m, and includes oceanic islands. A number of distinct ecosystems are found, with a high degree of biodiversity (Mark, 1984; Ormazdbal, 1986a). To obtain a better understanding of the country’s vegetation formations and ecosystems, and to assess the degree of protection afforded by the SNASPE, CONAF initiated the Basic System of Classifying Chilean Native Vegetation (Sistema BA4sico de Clasificacién de la Vegetacién Nativa Chilena) in 1985 (Ormazdbal, 1986b). The System identifies 8 ecological regions, 17 sub-regions and 83 different vegetation formations (Ormazabal, 1986a, 1986b). The two main mountain ranges are the Cordillera de los Andes, extending the length of the country, and the Cordillera de la Costa along the northern coast. Chilean territory includes Easter Island, Sala y Gomez Island, and the Juan Fernandez Islands. Tropical coastal desert and high desert grassland (puna), located in the far north, include the Atacama desert where average rainfall is less than 1mm per year. Predominantly scrubland vegetation lies to the south, where annual precipitation varies from 100mm in northern areas to 1000mm further south. This is the most productive agricultural land in the country and includes the capital metropolitan area. Two-thirds (66%) of the population lives in this region, which occupies only 10% of the total national territory, a situation that has resulted in extreme environmental degradation (Weber, 1983). A 300km-long stretch of Araucaria forest intervenes between the scrubland and the Valdivian mixed temperate rain forest, which is characterised by the presence of bamboo in the understorey. True Chilean Nothofagus beech forests extend 2,000km to the south, and Patagonian steppe with tussock grassland and shrub vegetation extends down to the Magellan Straits (Mark, 1984). Cattle ranching is concentrated in this region. The first national park was declared in 1926, with the objective of protecting natural beauty and resources and allowing for tourism, without endangering the livelihoods of the local inhabitants (Contreras et al., 1979; Ormaz4bal, 1986b). A further 12 parks were established between 1935 and 1945 with the objective of protecting particular tree species. Between 1958 and 1979, 36 more protected areas were established. During the 1970s, management plans were compiled, describing the infrastructure, research and educational projects required (Contreras et al., 1979). By 1990, there were 30 national parks, 36 national reserves, and 10 natural monuments, totalling 13,600,000ha or around 18% of total land area (Poblete, pers. comm., 1990). The principal fault with the protected areas system is the considerable difference in coverage between different regions of the country, with some ecosystems absent from SNASPE altogether (Ormazabal, 1986a, 1986b). The majority of the area under protection, 82%, is located in Aysen and Magallanes regions at the southern tip of the country. Both these regions have nearly 50% of their territory within the SNASPE. Less than 1% of Antofagasta is protected, despite being of similar size to both of the southern regions. The desert, Patagonian steppe, Matorrales and sclerophyll wood regions are also considered to be inadequately protected (Ormazabal, 1986b). Of Chile’s 17 ecological sub-regions, eight are well or adequately represented within the SNASPE, five are poorly represented, and four are not represented at 221 Chile all (Valencia et al., 1987). Studies carried out as part of the native vegetation classification project found that approximately 30 of the 83 different vegetation formations described are not represented in any protected area (Valencia et al., 1987; Ramirez, pers. comm., 1991). Lack of protection is most pronounced in the Central Zone, and the northern regions, Antofagasta and Atacama (Ormazabal, 1986b). National parks have not always been created in accordance with stated national objectives. Some were declared in order to stop agricultural colonisation or for political reasons, such as improving the country’s international image (Contreras et al., 1979). Therefore, several national parks do not fulfil the appropriate legal designation (Anon., 1983; Ormazabal, 1986b). In 1972, five national parks were established under provisions of Law No. 17699, but with no specified boundaries, management plans, or consideration of the fact that most of the land was privately owned (Anon., 1983). Chile participates in the FAO Latin American Network programme (Red Latinoamericana de Cooperacién Técnica en Parques Nacionales, Otras Areas Protegidas, Flora y Fauna Silvestres) through CONAF. According to the definition provided by the network, Chile has developed a comprehensive national system (Ormazébal, 1988; FAO, n.d.). Owing to the country’s geographical diversity and the great differences between each protected area, there is no single solution to the problems of SNASPE (Ormazabal, 1986b). Special priority is given to incorporating under-represented ecosystems into SNASPE. This includes the Central Zone where degradation is most accelerated (CONAF, 1989; Ormazabal, 1986b). Incorporating more aquatic ecosystems into SNASPE, increasing staff salaries and providing more training opportunities are amongst the current aims of CONAF (CONAF, 1989). Addresses Departamento de Patrimonio Silvestre, Corporacién Nacional Forestal y de Recursos Naturales Renovables (CONAF), Av. Bulnes 259, Oficina 604, SANTIAGO (Tel: 2 699 6677/1257; FAX: 2 715881; Tix: 240001 CONAF CL) Comité Nacional Pro Defensa de la Fauna y Flora (CODEFF), Santa Filomena 185, Casilla 3675, SANTIAGO (Tel: 377290\7771607; FAX: 2 377290) Comité Nacional Pro Defensa de la Fauna y Flora (CODEFF), Universidad de Antofagasta, Av. Universidad de Chile S/N, Casilla 170, ANTOFAGASTA (Tel: 242160 ext. 226; FAX: 247786; Tix: 325054 UANTOF CK) Iniciativa de Defensa Ecolégica Austral (IDEA), José Nogueira 1161, Casilla 527, PUNTA ARENAS (FAX: 61 247839) Red Nacional de Accién Ecolégica (RENACE), Casa de la Paz, Antonia Lope de Bello 024, SANTIAGO (Tel: 2 374280) Protected Areas of the World References Anon. (1983). Las Araucarias de Ralco-Lepoi. Chile Forestal. May. Pp. 20-22. Araya, P. and Cunazza, C. (1992). Habitantes de los parques nacionales de Chile: caracteristicas y problemas. In: Amend, S. and Amend, T. (Eds), ~Espacios sin Habitantes? Parques Nacionales de América del Sur. YUCN and Editorial Nueva Sociedad, Caracas. Pp. 139-158. Astorga, E. (n.d.). Régimen juridico sobre 4reas silvestres protegidas. 2 pp. (Unpublished) Brooks, H. (1987). Chile: a country profile. Prepared for the Office of U.S. Foreign Disaster Assistance, Agency for International Development, Department of State, Washington D.C., USA. 99 pp. CONAF (1983). Representacién de las provincias biogeograficas por las reservas de la bidsfera en Chile. Accién presente y futura de la Corporacién Forestal Nacional. Boletin Técnico No. 10. Corporacién Nacional Forestal, Ministerio de Agricultura, Santiago. 23 pp. CONAF (1985). Parque nacional Torres del Paine. Nandu 7(18). Corporacién Nacional Forestal, Punta Arenas. 24 pp. CONAF (1989). La proteccién del patrimonio ecolégico. Corporacién Nacional Forestal, Ministerio de Agricultura, Santiago. 75 pp. Contreras, M., L de la Maza, C., Merino, R., Morales, A., Barros, P. and Weintraub, A. (1979). Evaluaci6n econémica de parques nacionales: el sistema de parques nacionales en Chile, Resumen de metodologtas. Investigacién y desarrollo forestal. CONAF/FAO, Santiago de Chile. 74 pp. Cunazza, C. (1989). Predios privados y ocupantes del Sistema Nacional de Areas Silvestres Protegidas del Estado: diagnéstico y alternativas de solucién. In: Actas Reunién Nacional del Programa de Patrimonio Silvestre. CONAF. (Unseen) FAO (n.d.). La Red Latinoamericana de Cooperacién Técnica en Parques Nacionales, Otras Areas Protegidas, Flora y Fauna Silvestres. Oficina Regional de la FAO para América Latina y el Caribe, Santiago. 8 pp. FAO (1983). Informe de la mesa redonda sobre parques Nacionales, otras 4reas protegidas, flora y fauna silvestres. Santiago de Chile 8-10 June. FAO Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean, Santiago. Pp. 26-30. FAO (1990). Investigacién y desarrollo de dreas silvestres en zonas dridas y semidaridas: resultados y 222 recomendaciones del proyecto. United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization and United Nations Development Programme, Rome, 1990. 27 pp. Gutiérrez, D. (1992). Legislacién chilena sobre parques nacionales: uso de los recursos naturales. In Amend, S. and Amend, T. (Eds), ;Espacios sin Habitantes? Parques Nacionales de América del Sur. TUCN and Editorial Nueva Sociedad, Caracas. Pp. 159-172. Mark, A.F. (1984). Impressions of the national parks system in Chile. Forest and Bird 15(2): 33-37. Ormazabal, C. (1986a). El sistema nacional de 4reas silvestres de Chile. Flora Fauna y Areas Silvestres 1: 10-15 Ormazabal, C. (1986b). Preservacién de recursos fitogenéticos in situ a través de parques nacionales y otras areas protegidas. Importancia, avances, limitaciones y proyecci6n futura. Boletin Técnico No 16. Gerencia Técnica, Corporacién Nacional Forestal, Ministerio de Agricultura, Santiago. 32 pp. Ormazabal, C. (1988). Sistemas nacionales de dreas silvestres protegidas en América Latina. Basado en los resultados del taller sobre Planificacién de Sistemas Nacionales de Areas Silvestres Protegidas, Caracas, Venezuela, 9-13 junio 1986. Proyecto FAO/PNUMA sobre manejo de 4reas silvestres, areas protegidas y vida silvestre en América Latina y el Caribe. Oficina Regional de la FAO para América Latina y el Caribe, Santiago, Chile. Pp. 20-23. Ormazabal, C. (1990). The conservation of biological diversity in Chile. Second draft. School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, Yale University. 60 pp. Ormazabal, C. and Saavedra Perez, M.E. (1985). Representacién ecolégica del sistema nacional de dreas silvestres protegidas del estado en relaciona la clasificacién de Udvardy. Departamento Areas Silvestres Protegidas, CONAF, Santiago, Chile. 23 pp. Stutzin, M., Verscheure, H., and Astorga, E. (1991). El Sistema Nacional de Areas Silvestres Protegidas del Estado de Chile (SNASPE): carencias y potencialidades. CODEFF, Santiago. 11 pp. Valencia et al. (1987) Sistema de dreas de conservacién en Chile. Proposiciones para un esquema ecoldégico integral. Ambiente y Desarrollo. Vol. Ill. N. 1 and 2. Pp. 139-159. (Unseen). Wetterberg, G.B., Jorge Padua, M.T., Tresinari, A., Ponce del Prado, C.F. (1985). Decade of progress for South American National Parks. National Park Service, US Department of the Interior, Washington, DC. 123 pp. ANNEX Chile Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration Title: | Act No. 18362 crea un Sistema Nacional de Areas Silvestres Protegidas del Estado (to create a National System of State Protected Wildland Areas) Date: 8 November 1984 (but not in force) Brief description: Unifies all previous protected area legislation by redefining designations and stating conservation objectives. Administrative authority: Ministerio de Agricultura (Ministry of Agriculture), acting through the Corporacién Nacional Forestal y de Proteccién de Recursos Naturales Renovables (National Corporation of Forests and the Protection of Renewable Natural Resources) (CONAF) Designations: Parque Nacional (National Park) An area, usually of considerable size, where ecosystems are found that are unique or representative of the natural ecological diversity of the country, and have not been spoilt by human interference. Research, educational and leisure activities are the only permitted uses. 223 Monumento Natural (Natural Monument) An area, usually of no great extent, where native species of flora or fauna are found, or geological sites of educational, cultural, scientific or scenic importance. Reserva de Regidn Virgen (Wilderness Reserve) Any area where primitive natural conditions of wildlife, fauna, or human habitation exist, with no roads for motorised traffic and where all commercial exploitation is prohibited. These areas will remain untouched as far as possible, except for authorised scientific research and inspection by the Corporation. For all the above designations, hunting, killing or chasing wildlife specimens, destroying vegetation and nest sites and removing floral or fauna specimens are prohibited. National Reserve Any area where resource conservation is required and special care exercised in their use. Flora and fauna may be used according to sound principles of sustainability. Source: Original legislation Protected Areas of the World Map ref. OOAIDMNPWNe RO RS SOmMAINAMNEWNK © No _ SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS National/international designations Name of area National Parks Alberto de Agostini Alerce Andino Archipiélago de Juan Fernandez Bernardo O’ Higgins Bosque Fray Jorge Cabo de Hornos Chiloé Conguillio El Morado Hornopirén Huerquehue Isla Guamblin Isla Magdalena La Campana Laguna San Rafael Laguna del Laja Las Palmas de Cocalan Lauca Nahuelbuta Pali-Aike Pan de Azticar Puyehue Queulat Rapa Nui (Easter Island) Rio Simpson Tolhuaca Torres del Paine Vicente Pérez Rosales Villarrica Volcan Isluga National Reserves Alacalufes Alto Bio-Bio Cerro Castillo China Muerta Coihaique Isla Mocha Katalalixar La Chimba Lago Carlota Lago Cochrane Lago General Carrera Lago Jeinimeni Lago Las Torres Lago Palena Lago Pefiuelas Lago Rosselot Laguna Parrillar Las Chinchillas Las Guaitecas Las Vicufias Llanquihue Los Flamencos IUCN management category 224 Area (ha) 1,460,000 39,255 9,109 3,525,901 9,959 63,093 43,057 60,832 3,000 48,232 12,500 10,625 157,640 8,000 1,742,000 11,600 3,709 137,883 6,832 3,000 43,754 107,000 154,093 6,666 40,790 6,374 181,414 226,305 61,000 174,744 2,313,875 35,000 179,550 9,887 2,150 2,368 674,500 2,583 27,110 8,361 178,400 38,700 16,516 41,356 9,094 12,725 18,814 4,229 1,097,975 209,131 33,972 73,987 Year notified 1965 1982 1935 1969 1941 1945 1982 1950 1974 1988 1967 1967 1983 1967 1959 1958 1972 1970 1939 1970 1986 1941 1983 1935 1967 1935 1959 1926 1940 1967 1969 1912 1970 1968 1948 1988 1983 1988 1965 1967 1974 1967 1969 1965 1952 1968 1977 1983 1938 1983 1912 1990 National/international designations Name of area Magallanes Malalcahuello Malleco Nalcas Nuble Pampa del Tamarugal Ralco Rio Blanco Rio Clarillo Rio de Los Cipreses Valdivia Villarrica Natural Monuments Alerce Costero Salar de Surire Biosphere Reserves Araucarias La CampanaPeiiuelas Parque Nacional Fray Jorge Parque Nacional Juan Fernandez Parque Nacional Laguna San Rafael Parque Nacional Lauca Parque Nacional Torres del Paine Ramsar Wetland Santuario Carlos Anwandter IUCN management 225 category IV IV IV IV IV IV IV Area (ha) 13,500 17,530 17,371 13,775 55,948 100,650 12,421 10,175 10,185 38,582 9,727 60,005 2,308 11,298 81,000 17,095 14,074 9,290 1,742,448 358,312 184,414 4,877 Chile Year notified 1932 1931 1907 1967 1978 1988 1972 1932 1982 1986 1929 1912 1964 1983 1983 1984 1977 1977 1979 1981 1978 1981 Protected Areas of the World 300 400km Protected Areas of Chile 226 Chile Protected Areas of Chile 227 Protected Areas of the World 300 ty ZZ eZ: af tla 2: ZB Ay) YY: Pt, sty Protected Areas of Chile 228 Chile Protected Areas of Chile 229 ee a me > , pi , -$ La i ~ — t re ae ~ - " A Pas ff “” vi y tf ah w4 : a] ' « ‘ we aS { Ser : a ig a =. vey i. , ‘ ; E - » =: t — Ms A 1 —— se he ——s See ee Da ‘ = ¢ = . ; - wD? : “er ; zp Saw —— es — = ; J, ry . ae oe haat - ees ne Sani, ss Mi ho ; i . t 4 ~~ >. < ; a C . a dl ae x Ta ; aod gi Me toe eee -. Soe ae reece en ee ae ng i rn es res era — : r = a Ae = » pap me ° = > 4 ai ae, Sake a a = oe ¢ - ane ah, 4 7 a —_ a ee 3 or" 4. ee x ree “~ ‘\ ‘ 4 rr it ral, ‘Ae 5 Sy {* = Tse = oe = Sear We yhoo at gi? ean oan ie ce Oa: : ae - * a Tes ci a S - ie ECUADOR Area 272,045 sq. km Population 9,648,189 (1990) Natural increase: 2.25% per annum Economic Indicators GDP: US$ 1,069 per capita (United Nations, 1987) GNP: US$ 910 per capita (Banco Central del Ecuador, 1991) Policy and Legislation No national conservation policy providing for the protection of natural resources has been stated (Cabarle et al., 1989). In 1974, the Preliminary Strategy for the Conservation of Outstanding Natural Areas in Ecuador (Estrategia Preliminar para la Conservacién de Areas Silvestres Sobresalientes del Ecuador) was initiated by the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock (Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia) (MAG) in collaboration with the UNDP and the FAO (Cifuentes et al., 1989). The Preliminary Strategy was published in 1976 and sets out what may be considered a national conservation objective, but in very general terms. It also includes an inventory of natural areas (DINAF, 1988; Putney, 1976). It is cited in subsequent legislation as the foundation for protected area definition and establishment. One of the primary objectives of the strategy is to coordinate government planning at the national and regional levels. However, the 1985-1988 national development plan does not specify objectives for natural resource protection, and current development policies are oriented more towards exploitation than conservation (Cabarle et al., 1989; Cifuentes et al., 1989). The government participates in the FAO Tropical Forest Action Plan (TFAP), an international strategy for maximising the contribution of forestry sectors to national economic and social development while maintaining conservation principles. In 1987, a national Forestry Action Plan (Plan de Accién Forestal) was formulated, adapting the principles of the TFAP to suit national objectives (Cabarle et al., 1989; DINAF, 1988; MAG, n.d.). A coordinating committee was established to supervise the implementation of the plan in conjunction with the National Development Council (Consejo Nacional de Desarrollo) (CONADE). Details of the extent of implementation are currently not known. The 1971 National Parks and Reserves Law (Ley de Parques Nacionales y Reservas), Decree No. 1306, was the first law to provide for protected area establishment at the national level. Parks and reserves are selected by the MAG, and designated by inter-ministerial accord. The law also gives regulations for visitors to parks and reserves, but definitions of these two management categories are not given. 247 With reference to Decree No. 1306, the MAG and the Ministry of Industry, Commerce and Finance (Ministerio de Industrias, Comercio e Integracién) signed the Interministerial Agreement No. 322 in 1979. This agreement declares that the Preliminary Strategy for Conservation of Outstanding Natural Areas constitutes the fundamental policy for natural resource conservation. Provision is made for the creation of four national parks, three ecological reserves, two national recreation areas and one faunal production reserve, and comprehensive definitions for these four categories of protected area are given (see Annex). The main law providing for protected area establishment and resource use currently in effect is the 1981 Law of Forestry and the Conservation of Natural Areas and Wildlife (Ley Forestal y de Conservacién de Areas Naturales y Vida Silvestre) No. 74, which consolidates much of the earlier legislation relating to wildlife and protected areas. Previous forestry legislation is repealed. All forested land is regulated under this law, but the state recognises private ownership rights. A natural area has distinctive conservation, scientific, educational or scenic importance, and is state-owned. State forests and natural areas are inalienable, and ownership rights cannot be acquired. Provision is made for expropriating private land for the creation of protected areas where necessary. Definitions are given for production and protection forests and forest reserves, and for the seven categories of protected area which comprise the State Heritage of Natural Areas (Patrimonio de Areas Naturales del Estado) (see Annex). Management plans are to be drawn up for each area. Encroachment on state-owned land, or damage to ecosystems, is prohibited and a series of penalties are prescribed. Wild fauna also belongs to the state, and provision is made for its protection and rational use. Problems arise over the definitions of management categories given in the 1981 Law. No clear distinction is made between the designations of national park and ecological reserve, which gives rise to conflict over their management. Two categories are named in the legislation but are not defined or used in practice: wildlife refuge (refugio de vida silvestre) and hunting and fishing area (area de caza y pesca). On the other hand, geobotanical reserve (reserva geobotanica), whilst not mentioned in any official legislation, does exist in practice and even forms part of the protected areas system (G. Oviedo, pers. comm., 1992). One other category is used, namely marine resource reserve (reserva de recursos marinos) although it is not included in the system of protected areas, and not covered by the 1981 Law. Thus, the protected areas sub-system is currently made up of six active categories of protected area: national park, ecological reserve, biological reserve, faunal production reserve, national recreation Proctected Areas of the World area and geobotanical reserve (G. Oviedo, pers. comm., 1992). Decree No. 1529, (1983) General Regulation under the 1981 Law of Forestry and the Conservation of Natural Areas and Wildlife (Reglamento General de Aplicacién de la Ley Forestal y de Conservacién de Areas Naturales y Vida Silvestre), gives further details of natural resource management, general conservation objectives, and activities permitted within protected areas. All commercial exploitation of natural resources is prohibited. Permission for other activities may only be granted by the MAG. Administration of protected areas must follow the management plans specific to each area, and visitors are obliged to abide by the regulations established in the 1981 Forest Law. Legislation is inconsistent and uncoordinated, and as a result, no coherent legal framework exists by which national conservation objectives may be implemented (Cabarle et al., 1989; DINAF 1988). The lack of policy and legislation has resulted in conflicts between government sectors over resource use. In many cases, the policies of the MAG have been overridden by other sectors, and state-aided colonisation and migration, together with mineral exploitation, have been encouraged, particularly in forested areas (Cabarle et al., 1989) For example, the 1988 Hydrocarbon Law (Ley de Hidrocarburos) No. 1743, an interministerial agreement between the MAG and the Ministry of Energy and Mines (Ministerio de Energia y Minas) (MEM), regulates environmental rehabilitation during oil and gas exploration, and extraction in national parks and other protected areas. This is clearly in conflict with the 1981 Law of Forestry and the Conservation of Natural Areas and Wildlife prohibits all commercial activities in designated protected areas. The Hydrocarbon Law is also in conflict with existing legislation, which declares that an activity explicitly prohibited by law cannot be regulated by an interministerial agreement (MAG, n.d.). This agreement has led to exploitation by oil companies in several protected areas, and fundamentally undermines the legal protection of Ecuador’s natural resources (MAG, n.d.). International Activities Ecuador signed the Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the Western Hemisphere (Convencién sobre la Proteccién de la Flora, de la Fauna y de las Bellezas Escénicas Naturales de los Paises de América) (Western Hemisphere Convention) in 1940, with subsequent ratification. Ecuador signed the Amazon Cooperation Treaty (Tratado de Cooperaci6én Amazonica) on 3 July 1978, an agreement between the eight countries with territory in the Amazon region, to establish regulations for managing natural resources, and to propose conservation-directed alternatives to the management of multinational projects. The Convention for the Conservation and Management of Vicufia (Convenio para la Conservacién y Manejo de la Vicufia) 248 was signed by Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador and Peru in 1979. Ecuador participates in the Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme, with two sites accepted as biosphere reserves, and ratified the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) on 7 September 1990 with two sites inscribed. Ecuador ratified the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) on 16 June 1975. Two natural sites have been inscribed on the World Heritage list. Administration and Management Throughout the various legislative acts, the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock has been responsible for resource management through its different departments (MAG, n.d.). The first division within the MAG vested with this responsibility was the Forestry Service (Servicio Forestal), created in 1952. Since then, there has been much restructuring of the Ministry, and the scope of its responsibility has grown (MAG, n.d.). The Forestry Service, in collaboration with the National Tourist Office (Oficina Nacional de Turismo) and the General Fisheries Directorate (Direccié6n General de Pesqueria), was responsible for national parks and reserves from the enactment of the 1971 National Parks and Reserves Law until 1981. In 1973, the Department of Natural Areas and Wildlife (Departamento de Areas Naturales y Vida Silvestre) (DANVS) was created as part of the Forestry Service to manage protected areas and wildlife. The DANVS was instrumental in developing the 1976 Preliminary Strategy for the Conservation of Outstanding Natural Areas in Ecuador (MAG, n.d.). In 1981, the Forestry Service was replaced by the National Forestry Programme (Programa Nacional Forestal) (PRONAF), and the DANVS was transformed to a division (Divisi6n de Areas Naturales y Vida Silvestre) within it. The PRONAF and the DANVS are declared responsible for forest and other natural resources under the provisions of the 1983 Regulations to the 1981 Law of Forestry and the Conservation of Natural Areas and Wildlife. Further restructuring of the MAG took place in 1990, raising the forestry sector to the level of Subsecretariat of Forests and Natural Resources (Subsecretaria Forestal y de Recursos Naturales Renovables) (SUFOREN), under the Ministry of Agriculture. The operative level within SUFOREN is composed of the National Forestry Directorate (Direccién Nacional Forestal) (DINAF), which replaces the former PRONAF. The DINAF is responsible for implementing the policies of the MAG, and comprises three divisions, one for each of its functions: reforestation, investigation and training; management and utilisation; natural areas and wildlife (DANVS). At the local level, there are 21 district forestry districts (distritos forestales) under the respective provincial stockbreeding directorates (direcciénes provinciales agropecuarias). DANVS employs 275 people, 198 of whom are park guards (Figueroa, 1992). There are numerous other governmental organisations with interest in forests and natural resources, but ultimate responsibility for formulating forest policies and coordinating the activities of the various organisations lies with the SUFOREN. Policies are implemented by the DINAF and its respective divisions; the DANVS is responsible for managing national parks and reserves, whereas most national forests are the responsibility of the DINAF itself. Most protection forests are privately-owned and are the responsibility of private individuals or institutions, including non-governmental conservation organisations, although administrative assistance is provided by the DINAF. The Traditional Land of the Awa Indigenous Community is managed jointly by the Equadorian Technical Unit of the Awa Plan (Unidad Técnica Equatoriana del Plan Awa) (UTEPA) and the indigenous Awd community (Cabarle et al., 1989; Cifuentes et al., 1989; G. Oviedo, pers. comm., 1992). There are around 5O non-governmental organisations (NGOs) working in environmental issues, the majority of which were created since 1978 (Cabarle et al., 1989; G. Oviedo, pers. comm., 1992). Some concentrate on specific regions of the country, such as the Charles Darwin Foundation (Fundacion Charles Darwin) which focuses on the Galapagos Islands. Others work at the national level, such as EcoScience (EcoCienca) which was founded in 1989 by a group of biologists and is active in conducting scientific research for conservation purposes in several protected areas, and promotes environmental education programmes (L. Suarez, pers. comm., 1991). Ecological Action (Accién Ecolégica) monitors and campaigns against mineral exploitation in protected areas, one of the most serious threats to Ecuadorian ecosystems. One of the largest national NGOs, the Natura Foundation (Fundacién Natura), was established in 1978, and in 1989 signed an agreement with the MAG to participate in protected area management (MAG, n.d.). The Natura Foundation has managerial responsibility for two protected forests, and is involved in others (G. Oviedo, pers. comm., 1992). The Foundation also runs important training programmes for protected area staff (Figueroa, 1992). In 1988, the Natura Foundation (aided by WWF and TNC) realised a debt-for-nature swap to the value of US$ 10 million (Oviedo, 1991). Funds are being used for the "conservation of biological diversity in situ through the management of natural areas according to the principles of sustainable development". A large part of the programme is directed at the national system of protected areas, and management is carried out in conjunction with the state. Five national parks, three ecological reserves and one faunal production reserve are the first protected areas to benefit from the programme, which comprises a broad range of activities from environmental education and research to legislation and area management (Oviedo, 1991). 249 Ecuador To improve protected area planning and management, a Conservation Data Centre (Centro de Datos para la Conservacién) (CDC) was established in June 1990 within the National Council of Science and Technology (Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia) (CONACYT), under an agreement between the Natura Foundation, The Nature Conservancy and CONACYT. The CDC collects information on natural areas to assess their protection needs, and on the current situation of existing protected areas including the effectiveness of their administration (L. Suarez, pers. comm., 1991). Protected area management is hampered by lack of equipment, trained personnel, and inter-institutional cooperation, as well as confusion over land tenure (Cifuentes et al., 1989; Figueroa, 1992). These problems are a direct result of a lack of high-level governmental support and the subsequent lack of funding, restricting the efficiency of protected area management (Cabarle et al., 1989; Cifuentes et al., 1989; Figueroa, 1992). The protected areas system is self-financing by means of revenue from tourism, particularly from Galapagos National Park. Thus, the state pays only 60% of salaries and services, leading to a severe lack of economic resources for management (Figueroa, 1992). There is little communication between regional management and central administration, which prevents adequate coordination. Increasing the autonomy of regional offices would greatly improve their administrative ability (Cabarle et al., 1989; DINAF, 1988). Owing to lack of management resources, production forests could not be regulated, and the government no longer issues concessions for timber extraction in specified reserves. Exploitation takes place in unreserved forest areas with no legal management status, resulting in degradation of forest resources across the country (Suarez, 1990). Systems Reviews Topographically, Ecuador consists of three distinct regions: Western Ecuador or coastal plain; inter-Andean or Sierra; and Eastern or Amazonian (Cabarle et al., 1989; Cifuentes et al., 1989). National territory also includes the Galapagos Islands in the Pacific Ocean. The geographical contrast, from sea level to 6,310m, gives rise to a number of distinct ecosystems, and a high degree of biodiversity. Following Holdridge’s (1967) ecological classification system, 25 life zones are represented (Cabarle et al., 1989). The westerm region, or coastal plain encompasses the area between the foothills of the Andes and the Pacific Ocean, accounting for 24.7% of total land area (MAG, n.d.). Annual precipitation varies from 2000mm in the south, to 8800mm in the north-east where the most important remaining tropical humid forests are found (Cabarle et al., 1989; MAG, n.d.; Cifuentes et al., 1989). The coastal soils of the alluvial plain are the most fertile and farming is intense, producing almost all the nation’s crops. The region is also the centre of industry, and population growth in coastal cities is the highest in the country. Deforestation in the western region has been substantial, with estimates of remaining forest cover varying from 6% (Cabarle et al., 1989) to 24% (DINAF, Proctected Areas of the World 1988). Extensive destruction of mangrove forests along the coast has led to serious coastal erosion (Cabarle et al., 1989). The Sierra region comprises the highlands, above 900m in altitude, and accounts for 24% of total land area. Two chains of the Andes mountains run parallel down the length of the country, creating a system of valleys which are farmed intensively. Volcanic activity has shaped much of this region, and soils are derived from volcanic ash. Precipitation is 750mm per year, and forests range from premontane dry forest, to montane rain forest (MAG, n.d.). Only around 9% of the total area of the Sierra region remains covered by natural vegetation (Cabarle et al., 1989). Cultivation methods are not suited to the varied and difficult terrain, and soil erosion in this region is the worst in the country, with around 15% of the area affected (MAG, n.d.). The Eastern or Amazonian region, accounting for 48% of total land area, extends from the eastern base of the Andes to the Peruvian and Colombian borders, below 900m in altitude (MAG, n.d.). Agricultural development is greatest at the base of the mountains (Cabarle et al., 1989). Around 51% of the eastern region remains forested. Natural resource protection began in 1936 with the declaration of the Galapagos Islands as a protected area. Further protected areas were declared across the country, but a lack of continuity in their selection and management restricted their effectiveness (Paucar, 1984; Ponce, 1982). The Preliminary Strategy for the Conservation of Outstanding Natural Areas, completed in 1976, identified priority areas and provided guidelines for their management. This formed the basis for developing a coordinated national system of protected areas (Cifuentes et al., 1989; Ponce, 1982). The national system (sistema nacional) is to be established in two stages. Nine priority areas were identified initially to form the Minimum System of Conservation (Sistema Minimo), with a further 20 for the Extended System (Sistema Ampliado). The first nine areas were established under provision of the 1979 Interministerial Decree, and a minimum infrastructure for effective protection implemented. Management plans for each area are obligatory to ensure a coherent system. The DINAF intends to increase the number of protected areas to include the Extended System over a period of 12 years, on condition that the budget for administration will increase by 30% annually (DINAF, 1988). Ecuador participates in the FAO Latin American Network programme (Red Latinoamericana de Cooperacién Técnica en Parques Nacionales, Otras Areas Protegidas, Flora y Fauna Silvestres) through the DINAF (FAO, n.d.). Following the FAO definition, Ecuador has a coherent national system (Ormazabal, 1988). The non-governmental sub-system arose as a result of private sector response to alarming rates of deforestation 250 (G. Oviedo, pers. comm., 1992). Areas of natural vegetation and forest that had not been included in the national system were taken on by private individuals and institutions for conservation purposes (Cabarle et al., 1989). By 1989, the national system comprised 15 natural protected areas under the administration of the DINAF, covering 3,173,915ha, or 11.73% of total land area (Fundacién Natura and SUFOREN, 1992). Of the 15 areas, nine have management plans, three have preliminary plans and the remaining three do not have either (MAG, n.d.). Only one management plan has been evaluated, and none has been updated (Figueroa, 1992). Lack of funding and support from central government results in many protected areas being severely under-staffed, reducing the effectiveness of protection. Some areas do not have any staff and private reserves face pressure from agricultural encroachment (Cabarle et al., 1989). Assessments of the protected area coverage indicate that the current system has serious gaps in coverage, and does not provide adequate protection for representative examples of native flora and fauna (Cabarle et al., 1989; Cifuentes et al., 1989). Five of Ecuador’s 25 life zones are not represented in protected areas (Figueroa, 1992). The most under-represented of all regions is the coastal plain, with only three protected areas. The mangroves and reefs found in this region are vital to the prevention of coastal erosion and are severely under-represented (Cabarle et al., 1989; Figueroa, 1992). The largest number of protected areas is located in the Sierra region. The DINAF intends to extend protected area coverage by including the 20 areas proposed in the Extended System. Lack of funds, however, seriously restricts implementation of the system (DINAF, 1988; Ponce, 1982). In 1989, an extensive study of the existing protected areas was undertaken by the DINAF and Fundacién Natura, with international assistance, to initiate the implementation of the second phase in developing the national system. Existing areas were reviewed in detail, and recommendations made to improve their conservation effectiveness. The study proposed more comprehensive management categories with clear definitions, introducing three new categories: natural monument (monumento natural); indigenous territory or bio-anthropological reserve (territorio indigena/reserva bioantropoldgica); and biosphere reserve (reserva de la bidsfera) (G. Oviedo, pers.comm., 1992). The study also proposed new areas for inclusion in the extension of the National system: it recommends a minimum system (sistema minimo) comprising 24 protected areas, and an optimum one (sistema d6ptimo) made up of 32. Conservation objectives are given in detail, and high level governmental support for the national system is sought (Cifuentes et al., 1989). Limitations of the protected areas system are lack of political support in the higher levels of government, inadequate institutional coordination, poor training, lack of participation of rural communities in decisions over protected areas and their management, inadequate economic resources, lack of environmental education, and the absence of monitoring and follow-up (Cabarle et al., 1989; Figueroa, 1992). Figueroa (1992) cites development projects carried out without environmental considerations as the most serious threat to the protected area system. Transnational oil and mining companies violate protected area legislation (Cabarle et al., 1989; MAG, n.d.; Figueroa, 1992). Oil companies are involved in exploration and extraction inside two protected areas, and mining activities are carried out in five areas. Further developments within protected areas are planned. The concessions for these activities were issued with no coordination with protected area administration. However, they are condoned by the 1988 Interministerial Agreement (MAG, n.d.). The infrastructure associated with such exploitation invariably leads to colonisation and, in some cases, 30% of the affected protected area has become occupied (MAG, n.d.). Many protected areas, including four of Ecuador’s six national parks, are affected by commercial logging. Other problems include hunting and illegal colonisation (Figueroa, 1992). Addresses Departamento de Areas Naturales y Vida Silvestre (DANVS), Direccién Nacional Forestal (DINAF), Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia, QUITO (Tel: 548924 541988 541955) Centro de Datos para la Conservacién (CDC), Av. Patria y 10 de Agosto, Edif. Banco de Préstamos, Oficina 601, PO Box 17-21-1332, QUITO (Tel: 560678; FAX: 560678) Accién Ecolégica, Casilla 246-C, QUITO (Tel: 502540; FAX: 440113) EcoCiencia, Av. 12 de octobre y Roca. Edif. Mariana de Jess, Oficina 701, Casilla 17-12-00257, QUITO (Tel: 548752; FAX: 502409) Fundacioén Ecuatoriana para la Defensa de la Naturaleza (Fundacién Natura), Av. América 5653 y Voz Andes, Casilla 253, QUITO (Tel: 447341/2/3/4; FAX: 434449) Fundacién Charles Darwin, Estacién Cientifica Charles Darwin (ECChD), PUERTO AYORA, Isla Santa Cruz, Galapagos/Casilla 3891, QUITO Grupo Ecolégico Tierra Viva, Calle Italia No. 832 y Mariana de Jestis, QUITO References Butland, G.J. (1977). Latin America, a regional geography. Longman, London. Cabarle, B.J., Crespi, M., Calaway, H.D., Luzuriaga, C.C., Rose, D. and Shores, J.N. (1989). An assessment of biological diversity and tropical forests for Ecuador. Prepared for US-AID/Ecuador as an Annex to the Country Development Strategy Statement 1989-1990. 110 pp. 251 Ecuador Cifuentes, M., Ponce, A., Alban, F., Mena, P., Mosquera, G., Rodriguez, J., Silva, D., Suarez, L., Tobar, A., and Torres, J. (1989). Estrategia para el sistema nacional de dreas protegidas del Ecuador, II Fase. DINAF-MAG/Fundacién Natura, Quito. 196 pp. DINAF (1988). Plan de accién forestal. Direccién Nacional Forestal, Quito. 126 pp. FAO (1982). Food and agricultural: legislation 31(1): 74-99. FAO (n.d.). La Red Latinoamericana de Cooperacién Técnica en Parques Nacionales, Otras Areas Protegidas, Flora y Fauna Silvestres. Oficina Regional de la FAO para América Latina y el Caribe, Santiago, Chile. 8 pp. Figueroa, S. (1983). Importancia y conservaci6n de la vida silvestre ecuatoriana. MAG/PNF, Quito. 33 pp. Figueroa, S. (1992). Patrimonio de 4reas naturales en Ecuador. In: Amend, S. and Amend, T. (Eds) éEspacios sin Habitantes? Parques Nacionales de América del Sur. YUCN and Editorial Nueva Sociedad, Caracas. Pp. 207-222. Fundacién Natura and SUFOREN (1992). Parques nacionales y otras Greas naturales protegidas del Ecuador. Fundacion Natura, Quito. 132 pp. IUCN (1981). Conserving the natural heritage of Latin America and the Caribbean: the planning and management of protected areas in the Neotropical Realm. Proceedings of the 18th Working Session of IUCNICNPPA, Lima. TUCN/UNEP/Unesco/WWF, Gland, Switzerland. 324 pp. MAG (n.d.). Diagnéstico — Plan de accidn forestal 1991-1995. Subsecretaria Forestal y de Recursos Naturales, Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia, Quito. 126 pp. Ormazabal, C. (1988). Sistemas nacionales de dreas silvestres protegidas en América Latina. Basado en los resultados del taller sobre Planificacién de Sistemas Nacionales de Areas Silvestres Protegidas, Caracas, Venezuela, 9-13 junio 1986. Oficina Regional de la FAO para América Latina y el Caribe, Santiago, Chile. Oviedo, G. (1991). Lineamientos y acciones de conservacion con fondos de canje de deuda externa. Fundacién Natura: Programa de Conservacion. 15 pp. Oviedo, G. (n.d.). Areas Naturales del Ecuador: la importancia y las estrategias de su conservaci6n. Programa de Conservacién, Fundaci6én Natura. 7 pp. Paucar, A. (1984). An evaluation of the situation of national parks and equivalent reserves in the republic of Ecuador, based on the National Development Plan, 1980-1984: a regional perspective. Unpublished report. 12 pp. Ponce, A. (1981). Parques nacionales, reserves naturales y vida silvestre. Cap. IX. Diagndstico de la situacién del medio ambiente en el Ecuador. Tomo II. Fundacién Natura, Quito. 12 pp. Ponce, A. (1982). Ecuadorian Strategy for the Conservation of Wildlands and Wildlife. Workshop Proctected Areas of the World paper presented at the World National Parks Congress, Bali, Indonesia. Ponce, A. and Huber, R.M. (1982). Ecuador’s active conservation program. Parks 6(4): 7-10. Putney, A.D. (1974). Una estrategia preliminar para la conservaci6n de las dreas naturales y culturales sobresalientes. UNDP/FAO-ECU/71/527. Documento de Trabajo No. 12. Putney, A.D. (1976). Informe final sobre una estrategia preliminar para la conservaci6n de dreas silvestres sobresalientes del Ecuador. Prepared in cooperation with the Departamento de Parques Nacionales y Vida Silvestre, Direccidén General de Desarrollo Forestal. UNDP/FAO-ECU/71/527. Documento de Trabajo No. 17. Suérez, L. (1990). El papel de la actividad forestal en la conservacion de la diversidad biolégica del Ecuador. Unpublished report. (Unseen) 252 Suarez, L. (n.d). La Fragmentaci6n de los Bosques y La Conservacio6n de la Fauna Silvestre en las Areas Protegidas. EcoCiencia (Unpublished). 15 pp. Terborgh, J. and Winter, B. (1983). A method for siting parks and reserves with special reference to Colombia and Ecuador. Biological Conservation 27: 45-58. Wetterberg, G.B. (1982). Ecuador - Forestry project. Wildlands and Wildlife component. USDI National Park Service, Washington. Wetterberg, G.B., Jorge Padua, M.T., Tresinari, A. and Ponce del Prado, C.F. (1985). Decade of progress for South American national parks. International Affairs, USDI National Park Service, Washington, DC. 125 pp. Ecuador ANNEX Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration Title: Acuerdo Interministerial (Interministerial Agreement) No. 0322 Date: 1 November 1979 Brief description: Between the Minister of Agriculture and Livestock (Ministro de Agricultura y Ganaderia) and the Minister of Industry, Commerce and Finance (Ministro de Industria, Comercio y Integracién) that defines and declares reserved zones and national parks, with reference to Decree No. 1306, 1971. The National Strategy for Conservation of Outstanding Natural Areas is cited as the basis for the conservation policies and objectives of this Law. Provision is made for the creation of four national parks, three ecological reserves, two national recreation areas and the one fauna production reserve, giving comprehensive details of their exact location and boundaries. Administrative Authority: Provision is given for the national government to designate the administrative body responsible for each protected area. For national parks, the National Park Service (Servicio del Parque Nacional) is named. For reserves, responsibility is simply vested in "the respective governmental organisation”. Designations: Parque Nacional (National Park) An area extending over a minimum of 10,000ha, with one or more ecosystem remaining in its natural state and possessing ecological diversity, floral or faunal species or geological formations of national, scientific and educational importance. Visitors are permitted entry solely for educational, recreational or investigative purpose. Zona de Reserva (Reserve Zone) Reserva Ecolégica (Ecological Reserve) An area extending over a minimum of 10,000ha, with wild floral or faunal species of national importance, particularly those in danger of extinction, or geological formations or natural areas of national interest. Natural resources are to be maintained in their natural state. Exploitation or occupation of any type is prohibited. Only educational, investigative and recreational activities are permitted. Reserva de Produccién Fauntstica (Faunal Production Reserve) Area of no less than 1,000ha with wildlife species of commercial value, including those areas that have 253 traditionally been used for subsistence by indigenous communities The administrative organisation responsible will regulate the use of wildlife species and promote Scientific investigation in order to allow continuing propagation. Visitors are allowed to hunt or collect specimens following the established regulations. Area Nacional de Recreacién (National Recreation Area) An area of not less than 1,000ha characterised by scenic beauty, resources of touristic or recreational importance, whose ecosystem is natural or semi-natural and which allows easy access for the public. Hunting is allowed, following management regulations. Source: Original legislation Title: Ley Forestal y de Conservacién de Areas naturales y Vida Silvestre (Law of Forestry and the Conservation of Natural Areas and Wildlife) No. 74 Date: 14 August 1981 Brief description: Defines seven categories of protected area and four of forested area: state permanent production forest, private permanent production forest, protection forest and special forest. Protected areas under these given categories collectively comprise the State Heritage of Natural Areas (Patrimonio de Areas Naturales del Estado). All forested land and the wildlife therein constitutes the State Forest Heritage (Patrimonio Forestal del Estado). The Law declares natural areas inviolable and inalterable and to which no rights may be acquired. Private forest reserves are recognised and are given governmental assistance to comply with this law. Administrative Authority: | The Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia (Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock) (MAG) is responsible for state-owned forested land and nature areas. Designations: Bosque Protector (Protection Forest) Forested area, either natural or man-made, which possess one or more of the following characteristics: its principal function is soil or wildlife conservation; important as a watershed or is adjacent to an important water source; functions as a windbreak, or strategic zones Proctected Areas of the World for national defence; forms part of a protected area; or is important for forest research Reserva Forestal (Forest Reserve) Forested area that, owing to its location, species composition or national importance, is to remain in its natural state so that it may be brought into the integrated development of the country at some future, though not immediate, date. Parque Nacional (National Park) An area extending over a minimum of 10,000ha, with one or more ecosystem remaining in its natural state and possessing ecological diversity, floral or faunal species or geological formations of national, scientific and educational importance. Visitors are permitted entry solely for educational, recreational or investigative purpose. Reserva Ecoldgica (Ecological Reserve) An area extending over a minimum of 10,000ha, with wild floral or faunal species of national importance, particularly those in danger of extinction, or geological formations or natural areas of national interest. Natural resources are to be maintained in their natural state. Exploitation or occupation of any 254 type is prohibited. Only educational, research and recreational activities are permitted. Refugio de Vida Silvestre (Wildlife Refuge) An area of any size, essential for ensuring the continued existence of resident or migratory wildlife, for scientific, educational or recreational purpose. Reserva Bioldgica (Biological Reserve) An area of any size, whose ecosystem remains in its natural condition and is set aside for wildlife conservation. Area Nacional de Recreacién (National Recreation Area) An area of no less than 1,000ha in size, which contains scenic, tourist or recreational attractions in their natural state. The area must have easy public access. Reserva de Produccién Faunistica (Faunal Production Reserve) Named as a classification for state nature area, but no definition is given Area de Caza y Pesca (Hunting and Fishing Area) Named as a classification for state nature area, but no definition is given Source: FAO (1982) Ecuador SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified National Parks 1 Cotopaxi II 33,393 1975 2 Galapagos II 727,800 1959 3 Machalilla II 55,000 1979 4 Podocarpus II 146,280 1982 5 Sangay II 517,725 1975 6 Yasuni II 982,300 1979 Ecological Reserves 1 Cayambe-Coca I 403,103 1970 8 Cotacachi-Cayapas I 204,420 1968 9 Manglares-Churute I 35,042 1979 Biological Reserve 10 Limoncocha IV 4,613 1985 Faunal Production Reserves 11 Chimborazo vil 58,560 1987 12 Cuyabeno vil 655,781 1979 Marine Resource Reserve 13 Galdpagos IV 7,990,000 1986 Geobotanical Reserve 14 Pululahua Vv 3,383 1978 Forest Reserve Zone 15 Asentamiento Trad. de la Comunidad Indigena Awa _ VII 101,000 1988 Protection Forests 16 Aguallaca Vill 1,724 1988 17 Bosque Petrificado de Puyango Vv 2,658 1987 18 Bosque Puyango Vill 2,658 1987 19 Canta Gallo Jipijapa Vill 8,170 1989 20 Carrisal Chone Vill 75,700 1988 21 Cashca Totoras Vill 6,537 1988 22 Cerros Guinzales vill 3,338 1985 23 Chilanes Bucay Vill 1,857 1989 24 Cinturén Verde Loja Vil 9,373 1988 25 Cinturén Verde de Quito Vill 21,929 1988 26 Comuna Loma Alta Vil 1,858 1989 21 Cordillera Chongén Vil 2,000 1989 28 Cordillera de Cutucu Vill 311,500 1990 29 Cordillera de Molleturo Vil 28,100 1968 30 Cuenca Alta del Guayllabamba Vil 13,800 1989 31 Cuenca Daule Peripa vil 220,835 1987 32 Cuenca Rio Coca y Panza Vill 6,630 1979 33 Cuenca Rio Cube Vil 4,925 1990 34 Cuenca Rio Paute Vill 195,161 1985 35 Cuenca Rios Atacames Vil 10,620 1990 36 Cuenca del Rio Portoviejo Vill 17,500 1972 37 El Guabo vill 2,213 1988 38 Hollin Loreto Coca vill 110,046 1987 39 Ingenio Santa Rosa Vill 2,410 1987 40 Jeco Vill 2,324 1987 41 Jima Limitada Vill 2,104 1991 42 La Floresta Vill 33122 1988 255 Proctected Areas of the World Map National/international designations ref. Name of area 43 Loma del Corazén y Bretana 44 Manglares 45 Maquipucuna 46 Matiavi Salinas 47 Mindo Nambillo 48 Mindo y Nambillo 49 Napo, Area Boscosa 50 Parque Jerusalem 51 Pasochoa 52 Pichincha 53 Presa Tahuin 54 Santa Rita 5) Santa Rosa y Yasquel 56 Shishimbe-Chillanes 57 Subcuenca Rio Blanco 58 Subcuenca Rio Dudahuayco 59 Suiza-Pucara 60 Sumaco 61 Sun Sun Yanasacha 62 Toachi Pilaton 63 Toaza 64 Volcan Pichincha 65 Zarapullo National Recreation Areas 66 Cajas 67 EI Boliche Biosphere Reserves Archipiélago de Colén (Galapagos) Yasuni Ramsar Wetlands Machalilla Manglares-Churute World Heritage Sites Galapagos Sangay IUCN management 256 category Vil Vill Vil Vill Vill Vill Vill Vill Vil Vill Vill Vill Vill vil Vill Vill Vill Vil Vil Vol Vill vil Vill Vv Vv IX Ix Area (ha) 7,081 362,802 2,700 1,857 19,200 19,200 235,000 1,110 3,196 8,096 14,911 2,145 Zo; 1,064 5,410 2,000 1,000 100,045 3,850 212,000 1,247 8,096 21,585 28,808 1,077 766,514 679,730 55,000 35,000 766,514 271,925 Year notified 1990 1987 1989 1988 1988 1988 1978 1989 1982 1983 1989 1988 1987 1987 1990 1982 1980 1987 1982 1987 1989 1985 1986 1979 1979 1984 1989 1990 1990 1978 1983 Ecuador Protected Areas of Ecuador Pay) a. ne saa , i (ee aa ite! 20a ‘¥¥ Ay sre foriagiy xs = Are Vins * i ’ - é a ia. a 1 = r a “ a i “oh 'T es seas 2 ae ee i es Lee sso She = . - = i] T= . ro - \ a - a Caf vee 5 " ¥ - : _ ~~ pt = ee te ee — ee FRENCH GUIANA Area 84,000 sq. km Population 114,600 (1990) Natural increase: 5.8% per annum Economic Indicators GDP: No information GNP: US$ 6,700 (1989) (ECO-ATLAS, 1991-92) Policy and Legislation The first French settlement in the area currently known as French Guiana was established in 1604. The region became a French possession in 1643 (although occupied by Britain from 1809 to 1817). On 19 March 1946 its status changed to an overseas department of France, and in 1974 it also became an administrative region. The region is covered, therefore, by French policy and legislation. There is currently no environmental policy for the region (Hughes, 1992). However, on a recent tour to French Guiana, the French Environment Minister unveiled plans for the conservation and responsible development of the country. The plans split the country into three areas; the first, a coastal strip dedicated to economic development; the second, an inland band reserved for tourism and managed hunting; and the third, an inviolable sanctuary for forest wildlife and people in the remote interior (Lewis and Wood, 1991). A complete list of legislation concerning protected areas under French jurisdiction is given with the country sheet for France (see Volume 2). The first