Protected Areas Systems Review of the | Indo-Malayan Realm Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from UNEP-WCMC, Cambridge http://www.archive.org/details/protectedareassy97mack PROTECTED AREAS SYSTEMS REVIEW OF THE INDO-MALAYAN REALM Prepared on behalf of the World Bank by The Asian Bureau for Conservation (ABC) in collaboration with The World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) Edited by John MacKinnon Canterbury, England March 1997 Ase € pete WORLD CONSERVATION MONITORING CENTRE “ \ "i Seiad = aK 7 eo Pa, +e Ge eo > 5 Nearer iapariasa = +3 : l,m i = = . aa ote =o - : _- J y = Fa Pa: - - Low a J 4 x ove af “~ ; { =A “3 a « ’ ~ 4 as i. : > = - zs } = od - : — = ye ae ae , _ aa a B= = . a - : = ae _* ee < j Wet ” 7 = a & x vig yt : = F . ey erp vo tinw? = ~ : i i a : 5 by eS > | Mepis costae iment a x0 - mis imi} a a: a : ef Ae oe at's { Ce at —— } tees = £6 ator ae =) ee : : ; . ' a : _ ‘it viet yi hy - a a = == Ee es + a m : Ege —? ee le > Te al pin sit fang Bien OF bale : ae Published by: Copyright: ISBN: Cover Design: Cover photo: Photo credit: Printed by: Available from: The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this report are entirely those of the authors and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations, to members of its Board of Directors or the countries they represent. The boundaries, colours, and denominations and other information shown on any map in this volume do not imply on the part of the World Bank Group, Asian Bureau for Conservation, or World Conservation Monitoring Centre any judgement The Asian Bureau for Conservation Limited 1 Tramway Path, Central, Hong Kong. 88 Wincheap, Canterbury, KENT CT1 3RS, England As. yee The World Bank, Washington, USA 962-85152-1-7 Lu Hefen Sao La - a newly discovered genus of bovid in Vietnam WWFE/David Hulse Call Printers Limited, Cambridge, U.K. The World Bank, Asian Technical Division, Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. or The Asian Bureau for Conservation Limited 88 Wincheap, Canterbury CT1 3RS, England on the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. il a Ss Spel ee enttngyt OAL Sey a>) dais - nie” .~ - : og . a ‘ ‘ oe ; <& > ee. nC << a pe sRAgrew Se. hs oe a ) Gad. Vaal ge - a = : : oe ~ si a - : ‘Vc x 7 = a a —_— ‘ . ‘ ce a ams 7 | 2 . = = ae ag beh OS ~ dia an (eee = ae Pe 7 abridge oe a : “i a sia poate lee sing iieaal iy. pa ihe? GC eieten yhde : ee 2 Ye ae ae | ee see ee ¢ ht? et pe eel ~ ra; + 7) ope 7 hie mA ‘yn a oe | j ’ ig nN = * FOREWORD This report documents the growth and changing character of the protected areas systems of the Indo-Malayan Realm over the ten year period 1986 - 1996 and updates the Review of the Protected Areas System in the Indo-Malayan Realm published by the IUCN in 1986. In addition, the report provides specific suggestions on how the present approaches and initiatives relating to protected areas management could be improved throughout the Realm. The 1986 - 1996 period was a time of uneven change in the level of public awareness and political commitment to biodiversity conservation throughout the countries of the Indo- Malayan Realm. There were many noteworthy initiatives to halt the loss of biodiversity through the establishment of national protected areas systems. Yet, the extinction of species, the conversion and degradation of natural habitats and the disruption of ecological processes continues at a disturbing rate throughout much of Asia. Changes in public awareness and political good will have yet to result in the level, or quality of “on- the-ground” protected areas management required to halt or reverse these negative trends. As the report points out, there is a long way to go towards establishing a truly effective protected areas system for the Indo-Malayan Realm. During the 1986 - 1996 period, many countries undertook their own national biodiversity reviews or developed detailed national conservation strategies and environmental action plans. These various national efforts -- each varying with respect to style, approach, methodology, and objective -- now make it necessary to synthesize the large pool of new information into a readily accessible format upon which to build for the future. The report makes specific suggestions at the country and bio-unit levels on priorities for future investments ard institutional development. A wide range of national and international interventions are needed. Perhaps most importantly, the report highlights the urgent need to develop the human resources capacity to implement and manage national protected areas systems. Programs to provide practical training and equipment for on the ground managers and scientists are the utmost priority. We hope this review will be of value to conservation specialists and development practitioners in their quest to conserve Asia’s rich biological resources upon which so many people depend. Maritta Koch-Weser Colin Rees Division Chief Division Chief Environment and Land, Water and Natural Natural Resources Division Habitats Division Asia Technical Group Environment Department iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The Asian Bureau for Conservation would like to thank the many people who have participated in this Review. First, we should like to gratefully acknowledge the Netherlands Ministry for Development Co-operation for their generous financial support for this project. Second, we thank the World Bank, whose staff Hemanta Mishra, Susan Shen, Kathy MacKinnon and Tony Whitten have provided support, encouragement and management supervision to the project and comments on drafts of the text of the review. We owe a special thanks to Glenn Morgan and Colin Rees of the World Bank for their valuable editorial assistance. We thank Marinus van Wier of the Royal Netherlands Embassy in Washington, D.C. for his assistance throughout. ABC staff who have worked on the project include John MacKinnon, Catherine Cheung and Serene Ong and the following consultants were hired by ABC to complete other parts of the writing, data collation or analysis - Eric Wikramanayake, Sue Mainka, Steven Nash, Steve Avery, Vasumati Shankaran and Pratibha Pande. Nguyen Khac Thang wrote the computer modules for viewing GIS coverages within BIMS database software. John MacKinnon developed the early versions of the BIMS software and Lewie Dekker has rewritten and greatly advanced this package to its present state. WCMC have made available extensive data in the form of databases, text files and GIS coverages for use in the review and have undertaken a lot of the GIS revision work as well as participating in the sub-regional workshops. In particular Jim Paine, Gillian Bunting and Simon Blyth have worked long hours on the project. Jim Paine and Michael Green have commented on the draft text. BirdLife International have provided datapoints of endangered bird records within the region and text files specially commissioned to develop the presentation on Endemic Bird Areas (EBAs) within the realm. Mike Crosby has authored these sections. Particular thanks are due to Geta Lama and staff of WWF Nepal, Songkram Thammincha, Bunvong Thaiutsa and staff of the Forestry Faculty of Kasetsart University, Bangkok and Effendy A. Sumardja, Hariyono and staff of the Directorate General of Forest Protection and Nature Conservation (PHPA) in Bogor, Indonesia for their excellent hosting of the three sub-regional workshops and the Forestry Faculty of Kasetsart for also hosting the BIMS database training workshop undertaken in the course of this review. Special thanks are due to Charles Convis and ESRI for donation of the ARC/INFO and ArcView software to ABC for use in this project. Thanks are due to Giles D'Souza and Frederic Archard of the TREES project of EEC at ISPRA which provided satellite interpretations of parts of the realm, participated in one of the sub-regional workshops and gave a grant to WCMC which allowed a greater WCMC input into the review than would otherwise have been possible. The following participants attended the four workshops held by the review and assisted by bringing reports, lists of protected area details, maps and their special knowledge into the review process as well as revising and updating datasets and maps prepared by WCMC and ABC for the workshop. lv Bangladesh Bhutan Cambodia India Indonesia Laos Malaysia Maldives Myanmar Nepal Pakistan P.N.G. Philippines Singapore Sri Lanka Thailand Vietnam Abdus Sattar, Mohammad Nuruzzaman, Haroun Er Rashid, Raquibuddin Ahmed T.B. Mongar, Mingma Norbu Sherpa, Tashi Wangchuk David Ashwell, Yem Sokhan, Lun Kimhy, Ouk Seiha Shekhar Singh, Vinod Mathur, B.C. Choudhury, Raman Mehta, Gunavant M. Oza, V. Sukumar Achmad Abdullah, Dwiatmo Siswomartono, Asep Hermawan, Caroline Raymakers, Gayatri Lilley, Graham Usher, Arief Wicaksono, Haerudin R. Sajudin, Paul Jepson, Peter Burbridge, Ramono S. Widodo, Ron Lilley, Rona Dennis, Sukianto Lusli, Suyatno Sukandar, John Weir, Helen Schneider, Jatna Supriatna, Nana Supriana, Priatno Wobowo, Nyoman N. Suryadiptra, Darwina S. Wijayanti, H. Sanger, Jeanine Pfeiffer, Jerry P. Bisson, Jeff Sayer Sangthong Southammakoth, Alounyadeth Banouvong, Bounsou Sovan Francis Gombek, Arthur Y.C. Chung, Hiew Wai Phang, Ridzwan B. Abdul Rahman, Zaaba Zainol Abidin, Zeti Jani Hassan Maizan Maniku U Daw San San Nwe, U Thein Win, U Kyaw Thein, U Aye Pyo Siddhartha Bajracharya, Meena Joshi, Khakpa Norbu Sherpa, Battu Upreti, Tirtha Bahadur Shrestha, Devendra Amatya, Basanta Raj Shrestha, Narendra M.B.Pradhan, Wim J.M. Verheught, Narayan Belbase, Khadga Basnet' Rabindra Man Joshi Hamid Khalid, Tariq Nazeer, Kalimullah Shirazi Navu Kwapena, Vagi Genorupa, Tonny Tau Nouairi Renato D. Cruz, Norma Molinyawe, Nilda Baling Chou Loke Ming S.D.Abayawardana, K.M.M.Sheriff, Arjan Rajasuiya, T.M.Elasha Nanayakkara, Tawee Nootong, Schwann Tunhikorn, Anurak Theerakertvenai, Chana Diovilai, Surachet Chettamart, Keattikoon Senanam, Naris Bhumpakphan, Ampan Pintukanok, Nopadol Briksvan, Surophol Sudara, Sarat Praphai, Vute Wangwacharakul, Sompon Tanhan, Santi Suksard, Rachanee Maneekul, Uthaiwan Sangwanit, Yongyut Trisurat, David Smith Dan Huy Huynh, Vu Van Dung, Nguyen Manh Cuong, Do Thi Chinh, Jonathan Eames, Nguyen Khac Thang, Nguyen Huy Yet, Ninh Khac Ban, Truong Xuan Lam TABLE OF CONTENTS Copyright//Rublicationidetail sire. s1s.-00-sssceseee reece rer sneetee eee ii Foreword) iv.c2cch sc ctaeesenates sssnee emai astecencng ene cce ates aeeeeae ne eee ates eee eee ili AcknOWledReEMENtS! gescscsdecc sees ceeesceos ce sestee se cast aa sestee scec ete ee See ERC aRa seo En eae iv Table tof Contents: .iicc.ccccnecseec senses cues cadet saecnenencnceecesceceeawe ee cee nee eee Uaa ne eee vi J Dprefey PRAY SS bb oak a 167 pp .cecechconadtisesone: 6o5d38dacandoosd9aeDadcandeecaoadceroncocds soosduonbnockesageoaseantae vili Part One - GENERAL REVIEW AND PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Im” Backeround!forPresentyREView) seca eectcsrseee oe oereee sheen teense eee eee eeenoee 1 1.1.1 Aims and Scope of the Present Review ................ccccccceeeeceeseeeeeee sees 1 1.2 Need'foria'Protected Areas|System) (2s. see.csic.cceocces sence esecceesteeec sere ceueeeeoenne 2 1.3 Introduction to the Indo-Malayan Realm ...............cccceececeeeeceeeeeeecneceeenees 4 IS (Phy sicallWimits) (roc. -ccssocseeccesessnctoeesccdeestuceasusementsececeneescon secs eieieccs sate 4 123: 25 Climateiand Weretation™srs.-cc..cee ers cecee eter ersten eaeeee eoeee te eeeee cranes 4 12373) Nlorali@haracteristicS co....cc--ccs-ec cecesent ener ence reece ee eee TE 134) [Raunall Characteristics occccscousectconeerecesecee core erestn cote cere eee nena eee 8 13.9) BiogeographicaliWUnits) oieccsc.-ccoscenctadeenteotescnccese secs seea-casererteveddatsere 9 1.3.5.1 Classification of Biounits 9 1.3.5.2 Richness and Endemism in Biounits ...............6ceccceeeeeeees 10 1.3.6 Threats, Loss of Resources and Trends. ...............cccsecceeceesesceecencseees 12 1.3.7 Efforts to Conserve Biodiversity in the Realm ....................00...0000005 13 1S inl (POWCYAISSUES (ere stccce teeters coe ves aee ese netic eneesecivseesuiesseeeereeonses 13 1.3.7.2 Development of Protected Areas ................cecceeeeeceeeee scenes 13 1.3.7.3 Management Capacity and Training ...............:. eee 14 1.3.7.4 Participation in International Programmes ..................... 14 I See) slranStrontier [ISSUCS Herein. ne. ssteeece oct eee eeeere eee 7 If4= “Analy sisiangd Bindings sreccccctccc- cc soetccnc occ eens ae eveee onsiosmneeteteet cate seucecces. aeceee cere 18 1.4.1 Practical Aspects of the Review ...............ccccceececcneeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeees 18 1.4.2 Scoring Methods used in the Review ................:cceeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeees 19 14-2 Biodiversity rd excmcercecss eccestetoscssecereserecemneee seeeace eters eee 19 422) (Conservation Index. sec.c-ssccce- = seecede seen -eeeacoaeececasessesserecs se 20 142223 |Opportumityel nd exc src seseeoeeseeeacesreeeeeence secre eeeeeeeseeese 21 12443" ‘Principal Minding v.eeccvescese coeeec heeeaee cae es cance ere aeneccteee ite reece rea te 22 14.321 Biodiversity:Indexd(Bl)) s.t2ccc..c.c-csescreossessnonesnenosestcose ess csses 22 1.4.3.2 Conservation Index (CI) .......... eee ceeecceseeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeen ees 22 174733 Opportunity: Index (Ol) yee secceseen- see ceccse-ces Se scosee-s saaares soseeseas 41 2:4— Unitl4: Semi-AridhZomen ceccccecoosscmene cocccene eevee acetates cone ne sseensee cence orecesnesteeeaee 42 2/5; WWynitlS: WestermiCoasti a soir. cca. ecsscccesserencsnctscsocse ce cat evielinscorcsecseueeeeeeemeers 42 26 Wnitle: Deccan Peninsulamie-ce-ccocessc sce ececeesc eos caceeecccececceceecsnecsscoseaseeeaaeceere 43 2 MW nitl/e (Gangeticyblainwrrecs strc cesece-eeeecsecuneactedet ater osteccsensssccnesneeseaceeetsince 44 2/8) Unitl8> Laccadivestandy Maldives ieorscrcssccrencrcrereee rete cco see cecsescseccnes secuecsaees 45 229i “Umit 19s “As sarmitg rcs seceec re cee onec cate ean o ete aca Seen eee Caneisg aus ideo au meseeeseeeniee 46 210) (UnitiO2= \CeyloniwemZoney ce serccsree scene eer sceen a teneeomee ceases conan seseaneaereeeees 47 2A Uniti SiS 3CeylonyD ryeZone eee. cee erecsteee cree acto etecenncececctenseeeeeces-eee ese 47 Vi B= Indo-Chinese|Sub-repion seca: ceetcere re ee 48 Dal Zee mitiOs eBurmese Coasts recccececcte tion eee ee 48 2 SeUniGO > Coastaliindochinayg tesco seer ee ee 49 2-4e Unit062 South China &. -eroee ny etree ee ee ee ee. ee 50 2 lOmUnit:-M-iAnnamese Mountains) ccocece-cieeeeeceeeeee eee eee eee 51 2:16) sUniti09: "Burmese! Monsoon Zone) \..cc0sseseeetce esse 52 2 A fee nitelO:. Indochina: Besos ead nec ese ee ee ee 53 2S nit: 20: Andaman] sland sims cccsseeeece reece ee 54 Cc. Stndate'Sub=region™ secs svcceceecsesvnres Sees see ee Ee 55 29 UnitiO/7: Peninsular) Malesiauese ese ee 55 2:20) Unit 2/1: s Sumatraand Nicobars| icsencrers eee eee 56 PPL OPO EPP RACUEELE TOON SEAT | “Granncccaconhosaodocsondror Gade anaCeeEnE Acdbaon cooobbeo douse cb ssoncnbocodose 57 ZO2Unit2 5: Borneoand Palawanlars seen reser eee eee 58 D. Wallacean Sub-region - 22 220 .. sesessscnceeeessaetev eek ov oes eae esse ee 59 Qe2o JU Mit 23° VVESSCT SUMGAS ire cotter eere corre ee enes cee e oe ee 59 224. nit} 24>: ‘Sulawesi: tc .cco recone reo eee eee ee ee eee cea etc eee ees 61 229) Unit: 26: -Philippines) wascgccS:cesvsscececse osc ene oc cocks we aas Sones ores oe see ee 62 DeDOnI NICS: MOlUCCAS er tecccatecsceec roc sus suc oonsee ene e ree EDR Ree STS ee 63 E. Papuasian Sub-repiony.. cecccecsccecescesctarcnseccecencessecesenesecsecn sree ea tee ee 64 2:2 “Unit P32 New Guinea’ ic.cccccssccsccceseer eee seen eee TE 64 Part Three - COUNTRY REPORTS Sali , Banigladeshy 222.20.2..ceseocestasasesccsteastes cease duosuneasescccnsescnceuctuassck suc teveeerceee cosets 69 Sp Need) 5) oS 1221 0 ar een cee Niece See OR eC etat bec: AoC CONS Saco Croce Ee REE d A aL CnDRec cnenbonelodadendnecok 74 CHS Seiad ©) 0 0 1) Danaea ren Re aN She 5a SITE OE OR RUCORL GUE EOR EERE Ot EMCEE OM OG na bintotenascboacas 79 Seb = (Cambodia sccceicedecsctecssectrncacat ed eax cueees sca od Tew eee ooo a eek ASS OTE 84 FeO ITIGI AL nc ssccs cocaons suse oseeens Sores eoAah Namen o ga Soa co Swe nee Noe CS sen TAC TESS aEOE TERE ROTOR Ee 91 SOL InGOneSia® se.siccecstecvacescc doves teen sane cous ono eee coche sone See o Te 98 Selew Mao IPD Re seieivescwsuie etiwanda ce et abs cs tae Saw aaa anew ilce oe eee eae ace Tae oe EN CERRO 108 Sich) WET RTE Y ie aeedseaco05 o00usaubeeccDaccoasbaosood Bebo aadaecdcesagaecbenohocodesc coscooBecdobeciodcooaoducedhoa: 115 SEO IMY ANIMAL receccnsadoceceonsseossceeecsacee ssoccoasnns + se secsnestinsdesveceorer omen osesmeaccn aoe Teeaa ee 122 SELOMING pall 25205..055 ves tee awe dated tang esau tuenade tall ba chaven’ ate soevstacduct Sties seuretesmenee ecenme anaes 129 665] Ugg) SV a Bo Fa Benne Ras oRReSECHROSD Con BOe Ecc rare vO SUR ERE HOSE E REC Da Aan AaUESEFIE aris ceiananaceebone Hoadcdansceoded 135 Sal Zee hapual News GMin@al en arcssemestiaestesacnert nee see re anacnneneatnesatancaceedeceeeeeer i aaa 141 Sil3) (Philippine | sccess Lv oS s‘8 TST eIpoqurep Ol ELI té raat ep 00z'9 99 Os Sb LL9 Teuruehyj 0'0% SIT Ol v0 18 Ove'bl Zs Sic £0 8's tounig O1% 996 6 ime) 09 OOb SI VS L0 Lv ueynyg Z0 L6 8 6b 9 0&% L6L hts SIT bol ysapelsueg (ey OOOT < 4s!7 Nn) (wmuue/) so104 (sng) ( 400 5 300 > 200 5 100) 7 or 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 Total Area/sq.km. lucn categories | - IV. Table 1.4 Scoring of Management Effectiveness by Country | 7 Country BGD BRN BTN IND IDN KHM LAO LKA MAL MMR %PA Good 50 30 30 ©6330 20 10 10 SO SO 10 . %PA Medium 30 60 30 40 40 10 10 30 50 40 ‘ %PA Poor 20 10 40 30° 40 80 80 20 oO 50 Management Index 82.5 80.0 72.5 75.0 70.0 57.5 57.5 82.5 87.5 65.5 \ Country MYS NEP PAK PHL PNG SGP THA VNM %PA Good 50 50 10 30 40 80 20 20 %PA Medium 50 20 20 30 40 20 50 30 %PA Poor fe) 30 70 40 20 0) 30 50 Management Index Sia ies) 60:0 72:5 “8010. 95:0) - 72:5. _ 67-5 See section 1.4.2 for method of scoring management effectiveness. Table 1.5 International Participation & Convention on Biological Diversity CBD Articles of CBD most relevant GEF Country Party S 6 7 8 9 10 1112 13141617 18 20 MAB CITES ($M) BAP NCS WH RAMSAR Bangladesh R *~ * * * * ** as * * * ih R NCS it Bhutan R te tee * ~ oe We Wiehe. te Sake ~ oe 5 10 plan NES > Brunei AP * OS Fy * s yes Myanmar R ee ee SERRE Ks eel ele eee % 39 - Cambodia R * * * as * * as * * ** * ** as 8 Ss R India R * * * ** * * * *” * * * * * R 12 plan 5 6 Indonesia R Deeks hace te aa ne aea Ons i cinta? 6 Ss 13.6 yes NCP 2 1 Laos * Bek tk a * pad ah ok * * * ke = 5.5 NCS R Malaysia * * a’ * * * * * * * * R NCS R Maldives R *~ Sad * as * * * a * R Nepal R ae ee ih ee ee R 3.8 plan NCS P 1 Pakistan * * * * * * * * * * * * 1 R NCS R 9 Philippines R * * * * *- * * * hk *~- * * ah 2 R 20 NCS R Singapore R i a is * = a R Sri Lanka R ee ED a ig ahora ar aS ee 2 R 4.1 plan NCS 1 1 Thailand * said a oe SORES fie em ere 3 R 20 ~=—pilan 1 Vietnam R FA lee A ots aad it Beth teens oe he pate 1 R 3.0 yes NEAP R 1 P.N.Guinea R ek tek tee eke tek tok a a ee 5.0 plan , CBD = Convention on Biological Diversity, MAB = Man and Biosphere; GEF = Global Environmental Facility, BAP = Biodiversity Action Plan; NCS = National Conservation Strategy; NES = National Environmental Strategy; NEAP = National Environmental Action Plan, WH = World Heritage Convention; R = ratified; S = signatory; figures under MAB, WH and RAMSAR refer to number of sites. "Yes" under BAP means already drafted, "plan" means BAP is planned. List of CBD article headings: 5 - Co-operation, 6 - General Measures, 7 - Identification & Monitoring, 8 - In situ Conservation, 9 - Ex situ Conservation, 10 - Sustainable Use, 11 - Incentive Measures, 12 - Research & Training, 13 - Public Education & Awareness, 14 - Impact Assessment, 16 - Access & Transfer of Technology, 17 - Exchange of Information, 18 - Technical & Scientific Co-operation, 18 - Funding. valuable biological resources through illegal channels. A special study of the trade issues affecting the Realm conducted under the current review is being published by the World Bank as a special report (Nash, in press). Support for the Man and Biosphere (MAB) programme of UNESCO has been weak, largely because the programme lacks assistance funding. Interest in other conventions such as the wetlands and migratory species programmes has been encouraging and participation continues to grow. 1.3.7.5 Transfrontier Issues And Regional co-operation Participants in sub-regional workshops held during the past four years consistently stressed the need for greater attention to transfrontier issues and facilitating greater levels of regional co-operation on a number of issues. A regional UNDP Project (RAS/93/102) is helping to promote such co-operation among Vietnam, Laos, Thailand and Cambodia. More programmes of this type are needed, and this section suggests a few options. e Transfrontier Reserves Many of the international frontiers follow water catchments. These are often selected as sites for protected areas and should in most cases be protected for maintaining ecosystem functions. There are great advantages in neighbouring countries’ planning adjacent transfrontier protected areas as they constitute larger coverage of habitat which are ecologically more viable and permit free movement of animal populations. Such arrangements have management advantages in that levels of patrolling and protection of the national boundary can be reduced and levels of poaching, fires and other problems of "poor neighbours" avoided. Notable examples of important transfrontier reserve arrangements in the region include protected areas along the Indonesian/Malaysian frontier in Borneo, Indian/Bhutan border, Pakistan/China border, Vietnam/Lao and Vietnam/Lao/Cambodia borders, Lao/China border, and Vietnam/China border. The Thai/Myanmar border offers good opportunity for a transfrontier reserve in the Kaeng Krachan region. The proposed "Peace Park" linking Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia has been the subject of a recent book (Westing, 1994); although the respective governments have not embraced the idea each has declared a protected area in this zone. e Technical sharing Many countries lack experts and technicians in some critical fields and depend heavily on foreign experts provided by aid projects and other co-operative mechanisms. However, such expertise is extremely expensive, often inappropriate and can hinder development of technical self-sufficiency. Accordingly, countries should be encouraged to develop their own technology at levels commensurate with their economic capacity and in keeping with cultural norms. If countries are to escape dependence on technologically more advanced countries, they must invest in domestic research. One good example is Vietnam, which has developed its own outstanding Geographic Information System (GIS). e Sharing of information Data held by one country may be extremely helpful for a neighbouring country to decide upon its conservation priorities. At present, much information is collected from national sources by international agencies such as World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) then repackaged and redistributed to the host and neighbouring countries. More direct data linkages between countries or to sub-regional data bases should be encouraged to ensure greater efficiency. 17 e Monitoring and data management Database initiatives are underway in most countries of the region and regional and global databases are being maintained by various international agencies such as World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC). Asian Bureau for Conservation (ABC), World Wildlife Fund (WWF-US), BirdLife International, and others. Alternative systems to aid countries to develop their own data management systems are also available (The Nature Conservancy, ABC's BIMS, WCMC's PA database, etc.). These are laudable exercises but a greater degree of conformity between the different systems being developed is needed especially in terms of country, biounit and habitat coding, field structures, taxonomy and geographical referencing of data. Improvements must also be made to data availability and free exchange of data. The co-ordinating role of WCMC is crucial in achieving accepted standards and protocols of data exchange. However, such co-ordination is probably only possible by means of a proactive programme to help the different national initiatives, narrow the number of different software systems being used, and increase the degree of data compatibility between existing systems without trying to impose any specific system on individual countries. 1.4 ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS 1.4.1 Practical Aspects Of The Review This section outlines the methodology used in the review to examine changes in the protected areas system of the Realm. Specifically, to evaluate the representational coverage and conservation importance of the existing protected area system, identify gaps and shortcomings, and identify sites of global priority for conservation. The first task was to decide on suitable biogeographical sub-divisions or biounits for the Realm. Vegetation maps were prepared, dividing each biogeographic division into its major principal habitats. Maps were made showing both the original or potential extent of each habitat type and also the areas of intact habitat remaining in a natural condition as identified by remote sensed interpretation of satellite imagery and the latest available forest land-use maps of the various countries of the Realm. Four coverages - biounits, national boundaries, original habitat and remaining habitat - were prepared at a scale of 1:1,000,000 as map layers (coverages) under ArcInfo GIS software using the Operations Navigation Charts (ONC) chart series as base maps and world digital charts taken therefrom. The GIS software is able to measure the original and remaining extent of each vegetation type within each biogeographical unit (biounit) and country, the degree of habitat loss thus revealed being taken as one index of threat. Sources used in preparation of the GIS coverages are given in Annex 1. The boundaries of existing and proposed protected areas have been plotted over these maps and set up as another ArcInfo map layer. The different coverages have been overlayed and combined (unioned) to form a complete mosaic of land units (polygons). Consequently, the original vegetation, remaining vegetation, biounit, country and whether or not it falls within an existing or proposed protected area is known for each unit of land. Simply presenting figures of how much of a country or region is protected as a percentage of territory included within protected areas can be misleading if a large proportion of the protected habitat is secondary or degraded. The review, therefore uses an index of ‘equivalent protected’ wherein remaining natural habitat is fully scored and areas of degraded or secondary habitat contained within protected area boundaries are scored as contributing only 25% by area as protected. Such areas are of almost no biodiversity value for plants, invertebrates and small animals but have a potential for ecological recovery and provide habitat for many larger animals as well as valuable corridors for species dispersal. 18 Artificial wetlands are scored in full as new wildlife habitat. It is important to keep this procedure in mind when evaluating the results of the analysis, as it explains why the proportions of certain countries evaluated and protected is often less than the official percentage cover by protected areas based purely on a total legal area as a proportion of the country surface. In addition, official statistics of percentage of a country that is protected are usually inflated by any marine areas protected. The review results excludes marine areas when expressing the percentage of terrestrial area protected. Other practical problems with such GIS analysis is that the data are only as good as the maps upon which they are based. For many countries, excellent data of the boundaries of protected areas and vegetation cover. For some countries, the data were of lower quality and some protected areas for which no spatial data could be obtained have had to be omitted from the analysis. In other cases, an approximation has been made by using a circle of the area of the reserve centred on its known centre point. Some of the protected areas are mapped from data available but the measured areas from the resultant maps do not agree with their legally listed areas. In large countries with extensive protected areas, sites of less than 1000 ha were omitted from the analysis as having a negligible impact on the results although many of these sites are, nevertheless, valuable conservation areas. For the most part, the data were adequate for a regional level review and were an improvement upon those available for the IUCN 1986 Review. Areas of high local endemism and high species richness have been identified from species distribution data of selected groups and available site-specific survey reports. A special species database has been set up to hold distributional data on all species listed in IUCN Red Data lists and all species listed on CITES schedules. This list of species of immediate conservation concern is also used a measure of biodiversity importance of different countries and biounits. WCMC (1994) have also published a Biodiversity Data Sourcebook giving total estimates of most taxa for each country with numbers of endemics. With some revisions, these figures, these have been used to evaluate biodiversity importance of each country. 1.4.2 Scoring Methods Used In The Review Three scoring indices are used to help evaluate the findings of the review: e Biodiversity Index (BI): provides a more objective evaluation of the biodiversity importance of individual countries and biogeographical units; e Conservation Index (CI): evaluates the effective conservation effort being applied currently in relation to what should be done; and e Opportunity Index (OI): determines the priority for further action in different countries. 1.4.2.1 Biodiversity Index (BI) This index reflects the relative importance for biodiversity conservation by taking the total number of species of a taxa, inflating the score with a weighting for endemics and narrow range species and compensating for the area of the unit to remove bias for large areas. The score of all countries or biounits under consideration is relative and finally adjusted around a set mean of 10 for the Realm. 19 Slightly different scoring methods are used for biounits and countries. For countries, the score reflects a combined score for higher plants, mammals and birds. In each case, the biological richness component to BI is the total number of species x (number of endemic species) times w (the endemism weighting). The resulting richness score is divided by the area of country (in 1000 sq. km) raised to the power 0.3. This log results in a doubling of expected species number for a tenfold increase in area following the principles of island biodiversity. The two indices for plants and animals are expressed as a percentage of the total scores for the Realm, summed and the final score scaled up or down around the Realm mean of 10. In the case of biounits, a slightly different method was used because precise totals of species and endemics were available. Richness is taken as the total number of species coded for the biounit in the BIMS database (watch.dbf file). This database lists all bird and mammal species listed under IUCN Red Lists plus all birds and mammals listed on CITES Schedules for the Realm. The number of species per biounit has been weighted for endemics and distinctiveness by dividing the raw species score by the mean number of biounits coded for all species in that biounit. This ‘similarity index’ is high for biounits whose species are generally shared with many other units and low for biounits with many endemics or narrow ranging species. The resultant biodiversity richness score is again divided by area of biounit raised to the power of 0.3 to give the final BI score. Biounits have only been scored for vertebrates. However, a view of the country data shows a very good correlation between vertebrate diversity and plant diversity. 1.4.2.2 Conservation Index (CI) The Conservation Index (CI) is the ratio of Equivalent Area Protected/Expected Area Needed for Protection. It is a dynamic score that assesses the degree to which a country or biounit is meeting international conservation standards. The percentage covered by protected areas is a very crude statistic of the effectiveness of coverage by a given country. A country can have a large area of deserts and high mountains protected but completely fail to provide coverage to its most important lowland habitats. In addition, there is no consistency in the way in which uncut forests are scored as protected or non-protected. Inclusion of hydrological protection forests would boost many countries totals to well over 10%. In many cases, protected areas exist only on paper. To address this concern, MacKinnon & MacKinnon (1986) applied a matrix of management objectives against management effectiveness to get a more realistic figure of how much habitat area or area equivalent is really protected in different units. A similar but simplified scoring system to determine the Actual level of effective protection is applied in the current review. The Actual Equivalent Area Protected is taken to be the percentage of a unit or country still under natural habitat inside protected areas plus one quarter of any secondary habitat contained inside protected habitat times the score of management effectiveness. The Expected Area Needed for Protection is averaged around the Realm mean of 10% (the Bali Declaration goal for the Realm) times the mean score for management effectiveness of 75% but weighted for biological importance and urgency for protection. The key to this score determining a target which should ultimately be protected. Myers (1980) has proposed a protected area average target of 10% for each country. A more realistic target might range from 20% in areas of very high biological richness down to 5% in areas with reduced biological significance. Accordingly, the biological index (BI) is already scaled up to a mean of 10% to determine our ultimate targets. To reduce the weighting of the raw BI scores we have set targets with the following formula: Target = 10 times Logio BI. In practice this weighting results in a range of targets from under 8% up to a maximum of about 15% of country area. These ultimate targets can be taken further to determine what is immediately expected of each country in relation to how much remaining natural habitat is left. Countries which still have plenty of remaining natural habitat are not under such urgency to reach their theoretical targets as countries already reaching the point where all remaining habitat must be protected to achieve these targets. The expected need is therefore lower in cases where more original habitat remains. Accordingly, the following formula has been used to calculate Expected (E): E = Target /2+((Target/2) times (100-remaining percent) /(100-Target) for remaining original habitat still greater than Target and Expected = Remaining percent otherwise. Because perfect protective management of protected areas systems may not be expected an index to distinguish score levels of effectiveness is needed. A simple scoring system has been devised. Each country's protected area system is gauged crudely into proportions that are well managed, given average management or poor management such that the percentage well managed score 100%, medium management scores 75% and poor management scores only 50% for the area under protection. This management index is a relative score and as Realm standards rise, the management must also rise to maintain the same level of scoring. Conservation Index (CI) = Actual/Expected. CI places a heavier burden on those countries that have to protect very rich biodiversity, but provides a dynamic measure of how they are coping. Expected needs will vary as more original habitat becemes lost. Actual protection varies as more land comes under protection and as management effectiveness varies. A system which scores 1.0 will not maintain that score over time if more original habitat continues to be lost unless these losses are balanced by a further increase in the area of land protected or by increased standards of management. The index can be plotted over time to show a country's performance, rather like a financial index. 1.4.2.3. Opportunity Index (Ol) The biological importance and need to do more protection are only part of identifying priorities for action. There is also potential for raising conservation efforts to the level required and the resultant conservation gain. The opportunity index is a score taken from the product of biodiversity index, need to achieve more conservation and the potential (scope) for doing so. This indicates where more effort will pay real dividends. OI is a quasi- biological index and is still not an investment index. To identify more precisely where investments of funds, time and personnel should be concentrated, this index needs to be further weighted to include such parameters as political stability, keenness of government to co-operate, willingness of local people and NGOs to co-operate, local costs, alternative land-use options and resource demands, prior land rights and other factors beyond the scope of this review and beyond the wisdom of the reviewers to develop a satisfactory scoring system. Opportunity index (Ol) is scored as: OI = need times natural log of scope times BI (biodiversity index) , where need (to improve protection) = 1 + Expected - Actual if actual < expected or 1.0 if actual is greater than expected; and scope (for reaching that need) is the potential for 21 increasing the area of protection plus the potential of improving management efficiency. Scope is scored as a percentage of remaining unprotected natural habitat + (percentage protected natural habitat times (100 - management index) / 100). 1.4.3 Principal Findings The results of the scoring of biounit and country coverages are given in Tables 1.4-1.8 and the principle findings of this analysis may be reported as follows: 1.4.3.1 Biodiversity Index (BI): Table 1.6 presents the pertinent data for the scoring of BI for biounits of the Realm and Table 1.7 presents the scoring for countries. Figs. 1.4 and 1.5 show the BI scores for biounits and countries respectively in map form. The resulting biounit scores reveal a range of values from a high of 25.5 for New Guinea (unit P3) (due to its very high level of endemism combined with high richness) down to a low of 2.0 for Maldives and Laccadives (unit 18), and 4.1 for both Deccan Peninsula (unit I6) and Indian Desert (unit I3) biounits. Other high scoring biounits were 19.3 for the Moluccas (unit 13); 17.8 for the Philippines (unit 26); 13.7 for Northeast India (unit 19); 13.4 for Sulawesi (unit 24) and 12.1 for the Himalayas (unit 12). The other units were all fairly close to the average of 10.0 for this score. By and large these findings correspond with other efforts to identify areas of biological importance such as the "hot spots" of Myers (1985) and the Endemic Bird Areas of Birdlife International (ICBP, 1992) (see Table 1.2). Regarding biological importance at the national level, Indonesia scores highest at 26.8 going down to Pakistan scoring only 4.0. Other high scoring countries include the Philippines 14.0; Malaysia 13.7; and Papua New Guinea 13.3. Again these correspond with well-recognised biodiversity hot spots and reflect the add-on richness of those countries spanning several biounits. 1.4.3.2 Conservation Index (Cl): Table 1.6 presents the details for the scoring of CI for biounits and Table 1.8 presents the relevant data for countries. Figures. 1.6 and 1.7 present these data for biounits and countries respectively in map form. The results of the CI analysis show that for major biounits, those where protection seems adequate include Transhimalayan (unit I1), Indian Desert (unit I3), Ceylon Dry Zone (unit S13), Indochina coastal (unit 05) and Sulawesi (unit 24). A few others come close to scoring 1.0 but most are well short with the least well protected biounits being Indian Semi-arid zone (unit 14), Northeast India (unit 1I9), Gangetic Plain (unit 17), Burmese monsoon zone (unit 09), South Chinese (unit 06), Burmese coast (unit 04), Lesser Sundas (unit 23) and Philippines (unit 26). At the country level, those above 1.0 include Brunei (1.4), Bhutan (4.1), Cambodia (1.5), Sri Lanka (1.0), and Thailand (1.0). Again other countries come close but the lowest scoring countries remain Bangladesh (0.1), India (0.3), Myanmar (0.1), Malaysia (0.3), the Philippines (0.1), Papua New Guinea (0.1) and Vietnam (0.2). It appears that all countries could reach a score of CI = 1.0 or higher within ten years and the specific measures needed by each to do this are listed under a summary of country needs. 1.4.3.3 Opportunity Index (OI): Table 1.8 presents the details of the scoring of OI for the countries of the Realm. Figure 1.8 presents these findings in map form. The results of the Opportunity Index (OI) are a range of scores with Indonesia (408), Papua New Guinea (328), Malaysia (273), the Philippines (202) and India (162) as the countries where the best rate of biodiversity return can be expected for further new input. 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1-0 Sa L0-°90 =! cO-¢0 SO WO) SdIO9§ [D sytunoIg uPeAryey\-Opu] SIIOIG XYpUT UOTFEATVSUO’ ) 28 (spot SuLt0Dg Joy Zp’ | UoTIas 22g) “WeUjeIA = WNA ‘Purley, = WH ‘sodedutg = GOs ‘eauiny man endeg = ONd ‘sourddiyyg = THd ‘ueysryed = Wd ‘Teden = TAN “Bisdejey] = SA ‘FeuUeAW] = YW “eyUe'T Ug = WHT ‘Soe = OVT “erpoqure) = WHY ‘eIpuy = CNI “elseuopuy = NCI ‘uenyg = NL ‘eunig = NY¢ ‘Ysepeisueg = qog Salijuno> ueAryeP\-Opu] S3I0IG X8PU] UOTJeAIBSUOD 29 ‘(spotjay SuLL0Ng OJ Zp’ | UONIas 99g) “WRINSIA = WNA ‘Purley, = WH ‘eodedurg = gog ‘vauiny may endeg = ONd ‘sourddityg = THd ‘ueIsryed = AWd ‘Tedan = TAN “PIskeleW] = SAW ‘TeuruexW] = YIN “eyUey] US = VT ‘soe = OVT “PIpoque) = WHY “eIpuy = (INI ‘elsouopyy = NCI ‘uenyg = NLA ‘Toutug = NU ‘Ysapeysueg = Cog Oly-Ore Ore - O08 O8c- Sic 7 cic -OS| OS|- 798 Ei V'98 - 617 : | S209 [O solijuno>) uedryep\-opu] saloog xepuy Ayunyoddg 30 (21), Pakistan (25), Singapore (26), Cambodia (30), Bhutan (35) and Thailand (38). These countries will, however, require enough input to maintain their favourable status quo. 1.4.3.4 Changes since the 1986 Indo-Malayan Review Figure 1.9 presents a histogram comparing how much natural habitat remains in each country according to the 1986 Review and current review. There are some discrepancies that need some explanation. Because only large patches of habitat were mapped and measured in the 1986 Review, the 1986 figures tend to be generally low and some apparent slight increases in habitat cover are in all cases misleading. Major increases in apparent habitat in Cambodia (KHM), Myanmar (MMR) and India (IND) are the result of desert, alpine areas and naturally bare areas and open woodland habitats being better mapped and they are included in the current review. The apparent increase of habitat in Bhutan is because the present review included the whole country whilst the 1986 Review only included up to the treeline. Almost all habitat above the treeline is scored as remaining natural habitat in the current review. The same holds true for Nepal and parts of Pakistan and India. The figures for Indonesia and Pakistan are not totally comparable because parts of these countries - Baluchistan, Molluccas and Irian Jaya were not included in the 1986 Review. The added portions of Indonesia have a high proportion of remaining habitat. Figure 1.11 Changes in PA coverage over 10 year period Aage remaining forest A poses A 1985 Indonesia ® 1995 50 Arena C 2mMbodia Nepal miss 40+ Malaysia Thailand ms 2 5.0 CKO Bee — 25.0 %age protected (IUCN I —- V) Sources: FAO, WCMC. 31 Natural Habitat IM Countries 1985 - 1995 ining Rema Fig 1.9 Percentage ZA PANKI ANNO \\} AT MOM. EZ Z MMMM AN Zz LUMA PE ANON QA 100 wil oO fee) ir je) je) je) o vt N IN KH LA LK MMMY NP PA PH PN SG TH VN ID BG BR BT GZ Remaining 95 MM Remaining 85 India, KH = Cambodia, = Pakistan. Malaysia, NP = Nepal, PA Bhutan, ID = Indonesia, IN Myanmar, MY Brunei, BT Sri Lanka, MM Bangladesh, BR Laos, LK = BG LA 1985 data from MacKinnon & MacKinnon (1986). 1995 data from GIS coverages of this review. Vietnam. Singapore, TH = Thailand, VN = Papua New Guniea, SG = Philippines, PN PH = Figure 1.10 presents a comparison of the proportion of each country scored as protected in the 1986 Review and current review. There has been a general and significant increase in the area of protection in the Realm. Very dramatic increases have been achieved in Bhutan (BTN), Cambodia (KHM), Laos (LAO), Nepal (NPL) and Vietnam (VNM). A few apparent decreases in area protected need explanation. Many areas were included as protected areas in Brunei in the earlier review are now classed as forest reserves of IUCN category "UA" and are not included in the current analysis. The 1986 Review excluded the Baluchistan area of Pakistan from analysis so figures are not comparable. Some areas listed as existing for West Malaysia in the 1986 Review were actually only proposed and remain only proposed whilst one large protected area (Endau Kota Tinggi) is not included because, although it has not been degazetted, it is not a managed protected area. Some localities that were scored fully as protected natural habitat in the 1986 Review have been scored lower where satellite imagery reveals areas of secondary and cleared habitat inside protected areas boundaries. A clearer picture of change over the last 10 years is gained by simply plotting the official FAO estimates for forest cover of each country against the WCMC database figures for percentage of each country protected in IUCN categories | - V for the dates 1985 and 1995. A large shift across the graph indicates a major increase in protected areas, whilst a sharp drop down the graph indicates a significant loss of forest. The resulting picture (Figure 1.11) shows a dynamic situation. The situation for Bhutan, which appears rather stable, is less so as almost half of the pre-existing protected area system was degazetted to make way for the revised system. Most countries have been gradually losing natural habitat since 1986. In a few countries such as the Philippines (PHL), Malaysia (MYS), Laos (LAO), and Nepal (NPL), the rate of loss has been rather high and gives cause for concern. 1.4.3.5 Overall Conclusions Despite a 50% increase of the size of the protected areas system of the Indo-Malayan Realm since 1986, the state of the system is still far from adequate. There are still some major geographical and habitat gaps. Most countries still fall short of the goal of 10% terrestrial protection. Standards of management and protection, though improving, are generally low and staff recruitment has not kept pace with the territorial expansion of the system. National budgets allocated to development and management of the Protected Areas system are inadequate and international funding is only adequate to raise the standards of a few selected priority areas. Meanwhile, as human populations increase rapidly; natural habitats shrink and ever greater pressure is placed on production from remaining naturally vegetated lands. Lists of species labelled as endangered grow every year as do lists of species which need trade protection. New challenges such as pollution, acid rain and global warming add further long-term threats. Even where blocks of apparently good habitat do remain, ground inspection often reveals that the larger birds and mammals have been completely lost to hunting. The overall situation for biodiversity conservation looks much worse than it looked ten years ago and unless there is a radical change in attitude and investment in conserving the biological richness of our planet, very large-scale losses will continue in the Indo-Malayan Realm. 33 “‘weUnatA = NA ‘puelIeyL = HI ‘aodedurg = Hg ‘vary man endeg = Nd ‘sourddrtyg = Hd = MAlAas S14} 40 seBesaa0d Si wos) Beep GEE (9861) ‘uejsryed = Wd ‘Tedan = dN ‘eiskejeyy = AW ‘seuruedyy = WIN ‘eyUe’] US = WT ‘sorq = uestyed = Vd ‘Tedan = dN ‘eiskeyew = AW ‘“Teuruedyy = WI ‘exUeT Us = YT ‘sory = VT doduissE WP UsUUIIOE Ty WON eiep oee. ‘eipoqured = HX ‘eIpuy = NI ‘elsauopuy = q] ‘uenyg = Lg ‘leug = Yq ‘Ysepelsueg = og G6 P98}99}01d GZ S8 Pe}99}01d iam NA HL SS Nd Hd Vd dN AWWW X71 V1H» NI GI 18 Ya OG Ov G66l - SG86L Seld4yUNOD Wi yeyiqeH jesnyeN paj}oa}Olq a6ejuad19q OL sa 34 1.4.4 Summary Of Country Needs The following section contains only the overview of needs per country if they are to reacha Conservation Index score of 1.0. The Country chapters in Part Three of this review present fuller details of the situation and more detailed recommendations. 1 Bangladesh currently scores very low on protected areas. There is little option to acquire large new areas and Bangladesh has reached the point where all remaining original vegetation should be brought under protection. Further improvements are required to make management more effective Ps Bhutan already has a CI score of more than 1.0 with a large proportion of the country already protected while plenty more natural habitat remains. The country does not need new reserves but must gradually pick up on management of the resources already assigned for protection. 3. Brunei also is already well over the CI = 1.0 mark. There are a few habitat gaps in the Protected Area coverage and some improvements can be made to management. Opening up some of the excellent reserves to visitors and scientists would also help to promote the further development of the protected areas system. 4. Cambodia is above CI = 1.0 by virtue of the enormous protected areas system recently declared. However, there is virtually no effective management yet applied on the ground. Priority must focus on manpower development and management planning. A greater area of freshwater swamp and lakes should be transferred from category VI to category IV. 5. India would achieve the 40% increase in CI required if it gazettes the many outstanding proposals of Rogers and Panwar (1988) and if it raises its standards of management. Areas of particular importance are the Himalayan forests and forests of North-east India. 6. Indonesia faces the most challenging task. It is by far the most important country in the Realm for biodiversity conservation and will need to protect a high proportion of its area to reach a CI of 1. However, the target is easily within range. There are many excellent proposed sites reserved for conservation on government land-use maps but never gazetted. In addition, the country has an extensive system of hydrological protection forests, many of which could be considered as Category IV reserves. Emphasis on new gazettement should focus on the Mollucas and Lesser Sundas with several important revisions to be made to boundaries of some Irian Jaya reserves. A phase of new gazettement by the government should be rewarded by substantial external assistance to help develop and manage the extensive reserve system of the country. he Laos has just declared a huge system of protected areas and still has many large proposals on the table. However, these sites are currently unmanaged and many overlap with production forests, hydro projects etc. They are largely classed as category VI. It is recommended that about half the system where competing land-use is minimal be declared as category IV reserves and a major investment is made in manpower development to manage an excellent PA system. More emphasis should be paid to transfrontier reserve linkages. 8. Sri Lanka is already doing a good job in conserving its biodiversity. However, most of the reserves are in the less diverse dry zone. All remaining lowland forest patches in the wet zone should now come under protection. 35 9. Maldives has little terrestrial biodiversity of value (a few endemic pandanus). A minimal terrestrial reserve system is adequate. However, the marine resources of the country are remarkable and a large protected area system is needed in the sea. The marine section of this review gives more details. 10. Malaysia still has a lot to do. Protected area networks in Sabah and Sarawak have been growing steadily although forest area has also shrunk rather fast over the past decade. Peninsular Malaysia has a very inadequate system of reserves with many large proposals outstanding and ungazetted for many years. The country has the wealth and personnel to do a good job of management but it is essential to get more land into the PA system in this biologically very rich part of the Realm. 1: Myanmar is still very slow in developing a PA system. The total area protected is small and contains a lot of secondary habitat. Large and important proposals remain on the table after many years. Under the new policy of the Forestry Department a major increase in the area of protected areas is planned. A more concerted programme of assistance from international agencies could have enormous dividends. 112% Nepal has an adequate area of PA system but there is a bias towards high mountain reserves and tropical terai reserves and a gap in the temperate middle hills. Many reserves are category VI and therefore scored quite low in the CI index. In many cases the percentage of area used for tourism and other uses is very small and with a zoning system most of the PA system could be upgraded to category IV. 13. Pakistan scores low on richness so is not looking for a large total area of protected areas. Size it has already achieved by adding huge areas of desert and wasteland to the PA system. What is needed is a more strategic central approach to development of the PA system and a major increase in management standards. 14. Philippines is at the same time one of the most biologically important countries of the Realm but also the most seriously degraded and under-protected. As a result of the NIPAS project a new system of Conservation areas is being developed. A few of these priority areas have already been gazetted but it is urgent to get on with this important job. Major improvements in management of protected areas and law enforcement are also needed. A period of political stability is required so that technical work can be completed. 15. Papua New Guinea is one half of the single most important biogeographical unit in the whole Realm, yet it has only 1.3 % protection. Huge opportunities remain to develop an excellent PA system. The government must sort its way through a baffling and contradictory pile of proposed areas. The system of sites recommended in this review would certainly provide very complete and good coverage of habitats and biounits. The second problem is to find a formula whereby the government can invest in major conservation areas with co-operation of local communities who by tradition retain all land ownership. Poor communications, high operational costs and severe manpower shortages are a serious constraint. 16. Singapore has lost almost all its natural habitat. Tiny remnant forest patches are already protected together with a large area of secondary forest. The most useful improvements to be made are to process the proposed additional reserves which will add important mangrove forests and wetlands to the system. Wife Thailand has already protected almost all available natural habitats. There remain a few key habitat gaps such as mangroves and freshwater swamps, but the priority must be on law enforcement and improving management. 36 18. Vietnam has achieved a well-balanced PA system but it is far too limited in area. The government has agreed to double the size of the existing PA network and excellent proposals have been made to do this. The country already has so little original forest left that this should all be taken into the protected area system. Production forestry should become based on secondary forests and plantations. Poverty among the population and inability to buy imported timber forces the continuing policy of exploiting the dwindling resource of original forests. More attention needs to be paid to freshwater and wetland systems currently neglected in the PA system. Big increases in management effectiveness are possible. 37) PART-TWO - - CLASSIFICATION AND REVIEW OF BIOUNITS This section describes the limits and sub-divisions of the biounits used in the present review. Where these units have been revised since the 1986 IUCN review, or were not included in that review (Moluccas and New Guinea), details are given about the biological importance, fauna, flora and current land-use. For units that remain unchanged, such information has been edited down to the minimum needed to leave this document a stand- alone report. Readers wishing to see the full descriptions of these biounits are referred to the earlier publication or to the BIMS software distributed with this review°. The overview findings of the biounit review and gives tables scoring each major biounit for it's Biological Index (BI) and Conservation Index (CI) are shown in Section 1.4.3. The former index is a measure of overall biological importance whilst the latter indicates how adequately the biounit is currently protected in relation to its importance and need for protection. Figure 2.1 below presents these data in the form of histograms for easier comparison between biounits. See section 1.4.2 for details of the scoring of these indices. Figure 2.1 Biological Index (BI) scores and Conservation Index (CI) Scores for Major Biounits of the Indo-Malayan Realm. Transhimal Il Himalayas EEE | West Arid India 13 —-Synnn | Central-West India 14 EEE | South-West India 15 ————_« Central India BS) aos Gangetic Plain — —— Maldives/Laccadives 18 —==- Ceylon Dry Zone S13 —S eee Ceylon Wet Zone (0) >>> >> >> ee Irrawaddy 09 re Indochina 10 ne Coastal Indochina 05 a | Burmese Coast << Andamans 20 — EEE EEE Annamese Mountains -M ———————————_______— Malay Peninsula TF Sumatra/Nicobars 21 | Java/Bali PP 55500500s-uel Borneo/Palawan 25 Lesser Sundas 23 ——_——— Sulawesi VE Sn 39559590990900000090050000009030 ma Philippines 25 | ees ee Moluccas at} SRST Papuasian P3 a ; aes 1 ; 7 O 5 10 IS 20 25 30 HM BI Score Cl Score x 10 See Section 1.4.2 for Scoring Method 3 Footnote: The BIMS programme files are available on the FTP site utopia. knoware.nl. Log onto site as 'anonymous' and give full email address as password. Change to /users/lewie/bims and use 'get' command to download (get) files. A complete copy of the maps and data of this review can be obtained on CD-ROM from Asian Bureau for Conservation, 88 Wincheap, Canterbury, Kent CT1 3RS. UK. A. Indian Sub-continent The classification of biounits of the Indian Sub-continent used in this review has been revised since the 1986 IUCN Review. It follows the system developed for India by Rogers & Panwar (1988) and Panwar (1990) and used in the biodiversity database maintained by the Wildlife Institute of India at Dehra Dun. This classification system has been extended to cover the other countries of this sub-region. The numbering of these biounits follows that used by Panwar and Rogers but each is preceded by the letter "I" to denote Indian numbering system. This helps distinguish it from the other biounit numbers which are adapted from Udvardy (1975). An exception is made in the case of Andaman and Nicobar units. The numbering of the 1986 review has been retained to reflect biological affinities with the other southeast Asian units. 2.1 Unit 11: Trans-Himalayan a. Extent of Unit The unit consists of small areas of Bhutan, Sikkim and Northwest India and north Pakistan which lie north of the main crest of the Himalayas. These areas are much colder and more arid than the southern facies. The unit contains many points of international boundary dispute. The unit as included within this review has a total area of about 162,706 sq. km. b. Administrative Divisions The unit extends across the northern portions if the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir, with a small portion of the Lahul-Spiti district of Himachal Pradesh. Some 83,808 sq. km of this zone claimed by India is occupied by Pakistan and another 41,500 sq. km occupied by China in accordance with current cease-fire lines. The unit includes the northern portions of the North-west Frontier District and Northern Area provinces of Pakistan. In the east portions of northern Sikkim and north-west Bhutan also extend over the Himalayas crest. c. Natural Vegetation The unit is very barren. The only vegetation is a sparse alpine steppe. There are some lakes, some of these are saline. Extensive areas consist of bare rock and glaciers. d. Current Land Use The area is in a rather natural condition, though it is used for summer grazing of yaks and goats. e. Biological Richness and Endemism The unit is very poor in species but the alpine flora does contain a high proportion of endemics. The faunal groups best represented here are wild sheep, marmots and picas. The biodiversity index of the unit is calculated at only 5.3 (see section 1.4.3.1 above), resulting in an ultimate protection target of 7.7%. f. Distinct Sub-units Rogers and Panwar (1992) divide the unit into two sub-units. Sub-unit Ila consists of the mountains of Ladakh. The rest of the Tibetan Plateau is included in Sub-unit I1b. The latter unit extends over a vast area of China. g. State of PA Development Current level of PA coverage is 9.4% which is a major increase since the 1986 IUCN Review (MacKinnon & MacKinnon, 1986). As the expected target for protection is only 3.9 this gives a healthy conservation index score of 2.4 (see scoring in section 1.7). 