protected area within the region, La Mirande, was created by decree of 4 July 1942. Further legislation relevant to French Guiana’s protected areas is contained within Law No. 76/629 concerning Nature Protection (Loi no. 76/629 rélative a la protection de la nature) (see Annex). Decrees Nos 77-1298 to 77-1301 of 25 November 1977 relate to the implementation of this Act. Law 76/629 provides, amongst other things, a definition of nature reserve (réserve naturelle), and allows for the preservation of biotopes of plant and animal species by means of prefectural orders called biotope protection orders (arrétés de protection du biotope), which provide for a very low level of protection. Kaw Reserve was protected under Biotope Protection Order No. 1-964 ID/4B of 4 September 1989. State biological reserves (réserves biologiques domaniales)(RBD) were the subject of a convention between the Ministry of the Environment, the Ministry of Agriculture and the National Forest Office. Two types of RBD are to be established: strict (intégrale) RDB, in which all human intervention is excluded, and managed (dirigée) RDB, in which conditions necessary for the survival of species in need of protection are maintained, whilst at the same time the areas may be inhabited, and intervention by foresters is permitted. Zones currently proposed for establishment belong to the secondcategory, but may 259 include strictly protected zones (J.J.de Granville, pers. comm., 1992). "Espaces du Conservatoire” are areas in which all forms of urbanisation are prohibited. They are open to the public, and management is undertaken with the cooperation of local collectives (J.J.de Granviile, pers. comm., 1992). Under the seventh title of the Forest Code Legislation and Regulations, in conformity with Article 73 of the French constitution, the Forest Code is applicable to overseas departments, subject to modifications and adaptations listed under this title. The first (legislative) section of the French Forest Code, given in Law No. 85-1273 of 4 December 1985, contains a clause (Article L. 172-1) which states that certain parts of this law are not applicable to French Guiana. Similarly, although most of the second (regulations) part of the Forest Code is relevant, Articles R. 172-1 to 172-5 and 562-1 list those parts which do not apply in this department of France. The forest regime was first established under a law (arrété) of 1926, although the first forest service within the territory was not established until 7 February 1931. Under a law of 27 March 1931, the Bureau of Mines was responsible for the Forest Service, there not yet being an agent for the Water and Forests (Eaux et Foréts) department, within the region. A further law of 2 June 1932 provided for the separation and reorganisation of the Mines department from that of Water and Forests. Following this, a law of 12 May 1934 provided for state forests (foréts domaniales) to be managed by the Water and Forest service, as well as for the establishment of state concessions, and for the duties of forest agents (Valeix and Mauperin, 1990). The legislative and regulations sections of the Forest Code both provide for the current responsibilities of the National Forest Office (Office National des Foréts). International Activities Conventions to which France is a member, which are of relevance to French Guiana, include the Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region and Protocol Concerning Cooperation in Combating Oil Spills in the Wider Caribbean Region (both of which were ratified by France on 13 November 1985) and a second Protocol Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife, signed by France in 1991. Together, the Convention and associated protocols are known as the Cartagena Convention. Administration and Management The French governmental body responsible for the establishment of parks and reserves (and setting hunting regulations) is the Department of Nature Protection (Direction de la Protected Areas of the World Protection de la Nature), originally part of the Ministry of the Environment (Ministére de l'Environnement). Since 1991 the Ministry of the Environment has been represented in the region by a Regional Department for Architecture and the Environment (Direction Régionale de 1’Architecture et de l'Environnement) (DRAE), created in 1990, which has been responsible for proposing protected areas, including a coastal regional national park (J.J.de Granville, pers. comm., 1992; D.Girou, pers. comm., 1992). The National Forest Office (Office National des Foréts)(ONF), was first established in the region in 1965 for the establishment of paper industries. The ONF is currently under the supervision of the Ministry of Agriculture (Ministére d’Agriculture), but was previously under the Ministry of Colonies (Ministére des Colonies), which later became the Ministry of France Overseas (Ministére de la France Outre-Mer). The ONF is now responsible for managing forested land and land to be reforested (listed in Decree No. 86-154 of 30 January 1986), as well as state biological reserves (réserves biologiques domaniales) (J.J.de Granville, pers. comm., 1992). Since 1978 the ONF has undertaken an important experimental programme, the emphasis of which is on the protection and regeneration of natural forest, whilst at the same time establishing plantations of fast growing species (Groene, 1990; Sarrailh, 1990; Valeix and Mauperin, 1990). All of France’s main national research institutes have projects and stations in Guiana, and scientific research there has been widespread and longstanding. However, little or no pressure for a conservation policy has been exerted by scientists (Hughes, 1992). ORSTOM, the French Scientific Research Institute for Development through Cooperation (Institut Frangais de Recherche Scientifique pour le Développement en Coopération), recently secured the creation of the first two nature reserves, but the government is proceeding slowly with future plans for national park development, due to concern for its present programme of economic development (Lewis and Wood, 1991). SEPANRIT, the Society for the Study, Protection and Management of Nature in Inter-Tropical Regions (Société pour l’Etude, la Protection et 1’ Aménagement de la Nature dans les Régions Inter-Tropicales), and SEPANGUY, the Society for the Study of Protection and Management of Nature in Guyana (Société d’Etude de Protection et d’Aménagement de la Nature en Guyane), are very active locally (JJ.de Granville, pers. comm., 1992). The universities of Paris, Montpellier, the French Antilles and French Guiana and the Paris Museum of Natural History are active in conservation (research includes fauna and flora, marine resources and pollution). The Conservatory for the Littoral Zone (Conservatoire du Littoral), which is responsible for "espaces du conservatoire", has proposed to "buy" 13,000ha of land between the rivers Counamama and 260 Yiyi to create a protected zone (K. Wood, pers. comm., 1992). The CNES (Centre National d’Etudes Spatiaux) (the space port at Kourou) proposes to close access to Malmanoury Creek, which will effectively create a reserve along 40km of coast that belong to the space base, but still needs to negotiate with the Ministry of Marine Affairs so that a reserve can be created which would include the tidal mudflats (K. Wood, pers. comm., 1992). The "Arrété de Biotope", under which Kaw Reserve is gazetted, is not only a very weak measure, but also little respected. Fires set in the marshes have led to several hundred hectares being burnt (K. Wood, pers. comm., 1992). Systems Reviews Located slightly north of the equator, French Guiana is the smallest and least populated territory in South America. The climate is equatorial, with two brief dry seasons. Annual mean precipitation is generally greater than 2000mm, although in some areas it exceeds 8000mm. Three ecosystems predominate: littoral, river corridors and rain forest. The littoral region is exceptional in comparison with other countries in the north of South America, as it is the only coast where the granitic massif of the Guyanan plain reaches the sea. Mangroves occupy approximately 80% of the coast. Large (c. 200,000ha) areas of swamp occupy the land immediately inland from the coast (de Granville and Sanité, 1992). More than 80% of the country is covered in rain forest, less than 5% of which is secondary forest. The country is characterised by a fairly high level of species diversity, the flora comprising an estimated 6,000 species. Currently, 12 species new to science, and 200 species new to French Guiana are described each year (de Granville and Sanité, 1992), and an estimated 10% of tree species remain to be described (Sabatier and Prévost, 1989). In general, forest exploitation has not occurred more than 50km from the coast (Groene, 1990). However, in percentage terms there is as much destruction of primary forest as in the Amazon (Hughes, 1992). Only the coastal alluvial strip, where most of the country’s inhabitants live, is exploited agriculturally, the soils of the interior being too poor to support anything other than shifting agriculture (K. Wood, pers. comm., 1992). Until Kaw Reserve was gazetted in 1989, the only protected area was one forest reserve, Mirande, classified as a nature reserve in 1942 (de Granville, 1975, 1985). This was transferred to the state forest domain in 1967 (de Granville and Sanité, 1992). Establishment of further protected areas has been discussed many times since 1967. In 1970, a proposal was made for a 5,000ha reserve to be established along the estuary of the Cascades and Tonnégrande. This would have been partly strictly protected and partly open to the public. At the same time a proposal was made for a large reserve to be established inland, adjacent to the southern border. In 1972, SEPANRIT and SEPANGUY, with scientific help from ORSTOM and the Natural History Museum, proposed establishment of two coastal bird reserves near Organabo and Sinnamary. A year later development of a further bird reserve was proposed by ORSTOM, near Mana (de Granville and Sanité, 1992). From 1974-1975, an ecological study was made of coastal areas, with a view to creating nature reserves, under the auspices of the Ministry of the Environment and ORSTOM. As a result of this study, classification of five protected zones was proposed (Condamin 1974, 1975; de Granville and Sanité, 1992). Again in 1975, soon after this coastal areas project, a series of 15 reserves, comprising inland forested sites as well as the previously proposed five coastal areas, was proposed. In 1976, following a visit by the Secretary of State for the Environment, the need to upgrade reserves to national park status was acknowledged, with priority being given to Basse Mana, Sinnamary-Iracouba, Saul and Kaw. Later, the Regional Delegate for the Environment made a case for all the southern part of the country to be established as a national park, followed, in 1979, by similar cases being made for Basse Mana and Sinnamary Iracouba being established as nature reserves (de Granville, 1986). By 1983 none of these proposals had got past the planning stage. In 1985, the regional department of the National Forest Office, with technical assistance from ORSTOM, developed a project for the creation of eight state biological reserves to cover 213,665ha. These included the eight most threatened of the fifteen reserves proposed in 1975, in the northern part of the country, with the proposed reserve at Kaw being extended to include part of Kaw Mountain. The category of state biological reserve had been the subject of a recent convention between the Ministry of the Environment, the Ministry of Agriculture and the National Forest Office (de Granville, 1986). However, permission for development of the reserves was refused, as the land was deemed necessary for economic development (Valeix, n.d.). The most recent propositions concerning protected areas were presented in a "Schéma d’Aménagement Régional" (D. Girou, pers. comm., 1992). These comprise the establishment of 16 nature reserves, including a national park in the south, three newly-proposed state biological reserves in the north and a coastal regional nature park (parc naturel régional) in the north (J.J. de Granville, pers. comm., 1992). Legislation has been drawn up for Grand Connétable Nature Reserve, and awaits signature. The documentation has already been accepted in practice by the local municipality and General and Regional Consul (de Granville and Sanité, 1992). Six other reserves are due to be established in 1992 (J.J. de Granville, pers. comm., 1992). 261 French Guiana A comprehensive description of both the country and the protected areas system is described in detail by de Granville and Sanité (1992), in the chapter concerning French Guiana in ;Espacios sin habitantes? Parques nacionales de América del Sur. They conclude that the country has been relatively unspoilt to date, due to the low population pressure, but that there is now a pressing need for the development of national parks to ensure the future conservation of the country. Threats to the proposed protected areas system come from numerous sources. According to Lewis and Wood (1991), much of the current environmental degradation has been financed by French money, which has poured into the country during the past 20 years during the establishment of the Kourou space base. Development of the new launch-pad has led to areas of forest being flattened, while the waste products of test-launching have been dumped indiscriminately. The French authorities are currently constructing a large dam on the River Sinnamary to generate electricity for Kourou, which will flood 310 sq. km of dense, unbroken rain forest, although this is in contradiction to official government support for forest protection. Three other dam projects are planned, although again no environmental impact assessments have been made (Anon., 1992; Hughes, 1992; Pearce, 1991). New roads are opening up the country in all directions. A new coastal road through mangroves is likely to precipitate an influx of Brazilian slash-and-bum colonists. A new centralised capital is planned at Saul, previously an isolated town of 56 inhabitants, in the heart of the rain forest, with a new road linking this to the coast. In the past, state-sanctioned gold mining was responsible for pouring mercury into the rivers, most of the raw mercury dating from the 1865-1940 period. Fortunately this now seems to be under control. However, mining still remains aproblem indirectly, due to the hunting practised by gold miners around their camps, which has led to local extinction of many forms of wildlife. In general, extensive hunting occurs throughout the country, aided by outboard motors, generators, freezers and the growing road network and encouraged by the booming population (Hughes, 1992; Kempf, 1991; K.Wood, pers. comm., 1992). There is little enforcement of hunting regulations. In 1991, the Guianese Regional Environment Congress reported a 50% drop in numbers of bird species, concluding that hunting is already depleting wildlife to such an extent as to endanger whole ecosystems (Lewis and Wood, 1991). Of the 600 or so rain forest species in Guiana, 70 are exploitable commercially. Management has led to non-commerical tree species being killed chemically, a process which causes more forest damage than logging. A new, intensive rice-field programme in the lowlands has engulfed over-wintering grounds of numerous migrant bird species. The EDF (Eléctricité de France) is already prospecting sites for a second dam, either on the River Mana, the Approuage or the Oyapock (K. Wood, pers. comm., 1992). Protected Areas of the World Addresses Centre ORSTOM de Cayenne, BP 165, 97323 CAYENNE Cedex (Tel: 594 302785; Tlx: 910608 FG; Fax: 594 319855) Direction Regionale al’ Architecture et 41’Environnement (DRAE), 28 Boulevard Jubelin, BP 411, 97300 CAYENNE (Tel: 594 378982; Fax: 594 378981) Direction de |’ Agriculture et de la Forét (L’Ingénieur en Chef du Génie Rural des Eaux et des Foréts), BP 5002, 97305 CAYENNE (Tel: 594 302905; Tlx: 910576F; Fax: 594 302939) SEPANGUY (Société d’Etude de Protection et d’Aménagement de la Nature en Guyane), BP 411, 97307 CAYENNE Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales, Centre Spatial Guyanais, BP 6 97310, KOUROU References Anon. (1992). Opposition to a dam in French Guiana. Naturopa 92-1: 3 Behra, O. (1990). Kaw Swamp becomes a black caiman sanctuary. Crocodile Specialist Group Newsletter 9: 14. Condamin, M. (1974). Etude écologique du littoral guyanais en vue de lacréation de réserves naturelles. Rapport de situation et d’étude. ORSTOM, Cayenne. 73 pp. (Unseen) Condamin, M. (1975). Projets de réserves naturelles sur le littoral guyanais. ORSTOM, Cayenne. 95 pp. (Unseen) Granville, J.J. de (1975). Projets de réserves botaniques et forestitres en Guyane. ORSTOM, Cayenne. 29 pp. Granville, JJ. de (1986). Le projet de réserve biologique domaniale de Kaw. Pp. 161-178. In: Le Littoral Guyanais Fragilité de l’Environnement, ler Congrés Régional de la Sepanguy, Xe Colloque Sepanrit Cayenne 27-29 avril 1985. 262 Granville, JJ. de (1989). Priority conservation areas in French Guiana. ORSTOM, Cayenne. 24 pp. Granville, J.J. de and Sanité, L.P. (1992). Areas protegidas y actividades humanas en Guyana Francesa. In: Amend, S. and T. (Eds), ;Espacios sin habitantes? Parques nacionales de América del Sur. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Pp. 262-287. Groene, D. (1990). La forét et le milieu naturel et human de la guyane francaise. Bois et foréts des tropiques. 219: 7-12. Hughes, S. (1992). France under pressure to conserve Guiana rainforest. New Scientist 1805: 21. Johnson, T.H. (1988). Biodiversity and conservation in the Caribbean: Profiles of selected islands. ICBP Monograph 1. International Council for Bird Preservation, Cambridge, UK. 144 pp. Kempf, H. (1991). La Guyane en Sursis. Science et Vie. October. Pp. 65-73. Lewis, D. and Wood, K. (1991). Cayman a 1’Orange. Geographical Magazine 65(6): 17-20. Pearce, F. (1991). Rainforest wrecked for satellite launches. New Scientist 1791: 9. Sabatier, D. and Prévost, M.-F. (1989). Quelques données sur la composition floristique et la diversité des peuplements forestiers de guyane francaise. Bois et foréts des tropiques 219: 31-55. Sarrailh, J. (1990). Mise en valeur de l’ecosyst8me forestier guyanais. Opération ECEREX. INRA, Paris and CTFT, Nogent-sur-Marne. 273 pp. Valeix, M. (n.d.). Les réserves forestiéres. Rapport national sur l’aménagement des foréts naturelles tropicales humides en Amerique Latine. Unpublished FAO report. P. 38. Valeix, M. and Mauperin, M. (1990). Cing siécles de I’histoire d’une parcelle de forét domaniale de la terre ferme d’amérique du sud. Bois et Foréts du Tropiques 219: 13-29. French Guiana ANNEX Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration Title: Loi no. 76-629 relative 4 la protection Designations: de la nature : : ; Biotope protection order (Arrété de protection de Date: 10 July 1976 biotope) Intended to protect the habitat of : ad endangered species of flora and fauna, individual Brief description: Provides definition of nature orders are declared by the prefect after consultation reserve, including biotope protection order with the farmers’ professional organisation (Chambre départmentale d’agriculture). Regulations vary but typically restrict human activities, particularly agricultural practices such as the use of pesticides and the burning of vegetation. Administrative authority: Directorate for Nature Conservation Nature reserve No definition given Sources: Original legislation in French SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS Map IUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified State Biological Reserve 1 Monts lucifers et Dekou Dekou vill : 108,000 263 bas mate AMMA sii aed SECM Rlorase 4 eed n. . Antanas, “admins ose hese aes tI 5 Py otic > i BO Ney etanatagtal iam coats 5 1 . Oh ee ba srs me q eet ea & ‘ eral nt, tre. AG ute 7 = a 3 this ‘ whe TREY: aitiv™ ge ie sabpolang® Anz itaint ie k; rape 4 ) “Ay APY api Peltanned eto a nd eyweh Hh ee Ae) eee Yad: i, Gulch a c sy ‘ony 55 Stic “ en ee ee 'ghe piresan Pabtc $/ et, ie ee eee te iP ae Onpciaages Bi : Se she ‘ ggShadtiliaiah, voftat ss sap ne eld tat ad ee ee says a pedlarsteyen nie ian frieiab at eS SARA Spel Gk “apes davon Be: = LAU ra teagroreed pce attains, eihy ; Da "Chat fi Lo epee! Ae brah aieegs, ghatwoktory a! exiy= 9 ae ah a ernie! i Pees {onto tebachlep : net ikl Cs andes AF “4 Vi + , ee nS iH ay yy a bs i roe aes i\ Aachoaee® i ? q : yn nel a weet eat oh eb ie | : nye : } wi Py fe’ p Vis a ’ ' od Wings $sify ‘sepa ao “nee , esp aR pee OE ie es ie KR Pree ~outien roa pnt eae 4 ‘s oe i a a er lguait wn 44 me a , , : ~<— “ Me re a * he. tie ee: 4! : j ¥ r 2) et gor Bertha: hh ty ace dae sh a a eta: Pe wey rngnit ne = : ae : ¥ iy a A PAR OL, hare 2° tee ape aA pea we bee os aN ARR Sh eo tite | - Rs re GUYANA Area 214,970 sq. km Population 796,000 (1990) Natural increase: 0.81% per annum Economic Indicators GDP: US$ 346 per capita (1987) GNP: US$ 340 per capita (1989) Policy and Legislation Guyana gained full independence from Britain in 1966, and the present constitution was instigated in 1979. The National Environmental Policy was formulated and approved in 1990 by Cabinet. The policy states that, in order to conserve and improve the environment, the government of Guyana will endeavour to maintain ecosystems and ecological processes essential for the functioning of the biosphere. The government will endeavour to preserve biological diversity, and to observe the principle of optimum sustainable yield in the use of renewable natural resources ecosystems, both on land and the sea. In addition, the government will ensure that conservation is treated as an integral part of the planning and implementation of development activities (S. Griffith, pers. comm., 1992). Guyana participates in the FAO Tropical Forest Action Plan (TFAP), an international strategy to promote the development of forestry sectors in participating countries, allowing greater contribution to national economy while maintaining conservation principles. The National Forestry Action Plan was completed in 1989 by the Guyana Forestry Commission, and the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), to interpret the global designs of the TFAP into specific national needs (GFC/CIDA, 1989). The pian comprises several projects, including a revision of forestry policy and legislation, and developing a protected area system (GFC/CIDA, 1989; Hanif and Ravndal, 1988). However, the National Forestry Action Plan does not take mangrove forests into account as it does not consider them to be part of the state forest domain. No measures are taken for their management or conservation (Hussain, 1990). Information on the extent of implementation of this plan is currently not available. Asa policy, Guyana aims to set aside not more than 10% of its forested areas, or 4 million ha, as a protected area system (D.A. Black, pers. comm., 1992). Two distinct policies regarding forestry use currently exist, one drafted by the State Planning Commission and the other by the Guyana Forestry Commission in 1988 (GFC/CIDA, 1989; Hanif and Ravndal, 1988). From the perspective of the State Planning Commission, forest resources are to be used to provide a source of food and materials, and emphasis is placed on increasing exploitation without taking sustainable use into 265 consideration (GFC/CIDA, 1989; W. King, pers.comm., 1991). The national forestry policy proposed by the GFC includes measures: to protect certain forested land with the objective of conserving genetic resources and promoting research; to protect mangrove forests; to establish a wildlife reserve and a bird sanctuary within the state forest; and to maintain natural habitat to protect endangered species. Increased forest resource exploitation is also emphasised, but in compliance with the protection objectives (Hanif and Ravndal, 1988). None of the objectives of the national forest policy has been implemented, although some conservation measures are incorporated into the National Forestry Action Plan as proposed projects (GFC/CIDA, 1989; Hanif and Ravndal, 1988). The Forest Act, 1973 defines state forest, and gives regulations for issuing leases and sales agreements for forest resources exploitation. The Forestry Service is declared responsible for implementing these regulations. In 1979, the Guyana Forestry Commission Act No. 2 provided for the establishment of the Guyana Forestry Commission as the organisation responsible for administering forested land within state forest, replacing the Forestry Department. Three pieces of legislation deal with protected areas. The National Parks Commission Act, 1977 gives the National Parks Commission, within the Ministry of Public Works, responsibility for designating, maintaining and regulating the use of national parks and other protected areas (Hanif and Ravndal, 1988). A national park is established by publishing a notice in the newspaper following consultation with the local government authority. No legislation exists to provide for the establishment of protected area categories other than national park or biosphere reserve (Hanif and Ravndal, 1988). The other two pieces of legislation are the 1973 Laws of Guyana, Chapter 20:02 of which provides for the establishment of Kaieteur National Park, and the Draft Guyana Biosphere Reserves Bill, 1983. The land ownership rights of native communities was recognised by Act No. 6, 1976 which describes 65 areas to be set aside for the exclusive use of Amerindians (Persaud and Stewart, 1988). Legislation concerning environmental management and conservation is incomplete, and does not allow the objectives given in the national forestry policy to be carried out (GFC/CIDA, 1989). No clearly defined regulations regarding natural resource use are stated in any legislation, and the relevant legal measures that do exist are not fully implemented owing to the lack of institutional capability (Hanif and Ravndal, 1988; Persaud and Stewart, 1988). Three new legislative acts are currently in the process of being formulated; the Environmental Protection Bill, Fisheries Act, and the Protected Areas of the World Wildlife Conservation Act. The Environmental Protection Bill reflects the underlying principles of the National Environmental Policy. It will provide for the preservation, protection and improvement of the environment, the prevention or control of pollution, and the assessment of the environmental impact of economic development and the sustainable use of natural resources (S. Griffith, pers. comm., 1992). Other pieces of environmental legislation which are still pending include the Guyana Biosphere Reserves Bill, 1983, and the Conservation of Wildlife Bill, 1987 (S. Griffith, pers. comm., 1992). The Guyana Agency for Health Sciences Education, Environment and Food Policy (GAHEF) was created under the Public Corporation Act in June 1988. Legislation is briefly reviewed in the Environmental Policy of Guyana (Anon., n.d.). According to this, a thorough review of all existing legislation relating to the environment should be undertaken as first priority, with a view to determining overlaps, inconsistencies and deficiencies. The necessary comprehensive legislative reforms should then be formulated. Environmenta! legislation is also reviewed as part of the Sector Plan for the Conservation of Tropical Forest Ecosystems, part of the Tropical Forestry Action Plan (Hanif and Ravndal, 1988). International Activities Guyana has not signed the 1940 Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the Westem Hemisphere (Convencién sobre la Proteccién de la Flora, de la Fauna y de las Bellezas Escénicas Naturales de los Paises de América) (Western Hemisphere Convention). Guyana joined the Caribbean Conservation Association (CCA), a regional, non-governmental, non-profit organisation dedicated to promoting policies and practices which contribute to conservation, protection and wise use of natural and cultural resources, in 1976. Guyana has not yet signed the Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena Convention) and the related Protocol Concerning Co-operation in Combating Oil Spills in the Wider Caribbean Region and Protocol Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife (SPAW). Guyana is one of the eight countries with territory in the Amazon region, that signed the Amazon Cooperation Treaty (Tratado de Cooperacién Amazéonica) on 3 July 1978, an agreement to establish regulations for managing natural resources in Amazonia, and to propose conservation directed alternatives to the management of multinational projects. Guyana ratified the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) on 30 June 1977, but no sites have been inscribed to date. Guyana is not a party to the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar 266 Convention), neither does it participate in the Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme. Administration and Management Lack of environmental legislation has precluded the development of an institutional framework to administer natural resources in a structured process. No organisation specifically undertakes the conservation or management of natural resources. A number of different governmental departments participate in activities concerning natural resources and forested areas, but only within their field of interest. This has resulted in a lack of coordination, and, in some cases, conflict of interest between organisations (GFC/CIDA, 1989; Persaud and Stewart, 1988). In total, four ministries, two institutions and one state corporation have natural resource management responsibilities to some extent (Hanif and Ravndal, 1988). The Guyana Forestry Commission was created in 1979 as part of the Ministry of Forest, and is the organisation responsible for administering forested land within the state forest. The GFC has been concerned almost exclusively with the administration of logging activities for the domestic and foreign market, and very little forest management is actually practised (Hanif and Ravndal, 1988). In January 1989 the GFC was placed under the responsibility of the Guyana Natural Resources Agency (GNRA), an institute that has been concerned primarily with mining activities and only touched on environmental issues as far as they related to their interests (GFC/CIDA, 1989). Inadequate funds, personnel and facilities have reduced the GFC’s activities to the allocation of harvesting rights, the control of timber export and revenue collection. It has been unable to implement the conservation measures given in the National Forestry Policy it formulated (GFC/CIDA, 1989). The Ministry of Agriculture is responsible for administering state lands, comprising all land outside state forests, Amerindian land and privately-owned land (GFC/CIDA, 1989). The Guyana Agency for Health Sciences Education, Environment and Food Policy (GAHEF) (previously the Ministry of Medical Health, Environment and Food Policy) is responsible for the development of national environmental policy, environmental monitoring, coordination and training. The Environmental Division within GAHEF, which currently has a staff of 11, was created in 1988 (Hanif and Ravndal, 1988; S. Griffith, pers. comm., 1992). The main objectives of the Environmental Division are to develop environmental education programmes, and to monitor environmental activities of other organisations throughout the country. GAHEF is advised by an Advisory Environmental Council, chaired by the Executive Chairman of the GAHEF, and comprising representatives from ministeries and agencies which have some responsibility for the environment (Anon, n.d.). The National Parks Commission, which presently falls within the GAHEF (S. Griffith, pers. comm., 1992), is responsible for maintaining all national parks and city recreational parks, the zoo and botanical gardens in Georgetown. However, the Commission lacks the expertise to administer protected areas, and has a very limited budget which restricts its activities (Hanif and Ravndal, 1988). The two institutions involved with natural resource management are the University of Guyana, which is introducing a course in forestry management, and the Institute of Applied Science and Technology. The latter is the main research institute, with an Environmental Research and Information Unit providing advice to decision-makers regarding sustainable use of natural resources, conservation and management (Hanif and Ravndal, 1988). A state corporation, Demerara Timbers Ltd (formerly Demerara Woods Ltd), is also involved in resource management. The corporation has recently completed a management plan for activities in its timber concession, which takes into consideration the possible environmental consequences of logging. The plan was completed with the assistance of TROPENBOS, a Dutch ecological study unit presently operating within Guyana (S. Griffith, pers. comm., 1992). During 1988, the government changed its policy regarding non-governmental organisations (NGOs), and now supports their existence. There is currently one active NGO in Guyana, the Guyana Biodiversity Society which was formed in 1991 and is still in its infant stage (S. Griffith, pers. comm., 1992). No information is available concerning its activities. The lack of a capable administrative structure severely restricts the implementation of environmental legislation. Many institutions lack clear policies regarding their responsibilities and function in natural resource management (Hanif and Ravndal, 1988). A shortage of personnel is a problem for almost every sector, as the country has experienced large-scale emigration in recent years. The country’s one national park is under constant pressure from itinerant miners, who continue to exploit the mineral resources illegally (mainly gold and diamonds) from the streams and rivers. The larger forms of wildlife, both terrestrial and avian, have practically been exterminated by hunting parties which supply wild meat to dredging crews upstream of the waterfall (Hanif and Ravndal, 1988). The Programme for Sustainable Tropical Forestry in Guyana was proposed two years ago, but process has since been stalled due to lack of funds (Sullivan, 1990). Recently, the programme, due to run for five years, was adopted by the Global Environment Facility, a fund established by the World Bank and the UN Development Programme (Pearce, 1992). The programme has four main objectives, including: establishment and maintenance of a wilderness reserve in the centre of the country; to maintain a segment of the forest in a pristine condition, to be zoned for scientific research; and 267 Guyana establishment of an international research and training centre. As part of the Tropical Forestry Action Plan, a proposal for the conservation of forest ecosystems was formulated by Hanif and Ravndal (1988). Among the recommendations made to improve protected area management was the transfer of such responsibilities from the National Parks Commission, under the Ministry of Communications and Works, to a new Protected Area Commission, under the Ministry of Medical Health, Environment and Food Policy. The Ministry of Communications and Works has since had its name altered to the Guyana Agency for Health Sciences Education, Environment and Food Policy (S. Griffith, pers. comm., 1992). Hanif and Ravndal (1988) further recommend that to clarify governmental policy the two existing forest policies should be incorporated into one. Systems Reviews Guyana consists of five main biogeographical regions: coastal plain; sandy rolling lands; tropical savanna; Pre-Cambrian lowlands; and the Pakarima mountain range (GFC/CIDA, 1989; Persaud and Stewart, 1988). The coastal plain is a narrow alluvial belt, comprising around 5% of total land area, that runs the length of the coast, and extends inland from 15km to 60km (Hilty, 1982; Persaud and Stewart, 1988). The plain lies between 0.5m and 1.0m below sea level, and is therefore subject to frequent flooding. Protection barriers have been erected along the coast since the days of Dutch colonisation in the late 16th century. Rainfall in the coastal region ranges from 2000mm to 2500mm. This is the most important agricultural region in the country, and over 90% of the population lives here (GFC/CIDA, 1989; Hilty, 1982; Hussain, 1990). However, owing to the shifting of sand banks, large- scale erosion along the coast is taking place (Hussain, 1990). Coastal ecosystems are also threatened by pollution and exploitation of critical resources such as mangroves (Hanif and Ravndal, 1988). Little information is available on the current extent of mangrove vegetation in the country, but mangroves once stretched along the length of the coast. There has been a serious depletion of mangroves in the past 30 years, due to the joint effect of natural causes such as wave action and human use for fuel (Hanif and Ravndal, 1988; Hussain, 1990). Mangrove vegetation could play an important role in protecting the coastal region against erosion, except where wave action is very intense and the width of the mangrove belt very narrow. Although the national forest policy makes provision for their protection and regeneration, mangrove vegetation is not considered part of the state forest, and no conservation measures have been implemented (Hussain, 1990). Just south of the coastal plain, in the north-east of the country, sandy rolling plains stretch inland (Persaud and Stewart, 1988). This region is gently undulating with altitudes varying from S5m-120m above sea level and Protected Areas of the World vegetation types from savanna grasslands to forest. The white, sandy soil is permeable and low in nutrients, and forms the most vulnerable ecosystem in Guyana (Hilty, 1982; Persaud and Stewart, 1988). Tropical savanna covers around 11% of total land area, extending in the west from the southem part of the sandy rolling plains to the Rio Branco savannas of Brazil. The main grasslands are known as the Rupununi savannas, characterised by intense dry periods (Hanif and Ravndal, 1988; Hilty, 1982). Two different savanna types may be distinguished within the Rupununi region: the north savanna, associated with a 6,000m deep rift valley; and the south savanna, associated with the Pre-Cambrian plain, and interspersed with rock formations up to 900m (Persaud and Stewart, 1988). The Pre-Cambrian lowland region extends from the coastal plain throughout the length of the country to the Akarai mountains in the south. The region is gently undulating and varies from 90-120m in the north to 180-210m in the south, with intruding ridges 300-900m high which form waterfalls when they cross a river. The vegetation is dominated by tropical rain forest (Persaud and Stewart, 1988). The Pakaraima mountain region was created by the uplift of the Roraima formation and elevation varies from 500m in the south of the range to the highest peak Mt Roraima (2,773m) in the north. The Pakaraima mountains, Pre-Cambrian lowlands and tropical savanna together comprise the interior region and account for 84% of total land area (Hilty, 1982). The interior is very sparsely populated, principally by native Amerindian communities, which total around 5% of the population of the whole country (Persaud and Stewart, 1988). The government has set aside considerable areas of forested land for exclusive use of native communities, in which they maintain their traditional livelihoods. The Forestry Action Plan includes proposals to train Amerindians in natural resource management, and to encourage the commercial production of non-timber forest products in both native and non-native communities (GFC/CIDA, 1898). Major threats to forest ecosystems arise from logging, uncontrolled fires, soil erosion and over exploitation of wildlife resources (Hanif and Ravndal, 1988). Around 76% of total land area remains forested (Persaud and Stewart, 1988; W. King, pers. comm., 1991). The extent of intact natural ecosystems results more from the low population density and lack of population pressure than from any systematic conservation planning (GFC/CIDA, 1989; K.S.Fuller, pers. comm., 1991). Development plans for the near future and large investments by multi-national timber and mineral corporations threaten to reduce the forest cover drastically (GFC/CIDA, 1989; Lewis, 1991). There is only one legally established protected area, Kaieteur National Park. A proposal exists to extend the park to 400,000ha (D.A. Black, pers. comm., 1992). This is controversial as it will compete with mining activities. There are no permanent park guards to prevent migration 268 into the park, and the wildlife and ecosystems are under constant threat from the activities of gold and diamond miners (Hanif and Ravndal, 1988; K.S.Fuller, pers. comm., 1991). Sixty five Amerindian reservations have been set aside for native communities, covering a total area of 1.39 million ha. Amerindian land is managed and regulated by the resident communities, and no formal distinction between production and protection areas is made (Persaud and Stewart, 1988; D.A. Black, pers. comm., 1991). However, more than twice the total land allotted to Amerindians has been conceded to foreign organisations for logging (K. Wood, pers. comm., 1991). A report dating from 1980 identifies two areas suitable for establishment as biosphere reserves, and a further two as World Heritage sites (Putmey, 1980). However, there is no evidence that these recommendations have been acted on. An area of 300,000ha of virgin tropical rain forest has been set aside as the Commonwealth-Government of Guyana Iwokrama Rain Forest Project, part of which will be keptas a wilderness preserve and part for research into sustainable use. This area currently lies within state forest but will be excluded from it by legislation in due course (D.A. Black, pers. comm., 1992). A new road, which borders Kaieteur National Park, and which runs from Brazil to the Guyana coast, is due to be opened by the end of 1992. It is feared that the road will pose a serious threat to the park. The government is handing out logging licences to landless farmers and gold miners for many forests which neighbour the park, and it is feared that the park will inevitably be invaded. Addresses Guyana Forestry Commission (GFC), 1 Water Street, PO Box 1029, GEORGETOWN (Tel: 2672715; Tlx: GY 2262; Cable: Wallaba) Guyana Agency for Health Sciences Education, the Environment and Food Policy, Liliandaal, GREATER GEORGETOWN (Tel/Fax: 592 57523) Guyana Natural Resources Agency, 41 Brickdam and Boyle Place, Stabroek, PO Box 1074, GEORGETOWN (Tel: 56720, 66549, 56111; Tlx: 3010 GNRA GY) References Anon. (n.d.) Environmental Policy of Guyana. 8 pp. GFC/CIDA (1989). National forestry action plan 1990-2000. Guyana Forestry Commission and Canadian International Development Agency, Kingston, Georgetown. 77 pp. Hanif, M. and Ravndal, A.V. (1988). Tropical Forestry Action Plan — Sector plan for the conservation of tropical forest ecosystems. Institute of Applied Science and Technology and United Nationals Development Programme, Georgetown. Draft. 32 pp. Hilty, S.L. (Ed.) (1982). Environmental profile on Guyana. Department of State and Agency for International Development, Washington DC, USA. 114 pp. Hussain, M.Z. (1990). Restoration and expansion of the mangrove belt in Guyana. A report prepared for the Hydraulics Division of the Ministry of Agriculture of Guyana, by the FAO, Rome, Italy. 31 pp. Lewis, D. (1991). The rape of the rainforest. The Guardian. 1 November. P. 33. Pearce, F. (1992). Race to save Guyana’s rainforests. New Scientist 1813: 15. Guyana Persaud, C. and Stewart, M. (1988). Tropical Forestry Action Plan — Forestry and land use. Ministry of Works and Canadian International Development Agency, Georgetown. Draft. 32 pp. Putney, A.D. (1980). Guyana. Identification of Potential Biosphere Reserves and World Heritage Sites Natural). Report prepared for the Government of Guyana by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation. 43 pp. Sullivan, F. (1990). Proactive conservation in Guyana. WWF Reports, August/September. Pp. 10-12. SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS Map National/international designations ref. Name of area National Park 1 Kaieteur IUCN management Area Year category (ha) notified II 58,559 1929 269 Protected Areas of the World Protected Area of Guyana 270 PARAGUAY Area 406,752 sq.km Population 4,277,000 (1990) Natural increase: 2.69% per annum Economic Indicators GDP: US$ 1,155 per capita (1987) GNP: US$ 1,030 per capita (1989) Policy and Legislation The 1967 Constitution was the first in Paraguayan history to acknowledge the government’s responsibility to protect the environment. It declares that the state will conserve forest and other renewable natural resources in the country, and will establish regulations for their rational use. Since this declaration, there has been a profusion of legal measures regarding environmental protection. No coherent conservation policy has been stated, but constitutional provisions have precedence over all other laws (Anon., 1985). The first national legislation for natural resource protection was the 1973 Forestry Law (Ley Forestal) No. 422 which declares it in the public interest to protect and conserve forest resources. Objectives include conserving and improving forested land, protecting watersheds, and incorporating the forestry sector into national economic development. Definitions are given for permanent, protected and special forest reserves (Annex). The exploitation of resources in these areas is decided by the state. The 1973 Forestry Law makes provision for the creation of the National Forestry Service (Servicio Forestal Nacional) (SFN) within the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock (Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia), and an Advisory Council (Consejo Asesor). The Council comprises Tepresentatives from the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock and other governmental organisations with interests in rural affairs, to assess the activities of the SEN and ensure compliance with objectives stated in the legislation. Regulation of the Forestry Law (Reglamento de la Ley Forestal), Decree No. 11.681, 1975 gives further details of natural resource protection and management. Provision is made for the creation of the Department of Forest, National Parks and Wildlife Management (Departamento de Manejo de Bosques, Parques Nacionales y Vida Silvestre) within the SFN, to be responsible for natural resources, including the selection and administration of national parks. All responsibilities assigned to former governmental organisations for forest and wildlife administration, are transferred to the SFN. The 1975 Regulation refers to the creation and administration of national parks, but does not give a detailed designation. Decree No. 18.831, Environment Protection Law (Proteccién del Medio Ambiente), 1986 reinforces the 271 principle of the 1973 National Forestry Law that rational resource use is in the public interest. Both private and state-owned land is subject to regulation under this Law which declares protected forests and natural reserved zones inviolable, and gives general regulations for natural resource conservation. A 100m-belt of protected forest is to be left on both sides of rivers, streams, water sources and lakes, and may be increased according to the importance of the water source. In 1987, Decree No. 19.165 provided for the creation of an organisation specifically responsible for protected area management, namely the National Parks and Wildlife Office (Direccién de Parques Nacionales y Vida Silvestre) (DPNVS). The DPNVS is under the State Subsecretariat of Natural Resources and the Environment (Subsecretaria de Estado de Recursos Naturales y Medio Ambiente) of the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock. The lack of clear definitions for protected area designations in national legislation gives rise to confusion over regulations and management (DPNVS/CDC, 1990; Wetterberg et al., 1985). Decrees establishing individual protected areas may give more details of their designation, but a single legislative act, to coordinate protected area regulations and state national conservation objectives, is needed (C. Acevedo, pers. comm., 1991). International Activities Paraguay signed the Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the Western Hemisphere (Convencién sobre la Proteccién de la Flora, de la Fauna y de las Bellezas Escénicas Naturales de los Paises de América) (Western Hemisphere Convention) in 1940, which has since been ratified. Paraguay ratified the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) on 28 April 1988. No sites have been inscribed to date. In June 1991 an agreement was signed between the Moisés Bertoni Foundation, the Paraguayan government, the United Nations and The Nature Conservancy (TNC) in the United States for the purchase of 57,510ha of tropical forest. This is known as Mbaracayi Natural Forest Reserve (Reserva Natural Forestal Mbaracayi) and does not form part of the national system. Three of Paraguay’s protected areas participate in TNC’s Parks in Peril Program (Acevedo and Pinazzo, 1992). Administration and Management Protected areas come under three administrative groups according to land tenure: state-owned; privately-owned; and others, primarily Itaipi Binatcional Company (C. Acevedo and J. Pinazzo, pers. comm., 1991). Protected Areas of the World Since 1987, protected areas on state-owned land have been the responsibility of the DPNVS, as described in the legislation. Prior to the creation of the DPNVS, protected areas were included in forestry administration and were the responsibility of the SFN. Forests remain under the SEN, whose functions include formulating forest policies, conducting inventories, and regulating conservation of forest resources. It comprises a central directorate and technical department, and district forestry units (distritos forestales) and Centres of Training and Forest Research (Centros de Capacitacién e Investigacién Forestal) throughout the country. Each district forestry unit has aregulation enforcement service comprising inspectors, sub—inspectors and two levels of forest guards. The DPNVS comprises five departments, one for each area of responsibility: protected area administration and development; wildlife; environmental education and information; Conservation Data Centre; and biological inventories (C. Acevedo, pers. comm., 1991; E. Bragayrac and R. Villamayor, pers. comm., 1991). At the local level, there is a total of eight administrators and 36 park guards working in maintenance and regulation enforcement in protected areas (E. Bragayrac and R. Villamayor, pers. comm., 1991). The Conservation Data Centre (Centro de Datos para la Conservacién)(CDC) was established in 1986, to collect and process information on biological diversity and the situation of protected areas. At its creation, the CDC was an office of the Minister of Agriculture and Livestock, but became a department within the DPNVS in 1990. It provides information to national and international conservation organisations. Four protected areas that were established by the Itaipt Hydroelectric Project in 1983 are managed by the Itaipu Binational Company. The areas have been declared by law and legally designated as biological reserves and biological refuges. There is little coordination between this managementand the DPNVS (DPNVS/CDC, 1990). Management of privately-owned reserves is the concern of the land owner, and may take place in conjunction with non-governmental organisations (NGOs) or cooperatives. The areas do not receive protection by means of a legal designation (C. Acevedo and J. Pinazzo, pers.comm., 1991). One of the largest NGOs, the Moisés Bertoni Foundation for the Conservation of Nature (Fundacién Moises Bertoni para la Conservacién de la Naturaleza), was established in 1988 to support conservation and protected areas, and is actively involved with the management of private reserves. The foundation works closely with international organisations and the government, to secure areas of land for protection, particularly in the eastern region (Gauto, 1989). Systems Review Paraguay is a flat, land-locked country with many waterways, all of which drain into the Parana River and on to the Rio Plata system, hence 272 providing access to the Atlantic Ocean (Rios and Zardini, 1989). The highest point in the country does not exceed 800m (DPNVS/CDC, 1990). The two main biogeographical regions are divided by the Paraguay River: the western region or Chaco and the eastern region. The climate is continental sub-tropical, with precipitation varying from 400mm in the extreme north-west of the Chaco, to 1800mm in the eastern region. The Chaco is a large, alluvial plain, extending over 247,000 sq. km with extreme variation from humid to dry conditions. Much of the area is flooded and swampy due to impermeable subsoils (DPNVS/CDC, 1990). The eastern region covers 159,000 sq. km and is the centre of most economic activities in the country, particularly agriculture and forestry (CDC, 1990; Rios and Zardini, 1989). Most of this region was once covered in warm, moist forest (Holdridge, 1969), or subtropical humid forest (Hueck, 1978). Forests cover 45% the total land area, 33% of the eastern region, and 46% of the Chaco (Anon., n.d.). Few studies have been done on biological diversity, and those that exist are now very old (DPNVS/CDC, 1990). Holdridge (1969) identified two life zones; temperate humid forest and temperate dry forest. Hueck (1978) classified the country into four vegetation regions: central Chaco forest, including the western Chaco; eastern Chaco forest extending from dry to semi—humid; deciduous subtropical and mesophytic forest including the eastern region near Brazil; and park land along the eastern margin of the Chaco (SNF, 1982). Population distribution is very unequal, with 98% concentrated in the eastern region, and only 2% in the Chaco (Kohler, 1989). As a result, the eastern region has been substantially deforested and suffered general ecological degradation (Kohler, 1989). By the late 1980s, 63% of the population still lived in rural areas, and agriculture accounted for 43% of the employment (Anon., n.d.). Many changes have taken place since the coup in February 1988 which ended the Strossner dictatorship. Most significantly, additional land was put under production, and many forests have been severely overexploited as a result (Anon., n.d.). Natural resource protection dates from the 1931 Rural Code (Cédigo Rural), which prohibited the hunting of many wildlife species. Areas have been protected under the designation "reserve" since 1945, when a decree was passed declaring reserved zones along all roads in the country (DPNVS/CDC, 1990; Villamayor, 1988). Several other reserved zones were subsequently formed, but suffered modifications and no longer exist (Villamayor, 1988). It was several years before a governmental organisation was established to manage protected areas (DPNVS/CDC, 1990). In 1966, the first area of sufficient size to fulfil its protection objectives was created under the designation of faunal reserve (DPNVS/CDC, 1990). In 1973, the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock initiated the legal process of protecting areas, passing decrees for the creation of several national parks. The National Forestry Service and the first protected forest were also created in 1973 (Villamayor, 1988). Following the creation of the DPNVS, the majority of protected areas established were designated national parks. A national conservation system (sistema nacional de conservaci6n) was declared, unifying protected areas under the one management organisation (Villamayor, 1988). Since 1987, private reserves have been created, particularly in the eastern region. They make a significant contribution to the national system of protected areas (DPNVS/CDC, 1990). By 1990, a total of 2.75% of the total land area was under protection (DPNVS/CDC, 1990; Villamayor, 1988). Two new national parks were created during 1990 (E. Bragayrac, pers. comm., 1991). Four more protected areas may also be included in the system, although they are managed by the Itaipu Binational Company; two biological reserves and two biological refuges. However, the lack of a clear definition of these designations at the governmental level has impeded the development of the areas in compliance with national conservation objectives (DPNVS/CDC, 1990). Paraguay participates in the Latin American Network programme (Red Latinoamericana de Cooperacién Tecnica en Parques Nacionales, otras Areas Protegidas, Flora y Fauna Silvestres) through the DPNVS (FAO, n.d.). Following the definition given by the FAO Latin American Network programme, Paraguay did not have a national system of protected areas by 1986, but was in the process of developing one (Ormazabal, 1988). The distribution of protected areas is very unequal. In the Chaco, 4.45% of the total area is protected, whereas in the eastern region, only 0.13% is protected (Villamayor, 1988). Therefore, the national system does not protect all representative ecosystems (DPNVS/CDC, 1990; Rios and Zardini, 1989). Reviews of the protected area system have been carried out by Villamayor (1988) and the DPNVS and the CDC together (1990), the latter concentrating on potential protection for the eastern region. The main problem is the lack of clear definitions of the designations used (DPNVS/CDC, 1990). Without standard criteria for classification and regulations that reflect a national conservation objective, the establishment of an effective national system is prevented (DPNVS/CDC, 1990). Addresses Servicio Forestal Nacional, Tacuary 443 c/ 25 de Mayo, Edificio Patria, Sto Piso, ASUNCION (Tel: 443971) Direcci6n de Parques Nacionales y Vida Silvestre, 25 de Mayo 640 c/Antequera, Edificio Garantia Piso 12A, ASUNCION (Tel: 494914/495568; FAX: 495568) 273 Paraguay Subsecretaria de Recursos Naturales y Medio Ambiente, Ministerio de Agricultura, Tacuary 443 c/25 de Mayo, Edificio Patria 4to Piso, ASUNCION (Tel: 492901) Centro de Datos Para la Conservacién de Paraguay (DPNVS/CDC), 25 de Mayo 640 c/ Antequera, Edificio Garantia, Piso 12B, CC 3303, ASUNCION (Tel: 498089; FAX: 212386/495568) Fundacion Moisés Bertoni para la Conservacion de la Naturaleza, 25 de Mayo 2140, CC 714, ASUNCION (Tel: 25638; FAX: 212386) References Acevedo, C. and Pinazzo, J. (1992). Areas protegidas paraguayas y su relaci6n con la poblacion. In: Amend, S. and Amend, T. (Eds) ;Espacios sin Habitantes? Parques Nacionales de América del Sur. International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources and Editorial Nueva Sociedad, Caracas. Pp. 291 6304. Anon. (n.d.) Paraguay: a forestry sector profile. Pp. 11-36. Anon. (1985). Environmental profile of Paraguay. IIED/Technical Planning Secretariat/US—AID, Washington, DC. 162 pp. SFN (1982). Plan de manejo: Parque Nacional Ybycut. Servicio Forestal Nacional, Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia. 53 pp. DPNVS/CDC (1990). Areas prioritarias para la conservacion en la Region oriental del Paraguay. Centro de Datos para la Conservacién, Asuncién. 