39 2.2 Unit I2: Himalayas a. Extent of Unit The unit consists of the forested southern slopes of the Himalayas which form a long belt of land stretching from Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh and north Myanmar for a length of over 3000 km. The unit has a total area of 423,206 sq. km. The unit excludes the forests of the Siwaliks which are more closely related to the Gangetic Plains. b. Administrative Divisions The unit extends across the Indian states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh (marginally), Sikkim, Arunchal Pradesh, parts of Northern Pakistan, most of Nepal and Bhutan and extends marginally into Myanmar and China (not covered under this review). c. Natural Vegetation Most of the area was originally clothed in dense forests. These forests were arranged in altitudinal strata with sub-tropical pine forests (STP) at lower elevations being replaced by Himalayan moist forest (HMT) (west only), montane wet temperate forest (MWT) (east only) and Himalayan dry forest at higher elevations (HDT). Sub-alpine conifer forests (SAC), sometimes topped in the west by a narrow birch zone (BIR), occur on the highest forested slopes. Small areas of sub-montane dry evergreen forest (SDE) were found in sheltered valleys. d. Current Land Use Much of the original vegetation has been destroyed or modified by human activities. The good timber trees have been felled from many of the slopes. In some areas, hill farmers have cleared forests to cultivate and graze slopes, resulting in severe land degradation and erosion. The degree of damage varies. In Bhutan, for example, the upper forests remain in good condition though logging is now making inroads. In Nepal most of the forest has already been lost. Some hill tribes practise slash and burn agriculture in the mountains. About 63% of the unit remains under natural vegetation, including large areas of bare rock and ice. e. Biological Richness and Endemism The unit is extremely rich in species. It is an important mixing ground of flora and fauna, where elements derived from Indo-China have spread westwards to mix with temperate forest forms from the Palaearctic, spreading mostly from the west. Botanically, these lush forests are among the richest in the sub-continent and they also support the greatest levels of endemism. Species richness is high in mammals and very high in birds. The bird fauna shows a moderate level of endemism (6%). The unit contains 2 EBAs (ICBP, 1992). The biodiversity index of the unit is calculated at 12.1 (see section 1.4.3.1 above), resulting in an ultimate protection target of 11.1%. f. Distinct Sub-units This unit is divided into four distinct sub-units. Sub-unit [2a is the Northwest Himalayas which are predominantly Palaearctic in their species composition. Sub-unit I2b is the sub- unit of West Nepal. Sub-unit I12c comprises the Central Himalayas through western Nepal where the Himalayan moist temperate forests are replaced by montane wet temperate forests. Sub-unit 12d is the sub-unit of the Eastern Himalayas, the richest and wettest of the sub-units. Sub-unit I2d shows a close relationship with Assam. g. State of PA Development The current level of Protected Area coverage is about 8.0%. However, some of this is degraded habitat and the actual effective protection of the unit is scored as only 7.0%. This represents a major increase since the 1986 IUCN Review in which the unit was 40 scored as 3.7% protected. Current expected target for protection is 7.8 resulting in a conservation index score of 0.9 (see section 1.4.2 for scoring details). 2.3 UnitI3: Thar/Indus a. Extent of Unit The unit consists of the dry, rugged, western limits of the realm from the Thar desert to the Baluchistan mountains and western borders of Pakistan. The unit has a total area of 1,149,762 sq.km. b. Administrative Divisions The unit falls within India, extending into the states of Rajasthan and Gujarat and covers most of southern Pakistan in Sind, Baluchistan, Punjab and the south of Northwest Frontier provinces. c. Natural Vegetation Most of the area was originally clothed in tropical thorn forest (TSF) and tropical dry deciduous forests (DDF). The hills of Baluchistan were mostly arid subtropical forest (ASF) with some dry conifer forest (HDC). On the highest peaks some alpine dry steppe (ADS) were present. The driest parts are covered in sandy desert (SDV) with some seasonal salt marshes (SSM). Mangroves are found in the main estuaries. d. Current Land Use About 20% of the unit is still covered with natural vegetation. Much has been destroyed or modified by the high density of human inhabitants and over-grazing by domestic animals. The unit supports impoverished farmlands and some forest plantations. The Thar was not always desert. Two thousand years ago it was jungle but man's poor agricultural practices, cutting of vegetation and overgrazing have turned the region into an arid plain. This process has accelerated within the last century so that the Thar desert is currently extending around its perimeter by 8 km every decade. e. Biological Richness and Endemism The unit is of rather low species diversity, low botanical endemism, low mammalian endemism but moderate bird endemism. The unit does, however, have a quite distinctive combination of species derived from the Indian sub-continent and Palaearctic and Afro- tropical realms with some specialised desert wildlife. Wetlands in such an arid region are of great importance to wildlife and especially wetland birds. The unit contains one and part of a second EBA (ICBP, 1992). The biodiversity index of the unit is calculated at only 4.1 (see section 1.4.3.1 above), resulting in an ultimate protection target of 7.1%. f. Distinct Sub-units There are four major divisions in this rather heterogeneous unit: Sub-unit I3a is the Thar desert, Sub-unit I3b the salt flats of the Runn of Kutch; Sub-unit I3c the Indus valley; and Sub-unit 13d the Baluchistan Mountains. g. State of PA Development Current level of PA coverage is 7.1%. However a small area of this is degraded habitat and the actual effective protection of the unit is scored as only 7.0%. This is a major increase since the 1986 IUCN Review in which the unit was scored as 4.8% protected with slight revision of bio-unit boundaries. Current expected target for protection is 5.6 resulting in a healthy conservation index score of 1.3 (see section 1.4.2 for scoring details). 41 2.4 Unit I4: Semi Arid Zone a. Extent of Unit The unit consists of the semi-arid regions in the west of India surrounding the arid desert areas of Thar and Rajasthan extending to the Gulfs of Kutch and Cambay with the whole Kathiawar Peninsula. The unit has a total area of 679468 sq. km. b. Administrative Divisions The unit falls within the Indian states of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat and western Madhya Pradesh and extends into Pakistan's Punjab Province. c. Natural Vegetation Most of the area was originally clothed in tropical thorn forest (TSF) and tropical dry deciduous forests (DDF). Moister forests are only found in the extreme north of the unit where it meets the Himalayan foothills. Mangroves are found in the main estuaries. d. Current Land Use Much of the original vegetation has been destroyed or modified by the high density of human inhabitants and particularly grazing animals. The unit supports impoverished farmlands and wasteland. Some natural and artificial wetlands have become of very great importance to waterfowl. About 12% of the unit is still covered in natural vegetation, though much of this is highly modified by man. e. Biological Richness and Endemism The unit is of rather low species diversity, low botanical endemism, low mammalian endemism and moderate bird endemism. The unit does, however, have a quite distinctive combination of species derived from the Indian Subcontinent and Afro-tropical realms including such genera as Acacia, Anogeissus, Balanites, Grewia and Capparis. The grasslands within reserves, however, support some of the highest biomass of ungulates in all of Asia. Wetlands in such an arid region are of great importance to wildlife and especially wetland birds. The biodiversity index of the unit is calculated at only 5.2 (see section 1.4.3.1 above), resulting in an ultimate protection target of 7.6%. f. Distinct Sub-units There are two major divisions in this large unit. Sub-unit I4a consists of the undulating plains of the upper Ganges and upper Indus. This unit contains some forested patches in the boulder Bhabar tracts of the Himalayan foothills and some important wetland sites. Sub-unit I14b consists of the Aravalli Mountains, Malwa plateau and the Kathiawar peninsula. g. State of PA Development Current level of PA coverage is 2.0%. However some of this is degraded habitat and the actual effective protection of the unit is scored as only 1.2% a minor increase since the IUCN Review (MacKinnon & MacKinnon, 1986). Current expected target for protection is 7.4 resulting in an inadequate conservation index score of 0.2 (see section 1.4.2 for scoring details). 2.5 Unit I5: Western Coast a. Extent of unit The unit consists of the climatically moist, south western coastal hills of India, which extend from the extreme southern tip of the peninsula, northwards some 1700 km to the Gulf of Khambhat. The unit has a total area of 162,139 sq. km. 42 b. Administrative Divisions The entire unit falls within India in the states of Kerala, Karnataka, Goa, Maharashtra and marginal parts of Tamil Nadu and Gujarat. c. Natural Vegetation Most of the area was originally clothed in tropical moist deciduous forest (TMD). The wetter parts of the Western Ghats supported lowland everwet rainforest (TWE) which graded through semi-evergreen forests (SER) to the surrounding deciduous forests. The higher mountains were clothed in sub-tropical broad-leaved hill forests (SBH), topped by montane wet temperate forest (TME) on the highest peaks. d. Current land Use Much of the original vegetation has been destroyed or modified by the high density of human inhabitants. Lowland areas are under extensive rice fields, farms and coconut plantations. Hilly areas support tea, coffee, rubber, cardamom, cinchona and other crops and the mountains are partly under secondary forest. Many areas logged for timber have been replanted with exotic Eucalyptus or silver oak. About 33% of the unit is still covered by natural vegetation cover, mostly in the hills and mountains. There are sparse populations of semi-nomadic, hunter-gatherer tribals, such as the Kadar and Pandaram, living in parts of the unit, harvesting many minor forest products. e. Biological Richness and Endemism The area is very rich in species diversity and shows very high levels of endemism. Plant endemism in the unit is very high with an estimated 1500 endemic plant species. Endemism in the selected mammal groups (primates, ungulates and carnivores) runs at 12% and in passerine bird families at 9%. In some groups it is much higher than this. For instance about 150 endemic species of amphibians and reptiles (almost all species found in the unit) have been described. The unit contains one EBA (ICBP, 1992). The biodiversity index of the unit is calculated at 6.1 (see section 1.4.3.1 above), resulting in an ultimate protection target of 8.1%. f. Distinct Sub-units We follow Rogers and Panwar (1988,1992) in dividing the unit into two biotic provinces - the coastal deciduous Malabar Plains (I5a) separated from the moister Western Ghat Mountains (I5b). The 1986 review did not split the unit. g. State of PA Development Current level of PA coverage is 7.4%. However some of this is degraded habitat and the actual effective protection of the unit is scored as only 4.8% a minor decrease since the IUCN Review (MacKinnon & MacKinnon, 1986) which scored the unit as 5.6% protected. Current expected target for protection is 7.4 resulting in a conservation index score of 0.6 (see section 1.4.2 for scoring details). 2.6 Unit 16: Deccan Peninsula a. Extent of Unit The unit consists of the dry central and eastern portions of southern India, from the Satpura and Eastern Ghats to the southernmost tip of the peninsula. It has a total area of 1,411,320 sq. km. b. Administrative Divisions The entire unit falls within India, in the states of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and the southern portion of Bihar and Orissa. 43 c. Natural Vegetation Most of the area was originally clothed in tropical dry deciduous forests (DDF) and Tropical moist deciduous forest (TMD). Teak Tectona grandis is a major component of the deciduous forests in the south of the unit and Sal Shorea robusta is dominant in the northeast. Small patches of tropical moist deciduous forest intrude along the border with the Western Ghats (unit I5). Drier parts of the unit are covered by tropical thorn forest (TSF) and the moister coastline of Coromandel has some tropical dry evergreen forest (TDE). Coastal estuaries support small areas of mangroves (MNV) and the Godavari delta formerly supported freshwater swamp vegetation (FSV). d. Current Land Use Most of the original vegetation has been destroyed or modified by the high density of human inhabitants. The unit supports extensive farms and coconut plantations and extensive teak plantations. About 22% of the unit is still covered in natural vegetation cover, though most of this is modified by man and his activities. Many degraded areas are heavily eroded and now virtually useless for both humans and wildlife. e. Biological Richness and Endemism The unit is of moderate species richness and shows rather low levels of endemism. The biodiversity index of the unit is calculated at only 4.1 (see section 1.4.3.1 above), resulting in an ultimate protection target of 7.1%. f. Distinct Sub-units We follow Rogers and Panwar (1992) in dividing the unit into five sub-units - I6a Central highlands, I6b Chotta-Nagpur, I6c Eastern highlands, I6d Central plateau and I6e Deccan south. In fact the distinctions between these units are largely geographical and less biological. The Godavari river, however, does seem to act as an important barrier to some species and races. g. State of PA Development Current level of PA coverage is 3.1%. However some of this is degraded habitat and the actual effective protection of the unit is scored as only 2.0% a large increase since the IUCN Review (MacKinnon & MacKinnon, 1986) which scored the unit as less than 1.0% protected. Current expected target for protection is 6.5 resulting in a conservation index score of 0.3 (see section 1.4.2 for scoring details). 2.7 Unit 17: Gangetic Plain a. Extent of Unit The unit of the moist lowlands and swamp forests of the Ganges valley and delta, the lowlands of the Brahmaputra river and most of Bangladesh. The unit has a coastline of about 1,200 km and a total area of 534,922 km. b. Administrative Divisions The unit falls in the India states of Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar and coastal Orissa plus almost the whole of Bangladesh. c. Natural Vegetation Most of the area was originally clothed in dense tropical forests (SER) with a coastal block of mangroves (MNV) backed by swamp forests (FSV) and a broad plain of tropical moist deciduous forest (TMD). In the moister hilly areas and in the coastal hills of Orissa were found tropical semi-evergreen rainforest (SER). d. Current Land Use The original vegetation has been mostly destroyed or modified by man. There are extensive rice fields and farmland with plantations of bananas and sugarcane in coastal areas. The lowlands are some of the most densely inhabited areas on the planet with over 200 persons per sq. km. Only 4.9% of the unit remains under natural vegetation, almost entirely in the Sunderbans mangroves and Siwalik foothills. e. Biological Richness and Endemism The unit was probably rich in species, being an important transition zone between Indo- China, the Himalayas and the rest of the Indian sub-continent. Rhino, elephant, swamp deer and buffalo used to roam the plains with tigers and leopards and other large game. However, the area is now almost totally transformed by man. Only the Sunderbans mangroves which are still the largest block of mangroves in Asia are of high conservation value. Wetland sites are of great importance to a wide range of wetland birds. The biodiversity index of the unit is calculated at 8.0 (see section 1.4.3.1 above), resulting in an ultimate protection target of 9.0%. f. Distinct Sub-units We follow Rogers and Panwar (1992) in dividing the unit into two distinct sub-units. Sub- unit 17a covers the Siwalik hills and upper Gangetic Plain and enjoys direct contact and faunal exchange with southern India. Sub-unit I7b covers the rich lowland areas of the delta to the east of the Ganges river and includes the lower Brahmaputra valley and Sunderbans. g. State of PA Development Current level of PA coverage is 3.1%. However some of this is degraded habitat and the actual effective protection of the unit is scored as only 2.0% a small increase since the IUCN Review (MacKinnon & MacKinnon, 1986). Current expected target for protection is 4.9 resulting in a low conservation index score of 0.2 (see section 1.4.2 for scoring details). 2.8 Unit I8: Laccadives and Maldives a. Extent of Unit This unit consists of two chains of coral atolls each about 750 km long and consisting of over two thousand small islets. b. Administrative Divisions The Laccadives is part of India in the state of Lakshadweep. The Maldives is an independent sultanate. c. Natural Vegetation Most of the archipelagos consists of sand bars and raised coral atolls. There are mangroves (MNV) in the lagoons and Pandanus forests and beach scrub (BFV) on the land. d. Current Land Use Most of the islands are uninhabited. About 200 islands are inhabited only by fishermen. There are extensive coconut plantations and groves. Some islands are being developed as tourist destinations (particularly Maldives). e. Biological Richness and Endemism The units are rather poor in terrestrial species, but have rich marine life. There are over 100 species of birds reported from the units but very few native mammals (only two bats are native to the Maldives). A few mice and shrews have been introduced by Man. Laccadive species are closely related to mainland India but the Maldives show some local 45 endemism, including 5 endemic species of Pandanus (Adams, 1983), two endemic sub- species of bat and a few endemic sub-species of birds. f. Distinct Sub-units The unit can be divided into two with the Laccadives showing closer floral and faunal relationships to mainland India, but they are so small and almost unmappable at the scale of this analysis that they do not merit further subdivision for the purposes of this review. g. State of PA Development Current level of PA coverage is 3.0%. However some of this is degraded habitat and the actual effective protection of the unit is scored as only 2.3% an increase since the IUCN Review (MacKinnon & MacKinnon, 1986). Current expected target for protection is 5.6 resulting in a conservation index score of 0.4 (see section 1.4.2 for scoring details). 2.9 Unit I9: Assam a. Extent of Unit This unit consists of the moist upper Brahmaputra valley up to the Duar foothills of the Eastern Himalayas, together with the deciduous forest zone of the Khasi Hills and Cachar- Tripura tracts. The unit totals 124,127 sq. km. b. Administrative Divisions The unit consists of most of Assam state, most of Tripura and small portions of Nagaland and Mizoram plus a small fringe of Bangladesh. c. Natural Vegetation Low-lying forests are tropical evergreen (TWE) and semi-evergreen (SER) whilst hills are mostly tropical moist deciduous (TMD) with some sub-tropical broadleaf hill forest (SBH) and subtropical pines (SPF). d. Current Land Use Most of the natural vegetation in the Brahmaputra valley has been destroyed and forests remain only on mountains and hill tracts. In total 27% of the unit is still under natural vegetation. e. Biological Richness and Endemism The unit is rich in both plants and animals with moderate levels of endemism in most groups. The unit is biologically the richest in the Indian sub-region. The unit contains one EBA (ICBP, 1992). The biodiversity index of the unit is calculated at 13.7 (see section 1.4.3.1 above), resulting in an ultimate protection target of 11.9%. f. Distinct Sub-units The unit can be divided into two with 19a consisting of the moist Brahmaputra valley with evergreen systems related to the Eastern Himalayas and sub-unit I9b consisting of the drier hill tracts of the unit, biologically more related to Northern India. g. State of PA Development Current level of PA coverage is 3.5%. However some of this is degraded habitat and the actual effective protection of the unit is scored as only 2.0% which is a small increase since the IUCN Review (MacKinnon & MacKinnon, 1986). Current expected target for protection is 10.9 resulting in a low and inadequate conservation index score of only 0.2 (see section 1.4.2 for scoring details). 46 2.10 Unit 02: Ceylon Wet Zone a. Extent of Unit The unit consists of the south western corner of the island of Sri Lanka which enjoys everwet climatic conditions. The unit has a total area of 15,633 sq km. b. Administrative Divisions The entire unit falls within Sri Lanka. c. Natural Vegetation Most of the area was originally clothed in lowland rainforest (TWE). Montane areas were covered in sub-tropical broadleaf hill-forest (SBH) and the highest peaks in montane wet temperate forests (TME). d. Current Land Use Most of the original vegetation has been destroyed or modified by the high density of human inhabitants. Lowland areas are under extensive rice fields, farms and coconut plantations. Hilly areas support tea, teak and other crops and the mountains are mostly under secondary forest. About 11% of the unit still supports natural vegetation cover and that is mostly in the mountains. e. Biological Richness and Endemism The unit is less rich in species than comparable areas of mainland India, as one would expect for an island, but is quite rich in species and very rich in endemic forms, particularly among rainforest trees and other plants. For instance all but one of the primitive dipterocarp trees on Sri Lanka are endemic (Kostermans, 1983). Endemism among selected mammal groups (primates, ungulates, carnivores and pangolins) runs at 10% whilst the endemism among selected bird groups (passerine families) runs at 15%. The unit contains one EBA (ICBP, 1992). The biodiversity index of the unit is calculated at 8.0 (see section 1.4.3.1 above), resulting in an ultimate protection target of 9.0%. f. Distinct Sub-units We have recognised no distinct sub-units within this small unit. g. State of PA Development Current level of PA coverage is 4.8%. However, much of this is degraded habitat and the actual effective protection of the unit is scored as only 2.3% which is a large increase since the IUCN Review (MacKinnon & MacKinnon, 1986) which scores the unit as only 0.8% protected. Current expected target for protection is 8.9 resulting in a rather inadequate conservation index score of only 0.3 (see section 1.4.2 for scoring details). 2.11 Unit S13 Ceylon Dry Zone a. Extent of Unit The unit consists of the northern and eastern parts of the island of Sri Lanka which enjoys seasonally moist to dry climatic conditions. The unit has a total area of 51,166 sq km. b. Administrative Divisions The entire unit falls within Sri Lanka. c. Natural Vegetation Most of the area was originally clothed in tropical dry evergreen forest (TDE) in the moister areas and tropical thorn forest (TSF) in the drier north and south-eastern corner of the island. There is a belt of tropical semi-evergreen forests around the division with unit 02 (Ceylon Wet Zone). 47 d. Current Land Use Most of the original vegetation has been destroyed or modified by the high density of human inhabitants. Moist lowland areas are under extensive farms and coconut plantations. Hilly areas support tea, teak and other crops. The driest areas are mostly under secondary thorn scrub. 22% of the unit is still covered in natural vegetation. e. Biological Richness and Endemism The unit is less rich in species than comparable areas of mainland India, as one would expect of an island, but is nevertheless moderately rich in both species diversity and endemism. Endemism among selected mammal groups (primates, ungulate, carnivores and pangolins) runs at 10% whilst the endemism among selected bird groups (passerine families) runs at 2.5%. Plant endemism is relatively low. The unit contains part of one EBA (ICBP, 1992). The biodiversity index of the unit is calculated at 4.6 (see section 1.4.3.1 above), resulting in an ultimate protection target of 6.7%. f. Distinct Sub-units We have recognised no sub-unit within this small unit. g. State of PA Development Current level of PA coverage is 15.7%. However much of this is degraded habitat and the actual effective protection of the unit is scored as only 9.4% which is a large increase since the IUCN Review (MacKinnon & MacKinnon, 1986) which scores the unit as only 5.9% protected. Current expected target for protection is 6.7 resulting in a satisfactory conservation index score of 1.4 (see section 1.4.2 for scoring details). B. Indo-Chinese Sub-region 2.12 Unit 04: Burmese coast a. Extent of Unit The unit consists of the coastal rainforests of Burma, including the Deltas and estuaries of the Irrawaddy and Salween rivers. The unit corresponds with the subdivisions of Arakan, Irrawaddy Delta and northern Tenasserim described by Blower (1982). The unit has a total area of 116,077 sq km. b. Administrative Division The entire unit falls within Burma except for a marginal extension into Bangladesh. c. Natural Vegetation The unit receives regular rainfall from the winds off the Indian Ocean and supports very lush vegetation. Most of the area was originally lowland evergreen rainforest (TWE), with some montane evergreen forest (TME), a large area of freshwater swamp (FSV) in the Irrawaddy delta and some semi-evergreen forests (SER). Small areas of the unit were clothed originally in mangrove (MNV) forest along the coast and there is a small patch of deciduous dipterocarp forest (DDF) near the mouth of the Salween river. d. Current Land Use Although population density is only moderate for tropical Asia, most of the rainforest and almost all of the freshwater swamp has been cleared for agriculture. Much of the cleared rainforest on hilly terrain has been replaced by creeping bamboo Melocanna bambusoides. Flat areas are irrigated for paddy rice; hill farms grow hill rice, cassava, yams and vegetables for local consumption. Few cash crops are grown. Some forest area are exploited for timber. 48 e. Biological Richness and Endemism The unit is fairly rich in fauna and flora due to the lushness of the vegetation cover, the extensive range of habitats from coastal mangroves to mountains and the unit's position as a corridor for faunal and floral exchange between the Sundaic, Indochinese and Indian sub-regions. The unit has only low endemism. The biodiversity index of the unit is calculated at 9.6 (see section 1.4.3.1 above), resulting in an ultimate protection target of 9.8%. f. Distinct Sub-units Although some differences exist from north to south, for the purposes of this broad review we have not recognised any sub-divisions. g. State of PA Development Current level of PA coverage is 0.3%. However much of this is degraded habitat and the actual effective protection of the unit is scored as only 0.2% which is the same as the unit was scored in the IUCN Review (MacKinnon & MacKinnon, 1986). Current expected target for protection is 8.3 resulting in a very inadequate conservation index score of only 0.1 (see section 1.4.2 for scoring details). 2.13 Unit 05: Coastal Indochina a. Extent of Unit The unit consists of the coastal regions of SE Asia from the Red River in the north to the Indian Ocean coast of southern Burma in the south. The unit extends inland to include the Cardamom mountains. The total area of the unit is 376,208 sq km. b. Administrative Divisions The unit consists of most of Vietnam, marginal areas of Laos, southern Cambodia, the south coast of Thailand and a small part of Myanmar. c. Natural Vegetation The unit has a wide range of vegetation types from mangroves and freshwater swamps (FSV) in the Mekong and Chao Phraya deltas to montane pine forests (TPF) and everwet forests (TME) on the mountains. Most of the area is classed as semi-evergreen forest (SER) but parts of the Cardamom mountains and a few small areas north of Danang in Vietnam have true everwet rainforest (TWE). Other lowland forest types include mixed deciduous forest (TMD), and very small areas of dry dipterocarp forest (DDF) and forest on limestone (LIM). Extensive parts of the Mekong delta are on peat and used to support Melaleuca peat swamp forests (PSV). Montane formations include tropical montane deciduous forest (MDF), montane evergreen forest (TME), tropical pine forests (TPF and SPF) of both Pinus merkusti and Pinus kesiya and sub-montane dry evergreen forest (SDE). d. Current Land Use Population density is very high in the unit and most of the lowland forest has been cleared but since much of the unit is mountainous some 28% of the unit is still clothed in closed forest. Military activities in the long Vietnamese wars caused about 2 million hectares of forest to be destroyed. The mangroves and Melaleuca forests of the Mekong delta were the most seriously affected but have partly recovered with the aid of replanting programmes. Extensive areas of peaty delta are acid sulphate and have been abandoned after initial cultivation to form large reed beds. The Mekong delta is a valuable fishery with prawns the most valuable export item. 49 e. Biological Richness and Endemism The unit is rather rich in species and shows moderately high levels of endemism, especially in the Annam lowlands. The unit contains two EBAs (ICBP, 1992). The biodiversity index of the unit is calculated at 10.5 (see section 1.4.3.1 above), resulting in an ultimate protection target of 10.3%. fe Distinct Sub-units The unit is divided into four main sub-divisions: the eastern coast (Annam) sections 05c and OSb are divided by the Haivan Pass with predominantly tropical conditions to the south and predominantly sub-tropical to the north. The southern sectors are made up of the distinct flattish Mekong Delta unit 05a with its special annual flood regime and the more mountainous unit 05d Cardamom Mountains which also extends into the moist lower Chao Phraya valley region. The latter unit is a transition zone which has quite a lot of Sundaic species mixed with the Indo-Chinese elements. The eastern two units O05c and OSd are a rather distinct area which has been isolated from the rest of Indo-China by the Annam Trung Son mountain chain; in the north it shares several species with the Himalayan units. g. State of PA Development Current level of PA coverage is 10.3%. However, some of this is degraded habitat and the actual effective protection of the unit is scored as only 9.3% which is a major increase since the IUCN Review (MacKinnon & MacKinnon, 1986) which scored the unit as only 2.7% protected. Current expected target for protection is 9.3 resulting in a satisfactory conservation index score of 1.0 (see section 1.4.2 for scoring details). 2.14 Unit 06: South China a. Extent of Unit The unit consists of a narrow fringe of land along the south coast of mainland China and including the island of Hainan, broadening westwards as far as the Red River in Vietnam. Only this Vietnamese portion is considered under this review. The unit has a total land area of 61,178 sq km. b. Administrative Divisions The portion of the unit under consideration constitutes all of northern Vietnam east of the Red River. c. Natural Vegetation Originally the southern parts of the unit were covered in tropical semi-evergreen rainforest (SER), and subtropical lowland moist forest (SLM), whilst to the north-west of the unit the hills were clothed originally in sub-montane dry evergreen forest (SDE). Small areas of the unit were covered by forest on limestone (LIM), mangroves (MNV), freshwater swamp (FSV) (Red River Delta only), subtropical broadleaf hill forest (SBH), subtropical pine forest (SPF), and montane deciduous forest (MDF). d. Current Land Use The unit is very heavily populated and almost all lowland forests have been cleared. Only 13.5% of the unit remains under natural vegetation and even much of that is rather disturbed, and in mountainous and hilly areas or on the limestone karst formations much of the vegetation is secondary bamboo. e. Biological Richness and Endemism The unit is of moderate biological richness and has some local endemic species. There are several mammals and birds endemic to the unit. The biodiversity index of the unit is 50 calculated at 9.5 (see section 1.4.3.1 above), resulting in an ultimate protection target of 9.8%. f. Distinct Sub-units Due to its isolation and island endemism, Hainan island should be treated as a distinct sub-unit, 06b, but not considered under this review. The Vietnamese portion falls entirely within sub-unit O6a. g. State of PA Development Current level of PA coverage is 1.0%. However, some of this is degraded habitat and the actual effective protection of the unit is scored as only 0.8% which is a small increase since the IUCN Review (MacKinnon & MacKinnon, 1986) which scored the unit as only 0.1% protected. Current expected target for protection is 9.6 resulting in a very inadequate conservation index score of 0.1 (see section 1.4.2 for scoring details). 2.15 Unit -M: Annamese Mountains a. Extent of Unit The unit consists of two mountain blocks adjacent to biounit 05 on the Dalat Plateau and in the central Annam zone around Ngoc Linh Mountain. The total area of the unit is 36615 sq. km. b. Administrative Divisions The unit is almost totally within Vietnam but extends marginally into Cambodia and southern Laos. c. Natural Vegetation The unit is moist and montane. The main vegetation type is montane evergreen forest (TME) but lower slopes contain small areas of tropical wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forests (TWE and SER) and there are small patches of natural conifer forest (TPF) and moss forest on the highest peaks. d. Current Land Use Population density is moderate due to the high elevations and generally steep slopes but some flatter areas such as Danang are rather heavily populated. Much of the deforested parts of the unit are reforested in pines or secondary bamboo. About 40% of the unit is still under natural forest cover, although most is to some extent disturbed by fuel and charcoal collection. e. Biological Richness and Endemism The unit is moderately rich in species and shows moderately high levels of endemism of birds and conifers, especially on the Dalat Plateau. The unit contains one EBA (ICBP, 1992). The biodiversity index of the unit is calculated at 12.0 (see section 1.4.3.1 above), resulting in an ultimate protection target of 11.0%. fs Distinct Sub-units The unit is divided into two sub-divisions: the Central Annam Mountains constitute biounit -Ma and the Dalat or Lang Bian plateau constitutes unit -Mb. g. State of PA Development Current level of PA coverage is 10.3%. However, some of this is degraded habitat and the actual effective protection of the unit is scored as only 8.6% which is a major increase since the IUCN Review (MacKinnon & MacKinnon, 1986) which included this unit within unit 05 but included almost no protected areas at that time. Current expected target is 9.2 51 resulting in a satisfactory conservation index score of 0.9 (see section 1.4.2 for scoring details). 2.16 Unit 09: Burmese Monsoon Zone a. Extent of Unit The unit consists of the Irrawaddy catchment between the Chin Hills to the west, extends north through the evergreen forests of Mizoram, Manipur and Nagaland and to the Shan plateau to the east. The unit includes the dry central zone of Myanmar, the Chindwin and the Kachin regions and the northern hills leading up into the Himalayan mountains. It has a total area of 401,486 sq km. b. Administrative Divisions The unit lies almost entirely within Burma except for marginal portions of China (not covered under this review), Bangladesh and northeast India. c. Natural Vegetation The unit consists of a great range of vegetation types from thorn scrub (TSF) in the dry rainshadow of central Myanmar to lush semi-evergreen lowland (SER) and tropical montane evergreen forests (TME) of the Chin hills. The unit extends from almost sea-level tropical conditions in the south to sub-alpine, temperate conditions in the extreme north. Most of the central Irrawaddy valley was clothed in mixed deciduous forests (TMD) (very important for the production of teak Tectona grandis) interspersed with patches of dry (deciduous) dipterocarp forest (DDF) locally called "indaing” in which Dipterocarpus spp. dominate. Edaphic and mainly secondary thorn scrub (TSF) is found in the driest areas. Around the dry zone is a narrow belt of semi-evergreen forests as a transition to the moister montane forests (TME) on the Chin and Shan hills. A broader belt of semi- evergreen forests (SER) occurs to the north of the dry zone, where it merges gradually with rather similar, but more temperate, forests classed as subtropical moist lowland forests (SLF). On the hills these interdigitate with the sub-tropical montane forests (SBH) of the upper Chindwin and Irrawaddy valleys. The highest peaks in the north of the unit rise above the tree-line and support sub-alpine vegetation (ALP). d. Current Land Use Our GIS coverages show 52% of the area as natural vegetation but much of this is logged over, fallow or intensively managed forests. Extensive areas of the Irrawaddy plain are developed as farmland, although much of this can only be planted for part of the year. Other large areas are extensively managed semi-natural teak plantations. Much of the moister hill forests have been destroyed through shifting agriculture and have become lalang grasslands. e. Biological Richness and Endemism of the Unit The unit has rather high species richness, due more to the wide range of habitat types included than to high richness per unit area. The unit has a few endemic species vertebrates but overall the endemism is fairly low. The unit contains three EBAs (ICBP, 1992). The biodiversity index of the unit is calculated at 10.5 (see section 1.4.3.1 above), resulting in an ultimate protection target of 10.3%. f. Distinct Sub-units We has recognised three biogeographical sub-units - 09a South Irrawaddy, consisting of Peguyoma, dry zone and Lower Chindwin; 09b North Irrawaddy comprising the Kachin and Upper Chindwin divisions; and O9c the Burma transition zone which includes the evergreen forests of Mizoram, Manipur and Nagaland. a2 South Irrawaddy is essentially a mosaic of dry seasonal tropical habitats whilst North Irrawaddy is a mosaic of moist, sub-tropical and temperate habitats. The two sub-units consequently share few species and their biological relationships are quite different. Sub- unit O9c is faunally closely related to the neighbouring evergreen forests of Assam but remains floristically part of the Burmese evergreen forest formations (P. Ashton pers. comm.). g. State of PA Development Current level of PA coverage is only 1.4%. However, some of this is degraded habitat and the actual effective protection of the unit is scored as only 1.1% which is nevertheless a major increase since the IUCN Review (MacKinnon & MacKinnon, 1986) which scored the unit as 0% protected. Current expected target for protection is 7.9 resulting in a still very inadequate conservation index score of 0.1 (see section 1.4.2 for scoring details). 2.17 Unit 10: Indochina a. Extent of Unit The unit consists of large inland plains and valleys of the Mekong and the upper catchments of the Chao Phraya and Salween rivers. The unit extends up into the Himalayan foothills of southern China and has a total area of 928,039 sq km. b. Administrative Divisions The unit extends over almost all of central and northern Thailand, and all but the southern fringe of Cambodia and the eastern edge of Laos. It also includes small parts of Vietnam, the Shan plateau of Burma and the southern portions of the Yunnan province of China (not included in the current review). c. Natural Vegetation The unit consists of a great range of vegetation types from dry dipterocarp forests (DDF) of the plains cf Thailand and Cambodia to the lush semi-evergreen lowland (SER) and tropical montane evergreen forests (TME) of the Shan hills. The unit extends from almost sea-level tropical conditions in the south to sub-alpine, temperate conditions at the extreme north. True everwet rainforest (TWE) is found only along the Salween valley. Pine forests (TPF and SPF) are found on some of the hills in the unit and there are some specialised forests on the limestone outcrops (LIM). Hills in the north of the unit dry evergreen forest (SDE) with montane deciduous forest (MDF) on the hills. In the extreme north sub-division of the unit we find sub-tropical moist lowland forest (SML) and sub- tropical montane forests (SMF). d. Current Land Use Parts of the unit, support high human densities and here all natural vegetation has long been cleared for agricultural use. In other parts of the unit such as Cambodia, population is relatively low and extensive forest areas remain. In the northern parts of the unit, population density is not very high but pattern of land use by the migrating ethnic minorities is very destructive to natural vegetation and the hilly catchments of the major rivers have suffered from very extensive shifting agriculture. In all, 34% of the unit remains under natural vegetation. e. Biological Richness and Endemism The unit is rich in fauna and flora (due to the wide range of habitats represented, large size of the unit and high species richness) and has a moderate level of endemism. About one third of all plants in the Indo-Chinese sub-region are endemic to the sub-region (Vidal, 1960). Most of these endemics are found within unit 10 and many are confined to this biounit. The north of the unit contains part of one EBA (ICBP, 1992). The biodiversity 53 index of the unit is calculated at 8.3 (see section 1.4.3.1 above), resulting in an ultimate protection target of 9.2%. f. Distinct Sub-units We have followed Vidal in dividing the unit into three sub-divisions basically corresponding with the tropical lowland plains (10a Central Indochina), hilly sub-tropical sector (10b North Indochina) and montane temperate sector (10c Indochina transition zone). There are major changes in species composition between these different sub- divisions but also considerable overlap because altitudinal changes approximate longitudinal changes and forests similar to those found on mountains in the tropical region occur at lower altitude in the sub-tropical and temperate sectors. g. State of PA Development Current level of PA coverage is 7.1%. However, some of this is degraded habitat and the actual effective protection of the unit is scored as only 5.2% which is a large increase since the IUCN Review (MacKinnon & MacKinnon, 1986) which scored the unit as only 2.5% protected. Current expected target for protection is 7.9 resulting in a conservation index score of 0.7 (see section 1.4.2 for scoring details). 2.18 Unit 20: Andaman Islands a. Extent of Unit The unit consists of the whole chain of the Andaman islands off the coast of Myanmar. The unit has a total area of only about 6000 sq km. b. Administrative Divisions The entire unit is administrated by India together with the Nicobar islands further south as the Union Territories. c. Natural Vegetation The unit was originally covered in very dense lowland evergreen rainforest (TWE), only slightly less grand in stature and rich in species than the mainland evergreen forests. The dominant species is Dipterocarpus grandis in hilly areas. Some parts of the south are dominated by Dipterocarpus kerni. Valley bottoms are characterised by an abundance of tree-ferns, wild bananas and climbing bamboo Dinochloa. On some coastal areas on fast draining soils, there are some semi-evergreen forests (SER) that are an edaphic pre-climax of the everwet forests. These are dominated by Pterocarpus dalbergoides and Terminalia spp. d. Current Land Use Human population density is low and most of the unit remains forested. Forestry exploitation has destroyed or disturbed much of the coastal lowland areas but the interior of the islands remain relatively undeveloped. e. Biological Richness and Endemism As expected for such remote islands, species richness is rather low but there are several interesting endemic species and many endemic sub-species on the islands. The unit shows closest relationships with unit 04 (Burmese coasts) and is quite different from the Nicobar islands to the south. The unit is one EBA (ICBP, 1992). The biodiversity index of the unit is calculated at 10.8 (see section 1.4.3.1 above), resulting in an ultimate protection target of 10.4%. 54 f. Distinct Sub-units There are several differences between the northern islands of the Andamans and Little Andaman island in the south but not enough to warrant further subdivision of the unit for the purposes of this review. g. State of PA Development As mapped, current level of PA coverage is 3.4%, less than was calculated in the IUCN Review (MacKinnon & MacKinnon, 1986) which scored the unit as 5.4% protected. Current expected target for protection is 5.5 resulting in a conservation index score of 0.6 (see section 1.4.2 for scoring details). C. Sundaic Sub-region 2.19 Unit 07: Peninsular Malesia a. Extent of Unit The unit consists of the whole of West Malaysia, Singapore, a few small islands off the coast of Indonesia, the peninsular portion of southern Thailand and the southern tip of Tenasserim, Myanmar. The unit has a total area of 228,933 sq km. b. Administrative Divisions Most of the unit falls within the Federation of Malaysia, with a smaller area within Thailand, a coastal strip of Myanmar, Singapore and a few of the smaller islands of Indonesia. c. Natural Vegetation The vegetation of the unit is predominantly tropical everwet rainforest (TWE) in the south and semi-evergreen rainforest (SER) in the north. In addition there are quite large areas of freshwater swamp (FSV) and of montane forest (TME) and small areas of forest on limestone (LIM), heath forest (HFV), peat swamp (PSV) and mangroves (MNV). The rainforests of this unit are exceptionally rich in species and very tall in structure. They are among the richest in the whole Sundaic sub-region. d. Current Land Use Only 25% of the unit is still covered in natural vegetation, mostly as forest reserves for hydrological or production forestry purposes. The unit has a moderately high human population, subsisting on rather intensive agriculture of irrigated rice and some upland farming. Extensive areas of the unit are developed as plantations for economic crops; the most important are oil palm, pine, rubber, cocoa, coffee and coconuts. e. Biological Richness and Endemism The unit is biologically very rich having similar numbers of species of plants, birds and mammals as does Sumatra although the Peninsula unit is less than half as big as the Sumatran unit. The unit shows moderately high endemism among plant species (15%) but endemism is low among mammals (3%) and birds (1%) even though most of the unit's fauna is endemic to the Sundaic sub-region. The unit has part of one EBA (ICBP, 1992). Biodiversity index is calculated as 11.4 resulting in an ultimate protection target of 10.7%. f. Distinct Sub-units The unit can be divided into two distinct two sub-units - 07a Malay Peninsula and 07b Malay transition zone. Most of the unit lies truly within the Malesian Floral Region (Whitmore, 1975, van Steenis, 1950) the limits of which extend to the Kra isthmus. This is the sharpest transition in floral composition which van Steenis (1950) terms a ‘demarcation knot' where 375 Malesian genera reach their northern limits and where 200 Indochinese genera reach their southern limits. This division corresponds to the 55 vegetation change from everwet to semi-evergreen rainforest. This boundary is slightly south of the sharpest change in avifaunal composition as shown by Wells (1974). The northern part of the peninsula is in fact a transition zone in which both Sundaic and Indochinese species are found. The southern part of the transition zone, which is more Sundaic than Indochinese in species composition, is therefore included as sub-unit O7b. g. State of PA Development Current level of PA coverage is 5.0%. However some of this is degraded habitat and the actual effective protection of the unit is scored as only 4.0% which is a reduction since the IUCN Review (MacKinnon & MacKinnon, 1986) which over-generously scored the unit as 11.5% protected by including several Forest Reserves that were only proposed as protected areas. Current expected target for protection is 9.8 resulting in a conservation index score of 0.4 (see section 1.4.2 for scoring details). 2.20 Unit 21: Sumatra and Nicobars a. Extent of Unit The unit consists of the entire major island of Sumatra, together with its satellite islands: the Nicobars; the western Sumatran islands, including the Mentawai group; the Lingga and Riau archipelagos; and the two larger islands of Bangka and Belitung. The unit has a total land area of 476,482 sq km. b. Administrative Divisions The unit lies within the Republic of Indonesia except the Nicobar islands which are administered as part of India. The Indonesian part of the unit is divided into eight different provinces-Aceh, North Sumatra, Riau, West Sumatra, Jambi, South Sumatra, Bengkulu and Lampung. c. Natural Vegetation Sumatra enjoys an equatorial climate with high rainfall which supports extensive areas of very lush tropical rainforests (TWE). Sumatra also has a wide range of other forest types from montane (TME), Limestone forests (LIM) and a small area of ironwood forest (IFV). Some of the drier mountain areas in the north of the island support the only natural tropical pine forests (TPF) in Indonesia. The peat swamps (PSV) of the east coast show characteristic forest formations of great commercial importance and botanical interest. On the islands of Bangka and Belitung, rare heath forests (HFV) grow. The east coast has extensive areas of mangrove (MNV) and some areas of non-peaty swamp forest (FSV). d. Current Land Use Human population density in Sumatra is already very high (over 100 per sq km). The unit has already lost a great deal of its original forest (42% forest remaining in 1975, now estimated at only 36%) and continues to lose natural forest faster than any other part of Indonesia. Forests remain mostly on mountains, limestone and acid swamps. In the north there are large plantations of rubber, oil palm, tobacco, coffee, tea and fruit. Cloves are being increasingly planted as a valuable cash crop. e. Biological Richness and Endemism Sumatra is faunally one of the richest units in the sub-region. It has 195 mammals and 580 birds (including 465 resident species) and is also rich in reptiles (217 species) and plants. Levels of endemism, however, are less high than on the other Greater Sunda Islands with only 2% endemism in birds, 10% in mammals and 11% in both reptiles and plants. 56 Within the unit, the highest levels of mammalian endemism are found in the small group of islands off the west coast of Sumatra, known collectively as the Mentawai islands, which account for half the unit's endemic mammals. The unit contains 3 EBA's (ICBP, 1992). Biodiversity index is calculated as 10.5 resulting in an ultimate protection target of 10.3%. f. Distinct Sub-units Sumatra can be divided into eight distinct biological sub-units. The main island has a major biological discontinuity just south of Lake Toba where the Barisan mountain chain is broken and there is also a break in the forest cover. Other major biogeographical divisions within the unit separate the Mentawai islands from the main island and also the Nicobars. The Mentawai islands have ten endemic mammals including four endemic primates. They also have one endemic bird Otus mentawt. The Nicobar Islands have four endemic mammals, one endemic bird and many endemic subspecies of birds. Less distinct divisions separate the other western islands from the main island of Sumatra and separate the eastern islands from the main island. g. State of PA Development Current level of PA coverage is 7.0%. However some of this is degraded habitat and the actual effective protection of the unit is scored as only 5.7% with almost no change since the IUCN Review (MacKinnon & MacKinnon, 1986). Current expected target for protection is 8.8 resulting in a conservation index score of 0.6 (see section 1.4.2 for scoring details). 2.21 Unit 22: Java and Bali a. Extent of Unit The unit consists of the major island of Java, together with Madura, Bali and a number of small satellite islands in the Java sea - Bawean, Karimata and Kangean. The total land area of the unit is 139,521 sq km. b. Administrative Divisions The entire unit is part of the Republic of Indonesia but is administered under four different provinces - West Java, Central Java, East Java and Bali. c. Natural Vegetation The vegetation of the unit is largely affected by climate with a cline from lush, tall rainforest (TWE) in the west to deciduous monsoon forests (TMD) in the north-east. The vegetation has also been disturbed by repeated volcanic activity so that many mountains never attain advanced seral succession stages of vegetation. The extensive areas of montane Casuarina forest (MDF) are in this category. Where mountains have remained stable for a long time they exhibit a rich montane forest flora (TME). d. Current Land Use Java is one of the most densely populated islands in the world. The whole unit has a human population of about 100 million. It is perhaps not surprising that there is not very much natural habitat remaining. About 10% of the island is under nearly natural vegetation and that mostly on mountains. The northern plains of Java were formerly swamp forests but are now vistas of rice and sugarcane and villages shaded with fruit trees. On the higher ground the fertile volcanic soils support intensive mixed gardens and extensive plantations of rubber, oil palm, tea, cloves and coffee. Large forestry plantations have been planted with pine, teak and some Agathis. e. Biological Richness and Endemism The unit is of high to moderate richness in its flora with little floristic endemism (5%). This includes 10 endemic genera in West Java (van Steenis, 1950). The bird fauna is quite rich (362 residents ) with 8% endemism. There are 133 mammals with 12% endemism and 173 reptiles showing 8% endemism. Richness is much higher at the wetter western end of the 57 unit than in the east. The unit contain two EBAs (ICBP, 1992). Biodiversity index is calculated as 9.2 resulting in an ultimate protection target of 9.6%. f. Distinct Sub-units The unit can be divided into three main sub-units. Western Java is distinct because of its wetter climate. This gives it far richer forests both florally and faunally. Many plant species, together with such striking fauna as the rhinoceros, Javan leaf-monkey, slow loris and numerous birds are confined to this sub-unit. Bali is closely related to eastern Java, but does have one endemic bird, Rothschild's starling Leucopsar rothschildi and a few Lesser Sunda forms such as the honeyeater Lichmera indistincta and lesser sulphur- crested cockatoo Cacatua sulphurea. g. State of PA Development Current level of PA coverage is 4.1%. However some of this is degraded habitat and the actual effective protection of the unit is scored as only 3.0% a slight increase since the IUCN Review (MacKinnon & MacKinnon, 1986). Current expected target for protection is 8.8 resulting in a conservation index score of 0.6 (see section 1.4.2 for scoring details). 2.22 Unit 25: Borneo and Palawan a. Extent of Unit The unit consists of the whole of the large island of Borneo together with Palawan, the Calamian islands and the outlying Natuna and Anambas islands of the South China Sea. The total land area of the unit is 758,262 sq km. b. Administrative Divisions The unit is divided into a number of different administrative units. The Palawan and Calamian islands are part of the Philippines. Sarawak and Sabah on the north coast of Borneo are states of the Federation of Malaysia. The small double enclave of the Sultanate of Brunei Darussalam also lies on the north coast of Borneo. The rest of the unit falls within the Republic of Indonesia but is administered by five different provincial governments. The islands of Natuna and Anambas are part of the Sumatran province of Riau. The Indonesian portion of Borneo is called Kalimantan and is divided into four provinces - West, Central, South and East Kalimantan. c. Natural Vegetation The climate of Borneo is everwet and the unit supports the largest expanse of tropical rainforest in the Sunda region. Forest types include mangrove forests (MNV), large areas of peat swamps (PSV) and freshwater non-peaty swamp (FSV), the most extensive heath forests or "kerangas" forest (HFV) in the realm, large tracts of lowland dipterocarp forest (TWE), ironwood forests (IFV), hill dipterocarp forests (TWE), forests on limestone (LIM) and various montane forest formations (TME). Alpine vegetation is found on the slopes of Mt. Kinabalu in Sabah, which at 4101 m. is the highest peak in SE Asia. d. Current Land Use Due to the relative infertility of the Bornean soils, related to the island's lack of volcanism, the island has not been as heavily colonised by Man as other islands in the region. Human density is only about 90 people per sq km and 56% of the land surface is still under natural forest. A long history of slash and burn agriculture has created a patchwork of secondary forests of different age in some valleys. In the Kelabit highlands along the Sarawak-Kalimantan border there are extensive highland secondary grasslands. Some of the cleared hillsides have become lalang grasslands (Imperata cylindrica). Logging has made a heavy impact on the lowland forests over the last 20 years, particularly in Sabah and East Kalimantan. Further forest loss was caused by the extensive fires that swept over much of eastern Kalimantan in the freak dry spell of 58 1982/3 and again in 1994. Mining and oil exploitation have also resulted in considerable scarring of the landscape in the northern and eastern parts of the island. e. Biological Richness and Endemism Borneo is very rich in both flora and fauna. The island is the richest unit of the Sundaic sub-region with small plot tree diversity as high as found anywhere in New Guinea or South America. Borneo is the centre of distribution for the tree family Dipterocarpaceae which dominates many of the forest formations of the realm as well as being the most important group of commercial timbers in SE Asia. 262 species of dipterocarp trees are known from the unit. Endemism runs at high levels through the whole flora with about 34% of all plant species and 59 genera unique to the unit. By comparison Sumatra has only 12% endemism at species level and only 17 endemic genera. Moderately high levels of endemism are also found in the fauna. The island of Borneo has 31 species of endemic bird and Palawan adds another 14 endemics to the unit. Similarly Borneo has 39 endemic land mammals and Palawan adds a further 14 endemic species to the unit. The unit contain two EBAs (ICBP, 1992). Biodiversity index is calculated as 8.7 resulting in an ultimate protection target of 9.4%. f. Distinct Sub-units By far the most distinctive sub-unit is the Palawan-Calamian group of islands which, whilst sharing most of their fauna with Borneo and slightly less with the Philippine unit 26, have a high level of endemism of their own as illustrated by the 14 endemic birds and 14 endemic mammals. The isolated islands of Natuna and the Anambas in the South China Sea have a few distinct bird subspecies shared with Sumatra and not Borneo. Within Borneo itself it is possible to recognise a number of subdivisions. Some of the major rivers have acted as faunal boundaries to lowland species unable to cross the narrow headwaters because of altitude limits. In addition the central montane unit is quite distinct. 23 of the island's 31 endemic bird species and 23 of the island's 39 endemic mammal species are montane. g. State of PA Development Current level of PA coverage is 5.7%. However some of this is degraded habitat and the actual effective protection of the unit is scored as only 4.9% a slight increase since the IUCN Review (MacKinnon & MacKinnon, 1986) in which the unit was scored as 3.1% protected. Current expected target for protection is 7.0 resulting in a conservation index score of 0.7 (see section 1.4.2 for scoring details). D. Wallacean Sub-region 2.23 Unit 23: Lesser Sundas a. Extent of Unit The unit consists of the chain of Lesser Sunda Islands from Lombok to Tanimbar, including the two southern islands of Sumba and Timor. It has a total land area of 90,138 sq km. b. Administrative Divisions The entire unit lies within the Republic of Indonesia, although some countries have still not accepted Indonesian sovereignty over the territory of East Timor. The administration of forests and protected areas is carried out by four different provinces: Nusa Tenggara Barat (Lombok to Sumbawa), Nusa Tenggara Timor (Sumba and Flores to the western half of Timor), East Timor which is governed as a separate province, and the island of Wetar, Banda and Tanimbar fall within the province of Maluku. 