99 pp. FAO (n.d.). La Red Latinoamericana de Cooperacién Técnica en Parques Nacionales, Otras Areas Protegidas, Flora y Fauna Silvestres. Oficina Regional de la FAO para América Latina y el Caribe, Santiago, Chile. 8 pp. Gauto, R. (1989). Private conservation programs in Paraguay. Conservation Biology 3(2): 120. Holdridge, L.R. (1969). Estudio ecolégico de los bosques de la regidn Oriental del Paraguay. Project SF/PAR/15. Working document No. 1. FAO. 19 pp. (Unseen) Hueck, K. (1978). Los bosques de Sudamérica. Ecologia, composicion e importancia econémica. Sociedad Alemana de Cooperacién Técnica. (Unseen) Kohler, V. (1989). Cambios en el uso de las tierras y sus consecuencias ambientales en el Paraguay. Cuadernos forestales No. 1. Facultad de Ingeniera Agrondémica, Universidad Nacional de Asuncién. 21 pp. Ormazabal, C. (1988). Sistemas nacionales de dreas silvestres protegidas en América Latina. Basado en los resultados del taller sobre Planificacién de Sistemas Nacionales de Areas Silvestres Protegidas, Caracas, Venezuela, 9-13 junio 1986. Proyecto FAO/PNUMA sobre manejo de reas silvestres, dreas protegidas y vida silvestre en América Latina y el Caribe. Oficina Regional de Title: Protected Areas of the World la FAO para América Latina y el Caribe, Santiago, Chile. 205 pp. Rios, E. and Zardini, E. (1989). Conservation of biological diversity in Paraguay. Conservation Biology 3(2): 118-119. Villamayor Orué, R. (1988). Parques nacionales del Paraguay. Document presented at the IUCN General ANNEX Assembly, San José, Costa Rica, February 1988. 29 pp. Wetterberg, G., Jorge Padua, M.T., Tresinari, A. and Ponce, C.F. (1985). Decade of Progress for South American Parks 1974-1984. National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior, Washington DC. Pp. 42-44. Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration Ley Forestal (Forestry Law) No. 422 Date: 22 November 1973 Brief description: Declares it in the public interest to protect and improve forest resources in the country and establishes regulations for their use. Administrative Authority: | Under provision of this law, the Servicio Forestal Nacional (National Forestry Service) is created as part of the Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia (Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock) to be responsible for natural resource administration. Designations: Bosque de Produccién (Production Forest) Forested areas suitable for annual or periodical extractive use Bosque Protector (Protection Forest) Forested area protection of which is important for water regulation, soil stabilisation, public health, national defence or as a refuge for protected floral or faunal species. 274 Bosque Especial (Special Forest) _ Forested area that is to be conserved for scientific, educational, historical or touristic reason. Source: Original legislation Title: Reglamento de la Ley Forestal No. 422 Date: 6 January 1975 Brief description: Giving further details of forest resource management and use. Makes first reference to national parks at the national level and assigns administrative responsibility. Administrative Authority Servicio Forestal Nacional (National Forestry Service), under the Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia (Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock) is responsible for selecting and administering national parks. Designations: Parque Nacional (National Park) An area given inviolable protection and administered exclusively by the National Forestry Service. All natural resource exploitation is prohibited. Source: Original legislation Map ref. CAINDMPWNKE 14 15 SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS National/international designations IUCN management Area Name of area category (ha) National Parks Caaguazu Il 16,000 Cerro Cora II 12,038 Defensores del Chaco II 780,000 Teniente Encisco II 40,000 Tinfunque II 280,000 Ybycui II 5,000 Ybytyruzu II 24,000 Y pacarai II 16,000 Biological Reserves Itabo Vv 11,260 Limo’y Vv 14,332 Biological Refuges Mbaracayu Vv 1,356 Tatiyupi Vv 2,245 Forest Reserve Capiivary Vil 13,500 Protection Forests Nacunday IV 1,000 Yaku’y IV 1,000 275 Paraguay Year notified 1976 1976 1975 1980 1966 1973 1990 1990 1983 1983 1983 1983 1987 1975 1973 Protected Areas of the World Protected Areas of Paraguay 276 PERU Area 1,285,220 sq. km Population 221,550,000 (1990) Natural increase: 2.5% per annum Economic Indicators GDP: US$ 2,183 per capita (1987) GNP: US$ 1,010 per capita (1989) Policy and legislation A commitment to preserve the environment is given in the National Constitution of 1979, which states that all Peruvians "have the right to live in a healthy environment, which is in ecological equilibrium, and suitable for the development of life and preservation of the landscape and nature”. Environmental protection is the responsibility of all citizens, and the state has the obligation to prevent and control environmental pollution. In 1986 the government began to participate in the FAO Tropical Forestry Action Plan (TFAP), an international strategy for maximising the contribution of forestry sectors to national economic and social development while maintaining conservation principles. The National Programme for Forestry Action (Programa Nacional de Acci6n Forestal) was established by Supreme Decree No. 016-88-AG in 1988 to interpret the global designs of TFAP into a specific national action plan which had been drawn up in 1987 (DGFF, 1987). International assistance has been received for implementing many of the projects included in the national action plan, such as reforestation and education (DGFF, 1991). In 1988, a proposal for a national conservation strategy was drawn up by a nongovernmental organisation, the Peruvian Foundation for Nature Conservation (Fundacién Peruana para la Conservacion de la Naturaleza) (FPCN), to preserve genetic diversity, maintain essential ecosystems and ensure sustainable use of natural resources. Recommendations include a revision of conservation legislation and education campaigns to increase public awareness (FPCN, 1988). Following this, the government established the National Commission (Comisién Nacional) by Presidential Decree on 5 June 1989, comprising representatives from various sectors and the international community, to detail and implement the national strategy. The final document, Basis for a National Conservation Strategy and Sustainable Development (Bases para una Estrategia Nacional de Conservaci6n y Desarrollo Sustenable) was submitted to the government in 1991 (E. Cardich, pers. comm., 1991; G. Sudrez de Freitas, pers. comm., 1991). This plan has not been put into action due to lack of funds, but it is currently being reproduced in certain Tegions across the country in the form of regional conservation strategies (estrategias regionales para la conservacién) (G. Suarez de Freitas, pers. comm., 1991). 277 Regulations on natural resource use were first applied between 1956 and 1957 by declaring certain areas as national forests (bosques nacionales), within which only the state, or institutions granted permission by the state, may exploit natural resources. Congressional Law No. 13694, 1961 provided for the creation of the first national park, and marked the beginning of a legal system for designating different categories of protected areas, from controlled exploitation to inviolable protection. The Agrarian Reform Law (Ley de Reforma Agraria) No. 17716, 1969 declared that "national parks, national forests, forest reserves and archaeological zones declared by law cannot be considered for land distribution under agrarian reform." Legal relations between indigenous peoples and protected areas are established by the Law of Native Communities and Agrarian Development for the Jungle and Forest Edge (Ley de Comunidades Nativas y Desarrollo Agrario de las Regiones de Selva y Ceja de Selva), Decree Law No. 20653, 1974 and No. 22175, 1978. This law recognises land rights of native communities and, where these overlap with protected areas, allows them to continue their activities as long as these are in keeping with the principles of protected area regulations (FAO, 1975; Rios et al., 1986). Current regulations for natural resource use and definitions of protected area designations in effect were established by the Forestry and Wildlife Law (Ley Forestal y de Fauna), Decree Law No. 21147 (1975). Three management categories of forest reserves and four of protected areas, the latter called conservation units (unidades de conservacién), are defined (see Annex). Individual conservation units are to be declared by supreme decree. Provision is made for the expropriation of privately-owned land by the state where it is required for the establishment of new conservation units. The Ministry of Agriculture (Ministerio de Agricultura) is responsible for all natural resources and protected areas. Further details of protected area management relating to the 1975 Forestry and Wildlife Law are given in the Regulation of Conservation Units (Reglamento de Unidades de Conservacién) Supreme Decree No. 160-77-AG of March 1977. Responsibility for formulating conservation policies and administering the conservation units is given to the General Directorate of Forestry and Fauna (Direccién General Forestal y de Fauna) (DGFF), within the Ministry of Agriculture. The four categories of conservation units, as defined in the 1975 Forestry law, collectively comprise the National System of Conservation Units (Sistema Nacional de Unidades de Conservacién) (SINUC). The Regulation of Conservation units requires that a management plan (plan maestro) be drawn up for each conservation unit and for SINUC as a whole. A system Protected Areas of the World of zonation is outlined, whereby each protected area is subdivided into zones according to the fragility of the ecosystems present. No conservation unit is to be used for recreational purposes until zonation has been implemented (Rios et al., 1986). A SINUC advisory board is established, and provision made for the ¢ formation of local conservation unit committees. The forestry police (policia forestal) are responsible for enforcing protected area regulations (Rios et al., 1986; Wetterberg, 1985). Two further categories of protected area, communal reserve (reserva comunal) and hunting reserve (coto de caza), are provided in the Regulation of the Conservation of Flora and Wildlife (Reglamento de Conservaci6n de Flora y Fauna Silvestre), Supreme Decree No. 15877AG of March 1977 also relating to the Forestry and Wildlife Law (see Annex). A third designation, reserved zone (zona reservada), is mentioned but is to be used only as a transitional or provisional measure until studies allow a permanent designation to be assigned. Reserved zone is not a management category (Injoque et al., 1991; Suarez de Freitas, 1990a; Suarez de Freitas, pers. comm., 1991). The Organic Law of the Agrarian Sector (Ley Organica del Sector Agrario) No. 21 of April 1981 provides for the creation of a decentralised public body, the National Forestry and Fauna Institute (Instituto Nacional Forestal y de Fauna) (INFOR), to study agroforestry and wild fauna, and to implement projects to ensure the rational use and conservation of natural resources. Later in 1981, an agreement was reached between INFOR and the DGFF whereby the two institutions jointly managed conservation units. The division of administrative Tesponsibilities and the functions of both INFOR and DGFF at the national and regional level are given in this organic law. Although the 1975 Forestry Law, and regulations pertaining to it, still form the basis of all legislation regarding natural resource protection, by the mid 1980s it became clear that there was no coherent legal framework by which to implement governmental policies, owing to the large number of acts passed by different sectors with interests in resource use (DGFF, 1987). Major restructuring of the Agrarian Sector of the Ministry of Agriculture and changes in resource management responsibilities took place between 1987 and 1990. The second Organic Law of the Agrarian Sector, No. 424 of January 1987, gives the DGFF sole responsibility for forest and wildlife resource management at the national level, and created agrarian units (unidades agrarias) to represent the Ministry of Agriculture at regional level. INFOR was dissolved and all responsibilities previously assigned to this institute and to its regional offices were incorporated into the DGFF and the agrarian units, respectively. Provision was made for the creation of three Vice-Ministers, including the Vice-Minister of Natural Resources and Rural Development (Vice Ministro de Recursos Naturales y Desarrollo Rural) at a 278 high level in central administration to whom the DGFF is itself responsible. In March 1990, Supreme Decree No. 010-90-AG made provision for the creation of the National System of State Protected Natural Areas (Sistema Nacional de Areas Naturales Protegidas por el Estado) (SINANPE), comprising SINUC and all other categories of state protected area such as: national forest (bosque nacional), protection forest (bosque de proteccidn), communal reserve and hunting reserve. Provision is also made for the creation of the National Programme of National Parks and Other State Protected Areas (Programa Nacional de Parques Nacionales y Otras Areas Protegidas), known simply as National Parks-Peru (Parques Nacionales-Peri), to be the organisation responsible for managing SINANPE (Injoque et al., 1991). The Organic Law No. 424 was replaced in 1990 by the Law of Organisation and Function of the Agrarian Sector (Ley de Organizacién y Funciones del Sector Agrario) No. 565, which finalised the structure of the public agrarian sector and the Ministry of Agriculture. The positions held by the three Vice-Ministers are abolished and their functions amalgamated into one, the Vice-Minister of Agriculture (Vice Ministro de Agricultura), who now supervises the DGFF. A regulation of this Law, Supreme Decree No. 048-900-AG, (1990), ratified the creation of National Parks-Peru and declared the DGFF responsible for its administration and management (DGFF, 1991; Injoque et al., 1991). On 7 September 1990, the Environment and Natural Resources Code (Cédigo del Medio Ambiente y Los Recursos Naturales) Legislative Decree No. 613, first proposed in March 1983, was passed to simplify the legal situation by consolidating all previous policies regarding conservation and resource use into one act. The objectives of protected areas are restated and native communities’ land ownership rights acknowledged. Their participation in managing natural resources is encouraged where such communities are found within protected areas, but natural resource use is limited to comply with the conservation objectives of the designation (Injoque et al., 1991; G. Suarez de Freitas, pers.comm., 1991; ). The Code does not replace existing environmental legislation but draws on past experience to form a coherent national management plan. The Code also repeals a previous law that seriously threatened the integrity of the Amazon region, the Law for the Basis of Rural Development of the Peruvian Amazon (Ley de Bases para el Desarrollo Rural de la Amazonia) No. 24994 of 1989, which promoted extensive agricultural development in the Amazon basin (Suarez de Freitas, 1990c; G. Sudrez de Freitas, pers. comm., 1991). Environmental legislation has not been able to stop informal development, such as spontaneous agricultural settlement, which threatens the ecosystems of many regions (Ferreyros, 1988; Suarez de Freitas, 1990d). Threats to natural resource protection also arise from within the legal system itself. The mechanisms for establishing conservation units by supreme decree, as provided by the 1975 Forestry and Wildlife Law, can be undermined by laws of other sectors such as fisheries, mining or tourism because a supreme decree does not carry as much legislative weight as a law. A simple method of establishing conservation units by law is sought (Ferreyros, 1988). International Activities Peru signed the Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the Western Hemisphere (Convencién sobre la Proteccién de la Flora, de la Fauna y de las Bellezas Escénicas Naturales de los Paises de América) (Western Hemisphere Convention) in 1940, and it has since been ratified. The Convention for the Conservation and Management of Vicufia (Convenio para la Conservaci6n y Manejo de la Vicufia) was signed in 1979 by Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Argentina and Peru. Three agreements which deal exclusively with protecting Amazon regions have been signed by Peru. The Agreement for the Conservation of Fauna and Flora of the Amazon Regions of Peru and Brazil (Acuerdo para la Conservacién de la Fauna y Flora de los Territorios Amazonicos de la Republica del Peni y de la Republica Federativa del Brazil) was signed in 1975; a similar agreement with Colombia in 1979; and the Amazon Cooperation Treaty (Tratado de Cooperacién Amazé6nica) on 3 July 1978. The latter treaty was signed by the eight countries with land in the Amazon Basin to establish regulations for managing natural resources and to propose conservation directed alternatives to the management of multinational projects. Peru ratified the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) in 1982. Four natural sites were inscribed in 1983, 1985, 1987 and 1990. Peru participates in the Unesco Man and Biosphere Programme, having had three biosphere reserves accepted in 1977, and signed the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) and has three sites inscribed. Peru participates in the Latin American Network programme (Red Latinoamericana de Cooperacién Técnica en Parques Nacionales, Otras Areas Protegidas, Flora y Fauna Silvestres) through the DGFF (FAO, n.d.). Administration and Management The Ministry of Agriculture has been vested with the ultimate responsibility for managing natural resources since the 1950s. The first institute created within it specifically for this purpose was the Forestry and Hunting Service (Servicio Forestal y de Caza) in 1961. The Ministry of Agriculture took on its present structure with the passing of Decree Law No. 565 of April 1990. It has a broad field of responsibility and function covering agricultural and non-agricultural land, forests and protected areas. The 279 Peru 1975 Forests and Wildlife Law and its related Regulation assigned responsibility for conserving forest and wildlife resources and regulating their use, to the General Directorate of Forestry and Fauna (DGFF) within the Ministry of Agriculture. Until the 1987 Organic Law took effect, protected area management was carried out by the DGFF together with the National Forestry and Fauna Institute (NFOR). In 1987 INFOR was dissolved and the DGFF took over its responsibilities under the Vice -Minister of Agriculture (Injoque et al., 1991). Within the DGFF are five sub-directorates, including the National Parks Directorate (Direccién de Parques Nacionales), the Flora and Wildlife Directorate (Direccion de Flora y Fauna Silvestres) and the Forest Management and Reforestation Directorate (Direccién de Manejo Forestal y Reforestacién) (DGFF, 1987). National Parks-Peru was established within the DGFF to improve the administration of protected areas by unifying them within SINANPE, and allow them to better contribute to regional and national development (DGFF, 1991). At the local level, the former regional organisations of the DGFF and INFOR, district forestry units (distritos forestales) and forestry development centres (centros de desarollo forestal), respectively, have been integrated into 12 Agrarian Units. These are now the sole regional offices of the Ministry of Agriculture and have greater autonomy and responsibility for activities relating to forests and natural resources than previously, as part of the governmental process of decentralisation (DGFF, 1991; Injoque et al., 1991). Enforcement of protected area regulations are carried out by park guards (guardaparques), part of National Parks-Peru: 93 were employed in the SINANPE in 1991 (Injoque et al., 1991), compared with 143 in 1990 (WWF-US, 1990). The National Office for Natural Resource Evaluation (Oficina Nacional de Evaluacién de Recursos Naturales) (ONERN), a governmental organisation established in 1962, is responsible for identifying and evaluating natural resources and for commissioning projects to evaluate their conservation and use for socio-economic development. Since 1976, with funding from USAID, ONERN has been using Landsat imagery to formulate maps of natural resource distribution, and "life zones" using the Holdridge method. There are around 80 non-governmental organisations (NGOs) concerned with ecology, wildlife conservation, protected areas and environmental issues, at local, national and international levels who are coordinated by the Peruvian Environmental Network (Red Ambiental Peruana) (E. Cardich, pers. comm., 1991). NGOs have contributed considerably towards improving the effectiveness of protected area management in the past decade, and often have more professionals working for them than the DGFF (DGFF, 1987; Injoque et al., 1991). In particular, they have increased the number of qualified Protected Areas of the World personnel available, equipment, research and environmental education. Among the largest national level organisations are the Peruvian Foundation for Nature Conservation (Fundacién Peruana para Conservacion de la Naturaleza)(FPCN) established in 1985, which supports at least eight of the 25 areas in SINUC, including four of the seven national parks (G. Suarez de Freitas, pers. comm., 1991), and APECO, the Peruvian Association for Conservation (Asociacién Peruana para la Conservacion). The Conservation Association for the Southern Rainforest (Asociacién de Conservacién para la Selva Sur) (ACSS), founded in 1984, works specifically towards the protection of the southern region of rain forest. The Pachamama Society (Sociedad Pachamama), founded in 1990, is involved in sustainable development projects concerning protected areas, particularly in marine regions and dry tropical forest (E. Cardich, pers. comm., 1991). The Conservation Data Centre (Centro de Datos para la Conservaci6n del Peni) (CDC) at La Molina National Agrarian University (Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina), formed in 1983 to provide information required for amanagement plan for SINUC, maintains a data base of biological diversity in Peru and runs a continual assessment of the effectiveness of resource conservation. It provides information for the FPCN, the DGFF, WWFE-US, FAO and WCMC. Protected area management has suffered from continuous changes within the Ministry of Agriculture and the lack of communication between central and regional administration. Combined with severe lack of funding owing to the economic situation, the effectiveness of natural resource regulation has been greatly reduced (DGFF, 1991). Amalgamating INFOR into the DGFF resolved some of the previous problems of divided responsibilities, but the reorganisations since 1987 have reduced the number of personnel working in central administration. The present government intends to reduce the number further, as part of a radical decentralisation process (DGFF, 1991). The lack of personnel is reflected in the fact that many areas do not have park guards. Only those conservation units in SINUC may be considered to fulfil some of the criteria for protected areas; the majority of the other areas that comprise SINANPE are only protected on paper (Injoque et al., 1991). A review of the current situation of protected area administration with proposals for institutional planning was carried out by Injoque et al. (1991). This study mentions that administrative problems have arisen partly from the fact that there has never been an autonomous institute responsible for protected areas whose sole objective is their administration and management, but this responsibility has always been assigned to institutions within a larger organisation (Injoque et al., 1991). Among the suggestions to improve management is the creation of a school for training park guards, and the elaboration of a master plan to provide policies and guidelines for detailed planning within National 280 ParksPeru. Fortunately, some training courses for park personnel are run by the Peruvian Foundation for Nature Conservation (FPCN) in conjunction with the National Agrarian University and National Parks-Peru. Since 1989 they have received support from WWF-US (WWF, 1990). Suarez de Freitas (1990b) cites inconsistencies in the designation of protected areas as another factor contributing to administrative inefficiency. For example, areas evaluated as locally important may not receive sufficient support from central government. A cohesive national system and compliance with internationallyrecognised protected area designations is needed to prevent local exploitation of resources. Closer working relations between the DGFF and NGOs should improve local administration (DGFF, 1987). The systems of SINUC and SINANPE are afforded low priority by the government, resulting in inadequate salaries and training and a continuing reduction in the number of personnel (Ferreyros, 1988; Suarez de Freitas, 1990d; Injoque and Suarez de Freitas, 1992). Reviews of protected area systems conducted by CDC-Pert (1991), Suarez de Freitas (1990a) for the FPCN, Ferreyros (1988), and Dourojeanni (1985) with particular reference to Andean regions, all cite administrative complexity as a major problem. Systems Review Topographically, Peru consists of three district regions; costa (coastal), sierra (central Andean Mountains) and selva (lowland slopes of Amazonian drainage basin). The climate is strongly affected by the Andean Mountains inland and by the Peruvian, or Humboldt, current which warms the coastal regions, giving rise to a number of distinct ecosystems across the country. As a result, Peru may harbour the richest biodiversity on earth and 84 "life zones", of the 103 proposed by Holdridge (1967) for the world, have been identified (Dourojeanni, 1985; Lamas, 1979). The major ecosystems were originally defined in a classification system devised by Brack, and given in Ferreyos (1988) as: tropical Pacific Ocean; coastal desert; dry equatorial woodlands; paramo (dry altiplano); puna (mountain plains) and high Andes; high jungle; low jungle and the Pampas del Heath (wet grassland on the border with Bolivia). Two of these regions, coastal desert and the high Andes above 3,000m, are naturally non-forested, the others having been subjected to human interference (Gentry, n.d.). Around 60% of the country is still forested, with the largest tracts of forest (96% of the remaining forested land) found in the Amazonian lowlands (Burley, 1987). The major threat to the forest ecosystems in these regions is from widespread use of slash and burn agricultural techniques. Since the early 1970s migration to the Amazonian lowlands has taken place on a large-scale (Burley, 1987; Gentry, n.d.; Suarez de Freitas, 1990d). Despite this, nearly 90% of the Peruvian Amazonian forest remains intact (E. Cardich, pers. comm., 1991). Much of the land is unsuitable for intensive agriculture, being too dry, steep or poorly drained for crops and only 3% is cultivated (Burley, 1987). Some 40% is only suitable for forestry, but the uneven distribution of the population, 90% of which lives in the Sierra and Costa regions which comprise only 40% of the total area, has put severe pressure on the environment. Deforestation, over-grazing and nutrient depletion through agriculture result in soil erosion and desertification in those regions (Suarez de Freitas, 1990d). The most seriously affected are the central valleys which have been farmed since pre-Hispanic times. Agricultural productivity is generally very low. Resource management began with the declaration of national forests in the 1950s, and the first national park was established in 1961 (Dourojeanni and Roche, 1984; Injoque et al., 1991). However, without preliminary studies to develop a management plan or designate clear boundaries, it was largely ineffective. However, the event did lead to extensive research to identify important ecosystems around the country, with a view to their protection (Ferreyros, 1988). Since then, protected areas have been declared under various designations from those allowing regulated exploitation, to inviolable protection accordingly. SINUC, the National Network of Conservation Units, was established in 1975, and incorporated into the National System of State Protected Areas (SINANPE) in 1990. By 1991, SINUC comprised 25 conservation units (national parks and reserves, historical and national sanctuaries) covering 5,513,425ha or 4.29% of total land area (CDC-Peni, 1991; Suarez de Freitas, pers. comm., 1991). SINANPE comprised the 25 conservation units of SINUC covering 13,265,111ha, or 10.32% of total land area (DGFF, 1991; Injoque, et al., 1991). The number of national forests has been reduced considerably from 17 in 1975, reflecting disinterest and inefficiency in forestry management (Suarez de Freitas, 1990d). The wealth of biological diversity present makes it difficult to extend protection to all types of life zones described. The marine and coastal region, particularly the tropical and temperate Pacific deserts, is one of the most notably underrepresented regions in the protected area system. The fragile ecosystems of the high altitude Puna also require urgent protection measures (CDC-Peri, 1986, 1991; E. Cardich, pers. comm., 1991; ). Following the definition given by the FAO Latin American Network programme, Peru has a coherent system (Ormazabal, 1988). Many areas are not managed according to their legal definitions and within each category practical management regimes vary considerably. The majority of areas that comprise SINANPE are only protected on paper. Only those areas in the SINUC comprise what may be considered criteria for protected areas (Injoque et al., 1991). Reserved zone (zona reservada) has been applied permanently to five areas, but it is not a 281 Peru management category, but rather a transitory classification to be used only until further studies indicate the degree of protection if any required. The five areas subsequently lack a legal basis for protection (CDCPeri, 1986, 1991; Sudrez de Freitas, 1990d). Human settlement is a threat to the whole SINUC system. This is most apparent in the heavily populated Andean region (Dourojeanni, 1985) and in regions where coca is grown intensively such as the Huallaga Valley (E. Cardich, pers. comm., 1991). The production of coca for cocaine has caused serious social and environmental problems such as soil erosion, forest destruction and large amounts of pollution from fertilisers and chemicals used in processing. Increasing lawlessness in these regions makes environmental regulations difficult to implement. Some areas within SINUC (Tingo Maria and Junin) have been abandoned owing to subversive activities and the unstable social situation in the country (Injoque, et al., 1991). Land tenure threatens the implementation of conservation strategies in some regions (Dourojeanni, 1985). Peruvian legislation requires that national park land is state-owned, although the Act on Native Communities (1974 and 1975), and the Environmental Code (1990) acknowledge the right of indigenous communities to land ownership. In the Andean region, where most of the land is privatelyowned by individuals or communities, the sustainability of protected areas depends on the benefit that local people derive from them. Here, resources are protected by the designation of national reserves within which sustainable exploitation is carried out by the local people themselves (Dourojeanni, 1985). The problem of native community land rights is particularly apparent in the Peruvian Amazonian region where existing management systems have largely ignored rights. Increasing the extent to which Native communities are involved in managing the Amazon region will help to improve the effectiveness of protection measures (E. Cardich, pers. comm., 1991). Addresses Direccién General Forestal y de Fauna (DGFF) (Director de Parques Nacionales), Ministerio de Agricultura, Av. Natalio Sanchez 220 (3er piso, Of. 907), Jestis Maria, LIMA 11 (Tel: 14 323150; FAX: 14 232789; Tlx: 20053) Oficina Nacional de Evaluacién de Recursos Naturales (ONERN), Calle 17 No. 355, Urb. CORPAC, San Isidro, Aptdo 4992, LIMA Centro de Datos para la Conservacién (CDC), Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina, Aptdo 456, LIMA 100 Asociacién de Conservacién para la Selva Sur (ACSS), Av. Sol 627B, Oficina 305, CUSCO Asociacién Peruana para la Conservacién (APECO), Parque José de Acosta 187, Altos, Magdalena del Mar,LIMA 17 Protected Areas of the World Fundacién Peruana para la Conservacién de la Naturaleza (FPCN), CP 181393, Los Rosales 255, San Isidro, LIMA 27 (FAX: 14 427853; Tel: 426616/426706/422149/422796) Sociedad Pachamama, Av. Camino Real 479, 8 piso, LIMA 27 (FAX: 14 411990; Tel: 438948/438951) References Burley, W. (1987). Draft of Peru case study. Critical Ecosystems Paper. Unpublished manuscript. 8 pp. CDC-Perti (1986). Ecosistemas criticos del Pert: Informe al World Resources Institute (WRI). Centro de Datos para la Conservaci6on, Lima. (Unseen) CDC-Peni (1991). Plan director del Sistema Nacional de Unidades de Conservacién(SINUC): Una aproximacién desde la diversidad biolégica. Propuesta del Centro de Datos para la Conservacién, Lima. 190 pp. (Unseen) CIDA (1986). Tropical forestry action plan Peru. Forestry sector review. Terms of reference. Canadian International Development Agency, Hull, Canada. Pp. 1-14. DGFF (1987). Plan Nacional de Accién Forestal 1988-2000. Ministerio de Agricultura, Direccién General de Forestal y Fauna, Lima. 87 pp. DGFF (1991). Informe sobre progreso forestal 1988-1990 del Peri. 17th meeting of the Latin American forestry commission-COFLA, Venezuela, 18-22 February 1991. Ministerio de Agricultura, Direccién General de Forestal y Fauna, Lima. 22 pp. Dourojeanni, M.J. (n.d.). Gran geografia del Peri, naturaleza y hombre. Volumen IV. Recursos naturales, desarrollo y conservacié6n en el Peru. Manfer-Juan Mejia Baca. Pp. 33-55. Dourojeanni, M.J. (1985). Management problems in the Andean National Parks and protected areas of Peru. In: McNeely, J.A., Thorsell, J.W., and Chalise, S.R. (Eds), People and protected areas in the Hindu-Kush Himalaya. King Mahendra Trust for Nature Conservation and the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, Kathmandu, Nepal. Pp. 159-161. FAO (n.d.). La Red Latinoamericana de Cooperacién Técnica en Parques Nacionales, Otras Areas Protegidas, Flora y Fauna Silvestres. Oficina regional de la FAO para América Latina y el Caribe, Santiago, Chile. 8 pp. FAO (1975). Food and Agricultural Legislation 24 FAO (1976). Food and Agricultural Legislation 25(1): 66-80 FAO (1983). Informe de la mesa redonda sobre parques nacionales, otras Greas protegidas, flora y fauna silvestres. Santiago de Chile, 8-10 junio 1983. Food and Agriculture Organization Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean, Santiago, Chile. Pp. 43-59. Ferreyros, A (1988). Situacién actual de los parques nacionales y otras unidades de conservaci6én en el Pert. Asociacién de Ecologia y Conservacién (ECCO), Lima. 21 pp. 282 FPCN (1988). Estrategia nacional para la conservaci6n. Una propuesta. Fundacién Peruana para la Conservacion de la Naturaleza. 43 pp. Gentry, A. (n.d.). Colombia, Ecuador, Peru. Floristic inventory of tropical forests. Pp. 1-14. Gow, D., Clark, K., Earhart, J., Fujita, M., Laarman, J., Miller, G. (1988). Peru: An assessment of biological diversity. Development Strategies for Fragile Lands (DESFIL), prepared for the US Agency for International Development. Washington DC, USA. 76 pp. INFOR/DGFF (1987). Exposicién de motivos. Programa nacional de parques nacional de parques nacionales y areas naturales protegidas. Instituto Nacional Forestal y de Fauna/Direccién General Forestal y de Fauna, Lima. 6 pp. Injoque, F. and Suarez de Freitas, G. (1992). Problemas en la realizacion de una politica estricta de parques nacionales: el caso de Peri. In Amend, S. and Amend, T. (eds.) Espacios sin Habitantes? Parques nacionales de América del Sur. UCN and Editorial Nueva Sociedad, Caracas, Venezuela. Pp. 315-327. Injoque, F., Gutiérrez R., Manrique L. (1991). Una propuesta de criterios para la planificacién institucional del sistema de areas protegidas Peruano. Documento de Trabajo No. 1. Programa Nacional de Parques Nacionales y Otras Areas Naturales Protegidas Por el Estado. Parques Nacionales-Peri, Lima. 13 pp. Lamas, G. (1982). A preliminary zoographical division of Peru based on butterfly distributions (Lepidoptera, Papilionoidea). In: Prance, G.T. (Ed.), Biological diversification in the Tropics. Proceedings of the V International Symposium of the Association for Tropical Biology. Colombia University Press. Pp. 336-356. Library of Congress (1979). Draft environmental report on Peru. Science and Technology Division, Washington DC. 109 pp. Ormazabal, C. (1988). Sistemas nacionales de Greas silvestres protegidas en América Latina. Basado en los resultados del taller sobre planificacién de sistemas nacionales de dreas silvestres protegidas, Caracas, Venezuela, 913 junio 1986. Proyecto FAO/PNUMA sobre manejo de 4reas silvestres, dreas protegidas y vida silvestre en América Latina y el Caribe. Oficina Regional de la FAO para América Latina y el Caribe, Santiago, Chile. Pp. 20-23. Rios, M.A., Ponce, C.F., Tovar, A., Vasquez P.G., Dourojeanni M. (1986). Plan maestro, parque nacional del Mani. Universidad Nacional Agraria de La Molina, Lima. Pp. 8-15. Roche and Dourojeanni, MJ. (1984). Peruvian case study. A guide to in situ conservation of genetic resources of tropical woody species. FAO. Pp. 185-196. Suarez de Freitas, G. (1990a). Diagnéstico del sistema peruano de dreas_ naturales protegidas y recomendaciones para su administracién. Fundacion Peruana para la Conservacion de la Naturaleza, Lima. 87 pp. Sudrez de Freitas, G. (1990b). Regionalizacién y dreas protegidas. FPCN al dfa. January-March. Fundacion Peruana para la Conservacién de la Naturaleza, Lima. Pp. 1-2. Sudrez de Freitas, G. (1990c). Development of the Peruvian Amazon Basin. WWF Discussion Paper. World Wide Fund for Nature, Gland, Switzerland. 8 pp. Sudrez de Freitas, G. (1990d). Estudio de Pats, Peri. Estudio ITTO/IUCN sobre el papel de la actividad forestal en la conservacién de la diversidad bioldgica. Fundacién Peruana para la Conservacién de la Naturaleza. 14 pp. Vasquez, P.G. and Barrena, V.M. (1990). Diserio de una metodologta para el monitoreo del impacto de las 283 Peru actividades humanas en dreas protegidas de la Amazonta Peruana. Centro de Datos para la Conservacién (CDC) y la Comunidad Econémica Europea. Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina, Lima. 116 pp. Wetterberg, G.B., Jorge Padua, M.T., Tresinari, A. and Ponce del Prado, C.F. (1985). Decade of progress for South American National Parks. International Affairs, USDI National Park Service, Washington DC, USA. Pp. 47-51. WWF-US, (1990). 16230: Training Workshops for Park Personnel, Peru. Internal document (grant information). 2 pp. Protected Areas of the World ANNEX Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration Title: Ley Forestal y de Fauna Silvestre by those working the land and prescribe control (Forestry and Wildlife Law)-Decree measures accordingly. Law No. 21147 Date: 13 May 1975 Brief description: Forests and wild faunal resources belong to the public and rights to them cannot be acquired. This law provides for the establishment of protected areas and the rules governing the protection and use of forest and faunal resources. Administrative authority: Ministry of Agriculture. Designations: Bosque nacional (National forest) Forests declared by Supreme Decree suitable for continuing production of timber, other forest products or wild fauna, made use of directly by the state, or by individuals with prior authorisation from the state and under special regulations and supervision. Bosque de libre disponibilidad (Freely disposable forest) Forest suitable for continuing production of timber, other forest products or wild fauna and used by any duly authorised person. Declared by Ministerial Resolution. Bosque de proteccién (Protection forest) Forest whose characteristics and situation are conducive to soil and water conservation declared, by Supreme Resolution, as inviolable for the protection of agricultural land, road systems and other facilities. All exploitation is prohibited. CONSERVATION UNITS (UNIDADES DE CONSERVACION): Parque nacional (National park) __ Area of wild floral and faunal and scenic beauty allocated for inviolable protection. All exploitation is prohibited Reserva nacional (National reserve) Area allocated to wild faunal species for protection and propagation in the nation’s interest. Sustainable harvesting of wildlife is allowed. The use made of products from such reserves shall be a matter for the state When a reserve is on agricultural land, the Ministry of Agriculture will authorise use of fauna 284 Santuario nacional (National sanctuary) Inviolable area allocated for protection of any species, communities of plants or animals or any natural formations of scientific or scenic interest. Santuario histérico (Historic sanctuary) Inviolable area allocated for protection of natural sites where important events in the nation’s history took place. Source: FAO, 1976 Title: Reglamento de Conservacién de Flora y Fauna Silvestre (Regulation of the Conservation of Flora and Wildlife), Supreme Decree 15877AG, relating to the 1975 Forestry and Wildlife Law Date: 31 March 1977 Brief description: Regulates the use of natural resources and gives definitions for two protected area designations and the possibility of a third, temporary classification Administrative authority: Ministry of Agriculture Designations: Coto de caza (Hunting reserve) Area suitable for wildlife management. Land may be either private or publicly owned, and have an adequate infrastructure to allow sport hunting activities. Reserva comunal (Communal reserve) Area set aside to conserve wildlife for the benefit of local populations whose livelihoods traditionally depend on wildlife products May be established for native or peasant communities, or migrant hunters from the mountains, jungle or adjacent jungle Zona reservada (Reserved zone) May be applied to an area to protect the wildlife and fauna present until studies are carried out to determine a suitable permanent designation This is not a protected area management category and is only to be used in a transitory or provisional sense Source: Sudrez de Freitas, 1990a Peru SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified National Park 1 Cerros de Amotape II 91,300 1975 2) Cutervo II 2,500 1961 3 Huascaran II 340,000 1975 4 Manu II 1,532,806 1973 5 Rio Abiseo II 274,520 1983 6 Tingo Maria II 18,000 1965 7 Yanachaga Chemillen II 122,000 1986 National Reserve 8 Calipuy IV 64,000 1981 9 Junin Vill 53,000 1974 10 Lachay Il 5,070 1977 11 Pacaya Samiria Vill 2,080,000 1982 12 Pampa Galeras Vill 6,500 1967 13 Paracas Vil 335,000 1975 14 Salinas y Aguada Blanca Vill 366,936 1979 15 Titicaca Vv 36,180 1978 National Sanctuary 16 Ampay Vv 3,635 1987 17 Calipuy Ill 4,500 1981 18 Huayllay Ill 6,815 1974 19 Manglares de Tumbes Ill , 2,972 1988 20 Pampas del Heath Ill 102,109 1983 21 Tabaconas-Namballe Il 29,500 1988 Communal Reserve 22 Yanesha vill 34,744 1988 Reserved Zone 23 Apurimac VI 1,669,290 1988 24 Laquipampa IV 11,347 1982 25 Manu VI 257,000 1980 26 Racali Vv 6,433 1985 27 Tambopata-Candamo Ill 1,478,942 1977 28 Udima Vv 8,469 1991 Hunting Reserve 29 El Angolo Vill 65,000 1975 30 Sunchubamba Vill 59,735 1977 National Forest 31 Alexander von Humboldt Vili 570,800 1965 32 Biabo-Cordillera Azul Vill 2,068,500 1963 33 Mariscal Caceres Vill 137,448 1963 34 Pastaza, Morona, Maranon Vil 375,000 1963 35 Tumbes Vill 75,102 1957 Protection Forest 36 Alto Mayo Vill 182,000 1987 37 Pagaibamba Vil 2,078 1987 38 Pui-Pui Vil 60,000 1985 39 San Matias-San Carlos Vil 145,818 1987 285 Protected Areas of the World Map ref. 40 41 National/international designations Name of area Historical Sanctuary Chacamarca Machu Picchu Biosphere Reserves Reserva de Huascaran Reserva del Manu Reserva del Noroeste Ramsar Wetlands Reserva Nacional de Paracas Reserva Nacional Pacaya-Samiria Santuario Nacional Lagunas de Mejia World Heritage Sites Parque Nacional Huascaran Parque Nacional Manu Parque Nacional Rio Abiseo Sanctuario Histérico de Machu Picchu IUCN management 286 category << IX Ix AAD mS PS PX PS Area (ha) 2,500 32,592 399,239 1,881,200 226,300 335,000 2,080,000 691 340,000 1,532,807 274,520 32,592 Year notified 1974 1981 1977 1977 1977 1992 1992 1992 1985 1987 1990 1983 Peru Protected Areas of Peru 287 i j “ ri : r n Am Piay Wivia I= v a edhe co 2 ‘ 7Y ’ ‘ & = : b 7 tal! i i i — \ nes de o's i telel salient satan we aay rola Ae ered nly gem» oo thewy at hee tee aati al sthicssae ye ER iroeerolep wer " Mats af sooe LI ! Bs | ey oakley dejo Wont i aut & Ries valle Neo F | g the? Jl 3 fp Tamer Ferland, % by eee Maes oe fone a 7 4 i, ; aa | of ee wa Sec iry ruscpa oun Md A f : ; i ‘ia inn Machen! we 4 we ya eda Sy fe Nu etn BOY inde beting Res ea. 7 t ‘Dianne Muynoe) Puceyee dn ' 2 ' Pilea Native biti yj pete Be 5 iain pth 2 abshsbes 5 /* i. - Seeing heakuods bane cg ng Li - Ly = ¥ y a> Wye") - on ) oe Nn = Aen she my hero aag val ves ioe, : ath en at ae a 6 Be qe lees , oh ne ee ae aad: Ps — REPUBLIC OF SURINAME Area 163,800 sq. km Population 422,000 (1990) Natural increase: 1.76% per annum Economic Indicators GDP: US$ 2,760 per capita (1987) GNP: US$ 3,020 per capita (1989) Policy and Legislation Provision for the establishment of protected areas is made in various pieces of legislation. In general, original legislation was passed during the time that the region was a colony of the Netherlands, and has since been updated, one or several times, both before and after independence. Suriname gained full independence from the Netherlands in 1975, since when the signatory authority of the Governor of the then colony has been transferred to the President of the Republic of Suriname. The first piece of legislation covering the region was provided in Article 44 of the Police Penal Code, Government Bulletin (G.B.) No. 77, 1915 (updated by G.B. No. 152, 1942 with latest amendment in G.B. No. 107, 1964) (see Annex). This code contained the mechanism to establish areas where hunting or capturing of wildlife was only allowed following issue of a written permit. The first sanctuary was established, under this code, following Government Resolution (G.B. No. 12, 1953) on 15 February 1953. Under the Law on the Issuance of State-owned Lands (Agarische Wet G.B. No. 53, 1937, updated by G.B. No. 53, 1953), later updated by Decreet L-2 of 15 June 1982, nature parks and multiple-use management areas may be created (see Annex) (Baal, 1991). In 1948, the Nature Conservation Commission (Natuurbeschermingscommissie) was established by Government Resolution in order to study conservation problems, and to propose legislation for conservation. This resulted in the Nature Preservation Law, 1954 (Government Gazette No. 26), under which the principles of nature conservation were first formulated, and which provided for the establishment of nature reserves by state resolution (see Annex). To date, five nature preservation resolutions have been passed, relating to this law. The 1986 resolution included a provision for the traditional rights and interests of indigenous people living in tribal communities, where these rights would affect the newly protected areas. These traditional rights were subject to various provisos, and essentially ensured the following: free choice for the settlement of villages; free choice of land for the establishment of shifting cultivation grounds; permission to hunt, fish and apply for a cutting permit (Baal, 1991). 289 A planning law (Planwet) of 1973 (G.B. No. 89) provides for the establishment of, amongst other things, special management areas (bijzondere beheersgebieden) (see Annex). However, not all agencies dealing with the execution of this law have been established, and it is not yet operational (Baal, 1991). Forestry legislation currently comprises the Timber Law, 1947 (see Annex) which provides for reserving areas for exploration and exploitation, and for placing concessions at the disposal of the government. The Forest Service is authorised to manage certain of these areas as forest reserves. By Resolution 2824 of 21 July 1947 (G.G. No. 108, 1947), the Forest Service (Dienst’s Lands Bosbeheer) was established to manage forest reserves and to ensure sustainable management of the nation’s forests. A draft Law on Forest Management (Concept-Ontwerp Wet Bosbeheer), which will replace the Timber Law, currently awaits enactment by Parliament. It will distinguish three main categories of forest according to land use: permanent forest (blijvend bos); conversion forest (eenmalig leeg te kappen bos) and provisionally maintained forest (voorlopig in stand te houden bos). permanent forest comprises specially protected forest (speciaal beschermd bos), protection forest (schermbos) and permanent production forest (blijvend produktiebos) (Baal, 1991). Protected areas legislation has been reviewed recently by Baal (1991). Recommendations arising from this report include evaluating the provisions in the legislation to bring definitions in line with those evolved during the IV World Parks Congress. Suriname participates in the FAO Tropical Forestry Action Plan (TFAP), an international strategy for maximising the contribution of forestry sectors to national economic and social development while maintaining conservation principles. A national action plan has been formulated to interpret the global objectives of the TFAP to meet specific national requirements. International Activities Suriname signed the 1940 Convention concerning the Protection of Flora, Fauna and Natural Scenic Beauty of the Americas (Convencién sobre la Proteccién de la Flora, de la Fauna y de las Bellezas Escénicas Naturales de los Paises de América) (Western Hemisphere Convention). Suriname is one of the eight countries with territory in the Amazon region that signed the Amazon Cooperation Treaty on 3 July 1978, an agreement to establish regulations for managing natural resources and to propose conservation directed alternatives to the management of multinational projects. The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) was ratified on 18 March 1985, under Protected Areas of the World which one site has been inscribed. Suriname is not party to the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention), neither does it participate in the Unesco Man and Biosphere Programme. Suriname participates in the Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network. Under this network, three reserves, Coopenamemonding and Wia Wia Nature Reserves and Bigi Pan Multiple-Use Management Area, were officially established as hemispheric reserves on 4 March 1989. At the same time, these three protected areas were twinned with two protected areas in Canada, following a Memorandum of Understanding of 8 August 1987 concerning cooperation in the field of conservation by the Canadian Wildlife Services and the Suriname Forest Service. Administration and Management The Ministry of Natural Resources (Ministerie van Natuurlijke Hulpbronnen) is responsible for policy direction, legislation, issuance of permits, budget allocation and interministerial coordination, and for all matters relating to natural resources. Three sections exist within this ministry. Two, the Forest Service and the Bureau of Lands, are responsible for protected areas. The third section, the Foundation for Nature Preservation, deals with sea turtles and nature tourism. The Director responsible for the first two sections is also responsible for enforcement of the Police Penal Code (under which sanctuaries may be established) (Baal, 1989, 1991; Held and Reichart, 1991). A high-level advisory body, the Nature Conservation Commission, was established in 1948 to advise the government on environmental and conservation issues and to assist in decision-making. Responsibilities of the commission include supervising the implementation of the Nature Preservation Law, and selecting areas for designation as nature reserves (Baal, 1989). The Forest Service is in charge of the protection, control, and management of the forest resources, and both forest protection and production, as detailed in the 1954 Nature Preservation Law. Within the Forest Service, the Nature Conservation Division comprises four sections, one for each of its functions: nature reserves and wildlife management (including trade regulation); research; education; and Bureau for Commissions to issue permits (Baal, 1989). Regulation enforcement and patrolling of protected areas is carried out by forest guards of the Forest Service (Schulz, 1968). Nature reserves are managed primarily to afford protection for scientific research purposes, but tourism and environmental education are encouraged increasingly in the more accessible areas (Mittermeier et al., 1990; Schulz, 1968). A second division within the Forest Service, the Special Protection Forest and Protection Forest Section, is responsible for formulating the new draft Law on Forest Management and for its implementation once passed (Held and Reichart, 1991). 