59 c. Natural Vegetation Because of the seasonal climate and low total rainfall over most of the unit, the forests of the Lesser Sundas are far less lush than in most of the Malesian archipelago. Pockets of everwet forest (TWE) do occur on moister mountains and in poorly drained sites. These are the tallest and richest forests of the unit. Monsoon forests (TMD) are extensive in the more seasonal parts of the unit. The extensive savannahs found in the Lesser Sundas are the result of artificial burning of the original vegetation. Montane forests (TME) in the Lesser Sundas are not luxuriant. d. Current Land Use Although the population of the Lesser Sundas (80 people per sq km) is not as high as in other parts of the archipelago, the forests are so vulnerable to fire that Man has had a very great impact. Much of the Lesser Sundas now consists of grassy hills with forest only surviving in steep valleys, along watercourses, and on the highest peaks. The islands of Nusa Tenggara (Lesser Sundas) are mostly agriculture-orientated. The main foodcrops are maize, rice, soya bean and manioc (particularly productive in Lombok and western Flores). Timber exports and livestock production are only of secondary importance. Logging activities are mostly concentrated on Lombok and Sumbawa. e. Biological Richness and Endemism Because of the seasonal climate and the high degree of isolation of the Lesser Sundas, the flora is very poor in species compared to the forested islands of the Sunda and Sahul continental shelves. The flora is Malesian in composition and shows low levels of endemism (only 3%). The vertebrate fauna of the Lesser Sundas is generally rather low in species number but groups with good dispersal have been better able to colonise the islands so that we find, for instance, quite a rich and diverse bird fauna (242 resident species). Moreover, as a result of the high degree of isolation, the area exhibits a high level of faunal endemism with 66 endemic bird species (30%), 8 endemic mammals (12%) and 17 endemic reptiles (22%). The unit contains 3 EBAs (ICBP, 1992). Biodiversity index is calculated as 10.3 resulting in an ultimate protection target of 10.2%. f. Distinct Sub-units The unit can be divided into four distinct sub-units. The islands of Timor and Wetar, unit 23c, are closely related in their fauna and have a total of 25 bird species not found elsewhere. The Lombok-Alor chain of islands, unit 23a, shows a gradual cline of species changes along its length but no major faunal divisions and in total has 16 bird species not found anywhere else. The island of Sumba, unit 23b, is somewhat distinct, having 8 endemic birds of its own. The islands of Banda and Tanimbar, unit 23d, are very distinct but more closely related both faunally and florally to the Lesser Sundas than to the Moluccas. g. State of PA Development Current level of PA coverage is 1.9%. However some of this is degraded habitat and the actual effective protection of the unit is scored as only 1.3% a slight decrease since the IUCN Review (MacKinnon & MacKinnon, 1986) in which the unit was scored as 1.8% protected. Current expected target for protection is 8.5 resulting in a rather inadequate conservation index score of 0.2 (see section 1.4.2 for scoring details). 60 2.24 Unit 24: Sulawesi a. Extent of Unit The unit consists of the main Indonesian island of Sulawesi (Celebes) together with a number of satellite islands, including Sangihe, Talaud, Togians, Banggai, Selayar, Tukangbesi and the Sula islands. The total land area of the unit is 189,701 sq km. b. Administrative Divisions The entire unit lies within the Republic of Indonesia but its administration falls into 5 different provinces. The Sula islands are in Maluku province and Sulawesi itself consists of four provinces - Sulawesi utara (north), Sulawesi Tengah (central), Sulawesi Selatan (south) and Sulawesi Tenggara (south-east). c. Natural Vegetation Lush forests (TWE) grow on the moist volcanoes and highlands (TME), highly specialised forests grow on the extensive limestone (LIM) and ultrabasic rocks (FUB) and rather impoverished semi-evergreen forests (SER) occur on granite and sandy soils or where the climate is more seasonal. In addition there are specialised coastal mangroves (MNV), Casuarina and Barringtonia formations (BFV), and some interesting swamp and lakeside vegetation types (FSV). d. Current Land Use The unit has a moderate human density of over 80 people per sq km; but this is not evenly distributed. Most of the natural forest has been cleared around the population centres of south Sulawesi, Palu, Gorontalo, Kendari and in Minahassa district near Manado but much of the rest of the unit is relatively undisturbed apart from villages along the roads and the opening up of forests for logging. In total, 60 percent of the unit is still under natural vegetation cover. Principal land cover on the cleared land is coconuts in the north, some coffee and cloves in moister hilly areas, irrigated rice where feasible and rather destructive hill farms in many regions which have left large areas of lalang grassland (Imperata cylindrica). e. Biological Richness and Endemism The Sulawesi unit is of only modest richness in terms of species diversity of both plants and animals, being about half as rich as Borneo and slightly less rich than Java. Its flora shows rather low levels of endemism at 7% but its fauna shows remarkably high endemism as a result of the island's long isolation from both the Asian and Australian continents from which its fauna is derived. 86 (32%) of the unit's 268 resident bird species are endemic. 71 (60%) of the unit's 116 mammal species are endemic and 30 (26%) of the unit's 117 reptiles are endemic. Endemism is strong also at the generic level with 15 genera of mammals endemic to the unit. 15 genera of birds are also endemic to the unit. The unit contains 3 EBAs (ICBP, 1992). Biodiversity index is calculated as 13.5 resulting in an ultimate protection target of 11.8%. f. Distinct Sub-units Sulawesi has a complex shape and is of complex origin. Its wildlife does not form a continuum but each arm of the island harbours a somewhat different combination of species. The distribution of the four species (7 races) of monkeys shows the main faunal boundaries which are also marked by limits of many of the island's bird species and different sub-species of tarsiers. The main island is divided into five sub-units 24a - 24e. In addition two small units comprise 24f the Sangihe and Talaud islands, which have four endemic birds as well as 61 being the only part of the unit to share several species with the Philippines, and 24g the Sula islands which have another 6 endemic birds and are the only part of the unit to share two Moluccan species. g. State of PA Development Current level of PA coverage is 9.5%. However some of this is degraded habitat and the actual effective protection of the unit is scored as only 8.6% a large increase since the IUCN Review (MacKinnon & MacKinnon, 1986) in which the unit was scored as 3.2% protected. Current expected target for protection is 8.5 resulting in an adequate conservation index score of 1.0 (see section 1.4.2 for scoring details). 2.25 Unit 26: Philippines a. Extent of Unit The unit consists of the entire archipelago of the Philippines with the exception of the Palawan and Calamian islands which are biologically classed as part of the Sundaic sub- region. The total land area of the unit is 280,746 sq km. b. Administrative Divisions The unit lies entirely within the Philippines. Protected areas are administered by the Bureau of Forest Development, Ministry of Natural Resources. c. Natural Vegetation The natural vegetation of the Philippines consists of rainforests (TWE and SER) on the eastern side of the archipelago and monsoon forests (TMD) on the western side of the archipelago. Mangrove forests (MNV) grow as a fringe in some coastal bays on the western side of the unit. Montane forests grow (TME and MDF) on the older volcanoes and along the main mountain chains. Extensive areas of the higher land are under natural tropical pine forests (TPF) on Luzon and Mindoro, mainly Pinus merkusii in the south and Pinus kesiya in the north. Freshwater swamps (FSV) were found on Luzon and Mindanao. Lowland forests on the eastern seaboard are regularly raked by cyclones and these forests are characterised by being lower and denser than unaffected forest with an uneven canopy. d. Current Land Use Over 90% of the natural vegetation has been cleared for agricultural development, logging and mining. Some of the cleared lands are now irrigated for rice cultivation, more is used for rain-fed agriculture. Large areas are under coconuts and other cash crops but there are very extensive areas of lalang grassland Imperata cylindrica and some secondary forests. Due to the extensive annual land burning, very little of the cleared forest land can ever return to a natural condition. e. Biological richness and Endemism The Philippines unit shows considerable richness in its flora and a remarkably high level of endemisn in both. Plant endemism is estimated at about 27% including 33 endemic genera. 145 (39%) of the 367 resident bird species are endemic and a total of 84 endemic mammals including 15 endemic genera are known from the unit. The biounit contains 8 EBAs (ICBP, 1992). The biodiversity index is calculated at a very high 17.8 resulting is an ultimate protected target of 13.9% which is now impossible to achieve. f. Distinct Sub-units The unit can be divided into six sub-units, each showing high levels of local endemism and distinctiveness. Related units 26a and 26f consist respectively of Luzon and Mindoro and their satellite islets. Unit 26b consists of the central cluster of islands - Panay, Negros, Cebu, Bohol, whilst related unit 26e consists of Leyte and Samar. Unit 26c consists of Mindanao and unit 26d the Sulu archipelago. g. State of PA Development Current level of PA coverage is 2.6%. However, most of this is degraded habitat and the actual effective protection of the unit is scored as only 1.0% a slight increase since the IUCN Review (MacKinnon & MacKinnon, 1986) in which the unit was scored as 0.5% protected. Current expected target for protection is 8.1 resulting in a rather inadequate conservation index score of 0.1 (see section 1.4.2 for scoring details). 2.26 Unit 13: Moluccas a. Extent of Unit The archipelago is not a single biogeographic unit. It is a collection of hundreds of very different islands straddling the gap between the Papuan unit to the east and the Sulawesi unit of Wallacea to the west. The islands are scattered up to as much as 1300 km apart from one another between 30N - 8030'S in latitude and 1260-1340E in longitude with a total land area of 56,276 sq km. They vary in size from Seram and Halmahera at about 20,000 sq. km. to the smallest inhabited islands of only a few hundred ha. b. Administrative Divisions The entire unit falls within the Indonesian province of Maluku. (oh Natural Vegetation Climate varies from everwet to dry monsoon and geology and topography also vary greatly creating a wide range of vegetation types across the unit. Vegetation types include mangroves (MNV) and freshwater swamps (FSV), generally dominated by sago palms Metroxylon sago. Barringtonia and Casuarina form stands along coastlines but are largely replaced by coconuts. On dry sandy soils monsoon forests (TMD) of Melaleuca leucodendron form fire resistant forests. On the northern islands taller semi- evergreen (SER) and evergreen forests (TWE) occur. The marine environment contains some magnificent coral reefs and important island seabird nesting stacks. d. Current Land Use The unit has a human population of about 2 million people with a growth rate of about 2.9% per annum. Density is about 30 persons per sq. km., low by national standards. Much of the unit is forest or cleared land with only small areas under permanent cultivation. Main crops are sago and rice. Plantations of cloves and other spices are common on some of the islands. Coconuts are widespread in coastal areas. Melaleuca oil is tapped from natural and planted stands. Timber is logged over much of the northern islands of the group. e. Biological Richness and Endemism The Moluccas unit is poor in its mammal fauna and botanically, as is typical of remote islands. However there is a high level of local endemism among the species that do occur. Florally the unit is related to the west or Oriental region whilst faunally the unit is related to the Papuan region. The bird fauna is rather rich in terms of such a small area and consists of 323 species with 30% endemism. Mammals are even less able to cross sea barriers and the total mammal 63 list is only 61 species. The biounit contains 4 EBAs (ICBP, 1992). The biodiversity index is calculated at a very high 19.3 resulting is an ultimate protected target of 14.7%. f Distinct Sub-units Differences in species composition across the unit are as great as across the whole Indonesian archipelago but relationships of shared species enable us to classify the islands into the following biological sub-units:- 13a. N.Maluku; 13b Obi; 13c Buru; 10d Seram and Ambon and 13e Kai Islands. Excluded from the Moluccan unit are the following island groups of the administrative province Maluku. Aru is botanically and faunally a satellite of New Guinea and is included in biounit P3. The Sula islands are more closely related to Sulawesi than to any other Moluccan islands and therefore included in biounit 24. Tanimbar, Wetar and the Banda islands are botanically closely related to the Lesser Sundas unit 23 and faunally more closely related to Timor than any other island. g. State of PA Development Current level of PA coverage is 4.2%. However, some of this is degraded habitat and the actual effective protection of the unit is scored as only 3.9%. The unit was not included in the IUCN Review (MacKinnon & MacKinnon, 1986). Current expected target for protection is 9.0 resulting in a rather inadequate conservation index score of 0.4 (see section 1.4.2 for scoring details). E. Papuasian Sub-region 2.27 Unit P3: New Guinea a. Extent of Unit The area covered extends from the equator to 120 south latitude, and 1290 to 1550 east longitude in all some 2800 km long by 750 km wide, including the largest expanse of undisturbed humid forest in the Old World Tropics. The unit consists of the entire island of New Guinea together with its satellite islands - Western Papuan Islands, Geelvink Bay Islands, Aru, Bismark Archipelago, New Britain, Dolok and the Eastern Papuan Islands. New Guinea is the second largest island in the world and has huge forests swamps and mountains rising to the glacier clad peak of Gunung Jaya at 5031 metres. b. Administrative Divisions The unit is made up politically of two portions. The easternmost province - Irian Jaya - of Indonesia and the entire sovereign state of Papua New Guinea. In addition the island group of Aru falls within the Indonesian province of Maluku. cG Natural Vegetation The lowland forests of New Guinea differ markedly from lowland rainforests elsewhere in Malesia because of the paucity of Dipterocarps which dominate the forests of the other islands. Only three genera and 8 species of dipterocarp occur in New Guinea compared with 9 genera and 262 species on Borneo. This difference is reflected in the commercial value of the timber extracted. The main New Guinea timber trees are Dracontomelum, Pterocarpus, Intsia, Dialium, Palaquin and Pometia. New Guinea's mangrove (MNV) and beach forests (BFV) share most of the same species as similar habitats elsewhere in the Malesian archipelago but the mangroves of New Guinea are more extensive and better developed than elsewhere in Asia. Freshwater swamp forests (FSV) are also more extensive than anywhere else and contain several endemic species. Sago palm Metoxylon sago is the most characteristic swamp tree occurring in near pure stands, in mixed clumps or as an understorey to taller trees in seasonal swamps. Campnosperma and Terminalia are also common swamp dominants and in the drier seasonal swamps with peaty soil Melaleuca may dominate. Open swamps are covered in grasses and Pandanus. Mixed tropical rainforests (TWE) occur on the drained lowlands with Eucalyptus and Melaleuca woodlands in the more arid regions of the south. On poorer soils of limestone (LIM) or ultrabasic substrate (FUB), Casuarina papuana, Aphitonia, Myrtella and Stypholia often dominate the stunted canopy of the forest; ridges are often dominated by Araucaria and Agathis. The montane succession passes from Castanopsis forest (TME) through the southern beech Notophagus to coniferous forest. The latter is dominated by such genera as Podocarpus, Dacrycarpus, Papuacedrus and Phyllocladus. Fire-shaped grassy montane valleys often retain a light tree cover of Cyathea tree-ferns. Araucaria and Agathis are sometimes common on ridges. The upper montane forests (UMF) become stunted and mossy. Common species are Vaccinium, Rhododendron, Rapanea, Coprosma, Olearia, Pittosporum and Drimys. Above the tree-line, a hardy alpine flora continues up to the glaciers of the highest peaks. With increasing altitude the species richness of the flora decreases but the proportion of endemics in the flora increases. The flora of the lowland forests is related to the Malesian flora to the west whilst the montane flora is related to the Australian flora. d. Current Land Use 78% of the unit is still covered in natural vegetation. The human population density is very low, though much higher in Papua New Guinea than in Irian Jaya. Agricultural clearance is extensive in the Snow Mountains and central highlands, northern lowlands and areas with a more seasonal rainfall such as the east side of the Arfak mountains, Enarotali, Dolok island and the coastal reaches of the southeast peninsula. Elsewhere population density is very low and human settlements are small and scattered in small clearings. Communications are poor. There are few roads and the most extensive means of travel is light aircraft and the hundreds of small runways across the unit or small boats on the larger rivers. Staple crops of new Guinea are sago and tubers. Potatoes are grown in the highlands. Very few industrial crops are planted such as coconuts and chocolate. e. Biological Richness and Endemism New Guinea is one of the world's great genetic storehouses of floral diversity, rich not only in variety but in endemism. Richness is retained at the small plot level where plant diversity can be shown to be comparable to the richest forests of Borneo and South America. The total species list for New Guinea probably comes to about 10,000 species representing more than 1,100 genera of which 124 are endemic (compared to 59 endemic genera for Borneo, 17 on Sumatra and 10 on Java). Lowland plants show Malesian affinities whilst Montane plants show Australasian affinities. Faunally New Guinea is also justly famous. Over 650 species of birds occur of which 545 are resident and 312 are endemic (57%). 125 mammals species occur with large numbers of rats, bats and marsupials. Faunally New Guinea is related to Australasia. This is a land known for its dazzling birds of paradise, bowerbirds, parrots, cassowaries, tree kangaroos, cuscuses, spiny echidnas and great swamps full of crocodiles to make up for its lack of mammalian carnivores. 65 The biounit contains 9 EBAs (ICBP, 1992). The biodiversity index is calculated at a very high 25.5 resulting is an ultimate protected target of 17.8%. f. Distinct Sub-units The sub-units used in the review are based on those developed by Beehler et al 1986 on the basis of bird distributions and the limits of local endemics. Birds are by far the best known biological taxon of the unit. The following sub-units are therefore used:- P3a Aru Islands; P3b Western Islands; P3c Geelvink Bay Islands; P3d Vogelkop; P3e Northwest; P3f Southwest; P3g Snow Mountains; P3h Star Mountains; P3i Central Highlands; P3j Sepik/Ramu; P3k Huon Peninsula; P3l Trans Fly; P3m Purari/Kikori; P3n Southeast; P30 East Papuan Islands; P3p New Britain; P3q Bismark Archipelago. g. State of PA Development Current level of PA coverage is 7.7%. However, some of this is degraded habitat and the actual effective protection of the unit is scored as only 6.1%. Most of these reserves are on the Indonesian side of the border. The unit was not included in the IUCN Review (MacKinnon & MacKinnon, 1986). Current expected target for protection is 11.3% resulting in a conservation index score of 0.5 (see section 1.4.2 for scoring details). 66 PART THREE -- COUNTRY REPORTS Overview of Country Reports. Each country report begins with a brief presentation of basic socio-economic, forest cover, and protected areas information. These data come from official national and international sources’. Following the basic data section, there is a list of Decade Milestones highlighting the major conservation and protected areas achievements in each country during the period 1986-1996. Short sections are included on the Physical Geography, Natural Vegetation, Biogeographic Units, Biological Richness, Threats to Biodiversity and Protected Areas System. These sections are not intended to be exhaustive. Rather, they are intended to provide a brief context for the analysis. Much of this information has been derived from country sheets maintained and previously published by WCMC. These paragraphs have been adapted to the habitat and biounit classification being used in this review. They have been edited and, where necessary, updated during the regional workshops?®. The Review’s GIS results are presented in the Analysis of Protected Area Coverage section. A habitat coverage table lists all the habitat types in each country. Figures are presented for the original area of each habitat type, the current coverage of each habitat type, the amount of each habitat type included within existing protected areas of IUCN categories I-IV and Other Protected Area categories. The ‘Other’ category includes Protected Areas of IUCN Categories V and VI plus major proposals and sites for which a category has not yet been assigned (UA). The percentage figures always relate to the original area of each habitat type. Thus, secondary habitats have generally increased in size and most primary types have decreased. The term ‘Original’ refers to the potential vegetation before the influence of humans. Where the original area of a habitat type is zero (e.g. cultivation), no percentages can be calculated and three asterisks are shown. The percentage loss of a given habitat type is an indicator of the degree of species loss expected since the original species equilibrium of the habitat type was established. Any type reduced to less than 10% of its original area will be expected to incur a loss of about half of its original species depending on its degree of isolation. Following the detailed habitat table is a summary table expressing how much of the country's original habitat has been lost or converted, how much remains forested, and how much remains under protection of various categories. An estimate of the proportion of protected area that can be considered as ‘remaining natural habitat’ is provided. This statistic is important in calculating the conservation index (CI) which is used to evaluate whether a country is doing enough to conserve its biodiversity. The resulting figures are 4 Sources for information in these boxes is primarily the Protected Areas Unit (PAU) of WCMC for Protected Areas data and the World Bank's World Development Report for 1996 for data on population, GNP, growth rate, forest cover and rate of forest loss. Where more recent official figures and estimates are available these have been used. ° The BIMS software contains additional fields on the history of Protected Areas development, international participation, management of Protected Areas systems, legislation, and NGO activities in each country. Within BIMS, much fuller details of the results of the GIS analysis are available. Data can be examined for each vegetation type (indicated in brackets e.g., TMD) within each biounit and each type of habitat or biounit selected can be viewed on a screen mapper to see map-wise how much originally existed, how much remains today and where it falls within the protected area system. These fields are not original material and are provided as further accessible information. They can be edited, updated and maintained at a national level. Lists are given of protected sites that were rated by the reviewers and regional workshop delegates as being of global significance for conservation. 67 also compared with the results of the 1986 IUCN Review to determine the degree of change that has occurred in the past decade 6. The data from the habitat tables are presented in histograms form which indicate graphically the original, remaining, protected (I-IV) and others (V,VI,UA or PRO) area for each country. A second histogram shows the same data on a biounit basis. In some case, gaps are regional rather than by habitat type, or by habitat type within a biotic region. For example, Indonesia protects a high enough proportion of its lowland rainforest overall but shows a serious gap of this type in the geographical unit of Maluku. The section Identification of Gaps in System points out the conclusions of the analysis in terms of major gaps noticed in the habitat and biounit coverage of the Protected Areas system of each country. The gaps lead towards recommendations in the next section for plugging the gaps and extending the Protected Areas system. A section on Other Issues may be included to add additional important points not covered under the headings above. The Recommendations section lists the general and specific recommendations that emerge from the analysis. These recommendations were largely drafted during the sub- regional workshops with the help of national participants. Some of these recommendations are obvious and simplistic and will need to be developed into more detailed plans of action within the countries concerned. A final section lists Key Documents on the state of biodiversity conservation and protected areas development for each country. ° Note well, in a number of cases, there are discrepancies between the figures provided in the Basic Data section and those revealed by the Review’s GIS analysis. For example, the protected area coverage of Bhutan is calculated as 21% using the Protected Area figures from the WCMC database and the official size of the country. However, our GIS analysis gives a figure of over 27%. Such discrepancies can usually be explained. In the case of Bhutan, the country as mapped is not as large as its stated official area. In addition, the protected areas as individually mapped are frequently larger than their legal gazettement figures. Similar discrepancies are encountered when estimating total forest cover. 68 3.1 BANGLADESH Basic Data e Area 144,000 sq. km. e Population 118 million (1993) = 797/sq. km e Natural increase 2.5% per annum e Economic Indicators GNP: US$ 220 per capita e Forest Cover 6% (1993) e Annual Loss of Forest 4.9% per annum e Protected Area Coverage 0.7% (WCMC) Decade Milestones e Endorsement of National Conservation Strategy e Ratification of Ramsar Convention e Ratification of Convention on Biological Diversity Physical Geography Some 80% of Bangladesh is lowland, comprising an alluvial plain cut by the three great river systems (Ganges-Padma, Brahmaputra-Jamuna and Meghna) that flow into the Bay of Bengal. Typically, at least one-half of the land is inundated annually, with one-tenth subject to severe flooding. The entire flood plain was well-vegetated, but much of the forest has been replaced by cultivation and plantations in recent decades due to mounting pressure from dense human populations. Here, the only extensive tract of forest remaining is the Sundarbans. Hills are confined chiefly to the east and South-East, notably the Chittagong Hills where forest cover is among the most extensive in the country. Natural Vegetation The major forest types are mangrove (MNV), tropical moist deciduous (TMD) or sal Shorea robusta, restricted to the Madhupur Tract and northern frontier with Meghalaya, and evergreen forests (TWE and SER) found in the eastern districts of Sylhet, Chittagong and Chittagong Hill Tracts. A small amount of freshwater swamp (FSV) occupies the basins of the north-east region. Wetlands, variously estimated as covering between seven and eight million hectares or nearly 50% of total land area, support a variety of wildlife, as well as being of enormous economic importance (Scott, 1989). Actual forest cover has been estimated to be 1 million hectares or 6.9% of total land area, a reduction of more than 50% over the past 20 years (WRI/CIDE, 1990). Our own mapping indicates 10% forest cover but this includes some secondary forests. Biogeographic Units Most of the country falls within biounit I7b (Lower Gangetic Plain) but a narrow fringe of forests along the northeast border falls within unit I19b (northeast hills), The Chittagong Hills fall within unit 09c (Burma transition zone) and the coastal forests in the extreme South-East of the country fall within unit 04- (Indochinese coasts). Biological Richness Although small and largely deforested, the country is of moderate biological richness with the largest mangrove system in Asia, some very important wetlands and rich forests in the Chittagong Hills and extreme southeast. The country has reportedly 125 mammals, 684 69 birds, 29 amphibians, 129 reptiles, 94 freshwater fish, 10 swallowtails and about 5000 higher plants (WCMC, 1994; Dinerstein & Wikramanayake, 1993; H.M. Rashid, pers comm). WCMC list 24 endangered mammals, 24 endangered birds and 60 endangered plants and the country covers part of one endemic bird area (EBA). Of particular interest are the many commercially important fish and turtle species dependent on the wetlands of the country, some 150 species of wetland birds that winter here and other aquatic species as Gangetic dolphins. The biodiversity index is calculated at 5.9 (see section 1.4.3.1 above), resulting in an ultimate protection target of 8.5%. Threats to Biodiversity The major threat is the extremely high human density combined with poverty and annual floods which place an enormous pressure on all available dry land resources. Despite extensive forest losses the small remaining forest area is relatively well protected. Protected Area System The current protected area system consists of 4 small national parks, 7 wildlife sanctuaries and one game reserve. Total area is only 1 million ha. Only Pabakh-ali WS and Chunati WS have been gazetted since the IUCN Indo-Malayan Review (MacKinnon & MacKinnon, 1986). The only protected areas rated as of global significance are the three protected portions of the Sunderbans. There are however 22 proposed reserves including several wetland and marine sites currently being processed by the government. Reserves are managed by the Wildlife Division under the Forest Department of the Ministry of Environment and Forests. Map 3 shows the distribution of remaining wildlife habitat in Bangladesh together with the location of existing and proposed protected areas. Details of the protected areas are contained in the BIMS database. Analysis of Protected Area Coverage The proportion of the country inside protected areas is necessarily rather small (1%) as so little natural habitat remains. There are some opportunities to enlarge this in the Sunderbans, Chittagong Hills and along the Meghalaya border plus a few key wetland sites. The figures and table and indicate the state of habitat and biounit coverage. Habitat Details for Bangladesh Habitat Original Current Protected(I-IV) Other (V,VI,PRO) (km?) (km?) % (km?) % (km?) % Cleared 10) 123745 *** 106 AEE 376 Ets Freshwater swamp 14260 59 O O 0.0 O 0.0 Mangroves 8751 4403 50 364 4.2 0 0.0 Semi-evergreen 1446 1296 90 10) 0.0 (0) 0.0 Tropical Moist Deciduous 108989 S911 "5 265 0.2 8 0.0 Tropical Semi-evergreen 1727 1417 82 14 0.8 10} 0.0 Tropical Wet Evergreen 1458 483 33 O 0.0 54 0.0 Totals: Natural 136631 13569 9.9 643 0.5 62 0.0 Non-natural 123745(90.1) 106 0.1 376 0.0 *** = over 10x more current area than original 70 Summary Total loss of original natural habitat 90.1% Original forest cover 100.0 % Current forest cover 9.9% (Natural forest cover) not determined (Secondary forest cover) not determined Total area protected 0.9% (Area protected IUCN I-iV) (0.6 %) (Area protected IUCN V-VI, PRO) (0.3 %) As mapped, the current level remaining habitat protected is 0.5%, slightly more than was calculated in the 1986 IUCN Review which scored the country as 0.2% protected. Current expected target for protection is 6.3% resulting in a very low conservation index score of 0.1 (see section 1.4.2 for scoring details). Identification of Gaps in System Although very small in area the current Protected Areas system does at least include examples of all major vegetation forest types in the country and all biounits of the country. Freshwater swamp, coastal char lands, and the country's only coral reefs are not protected. Other Issues Marine conservation issues are dealt with in the marine report of this review. Recommendations 1 New protected areas need to be established to give fuller protection to different ecosystems. These should include St. Martins's Island as a national marine park; examples of freshwater swamps, all remaining forests outside the Chittagong Hills tract, including Rajkandi and West Bhanugach, Sangu-Matamuhur as a large sanctuary in the Chittagong Hills tract, a national park at Lawachara Forest, wildlife sanctuaries on coastal chars such as Jiryiradwip and in Barisal and Chittagong districts, protection of turtle nesting areas during the laying season, a sanctuary for either Bogakine or Rainkhyongkine Lakes. 