290 The Bureau of Lands is responsible for long-term lease areas, including nature parks and multiple-use management areas. In 1969, the Foundation for Nature Preservation (Stichting Natuurbehoud Suriname) (STINASU), a non-governmental organisation, was established to assist the Forest Service in managing nature reserves. The responsibilities of STINASU have grown, and it now plays an important role in conservation in the country. It is responsible for nature tourism, promoting public environmental awareness campaigns, including sponsoring and guiding the development of a Wildlife Rangers Club for young people, and conducting research on sea-turtles. STINASU also has sole management of one nature reserve (Baal, 1989; Mittermeier et al., 1990). The Forest Service and STINASU work very closely together, and provide mutual assistance for their conservation activities. A Conservation Action Plan was drawn up in 1990 (by WWFE-USA, the Ministry of Natural Resources and STINASU) as part of the National Forestry Action Plan, to provide a framework by which conservation activities in Suriname may be amplified and strengthened (Mittermeier et al., 1990). The Conservation Action Plan contains projected activities for a period of five years, including the formulation of management plans for each protected area, and establishment of an ecological database to provide up-to-date information on the status of ecosystems and species. These measures will assist in the administration of existing protected areas and in selecting new areas for protection. An increase in training opportunities for conservation workers is also recommended, such as providing fellowships for further education in conservation-related programmes with international assistance, at the University of Suriname, and foreign institutes (Mittermeier et al.,1990). Further details of the National Forestry Action Plan and the extent of implementation are currently not available. Management of protected areas is well organised, and is generally good. The factor most restricting its efficiency is a lack of funds and equipment. Five areas, however, do have administrative buildings and a guard force. Initially, in its enthusiasm to preserve wild habitats, the government did not give much consideration to the interests of tribal people (Held and Reichart, 1991). Despite this, government decisions have generally been respected, largely due to the low population pressure, and the existence of adequate land outside protected areas for tribal uses. Legislation has now been modified to take account of the needs of tribal people. In addition, the Forest Service and STINASU, when starting to manage protected areas, have strived to maintain good relationships with local villagers. Where possible, workers for the reserves and park are hired from the villages, and villagers are allowed to enter the reserves and park to fish, collect fuelwood and medicinal plants for personal use, and to perform cultural activities. However, the general laws on hunting, fishing, and forest exploitation have been complied with (Held and Reichart, 1991). An important exception has been the resistance to attempts to reduce the extent of turtle egg harvest in Galibi Nature Reserve (Reichart, 1991). Conflicts that do arise may be split into three categories: Amerindian claims of traditional rights; intensive land use on park boundaries; conflicting interests in the multiple-use management area (Held and Reichart, 1991). The Forest Service and STINASU have suffered from great financial problems, due to the economic recession of the country, especially during the last ten years. Nevertheless, financial and technical assistance is received from some international and foreign organisations, such as WWF-USA and WWF-The Netherlands, Conservation International, The Royal Institute for Nature Management in the Netherlands, the Canadian Wildlife Service and the Organisation of American States. Systems Reviews Suriname has a typical tropical climate with average temperature of 27C all year, and annual rainfall between 1750mm and 3000mm. Four main ecological regions may be distinguished: young coastal plain; old coastal plain; savanna belt; and the interior region (Mittermeier et al., 1990). The young coastal plain lies between Om-4m above sea level and consists of clay swamps with a natural vegetation of mangrove forests, open herbaceous swamps and several types of swamp forest. Just inland of this is the old coastal plain, lying between 4m-11m above sea level and consisting of clay swamps, sand ridges covered with grass and herbaceous swamps, swamp forests, dry forests and large areas of peat swamps (Mittermeier et al., 1990). Behind the coastal region lies the savanna belt, between 10m-100m, and characterised by white sand ecosystems. The natural vegetation is xerophytic and mesophytic dry and swamp forests, and dry to wet grass and shrub savannas. Extending inland from the savannas on the ancient Guiana Shield, the interior region covers three-quarters of the total area of the country (Mittermeier et al., 1990). Altitudes range to 1,230m, and the region is almost entirely covered with primary tropical rain forest, interspersed with small patches of marsh forest along rivers and creeks. Around 95% of the total population lives in the coastal region where the capital city in located, and only around 5% lives in the interior. The forest in this sparsely uninhabited region is largely undisturbed and the rate of destruction is very low, around 0.1% annually (Mittermeier et al., 1990). In total, nearly 90% of total land area is covered by forest. Nature conservation activities are based on Dutch traditions and began around 50 years ago. The Nature Conservation Commission was established in 1948 to assist the government in all environmental conservation issues. The first attempt at management was the creation of the first game sanctuary in 1953, based on the 1942 Police Penal Ordinance (Baal, 1989; Schulz, 1968). In 1969 this area became Coppenamemonding Nature 291 Republic of Surinam Reserve, forming part of the first phase of protected areas (nine nature reserves and one nature park) that were gazetted between 1961 and 1972. Most of these protected areas are located in remote areas of the country. The second phase was the period after Suriname’s independence. The need was felt to preserve interesting natural areas in lowland areas where the population, and therefore human pressure on the ecosystems, was higher. Four new nature reserves were therefore gazetted in 1986, and in 1987, part of the estuarine zone, Bigi Pan, was put at the disposal of the Ministry of Natural Resources, to be managed as a multiple-use management area (Held and Reichart, 1991). It has been proposed since 1976 that the whole estuarine area, including Bigi Pan Multiple-Use Management Area, could become a special management area. Brownsberg Nature Park is a long-term lease area issued to the Foundation for National Preservation in Suriname, which manages it as a national park (Baal, 1991). By 1990 there was a total of 13 nature reserves, 1 nature park and 1 multiple use management area, collectively accounting for around 5% of total land area (Mittermeier et al., 1990). In addition, two further nature reserves, two forest reserves and enlargements of existing areas are proposed, which would bring the total area under protection to 7%, and include representative samples of the majority of Suriname’s characteristic ecosystems (Baal, 1989; Held and Reichart, 1991; Mittermeier et al., 1990). There are, however, some protected areas near human settlements, where conflicts have arisen, or may arise in the near future (Held and Reichart, 1991). Nature conservation is generally in good shape. The country has a well-planned programme for nature conservation and environmental protection, with a well managed network of protected areas, despite the economic problems facing the country since 1983. The lack of available funds is the most restricting factor in the implementation of these projects (Baal, 1991; Mittermeier, et al., 1990). However, problems do exist. In particular, some parks in the interior have had their infrastructure damaged by recent army activities, and STINASU is now trying to raise the money required to rebuild them (K. Wood, pers. comm., 1991). Addresses Nature Conservation Department of the Forest Service, Ministerie van Natuurlijke Hulpbronnen (Ministry of Natural Resources), Cornelis Jongbawstraat 10-12, PO Box 436, PARAMARIBO (Tel: 71316/75845/ 10256; FAX: 597 72911; Tix: 364 NHE SN) Stichting Natuurbehoud Suriname (Foundation for Nature Preservation in Suriname) (STINASU), PO Box 436, PARAMARIBO (Tel: 75845 ext. 343541) Protected Areas of the World References Werkhoven, M. (1990). Conservation action plan ; for Suriname. Conservation International, Baal, F.L.J. (1989). Nature conservation and Ministry of Natural Resources, World Wide Fund management in Suriname. Suriname Forest for Nature, Foundation for Nature Preservation in Service,Paramaribo. 8 pp. Suriname (STINASU), and University of Baal, F.L.J. (1991). Legal aspects of protected areas in Suriname in collaboration with Suriname Forest Suriname. Presented at [Vth World Congress on Service, Paramaribo. 45 pp. National Parks and Protected Areas, Caracas, Reichart, H.A. (1991). The Galibi Nature Reserve. Venezuela 10-21 February 1992. 30 pp. Presented at IVth World Congress on National Held, M.M. and Reichart, H.A. (1991). Managing Parks and Protected Areas, Caracas, Venezuela protected areas in Suriname. Presented atl Vth World 10-21 February 1992. 15 pp. Congress on National Parks and Protected Areas, Caracas, Venezuela 10-21 February 1992. 26 pp. Mittermeier, R.A., Plotkin, MJ., Werner, T.B., Malone, S.A.J., Baal, F., MacKnight, J., Mohadin, K., Schulz, J.P. (1968). Nature Preservation in Suriname. Unpublished report. 21pp. 292 Republic of Surinam ANNEX Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration Title: The Police Penal Code, Government Bulletin (G.B.) No. 77, 1915 (updated by G.B. No. 152, 1942 with latest amendment in G.B. No. 107, 1964). Date: 1915 Brief description: Provides for the establishment of sanctuaries. Administrative Authority: Resources Ministry of Natural Designations: Sanctuary Hunting or capturing of wildlife is only allowed following issue of a written permit Source: Baal (1989) Title: Law on the Issuance of State-owned Lands (Agarische Wet G.B. No. 53, 1937, updated by G.B. No. 53, 1953), later updated by Decree L-2 of 15 June 1982, by which nature parks and multiple-use management areas may be created. Date: 1937 Brief description: Provides for the establishment of nature parks and Multiple-Use Management Areas Administrative Authority: Bureau of Lands Designations: Multiple-Use Management Area No information Nature park No information Source: Baal (1991) Title: The Timber Law Date: 1947 Brief description: Provides for the creation of forest reserves, and for placing concessions at the disposal of the Government Administrative Authority: Forest Service 293 Designations: Forest reserve For exploration and exploitation Source: Baal (1989); Schulz (1968) NB This Forest law is soon to be replaced by the existing draft Law on Forest Management (Concept-Ontwerp Wet Bosbeheer), which currently awaits enactment by Parliament. Title: | Natuurbeschermingswet (Nature Preservation Law) (Government Bulletin No. 26) Date: 1954 Brief description: Provides for the establishment, by State Resolution, of protected areas under the designation nature reserve. Administrative Authority: Suriname Forest Service , Designations: Nature reserve An area of public land which is of scientific, aesthetic or cultural value. The area may not necessarily be of exceptional value, but may be a representative sample of an important national ecosystem. The primary management objective of reserves is protection for scientific research purposes. Recreational and educational activities are possible in the more accessible reserves. The area is selected for designation by the advisory board, the Nature Conservation Commission, created in 1948. The carrying of firearms is not permitted, or any other means of hunting or capturing wildlife, including dogs. Article 7 provides for the opportunity to have a business within the boundaries of the reserve (in accordance to an approved plan) to gather forest products, to graze cattle, or to fish when certain conditions are complied with. Source: Baal (1989); Schulz (1968) Protected Areas of the World Title: Planning law (Planwet) (G.B. No. 89) Designations: E Special management (Bijzondere Date: 1 ate: 1973 seden) Brief description: Provides, amongst other Source: Baal (1989) things, for the establishment of special management areas Administrative Authority: Planning Bureau SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS Map Nationall/international designations IUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified Nature Reserves 1 Boven Coesewijne IV 127,000 1986 2 Brinckheuvel IV 6,000 1972 3 Copi IV 28,000 1986 4 Coppename Monding IV 12,000 1966 5 Eilerts de Haan IV 220,000 1966 6 Galibi IV 4,000 1969 1 Peruvia IV 31,000 1986 8 Raleighvallen-Voltzberg II 78,170 1966 9 Sipaliwini IV 100,000 1972 10 Tafelberg IV 140,000 1966 11 Wane kreek IV 45,400 1986 12 Wia-wia IV 36,000 1961 Nature Park 13 Brownsberg II 8,400 1969 Mul Itiple Use Management Area 14 Bigi Pan Vill 68,320 1987 Ramsar Wetland Coppename Rivermouth R 12,000 1985 294 Republic of Surinam Protected Areas of Suriname 295 ¢ f i" hg J 1 , iy : we! Gaal aptegaasbi Veh ; ee es ray , ae it aed ite ; Vittes Myung foie Dearest (GB. Nate ie _ Seah his “Pr ie Gee ae Wok SAeMeRes ghee at a le il We: coh gaa cat MG Pt a acca ek Papers! ei se & _,| Sidhe aiae 0% Fis he. Sais, wad cc Pier rere ia td —_ Farner va teal he J 7 — — ———— ee hay aay’ oe ee : ¥ viker wif keh ghey ity? “Pat ndings La Meade Nese MPR ALIN Pee acl ‘ ; q “Ae. y= , 2 Re Ses es A Con, um f ; r= + og vi, x — i i Rat mJ Ps 7 i | ‘| a ses 4 if | en v8 AP enh mtorr 4, URUGUAY Area 186,925 sq. km Population 3,094,000 (1990) Natural increase: 0.53% per annum Economic Indicators GDP: US$ 2,452 per capita (1987) GNP: US$ 2,620 per capita (1989) Policy and Legislation No national conservation objectives have been stated in Uruguayan legislation or constitution (Anon., 1991; Oltremari, 1988). There has never been a written policy or defined strategy for resource protection and, as a result, environmental legislation is confused and dispersed (Nebel and Cravino, 1987). Conservation principles are spread across a number of legislative acts, but do not provide a coherent legal structure on which to base protected area establishment (Oltremari, 1988). The first legislative act to make provision for the creation of protected areas was the 1968 Forestry Law (Ley Forestal) No. 13.723. Reference is made to parks and reserves, declaring them part of the state forest heritage (patrimonio forestal del estado), but definitions for such designations are not given. A fiscal forest is that part of the forest heritage not declared a national park. Exploitation is only possible under a management plan prepared by the Forestry Directorate (Direccion Forestal) of the MGAP. In 1971, Law No. 14.053 provided for the creation of the Institute for the Preservation of the Environment (Instituto para la Preservacién del Medio Ambiente), as part of the Ministry of Education and Culture (Ministerio de Educacion y Cultura). This institute has a commission specifically for wildlife, environment and countryside matters. It has now been dissolved (see under Administration and Management) (R. Cal, pers. comm., 1992). The 1968 Forest Law was repealed by the 1987 Forest Law (Ley Forestal) No. 15.939, currently in effect, which defines state-owned forested land as that which is not used for other productive use, and, owing to its specific characteristics, is best suited for permanent forest coverage. Provision is made for privately-owned forested land to be declared by the Forestry Directorate as protection or production forest, or unclassified general forests. Reforestation by the private owner is obligatory where necessary for conserving or restoring renewable natural resources, and provision is made to compel the owner to sell his land if he does not comply. The Forestry Directorate has been abolished, and its responsibilities have largely been transferred to RENARE’s Flora and Protected Areas Division (Divisiédn de Flora y Areas Protegidas) (DFAP) (R. Cal, pers. comm., 1992). 297 Two regulations under the 1987 Forestry Law have been made. Decree No. 450/988, 1988 states the need for a national forestation plan (plan nacional de forestacién) to be established over a period of five years. Among the objectives of this plan is the promotion of forest resource renewal and environmental conservation. Decree No. 452/988, also of 1988, gives further details of regulatory measures and enforcement of the 1987 Forest Law. The conditions under which forests are declared productive, protection or unclassified are stated, but no clear definitions are given. It is prohibited to fell trees in protection forests. There is no single piece of legislation that gives definitions for management categories, though anew bill is being written by RENARE (R. Cal, pers. comm., 1992). Definitions may be derived from decrees providing for the creation of individual protected areas, but these were passed with no national plan or structure to follow and are often vague or contradictory. For example, Law No. 9718 of 1937 declares Fort San Miguel a national monument and the surrounding area a national park, but Decree No. 533 of 1970 declares San Miguel and Santa Teresa National Parks as wildlife reserves (Wetterberg et al., 1985). International Activities Uruguay signed the Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the Western Hemisphere (Convencién sobre la Proteccién de la Flora, de la Fauna y de las Bellezas Escénicas Naturales de los Paises de América) (Western Hemisphere Convention) in 1940, and ratified it in 1969. Uruguay ratified the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) on 9 March 1989, but no sites have been inscribed; the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) on 22 May 1984, with one site inscribed; and participates in the Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme with one site accepted as an internationally recognised biosphere reserve in 1976. Administration and Management The Ministry of Livestock, Agriculture and Fisheries (MGAP) is responsible for natural resource use. Within the Ministry, the General Directorate of Renewable Natural Resources (Direccién General de Recursos Naturales Renovables) (RENARE) is the organisation vested with this responsibility. RENARE comprises two directorates, one of which is the Soils and Waters Directorate (Direccién de Suelos y Aguas). The other is the Flora, Fauna and Protected Areas Directorate (Direccién de Flora, Fauna y Areas Protegidas), which in turn is split into two divisions. The Flora and Protected Areas Division (Division de Flora y Areas Protegidas) (DFAP) is responsible for the management of protected areas and for controlling the felling of native forest; it Protected Areas of the World also administers and manages all state-owned forests and protected areas, which account for over 60% of the protected areas. The Fauna Division (Divisi6n de Fauna) manages the conservation and exploitation of native wildlife. The Forestry Directorate has now been dissolved, and its functions (except for reforestation, which is assigned to the national forestry plan, under MGAP) have been assumed by RENARE’s Flora and Protected Areas Division (Divisién de Flora y Areas Protegidas) (DFAP) (R. Cal, pers. comm., 1992). The Institute for the Preservation of the Environment, established in 1971, used to work in close association with the former Forest Directorate to conserve natural resources, but this relationship did not produce any significant results (Oltremari, 1988). The Institute has now been dissolved and in its place a Ministry of Housing, Territorial Planning and Environment (Ministerio de Vivienda, Ordenamiento Territorial y Medio Ambiente) (MVOTMA) has been created. Its role is to decide national conservation policy including that concerning protected areas. Its National Environment Directorate (Direccién Nacional de Medio Ambiente) does not possess protected area specialists and so RENARE staff act as consultants (R. Cal, pers. comm., 1992) Although administration appears centralised, there are numerous institutions that, directly or indirectly, are also involved in protected area management (Nebel and Cravino, 1987). The Park Service of the Army (Servicio de Parques del Ejercito) (SEPAE), within the Ministry of National Defence (Ministerio de Defensa National), administers two areas, Santa Teresa and San Miguel Historic Monuments and National Parks (Anon., 1991; Oltremari, 1988). Some departmental administrations (intendencias departamentales), municipalities, and the State Insurance Bank (Banco de Seguros Del Estado) are involved in others (Oltremari, 1988; Oltremari and Nebel, 1988). There are at least 30 non-governmental organisations (NGOs) working in conservation issues, at both the national and the regional level. Among the nationwide groups is the Friends of Environmental Preservation (Amigos de la Preservacién Ambiental) (APA) which supports protected areas and environmental education. There is a need for greater cooperation between the various governmental and non-governmental organisations, in order to attain national conservation objectives (Oltremari, 1988), although Cal (pers. comm., 1992) reports that there is now a satisfactory level of cooperation. The structure of the RENARE is relatively recent, and the divisions lack clearly assigned functions, resulting in instability and reduced capability. Following the 1987 Forest Law, the RENARE is vested with a wide range of functions and, therefore, coordination within the organisation is essential. In order to develop a plan for a coherent protected area system, a stable and strong 298 centralised administration with capable personnel is required (Oltremari, 1988; Oltremari and Nebel, 1988). In 1980, lack of personnel was given as one of the main factors limiting the administrative effectiveness of the bodies responsible for protected areas: there were only three professionals, three technical staff, four administrative staff, five park guards and around 100 labourers in the entire protected area management organisation. Following studies conducted in 1988, the situation did not appear to have changed substantially (Oltremari, 1988), although there may have been improvements with the recent reorganisation of protected areas administration (R. Cal, pers. comm., 1992). Systems Reviews Umuguay is primarily a pastoral country, with around 75% of the land used for livestock farming. Some 42% of the population lives in the capital city (Oltremari and Nebel, 1988; Paxton, 1990). The climate is warm temperate, with mild winters and warm summers. Average rainfall in the capital region is 950mm. The wildlife appears to have been seriously affected by the intensity and extension of livestock—raising activities, mainly through loss and modification of habitat: as an indicator of this, 18% of the country’s mammal species and 10% of its bird species are endangered or threatened (Oltremari and Nebel, 1988). A detailed assessment is currently not available. From extensive studies carried out during the development of a proposal for a protected area system, it appears that the south-east region is the richest in biodiversity, and contains ecosystems of the greatest national interest for conservation (Anon., 1991). The south-eastern region is known as the Atlantic plains, and may be divided into two sub-regions: the Atlantic basin comprising the water courses of several rivers; and the basin of Lake Merin, known as Bafiados del Este (Eastern Marshes). The Atlantic basin is totally flat, inundated temporarily or permanently, with poor drainage. Along the coast are extensive sand dunes, and the region is very rich in bird species. Except for the state-owned reserves already established there, the remaining land is under private ownership. Cattle ranching is extensive, and rice is grown along the waterways. The Eastern Marshes are low-lying, with grassland and palm trees, and rice is also grown extensively here. Annual temperatures in the south-east region are around 17°C, and rainfall ranges between 1000mm and 1100mm. Protected area declaration began in 1915, but has been random, with no common objective (Oltremari and Nebel, 1988). Some 40% of the current protected area system was established during the 1960s. By 1988, there were 16 protected areas, covering a total of 33,538ha. None of the established areas has a management plan nor defined objectives clarifying its function. Many areas are not of sufficient size to afford protection to their resources and require reclassification (Oltremari, 1988). In most cases, protected areas were not given clear boundaries in the legislation providing for their creation, and conflict over land use has resulted (Anon., 1991). The integrity of many protected areas is threatened by commercial plantation of rapidly growing tree species. For example, exotic trees were planted along coastal areas to stabilise the sand dunes, but their popularity with tourists attraction has led to planting in further areas (Oltremari and Nebel, 1988). However, Cal (pers. comm., 1992) states that this has affected only one natural monument. Most protected areas are located in the Rocha department in the south-east region. In 1986, Uruguay began to participate in the FAO Latin American Network for Technical Cooperation in National Parks, other Protected Areas, Flora and Wildlife (Red Latinoamericana de Cooperaci6n Técnica en Parques Nacionales, Otras Areas Protegidas, Flora y Fauna Silvestre), which promotes integrated management of protected areas and exchanges of information in each participating country. At the time of joining, Uruguay was one of only two countries in Latin America that neither possessed nor had instigated proposals to establish a coherent national system of protected areas (Ormazabal, 1988). In 1989, the MGAP acknowledged the urgent need for a legal structure to improve protected area management, effectiveness and coverage, and a National Consultative Network (Red Nacional) was established, comprising delegates from private and governmental organisations involved in resource management, including DFAP, the Fauna Directorate and the SEPAE (Larrobla, pers. comm., 1990; R. Cal, pers. comm., 1992). Following this, the National Environment Study (Estudio Ambiental Nacional) was initiated in 1990 in collaboration with the Organization of American States and the Interamerican Development Bank, which states the necessity for a coherent system of protected areas (Anon., 1991). The current problems are cited as the lack of a national conservation objective, the presence of several different administrative bodies, and land ownership. The cooperation of state, municipal and private organisations is required to implement an unified system, particularly as proposed areas are often on privately-owned land (Anon., 1991). The study provides for the future creation of an environmental information system (sistema de informacién ambiental) as a later Stage in the development of a national environmental conservation strategy (Anon., 1991). These problems are now being tackled and the situation may be improving (R. Cal, pers. comm., 1992). The main objective of the National Environment Study is to identify priority conservation areas and select those that will form the basis of a national system, ensuring that all biogeographical regions in the country are included. Cultural and historical importance of areas is also taken into account. The study identified 36 important areas, some of which are already protected, and others which are of potential value. Of these, 16 299 Uruguay priority areas were selected for further investigation and drawing up of management plans (Anon., 1991). The development of an effective protected area system requires, primarily, a legal structure to provide clear definitions of management categories and objectives (Oltremari, 1988). Detailed studies of individual areas, their present situation and biodiversity, have led to a comprehensive proposal for a national system of protected areas, with detailed definitions of the categories to be included (see Annex) (Anon., 1991). Three categories of protected areas will be used in the national system, and definitions are given (see Annex). The reserve category can be expanded to include not only forests, but all natural resources, and allow varying degrees of use. Established areas will be reclassified as required, and all areas will remain under the administration of the MGAP. The proposed national system of protected areas covers 0.7% of the total country area, and contains characteristic ecosystems and important geological formations. However, the national environmental study cites the south-east region as the most important for conservation purposes, in terms of species richness and biodiversity. Efforts to increase protected area coverage have been concentrated in this area (Anon., 1991; Oltremari, 1988). The proposed areas for the system is by no means a closed list, others may be included and the system should be flexible enough to incorporate new areas as the need arises (Anon., 1991). Details of the extent of implementation of the proposed system are not yet available. Addresses Direcci6n General de Recursos Naturales Renovables (RENARE), Ministerio de Ganaderia, Agricultura y Pesca, Cerrito 322, 2do. piso, 11000 MONTEVIDEO (Tel: 958434/956741/959878; FAX: 956456) Ministerio de Vivienda, Ordenamiento Territorial y Medio Ambiente (MVOTMA), ZabalaMONTEVIDEO (Tel: 950211/950421/963954) Amigos de la Preservaci6n Ambiental (APA), Somme 1612, MONTEVIDEO References Anon. (1988). Temas de conservacién. "El Yacaré". Sociedad Zoolégica del Uruguay/Sociedad de Conservacion del Medio Ambiente. P. 30. Anon. (1991). Seleccién de dreas silvestres para integrar un sistema nacional de dreas protegidas. Uruguay: estudio ambiental nacional. Oficina de Planeamiento y Presupuesto (OPP)/OEA/BID. 134 pp. Laffite, A. (1980). Inventario nacional para selecci6n de nuevas Greas para parques nacionales. Ministerio de Educacién y Cultura/Universidad de la Republica, Facultad de Agronomia, Montevideo. Protected Areas of the World Nebel, J.P., and Cravino, J.L. (1987). Situacién actual de las Areas Protegidas en Uruguay. MGAP:RENARE, Montevideo. 13 pp. (Unseen) Oltremari, J.V. (1988). Estrategia para el desarrollo de un sistema nacional de Greas protegidas en Uruguay. Oficina Regional de la FAO para América Latina y el Caribe, Santiago, Chile. 58 pp. Oltremari, J.V. and Nebel, J.P. (1988). Las dreas protegidas en Uruguay. Flora, fauna y dreas silvestres 3(7): 13-22. Oficina Regional de la FAO para América Latina y el Caribe, Santiago, Chile. Ommazabal, C. (1988). Sistemas nacionales de dreas silvestres protegidas en América Latina. Basado en los resultados del taller sobre Planificacidén de Sistemas Nacionales de Areas Silvestres Protegidas, Caracas, Venezuela, 9-13 junio, 1986. Oficina Regional de la FAO para América Latina y el Caribe, Santiago, Chile. Paxton, J. (Ed.) (1990). The Statesman’s Yearbook 1990-1991. The MacMillan Press Ltd, London. 1,691 pp. Wetterberg, G.B., Jorge Padua, M.T., Tresinari, A. and Ponce, C.F. (1985). Decade of progress for South American national parks 1974-1984. US National Park Service, Washington, DC. 125 pp. ANNEX Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration Title: Proposal for a national system of protected areas Date: 1988 Brief description: A proposal for a coordinated system of protected areas, giving definitions of the management categories to be used, that is to be established by law. Administrative Authority: Ministerio de Ganaderia, Agricultura y Pesca (Ministry of Livestock, Agriculture and Fisheries), via the Direcci6n General de Recursos Naturales Renovables (General Directorate of Renewable Natural Resources) (RENARE). Designations: Parque Nacional (National Park) An extensive area where a diversity of unique ecosystems are found, or ecosystems representative of the ecological diversity of the country, which have not been significantly altered by man. The floral or faunal species or geological formations within the area are of scientific, educational or recreational interest, and are to be maintained in their natural state. 300 Only activities compatible with the continuity of the natural process are permitted, such as recreation, education or investigation. Monumento Natural (Natural Monument) An area usually of small size, characterised by the presence of native species of flora or fauna or cultural, scenic, educational or scientific importance. Only educational, recreational or investigative activities are permitted. Reserva Nacional (National Reserve) An area whose natural resources are important to be conserved owing to their particular fragility or susceptibility to be degraded and for their importance for the welfare of the community Particularly threatened species of wildlife or fauna, watersheds and for studies of sustainable use. The concept of reserve may be expanded to include a variety of management categories such as multiple use reserve and forest reserve, the common factor being the preservation of specific resources and the obligation of a management plan. Source: Oltremari (1988) Uruguay SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year ref, Name of area category (ha) notified National Parks 1 Anchorena Vv 1,450 1978 2 Arequita Vv 1,000 1964 3 Franklin Delano Roosevelt Vv 1,500 1915 4 San Miguel V 1,598 1937 5 Santa Teresa Vv 3,288 1927 Faunal Reserve 6 Laguna de Castillos IV 8,000 1966 Natural Monuments 7 Costa Atlantica Il 14,250 1966 8 Dunas de Cabo Polonio Il 1,000 1966 National Forests 9 Islas del Rio Negro Vil 1,850 1969 10 Islas del Rio Uruguay vil 6,660 1921 Forest Reserve 11 Cabo Polonio Vil 6,000 1942 Biosphere Reserve Bafiados del Este 1D.¢ > et 200,000 1976 Ramsar Wetland Bajfiados del Este y Franja Costera Ix 200,000 1984 301 Protected Areas of the World Protected Areas of Uruguay 302 THE REPUBLIC OF VENEZUELA Area 912,047 sq. km Population 19,735,000 (1990) Natural increase: 2.36% per annum Economic Indicators GDP: US$ 2,450 per capita (1989) GNP: US$ 2,716 per capita (1987) Policy and legislation Responsibility for protecting natural resources is given in the 1961 Constitution. It establishes the state as the main manager of resources, allowing sustainable exploitation for the benefit of the population (AID/NPS, 1981). Major restructuring of the government departments responsible for environmental management and policy making took place during the 1970s, reflecting increased concern with reconciling socio-economic development and natural resource conservation (AID/NPS, 1981). A ministry specifically responsible for natural resources was established in 1976 and began its activities in 1977. Through it, the national policy of "development destined to meet the basic needs of the present and future population through the rational use of natural resources", was promulgated (AID/NPS, 1981). A national conservation strategy, stating national conservation priorities, was drawn up in 1989 by a nongovernmental organisation (NGO), the Foundation for the Defence of Nature (Fundacién para la Defensa de la Naturaleza) (FUDENA), and published with the support of IUCN and WWF. This sets out specific recommendations for utilising and protecting resources in accordance with the World Conservation Strategy (1980) are given (Anon., 1989). Information on the extent of implementation is currently not available. Following signature of the Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the Western Hemisphere (Convencién sobre la Proteccién de la Flora, de la Fauna y de las Bellezas Escénicas Naturales de los Paises de América) (Western Hemisphere Convention) in 1940, Venezuela passed a law in 1941 incorporating the principles of the Convention into its own legislation (Anon., 1987). Under provisions of the Agrarian Reform Law (Ley de Reforma Agraria) Gaceta Oficial No. 611, March 1960, land under state protection for conservation cannot be used for agricultural purposes, and communities living within the area are compulsorily relocated (R. Garcia, pers. comm., 1984). The 1943 Forest Law of Lands and Waters (Ley Forestal de Suelos y Aguas), revised in 1955 and 1965, made provision for the 1964 Partial Regulations of the Forest Law of Lands and Waters (Reglamento Parcial de la Ley Forestal de Suelos y Aguas), Decree No. 156. This defines forest reserves and 303 regulations pertaining to the exploitation of resources within them (see Annex). The 1965 Forest Law of Lands and Waters (Ley Forestal de Suelos y Aguas), Gaceta Oficial No. 1004, details conservation and utilisation of natural resources, including forests and forest products, public and private water and soil. National parks, protection areas and forest reserves are defined and their administration is assigned to the Ministry of Agriculture (see Annex). Provision is made for the expropriation of private land to establish national parks. The regulations to the 1943 Forest Law remain in effect (FAO, 1965). The 1970 Wildlife Protection Law (Ley de Proteccién a la Fauna Silvestre) declares the creation of faunal reserves, refuges and sanctuaries (reservas, refugios y santuarios de fauna silvestre) a public utility, and provides for the sustainable exploitation of wild fauna. Refuges and sanctuaries are given the absolute protection of the State (Gondelles, 1992). The Organic Law of the Environment (Ley Organica del Ambiente) (1976) institutionalises environmental planning as part of the national planning system, and establishes committees for the "conservation, defence and improvement" of the environment in every municipality. The highest responsibility for national environmental policy rests with the President of the Republic and the Council of Ministers. Provision is made for the creation of the National Environment Council (Consejo Nacional del Ambiente) to be in charge of legal and institutional aspects of environmental management. The Organic Law of Central Administration (Ley Organica de la Administracién Central) passed on 22 December 1976, assigns environmental planning responsibilities to the appropriate bodies. Most importantly, it provides for the creation of the Ministry of the Environment and Renewable Natural Resources (Ministerio del Ambiente y de los Recursos Naturales Renovables) (MARNR), to be responsible for all natural resources, and for implementing environmental policy. Environmental management responsibilities were shifted from the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock to the new Ministry of the Environment under provisions of the 1977 Regulations of the Forest Law of Lands and Waters (Reglamentos de la Ley Forestal y de Suelos y Aguas). The National Institute of Parks (Instituto Nacional de Parques) (INPARQUES), an autonomous institute attached to MARNR, was created to manage national parks and natural monuments. In 1983, the Organic Law for Territorial Planning (Ley Organica para la Ordenacién del Territorio) is the most effective current protected area legislation (Gondelles, 1992). The law defines 25 categories of areas thatrequire special administration owing to their particular Protected Areas of the World production, recreation or protection potential, and any threats to their integrity. Collectively, these form the system of Areas under Special Administrative Regime (Areas Bajo Régimen de Administracién Especial) (ABRAB), and responsibility for their administration is to be assigned to the appropriate institutes (Annex). Because the ABRAE system comprises a wide variety of different categories, not all of which are for conservation ends, it is about to be superseded by a more modern Natural Protected Areas system (Areas Naturales Protegidas) (ANAPRO)(Gondelles, 1992; A. Luy, pers. comm., 1992). The 1989 Partial Regulation of the Organic Law for Territorial Planning pertaining to Administration and Management of National Parks and Natural Monuments (Reglamento Parcial de la Ley Organica para la Ordenacién de Territorio sobre Administracién y Manejo de Parques Nacionales y Monumentos Naturales) Decree No. 276, details the regulations governing these two categories of protected area, including prohibited activities and measures for ensuring compliance with the law. National parks and natural monuments are divided into zones according to the activities compatible with the different ecosystems within them, and definitions are given. Management plans are mandatory for each protected area, to be revised every five years, and are legislated as presidential decrees (decretos presidenciales). In January 1992, the Penal Law of the Environment (Ley Penal del Ambiente) was passed. Article 59, referring to national parks, establishes fines and arrests for persons found hunting wildlife (birds, amphibians, mammals and Teptiles), or destroying shelter on which it depends. Protected areas are also mentioned in Article 58 (A. Luy, pers. comm., 1992). During 1991, MARNR and INPARQUES formulated a proposal for anew and comprehensive Protected Natural Areas Law (Ley de Areas Naturales Protegidas), and the first draft is currently in revision (Pardo, pers. comm., 1991). Further details of the contents and objectives of this new law are currently not available. International Activities The Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the Western Hemisphere (Convencidn sobre la Proteccién de la Flora, de la Fauna y de las Bellezas Escénicas Naturales de los Paises de América) (Western Hemisphere Convention) was signed by Venezuela in 1940, and ratified in 1941. Venezuela is one of the eight countries with territory in the Amazon region that signed the Amazon Cooperation Treaty (Tratado de Cooperacién Amazé6nica) on 3 July 1978, an agreement to establish regulations for managing natural resources and to propose conservation-directed alternatives to the management of multinational projects. In 1977 Venezuela joined the Caribbean Conservation Association (CCA), a regional, non-governmental, nonprofit organisation dedicated to promoting policies 304 and practices which contribute to conservation, protection and wise use of natural and cultural resources. The Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region (the Cartagena Convention), and the related Protocol Concerning Cooperation in Combating Oil Spills in the Wider Caribbean Region, were both signed by Venezuela on 24 March 1983 and ratified on 18 December 1986. The second protocol, Protocol Conceming Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife (SPAW), was signed by Venezuela in June 1991, but has not yet been ratified. The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) was signed in 1988, with one site listed by 1991. Venezuela ratified the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) in October 1990, but no sites have been inscribed. Venezuela is a signatory to the Unesco Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme and has a national MAB committee, although neither of its two biosphere reserves are internationally recognised (J.P. Rodriguez, pers. comm., 1992). INPARQUES, EcoNatura and Wildlife Conservation International (WCI) are currently carrying out a US$ 1 million programme for the Consolidation of the Venezuelan National Parks System (Fortalecimiento del Sistema de Parques Nacionales de Venezuela) with support from the European Community (CJ. Sharpe, pers. comm., 1992). Administration and Management The present structure of the protected areas management system began with the creation of MARNR in 1976, and the start of its activities in 1977. MARNR is responsible for the conservation, protection and regulation of all natural resources, and all environmental activities previously assigned to the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock under the 1965 Forest Law. It executes work either directly or through appropriate institutes, and is, therefore, the main agency for devising and implementing Venezuela’s environmental policy (AID/NPS, 1981). At the national level, MARNR comprises four Sectoral General Directorates (Direcciones Generales Sectoriales), a structure which is repeated at the regional level in the 24 administrative areas by which MARNR divides the country. The regional agencies, although autonomous, execute the Ministry’s basic programmes. Several autonomous management bodies with responsibilities to manage forests, wildlife and the Amazon Federal Territory were formed in 1989, all dependent on MARNR: the Venezuelan Forestry Service (Servicio Forestal Venezolano) (SEFORVEN); the Wildlife Service (Servicio Auténomo para la proteccion, restauracién, fomento y racional aprovechamiento de la fauna silvestre y acudtica del pais) (PROFAUNA)); and the Autonomous Service for Environmental Development of Amazon Federal Territory (Servicio Auténomo para el Desarrollo Ambiental del Territorio Federal Amazonas) (SADA-AMAZONAS). SEFORVEN is responsible for managing the country’s forested land, and, in particular, for regulating the exploitation of forest resources in compliance with current forestry legislation. It does not manage protection forests that form part of protected areas in the ABRAE system. PROFAUNA regulates the exploitation of terrestrial and aquatic wildlife, implements conservation programmes, and is responsible for the administration of areas that are designated as ABRAEs because of their wildlife resources. SADA-AMAZONAS is responsible for the conservation, protection and improvement of the environment in the Amazon _ region. SADA-AMAZONAS coordinates and supervises activities in the implementation of the Planning of Amazon Federal Territory (Plan de Ordenacién del Territorio Federal Amazonas), which is based on the national Organic Law for Territorial Planning, and promotes scientific research in the region to identify areas for protection. The respective institutes responsible for managing those ABRAEs that are located in the Amazon Federal Territory work closely with SADA-AMAZONAS to achieve the conservation objectives of the region. A Consultative Council (Consejo Consultivo) assesses the activities of SADA-AMAZONAS. All national parks and natural monuments are managed by INPARQUES, and, following the 1989 regulations, management plans must be drawn up for each area. By 1991, INPARQUES had formulated management plans for seven national parks, which have subsequently been approved and passed into the legislation in the form of decrees (C. Pardo, pers. comm., 1991). INPARQUES has at its disposal two bodies for the protecting natural resources and upholding regulations pertaining to their use: a body of civilian park guards, and the Environmental Guard (Guarderia Ambiental) made up of armed forces from the National Guard (Guardia Nacional) and officials of MARNR (Anon, 1987; J.P. Rodriguez, pers. comm., 1992). The Environmental Guard is empowered by law to prevent and curtail activities detrimental to the environment within national parks or natural monuments. Activities carried out by the armed forces include: border patrol; tourist information and education programmes; building and maintaining conservation centres and controlling resource use by enforcing regulations (Anon., 1987; IUCN, 1986). The institutes responsible for managing other categories in the ABRAE system, are selected by MARNR (C. Pardo, pers. comm., 1991). There are a large number of NGOs concerned with conservation and environmental issues. The two largest 305 The Republic of Venezuela are the Foundation for the Defence of Nature (Fundacién para la Defensa de la Naturaleza) (FUDENA), established in 1975, and the Venezuelan Foundation for the Conservation of Biological Diversity (Fundacién Venezolana para la Conservacién de la Diversidad Biolégica) (BIOMA), established in 1986. FUDENA promotes research projects and action plans to protect wildlife and fauna, helps to manage one protected area and has formulated a national conservation strategy. BIOMA identifies, evaluates and supports the administration of protected areas (BIOMA, 1987). In addition, BIOMA owns and manages four private reserves totalling 3,225 ha (Romero, 1992b). BIOMA’s Conservation Data Centre (Centro de Datos para la Conservacién) (CDC) was formed in 1988 to identify areas of conservation value within the country (Anon., 1989). Among the other NGOs that work in aspects of the declaration and/or management of protected areas are PROVITA, the Venezuelan Audubon Society (Sociedad Conservacionista Audubon de Venezuela), the Educational Association for Nature Conservation (EcoNatura), and a large number of organisations that concentrate their work on a particular region or individual national park. In 1991, 17 NGOs from all over the country met to form the Network of Nongovernmental Conservation Organisations (Red de Organizaciones Conservacionistas No Gubernamentales) to encourage an exchange of information and coordinate activities (C.J. Sharpe, pers. comm., 1992). The increased deployment of armed forces within national parks is a reflection of problems and weakness in the management of protected areas. Insufficient funds for training park guards and providing equipment results in poor administration and encroachment by migratory farmers and mining companies in some cases (Anon., 1987; IUCN, 1986). As a result, INPARQUES called on the services of the armed forces to maintain the integrity of the national park system by assisting in their management (Anon., 1987; IUCN, 1986). The potential for improving the efficiency of protected area management was greatly increased by introducing the system of zonation, by which activities within national parks and natural monuments are consigned to suitable zones, as detailed in the 1989 Regulations to the Organic Law of Territorial Planning pertaining the Administration of National Parks and Natural Monuments. Together with the provision for mandatory management plans for each area, a coherent structure with detailed regulations is being created, on which to base all protected area management (MARNR, 1989). A System of Computerised Information on National Parks (Sistema de Informacién Computerizada sobre los Parques Nacionales de Venezuela) (SIPANA) is being developed by INPARQUES to improve administration of both national parks and natural monuments and allow more efficient selection of new areas. Data on the integrity of ecosystems; species abundance; equipment, personnel and infrastructure; and activities taking place Protected Areas of the World in each area will allow management plans to be regularly updated (M. Bevilacqua, pers. comm., 1991; M. Gabaldon and M. Bevilacqua, pers. comm., 1990). The role of INPARQUES in declaring and managing protected areas is often compromised by the interests of superior government bodies, such as the Ministry of Energy and Mines (Ministerio de Energia y Minas) and other departments and autonomous services of MARNR. As aresult, mining concessions have been granted within national parks. Protected areas may also be degazetted in order to permit mineral and hydrocarbon exploitation (Anon, 1992; M.L. Goodwin, 1992; C.J. Sharpe, pers. comm., 1992). Systems Reviews All the characteristic Neotropical biogeographic regions are represented in Venezuela: high mountains, coastal ranges, arid and semi-arid regions, mangroves and marine coastal wetlands, seasonally flooded plains, areas of high endemism, very disturbed tropical forest north of the Orinoco River, and relatively undisturbed areas to the south (Anon., 1989). Following Holdridge’s classification (1967), 23 life zones occur in Venezuela (Anon., 1982). The most important ecosystems are: the Caribbean coast (2,813km in length) and islands (more than 100 large islands); the Atlantic coast with deltas and mangrove forests; the Andean mountains which include cloud forests, paramos, tundra-like zones, and permanently-snowed peaks (up to 5,007m); the cloud forests of the Coastal Cordillera; llanos, flat lands with savanna vegetation and many seasonal and perennial rivers and lagoons; arid zones with xerophytic vegetation, and true deserts with moving sand dunes; Amazonian rain forest, the Gran Sabana, a grassland area on a 16,000 sq. km plateau at 1,000m with tepuyes or table mountains. Tepuyes are also found in the Amazon region (Salinas, n.d.). Venezuela has around 400,000 sq. km of intact natural forest, most of which is located in the area south of the Orinoco River. This area accounts for around 50% of total land area and includes the Amazon Federal Territory, itself comprising 20% of the total land area but containing only 0.5% of the population (AID/NPS, 1981; Anon., n.d.; C. Pardo, pers. comm., 1991), Ninety per cent of the population lives north of the Orinoco River, a distribution that leads to critical environmental problems, such as soil erosion and deforestation in the Andean and west central regions where agricultural activity is intense (Anon., n.d.). Cattle raising is one of the most important land uses, taking up nearly one-third of the total national territory, and is particularly extensive in the Ilanos region. Only 4% of the total land area is used for arable agriculture (AID/NPS, 1981; Anon., n.d.). The first protected area, a national forest, was declared in 1936 and raised to the status of national park in 1937. The legal framework for distinct categories of protected areas, from controlled exploitation to inviolable 306 protection, began with the declaration of the first national park in 1937 (Garcia, 1989). By 1991, 39 national parks and 17 natural monuments had been declared, accounting for around 15.07% of the total national territory. Together with other management category designations, a total of 44.39% of national territory is under at least minimal legal protection in the ABRAE system (C. Pardo, pers. comm., 1991). In addition, a small number of private reserves are run by the NGO BIOMA. Venezuela participates in the FAO Latin American Network of Technical Cooperation in National Parks, Other Protected Areas, Flora and Wildlife programme (Red Latinoamericana de Cooperacién Técnica en Parques Nacionales, Otras Areas Protegidas, Flora y Fauna Silvestres) through MARNR (FAO, n.d.; Ormazabal 1988). According to the definition given by the FAO Network, Venezuela has developed a comprehensive national system. Information on protected area coverage and the degree of protection subsequently afforded to the major ecosystems in Venezuela indicates that there are deficiencies. These are chiefly due to lack of legislation; conflicting policies between government departments; few possibilities for the involvement of NGOs in protected area management and decision-making; and lack of economic resources (Luy and Ochoa, 1991; Romero, 1992a; C.J. Sharpe, pers. comm., 1992). Many of these problems stem from the low priority given to conservation by the government, reflected in the lack of political support given to INPARQUES. On the other hand, efforts have been made to increase protection in the Amazon Federal Territory. In 1978, timber extraction in the region was limited by Decree No. 2552 (A. Luy, pers. comm., 1992). Half of the territory is now protected under various management categories (J.P. Rodriguez, pers. comm., 1992). A research centre, the Alejandro de Humboldt Amazonian Environmental Investigation Centre (Centro Amazénico de Investigacién Ambiental Alejandro de Humboldt), has been established (FAO, 1991). Problems in the protected area system arise, in many cases, as a result of selection procedures and inadequate planning processes (IUCN, 1986; C. Pardo, pers.comm., 1991). Twenty-five different management categories, many of which are not for conservation purposes, are described in Venezuelan legislation, making the protected area system too complex for efficient implementation of management plans (Anon., n.d.; Putney, 1987). The new ANAPRO system is designed to supercede ABRAE but has not yet been approved (A. Luy, pers. comm., 1992). Lack of funding for the park service reduces its ability to enforce regulations, and encroachment by fishing and mining industries poses a serious threat to some protected areas. Equipment and trained staff are lacking. By 1989, only three training courses for park guards had taken place, and nationwide 187 park guards were dispersed between 21 parks, leaving nine other parks without protection (Anon., 1987; Garcia, 1989; INPARQUES, 1983). Land tenure, hunting, and fires are also problems (Anon., 1987; Garcia, 1989; Amend and Amend, 1992). Rights of ownership are not clarified in law, and continued occupation, new colonisation and conflict within protected areas is common (Anon., 1987). Reviews of the national protected areas system have been carried out by: INPARQUES (1983), IUCN (1986), an international committee including INPARQUES, MARNR, IUCN, and MAB/UNESCO (Anon., 1987), Putney (1987, 1988), FUDENA (1989), Garcia (1989), and Anon. (n.d.). A review of marine and coastal parks was undertaken by INPARQUES in 1990. Addresses Instituto Nacional de Parques (NPARQUES), Direccién General Sectorial de Parques Nacionales, Avda R6mulo Gallegos, Santa Eduvigis, Aptdo 76471, CARACAS 1071-A (Tel: 2 285 4859; FAX: 2 285 3070) Ministerio del Ambiente y de los Recursos Naturales Renovables (MARNR), Aptdo 6623, CARACAS 1010-A (FAX: 2 483 6118/483 2445) SADA-AMAZONAS, Aptdo 68746, CARACAS 1062A (FAX: 2 545 0607/483 2445) Servicio Aut6nomo de Fauna Silvestre (PROFAUNA), Aptdo 184, MARACAY, Estado Aragua Asociaci6n Educativa para la Conservacién de la Naturaleza (EcoNatura), Edif. Matisco, Piso 1, Apartamento 5, Calle Veracruz, Las Mercedes, Aptdo 63109, CARACAS 1067A (Tel: 2 922812/923269/913813; FAX: 2 910716) Fundacion para la Defensa de la Naturaleza (FUDENA), Avda Principal los Cortijos de Lourdes C/2da transv., Edif. Centro Empresarial Senderos, Piso 6, Oficina 611-A, Aptdo 70376, CARACAS 1071-A (FAX: 2 239 6547) Fundacioén Venezolana para la Conservacién de la Diversidad Biolégica (BIOMA), Edif. Camara de Comercio de Caracas, Piso 4, Avda Este 2, Los Caobos, Aptdo 1968, CARACAS 1010 (Tel: 2 571 8831/571 9113/571 6009; FAX: 2 571 1412) PROVITA, Edificio Catuche, Nivel Oficina 1, Oficina 106, Parque Central, Aptdo 47552, CARACAS 1041A (Tel: 2 576 2828; FAX: 2 576 1579) Sociedad Amigos del Parque Nacional Henri Pittier, UCV-Maracay, Facultad de Agronomia, MARACAT (Tel. 43 453470/544454) Sociedad Conservacionista Audubon de Venezuela (SCAV), Edif. Matisco, Piso 1, Apartamento 5, Calle Veracruz, Las Mercedes, Aptdo 80450, CARACAS 1080A (Tel: 2 922812/923269/9138 13; FAX: 2 910716) References AID/NPS (1981). A country study of Venezuela. Legal, regulatory and institutional aspects of environmental and natural resource management in developing countries. AID/NPS Natural Resources Project. Agency for International 307 The Republic of Venezuela Development/ National Park Service, Washington, DC. 64 pp. Amend, S. and Amend, T. (1992). ;Espacios sin Habitantes? Parques nacionales de América del Sur. IUCN and Editorial Nueva Sociedad, Caracas. 497 pp. Anon. (n.d.). Areas protegidas de Venezuela. Maraven S.A. 48 pp. Anon. (1982). Program of conservation of national heritage in Venezuela. Partial report. Fundacion para la Defensa de la Natvraleza (FUDENA). 10 pp. Anon. (1987). Los parques nacionales hacia el tercer milenio - aspectos estratégicos de la guarderia ambiental (ponencia institucional), Caracas 22-27 February. INPARQUES/UNESCO MAB/IUCN, MARNR. 51 pp. Anon. (1989). Hacia una estrategia nacional de conservacién: plan de accién para la conservaci6n de especies 1988-1992. FUDENA/IUCN/WWE. 82 pp. Anon. (1992). Ministerio de Minas otorg6 permiso para explotar oro en Canaima y la Gran Sabana. Correo del Caront. 7 de agosto. Ciudad Guyana, Venezuela. BIOMA (1987). (Untitled). Fundacién Venezolana para la Conservacion de la Diversidad Bioldégica, Caracas. 15 pp. FAO (n.d.). La Red Latinoamericana de Cooperacién Técnica en Parques Nacionales, Otras Areas Protegidas, Flora y Fauna Silvestres. Oficina Regional de la FAO para América Latina y el Caribe, Santiago, Chile. 8 pp. FAO (1964). Food and Agricultural Legislation 13(4): 18. FAO (1966). Food and Agricultural Legislation 15(3): 124. FAO (1991). Informe del II Taller Internacional sobre Areas Protegidas en la Cuenca del Amazonas, Manu, Pert, 26 de noviembre 5 de diciembre 1990. Oficina regional de FAO para América Latina y el Caribe, SANTIAGO, Chile. Gabaldon, M. (1992). Parques Nacionales de Venezuela. Parques Nacionales y Conservacién Ambiental, Vol. 1. GTZ/INPARQUES, Caracas. 124 pp. Garcia, R. (1989). Los parques nacionales de Venezuela. Encuentros 6: 15-20. Gondelles, R. (1992). El régimen de dreas protegidas en Venezuela. Banco Consolidado, Caracas. 68 pp. Goodwin, M.L. (1992). Report of inspection trip to Tachira State, June, 1992. 12 pp. (Unpublished) INPARQUES (1983). Conclusiones y recomendaciones — III Congreso Venezolano de Conservaci6n, Guanare, 12-16 diciembre. Caracas. 11 pp. INPARQUES (1990). Venezuela, 16 anos de experiencia en parques nacionales marinos y costeros. Instituto Nacional de Parques, Direccién General Sectorial de Parques Nacionales, Caracas. 16 pp. Protected Areas of the World IUCN (1986). Perspectivas econémicas de los parques nacionales venezolanos. 27a Sesidn de trabajo de la Comisi6én de Parques Nacionales y Areas Protegidas (CNPPA), Bariloche, Argentina. 16 pp. Luy, A. and Ochoa, J. (1991). Algunos aspectos sobre las pol{ticas de manejo y conservaci6n de bosques en Venezuela. Sociedad Conservacionista Audubon de Venezuela (SCAV). 5 pp. MARNR (1989). Decisiones para la Accién Ambiental; decretos, convenios, acuerdos. Ministerio del Ambiente y de los Recursos Naturales Renovables, Caracas. 76 pp. Ormazabal, C. (1988). Sistemas nacionales de dreas silvestres protegidas en América Latina. Basado en los resultados del taller sobre Planificacién de Sistemas Nacionales de Areas Silvestres Protegidas, Caracas, Venezuela, 913 junio 1986. Proyecto FAO/PNUMA sobre manejo de 4reas silvestres, 308 dreas protegidas y vida silvestre en América Latina y el Caribe. Oficina Regional de la FAO para América Latina y el Caribe, Santiago, Chile. Pp. 2023. Putney, A. (1987). Summary of conclusions and recommendations, Putney consultancy to the Ministry of the Environment, Venezuela, 9-26 July. 2 pp. Red de Organizaciones Conservacionistas No Gubernamentales. (1991). ARA. Boletin de la red de organizaciones conservacionistas no gubernamentales 1(1). PROVITA, Caracas. 6 pp. Romero, A. (1992a). Auditoria ambiental de Venezuela, 1991. BIOMA, Caracas. Romero, A. (1992b). La experiencia de BIOMA en 4reas protegidas. Paper presented at IV World Parks Congress, Caracas, Venezuela, 1992. Salinas, P.J. (n.d.). Protected landscapes in the Neotropics with special reference to Venezuela. Unpublished. 3 pp. ANNEX The Republic of Venezuela Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration Title: Decree No. 156 Reglamento Parcial de la Ley Forestal de Suelos y Aguas (Regulations under part of the Forest Law of Lands and Waters) Date: 18 August 1964 Brief description: resources Administrative authority: Livestock) Designations: Reserva Forestal (Forest Reserve) area with recognised productive capacity Boundaries are to be defined by Executive Decree. Rational exploitation is allowed, in accordance with the general principles laid down in the Final Act of the Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the Western Hemisphere, signed by Venezuela in October 1941. Exploitation is carried out either directly by the Forestry Service, or by public bidding for timber stands within reserves. Management plans establish the quantity of timber that may be exploited annually. Source: FAO (1964) Title: Ley Forestal de Suelos y Aguas, Gaceta Oficial No. 1004 (Forest Law of Lands and Waters) Date: 30 December 1965 Brief description: areas are given. Administrative authority: implementing regulations for forest use. Designations: Defines forest reserves, and provides for the rational exploitation of their Ministerio de Agricultura y Cria (Ministry of Agriculture and A wooded Governs the conservation, promotion, and rational use of natural resources specified within the law. The definition of a national park and general criteria for designating protection Ministerio de Agricultura y Cria (Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock) is responsible for natural resource administration, including formulating management plans for national parks and protection areas, and 309 Parque Nacional (National Park) Areas remarkable for their natural scenic beauty or with flora and fauna of national importance. Public recreation and education, tourism and scientific research are the only activities allowed. It is prohibited to hunt, shoot, kill or capture wildlife and to destroy or collect flora samples, except when undertaken by park authorities or duly-authorised persons. Protection Area (Area de Proteccién) All areas around springs or the source of any stream for a radius of 200m. -an area at least 300m wide on both sides parallel to chains of mountains and along the slopes of plateaux. An area at least 50m wide along both banks of navigable rivers and an area at least 25m wide along non-navigable seasonal water courses. Areas around lakes and lagoons whose limits are to be laid down in regulations pertaining to this law: land in river and water basins which require protection owing to their situation or geographical condition; areas needed as windbreaks areas and other areas in the vicinity of human settlements which act as factors in regulating the climate or environment It is prohibited to carry out agricultural work or destroy vegetation within protection areas. Public use of protection areas is provided for by regulations to this law. -Protection areas are declared by Law or Executive Order. Source: FAO (1966) Title: Ley Organica para la Ordenacién del Territorio (Organic Law of Territorial Planning), Gaceta Oficial No. 3238 Date: 11 August 1983 Brief description: Defines categories of protected area that collectively comprise the system Areas Under Special Administrative Rule (Areas Bajo Régimen de Administracién Especial) (ABRAE). These areas are declared by the National Executive to have productive, protective and recreation functions, and contribute to the socio-economic development of the country. Administrative authority: The institutes responsible for each area are to be assigned by Presidential Decree (Decreto Presidencial) in the Council of Ministers (Consejo de Ministros). Designations: Parque Nacional (National Park) Natural area whose ecosystems have not been altered by human Protected Areas of the World exploitation or occupation, and where flora, fauna and geomorphological characteristics are of national importance. Recreation, educational activities and scientific research are allowed. The only exploitation permitted is that of water resources, subject to severe restrictions. Monumento Natural (Natural Monument) Area of national interest for historic or scientific reasons. Recreational activities are allowed and restricted exploitation of water resources. Reserva de Fauna Silvestre (Wildlife Reserve) Area required for managing wild animals to ensure the continued production of certain species.Hunting is allowed, but subject to restrictions. Refugio de Fauna Silvestre (Wildlife Refuge) Areas which are necessary for the protection, conservation and propagation of wild animals, particularly those in danger of extinction. No exploitation is permitted. Santuario de Fauna Silvestre (Wildlife Sanctuary) No definition given in the extract from the original legislation. Parque Litoral (Littoral Park) Coastal area for the protection and preservation of natural resources of scientific and educational value. No exploitation is permitted. Zona Protectora (Protection Zone) Area recognised as important for regulating climate and water sources. Rational resource use, hydroelectric and forest exploitation are permitted. Reserva de Bidsfera (Biosphere Reserve) Those areas in which are found the combination of natural ecosystems requiring protection, and local populations whose traditional lifestyle is in harmony with the environment. Source: Anon. (n.d.); extract from original legislation Title: Reglamento parcial de la Ley Organica para la Ordenaci6n de Territorio sobre Administracién y Manejo de Parques Nacionales y Monumentos Naturales (Partial regulation of the Organic Law of Territorial Planning regarding the Administration and Management of National Parks and Natural Monuments), Decree No.276 Date: 9 June 1989 Brief description: Establishes the basic regulations for administering national parks and natural monuments, and details the procedures by which new areas are established. To improve administrative efficiency, these two categories of protected area are divided into different management 310 zones according to the fragility of the natural resources found within them, and the degree of use that can be supported by each zone. Definitions of the zones are given, and the zonification system is to be included in the management plans for national parks and natural monuments, which are obligatory. Any number of these zones may be applied to a protected area as suitable Administrative authority: Instituto Nacional de Parques (National Institute of Parks), (INPARQUES), within the Ministerio del Ambiente y de los recursos Naturales Renovables (Ministry of the Environment and Renewable Natural Resources) (MARNR) Designations: Zona de Proteccién Integral (Integral Protection Zone) A fragile ecosystem that requires total protection to maintain it in its natural state. No form of modification is permitted and public access is denied. Only scientific research with prior authorisation and regulation, and routine park guard duties are permitted. Zona Primitiva o Silvestre (Primitive or Wilderness Zone) An environment that is in its natural state and has not been modified by man, but can tolerate limited use such as scientific investigation, environmental education or recreation subject to regulation. Some sport fishing is allowed with prior authorisation. No motor vehicles or activities that disturb the natural state of the area are permitted. Zona de Ambiente Natural Manejado (Managed Natural Environment Zone) An area that contains exaniples of the most significant natural features of the national park or natural monument, and that can support educational and recreational activities. The environment is to be maintained in its natural state with minimum human impact, while allowing public access. Motor vehicles are permitted only on specifically marked routes, and construction is permitted only to provide a basic and rustic infrastructure of visitor facilities. Zona de Recuperacioén Natural (Natural Recuperation Zone) An area that has been significantly altered by human activity and requires protection to prevent further degradation and allow the recuperation of its natural condition. Once the area has been restored it will form part of a managed natural environment zone. Zona de Recreacién (Recreation Zone) An area that, owing to its specific characteristics, is suitable for recreational activities and can support the maximum number of visitors permitted entry into the national park or natural monument. Facilities may be constructed but are subject to strict regulation in order to maintain the environment. Zona de Servicios (Services Zone) An area that, owing to its location and natural characteristics, is suitable for the construction of public service installations such as hotels, restaurants and camp sites. These are to be built and maintained with minimum environmental impact. Zona de Interés Histérico Cultural o Paleontolégico (Zone of Historic Cultural or Paleontological Interest) An area that contains representative examples of historical, paleontological, archaeological or cultural importance, and requires protection in order to allow rational use while maintaining its natural state. 311 The Republic of Venezuela Zona de Amortiguacién (Buffer Zone) A peripheral zone in which the regulation of human activities and natural resource use may reduce potential environmental threats to the national park or natural monument, and increase the overall protection of the area. Installations for public service may be constructed. When a national park or natural monument does not contain an area within it suitable for use as a buffer zone, MARNR is obliged to invesiigate the possibility of extending the protected area or creating another conservation unit adjacent to it, with appropriate management regulations. Source: Original legislation Protected Areas of the World Map ref. OPOAINDMNFPWNYNK SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS National/international designations Name of area National Parks Aguaro-Guariquito Archipiélago Los Roques Canaima Cerro El Copey Cerro Saroche Chorto El Indio Ciénagas del Catatumbo Cinaruco-Capanaparo Cueva de la Quebrada El Toro Dinira Duida Marahuaca El Avila El Gudcharo El Tama Guaramacal Guatopo Henri Pittier Jaua Sarisarifiama Laguna de Tacarigua Laguna de la Restinga Macarao Mariusa Médanos de Coro Mochima Morrocoy Paramos del Batallén y La Negra Parima-Tapirapec6 Peninsula de Paria Perija San Esteban Serrania de la Neblina Sierra Nevada Sierra de San Luis Sierra de la Culata Terepaima Turuépano Yacambi Yapacana Yurubi Biosphere Reserves (National) Alto Orinoco-Casiquiare Delta del Orinoco Faunal Reserves Ciénagas de Juan Manuel, Aguas Blancas y Negras Sabanas de Anaro Faunal Refuges Cafio Guaritico Cuare De la Tortuga Arrau Estero de Chiriguare Los Olivitos 312 IUCN management category Area (ha) 585,750 221,120 3,000,000 7,130 32,294 10,800 250,000 584,368 4,885 42,000 210,000 81,800 62,700 139,000 21,000 122,464 107,000 330,000 39,100 18,862 15,000 331,000 91,280 94,935 32,090 95,200 3,420,000 37,500 295,288 43,500 1,360,000 276,446 20,000 200,400 18,650 70,000 14,580 320,000 23,670 8,400,000 876,500 71,500 16,331 9,300 11,825 17,431 32,169 25,723 Year notified 1974 1972 1962 1974 1989 1989 1991 1988 1969 1988 1978 1958 1975 1978 1988 1958 1937 1978 1974 1974 1973 1991 1974 1973 1974 1989 1991 1978 1978 1987 1978 1952 1987 1989 1976 1991 1962 1978 1960 1991 1991 1975 1982 1989 1972 1989 1974 1986 National/international designations IUCN management Name of area category Natural Monuments Cerro Platill6n Ill Cerro Santa Ana Ill Cerros Matasiete y Guayamuri Ill Formaciones de Tepuyes Ill Laguna de las Marites Ill Las Tetas de Maria Guevara Ill Loma de Leén Ill Maria Lionza Ill Mortos de San Juan Il Pico Codazzi Ill Protective Zones Area Metropolitana de Caracas Barquisimeto Cabos, Puntas y Lagunas de Isla de Margarita Cuenca Alta de los Rios Maticora y Cocuiza Cuenca Alta del Rio Cojedes Cuenca Alta del Rio Tocuyo Cuenca Alta y Media del Rio Machango Cuenca Altas y medias del Rio Pao Cuenca del Rio Guarico De la Ciudad de Coro El Cigarrén Escalante Onia Mucujepe La Marichi La Mariposa La Tortuga Arrau Laguna de la Danta Las Gonzalez Litoral Central Macizo Montafioso del Turimiquire Maracaibo Margen Izquierdo del Rio Masparro Mucujin Piedemonte Norte de la Cordillera Andina Region Lago de Maracaibo Rio Albarregas Rio Capaz Rio Chuspita Rio Torbes y sus Alrededores Rio Yacambi Rios Guanare, Bocono, Tucupido, La Yuca y Masparro Rubio San Antonio - Urefia San Cristébal San Rafael de Guasare Serrania de San Luis Sierra Nirgua Sierra de Aroa Sierra de Bobare Sur del Edo Bolivar Sureste del Lago de Maracaibo Sto. Domingo Sureste del Lago de Maracaibo Uribante-Caparo ==<—<< <<< <<< <<< <<< <4 4 <<< --4-<44< <<< 4-44-44 Hydrological Reserves Burro Negro Distrito Paez del Estado Apure << 313 The Republic of Venezuela Area (ha) 8,000 1,900 1,672 1,069,820 3,674 1,670 7,275 11,712 PTS) 11,850 84,300 46,273 1,549 241,500 276,000 141,600 113,000 68,000 40,207 19,720 45,230 101,125 2,000 2,810 9,856 2,203 11,220 35,723 540,000 20,800 5,000 19,450 431,727 244,125 11,233 45,700 5,642 12,000 46,900 400,000 23,760 6,223 10,000 302,000 86,000 146,590 113,000 140,000 7,262,358 406,662 446,000 75,000 66,100 Year notified 1987 1972 1974 1990 1974 1974 1989 1960 1949 1991 1972 1987 1988 1974 1974 1974 1990 1974 1974 1987 1989 1975 1973 1988 1989 1974 1980 1974 1974 1986 1974 1985 1974 1974 1973 1989 1976 1974 1974 1991 1978 1982 1978 1973 1987 1974 1991 1974 1974 1974 1974 1974 1981 Protected Areas of the World Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified < 102 Distritos Maturin, Cedefio, Acosta, Piar 190,000 1976 103 Piedemonte Andino Vv 491,280 1974 104 Region Valle de Quibor Vv 72,000 1974 105 Rio Cupravera Vv 3,203 1978 106 Rio Pedregal Vv 195,900 1976 107 Rio Sanchén Vv 8,100 1976 108 Zona Sur de Lago de Maracaibo Vv 618,000 1974 Ramsar Wetland Cuare R 9,968 1988 314 The Republic of Venezuela °Yy ae auth 4 % off O° ar AN Protected Areas of Venezuela 315 io) SBS SRE A te ee ee ~* se ' al 2 a ae 7 7 ; Be ‘. F, ru : 7 - 7 cA ‘ G - += ; ~~ so gar 2 ? 7 oe “ les ced S22 = Op eee ~*~ 7 = ie : = : <<» _ ond i '~ 7 hl te + -_ 2 = Es: ps 1 5 | ARUBA (NETHERLANDS) Area 193 sq. km Population 62,000 (1988 estimate) (Hunter, 1991) Natural increase: no information Economic Indicators GDP: No information GNP: No information Policy and Legislation Aruba obtained the status of an autonomous country within the Kingdom of the Netherlands on 1 January 1986. Existing Antillean laws and regulations remain in force, but since this date Aruba has been responsible for its own legislation. Some laws to protect the environment are currently being introduced and, since April 1992 government officials have been working on a general policy plan for the conservation of nature (Department of Foreign Affairs, pers. comm., 1992). The collection of corals and of different species of conch (Strombus spp) and the catching of sea turtles is banned. However, the degree of enforcement is uncertain and permits for collection are available (UNEP/IUCN, 1988). International Activities The Kingdom of the Netherlands, on behalf of the Netherland Antilles and Aruba, is party to the Caribbean Conservation Association, and ratified the Convention for the Protection and Development of the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena Convention) on 24 March 1983 and the Protocol Concerning Cooperation in Combating Oil Spills in the Wider Caribbean Region on 16 April 1984. The Netherlands also acceded to the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) on 23 May 1980; a single site within Aruba has been designated under the Convention. The Netherlands also participates in the Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme, although no biosphere reserves have been established within Aruba. Administration and Management Since 1963 administration and management of protected areas has been the responsibility of a non-governmental organisation (NGO), the Netherlands Antilles National Parks Foundation (Stichting Nationale Parken Nederlandse Antillean STINAPA). Since 1983 Aruba has had an independent STINAPA, now officially known as FANAPA (Aruban Foundation for Nature and Parks). The aim of the organisation is to promote nature conservation through acquisition of land, establishment of parks and by education. Recently a much more extreme environmental and conservationist association, STIMARUBA, has been established (Department of Foreign Affairs, pers. comm., 1992). 317 Systems Reviews Aruba lies on the continental shelf of South America, less than 50km from the Peninsula de Paraguand on the Venezuelan mainland. It is a small island, less than 32km in length. Most of the island is relatively hilly, with the steepest slopes being on the north coast and the highest elevation reaching some 188m. The long southwest coast has a partly emerged reef, with tiny islands along its length, which is separated from the main island by a long narrow lagoon. Although corals are extensive in distribution, reefs are not highly developed, except in a small area on the southeast point (ECNAMP, 1980; UNEP/IUCN, 1988). Much of the vegetation has been modified by man, especially in the southwestern half of the island. Davis et al. (1986) describe the vegetation as xerophytic, consisting of thorny scrub and cacti. The reef islands off the south-west coast have some important mangrove communities, and represent an important area for breeding tern populations (Scott and Carbonell, 1986). Addresses Aruban Fouridation for Nature and Parks, PO Box 4014, Aruba STIMARUBA, c/o Spaanslagoenweg 33b, Aruba References Davis, S.D., Droop, $.J.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., Leon, C.J., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J., Synge, H., and Zantovska, J. (1986). Plants in danger: What do we know? IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. ECNAMP (1980). Aruba preliminary data atlas. Survey of conservation priorities in the Lesser Antilles. Eastern Caribbean Natural Areas Management Programme. 18 pp. Hunter, B. (Ed.) (1991). The Statesman’s Yearbook 1991/1992. The MacMillan Press Ltd, London. 1692 pp. IUCN (1987). Directory of wetlands of international importance. IUCN, Cambridge, UK. Scott, D.A. and Carbonell, M. (1986). Directory of Neotropical wetlands. \UCN, Cambridge and International Wildfowl and Wetlands Research Bureau, Slimbridge. 684 pp. UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 1; Atlantic and Eastern Pacific. UNEP Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi Kenya . 373 pp. | Sy ipaawics 40?! n> A oti A S ree opevar® <4 aut wars i a an ! «5eenA Pint* me lise : EY brow melee are Y oi 7 tae 16 metins . Bee 4? 4 ae can is set becded (suey eae ee Chr Ape ul Gre viii am LetSt2 Sue ; peek a Atel tos a7 nek a0eo) § ney aie ‘eh 6 ol Me written svi oh)" qaned ome dole! Ml Wi siplsricels 7 Ale hoe eae , - aeas S got pn! ead mba och AR) batoyrse a Wn sorihih a) (rime sw -piae Agata ‘ * a9 awe 4 at aces Josplarse yy ut- 2 Oe aid! pet Alb! ASE) ee els we *a'$plibon, dM a culencr ot ce Wad esd den) lt We ied pei x24 ane es Dyas & py - nyo ate las 2 te , 226% Daa rc ere mh ed Sen Ge Tags pes vs diece “a te avai, nays waft n° ae Say ber patria ovagcas varie tee cee?) tnd oe Salted BY cise nae 4p: 4 —“s abd wy a ’ * : ; os s j eT ADS ateN Dh eo taint oadlns ; y seu E WIth. AMF goer reget of) ARMIES oe Re 2 ewuleh a Py ieee Jt nsignO 1.2 decd U2 gael Aa ts Sadl egal acd l-ah! stil LY dent” Sie pe aa: vaginlej ni ” ; 7 * cr b- ly LS ean Jaana 5 £19 Phi staculées RARE) HP. 7 10h Fd agit) SUE iene == 2 i Sy elie wd. i Wedd bee AG eee AR Vana. Weaiiecrin is ech) tio pomp | 1 Sip % ay “t : 4 ta nu ’ Y AS is rt ) BUA ig Sac - " ‘ i. ; ‘ ‘ ie cena macy 7 =~ eS y ; atlas ae ractrtst oy 4 Doliaaoll ns ~~ 9 5 < 5 aque “apes oy Wau isc aluah y asi ine a wer Ya ox faath r= edie, (uowos- awl me, ET & proivelerl ae we pod a. eit et el ao reals nidal pes tx cael a05 ot x) Kiar F (istics 028 lesebouvie wt) ens a0 Arceceas, FPL USjA aces tel hedtoned a) meaty VS q heeny 6 o> pchbay eaal eee) net to wedi!) so tee Vy Beet vas xitode We etme SR sits Te: es el orale yh ot “nee a, -) porwr nore ee unr . sitelieve Se coolio saa fun - \ a ah) igi é at = salvia nrc =igeg eMLUTA Bieledolt oe tn ot agg nodtetneed) ne “ann ae of Veg ols eh patter) on: tealted Seed gk RAs? sl A > io. ited yeongd te je £80 /ahaydtd #7 op (pcukoren arenes WO gueinag) of occas ee? yr eR? eet i i Sh pain eg a Hie of a pderka ad av An elle satt tra ab ys ett 2 . 9G aoc) sang thes way les deer mal adie cee any veld poneha tinh att ondinnas * src «fl Hing anherensutl ‘ senor: a winces Migeews Nine =a glint a ss. wy eb soot maproynncht ‘ bogie tems vas Yo aasmergsgi wore, ib eietidiepal a7 (OU — Mr ‘/* S glam Pe. | eae om - he cooks ao | . a — ANGUILLA (UNITED KINGDOM) Area 91 sq. km Population 7,700 (1981) Natural increase: No information Economic Indicators GDP: US$ 4,875 per capita (1987) GNP: No information Policy and Legislation _ First settled by the British in the 17th century, from 1825 it was ultimately incorporated into the colony of St Kitts-Nevis-Anguilla. Anguilla ended its association with St Kitts-Nevis in 1980, and while the latter islands are now independent, Anguilla remains a dependent territory of the United Kingdom. Anguilla’s constitution was adopted in 1982, and a consolidated amendment was approved in May 1990. It is government policy to protect natural scenic areas, such as beaches, historic sites and marine life, from further damage through proper use of those resources (Richardson, 1984). The Marine Parks Ordinance, 1982 empowers the Governor "by Order or Regulations published in the Gazette" to "designate any portion of the marine areas of Anguilla as a marine park" and allows him to make regulations covering a wide range of measures. The entry into force of this Ordinance is to be secured through Regulations which have not yet been enacted. The Beach Protection Ordinance No. 10, 1988 provides for the Governor to declare protected beaches from which the extraction of sand and gravel is forbidden. Seventeen such beaches have been designated. The Anguilla National Trust Ordinance No 7, 1988 provides enabling legislation for the establishment of the Anguilla National Trust. International Activities | Anguilla is included in the UK’s ratification of the following international agreements; the Convention conceming the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (the World Heritage Convention) and the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention). Anguilla’s decision to join the UK’s ratification of Ramsar in 1990 followed an independent review of policy and legislation relevant to wetland protection on the island (Pritchard, 1990). The UK government ratified the Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena Convention) on 23 February 1986, and has signed the Protocol on Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife in 1991. Anguilla is not, however, included in the UK’s ratification of the Cartagena Convention. The government of Anguilla has been a member of the Caribbean Conservation Association (CCA) since 1983. Administration and Management Until 1990, environmental matters were the responsibility of the 319 Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, under the Ministry of Tourism and Natural Resources. Now the portfolio is held by the Office of the Chief Minister. A departmental structure on the environment side has not yet been developed and the budget comes under the Department of Public Health and the Environment (Pritchard, 1990). The recently established Department of Fisheries and Marine Resources has responsibility for the setting up and control of marine parks. It is anticipated that the proposed Anguilla National Trust will ultimately be responsible for marine and terrestrial park management (Pritchard, 1990). The Anguilla Archaeological and Historical Society, a non-governmental organisation (NGO), has been involved in the creation of the National Trust. The Department of Lands and Survey is responsible for administration of all Crown lands. In February 1987 the government established the Fountain National Park Development Committee, comprising the President of the Anguilla Archaeological and Historical Society (as Chairman), two other members of the Society, the Principal Assistant Secretary, the Chief Engineer of the Public Works Department’and the Director of Lands and Survey. At present the park is not functioning as a public amenity with managed access. Systems Reviews Anguilla is a low coralline island, formed from limestone and marls developed on old volcanic rocks. It shares acommon submarine shelf with St Martin/St Maarten to the south. The coastline has sandy bays in the south and cliffs in the north. There are extensive reefs off the north coast and fringing reefs along most of the south coast. The 17km-long reef along the southeast coast is considered to be one of the most important largely unbroken reefs in the eastern Caribbean (Putney, 1982). The vegetation consists of degraded evergreen woodland, with scattered areas of grassland, and low scrub. The only areas classed as ’wildlands’ ECNAMP, 1980) are the south-west peninsula, the north-east peninsula, two areas mid-way along the north-west coast, and Prickly Pear Cays. All vegetation is subject to uncontrolled grazing by livestock. Anguilla has small areas of mangroves and about 15 saline ponds of considerable importance for resident and migratory waterfowl. Offshore islands hold significant breeding seabird colonies. Detailed ecological surveys of the former and counts of the latter are required (Pritchard, 1990). The need to conserve marine resources effectively is recognised by the government. Establishment and Protected Areas of the World management of marine protected areas was addressed, for example, in 1980, when the government requested the assistance of ECNAMP in formulating a management plan for critical marine resources. A major recommendation of that study (Jackson, 1981) was the creation of a system of marine parks to protect areas of high ecological value from human activity. The study also recommended the establishment of a multiple-use reserve covering an area of sea to the north of Anguilla. In 1989 the government put forward a proposal to funding agencies for a comprehensive marine parks programme. The objectives of this are: to develop and implement an effective organisational approach for managing coastal resources; to provide site-specific information and technical guidelines for development and management of coastal resources; to establish marine parks at Shoal Bay, Sandy Island, Prickly Pear Cay (including Seal Island), Dog Island, Little Bay and Sombrero Island; to improve public awareness and understanding of coastal resources as a means of providing a base of popular support for protection and sustainable development of these resources; to provide immediate attention to, and amelioration of, known problems of beach erosion and visitor-caused damage to critical marine habitats at proposed park sites and elsewhere. Elements of the marine parks programme have been carried out or are in progress. Inventory and analysis of marine resources has been funded by the UK Overseas Development Administration’s British Development Division in the Caribbean (BDDC), and provision of public information by the US National Parks Service and WWF-UK. Work on the establishment of marine parks is being funded by WWF-UK. The only existing protected area is an important Anguillan archaeological site, Fountain National Park, acquired using government funds in 1985. Acquisition of the 4.75 acre site involved investigation of an extremely complex landowning pattern and negotiations with the owners by the Archaeological and Historical Society (Pritchard, 1990). The main pressures on natural resources come from the fishing industry and development of the island’s tourist industry. The home fishing industry employs 20% of the population, and territorial waters are fished by foreign trawlers (Richardson, 1984). Fishing and tourism both pose problems of damage to coral habitats by anchor and spearfishing. The development of tourism is increasingly important to the economy, but it also exerts pressure on natural resources. The development of tourism, together with house-building, is contributing to the current "building boom", causing environmental problems such as the extraction of sand leading to beach erosion. 320 Other Relevant Information Tourism has developed rapidly during the 1980s. At the beginning of the decade, Anguilla had only a few thousand visitors annually. The figure reached an estimated 70-80,000 in 1990. Addresses Ministry of Tourism (Permanent Secretary), Agriculture and Fisheries, The Valley Anguilla Archaeological and Historical Society, PO Box 252, The Valley References Anon. (1987). Anguilla. Lesser Antilles park and protected area news. Caribbean Conservation Association. 1(1): 2. ECNAMP (1980). Anguilla preliminary data atlas. Eastern Caribbean Natural Area Management Programme. Caribbean Conservation Association and the School of Natural Resources, University of Michigan. 18 pp. Jackson, I. (1987). A preliminary management strategy for the utilization of the critical marine resources of Anguilla. Report by ECNAMP, as part of the Anguilla Resources Development Project. Jackson, I. (1987). Plan of action for the development of marine parks, Anguilla. Caribbean Conservation Association. 22 pp. National Speleological Foundation (1986). Proposed plans and specifications for the development of the Fountain National Park Anguilla, British West Indies. USA. Pritchard, D. (1990). The Ramsar Convention in the Caribbean with special emphasis on Anguilla. Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, Sandy, Bedfordshire, UK. 146 pp. Putney, A.D. (1982). Survey of conservation priorities in the Lesser Antilles. Final Report. Caribbean Environment Technical Report. Caribbean Conservation Association. Richardson, L.V. (1984). Anguilla. In: Wood, J. (Ed.), Proceedings of the workshop on biosphere reserves and other protected areas for sustainable development of small Caribbean islands. USDI, National Park Service, Atlanta. 190 pp. Salm, R.V. (1980). Anguilla, coral reefs and the marine parks potential. Report to ECNAMP on the selection and design of marine parks and reserves. Unpublished. 21 pp. UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 1: Atlantic and Eastern Pacific. UNEP Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. UCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi Kenya. 373 pp. ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA Area 440 sq.km Population 78,726 (1988) (CCA, 1991) Natural increase: 0.93% (1988) Economic Indicators GDP: Not available GNP: Not available Policy and Legislation The National Parks Act No. 11, 1984, as amended (No. 3, 1986), gives general powers to the relevant Minister to declare any area of land or water to be a national park, subject to affirmative resolution of the legislature, and provides for the creation of a statutory corporation called the National Parks Authority. The Act does not provide a definition of the term "national park" and does not make provision for the establishment of other categories of protected area. Only one site, Nelson’s Dockyard National Park, has been created under the Act (CCA, 1991). It has been recommended that the existing law be amended to make provision for additional categories of protected area to be established, particularly those that allow a more flexible approach to resource conservation and exploitation (CCA, 1991). Two areas were proclaimed under the provisions of the Public Parks Ordinance No 4, 1965. The first of these has been incorporated subsequently into Nelson’s Dockyard National Park, whilst the latter is not protected in practice. Neither is referred to in the National Parks Act (CCA, 1991). The Marine Areas (Preservation and Enhancement) Act No. 5, 1972 gives the Minister of Agriculture, Land and Fisheries the authority to declare restricted marine areas in order to preserve and protect marine flora and fauna, natural beauty or to promote recreation. Two such areas have been declared under the Act (SRO No. 47, 1973), one in the reefs off Antigua and the other off Barbuda. Regulations made under the Act (SRO No. 25, 1973) prohibit certain activities within such areas. The Fisheries Act No. 14, 1983, which is consistent with the unified fisheries draft prepared by FAO for the Eastern Caribbean Commonwealth States, also provides for the declaration of areas of water and adjacent land as marine reserves, to protect natural beauty, flora, fauna and habitats, to restore degraded areas, or to promote scientific study (see Annex). No marine reserves have been created under this Act (CCA, 1991). The Forestry Ordinance Cap. 99, 1941, and the Forestry Regulations (SRO No. 13, 1941, SRO No. 42, 1952) provide for the protection of lands forested at the time of enactment, prevention of deforestation and for reforestation where deemed necessary by the government (see Annex). However, the legislation appears not to be in force (Miller et al., 1989). 321 Deficiencies in existing forestry and wildlife policy, legislation and regulations are recognised as deterrents to proper management of forest resources. With the assistance of FAO, a draft national forestry and wildlife policy (McHenry and Gane, 1988) and draft forestry and wildlife acts are being prepared. The institutional framework for the management of protected areas is also flawed, primarily because laws have been passed without sufficient consideration of staffing and budgetary requirements. Administrative responsibilities are also not clearly defined in the case of Barbuda (CCA, 1991). International Activities Antigua and Barbuda is party to the Caribbean Conservation Association, and ratified the Convention for the Protection and Development of the Wider Caribbean Region and the Protocol Concerning Co-operation in Combating Oil Spills in the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena Convention) on 11 September 1986. The Convention Concerning the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) was accepted on 1 November 1983, although, to date, no sites have been inscribed on the World Heritage List. The National Parks Authority received assistance from the Canadian International Development Agency to establish Nelson’s Dockyard National Park, particularly with respect to strengthening the institutional capability of the Authority. During Phase II of the development activities, CIDA is due to fund the upgrading of the park’s infrastructure (CCA, 1991). Administration and Management A Development Control Authority was established by the Land and Development Control Act (1977). The Authority has responsibility for granting or refusing permission to develop land, and is involved in the envisioned preparation of a national development plan for the country, a component of which will be measures for the improvement of the environment (Miller et al., 1989). Two different offices are involved with the protected areas system, the National Parks Authority, which reports to the Ministry of External Affairs, Economic Development, Tourism and Energy, and the Fisheries Division of the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Lands. The latter ministry is responsible for lands, forests, soil conservation, and marine areas. The Fisheries Division is responsible for implementation of both the Marine Areas and Fisheries acts, but lacks the staff and resources to manage effectively the protected areas for which it is responsible (CCA, 1991). The National Parks Authority is responsible for the implementation of the National Parks Act, and for all matters associated with park management, including planning and management of funds generated by park activities (or donated for use in the parks). The Protected Areas of the World Authority’s overall function is to preserve, protect, manage and develop the natural, physical and ecological resources, and the historical and cultural heritage of Antigua and Barbuda. The Authority has a Board of Directors with seven members, and approximately 35 staff, headed by a Parks Commissioner. An Advisory Committee of eight individuals is intended to facilitate community involvement in the affairs of the Authority. There is a weakness in the planning and research capabilities of the Authority, with those functions being taken up by CIDA consultants. Local councils on Barbuda and Antigua have legal responsibility for forest reserves on the islands, while the Forestry Unit in Antigua provides a range of services in connection with forestry. Although short-staffed and lacking adequate funds, this unit has produced a slope and soils map, which, taken together with an ownership map, provides information on priority government forest lands needing total protection, increased control over use, and rehabilitation (OECS, 1986). The Historical, Conservation and Environmental Commission was effectively established in 1989, as an advisory body to provide input and guidance for the management of the nation’s natural and historical resources. There are no statutory provisions for the Commission, and its terms of reference have yet to be promulgated or approved by Cabinet. However, it was actively involved in a recent environmental profile (CCA, 1991). Until recently, only one NGO has had an environmental agenda, namely the Historical and Archaeological Society of Antigua and Barbuda. Subsequently, the Environmental Awareness Group (EAG) was established in 1988 as an off-shoot with a stronger focus on environmental issues. One of the goals of EAG is to promote, by dialogue and example, appropriate sustainable life styles (IRF, 1991). The Antigua and Barbuda Fisherman’s Association is concerned with the destruction of mangroves and other areas important as fisheries habitats and nurseries. The Caribbean Natural Resources Institute, formerly the Eastern Caribbean Natural Area Management Programme (ECNAMP), is a non-profit organisation whose goal is to strengthen local capacity to manage living natural resources critical to development in the Caribbean region. Themes for the 1990s include: parks and protected areas; coastal zone management; community-based management; education and training; and sustainable resource utilisation (Putney and Renard, n.d.). Currently, only one protected area, Nelson’s Dockyard National Park is actively managed. However, management is focused on regulating and supporting business activities within the park, and the park’s biological, historical, cultural and historical components are not properly protected, preserved or managed. Two marine parks have been established under existing legislation, but activities are not controlled or regulated 322, in any way (CCA, 1991). The Parks Authority has little scientific expertise in natural resources management, and there is lack of coordination between protected area organisations (OECS, 1986). Further, no firm policy decision has been made on the ultimate responsibility for managing protected areas in Barbuda. For example, it is not clear if the Barbuda Council would have legal responsibility in the event that proposed areas were established (CCA, 1991). In addition, there is currently no adequate coastal zone management regime, and no agency has clear cut responsibility for wetlands (Jackson, 1990). Systems Reviews Antigua is a hilly coral limestone island, attaining 402m in the south-west, with a deeply indented coastline, fringed by reefs and shoals (UNEP/IUCN, 1988). The reefs are often formed on submerged limestone terraces or platforms. Mangrove vegetation has developed in sheltered bays and inlets behind barriers of sand or coral debris. Due to habitat alteration and human disturbance, much of Antigua’s remaining wildlife is limited to coastal areas and offshore islets and cays. Barbuda is a low limestone island (38m maximum elevation) with a markedly uniform coastline. It is one of the driest West Indian islands, with a mean annual rainfall of only 984mm. To the north and west lies an area of lagoons and creeks separated by beach ridges and mangrove swamps. Codrington Lagoon is the largest such area, and extends southward for practically the entire length of the island. The lagoon is an important nursery ground for fish and lobster, and constitutes one of the largest remaining stands of relatively unspoilt mangroves in the Lesser Antilles (Scott and Carbonell, 1986). In contrast to Antigua, Barbuda is largely forested and in a more natural state, having extensive tracts of native dry forests. The low topography and minimal rainfall has led to soils that are poorly developed, and, as a result, only minor agricultural activities and settlements have developed. The islands’ original forest formations comprised mangroves, littoral woodland, cactus scrub, thorn woodland, deciduous woodland, semi-evergreen woodland, semi-evergreen seasonal forest and evergreen seasonal forest, corresponding to progressively higher elevations and greater rainfall. A study undertaken for the Organisation of American States in 1983 best described the vegetation of Antigua and Barbuda at that time. The recurrent planting of sugar cane over several centuries, and the extensive area under cane production are considered to have destroyed, for all practical purposes, the evidence of natural vegetation. The introduction and rapid naturalisation of many plant species, which now dominate areas previously used for agriculture, have created pioneer ecosystems that are maintained by current land practices. The principal vegetation types found today comprise forest, scrubland, savanna and grassland (Morello, 1983). Current estimates of forest cover vary substantially over time, and according to the methods used. According to one study in 1983, 5,600ha were considered to be under woodland cover and 10,000ha under scrub vegetation, while another more recent estimate indicated some 9,600ha under woodland (Wirtshafter et al., 1987). A full description of the range of native habitats and species on both islands is provided by Miller et al. (1989) and CCA (1991). As early as 1979, a UNDP-supported project sought to identify and develop a national park system for Antigua and Barbuda (Robinson, 1979). Despite the recommendations of this project, the present protected area system does not provide adequate coverage of species, habitats and other environmental features. Four life zones are identified in Antigua according to ECNAMP (1980a); namely, mangrove, cactus scrub, dry woodland and moist forest. Much of the dry woodland that existed in the English Harbour/Falmouth area prior to 1960 has been reduced to cactus scrub, but sufficient remains that both of these zones are fairly well covered in Nelson’s Dockyard National Park. Moist forests are also well represented within the park. ECNAMP (1980a) also highlighted the important marine and coastal habitats, but neither these nor the wildlife they support are adequately represented within protected areas. The north-east coastline of Antigua and adjacent off-shore cays are particularly important for their concentration of wetlands, mangrove habitats, coral reefs, seagrass beds and seabird nesting sites, yet these have not yet been afforded protected status. Similarly, there is no legal basis for protecting the biological diversity of Barbuda. ECNAMP (1980a) has recommended areas for "special treatment” in both Antigua and Barbuda. The areas selected (ECNAMP 1980a, 1980b) indicate that for Antigua the volcanic south-west and southern sections and their nearshore and northern coastal and marine areas are vital for representation of ecosystems, species, and areas of outstanding recreational, historical and archaeological value. The Highlands of Barbuda and the extended marine habitats of its western and southern side are similarly important. A much better representation of the natural and historical resources of both islands in a system of parks and protected areas is warranted. A number of proposals for additional protected areas are presented in CCA (1991). During the past five years, a number of events have increased awareness of the need for strengthened and more environmentally-sensitive planning and development policies. These include the on-going destruction of mangroves for large-scale hotel, marine recreation facilities and waste disposal; clearing of hillside and scrub for road construction; and uncontrolled and illegal beach sand mining and sewage disposal (CCA, 1991). Addresses Parks Commissioner, Antigua and Barbuda National Parks Authority, PO Box 1283, ENGLISH 323 Antigua and Barbuda HARBOUR, Antigua (Tel: 809 460 1053; FAX: 809 460 1516) Fisheries Department, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Lands, Government Headquarters, ST JOHN’S, Antigua Antigua-Barbuda Historical and Archaeological Society, Antigua-Barbuda Museum, PO Box 103, Long Street, ST JOHN’S, Antigua (Tel: 809 462 1469). Environmental Awareness Group, Antigua-Barbuda Museum, PO Box 103, Long Street, ST JOHN’S, Antigua (Tel: 809 462 1469) References CCA (1991). Antigua and Barbuda: country environmental profile. Caribbean Conservation Association/Island Resources Foundation/ Environmental Awareness Group/US-AID. 212 pp. ECNAMP (1980a). Antigua preliminary data atlas. Eastern Caribbean Natural Area Management Programme. Caribbean Conservation Association and the School of Natural Resources of the University of Michigan. 18 pp. ECNAMP (1980b). Barbuda preliminary data atlas. Eastern Caribbean Natural Area Management Programme. Caribbean Conservation Association and the School of Natural Resources of the University of Michigan. 18 pp. IRF (1991). Directory of environmental NGOs in the Eastern Caribbean: A guide to non-governmental organisations supporting conservation and resource management programs. Island Resources Foundation, St. Thomas, US Virgin Islands. 46 pp. Jackson, I.L. (1990). Report on national workshop towards a strategy for integrating conservation and development in Antigua and Barbuda. 28/29 March, OECS Conference Room, St. John’s, Antigua. 21 pp. McHenry, T. and Gane, M. (1988). Report to the Government of Antigua and Barbuda on forestry and wildlife policy and legislation. FAO, Rome. (Unseen) Miller, G.A., Fujita, M.S. and Ford, L.B. (1989). Biological diversity and tropical forests assessment. Annex to RDO/C Action Plan, FY88-89. US-AID/RDO/C, Bridgetown, Barbados. (Unseen) Morello, J. (1983). Ecological diagnosis of Antigua and Barbuda. Organization of American States, Department of Regional Development, Washington, D.C. (Unseen) OECS (1986). Antigua and Barbuda, description of national legislation related to natural resources management (first stage analysis). Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States, Natural Resources Management Project. Castries. 16 pp. Putney, A. and Renard, Y. (n.d.). Working to strengthen human capacity to manage living natural resources critical to development. Protected Areas of the World Caribbean Natural Resources Institute, St. Croix, US Virgin Islands Vieux Fort, St. Lucia. Robinson, A.H. (1979). Identification and development of a national park system in Antigua and Barbuda. United Nations Development Programme. 27 pp. Scott, D.A. and Carbonell, M. (1986). Directory of Neotropical Wetlands. IUCN, Cambridge and IWRB, Slimbridge, UK. 684 pp. UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 1: Atlantic and Eastern Pacific. UNEP Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi Kenya. 