2 Strengthen protection of remaining forests in the Chittagong Hills and Cox's Bazaar tracts where the forests are of high biodiversity value. 3: Place emphasis on protecting wetland habitats of wintering bird populations. Public awareness and education work is more important in this respect than establishing specific protected areas since about 50% of the country is involved. 4. The officially protected portion of the Sunderbans is quite small. Efforts should be made to extend this, especially to include some of the freshwater sundri ecosystem. In addition the area should be gazetted as a national park and have a designated buffer zone to include Block 8. Tourism development should be planned and interpreted. 5. A number of management improvements should be made to improve public participation in management of protected areas and buffer zones; legal changes to allow a new category of recreational park and drop the category Game Reserve (Teknaf should be made a sanctuary). Allow some transfer of forest lands to private 71 Habitat Coverage for Bangladesh All areas in km? ¢x 10000) =| Original Protected Existing Other MNU SER FSU ot TMD TSE TWE Biounit Coverage for Bangladesh All areas in km? (x 10000) ee ee POR OWEN) et ae ee oie: =| Original Protected Existing Other EEE EEE TE (Qs LF, Lae LF I7b 0o4- 19a 09c 19b owners. Encourage public and NGO reforestation schemes using mixed species. Prepare management plans and refine boundaries and zones for all protected areas. 6. Complete surveys of flora and fauna using BARC surveys of Chunati as a model and develop a national biodiversity database to analyse results. ts Bangladesh needs further international assistance in taking these important steps before environmental conditions in the country degrade further. Key Documents BARC. (1987) National conservation strategy for Bangladesh. Draft prospectus (Phase I). Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council/IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 154 pp. Green, M.J.B. (1989) Bangladesh: an overview of its protected areas system. World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK. 63 pp. MoEF (1995). National Environmental Management Action Plan, Dhaka Rahman, S.A. and Akonda, A.W. (1987) Bangladesh national conservation strategy: wildlife and protected areas. Department of Forestry, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Dhaka. Unpublished report. 33 pp. 73 3.2 BHUTAN Basic Data e Area 46,600 sq. km (claimed) e Population 0.7 million (1993) = 15/sq. km e Natural increase 2.1% per annum e Economic Indicators GNP: US$ 400 per capita e Forest Cover 60% e Annual Loss of Forest 0.1% per annum e Protected Area Coverage 20% (WCMC) Decade Milestones Publication of Forestry Master Plan, including a National Conservation Plan Complete revision of Protected Areas System Restructuring of Wildlife Division New forestry law drafted Ratification of Convention on Biological Diversity Establishment of UNDP administered Trust Fund for conservation activity Preparation of National Biodiversity Status Report Preparation of first national park management plan. Physical Geography Bhutan is a small kingdom in the Eastern Himalayas similar in size to Switzerland, but with a much wider altitudinal range (200m to over 7,500m) and only one-fifth of the population density. The official area of the country is 46,600 sq km but recent efforts to map the country more accurately suggest the true area is only about 40,000 sq km. There has been almost no industrial development in the country: about 95% of the population is primarily dependent on agriculture and animal husbandry. The Himalayan chain runs along the northern border and the interior of the country is made up of a series of six major north- south-aligned mountain ranges. The largest of these, the Black Mountains, rise to nearly 5,000m and form a substantial physical barrier between eastern and western Bhutan. Four of the seven river valleys merge to form the Manas and all of them flow southwards across the plains of West Bengal and Assam into the Brahmaputra. Natural Vegetation The enormous altitudinal range and varied climatic conditions are reflected in the country's great ecological diversity, ranging from tropical moist deciduous forest along the southern foothills, through extensive temperate broad-leaved and coniferous forests across the middle of the country, to alpine scrub and meadows up to the permanent snow- line to the north. There is a narrow lowland tropical fringe below about 500 m along the southern boundary which has a range of tropical vegetation types including flood-plain grasslands, monsoon forest, sal forest and tropical semi-evergreen forest. Subtropical evergeen broadleaf forests occur between 500 m and 2000 m with a narrow zone of mixed hardwood and conifer forests before the subalpine conifer zone occurs up to the treeline at about 4000 m. The upper fringe of forest is usually fir. Subtropical chirpine forests are found in drier valleys at moderate altitude and blue pine forests occur as a secondary coloniser in broad valleys between 2000 and 3400 m. The conservation importance of major rivers (Torsa/ Ammo Chu, Paidak/Wong Chu, Sankosh/Mo Chu and Manas) is reviewed by Scott (1989). Rivers 74 are generally rocky and fast-flowing, with marshes restricted to flat valley bottoms in the inner valleys. Most marshes have been drained for agricultural purposes but some of those remaining are internationally important for black-necked crane. Biogeographic Units The northern fringe of the country falls into the Transhimalayan unit I1b. Most of the country falls within the Himalayan units I2c (central) and I2d (eastern) whilst the tropical fringe in the south falls marginally into the Lower Gangetic unit I17b and mostly in the Assam Plains unit 19a. The boundaries of these units are not clearcut and rather arbitrary. Biological Richness Bhutan is well recognised as biologically very rich, especially in relation to its small size. It falls within the biodiversity "hotspot" of the eastern Himalayas (Myers, 1975). Preliminary estimates list 160 mammals, over 700 birds and over 5000 plant species in the small kingdom. Plant richness in the Himalayas increases towards the wetter eastern end. The rhododendrons show this pattern of richness well. There are 7 spp in west Nepal, 10 in central Nepal, 29 in eastern Nepal and no less than 50 species in Bhutan. Bhutan contains important populations of a number of endangered bird species with the black- necked crane especially appreciated in the country and for which several wintering areas are especially protected. The Eastern Himalayas is an important endemic bird area (EBA) and the country contains 24 endangered mammals, 12 endangered birds and 21 endangered plants. Biodiversity index is calculated at 8.6 (see section 1.4.3.1 above), resulting in an ultimate protection target of 9.5%. Threats to Biodiversity The current level of threat to Bhutan's natural resources is low but increasing. While less pronounced than in other parts of the Himalaya, the uplands in Bhutan are being degraded at accelerating rates. The main conservation problem is the conversion of forests to other forms of land use as a result of human settlement, high domestic consumption of fuelwood and timber, shifting cultivation, overgrazing and encroachment, all of which reflect the rising human population. The southernmost forest belt has been almost completely cleared for human settlement. People are concentrated in the fertile valleys and, in the south-western foothills, at densities approaching an upper limit given present production methods, which are unlikely to change in the near future. Apart from the southern areas, hunting is not a major problem in Bhutan due to a religious taboo. Herdsmen shoot tigers and leave poison on killed yaks which has reduced the populations of large carnivores and dhole. Resultant increases in wild pig populations is causing major problems in some agricultural areas. Review of Protected Area System The original Bhutan reserve system consisted of a huge reserve on the north side consisting mostly of rock and ice and a fringe of small reserves along the southern tropical border with India. The central temperate parts of Bhutan were not protected (MacKinnon & MacKinnon, 1986). A major review of the Protected Areas system prepared in 1991 proposed as complete redesign. As a result a new system of reserves was declared in 1994 comprising 9 main reserves and a number of small sites of conservation interest. Two reserves cover the northern high altitude zone, four reserves span the temperate zone from east to west and another three reserves remain along the tropical fringe. Three national parks are rated as being of global significance - Jigme Dorji which is the largest and richest protected example of mountain systems in the eastern Himalayas; the Black Mountains which offers the fullest representation of habitats in the temperate zone of the eastern Himalayas and Royal Manas which is a vital tropical link between the Black 1) Mountains and the Indian Manas Tiger Reserve (a recognised World Heritage Site). The black-necked crane refuge of Popjikah is a significant wetland. Map 4 shows the distribution of remaining wildlife habitat in Bhutan and the location of the existing protected areas system. Details of the individual reserves are contained in the BIMS database software. Analysis of Protected Area Coverage Protected area coverage is excellent, more than 10% of all major habitat types are included and the total reserve coverage is 27%. The following table and figures show how much of each habitat and biounit remain and how much is protected. Habitat Details for Bhutan Habitat (Code) Original Current Protected(I-IV) Other (V,VI,PRO) (km?) (km?) % (km?) % (km?) % Alpine pasture 4229 4229 100 630 38.5 0 0.0 Alpine scrub 2238 2211 99 849 eye) 10) 0.0 Alpine Bare rock 2669 2692 101 NOP 7/5 wskehsy (0) 0.0 Blue pine 0) 332 ARE 11 ite! 3 thls Cleared 0 S8)l/aw eas 170 ae 13 it tad Degraded Forest (0) 5481 *** 445 oe 3 nex Glaciers 146 146 100 59 40.4 (0) 0.0 Grassland 27 27 100 19 70.4 O 0.0 Lower Hardwood 3405 W7A2 50 497 14.6 O 0.0 Riverine 20 20 100 0 0.0 O 0.0 Subalpine conifer 9239 8680 94 3683 39.9 0O 0.0 Subtropical pine 1278 675 53 70 5.5 0 0.0 Tropical Moist deciduous 202 39 19 39 1953, 10 0.0 Upper Hardwood 16307 9699 59 2182), 13'4> iO 0.0 Total: Natural 39760 30130 75.8 10346 26.0 6 0.0 Non-natural 9630 24.2 642 01.6 19 0.0 *** = over 10x more current area than original Summary Total loss of original natural habitat 24.2% Original forest cover 76.5 % Current forest cover 66.9 % (Natural forest cover) (52.3 %) (Secondary forest cover) (14.6 %) Total area protected 27.6 % (Area protected IUCN I-IV) (27.6 %) (Area protected IUCN V-VI, PRO) ( 4 L Ph 5, 2g @ ae Ny, 22 fs Wye tos 2 ts ¢ a 6 TD 3. 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Recommendations Ae Increase the area of protection in the Himalayas, NE India and all moist forest systems of the Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats. Py Continue to follow the recommendations for Protected Areas extensions, linkages and new reserves well outlined the excellent report of Rogers and Panwar (1988). 3. Concentrate energies on finding solutions to the man-reserve friction that occur in buffer zones by extending the eco-development zone programme around priority reserves. this will need additional support from international donor agencies. 4. A greater level of biological and socio-economic inventory and study is needed at protected area level across the country including a basic assessment of characteristic flora and fauna in all Protected Areas. 5. It is important to develop greater formal co-ordination between the different biodiversity databases in the country in particular the relationship between the Indira Gandhi Monitoring Centre, the World Conservation Monitoring Centre and government data centres. Key Documents Department of Environment. (nod.) National Wildlife Action Plan. Government of India, New Delhi. 28 pp. FSI. (1989) The state of forest report 1989. Forest Survey of India, Dehra Dun. 50 pp. Government of India. (1988) National Forest Policy 1988. Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, New Delhi. 13 pp. Kothari, A., Pande, P., Singh, S., Variava, D. (1989) Management of national parks and sanctuaries in India: a status report. Environmental Studies Division, Indian Institute of Public Administration, New Delhi. 298 pp. Rodgers, W.A. and Panwar, H.-S. (1988) Planning a wildlife protected area network in India. 2 vols. Project FO: IND/82/003. FAO, Dehra Dun. 606 pp. 97 3.6 INDONESIA Basic Data e Area 1,919,663 sq. km e Population 190 million = 100/sq. km e Natural increase 1.8% per annum e Economic Indicators GNP: US$ 880 per capita e Forest Cover 57% (1993) e Annual Loss of Forest 1.1% per annum e Protected Area Coverage 9.5% (WCMC) Decade Milestones 48% increase in Protected Areas including large marine system Publication of Biodiversity Action Plan Revisions of conservation policy and regulations Ratification of Ramsar Convention Ratification of Convention on Biological Diversity Major international co-operation programmes to support biodiversity conservation Physical Geography The Indonesian archipelago comprises approximately 17,000 islands stretching in an east- west direction for 5,200km across the Sunda and Sahul continental shelves. Characterised by an enormously varied physical structure of high mountain ranges, volcanoes, alluvial plains, lakes, swamps and shallow coastal waters, the archipelago exhibits a biological diversity and richness which is without comparison in South-East Asia (FAO, 1981-82; MacKinnon et al., 1996; Monk et al. 1997; Petocz, 1989; Scott, 1989; Whitten and Whitten 1992; Whitten et al., 1984, 1987, 1996). Natural Vegetation With the exception of the Lesser Sunda Islands, the natural vegetation of the "outer" islands of Sumatra, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Moluccas and Irian Jaya consists primarily of tropical evergreen forests (TWE, TME, IFV and TSE) of which Indonesia holds approximately 10% of the world total (Davies et al., 1986). Deciduous monsoon (TMD) forests occurs in seasonally dry areas, particularly in southern and eastern islands such as the Lesser Sundas and the southern part of Irian Jaya. Edaphic variants grow on acid peat (Heath Forest (HFV) and Peaty Swamp Forest (PSV); Freshwater Swamp Forest (FSV); Forest on Limestone (LIM) and Forest on Ultrabasic (FUB). The vegetation types are divided by a biogeographic boundary, Wallace’s Line, that extends from north to south along the Sunda Shelf. Forests on the islands of the shelf itself are Malesian and dominated by the commercially important Dipterocarpaceae, while those found to the east, though also made up of Malesian genera, lack dipterocarps and have increasing affinities with the Australo-Pacific flora. Extensive natural wetlands, including many of international importance, are found in the low-lying alluvial plains and basins, flat-bottomed valleys and grassy savannahs are found in the south of Irian Jaya (GRA). Mangrove estuaries (MNV) are extensive in Sumatra, Kalimantan and Irian Jaya and limited on other islands. In addition, Indonesia contains some of the largest artificial wetlands in the world, including millions of hectares of rice paddies and nearly 200,000 ha 98 of fish ponds (Scott, 1989). Indonesia is widely recognized as having very high marine biodiversity (Bleakley and Wells, 1995) (see marine report of this review). Over 50% of Indonesia is still under natural forest but forest clearance is continuing at a fast pace and forest cover is far from even across the country but follows the pattern of human expansion. Historically, human settlement has concentrated on the so-called "inner islands" with fertile volcanic soils, particularly Java and Bali and to a lesser extent Lombok. Although the population in Java in 1817 was estimated by Sir Stamford Raffles to be only about four million, a tradition of intensive cultivation, with high population densities, has been in evidence for several generations. Introduction of estate crops, especially coffee, tobacco and tea, during the 19th century contributed to the expansion of cultivation into the uplands, destroying the natural forests in these areas. During the last half of this century, increasing population pressure as well as changing economic circumstances have led to the cultivation of many of these former plantations, and the clearance of large areas of forest for oil palm, rubber, and industrial timber plantations. Today these islands contain more than 64% of the population and produce some 70% of the national food supply. Percentage forest cover for different Indonesian units as mapped in our GIS is as follows: - Java and Bali 10%, Sumatra 35%, Kalimantan 59%, Lesser Sundas 41%, Sulawesi 61%, Maluku 79%, Irian Jaya 76%. Some of these figures are fairly out of date (mid-1980's) and figures for Maluku and Lesser Sundas include extensive secondary forest of limited biodiversity value. Maps 8a - 8g show the distribution of remaining habitats in the country. Biogeographic Units Indonesia straddles two of the globe's major biogeographical realms - The Indo-Malayan Realm and the Australasian Realm. In addition the overlap zone between these two realms is itself often regarded as a distinct biological sub-region - Wallacea. The country contains the whole of Sumatran biounits 21a-g; all of the biounits of units 22 (Java and Bali), 23 (Sulawesi) and 24 (Lesser Sundas); the larger part of the Bornean biounits - namely 25a-c and e-i, plus units of Maluku and Irian Jaya 13a - g and P3a-h,j andl. Units 21, 22 and 25 lie on the Sunda continental shelf and are within the Sundaic sub-region. Unit P3 lies on the Sahul or Australasian continental plate and fall within the Australasian sub-region whilst units 23, 24 and 13 lie in the Wallacean sub-region between the two continents. Biological Richness Indonesia is one of the five most species diverse countries in the world. It is a recognised mega-diversity country and contains parts of the Borneo "biodiversity hotspot". The following table presents some of the figures indicating this great richness. It must be remembered that neither the Indonesian nor global lists of species are complete so proportions are only indicative. Indonesia scores as the richest country in the realm for every group for which comparable data are available. The country has no less than 24 EBA's (ICBP, 1992). The biodiversity index is calculated at 26.8 (see section 1.4.3.1 above), resulting in an ultimate protection target of 13.4%. 99 Richness and endemism are not evenly distributed throughout the country. Small isolated islands have reduced species richness in all groups but generally higher levels of endemism. Fig. 1.1 above presents a picture of this pattern. Species of special significance include long lists of national endemics and many trees and other plants of economic use but the following species are generally recognised as national treasures: - orangutan, tiger, elephant, banteng, anoa, Komodo dragon, birds of paradise, tarsiers, Javan rhino, Sumatran rhino, dugong, marine turtles, marine fisheries, asian tapir, proboscis monkey, cockatoos, Amorphophallus titanum and Rafflesia arnoldi. Economic plants of great significance include several spices such as cinnamon, cloves and nutmeg, wild rice, wild yams and sweet potatoes, Dipterocarpus spp. Pinus merkusii, Agathis, sago, Eucalyptus and Melaleuca spp. Threats to Biodiversity The greatest threat to biodiversity in Indonesia is the clearance of forest for agriculture (ladang cultivation) which is fuelled by the very high human density and fast rate of population increase. In some cases this opening up of the forest area has been officially sanctioned and sponsored. Loss of forest as a result of logging (both legal and illegal) is less damaging as forests are cut selectively and secondary reforestation is generally fast. More serious problems occur when forestry activity is followed by fire or agricultural settlers. Major fires in Sumatra and Kalimantan have destroyed large forest areas and prehistoric fires were probably responsible for the clearance of forest on much of the Lesser Sundas and southern Irian Jaya. Hunting is a problem in some areas but is limited by two important factors. The majority of the population is Muslim with little interest in hunting or consuming the meat of wild animals. In addition there is a complete absence of shotguns or other firearms among the rural population. However, important large species such as tigers and Sumatran rhinos are reportedly being poached to supply the demand for animal parts in the Chinese medicine trade. Various destructive fishing methods (use of poisons, explosives and electricity) are threatening some species and wildlife trade for pets (especially parrots) is a growing concern. Raiding nests of turtles and megapodes for their eggs and the netting of 100 migrant waders for food along the north Java coast are some examples where hunting is endangering some species. Pollution of lakes and waterways is also serious in some areas. In Jakarta Bay serious pollution extends well into the sea. In the long-term, climate change and sea-level rise will be a serious problem. Review of Protected Area System Since 1949, by which time over 100 sites had been established under the colonial regime, the network has expanded considerably, and now covers 19 million ha, some 10% of the total land area (Hadiseputro and Wardojo, 1990). During this period, a number of systems reviews have been published with recommendations for the further development of the protected areas system. The first of these, the National Conservation Plan for Indonesia (FAO, 1981-82), outlined a programme for the development of a comprehensive protected areas network covering over 20 million ha of the terrestrial area. This subsequently formed the basis for the Indonesian section of the IUCN Systems Review of the Indo-Malayan Realm (MacKinnon and MacKinnon, 1986) and all subsequent reviews. An expanded and updated conservation strategy for Irian Jaya has since been produced by WWF/IUCN (Petocz, 1984, 1989). National priorities have been highlighted in the Biodiversity Action Plan for Indonesia (1993). The current system of Protected Areas (all categories) totals 356 sites with a total area of 19.5 million ha or 10% of the country. 1.5% of this figure is made up of marine area. In addition another 30 million ha is classified as protection forest and may with only slight reaffirmation of management objective warrant inclusion as IUCN categories IV or VI. The table below lists areas of global significance only. Although little advance has been made since the IUCN review (MacKinnon & MacKinnon, 1986) in further developing the protected area network, there are signs of a renewed interest in following up on the many outstanding recommendations for new reserves. As the richest biodiversity country in the realm, it is not surprising that Indonesia has the longest list of sites rated as of global significance. These are listed below with some indication of their current status and main significance. Name Ecosystem Cat Gazetted Size (km?) (Year) Irian Jaya Gunung Lorentz Lowland - montane evergreen 1 1978 21500 Pulau Supriori Lowland evergreen insular 1 1982 420 Laut Cendrawasih Marine 2 1990 14530 Wasur Deciduous forest savannah 2 1990 3080 Jayawijaya Montane evergreen 4 1981 8000 Mamberamo-Peg. Foja Lowland - montane evergreen 4 1982 14425 Peg. Arfak Montane evergreen,semi-ever. 4 1992 450 Peg. Tamrau Selatan Montane evergreen P 2479 Peg. Tamrau Utara Montane evergreen 1 1996 2657 Peg. Weyland Montane evergreen 12 2230 Teluk Bintuni Mangroves P 4500 Pulau Kofiau Lowland evergreen insular 1 100 101 Kalimantan Sg. Kayan Sg. Mentarang Bukit Baka - Bukit Raya Gunung Bentuang Gunung Palung Tanjung Puting Hutan Kapur Sangkulirang Muara Kayan Perairan Sungai Mahakam Ulu Sembakung Nusa Tenggara Komodo Pulau Moyo Tambora Selatan Gunung Wanggameti Gunung Mutis Gg. Olet Sangenges Gunung Talamailu Tambora Utara Maluku Gunung Api Pulau Manuk Woha Manusela Gunung Arnau Gn. Kelapat Muda Jamdena Kai Besar Lolabata Pulau Kobroor Sulawesi Kep. Togian Kep. Take Bone Rate Morowali Lowland - Tangkoko - Dua Saudara Dumoga Bone Lore Lindu Bunaken Menado Tua Rawa Aopa Watumohai Sumatra Kep. Krakatau Berbak Bukit Barisan Selatan Gunung Leuser Kerinci Seblat Lowland - montane evergreen Montane evergreen Lowland - montane evergreen Lowland evergreen Swamp forest, heath Forest Limestone Mangroves Freshwater lakes and swamps Lowland evergreen Monsoon forest, savannah Monsoon forest insular Semi-evergreen forest sav. Evergreen Forest Monsoon limestone forest Montane limestone forest Limestone and evergreen Montane evergreen Bird colonies Bird colonies, marine Evergreen lowlands Limestone forest Lowland - montane evergreen Moist deciduous and mangrove. Limestone forest Mixed evergreen forests Evergreen and limestone Semi-evergreen islands Marine corals montane evergreen Lowland evergreen, coastal Lowland evergreen Lowland - montane evergreen Marine corals Lowland swamps Volcanic island Peat swamps Montane evergreen Lowland - montane evergreen Lowland - montane evergreen 102 VUVUVUVUNAH VUVUVUOAOON Pee NNNND NNNNF 1980 1992 1992 1990 1982 1937 1981 1982 1989 1992 1986 1978 1982 1982 1989 1989 1919 1935 1982 1980 1982 1627 3650 7927 14847 Tai-tai Batti Lowland evergreen insular 4 1976 565 Java and Bali Gunung Halimun Lowland - montane evergreen 1 1992 400 Bali Barat Monsoon - semi-evergreen 2 1982 777 Baluran Monsoon savannah 2 1980 250 Gunung Gede Montane evergreen 2 1980 150 Pangrango Meru Betiri Lowland semi-evergreen 2 1982 580 Ujung Kulon Lowland evergreen, swamps 2 1992 1229 Categories: 1-6 IUCN categories taken to be: Cagar Alam Taman Nasional Suaka Margasatwa Proposed TANF toll Note that several of these global sites are still only proposals. Maps 8a - 8g show the distribution of remaining wildlife habitat in Indonesia together with the location of existing and proposed protected areas. Details of the protected areas are contained in the BIMS database. Analysis of Protected Area Coverage The tables and figures below show how much habitat remains and is protected across the country and by biounit according to the GIS analysis. The overall picture is good with 8.3% as mapped is included in the Protected Areas system and another 7.2% included in proposals or IUCN categories V and VI (mostly proposed). Identification of Gaps in System There are no major gaps in terms of habitat coverage at the national level but there are major gaps in terms of biounit coverage and some habitat gaps within biounits. The Protected Areas systems in the Moluccas and Lesser Sundas with their fast vanishing forests and high levels of island endemism constitute major gaps which will result in the extinction of many species if not quickly rectified. In Kalimantan which has 59% forest cover, 6.6% Protected Areas coverage (IUCN categories I-IV) and 8.5% proposed or in other categories, there are gaps in coverage of heath forest and forest on limestone. Biounit coverage is fairly even. In Sumatra with 35% forest cover and 6.9% Protected Areas coverage (categories I-IV) with another 6.1% proposed or other categories, there is also a gap in heath forest coverage, freshwater swamp coverage and biounit gaps for sub-units 21d, 2le, 21f and 21g. In Java and Bali with only 10% forest cover and 4% protection (categories I-IV) plus 4.3% proposed or other categories, there could be more lowland evergreen habitat protected. Irian's coverage is good for both habitats and biounits. Sulawesi is pretty good with 60% remaining forest and 10% protected in categories I-IV. There is not much coverage of freshwater swamps. 103 In Maluku with 79% forest and only 3.6% protected, there are habitat gaps for freshwater swamps, forest on ultrabasic and monsoon forest and not enough inclusion of forest on limestone. Even coverage of semi-evergreen forest is too low. There are many proposals for Protected Areas here (14.8%) which would fill these gaps. In terms of biounits the most under-represented are 23c, 13a, 13b, 13c and 13e with 23d also very poor. Only unit 13d has adequate representation. The Lesser Sundas have only 38% forest cover and 2% Protected Areas cover (categories I- IV). There are another 6.4% of proposals which will be needed to fill the gaps in forest on limestone, forest on ultrabasic rocks, semi-evergreen forest. Only montane forests are adequately protected. Sumba is particularly poorly represented. Habitat Details for Indonesia Habitat Original Current Protected(I-IV) Other (V,VI,PRO) (km?) (km?) % (km?) % (km?) % Alpine 1881 1213 64 844 44.9 64 3.4 Barren O 203 te 0 ake 203 aa Cleared 0 847859 *** SST ee 35406 *** Freshwater swamp 108329 40492 37 3041 2.8 1424 @61:3 Ultrabasic Forest 17550 14885 85 LOT 631 377 2.1 Rivers/Lakes 5496 2627 48 ibibal 2.0 376 6.8 Grassland O 36113) 733 2262 aks TSOP ses Heath Forest 90994 37741 41 VO 222 896 1.0 Ironwood Forest WU7AS 3893 33 276 2.4 0 0.0 Forest on limestone 117094 56837 49 S193) 9257. 