373 pp. Wirtshafter, R., Radke, R., and Gless, J. (1987). Development of geographic information system for Antigua. Final report. Natural resources assessment for agricultural development project. Department of Regional Development, Organization of American States, Washington, DC. (Unseen) ANNEX Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration Title: Forestry Ordinance (Cap. 99) Date: 1941 Administrative authority: Local Council Designations: Forestreserve Cutting, or felling any tree, clearing for cultivation, or burning wood or charcoal shall be prohibited except with a permit. Source: OECS (1986) Title: Fisheries Act No. 14 Date: 1983 Administrative authority: Fisheries Department Designations: Marine reserve All flora and fauna, including fish, are protected and taking, pollution, or construction without a permission is prohibited. Source: Original legislation SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS category (ha) notified Map National/international designations ref. Name of area National Parks 1 Nelson’s Dockyard Marine National Parks ep Palaster Reef 3 Salt Fish Tail Reef (Diamond Reef) IUCN management Area Year Il 4,128 1984 II 500 1973 II 2,000 1973 324 Antigua and Barbuda Protected Areas of Antigua and Barbuda 325, _ TA toy at, ; is ‘ Hl ‘ ? ye ' i Ye its y { iM ; 7 tale Ps oy ie eh Gatos, OUT: FN. ten) fi veel. ne 4 0 ile ie ane, 1 ing Ih “ppl ome Vins VOrcan hinge i Ch, Cay 2 oye’ ord Coma Suman Wy GINO) eee ; ' ‘ ora a ‘el = ed) ms ae i on 4 . “ ) " 1 I 45 ; S J 6 ah myer a sy nS yie Vin ek Lie 4 i Wa yy a] is ay 4 ae Re}. oo ‘lel ete ts ’ ei an) ~ wr in : Poot ae = he iene gE ae a = ~ 4 * ‘=z, az BAHAMAS Area 11,406 sq. km Population 250,000 (1990) (80% on the island of New Providence) Natural increase: No information Economic indicators GDP: US$ 9,000 per capita GNP: No information Policy and legislation The Bahamas National Trust Act, 1959 empowers the Bahamas National Trust to hold and manage lands, waters and places of natural beauty or historic interest for purposes of conservation and preservation. Bye-laws for the management of such sites are made under this Act. New bye-laws for all land-and-sea parks, drawn up by the Trust under Section 24 of the Act, came into force on 13 February 1986. The bye-laws prohibit the removal or destruction of wildlife, and other named activities that would degrade the areas. (Originally designated for recreational purposes, but now also recognised as *marine replenishment areas and nurseries’). The Wild Birds Protection Act, 1905 was revised in 1965 and again in 1972. Section 4 makes provision for the designation of areas protected from hunting through the passing of Wild Bird Protection (Reserves) Orders. Between 1951 and 1965, 11 orders were passed designating 25 areas as wild bird reserves. A recent Policy Statement for National Parks has been produced by the National Trust (Anon., 1991a). This document covers a number of headings ranging from system management and system expansion, to research, interpretation and education, and visitor use. It states, among other things, that each park will have, written, a general management plan, to be approved by council every three years. The Trust also produces a more general document concerning Aims, Objectives and Priorities, which is reviewed biennially (Anon., 1991b). International Activities The Bahamas does not participate in any conventions or programmes, international or regional, that are of specific relevance to protected areas. Administration and Management The Bahamas National Trust is responsible for the protected areas system, although it has no absolute authority within wild bird reserves. The Bahamas National Trust, a non-governmental self-funded organisation, is managed by a Council which consists of 21 members headed by the Trust President and including government representatives, external conservation bodies and Trust members. The Council appoints an Executive Committee, which convenes at least once a month, to coordinate and oversee the work of the various 327 sub-committees. Staff includes four in central headquarters and three park wardens overseen by an Executive Director. The government department responsible for environmental conservation is the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Land Government, although the Department of Environmental Health Services is also involved with environmental issues. Systems Reviews The islands and cays are low-lying, with an average elevation of only 10m. Many of them have low hills which may reach 30-60m in height. The dominant vegetation is low, dense and thorny. Almost every island contains some wetland habitat, the great majority comprising shallow brackish to saline lagoons, mangrove swamps, coastal flats and intertidal mudflats (Scott and Carbonell, 1986). In 1983, The Bahamas National Trust submitted to the government a proposal entitled "The Development of a National Park System for the Commonwealth of the Bahamas" identifying 52 additional sites throughout the islands which it felt should be given some protection, and defined three categories of protection: national park, national resetve and protected area. This was followed in 1984 by a national conservation strategy which also recommends the development of a representative system of protected areas (Bahamas National Trust, 1984). This was subsequently represented during June 1990, identifying 12 sites of the highest priority. A Bahamas Country Study on Biodiversity report was produced (Anon., 1992) in January 1992 based on the 1991 UNEP guidelines. This includes lists of current and proposed protected areas: the former consists of 10 sites covering 751,262ha (not all are of sufficient size to be incorporated in the list below), while there are 53 proposed areas comprising 4 national parks, 16 national reserves and 33 unspecified. Also listed are a series of objectives for the conservation and rational utilisation of biodiversity: these include measures for cataloguing biodiversity; establishing protective measures including expansion of the protected areas network; and establishing sustainable practises for activities in all terrestrial and marine environments. A detailed cost assessment is provided for these and all other objectives. Addresses Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Local Government, PO Box N3028, NASSAU, New Providence Bahamas National Trust, PO Box N4105, NASSAU, New Providence Protected Areas of the World References Anon. (1991a). Policy Statement for National Parks. Bahamas National Trust, Nassau. 4 pp. Anon. (1991b). Aims, Objectives and Priorities. Bahamas National Trust, Nassau. 4 pp. Anon. (1992). Bahamas country study on biodiversity: census, analysis, conservation costs, benefits and unmet needs. The Research Group, Nassau, Bahamas. 91 pp. Bahamas National Trust (1984). A national conservation strategy for the Bahamas. Proposal. Bahamas National Trust, Nassau. 53 pp. OAS (1986). Marine protected areas of the OAS Caribbean member states. Organization of American States, Department of Regional Development. Ray, C. (Ed.) (1961). Report of the Exuma Cays park project. Bahamas National Trust. 39 pp. Scott, D.A. and Carbonell, M. (1986). Directory of Neotropical Wetlands. IUCN, Cambridge and IWRB, Slimbridge. 684 pp. UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 1; Atlantic and Eastern Pacific. UNEP Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 373 pp. ANNEX Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration Title: The Wild Birds Protection (Reserves) Order Date: 27 January 1951 (Commencement); subsequent Orders: 1954 (twice), 1955, 1956 (twice), 1958 (twice), 1961, 1962 and 1965 Brief description: Makes provision for the establishment of wild bird reserves Administrative authority: Agriculture Ministry of Designation: Wild bird reserve SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified National Parks 1 Conception Island II 809 1973 2) Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park II 45,584 1958 3 Inagua II 74,333 1965 4 Pelican Cays Land and Sea Park II 850 1981 Managed Nature Reserve 5 Union Creek (within Inagua NP) IV 1,813 1965 Wild Bird Reserves 6 Lightbourn Creek (Waterloo) IV 200 eee 328 Bahamas Protected Areas of the Bahamas 329 “ _ bs 7 t 7 : ‘ i - : “a = }s ne ar j Mae ! ' - ) | a : otra Bo pie erie Gy, : | ae = fas » Ae sl F ‘ panes a) =e 6 tr) hil ‘ el) iy ' nee ey il ae i - sy ch ' v7 t i sl 4 ‘ ¥, A > ot - ; ener “lik Sy eS 8 ii me ys ay ; i*he 4 = : ' vi a gi y — i -_ aly ms ee e 1+ - = «i eerat > L “7th v46 te “2s [2 se : . i : Bia, “See a. Pap p: E oe & a " ne oh en Pie the opis Cees a 5 7 at Ae iis -. ee a ee | _ os tn ”" * i ; L Fe 9 { u . my 7 te , i ae: 3 ee — 4 —= 4. eRariegs A ETON 4. a ots Ki. Sipe hae weet ls % arid we Plas yt Sat Re vite te) U ni Peed om “ y ; : ‘ ae eT Oli i a i] 4 ie 4. i haste 1 be : ud, - wn q - ! alae en es — 7 it y 5 D a 7 ba } ~ « a | ‘*@ ‘en 25 n a me | f . y. -: tse ? | ~~ ~ 1) Fi he Ere 7 t ° rf ee ; ets ye . Hee s ; e oy ee — ee 7 7 it ris actly ale Ps BARBADOS Area 430 sq. km Population 257,000 (1990) Natural increase: 0.1% per annum Economic Indicators GDP: No information GNP: No information Policy and Legislation _In the National Development Plan 1983, the Physical Development Plan 1983, amended 1986, and a recent Barbados report to UNCED (1992), the government has articulated a commitment to environmental conservation, including plans for a system of parks and protected areas throughout the island, incorporating both terrestrial and marine systems (Y. St Hill, pers. comm., 1992). The Marine Areas (Preservation and Enhancement) Act of 1 March 1976 provides for the preservation and protection of coastal and marine areas, while permitting recreational and scientific activities. There is also a Wild Birds’ Protection Act, 1907, revised in 1979. Two pieces of legislation establishing Barbados Marine Reserve were gazetted on 16 February 1981. The Designation of Restricted Areas Order, 1981 established the boundaries of the underwater park, while the Marine Areas (Preservation and Enhancement) (Barbados Marine Reserve) Regulation, 1981 created four zones within the park (scientific zone, two water sports zones and arecreational zone). A second site, Harrison’s Cave, is also protected by legislation (Y. St Hill, pers. comm., 1992). International Activities Barbados is a member of the Caribbean Conservation Association, and ratified the Convention for the Protection and Development of the Wider Caribbean Region and the Protocol Concerning Cooperation in Combating Oil Spills in the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena Convention) on 25 May 1985. Barbados is not party to the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention), or the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention), nor does it participate in the Unesco Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme. Administration and Management The National Conservation Commission is the statutory body responsible for management of the natural environment, and functions range from conservation of natural and cultural features to management of public recreation areas, including advice to the Minister on these issues. The Commission was created in 1982 through an amalgamation of the Parks and Beaches Commission (which had been established in 1970) with the Caves Authority (set up in 1977). Overall responsibility for 331 administering Barbados Marine Reserve, all public recreation areas, beaches and caves rests with the Commission, with day-to-day running of the marine reserve being the responsibility of the Park Naturalist and his staff. An Environmental Unit has been established within the Ministry of Labour, Consumer Affairs and the Environment to coordinate environmental planning, research, education and policy. The unit is also the focal point for environmental matters between Barbados and regional and international agencies. The Environmental Unit is currently developing a national conservation strategy with assistance from IUCN and the Caribbean Conservation Association (CCA) (Y. St Hill, pers. comm., 1992). Private organisations with an interest in the environment include the Barbados National Trust, created in 1961. Although much of the Trust’s efforts are directed toward preserving sites of historical and architectural interest, it also supports the preservation of the natural environment and was instrumental in revision of the Schedule to the Wild Birds’ Protection Act in 1979. The Trust owns and manages Welchman Hall Gully, a halfmile cleft in the limestone cap which supports both pre-colonisation and introduced ‘flora. Other organisations include the Barbados Environmental Association, established in 1987, which aims to stimulate interest in environmental issues, create an awareness of the need for conservation and natural resource management, conducts research, and is engaged in other environmental activities which benefit the public. The CCA has its headquarters in St Michael, Barbados. This international organisation, which has 19 member states in the wider Caribbean, was created in 1967 to ascertain the conservation needs of the Caribbean area and to coordinate conservation activities within the region. The Caribbean Natural Resources Institute, formerly the Eastern Caribbean Natural Area Ncnagement Programme (ECNAMP), is a nonprofit organisation whose goal is to strengthen local capacity to manage living natural resources critical to development in the Caribbean region (Putney and Renard, n.d.). Collaborative ventures between the CCA and the Institute include an ICOD (Canadian International Centre for Ocean Development) supported marine parks programme, and the Caribbean Heritage Programme for institutional development in support of the region’s natural heritage at national and regional levels (Anon., 1989). Systems Reviews Barbados is a small, relatively flat island, with a maximum elevation of 330m, although a ridge runs in a northsouth direction slightly below this altitude for several kilometres. The island is located in the North Equatorial current 475km north of South Protected Areas of the World America, within the AtlanticAntillean subprovince (Cotter, 1982). The natural vegetation over most of the island originally comprised drought-tolerant forest and shrubs, developing into tropical forest in the moister, sheltered regions. However, native vegetation is now more or less confined to a few small patches in the hills, and along the exposed east coast which has remained relatively undeveloped (Scott and Carbonell, 1986). Much of the island is under cultivation, sugar cane being an important crop, and a well-developed road system means that few areas are inaccessible. Major problems with the management of natural resources are discussed by Wilson (1984) and include beach erosion, threat of oil spillage and land development. For several years discussion has continued on the establishment of a national park on the north and east coast of the island and encompassing Scotland District. A comprehensive review of the area, including its physical features, outstanding scenic viewpoints, and ecological characteristics, was conducted during 1981 on behalf of the National Trust. Subsequent work on planning, institutional framework and policy development (Pennington, 1983) led to a range of detailed recommendations on the establishment and management of the proposed park. The boundaries of the park, as proposed by Pennington, have recently been accepted with the passage of the Physical Development Plan (1986). The government has also reactivated proceedings towards the official designation and development of the national park, as a pilot project under the National Conservation Strategy, being formulated and executed by the Environmental Unit and IUCN. The next major step will be the development of a detailed sector plan for the area, to be completed by mid 1992 (J.R.A. Wilson, pers, comm., 1992). In 1981, the government stated in its policy that a new park would be created at Graeme Hall Swamp, an important bird habitat. However, the project has been delayed on economic grounds (UNEP/IUCN, 1988; Wilson, 1984). Scott and Carbonell (1986) note that this is the only wetland of its type in Barbados, and that, as a relatively unspoilt wetland ecosystem in a heavily populated island, the swamp has great potential for educational purposes. The swamp also contains the only mangrove stand on Barbados. 332 Addresses The Environmental Unit, Ministry of Labour, Consumer Affairs and the Environment, Marine House, Hastings, ST MICHAEL 29 (Fax: 809 426 8959) National Conservation Commission, Codrington House, ST MICHAEL Barbados National Trust, Ronald Tree house, 10th Avenue, Belleville, ST MICHAEL (Tel: 809 426 2421) Barbados Environmental Association, PO Box 132, BRIDGETOWN References Anon. (1989). Eastern Caribbean natural area management programme Annual report 1988. Eastern Caribbean Natural Area Management Programme, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands and Vieux Fort, St. Lucia. 17 pp. Cotter, P.J. (1982). Barbados’ new marine reserve. Parks 7(1): 8-11. Pennington, N.C. (1983). Barbados National Park. A report prepared for the government of Barbados on proposals for national park on the north and east coasts. Unpublished. 10 pp. Putney, A. and Renard, Y. (n.d.). Working to strengthen human capacity to manage living natural resources critical to development. Caribbean Natural Resources Institute, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands and Vieux Fort, St. Lucia. Scott, D.A. and Carbonell, M. (1986). Directory of Neotropical wetlands. \UCN, Cambridge and IWRB, Slimbridge, UK. 684 pp. St Hill, Y. (1985). You and your environment: An introduction to the Folkstone underwater park. Government Printing Office, Barbados. 20 pp. UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 1: Atlantic and Eastern Pacific. UNEP Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. UCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 373 pp. Wilson, C. (1984). Barbados. In: Wood, J. (Ed.), Proceedings of the workshop on biosphere reserves and other protected areas for sustainable) development of small Caribbean islands. USDI, National Park Service, Atlanta. 190 pp. Barbados ANNEX Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration Title: The Marine Areas (Preservation and Designation: Enhancement) Act Marine reserve Prohibited activities include Date: 1 March 1976 destroying or disturbing any plant or animal or aspect of the physical environment; injuring any bottom growth formation; discharging any waste materials into the water; using spearguns, hooks, lines, traps, explosives or other devices to catch fish; using Administrative authority: National Conservation speedboats, sail boats or jet skis, except in designated ; areas; carrying sand away from the beach; capturing Brief description: Provides for the preservation and protection of coastal and marine areas, while permitting recreational and scientific activities. pommnisson turtles or their eggs on the shore; and depositing refuse or any offensive matter on the beach or in the sea. Source: Y. St Hill, 1985 SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified Marine Reserve ; 1 Barbados II 250 1980 333 Protected Areas of the World Protected Areas of Barbados 334 BERMUDA (UNITED KINGDOM) Area 55 sq.km Population 54,893 (1980); estimate (1989) 59,066 Natural increase: No information Economic Indicators DP: US$ 21,845 per capita (1987) GNP: No information Policy and Legislation Bermuda is a dependent territory of the United Kingdom. The island’s constitution dates from 1968. The Bermuda National Parks Act 1986, makes provision for protected areas on both public and private land under two schedules. All areas declared on public land under the first schedule are either nature reserves or parks, while areas under private ownership may be declared under the second schedule as agreement protected areas. The Coral Reef Reserve Act, 1966 provides legislation under which identified coral reef areas are protected, while Section 4 of the Fisheries Act, 1972 gives the Minister of Works and Agriculture authority to declare any area of the waters within the exclusive fishing zone to be a protected area. Section 5 of the Protection of Birds Act, 1975 makes provision for the establishment of nature reserves for bird preservation. A number of sites have been declared by Statutory Instrument under this Act: The Nature Reserves (Tern Nesting Areas) Order, 1976, The Nature Reserves (Spittal Pond) Order, 1979, The Nature Reserves (Castle Harbour) Order, 1979, and The Nature Reserves (Evans Bay) Order, 1981. The Bermuda National Trust Act, 1969 (amended 1970) establishes the Trust and specifies its administration and objectives. It can purchase or receive land for managementas nature reserves to be managed according to the Bermuda National Trust (Open Spaces and Property) Regulations. The Development and Planning Act (1974) was also instrumental in conservation of specified areas. This Act was effectively replaced by the Bermuda Development Plan, 1983 and the Bermuda Development Plan, 1983: Planning Statement (1986) and amended in 1989. These deal broadly with planning for the entire country. Section IV covers Zoning Regulations and divides Bermuda into: broad development areas (First Schedule), environmental protection areas (Second Schedule); environmental overlay areas (Third Schedule); and special study areas. The environmental protection areas listed in this legislation include: open space areas, recreation areas, nature reserve areas, woodland reserve areas and arable reserve areas (Anon., 1989). International Activities Bermuda is included in the UK’s ratification of the following international 335 agreements with provisions for protected areas; the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (the World Heritage Convention) and the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention). Eight sites are being considered for listing under the Ramsar Convention. Administration and Management The Conservation Division within the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries was established in 1966 and a conservation officer and field staff appointed to "conduct research and wardening activities as necessary to save... endangered flora and fauna". The National Parks Act established the position of Director of the Conservation Division as the person responsible for the administration and management of protected areas created under the Act. It is also the Director’s responsibility to maintain a national parks plan for the system of protected areas, and to prepare management plans for each scheduled site. The management plans are intended to maintain the features upon which the site was first selected, and are required to describe the long-term goals of the protected area, boundaries of the area (and any zones), the management that will be needed to accomplish the goals, and the regulations that apply within the area. The National Parks Act also created the National Park Commission, with the function of advising the Minister on matters affecting the long-term conservation and management of the system. In addition to this general aim, the Commission is required to review and advise on the national parks plan and the management plans of individual protected areas, both before and during their implementation. The Commission consists of 12 members, of whom the Director and the Parks Administrator are ex-officio members. The other ten members are appointed by the Minister and include one member each of the Bermuda National Trust, Audubon Society, Maritime Museum Association, and Zoological Society, two members with "environmental expertise" and two "interested" members of the general public. The Fisheries Division of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries is responsible for marine habitats, and for the implementation of both the Coral Reef Reserve Act and the Fisheries Act. The Bermuda National Trust is a nongovernmental organisation (NGO) established by law under the Bermuda National Trust Act, 1969. Its objectives include promoting the permanent preservation of lands and buildings; to maintain these when they have been acquired by the Trust and to promote access to these sites and places. To this end, the Trust has been granted special powers of purchase. It is run by a President along Protected Areas of the World with a Council of twelve other members (Anon., 1969). Nature reserves acquired and owned by the Bermuda National Trust are managed by the Open Spaces Committee with the advice and assistance of the government Conservation Division. Reserves owned by the Bermuda Audubon Society are managed by the Society’s Executive Committee with advice from the Conservation Division. The main NGOs are the Bermuda National Trust and the Bermuda Audubon Society. It is estimated that 10% of the population are members of a conservation organisation (Oldfield, 1987). The Bermuda Biological Station for Research Inc (BBS) aims to provide a year-round facility for research and education into a wide range of maritime studies, particularly those concerned with deep ocean and global implications. Systems Reviews Bermuda is a small, densely populated island, and only small areas of natural vegetation survive (for example at Paget and Devonshire marsh, and the upland hills of Castle Harbour and Walsingham). However, the living standard of the population is high (primarily based on tourism and international business, and virtually all food and fibre is imported). Bermuda is the most northerly site of mangrove distribution in the world, and small scattered areas of mangrove swamp amounted to a total of 16.7ha in 1980. Inland peat marshes cover about 48ha and are of great botanical interest (Oldfield, 1987). The first schedule of the National Parks Act lists ten nature reserves and 59 parks, while no agreement protected areas have been declared under the second schedule. The nature reserves listed include a number of those already declared under statutory instruments arising from the Protection of Birds Act. Currently there are 12 nature reserves covering some 48ha, and 63 parks covering some 241ha none of these sites is of sufficient size to be listed in the current publication (they range in size from 0.04ha to 38ha). In addition, 10 sites (c. 15ha) are managed by the Bermuda Audubon Society, 15 sites (c. 40ha) by the Bermuda National Trust, and there are two other private protected areas (25ha) (Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Parks, pers. comm., 1991). Bermuda has a number of endemic plants and animals. Most of the natural vegetation however, has been severely modified or destroyed, and populations of plants and animals have been further reduced by introduced species: for example, Bermuda cedar Juniperus bermudiana was originally the dominant tree 336 species, but 96% of its population was destroyed by an introduced species of scale insect (Davis et al., 1985). Despite the small areas of remaining natural habitat, the natural vegetation appears to recover fairly quickly, and various experiments in environmental restoration have been carried out (Pollard, 1985; Wingate, 1985). Addresses Conservation Division, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, P O Box 145, Flatts 3 Bermuda National Trust, PO Box 61, HAMILTON 5 Bermuda Audubon Society, PO Box 1328, HAMILTON 5 References Anon. (1969). The Bermuda National Trust Act, 1969. Pp. 328-337. Anon. (1989). Bermuda Development Plan 1983: Planning Statement. Department of Planning, Hamilton, Bermuda. 58 pp. Anon. (1987). Bermuda. Caribbean Conservation News 4(12): 9. Davis, S.D., Droop, S.J.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., Leon, C.J., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J., Synge, H., and Zantovska, J. (1986). Plants in danger: What do we know? IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, UK. 461 pp. Lever, C. (1984). Conservation success for two Bermudan bird species. Oryx 18(3): 138-143. Oldfield, S. (1987). Fragments of paradise. A guide for conservation action in the U.K. dependent territories. British Association of Nature Conservationists, Oxford. 192 pp. Pollard, J.A. (1985). Paradise regained: Bringing an island back to life. Oceans 4: 4249. Scott, D.A. and Carbonell, M. (1986). A Directory of neotropical wetlands. (UCN, Cambridge and [WRB, Slimbridge. 684 pp. UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 1: Atlantic and Eastern Pacific. UNEP Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 373 pp. Wingate, D.B. (1985). The restoration of Nonsuch Island as a living museum of Bermuda’s pre-colonial terrestrial biome. In: Moors, PJ. (Ed.), Conservation of Island Birds. \CBP Technical Publication No. 3. International Council for Bird Preservation, Cambridge, UK. Title: ANNEX Bermuda (United Kingdom) Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration Title: The Bermuda National Parks Act Date: 1986 Brief description: Enabling legislation for the designation of national parks and reserves Administrative authority: Conservation Division Designations: The Act makes provision for protected areas on both public and private land under two schedules. All areas declared on public land under the first schedule are either nature reserves or parks, while areas under private ownership may be declared under the second schedule as agreement protected areas. Areas designated under either schedule have one or more of four defined objectives covering protection of natural resources and features, provision for the use of areas to be kept in their natural state, provision of open space, and protection of cultural features. A management plan must be prepared for each scheduled area (within guidelines identified by the Act) and be in effect within five years of declaration. Activities within the area must be consistent with the provisions of the plan. Where necessary the Minister may pass regulations to ensure that the provision is complied with. The 1986 The act states in detail the powers that authorised officers have to enforce its regulations and specifies certain penalties. The act divides first schedule protected areas into two classes: Class A Protected Areas — Nature Reserves To be managed to protect special or fragile natural features and provide limited public access. Class B Protected Areas - Parks To be managed to encourage conservation and enjoyment of natural and historic features with the minimum of commercial activity. Source: Original legislation Coral Reef Reserve Act Date: 1966 Brief description: Enabling legislation for the designation of coral reef reserve areas 337 Administrative authority: Fisheries Division Designations: Coral Reef Preserve or Reserve: Twocoral reef areas, North Shore Coral Reef Preserve and South Shore Coral Reef Preserve, are protected. Source: UNEP/IUCN, 1988 Title: Fisheries Act Date: 1972 Brief description: Enabling legislation for the designation of exclusive fishing zones Administrative authority: Fisheries Division Designations: Exclusive Fishing Zones Section 4 gives the Minister of Works and Agriculture authority to declare any area of the waters within the exclusive fishing zone to be a protected area, prohibiting or restricting the taking of fish (although this does not affect use of boats within designated areas). Source: Original legislation Title: Protection of Birds Act Date: 1975 Brief description: Enabling legislation for the designation of coral reef reserve areas Administrative authority: No information Designations: Nature Reserve May be declared, by Statutory Instrument, on any land which is considered to be especially suited for the feeding and nesting of protected birds, or on land otherwise important as a habitat for their preservation. May not be declared on private land without the consent of the owner. Public access is limited unless otherwise stated by the Minister. under this Act. A number of the reserves thus designated are also listed as nature reserves under the Bermuda National Parks Act, 1986. Source: Original legislation Protected Areas of the World Title: Bermuda National Trust Act Date: 1969 (amended 1970) Brief description: Establishes the Bermuda National Trust and specifies its administration and objectives. Enabling legislation for the designation of nature reserves by the Trust Administrative authority: Bermuda National Trust Designations: Nature Reserve The Trust can purchase or receive land for management as nature reserves to be managed according to the Bermuda National Trust (Open Spaces and Property) Regulations. Source: Original legislation SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS Map Nationall/international designations ref. Name of area Preserves 1 North Shore Coral Reef 2 South Shore Coral Reef IUCN management Area Year category (ha) notified IV 12,000 1966 IV 530 338 Bermuda (United Kingdom) Protected Areas of Bermuda 339 dite, MNT fecal “ee are Of 7-4 ‘ - iO ye as! a, “ “~. the. 3 twa = > ay» ; ) i 4 i Moi P mea tly V ; a BS | ale * “8 Rey ae , Soe ee a 2 os ~ uy Hag werd ae) 2a ly i ve pr dea Bigs oa we iy , ae fa vals i in Meare a) aw eas t 7 BRITISH VIRGIN ISLANDS (UNITED KINGDOM) Area 153 sq.km Population 14,786 (1990) Natural increase: No information Economic Indicators GDP: US$ 112,440,000 (1989 change of base year) GNP: US$ 8,143 per capita (1987) Policy and Legislation The constitution dates from 1967 when the Islands became a self-governing dependent territory of the United Kingdom. The National Parks Ordinance No. 29, 1961, as amended No. 3, 1978, established the National Parks Trust, and provided for the creation of protected areas in the form of national parks to be managed by the Trust. The Marine Parks and Protected Areas Ordinance No. 8, 1979 provides for the creation of a range of categories of protected area, including multiple-use management area or marine parks and protected area. The Protection of Trees and Conservation of Soil Ordinance (Cap. 86) provides for protected forestry and water areas, and the Trust currently manages Sage Mountain Protected Forest created under this Act. The Wild Birds Protection Ordinance (Cap. 98, 1959), as amended (1980), authorises the Governor to declare protected areas specifically as bird sanctuaries. The provisions of this ordinance also apply to birds in any marine park or protected area designated under the Marine Parks and Protected Areas Ordinance. More recently all bird sanctuaries in the country were subsumed under a new law which declared the entire British Virgin Islands as a bird sanctuary (Potter, pers. comm., 1992). Other relevant legislation includes the Fisheries Ordinance No. 18, 1979, the Beach Protection Ordinance, 1985, and the Bird Sanctuary (Flamingo Pond, Anegada) Order, 1977. The Fisheries Ordinance authorises the Minister of Natural Resources to declare any water area within the exclusive fishing zone (200 miles) to be a protected area. All fishermen must obtain licences, and fisheries officers are empowered to confiscate fishing equipment and impose fines. In May 1990, Horseshoe Reef was declared a protected area under the Fisheries Ordinance. Several laws deal with protected areas, and this was one of a number of reasons which led to the government requesting technical assistance from the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States in strengthening and updating its existing environmental legislation. A report was subsequently prepared on the existing legislation (Lausche, 1986). Since then, two new pieces of environmental legislation have been drafted: a new Protected Areas and Wildlife Act, 1987, and a Coastal Conservation and Management Act, 1991. Once enacted, this comprehensive legislation is expected to make a major contribution to improving the territory’s 341 capacity for sound environmental planning and management (B VINPT/ECNAMP, 1988). The Protection of Trees and Conservation of Soil Ordinance (Cap. 86) lacks regulations, but contains stronger provisions on offences, enforcement, and legal proceedings than does the National Parks Ordinance. While bye-laws or regulations may be enacted for the management of national parks and the control of public activities under either Act, Lausche (1986) describes the present lack of regulations as a major deficiency. Regulations were passed in 1991 prescribing permitted activities in marine parks, and a schedule for fees. International Activities British Virgin Islands is included in the UK’s ratification of the following international agreements with provisions for protected areas; the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention), and the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention). The UK government ratified the Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena Convention) on 23 February 1986, and has signed the Protocol on Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife in 1991. The UK’ s ratification includes the British Virgin Islands. The government of the British Virgin Islands has been a member of the Caribbean Conservation Association (CCA) since 1974. AdministrationandManagement The agency with responsibility for conservation management is the Department of Conservation and Fisheries, which comes under the portfolio of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Labour. The Ministry of Natural Resources is also responsible for agriculture, fisheries, forestry and mining. The National Parks Trust, which takes its authority from the National Parks Ordinance, is responsible for the development and management of all potential and designated areas, and for the Botanic Gardens. The Department of Conservation and Fisheries and the National Parks Trust work closely in areas such as environmental monitoring and resource management. The development of a single conservation agency has been proposed (Cambers, 1991). Since 1980 the development of marine parks and protected areas has been the subject of collaboration between the government and the Easter Caribbean Natural Areas Management Programme. An initial survey resulted in eight marine areas being identified as warranting protection (Jackson, 1981). Following endorsement of these areas by the government, the project was extended into a second phase of research, planning and implementation. Two particular concerns Protected Areas of the World were to integrate marine and terrestrial components of the protected area system, and to provide recreational areas for the local population. A further five areas were recommended (Jackson, 1982). The second phase of the project also aimed to achieve five objectives by the end of 1988: to improve fundraising capability; to produce management plans for four existing areas; to consider studies submitted on seven proposed areas (Wreck of the Rhone Marine Park had already been declared) and make recommendations to the government; to improve conservation awareness among the public; and to improve relations with natural resource users, by involving interested parties in the management process. In 1987, it was reported that the collaborative project had gone some considerable way in strengthening and supporting the National Parks Trust. The funding basis had been made more secure, a Trust had been established and a director appointed (in 1985), and efforts were being made to involve Trust members more actively in the work of the Trust. As part of this project, A parks and protected areas system plan for the British Virgin Islands, which identifies the goals, objectives and management requirements of the national parks and protected areas system, was prepared (BVINPT/ ECNAMP, 1986). The system plan was accepted by the government in 1987. Other agencies involved in conservation include the BVI Dive Operators Association. Members of the Association have been involved, for example, in the management of Wreck of the Rhone Marine Park, providing surveillance, monitoring the wreck and reefs, and explaining park regulations to visitors. They have also installed and maintained moorings at the dive site with support and collaboration from the National Parks Trust and government (Geoghegan et al., 1991). Systems Reviews The British Virgin Islands comprise just over 40 islands, small cays and rocks, the marine area of the territory being well over five times the size of the land mass. The four largest islands are Tortola, Virgin Gorda, Anegada and Jost Van Dyke. Geologically, the islands belong to the Greater Antilles, and, with the United States Virgin Islands, rise from the Puerto Rican shelf, here lying about 65m below sea-level. Most of the islands (with the exception of Anegada) were uplifted from submerged volcanoes and are formed from volcanic debris and metamorphosed sediments. The islands are dominated by steep— sloping hills fringed by narrow valleys and sparse mangroves. Most of the soils are light, and have limited water-holding capacity, which, combined with erratic rainfall patterns and insufficient forest cover to retard steep slope erosion, deters high agricultural production. The dominant natural vegetation is cactus scrub and dry woodland, although much of this has been modified. Coral reefs surround many of the islands (UNEP/IUCN, 1988; Walters, 1984). The main economic activity is now tourism, which has expanded considerably in recent years (during the period 1978-1982 income from tourism nearly tripled). 342 Development of the tourist industry has had an impact on natural habitats, putting particular pressure on coastal wetlands and mangrove communities (Scott and Carbonell, 1986). As the tourism industry is based on the marine environment, this was a significant factor leading to the development of protected areas in the islands. At present, terrestrial parks cover 2.1% of the land area. The system plan sought to define a system of parks and protected areas which would incorporate the existing parks into a larger system of comprehensive ecological units, to preserve the most important areas of the natural and cultural heritage. Twelve additional parks were proposed, but none of these has yet been declared. This is partly due to the approach adopted in BVI of preparing management plans and strengthening institutions in advance of park declaration. Significant progress has been made in the development of three of the proposed protected areas: Southwestern Virgin Gorda, Anegada and Horseshoe Reef, and North Sound, Virgin Gorda (Cambers, 1991). Anegada has been identified as an internationally important wildlife site, with endemic and endangered plant and animal species and important wetland habitats. It has the largest reef complex in the Lesser Antilles, with Horseshoe Reef forming an extension of the fringing reef surrounding the island. Horseshoe Reef is now protected and managed for conservation; several proposals are being considered for the development of a terrestrial park for Anegada. Mapping of all of British Virgin Island’s wetlands and mangroves has been carried out by the Department of Conservation and Fisheries within their Mangrove Management Programme. Addresses National Parks Trust, PO Box 860, Road Town, TORTOLA (Tel: 809 494 3904) BVI Dive Operators Association, PO Box 108, TORTOLA Conservation and Fisheries Department, Road Town, TORTOLA (Tel: 809 494 5651\2; FAX: 809 494 4435) Town and Country Planning Department, PO Box 834, Road Town, TORTOLA (Tel: 809 494 344433; FAX: 809 494 5794) References BVINPT/ECNAMP (1986). A parks and protected areas system plan for the British Virgin Islands. The British Virgin Islands National Park Trust and Eastern Caribbean Natural Area Management Program. BVINPT/ECNAMP (1988). British Virgin Islands parks and protected areas project annual report 1987. The British Virgin Islands National Park Trust and the Eastern Caribbean Natural Areas Management Programme. 7 pp. Cambers, G. (1991). The implementation of the National Parks System Plan in the British Virgin Islands. In: Cambers, G. (Ed.), Proceedings of the Regional Symposium public and private cooperation in National Park development. 23-25 August. British Virgin Islands National Parks Trust, Tortola. Geoghegan, T., Renard, Y. and Smith, A. (1991). Community participation in protected area management: some cases from the Caribbean. In: Cambers, G. (Ed.), Proceedings of the Regional Symposium public and private cooperation in National Park development. 23-25 August. British Virgin Islands National Parks Trust, Tortola. Jackson, I.L. (1981). A system of marine parks and protected areas for the British Virgin Islands. In: CNPPA (Ed.), Conserving the Natural Heritage of Latin America and the Caribbean. YUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Pp, 305-308. Jackson, I.L. (1982). Marine tourism, fisheries and the development of parks and protected areas in the British Virgin Islands. Presented ata CCA/ECNAMP workshop, June. 12 pp. 343 British Virgin Islands (United Kingdom) Lausche (1986). British Virgin Islands, description of national legislation related to natural resources management (first stage analysis). Organization of Eastern Caribbean States, Natural Resources Management Project, Castries. 48 pp. Scott, D.A. and Carbonell, M. (1986). Directory of Neotropical wetlands. IWRB, Slimbridge and IUCN, Cambridge, UK. 684 pp. UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 1: Atlantic and Eastern Pacific. UNEP Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 373 pp. Walters, L. (1984). British Virgin Islands. In: Wood, J. (Ed.), Proceedings of the workshop on biosphere reserves and other protected areas for sustainable development of small Caribbean Islands. USDI, National Park Service, Atlanta, Georgia. 190 pp. Protected Areas of the World ANNEX Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration Title: National Parks Ordinance No. 29, 1961, as amended No. 3, 1978 Date: 1961 (amended 1978) Brief description: national parks Administrative authority: Designations: National park provisions. Title: The Marine Parks and Protected Areas Ordinance No. 8, 1979 Date: 1979 Brief description: marine parks or protected areas Administrative authority: Trust Designations: Marine park or protected area (Multiple use Provides for the creation of a range of categories of protected area, including multiple-use management areas. The Act also prohibits spear fishing, and damage or removal of flora or fauna within a marine park or protected area. While bye-laws or regulations may be enacted for the management of parks and the control of public management area) activities under either Act. Provides for the designation of National Park Trust The Ordinance does not provide substantive details relating to management or other Enabling legislation for the designation of multiple use management areas as National Parks 344 Title: The Protection of Trees and Conservation of Soil Ordinance (Cap. 86) Date: 1954 Brief description: Enabling legislation for the designation of protected forests Administrative authority: Department of Agriculture and National Parks Trust Designations: No information Protected forest _ Provides for protected forestry and water areas, and the Trust currently manages Sage Mountain Protected Forest created under this Act. The Act lacks regulations, but contains stronger provisions on offences, enforcement, and legal proceedings than does the National Parks Ordinance. Title: Wild Birds Protection Ordinance (Cap. 98, 1959) Date: 1959 amended 1980 Brief description: | Enabling legislation for the designation of protected forests Administrative authority: No information Designations: Bird sanctuary The Governor is authorised to declare protected areas specifically as bird sanctuaries. The provisions of this ordinance also apply to birds in any marine park or protected area designated under the Marine Parks and Protected Areas Ordinance. British Virgin Islands (United Kingdom) SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified Bird Sanctuaries 1 Cooper Island IV 138 1959 2 Flamingo Pond IV 449 1977 3 Ginger Island IV 105 1959 4 Peter Island IV 430 1959 Natural Monument 5 Wreck of the Rhone Ill 324 1980 Forest Park 6 Virgin Gorda Peak II 107 1974 345 Protected Areas of the World Protected Areas of the British Virgin Islands 346 CAYMAN ISLANDS (UNITED KINGDOM) Area 259 sq.km Population 25,355 (1990) Natural increase: No information Economic Indicators GDP: No information GNP: US$ 18,000 per capita (1990) Policy and Legislation | The Cayman Islands are a dependent territory of the United Kingdom. The present constitution dates from 1972. Marine protected areas have been designated around Grand Cayman under the Marine Conservation (Marine Parks) Regulations, 1986, and protected areas on Cayman Brac and Little Cayman under the Marine Conservation (Marine Parks) (Amendment) Regulations, 1986. This legislation defines three categories of marine parks: environmental zone, replenishment zone and marine park zone (see Annex). Animal sanctuaries have been declared on Grand Cayman under the Animals Law No. 8, 1976, on Cayman Brac under the Animals (Sanctuaries) Regulations, 1980, and on Little Cayman under and Animals (Sanctuaries) Regulations, 1982. All areas established under this legislation are wetlands and of importance for bird species. The National Trust for the Cayman Islands Law, 1987 established the National Trust to preserve the historic, natural and maritime heritage of the islands. The Trust maintains several areas of land for wildlife conservation. International Activities | Cayman Islands is included in the UK’s ratification of the following international agreements with provisions for protected areas; the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) and the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention). The Cayman Island authorities produced a leaflet on Ramsar designation in 1987. Five sites have been proposed for Ramsar listing, and it is expected that one of these will be declared. The UK government ratified the Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena Convention) on 23 February 1986, and has signed the Protocol on Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife in 1991. The UK’s ratification includes the Cayman Islands. The government of the Cayman Islands is not a member of the Caribbean Conservation Association (CCA) but representatives participate in regional activities of CCA. Administration and Management During 1990, responsibility for all environmental matters, including marine conservation, marine parks, animal sanctuaries 347 etc., was placed in the Portfolio for Education, Environment, Recreation and Culture. This Portfolio is still responsible for museums, the turtle farm, the National Trust and activities related to international agreements. The Natural Resources Unit, a Department of the Portfolio for Education, Environment, Recreation and Culture, is responsible for the day-to-day management of the natural environment. The Planning Department falls under the jurisdiction of the Portfolio of Communication, Works and Agriculture. A revision of the current development plan is scheduled for 1992. Enforcement of conservation legislation is the responsibility of the police, and, in cases of marine issues, of the marine enforcement officers who are employed by the Natural Resources Unit and have full constabulary powers. At present there are two marine enforcement officers on Grand Cayman and one on Little Cayman and Cayman Brac. A number of volunteer fisheries officers also assist with the enforcement of marine conservation legislation (G. EbanksPetrie, pers. comm., 1992). The National Trust for the Cayman Islands, a statutory, non-governmental organisation, is involved in land acquisition and management for conservation purposes. Systems Reviews The three Cayman Islands are flat, low-lying limestone islands with extensive reef systems. The populations of the three islands differ considerably, with fewer than 100 on Little Cayman and less than 2,000 on Cayman Brac. This is reflected in the varying degrees to which the islands’ environments have been adapted. Little Cayman is the least disturbed of the group, with settlement mainly in the vicinity of the south and west coast. In 1980 almost all of the island’s interior was untouched (Diamond, 1980). In contrast, the rapid development of Grand Cayman has resulted in degradation of various fragile habitats. Mangrove swamps in Grand Cayman have been particularly vulnerable to development with destruction to form marinas and estate developments. Natural woodland and thicket is also being cleared increasingly for roads, housing, tourism and agriculture. Three wetland sites have recently been declared animal sanctuaries (Meagre Bay and Colliers Pond on Grand Cayman and the Rookery on Little Cayman), these are landbased (G. Ebanks-Petrie, pers. comm., 1992). In 1989 the government gave 257ha of land to the National Trust. This area is known as the Salina Reserve. The Trust is also joint proprietor of 24ha acres on Grand Cayman being developed as a botanical gardens, with woodlands preserved in their natural state. In December 1991 ownership of a 40ha woodland site on Cayman Brac, important as a nesting area for Amazona leucocephala hesterna, was transferred to the National Protected Areas of the World Trust by The Nature Conservancy and is now titled Brac Parrot Reserve. The site will form the basis for a larger reserve on Cayman Brac (G. Ebanks-Petrie, pers. comm., 1992). Addresses The Cayman Islands Government Office, 197 Knightsbridge, LONDON SW7 1RB Natural Resources Unit, PO Box 486, GEORGE TOWN, Grand Cayman (Tel: 809 949 8277; FAX: 809 949 8469; Tlx: 4260 CP) National Trust for the Cayman Islands, PO Box 10, GEORGE TOWN (Tel: 809 949 0121; FAX: 809 949 7494) References Bradley, P. (1986). In: Scott, D.A. and Carbonell, M., A directory of Neotropical wetlands. 'UCN, Cambridge and IWRB, Slimbridge, UK. 684 pp. Diamond, A.W. (1980). Ecology and species turnover of the birds of Little Cayman. Atoll Research Bulletin 241. Pp. 141-164. Oldfield, S. (1987). Fragments of paradise. A guide for conservation action in the UK dependent territories. British Association of Nature Conservationists, Oxford. 192 pp. UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 1: Atlantic and Eastern Pacific. UNEP Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 373 pp. ANNEX Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration Title: Marine Conservation (Marine Parks) Regulations; Marine Conservation (Marine Parks) (Amendment) Regulations Date: 1986 Brief description: | Enabling legislation for the designation of marine protected areas. Marine protected areas have been designated around Grand Cayman under the Marine Conservation (Marine Parks) Regulations, 1986, and protected areas on Cayman Brac and Little Cayman under the Marine Conservation (Marine Parks) (Amendment) Regulations, 1986. Administrative authority: Natural Resources Unit Designations: Marine Park This legislation defines three categories of marine parks: Environmental zone In which prohibited activities include the removal of any form of marine life, the use of anchors, entry into the water and exceeding a speed of five knots. Replenishment zone Where the removal of conch and lobster is prohibited and fishing methods restricted. 