7432) (6:2 Mangroves 53711 24237 45 4VS6) 7xf 4047 7.5 Monsoon forest 5504 363 7 204 3.7 2 0.0 Peat Swamp Forest 196123 106136 54 10649 5.4 9626 4.9 Savannah 8311 20238 244 1134 13:6 (898 10.8 Secondary forest (0) 439 EAS O xa 439 ae Semi-evergreen 210835 82116 39 8850 4.3 M6207 350 Tropical montane deciduous 9140 422) FSi O 0.0 1414 15.5 Tropical montane evergreen 197405 154734(78) 37899 20.7 20182 11.0 Tropical montane limestone 7219 16418 85 4855 25.0 1963 10.1 Tropical pine forest 3757 2398 64 648 72222 5.9 Tropical wet evergreen 860388 474995(55) 41119 4.8 43577 93.1 Upper montane forest 14812 9829 66 3418 23.1 282 1.9 Totals: Natural 1920262 1045007(54.4) 123451 6.4 100503 5.2 Non-natural 8521114 (44:4) S7424 IS) 3787, 220 *** = over 10x more current area than original Summary Total loss of original natural habitat 45.6 % Original forest cover 99.2% Current forest cover 53.8% (Natural forest cover ) not determined (Secondary forest cover) not determined Total area protected 15.6 % (Area protected IUCN I-IV) (08.4 %) (Area protected IUCN V-VI, PRO) (07.2 %) 104 As mapped, current habitat protection is 6.4%, more than was calculated in the IUCN Review (MacKinnon & MacKinnon, 1986) which scored the country as 3.5% protected. However the earlier review did not include the rather forested regions of Maluku and Irian Jaya. Current conservation index score (CI) is calculated as 0.6 (see table 1.8 and section 1.4.2 for scoring details). Despite many of the criteria for the design of the protected area system having been met, a number of deficiencies remain. Wetlands in particular have received inadequate coverage in the existing network and are under-represented, partly because of insufficient information regarding their conservation value. A preliminary inventory of wetlands has been compiled by the Asian Wetland Bureau (Silvius et al., 1987; Scott, 1989), in order to identify sites for incorporation into the protected areas network. Other Issues In addition to the official list of protected areas, Indonesia has a very extensive system of protection forests. In many cases these could be accepted as meeting the requirements of IUCN categories IV or VI. If thus scored, Indonesia will be seen to be easily meeting its obligations for in-situ conservation. Recommendations ie The protection of Indonesia's natural heritage and resources for the benefit of future generations will therefore require innovative conservation measures, possibly outside the existing protected areas network. That these must take account of human needs is increasingly crucial, as many areas of outstanding conservation value are both populated and subject to conflicting land use demands of a growing economy (Leader-Williams et al., 1990). 2. It is easy to be complacent about the protected area system of Indonesia since the total area protected is very large and it is easy for ministers to feel that it is enough. It must be realised, however, that due to its geographical position, tropical moist climate and archipelago formation, Indonesia is simply by far the most important country in the realm for biodiversity conservation and a "good enough" system of reserves is not adequate. Indonesia merits an excellent system of protected areas to which standard it just falls short. Some parts of Indonesia (particularly Maluku) are quite inadequately protected. 3. New protected areas are urgently needed in Maluku province and the Lesser Sundas island of Sumba. Priority areas for gazettement include :- Lalobata, Aketajawi, Pulau Taliabu, Gunung Kelapatmuda, Kai Besar, Yamdena, Gunung Arnau, Manupeu, Laiwangi-Tabundang-Gunung Wanggameti, Selalu Leginin, Puncak Ngenges (Olet Sangenges), Tambora Utara, Tanjung Karitamese, Egon Iliwuli, Gunung Timo, Gunung Tamailu. The general weakness of the protected areas systems in these parts of Indonesia has been highlighted in many reviews since 1981 but several recent surveys by Birdlife International are quite specific in proposed boundaries and should be followed up as a matter of some urgency. 4. Other global priority sites which still need gazettement or boundary changes are :- Gunung Sahendaruman, Ulu Sembakung, Sangkulirang Limestone and Danau Sentarum. These must be tackled as a highest priority. 5S. Considerable improvements can be achieved in the standards of management and protection within the reserve system. Many reserves are threatened by illegal 105 Biounit Coverage for Indonesia - larger units All areas in km? (x 100000) Protected Other =| Original Existing SSS TET N i} s N Q u Q n e wQ u N a Tv Al GOGGLE EGe 2s -« GOGGG eae eee—ae GUC COOOL EEECIre aA AG Aaa aiGiaiGs =A S| SG a ele Fl oe SOI SO A A Pw PIA DEAL N ro u oS] wW i) v W a N ro Lag N ac rT) N a » N gi rts) 3 N N u cts) N N fad N oy a Biounit Coverage for Indonesia - smaller units All areas in km? (x 1000) Protected =| Original LLL Ma Ai SSSsss Hl INSA A| TRA] i eceeceiaie! = = |e aecwaeie ty Seer | Zhe eu ck SEO ms AE c=h= OS 2 ee aa or ae si Ge Se ee, Se “ees ee a ee coe77 === Sladek cece Cel Le r0.1- ZAR Zi > =|s—|5=| pee Fea nono cccccc ccc ceccccence nce eccececcee cence teeeeeceeeececceaeeececenecseneeenneenes eae? (7 R=: l= = oe oe ee GG Z| == )7| NS B= |= eee era ig CARA 7 0= l= |= Sear Pega wep in Pee EZIIGE Z\ 72 ("| to — | ol — | ee QA Yi |= R= 2 ee — | — ea nrrencennnnnnnn GY Yi Ze |e 0S Y Ys = VA A a7 LLIN SOOO NINH TL) Q V2 SSM MM 5 ‘| SSS LMA SS TASS Vi WZ. WZ EAST SSoull LLEL LSE q aa Q TRON 4 Q Z| iF [ooo TZ, Le Zl LLL » W a v Q N a f N ~ ts) ; vU Q aa ~ W n U0 1) iT) c N ~ n o W A N Q a N d oO U tt) N Habitat Coverage for Indonesia = Original Protected Existing Other logging and illegal agricultural incursion. Other reserves are threatened by inter- sectoral conflicts such as mining, oil exploration and highway construction. 6. A careful review of the protection forest system could usefully be undertaken to see what forests are also of high biodiversity importance. Many protection forests could be accepted as category IV protected areas under the revised IUCN category definitions. te Additional recommendations concerning the marine reserves are given in the marine report of this review. Key Documents AWB-Indonesia (1994) Proposed Wetland Conservation Areas: New & Extensions of Existing Reserves. AWB-Indonesia/PHProtected Areas, Bogor. 132 pp. FAO. (1982-83) A National Conservation Plan for Indonesia. 8 volumes. UNDP/FAO National Parks Development Project INS/78/061. FAO, Bogor. Ministry of National Development Planning/ National Development Planning Agency (1993) Biodiversity Action Pan for Indonesia. Jakarta. 141 pp. PHProtected Areas/BirdLife International (1995) Recommendations for Additions to the Indonesian Protected Area Network. BirdLife International, Bogor. 67 pp. Petocz, R.G. (1989) Conservation and development in Irian Jaya: a strategy for rational resource utilization. E.J. Brill, Leiden, the Netherlands. 18 pp. 107 3.7 LAO P.D.R. Basic Data e Area 237,035 sq. km. e Population 4.7 million = 20/sq km e Natural increase 2.9% per annum e Economic Indicators GNP: US$ 320 per capita e Forest Cover 56% (1993) e Annual Loss of Forest 1.0% per annum e Protected Area Coverage 11.6% (WCMC) Decade Milestones e Declaration of 17 proposed protected areas as National Biodiversity Conservation Areas (NBCA) Established Center for Protected Areas and Watershed Management (CPAWM) e Established international programs of co-operation in biodiversity protection and surveys Enacted Forestry Law (1997) GEF funded project to strengthen management of NBCAs (1996) Physical Geography Laos is a tropical and sub-tropical country lying in north-central Indochina between 13° 55'N to 22° 32'N and 100° O6'E to 107° 87'E. Lao P.D.R is a land-locked, mountainous country and extends 1160 km from north to south but only 125 km in width with a very narrow central "waist". The country is bordered to the west by Thailand and Myanmar, to the north by China, to the east by Vietnam and to the south by Cambodia. The major physical features of Laos are the south-flowing Mekong river with its low-lying plain which is mostly below 200 m altitude; the steep, rugged hills throughout the north of the country; the Annamite Mountains along the Vietnam border to the east; and the Bolovens plateau, an outlying massif in the south of the country, rising to over 1500 m. In the narrow central portion of the country, there are extensive blocks of karst limestone. The highest point in the country is the 2817 m Phou Bia, located 130 km north-east of the capital city, Vientiane. The area of alluvial land is limited and sticky hill rice is the staple cereal. The climate of Laos is dominated by a monsoon regime - the winter dry season by the northeast winds from the Asiatic continent, and the summer wet season by the southwest winds from the Indian Ocean. Lowland areas are tropical whilst the extreme north and higher mountains are sub-tropical. Rainfall varies from 1000 mm in the Savannakhet region to over 3000 mm in the southern mountains and extreme north-east. The rainy season commences in mid-May. March and April are the months when the land is driest and farmers burn fields in the traditional ray slash and burn agriculture. However, due to heavy fog and occasional thunderstorms in the dry season, the climate permitted evergreen forests to predominate over the entire country. Natural Vegetation The original forest cover consisted largely of evergreen and semi-evergreen forests (MacKinnon and MacKinnon, 1986; Salter and Phanthavong, 1989; Berkmuller et al, 1995). These comprised dry evergreen forests (SDE), which covered much of the 108 mountainous northern part of the country; tropical montane evergreen forests (TME), primarily along the Annamite Mountains and on the Bolovens Plateau; and lowland semi- evergreen dipterocarp forests (SER) over the Mekong Plain. Other original vegetation types were tropical montane deciduous forests (MDF) scattered throughout the north, dry dipterocarp (DDF) and mixed deciduous forests (TMD) in the south and on the Mekong Plain, forest on limestone (LIM) and pine forests (SPF and TPF) in the Annamites and parts of the north, and a small area of subtropical montane forest (SBH) in the extreme north (along the Chinese border). The most recent data on forest cover (Lao Forest Inventory and Management Office, 1991), based on 1988-89 SPOT imagery, indicate a current forest cover of 111,816 sq. km (47.2% of land area). An additional 88,051 sq. km (37.2% of area) are classified as potential forest, including bamboo and secondary formations; 15,515 sq. km (6.6% of area) as other wooded areas, primarily savannah and scrub forest; 10,083 sq. km (4.3% of area) as permanent agricultural land; and 11,336 sq. km (4.8% of area) as other non-forest land, including barren areas, grasslands, urban areas and wetlands. The best and most extensive forests are now confined primarily to the southern and central parts of the country, deforestation having been most severe in the north and along the densely settled Mekong Plain. The total current forest area represents an approximately 2% decrease in forest cover from 1981/82 estimates. Different sources of land cover information vary wildly in estimating forest cover for the country. The discrepancy is due to the fact that most of the forest is to some extent degraded by human activities and disputable as to whether it should be classed as original forest cover or secondary habitats. Our own data suggest only 17% is still original forest but there is a large area 36% of the country now classed as degraded forest. Biogeographic Units The largest portion of the country falls within biounit 10a - Central Indo-China which includes tropical Mekong drainage. The northern parts of the country fall within unit 10b - whilst the highest northern mountains fall within biounit 10c. The Annamite mountains along the eastern border with Vietnam fall within unit O5c. Biological Richness Despite the fast rate of forest loss, large, sparsely populated areas remain, and these continue to support a fauna of approximately 200 mammal species, including tiger, leopard, two bear species, possibly six deer species, elephant, four species of wild cattle, including kouprey Bos sauveli, and Javan rhinoceros Rhinoceros sondaicus, and more than 600 bird species (FRCP (unpublished data); Interim Mekong Committee, 1978; King et al., 1975; Lekagul and McNeely, 1988). The country has moderate levels of richness and a few endemic species. Endemism is highest for plants running at about 17%. The following numbers are adapted from Dinerstein and Wikramanayake (1993) - 200 mammals, 609 birds, 37 amphibia, 66 reptiles, and 244 fish with 8286 higher plant species, but these will tend to be underestimates reflecting the incompleteness of inventory in Laos. Botanical inventory is more complete than other groups. Gressitt (1970) was surprised at the richness of longicorn beetles found in Laos (1156 species with a high proportion of apparent endemics). The WCMC database lists 33 endangered mammals, 23 endangered birds and 10 endangered plant species. The country has one EBA (ICBP, 1992). The biodiversity index is calculated at 8.3 (see section 1.4.3.1 above), resulting in an ultimate protection target of 9.4%. 109 Of particular interest are the two "new' mammals discovered in Annamite mountains between Laos and Vietnam. A primitive bovid has been named the Saola Pseudoryx nghetinhensis whilst a large form of barking deer has been named the Giant Muntjac Megamuntiacus vuquangensis. Both have recently been added to Appendix | of CITES to prevent endangerment through over-eager collectors or zoos. Threats to Biodiversity Shifting cultivation, fires, uncontrolled hunting and fishing, and unsustainable logging practices all represent serious conservation problems in Laos. Probably the major current cause of actual deforestation is some upland shifting cultivation systems which involve conversion of primary forest areas and continuous, intensive cultivation and repeated fires. In addition, the planned system of dams and reservoirs for power and irrigation purposes will result in many currently wild areas being opened up by roads with valuable habitat and animal migration routes submerged by reservoirs. Trade in wildlife has become a serious issue with major routes developing to China both directly and through Vietnam. Monkeys, lorises, pangolins, snakes and chelonians are particularly affected. Review of Protected Area System Although some forest reserves have been declared in the past, their total extent has been small (less than 1,300 sq. km) and protection ineffective (FAO/UNEP, 1981). The government has received assistance, through FRCP, in formulating and implementing management plans for the 808 ha Houei Nhang Forest Reserve just outside Vientiane and the 200,000ha Phou Khao Khouay area (Salter and Phanthavong, 1990). Five protected areas had come under management by mid-1995. A variety of proposed reserves have been listed and surveyed over the past few years but in 1995 the first major batch of gazettements was issued consisting of 15 new reserves totalling 2.6 million ha or 11 % of the country. A further 11 reserves (totalling 1.1 million ha or 4.4% of the country) remain as firm proposals, some of which are already approved at provincial level. The following 7 localities are regarded as globally significant. Name Ecosystem IUCN. Year Size/km2 Category Dong Ampham Semi-evergreen Forest 4 1993 2030 Hin Namnu Limestone Forest 4 1993 865 Khammouane Limestone Limestone Forest 4 1993 1620 Nakai-Nam Theun Annam Evergreen and Conifer 4 1993 3710 Xe Pian South Tropical Evergreen 4 1993 2370 Nam Chuan Annam Evergreen 12 1610 Nam Theun Ext. Annam Evergreen P 645 Category codes: 1-6 Corresponding IUCN Category P Proposed Map 9 shows the distribution of remaining habitat in Laos and the location of the existing and proposed protected areas. The BIMS database contains detailed descriptions of each protected area. 110 Analysis of Protected Area Coverage The table and figures below show how much of each habitat and biounit remain and how much is protected and proposed for protection. Habitat Details for Lao P.D.R. Habitat Original Current Protected(I-IV) Other (V,VI,PRO) (km?) (km?) % (km?) % (km?) % Bamboo (0) O03 a> 340 +x 15 EAE Cleared O O (0) 10} “ee (0) uae Cultivated (0) 39083) *** 1694, *** 38 Atel Dry dipterocarp 10115 1904 19 261 2.6 10) 0.0 Degraded forest O 83603 *** 9538, *** 52 6a Freshwater swamp 659 0) 10) O 0.0 O 0.0 Rivers/Lakes alzAlal 2180 127 70 4.1 0 0.0 Grassland O S005) 9 *%* 629 AEX 9 ae Forest on limestone 4595 3896 85 1540 33.5 0 0.0 Plantations (0) O75 ans 217 hate 10) ialad Subtropical hill forest 32032 730 2 15 0.0 220 0.7 Scrub 0 58669 *** 4951 *** WS Sub-tropical dry evergreen 34885 569 2 70 0.2 123 0.4 Semi-evergreen 78316 15418 20 6317 8:1 963 1.2 Subtropical montane forest 4306 88 2 10) 0.0 (0) 0.0 Subtropical pine forest 1573 101 6 3 0.2 O 0.0 Tropical moist deciduous 35321 9203 26 1212 3.4 718 2.0 Tropical montane evergreen 24859 5220 21 1344 5.4 1389 5.6 Tropical pine forest PAST / 749 30 3 0.1 238 9.5 Tropical wet evergreen UY. ith 100 69 89.6 0O 0.0 Totals: Natural 230968 40135 17.4 10904 4.7 3651 1.6 Non-natural 190838(82.6) 17369 7.5 7060 3.1 *** = over 10x more current area than original Summary Total loss of original natural habitat 82.6 % Original forest cover 99.3% Current Total Forest Cover 52.6 % (Natural forest cover) (16.5 %) (Secondary forest cover) (36.2 %) Total area protected 16.6 % (Area protected IUCN I-IV) (12.2 %) (Area IUCN V-VI, PRO) (04.6 %) As mapped, current natural habitat protection is 4.7%, a big increase since the 1986 review which scored the country as 0% protected. A higher proportion of remaining habitat may in fact be included in the Protected Areas system in the category "degraded". Current conservation index score (CI) is calculated as 0.6 (see table 1.8 and section 1.4.2 for scoring details). 111 Identification of Gaps in System Although the Protected Areas system covers a large percent of the country, there are apparent gaps in the habitat coverage. There is almost no protected examples of tropical and sub-tropical pine forests; very little subtropical broadleaf forest and a general bias towards the moister (admittedly richer) forest types. Other Issues Most of the protected areas are occupied by varying numbers of human residents. It is the policy to elicit the co-operation and participation of these local people in the management of the reserves. However, mechanisms for such participation have still to be developed. It is noted that most problems in reserves come from intrusion by people from outside. It should therefore be possible to align the privileged insiders to help protect what are also their resources from such outside groups. It is anticipated that protected areas in Laos will have a very low staffing level, with most protection functions resting at the district or village level (Salter et al. 1991). Recommendations Ne The process of identifying and gazetting a representative system of protected areas is well in progress and current methods and approaches are sound. Greater attention should be paid to establishing strong transfrontier linkages when evaluating suitability of new areas for reserves. For instance great opportunities exist to link a new reserve to the Cambodian reserve of Virachey and to link the proposed Nam Ha (West) reserve with the famous Xishuangbanna reserve of Yunnan province, China. The most significant transfrontier links are the Nakai- Nam Theun reserve with Vietnam's famous Vu Quang reserve and Hin Namnu with Vietnam's Dong Phong Nha. 2. The Government should be encouraged and assisted to deploy larger budgetary and staff allocations towards nature conservation. This will require a general increase in awareness among the public and government leaders. Such a commitment to action would greatly encourage further international assistance in this sector. Such assistance is now being mobilised by UNDP, World Bank, Swedish SIDA and other agencies. Nakai-Nam Theun (adjoining areas to be flooded by a large dam), possibly Laos' most important reserve remains without an international sponsor. 3. Laos should participate more freely in international programmes and cooperation with its neighbours. Some important transfrontier areas are currently given no added prioritisation for establishment as reserves. It is recommended that Laos takes full advantage of the UNDP regional project RAS/93/102 which can provide a forum for greater co-operation on transfrontier issues. 4. Laos clearly needs a great deal of training and manpower development in the sector of Protected area management. It would be most economical and more relevant to receive this training in Thailand where there is only minimal language difference and plenty of training opportunities. Habitat Coverage for Lao P.D.R. All areas in km? ¢x 10000) Protected Other - = Original ae Existing 1a = a TTT ae SaaS he TERT HAVIN ih Oh l é umm, i Ty TIN) é NY th 2 SZp “e SWAG SSN Bh Me SS ee ee ee ee ee a fe S-S = 3 - Biounit Coverage for Lao P.D.R. All areas in km? (x 10000) aE ge mt a a NaN =| Original Protected NN other y, are _|Q existing OSc 113 Key Documents Berkmuller, K., Bouaphah Phantavong and Venevongphet. (1993). Protected Areas System Planning and Management in Lao PDR: Status Report to mid-1993. Unpublished report to LSFCP. Lao Forest Inventory and Management Office. (1991) National Forest Reconnaissance Survey of Lao P.D.R. Department of Forestry and Environment, Vientiane. Madar, Z. and Salter, R.E. (1990) Needs and priorities for conservation legislation in Lao PDR. Forest Resources Conservation Project, Lao/Swedish Forestry Co-operation Programme, Vientiane. Salter, R.E., Phanthavong B. and Venevongphet. (1991) Planning and development of a protected area system in Lao PDR: status report to mid-1991. Draft. FRCP Vientiane. IUCN-World Conservation Union (1993) Widlife in Lao P.D.R.: A Status Report, Vientiane 114 3.8 MALAYSIA Basic Data e Area 330,355 sq. km e Peninsular (132,750) e Sarawak (123,985) ° Sabah (73,620) e Population 19.7 million (1991) = 60/sq km ° Peninsular (16.3 million) ° Sarawak (1.6 million) ° Sabah (1.8 million) e Natural increase 2.3% per annum e Economic Indicators GNP: AZ 2 bg if he 7 3 “Oh & oO w Q “a MS aly i! 4 : Alt & tg | a : alt 5 N : ee 4 ' 3 x - ae RS Se ee ee i 5 2 g i 3 g P 3 Z Awe 16 15 tek a 12 7 ft R £ — | 3 AL ‘Uy, : if —, iE tel Ul N} Mm S Mg | h a : 2 i ccc Ns Ni) TTS. all Y TTT i 10b c 8 Th Biounit Coverage for Vietnan All areas in km? (x 10000) 6 5 fia 3 2 1 177 ANNEX 1 SOURCES FOR GIS COVERAGES INDONESIA Original Habitats - Digitized from blue dyeline maps National Conservation Plan of MacKinnon & Artha (1981-2). Selected vegetation boundaries were taken, ie forest on alluvia was not distinguished. A 3000 foot contour line extracted from DCW was used to delimit areas of montane vegetation. Original habitat types of Irian Jaya were based on National Conservation Plan but adapted from Atlas Data rather than digitized from scratch. Remaining Habitats and Protected Areas - Taken from data produced by the Regional Physical Planning Programme for Transmigration (RePPProT) at a scale of 1:2,500,000. The data was compiled over a number of years, commencing in 1984. It was digitized by WCMC in 1989 for The Conservation Atlas of Tropical Forests - Asia and the Pacific!. Parts of Sumatra, Kalimantan and Irian Jaya were revised on basis of newer plots of classified AVHRR data, provided by the TREES (TRopical Ecosystem Environment observations by Satellite) project. MALAYSIA Peninsular Malaysia Original Habitats - Adapted from existing Atlas (Collins et al., 1991) coverage, based on the maps from the original review. Remaining Habitats - based on data from the atlas, combined with data digitized from TREES plots. Areas where both data sets indicated forest were classed as having remaining forest cover, whilst areas where only one dataset indicated forest were classified as degraded. Sabah/ Sarawak Original Habitats - Digitized from tracing paper overlays drawn on ONC charts based on the maps from the 1986 Review. Remaining Habitats - Digitized from plots of TREES data and edited after comments made by Dr Clive Marsh based on personal aerial reconnaissance of Sabah. BRUNEI Original Habitats - Based on Atlas data with areas of non forest reclassified on basis of 1986 Reviews and areas of heath forest and freshwater swamp classed from a map in the national masterplan (Farmer; 1986). Remaining Habitats - Based on atlas data with areas of degraded forest identified from Chapter 2. Coastal Zone Environment and Resources Utilization. 1 Edited by N. Mark Collins, Jeffrey A. Sayer and Timothy C. Whitmore. ISBN 0 333 53992-3, 1991. 304 x 237mm (hardback), fully illus., 256pp. Available in the United States from Simon & Schuster, 200 Old Tappan Road, Old Tappan, NJ 07675. 178 PAPUA NEW GUINEA Original Habitats - based on atlas data with limestone areas taken from ONC charts and upper montane vegetation taken from vegetation maps of Pajimans (1975) and transferred to plots before digitizing. Remaining Habitats - Digitized from manual classification lines drawn on TREES data plots only where newer data showed changes to forest distribution in the Tropical Forests Atlas. Protected Areas - Edits to plots made by participants to 3rd regional workshop, Bogor, Indonesia, 1995. PHILIPPINES Original Habitats - Digitized from overlays drawn over ONC charts based on classification of the 1986 Review and Whitmore Malesia map (1984). Remaining Habitats - based on the data from the Tropical Forests Atlas, reclassified into three classes (FOR,DEG and NON) according to the scheme laid out in the following notes, then reinterpreted on basis of original condition. Protected Areas - Edits to plots made by participants to 3rd regional workshop, Bogor, Indonesia, 1995; plus a PAWB map at 1:2,000,000 dated 17 May 1989. BANGLADESH Note. New coastline digitized from recent air photos as ONC Chart coastline significantly out of date. Original Habitats - Digitized from overlays on ONC charts based on 1986 Review. Remaining Habitats - Atlas data modified by manual digitizing from recent Landsat images. Protected Areas - Digitized from WCMC protected area plots which were edited by Mohammed Nuruzzaman, Assistant Chief Conservator of Forests, Office of the Conservator of Forests, Dhaka, Bangladesh, and Haroun Er Rashid, Bangladesh Poush (NGO). BHUTAN Remaining Habitats - Wildlife Habitat classification for Bhutan - Satellite interpretation of TM images (1993) by J MacKinnon for WWF Bhutan, partially ground-truthed. Boundaries partly modified to match WCMC Biodiversity Map Library Botanical Reporting Units Original Habitats - The original cover map was produced directly from the remaining from map by reclassifying those areas now cleared or degraded according to whether they were above or below a 3000 feet contour line. Some secondary pine formations were similarly reclassified. Protected Areas - Digitized from edits to plots made by T. B. Mongar, of the Forestry Services Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Bhutan and the WWF Bhutan Programme. Edits based on an A4 map of Protected Areas of Bhutan 1992. 179 NEPAL Original Habitats - Contours were taken from DCW and plotted. Some additional arcs, separating valley slopes with markedly different aspects were then added to the plot and digitized. The resulting coverage was classified according to the following scheme which combines altitude with simple geographic divisions based on river catchments and dividing the country into three regions (West, Central and Eastern) GEOGRAPHIC ZONE < 3000 < 1000 A Altitudinal Approximate DCW range in equivalent in ZONE FEET METERS MD | 6 | 11000-13000 | 3300-4000] aie aie | irysac _| 13000 - 16000 Remaining Habitats - Data from several different sources have been combined to produce this map. UNEP GRID in Bangkok kindly provided a map derived from 1km resolution AVHRR satellite data and showing landuse in 1992/3. This was combined with a 1:1,000,000 scale A3 map, Vegetation map of Himalayas Part IV (Nepal) showing forests (Continuous Canopy) and degraded forests (40 - 60% cover). This map was produced in 1985 from Landsat imagery, bands 5 and 7. The resulting coverage was reclassified into three categories, forest, degraded forest and non-forest according to areas of agreement or disagreement between the two data sources. This coverage was finally overlain with the original habitat types and reclassified according to original condition. Protected Areas - Digitized from map of National Protected Areas and Protected Areas of Nepal (1986) at 1:1,000,000 made by the Department of National Protected Areas and Wildlife Conservation (DNPCWC) with revisions of recent changes marked on maps during regional workshop I. INDIA Original Habitats - Digitized from general lines drawn on the ‘Atlas of Forest Resources of India’ at 1:2,000,000 in five map sheets (1975). Glaciers Deserts and Alpine scrub added from Operational Navigation Charts (1:1,000,000 scale). Remaining Habitats - Data on moist forests from The Conservation Atlas of Tropical Forests was combined with data for arid forests digitized from a diazo map at 1:3,500,000 of vegetation of India from Remote Sensing of the Himalayas (M. A. Kawasa, 1988) and four separate sheets covering the Himalayan region. 180 Alpine and desert habitats were added from the original habitat map and the forest polygons were reclassified according to their original type. Protected Areas - Digitised from hand-drawn protected areas maps (1:1,000,000) by Vasumathi Sankaran, Indian Institute of Public Administration, based on protected areas data gathered from State Forest Departments of each State of India. Revised by addition of extra reserves for which polygons were elsewhere available or by circles for other large areas still lacking boundary details. PAKISTAN Original Habitats - Drawn on ONC charts and based on Vegetation Map from Birds of Pakistan Vol.I (Roberts, 1992) and a vegetation classification of 1986 Review. Remaining Habitats - Deserts, alpine and glacier habitats were assumed to be remaining. Remaining forest patches were digitised from two poor quality forestry maps of Pakistan and required transforming to match geographic projection. General reliability of these sources is thought to be poor. Mangroves added from WCMC Mangrove Atlas drafts. Protected Areas - Some areas taken from edits to plots made by National Council for Conservation of Wildlife, Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Cooperatives. Others from state maps and individual reserve brochures. SRI LANKA Remaining Habitats - Although a more up to date and detailed dataset has been prepared by the Forest Department of Sri Lanka, it is rather more detailed than the general scale used for this project, and has not yet been cleared for general use. Therefore the map digitized for the Atlas was used. Original Habitats - Digitized from tracing over Forest Department Map based on 1986 classification. Protected Areas - Data taken from edits to plots made by participants to 1st regional workshop, Nepal, November 1994. The boundary for Sinharaja was taken from data provided by the Forest Department. CAMBODIA Original Habitats and Remaining Habitats - Originally digitized in AUTOCAD by the Asian Bureau for Conservation. Based on three available maps, Mebray Commission Vegetation Map, FAO study and then pulled into ARC/INFO through DXF format. Protected Areas - Hand drawn from reserve sheet maps onto Operational Navigation Charts tracing then digitized and checked and edited by David Ashwell, (IUCN Cambodia Programme) at workshop 2, Bangkok, Thailand, January 1995. LAO PDR Original Habitats - Originally digitized at ABC. The Coniferous forest, Open deciduous (Tectona Grandis) forest and Karst classes were then extracted from the 1987 Lao PDR Forestry Department map. This hand coloured dyeline map at a scale of 1:1,000,000 had previously been digitized at WCMC for use in the Atlas. 