348 Marine park zone In which marine life is protected and anchoring forbidden, except in certain circumstances. Title: Animals Law No. 8, 1976 (Grand Cayman); Animals (Sanctuaries) Regulations, 1980 (Cayman Brac); Animals (Sanctuaries) Regulations, 1982 (Little Cayman). Date: 1976; 1980; 1982 Brief description: Enabling legislation for the designation of animal sanctuaries Administrative authority: Designations: No information Animal Sanctuary Animal sanctuaries have been declared on Grand Cayman under the Animals Law No.8, 1976, on Cayman Brac under the Animals (Sanctuaries) Regulations, 1980, and on Little Cayman under and Animals (Sanctuaries) Regulations, 1982. All areas established under this legislation are wetlands and of importance for bird species. "The disturbance of any natural feature or any vegetable or animal life" is prohibited. Cayman Islands (United Kingdom) SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified Ecological Zone 1 Little Sound (Grand Cayman) I 1,731 1986 Reserves 2 Salina (Grand Cayman) IV 257 1989 Marine Parks 3 Bloody Bay-Jackson Point II 161 1986 4 Dick Sessingers Bay-Beach Point II 143 1986 5 North West Point-West Bay Cemetery II 155 1986 6 Radio Mast-Sand Bluff IV 177 1986 7 Victoria House-Sand Cay Apartments II 801 1986 Replenishment Zones 8 Frank Sound (Grand Cayman) IV 224 1986 9 Head of Barkers - Flats IV 365 1986 10 Mary’s Bay - East Point IV 180 1986 11 North Sound (Grand Cayman) IV 3,310 1986 12 South Hole Sound (Little Cayman) IV 316 1986 13 South Sound (Grand Cayman) IV 317 1986 349 Protected Areas of the World Protected Areas of the Cayman Islands 350 THE REPUBLIC OF CUBA Area 114,524 sq. km Population 10,606,000 (1990) Natural increase: 0.89% per annum Economic Indicators GDP: US$ 1,514 per capita (1987) GNP: No information Policy and Legislation The 1959 Constitution declares that the state protects national monuments and areas of outstanding natural beauty, historic or aesthetic value, for the benefit of the population. The first legal provision for environmental protection was the Reforestation Plan of the Revolutionary Army (Plan de Repoblacién Forestal del Ejército Rebelde), Law 239 of April 1959, which proposed the creation of nine national parks and encouraged tourism. Prior to this, no governmental policies for environmental protection or rational resource use existed, and Cuba had undergone largescale environmental degradation (Perera and Rosabal, 1986). In 1968, the Protection of Nature in Cuba project (La Proteccién de la Naturaleza en Cuba) was implemented by the government, detailing policies on environmental and natural resource protection. The project recommends the creation of a number of protected areas, in the form of a cooperative system, and marks the beginning of a concerted effort to establish national parks and other protected areas (Perera and Rosabal, 1986). Cuba participates in the FAO Tropical Forest Action Plan (TFAP), an international strategy to promote the development of forestry sectors in participating countries, allowing greater contribution to national economy while maintaining conservation principles. The Forestry Action Plan for Cuba (Plan de Accién Forestal para Cuba) was initiated in 1989 by the Ministry of Agriculture (Ministerio de Agricultura) (MINAG) and other organisations with interest in the forestry sector, to interpret the global designs of the TFAP into specific national needs (MINAG, 1991). The plan comprises several projects, including sustainable management of forest ecosystems such as mangroves, supporting conservation programmes, and improving the management capacity of the forest institutes (MINAG, 1991). Information on the extent of implementation of this plan is not currently available. In an effort to resolve environmental problems, the National Commission of the Academy of Sciences (Comisién Nacional de la Academia de Ciencias) recommended, in Resolution No. 412, 1963, that the National Institute of Agrarian Reform (Instituto Nacional de Reforma Agraria) establish natural reservations (reservaciones naturales) for scientific research in forested areas that constitute the National 351 Forest Heritage (Patrimonio Nacional Forestal). Scientific knowledge of natural areas is declared essential to formulate guidelines for rational resource use. Four natural reservations are delimited in the resolution, and prohibited activities given (see Annex). Responsibility for their management is transferred to the National Commission of the Academy of Sciences. Act No. 1204, 1967 provides for the creation of the National Institute for Forest Development (Instituto Nacional de Desarrollo y Aprovechamiento Forestal) (INDAF). The responsibilities of INDAF include formulating forest policies, implementing conservation regulations regarding natural resource protection, and proposing management strategies for wildlife in collaboration with the National Commission of the Academy of Science. Those reserves under the administration of the National Commission shall remain so. Law No. 27, 1980 provides for the creation of a large protected area comprising several other areas with management category designations from inviolable protection to multiple use, called Sierra Maestra Great National Park (Gran Parque Nacional Sierra Maestra). Nine management categories are defined in the area, which is extensive and contains a high diversity of ecosystems and natural resources. Law No. 27 provides for the creation of a Governing Commission (Comision Rector) specifically to manage the Great National Park. The Protection of the Environment and Rational Use of Natural Resources (Proteccién del Medio Ambiente y del Uso Racional de los Recursos Naturales), Law No. 33, 1981 is the principal legislative act currently in effect, providing the basis for protection and improvement of the environment. National conservation objectives are stated and include prohibiting deforestation, encouraging an increase in forest cover, and preventing pollution and degradation of natural resources. Provision is made for the creation of the National Network of Protected Areas (Red Nacional de Areas Protegidas) for the protection of flora and fauna, particularly endemic species. Four categories of protected area comprise the National Network: national park (parque nacional); nature reserve (reserva natural); national monument (monumento nacional); faunal refuge (refugio de fauna), and "other categories" (otras categorias) (see Annex). Clear definitions of the management categories are not given, but management regulations and demarcation of boundaries must be detailed in the individual legislative acts providing for the establishment of each area. The 1981 Law also makes provision for the creation of the National System for Environmental Protection and Rational Use of Natural Resources (Sistema Nacional de Proteccién del Medio Ambiente y del Uso Racional de Protected Areas of the World los Recursos Naturales), unifying policies on natural resource protection into a comprehensive system. It is composed of subsystems for the protection of specific resources, including the Subsystem for the Protection of Terrestrial Flora and Fauna (Subsistema de Proteccién a la Flora y la Fauna Terrestres), which comprises a large part of the National Network of Protected Areas. The institutes responsible for managing each subsystem are assigned by the Council of Ministers (Consejo de Ministros), a high level body of ministers from various governmental sectors. Cooperation between the institutes is encouraged. Further details of the structure and function of the National System for Environmental Protection and Rational Use of Natural Resources are given in Decree-law No. 118, 1990. The governmental institutes and ministries responsible for each subsystem are stated, together with the principal objectives of each. Provision is made for the creation of an organisation with ultimate responsibility for the entire National System, the National Commission of Environmental Protection and Rational Use of Natural Resources (Comisién Nacional de Proteccién del Medio Ambiente y del Uso Racional de los Recursos Naturales (COMARNA), and details of its structure are given. International Activities Cuba signed the Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the Western Hemisphere (Convencién sobre la Protecci6n de la Flora, de la Fauna y de las Bellezas Escénicas Naturales de los Paises de America) (Western Hemisphere Convention) in 1940. Cuba ratified the Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region (the Cartagena Convention), and its Protocol Concerning Cooperation in Combating Oil Spills in the Wider Caribbean Region on 15 September 1988. A second Protocol, the Protocol Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife (SPAW), was signed by Cuba on 11 June 1991. Cuba ratified the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) on 24 March 1981, but no sites have been inscribed to date. Cuba participates in the Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme and has four sites accepted as biosphere reserves. Cuba participates in the FAO Latin American Network programme (Red Latinoamericana de Cooperacién Técnica en Parques Nacionales, otras Areas Protegidas, Flora y Fauna Silvestres) (Perera, 1986; Perera and Rosabal, 1986). Administration and Management National conservation policies are formulated and implemented by COMARNA, which is vested with overall responsibility for the National System for Environmental Protection and Rational Use of Natural Resources. COMARNA coordinates the activities of 352 15 ministries and a number of institutions that are responsible for each subsystem within the National. System, and ensures compliance with current environmental legislation so that national conservation objectives may be attained. In 1990, COMARNA joined the Council of Ministers, giving it greater administrative influence (Santana, 1991). COMARNA comprises a President elected by the Council of Ministers, and representatives from each ministry and institute responsible for managing the subsystems. At the local level, provincial environmental commissions (comisiones provinciales de medio ambiente), which are dependent on COMARNA, assess ecological problems and promote protected area establishment and conservation programmes. The commissions are important in coordinating protected area management across the country (Perera and Rosabal, 1986; Santana, 1991). The National Network of Protected Areas comprises conservation units from different subsystems for the protection of specific natural resources, particularly the Subsystem for the Protection of Terrestrial Flora and Fauna. The MINAG is vested with the responsibility for this subsystem which includes forested land, and for other subsystems such as soils, fisheries, and agriculture. The MINAG, therefore, manages a large part of the country’s natural resources. Responsibility for managing the national network is assigned to the various institutes, as follows: national parks, faunal and floral refuges and unassigned areas to the MINAG; natural reserves to the Academy of Sciences; national monuments to the Ministry of Culture (Ministerio de Cultura), and natural tourist areas to the National Institute of Tourism (Instituto Nacional de Turismo). COMARNA proposes guidelines for the creation of protected areas, and each institute is responsible for formulating and implementing management plans for their respective protected areas. A body of forest guards (cuerpo de guardabosques), under the MINAG, patrols protected areas and ensures compliance with environmental legislation (Perera and Rosabal, 1986). Policies for forest resource use are formulated by the National Institute for Forest Development (INDAF). Forested land is administered by the Forest Administration (Administracién Forestal) within the MINAG. The Forest Administration is headed by a viceminister and comprises three departments, one for each of its functions: silviculture; protection of forests and fauna; and industrial forestry. A separate unit carries out forest inventories. In each province there is a forest department within the provincial offices of the Ministry of Agriculture (MINAG, 1991). Sierra Maestra Great National Park is managed by the Governing Commission (Comisién Rectora), specifically established for this purpose. The Governing Commission comprises a president, a vicepresident, a secretary, and representatives from other organisations including the Academy of Sciences, the MINAG and the INDAF. Further details of the effectiveness of administration are currently not available, neither are details of nongovernmental organisations working in environmental conservation issues. Systems Reviews Topographically, Cuba may be divided into three zones: the plains (llanuras) occupying around two-thirds of the total land area; foothills; and the highland region, comprising isolated groups of mountains separated by plains, the highest of which is the Sierra Maestra (MINAG, 1991). The climate is tropical with annual rainfall around 1380mm. Cyclones are frequent, particularly in October and September. Cuba is drained by many rivers and periods of extreme drought may occur during the dry season (MINAG, 1991). Cuba has the highest species diversity in the West Indies (Woods, 1989), and the highest degree of endemism with over 50% of the flora and 32% of the vertebrate fauna unique to the islands (Santana, 1991). By 1988, around 73% of the population lived in urban areas, an increase of 10% from 1975 (MINAG, 1991). Around 4.4 million ha are used for arable farming, and 2.4 million ha for permanent pasture (MINAG, 1991). Further details of land use are currently not available. In the late 1800s, forests covered 56% of the island, but by 1959, only 14% remained (Santana, 1991). When the revolutionary government took power in 1959, the Reforestation Plan was implemented to reduce the deforestation rate and encourage plantations. Asa result, forest cover has increased to 18% of the total area and Cuba has the lowest annual deforestation rate in Latin America, at only 0.1% (MINAG, 1991; Santana, 1991). Further developments in the forestry sector include the creation of a System of Forest Protection (Sistema de Proteccidn Forestal), with a body of more than 2,000 forest guards (MINAG, 1991). Although forest cover has increased, only around 20% of total land area remains in its natural state (Perera and Rosabal, 1986). The first national park was created in 1930, and by 1959 only five more protected areas had been established (Santana, 1991). In 1959 alone a further five parks were created and by 1991 the National Network of Protected Areas comprised over 200 conservation units, covering 12% of total land 7ea (Santana, 1991). Of the forested land, 5.1% is covered by national parks, and a further 59.5% is under protection by other designations (Santana, 1991). A further 1.6 million ha are protected as protection forests (bosques protectores) which are set aside to conserve natural areas and fauna, protect water and soil resources or prevent coastal erosion (MINAG, 1991). A problem with forest conservation is that almost all forested land has suffered some degree of degradation, and many areas are in urgent need of restoration (MINAG, 1991). 353 The Republic of Cuba Cuba has a coherent national system of protected areas, following the definition given by the FAO Latin American Network programme (Ormazabal, 1988). The National Network of Protected Areas in Cuba was established in 1981, and implements the principles of the programme to attain national objectives (Perera, 1986; Perera and Rosabal, 1986). Almost all ecosystems are included in the national network, with only 2% not represented at all (Perera, 1988; Perera and Rosabal, 1986). However, although the protected area system covers 12% of the total land area, only 12% of the total land is afforded strict protection, and many reserves are too small (Santana, 1991). Despite protection, many wild floral and faunal species and ecosystems are threatened by over-exploitation and habitat modification (Santana, 1991). A large-scale environmental education project has been implemented in Sierra Maestra Great National Park. It covers both government and privately-owned land, and is effectively managed as a multiple-use reserve, comprising a protected rural zone (zona rural protegida) and three other national parks. In total, nine management categories are employed within its boundaries, from inviolable reserve to development and economic exploitation area. Around 200,000 people live in Sierra Maestra Great National Park, and the project provides incentives for local populations to farm in a sustainable way, reduce environmental degradation and deforestation (Santana, 1991). Compliance with resource regulations, through the body of forest guards, affords efficient protection to natural areas. However, cooperation between the administrations of the areas that comprise the National Network of Protected Areas must be achieved through the establishment of legal regulations (Perera and Rosabal, 1986). Clear definitions of the existing management categories and creation of new ones is required. The present designations are primarily suitable for terrestrial ecosystems and modifications are needed to protect marine and coastal habitats (Perera, 1988). Addresses Ministerio de la Agricultura (MINAG), CIUDAD DE LA HABANA Comisién Nacional para la Proteccién del Medio Ambiente (COMARNA), Ave. 17, No. 5008 entre 50 y 52, Playa, CCUDAD DELA HABANA (Tel: 223594; Tix: 512471 COMAR CU) Comisién Rectora del Gran Parque Nacional Sierra Maestra, Ave. 42, No. 514 esq. A 7a., Miramar, Playa, CCUDAD DE LA HABANA (Tel: 222526/27/28/29; Tix: 0511156) Academia de Ciencias de la Republica de Cuba, Calle 11, No. 514 esq. D y E, Vedado, CIUDAD DE LA HABANA (Tel: 329786\322035\ 321108) Protected Areas of the World Instituto Nacional de Desarrollo y Aprovechamiento Forestales (INDAF), Virtudes 680 y Belascoain, CIUDAD DE LA HABANA References MINAG (1991). Plan de accién forestal para Cuba, documento base. Ministerio de la Agricultura, C. de la Habana. 58 pp. Ormazabal, C. (1988). Sistemas nacionales de dreas silvestres protegidas en América Latina. Basado en los resultados del taller sobre planificacidn de sistemas nacionales de areas silvestres protegidas, Caracas, Venezuela, 9-13 junio 1986. Oficina regional de la FAO para América Latina y el Caribe, Santiago, Chile. 205 pp. Perera, A. (1986). Panoramica de las areas protegidas en la Republica de Cuba. Conservando el patrimonio 354 tural de la regién Neotropical. Proceedings of the 27th Working Session of the IUCN Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas, Bariloche, Argentina. 55 pp. Perera, A. and Rosabal, P. (1986). Las areas protegidas en Cuba. Silvestres 2: 13-17. Oficina regional de la FAO para América Latina y el Caribe, Santiago, Chile. Perez (1988). Manejo de dreas protegidas costeras tropicales. Informe del taller internacional sobre manejo de areas protegidas costeras tropicales, Monte Cristi, Reptiblica Dominicana, 20-24 julio 1987. Oficina a regional de la FAO para América Latina y el Caribe, Santiago, Chile. Pp. 17-22. Santana, E. (1991). Nature conservation and sustainable development in Cuba. Conservation Biology 5: 13-16. ANNEX The Republic of Cuba Definition of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration Title: Resolucién No. 412 (Resolution No. 412) Date: 10 July 1963 Brief description: Delimits four natual reserves, giving details of their conservation objectives and activities prohibited within them. The importance of natural resource conservation is stated. Administrative authority: Reserves are establised by the Instituto Nacional de Reforma Agraria (National Institute of Agrarian Reform), on the recommendation of the Comisién Nacional de la Academia de Ciencias de la Republica de Cuba (National Commission of the Acadamy of Sciences of the Republic of Cuba). The latter is responsible for administering the reserves. Designations: Reservacién Natural (Natural Reserve) A natural area that has not been altered by human activity, or has been altered in such a way that recuperation of its natural state is possible, that is set aside for the purpose of scientific research on the conservation and regeneration of its natural resources. The area is part of the Patrimonio Forestal Nacional (National Forest Heritage). Contains representative examples ofnational vegetation formations or important natural ecosystems. Humans, domestic animals and vehicles are not permitted to enter delimited area without authorisation. Prohibited activities include hunting, fishing and anything that disturbs the natural state of the area. Source: Original legislation Title: Proteccién del Medio Ambiente y del uso Racional de los Recursos Naturales (Protection of the Environment and Rational use of Natural Resources) Law No. 33 Date: 10 January 1981 Brief description: National conservation objectives are given as protecting and regenerating natural resources; encouraging development while maintaining conservation principles; promoting scientific research; and establishing methods of rational resource use. It is the obligation of every individual and the state to protect the environment. Each natural resource is dealt with separately and 355 guidelines given for its rational use. Provision is made for the creation of the Red Nacional de Areas Protegidas (National Network of Protected Areas) for the protection of flora and fauna, and for the creation of the Sistema Nacional de Proteccién del Medio Ambiente y del Uso Racional de los Recursos Naturales (National System for Environmental Protection and Rational Use of Natural Resources) to coordinate and standardise environmental policies. It comprises subsystems, including the Subsistemas de Proteccién a la Flora y la Fauna Terrestres (Subsystem for the Protection of Terrestrial Flora and Fauna), which makes up a large part of the National Network of Protected Areas. Administrative authority: The National System for Environmental Protection and Rational Use of Natural Resources is administered by Administracién Central del Estado (Central Administration of the State) and each subsystem has its own organisation of Central Administration. The Subsystem for the Protection of Terrestrial Flora and Fauna is managed by the Ministerio de Agricultura (Ministry of Agriculture) (MINAG). Protected areas comprising the National Network are declared by the Consejo de Ministros (Council of Ministers), which assigns responsibility for their administration to respective organisations. Designations: The National Network of Protected Areas comprises the following management categories: Parque Nacional (National Park) Reserva Natural (Natural Reserve) Monumento Nacional (National Monument) Refugio de Fauna (Faunal Refuge) and Otras Categorias (Other Categories) Precise delimitation and regulations regarding resource use, must be given for each area. The regulations are to enable the area to attain the conservation objectives for which it was established, as determined by its designation. Commercial and sport hunting, fishing or capture of wildlife is prohibited. Deforestation is prohibited, although the Council of Ministers may authorise controlled socioeconomic development of forest resources. Further details of management categories are not given. Source: Original legislation Protected Areas of the World Map ref. ANN WN Ke \o 00 SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS National/international designations Name of area National Parks Desembarco del Granma Gran Piedra La Bayamesa Pico Cristal Punta Francés - Punta Pederales Turquino Vifiales Marine National Parks Bahia del Naranjo Cayo Caguama Ecological Reserves Los Indios Mogotes de Jumagua Punta Negra - Punta Quemados Natural Reserves Cabo Corrientes Cupeyal del Norte EI Veral Imias Jaguani Loma de la Mensura Tacre Integrated Management Areas Cubanacan Escambray Gran Parque Sierra Maestra Guanaroca La Isleta - Nuevas Grandes Mil Cumbres Sierra del Chorrillo Subarchipiélago de Jardines de la Reina Subarchipiélago de Sabana - Camaguey Subarchipiélago de los Canarreos Managed Flora Reserves Arenas Blancas Cayo Caguanes/Cayos de Piedra Cerro Galano Cuabal Tres Ceibas El Toldo Lomas de Galindo Monte Ramonal Pan de Aziicar Parnaso - Los Montes Faunal Refuges Alto de Iberia Cayo Cantiles Cayos de Ana Maria Delta del Cauto Hatibonico Las Salinas IUCN management 356 category oe ee ile lee ee Be | vil <<<§8< = a ope f ee i ye > ene . eh ae ea _ : > i we. 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Se “oe bascaite Gr pucrtic (eames | ae wy » eatank wn mal Sa ; ST LUCIA Area 616 sq.km Population 141,685 (1990) Natural increase: 1.61% per annum Economic Indicators GDP: US$ 237 (1985) GNP: No information Policy and Legislation _In 1975, a draft wildlife act was proposed making provision for the establishment of national parks, wildlife reserves, and national monuments (Swank, 1975). Following this, the Wildlife Protection Act No. 9, 1980 was passed, providing for the protection of wildlife, the establishment of wildlife teserves, and effecting St Lucia’s accession to the CITES treaty. Maria Islands Wildlife Reserve was declared using the provisions of this Act. The National Trust Act No. 16, 1975 provides for a statutory trust to promote, conserve, and manage land and marine areas of special natural (or historic) interest to protect the wildlife which they support (see Annex) (McCalla, 1990). The Trust has the authority to make bye-laws to regulate activities within areas, called heritage sites or tourist attractions, under its control. A Bill has recently been proposed which seeks to amend the National Trust Act, 1975, to provide for the coordination of the planning and administration of areas not vested in the Trust. It also makes provision for the development of management plans, the establishment of a Protected Areas Advisory Board and the use of private lands as protected areas. The Bill also includes a clause for public participation and consultation (G. Romulus, pers. comm, 1992). By virtue of the Crown Lands Act Cap. 108, 1946, lands above 600 feet are protected. A new ordinance, the Land Conservation Board Ordinance, will address land use of all lands. The Fisheries Act No. 10, 1984 provides for the creation of marine reserves and fisheries priority areas. This legislation was modelled on a unified draft proposal produced by FAO for the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States, and prescribes regulations to control fishing and other activities on reef ecosystems (see Annex). The Forest, Soil and Water Conservation Ordinance Cap. 25, 1946, as amended (1957 and 1983), contains provisions governing the declaration of forest reserves and protected forests on private land (see Annex). The Department of Forests and Lands, formerly the Forestry Division, of the Ministry of Agriculture, can declare any lands as protected forest, if it becomes necessary for the protection of timber resources. However, this is difficult to apply as Cabinet approval is required (Miller et al., 1988). The Department is also vested with authority under the provisions of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1980, Crown Lands Ordinance, 1946, and the Timber 427 Industry Development Board Ordinance, 1963, to survey and demarcate all Crown land and forest reserves, and control squatting, poaching of timber and wildlife, and all other illegal uses of Crown land and forest reserves. Under the provisions of the Water and Sewerage Act, 1984, the Water and Sewerage Authority may request that the Chief Forest Officer take action to protect any catchment area threatened by deforestation. The Department of Forests and Lands of the Ministry of Agriculture has prepared a comprehensive management plan for the country’s forests, in collaboration with CIDA (OECS, 1986), which is now being implemented. The Forest Management Plan has been accepted by government as the basic policy document for future forestry development; objectives include, inter alia, the preservation and protection of natural forest on slopes greater than 30°, along river banks, in critical watersheds, on unstable soils, and which are the habitat of endangered or rare wildlife, in order to prevent erosion, and to provide good water and recreation. The plan divides forests into three categories; strictly protected; protected with selected production; and production forests. In addition, new legislation and policies concerning forest and land use are recommended which will promote sustainable yield forestry, protection of wildlife, watersheds, sites of natural interest, and land use planning (CIDA, n.d.). The Beach Protection Act No. 2, 1967, as amended No. 9, 1984, deals with sand removal and other issues affecting beaches, while the Parks and Beaches Commission Act, 1983 provides for the control, maintenance and development of public parks, gardens and beaches (Talbot, 1986). However, both acts are limited in scope in providing integrated protection of delicate coastal ecosystems. Consequently, these ecosystems are being damaged irreparably by pollution, overexploitation, strip and dredge mining. Current legislation protecting critical watersheds is inadequate. International Activities St Lucia ratified the Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region and the Protocol Concerning Co-operation in Combating Oil Spills in the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena Convention) on 30 September 1984. In addition, St Lucia has ratified the protocol concerning specially protected areas for wildlife to the Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean region. St Lucia ratified the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) on 14 October 1991. Administration and Management _ All government policies relating to wildlife are undertaken by the Department of Forests and Lands and the Department of Protected Areas of the World Fisheries (DoF). The DoF is responsible for all marine life and the management of marine reserves, other than those vested in the National Trust. Although there is an effective legislative framework for management of these reserves under the provisions of the Fisheries Act, 1984, full implementation of regulations is hampered by a variety of circumstances, including limited mobility and communication systems (CCA/IRF, 1991). The Fisheries Regulations have been approved recently by the Cabinet of Ministers and will be gazetted soon. The Department of Forests and Lands, formed in 1985 from the former Forestry Division (established in 1946), is headed by the Chief Forest and Lands Officer (formerly Chief Forest Officer), who is assisted at middle management level by two senior assistant officers, one each for conservation and operations. Field work is divided into five forest ranges, each under the charge of a range officer, plus staff (CCA/IRF, 1991). The Department of Forests and Lands is responsible for managing the 1,600ha Central Forest Reserve, Crown lands, Queen’s Chain (land extending 60m inland from the mean high water mark), and the Pitons. The Parks and Beaches Commission, a statutory body created in 1983 and responsible to the Ministry of Trade, Industry and Tourism, manages tourist beaches and regulates beach vendors. It has an advisory role over certain uses in the coastal zone, including the removal of coral and on any matters related to protection of the sea-coast from erosion (OECS, 1986). The St Lucia National Trust, a statutory body that receives support from the government, is the main non-governmental organisation (NGO) concemed with environmental issues, and is the principal institution responsible for protected areas. Amongst other activities, it has primary management responsibility for Pigeon Island National Park, Maria Islands Nature Reserve and Fregate Islands Nature Reserve (opened but not officially designated). The Trust has the authority to make bye-laws to regulate all activities within these areas to protect the resources, preserve order and prevent nuisances (OECS, 1986). The Trust has been involved in the development of the Plan for a System of Protected Areas for St Lucia, and is the local implementing organisation for the Caribbean Heritage Programme (IRF, 1991). Other important NGOs are the St Lucia Naturalists’ Society, whose primary area of activity is environmental education, and the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust which has supported the establishment of the St Lucia Parrot Sanctuary, amongst other initiatives. St Lucia is a member of the Caribbean Conservation Association (CCA), a regional, non-governmental, non-profit organisation dedicated to promoting policies and practices which contribute to conservation, protection and wise use of natural and cultural resources. In May 1987, the Caribbean Conservation Association (CCA) and the government of St Lucia (Ministry of Planning) agreed to produce a Country Environmental 428 Profile (IRF, 1988; CCA/IRF, 1991). The National Research and Development Foundation (NRDF) was designated as the local organisation with responsibility for the project. The project is completed and the Country Environmental Profile is now being widely circulated. The Caribbean Natural Resources Institute (CANARD), formerly the Eastern Caribbean Natural Area Management Progamme (ECNAMP), is another regional organisation involved in conservation programmes in St Lucia. CANARI concerns itself with issues of conservation, development, and environment in the insular Caribbean, and emphasises participatory planning and co-management as it works to strengthen the capacity of human communities and their institutions to manage natural resources critical to their development. Research, information, training, and technical support services, with particular application to protected areas and common property resources (forests, reefs, wetlands, and coastal resources), are its major programmatic themes (Putney andRenard, n.d.; Y. Renard, pers. comm., 1992). Together with CCA, the Institute has embarked upon a marine parks programme for the region, and has developed a "Caribbean Heritage Programme” for institutional development in support of the region’s natural heritage at national and regional levels (ECNAMP, 1989). Enforcement of the Forest, Soil and Water Conservation Ordinance has been hindered by a lack of equipment and shortage of field staff. Until very recently, forest reserves were undemarcated on the ground, and, when Crown lands abutted private lands, boundary identification was almost impossible. In addition, enabling legislation did not give the Department of Forests and Lands authority over private land, short of acquiring it and declaring such areas as forest reserves. Recent events, however, have improved the situation, with amendments to the appropriate legislation and boundary demarcation (CCA/IRF, 1991). Other management constraints include weaknesses in physical planning procedures, and a lack of coordination between agencies involved in natural resources management (Talbot, 1986). Improvement of the latter would be particularly useful in land and water conservation and in coastal zone management (OECS, 1986). Systems Reviews St Lucia is part of the Lesser Antilles in the Windward Islands group. The island is of volcanic origin, and mountainous with rugged relief, culminating in Mount Gimie at 3,117m (DRD, 1989). The dry season lasts from January to April and the rainy season from May to November. Approximately 20% of the island is classified as “uninhabited wildland"(ECNAMP, 1980), which coincides with highland supporting rain forest and moist forest. Only 22% of land has less than 10° slope, while 50% of the land has slopes of more than 20° (Miller et al., 1988). Beard (1949) was the first to classify forest resources by cover types with ecological descriptions of each. The principal types identified today are rain forest and lower montane forest (16,752ha, or 13% of total area), montane thicket (1,501ha, or 1% of total area), elfin woodland (329ha, or 1%), secondary forest/mixed agriculture (78,440ha, or 61%) and dry scrub woodland (30,911ha, or 24%)(CIDA, n.d.). Another estimate of cover has been made (Piitz, 1983), indicating rain forest/lower montane forest (6,780ha), montane thicket (608ha), elfin woodland (133ha), secondary forest (31,745ha, comprising 29,873ha agricultural land and 1,872ha of open woodlands) and dry scrub woodland (12,510ha). Some 200ha of mangroves occur, mainly along the east and north-west coasts (Scott and Carbonell, 1986). It has been estimated that 80% of St Lucia is under some form of forest or mixed agriculture (CIDA, n.d.). Estimates of the rate of deforestation have been made, varying between an annual loss of 0.2% overall forest cover (Stevenson, 1986) to 2.0%. Such changes as have occurred can be attributed, in part, to the partially regulated harvesting of individual species, illegal squatting by landless farmers in forested regions, agricultural practices, and the several hurricanes which have impacted directly on the forest this century. Increasing population pressure, urban developments, and development of access roads have exacerbated this problem (IRF, 1985). The island has several small wetland sites (Scott and Carbonell, 1986), the most important of which are Bois d’Orange, Aupicon Pond, Esperance, Marigot Bay, Marquis, Praslin and Savannes, also St Urbain, Trougascon and Volet. Although their total area is small, the wetlands are important as nursery sites and as staging posts for migrant birds. Charles and Butler (1986) note that all wetlands are seriously threatened. Coral reefs and coral veneers are found on all of St Lucia’s coasts; available information is summarised in UNEP/IUCN (1988). The first step for establishment of a management and protection framework for forest resources occurred when, in recognition of the need to protect water catchment areas, Castries Waterworks Reserve was established in 1916. Following forest surveys in the early to mid 1940s, the government held title to a little over 2,000ha of forested land, including a number of reserves. From 1982, under a CIDA-sponsored Forest Management and Conservation Project, the entire forest reserve was surveyed and demarcated, with a total of some 7,496ha (11% of total area) included in the system. A number of marine reserves were declared in 1986, two were vested in the National Trust in 1982, and a number of other sites have been declared in recent years. In total, however, excluding the forest reserves, only 0.3% of St Lucia is included within protected areas. Proposals for strengthening the system further are given in CCA/IRF (1991), in particular the need to classify and evaluate potential protected areas more systematically, establishment of priorities which assess high risk as opposed to less threatened sites, evaluation of tourism potential, development of an acquisition schedule, and the development of management criteria which 429 St Lucia minimise and regulate intrusions or disturbances within protected areas. Presently, the St Lucia National Trust, in collaboration with 12 other governmental and non-government organisations, is nearing the completion of a project (funded by US-AID and the National Trust) to develop a Plan for a System of Protected Areas (to be published in September 1992). With the adoption of the plan, a comprehensive framework for protected areas planning and management will be established. A participatory approach is being used to ensure public input during the development phase of the plan, as well as collaborative management of the sites themselves. An advisory committee has been formed with representatives from the Central Planning Unit, the Department of Forests and Lands, the Department of Fisheries, the Crown Lands Department, the Parks and Beaches Commission, the St Lucia Tourist Board, the St Lucia Hotel and Tourism Association, the National Youth Council, the Folk Research Centre, the Caribbean Natural Resources Institute, a representative from the private sector, and the National Trust. This committee has been in existence for the last three and a half years. At the national level, both formal and informal media are being used to inform and encourage public participation in the development of the plan. The project will, on completion, (i) identify representative areas of the natural and cultural environment worthy of conservation and active management; (ii) identify and determine the most suitable management categories which will be adapted from the IUCN management categories; and (iii) draft suitable legislation for the systematic planning and management of protected areas. This will take the form of an amendment to the St Lucia National Trust Act No. 16, 1975. The proposed legislation will be presented for consideration and approval to the Cabinet of Ministers through the Minister of Planning in 1992. These revisions contain three major additions: the establishment of a 13-member advisory board with the National Trust as the coordinating agency; provisions for the development of management plans and designation of protected areas; and provision for public involvement in the planning and management of protected areas (G. Romulus, pers. comm., 1991). An overall work plan for a five-year CIDA-funded Forest Management and Conservation Project is detailed in CIDA (1987); objectives are based on the Forest Management Plan (1984-1994) and include implementation of a programme of forest management and conservation, provision for watershed management, and strengthening of the Department of Forests and Lands (CIDA, n.d.; DRD, 1989). Addresses Central Planning Unit, New Government Buildings, Waterfront, CASTRIES (Tel: 809 452 3688) Department of Forests and Lands, c/o Ministry of Agriculture, Lands, Fisheries and Cooperatives, CASTRIES (Tel: 809 450 2231; FAX: 809 4502287) Protected Areas of the World Department of Fisheries, c/o Ministry of Agriculture, Lands, Fisheries and Cooperatives, CASTRIES (Tel: 809 452 3987/6172; FAX: 809 452 3853) Caribbean Natural Resources Institute (CANARI), Clarke Street, VIEUX FORT (Tel: 809 454 6060; FAX: 809 454 5188) St Lucia National Trust, PO Box 595, CASTRIES (Tel: 809 452 5005/453 1495; FAX: 809 453 2791) St Lucia Naturalists’ Society, PO Box 783, CASTRIES References Beard, J. (1949). The natural vegetation of the Windward and Leeward Islands. Oxford Forestry Mem. No. 21. Clarendon Press, Oxford. (Unseen) CCA/IRF (1991). St. Lucia: environmental profile. Caribbean Conservation Association, St. Michael, Barbados/Island Resources Foundation, St Thomas, US Virgin Islands. 332 pp. Charles, G.L. and Butler, P. (1986). Saint Lucia, In: Scott, D.A. and Carbonell, M. (Eds). Directory of Neotropical wetlands. YUCN, Cambridge and IWRB, Slimbridge. 684 pp. CIDA (n.d.). Forest management and conservation: St. Lucia -Caribbean Sea. Project report. Canadian International Development Agency, Ottawa. 14 pp. CIDA (1987). Forest management and conservation. Project no. 868/12151. Inception report, St Lucia, Ottawa, Canada. (Unseen) DRD (1989). Proposal for the development of the Pitons National Park. Department of Regional Development, Organisation of American States. 78 pp. ECNAMP (1980). St Lucia Preliminary Data Atlas. Eastern Caribbean Natural Areas Management Programme. Caribbean Conservation Association and the School of Natural Resources of the University of Michigan. 18 pp. ECNAMP (1989). Annual report-1988. Eastern Caribbean Natural Area Management Programme, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands and Vieux Fort, St. Lucia. 17 pp. 430 IRF (1985). Wildlife assessments in the Caribbean. Island Resources Foundation, St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands. Pp. 127-157. IRF (1988). St Lucia Country Environmental Profile. Prepared by the Island Resources Foundation in cooperation with the Caribbean Conservation Association. Draft. IRF (1991). Directory of environmental NGO's in the Eastern Caribbean. Island Resources Foundation, St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands. Pp. 27-31. McCalla, W. (1990). Final report on legislative and institutional aspects of parks and protected areas in St Lucia. Prepared for the St Lucia National Trust. 66 pp. Miller, G.A., Fujita, M.S. and Ford, L.B. (1988). Biological diversity and tropical forests assessment. Annex. to RDO/C Action Plan FY 88-89. US-AID/RDO/C, Bridgetown, Barbados. OECS (1986). St. Lucia, description of national legislation related to natural resources management (first stage analysis). Organization of Eastern Caribbean States - Natural Resources Management Project, Castries. 17 pp. Piitz, P. (1983). Forest inventory report. Prepared for CIDA for the St Lucia-CIDA Forest Management Assistance Project. Ottawa, Canada. (Unseen) Putney, A. and Renard, Y. (n.d.). Working to strengthen human capacity to manage living natural resources critical to development. Caribbean Natural Resources Institute, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands and Vieux Fort, St. Lucia. Scott, D.A. and Carbonell, M. (1986) (Eds). Directory of Neotropical wetlands. TUCN, Cambridge and IWRB, Slimbridge, UK. 684 pp. Stevenson, S. (1986). St. Lucia environmental study. Prepared for CDC/IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Swank, W.G. (1975). Draft Wildlife Act-St. Lucia. FAO, Rome. 16 pp. Talbot, J.L. (1986). Assessment of environment and natural resource project needs for St. Lucia. US-AID, Bridgetown, Barbados. 50 pp. UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 1: Atlantic and Eastern Pacific. UNEP Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 373 pp. ANNEX St Lucia Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration Title: Saint Lucia National Trust Act Date: 26 September 1975 Brief description: To establish a body corporate to known as the St Lucia National Trust. Administrative authority: St Lucia National Trust Designations: Objectives of the National Trust include the preservation of beauty or natural or historic interest, including the flora and fauna found therein. Source: Original legislation Title: Forest, Soil and Water Conservation Act Date: 1946, amended (1957 and 1983) Brief description: Contains provisions governing the declaration of forest reserves and protected forests (on private land). Administrative authority: Agriculture Ministry of Designations: Forest reserve Such areas are managed for water and wildife conservation, and timber production. Sources: CIDA (n.d.); CCA/IRF (1991) Title: The Fisheries Act Date: 1984 Brief description: Provides, amongst other measures, for the creation of marine reserves. Administrative authority: Fisheries Department of Designations: Marine reserve Such are declared in order to protect important flora and fauna, promote scientific research, or preserve natural beauty. Prohibited activities, except when necessary for proper management of the reserve, include, fishing; taking or destroying any flora or fauna; extracting sand; and causing pollution or constructing structures. The Minister is authorised to make specific regulations for the management and protection of such areas. Source: OECS (1986) 431 Protected Areas of the World SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified Nature Reserve 1 Savannes Bay Mangrove Area MR IV 500 1982 Reserve 2 De Suze Estate Vill 108 1946 Sanctuary 3 Parrot Sanctuary (Central FoR) IV 1,494 1980 Forest Reserves 4 Addition to Central "B" Vill 121 5 Barre-de-L’Isle North Vil 231 6 Barre-de-L Isle South Vil 724 1 Castries Waterworks Vill 1,392 1916 8 Central "A" Vill 1,631 9 Central "B" Vill 1,474 10 Dennery Waterworks Vil 145 1946 11 Marquis Estate Parcel M-1 Vill 134 12 Quilesse Vill 1,400 1946 13 Saltibus Grand Magazin Vill 107 432 St Lucia Protected Areas of St Lucia 433 4 TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO Area 5,128 sq. km Population 1.24 million (1988) Economic Indicators GDP: US$ 3,761 per capita (1987) GNP: US$ 4,220 per capita (1987) Policy and Legislation Trinidad was ceded to Great Britain by the Treaty of Amiens in 1802. Trinidad and Tobago unified in 1889, becoming independent within the Commonwealth on 31 August 1962. A Republican Constitution was adopted on 1 August 1976. The first wildlife sanctuary in Trinidad and Tobago was created in 1928 (Bacchus and Vorran, 1990), although no information is available concerning the legislation under which this was established. An Ordinance to afford protection to wildlife was passed in 1933. Under this, areas of existing forest reserves were set aside as game reserves, in which all forms of hunting were prohibited (Cooper and Bacon, 1981). This Ordinance has subsequently been superseded by the Conservation of Wildlife Ordinance No.16, 1958 (although this did not become law until 1963), which makes provision for the establishment of wildlife (or game) sanctuaries (see Annex). According to this piece of legislation, the Chief Game Warden, with the approval of the Minister, may modify sanctuary boundaries, and all forest officers are wildlife wardens. The Conservation of Wildlife legislation has proven very weak with respect to protection of plants, invertebrates and amphibia, while its general structure has made implementation of various international treaties difficult (R. Cross, pers. comm., 1992). The Forest Ordinance, 1950 makes provision for the establishment of forest reserves, but is basically concerned with the sale of timber. The legislation is limited in providing for protection of the environment, for example, a forest officer may charge a squatter for removing trees within a forest reserve, but does not have the power to evict squatters from reserves. Land within forest reserves, or other Crown land, can also be designated as prohibited areas by the President. The Marine Areas (Preservation and Enhancement) Act, 1970 provides for marine areas to be protected as restricted areas. These areas can be established to preserve natural beauty, to protect flora and fauna, to promote the enjoyment of the area, and to promote scientific research. However, the Act makes no provision for institutional structures necessary for the effective management of any areas designated. Other legislative acts that are relevant include the Town and Country Planning Ordinance, 1960, the Land 435 Acquisition Ordinance, 1947, and the State Land Ordinance, 1950. A policy for the establishment and management of a national park network was initiated in 1979/1980 in conjunction with the Organization of American States (OAS). It was concluded that the existing legislation governing protected areas was not adequate to ensure proper protection. Hence, the 1980 report set out a detailed policy which could be used in the development of future legislation. The Forestry/OAS project identified 61 locations in six different subcategories to be established under a general national park category. Areas were identified irrespective of current land use or ownership. Of the 61 sites, eight units are recommended as national parks, eight as natural landmarks, thirteen as scientific reserves, thirteen as nature conservation reserves and six as scenic landscapes. The 61 areas represent about 14% of the total land surface. The government has agreed in principal with the proposals, but legislation was not enacted. However, amendments have been made subsequently to existing wildlife and landuse legislation to control poaching, squatting on forested lands, and agricultural fires (Bacchus and Vorran, 1990; Thelen and Faizool, 1980). A draft Forest Resources Policy, 1981 has as one of its aims the creation of a forest estate of at least 33% of the land area of the country (Bacchus and Vorran, 1990). As part of a collaborative project between the Forestry Division and the OAS, a policy for the establishment and management of a national park system was published in 1980. This policy is relatively comprehensive, covering legislation, government policy, objectives and categories, together with procedures for establishment and management of a national park system. Six categories of protected area are suggested: scientific reserve, national park, natural landmark, nature conservation reserve, scenic landscape and recreation park (Thelen and Faizool, 1980). It has also been reported that the government anticipates a protected areas system that will protect cultural features as well as the natural environment (Huber and Meganck, 1987; Meganck and Ramdial, 1984). The environmental legislation of Trinidad and Tobago is reviewed by Bacchus and Vorran (1990). International Activities Trinidad and Tobago signed the Convention on Nature Protection and Wildlife Preservation in the Western Hemisphere (Western Hemisphere Convention) in 1940, and it has since been ratified. Trinidad and Tobago is party to the Caribbean Conservation Association, aregional, nongovernmental, nonprofit organisation dedicated to promoting policies and practices which contribute to conservation, protection and wise use of natural and cultural resources, and has ratified the Convention for the Protection and Protected Areas of the World Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena Convention) and the Protocol Concerning Cooperation in Combating Oil Spills in the Wider Caribbean Region both on 24 January 1986. The country is currently seeking to become a signatory to the Ramsar convention. Administration and Management _ Responsibility for certain areas of conservation and the environment lies with the Ministry of the Environment and National Service (1991), but prior to March 1989 was with the Ministry of Food Production, Marine Exploitation, Forestry and the Environment. In 1991, the budget for parks and protected areas was TT$500,000. Personnel responsible for management of national parks totalled 19, comprising: an assistant conservator of forests, seven diploma level foresters and eleven forest rangers (R. Cross, pers. comm., 1991). Since inception the Minister has been attempting to set up a National Environmental Authority to coordinate environmental management. The Forestry Division within the Ministry is responsible for management of the wildlife sanctuaries, forest reserves and recently declared prohibited areas through its wildlife section. The Game and Wildlife Section was actually set up in 1950. The entire northwest peninsula of Trinidad (the proposed Chaguaramas National Park) is the responsibility of the Chaguaramas Development Authority, which was established by Act of Parliament. Forest wardens are designated as wildlife wardens under the Conservation of Wildlife Ordinance, 1958. In addition, a number of honorary game wardens were appointed in the 1970s by the Ministry for three-year terms of office, to assist in wildlife protection. A custodian looked after Litthe Tobago Sanctuary (Dardaine, 1977). Establishment of a National Environmental Authority is suggested by Bacchus and Vorran, 1990. The mandate of such an agency would be to coordinate the activities of all agencies which make demands on the environment, a role which it is considered critical to establish immediately. Nongovernmental organisations (NGOs) have long been involved in nature protection; in the 1970s private reserves included such areas as the Asa Wright Nature Centre and Reserve, and two private bird sanctuaries (Dardaine, 1977). Bodies interested in nature conservation include the Trinidad and Tobago Field Naturalists’ Club and the University of the West Indies Biological Society, the latter of which seeks to address environmental protection by implementing public awareness programmes and reforestation projects (F. Homer, pers. comm., 1988). The Crusoe Reef Society was set up in 1986 to monitor, conserve and protect the marine and coastal environment and resources in Tobago. In 1986 its work included concentrating on halting the damage to Buccoo Reef Protected Area (K. Kenny, pers. comm., 1986). 436 In the late 1970s and early 1980s it was widely agreed that the level of conservation management being undertaken throughout all protected areas was minimal: in wildlife sanctuaries, including in Bush and Caroni Swamp, exploitation of timber was the principal activity (Chalmers, 1981). A decade later the indications were that very little had changed. Patrolling was reported to be inadequate in all wildlife sanctuaries, and only Caroni had active habitat management and a wardening system (F. Homer, pers. comm., 1988). In general, management is inadequate, except in Caroni Swamp and Little Tobago Wildlife Sanctuary. Systems Reviews Situated in the Caribbean Sea, Trinidad is the most southerly of the West Indian Islands, and lies 11.3km north of the Venezuelan coast of South America. Tobago is a mountainous island, 80.5km long and 59.5km wide, lying 30.4km to the northeast of Trinidad. On Tobago, four major vegetation communities have been described: littoral woodland, deciduous seasonal woodland, rain forest and swamp forests; the rain forest is restrict to sheltered mountain valleys of the Main Ridge. Lower montane forest, xerophytic rain forest, evergreen formations and some elfin woodland also occurs. At the foot of the Northern Range are marsh grasslands of Aripo savanna. Mangroves occur in patches on the coast (Beard, 1944; Davis et al., 1986; Thelen and Faizool, 1980). In 1990, just over 300,000ha, or approximately 60% of the land surface, could still be classified as forest land, although much of this is under severe pressure for alternative uses (Bacchus and Vorran, 1990). Offshore, the Buccoo reef/Bon Accord area represents the most outstanding example of coral reefs and beaches in the country (Thelen and Faizool, 1980; UNEP/IUCN, 1988). The waters surrounding the islands are strongly influenced by ocean currents; between June to December low salinity water from the Orinico washes the region. Trinidad has approximately 2,200 species of flowering plant, 110 of which are endemic to the island. There are also reported to be over 400 species of bird, 25 amphibians and 55 reptiles (Huber and Meganck, 1987). A summary of the natural resources has been published (Cooper and Bacon, 1981). In the 1940s, increasing forest exploitation and the conversion of natural forests to teak and pine plantations brought about an interest in preserving small relict areas of natural forest as nature reserves. These were generally small, ranging from eight to 350ha (Bacchus and Vorran, 1990). In 1977 there were 13 game sanctuaries, with a total area of 24,049ha, and 11 nature reserves. The legal status of the nature reserves is unclear. However, as they are all located within forest reserves, a certain degree of protection is guaranteed. (Cooper and Bacon, 1981; Dardaine, 1977). By 1980, under the Policy for the Establishment and Management of a National Park System in Trinidad and Tobago (Thelen and Faizool, 1980), 61 areas worthy of being protected were identified, covering approximately 69,000ha, to be classified under six different categories. These comprised: 13 scientific reserves; eight national parks; eight natural landmarks; 13 nature conservation reserves; six scenic landscapes and 13 recreation parks. Of the lands within the proposed system, 31% were at the time forest reserves and a further 12% were game sanctuaries. In addition, several marine reserves were proposed. The eight proposed national parks, Caroni Swamp, Chaguaramas, Madamas, Maracas, Matura, Nariva Swamp and in Tobago, Buccoo Reef and Eastern Tobago, cover almost half the proposed protected areas system. This proposed plan is still to be approved by the Government of Trinidad Tobago, but may serve to indicate the future directions in resource conservation (Thelen and Faizool, 1980). In December 1991, four areas, Aripo and Caroni Swamp, Matura Bay and Fishing Pond, were listed as gazetted forest reserve prohibited areas under the Forest Ordinance. By 1988 there were reported to be 13 wildlife sanctuaries totalling 16,000ha (P.R. Bacon, pers. comm., 1988; R. Cross, pers. comm., 1989, 1992). Environmental concerns include those areas that are extensively mined with the associated loss of top soil, vegetation and fauna. Legislation generally is inadequate to prevent excavation, forestry, squatting and other potentially environmentally harmful activities (F. Homer, pers. comm., 1988). All the sanctuaries and many of the forest reserves have been invaded by squatters. The former Kronstadt Island, Morne L’Enfer and Valencia wildlife sanctuaries have been mined, quarried or logged to such an extent that by 1988 they were degazetted (R. Cross, pers. comm., 1989). In 1987 significant fire damage affected Northern Range Wildlife Sanctuary (P.R. Bacon, pers. comm., 1988). Tourism and recreation are a major consideration in the protected areas of the islands; in the early 1980s up to 4,500 people annually visited the most popular site, Caroni Swamp Wildlife Sanctuary (Chalmers, 1981). In 1972, the Wildlife Conservation Committee published The Wildlife Sanctuaries of Trinidad and Tobago which provided a guide to the 13 sanctuaries, covering aspects of location, history, general description, access and management practices. A review of existing and potential and private nature parks has been produced as a research paper for the National Environment and Conservation Council (Reddock, 1974). 437 Trinidad and Tobago Addresses Forestry Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Land and Marine Resources, Private Bag 30, Long Circular Road, St James PORT OF SPAIN, Trinidad (Tel: 809 622 3217/4521/7476) Trinidad and Tobago Field Naturalists’ Club, 1 Palm Avenue, Petit Valley, Diego Martin, Trinidad Crusoe Reef Society, Maraval, Trinidad and Tobago Caribbean Forest Conservation Association, PO Box 679, Port of Spain, Trinidad (Tel: 624 5439; FAX: 624 5439) References Bacchus, C.F. and Vorran, G.M.C. (1990). The role of forestry in biological diversity conservation in Trinidad and Tobago. Unpublished document. 21 pp. Bacon, P.R. and ffrench, R.P. (1972). The wildlife sanctuaries of Trinidad and Tobago. Wildlife Conservation Committee, Ministry of Agriculture, Lands and Fisheries. 80 pp. Beard, J.S. (1944). The natural vegetation of Tobago. B.W.I. Ecological Monographs 14: 135-163. Chalmers, W.S. (1981). Forests. In: Cooper, StG. C. and Bacon, P.R. (Eds), The Natural Resources of Trinidad and Tobago. Edward Arnold, London. Pp. 78-105 Cooper, St G.C. and Bacon, P.R. (Eds) (1981). The natural resources of Trinidad and Tobago. Edward Amold, London. 223 pp. Dardaine, S. (1977). National parks. In: Ramdial, B.S. (Ed.), Questions and answers on forestry and wildlife in Trinidad and Tobago. Forestry Division, Ministry of Agriculture. 36 pp. Davis, $.D., Droop, $.J.M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., Leon, C.J., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J., Synge, H. and Zantovska, J. (1986). Plants in danger: what do we know? IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 461 pp. Huber, R.M. and Meganck, R. (1987). National Parks of Trinidad and Tobago. Naturalist 7(3): 629. Meganck, R.A. and Ramdial, A.S. (1984). Trinidad and Tobago Cultural Parks: an idea whose time has come. Parks 9(1): 15. Reddock, R. (1974). Survey of private nature parks existing and potential. National Environment and Conservation Council Research Paper No. 2/74. 65 pp. Thelen, K.D. and S. Faizool (1980). Policy for the Establishment and Management of a National Park System in Trinidad and Tobago. Technical Document Forest Division/OAS Project on the establishment of a system of national parks and protected areas. Forest Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Port of Spain, Trinidad. 26 pp. UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 1: Atlantic and Eastern Pacific. UNEP Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 373 pp. Title: No. 16 Title: Protected Areas of the World ANNEX Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration Conservation of Wildlife Ordinance Date: 1958 Brief description: | The Conservation of Wildlife Ordinance ‘No. 16, 1958 makes provision for the establishment of wildlife (or game) sanctuaries. This ordinance did not become law until 1963. Administrative authority: Forest Division Designations: Wildlife (or game) sanctuary Makes provision for the establishment of this category of protected area. Hunting is prohibited, although other activities such as timber exploitation or quarrying may take place. The Chief Game Warden, with the approval of the Minister, may modify the boundaries of the sanctuaries. Source: Bacon and ffrench (1972); Wildlife Conservation Committee (1972) Forest Ordinance Date: 1950 Brief description: The ordinance makes provision for the establishment of forest reserves and prohibited areas. Administrative authority: Forest Division 438 Designations: Forest reserve Management is primarily geared towards forest products. Forest reserve (Prohibited area) Areas which are part of a forest reserve or Crown land may be declared by the President to be a "prohibited area”. Regulations under this ordinance prohibit any unauthorised entry. Source: Bacon and ffrench, 1972; Wildlife Conservation Committee, 1972 Title: Marine Areas (Preservation and Enhancement) Act Date: 1970 Brief description: Provides for marine areas to be protected as restricted areas. Administrative authority: Forest Division Designations: Marine area Provisions for marine areas to be protected as restricted areas. Can be established to preserve natural beauty, to protect flora and fauna, to promote the enjoyment of the area, and to promote scientific research. The Act makes no provision for institutional structures necessary for the effective management of any areas designated. Source: Bacon and ffrench (1972); Wildlife Conservation Committee (1972) Trinidad and Tobago SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified Nature Reserve 1 Buccoo Reef I 650 1973 Game Sanctuaries 2 Bush Bush IV 1,554 1968 3 Central Range IV DalS3 1934 4 Eastern Tobago IV 100 5 Little Tobago IV 101 1928 6 Maracas IV 900 7 Nariva Swamp IV 1,500 8 Northern Range IV 936 1935 9 Southern Watershed IV 1,874 1934 10 Trinity Hill IV 8,246 1934 Prohibited Areas 11 Aripo Savannas I 1,800 1987 12 Caroni Swamp I 200 1987 a ——————————————— 439 Protected Areas of the World Protected Areas of Trinidad and Tobago 440 TURKS AND CAICOS ISLANDS (UNITED KINGDOM) Area 500 sq. km Population 12,000 (1990 estimate) Natural increase: No information Economic Indicators GDP: US$ 667 per capita (1987) GNP: No information Policy and Legislation The Turks and Caicos Islands became a separate colony of the United Kingdom in 1973 after association at various times with the colonies of the Bahamas and Jamaica. A new Constitution was introduced in 1976. The National Parks Ordinance, 1975 provides the legal framework for protected areas. Four different categories of protected area can be created under Section 3 of the Ordinance: national park, nature reserve, sanctuary and area of historic interest (see Annex). The decision to gazette a protected area is the responsibility of the Executive Council, which is advised by a National Parks Committee, currently comprising ten people. There is no specific forestry legislation. However, forestry is partly covered under the National Parks Ordinance, and other ordinances relating to plants, wild birds, fisheries and coasts. There is no stated or formal forestry policy (CDB, 1983). International Activities The Turks and Caicos is included in the UK’s ratification of the following international agreements with provisions for protected areas: the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention); and the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention). One Ramsar site has been designated. The UK Government ratified the Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena Convention) on 23 February 1986, and has signed the Protocol on Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife in 1991. The UK’s ratification includes the Turks and Caicos Islands. The Turks and Caicos government is not a member of the Caribbean Conservation Association (CCA), but participates in regional CCA activities. Administration and Management Administration and management of the protected area system is the responsibility of the Director of Parks who is attached to the Department of Planning and Environment. A National Parks Adviser was employed on a two-year contract, commencing October 1991, funded by the UK Overseas Development Administration (ODA). In 1987, Executive Council approved the creation of a new 441 Department to be known as the Department of Environment, National Heritage and Parks. The National Parks Committee, in discussions with the Turks and Caicos government, has examined the possibility of setting up a National Trust. Legislation for this is in final draft and is expected to go to the Legislature during February 1992 (P. Bradly, pers. comm., 1992). The government has accepted a proposal that the civilian police should be responsible for policing marine parks, and local dive operators will be encouraged to continue acting as park rangers (a role they have been undertaking for a number of years). One aim of marine park management is to protect reefs from increased dive traffic by the installation of mooring buoys. This has been approved by the Executive and work is currently in hand at Grand Turk. Buoys are also planned for Providenciales, South Caicos and West Caicos using information provided by Operation Raleigh. Forestry is not well developed in the islands: in the 1980s there was a Department of Agriculture within the Ministry of Development and Commerce. This Department had some role in amenity treeplanting, but has since closed down, along with its tree nursery on North Caicos (CDB, 1983; Garland, pers. comm., 1991). Much of the initiative and impetus for environmental protection and conservation in the Islands has come from non-governmental organisations (NGOs), principally PRIDE (Foundation for the Protection of Reefs and Islands from Degradation and Exploitation), and the Turks and Caicos Development Trust, supported by the government, the UK ODA, bilateral and multilateral donors and international environmental groups (Anon., 1990). PRIDE is a charity, registered in Washington, concerned with the management and use of natural resources on the islands. The Turks and Caicos Development Trust, based on Grand Turk, aims to contribute to sustainable social and economic development by the wide use of the islands’ resources. Systems Reviews The Turks and Caicos are low-lying limestone islands (less than 75m in altitude) with a number of lagoons and salinas and outlying coral reefs. The Caicos Islands are relatively fertile, and support an understorey of scrub bush and cacti below a canopy of low trees. The Turk Islands have an unproductive, fine, sandy dune topsoil which supports a sparse vegetation of sedge and cacti. Intact stands of mangrove exist at South Creek on Grand Turk and along the creeks of all the Caicos. Scrub-type forest has been estimated to cover some 90% of the total land area; swamp and mangrove forest covers something less than 5% of the total land area. Matured forest stands are rare in many places because of the high Protected Areas of the World demands for fuelwood and charcoal production (CDB, 1983). A series of scientific surveys of the marine and coastal resources has been carried out by Operation Raleigh. Areas of study have been the north coast of Providenciales and Leeward Cays (Operation Raleigh, 1986a, b) and the island of Grand Turk (Operation Raleigh, 1987a, b). In September 1987 an expedition to South Caicos and Long Cay culminated in proposals for aLong Bay/East Bay Underwater Park and Conservation Zone and for Middleton Cay Island Sanctuary. Operation Raleigh visited Providenciales from November 1988 to January 1989 and North Caicos in 1990. The information on marine resources has been used to help formulate management proposals for the areas studied. As well as surveying marine areas, Operation Raleigh assists with the siting and installation of mooring buoys, and with an experimental conch replenishment exercise in cooperation with the principal fisheries officer. A comprehensive survey of wetlands was undertaken, from July to October 1987, with the funding of WWE-UK, Department of the Environment and ODA and administered by WWF-UK. The aim of the survey was to assess the potential of wetlands for nomination as Ramaar sites, and as a result a large area of North, Middle and East Caicos has been designated. In addition, a comprehensive survey of the country’s ecology has been undertaken recently by resource consultants. Considerable progress has been made in the designation of protected areas. It is now necessary to prepare an overall plan that takes account of the need to achieve broad support for the system from the local community; to develop an indigenous management capability; and to draw up a sound financial strategy to pay for the management system. Overall management of protected areas in such a way would be facilitated by the formation of the new statutory body which is being considered (Anon., 1990). Steps are now being taken to implement an overall plan for national parks. Regulations have been drafted for the management of national parks with financial assistance from the UK government. Funds have also been made available for signs, buoys and boundary markers for the national parks and Ramsar site. In July 1987 the National Parks Committee presented a list of 33 recommended sites to the Executive. The National Parks Order of 4 March 1988 designated five national parks, one nature reserve, two sanctuaries and two areas of historical interest. In total, the Executive Council has now approved 27 of the 33 recommended sites and these are now protected by law (Lightbourne, 1991). 442 Addresses Planning Department, Government Office, Grand Turk Department of Environment and National Heritage (Director), Ministry of Natural Resources, Grand Turk (Tel: 809 946 2855; FAX: 809 946 2448; Tlx: 8227 TQ) The Turks and Caicos Development Trust, Front Street, Grand Turk PRIDE, Caribbean Field Headquarters, Pine Cay, Turks and Caicos References Anon. (1990). Turks and Caicos Islands Strategic Review. Final Report. Draft. Mokoro CDB (1983). Regional Forestry Sector, Country Study Report, Turks and Caicos Islands. Caribbean Development Bank, Barbados. 11 pp. Clark, N.V. and Norton, R.L. (1987). The Turks and Caicos Islands, a Ramsar site proposal. Final report to the Turks and Caicos Islands Government, WWF-UK, DoE and ODA. 39 pp. Institute of Development Studies (1981). Turks and Caicos Development Plan. Sussex University and ODA, London, UK. Lightbourne, E.S. (1991). Development of a marine park in a developing country to implement pre-impact maintenance for coral reef management. In: Cambers, G. (Ed.), Proceedings of the Regional Symposium public and private cooperation in National Park development. 23-25 August. British Virgin Islands National Parks Trust, Tortola. Mitchell, B.A. and Barborak, J.R. (1991). Developing coastal park systems in the Tropics: Planning in the parks and Caicos Islands. Coastal Management 19: 113-134. Oldfield, S. (1987). Fragments of Paradise, a guide for conservation action in the UK dependent territories. British Association of Nature Conservation, Oxford, UK. 192 pp. Operation Raleigh (1986a). Reporton the Turks and Caicos expedition. Report on the distribution of habitats and species of the north coast of Providenciales and Leeward Cays (Part 1). University of York, UK. 58 pp. Operation Raleigh (1986b). Report on the Turks and Caicos expedition. Management of the north coast of providenciales and Leeward Cays resources and recommendations for protected areas (Part 2). University of York, UK. 35 pp. Operation Raleigh (1987a). Reporton the Turks and Caicos expedition. Management of the marine and coastal resources of the island of Grand Turk and recommendations for protected areas (Part 4). University of York, UK. 28 pp. Operation Raleigh (1987b). Report on the Turks and Caicos expedition. Report on the Distribution of coastal and marine habitats and species on the island of Grand Turk. University of York, UK. Ray, C. and Sprung, T. (1971). Parks and Conservation in The Turks and Caicos Islands. A report on the ecology of the Turks and Caicos with particular emphasis upon the impact of development upon the natural environment. Turks and Caicos Islands Government. Scott, D.A. and Carbonell, M. (1986). A directory of Neotropical wetlands. \UCN, Cambridge and IWRB, Slimbridge, UK. 684 pp. Turks and Caicos Islands (United Kingdom) UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 1: Atlantic and Eastern Pacific. UNEP Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 373 pp. ANNEX Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration Title: The National Parks Ordinance Date: 1975 Brief description: for protected areas Provides the legal framework Administrative authority: National Parks Committee Designations: National Park Activities permitted within protected areas are governed by Section 4 of the Ordinance: an area designated as a national park shall be open to members of the public for recreational use such as camping, fishing and sailing. Developments, such as the erection of buildings, construction of roads and marinas, must be licensed by the Governor. The criteria which the Ordinance sets down for an acceptable development include the requirement that the proposal will "facilitate the enjoyment by the public of the natural setting of the area”. Nature Reserve Certain activities are also allowed within nature reserves. The need to sustain a "proper balance in the natural ecology of the area" 443 determines permissible activities in a nature reserve”. The Ordinance lists agriculture, arboriculture, pisciculture, sport and recreation as permissible activities. The only buildings and developments permitted will be those required for one of the permitted uses, and before a development can be undertaken a licence has to be granted by the Governor. Sanctuary The primary purpose of a sanctuary is to protect the natural ecology, or any particular form of living organism (including any marine life) in the area, and to avoid disturbance by human beings. Entry into a sanctuary is not permitted, except in accordance with any regulations made in respect of the sanctuary. No development is permitted. Area of Historic Interest Provision for the protection of areas of historical interest is made, such that an area may be included within one of the previous categories, in which case it will be subject to the same restrictions as that area. Where the area does not coincide with one of the above, the public may have access, subject to conditions set down by appropriate regulations. No development is permitted without licence granted by the Governor. Protected Areas of the World Map ref. NANDNMNBWN eK — © 0O 0 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS National/international designations Name of area National Parks Admiral Cockburn Land and Sea Park Chalk Sound Columbus Landfall Marine Park East Bay Islands Fort George Land & Sea Park Grand Turk Cays Land and Sea Park Leeward Land & Sea National Park and Nature Reserve North West Point Princess Alexandria West Caicos Marine Park Nature Reserves Admiral Cockburn Bell Sound Dick Hill Creek, Bellfield Landing Point Lake Catherine Little Water Cay, Donna Cay and Mangrove Cay Pigeon Pond and Frenchman’s Creek Pumpkin Bluff Pond Vine Point Ocean Hole Sanctuary Big Sand Cay Area of Historical Interest Salt Cay Ramsar Wetland Turks & Caicos IUCN management category 444 IV II IV II IV IV II II II IV IV IV Ill Ill Area (ha) 154 1,460 518 3,541 494 156 500 1,026 2,645 397 431 1,142 394 392 182 2,393 173 757 151 176 250,000 Year notified 1987 1987 1987 1987 1987 1987 1975 1987 1987 1987 1990 Turks and Caicos Islands (United Kingdom) Protected Areas of the Turks & Caicos 445 ~~» saree athe Se eee: ” = ‘ VIRGIN ISLANDS (UNITED STATES OF AMERICA) Area 341 sq. km Population 101,809 (1990) Natural increase: No information Economic Indicators GDP: No information GNP: No information Policy and Legislation The United States Virgin Islands is an unincorporated territory of the United States. Much self government has been provided incrementally by the United States Congress. The Virgin Islands has been electing its own Governor since 1970, and has been represented in Congress by a nonvoting delegate since 1972. The Legislature, comprised of 15 members, has all the powers inherent in legislative bodies subject to the United States Constitution and the Virgin Islands Organic Act. Federal and local legislation has been enacted to ensure protection and preservation of natural, cultural and historic resources. For further details of the federal legislation and administration see the entry for the United States of America. The Indigenous Species Act (Act 5665) provides protection to threatened and locally threatened and indigenous species as well as mangroves. The Coastal Zone Management Act which was established in 1978 made provision for the Coastal Zone Management Program (CZM). The Department of Planning and Natural Resources (DPNR) is the lead agency, and has jurisdiction in exercising general control over the enforcement of laws relating to planning, conservation and the development of natural resources. The CZM is responsible for the protection, maintenance, preservation and, where feasible, the enhancement and restoration of the overall quality of the environment in the coastal zone. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) provides funding for wildlife and fisheries restoration through all the DPNR. National parks, national monuments, and other categories of protected areas within the national park system are established by individual Acts of Congress. Virgin Islands National Park, which encompasses 56% of the island of St John, was established on 2 August 1956 (Public Law 925) and designated a biosphere reserve in June 1976. Buck Island Reef National Monument was established by Presidential Proclamation No. 3443, 1961. A variety of regulations governs the use of the areas within the national park system, most are intended to provide for the safety of park visitors and to protect the natural and cultural resources. The use or possession of any type of spearfishing equipment within park boundaries is prohibited. All taking of marine life is prohibited throughout the park. A natural resource protection programme that designates anchoring and mooring zones in the park has been implemented. 447 National wildlife refuges can be established by Act of Congress, but can also be transferred to the authority of the USFWS by administrative action, such as transfer of land from another agency (federal or state), or by receipt of a gift of land (from a state or unit of local government, a private organisation or an individual). While management objectives may vary considerably from site to site, refuges are essentially established for the restoration, preservation and management of wildlife habitat, and for the preservation of threatened species. Provision for the establishment of national marine sanctuaries is made under the Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act, 1972. The Act authorises the Secretary of Commerce to designate ocean and coastal waters as national marine sanctuaries for the purpose of preserving or restoring their conservation, recreation, ecological or aesthetic values. Designation under the Act has the advantage of protecting a discrete ecosystem, as opposed to individual natural resources and species under several different laws. The sanctuary designation process was amended significantly in 1984 to increase the emphasis on sustainable multiple use and planning, and less on prohibitions. The sanctuary designation process begins when the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) selects an area from its own site Evaluation List to be an active candidate. Only after the drafting of management plans, two environmental impact statements and a public hearing can the area be designated. There are two USVI areas on the Site Evaluation List (1983), Southeast St Thomas and East End St Croix (Foster and Archer, 1988). The Department of Planning and Natural Resources (DPNR) is charged with the task of planning and programming the development of the Territorial Park System which was legally mandated in 1972. The Department is also responsible for the preservation and management of natural resources, wildlife, and archaeological and historical resources. The Government of the Virgin Islands, with the DPNR and the Department of Housing Parks and Recreation (DHP&R) as the lead agencies, will be working on a management plan together with the federal government to make Salt River Bay in St Croix a national park. The DHP&R administers approximately 13 beaches and a number of recreational fields (or parks) together with the maintenance and upkeep of open spaces in the territory. International Activities The United States is a participant in the following international conventions and programmes: Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention), The Unesco Man and the Biosphere Programme, The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention), The Convention for the Protected Areas of the World Protection and Development of the Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena Convention), The Convention for the Protection of the Natural Resources and Environment in the South Pacific Region (SPREP Convention). Virgin Islands National Park was designated a biosphere reserve in June 1976. Administration and Management The enforcement of federal regulations within the national park system is the responsibility of the National Park Service (United States Department of Interior), and enforcement of territorial laws is held by the territorial government. The United States Department of Interior (USDD), therefore, has responsibility for Virgin Islands National Park, Buck Island Reef National Monument and Christiansted National Historic Site. National park lands are classified into four general zones: natural, historic, development and special use. Funding comes from the National Park Service and supports not only the management of the area, but also research work by the Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative (VIRMC). Total budgets for these three sites in 1991 was US$ 7.76 million, with the 73 staff. National wildlife refuges are administered by the USFWS, also part of the USDI. The Virgin Islands Coastal Zone Management Program is the responsibility of the DPNR, which has jurisdiction over all wetlands and coastal areas. There are at present no national marine sanctuaries within the Virgin Islands, but if recommendations by NOAA (1981) are fulfilled, management of proposed sanctuaries will be shared by NOAA and the Virgin Islands authorities. System Reviews Two of the three main islands, St Thomas and St John, are on the same submerged bank as Puerto Rico and the British Virgin Islands. The third island, St Croix, lies further south in the Caribbean Sea. The southwest and centralsouth parts of St Croix are relatively flat, and over half has slopes of less than 10%. Vegetation varies from the windswept east, where rolling hills support cactus and thorn scrub, to a moist forest in the west end. St Thomas is noted for its steep terrain, and more than 70% of the island has slopes exceeding 20%. General vegetation varies from the scrub of the rather dry east end to cooler and quite lush central mountain tops. St John is the smallest of the islands and 54% of the island is a national park. St John has generally steeper terrain, with 80% of the island having slopes of 30% or more (Boulon, 1984). The tourist industry is the leading economic activity, and in 1980 the islands were visited by approximately one million tourists. Subsequent pressure on land and sea use makes active management essential to sustain the value of the natural features. Boulon (1984) identified three major problems with respect to management of natural resources: loss of land through population increase and subsequent construction, overexploitation of marine resources, and maintenance of marine, nearshore water quality. The islands have also been the subject of a significant number of scientific studies. In recent years 448 the Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative has worked to provide coordinated environmental research and its funding, and to ensure application and dissemination of results. One result of this has been a range of Biosphere Reserve Research Reports, 29 of which were published 19868. Mostof these reports relate to Virgin Islands National Park, but some include information from Buck Island Reef National Monument and the British Virgin Islands. A synthesis of major findings in these and other pertinent research reports appear in Rogers and Teytaud (1988). Virgin Islands National Park currently has an active programme of long-term monitoring of marine and terrestrial resources, including coral reefs, reef fishes, dry and moist forest, and soils. Several long-term research sites have been established. Addresses Department of Planning and Natural Resources, Suite 231 Nisky Center, No. 45A Estate Nisky, ST THOMAS Department of Housing Parks and Recreation, ST THOMAS Property and Procurement Building, Room 206, Subbase, ST THOMAS National Park Service, US Department of the Interior, WASHINGTON, DC, USA Virgin Islands National Park Service, PO Box 710, ST JOHN References Boulon, R.H. (1984). United States Virgin Islands. In: Wood, J. (Ed.), Proceedings for the workshop on biosphere reserves and other protected areas for sustainable development of small Caribbean islands. National Park Service, Atlanta. 190 pp. Foster, N.M. and Archer, J.H. (1988). The National Marine Sanctuary program - policy, education and research. Oceanus 31(1): 4-17. National Park Service (1983). Virgin Islands general management plan, development concept plan, environment assessment. US Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Denver Service Centre. 179 pp. NOAA (1981). The St. Thomas National Marine Sanctuary and draft Environmental Statement. US Department of Commerce, Washington. Norton, R.L. (1986). United States Virgin Islands. In: Scott, D.A. and Carbonell, M. (Eds), A directory of Neotropical wetlands. \UCN, Cambridge and IWRB, Slimbridge, UK. 684 pp. Putney, A.D. (1987). Conceptual framework for the management of the Virgin Islands Biosphere Reserve. Biosphere Reserve Research Report No. 15. Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative. Robinson, A.H. and Henle, F. (1978). Virgin Islands National Park, The story behind the scenery. K.C. Publications, Nevada. Rogers, C. (1985). Towards a Lesser Antillean Biosphere Reserve. Parks 10(3): 22-24 Rogers, C.S. and Teytaud, R. (1988). Marine and terrestrial ecosystems of the Virgin Islands National Park and Biosphere Reserve. Biosphere reserve research report No. 29. 112 pp. Virgin Islands (United States of America) UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Volume 1: Atlantic and Eastern Pacific. UNEP Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 373 pp. Virgin Islands Resource Management Cooperative (19868). Biosphere reserve research reports 1-29. SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS Map ref. National/international designations Name of area National Park Virgin Islands peel National Wildlife Refuge Sandy Point ie} National Monument Buck Island Reef Ww Biosphere Reserve Virgin Islands National Park IUCN management Area Year category (ha) notified II 5,308 1956 IV 134 Il 356 1961 IX 6,127 1976 449 Protected Areas of the World Protected Areas of the US Virgin Islands 450 SOUTH GEORGIA Area 3,755 sq. km Population Staff of the British Antarctic Survey (approximately 3-4) on Bird Island (increased numbers in summer) and garrison at Grytviken. Economic Indicators Not relevant Policy and Legislation South Georgia is claimed by the United Kingdom and by Argentina (as Islas del Atlantico Sur) but governed from the Falkland Islands as part of the territory South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (formerly the Falkland Island Dependencies). Conservation and protection of the flora and fauna is governed by the Falklands Islands Dependencies Conservation Ordinance 1975. Three forms of designated area for conservation may be established under this law: specially protected area; site of special scientific interest; and area of special tourist interest (see Annex). It is now prohibited to land on South Georgia for mountaineering or other recreational purposes except in Areas of Special Tourist Interest, unless granted a special permit to visit other places (Bonner and Lewis Smith, 1985). Administration of South Georgia is provided for in the South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands Order 1985. International Activities South Georgia was included in the UK ratification of the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) and Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention), as a dependency of the Falkland Islands. Administration and Management South Georgia is administered by the Commissioner of South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands who is also the Governor of the Falkland Islands. Local administration of conservation measures is delegated to the resident Magistrate (Garrison Commander) and to the Director of the British Antarctic Survey (R.Headland, pers.comm., 1992). Systems Reviews South Georgia is the second largest of the sub-Antarctic islands and lies about 1,400km from the Falkland Islands. It consists of a main island with smaller islands, islets and rocks. Clerke Rocks to the southeast and Shag Rocks to the northwest are included in the dependency. South Georgia is very mountainous, rising to over 2,934m, and about two-thirds of the surface has permanent snow and ice-cover. The climate is cold and wet throughout the year, with strong winds. Precipitation averages about 1,500mm annually and the mean annual temperature is 2°C. Sub-zero temperatures are recorded each month (Bonner and Lewis Smith, 1985; R.Headland, pers.comm., 1992). 451 Extensive areas of vegetation occur only at low altitudes in coastal areas, particularly on the more sheltered northern coast. Vegetation consists of coastal tussock grassland, dry meadows, moss communities and fellfield vegetation. Tussock grassland, dominated by Parodiochloa flabellata, the largest of the island’s plants comprises the most prominant plant community(Headland, 1991). The vascular flora comprises 26 indigenous species. The cryptogram flora is richer with about 125 moss species, 85 liverworts and 150 lichens. Terrestrial and freshwater algae are locally abundant. The paucity of the flora is caused more by isolation than climate alone, although cold summers are a critical factor. Terrestrial mammals are all recent introductions. Six species of seal occur, including the fur seal, the population rate of which is currently increasing at a rate of 15% per annum, following virtual extinction in the nineteenth century (Bonner and Lewis Smith, 1985; Headland, 1991; Oldfield, 1987; Strange, 1992). Much scientific research has been conducted on South Georgia in the past, and the ecology of the fauna and flora is well known in comparison with most other subantarctic islands (Clark and Dingwall, 1985). Cooper Island is designated as a Specially Protected Area, and Bird Island and Annenkov Island are classified as Sites of Special Scientific Interest. In addition, Grytviken and Bay of Isles are designated as Areas of Special Tourist Interest. Rats are a problem on South Georgia. They have wiped out the endemic pipit and smaller seabirds over much of the main island, but fortunately have not spread to offshore islands such as Bird Island (Oldfield, 1987). From 1904 to 1966, several whaling stations operated year-round. Several thousand men were often resident during summer, however, since the closing of the whaling stations, the human population has been very low. Fishing operations occur in the vincinity of South Georgia. Some fish stocks are thought to be have been overexploited, and recent interest has centred on pelagic fishing for krill, and studies of krill populations (Clark and Dingwall, 1985; Headland, 1991; Trathan et al, 1992). Close monitoring and control of catches are necessary in view of the dependence on the marine environment of marine mammals and birds which breed on the islands. Tourism has developed in recent years, but is well-regulated, and mainly restricted to sites of Special Tourist Interest (Clark and Dingwall, 1985). Addresses British Antarctic Survey (Director), High Cross, Madingley Rd, Cambridge CB3 0ET (Tel: 0223 61199; Fax: 0223 62616) Deputy Commissioner of South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands, Government House, Stanley, Falkland Islands Protected Areas of the World References Bonner, W.N. and Lewis Smith, R.I. (1985). Conservation Areas in the Antarctic. Scott Polar Research Institute, Cambridge, U.K. 299pp. Clark, M.R. and Dingwall, P.R. (1985). Conservation of Islands in the Southern Ocean: A review of the protected areas of Insulantarctica. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 188pp. Headland, R.K. (1991). The Island of South Georgia. Cambridge University Press. 293pp. Oldfield, S. (1987). Fragments of paradise: a guide for conservation action in the U.K. dependent territories. Pisces publications. 192pp. Strange, IJ. (1992). A Field Guide to the Wildlife of the Falkland Islands and South Georgia. Harper Collins. 188pp. Trathan, P.N., Agnew, D., Miller, D.G.M., Watkins, J.L., Everson, I., Thorley, M.R., Murphy, E., Murray, A.W.A. and Goss, C. (1992). Krill biomass in Area 48 and Area 58: Recalculation of FIBEX data. CCAMLR. WG-kiill-92/20. 15pp. ANNEX Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration Title: Falkland Islands Dependencies Conservation Ordinance Brief description: | Provides for three categories of protected area, as well as general restrictions conceming flora and fauna. Date: 1975 Administrative authority: | No information Designations: Specially Protected Area This may be: a representative example of a major land, freshwater, or coastal marine ecological system: an area with a unique complex of species; an area which is the type locality or only known habitat of any native plant or invertebrate species. To be preserved from any interference, to enable future comparison with areas disturbed by man. Permits to enter only issued for compelling scientific reasons which cannot be served elsewhere, provided the actions permitted will not will not jeopardise the natural ecological system existing in the designated area. Site of Special Scintific Interest Designated to prevent scientific investigations being jeopardized by disturbance. Permits to enter are only issued for compelling scientific reasons which cannot be served elsewhere and provided that the actions permitted will not interfere with the scientific investigations for which the site was designated. Area of Special Tourist Interest Area open for tourism, selected as being representative of wildlife and scenic beauty where the effects of tourist activity may be systematically assessed. Source: Original legislation SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS Map National/international designations IUCN management Area Year ref, Name of area category (ha) notified Sites of Special Scientific Interest 1 Annenkov Island I 1975 2 Bird Island I 1975 Specially Protected Area 3 Cooper Island I 1975 452 South Georgia 7 VIO4od9 HLNOS I recBN oLf awe 2S 48 SGN¥1S] GNYTH1V4 “) 2 = 9 aes EAS > OR ey Foc i ae ee Le c ole oS LE ° (es) ois 453 Protected Areas of South Georgia => oo ae eee ete Pye es ieee Devens ae hi & WA, bl 4 x a bs ee . 18s iz ipo ¢ a } we ¥ c - \ iy = = Ws f 4 o ‘ Ds - é : ’ - , f Py @ Wi oe i An a rs : 7 - s + A c 7 ne ® — a 4 a ee F xz » 4 4 Pde iki a rel A. ee j ; ' ' z : i ode s * La ies Su ane | / : y » hs ; ih - v Neg agtga Mh i i ie , 4 “4 & 4 : : E ean 7 7 ~A u bes [ 5 4 q > a - cof j " 7 " ; ) i - . 4 "| i > r. ‘ “* ae i ba te ~~ ‘ ee +" F We ae | t ' ti j oe ‘ : ry ey cP an ty) outed Tay bee hy, Sena’: ia) ie” (a ar Salhht ie Log ap Mgt ea. ‘ = “ - ' ih) Verge eee ee 4 © PE Pash Ramee is uu a Ts 7 spied brad eee Wa £t) y wer tye * i ce h a 4 ~ - 7 ” ; a { : ’ Fabien iv 4 WM S24 ae 4 hos a if : ee ee oe: oar % a a aod eee a ee oe | o ie ad | rare “ a ies hoes = A Se = yl pe fe nia i ii ’ " : A if ; é a owas gee (c Pie of y Pee tO yiaot. Sher aie oma : : oP pose sme ae yee iy ra “ ee ails 7 ot a Ri ee a if t = P : ; ‘ aie mrt ogy foe uf - = 4 ; 3 = : ae ori del aris ie E ras © Sefer b Nepal Pubes Lys | ‘ Re San beget Fi a eae peatland des. aa ona, p es Nacte AL, a « w@ Fe SOUTH SANDWICH ISLANDS Area 310 sq.km Population Uninhabited Economic Indicators No economic activity Policy and Legislation The South Sandwich Islands are claimed by the United Kingdom and by Argentina (as Islas del Atlantico Sur) but governed from the Falkland Islands as part of the territory South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (formerly the Falkland Island Dependencies). The conservation and protection of the flora and fauna is governed by the Falklands Islands Dependencies Conservation Ordinance 1975. Three forms of designated area for conservation may be established under this law: specially protected area; site of special scientific interest; and area of special tourist interest (see Annex). Administration of the South Sandwich Islands is provided for in the South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands Order 1985. International Activities The South Sandwich Islands were included in the UK ratification of the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) and Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention), as a dependency of the Falkland Islands. Administration and Management The South Sandwich Islands are administered by the Commissioner of South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands who is also the Governor of the Falkland Islands. Local administration of conservation measures is delegated to the resident Magistrate (Garrison Commander) and to the Director of the British Antarctic Survey (R.Headland, pers.comm., 1992). Systems Reviews The South Sandwich Islands, an archipelago of 11 volcanic islands, lie 470km to the southeast of South Georgia, forming achain 386km long. The islands group forms the only volcanic arc in the Antarctic region and is bounded by a deep sea trench, up to 8,265m deep, on its eastern side. The islands range in length from 1 to 28km and from 190 to 1,370m altitude. The larger islands are mainly covered by ice, the smaller 455 islands are almost ice-free in summer. Virtually all the islands show signs of recent volcanic activity, several have active fumaroles, and recent eruptions have occurred (Bonner and Lewis Smith, 1985; R.Headland, pers.comm., 1992). Vegetation is essentially Antarctic in character. The flora consists of at least 13 species of algae, 27 species of lichen, 31 species of moss, 12 species of liverwort, a few basidiomycete fungi, and one grass (but this record is probably incomplete). The major affinities of the flora are with southern South America, South Georgia and the maritime Antarctic. Sealing activities in the 19th century almost eliminated the fur seal, but breeding populations have been increasing since 1957. Elephant, Weddell and leopard seals are all thought to breed on the islands (Bonner and Lewis Smith, 1985; Clark and Dingwall, 1985). Although there are no gazetted proctected areas, protection of the islands is generally considered adequate with no outstanding conservation problems at the present (Oldfield, 1987). Apart from the reduction or elimination of the small population of breeding fur seals in the nineteenth century, the islands have suffered little human disturbance. There are no records of introduced plants or animals (Bonner and Lewis Smith, 1985). Addresses British Antarctic Survey (The Director), High Cross, Madingley Rd, Cambridge CB3 OET (Tel: 0223 61199; Fax: 0223 62616) Deputy Commissioner of South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands, Government House, Stanley, Falkland Islands References Bonner, W.N. and Lewis Smith, R.I. (1985). Conservation Areas in the Antactic. Scott Polar Research Institute, Cambridge, U.K. 299pp. Clark, M.R. and Dingwall, P.R. (1985). Conservation of Islands in the Southern Ocean: A review of the protected areas of Insulantarctica. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 188pp. Oldfield, S. (1987). Fragments of paradise: a guide for conservation action in the U.K. dependent territories. Pisces publications. 192pp. Title: Conservation Ordinance Protected Areas of the World ANNEX Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration Falkland Islands Dependencies Brief description: Provides for three categories of protected area, as well as general restrictions concerning flora and fauna. Date: 1975 Administrative authority: | No information Designations: Specially Protected Area This may be a representative example of a major land, freshwater, or coastal marine ecological system: an area with a unique complex of species; an area which is the type locality or only known habitat of any native plant or invertebrate species. To be preserved from any interference, to enable future comparison with areas 456 disturbed by man. Permits to enter only issued for compelling scientific reasons which cannot be served elsewhere, provided the actions permitted will not will not jeopardise the natural ecological system existing in the designated area. Site of Special Scientific Interest Designated to prevent scientific investigations being jeopardized by disturbance. Permits to enter are only issued for compelling scientific reasons which cannot be served elsewhere and provided that the actions permitted will not interfere with the scientific investigations for which the site was designated. Area of Special Tourist Interest Area open for tourism, selected as being representative of wildlife and scenic beauty where the effects of tourist activity may be systematically assessed. Source: Original legislation TRISTAN DA CUNHA AND GOUGH ISLAND Area 159 sq. km Population 306 (1988 census) Natural increase: Roughly constant (R.Headland, pers.comm., 1992) Economic Indicators GDP: no information GNP: no information Policy and Legislation Tristan da Cunha and Gough Island are both British Overseas Territories. Gough Island is a dependency of Tristan da Cunha which in turn is a dependency of Saint Helena, a British Overseas Territory. The Tristan da Cunha Conservation Ordinance 1976 covers both Tristan da Cunha and Gough Island and makes provision for different degrees of protection. General restrictions are imposed on activities throughout many of the islands, and provision is made for the establishment of Gough Island as a Wildlife Reserve, and for areas of Tristan da Cunha to be declared a sanctuary (see Annex). Present agricultural and horticultural activities and human disturbance on the main island of Tristan are recognised, and provision is made for future concentration of development there. The Tristan da Cunha Fisheries Limits Ordinance of 1968 as amended by Ordinance No.3 of 1977, specifically protects an area of 200 nautical miles around the Tristan Islands (Ryan and Cooper, 1991). International Activities Tristan da Cunha was included in the UK ratification of the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) and Convention on Wetlands of Intemational Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention), as a dependency of Saint Helena. Administration and Management _ The islands are the responsibility of the Administrator of Tristan da Cunha, assisted by the Island Council of Tristan da Cunha. There are currently two conservation officers, appointed by the Administrator, together with the islands’s policeman. Under the Tristan da Cunha Conservation Ordinance, members of the police force are also conservation officers (Clark and Dingwall, 1985; Cooper and Ryan, 1992a). A formal management plan for Tristan da Cunha does not exist, although an overall strategy has been outlined by Wace and Holdgate (1976). A management plan for Gough Island Wildlife Reserve is currently being prepared, on behalf of the Tristan Government, funded by WWF-UK and UK-FCO (Foreign and Commonwealth Office), and to be submitted by 1993 (Cooper and Ryan, 1992b). The management plan will provide guidelines for the 457 continued operation and supply of the island’s meteorological station and for conducting research. There are no locally based conservation organisations Systems Reviews _ Tristan da Cunha consists of three islands, Tristan da Cunha, Inaccessible and Nightingale, which lie in the South Atlantic about 2,800km from South Africa and some 3,200km from the nearest point of South America. Gough Island, lies about 350km south-southeast of Tristan da Cunha. The islands are all of volcanic origin, although Gough Island is the summit of a separate volcanic mass from that of the Tristan group. The native flora comprises about 40 species of flowering plant and 39 pteridophytes, with less on Nightingale and Inaccessible (Clark and Dingwall, 1985; Wace and Holdgate, 1976; R.Headland, pers.comm., 1992). Tussock grassland dominates low lying areas, with wet heath vegetation at higher levels. Extensive beds of kelp surround much of the coast. The avifauna is rich, with a total of 28 breeding birds. Two species of seal are native. They have been exploited in the past but are now protected, and are increasing in numbers once more (Clark and Dingwall, 1985; Oldfield, 1987; Wace and Holdgate, 1976). Under the Tristan da Cunha Conservation Ordinance, the entire group of islands is protected, to varying levels. Gough Island and its territorial waters out to three nautical miles is protected as a wildlife reserve. Tristan da Cunha has protected status equivalent to a multiple-use management area, with Jews Point specifically protected as a sanctuary. Strict protection is afforded to all other islands, with the exception of provision for some islanders to kill some birds. Overall, legal protection of the biota and environment of the islands is considered to be adequate (Clark and Dingwall, 1985). An area of 200 nautical miles surrounding the Tristan Islands is specifically legally protected. However this has had no effect in keeping illegal driftnetters from operating within this area, resulting high mortality rates among non-target species, including marine mammals, birds, turtles and fish (Ryan and Cooper, 1991). A commercial fishery takes place within the territorial waters of Gough Island Wildlife Reserve (Cooper and Ryan, in press). Addresses South Atlantic and Antarctic Department (The Head), Foreign and Commonwealth Office, King Charles St, London SW1A 2AH (Tel: 071-270 3000) The Administrator, Edinburgh, Tristan da Cunha Protected Areas of the World References Protection, Research and Management of ¥ ; Sub-Antarctic Islands. 19pp. Clark, M.R. and Dingwall, P.R. (1985). Conservation of Oldfield, S. (1987). Fragments of paradise: a guide for Islands in the Southern Ocean: A review of the conservation action in the U.K. dependent territories. protected areas of Insulantarctica. IUCN, Gland, Pisces publications. 192pp. Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 188pp. Ryan, P.G. and Cooper, J. (1991). Rockhopper penguins Cooper, J. and Ryan, P.G. (1992a). The Current and other marine life threatened by driftnet fisheries Conservation Status of the Tristan da Cunha Islands. at Tristan da Cunha. Oryx 25: 76-79. SCAR/IUCN Workshop on Protection, Researchand Wace, N.M. and Holdgate, M.W. (1976). Man and Management of Sub-Antarctic Islands. 15pp. nature in the Tristan da Cunha islands. JUCN Cooper, J. and Ryan, P.G. (1992b). Benign Research on Monograph No. 6. 114pp. a South Atlantic Jewel: Towards a Management Plan for Gough Island. SCAR/IUCN Workshop on ANNEX Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration Title: Tristan da Cunha Conservation Designations: Ordinance Wildlife Reserve Activities prohibited include Brief description: Provides for the protection of killing, capture, or molestation of native birds and the Tristan da Cunha islands and Gough Island and a mammals; interference with native vegetation; three nautical mile territorial waters zone introduction of non-native fauna and flora; construction of buildings, roads, and structures Date: 1976 without a permit. Admini i hority: ini f Aish bis : dministeativenauthorilys}/ThevAdninistator6 Sanctuary Activities prohibited include wilful Easenenem killing, capture or molestation of any native bird or native mammal Source: Wace and Holdgate (1976) SUMMARY OF PROTECTED AREAS Map Nationall/international designations IUCN management Area Year ref. Name of area category (ha) notified Sanctuary 1 Jews Point I 11,100 1979 Wildlife Reserve 2 Gough Island I 6,500 1976 458 Tristan da Cunha and Gough Island 2000km ] 0° HELENA y 5 sl S72 GOUGH ISLAND TRISTAN DA CUNHA | 40° Protected Areas of Tristan da Cuhna and Gough Island 459 ae TS i | rae Je r Fe: : a. bs , Ley ; i i f i ' : l i : “ bs bir ii nt i 7 ul Dy Ne fant ie i i ~ i t , ‘i j " e i rn iv i a ik E Fi ‘Se ‘ ‘in if uy ai a att i nm a H, f : i i & } i ' I Put ' r ; | i" ‘ eee i fa [ i r j mn yy : I i 7 7 i her i y 7 se 4 ef Pieeetie see oe aes oa ee = a a The IUCN Conservation Library Other volumes in the set: Avallasietrom: Volume 1: Indomalaya, Oceania, = ad ure a Australia, and Antarctic IUCN Publications Services’ Unit ISBN: 2-8317-0090-6 219c Huntingdon Road, Cambridge CB3 ODL, UK Wolume osleaiseatctic or ISBN: 2-8317-0091-4 Volume 3: Afrotropical ISBN: 2-8317-0092-2 IUCN Communications Division Rue Mauverney 28, CH-1196, Gland, Switzerland — PUMA NNN Published with the financial support of The British Petroleum Company p.I.c.