181 The resulting coverages were then reclassified as follows:- Coniferous forests became SPF in northern Lao an TPF in the south of the country. Open deciduous became DDF unless it was previously classed as TMD and Karst was reclassified as LIM or forest on Limestone. Remaining Habitats - Digitized from tracings of TM interpretations by J. MacKinnon and TREES data with reference to land cover map supplied by UNEP GRID Bangkok. The ‘scrub' category was added from data digitized from plots of TREES data. This information was then superimposed on to the original map and deciduous and evergreen types reclassified. Protected Areas - Boundaries for new reserve system were traced onto plots from a published map at the same scale and projection by Lao Forestry officials attending the 2nd workshop. MYANMAR Original Habitats - Originally digitized in AUTOCAD, by Asian Bureau for Conservation from overlays on Operational Navigation chart based on original 1986 Review and recent A4 maps of Forestry Department. The 1000m contour was taken from Digital Chart of the World (digital version of ONC, available from US Defense Mapping Agencies and many resellers). Remaining Habitats - A map distinguishing between evergreen and monsoon forest, mangrove and cleared land was digitized in AUTO CAD by ABC based on A4 maps of Forestry Department and TREES data. This coverage was then combined with the original habitat map and reclassified. All evergreen forest was given its code from the original map (eg TWE, TME), where it had not been cleared. Monsoon forest types (DDF,TMD,MDF,FSV) were also maintained. however where the original map showed forest as an evergreen type (TWE,TME,SER,FSV) and the remaining code was monsoon, areas were reclassified as degraded. THAILAND Original Habitats - Reference made from ONC charts on basis of altitude, TREES data plots and large scale Royal Forest Department (RFD) maps of remaining forest by type. Remaining Habitats - The RFD Dataset "THFT" (based on 1993 Landsat imagery) was first projected transformed slightly to account for a small misalignment. The RFD coastlines and international boundaries were removed and replaced with the WCMC Botanical Reporting Units border file. The RFD classification distinguished evergreen forest, mixed deciduous forest, dry dipterocarp forest, pine forest, mangroves, rubber plantations and scrub. Any off shore islands not included in the RFD dataset were also classed as cleared or cultivated land. One polygon classed as mangrove was reclassified as FSV as it was inland. The forest classes were then separated out and combined with the original forest cover map to give the type of forest and recombined with the rest of the remaining cover classes. Those classes found to be present were TMD, DDF, SDE, MDF, SER, LIM and TMD. Protected Areas - General RFD Digital dataset used to supplement existing WCMC data for recently designated sites. 182 VIETNAM Original Habitats - Drawn onto ONC charts following classification of original review, then digitized. Remaining Habitats - Digitized in AUTOCAD by Asian Bureau for Conservation, converted via DXF to ARC and rubber sheeted to fit the DCW boundary more exactly. Protected Areas - extensive edits to plots by participants at workshop, later reviewed by John MacKinnon. 183 ANNEX 2 CODES AND ACRONYMS USED IN REVIEW The following codes are used to denote countries, biounits and habitat types in the GIS coverages developed under this review and are used as abbreviations in the BIMS database software available with this report. The codes are used as abbreviations in some of the tables and maps presented in this report. 1. Country Codes BGD Bangladesh BTN Bhutan IND India LAO Lao P.D.R. (Laos) MAL _ Maldives MYS_ Malaysia PAK Pakistan PNG Papua New Guinea THA Thailand 2. Biounit Codes -M Annam Mountains -Mb Dalat Plateau 04- Burmese Coast 05a Mekong Delta O5c North Annam 06- South China 07- Malaya 07b Malay Transition 09a South Irrawaddy 09c Burma Transition 10a C. Indochina 10c Indochina Transition 13a N. Maluku Islands 13c Buru 13e Kai Islands 20 Andaman Islands 21a Southern Sumatra 21c Mentawai Islands 2le Simeuleu Island 21g Lingga Archipelago 22 Java 22b East Java 23 Lesser Sundas (Nusa Tenggara) 23b Sumba Island 23d Tanimbar 24a Sulawesi - Central 24c Sulawesi - South 24e Sulawesi - Northeast 24g Sulawesi - Sula Isls. 25a Borneo - North 25c Borneo - Natunas 25e Borneo - Central Mts. 25g Borneo - East 25i Borneo - Southeast 26a Philippines - Luzon 26c Philippines - Mindanao 26e Philippines - Leyte/Samar I Indian Subcontinent BRN Brunei Darussalam IDN Indonesia KHM Cambodia LKA Sri Lanka MMR Myanmar (Burma) NPL Nepal PHL Philippines SGP Singapore VNM Vietnam -Ma Central Annam Mountains 02- Ceylon Wet Zone 05 Coastal Indo-China 05b South Annam 05d Cardamom Mountains 06a Tropical Southern China 07a Malay Peninsula 09- Irrawaddy 09b North Irrawaddy 10 Indochina 10b N. Indochina 13. Moluccas (Maluku) 13b Obi 13d Ceram and Ambon 13f Tanimbar 21 Sumatra 21b Northern Sumatra 21d Nias & Batu Islands 21f Enggano Island 21h Nicobar Islands 22a West Java 22c Bali Island 23a North Nusa Tenggara 23c Timor and Wetar Islands 24 Sulawesi 24b Sulawesi - North 24d Sulawesi - Southeast 24f Sulawesi - Sangihe Talaud Islands 25 Borneo and Palawan 25b Borneo - Southwest 25d Palawan 25f Borneo - Northeast 25h Borneo - Northwest 26 Philippines 26b Philippines - Central Islands 26d Philippines - Sulu Archipelago 26f Philippines - Mindoro Il Ladakh and Tibet 184 Ila Ladakh Mountains I2 Himalaya Mountains I2b West Himalaya I2d East Himalaya I3a Thar Desert I3c Indus Valley 14 Central-West India 14b Kathiar/Gir I5 South West India ISb Western Ghat Mts. I6a Central Highlands I6c Eastern Highlands I6e Deccan South I7a Upper Gangetic Plain 18 Maldives/Laccadives 19a Brahmaputra Valley P3 New Guinea P3b New Guinea - Western Islands P3d Vogelkop P3f New Guinea - SW P3h Star Mts. P3j Sepik/Ramu P31 Trans Fly P3n New Guinea - SE P3p New Britain P3r Bougainvillea Islands 3. Habitat Codes ADS Alpine Dry Steppe ALP Alpine (Pasture) ALX Alpine Bare Rock ASW Shifting Cultivation BFV Beach Vegetation BMB Bamboo CL Cleared Land DDF Dry Dipterocarp Forest FIR Fir Zone FUB Forest on Ultrabasic FWR Freshwater River GRA Grassland HDT Himalayan Dry Temperate HMT Himal Moist Temperate LHF Lower Hardwood Forest MAR Marine Sea MNV Mangroves PLA Plantations RIV Riverine Vegetation SAV Savannah SCF Sub-alpine Conifer Forest SDE Sub-montane Dry Evergreen SEC Secondary Forest SFL Seasonally Flooded Agriculture SMV Seasonal Marsh SSM Seasonal Salt Marsh SWG Swamp Grassland TMD Tropical Moist Deciduous TML Tropical Montane Limestone Ilb Tibetan Plateau 12a North-West Himalaya I12c Central Himalaya 13. West Arid I3b Rann of Kutch I3d Baluchistan 14a Punjab Plains I14b Gujarat Rajputana I5a Malabar Plains I6 Central India l6b Chotta-Nagpur I6d Central Plateau I7 Gangetic Plain I7b Lower Gangetic Plain 19 North East India 19b North-East Hills P3a Maluku - Aru Islands P3c Geelvink Bay Islands P3e New Guinea - Northwest P3g Snow Mts. P3i New Guinea - Central Highlands P3k Huon Peninsula P3m_ Kibori Ruvani P30 East Papua Islands P3q Bismark Archipelago $13 Ceylon Dry Zone ALA Lalang Grassland ALS Alpine Scrub ASF Arid Sub-Tropical Forest BAR Bare Land BIR Birch Forest BPF Blue Pine Forest CUL Cultivated Land DEG Degraded Forest FSV Freshwater Swamp FWL Freshwater Lakes GLA Glacier HDC Himalayan Dry Conifer HFV Heath Forest IFV Ironwood Forest LIM Limestone Forest MDF Montane Deciduous Forest MWT Montane Wet Temperate Forest PSV Peat Swamp SAC Subalpine Conifer Forest SBH Sub-tropical Broadleaved Hillforest SCR Secondary Scrub SDV Sand desert vegetation SER Semi-Evergreen Rainforest SMF Sub-tropical Montane Forest SPF Sub-tropical Pine Forest STL Sub-tropical Lowland Forest TDE Tropical dry Evergreen Forest TME Tropical Montane Evergreen TPF Tropical Pine Forest 185 TSE Tropical Semievergreen Forest TWE Tropical Wet Evergreen Forest UMF Upper Montane Forest TSF Thorn Scrub Forest UHF Upper Hardwood Forest URB Urban 4. Acronyms and Abbreviations: ABC ADB ASEAN AWB AVHRR BAP BARC BI BIMS Cl CITES CBD CNPPAIUCN EBA ESRI FAO FSI GEF GEMS GIS GRID ICBP ICIMOD ITTO IUCN IWRB MAB NCS NGO ODA Ol ONC PA RePPProt SIDA SPOT SPREP SSC TFAP UN UNDP UNEP Unesco US-AID WCMC WRI WWF Asian Bureau for Conservation Asian Development Bank Association of South East Asian Nations Asian Wetland Bureau Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometry Biodiversity Action Plan Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council Biodiversity Index Biodiversity Information Management System Conservation Index Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species Convention on Biological Diversity Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas Endemic Bird Area Environmental Systems Research Institute Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations Forest Survey of India Global Environment Facility Global Environment Monitoring System Geographic Information System Global Resources Information Division (UNEP) International Council for Bird Protection (now BirdLife International) International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development International Tropical Timber Organisation The World Conservation Union International Waterfowl and Wetlands Research Bureau Man and Biosphere Programme National Conservation Strategy Non-governmental Agency Overseas Development Administration (UK) Opportunity Index Operational Navigation Charts Protected Area Regional Physical Planning Programme for Transmigration (Indonesia) Swedish International Development Authority Systeme Probatoire d'Observation de la Terre South Pacific Regional Environment Programme Species Survival Commission (IUCN) Tropical Forestry Action Plan United Nations United Nations Development Programme United Nations Environment Programme United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation United States Agency for International Development World Conservation Monitoring Centre World Resources Institute World Wide Fund for Nature 186 BIBLIOGRAPHY: ADB (1987) Papua New Guinea. 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Enviroscope 5(2) 5-9. 198 Key to Maps Bathymetry: 0 - 200m Bathymetry: 200 - 2000m Bathymetry: over 2000m Coral reefs Major Roads Railways Major Rivers Lakes Coastlines International Boundaries Cities Biounits < He List of Maps PROTECTED AREAS [“] IUCN Categories | - V [\} IUCN Category VI and Unassigned om Proposed 1. Original Habitats and Biounits of the Indo-Malayan Realm 2. Remaining Habitats and Protected Areas of the Indo-Malayan Realm 3. - 18. Country Maps of Remaining Habitat and Protected Areas Bangladesh Bhutan Brunei Darussalam Cambodia . India - North West . India - North East . India - South . Indonesia - Indonesia - 8. g. Indonesia - 9. Lao P.D.R. ©0 C0 C9 CO COCONINO ORO >-Macanno om . Indonesia - . Indonesia - . Indonesia - . Indonesia - Sumatra Java & Bali Kalimantan Sulawesi Lesser Sundas Moluccas Irian Jaya 10.a. Malaysia - West (inset Singapore) 10.b. Malaysia - Sarawak 10.c. Malaysia - Sabah 11. Myanmar 12. Nepal 13. Pakistan Sey 14. Papua New Guinea 15. The Philippines 16. Sri Lanka 1 if. Thailand Compiled by :- Asian Bureau for Conservation { 8 Viet Nam and the World Conservation Monitoring Centre Date Printed- 1996 Projection - Geographic a Gin Mi hha nowy ml igevi! 7 Baa! | ‘7 Ls ll as Oownnwy wow wo w uu a AY ed ad dO aA Dc -~e wownwowowoweowo w Mis Map 1 Original Habitat Types Of the Indomalayan Realm Legend wn pay oO = 4S} GWE 25 8 — «x ccc — B=: OE =z = oe =e =i oO = Co) (ae = / rmDDnmnninininrminrimnnmiRiRih FP PH wwe w= ‘ +6 «16 -06 =68 | | | it o1ydesGoa5 - uonda[O1g ~QGGL - Paluud AeG anuag BuvuoljuoY UONensaSUOD PHOM 94) PUue uolleniasuod 10} neaing uelsy -: Aq payi\dwod a = syaay eulluip’dimpeuiuir Ww OO 0 ay ‘ ac) ysayy Suequepuns l P. Yinos suequepuns ae oy yse3 suequepuns € er F UNIAN 1eYD — si , a MRSS os tAefeg Sr Tee cet andie } yLino7 2 t eqse0eg ™ en y Tstavat vanes * wenay % 2 mi ytpyues * arodyaesseg = | NWHYON = ania } WOH» | * i 5 1 - Vo hare 4 | j ‘ < | i > ‘ 2408937 % | Fe >. Joeg eBueg ely | | == unaanvnorow’® i x : > ~ | v be wx purouykvarn ® undonds = ine | WaV0 Ss, | a | yma = in am t a YNBYE RE | : Mist ay ban SHOdNYHEIE jemeug a) spans X oH PeoRaeyneg_ ' | induesty— | if ror > | | or Je9g uejeyD 4 gasey = PNROWIZY DD rOIBVH i q Zl ba Wa wt THYHST YS ame ue PNYOBONSIN . | yopbnueysassy O) SY oo! wbipemey proms | 40B nrexen > ‘. indnypeyy oe} Jeuang o [99g Elly arian } meyers ge. \ wovsow * eneyg I'g ad — 908 ore je9g "8 a 2 199g Luny fad 99g epa| > — =e JOBH JEYxeEQ <> pl! Ge ePeW = EYP YE HSITING 8OZ ~ JOB} enBuey ° iS . Jyspuniva © mk voNvaivo ® f Jsas0juley uaai649A3-1WaS Poi dWeMs JaeMYySas4 upantrena\ — ener A egtiney NONE u99)6s8N3 19M (e01d0J1 ) —u9au64an3-1Was pue|mo7 ; \ ‘Leen weBeswey anoibueW ira snonpi9ag \SsioW jeo1dos) unadivs © Y Cl whan © i—X| } puabe7 tet vues | JASE | vowaunyegy *( 29 mug SJE}IGEH / SPAIY Pa}99}O1q | 9 vaywvasi | eI eles ; ysape|bueg | Gree r THRO YNIYH = == hea we, ey | RPaPRnRnnnnnrnannrnnrnn ere © w& Helge 2 & ) ee Bbw mh wm wm Ww » & Wy -~ me (iG -~ Map 4 Bhutan Protected Areas / Habitats ® 0 0 50 km ——— = — Compiled by = Asian Bureau for Conservation and the World Conservation Monitoring Centre Date Printed -1996 Projection - Geographic | ’ « Magaghat Lankapsra Hat | Le manager 89° Legend Alpine (Pasture) = Alpine Bare Rock = Alpine Scrub = Sub-Alpine Conifer Forest = Cleared/Cultivated Land = (BN Upper Hardwood Forest Degraded Forest a) Blue Pine Forest Lower Hardwood Forest Riverine Grassland Tropical Moist Deciduous Montane Deciduous Forest Sub-Tropical Pine Forest os, ae a) 7 Map 5 Brunei Darussalam | 43 6 = =a Protected Areas / Habitats rd BANDAR SERI BEGAWAN 0 10 km =) =a Compiled by :- Asian Bureau for Conservation and the World Conservation Monitoring Centre Date Printed- 1996 Projection - Geographic PEKAN SERIA = _ |ie3 nes . Se ey ——s » Wutong y / = Miri Ulu Temburong Legend Cleared/Cultivated Land Degraded Forest Mangrove Peat Swamp Heath Forest Vegetation Tropical Wet Evergreen Freshwater Swamp Tropical Montane Evergreen & y Bukit Batu Patam | J Ulu Mendaram Sungei Ingei ] 25f Lt te | minim tm i “, Kantharalak ~ Rhukhan “ | Map 6 Cambodia Protected Areas / Habitats Se Me |_Kourum ( Sta Kuen Pr ymtep 4 Stay Chek =i ~\ Phuml Stan Cobak fe Bee ehebheaew ° 2 ay | == voc ann Ma | | a | 3 . Peam Krasop ¥g y ii V + | [ED dry Deciduous Forest [MM Freshwater Swamp @) ee = (00 [an x~I-1,<0] ge {| Fresh Water River [ll Tropical Wet Evergreen | 4 | |} Agricultural Swidden = Seasonal Floodland 2) z |_| Secondary Forest (9 Plantation i Lonu pH) HB Bamboo (Tropical Montane Evergreen ¢- / {9} Cultivated Land HE Mangrove ) = - ; | 0 ri} @ve 0) Grassland {) Semi-Evergreen Rainforest i a = = = - © LONG XUYEN. | Swamp Grasslands a 8 Compiled by :- Asian Bureau for Conservation & 7 and the World Conservation Monitoring Centre ] Fresh Water Lake “4 Date Printed-1996 Projection - Geographic A! ge ——— Ja \ 4 = _102" 103" 10a ‘alate! 5 i an ali ae - pes aaa | ai . ce ee a j 7 _ a ae Snes Aa ate sin, Ne » em t, = " \ { ® M ~ j ——— \ i ¥ me . / bh. OL, x “ ' ’ > bs. . > me @ >, ee aye ; Be a rae 5, ele x ome * Ane aig oi hia - pee — } “ty, y | Seaysduupeyyanpuenes[ 2 ) £ a0 ene 's p pes 6) jee char 7 B00) PuCUTUEI ee ik 1 JeKolés le. \ ovary ge — > SY eBwueg |) ft File SESE Boquieyuey | \ f WES ee ae fearing — D MEL Dt AN 5S a Havade yadeyo tee) =e! : ee ca ea TANGA LN LN SAN) a abr UE Sea A ai TT \ LD) sndeunseH \ ejeineyap. 1S9J04 |IIH padeajpeoig jeaidosj-qns il SJR WRS |EUOSeaS uonejaban Wasag pues snonpioag ysioyy |e21d0s 1sa104 qnuag Woy) qsai04 snonpioag Aig uaas6s9n3 Aug jeoidos)-qns 189104 aulg jeoldou)-qns ajesadwa| Aig ueAe|eLwiy diwems Jayemysas4 qnos auidiy ayesadwia| |SIOW) UBAR|EWIY }S9J04 1aj1u09 auldjy-qns = pue] payeaning/pasea|d 4a19e|9 (aunysed) auidjy | | | } | nA ~ i} ueARjeUiH 1a) Twnwes OO | a | | | | | — ESE | | a}ydes6009 - uop9efo1g 9GGL - Palug A100 | 811029 BupoyUoW UopensesUOD PLOM oY) pue | uoHeAsOSUOD 40) NeOsNg UeSY ~: Aq paydwog | | = = = } | WOH wy 002 0 | Sty puebe7 syeqiqey / Seay pa}9a}01d SOM YON - EIpu| "| Area Claimed =tepp rare ENR Map 7b Legend India o North East __} Glacier GB Tropical Moist Deciduous . (Alpine Scrub |_| Semi-Evergreen Rainforest Protected Areas / Habitats Cleared/Cultivated Land (MN) Sub-Tropical Broadleaved Hill Forest 7 Sub-Alpine Conifer Forest | Degraded Forest Bare Land = Dry Deciduous Forest Montane Wet Temperate [Mangrove Sub-Tropical Pine Forest | Alpine (Pasture) Tropical Wet Evergreen Himalayan Moist Temperate Compiled by :- Asian Bureau for Conservation and the World Conservation Monitoring Centre Date Printed- 1996 Projection - Geographic Singalilafy_ | nal Chambal > | {GRatigaon 7 J Se X Va 5 Se MUDAEEARPURY. BaghmaraPitcher Plant ° QyMTMensince eo ORT BLAIR rine (Ws i BS ~ Lothian Island “| Balukhand Konark | NIGQBAR ISLAM 4 (extension) —93'\ at | == -p8 aiydesB095 - uoNIe[01g 9GGEL - PAUHd 2180 anueg Buyoyuoyy UoNensesUOD PHOM a4) pue FUBLUR BHR 41ND) Aue, woes Sais ie aye] eI, quowp nyedela} uaasfsang 1am jeo1dos) snonpioag Isioyy jeoidos | uaas8sang Aig jeoidod) 19/04 qnu9g Woy, 189104 |JIH paneaipeosg jedidoy,-qns uoneniasu09 10) neeing ueisy -: Aq poydwiog IS iwanannre ~! MS 17e xX reas | ae a ae UIONPAC ey ANN TENN anuuaqauey* >» al { if a snidProus = 14 pinsnereual 181! P9I : t } (Woisuaixa) pieisng uerpul teal fal, i a a Ly peeaanel iy: 2 2 - teu ~—yeuindaye: ies jsasojuley uaasBiaz-1was |) ayesadwa| }a\ AUe\UOW anosbuew jsai04 snonpi9ag Alg pure pareaning/paieald S]eLIGeH / SBA Pa}0a}O1d YINOS - BIPUI * an ) ww) me? PP fitele lel —T TS htS SS) te => D> rm rr 7) 2 tt Bs ™ > at ~_ wmnmwmewwmrewmiwweriwrewwow ww w ay el Owe ee a = Ssh P _ = ’ 1 teas a : a 4 bad - 1 ay \ a 1 1 i ’ y A ols _ 7 7 + ’ - > = & o- * re are 3 < M ~ Fs, ae , es e i - i \ - aid d i ) aie 4" ae ; n ee | fad —— , 4 y i . - ’ ; f a i F ‘ i of9 hennanaa Ee wv mh BOSOHRBSSESHESEEE ouk Laut 7 ny En mS SEY : Kuals Feral ‘ eee hy ; > KUALA TERENOGARU Legend iy, A f ‘BANDA R Peranan PulouWeh & P Beras 07b Qs SS Gunung Salawah Agam LHOKSEUM! Fear me Geskyh o Prracs Kuala Yambu Aye sansa ae = Lowland Semi-Evergreen GB Peat Swamp x Faugraiasee \ MB Tropical Wet Evergreen (9) Tropical Montane on Limestone en Tropical Montane Evergreen [Mangrove eee Limestone Freshwater Swamp a se 4 Cleared/Cultivated Land (] Ironwood Forest ~ ae a oa | ey Tropical Pine Forest [7 Heath Forest Vegetation I Ops De Raja | rua curva NG ) Fresh Water Lake ee bua By ANS. SHANTF ene Teli coh (il ingader e : } este) A fPase Propet siqandlong °F o tigen fran id , Pulau Alayg Bosar/ Sigipbu Q- Map 8a er Indonesia - Sumatra Bont ponTiafech fle a a Protected Areas / Habitats Neon 0? yee eer 0 _ Deneranin Z Pus ; wg l \ Muar Sings gins *) MEMPAW AH a °° == jaraKampar ; . ’ \e sna a \ Ge Pual\ Burung Polak zs = angie “Epon Mancung ; is 4 e re 1p Bakau Pantal Timur Sy , i aa ra I Torus: balay ee NS ! \ J a ) c “Wowncenc tra 200 km —— Compiled by :- Asian Bureau for Conservation and the World Conservation Monitoring Centre Date Printed -1996 Projection - Geographic SD) teach lia Baie) Pia JA ote ann uni Nat Koma Ing|Hulu a sh BengUMta Duakisk 25b ey Kambas Map 8b Semi-Evergreen Rainforest Limestone Indonesia - Java and Bali Mangrove i Monsoon Forest Protected Areas / Habitats Freshwater Swamp [} Bare Land ee Tropical Wet Evergreen i ‘| Cleared/Cultivated Land Tropical Montane Evergreen a) | f gy Marine Kepulauan Seribu 7 22a | Muara Gimbong Marine fiers Karimun Jawa. we Se Muara Cimanuk ix /\ reel Keling 1! & Ill __ Gunung Celering —f f TB | cana Te 3 Gunung Pangasaman- nr ; s | hand A ma nurs Tongkbo ee ee ei i » Mt = Ujung Kulon le Pangrango ) ceaoh ann ~ Closet rhea Pagandsyan Tt Boe Gin Pulau Saobi (Kahgean (sland 1 | S238 eevee veeecedal . - 2 Ds HSsop sees | | Salat | iSpnung Limbupa Bojong Larang Jayant c sir Satam® Set gong | Gunung KancanaXy Supung SoBe ngjeng/Bongand: Leuwang Sancang aoa Nupakambangan = SS ig ee ee ae , ¢ i Nusa Barung Hin! Meru Beti 0 100 km So Compiled by :- Asian Bureau for Conservation and the World Conservation Monitoring Centre Date Printed- 1996 Projection - Geographic $6 i ro) y 7 a M : in ors \ a ae fi : es : f = : 2 SP ' oe ae * | , a i i ; a a. a \ t od “a i," = - a i* ® MV | a 77 poe . el oe ee ae 6 bo, woes ° < Se ic ar ae: oy ace oe Lo at =) T | \ ‘ . \ ‘ i ‘ \ \ / i] y : 1 y ww 7 ’ . ie be Hg at ; ae - & ;'s ‘ ’ 1 é \ i € tn. ha w Hutan ] a 7 | | Map 8c ] rr \. ayan S. Aan ee) | AM . . Se Celene Nl HAY op | » ~ * | Indonesia - Kalimantan | s bh be Protected Areas / Habitats | | {Camron a WE, T t= == is mua 2 | } | Gr; | = e | ) i | }2 ] } | Peed. | he | | | SS eiltrabc a en a | sanikel —— = lines Sa :~ 25h | a \ | ! | : | “KUCHING @) ; (Wo ooh " & SIMORS ~ BETON a - " F 7h ail MANGGAI = 4 . ) C a 2 ne ay: unyNg Pecteeu ung. Ni i t te © /& J e a = Glinung Raya Pasi Sneranae ? p ¥ ay Shy | Kapur ‘UPAWAH kit Batt n t Sangkulirang baie jy Pony =z tke vi Compiled by :- Asian Bureau for Conservation and the World Conservation Monitoring Centre uy 5 Be Date Printed - 1996 Projection - Geographic ub i Legend ewe ew Tropical Montane Evergreen Tropical Wet Evergreen Heath Forest Vegetation i 4 Mangrove as | b y Diy ae _ | minsinysg Freshwater Swamp ~ Pulau Kdget / col Peat Swamp SIU YS) Limestone A _ ss — = E al = er Cleared/Cultivated Land ae Tanah Laut id luk Kelumpang Selat Laut / Sebuku ‘CHEER | lal) | | |} |__| |__| | eee ene oA | | | | | | | Nee a! [:2ET CELE 0000 ACh VEL Te ced a1ydesBoa5 - uonsaloig = QG6L - Paluud a1eq = asjuag BuuojuoW uonensasuoD PHO; ay) pue i uonensasuoZ 10) neaing uelsy -: Aq pajyidwog ww Wy 00z 0 q auog tye luc nday a | Si { — ® Pal o* | 9 | irs grceomrs | és oquiay-oquioueyy 40407 eiepneg eng-oyo4xOue, eri, opeuayy uoxeund sayy Ew es Sunino | ‘perene ~~ 117) Buojoxvse suing Note Neate enon < Ses, Bugties nin | \ | Bueveqoduioy mon Ue 2 a). ie uoulmegn yoy erry anoibuew auo}sauiy JsaojUley Uaas6s9A3-1WaS uaaiHsaaz auejuoW jeo1dOs, aye] Ja1RM YSal4 pue] payenning/paea|9 uaas61aA3 Jan |BdIdOI, dWwems Jajemysas4 = OISEQRAIf] UO \SA04 1] S}e}IGeH / Sealy pa}da}01g ISOMPINS - eISABUOPU| pg dew ra U in a? |--| Map 8e | | Legend Indonesia = Lesser Sundas Semi-Evergreen Rainforest (Tropical wet Evergreen Tropical Montane Evergreen Si Forest on Ultrabasic Protected Areas / Habitats Limestone HB Mangrove lle: Tropical Montane on Limestone | | Cleared/Cultivated Land Freshwater Swamp 24c Gunung Api | 23c | > ) | Kurung Baya/Varanus | ’ a Pulau Moy Pulau'Sangiang a Walupayung Tuti a ia + a Sambora Utara © Ov Py p Teluk Maumere a) fig os jau.Panian cy Gf a: eS SBP paar a a wy 5 . a A fat Domi» 4 H | Mat MS VS, i ‘ Hadekav) nie { 1 Me “Fue 9 »? 5 Alaa | Ce Olet Pe q <~ de ts a —“Egon-lliwuli ae vA SSS 3 = o. —~< f “Dangu Kelimut | ean aelolsward Uni aS Komodo Tanjung Kerita Mes: LI pineeeae { enag | SQ Gunung Ambutombs z = ; ees "Batugendons Fores Selah Legium Complex 23a Manupeu & ~~ Teluk Kupan 25) gi fer Teluk Pelikang” iss ataran Beng) Bakau Pethatu® /~ 2 Watu Panggota/Bondokapu OP ay Tanjung Pukuatu ? | Pulau Dana ® =) | ww Compiled by :- Asian Bureau for Conservation and the World Conservation Monitoring Centre Date Printed-1996 Projection - Geographic SS Se Sh hh Hh wb wm we } | | | | | | | | 4 + + | | | | | 1 = =i 1 | 119" 10° 121° ea 133" 134" 1as* 126° 147° eee en ee = | 2 FEI .ckl OE : -8C1 52a | ajydesBoay - uondafo1g QGEL - PAU a1eG | au1ua9 BuvoluO; UOnensasUuod POM ay pue uONensasuog 40) Neaing uelsy -: Aq payidwo9g IT D Se 4eqeg nejng. li sewieg neind &> Fs | 9€¢ epueg yneq oqwog nejng e}aqis Bunun XN 30c ra dwiems lead th | puey payeaning/pareal9 uaas6san3 1am [eo1do1 1 foe oy dWweMs Jayemysal4 a uaasBsanq auejuOy jeaIdo1) RON | anosoueN OISEQPJI|f) UO \Sa104 SNONpI9ag ISIOW jeIdos) ] |sasOjuley Uaas649A3-1WaS ath > Sane auO)SalI] UO aUR\UOW JedIdOJ) auo}sawi7 Ip svc $y ¢ INgleAenn puabeq | P&L | S}PIQEH / SPI P9}99}01q n | SPIINIO|| - BISAUOPU| 2 | Fete yee eueee a oo Map 89 Indonesia - Irian Jaya Protected Areas / Habitats S| ee Legend Lowland Semi-Evergreen Fresh Water Lake Forest on Ultrabasic HB oreat Swamp Limestone Tropical Montane on Limestone Tropical Wet Evergreen Alpine (Pasture) Cleared/Cultivated Land || Fresh Water River Tropical Montane Evergreen | | Savana Mangrove || Semi-Evergreen Rainforest Upper Montane Forest WN Grassland Freshwater Swamp Bintuni au Supriori OP jak Utara mA (Qulau Numfor—\p,, P3c ungan Arfak ‘a on 0 200 km ROE Compiled by :- Asian Bureau for Conservation and the World Conservation Monitoring Centre Date Printed- 1996 Projection - Geographic z= i a a a i ee i Se | oe see oe & WOWWYHINN y ve) 10H 9Noa + uaaiBian3 1am jeoidos | aye] JaleM ysal4 UONEUBd auo}sauuly jsaojuley uaasBianz-lwas | uaaiBsang aueyuoW jeodos) snonpi9ag \sioyy }eo1dos) 189104 dUlg |291d0))-qns JaAly JayeM YSas4 18904 ||IH parea|peoug |eoldos1-qns cat Va ZI 101 | ; | a1ydesBoay - uondafo1g 9GEL - PAU 21eG | anuag BuLolUo;) UONensasUoD pyom au) pue | uoneniasuog 40) Neaing uelsy -; Aq payjdwop | = Bog oY | a yawn 1} #U) pur|sses9 1S9J04 aue]UOW |eaIdo11-qns uaaJ619A3 Aug jeoidos|-qns puez payeaning ooqueg \sas04 aulg jeoidos, qnios f qsa104 papesag Nuu) INVHL = Se | a hs SJP}IGRH / SPAlY P9}99}O1dg ddd 0b} 6 dew | ONIHO*/3H-OW pepe pe heb oso ssbb ee & G a) ll Busia obisu3y x Am pein) Sie na \ ayydesBoop -uonselo1g 9661 - paluud a1eq 921U99 Buoy uoyy UoneAseSUCD POM oy) pue uonensasu09 10) neoing uelsy -: Aq pay}dui0D | Pl) SIeuaely / SPOIY Pa}Ia}]01d JSAM - eISARle eO| dey eny Bueyeg Nina, wnonna © e210 Buepay neind 4 (yeu (7 iy NSeg _ ang + \waurto ee ‘suapiey piuelog ¢ SBpiagwen, im oF N Fy, unos euueyy KCI) opciact | Byuues Woy 0 | fae eile ‘el ee TS.E01 Le.EOT © cheebTLELEDI Jd0dVONIS_ UsolUIS cs 6) VG » is 4 who 2p ke bias = Wi) Neri) SY uisya® nuvavar Vion’, LYMIHLYUA® Seay ueqin {9 anoibuew \sa104 Auepuooag ||) uaauByang 1a leoidody = dwems sayemysai4 = PUP] payeaning/pasea|g [ : ] uaaiBian3 auejuoy jeoidos, \saio4 papesbaq || wwewe © 2 & a _ fas 0 Dames © fs Os 9m Wf Oren UO tt Map 10b Malaysia - Sarawak Protected Areas / Habitats 0) 100 km Ele Compiled by :- Asian Bureau for Conservation and the World Conservation Monitoring Centre Date Printed - 1996 Projection - Geographic | i i | | Legend Cleared/Cultivated Land Tropical Wet Evergreen Mangrove Tropical Montane Evergreen Heath Forest Vegetation Peat Swamp Limestone Fresh Water Lake Freshwater Swamp ASamunsam is Samunsam (Extensions) eG Pulau Ara;Banun ane S: jong 9) [Jaa saint ath get = { = “Gunung ie Ges mel: =F and J Fayy Caves, , i —S8@8eS8nepcCecereeaee e423 6G4CRCddads Malaysia - Sabah Protected Areas / Habitats Compiled by :- Asian Bureau for Conservation and the World Conservation Monitoring Centre Date Printed- 1996 Projection - Geographic 6 sr ~ Tunku Abdul Rahma ii Pulau a im | il ! i | | Cleared/Cultivated Land Tropical Wet Evergreen Mangrove Degraded Forest Freshwater Swamp Tropical Montane Evergreen Heath Forest Vegetation Peat Swamp Limestone ry _ i } ae ah na | 9 ‘ bd “of . a : | | -—)” : i) : | | | es ~< ‘ >» & 4 h ' 5 j Onna uaai6san3 Jam jeatdod) uaas61an3 aueyuoyy jeo1dos) uaaibanq Aig jeoido.y-ans (9) 1saJ04 snonpiag aueluoy [i jsai04 snonpioag Aug snonpisag isioyy yeo1do1) (i ysasojuley uaasO1an3-1WaS, = ysai04 papeibag | ysajo4 aueyuoyy jeo1dos|-qns = aye Ja}EM ysaly = puey payenning/paeag | ayesadwiay 13M aue}uoW. a | Jsa104 saj1u0g auidiy-ans [| (aimseg) auidiy [| Janey | pusten mms rv NYKO NIHO}/3H-O) SN"! a}4desB005 - uop20foid 9661 - Pru 916G eAUOD BuoHUOW UoNeniesuoD PHOM oy PUe UOHEAISUOD 10) NeoINg UE}aY ~ Aq poydwos C- broroonai = gS ea D 7 FQ ; 5 ae | qyjuewey puels} \, $O9SOW Wh] S]e}IGeH / SBA Pa}0a}O1g Jewursl| = GOLA GOKARANNATH aoRAMDI——1aKHMPUR LAHARPUR SITAPUR *KHAIRABAD Glacier Alpine (Pasture) Degraded Forest Birch Forest Sub-Alpine Conifer Forest Blue Pine Forest Himalayan Moist Temperate - DARYABAD = ZAIDPUR Hh ~ SALRAMPUR ~ Bishohar GONDA Br AYODHYA | = RUDADH| Fagan Tropical Moist Deciduous Sub-Tropical Pine Forest Sub-Tropical Broadleaved Hill Forest Montane Wet Temperate Dry Deciduous Forest Semi-Evergreen Rainforest Cleared/Cultivated Land =usi | Shey-Phoksundo Annapurna: SS a | > Bones «Usha —) —s MEHNDAWAL— © BETTIAH I7b | qpSORAKHPUR ! 0 = Ll = Compiled by :- Asian Bureau for Conservation and the World Conservation Monitoring Centre Date Printed - 1996 Projection - Geographic at fe ca | - Madbuban Sag MUZAFARPUR a qf THHAnoU =PATAN. «BIHAR Map 12 Nepal Protected Areas / Habitats [MADHUBAN/ ee . WRMAL 5 DA 1BHANGA » MADHEPUR *Supaul |, Madhip. < SAMAST/PUR Sahar | 1 -_JFGHRA — KHABARIA, eat, MONGHYR 1 BARHIVA , JANALPUR = SHRQSIPURA pe—= puejs| oBny snonpioag \sioy |eo1dos) IsaJOjUIRY U991649A3-IWaS, 1sa104 papeibag PUET PAaleANINg/pareaig | { | | | oe TT | | puape7 spuejs) soeieg 1 eR OAR RECESS Sm i 2 o4ydesBo25 - uonscloig 9661 - = snusg Bunoyuoyy vorienss6U05 P| 1 Uonreniosu0s 104 neaing ueysy -: Aq poydusoy emndejey e AnauLe|eD| | | c wy 0S 0 Al %) Awe GBnuny Ysa YaYMN a | * ¥ % aquejuey eyebIuepuey prune, © YOTYOILLYE >. SS 4 & Poruiy’ Seo 7 cade Ugas61anq auejuoyy jeoidosy = uaasBJanz jam jeoidosy i | 388104 IIIH Paneaipeoig jeoido.|-qns (aay | dwems Jajemysas4 = IsaJojuley UaasisaAz-1WaS = Jsas04 qnuog WOU, uaasBsang Aig jeoidosy |] anoJHueIN lea) OYE] Jae YSs4 B pub] payening/pareajg | ue S}P}IGEH / Sealy paj0a}014 eyueT US 9} dew i z ri Ny) a : i neat \ 0 ’ 2 2 48 ; S es ‘ : a ) : fi ~ : wt - - — , ta ' fe - 7 — ‘ x, yi? sees a . 7 ris ~~" in ty = i = r - » we ’ as a e = i © = ee. ¢ - mi > ¢ a 5! | i a. , - med vi 6 : ~ , > sae | | 4 7 ih, ao ere - -901 \ wp i Ts] syutleiBowg B]UR7 OF NI 4 | : Wd !Yed >) MAI - | BA ORY - Ng OBYY Lc \ qeseydon yey at | | Me nal aa Se pee an |e = aE Bue, len 18H 8 Buo, youwely WeubueUg oy , BUEN 12U1 JOH - Id We] OBYY € auoysawiy | I. ane uaa J6JaAq Jam [eo1dOs | = »——> oy nN snonpioag jsiowy |e01do1, a alles — = By Bueyg IS uappims jeuninouby ysasojuley uaadBsaaz-1was |) 1 pune Se SAOJHURW || }saJ04 snonpioag auejuo| Neahnaes aye] Ja}eM ysas4 fi] uaai6saag auejUoW jeo1dos) uaas6ianz Aig auejuoW-qns zd] uaai6iang Aig jeaidou)-qns 1sa104 auld jeoidos.-qns puey payeaning/paiea|9 x dWeMS JayeMysal4 a }sa04 snonpisag ug = = = PSO ed uoydwunys 2: Bue, teny yoqwery uUJOHeUe/A YEH NWHM IHIHN d¥nHOWHe JO, IY WeS oBYy nydwoys guy, -oaiyy ont ‘ COPEL be P cal Buojyy Buaejes Buny| | al » \ i} | ueyepynyy Lae i \ce Sn weues oeyy S ns tae Byew|uisrer * ) NQLYHL 4. uimejeg Yy> Buey wer 1 009 s]eIqeH / Sealy pa}va}01q PURLEY | —_ ~ fan aa ae > cities & ee SS Se ”~ - a = ws a - ’ Wajajaaee O11 -601 | | oeq oy aan oiydesBoay - uondal[o4g 9661 - Palulig 21eQ anuag Buyoiuoj YONensasuod PpOM aul pue uonensasuog 10) neaing uelsy -: Aq payidwog = — = Wy 002 Wiyg ues 9e) —— |__ ae 0 1g) WIYN eg. cr OY UO} 08g FT | Fnewes Ion i | jo i . pb | ‘Mont NYE, Buoy uo) uans = } HN3d WONHe . Te €S-09 G ) | ee NITRA ONIHIVA > ONIHIONDD ONIHONYR pen | a | 9N3HODNIC NYHSONOIO | INHONK bs | tuywoey HOON. yurg yuegh 1 wey) 0b] Ne ei] UOS Oep ueg S}R}IGeH / SRalY pa}da}O1q doay #608) a wnya id Janly JayeM YSa4 dwems }ead 189104 dul jeo1dO1) qsai04 snonpivag Aug snonpisag Isiow |eoidos) uaai6san3-1Was pue|mo7 dwems Jayemysal4 uaas6ian3 1am [eodos aaobuew uaaJ6JaAq due UOW jedIdO1) jSaJOjJUIEY U9as619N3-IWaS \saJ04 Jajluo9 auidjy-qns qnuas \sa104 aue}UOW je91d01)-qns puey payeaning u9ai6193 Aug jeoidos)-qns 1SaJ04 {IIH panea|peoug jeatidos|-qns auo|sauwi7 pur] palenning/pasea|9 ONIKNIK WEN Jol/\ | (x3) queyy Bul | a fuwyony ' u ay z# Tos ual] Bueo bueyooq | ie NOWZIA 1 OMidino «| Zen uel